ne 
4 


inte 
ee 
f 


rte 
a 


ERR 


R. B. HINMAN 
COLLECTION 


PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 4 
1921-1943 


New York © 
State College of Agriculture 


At Cornell University 
Ithaca, N. Y. 


aize; its history, cultivation, handling 


MAIZE 


ITS HISTORY, CULTIVATION, HANDLING, AND USES 


Photograph by Fred Coop of Pretoria 


GENERAL THE RicGHt HonourasBLe Lourts Borna, P.C. 
, 


Prime Minister and Minister for Agriculture, Union of South Africa. 


MAIZE 


ITS HISTORY, CULTIVATION, HANDLING, 
AND USES 


PITH SPECLAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH .4FRIC4A 


A TEXT-BOOK 
FOR FARMERS, STUDENTS OF AGRICULTURE, AND 
TEACHERS OF NATURE STUDY 


BY 


JOSEPH BURTT-DAVY, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 


GOVERNMENT AGROSTOLOGIST AND BOTANIST, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


) 


UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 


WITH FRONTISPIECE AND 245 ILLUSTRATIONS 


LIONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. 
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
NEW YORK, BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA 


I9I4 


TO 
GENERAL THE Ricut Hon. LOUIS BOTHA, P.C. 


PRIME MINISTER AND MINISTER FOR AGRICULTURE 
OF THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 
IN APPRECIATION OF HIS EFFORTS TO DEVELOP 
THE MAIZE INDUSTRY 


THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED 


No other plant we grow will produce 3,172 lbs. of digestible food on one 
acre of land at so little expense. No other cereal crop yields the farmer so large 
a return for his labour as Indian Corn. It is the king of the cereals. 

—Drrector C. S. Plums. 


vi 


PREFACE. 


THE materials for this book have been collected during 
a period of three or four years, but the book itself has 
been written during a Term, and part of the Long 
Vacation of 1913, spent at the School of Agriculture, 
Cambridge, where the author has been studying in- 
heritance of characters. He has endeavoured to adapt 
it to the needs of (1) the farmer; (2) students in the 
Schools and Colleges of Agriculture ; (3) teachers in 
the country schools who are endeavouring to interest 
their pupils in Nature Study. He hopes, also, that 
it will interest others concerned with the maize industry 
in its various branches, e.g. commerce, manufactures, 
and the supply of agricultural implements, machinery, 
and fertilizers. 

It is a difficult task to meet such diverse needs, and 
the result is necessarily open to criticism. The actual 
time available for its preparation has been too short, 
but if publication had not been completed before the 
author’s return to South Africa, it would have been 
postponed indefinitely, and in the present stage of 
development of the local maize industry, there seemed 
to be a need for a book of this character. 

The author is indebted to the following, among other 
gentlemen, for valuable assistance or contributions. 
The information on milling has been supplied by 
Mr. W. H. Horsfall of Aliwal North, and the chapter 
on the construction of silos by Mr. A. Morrison Hay, 
of the Public Works Department, Pretoria. For the 


VIL 


viii PREFACE 


chapter on maize and maize products as stock food, the 
author has drawn largely upon Feeds and Feeding, by 
Professor W. A. Henry, from whom he once enjoyed 
the privilege of a valuable course of lectures. Much 
of the information on insect-pests has been furnished 
by his friend, Mr. C. W. Mally, Government Entomo- 
logist, Cape Town, whose work in investigating and 
fighting the pests of the maize crop, while stationed 
at Grahamstown, is well known and highly spoken of 
by Eastern Province farmers. Much of the infor- 
mation on the use of maize-harvesting machinery in 
America, has been taken from a bulletin specially 
dealing with the subject by Mr. Zintheo, of the U.S. 
Department of Agriculture. Much valuable informa- 
tion has been obtained from the writings of Professors 
T. F. Hunt, C. G. Hopkins, Bateson, and Punnett, 
Dr. E. M. East, and Dr. G. H. Shull. To many kind 
friends and correspondents the author is indebted for 
the native names in use in different parts of South 
Africa; and to Mr. R. T. A. Innes, Director of the 
Union Observatory, Johannesburg, for much valuable 
information on climatology. 

The author’s warmest thanks are due to his sister- 
in-law, Miss Florence Bolton, A.B. (Stanford), and to 
his wife, for patient and careful revision of manuscripts 
and proofs, without which it would have been impossible 
for him to have prepared the book for publication in the 
limited time at his disposal. He is also indebted to 
Mr. H. R. Mallett of Cambridge, for the preparation 
and revision of the Index at the last moment, and to 
Miss Pate of Cambridge and her staff, for their care 
and accuracy in copying the tables and bibliographical 
list, and typing the manuscript, and also for reading 
some of the proofs. 

The author desires to express his thanks to those 
who have supplied photographs and blocks, or who 


PREFACE ix 


have given permission for the reproduction of illustra- 
tions from other books and publications; where the 
latter have been used credit has been given at the foot 
of the illustration. Several drawings were specially 
prepared by Mrs. Burtt-Davy, and many of the illus- 
trations have been reproduced from the 7ransvaal and 
Union Agricultural Journals, by the courteous permis- 
sion of the Editor, Dr. Wm. Macdonald. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to those friends 
at Cambridge and elsewhere, especially to Professor 
R. H. Biffen, F.R.S., and Professor R. H. Punnett, 
for valuable suggestions and assistance, particularly in 
connection with the inheritance of characters; and to 
Mr. J. D. Anderson, M.A., and Dr. Nicholson, for 
assistance and information with regard to Hindoo and 
Persian names. Thanks are also offered to the Com- 
mittees, Members and Secretaries of the Liverpool, 
Mark Lane and Baltic Corn Exchanges, for their 
courtesy in obtaining and supplying information, and 
particularly to Mr. Broomhall, Editor of George Lroom- 
hall’s Corn Trade News, Mr. A. Grenville Turner of 
the Liverpool Corn Exchange, and Mr. H. M. Cole- 
brook of the Baltic and Mark Lane Exchanges, for 


their valuable assistance. 
JOSEPH BURTT-DAVY. 


ScHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, 
CAMBRIDGE, 28 August, 1913. 


PREFACE - 4 " a = = a > = 


CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 


ConTENTS - = - = = f z : e : = “ Ss 


List oF ILLUSTRATIONS - - # x . - 2 = 5 4 


List oF TABLES : _ 7 # = # 5 2 = : 


CHAPTER 


I, 

II. 
Ill. 
IV, 
V. 
VI 
VII. 
VIII. 
IX 


Xx 
XI. 


XII. 
XIII. 


XIV. 
XV. 


XVI. 
XVII. 


IMPORTANCE AND History - < 3 2 = . S 
CuirimaTic REQUIREMENTS - - - - : - - - 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - * # . - 7 i 
BoTanicaAL CHARACTERS - 3 - 4 2 : a - 
INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS AND IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING - 
JUDGING AND SELECTION FOR EXHIBITION — - - - - . 
VARIETIES AND BREEDS - - - - . : # 2 : 
SOILS AND Wanvaus gta # 2 . z + - p 
TILLAGE, PLANTING,. AND CULTIVATION - * - - - - 
DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE Crop - - - - - 
HARVESTING AND STORAGE, AND PESTS OF STORED GRAIN - - 
THE Conmmnas IN Maize GRAIN - - - - - - - 


THE MILuinc, MILL-PRopUCTS, AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 
Maize GRAIN - - - - - - 7 2 5 : 


Maize GRAIN aS Foop - - - - - - - - - 


THE PRESERVATION AND USE oF MalizE STOVER, Hay AND 
SILAGE, FoR Stock Foop - : = 2 5 _ 


CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS - = = = 2 = f 
Uses or Maize PRODUCTS IN THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES - 
BIBLIOGRAPHY - - fe 2 « ¥ = ‘ = S 


INDEX - - a = im s = _ ‘ - " 


xiii 


XXIX 


XXXVil 


CONTENTS, 
CHAPTER I. 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY. 


Importance. 


pect ION 

—{—1. Importance of the maize crop. 

' 2. What the American farmer thinks of it 
3. Maize is the leading product of America 
4. Amount and value of the United States crop 
5. American maize is not grown for export 
6. Maize is a white man’s crop 
7. Maize is the staple crop of South Africa 
8. Future possibilities of development in South Africa 
g. Relative importance of the worid’s maize and wheat crops 

=p History. 

—frio. Origin of maize 
“11. History 

12. Introduction into Europe 
13. Introduction into Africa 
14. Introduction into Asia 
15. Meaning and history of the botanical n name 
16. The name Maize : 
17. The word Corn 
18. The word Mielie 
1g. Other vernacular names 


CHAPTER IL. 


= oer 
= CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS. 


. Climate : : 
. Factors which limit distribution z 
. Altitude 

. Temperature 

. Night temperature 

. Frost ‘ 


Hail 


. Soil temperature . 

. Moisture requirements 

. Rainfall 

. Sunshine : 
. Influence of climate upon vegetative characters and time of maturity : 
. Acclimatization ; 

. Influence of climate upon varieties E 

. Influence of climate upon chemical composition , 


Xili 


> 
o 
m 


ON ANNUM & 


XIV CONTENTS 


CHAPTER III. 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 


SECTION F PAGE 
Be eek Geographical distribution . : : ; i . : - 46 


\ 36. Distribution in the United States ; ‘ } : : ‘ . 48 
37. The Sab-arid Zone. 2 : ‘ . : . i - 49 
38. The Rocky Mountains Zone ; ; é ; ; : a - 49 
39. The Great Basin ‘ : ‘ ‘ : . ; ; é . 49 
40. The Pacific Slope , ‘ ‘ ‘ _ . 4 : ’ 2 49 
4. The Atlantic States . . 7 , F ‘ i : : : 49 
42. Canada : : ' . ; ‘ : : ' : : 50 
43. Mexico : : : . : : : 50 
44. Central America and the WwW ‘est Indies . : ; , : ; 50 
45. Tropical South America. ‘ é y ’ * ‘ ‘ , SI 
46. Argentina ‘ ‘ ; : ‘i - ‘ 51 
47. Possible increase in the Argentine crop , ‘ ‘ F ‘ ~ §S 
48. Europe : ‘ é , ‘: : - ; " : F » 52 
4g. Asia. . : , : : ; ‘ R : : ‘ . 53 
50. Australasia . : : ; F : , . ‘ i z » 55 
51. North Africa ; é ‘ ‘ ‘ F : ‘ : : s) “56 

2. Tropical Africa. (See also addendum at end of chapter) . ‘ = §0 
53. South Africa ‘ ‘ ‘ : ; ¢ F : : « x $7 
54. Orange Free State : : ‘ ‘ ‘ : : ‘ , - 58 
55. Transvaal. 3 ‘ ; - x » 58 
56. Relative yields of Transvaal Districts | : . : . ‘ » $9 
57. Natal . ‘ . ; q ‘ é : A : 5 60 
58. Cape Province . e % ‘ ‘ : F H 5 ; « 64 


CHAPTER IV. 
BOTANICAL CHARACTERS. 


59. Botanical relationship . ; Z : x . 7 : : » 65 

\ 60. Description. é . : : ‘ : ‘ : ' ‘ » 65 
— 61. Plant structure. : : ; : . : . . a> | 367. 
\ 62. Theseed . d : : : . . : «= 169 
63. The embryo and endosperm : ; : : : : . a. 296 
64. Germination ‘ : 4 ; : * i : i . ee 
65. The maize seedling. i : ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ : : 2 
66. The root and its functions . 3 ‘ : : : : i eee 
67. The stem and its functions . : : : F : : : & OF 
68. Sucker-shoots . ‘ ‘ , , $ i ‘ » 38 
69. The leaf and its functions. ‘(See also addendum at end of chapter) . 80 
7». The inflorescence 3 , f : 5 . , ’ ‘ & 85 
71. Barren plants. 2 : E : : § ‘ : ; er 189 
72. Flowering period F ‘ : ¥ , ‘ ; ‘ » go 
73. The spikelet : : : : : : : : p 2) 495 
74. The pollen and its vitality : : ; 2 : : F : e399 
75. The young ear. : : . : 3 F ' : : . IO 
76. Thesilk — . 4 : : : : : : : ; . - og 
mand Rey Pe Pollination . : : : : : ; , ‘ 3 : . 105 
|—y8. Fertilization : : ; ; : ‘ : : : ‘ . 105 
79. Dichogamy . i i i F . 107 
80. Form tor describing ce maize plant i in ithe field - F . r » Tog 
81. The shank . : : . E . : : ; : : - 10g 
82. The husk. ‘ ‘ : z : P : . : : . Ito 
83. The mature ear . F , ‘ i ‘ ‘ , c p . IE 
8;. The cob : ‘ A ‘, fi . é . r « It3 
85. Number of rows of grain. ; 3 : : i ‘ : Paar a 


$6. Twisted rows. : : : ‘i : 4 : : : . IIS 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


87. 
88. 
8g. 
go. 
gI. 
92. 
93- 
94- 
95: 
96. 


Number of grains per ear 
Proportion of grain to ear 
Form for describing the ear 
The grain 

The hull 

The aleurone layer 

The endosperm 

Form for describing the grain 
Tubular glands in the embryo 
Apogamy - is 


CHAPTER V. 


INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS AND IMPROVEMENT BY 
BREEDING. 


Necessity for Improvement. 
The object of breeding 


. The necessity for improvement of crops 

. Need for increase in the yield per acre 

. The cause of poor yields 

. Importance of a perfect stand 

. Importance of increasing the size of the ears 

. Average weight of grain per ear . : 
. Need for increase in the weight of grain per ear. 

. Percentage by weight of grain and cob 

. Effect of depth of grain on yield . : 

. Increasing yield by increasing the number of rows at ‘the butt and tip 
. Effect of width of sulci on yield . 
. Effect of shape of grain on yield . 

. Effect of number of rows 

. Effect of diameter of cobs . 

. Need for earlier-ripening breeds . 

. Drought resistance 

. Disease resistance A 

. Loss from weak stalks, shanks, or ¢ cobs 

. Necessity for the production of is seed 

. Other desirable points 

. Necessity for development of new breeds 


Inheritance of Characters. 


. Fluctuations : 
. Characters may be inherited 
. Importance of a as al of the laws governing the transmission of 


characters 


. Inheritance of characters in maize follows Mendelian Law 
. Reproduction and transmission of characters 
. Mechanism of transmission 

. The zygote 

. The homozygote 

. The heterozygote 

. Unit-characters . 

. Allelomorphic pairs of unit characters . 

. Dominant and recessive allelomorphs 

. Interaction of unit-characters 

. Repulsion and coupling of characters. 

. Xenia. 

. Splashed purple colour of the aleurone layer 
. Gametic segregation : 5 


XV 


PAGE 
116 
116 
118 
119 
122 
122 
123 

123 

124 

124 


126 
127 
128 
130 
131 
135 
137 
137 
148 
149 
I5I 
I51 
I51 
152 
154 
154 
156 
156 
157 
158 
158 
159 


160 
160 


160 
I6r 
162 
163 
163 
163 
164 
164 
170 
r72 
173 
174 
175 
179 
180 


xvi 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


136. 
137. 
£38. 
139. 
140. 
Iq4I. 
£42. 
143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 
a7. 
148. 
14g. 
150. 
I5I. 
152. 
153- 
154. 
I55- 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 


The reason for segregation in mathematical bigpor ion? 
Monohybrid ratios : : 
Dihybrid ratios 

Trihybrid ratios . 

Inheritance of colour . 

Yellow endosperm 

White starchy endosperm 

Inheritance of characters which affect ‘the growing plant 
Pericarp colour . : , 
Somatic variation in pericarp colour 

Silk colour . 2 

Red cob-colour . 

Glume colour. 

Development of “ pods” 

Inheritance of ligule and auricles 

Physical condition of the starch . 

Size characters 

Inheritance of height of plants 

Inheritance of abnormal dwarfness 

Inheritance of length of ears 

Inheritance of size and weight of grain 

Inheritance of row numbers 

Four-rowed ears . 

Inheritance of fasciated and lobed ears 

Inheritance of laterally-branched ears 

Striped leaves 

Difficulties encountered in studying inheritance in maize 


Methods of Plant Breeding. 


. A few general principles 

. Methods of plant breeding . 

. Selection of parents ; 

. Effect of inbreeding 

. Improvement in yield by use e of first- generation c crosses 
. Fundamental points of seed selection . : 

. Correlation of characters 

. Desirable stalks . 

. Desirable leaves . 

. Desira’sle ears 

. Desirable cobs 

. Desirable grains . 

. Fancy points F 

. Methods of selection 

. Importance of care in selection 

. Field selection of parent ears 

. Seed-room selection of ears 

. Character of the grain 

. Selection by continuous performance- record 

. Method of propagation : ; 

. The breeding plot 

. Devices to prevent or detect cross- s-pollination 

. Production of new types by artificial cross- pollination 
. Reciprocal crosses ; : 

. Method of cross- pollinating 3 ; ‘ 
. Collecting the pollen . : e : . . . 
. Covering the silks ‘ < ‘ A . . . 
. The F, plants. < - ‘ : é . 
. The F, plants : - 
. Improvement by breeding i is s slow at first 


ese: Wed rel cel <a les. 8 78s Get 


CONTENTS xvii 


CHAPTER VI. 
JUDGING AND SELECTION FOR EXHIBITION. 
SECTION PAGE 
193. The object of exhibiting at Agricultural Shows . ‘ : : « 235. 
194. Rules governing maize exhibits . ‘ : : . : : 237 
195. The prize-list . : : ‘ : < : : P : + 239 
196. Classification . ; ; ; : a ; F ; : + 239 
197. Sections : : : : c : : : si . . 240 
198. Classes , : : : P 3 ; : : : : . 240 
199. Championships . : : ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 5 - ‘ 3 (245 
200. Principles of judging . : ‘ : : 3 ‘ ; ss - 246 
201. Methods of judging . , ‘ : : : i : : . 247 
202. Judging maize for seed iS ; ‘ : : : + 249 
203. Desirable characters for breeding ears . ; : ‘ F + 250 
204. South African score card for seed-maize . : ‘ ; F . 250 
205. Length ofear . ‘ , : é : : : 3 ~ 252 
206. Sulci or space between rows 252 
207. Shape of grain 253 
208. Length of grain . i ‘ : : : : ; , . 254 
209. Uniformity of grain . : A : . E A & ‘ - 254 
210. Yield of grain per ear. 3 : 254 
211. Trueness to type and breed characteristics A ‘ ‘ . . 255 
212. Shapeofears. F * ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ : : . 256 
213. Straightness of rows . ; 2 : . : : : ‘ . 256 
214. Uniformity of exhibit . é . % ; is : : : y 257 
215. Butts of ears * ° 5 < j : : ‘ ‘ , x 257 
216. Thickness of cob ¢ y < 3 ‘ r ‘ : . 258 
217. Tips of ears : i x : , ‘ z : ‘ 4 . 258 
218. Colour of grain . ‘ P ‘ Z ‘ 5 A é r - 259 
21g. Size of embryo . . : : : . : 4 ; ; . 260 
220. Market condition ; : : : : ‘ A : : . 260 
221. Colour ofcob . : ; ‘ : : ; : : z . 261 
222. Circumference of ears . : : : : ; : . : . 267 
223. Standards of perfection. A . , < 3202 
224. Judging shelled maize and the accompanying ears. ‘ : . 263 
225. Judges’ computing sheet . ; : : : 5 : 2 27 
226. Useful form of judge’s card . 2 ; : : : eee 
CHAPTER VIL. 
VARIETIES AND BREEDS. 
227. Botanical varieties. ‘ ‘ : 5 » 274 
228. Pod maize, Zea Mays var. tunicata St. Hil. : ; : A « 1295 
229. Pop maize, Zea Mays var. precox Bonaf. . , ; : - 276 
230. Flint maize, Zea Mays var. indurata (Sturt.) Bailey ‘ F : 4 297 
231. Dent maize, Zea Mays var. indentata (Sturt.) Bailey 3 : 3 277 
232. Soft maize, Zea Mays var. erythrolepis (Bonaf.) Alef. . : : - 278 
233. Sugar maize, Zea Mays var. rugosa Bonaf. é . . ; = 296 
234. The agricultural breeds. : . : ‘ 2 2 279 
235. Comparative yield of dent and flint breeds . Aa ‘ ; ; . 280 
236. Principal breeds of dent maize grown in America 5 : : #286 
237. Other dent breeds grown in America . ‘ : ; . 281 
238. Principal breeds of dent maize grown in South Africa : . . 284 
239. Hickory King . é ‘ : ‘ , . 286 
240. Hickory Horsetooth, or 12-row Hickory ‘ ‘ F . ‘ . 289 
241. Salisbury White . é : : : e : ¢ . 2g 
242. Noodsberg Horsetooth : : ; < ; . : . 291 
243. Mercer c é i ‘ ‘ A F i . . 291 


244. 10-row or ‘* Louisiana” Hickory : : 5 ‘ + 295 


xviii CONTENTS 


SECTION PAGE 
245. lowa Silver-mine . : . : 5 . . : + 299 
246. Boone County . > : z : . ‘ ‘ : : + 300 
247. Ladysmith . 4 7 * : ; : 5 : + 301 
248. Natal White Horsetooth _ : F 7: ° “ P + 303 
249. Eureka : ‘ : 3 ‘ . é - F + 304 
250. Chester County . i : 3 : . ‘ : : : + 304 
251. Yellow Hogan . eae: : : 2 2 : Bees - 306 
252. Golden Beauty .  . wwe 06 
253. Yellow Horsetooth . : : : : : : ‘ : - 306 
254. Reid Yellow Dent : 3 : : é ‘ : : : - 309 
255. Minnesota Early . ‘ ‘ s : : i : , : + 309 
256. Star Leaming . : : : : . : : : : + 31r 
257. Golden Eagle. ‘ ‘ : . . 312 
258. Principal American breeds of flint maize 6 ‘ ‘ : 5 - 314 
259. Principal South African flint breeds. ‘ : ‘ é : - 314 
260. Cango, white. : : A : : » 315 
261. Thoroughbred, Rural . : : d : : : : : - 316 
262. Cango, yellow . : B : : : ‘ e . 3 - 317 
263. Wills Gehu ‘ 5 rf : i : F i F 5 « 317 
264. North Dakota. ‘ : : : ‘ ‘ ‘ A : * 317 
265. Botman, white . . z : , , n , : ° - 320 
266. Botman, yellow . 5 é 3 s 3 : : ‘ : + 820 
267. New England 8-row . F : : . : . : : » 320 
268. Burlington Hybrid ; . : jr . , ‘ 5 i « “$22 
269. Gillespie Yellow . ; : ‘ ‘ : F : : Z - 322 
270. Indian Pearl ‘ F : § 2 322 
271. Principal breeds of soft maize or flour corn ; ; : . + 322 
272. Brazilian flourcorn . ; R ‘ + 9323 
273. Principal breeds of sugar maize grown in America : : : » 323 
274. Sugar breeds introduced into South Africa . : : : ‘ + 323 
275. Clark Favourite . ‘ s : x . 5 ‘ . F - 324 
276. Arcadia sugar-maize . ; é . ‘ . é . 2 ROA 
277. Claret sugar ‘ , i ‘ . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ; » 324 
278. Union sugar : 2 : ‘ . 6 4 a . : - 326 
279. Golden sugar é 3 i ‘ z . 4 : > : » 926 
280. Pop-corn . : . : iS g : : ‘ 5 . 326 
281. Special-purpose sorts a 5 : : _ : 2 ‘ i - 326 
282. Silage breeds . : ; : on B27 
283. Classes best suited for ‘cultivation i in South “Africa : : Z « 328 
284. Relative length of growing season of different breecs . ‘* e « 396 
285. Breeds suitable for the High-veld ; 331 
286. Breeds suitable for the Maize-belt of the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State. 332 
287. Breeds suitable for the Maize- belt of the “ Midlands ” east of the 
Drakensberg . : : 3 F - 332 
288. Breeds suitable for the Coast- belt : A : : ‘ . 332 
28g. Breeds suitable for the semi-arid western region 5 e . » 333 
290. Breeds suitable for the upper Bush-veld .. ; : is : 2333 
291. Breeds grown in Rhodesia . . 2 S i : - 333 
292. Relative yields of breeds in the Transvaal : 2 : 5 : & 2333 
293. Relative yields of breeds in Natal : . : E : + 339 
294. Third season’s results, Cedara, Natal . : » 344 
295. Relative weight of grain per bushel of different breeds : ‘ - 344 


CHAPTER VIII. 
SOILS AND MANURES. 


296. The soil . . . 5 - 346 
297. Chemical elements of the soil required by plants p : - 347 
298. Soil moisture. . : : : : : + 347 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


299. 
300. 
301. 
302. 
303. 
304. 
305. 
306. 
307. 
308, 
309. 
310. 
311. 
312. 
313. 
314. 
315. 
316. 
317. 
318. 
319. 
320. 
321. 
322. 
323. 
324. 
325. 
3206. 
327. 
328. 
329. 
330. 
331. 
332. 
333- 
334- 
335- 
336. 
337- 
338. 


339. 
340. 
341. 
342. 
343. 
344. 
345. 
346. 
347- 
348. 
349. 
350. 


351. 
352. 
353- 
354. 


Conservation of moisture by Bunge 
Dry-land farming : 

Irrigation . 

Available plant- food 

Recuperative power of soils 

Character of South African soils . 

Soils suitable for maize-growing . 

New v. old lands 3 

Effect of tillage 

Effect of continuous cropping 

Maintaining the crop- ee power of the soil 
Summer fallowing é 

Rotation of crops 

Organic matter 

Use of leguminose green- manure crops 
Rotations with maize in other countries 
Some Transvaal rotations 

The functions of manures 

Manurial requirements of the maize crop 
Does the use of fertilizers pay? d 
Cost of fertilizers in the interior provinces . 
Residual value of manures . 

Stable and kraal manure : 
Artificial manures or commercial fertilizers 
Method of applying fertilizers 

Influence of season on efficacy of fertilizers 
Use of lime : : 
Indication of need of lime 

Kinds of lime 

Preparation of the lime 

Method of applying lime 

Phosphatic manures 

Superphosphate alone 

Bone-meal alone. 

Superphosphate and bone- meal mixed 
Basic slag alone . 3 

Nitrate of soda alone . ‘ 
Superphosphate and nitrate of soda 
Manganese compounds 

Potassium . 


CHAPTER IX. 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION. 


Time of ploughing 

Depth of ploughing 

Different soils require different treatment 

Preparation after a a 

Time of planting : 

Listing 

Use of planters 

Check-rowing 

Distance of planting ‘ 

Distance tests in the Transvaal . 

Distance tests in Natal 5 

Distances tried in the United States . 

Planting distance for silage or fodder maize : 

Effect of thickness of planting on composition of the fodder 
Number of plants to an acre of ground at different distances 
Amount of seed planted per acre 


392 
393 
393 
393 
395 


XX 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


355+ 
356. 
357+ 
358. 
359- 
360. 


361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
379. 
371. 
372. 


373- 
374- 
375- 
376. 
377- 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384. 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
391. 
392. 
393- 


394- 


395- 
396. 
397- 


398. 
399. 


400. 


Depth of planting : 
Planting behind the plough 
Planting before ploughing . 
After-cultivation . 4 
Implements for weeding 
Power 


CHAPTER X. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP. 


Plant Diseases. 


Brown rust of maize . 

Red rust of maize. 

‘‘ White rust” or “ blight” 
Maize smut or “‘ brand” 

Leaf scorch or maize blight 
Ear-rots of maize 

Dothiorella . : 

Burrill’s bacterial disease of dent and : sugar maize 
Stewart's corn wilt 

Yellow foliage 

Chlorosis 

Physiological effect of drought 


Weeds. 


Weeds : 

Parasitic weeds . 

Non-parasitic weeds 

Perennial weeds . 

Annual weeds 

Volunteer maize . 

How weeds spread 

Plant less maize and produce more 
Cultivation . 

Effect of clean cultivation of the maize © crop 
Harrowing . . ; 
Fallowing : 

Rotation of crops 

The best time to kill weeds | ; ‘ 
Weed seeds do not all germinate at once 
Is-ona, witch-weed, or rooibloem 
Remedies for is-ona 

Early planting 

Manuring 

Clear the land of is-ona seed already there . 
Buy seed-maize from clean farms 


Animal Pests of the Maize Crop. 


The Chacma baboon . 
Monkeys 

Hares. 

The reed- rat 

The porcupine or vyster- vark 
Birds . - d ‘ 


Insect Pests. 
Insect pests of the maize crop 


PAGE 
395 
396 
396 
396 
400 
402 


405 
408 
409 


CONTENTS Xxl 


SECTION PAGE 
401. Methods of combating insect pests of the maize crop . ; 5 . 436 
402. Cutworms, Agrotis spp. . : : ‘ é ‘ i + 437 
403. Remedies for cutworms ; ; ; : : : ‘ ; » 437 
404. The maize stalk-borer : : : : : ‘ : : . 438 
405. Life-history of the stalk-borer . : : ‘ é 3 , - 440 
406. Parasites of the stalk-borer . : ; ‘ : . 441 
407. Burning the stalks to destroy the stalk-borer , ‘ d ‘ - 441 
408. Ploughing-under the stalks : : : : : - 442 
409. Early and late planting to avoid stalk- borer. : : : : - 443 
410. Trap-crops for stalk-borer . : ‘ : . 443 
411. Ensiling and shredding maize as a remedy for stalk- borer . ‘ » 443 
412. The striped beard-grub or ear-worm, Heliothis armiger Hubner - 444 
413. Remedies for the striped beard- em : : : : : : » 444 
414. The maize cricket : ; : : : : : : » 445 
415. Locusts 4 F ‘ . ’ ¥ » 446 
416. The tok-tokje, Psammodes Reichei S. ‘ é ; ; 4 - 449 
417. Remedies for the tok-tokje . : F 3 : é . : . 449 
418. Plant-lice . ‘ . : : : “ : i : . 450 
41g. Rose-chafers ‘ : ; ; : : . : . ; . 450 
CHAPTER XI. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE, AND THE PESTS OF 
STORED MAIZE. 


420. Maize harvesting . : : Z ; - 451 
421. Best condition of the crop for harvesting : ‘ : : - 452 
422. The best stage of growth for both grain and stover . > , » 455 
423. The best stage of growth for fodder. : : : ‘ ‘ . 456 
424. The best stage of Bee for ensiling . : : : : é - 456 
425. Frosted maize . 7 . 458 
426. Composition of the maize plant at different stages of maturity . 458 
427. Composition of maize fodder at different stages of growth. 459 
428. Comparative digestibility of maize fodder and silage at different 
stages of maturity : - 459 
429. Feeding value of maize fodder at different stages of growth : . 460 
430. Pulling , , : F : , ‘ ‘ é : . . 460 
431. Topping. F : : ‘ ; y : . 461 
432. Methods of harvesting for grain i : : : : : . 46 
433- Husking by hand from the standing stalks ‘ : : : : . 461 
434. Cost of hand-picking in the United States . : ; ; ? . 465 
435. Cutting maize by hand ‘ , . 462 
436. Does it pay to use machinery for harvesting the maize e crop ares . 463 
437. Sled harvesters . : j ; : : ; : : . 464 
438. Mechanical harvesters 5 . 4 F F . i . 464 
439. The cost and efficiency of harvesters : : ; : : ‘ . 466 
440. The maize binder : : “ ; ‘ j . 466 
441. Estimated cost of using a maize binder : : ‘ : F . 468 
442. The maize stubble cutter. : : 4 : : ‘ 4 . 469 
443. Draught of maize binders . i : ‘i : 3 5 i . 470 
444. Shocking maize . : : 5 : : ; : : F . 470 
445. The maize shocker. : 3 é : ‘ , : : . 471 
446. A maize shock loader . : . ‘ f i: : » 472 
447. Husking shocked maize by hand ‘ 4 ‘ : i : . 472 
448. Maize pickers. : : : 2 : ‘ - 473 
449. Cost and efficiency oft maize , pickers : : , ‘ ; ; 7470 
450. Hand-husking in America . ‘ : : : F f ‘ 4-470) 
451. Combined husker and shredder . : ‘ ‘ : : . » 477 
452. Combined husker and sheller_. . : : ; 3 ‘ . 480 


453. Machines for shelling husked maize . ; F é ‘ F . 480 


Xxli 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


454. 
455- 
456. 


457- 
458. 
459- 
460. 
461. 
462. 
463. 


464. 
465. 
466. 
467. 
468. 
469. 


470. 
471. 
472. 
473- 
474- 
475: 
476. 
477- 
478. 
479. 
480. 
481. 
482. 
483. 
484. 
485. 
486. 
487. 
488. 
489. 
490. 
491. 
492. 
493- 
494. 
495- 
496. 
497. 
498. 
499. 
500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504. 


Importance of drying-out the eran 
Loss of weight in drying 


Variation in moisture-content is not ‘identical with ‘loss « or gain in 


weight due to change of moisture-content 
Storage in the husk 
Storage of husked maize 
Storage of shelled grain 
Kaffir method of storage 
Need for public maize stores or silos it in South Africa . 
Yield of grain from a given measure of ears 
Country damage . 


Pests of Stored Grain. 


Losses accruing from storage of grain 
Insects injurious to stored grain . 
Weevils 

Angoumois grain- ‘moth 

Remedies for insect pests 

Rats and mice in maize stores 


CHAPTER XII. 
THE COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN. 


Time of arrival of the South African crop 
Local markets : 

The mines trade . 

Consumption on the Kimberley Mines 

Cape stock-farmers 

The native trade 

Local prices . 

Classes of maize called for in the local trade 
Comparative local prices of maize classes 
Transvaal maize imports 

Rapid increase in production 

Importance of the export trade 

Oversea markets . 

European consumption 

Possibility of developing trade with Canada 
Egypt as a possible market . : 

India . 

Australia 

Prices in European markets 

Prices on the English market, 1880 to 1908 

The high London prices of 1907-8 : 
Early export prices for South African maize 
Changing prices per quarter to prices per muid . 
Changing prices per 1,000 kilos to prices per muid 
Market reports 

Prices affected by the world’s supply and demand 


Some factors which control prices in the world’s maize market . 


The world’s supply of maize 

Early attempts at an export maize trade from South Africa 
Natal Government enterprise 

Reduction in freight rates 

Government control of export 

Effect of good prices in stimulating trade 

Cause of abnormal prices 

Natal shipments, 1907. 


PAGE 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
SII. 
512. 
513. 
514. 
515. 


516. 
517. 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 
522. 
523. 
524. 
525. 
526. 
527. 
528. 
529. 
530. 
531. 
532. 
533- 
534- 
535. 
536. 
537- 
538. 
539. 
540. 
541. 
542. 
543. 
544. 
545. 
546. 
547. 
548. 
549. 
550. 
551. 
552. 
553. 
554. 
555. 
556. 
557. 
558. 
559. 
560, 
561. 
562. 


563. 


Transvaal and Orange Free State shipments 
Some difficulties encountered 

Inter-colonial conferences . F 

Pretoria conference, 7 and 8 January, ‘1903. 
Establishment of a clearing house at Durban 
Bloemfontein conference, 18 and 19 aan IgIo 
Annual maize committee ; 
Government facilities for export . 

Government regulations and railage rates 
American railage rates 


Amounts and sources of supply of South African 1 maize : exported, 


1go6-12 ‘ 
Details of exports, 1gII and 1912 
Monthly exports : 
Destination of maize exported 
South African ports of export 
Varieties and classes of maize exported 
Grading at the ports . . : 
Effect of grading at the ports 
Description of grades . 
Grader’s certificate 
Weevily maize 
Removal of eS maize at ports 
Re-bagging 
Marking grades on bags 
Uniformity in practice of handling and storing at wharves 
Bag handling of grain ‘ 
Quality of grain bags . 
Bulk handling. 
Time saved by bulk handling 
Saving in cost by bulk handling . 
Accumulation and storage at inland centres 
Transit silos and elevators . 
Payment to farmers 
Trucking in bags and in bulk 
Storage at ports of export : 
Electric belt-conveyors for bagged grain 
Wharf-shed storage charges 
Construction and capacity of elevators 
Cost of erection of elevators 
Firms of elevator engineers . 
Elevator systems . 
The working of elevators 
Elevator charges . 
Elevator certificates 
Qualifications for managership of local elevators. 
Heating of grain in the elevator . ‘ 
Heating caused by moisture 
Loss of weight due to heating 
Degree of dryness required for export . 
Conditioning wet maize : : 
Ocean freight 
Shipping 
Tonnage 
Importing ports of Europe | 2 : 
Bulk handling at ports of import 
British elevators . 
New silo and grain- handling plant at Immingham Dock 
New silo for the Manchester =hip Canal Co. . 
Continental elevators . 


XXIV CONTENTS 


SECTION PAGE 
564. Canadian elevators . ‘ 5 ‘ . ‘ : . OLE 
565. United States terminal elevators ‘ ‘ ; P . ; * “OLE 
566. Argentine elevators . : » O42 
567. Silos and grain-handling plant at Puerto Galvan, Argentina E . 613 
568. Private ownership of elevators . i , , , te 
569. Railway ownership and control of elevators : : ‘ ; . 614 
570. Co-operative elevators i j ‘ ‘ 2 ‘ ‘ . 615 
571. The European market ‘ ; i ; : : : : . 615 
572. Sale by sample . : 5 ; : F : ; ; : : 617 
573. Import duty : : : : » 617 
574. Classes of maize required by the European market. ‘ ; . 618 
575. Differences in market value of maize grades F i , ; . 619 
576. Number of South African classes ‘ r : 3 i . 619 
577. Standards of weight and measurement ri ‘ , : . 620 
578. Relative weight and bulk of South African maize r : Z . 622 
579. International trade in maize ‘ i 2 é A F i % 622 
580. United States exports ‘ , ‘ . , x 7 : a. 023 
581. American maize grades : . ; : F 2 62 

582. Kiln-drying American maize for export ‘ ‘ . . ‘ « 027: 


CHAPTER XIII. 


THE MILLING, MILL-PRODUCTS, AND CHEMICAL 
COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN. 


The Milling and Mill-products of Maize. 


583. Native methods of grinding ‘ : : : : : ; . 629 
584. Modern milling methods. : : : : : ; é + 102 

585. Condition for milling . : : : ‘ , : ‘ é - 630 
586. Mill-products of maize s ‘ : : ‘ f : ; . 630 
587. Hominy-mill products : : : : : : ; : . 631 
588. Best sorts of maize for milling . : : 5 : . 633 
58g. Construction of modern milling machinery . : F : ; . 634 
590. Cleaning and i aes : ; ‘ ‘ ‘ A , - 636 
591. Grinding . Zi : 5 . ? : ; : : + 637 
592. The millstone process . : : : ‘ ‘ ‘ : : 3 637 
593. The roller-mill process i : : ‘ 3 : é ‘ . 640 
594. Loss in ae ‘ : ‘ ‘ . e ‘5 ; : « O42 
595. Samp . : . ‘ ; : ; ; ; : ‘ . 642 
596. Flaked maize. : : : d : : : : ; - 643 

Chemical Composition. 

597. Importance of a knowledge of the chemical composition. i . 643 
598. The important chemical constituents of foodstuffs : : : - 645 
599. Chemical composition of the whole ae : : : . : . 646 
600. Protein : : : : : - 646 
6or. Protein obtainable from roo Ibs. of maize grain : : : : . 647 
602. The proteids of maize ia : : A A : : a: . 648 
603. Zein . : : E : : : : . 649 
604. Ether extract or “fat” ; ; : : : : : : . 650 
605. re : ; ‘ : . ‘ : ; : : - 651 
606. Ash. ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘i A z ‘ i . 651 
607. Water : ‘ 3 : S F 3 4. O52 
608. Physical composition of the grain : : ; - 653 
609. Mechanical separation of the different parts for analysis : : . 654 
610. Relative proportions of the parts of the grain. : : . 656 
611. Chemical composition of the cs ea of the € grain 3 ; . 656 


612. The tip cap : é F f : - 658 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


613. 
614. 
615. 
616. 
617. 
618. 
619. 


620. 
621. 
622. 
623. 
624. 
625. 
626. 


627. 


628. 
629. 
630. 
631. 
632. 
633. 
634. 
635. 
636. 
637. 
638. 
639. 
640. 
641. 
642. 
643. 
644. 
645. 
646. 
647. 
648. 
649. 
650. 
651. 
652. 
653. 
654. 
655. 
656. 
657. 


658. 
659. 
660. 
661. 


The hull 

The embryo 

The endosperm 

The horny gluten 

The horny starch 

The white starchy parts 

Chemical composition of different varieties and breeds of South 
African maize : 

Chemical composition of different varieties of North American maize 

Composition of maize grain grown in different localities 

Relative feeding-value of maize, wheat, and other cereals . 

Composition of maize by-products. 

Composition of maize bran compared with wheat bran 

Digestibility of maize products : 

Actual amounts of protein, etc., obtainable from each part of the grain 


CHAPTER XIV. 
MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD. 
The uses of maize grain 


For Human Food. 


Maize the staple foodstuff of the American aborigines 
Maize adopted as the staple food of the African races . 
Use of maize in tropical Africa, in 1795. 

An important article of diet of the American people 
Probable increase in demand among the white races . 
Advantages of maize as an article of food : 
Injurious effect of unsound maize 

Pellagra 

Variety of maize ‘preparations available 

Maize meal, corn meal or mielie meal 

Corn-flour, Oswego, Maizena, etc. 

Maize starch F 

Samp, hominy, and cerealine 

Stamped mielies . 

Whole or crushed maize as a ‘ cereal food” # : 
Corn-flakes, silver-flakes, corn-crisp, fanko, etc. . 
Tortillas and enchilladas 

Maize as a “‘ green” vegetable 

To keep maize on the cob 

Dried maize for winter use . 

Maize as a sweetmeat 

Glucose 

Maize stalks as a source of sugar and syrup 

Corn oil : 

Maize vinegar 

Maize juice 

Fermentation products ‘of the grain 

Beer . : A ‘ ‘ 

Whisky and gin . 

Coffee substitute . 


For Stock Food. 


Maize grain for stock food . 
Grain and pasturage 
Feeding maize on the cob 
Frequency of feeding grain. 


673 


673 
675 
676 
677 
678 
678 
680 
680 
684 
686 
688 
688 
688 
688 
689 
689 
690 
690 
691 
601 
692 
692 
693 
696 
696 
697 
698 
700 
700 
700 


Jol 
702 
704 
795 


XXV1 CONTENTS 


SECTION PAGE 
662. Preparation of grain for feeding . : : : . . : » 705 
663. Dry v. soaked maize . : ; F : ‘ : : 3 . 706 
664. Maize-and-cob meal . ‘ : . a i f 5 4 . 706 
665. Maize-cob charcoal. : : : : ? : : F . 708 
666. Maize meal. ‘ . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘i ‘ + 709 
667. Maize meal for pigs. ; : ‘ : ‘ : : : » 710 
668. Maize meal for lambs . z : 6 i ‘ - 710 
669. Mill and factory by- products for feeding : : : : : + 7it 
670. Maize bran . r . . : ‘i x Fok 
671. Gluten feed. p 3 : g ‘ A 7 . A ‘: yee s 
672. Gluten meal. ‘ : : ‘ s ” . : . 712 
673. Maize ‘‘germ” . 4 i ‘ i " 2 5 ‘ A 2 713 
674. Corn-oil cake ; , a ¥ : : . ® » 9I4 
675. Germ meal or corn-oil meal ; 4 y ¥ : , . rahe: 
676. Distillers’ grains . ‘ f : : : 3 . ‘ : . 714 
677. Distillery slop. P ‘ ; : : f 4 , » 955 
678. Brewers’ grains . : ‘ ‘ i 4 a ‘ ‘ : ye RLS, 
679. ‘*New corn product” . P ‘ : ; : ‘ ‘ . . 715 
680. Cerealine-feed . : % ; ‘ s : x é . 715 
681. ‘*Hominy-chop” and ‘ hominy-feed ” : . : é 5 G15 
682. Maize for dairy cows . : : : : ‘ z “ . = LO! 
683. Maize rations for dairy cows i : , . j 4 » GI7 
684. Maize for fattening cattle . ; . rs , : j « 9ig 
685. Maize for work-oxen . F . Fi : , é ‘ , ~ yer 
686. Maize for horses . . F * ‘ : r < ‘ é 5 (720 
687. Maize for sheep . : . , ‘ F . . ‘ < « G24 
688. Maize for pigs. : é : : : : ‘ . 726 
689. Maize for ostriches and poultry , ; 3 : : : ‘ - 729 
690. Manurial value of foodstuffs é é ‘ ‘ < s ; . 730 


CHAPTER XV. 


THE PRESERVATION AND USE OF MAIZE STOVER, HAY 
AND SILAGE, FOR STOCK FOOD. 


691. Loss of stock from lack of winter food 5 ‘ : . : a. 932 
692. The remedy ; : : A - 2. 9733 
693. The feeding-value of an acre e of m maize . : ‘ : ; * 734 
694. Yield of dry fodder. ; : : é : . 736 
695. Yield of green maize forage ‘and silage ; , : 3 : . 736 
696. Food value of weeds . : 2 2739. 
697. Forms in which maize can be preserved for stock food s 2 a, 937 
698. Relative composition of maize stover, fodder, silage, and grain . 2 (937 
699. Relative digestibility of maize fodder, stover, and silage. . 738 
700. Amount of digestible matter in different parts of the maize plant . 739 
7o1. Loss of weight and of feeding- value and other changes due to curing . 739 
702. Losses in the silo : P : ; é ‘ : : . - 739 
703. Maize stover ; ‘ ‘ . : d ‘ . z - 740 
704. Stover for dairy cows . i F r : : ‘A ‘ : « F4E 
705. Stover for sheep . i . i : Z 6 G42 
706. Maize fodder or ‘“ shocked-corn’ lenge : : é . - 743 
707. Maize fodder for dairy cows : : : : - A ‘ - 744 
708. Maize fodder for bullocks : : : : : : : . 744 
70g. Composition of dry maize fodder F : y : < - 745 
710. Relative value of fodder from different varieties : : . » 745 
711. Moisture-content of maize fodder and stover : , 5 é - 746 
712. Green maize forage. . . 746 
713. Relative value of green maize forage from different varieties 2 - 746 


714. Maize silage : . < ‘i : : 5 < : P + 747 


CONTENTS 


SECTION 


715. 
716. 
717. 
718. 
719. 
720. 
721. 
722. 
723. 
724- 
725. 
726, 
727. 
728. 
729. 
730. 
731. 
732. 
733- 
734: 
735+ 
736. 
737- 
738. 
739- 
740. 
at. 
742. 
7424. 


743- 
744: 
745- 
746. 
747- 
748. 
749: 
750. 
751. 
752. 
753+ 
754 
755: 


756. 
757- 
758. 
759- 
760. 


Maize for silage may be ee late 

Uses of silage : 

Silage for dairy cows . 

Silage for bullocks 

Maize silage v. Timothy hay 

Maize silage v. roots - 

Comparative farm value of maize ‘grown for silage and for grain. 
Cost of silage production 

Amount of silage required for feeding . 

The feeding of silage . : 

Silage feeding-table 

Importance of a ‘“‘ balanced”’ ration 

“ Nutritive ratios” of some foodstuffs 

Mixtures to increase the feeding-value of maize silage 
Kinds of silage : : : 
Composition of maize silage 

Changes in the protein due to ensiling 
Moisture-content of maize silage . 

Composition of maize silage compared with that of green maize forage 
Popular objections to silage : : 
Best breeds of maize for silage 

Planting-distance for silage or fodder-maize 

Best condition of the maize crop for harvesting . 
Methods of ensiling : : 

The addition of salt 

The modern silo . 

The stack silo 

The pit silo . 

The American cornstalk disease 


CHAPTER XVI. 
CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS. 


Historical 

Form . 

Size 

Capacity 
Position 
Materials m 
Reinforced concrete 
Floor . 

Walls . 

Plaster 

Roof . 

Doors . 

Chute . 


CHAPTER XVII. 


USES OF MAIZE PRODUCTS IN THE ARTS AND 
MANUFACTURES. 


Importance of maize products for manufacturing purposes . 
Starch : : ; ; 
Dextrine 

Corn-oil : 

Rubber filler 


XXVIl 


PAGE 
749 
749 
749 
750 
75° 
751 
751 
751 
752 
752 
753 
753 
755 


770 
772 
772 
773 
774 
775, 
776 
778 
778 
778 
780 
780 
781 


782 
783 
785 
785 
735 


XXVIII CONTENTS 


SECTION 


761. 
762. 
763. 
764. 
765. 
766. 
767. 
768. 
769. 
770. 
771. 
772. 


Glycerine . : 

De-natured alcoho ; : 
Gas for illumination and heating . 
Maize charcoal 

Paper material 

Cellulose : : ; 
Other uses for maize husks 
Other uses for maize cobs 

Maize chaff , 

“Zea” or maize-silk . 

‘‘Maidis Ustilago ” 

Maize-straw for thatching 


PAGE 
786 
786 
792 
793 
793 
798 
799 
801 
801 
801 
802 
802 


FIG. 


on NAN 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


BY CHAPTERS. 


General the Right Hon. Louis Botha, P.C. oar) by Fred Coop 


of Pretoria) . : ‘ Frontispiece 
CHAPTER IL 
PAGE 
. A field of maize on the demonstration farms of Messrs. John Fowler 
& Co. (Leeds), Ltd., at Vereeniging. 2 
. In a maize field in the Transvaal Bush- veld (Tzaneen, Zoutpansberg 
District) ‘ 3 
. Fields of maize, Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, Trans- 
vaal. (Photograph by Fred Coop of Pretoria) : ‘ 7. 
. Maize fields at Vereeniging, on the High-veld of the Transvaal . 8 
CHAPTER II. 
. Effect of hail on the leaves of the maize plant . 3 , . a. 134 
. Effect of hail on the stem and leaves of the maize plant. 35 
Grains which have been fertilized but yet sa filled with starch, pro- 
bably owing to drought : : - 38 
Grains cracked from exposure to unfavourate weather conditions 38 
. Grains cracked from exposure to unfavourable weather conditions . 39 
CHAPTER IV. 
. Teosinte, Euchlena mexicana L., a near relative of the maize plant, 
and the only species with which it is known to hybridize. = 106 
. Maize plants inthe Transvaal. : : , z 3 OF 


. Flowering plants of maize (Zea Mays ba, eee by Dr. W. 


Macdonald) . : 68 


. Plant cells, as seen under a * high- power microscope, showing strands 


of protoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, etc. (From Sir F. Darwin’s 


Elements of Botany)  . i : 3 - 69 
. Transverse section through a leaf (of hellebore), showing tissues and 
cells. (From Sir F. Darwin’s Elements of eo) F ‘ . 69 
. Embryo and endosperm of maize ; : - 70 
. Germinating maize grains . : : : : : . : s OE 
. Maize grains planted upside down : : F f ‘ : e 93 
. Maize seedlings at two stages of growth . : 3 : : - 74 
. Part of a transverse section of maize stem. eS Cavers’ Practical 
Botany) ‘ : : é » ¥6 
. Transverse section of vascular bundle of maize. (From do.) P - 76 
. Part of a radial longitudinal section of maize stem. (From do.) =) 7. 
. Part of a tangential longitudinal section of maize stem. en do.) . 77 
. Base of young maize plant . 5 > - 79 
. Bisexual tassels of sucker-shoots, bearing small round grains b . 80 
. Leaf sheath and base of blade. . : : . : : ey BOT 
. Leaf sheath : : : : -  . 82 
. Three stomata with surrounding epidermic cells. (From Sir F. Darwin’s 
Elements of Botany) . : ; : z ; , . . 83 
. Tassel of Odessa maize 5 ‘ * < " 3 : : . 84 


XX1X 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


. Young ear showing silks ready for pollination 

. Young ears showing silks at different stages of development 
. Young ear with fully developed silk : 
. Young ear with husks removed 

. Bisexual tassel of a sucker-shoot . 

. Bisexual tassel (bearing small ears) of a sucker- shoot . . 

. Bisexual tassel on main stem 

. Bisexual ear 

. Bisexual ear 

. Silks injured by larvae . 

. Blind ear, on which the silks have failed to “develop 

. Tassel of sugar maize . . 

. Spikelets of the maize plant. (After De Vries) 

. Pollen grains of maize : 

. Effect of complete or partial lack of pollination , 

. Effect of partial pollination . 4 

. Young ear showing homology of ‘husks : 

. Young ear showing ovaries and styles (‘‘silks”’) . 

. Two-lobed ear 3 

. Bifid ear 

. Branched ear of Hickory King 

. Branched ear of Ladysmith 

. Pod maize (Zea seas var. tunicata) 

. The style or silk . ‘ 
. Diagram showing course of pollen tube through style to ovule. (After 


drawing by C. S. Ridgway, in Duggar’s Southern Field Crops) 


. The embryo-sac in maize at time of fertilization. (After drawing by 


F. E. Lloyd in Duggar’s Southern Field Crops, by permission of 
The Macmillan Company) 


. Four secondary ears developed from the nodes on the shank of a single 


ear 


. Secondary ear developing from a node of the shank 

. Maize plants developing two ears : é : : 

. Left-hand twist of rows i é . : : : . 

. Right-hand twist of rows * 5 : . 
. Enlarged section pee hull of maize grain. ‘(From Passmore and 


Webber) 


. Variation in shape of maize ‘grains. (From U.S. Department of Agri- 


culture Year-book) 


CHAPTER V. 


. ‘Nubbins” of Hickory King ; one cause of poor yields 

. Desirable and undesirable types of Hickory King 

. Increasing yield by increasing depth of ous 

. A desirable type for selection . 

. Increasing yield by increasing number of rows at the butt . 

. Result of breeding for reduction of sulci 

. Variation in shape and size of grain in the same breed 

. Shortening the growing season 

. Result of weak stalks . 

. A heterozygous F, ear 

. Segregation of characters after crossing P, and F, ears 

. Segregation of characters in F, ears : 
. Segregation of characters in the F; (seed) generation : all-black ears . 
. Segregation of characters in the F, (seed) aa black-and-white 


ears 


. Segregation of characters in the F; (seed) generation : "all-white « ears . 
. Part starchy, part wrinkled grain. 
. Xenia in colour 


106. 
107. 


108. 
Tog. 
IIo. 
III. 
rig. 
113. 
IIq. 
II5. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
IIQ. 
120. 
rai. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


. Diagram to illustrate segregation of characters 

. Somatic variation in pericarp colour 2 

. Inheritance of size characters : t plant generation 

. Inheritance of size characters : F, plant generation 

. Inheritance of row numbers 3 

. Inheritance of row numbers 

. Fasciated and lobed ears 

. Laterally branched ear 

. A, Desirable shape of grain; B, Device for standardizing grains. 

‘ Selecting seed maize: the final selection , ; i 

. Selecting the best ears from the bulk plot a z 5 : 
. A new breed of maize in process of development. (Courtesy of the 


South African Railways Publicity Department) 


CHAPTER VI.' 


- Exhibit of the Division of Botany, Transvaal Department of Agri- 


culture, at the First South African Maize and Citrus Show, 
Johannesburg, 1910 


. Maize Exhibits at the First South African Maize and Citrus Show, 


Johannesburg, 1910 


. American students learning to judge m maize. 


CHAPTER VIL. 


AG Enea King, unusually a ear, but sulci too wide; B, Lady- 


smith 


. Hickory King ; A, defective tip; 'B, a ‘good average ear 
. Variation in ears of Hickory King 
. Ladysmith Hickory; a promising but unfixed cross-bred grown at 


Ladysmith, Natal . 


. 12-row Hickory or ‘* Hickory Horsetooth” 
. Salisbury White 

100. 
Io. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 


Noodsberg Horsetooth; a promising, unfixed cross-bred 

Mercer : é é F : : 

Virginia Horsetooth : ; ‘ é : : : . 5 

A, grains of Mercer; B, surplus crop after filling Mr. Mercer’s barn 

10-row Hickory or “ Louisiana” 

Two prize ears of 10-row Hickory, at ‘the First South African Maize 
Show. A, grown by Reynoids Bros.; B, grown oie Hutchinson 
and Shaw (Val Station, Transvaal) : : : : 

Iowa Silver-mine, a prize ear 

Two prize ears of Iowa Silver-mine, at the First South African Maize 
Show. A, grown by W. A. McLaren (Vereeniging) B, grown by 
M. Geerdts (Boksburg, See) A é é 

Boone County : 

Variation in types of Ladysmith 

Natal White Horsetooth ; short type . 

Natal White Horsetooth x Hickory King « 

A, Eureka; B, Chestey County . 

A, Golden Beauty ; B, Yellow Hogan 

Yellow Horsetooth or German Yellow 

Reid Yellow Dent 

Minnesota Early . 

Star Leaming : 

Golden Eagle, as grown in Rhodesia . 

Cango, North Dakota, and Wills Gehu . 

A, New England 8-row ; B, Improved Yellow Botman : é 

A, Gillespie yellow flint (Red: ek ewe Oe W. ee Zand- 
spruit, Transvaal . : 


XXXII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. 


122. 


123. 
124. 


125. 
126. 


127. 
128. 


129. 


130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 


I4I. 
142. 
143. 


144. 
145. 
146. 


147- 


148. 
149. 


150. 
I5I. 
152. 
153. 


154. 
155. 


156. 


157. 
158. 


PAGE 
Brazilian flour corn; grown by F. le Roux, Volksrust, Transvaal; 

prize ear at the First South African Maize Show, rg1o : + 321 
Arcadia Sugar-maise ; improvement by See . : . + 325 
Pop-corn, Zea Mays var. pre@cox : : 3 : : - 326 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Effect of basic slag on the maize crop 368 
Effect of growing maize without manure ‘(on plot adjacent to that 

shown in Fig. 127) : : : - 369 
Effect of superphosphate and nitrate of soda mixed. . : + 370 
Effect of manganese compounds on maize . : : : 3 + 371 
Effect of sulphate of potassium on maize . ¢ : : z - 372 

‘CHAPTER IX. 

Primitive method of preparing land for maize, in Zululand . ‘ 2 295 
Deep ploughing by steam; 12 furrows at a time by direct traction . 375 
The “ Fowler”’ direct traction engine (for oil or coal) . 3 : 3370 
Disk cultivating ; double-engine system. ‘ ‘ ‘ é 2 378 
Harrowing by steam; double-engine system : * - 378 
Zigzag harrow. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co., Ltd.) . - 379 
Riding cultivator. (Courtesy of do.) . : F : : 5 - 379 
Riding disk cultivator. (Courtesy of do.) . : ; : : - 380 
Spring-tooth harrows. (Courtesy of do.) . : ‘ : : . 350 
Harrowing the young maize plants, Vereeniging 381 
Part of the gang of fifty-two ‘‘Champion”’ planters at work on Messrs. 

John Fowler & Co.’s demonstration farms at Vereeniging . » 3382 
Fowler’s steam planter , & : , ‘ ‘ 3 : » 383 
Combined lister and planter : : : : : : . 356 
A, a home-made hand planter for maize. ae ee The Book of 

Corn) . : j = 387 
B, home-made marker for planting 1 maize ’ by hand. (After Myrick, 

The Book of Corn) x : : . ; ‘ ; « 3% 
Maize planter, ‘‘ Moline Champion ” : ‘ : ‘ ; A . 388 
Cultivating maize lands in Kaffraria . len 
Steam- cultivating maize plants 36 inches high, with spring- ‘tooth 

cultivators doing 6 rows at a time. (Courtesy of Messrs. John 

Fowler & Co., Ltd.) . i : ‘ ‘ 3 ‘ a . 398 
““New Western” cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co., 

Ltd.) . ‘ . . ‘ ‘ “ < ‘ : , - 399 
Anti-clog weeder . “ ¥ ¢ A . , - 400 
‘Captain Kidd”’ cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co., 

Ltd.) . 5 : 3 . 400 
“ Single Dutchman ” cultivator. "(Courtesy of do. >) : : : . 401 
Adjustable cultivator. (Courtesy of do.) . : : , . 401 
Adjustable weeders. (Courtesy of do.) ‘ 402 


Steam-ploughing and subsoil packing the land at Vereeniging ; 
double-engine system. (Courtesy of Messrs. John Fowler & Co., 
Ltd.) . : z 403 

“Lucky Jim” weeder. An implement for cleaning the growing crop 404 

“Red King” cultivator. Another implement for cleaning the grow- 


ing crop : ; : : ‘ : ‘ 3 . : - 404 
CHAPTER X. 

Brown rust of maize . 5 ; : z < : + 407 

Maize smut or brand on the. tassel : : : : : - 410 


Maize smut or brand on the ear . 


FIGe 


159. 


160. 
161. 


162. 
163. 


164. 
165. 


166. 
167. 


168. 


169. 
170. 
171. 


172. 
173. 


174. 
175. 
176. 
177. 


178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
185. 


186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 


Igo. 


IgI. 


192. 
193. 
194. 
195. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXXi11 


A and B, dry-rot of maize, Diplodia Zea— 

A. ear showing white hyphze , 

B, grains showing small black fruiting bodies of the fungus i 
Rooibloem, Striga lutea Lour. 
Rooibloem, Striga lutea Lour. (Drawn from ‘plate by Mr. Claude 

Fuller, in first report of Government Entomologist of Natal) 
Chacma baboon, Charopithecus porcarius. ee Transvaal Agricul- 

tural Fournal) ; ? : . 
Jumping hare or spring- -haas, Pedetes caffer. (Photograph from 

specimen in Cambridge University Museum of Zoology) 

Maize ear damaged by small birds : : 5 : : : 
Maize stalk-borer, Sesamia fusca Hampson. (From coloured plate by 

McManus, illustrating article by C. W. sila in ac a Mala 

tural Fournal) 

Striped beard-grub pupa in sheath at base of ear. . . 
Locusts. (Photograph by Exton, Pietersburg, Transvaal) . 


CHAPTER XI. 


Maize crop ready for harvest. (Courtesy of Publicity Department, 
S. African Railways) 

Harvested ears of maize carried to the headland ready for shelling 

Cane knife used for cutting maize , 

A device for cutting maize in the field. (After “Myrick, The Book of 
Corn) . 3 ; a F 

Another Mctaeeh for cutting maize in the field. (From Transvaal 
Agricultural Fournal) . : ‘ F 

McCormick maize binder. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & 
Co., Ltd.) : ‘ 

Maize binder at work in America 

Shocking maize in America 

Maize picker at work in America A : : . : ; : 

Deering combined husker and shredder. (Courtesy of Messrs. 
Malcomess & Co., Ltd.) 

Marshall & Son’s, sheller. (Courtesy of Messrs. D. E. Hochly & & Co, 

Steam traction sheller . 

Convertible hand or power sheller, suitable for small crops 

Native method of storing maize in trees, Swaziland ‘ 

Native method of storing maize in trees, Swellendam District 

Maize hock, Waterberg District . : 

Maize hock, Bechuanaland . ; 

Method of storing maize, Government Experiment ‘Farm, Potchef- 
stroom . 

Re-weighing and shipping stored maize, Vereeniging, Messrs. “John 
Fowler & Co.'s store 

Stacks of shelled maize at Vereeniging ready for market. * (Courtesy 
of Messrs. John Fowler & Co., Leeds, Ltd. ys . 

Drying maize, Marico District, 1904 

Native method of storing maize, Zoutpansberg . 3 3 : 

Basuto ‘“ sesco” of woven grass, for storing grain. (Courtesy of the 
Director, MacGregor Memorial Museum, Kimberley) 3 

Effect of angoumois grain-moth on maize ears 


CHAPTER XII. 


Grading maize for shipment, Durban . 
Re-bagging maize from small dealers, Vereeniging 
Granary and elevator . ‘ 3 F 
Spencer’s improved system of granary floor spouts. (Courtesy of 
Messrs, Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham) A : . 
c 


PAGE 


413 
413 
423 


425 
428 


432 
434 


439 
445 
447 


454 
462 


463 
465 
465 


467 
468 
470 
474 


477 
478 
479 
480 
483 
484 
485 
485 


486 
487 
487 
489 
490 


491 
495 


569 
578 
579 


580 


XXXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG, 


196. 


197. 
198. 


199. 


200. 
201. 


202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210, 


2ii. 


212. 


229. 
230. 
231% 
232. 
233. 


Automatic weighing and bagging off, from warehouse. (Courtesy of 
Messrs. W. & T. Avery, Ltd., Birmingham) . : : 

Loading trucks, Vereeniging ‘ : : : : . 

Grain silos at Puerto Galvan, Argentina ney of Messrs. Henry 
Simon, Ltd.) . ; ‘ . . 

Loading s.s. Dunluce Castle with maize, by cranes, at Durban. 
(Courtesy of Union-Castle S.S. Co.) : 

Grain conveyor-belts : 2 : f . 

Central granary, Milwall Docks, London. (Courtesy of Messrs. 
Goldstiick, Hainzé & Co.) . 

Steamer being discharged by travelling elevator, Victoria Docks, 
London. (Courtesy of Messrs. Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham) . 

Steamer being discharged by floating elevator, Surrey Commercial 
Dock, London. (Courtesy of Messrs. Goldstiick, Hainzé & Bey : 

A, drying wet maize, Durban wharves, 1909 : . 

B. maize dried and re-graded, ready for shipment 

The Hess grain-drier for conditioning grain 

Vertical section through Hess grain-drier : : . 5 i 

Granary and barge elevator on the Thames. (Courtesy of Messrs. 
Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham) . i ‘ . ‘ , 

Diagram of floating pneumatic elevator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Henry 
Simon, Ltd., Manchester) 

Diagram showing general arrangement of barge elevator and ‘quto- 
matic weigher. (Courtesy of do. ) 

Grain warehouses, London, fitted with Avery scales. (Courtesy of 
Messrs. W. & T. Avery, Ltd., Birmingham) 

Travelling ship elevator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Henry Simon, “Ltd., 
Manchester) ; 

Terminal grain silos, Bahia Blanca, Argentina. ‘(Courtesy ‘ot Messrs. 
Spencer & Co., Ltd. , Melksham) . 


. Interior of the Baltic Exchange, London. (Courtesy of the Secretary) 


CHAPTER XIII. 


. Zigzag separator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson, Banbury) . 
. Diagram of maize meal plant. (Courtesy of do.) 
. Dreadnought” grinder. (Courtesy of Messrs. W. S. Barron & Son, 


Gloucester) 


. Diagram of ‘“ Dreadnought ” grinder. (Courtesy of do.) ‘ : ‘ 
. Centrifugal dressing machine. (Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson, 


Banbury) 


. Posser. (Courtesy of do.) - , : . . 

. Three-pair high roller mill for grinding maize. (Courtesy of do.) 

. Improved degerminator. (Courtesy of do.) : : 5 ‘ 

. Hominy separator. (Courtesy of do.) 

. Diagram of samp plant. (Courtesy of do.) 

. Diagram of flaked-maize plant. (Courtesy of do. ys 

. Physical composition of low-protein maize grain. (After Hopkins ; 


from Bulletin of Illinois State Agricultural Experiment Station) . 


. Physical composition of high-protein maize grain. (After do.) 
. Enlarged longitudinal section of maize grain. (From Hunt, The 


Cereals in America, Orange Judd Co.) 


. Hull, endosperm, and embryo. aca Myrick, The Book ied Corn, 


Orange Judd Co.) . 
CHAPTER XIV. 


Shangaan kraal, Zoutpansberg 

Zulus eating maize-meal pap 

Native women grinding maize 

Modjajie women stamping mielies 3 

Zulu women carrying kaffir beer for a “ Beet. drink 3 


PAGE 


581 
582 


583 


585 
586 


588 
590 


592 
596 
596 
597 
598 


600 
603 
605 
607 
608 


612 
616 


636 
637 


638 
639 


639 
640 
641 
642 
643 
644 
644 


649 
653 


655 


659 


675 
676 
687 
689 


699 


FIG. 


234. 
235- 
236. 
237. 


238. 
239. 
240. 


241. 
242. 
243. 
244. 


245. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXXV 


CHAPTER XV. 
PAGE 


Cattle feeding on standing maize stover, Transvaal . 5 5 + 740 
Shredding stover in the United States 


742 
Shredded stover on an American farm 743 
Filling silage-pit, Vereeniging. (Courtesy of Messrs. "John Fowler & 

Co., Leeds, Ltd.) . : A z 2 YGE 
Making stack- silage, Standerton District, Transvaal . 2 : - 764 
Stack-silo, Springbok Flats, Transvaal : 2 - . 765 
Cutting silage and filling pit, Burttholm, Vereeniging . ; - 766 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Filling round silo in the United States r - fe ; F = (992 
Filling twin tub-silos, Australia . , ‘ ‘ e af - 773 
Filling square stone silo, Irene, ‘Transvaal ‘ s " 978 
Plan of silo. (Courtesy of Mr. A. Morrison Hay) : 3 : - 779 


CHAPTER XVII. 


Mats, etc., made of maize husks. (Courtesy of Ladies’ Home 
Fournal) : é . : e : 4 Z . : . 800 


LIS] “OF “CABLES 
BY CHAPTERS. 


CHAPTER IL. 


I. Comparative table of mean monthly temperatures 


XVI. 
XVII. 


XVIII. 
XIX, 
XX, 
XXI. 
XXII. 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 
 XXV. 
XXVI. 
XXVII. 
XXVIII. 


. Mean temperatures of the cereal belt of Argentina: November, 


December, January, and February 


. Mean monthly temperatures, Transvaal 
. Mean minimum temperatures at Government Observatory, 


Johannesburg 


. Mean minimum temperatures at Vereeniging 
. Mean minimum temperatures at Bethal 
. Rainfall of South Africa 


CHAPTER III. 


. The world’s maize crop of 1906 

. Statistics of the maize-surplus States 

. Acreage under maize in India for ten years (1897- 1907) 
. Acreage and yields of maize in the Indian Provinces 

. Areas and yields of Transvaal Districts 

. Maize production of Natal, 1906-7 

. Area and yield of Natal Districts 

. Maize production of Cape Colony, 1906- 7. 


CHAPTER IV. 


Variation in time of flowering 
Correlation of flowering and ripening period 


CHAPTER V. 


Summary of percentage stands of maize 
Analysis of yields of 134 ears of Hickory King 


Analysis of yields of 100 ears of Natal White Horsetooth 


Analysis of yields of 123 ears of Ladysmith 


Analysis of yields of 150 ears of Iowa Silver-mine and 10 ears 


of Chester County 


Analysis of yields of r10 ears of Champion White Pearl (a 


breed closely allied to Iowa Silver-mine) 
Analysis of yields of 170 ears of Yellow Horsetooth . é 
Analysis of yields of 352 ears of Yellow Hogan 
Analysis of yields of 200 ears of Golden King 
Analysis of yields of 370 ears of Wisconsin , 
Analysis of yields of 100 ears of Skinners Court 10 . 


XXXVii 


93 
94 


134 
138 
139 
139 


140 


I4I 
I4I 
142 
143 
144 
145 


XXXVIiI 


TABLE 


XXIX. 
XXX. 


XXXI. 
XXXII. 


XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 


XXXV. 
XXXVI. 
XXXVIT. 
XXXVIII. 


XXXIX. 


XL. 
XLI. 
XLII. 
XLIII. 


XLIV. 


XLV. 
XLVI. 


XLVII. 
XLVIII. 


XLIX. 
L. 


LI. 
LII. 
LIII. 
LIV. 
LV. 
LVI. 


LVII. 


LVIII. 
LIX. 
LX. 
LXI. 
LXII. 


LIST OF TABLES 


Comparative weights and yields of grain of 1,684 ears of 
Transvaal-grown maize. 

Yield per acre from a 75 Hee cent stand, at various average 
weights per ear . A ‘ 2 ‘ é 

Percentage of grain to ear 

Variation in composition and yield of different ears selected for 
breeding : 

Distribution of gametes ina ‘a dihybrid ; 

Analysis of a dihybrid cross between white wrinkled and red 
starchy maize x . “ 

The distribution of gametes ina ‘trihybrid . 

Classified summary of Table XXXV . 

Summary of Table XXXVI 

Frequency distribution of heights of maize plants in a "cross 
(after East and Hayes) 

Frequency distribution of lengths of ears in corn (after East 
and Hayes) 

Row numbers in a family of Arcadia “Sugay-maize 

Inheritance of row numbers in cross-bred maize 

Inheritance of rows in a maize cross 

Performance-record of a breeding plot 


CHAPTER VI. 


For conversion of centimetres to inches, in measuring circum- 
ference of ears 5 


CHAPTER VII. 


Summary of Potchefstroom breed tests 

Relative yields of maize breeds, Government Experiment Farm, 
Potchefstroom, from 1904-11 : 

Rainfall at Government ees Farm, Potchefstroom, 
1906-7 to Ig0g-10 

Relative yields of maize ‘breeds at Government Experiment 
Farm, Cedara, Natal, 1904-5. : 

Results of maize breed tests, Cedara, Natal, 1905- “6. 

Weights per bushel of South African shelled maize 


CHAPTER IX. 


Effect of treatment of soil on yield 

Effect of time of planting on yield 

Results of distance tests on yield of Hickory King 

Results of distance tests on yield of Iowa Silver-mine 

Results of distance tests in Natal * 

Number of plants per acre when sown ‘at certain distances, 
allowing one plant per “hill” . 

Effect of depth of planting on germination 


CHAPTER XI. 


Influence of maturity on yield 

Influence of maturity on composition . 

Influence of maturity on composition of fodder . 
Shrinkage in weight of maize stored on the cob 
Relative weight of sound and country damaged maize 


PAGE 
146 


147 
148 


159 
183 


184 
185 


186 
186 


194 
198 


201-2 


204 
205 
226 


262 


334 
335 
338 


340 
342 
345 


377 
384 
390 
390 
392 


394 
395 


457 
458 
459 
482 


493 


LIST OF TABLES XXXIX 


CHAPTER XII. 
TABLE 


LXIII. Maize consumed by the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., 
during the twelve months ending 31 Dec., rgr2. 
LXIV. Mielie meal consumed in the compounds of the De Beers Con- 
solidated Mines, Ltd., Igi2 
LXV. Variation in maize prices in South African markets - 
LXVI. Comparative local prices for different classes of maize 
LXVII. Natal production, import and re-export of maize and maize pro- 
ducts, 1904-6. : : 
LXVIII. Transvaal maize imports, 1907- 8. 
LXIX. Average yearly prices of American and La ‘Plata maize in 
London : 
LXX. Prices of South African maize in Europe 
LXXI. Comparative prices of South African maize in Europe 
LXXII. To change prices per quarter to prices per muid 
LXXIII. To change prices per 1,000 kilogrammes to prices per muid 
LXXIV. Amounts and sources of supply of South African maize, 1906-12 
LXXV. Export of maize and maize meal, 1g11-12 : ‘ ; 
LXXVI. Graded maize exported ex each port, rg11 
LXXVII. Monthly maize exports from Durban, 1907-8 
LXXVIII. Destination of maize exported, 1908 
LXXIX. Destination of maize exported, 1911 
LXXX. Amounts of maize exported through the several ports in 1912 , 
LXXXI. Varieties and classes of maize exported from South Africa, rg11 
LXXXII. Maize rejected by graders, 1g11r : 
LXXXIII. Number and capacity of United States terminal elevators 
LXXXIV. Table for reduction of bushels to muids . : : 
LXXXV. World's exports of maize in bushels 
LXXXVI. World’s imports of maize in bushels 
LXXXVII. Moisture-content of American grades 


CHAPTER XIII. 


LXXXVIII. Composition of parts of the grea as oe ed a the mill and 
by hand 
LXXXIX. Average composition of 1 maize ‘grain . 
XC. Distribution of protein in parts of the maize grain : 
XCI. Protein in roo lbs. of maize : 
XCII. Distribution of protein in roo Ibs. of maize 
XCIII. Distribution of fat in maize : 
XCIV. Distribution of carbohydrates in maize 
XCV. Distribution of ash in maize 
XCVI. Relative proportions of the parts of the maize ‘grain 
XCVII. Chemical composition of hull, embryo and endosperm 
XCVIII. Chemical composition of the physical parts of the grain. ‘ 
XCIX. Percentage distribution of the chemical components of the 
grain x : : * ‘ 
C. Percentage composition of the tip cap 
CI.- Percentage composition of the hull. 
CII. Percentage composition of the embryo 
CIII. Percentage composition of horny gluten 
CIV. Percentage composition of horny starch , 
CV. Percentage composition of white starch . 
CVI. Chemical composition of different varieties and breeds 
CVII. Protein-content of eighteen samples of Transvaal maize 
CVIII. Chemical a ea of different varieties of North American 
maize 4 : ‘ 
CIX. Composition of grain grown in different localities . 
CX. Chemical composition of the different cereals of the world 


PAGE 
500 


500 
502 
5093 


504 
505 


512 
514 
515 
516 
517 
558 
560 
562 
563 
564 
565 
566 
567 
579 
611 
62t 
623 
624 
627 


632 


xl 


TABLE 


CXI. 
CXII. 
CXIII. 
CXIV. 
CXV. 


CXVI. 
CXVII. 
CXVIII. 
CXIX, 
CXX. 
CXXI. 


CXXII. 
CXXII1. 
CXXIV. 
CXXV. 
CXXVI. 
CXXVII. 
CXXVIII. 
CXXIX. 
CXXX. 
CXXXI. 


CXXXII. 


LIST OF TABLES 


Composition of some maize by-products . 

Comparison of maize and wheat products 

Composition of maize bran and wheat bran 

Digestible nutrients in maize products . 

Actual weight of protein, carbohydrates, fats and ash in x00 
Ibs. of grain, and its distribution in each of the several 
parts of the grain ; 


CHAPTER XIV. 


Total digestible nutrients in 100 Ibs. of several cereals 
Comparison of the food-value of wheat bread and maize bread 
Sugar in maize juice at different stages of plant growth . 
Relative feeding-value of gluten meal and cotton-seed meal 
Theoretical rations for steers of 1,000 lbs. ; 
Fertilizing constituents of 1,000 Ibs. of certain maize products 


CHAPTER XV. 


Yield per acre of dry maize fodder . 

Yield per acre of green maize forage 

Relative composition of maize silage, fodder, stover, and grain 

Relative digestibility of maize fodder, stover, and silage 

Composition of the different parts of the dry maize fodder 

Relative value of fodder from different varieties 

Silage feeding table : . 

Nutritive ratios for different animals 

Nutritive ratios of different foodstuffs 

Composition of maize silage compared with that of green 
maize forage . . . i P 


CHAPTER XVI. 


Capacity of silos 


PAGE 
668 
669 
669 
670 


672 


678 
679 
693 
713 
720 
731 


736 
736 
738 
738 
745 
745 
754 
75 
755 


760 


774 


CHAPTER I. 
IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY. 


Heer, of one grain of maiz, a reed doth spring 
That thrice a year five hundred grains doth bring. 
—SYLVESTER, translation of Du Bartas' Divine 
Weekes and Workes, i. 3. 


All around the happy village stood the maize-fields. 
—Hiawatha. 


Importance. 


1. Importance of the Maize Crop.—Maize is one of the staple Cra 
food crops of the world ; the quantity produced is greater than 
that of any other sata and climatic conditions alone limit 
its more widespread cultivation. In those countries adapted 
to its production it is more extensively grown than any other 
grain. The total world’s crop reaches the extraordinary 
figure of 1,085,700,000 muids (3,875,927,000 bushels, or 1084 
million Colonial tons). Of this more than 75 per cent is pro- 
duced in the United States, where the acreage is about double, 
and the total production about four times that of wheat. The 
whole of civilized Africa produces, at present, only about one 
per cent of the world’s supply. The following figures show 
the comparative world’s crop of the leading cereals for a single 
year :— 


Maize : : : ; 3,875.927,000 bushels. 
Oats . é ‘ : ‘ 3,532,470,000 i 
Wheat : : : : 3,428,998,000 * 
Rice . , 7 ‘ ‘ 3,203,782,000 ne 
Rye.  .  - ss T44325395,000 
Barley ‘ x ; F 1,293,916,000 ee 


16,767,488,000 + 


The domestic consumption of maize in the United States 


is at the rate of 7°14 muids (25°5 bushels) per capita of popu- 
I 


2 MAIZE 


CHAP. lation, which is said (/7uzz, 1) to be the heaviest rate of 


I. 


consumption of any cereal by any people in the world ; it is 
nearly twice as much, according to population, as the con- 
sumption in Europe of all the other cereals. 

Maize is one of the easiest crops to grow, standing more 
rough usage than perhaps any other ; a favourite Kaffir method 
of planting is to scatter the seed broadcast over the unbroken 
veld and then plough the ground ; even with this crude treat- 
ment crops of 1} to 2 muids! of grain per acre are obtained. 


Fic. 1.—A field of maize on the Demonstration Farms of Messrs. John 
Fowler & Co. (Leeds), Ltd., at Vereeniging, Traansvaal. 


Davis (2), writing of maize and wheat in Argentina, points out 
that not only are they the two cereals requiring the least amount 
of capital, expense, and labour for their production, but that 
there is always an assured and immediate demand for them in 
the market. 

The farm value of maize must not be calculated solely on 
the yield of grain, important as that is, for its total yield per acre 
of vegetable matter is larger than that of almost any other 


'r muid = 200 Ibs. avoirdupois. 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 3 


farm crop. Maize produces a large quantity of ‘“stover” (the CHAP. 
stalk and leaves after the ears have been removed), which is of | * 
considerable use for winter-feeding stock if properly harvested ; 

this should be taken into account in estimating the relative 

value of the crop. The husks, stalks, and cobs are also used 

for a number of manufacturing purposes, which are mentioned 


Fic. 2.—In a maize field in the Transvaal Bush-veld (Tzaneen, Zoutpans- 
berg District). 


in detail in a later chapter. As silage material, maize is one 
of the very best crops that can be grown, both on account of 
its heavier yield per acre and also because of the succulence 
and physical character of the plant, which render it peculiarly 
suitable to the process of ensiling. 


We still hear South African farmers say that maize is a 
I * 


4 MAIZE 


CHAP. Kaffir crop, and that maize-growing does not pay the more 


I. 


ambitious white farmer. We hope to show in the following 
pages that, except where abnormal economic or unfavourable 
climatic conditions prevail, this is not the case when the crop 
is grown properly. 

2. What the American Farmer Thinks of [t.—In view of 
the fact that the United States produces 820,000,000 muids of 
maize per annum—three-quarters of the world’s crop—and that 
this is not grown with cheap “native” labour, it may be well 
to look for a moment at the attitude of the American farmer 
towards the maize crop. In the United States it is a common 
saying that “Corn is King”. “Corn” in America is maize. 

The American farmer has earned the reputation of being a 
shrewd business man who does not conservatively stick to a 
crop whether it continues to pay or not, because his fore- 
fathers grew it; if anything, he is inclined to change too 
rapidly, and to “scrap” anything which he considers unprofit- 
able. If maize did not pay he would soon drop it; but we 
find on the contrary that he has 108,750,000 acres under 
maize although, in 1906, his maize crop paid him only 5s. 11d. 
per muid, and in 1896 the farm price was only 3s. 13d. per muid. 

3. Marze is the Leading Product of America—Mr. T. N. 
Carver (1), Professor of Economics in Harvard University, 
boldly states, and then proceeds to demonstrate, that maize 
is the leading product of the United States of America 
and maize-growing its leading industry. Not only is it 
grown more extensively than any other cereal, but the maize 
crop of the United States considerably exceeds in value that 
of wheat and cotton combined. No other American product 
or group of products equals it in value. In 1899 the value 
was greater by about £5,000,000 (five million pounds sterling) 
than that of all the products of the great iron and steel 
industry. It is the staple grain crop in most of the States of 
the Union, and its culture maintains a larger number of 
American people than any other industry. We hear much 
about the American wheat crop, but comparison of American 
crops of wheat and maize shows that where the total value to 
the farmer of a crop of wheat is $9:07 (£1 17s. 10d.) per acre, 
the maize crop is worth $14°56 (£3 os. 8d.); or, if we add 
the value of the straw, stover, or fodder, the relative values are : 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 5 


wheat, $16°26 (43 7s. 9d.) and maize, g50°72 (45 IIs. 4d.)/ 
per acre. / 

4. Amount and Value of the United States Crop.—Tl hie 

total production for all the North American States (not i:n- 
cluding Canada and Mexico) amounts to 2,927,416,000 (two 
billion, nine hundred and twenty-seven million) bushels, eind 
the farm value, at a shade above 6s. 6d. per muid, is cover 
£267,000,000. About 984 per cent of this immense crojp is 
wanted for domestic consumption and only the surplus 14; per 
cent is exported ; 14 per cent of such a crop is no small lace 
however, for it amounts to over 12,000,000 (twelve mil lion) 
muids. ) 
The acre value of the maize crop in the United /States 
varied in one year from 18s. 8d. on the poorer soils of / South 
Carolina, to 44 9s. 4d. in Rhode Island, where more irftensive 
agriculture is practised, and from £1 13s. 4d. to £2/ Los. in 
the Corn-belt, and that was a year when the farm /price of 
maize was only 35-7 cents per bushel (5s. 3d. per muifd). 

5. American Matse ts not Grown for Export——Bly far the 
largest part of the maize corn produced in the /Corn-belt 
never leaves the farm on which it is grown, except ifa the form 
of a second product. Nearly every maize-growjer finds it 
more profitable to turn the major part of his crofp into beef 
or pork before it is sold. It is customary to bu/y up three- 
year-old steers, or flocks of sheep, raised on {che Western 
stock ranges, to fatten on maize corn and stover, through the 
winter; in the spring they are “finished off” ohn maize corn 
and green pasturage, and are ready for sale jon the stock 
markets of Chicago and other Western cities) in June and 
July. Hogs are raised on the spare milk of the farm, and when 
older are allowed to follow the steers and pick out the un- 
digested grain front the droppings, and are /finally fattened 
off on maize and sent to market. A certain anpount of the corn 
is eaten green as a boiled vegetable; som¢ is ground into 
“corn-meal” for domestic use; only a small a/mount of grain is 
left to sell for manufacture or export. It h/as been well said 
that maize is and always will be the King /of Crops, and the 
greatest of all cattle feeds. 

6. Maize is a White Man's Crop.—Mlaize is essentially 
a white man’s crop, and Prof. Carver (1 doubts whether it 


CHAP. 
I. 


CHAP. 


6 MAIZ 


“could be grown at all, as it is grown in the Corn-belt, if 
dependence had to be placed upon negro labour”, The 
labour employed in that part of the country is entirely white, 
earning about £5 per month and board the year round, Yet 
tliat maize pays under these conditions is evident on all sides ; 
it pays because it is a crop which can be handled almost en- 
tirely by machinery ; because the soil is in good tilth ; because 
the’ crop is kept clean; and, last but not least, because the 
farmier uses well-bred seed. 

It is an instructive fact that in the American Maize-belt 
the enormous aggregate of the crop is made up of the pro- 
ducts, of a large number of small or moderate-sized farms, 
running from 80 to 300 acres in size, and worked mainly 
by the owners themselves or by tenants who pay cash rent. 
The reason for this, Prof. Carver (1) concludes, is that maize- 
growing requires a higher class of farming than any of the 
other staple crops, and cannot be so successfully carried on with 
hired labour alone. It requires such close and conscientious 
attention that it is doubtful if large farms, where the work 
is done by hired labour, can ever compete successfully with 
the smaller farms where the owner or renter does the work 
himself, or at least has it done under his immediate care and 
attention. | With increased size of farm (as in the Western 
States), there is noticeable a general decline in the intensity 
of cultivati¢n and consequent yield per acre, for good culti- 
vation is essential to a good maize crop. 

7. Maize ts the Staple Crop of South Africa,—Maize is not 
only the staple food crop of the South African Kaffir, it has 
become an important item in the diet of the white people; 
but more than this, it has also become the staple cash crop of 
the South African farmer. In one of the writer's first Reports 
to the Director of the Transvaal Department of Agriculture, 
he stated that “Maize is a crop eminently suited to the Trans- 
vaal; every farmer grows it to a limited extent, and a vast 
quantity could be produced if he knew how to dispose of it. 
By the application of capital and the use of proper machinery, 
the maize crop can be made extremely profitable.” Further 
observation and study not only confirm this view, but show 
that perhaps no \country in the world is better suited to 
maize-growing on ‘a large scale than South Africa; it has an 


IMPORTANCE AND SIIISTORY 7 
ample average rainfall, at the right season of the year, and CHAP. 
phenomenally favourable winter weather for the natural pro- 
duction of the quality of grain most suitable for shipment, 
In fact the climatic conditions of a large part of the Orange 
Free State, Transvaal, Natal, Rhodesia, Basutoland, Swaziland, 
and the Transkei are all that could be desired for maize- 
growing. 

8. future Possibilities of Development in South Africa.— 
European corn brokers have recently referred to South Africa 
as the future maize granary of Europe. Maize will always be 


Fic. 3.—Fields of maize, Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, 
Transvaal. (Photograph by Fred Coop of Pretoria.) 


the staple cash crop of South Africa. As its value for stock 
food becomes better appreciated, the local demand will increase, 
and in this connection Earl Grey’s recent prophecy! of a 
coming shortage in the world’s beef supply is suggestive. At 
the present time the country has only begun to show that it 
is possible to produce good maize. The traveller is impressed 
with the enormous areas of fertile land, suitable for growing 
maize, which are at present untouched by the plough, virgin 
sod like the American prairies. So far the average yield has 
been low; but it has been clearly demonstrated that, by means 


, 


1 At the “South African Dinner,” 1913. 


8 MAIZE 


cuaP. of good farming and good management, it can be trebled and 


I. 


even quadrupled. The present low yields are considered to just 
about cover expenses of production; if the yield were more 
than doubled, therefore, maize-growing should pay, provided 
prices hold good and cost of export remains low. 

The exact acreage under maize in South Africa is not 
known, but it is grown on practically every occupied farm in 
the Transvaal Province. Many farmers are growing 200 to 
1,000 acres each, and at least three have 6,000 acres under 
crop to maize, A good deal is also grown by Kaffirs, for their 
own use, both on native locations and on rented farms. The 
farms average about 5,000 acres each, but the area planted to 


Fic. 4.—Five miles of maize fields at Vereeniging, on the High-veld of the 
Transvaal. 


maize is often not more than 5 to IO acres per tarm, and 
sometimes less, There are 11,679 registered farms in the 
Transvaal, of which about one-half are occupied; allowing an 
average of 10 acres per farm, the total area in maize (outside 
of Native Locations) would be only 60,000 acres, and an 
average yield of four muids per acre gives, roughly, but 
240,000 muids. 

Only a very limited area of the Transvaal seems unsuited 
to the production of maize, but if we take into consideration 
only the farms at present occupied, andallow 250 acres of 
maize to every 1,000 acres of land, by raising the average 
production to merely 5 muids (172 bushels) per acre, the 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 9 


Transvaal alone ought to produce without difficulty 35,000,000 


muids, 

Owing to the dryness of the winter over the greater part 
of South Africa, the farmer is able to continue harvesting and 
shelling in the field up to the very day when he starts 
planting the new crop; in this respect he has an enormous 
advantage over the American farmer. The percentage of 
grain which is damaged by the weather is exceedingly small. 
The moisture content of the grain exported is some 5 per cent 
lower than that of the American-grown article. South Africa 
has, and is likely to have for many years, an excellent local 
market for a large part of her crop. Because she owns her 
own railroads she can carry her surplus to the coast at cost. 
With these great advantages in her favour, South Africa has 
good reason for optimism as to the future of her maize industry. 
There is good ground for the prophecy that South Africa is 
to become the maize granary of Europe. 

9. Relative Importance of the World's Matse and \Vheat 
Crops.—There is a popular idea that wheat is a more profit- 
able crop than maize. This is due to the fact that in the 
inland provinces of South Africa the price of wheat is more 
than double that of maize, and the former yields a heavier crop 
than the latter. But if the wheat acreage were much increased 
the price would fall; present prices are quite abnormal, the 
average farm price in the United States during the last ten years 
was only 77 cents per bushel or ros. 8d. per muid ; when South 
Africa produces enough for local needs her wheat prices will 
probably fall to those prevailing in the States. The difference 
in average yield is due partly to the fact that wheat is at 
present grown on the best alluvial lands, and, in the Transvaal 
at least, practically all of it under irrigation, while much of the 
maize crop is produced on newly broken veld, and all of it as 
a dry-land crop. When the maize lands are in better “ heart,” 
the average yield will probably be doubled, and even now the 
best maize crops are nearly double those of wheat. 


History. 


10. Origin of Maise.—Researches into the history and 
geographical distribution of the maize plant show clearly that 
it originated in America. 


CHAP. 
1. 


CHAP. 


10 MAIZE 


Darwin (2) considered that maize “is undoubtedly of 
American origin”. 

Humboldt (1) observes that maize was found by the Euro- 
pean discoverers of the New World from the south of Chile 
north to Pennsylvania. Prescott (1) adds that he might have 
given its known range as to the St. Lawrence as “our Puritan 
fathers found it in abundance on the New England coast 
wherever they landed”; he cites as his authorities Morton, 
New England's Memorial, page 68 (Boston, 1826), and Gookin, 
Massachusetts Historical Collections, chapter Ul. 

Prescott (2) states that maize was “the great agricultural 
staple of both the northern and southern divisions of the 
American Continent ; and which, after its exportation to the 
Old World, spread so rapidly there, as to suggest the idea of 
its being indigenous to it”. . . . “The misnomer of d/¢ de Tur- 
gute shows the popular error. Yet the rapidity of its diffusion 
through Europe and Asia, after the discovery of America, is 
of itself sufficient to show that it could not have been indi- 
genous to the Old World, and have so long remained gener- 
ally unknown there.” 

Alphonse de Candolle, the famous Swiss botanist and 
historian, who made a special study of the origin and history 
of cultivated plants, came to the conclusion, as long ago as 
1855, that “ maize is of American origin, and has only been 
introduced into the Old World since the discovery of the New. 
I consider these two assertions as positive.” Twenty-seven 
years later he reiterated this view, and added: “The proofs of 
American origin have since been reinforced. Yet attempts 
have been made to prove the contrary, and as the French 
name, d/¢ de Turgure, gives currency to an error, it is as well 
to resume the discussion with new data. . . . From all these 
facts we conclude that maize is not a native of the Old World. 
It became rapidly diffused in it after the discovery of America, 
and this very rapidity completes the proof that, had it existed 
anywhere in Asia or Africa, it would have played an important 
part in agriculture for thousands of years” (De Candolle, 1). 
He concludes that circumstantial evidence points to New 
Granada as the original home of the plant, and suggests that 
the Chibchas, who occupied the table-land of Bogota at the 


1 Cf. Prescott (2) as quoted above. 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTOR V 11 


time of the Spanish conquest, and considered themselves 
aboriginal, may have been the first to possess and cultivate 
maize. Some later botanists are inclined to consider, how- 
ever, that it is of Mexican origin. 

The maize plant is not known to exist in a truly wild 
state, i.e. reproducing itself spontaneously from self-sown seed ; 
no plant has been found which can be looked upon as the true 
parent form, unchanged by cultivation. Some botanists are 
inclined to think that maize is a descendant of the Teosinte 
plant of Mexico, Euchlena mexicana, with which it can be 
hybridized ; or that the two had a common prototype (Easy, 5). 

11. Azstory—Maize has been cultivated by the inhabi- 
tants of North, Central, and South America since prehistoric 
times. The early American explorers found the Indians 
cultivating it; Columbus, writing to Ferdinand and Isabella 
of Spain, mentions maize fields eighteen miles in length. 
Hochelaga, which later became the city of Montreal, was 
situate in the midst of large maize fields when Cartier visited 
it in 1535 (De Candolle, 1). Hakluyt (1) quaintly and 
eraphically describes the new cereal as ‘a corne called maiz, 
in bignesse of a pease, the eare whereof is much like a teasell” 
Maize-grain has been found in the Inca cemetery at Angon, 
Peru, which is nearly contemporary with the discovery of 
America (De Candolle, 1). It was, even in those days, a staple 
crop from the valley of the La Plata to that of the Mississippi. 
Investigations show that it was grown by the Chibchas of 
New Granada, the Mayas of Central America, the Nahuas, and 
their successors the Toltecs and Aztecs of Mexico, and by the 
Incas in Peru. 

De Candolle concludes that though these civilizations 
date at earliest from the beginning of the Christian Era, the 
cultivation of maize was doubtless still earlier. 

After an exhaustive survey of the philological proofs of its 
origin, Harshberger (1) concludes: (1) that maize was intro- 
duced into the region now comprised in the United States, 
from two sources—from the tribes of Northern Mexico and the 
Caribs in the West India Islands; (2) that the Pueblos and 
Northern Mexican tribes derived maize from Central Mexico ; 
(3) that tribal connections existed between the North and South 
American continents, and that an interchange of products was 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
I, 


12 MAIZE 


carried on by way of the Isthmus of Panama; (4) that the wild 
tribes living along the Andean system and in the El-Gran- 
Chaco and elsewhere used Peruvian loan-words for maize ; (5) 
that South American words for maize extended throughout the 
Greater and Lesser Antilles and Florida, and that the Arawak 
word for Indian corn, adopted by Christopher Columbus, was 
used by tribes of that stock in the impenetrable and luxuriant 
Brazilian forests. 

On the shores of the island of San Lorenzo, Peru, Darwin 
(1) found “the head of a stalk of Indian corn,” embedded 
among shells and sea-drifted rubbish with some bits of cotton 
thread and plaited rush similar to those obtained in ancient 
Peruvian huacas or burial mounds. The stratum in which 
this was found had been elevated to a height of 85 feet above 
sea-level, and was itself overlaid by other strata, containing 
shells, etc., and having a thickness of over 85 feet, indicating 
great antiquity. 

12. Lntroduction into Europe,—De Candolle (1) finds that 
maize was unknown in Europe at the time of the Roman 
Empire. Fée (1) states that from the year A.D. 1500 maize 
had been sent from America to Seville for cultivation. From 
Spain it was introduced into France and Italy, Turkey and 
other parts of Eastern Europe. 

13. /utroduction into Africa.—The wide distribution and 
extensive use and cultivation of maize on the African conti- 
nent have led many to suppose that the plant was indigenous, 
or at least in use from time immemorial among the aboriginal 
peoples. But this was not so. Burchell (1), who visited what 
is now British Bechuanaland in 1812, makes no mention of 
maize in his account of the crops cultivated by the Bechuanas, 
though he notes its use and cultivation in Griqualand West, 
at the Mission Station at “Klaarwater” and at “Jan Bloems 
Kraal” in the Asbestos Mountains, in 1811. It was there 
grown for poultry food, but he also notes that “ the half-ripe 
heads, when boiled, made a very agreeable and wholesome 
dish”. He notes that it was planted in the first week in 
October and came into flower before the middle of December. 

Visiting Burchell’s old camp at Litakoon, Bechuanaland, 
in 1912, the writer met a native who remembered Moffat, and 
the introduction of maize into Bechuanaland by the mission- 
aries ; now it is one of their staple crops. 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 13 


In the tenth century, according to Abn Zeyd Hassan and 
“Suleiman the Merchant,” the Zeng peopies, the progenitors 
of the eastern branch of the Bantu-speaking races now south 
‘of the Zambesi, who were then located north of that river, 
in the country round Zanzibar, grew szzllet, which was their 
chief food (Tooke, 1). Giant millet or kaffir corn (Sorghum 
vulgare) appears to have been the former staple food-stuff 
of the natives of much of temperate South Africa. North- 
wards in the Bush-veld this was supplemented, and in places 
perhaps replaced by pearl millet or m’nyouti (Pennisetum 
Spicatum), and still farther north, within the tropics, rapoko 
(Eleusine Coracana) was largely used. 

Writing on the bearing of Bantu philology on early Bantu 
life, the Rev. Father Norton (1) states :— 


“We find a tradition that sweet-reed and millet, or kafir- 
corn, were given to the first human couple; maize, on the 
other hand, was introduced in historic times by the Portuguese 
to the Becoana, to eke out their scanty list of cane, pumpkin, 
beans, melon. Our old centenarian told me that mealies ap- 
peared in Modderpoort district together with the missionaries.” 


Mr. Allister M. Miller of Mbabane, Swaziland, who pro- 
bably knows as much, if not more, about Swaziland than any 
other man living, writes that from inquiries he made many 
years ago, he is of opinion that maize was introduced into 
Swaziland about the time the Hlamini clan, the conquerors of 
that territory, crossed from Tongaland, say the end of the 
eighteenth century. They do not call it by their word for 
“food,” mabela, but by the Zulu words m’lungu, meaning 
“ white man,” or m’bila, the Zulu name for maize. 

Maize would easily be carried from the north shores of the 
Mediterranean to the ports of Northern Africa, and probably 
* reached the latter from Spain and Italy, with which countries 
there was much commerce in those days. In 1623 Caspar 
Bauhin referred to the occurrence of pod-maize (Zea Mays 
L. var. ¢untcata St. Hil.) in Ethiopia under the name of 
manigette. 

But its introduction into other parts of the African conti- 
nent is traceable to the Portuguese, who were great voyagers 
in the sixteenth century ; they had colonies in Brazil and in the 


CHAP. 


14 MAIZE 


cHap. East Indies and had established settlements on the African 


I. 


coasts in 1450. It is instructive to note that in Angola maize 
was at one time known by the name “blé portugais” (Portu- 
guese wheat), which suggests its source of introduction. They 
may have introduced it to West Africa with the object of fur- 
nishing food on the voyage across the Atlantic for the slaves 
whom they took from Africa to work their Brazilian planta- 
tions; one of the Brazilian names of the plant—vlho de 
Guine—suggests this. Moodie (Records) mentions the follow- 
ing interesting fact under the date 1658: “ As the season for 
sowing Dutch grain is past, he recommended that each farmer 
should sow a good quantity of mily, or Turkey wheat brought 
[to South Africa] from Guinea by the Hassalt”. 

Its introduction into South Africa may have taken place 
before the establishment of the Dutch Colony in 1650. 
Portuguese vessels calling at the Cape for water on the voyage 
to and from their East African and East Indian Settlements, 
probably left maize-grain with the Cape Colonists (or even 
earlier, with the natives) in trade for water, meat, and other 
commodities. This is suggested by the Afrikaans word for 
maize, ‘‘mielie” being undoubtedly a corruption of the Portu- 
cuese word w/o, meaning grain. 

We know how easily new plants of economic value spread 
among the native tribes of Africa, as witness tobacco, peanuts, 
rice, jatropha, colocasia, etc. Once the culture of maize was 
established at several points on the African continent, eg., 
the Mediterranean shore, the Guinea coast, Cape Town, and 
Mozambique, the native population would soon distribute it 
throughout the Continent. 

14. [ntroduction info Asia.—To the Portuguese voyagers, 
also, is probably due the early and rapid introduction of maize 
into India, China, Cochin, and other parts of the far East 
Indies, soon after the establishment of their East Indian 
settlements by Vasco de Gama at the beginning of the six- 
teenth century. Mendoza mentions (1585) among the plants 
observed by him in China, “the plant called maiz, which 
constitutes the principal food of the Indians in Mexico” 
(Watt, 1). Another route of introduction into Asia appears 
to have been by way of Turkey (and possibly also south 
Russia), Arabia, or Persia. The exotic character of the plant 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 15 


is indicated by the absence of characteristic Asiatic names, 
the names now in use often combining an indication of the 
route of introduction with the vernacular for the particular 
corn of the country. 

A recent bibliographer (Lacy, 1) considers that though it 
is no longer a disputed question that maize is of American 
origin, ‘the possibility of its having been known in the East 
before the discovery of America by Columbus is by no means 
closed”. She revives the alleged mention of rows (a name 
treated as synonymous with é/é de Turquie or maize) by 
one of two Persian historians of the fifteenth century, of which 
Bonafous, in his monumental work on maize, admits that the 
translation “if it is exact, would leave no doubt that maize 
was known in the Old World before the discovery of the 
New”. Bonafous finally dismissed the reference, having failed 
to trace it back, but Miss Lacy points out that this may have 
been due to an incorrect citation to Mirkond (1433-98) in- 
stead of to Khondemir (1475-1534), grandson of Mirkond, who 
wrote “at almost the same time as Mirkond ... and whose 
best known work, the ‘Khelassé-al-Akhbar,’ is very nearly 
identical in subject-matter with Mirkond's //¢story of the 
IVorld, the ‘ Rauzet-al-safa’”. 

Quoting Mirkond, or perhaps Khondemir, Herbelot, to 
whom Bonafous refers as “ Le célebre orientaliste d’ Herbelot,’ 
states that Rous, from whom Russia has taken its name, the 
eighth son of Japhet, son of Noah, sowed in all the islands 
of the River Volga, which empties into the Caspian Sea, “/e 
bled which we call de Turguze, and which the Turks still call 
to-day, in their language, by the name of rows and boulgar”’. 
[In this connection, however, it is instructive to note that the 
modern Persian names for maize are ghendum, gandunti-mak- 
kah (i.e. Mecca corn), and faldah.' The mere fact (if it should 
be proven a fact) that the name d/¢ de Turquie was used in 
one place for rows (whatever that may have been) and in an- 
other for sazze is no indication that the two were one and 
the same thing; for example, the word corm means wheat in 
England, maize in America, and the grain most commonly 


1The word haldah, according to Meninski (Lex. Arab., Pers., Turk. 1780), 
was a name for “ frumentum sarracenicum,” i.e. Sarracens’ corn, also pointing 
to its western origin. 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
I. 


16 MAIZE 


used for food in several other countries, e.g. Sorghum vulgare, 
kaffir corn or Egyptian corn; the “corn” which Joseph's 
brethren went down into Egypt to buy was certainly not Indian 
corn or maize. 

De Candolle (1) suggests that the rapidity of the recent 
distribution of maize in Europe, Asia, and Africa completes 
the proof, if further proof were needed, that had it previously 
existed in Asia or Africa, maize would have played an impor- 
tant part in agriculture for thousands of years, instead of being 
but a comparatively modern culture. As recently as 1832 
maize was grown in India only as an ornamental plant in 
gardens, not asa regular farm crop for grain. 

_15. Meaning and History of the Botanical Name.— The 
botanical name of the maize plant is Zea Mays. The generic 
name Zea is derived from the Greek Zesa or Zea, a sort of 
grain mentioned by Homer (Odyssey, 4, 41, 604) as used 
for feeding horses. The Zeca of the Greeks was certainly not 
the maize plant, which was unknown to them; but when, in 
1753, Linnaus was renaming all the then known plants in 
accordance with his new system of binominal nomenclature, 
he used many of the classical names of the ancients, often 
taking the risk of applying an old name toa new plant, where 
the former was appropriate or pleasing. Linnaeus might, 
however, have adopted the generic name ‘ Mays,” already 
published by Tournefort in 1719, and followed in 1729 by 
Micheli who spelt it Mayz. 

The specific name AZays was used by the earlier botanical 
writers, Matthiole (1570), Dodoens (1583), and Camerarius 
(1588) as being the name under which the plant was intro- 
duced from America. From their writings it was adopted by 
Linneus. According to Prescott (1), Hernandez (1) derives 
the name maize from the Haytian word ma-h7z ; this was the 
name used for it by the Haytians when Columbus visited the 
island in 1492. 

16. The Name Matze-—Maize is an Arawak word, met 
with in many forms in South America and the West Indies, 
e.g. mahiz, marisi, marichi, mariky, mazy, maysi, etc. This 
name followed the introduction of the grain throughout Europe, 
and was adopted into many of the European languages, being 
variously spelled maiz, maize, mais, mays, mayz, or mayze. 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY 17 


The word mazze, therefore, dating back to the introduction 
of the crop into the Old World, having been adopted into 
many languages, as detailed below, and forming part of the 
botanical name of the plant, has the highest claim to recogni- 
tion as its universal vernacular name. 

The following are the different forms in which it is in use 
in different parts of the world :— 

Maiz (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Peru, Brazil, Uru- 
guay, and Argentina); mais (Germany and Denmark); mais 
(France); mays (Holland and Belgium); masé (Northern 
Africa), Maheende (Central Africa), Mahindi (Northern Africa), 
and Mihindi (Suahili), ie. Indian corn or maize of India ; 
mahiz (Hayti); marichi (Guiana) ; maysi (Cuba, Jamaica, and 
the Bahamas) ; maize (British Empire and the United States). 

In English literature the word appears in the following 
forms: maith (doubtless the phonetic spelling of the Spanish 
pronunciation of szahzs), maix, maise, Maiz, maize, maizium, 
mays, mayis, maijs, mayz, mayze, maes, maez, maze, mass. 

The ¢ isa comparatively modern suffix, which is not found 
in some English writers of the sixteenth and early seventeenth 
centuries, soon after the introduction of the grain into Europe. 
Du Bartas (1544-90), in his Divine Weekes and Iorkes 
(Sylvester’s translation), writes :— 


Heer, of one grain of maiz, a reed doth spring 
That thrice a year five hundred grains doth bring. 


Hakluyt (Voy., 1600) and Dampier (lVoy., 1676) spell 
the word azz, and Bacon, also, apparently throughout his 
writings, for we find it so in his Matural History, § 49; 
Sylva (1626); Med. Rem. Wks. (1626), and the earlier edi- 
tions of Essay 33 “of Plantations,” though in some modern 
editions the e has been added (perhaps in a pedantic effort to 
correct a “typographical error”). Bazley’s Dictionary (17th 
ed., 1757) gives only the spelling mazse, as does Murray’s ; 
the Century Dictionary has — “ maize, formerly also maiz, 
mais, mayz, mays”; while the Stavdard Dictionary gives 
both maiz and maize, the former on the authority of the 
Philological Society. 

Although mazze is practically the only form in which the 


word occurs in modern English literature, there are several 
2 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
I. 


18 MAIZE 


good reasons for dropping the e and adopting the spelling 
MALS -— 

(1). Simplified spelling is a demand of the age, which should 
be complied with where there is good reason and authority. 

(2). The e is unnecessary from the phonetic standpoint. 

(3). The etymology of the word does not appear to provide 
for it. 

(4). The form mays may, perhaps, have better claims to 
adoption from the etymological point of view, and is part of 
the botanical name of the plant, but is not in such general use 
in continental languages, and would be less easily adopted. 

(5). Mazz is the form in use in Germany, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, as already 
noted. 

(6). The authorities already cited seem ample. It remains 
for the literary and scientific public to decide whether the 
suggested change is sound, and whether it should be generally 
adopted. 

17. Lhe Word Corn.—Corn as used in American literature 
designates maize. The Saxon word “corn,” Teutonic orn 
(whence Afrikaans “ koren”), is the general term for any cereal, 
and is applied in any country to that cereal most extensively 
used there for human food; in England the words “corn” 
and the “corn trade” as generally used, refer to wheat, while 
in America they usually mean maize. Recent American writers 
on cereals are endeavouring to introduce the word “ maize” as 
a substitute for “corn,” as the South African Department of 
Agriculture is endeavouring to use it in place of ‘‘ mielie ”. 

The term corn or grain has been applied to maize in the 
following countries: United States and Canada (corn, Indian 
corn); Great Britain (Indian corn); Sweden (korn); Holland 
(Turks koren); Belgium (Turkisch koorn); Germany (Turk- 
ischer kérn); Greece (Arabosite, i.e. Arabian corn); Formosa 
(fanmeh, i.e. foreign corn); Russia (Tureskorichljeb, i.e, 
Turkish corn); Japan (nan bamthbi, i.e. foreign corn); Italy 
(grano Turco, grano d’India, frumentum sarracenicum, grano 
Siciliano) ; Persia (gandumi-makkah, i.e. Mecca corn); Shan- 
gaan of N. Transvaal (mabele, i.e. kaffir corn). 

18. The Word Mielie.—Mielie (often misspelled mealie) 
is the usual South African name, but is not known in 


IMPORTANCE AND AISTORYV 19 


any other part of the world where maize is grown.’ It is 
derived from the Portuguese word mz/ho, from Latin I/?/éum, 
the name for millet, a grain at one time much used for food by 
the inhabitants of Southern Europe. In Portuguese-speaking 
countries, milho is the term for any cereal used for human 
food. The name mielie was doubtless an early Africander- 
Dutch corruption of the word milho, as used by the Portuguese 
sailors who first left maize at the Cape on their way to the 
East Indies ; it is significant that in Angola maize should have 
been known under the name of 6&/¢ portugais. We may, 
therefore, look upon the word mze/ze as a colloquial form of 
the word milho, meaning any kind of grain used for food, 
rather than the name of the particular grain to which it has 
been applied locally and in modern times. It would be 
better to use the now universal word maiz or maize as the 
connection with the English word mea/ is remote. The 
forms in which the word milho are applied to maize are: milho 
grande (Portugal, Brazil); milho d’India (Portugal); milho da 
India, milho de Guine (Brazil); mielie and mealie (South 
Africa). Moodie (Records, p. 137, 1841) spells the word 
mily, and Damberger (/vravels, p. 71, 1801) as melzs. 

19. Other Vernacular Names.—In other countries where 
millet was a staple cereal before the introduction of maize, the 
local word for millet was often made use of in naming the new 
cereal, thus: gros millet des Indes (France); durah-shami 
(Arabic), dourah de Syrie (Egypt), dourah being the Arabic 
name of millet; bari-joar (Panjab), bari-jowar (Oudh), Mak- 
ka-jari (India), joar or juari being the general name in India 
for the great millet (Sorghum vulgare) and Makkai = Mecca 
(Watt), i.e. Mecca-joar or Mecca millet, indicating the route of 
introduction; jade sorgho (China); yuh-kau-liang (China), 
kao-liang being a Chinese name for Sorghum vulgare ; 
mashela bahry, i.e. millet from the sea (Abyssinia). 

On the other hand, where wheat was used more extensively, 
the local word for wheat was adopted in coining a name for 
the new cereal, thus we find: blé de Turquie or blé Turquet, 
blé de I’Inde, blé des Incas, blé de Guine, blé d'Afrique, blé 
d’Astrakan (France); blé de Rome (Vosges), blé de Barbarie 

1 The Dutch word for millet is gierst, for maize it is mays and mais, and for 


Indian meal or corn meal, mais meel. 
% 
2 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
I. 


20 MAIZE 


(Provence) ; blé d’Espagne (Pyrenees) ; blé portugais (Angola) ; 
Turkischer weizen (Germany); Turkische waitte (Groningen) ; 
Turkse tarwe (Holland); misr-bogdag, i.e. Egyptian wheat 
(Turkey); trigo de Indias, trigo de Turkina (Spain); Turkish 
hvede (Sweden). 

Several other names, included in the following geographical 
list, are in use in various parts of the world :— 

Abyssinia; mashela bahry. 

Africa (North): masé, mahindi. 

Africa (Tropical) : bekkolo (Galla), maheende, gafuli nosri, 
simsin (Darfour), kasoli (Uganda); matawe (Chikaundi of 
Kasemba Dist., N.W. Rhodesia) ; tjibakwe (Mashuna) ; umum- 
bu (Matabele); mafluera (Kimwani, a coast dialect of Suahili; 
mafluera applies to both plant and grain) ; in Suahili language 
the fruit and plant are known as mwhzndi, the grain alone as 
mahindi (dim. vehind?, i.e. hind? = maize, singular la-, pl. = 
ma-—), and the ear as guzez ; in the Makau language it is called 
nakuo, in all stages of growth, and in Nyasaland chimanga ; in 
Angola it is known as mazza manputa or blé portugais, 

Africa (South) : maize (English); mielie (Afrikaans), angli- 
cized into mealie ; poone (Basutoland); lefeela, plural sefeela 
(Transvaal Basutos) ; sepeéla (Mapochs); shifake (Shangaan) ; 
shibakwe (Mashona) ; ma’ghea (phonetically ma’hea), plural, 
or le’ghea, one (Sapidi of Sekkukuniland) ; ‘’m-umbu (Mata- 
bele) ; semaka and monidi, plural mabidi (Bechuana): 'm-lungu 
(Swazi; in Zulu ’m-lungu means “white man”; its adoption 
by the Swazies may perhaps signify ‘“white-man’s corn”. 
The Swazies now also use the word ’m-lungu for white man, 
in place of their own word ’m-lumbi); 'm-bila or ’m-beela 
(Zulu; this word is also used by the Swazies, in deference to 
the practice of the white man) ; sinjembani (Zulu for the dark 
red grains of the type of maize grown by natives in the early 
days). The growing maize plant is called by the Transvaal 
Basutos le’tlaaka, while the Shangaans, according to Rev. E. 
Creux, call it mabele, which is the recognized name for kaffir 
corn among most South African tribes; mihindi (Suahili). 
In the Transkei the following names are used, according to 
Archdeacon Woodrooffe, for many years Anglican missionary 
to the Transkeian natives (J7a//y, 5): um-bona, the common 
Xosa term for both the maize plant and the “ fruit” ; utiya is 


IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY oa 


used by some of the Kaffirs and is synonymous ; izikweba- 
sombona = green mielies, i.e. izikweba = ears, and sombona = 
of maize; um-pa = the cob after the corn has been stripped ; 
in-tshatshoba = the flower of the maize plant; isi-gezenge = 
maize bread made from green maize ; um-kupa = maize- 
bread made from dry maize. 

Arabia: durah-shami. 

Argentina: maiz, pinsingallo (a pod-maize). 

Australia: maize, Indian corn. 

Austria: \kukurutz. 

Bahamas : maysi. 

Belgium: mays, Turkisch koorn. 

Bohemia: \ukurice. 

Brasil: maiz, milho de Guine, milho grande, milho da 
India, zabemo, avati or abati. Special breeds have particular 
names, e.g. milho dourado and milho catete are flints, milho 
pipoca and milho perola are pop-corns. 

Burmah : pyoung-boo. 

Canada; corn, maize, Indian corn. 

Ceylon: muwa. 

Chile: maiz (Spanish); cua (Indian). 

China; jade sorgho, yuh-kau-liang ;_ yii-shu-shu. 

Costa Rica: kup (Boruca) ; ep, ip (Terrabo) ; ain (Guatuso). 

Cuba: maysi. 

Denmark : mais. 

Egypt: dourah shammy, dura shami or dourah chamy, 
dourah de Syrie. 

Ethiopia: manigette (a pod-maize). 

fyi: sila-ni-papalegi. 

Formosa: fanmeh. 

France: mais, blé de Turquie, blé de I’Inde, blé de Guinée, 
blé de Rome (Vosges); blé de Barbarie (Provence); blé 
d’Espagne (Pyrenees); blé des Incas; blé d'Afrique; ble 
Turquet; blé d’Astrakan; gros millet des Indes; mais 
quarantain, mais nain and mais a poulet are pop-corns; mais 
d’été is an early flint. 

Germany : mais, maiz, Turkischer korn, Turkischer weizen, 
gemeiner mais. 

Great Britain: maize, Indian corn; Turkey corn (obsolete). 


Greece: arabosite. 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
I. 


22 MAIZE 


Guatemala; aima (Xinca Indian). 

Guiana: marichi. 

Flaytt: mahiz. 

Holland: mays, Turks koren, Turksche tarwe, Turkse 
tarwe; Turkische waitte (Groningen). 

Hungary: kukoricza (Magyar). 

India: the numerous Indian dialects produce a number of 
separate names for the varicus crops grown. The name for 
maize in most general use—in one or other of its forms—ap- 
pears to be makai (Hindustani; Bihar); makkai (Panjab) ; 
makka! (Tamil); makka-janar (Bengal) ; makka-sholam (Ma- 
dras); mukka-bhuta (Hindustani) ; elsewhere makkajari, mok- 
ka jonna, maki pyaungbt; an alternative name in Bihar is 
makatya. 

Where the joar, Sorghum vulgare, has been the staple 
cereal, its local name has been applied to maize, often with a 
qualifying adjective, thus: makka-janar (Bengal); bari-jowar 
(Oudh) ; bari-joar (Panjab) ; janara (Hindustani); janera® (in 
the west); junora (Patna); and makkajari, mokka jonna, 
junri and junala elsewhere. 

Other names in use in India are: kukri (Panjab) ; goom- 
dhan* (Assam) ; zonalu (Telugu) ; cholam (Madras) ; djagoung, 
mungari, and chhale. 

Sir George Grierson (1) gives the following words applied 
in India to different, parts of the maize plant :— 

Stalks: dhattha to the west ; thathera to the north gener- 
ally; thathero (south Bhagalpur); dant or danti elsewhere. 
The stalks are used for fodder under the name makai ke dant 
(Gaya). 

The Broken Stalk: lather (the north-west and in west 
Tirhut); nighas or nighesa (east Tirhut); no special name for 
this has been noted south of the Ganges. 

!'The Madras Manual of Administration, Vol. III, s.v. cholam, derives 
makka from mecca, saying that mecca means the west generally. According to 
Sir George Grierson makka is generally said to be derived from Skr. markataka, 
but the derivation from Mecca may or may not be true. 

2 Sir George Grierson gives a possible derivation of janér as Skr. yavanala, 
and says that Platts derives junhar, another name for joar, from Skr. jivana-dhara. 

‘Dhan (Skr. dhanya) is the Assam word for rice. Mr. J. D. Anderson of 
Cambridge says that in Assam, where rice is a staple crop, the word dhan is used 


in the sense of corn, and that goom means hidden or secret, and so “strange” or 
“foreign,” goomdhan meaning fureign corn. 


IMPORTANCE AND ATSTORY 23 


x, 


Tassel: dhanbal or dhanahra. 

Silk: bhtia (to the west); ghua (south-west Shahabad) ; 
san (Champaran and Gaya); monchh (Patna); moccha (South 
Munger); moch or mocha (Tirhut and South Bhagalpur) ; it 
is also called kesi. 

Young Ear (when the grains begin to form but are not yet 
fit for eating): sancha. 

Unripe Ear: duddha (to the west generally); dodha 
(Shahabad) ; khichcha or aju (Tirhut); dudhghottu (Gaya) ; 
duddha makai (Saran and Patna); dudhbhoro (South Bhagal- 
pur); dant kamra (South Munger). 

Ripe Ear and fit for eating: bhutta ! or bal. 

Roasted Ear: horha (generally); orha (to the east). 

Dead-ripe Ears (grain hard and unfit for eating): pakthail. 

Blind Ear (ie. with no grain on it): bhorah or bhorha 
(north of the Ganges). 

Ear with few Grains : pachgotiya. 

Cob (after the grains are shelled off): lenrha (generally) ; 
lenruri (Shahabad); nerha (east Tirhut); baluri (an optional 
name in Patna and south-east Tirhut); balri (an optional name 
in south-east Tirhut and south Munger); khukhuri? or 
khonkhri (south-west Shahabad) ; haddi (south Bhagalpur). 

Shelled Grain: gota or got. 

Husk: balkhoiya or bokla (generally); khotya (to the 
west); khoincha (east Tirhut); pataura (South Munger) ; 
pocho (South Bhagalpur); in Champaran another name is 
kalchoiya, and in south-west Tirhut balko or kosa. 

Italy: maice, maiz; grano Turco or Granturco; grano 
d'India, grano Siciliano ; melliga or melgone (Lombardy). 

Jamaica: maysi. 

Japan: nan bamthbi, sjo-kuso, too-kibbi, tomoro-koski, 
or tomorokoshi. 

1Sir George Watt (1) says that the word bhutta (Bengal and Bihar; Hin- 
dustani but, mukka-bhuta, elsewhere maki pyaungbu) may possibly be derived 
from bhukta or butta, to eat. Sir George Grierson says that it may be derived 


from Skr. bhrsta, roasted, which is suggestive in view of the method of cooking 
the young ears. 

2The word kukri is used in the Panjab for some form of maize; and in 
south-west Shahabad khukhuri or khonkhri is the word for the maize cob after 
the grains have been shelled off. This suggests a connection with the Slav 
word kukuru (Turkey); kukurusa (Roumania); kukoricza (Magyar); kukurutz 
(Austria); kukurice (Bohemia). 


CHAP. 
I. 


24 MAIZE 


Malaysia: djagoeng, jarung, cholam. 

Aaya: ixim. 

Mexico: mais, maize (Spanish); cintli=ear, olote = grain 
(Aztec). 

Paraguay : bisingallo (Guarany Indians). 

Persia: ghendum ; gandumi-makkah ; haldah. 

Peru: maiz (Spanish); sara or zara (Quichua Indian). 

Portugal ; maiz, milho da Indias, milho grande. 

Roumania : kuku-rusa. 

Russta: Tureskorichljeb. 

Siam: hacpot. 

Spain: el maiz, trigo de Turkina, trigo de Indias, zaras. 

Sweden - Turkish hvede, korn. 

Turkey » misr-bogdag, kukuru. 

United States: corn, Indian corn, maize. 

Uruguay : maiz. 

According to De Candolle (1), there is neither Sanskrit nor 
Hebrew name for maize. There is no Greek or Latin name 
because the plant was unknown to the Greeks and Romans. 


CHAPTER II. 
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS. 


The term climate, in its broadest sense, implies all the changes in the 
atmosphere which sensibly affect one’s physical condition.—HumBo.tpr. 


20. Climate-—The profits from the cultivation of the soil, 
and in relation to these the preference given to certain crops, 
depend perhaps more on the extent of the market for such 
products than on the quality of the soil and the climatic 
condition within the geographical area of agricultural pro- 
duction (Davis, 2). 

Hann and Ward (1) define c/7maze as meaning the sum 
total of the meteorological phenomena that characterize the 
average condition of the atmosphere at any one place on the 
earth’s surface. That which we call weather is only one phase 
in the succession of phenomena whose complete cycle, recurring 
with greater or less uniformity every year, constitutes the 
climate of any locality. 

21. Factors which Limit Distribution—The known facts 
of distribution of maize as a crop lead us to inquire what 
factors limit that distribution. These have an important 
bearing on the question of the world’s future supply, and more 
particularly on the problem of South Africa’s future share in 
the world’s trade. ; 

Maize seems peculiarly sensitive to climatic variations, 
and these furnish the principal limiting factor of distribution 
of the crop. The variations referred to include temperature, 
sunshine, amount and incidence of rainfall, and length of 
growing season. Geographic features and the character of the 
soil are also important. Only when these several factors are 
suitably combined does the culture of maize become commer- 
cially successful; the absence of any one of them may limit 


production on a large scale. 


CHAP. 
If; 


CHAP. 
Il. 


26 MAIZE 


It is important that we should understand the relation of 
these several factors to the maize crop. Speaking broadly, 
the most favourable conditions are long humid summers, hot 
days and warm nights, comparatively heavy, intermittent rains, 
with abundance of clear, sunshiny weather between. Hot, 
arid climates, hot and continuously humid and shady regions, 
and arid cool-temperate climates with short summer season, 
are, generally speaking, unfavourable to the commercial pro- 
duction of maize. Open plains or plateaus are therefore more 
suitable than forest country. 

22. Altitude—Altitude affects the growth of crops indi- 
rectly as it influences length of season, temperature, precipita- 
tion of moisture, depth, and richness of soil, etc. 

Evidence collected by Harshberger (1) suggests that the 
maize plant came originally from tropical table-lands at a 
considerable altitude, probably above 4,500 feet. 

Increase in elevation is accompanied by decrease in tem- 
perature and a steady shortening of the summer season, until, 
at very high altitudes, alpine conditions prevail; long before 
this point has been reached, however, it has ceased to be 
possible to produce maize. Davis (1) finds that in Argentina 
the decrease in temperature due to altitude is not a constant 
factor but varies according to the season of the year and the 
dryness of the air. The shortening of the season with in- 
creasing altitude has an immediate effect upon the crop in 
that the earliest autumn frosts, not falling regularly at the 
same date, are apt to kill the plants before the grain is ripe 
for harvest. The range of altitude within which a maize 
crop can be successfully grown largely depends on latitude; 
the nearer the Equator the higher the altitude, within certain 
limits, and the farther from the Equator the lower must be 
the altitude. 

Humboldt records vast maize fields on the Mexican 
plateau (between the 15th and 30th parallels) at 8,680 feet. 
Near Lake Titicaca, Peru, at about the 16th degree of S. 
latitude, maize is grown successfully at 10,000 feet. In the 
Indian Panjab, between the 30th and 35th parallels, it is more 
extensively grown in the hill country at 7,000 feet and over, 
than in the valleys, where it is largely replaced by rice. In 
Baluchistan it is grown as a regular crop at 5,000 to 9,000 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 27 


feet altitude. In the United States the major part of the crop CHAP. 
is produced between the 35th and 45th parallels, and 82 per 
cent of it at an altitude between 500 and 1,500 feet; the 
proportion grown above 1,500 feet is only 4:4 per cent. 
Harshberger (1) points out, however, that this is partly 

due to the absence of large areas of tillable land at an 
elevation of 2,000 feet, for very fine maize crops are raised 

in North Carolina at 4,000 feet, between the 34th and 37th 
parallels. 

23. Temperature —Careful investigations carried out in the 
United States fail to show any direct relation between actual 
temperature and yield of the maize crop. Maize is a tropical 
plant, susceptible to frost in all stages of its growth; but 
being an annual, it can be grown as a summer grain crop in 
warm-temperate climates, and as a fodder crop (not for grain) 
even in cool-temperate areas such as the south of England. 

Dwarf, early-maturing sorts have been known to ripen 
seed in the south of England and even in Norway as far north 
as 63° 13’ (Wueller, 1). Martyn (1) states! that maize was 
cultivated in England in 1562, but that the seeds ‘‘rarely 
ripen in England... . Mr. Miller thinks that maize might be 
cultivated in England to advantage. But it can scarcely be 
expected to be grown here for the grain, except in favourable 
seasons and warm soils and situations, Yet as a fodder it 
might be of considerable service, if it were cut when just 
opening into ear, and given fresh to the cattle every day” 
(Martyn, \.c.). Of var. y Zea vulgaris, Mill. (Déct., n. 3), he 
says, “This ripens its grain perfectly well in England in as 
little time as Barley”. But ‘Maize is seldom cultivated in 
England for use” (Martyn, |.c.). 

Eighty-eight per cent of the American crop of 1897 was 
grown between July isotherms 70° and 80° Fahr. (Srewer, 1). 
The Argentine crop is grown with a mean January tempera- 
ture of 75°78”, while that of the Transvaal Maize-belt is under 
70° Fahr. The actual highest yields of the United States 
have been obtained between July isotherms 75° and 80° Fahr. 
(Harshberger, 1). 

The average temperature of the maize-belt of Argentina is 
given as :— 

1 On the authority of Turner’s Herbal, Part U1, fol. 58 n. 


CHAP. 
II. 


28 MAIZE 


1856-1875 : ‘ : ‘ , : 62°9° 
1876-1896 : : : : : : 61'5° 
1897-1900. é : ; ; .  63°1? 


The maximum temperature is said seldom to exceed 95° Fahr., 
though it seems much higher owing to the excessive humidity. 
The maize zone lies between summer isotherms 71°6° and 
788° Fahr., and annual isotherms 59° Fahr. and 68° Fahr. 


Tas_e I, 


COMPARATIVE TABLE OF MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES. 


| Febru- Mean, 4 


| 
Place | Feet Years. ber. | ber. January ary. Months. 
careers |—— Fee Fare |e aa | |— ae eee 
| 
Transvaal— | | 
Vereeniging . | 4700 1903-10 67°97 | 69°63 | 70°34 | 69°24 | 69°29 
Bethal . y 5580 1903-10 | 62°83 64°75 | 65°96 | 65°18 | 64°68 
Pretoria | | | | | 
(Arcadia) . | 4500 1903-10 | 69°18 | 70°78 | 71°54 | 69°64 | 70°28 
Natal— | | | | | 
Cedara 4 | sees } 68°2 | 69°6 | 72°0 70°75 | 7O'l4 
Rhodesia— | | | 
Bulawayo aH 4470 | 1898-1902 71'8 qr | 7r0 | 689 | 70°70 
Bulawayo. | 1908-9 7o6 | 724 | 706 | 684 | 70°50 
Salisbury .| 4810 | 1898-1902 | 69°6 | 68:2 | 69'4 | 67°6 | 68-70 
United States of | | | 
America—! | | 
Georgia. 13 years 72°t | 73°6 79'6 | 7S | aro2 
lowa « =| 18 years | 59'8 69°3, | 73°6 | 71°6 68°3 
Argentina— | | | | | 
Mean of 13] | 
stations. | — 69°12 | 73°54 | 75°78 | 74°59 | 73°2 
Bahia Blanca | | aes } 65°37 | 7o°6r | 73°81 | 73°89 70°42 
Goya . P | 1876-1g00 | 2°85 | 77°38 | 78:22 | 7745; | 7O%47 
Paraguay— | | | 
Mean of 2 sta- | | | | } 
tions . : | 1892-1900 | 76°55 | 80°53 | 80°60 | 79°99 | 79°42 
S. Europe—* | | 
Vienna . | 636 | 100 years 59°18 | 65°84 | 68:90 | 67°46 | 65°34 


' The heaviest maize yields of the United States have been grown between 
July (= January) isotherms 75° and 80° Fahr. 
? Various periods from 1855 to 1goo. “May to August inclusive. 


In the Transvaal it is generally considered that the Lower 
Bush-veld (below 2,000 feet), though hotter, cannot compete 
with the High-veld in the production of maize; if this is 
actually the case it is probably due largely to the character of 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 29 


the soil, as there is a narrow strip of poor soil running through CHAP. 
the Lower Bush-veld from north to south, and good maize | 
crops are raised on either side of this belt at the same altitude. 

It may also be due in part to deficiency or irregularity of rain- 

fall, and greater evaporation. 


Taste II. 
MEAN TEMPERATURES OF THE CEREAL BELT OF ARGENTINA. 


November, December, Fanuary, and February. 


| | November, | December. | January. February. | 
Station. | Period. ———| ae ) Sie 
| G& | Fab] G | Fate, | coe | Fabr.| C. | Fahr. | 
Sener | Peewee geen a EE ae 
Buenos Aires. | 1856-1900 | 19°90 | 67°82 | 22°43 | 72°37 | 23°66 | 74°59 | 23°06 | 73°51 
4 (| 1860-83 19, Red ‘ x ees ‘B81 | 20° aed | 
Bahia Blanca | 1897-1900 | 5 18°54 | 65°37 | 21°45 | 70°61 | 23°23 | 73°81 | 16 | 71°39 
Tandil . . | 1876-82 17°37 | 63°26 | 19°30 | 66°74 | 21°20 | 70°16 | 2I°II | 70°00 
Viedma . .| 1876-82 17°95 | 64°32 | 20°13 | 69°85 | 23°36 | 74°05 | 21°13 | 70°04 
Rosario . ‘ 1891-1900 | 20°78 | 69°40 | 23°73 | 74°71 | 24°70 76°46 | 24°33 | 75°79 
Céres. . | 1896-1900 | 23°15 | 73°67 | 25°68 | 78:22 26°61 | 79°91 | 26°83 | 80°30 
5 (| 1896-9 \, ‘ 24°08 | 76°06 | 24°8 6: 
Parana. .{ rBrgeBa [SACO | 7844 | 24-20 | 75°56) 24°98 | 70%9 ae 5 | 76°73 
Concepcion del | | ae 
Uruguay .| 1894-9 | 2rro | 69°98 | 23°94 | 75°09 | 24°44 | 75°00 | 24°28 17 
Hernandarias.| 1877-92 22°82 | 73°08 | 25°11 | 77°20 26°23 79°23 | 25°33 77°59 
Goya. . | 1876-1900 | 22°69 | 72°85 25°21 | ange 25°68 | 78°22; 25°25 77°45 
Cordoba . . | 1873-1900 | 20°87 | 69°56 | 22°97 | 73°34 | 23°44 | 74°19 2274 72°93 
Rio Cuarto . | 1881-1900 | 20°98 | 69°76 | 23°36 | 74°05 | 23°96 | 75°22 | 23°07 73°52 
San Luis =| 2874-9 | 19°96 22°25 | 72°05) 24°70 | 76°46 | 23°39 | 74°10 
268°02 | 299°76 316°19 307°53 
Mean of 1 | ; ; 
stations | 20°62 | 69°12 | 23°08 | 73°54 | 24°32 | 75°78 | 23°66 | 74°59 
Paraguay. 
Asuncion | 1892-1900 | 24°78 | 27°09 | 80°80 | 27°20 | 80°96 | 26°95 | 80°51 
Itacurubi_ del | ; : ae ee : 
Rosario ‘ | 1892-9 | 24°72 | 26°83 | 80°30 | 26°80 | 80°25 | 26°38 | 79°50 
| | | 
| | 49°50 | : 54°00 53°33 
| 49°50 | 53°92 54 BS 3" y 
| | 24°75 | 76°55 | 26°96 | 80°53 | 27°00 | 80°6 | 26°66 | 79°99 


In the warmer coast-region of Natal, though there ts less 
maize grown, the yields per acre are heavier than on the es 
lands; but this is probably due to increased fertility os the 
soil, and to longer growing season, rather than to actual in- 


crease in temperature. 


CHAP. 
Il. 


30 MAIZE 
Tasve III. 
MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, TRANSVAAL. 
Bethal (5,580 feet). 
SS ————— 
| Year 1903-4. | 1904-5. | 1905-6. | 1906-7. 1907-8. | 1908-9. | 1909-10. Average. 
—-— Eker | ee 
Nov. = 63°9 | 63°93 | 616 | 623 | 63:3 | 62°6 62°83 
Dec. | — 624 | 66:4 | 64°2 64°7 | 65°4 | 654 | 64°75 
| Jan. — | 660 | 69°8 | 66:1 | 67:0 | 62°9 | 64°0 | 65°96 
| Feb. | — | 64°5 | 64°6 | 658 | 66-4 | 648 | 650 | 65718 
| | ie | 258°72 
| boot i ae 84°08 
| : Vereeniging (4,700 teet). 
Nov. 68:2 69°7 68:9 | 66°8 | 664 | 67°6 | 68-2 67°97 
Dec. | 73°4 65'9 va aes 638°6 63°38 70"4 69°2 69°63 
| Jan. | 716 | yor | 74'1 | 69°8 Joo | 68"4 63-4 | 70°34 
| Feb. 705 69°4 68°6 | 6g'0 74 67°6 68-2 69°24 
| | | | 277718 
| 69°29 
| Pretoria (Arcadia) (4,500 feet). 
Nov. | 686 | 711 | 69°6 | 67°1 68°5 69°8 | 69°6 | 69°18 
Dec. | 707 | 69'0 929 | 69°6 | 69°9 | 73°2 | 70°4 70°78 
Jan. 714 722 | 74°38 | 7V0 | 722 | 706 ~~ 70°0 71°54 
Feb. | 69°3 707 | 706 | 709 | 75°9 | 69°0 | 70'L 69°64 
| | | | | 28114 
| | | | | | | | 70°28 


The above tables show the mean monthly temperatures 
of the four growing months for maize, November to February 
inclusive. In the case of the Transvaal stations the means 
are for the seven years 1903 to 1910 inclusive (/zzes, 1), and 
are obtained by halving the sum of the mean daily maximum 
and the mean daily minimum. The Rhodesian figures are 
those given by Mr. Hutchins (1), and the Georgia figures are 
the means for thirteen years as furnished by Director Redding 
(1); the latter are for the corresponding summer months of 
May to August inclusive. The lowa figures are from Bowman 
and Crossley (1). 

24. Night Temperature—Some writers (Darwin, 2; Harsh- 
berger, 1) conclude that the maize crop does not flourish where 
the nights are ‘cool,’ no matter how favourable the other 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 31 


33 


conditions. The term “cool” is relative, and may be mis- 
leading, for in those parts of the Transvaal where the maize 
crop thrives the summer nights are invariably cool. The 
director of the Union Observatory gives the following figures 
showing the mean daily temperature at 6 a.m. (the coolest 
hour of the night) at the Government Observatory, Johannes- 
burg. 


TaBLe IV.! 


MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT GOVERNMENT 
OBSERVATORY, JOHANNESBURG. 
September, 1904—March, 1909. 


| Mean Daily Minimum Temperature, 6 a.m. Mean, 5 
| Month. |e z eee =~ =a | Seasons, 
| Sept., 1904- 
| 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. 1907-8. 1908-9. Dec., 1908. 
| | as | ese | | 
| September ‘ 45°8 48°8 49°8 488 532 49°3 
October . : 51°9 54500.) Sr | srr | 51°7 52°1 
| November - | 57°4 54°55 | 5370 542 | 55°6 549 
December. | 5472 57°5 | 55°72 | 55°9 57°8 56°r | 
| January . - | 56°8 59°8 gre | SG 57°7 57°6 
| February . Fi 56°6 561 57°38 57°7 56°r 56°8 | 
| March | 53°5 535 | 566 | om oe 54°6 | 
| 7 Months’ mean 53°7 55°0 | 54°4 54°0 55°3 | 54°5 
| Annual mean 50°52 514 | §0°5 50°7 516 | 50°9 
| | | 
| 


At Buenos Aires the mean minimum summer temperature (December to 
February) at 5 a.m. is 63°5° Fahr. 


lAbstracted from Reports of Transvaal Department of Meteorology 


(Innes, 1). 
2.N.B.—The mean daily minimum is 1°7° lower than the mean tempera- 


ture at 6 a.m. 


The following tables, taken from the publications of the 
late Transvaal Department of Meteorology, Johannesburg 
(Innes, 1) show the mean daily minimum temperature over a 
series of years at Vereeniging (4,700 feet altitude), and Bethal 
(5,580 feet altitude), two of the most important maize centres 
of the Transvaal. Comparing the two tables we find that for 
the 880 feet difference in altitude we have an average differ- 
ence in the annual mean of 1:°2°, and in the 7 months’ mean 


of 2°7°, 


CHAP. 
Om 


32 MAIZE 


CHAP. TaBLe V. 
MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT VEREENIGING. 


September, 1904—March, 1909. 


| Mean Daily Minimum Temperature. | 
| Mean,5 | 
| Month. ie as Fee | Seasons. 
1904-5 1905-6 | 1906-7. | 1907-8. 1908-9. 
a a ee ir Se EE |e ceed | Se Meet eRe Seen | ent oe We etree ene 
| | | 
j; September © | 434 4553 | 44°2 43°6 46°7 44°6 
| October . : . | 50°7 51:0 6} «(49°3 50°0 401 49°8 
November : .| 55°6 55°8 | 53° 52°3 543 | 544 
| December : .| 53°3 58-6 | 54°4 56°7 56°35 | 55°9 
January . ‘ «|, 25782 61°0 59°0 551 599 | 584 
February . : - | §8°3 56°7 58°5 59°5 583 | 582 
| March. : =| 529 2°5 545 | 526 542 | 53°3 
7 Months’ mean + | 53°0 54°4 | 53°4 | 52°8 540 | 535 
_ Annual mean . el) 452 45°06 | 45°2 | 44°0 45°38 | 452 | 
| | 
TaBLeE VI. 

MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT BETHAL. 
September, 1905—March, 1909. 
SE ee 

Mean Daily Minimum Temperature. | 
Ties One eae re ea Dn ee VLC ALL 
Month. | | Seasons. 
| 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. 1907-8. 1908-9. | 
| | 
September , . ae 41 42°3 Aas 45°5 | 42°8 
October ‘| ar? 47°0 40°4 46°6 46°9 
| November | 5I4 50°3 50°2 51°'7 | 50°9 
December | 54°58 530 53°6 540 | 538 
| January 57°4 56°7 54°6 28 | 55°4 
February . : | eee 53°2 55°7 53°58 556 | 54°6 
March . ‘ sf oe 49°2 52°5 50°5 52°7 | 51°2 
| 7 Months’ mean 50°7 51°r 50°2 51°3 | 50°8 
| Annual mean 43°9 43°8 43°1 44°90 | 43°79 
i 


25. Frost.—Late winter frosts have little effect on the 
South African maize crop, as they usually come at a time 
when there has not been enough rain to start the crop; but 
when they fall as late as the middle of October they may 
cause some damage. Early winter frosts are more dangerous ;! 


1On the Transvaal High-veld killing frosts are sometimes experienced as 
early as 28 March. 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 32 


for on the high plateau of the Transvaal, at 5,000 to 6,000 feet 
elevation, the season is usually too short for late-maturing 
breeds of maize, and almost every year a proportion of the 
crop of medium-late sorts—such as Hickory King—is seriously 
injured. This is due to the sudden though temporary fall of 
temperature which frequently precedes the advent of the real 
winter by two or three weeks, when the frost is often suffi- 
ciently severe to injure the unripe grain. A remedy can be 
found in autumn tillage and earlier planting to bring the crop 
sufficiently forward to miss the frost; but too early planting 
often results in loss from cut-worms. When the South 
African maize crop is once ripe, frost does not injure it, and it 
can be left standing in the field to dry out, through the winter, 
without fear of injury. As there is considerable difference in 
the time required for the maturity of different breeds, the 
earlier-maturing sorts should be used at the higher altitudes ; 
some of these yield rather less than the longer-growing sorts, 
and farmers are reluctant to drop the latter, even though they 
entail greater risk. 

At lower altitudes, as along the coast of Natal, the Ubombo 
Range in Swaziland, and the adjacent portion of the Transvaal, 
the season between frosts is so long that two successive crops 
of maize-grain can be matured in the same year. 

Temperature appears to have no direct effect upon yield 
per acre, but it does influence the maturing of the grain, and 
often in this way affects the yield of marketable grain, especi- 
ally at higher altitudes and in the southernmost of the maize- 
growing districts of South Africa. 

In Argentina frost is apt to cause a considerable loss of crop. 

Where the crop has been thrown late, from one cause or 
another, the stalks may be cut just before the time when frosts 
are expected, and “stooked” in the field. This does not 
interfere with the proper filling out and ripening of the grain 
if the crop is not cut before the grain has begun to harden. 
Not only does this method enable farmers on the High-veld 
to save their crop from injury by frost, but it results in a saving 
of some 50 per cent of the feeding value of the “stover”. At 
the suggestion of the writer this method was tried by several 
High-veld farmers in the Transvaal, during the very backward 
season of 1909-10, with excellent results. 

3 


CHAP. 
Il. 


CHAP. 
Il. 


34 MAIZE 


26. Hatli—No country in the world has such a_ perfect 
climate that the farmer is entirely free from worry, what- 
ever his crop may be. On the whole the climate of South 
Africa is probably as nearly perfect as any; but it is not 
without drawbacks. Perhaps the chief of these is hail. The 
worst hailstorms usually fall in the months of November 
and December; on 16 November, 1909, hailstones weighing 
44 oz. were reported from Germiston, and considerable 
damage was done to crops in the districts of Bethal, Er- 
melo, Standerton, Heidelberg, 
Marico, . Rustenburg, Wakker- 
stroom, and the Witwatersrand. 
At this time of year the maize 
plant is still comparatively 
small; so long as it is not 
in tassel, a new crop of leaves 
may be produced and, though 
somewhat retarded in develop- 
ment, the crop usually recovers. 


Hailstorms coming in Janu- 
ary are most likely to damage 
the maize crop. A storm of 
hail in the Glencoe District of 
Natal, on 21 January, 1908, cut 
the maize crop to the ground 
and injured it beyond recovery ; 
but it is said to have been the 
heaviest hailstorm known in that 
Fic, 5.—Effect of hail on the leaves distriet tbe forty ‘Aosae Most 

af the mabeplaat. damage is done when the main 

stem of the plant is broken by 

the hail, causing the development of sucker shoots, which do 
not bear good grain. 

More frequently the injury is restricted to stripping the 
foliage into ribbons, sometimes leaving only the midrib (see 
Figs. 5 and 6) and sheath of the leaf to function in photo- 
synthesis (169). Ifthe storm occurs before the tassel appears, 
the plant may be able to throw out additional leaves, by which 
photosynthesis can be carried on; but if it has reached the 
stage shown in the above figure, no fresh leaves can form on 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 38 
35 


the stem; there must then be some loss in weight of grain, CHAP 
inasmuch as all the starch must first be elaborated in thie leat Mt. 
before it can be deposited in the grain (1 69). 

It is a fortunate feature of the South African hailstorm 
that it is usually confined to a comparatively narrow strip, so 
that not all of any one farm is damaged, and as a rule he 


Fic, 6.—Effect of hail on the stem and leaves of the maize plant. 


same farm is rarely visited by hail two years in succession. 
There are, however, ‘“hail-belts,” in which hailstorms appear 
to recur almost yearly. 

Apparently there is no reliable preventive for hailstorms , 
but insurance policies against damage from hail may be 
effected. 


* 


3 


CHAP. 
Il. 


36 MAIZE 


27. Soil Temperature—The temperature of the soil has 
much to do with the successful growth of maize and other 
tropical crops. In cold soils germination and subsequent 
growth are retarded. Experiments conducted at Pretoria 
show that whereas maize planted in September and early 
October usually requires eight days to appear above ground, 
that planted at the end of December or early January will 
sometimes appear in three days; in each case the seed was 
well watered daily, so that lack of moisture was not the cause 
of retarded germination, which may therefore be attributed to 
low temperature of the soil. 

Maize lands should be well drained, for wet soils are usually 
cold soils. It is largely on this account that maize germinates 
badly, and its growth, also, is retarded in water-logged soils. 
When water stands for any time on the maize lands, the 
foliage becomes yellow and the plants remain stunted. In 
cycles of droughty weather there is a tendency to plant the 
crops in low-lying ground which retains a certain amount of 
moisture ; but when normal seasons return the crops in these 
lands suffer. It is better to apply the principles of dry-farming 
(i.e. good tillage) to the soil (see chap. IX.), in order to con- 
serve the moisture, than to use undrained land in anticipation 
of possible drought. 

28. Motsture Regutrements.— Maize is, on the whole, a 
drought-resistant plant, but some breeds suffer more from 
drought than others, and these should not be chosen for regions 
where the average rainfall of the period from December to 
February inclusive is too light for the ordinary breeds. King 
(1) has found that in Wisconsin the maize plant abstracts from 
the surrounding soil 270 lbs. of water for each pound of dry 
matter grown, which is equal to a rainfall of 2-4 inches for 
each ton, or only about half the amount required (in Wisconsin) 
by oats and clover. But the maize plant requires a consider- 
able amount of water at certain stages of growth. 

In Illinois the growth of maize during one week in July 
has been found equal to 1,300 lbs. of dry matter per acre, 
which would require 1°5 inches of rainfall, according to King’s 
experiments. Ata time of such rapid growth the plant is apt 
to suffer from drought unless the soil is in the best physical 
condition (Afunt, 1). 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 39 


An American writer points out that the curling of the 
leaves of the maize plant in July (equivalent to January in 
South Africa) is a bad omen to maize-growers in the drier 
districts. The time of the formation of the ear (January and 
February) is the critical period in the life of the plant, and 
lack of moisture at this time means curtailment of yield 
(Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

29. Rainfall_—Though no direct relation exists between 
actual temperature and yield, rainfall, on the contrary, has a 
very direct bearing upon yield. 

At the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station a rainfall 
of 13 inches during the five growing months, produced 
1,792 lbs. (practically 9 muids) of dry maize-grain per acre. 
The following year, with 22°5 inches during the same period, 
the yield (without fertilizer) was 5,264 Ibs. (over 26 muids) 
per acre. The mean temperature was more favourable the 
first season than the second. The results indicate that the 
increase of 17 muids per acre was due to the additional 9°5 
inches of rain, an average of 1°9 inches per month. 

In the Corn-belt of the United States the most favourable 
condition is found to be a series of comparatively heavy rains 
during the growing season, but at considerable intervals, with 
clear sunshiny weather between, and followed by a warm, 
dry, ripening period. Ifthe rainfall equals 11°5 to 12°0 inches 
in the three summer months corresponding to December, 
January, and February in the Southern Hemisphere, this 
should be adequate; of this, 4°5 to 5:0 inches should fall in 
January, when the ears are growing most rapidly. The aver- 
age rainfall for these three months for thirty-nine stations 
through the Maize-belt of South Africa is 11°92 inches, while 
the average for January is 4°35, or 4°6 if we omit the three 
driest localities, which are really outside the Maize-belt. 
Heavy rainfalls and cloudy weather during the planting season 
(corresponding to October and November in South Africa and 
South America) are in North America found to decrease 
the yield. In South Africa a wet October and November 
prevents proper weeding and encourages early growth of weeds 
which withdraw moisture and plant-food from the young 
maize plants, thereby reducing the yield. But excess of 
moisture, as already explained (1 27), is injurious. 


CHAP. 
Il. 


35 MAIZE 


CHAP. The average monthly rainfall for the four growing months 
of the maize crop, as recorded during thirteen years at the 


Fic. 7.—Grains which have been fer- Fic. 8.—Grains cracked from ex- 
tilized but not fully filled with posure to unfavourable weather 
starch, probably owing to drought. conditions. 


Georgia (U.S.A.) State Agricultural Experiment Station, was 
as follows (Redding, 1) :— 


South African 


Georgia. Equivalent. Rainfall. 
May November 2°QI in. 
June December 4°37 
July January 5°52 

12°80 
August February 6:06 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 39 
The rainfall of the Argentine Maize-belt ranges from 31°53 CHAP. 
inches to 39°4 inches, but u. 
this is divided with fair 
uniformity between summer 
and winter. March is the 
rainiest month, and April 
is about as wet as February, 


which is unfortunate for the 
drying of the grain; this is 
one of the greatest draw- 
backs to maize-growing in 
Argentina. The winter is 
wet and frosty, which makes 
it difficult to get the grain 
into merchantable condi- 
tion, and to store it satis- 
factorily; the consequent 
percentage of loss in Argen- 
tine cargoes during the 
ocean voyage is heavy. 
Even when the greatest 
care is exercised, the un- 
favourable climatic condi- 
tions are likely to handicap 
maize-growing in Argen- 
tina. 

The following table 
(VII), prepared with the 
courteous assistance of the 
director and staff of the 
Government Observatory, 
Johannesburg, shows that 
the summer rainfall con- 
ditions throughout a great 
part of South Africa are 
eminently suited to maize 
production. Certain areas 
must be excepted, however, 


such as the Cape Peninsula Fic. 9.—Grains cracked from exposure to 
and the adjacent areas unfavourable weather conditions. 


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CHAP. 
Tl. 


42 MAIZE 


which have chiefly winter rains; the areas of very low rain- 
fall such as the Karroo; areas where there is a deficiency in 
the spring rains, or where the intervals between rains are too 
great, as in parts of the south-western Transvaal and western 
Orange Free State; and the higher mountain ranges where, 
though the rainfall is ample, the growing season is too short. 

30. Sunshine—The maize plant is especially suited to 
the treeless grass-steppes of upland plateaux, and also thrives 
in efen “bush” country. But it does not seem at home in 
humid, shady, tropical forests. Sagot (1) shows that maize 
does not thrive in the warm, damp climates where manioc 
(Manthot spp.) is grown, and De Candolle (1) supplements 
this observation by pointing out that forests are generally un- 
favourable to the production of axy annual plants. 

The latter view seems in harmony with the general geo- 
graphical distribution of cereal crops in the tropics. Major 
Whitlock (1) observes that guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare 
var. ), an annual plant, is the staple cereal of the natives on the 
plains of Nigeria, at about 1,400 feet above sea-level, from Lake 
Chad almost to the foot of the watershed plateau between the 
Benue and the Cross Rivers. South of this plateau, however, 
where the country is clothed with forest, no more guinea corn 
is seen, the natives subsisting entirely on yams and plantains. 
In parts of Uganda, also, bananas are more extensively grown 
for food than any cereal. 

This is probably due, in the case of maize, to lack of sunshine. 
It is noticeable in South Africa that in cloudy seasons, like 
that of 1909-10, when there was nearly twice as much cloud 
as usual during the months of January and February, the 
maize crop is light. In continuous wet weather, pollination 
appears to be retarded; if the wet weather alternates with 
warm sunshine at short intervals, pollination can take place 
readily ; nature has provided that the silks shall be receptive 
for a considerable period (sometimes as much as fourteen days 
if pollen is not applied earlier), while the pollen supply may last 
for two to three weeks through a natural irregularity in time 
of flowering of different individuals ; in one plant, alone, pollen 
continues to fall for about four consecutive days. 

31. Lnfluence of Climate upon Vegetative Characters and 
Time of Maturity.—Careful study of the influence of climate 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS Fi 


ioes 


upon habit of growth is needed. The same breed appears to 
differ in size and in time of maturity at different altitudes and 
latitudes. Hunt (1) concludes that in the United States, as a 
general rule, a breed becomes one day later for each ten miles 
south or north of a given latitude, if the altitude is the same. 
This means that a variety which ripens two weeks before a 
killing frost in a given locality would only barely ripen if 
taken 140 miles away from the equator at the same altitude, 
the date of the first killing frost remaining the same. 

He advocates that, in introducing new seed it should prefer- 
ably be obtained from about the same latitude. Similarity of 
latitude may be a sufficient guide on a vast and nearly level 
plain like that of the Ohio valley; but where the topography 
varies as it does in South Africa, other factors than latitude 
and altitude influence the climate, and we doubt whether (with 
the present lack of knowledge of these controlling factors) 
South African farmers can make much practical use of the 
suggestion. A breed which matures in 90 days in Australia 
may take roo or 110 days in the Transvaal. It is very 
noticeable that the same breed takes a longer or shorter time 
to mature in different years, according to the “ season”; in a 
time of drought, growth is checked and flowering and fruiting 
are hastened, while in a rainy season, growth is continued much 
longer, Even within the Transvaal, and during the same 
season, the same breed, grown from the same lot of seed, is 
reported as having varied considerably in time of maturing in 
different districts. This is due partly, no doubt, to the con- 
dition of the soil as regards moisture at time of planting; in 
an air-dry soil such as is found over large areas during a great 
part of the spring, the seed does not germinate as quickly as 
ina moist soil. Allowance must also be made for the personal 
equation, different observers holding different views as to when 
the ear could be considered “ mature” or safe from frost ; lack 
of purity in strains of the same breed may also be a factor. 

32. Acclimatization.—It is said that when a recognized 
breed has been grown for some time under diverse climatic 
conditions, it not only changes considerably in stature and 
“time of maturity, but that these habits become more or less 
fixed so that, when taken back to the old conditions, the plant 
does not at once respond to the change. In this way different 


CHAP. 
IT, 


CHAP. 
II. 


44 MAIZE 


strains of the same breed are supposed to be developed ; they 
are said to become adapted to different conditions. The 
amount of such change, if it does occur, must be limited, 
however; within these limits it could be made use of in the 
acclimatization of new breeds, but it would not enable us to 
take a very late maturing sort suddenly from a tropical climate 
to a much higher altitude and colder latitude, and acclimatize 
it successfully ; this would have to be done gradually and by 
intermediate steps, and with some breeds might not be suc- 
cessful even then. Little is known, at present, of the actual 
effect of climate upon the maize crop. If the facts are such 
as have been indicated, farmers would do well to make use of 
them, or at least to keep them in mind when purchasing 
seed-maize. 

It appears clear that seed-maize from one climate takes 
some time to become acclimatized to another, and in the 
United States it has not been found desirable to take seed- 
maize from the rich alluvial plains of the Mississippi to the 
poorer soils of Virginia. For these reasons it is not desirable 
to buy bulk seed from hot, humid regions, at low altitudes, 
for cultivation in cooler and drier conditions at high altitudes. 
Nor is it desirable to obtain seed from deep, fertile soils for 
growth on thin, poor soils; one of the chief reasons that 
Hickory King has become such a favourite in South Africa is 
its ability to thrive on relatively poor soils and with rough 
treatment. But the converse may perhaps also be true, that it 
is not desirable to obtain bulk seed-maize from colder and drier 
climates and poorer soils for growth in hotter and more 
humid climates and on richer soils, because the quicker 
maturing habit will have been formed and the plant will not 
be able immediately to take advantage of the longer growing 
season and greater amount of plant food, and the resulting 
crop may be less than would have been the case with a breed 
already acclimatized to those conditions. 

33. Influence of Climate upon Varieties.—The origin of the 
different varieties of maize is unknown, through lack of 
historical records, but it seems probable that there is some 
relation between climate and existing varieties. It is notice- 
able that those breeds grown in the most northerly parts of 
the United States and in Canada are mainly flints, while 


CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 45 


in the Southern States dents are grown almost exclusively. 
Dents generally yield more heavily than flints, but take longer 
to mature; flints mature earlier, but as the yield is lighter 
they are grown only where others cannot mature owing to 
shortness of season. 

It is said that a northern flint variety, after having been 
grown for several years in Illinois, changed under the influence 
of climate into a dent; but before concluding that this change 
was caused by change of climate it should be known whether 
any precautions had been taken against cross-pollination, for 
if crossing had taken place between the flint and a dent, the 
heterozygous grains might retain the flint appearance and 
would later produce dent grains, which, if selfed, would breed 
true. 

Sugar maize is said to be rarely grown in the Southern 
States, but whether this is due to the climatic conditions being 
unfavourable for the production of sugar maize, or whether it 
may be due to the taste of the people, is not clear. 

34. Influence of Climate upon Chemical Composition.—As 
the result of thirty-five analyses of dent maize grown in the 
Northern States, and forty-nine from the Southern, Hunt (1) 
concludes that there is no material difference in composition 
in maize grown in different parts of the country,. over a very 
wide range of soils and climates. Analyses of Transvaal 
samples made by the Division of Chemistry of the Union 
Department of Agriculture tend to confirm this view (see 
chap. XIII). 


CHAP. 
Il. 


CHAP. 
ITI. 


CHAPTER III. 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 
To the wise man all the world’s a soil.— BEN Jonson. 


35. Geographical Distribution.—In the preceding chapter we 
have seen that maize requires a hot, sunny climate; it thrives 
best between the 4oth parallels of latitude. Early ripening 
breeds are grown for grain in warm-temperate regions as far 
north as the 48th parallel in the northern hemisphere, and for 
fodder, still farther north, in the cool-temperate zone. 

The value of maize as a cereal crop for man and his 
domestic animals has led to its world-wide distribution in the 
brief space of time since the discovery of America. Although, 
as already pointed out (1 10), maize was probably first grown 
in New Granada as a cultural crop, and has only been known 
in Europe since the beginning of the sixteenth century, to-day 
three times as much is produced in Europe as on the whole 
of the South American continent. 

The countries mentioned in Table VIII are the leading 
producers of maize-grain; the figures given are for the year 
1906, which was a record year for maize production in the 
northern hemisphere; they are taken from the Year Books 
of the United States Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A. 7)! 
and other official publications, and are stated in United States 
standard bushels of 56 lbs. In the case of Mexico and the 
African continent, the figures are only approximate, through 
lack of precise data. 

Maize is also grown, but to a lesser extent, in the Province 
of Quebec (Canada), Central America, the West Indies, Brazil, 
Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Nyassaland, Uganda, British 

1The U.S.D.A. Year Book omits entirely the production of British India, 


which is larger than that of Mexico and Canada combined. 
46 


TVasBLeE VIII. 


THE WORLD’S MAIZE CROP OF 1906. 


Bushels. 


Servia 
Bulgaria 
Spain 
Portugal 
France 


Asia— 
British India 
Africa— 


Egypt : . F 
Natal (and Zululand) 
Orange Free State 
Transvaal . 

Cape Colony 
Rhodesia . 

Algeria 


Australasia— 
New South Wales 
Queensland 
Victoria 
New Zealand 
Western Australia 


Sudan (Anglo- Egyptian) 


Bushels. Bushels. 
North America— 
United States 2,927,416,000 . 
Mexico 70,000,000 
Canada (Ontario) 23,989,000 
South America— 
Argentina . 194,912,000 
Uruguay 3,226,000 
Chile 846,000 
Europe— 
Austria- Hungary— 
Austria . 18,177,000 
Hungary 162,925,000 
Croatia-Slavonia 20,470,000 
Bosnia- Herzegovina 8,900,000 
210,472,000 
Roumania. 130,546,000 
Italy . 93,007,000 
Russian Empire— 
Russia proper, including 
Bessarabia and South- 
ern Russia . 59,320,000 
Northern Caucasia 11,181,000 


70,501,000 
27,786,000 
27,780,000 
18,714,000 
15,000,000 
14,581,000 


30,000,000 
3,845,000! 
Not stated. 
Not stated. 
3,200, 0007 
Not stated. 
544,000 
300,000 


5,714,000 
2,233,000 
661,000 
653,000 
1,000 


3,021,405,000 


195,954,000 


3, 220,389,000 


608,387,000 


107,318,000 


37,359,000 


,262,000 


3,983,245,000 


1The rgo1 crop is given by Harrison (1) as 1,351,045 muids (4,825,160 


bushels). 


2In the year 1894-5 the total crop of Cape Colony was given as 920,369 
muids (3,287,032 bushels), (Wallace, 1). 


CHAP. 
LIL 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


48 MAIZE 


East Africa, Madagascar, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, China, Japan, 
the Malay Archipelago, and New Caledonia. 

36. Distribution in the United States.—The United States 
has 108,750,000 acres under maize and produces 75 per cent 
of the world’s crop, but though maize is grown to a greater or 
less extent in most of the States of the Union, 58 per cent of 
the crop is produced in the comparatively small region com- 
prising the seven central States of Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio. These are known as 
the “Corn-surplus States,” because they are practically the 
only States which grow more than is required for their own 
consumption. Their combined area is only about 268,000,000 
acres, or 114 per cent of the total area of the United States, 
and some 25,000,000 acres less than the area of the Union of 
South Africa excluding native territories. Only 18 per cent of 
the land of these seven corn-surplus States is planted to maize, 
but it produces 481,614,384 muids, or 58 per cent of the total 
crop of the country. The area of the Transvaal is approxi- 
mately 71,000,000 acres; if only 18 per cent were under crop 
to maize, and if the average yield were only 5 muids per acre 
(only half the average of the Corn-belt), the Transvaal would 
be producing the respectable crop of 64,000,000 muids of 
maize. 

Tasie IX. 


STATISTICS OF THE MAIZE-SURPLUS STATES. 


Squ A lant Yield i 06 ae 
« are Average plante jield in 1906. viel 
Corn-surplus States. Miles, lo Maize, Bichele per ree 
Bushels. 
Iowa . 7 . ‘: 56,025 9,450,000 373,275,000 390°5 
Illinois é 5 * 56,650 9,616,886 347,169,585 36°1 
Nebraska ‘ 4 * 77,510 7,325,000 249,782,500 34°1 
Missouri. “i ° 69,415 7,075,000 228,522,500 32°3 
Kansas : . E 82,080 6,750,000 195,075,000 28°9 
Indiana ‘ : 3 36,350 4,643,782 183,893,767 39°6 
Ohio . 5 : ‘ 41,060 3,325,000 141,645,000 42°6 
419,090 | 48,185,668 | 1,719,363,352 36°15 


The maize zone of the United States may, for practical 
purposes of competition with other parts of the world, be 


GEOGRAPIIICAL DISTRIBUTION 49 


considered as lying east of the tooth meridian. It occupies 
the rich, alluvial bottom lands of the rivers Missouri, Missis- 
sippi, Ohio, and their tributaries. West of this there are, 
roughly speaking, four zones of vegetation, none of which is 
likely to become a maize producer of importance, owing to the 
climatic and other conditions described below. A_ recent 
American authority has stated that this country has now 
reached a point where increased acreage will play a minor réle 
in the future in the increased production of this great cereal 
(Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

37. The Sub-arid Zone.—The western portion of the States 
of South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, 
lying, approximately, west of the 1ooth meridian, is a sub- 
arid zone of prairie, nearly 200 miles wide, where, without 
irrigation, good crops grow only one or two years out of five. 
The eastern border of this zone roughly corresponds with the 
2,000 feet contour, where the country begins to rise from the 
river basin towards the Rocky Mountains. 

38. The Rocky Mountains Zone.—West of the sub-arid zone 
lie the Rocky Mountains, comprising pastoral and forest areas. 

39. The Great Basin.—Between the Rocky Mountains 
and the Sierra Nevada of California, lies the Great Basin, at 
one time known as the ‘‘Great American Desert”. Though 
the rainfall is scanty, this region is scarcely a desert in the 
ordinary sense of the word; it is largely covered with sage- 
brush and sparse grass furnishing grazing for stock. Crops are 
only grown where irrigation can be applied, and irrigated land 
grows lucerne more profitably than maize. 

40. The Pacific Slope-—In the northern portion there is 
ample rain, but, as it falls principally in winter, the region 
is not well suited to maize-growing on a large scale. The 
irrigated lands can be more profitably planted to lucerne and 
fruit than to maize. A certain amount of sugar maize is 
grown for canning and eating fresh as “ green corn”. 

41. The Atlantic States—The North Atlantic States of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and the New England 
States, have too short a growing season to produce large crops 
of maize. Sugar maize is extensively grown, however, for 
canning purposes, even in localities too far north to permit of 
the ripening of the grain. In New Hampshire maize is grown 

4 


CHAP. 
III. 


CHAP. 
ITI. 


50 MAIZE 


in greenhouses for the very early market (Rave, 1). Virginia, 
North Carolina, and Georgia are the only ones of the Atlantic 
States which produce any quantity of maize grain. The im- 
mediate coast region of the South Atlantic States is not much 
of a maize zone, partly on account of the character of the soil. 

42. Canada.—The Canadian climate, speaking broadly, is 
better suited to wheat than to maize. But a number of the 
earlier-maturing breeds are grown and ripen grain in the 
eastern portion of Ontario Province, and the southern part of 
the Provinces of Montreal and Quebec. Ontario has about 
332,000 acres, and Quebec 33,000 under maize. 

43. Mexico.—As is the case in most of the Latin-American 
countries, the agricultural resources of Mexico are by no means 
well developed. The topography and consequent climatic 
conditions stand in the way, but a good deal more could be 
done by the development of irrigation, The north-western 
States of Lower California, Sonora, and Chihuahua are very 
dry, the average (twenty-two years) rainfall in the case of 
Lower California being only 10°5 inches. In most parts of the 
country maize and beans (frijoles) form the staple article of 
diet. The principal maize areas are south of the States of 
Sinaloa, Durango, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas. 

In the drier States, such as Lower California, Coahuila, 
Durango, Nuevo Leon, and Yucatan, maize is mainly grown 
under irrigation, yet even in some of these, especially Sinaloa 
and Chihuahua, the maize area is considerable and is in- 
creasing. In others the crop might be doubled by irrigation. 
The strip of coast land is largely devoted to special tropical 
crops. The Maize-belt lies between this and the dry interior, 
at an altitude of 3,000 to 6,000 feet, where the climate re- 
sembles that of Southern Italy. Maize is the chief product 
of the States of Aguas Calientes and Colima. The estimated 
yields per acre range from 44 to 14 muids (15 to 50 bushels). 
In some parts two crops a year are produced. In some States 
American capital, machinery, and enterprise are being applied 
with promising results to maize- and cattle-growing. 

44. Central America and the West Indies.—Maize is grown 
to a limited extent throughout Central America, but though 
used as an article of diet, it does not form an important article 
of commerce, other tropical products paying better. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 51 


45. Tropical South America.—Maize is grown to a greater 
or less extent in all of the tropical South American countries, 
but statistics of production seem to be non-existent in most 
cases, Chile is reported to have had 63,100 acres under crop 
in 1908, and Uruguay 524,200 acres in 1907. Peru and 
Bolivia are also known to produce for their own consumption. 
In Brazil maize is grown in the more open parts, two crops a 
year being produced in some places. Flint breeds form prac- 
tically the only variety grown, and the yield per acre is said 
to be higher than in the United States. The dense tropical 
forests which clothe the river valleys are unsuited to the pro- 
duction of maize, and there manioc largely takes its place. 

46. Argentina,—Argentina is the most serious competitor 
with South Africa for the maize trade of the world, and the 
only country that she has to fear at the present time. In the 
season 1908-9 Argentina had 8,342,559 acres under maize, 
and her crop was 49,590,000 muids, or an average of nearly 
6 muids per acre; on some farms 14 to 17 muids (50 to 60 
bushels) are obtained. 


The planting season extends from the middle of August , 


to the middle of January, but the safest time is considered to 
be from the middle of September to the middle of December. 
Early planting gives the best yield when the season is favour- 
able. The crop is drilled, not check-rowed; it is harrowed 
when the plants are 2 or 3 inches high, and hilled up by 
machinery when 12 inches high. Ninety per cent of the 
crop consists of a small flint type, much appreciated on the 
London and Liverpool markets; Hzckory King and Queen 
have also been tried. There is a tendency to harvest before 
the crop is mature, in order to get the grain to the coast 
before the heavy rains begin ({ 29). In some seasons locusts 
play serious havoc with the crop. The Provinces of Buenos 
Aires and Santa Fé are the largest producers. 

47. Possible Increase in the Argentine Crop.—Fifty per 
cent of the total crop is exported, but it is likely that local 
consumption will increase owing to the enormous develop- 
ment of the meat-packing trade. However, with increased 
local demand, there will certainly be an increase in acreage 
under crop. During the five years 1905 to 1909 inclusive, 
the average annual increase in area planted to maize amounted 

4* 


CHAP. 
III. 


52 MAIZE 


CHAP. to 78 per cent, the production 28 per cent and the export 33 


III. 


per cent. Only about an eighth part (say 12 per cent) of the 
area suited to the production of the four crops, wheat, maize, 
linseed, and oats, is at present under cultivation. Of this, 
one-half is devoted to wheat and one-quarter to maize. Eight 
times the present maize acreage would be 66,000,000 acres, 
which at 6 muids per acre gives a potential crop of 396,000,000 
muids. Unless the population in the country increases, this 
means a possible surplus of 198,000,000 muids for export. The 
importing countries consumed, in the year 1908-9, only about 
49,689,180 muids. If the present rate of increase in Argen- 
tine maize exports is maintained, viz. 33 per cent increase in four 
years, it will take twenty-eight or perhaps thirty years for the 
export to reach the maximum indicated above. By that time 
local consumption in Argentina will probably have increased 
greatly, as it has done in the United States. Out of a crop of 
850,000,000 muids (more than double the potential crop of 
Argentina) the United States exports only about I°5 per cent 
or 8,500,000 muids. If the States continue to export I 
per cent, and the Argentine export falls to 1 per cent of 
her potential crop, the two countries will only export about 
12,500,000, or one-quarter of the present world’s imports, 
instead of ¢hree-quarters, as at present. This will leave 
ample opportunity for South Africa to supply 25,000,000 to 
30,000,000 muids, while the Danube and South Russia can 
make up the balance. This estimate makes no allowance for 
increase in consumption by importing countries, which is 
steadily growing. Under these circumstances there seems to 
be plenty of room for the expansion of the South African 
maize trade. 

48. Europe.—In the ten years from 1880 to 1890 the pro- 
duction of maize in the Austro-Hungarian Empire is said to 
have increased by 40 per cent, but during the last few years 
the maize acreage and production have been fairly uniform, 
and no great increase in future is to be expected. 

Most of the crop is grown on the rich, alluvial plain soils 
of the Danube, Dnieper, and Dniester Rivers, Roumania, 
Hungary, and Bessarabia together furnishing over half of the 
European crop. This is largely exported from Odessa, Galatz, 
and Fiume; grain forms three-quarters of the export trade of 
Galatz. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 53 


In Roumania maize is the staple crop, and the staple 
food-stuff of the people; there are local distilleries which 
produce whisky from the maize. 

Italy is the next largest producer with about 15 per cent 
of the European crop. The largest and richest. agricultural 
area is the basin of the River Po, including the plains of 
Lombardy, Venetia, and Emilia. Part of the crop is shipped 
from Genoa and part from Venice; at the latter port the 
grain is stored in air-tight silos to await shipment. 

49. Asia.—Very little information is obtainable as to the 
culture of maize among Asiatic peoples. Maize is grown in 
India, Ceylon, Persia, China, Japan, and the Malay Archi- 
pelago, but few statistics are accessible except in the case of 
India. The value of maize as a cereal crop is strikingly 
emphasized by its distribution in the latter country ; though 
doubtless first introduced into the Portuguese Settlements of 
the East Indies early in the sixteenth century, the conservatism 
of the Indian peoples naturally stood in the way of its adoption 
as a regular crop. As recently as 1832, Roxburgh observed 


TABLE X. 


ACREAGE UNDER MAIZE IN INDIA FOR THE DECADE 1897-8 TO 
1906-7, BOTH INCLUSIVE! 


| British India. Native States. | Total. 
| ~ as oe ie ao 
Acres. Acres. Acres. 

| 1897-1898. : : ‘ 6,414,732 | 

| 1898-1899. : : ; 6,144,240 | 

| 1899-1900. a ‘ é 5,195,472 

| 1g00-IgoT. : ‘ : 5,849,533 | 
IQOI-1g02. ‘ rl : 6,198,063 | 
1902-1903. i i : 6,331,816 306,346 | 6,638,162 
1903-1904. . . . 6,135,511 269,268 6,404,779 
1904-1905. ; : : 5,961,487 250,285 | 6,211,772 
1905-1906. “ ‘ ‘ 51790,543 221,687 | 6,012,230 

Ig06-1g07. , ‘ ‘ 6,171,751 302,350 6,494,101 

| Average . ‘ 6,019,514 269,987 | 6,352,209 


The distribution of the crop through the several Provinces is instructive ; 
the highest yields per acre are obtained in the North-west Frontier Provinces; 
the lowest (as far as we have figures) in Bengal; but Bengal has by far the 
largest acreage. 


'Indian Government Publications, 1. 


CHAP, 
Til. 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


54 MAIZE 


TasBLe XI. 
ACREAGE AND YIELDS OF MAIZE IN THE INDIAN 
PROVINCES. 
. Acreage rs Hetimated 
Province. | Planted. Yield per Acre. cae 
Bengal . i ‘ 1,802,400 820 Ibs. 7,389,840 
Agra : . + 1,454:497 1050 5, 7,636,109 
| hee », irrigated | 
; 850 ,, dry i x 
Faaab : : 1,195,849 pee 5, dry & ieee | Bpauegs 
1007 ,, mean 
Oudh wl, 710,938 | 3050 ,, 35732,424 
gee - noes ] 
re 1] 2 J 745 ” Ty 1 | 
N.W. Frontier f 390,529 | 342 1 eng Se irvigated | | 2,556,012 
I309 ,, mean 
Bombay . F f 157,079 850 ,, estimated 667,585 
Central Provinces . 135,852 850 ,, is 577,371 
Upper Burma . 106,700 850 ,, + 453475 
Madras . P ‘ 104,913 850 ,, < 445,380 
| ( ad rm Cie aa 
ee J 960 ,, dry E Bo 
Ajmer-Merwara =| 64,003 | sig, diy & irrigated | 563,226 
880 ,, mean 
Lower Burma. : 21,879 850 ,, estimated 2,985 
Eastern Bengal e 21,120 850 ,, - 89,760 
Berar : . : 2,116 850 ,, 7H 8,993 
Sind F : : 1,394 850 ,, ‘a 5,924 
Central India . : 1,269 850 ,, ae 55393 
Assam. ‘ ‘ 1,213 850 _,, ‘8 55155 
Coorg ‘ * Bee PU oReeno dacesees ids 
Native States . : 302,350 850 ,, a 1,284,987 
| 6,474,101 31,536,218 


1 Where the yield per acre varies between the irrigated and dry crops, and 
the crops fully irrigated and partly dry, the mean of these figures has been taken 
in calculating the yield. Where no yield per acre is given, the estimate has 
been made on the basis of the yield of the dry-land crop in the Panjab, which is 
probably a little on the low side. 


that maize was “cultivated in different parts of India in 
gardens, and only as an ornament, but nowhere on the con- 
tinent of India as an object of cultivation on a large scale” 
(Roxburgh, 1). In course of time native prejudice gave way 
before the unanswerable demands of hunger and a rapidly 
increasing population; Church (1) observes that in 1886 there 
were already in India 2,250,000 acres under maize. In 
another twelve vears the area under crop had increased to 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 55 


6,500,000 acres. Since then it has averaged about 6,352,000 
acres per annum, with very little variation above or below, 
from year to year, indicating that it has probably reached 
its limit of geographical and economic distribution. Maize 
has now become a staple article of food in India, especially 
among the hill peoples. The average yield per acre ranges 
from 714 lbs. to 1,841 lbs. (i.e. from less than 4 muids to over 9 
muids, the latter yield being obtained only under irrigation) ; 
the average production for all the States and Provinces is 
slightly over 5 muids per acre. Maize is grown more exten- 
sively in the hill country than on the plains, where it is 
largely replaced by rice; in the Panjab it is grown at about 
7,000 feet altitude. In Baluchistan a dwarf breed is grown 
successfully at between 5,000 and 9,000 feet altitude, where it 
forms a staple food of the people (J/weller, 1). 

It seems hardly probable that India, with its dense popu- 
lation and increasingly intensive agriculture, will become a 
maize-exporting country; it is more likely that she will be an 
importer, in exchange for some of the more costly articles of 
commerce which she produces in abundance. 

50. Australasia,—The total Australian maize area is only 
about 385,000 acres, and the crop about 3,000,000 muids, of 
which New South Wales contributes roughly one-half and 
Queensland over one-third. The coastal belt appears to be 
best suited to maize cultivation; two crops may be grown 
each year on the low coast lands of South Queensland. The 
climatic conditions of the interior of the continent appear to 
be generally too dry for maize-growing on a large scale, and 
the irrigated lands are too valuable for lucerne and dairying, 
to be devoted to maize-grain growing. Only a small quantity 
is produced in New Zealand. In New Caledonia maize is the 
principal cereal grown; it is used for feeding horses (replacing 
barley and oats), work-oxen, pigs, and poultry, but not for 
human food ( /eanney, 1). 

From the point of view of competition in the European 
trade, Australasia is not likely to be a serious competitor 
with South Africa, owing to the much greater distance from 
market, and the limited area available for maize production. 
Development of the Australian meat trade may lead to a 
larger consumption of maize, and to a steady import, in 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


56 MAIZE 


which case South Africa would be the nearest producing 
country.! 

51. North Africa.—Egypt is the largest producer of maize 
in North Africa, having nearly 2,000,000 acres under crop, 
and producing some 8,500,000 muids. Maize is a staple 
article of diet, and a certain amount is imported annually. 
The Egyptian Sudan produces only a small quantity, 
an average of 84,000 muids per annum for the three years 
to 1908 inclusive. In Algeria, owing to lack of summer rains, 
maize occupies but a very limited area, almost confined 
to the Province of Oran (Azviere and Lecog, 1), and the annual 
production is only about 125,000 muids, 

52. Tropical Africa.—Excellent maize is grown in parts 
of Rhodesia, and this Colony is likely to become a very large 
producer. A small export trade has been started (valued at 
about 430,000 in 1912), through the port of Beira. The 
development of cattle-ranching on a large scale is likely to 
lead to greater local consumption; 460,000 worth of maize 
was imported from the Union of South Africa in 1912. 

In Nyassaland a small quantity of maize is grown and 
there appears to be scope for development, but it is probable 
that more intensive crops such as coffee and cotton will prove 
more profitable for that Colony. On the uplands of British 
East Africa and the Uganda Protectorate maize-growing is on 
the increase, and it is possible that this region will become a 
competitor with South Africa for the export trade. The Suez 
Canal charges may, perhaps, more than offset the shorter sea- 
distance to Europe, but there seems to be a good opportunity 
for developing the trade with India, Ceylon, and China. 

Comparatively little maize is produced in the remainder of 
tropical Africa, partly owing to the general lack of agricultural 
development, partly to the fact, already alluded to, that maize 
does not thrive in tropical forest country, and partly, also, to 
the depredations of the elephant and wart-hog. In Italian 
Somaliland, German East Africa, Madagascar, the Astove 
atolls, the Cosmoledo Islands, and Portuguese East Africa, 
small quantities are produced, but the coast conditions do 
not seem favourable to maize production on a large scale, 
and other tropical crops generally pay better. 

'Since this was written Australia has imported 242,000 muids of South 
African maize in one season. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 57 


Maize seems to be almost unknown to many of the native 
tribes of equatorial Africa, probably for the reasons before 
given (11 21 and 30). It is grown by the Baambas to the 
west of Mt. Ruwenzori, and by the Unyoros of Uganda, but 
“bolu” (Eleusine Coracana) is said to be the favourite cereal 
of the latter people. In the Acholi country, millets appear to 
take the place of maize, except at a small Nubian settlement 
near the Nyama River, where a red kind of maize is also 
grown. A small quantity of maize is grown by the Bahoru 
at Katonia in the Ankole country east of Mt. Ruwenzori 
(Dawe, 1). Major Bright (1) states that maize is grown in large 
quantities in the plain around Kasenyi, on the west shore of 
Lake Albert, at about 2,170 feet elevation, where they are not 
troubled by elephants and wart-hogs. 

In Nigeria maize does not appear to have yet supplanted the 
native cereal, guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare var.) (IVhitlock, 1). 
In Portuguese West Africa a limited quantity of maize is pro- 
duced, and in the Congo country it is used in the preparation of 
a beverage. In 1795 Mungo Park (7rave/s) found the natives 
at Pisania, on the Gambia, cultivating maize in considerable 
quantities. The French Sahara is too dry for maize-growing ; 
water is plentiful in the country about Lake Chad, but the 
heat is intense and the rainfall very scant; during the rainy 
season (July to October inclusive), the mean fall is about 5:2 
inches, while in the very wet year of 1908 it only reached 
7°8 inches. In this region millet seems to be the staple 
cereal (77¢ho, 1). 

53. South Africa—As a field for maize-growing, the 
Union of South Africa takes front rank, and for the farmer 
with energy and enterprise there awaits a rich reward in con- 
nection with this industry. A young, vigorous, and steadily 
(if slowly) increasing population provides an expanding local 
consumption, and the world’s markets—owing to the excel- 
lent lines of communication linking South Africa with the 
older countries—lie within easy distance. 

The climate of a large part of South Africa is peculiarly 
well suited to the easy production of enormous quantities of 
maize of exceptionally good quality, especially for manufac- 
turing purposes. The rainfall is ample if the soil is cultivated 
properly. The possible planting season lasts for two months, 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


CHAP. 
III. 


58 MAIZE 


as compared with a maximum limit of eighteen days in some 
of the maize-growing States of North America. 

The moisture contained in maize exported from South 
Africa is some 4 per cent lower than that of the American-grown 
article, which minimizes danger of damage in transport, and puts 
a premium on South African grain for manufacturing purposes. 
Farmers in Argentina find their climate unfavourable to the 
proper conditioning of the crop for export (@ 29). 

Not all of South Africa is equally well suited to the pro- 
duction of maize. She has her Maize-belt just as the United 
States has her Corn-belt. The hot coastal zone and the dry 
Karroo and Kalahari regions are not well suited to maize- 
growing. The maize zone may be roughly defined as the 
country lying east of the 26th meridian, ie., a line drawn 
between Algoa Bay, Bedford, Cathcart, Queenstown, Aliwal 
North, Wepener, Bloemfontein, and thence north to Lichten- 
burg and Zeerust. From this area the coast belt below 1,000 
feet altitude, and the mountain region above 6,000 feet, should 
be excluded. 

54. Orange Free State.—The Orange Free State, together 
with the adjoining native territory of Basutoland, is by far the 
largest producer and exporter of maize of any of the four 
Provinces of the South African Union. But of the total area 
of the Province less than 2} per cent is planted to this crop, 
and in the best producing Districts only 54 per cent. The 
largest acreage and best crops are found in the north-eastern 
Districts, where the rainfall is about 11 inches during the three 
growing months of December, January, and February. A con- 
siderable part of the crop is grown by natives, and the average 
yield is estimated at only 3 muids, or 11 bushels, per acre. 

55. ZLvansvaal.—Maize is grown more or less in every 
District and on practically every farm, but the principal Dis- 
tricts, in approximate order of production, are: Bethal, 
Heidelberg, Potchefstroom, Pretoria, Standerton, Ermelo, 
Middelburg, and Lichtenburg. Most of the Transvaal maize 
is produced on the High-veld, because the population is 
greater and more land is under cultivation. A good deal is 
also raised in the Upper and Lower Bush-veld, but chiefly by 
natives. The altitudinal range of the crop is from 600 feet at 
Komatie-poort, to over 6,000 feet in the Steenkampsberg and 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 59 


Drakensberg ; but the major part comes from the plateau be- 
tween 4,000 and 5,500 feet. The south-western Districts are 
less suited to the production of the ordinary types of maize 
owing to low rainfall, short growing season, and often shallow 
soil. But it is probable that in time breeds will be developed 
especially suited to the climate and soil of that part of the 
country. 

560. Relative Vtelds of Transvaal Districts.—The relative 
productiveness of a District cannot be determined from the 
actual number of bags of grain produced by it, for the simple 
reason that the areas of the different Districts are so enor- 
mously disproportionate; as an example we need only com- 
pare that of Bethal (384,000 morgen) with the Zoutpansberg, 
which is nineteen times its size (7,256,400 morgen’). The 
best method of comparison of relative productiveness is to 
reduce the yield to the average of some unit common to all, 
e.g. an acre, morgen, or square mile. 

The writer has therefore reduced the maize yields of the 
Transvaal to the average per square mile, which is the most 
convenient unit to use in the present state of agricultural de- 
velopment. In the following table (XII) the Districts are 
arranged in order of productiveness. 

If we considered only the total production of a District, 
we should have to give Lichtenburg first place with 191,405 
bags, whereas in yield per square mile of veld she comes 
only sixth on the list. 

The value of closer settlement and consequent improve- 
ment in cultivation of the soil are clearly brought out by the 
fact that the Witwatersrand goldfields produce more maize 
per square mile than any other District of the Transvaal. 
The Witwatersrand, comprising the Magisterial Districts of 
Johannesburg, Germiston, and Boksburg, is the most thickly 
populated area in the Transvaal; it covers only 556 square 
miles, a large part of which is occupied by mines, mine 
dumps, towns, and villages; yet in 1909 it produced 68,400 
muids of maize, or 122°8 per square mile, almost doubling the 
yield of Bethal, the next largest producing District. , The 
soils of the Witwatersrand are not as suitable for maize culture 
as those of many other parts of the country. 


1] morgen = 2°1165402 acres. 


CHAP, 
Ill. 


60 MAIZE 


TABLE XII. 


AREAS AND YIELDS OF TRANSVAAL DISTRICTS. 


| 
| Average in Muids 
per Square Mile. 


| Area.1 


District. Square Miles. Morgen. 2 Muids. Pee 
| 1908-9. 1909-10. # 
blag «spony St | 
Johannesburg. | 18 4°18 | 55,692 | 
‘Total Wit- | 556°78 | 168,358 68,399°5 | 122°8 | -122°8 
watersrand 
(excluding | | 
Krugersdorp 
Bethal a a I,270°04 334,035 93,5550 | 93°3 | 170°0 | 
Heidelberg : 2,351°O1 711,081 140,496°0 59°7 102°9 
Standerton . 2,003 62 | 605,855 119,062°0 50°4 go's 
Potschefstroom . | 4,904°15 1,482,918 | 190,653°3 38°8 58°7 
Lichtenburg ‘ 4,478°81 1,354,304 IQI,405'0 42°97 35°0 
Wolmaransstad . 2,0061'69 623,414 51,929'0 25°1 29° 
Middelburg : 5,028°98 1,520,664 | 106,796°5 213) 371 
Ermelo ss : 3,003°43 908,178 56,7510 189 36°0 
Wakkerstroom . | 2,197'76 664,559 39,123°5 17°38 20°9 
Krugersdorp : | 1,174°67 355,197 19,800°5 16°8 25°5 
Piet Retief. | 1,615°93 | 488,625 25,100°0 15'5 31°5 
Pretoria 6,641°54 | 2,008,272 73,486°5 Ilo 376 
Carolina . vl 2,095°72 | 633,704 14,231°0 6:3 27°6 
Bloemhof . | 3,703°53 965,661 19,754'0 62 79 
Marico ; 3,636°89 1,099,724 18,423°75 570 Sr 
Lydenburg | 10,176°84 3,077,276 43,239°5 4i2 | 6-9 
Waterberg . : 15,625'°77 | 4,724,925 64,242°0 4°I 69 
Zoutpansberg. 23,997°78 7,256,455 65,3680 247, 16°1 
Rustenburg ‘ 95739°73 2,942,381 25,017°5 2°6 O°4 
Barberton . ° 4,679°57 I,415,010 9,900°5 21 37 
| eer 
Total i 110,425°84 | 3313701596 | 1,437,834°9 | 12°9 | 42°0 


1 Figures of area kindly furnished by the Surveyor-general of the Transvaal; 
statistics by the statician of the Department of Agriculture (Foubert, 1). 

2 morgen = 2°1165402 acres. 

%Estimated only. The actual crop was only about one-half of the expected, 
owing to a remarkably unfavourable season. 


57. Natal.—Maize is produced in all parts of Natal, but 
the Midland Districts (2,000 to 3,000 feet altitude) are generally 
conceded to be the best for maize-growing. The coast-belt is 
better suited to sugar cane and citrus fruits than to maize, 
owing to the too rapid and luxuriant growth of weeds and con- 
sequent cost of cleaning the land; but the average yield per 
acre is 1} muids higher on the coast than ‘ up-country” 


LABLE A111. 


MAIZE PRODUCTION, NATAL, 1906-7. 


nate ne Acteabe | Total Yield per eae 
Magisterial Divisions. index Mase. | ae eae : 
Nata. | 
Coast — | 
Lower Umzimkulu. . ; 1,012 | 5,064 50 
Alexandra . : ? : 4,180 | 27,250 68 
ay ‘ : 7 Fe 782 4,576 59 
Inanda \ : 
Indwedwe f A ‘ 4 1,631 10,417. 6°5 
Lower Tugela \ a . 
Mapumulo— f° ; g 748 41939 oe 
as = 
Totals. ‘ 8,353 52,246 Average 6°1 
Midlands— 
Impendhle . Z 3 : 1,089 | 5,968 5°90 | 
Alfred : ‘ F ; 1,291 6,142 49 | 
Ixopo a 75319 35,670 49. 
Richmond . ‘ . é 9,882 59,230 6:0 
Umgeni and Camperdown . 16,087 73,488 45 
New Hanover . ‘ : 8,908 49,113 56 
Lion’s River : . : 4,983 22,398 4°7 
Umvoti 2 : ; : 10,132 34,287 34 
Krantzkop . A ; ; 2,242 3,837 40 
Totals. : 61,933 295,133 Average 4°9 | 
Uplands— : 
Underberg . ‘ ‘ 1,098 4,980 4°4 
Polela 5 ‘ ‘ : 92 4,290 46 
Bergville . : : : 3,229 14,758 4°5 
Estcourt. : : : 8,763 48,377 5°5 
Weenen . 4 ‘ 1,018 4,963 49 
Klip River . ‘ ‘ : 6,493 25,317 39 
Umsinga . ; ‘ : 992 4,670 48 
Dundee. : . : 8,372 34,190 4° 
Newcastle . ; , : 9,012 37,468 4° 
Vryheid | 6 
N’Gotshef 1722 Sa i 
Utrecht. : : ; 1,934 7,896 ee 
Paulpietersburg . ‘ : 1,650 6,218 3°9 
Babanango : ; , 7388 2,596 3°3 
Totals. : 40,001 | 202,683 Average 4°3 
ZULULAND, | 
Coast— | 
Eshowe : ; : dirs | ves ue 
Mtunzini . 3 : : 474 2,070 4 4 
Lower Umfolosi z : 53 265 Bye) 
Hlabisa ie ves ae 
Ubombo 
Totals . 527 2,335 Average 4°7 
Inland— 
Nqutu) | 29 476 470 
Nkandhla J ‘ es 
Emtonjaneni_. d : 907 2,919 Bi 
Mahlabatini ve : 
Ndwandwe 
Ingwavuma eee 
Totals. : 936 3,035 Average 3°6 
Grand Totals for the Province | 117,750 555432 Average 4°7 


CHAP. 


III. 


62 MAIZE 


Districts favourable for wattle-growing do not seem to be well 
suited to maize ; the rainfall and lack of sunshine are perhaps 
too great, or it may be that maize is not equally profitable 
and is therefore neglected where wattle is grown. Although 
the Uplands produce a considerable quantity (only 90,000 
muids less than the Midlands), they seem better adapted to 
stock-raising than to agriculture. 

Camperdown and Richmond Districts are considered the 


TABLE XIV. 


MAGISTERIAL DISTRICTS OF NATAL ARRANGED ACCORDING 
TO PRODUCTION. 


Yield per 
Division. Acres. Square Miles. Square Mile 
in Muids. 
Upper Umkomanzi— 

Richmond . . , - 332,800 520 IIq4'o 
Camperdown . : : F 235,520 368 : 
Umgeni . 4 ‘ A r 233,600 ca p02 
New Hanover 3 : 3 332,800 520 04°4 
Alexandra 5 A % é 428,800 670 40°7 
Umvoti . r : ‘ : 550,400 860 39°9 
Ixopo.. ‘ . F . 624,640 976 365. 
Lion’s River . . 4 f 403,200 630 35°5 
Dundee . . 7 . é 605,440 946 35°4 
Newcastle : : ‘ : 698,880 1092 34°3 
Estcourt . é 4 : . 1,164,800 1820 26'5 
Inanda 8 : 
Indwedwe f ° ‘ : ‘ 203,520 443 235 
Klip River F % 4 Z 920,960 1439 17°6 
Krantz Kop. . z 3 366,720 573 I5"4 
Bergville : . i ‘ 704,000 II00 13°4 
Alfred. : : 4 . 364,800 570 10'8 
Paulpietersburg ‘ ‘ . 395,520 618 roo 
Lower Umzimkulu . : i 341,760 534 9°5 
Umlazi . E . é . 320,000 500 QL 
Impendhle . E : ; 448,000 700 8°5 
Weenen . ‘ . 400,000 625 8-0 
Polela and Underberg 2 ‘ 774,400 1210 76 
Umsinga ‘ i ‘ 394,240 616 75 
Lower Tugela. : : : 289,920 453) 6:8 
Mapumulo_. , : z 172,800 270f 
M’Tunzini. F : : 239,360 374 5°5 
Emtonjaneni . : < ‘ 414,720 648 4°5 
Utrecht . F 2 F 1,310,720 2048 3°83 
Vryheid, N’Gotsche, and 

Babanango . 2 : P 2,729,600 4265 22 
Lower Umfolosi . r . 656,000 1025 2 
Nqutu_ . : . F ‘ 400,000 625) i 
Nkhandla 2 ‘ : : 487,680 762 f 08 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 63 


best part of the Maize-belt of Natal ; the rainfall at Mander- 
ston is about 30 inches, One of the pioneer maize-growers 
of this part of Natal, famous for his large-sized H7ckory King, 
has only 220 acres under maize, but has harvested as much as 
3,581 muids in one season, or an average of 16:28 muids per 
acre, while 10 acres averaged 22 muids; it has been his am- 
bition to get a crop of 4,000 muids from his 220 acres. He 
started maize-growing twenty-five years ago, and the first sea- 
son only produced 5 muids per acre. Good farming and the 
regular use of bone-meal have brought up the producing power 
of the land from a non-paying to a profitable yield. 

In Table XIII the acreage given for the various 
Magisterial Divisions excludes the Boroughs of Ladysmith, 
Newcastle, and Dundee, and the townships of Greytown, 
Verulam, Utrecht, and Vryheid. Those divisions of Zulu- 
land for which there are no returns have a few hundred acres 
put under maize by Europeans, but altogether for local con- 
sumption (Harvey, 1). 

58. Cape Province.—The Cape Province produces less 
maize in proportion to total area than any of the other 
Provinces. The lack of summer rains in the south-western 
portion, the old “ Western Province,” renders that part of the 
country but poorly adapted to maize culture. In the Karroo 
and North-western Districts of the Province the total rainfall 
is too low to produce good crops of maize. In some of the 
Eastern Districts, on the other hand, especially the Transkei, 
the climate is favourable to the production of excellent maize 
crops. In these Districts, however, there does not appear to 
have been the same rapid increase in production that is notice- 
able in some other parts of South Africa ; in fact, in the twelve 
years from 1895 to 1907 the production fell in the District of 
Victoria East from 28,000 muids to nearly one-third, while in 
King William’s Town District it fell off 15 percent. In other 
Districts, however, the production increased, and in two or 
three cases it doubled and trebled. 


CHAP. 
Ill. 


CHAP. 


HI. 


64 MAIZE 


TABLE XV. 


MAIZE PRODUCTION, CAPE COLONY, 1906-7. 


| Estimated Yield. Muids. 


e Area in | Average 
Districts. oe Square |—-— | sduare 
; Miles: 1894-5. lise 0 1906-7. | “Mile. 
—— | 
Komgha  . —. —.| 342,400 | $35 13,651 38,722 2"4 
| East London : .| 428,800 670 20,480 40,556 60°5 | 
King William’s Town . 807,040 1261 si ia 71,705 56°9 
Stutterheim . . i 428,800 67 | 33,547 50°0 
| Bathurst : ¥ . 373,760 584 ‘a 23,653 49°0 
| Stockenstroom 7 200,320 313 11,674 | 13, 0364 | 41°7 
| Alexandria. r : 615,040 g6r 39,329 40°9 
| Victoria East : : 241,920 378 28,260 10,740 | 2874 
| Fort Beaufort c ; 545,920 853 13,722 17,314 | 209 
| Cathcart : : i 634,240 ggI Ess 18,276 | 184 
| Knysna ‘ . fe 621,600 815 10,624 13'0 
Aliwal North 5 4 613,760 959 ae 11,645 | ror 
|Queenstown. . — .| 1,232,000 | 1925 17,315 22,990 II'9 
| Humansdorp : . | 1,235,200 1930 9,317 19,7774 | 10°22 
| Albany . és : . | 1,066,240 | 1666 be 14,967 go 
| Wodehouse . : . | 1,254,400 1g60 ae II,009 5°6 
| Mafeking. : - | 2,345,600 | 3665 aan 12,870 35 
| Herschel | ae 693 32,880 wes ae | 
| Glen Grey | 825 27,860 
| Bedford | 1200 13,277 
| Oudtshoorn . 1630 11,228 | 
| Peddie . P 619 9,704 
| Somerset East * | | 2900 8,576 
| Graaf Reinet -| | 2651 7,859 
| | | | 415,780 | 
! | 


Addendum,—The possibilities of Rhodesia have been re- 
ferred to in 1 52. Average yields of ten (and even twenty) 
bags of maize, year after year, are reported. It is stated that 
about one-third of the whole of the Mazoe Valley country 
could be planted to maize and that in the Kafue Valley of 
N.W. Rhodesia there are vast stretches of level alluvial soils, 
suitable for maize, recalling the level plains of the North 
American Corn-belt. The total area of Rhodesia is approxi- 
mately 250,000,000 acres ; if only one-fiftieth part were planted 
to maize, and yielded on the average only 7 muids per acre, 
the country would be producing 35,000,000 muids. 


CHAPTER IV. 
BOTANICAL CHARACTERS. 


Day by day did Hiawatha 
Go to wait and watch beside it 


Till at last a small green feather 
From the earth shot slowly upwards, 
Then another and another, 

And before the summer ended, 

Stood the maize in all its beauty, 
With its shining robes about it 

And its long, soft, yellow tresses. 
And in rapture, Hiawatha 

Cried aloud, “It is Mondamin! 


Yes, the friend of man, Mondamin!”’ 
—Hiawatha. 


Tis sweet... to... scent the breathing maize at setting day. 
—COLLINS. 


59. Botanical Relationship.—Maize belongs to the group cHap. 


of Monocotyledons, and the family Gramineew, or Grasses ; 
it is the type of the tribe Maydee to which the genera 
Euchlena, Coix, and Tripsacum also belong. Of these, 
Euchlena (Fig. 10) is its nearest relative, and the only one 
with which it is known to hybridize. Some botanists are 
inclined to consider Euchlzna as the prototype of Zea, for the 
latter is not known in a truly wild state. Montgomery 
considers that Zea and Euchlana may have had a common 
origin, and that in the process of evolution the pistillate spikes 
in teosinte were probably developed from the lateral branches 
of a tassel-like structure, while maize was developed from the 
central spike (cf. Fig. 40) (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

60. Descraption.—The maize plant (Figs. 11 and 12)isa tall, 
annual, moncecious grass, with stout, erect, solid stem, and 
broad leaves; the staminate flowers form a terminal panicle ; 
the pistillate flowers are arranged in a densely-crowded spike, 

65 5 


IV. 


66 MAIZE 


CHAP. 
IV. 


be) 
v 
< 
S 
s 
© 


Fic. ro.—Teosinte, Euchlena mexicana, a near relative of the maize plant, 
and the only species with which it is known to hybridize. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 67 


the ‘ear,’ terminating a short lateral branch and closely CHAP. 
enveloped in leaf-sheaths called the husk; the long styles, !Y 
exserted in anthesis, form the sz/k or beard. 

6t. Plant Structure—All plants are living organisms, 
which feed and breathe in order to grow and multiply their 
kind. Their food-material consists of water, several of the 


Fic. 11.—Maize plants in the Transvaal. 


chemical substances of which the soil is composed, and carbon 
which is obtained from the air. 

Plants are built up of a vast number of ceé/s of different 
forms (Fig. 13); the cell is a microscopic sac usually consisting 
of a cell-wall surrounding a jelly-like mass called protoplasm 
(Fig. 13C). The cell-wall is a colourless membrane composed 

5 * 


CHAP. 
IV. 


68 MAIZE 


of cellulose ; as it surrounds each cell, cellulose forms a large 
part of the substance of the higher plants. Protoplasm is 
the Zving substance of the plant, and comprises various 
minute, differentiated bodies, some of which (‘he chloroplasts) 
contain a green colouring matter (chdorophyll), and are present 


Fic. 12.—Flowering plants of maize (Zea Mays). A, Tassel. B, Leaf- 
blade. C, Leaf-sheath (the stem is entirely surrounded by the sheath). D, Ear 
surrounded by husks. E, Silk exposed for some days. F, New silk just appear- 
ing (Photograph by D. W. Macdonald). 


in such enormous quantities that they cause the whole plant- 
surface to appear green. 

In the more highly-developed forms of plant life the cells 
are not massed together promiscuously, but are associated in 
groups forming bands, plates, or cylindrical masses called 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 69 


tassues (Fig. 14). The tissues of such plants become differ- 
entiated into groups, forming organs which have different duties 
to perform, Of these organs the most important are the root, 
stem, and leaf which are connected with nutrition and growth, 
and the jfower which contains the reproductive organs of 
the plant. The life-cycle of the maize plant begins with the 
fertilization of the egg-cell in the ovule by the male germ 
cell, as described in § 78, by which a new plant-being is 
brought into existence. The new cell, formed by the union 


Fic. 13. Fic. 14. 

Fic. 13.—Plant cells, as seen under a high-power microscope, showing 
strands of protoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, etc. A, B, young cells; C, an older 
cell, from the developing maize root; D, cell from the hair of Tradescantia; 
E, parenchymatous cell from the cortex of Ranunculus, (From Sir F, Darwin’s 
Elements of Botany, Cambridge University Press.) 

Fic. 14.—Transverse section through a leaf (of hellebore), showing tissues 
and cells. From above downwards are seen the upper epidermis, the palisade 
cells, the spongy tissue (in which a vascular bundle is seen), the lower epidermis 
(in which is shown a single stoma opening into a large intercellular space). 
Note that the chloroplasts are arranged along the cell walls, especially in the 
palisade tissue (A). (From Sir F. Darwin’s Elements of Botany, Cambridge 
University Press.) 


of the two germ-cells, develops by cell-growth and repeated 
cell-division (somatic division) into a seed. 

62. Lhe Seed.—The seed consists of an embryo plant and 
a mass of reserve food-material known as endosperm, wrapped 
in two protective seed-coats, the outer or ¢esfa and the inner 
or fegmen. In the case of maize and other grasses, the seed 
is further surrounded by the perzcarp or envelope of the grain 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


46 MAIZE 


or fruit, which in many kinds of plants encloses more than 
one seed, but in grasses and some other plants only one. We 
may therefore define the seed as a miniature living plant and 
its food-supply, wrapped in a protective envelope. The pro- 
duction of seed is a provision of nature to enable a living 
plant to remain dormant during a period when climatic con- 
ditions, as, for example, an intensely cold winter or a long, 
dry summer, are unfavourable to its existence as an active 
organism. 

63. The Embryo and Endosperm.—The embryo (Fig. 15B) 
is the vital part of a seed; it is a living, though dormant, 
plant-in-embryo. The embryo comprises all the essential 


Fig, 15.—Embryo and endosperm of maize. A, Section through maize grain 
showing relative position of embryo and endosperm. a, hull; 6, aleurone 
layer; c, horny endosperm; d, white starchy endosperm; e¢, plumule; /f, radicle ; 
g, scutellum. B, Embryo removed. C, Germinating embryo. 


organs of growth, i.e. the vadzcle which develops into the root 
of the plant; the cotyledon or seed-leaf; and the plumule or 
young shoot, which develops into stem and leaves. In maize 
and other grasses the growing embryo absorbs the endosperm 
through a special organ, the scztel/um (so named from its 
shield-like shape), which in maize can readily be seen with a 
low-power microscope. The embryo of the maize-grain lies 
to one side of the endosperm (Fig. 15A); as the grain stands 
on the ear, the embryo is on the upper side of the grain, ie. 
facing toward the tip of the ear, its position being indicated 
by an oval depression in the grain. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS TL 
The endosperm (Fig. 15¢) consists of a store of prepared CHAP. 
food-material which the growing embryo absorbs for use in 1: 
the formation of new cells and tissues, in developing a root- 
system with which to absorb food-materials directly from the 
soil, and a leaf-system capable of photosynthesis (4 65). 
The seeds of some plants (e.g. the castor-bean and the 


Fic. 16.—Germinating maize grains, showing developing shoot, primary 
root, root-hairs and adventitious roots. ({1 66.) 


lucerne) contain no endosperm, but store in the cotyledons a 
supply of food-material for the use of the growing seedling ; 
such seeds are sometimes spoken of as ex-albuminous, in 
contradistinction to the albuminous or endosperm-bearing 
seeds, 

64. Germination.—The commencement of growth in a 


fe 


CHAP. 
AV. 


res MAIZE 


hitherto dormant seed is known as germination (Figs. 15¢ and 
16). A seed will not germinate until it comes under the influ- 
ence of favourable conditions, and may lie dormant for many 
years until such conditions supervene; these conditions vary 
with different sorts of plants, but all include: (1) moisture ; (2) 
heat ; and (3) sufficient air for the growing plantlet to breathe. 
The seed of the maize plant will retain its vitality for two or 
even three years; but after the first year there is a marked 
decrease in vitality, and after two years maize is considered 
practically useless as seed ; this is independent of any question 
of injury by weevil or grain moth, and may, perhaps, be con- 
nected in some way with the presence of a considerable quan- 
tity of oil in the embryo; this oil readily turns rancid at high 
temperatures. 

Experiments conducted at the Botanical Experiment 
Station of the Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, show that 
it requires from three and a half to eleven days after sowing 
the maize-seed for the seedling to appear above the ground. 
The difference in time of germination is largely influenced by 
the warmth of the soil; but it is evident that temperature is 
not the sole controlling factor, and that associated with it is 
the degree of moisture of the soil. Depth of planting also 
affects germination, deep planting tending to delay it; 
very shallow planting (i.e. less than 2 inches) has in South 
Africa a similar effect, perhaps because the surface soil is 
more rapidly affected by drought. The germinating embryo 
depends on the endosperm for its supply of food-material 
until it has developed a root- and leaf-system ({ 63). In 
germination the radicle grows downwards or earthwards, and 
is therefore said to be geotropic; the plumule upwards or 
away from the earth, and it is therefore called apogeotropic. 

If the seed be turned upside down so that the radicle is 
forced to commence growth upwards and the plumule to grow 
downwards, they quickly bend round until they have regained 
their normal positions; this is shown in Fig. 17, 

65. The Maize Seedling —The seedling stage (Fig. 18) of 
the maize plant is in many respects the most critical in its ex- 
istence. While it is small it is more seriously affected by the 
depredations of insect pests (chap. X.), and is more sensitive 
to fluctuations in the weather conditions. It is obvious that 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 93 


if it has only one or two leaves, and these are eaten off CHAP. 
by a caterpillar, the plant will suffer more than when it has me 
six leaves, some of which will be able to function and repair 

the damage done while the others are being devoured. If the 
root-system only penetrates to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, 

the young plant is more likely to suffer from a temporary 
drought than if its roots are tapping. a supply of soil moisture 

at a greater depth. It is highly desirable, therefore, that the 
seedling should be encouraged to get beyond this critical 


Fic. 17.—Maize-grains planted upside down, showing geotropism of the 
root and apogeotropism of the shoot. 


stage as quickly as possible; this is one important reason for 
the use of artificial fertilizers in South Africa (chap. VIIL). 
After the seedling has developed a root- and leaf-system of 
its own (Fig. 18), growth is rapid if suitable conditions prevail. 
Conditions favourable to rapid growth include warmth and 
moisture of the soil, sunshine, and a suitable tilth of soil to 
prevent water-logging. At the Geneva (New York, U.S.A.) 
Experiment Station, growth of the maize plant has been 
measured and found to range from 3 to 184 inches per week; 


CHAP. 
IV. 


714 MAIZE 


a growth of 5 inches has been recorded on one day under 
specially favourable conditions in Iowa, and in Illinois an 
increase of growth equal to 1,300 Ibs. of dry matter per acre 
was recorded in a single week. 

66. The Root and Its I'unctions.—The root is the part of 
the plant which grows downward into the soil for the purpose 


Fic, 18,—Maize seedlings at two stages of growth, the youngest on the left. 


of anchorage and absorption of food materials; it does not 
bear leaves nor reproductive organs. The water held in the 
soil dissolves the carbonates, nitrates, and other salts which 
occur in the soil. Dilute solutions of these are drawn in 
through the minute rvot-hazrs (Fig. 16) on the younger roots, 
and are carried up into the plant, where they are chemically 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 48 


changed into the various compounds on which the plant lives 
and grows. The plant gets most of the elementary constitu- 
ents of its food in this way, 

Maize is a surface-rooting plant. The majority of its 
permanent roots usually start at about 1 inch below the sur- 
face of the soil, regardless of the depth of planting (Auwt, 
1), The general tendency of the roots is to spread horizon- 
tally, near the surface, for 1 or 2 feet all round, and then 
to turn abruptly downward. As a rule the horizontal roots 
occur within 4 inches of the surface. Hunt (1) found that 
in young plants one to six weeks old, by far the largest part 
of the root-system occurred at a depth of 2 to 4 inches 
from the surface. He concludes that the distribution of the 
roots is probably dependent more upon a proper supply of 
oxygen and water than upon temperature of the soil. 

Maize roots have been measured 8 feet in length (not 
depth). They have been traced to a depth of 4 feet and 
slightly over, but as a rule most of the root-mass occurs within 
the first 2 feet of soil, The following measurements have 
been recorded :-— 


Height of plant 4 inch, root 8 inches long. 
44 5 3 inches, root 13 inches long 
oF 5 5 inches, root 11 to 24 inches long. 


The joints (zodes) at the lower portion of the stem, above 
the surface of the soil, are often provided with roots, few or 
many in number, called adventitious or “ brace-roots” (Fig. 
23), some of which grow downward till they reach the soil, 
and then appear to assist in anchoring the plant. These ad- 
ventitious roots are more plentiful in some of the less improved 
Tropical American breeds (e.g. Cusco, Mevrican, etc.) than in 
many of the more highly-bred North American sorts. In 
some breeds they occur at a considerable distance up the stem ; 
it seems probable that in such cases the plants are accustomed 
to grow on river banks, subject to floods which carry a deep 
deposit of river mud, and into which the “brace-roots” may 
penetrate. 

From the above description of the root-system we draw the 
following conclusions: /77s7, that the maize plant being a sur- 
face feeder requires that its food supply shall be within a short 


CHAP. 
IV. 


16 MAIZE 


ake distance of the surface ; second, that deep cultivation while the 


Fic. 19.—Part of a transverse section of a maize stem, showing mass of pith, 
with scattered vascular bundles, more numerous near the stem-wall. (From 
Cavers’ Practical Bolany, W. B. Clive.) 


plants are growing is likely to prune off the surface-roots and 
thus reduce the absorptive power of the plant; ¢hzrd, that 


cee PROTOPHLOEM 


SIEVE TUBES 
COMPANION CELLS 


cee 
LOGOS LARGE PITTED 
os VESSELS 
SMALL PITTED 
VESSELS 
SPIRAL AND 
= ANNULAR VESSELS 
XYLEM PARENCHYMA 
rae LYSIGENOUS CAVITY 


SCLERENCHYMA 


Fic. 20.—Transverse section of vascular bundle of maize. (From Cavers’ 
Practical Botany, W. B. Clive.) 


surface-rooting weeds interfere with the supply of moisture 
and plant-food required by the maize crop. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS a3, 


67. The Stem and Its Functions.—The stem grows upward CHAP. 
and bears the leaves and inflorescences (Hig, 12). Tt ishuiltap °% 
of a series of lengths or ¢zternodes connected by joints or 


A B Cc 


Fic. 21.—Part of a radial longitudinal section of stem of maize, showing 
one of the vascular bundles. A and G, parenchyma of the ground tissue; B and 
F, sclerenchyma ; C, phloem; D, pitted vessels of the xylem; E, spiral and 
annular vessels. (From Cavers’ Practical Botany, W. B. Clive.) 


nodes. In many grasses it is hollow, but in the maize plant 
it is filled with pct, which consists largely of cellulose. The 
hard outer portion or stem-wall contains numbers of fibres 
called vascular bundles (Fig. 19), through the woody part 


Fic. 22.—Part of a tangential longitudinal section of stem of maize, show- 
ing one of the vascular bundles. Aand E, parenchyma (ground tissue); B and 
D, sclerenchyma; C, xylem—note the large pitted vessel on either side, and the 
small pitted vessels in the middle. (From Cavers’ Practical Botany, W. B. 
Clive.) 


(xylem) of which the solution of water and food-material ab- 
sorbed by the roots travels upward to the leaves. As in other 
grasses the stem-wall is well supplied with silica, which aids 


CHAP. 
IV. 


78 MAIZE 


in maintaining it in an erect position. Because they differ 
from the stems of other families of plants, the stems of grasses 
are usually spoken of as cus. 

The stem or culm of the maize plant is extremely variable 
in height, ranging from 14 to 30 feet in different breeds and 
in different climates ; the usual range in South Africa is from 
about 5 to 14 feet. At the Botanical Experiment Station, 
Pretoria, in 1907-8, the maximum height! was 6 feet 6 inches 
(2 plants), and the minimum 3 feet, while the average of 313 
plants was 5 feet 4 inches. The circumference of an average 
stem ranges from about 3 to 44 inches between the first and 
second nodes, in a dent or flint maize. 

The internodes are channelled on alternate sides, next 
the leaf blade, and on the side where the branch or ear may 
occur, 

The histology of the maize stem has been studied by Dr. 
Cavers (1), whose illustrations of the tissues are reproduced here 
(Figs. 19 to 22), by kind permission. Figs, 19 and 20 show 
transverse sections through one of the lower internodes, and 
21 and 22 longitudinal sections. 

The function of the stem is to carry food materials from 
the roots to the leaves, and then to other parts of the plant, 
and to raise the leaves and inflorescences into the air and light, 
to facilitate photosynthesis (4 69) and pollination (4 73). 

68. Sucker-shoots—The maize plant often produces sucker- 
shoots (Fig. 23), especially when planted thinly; these are 
branches which arise from the lower nodes near or below the 
surface of the soil. Some breeds have a much greater tendency 
to sucker than others; the tendency appears to be specially 
strong in cross-bred plants. These suckers often produce . 
tassels bearing both male and female flowers (Fig. 24), which 
sometimes develop small, round grains. As a rule suckers 
do not bear proper ears; they are, therefore, undesirable in 
crops grown for grain, because they take food and moisture 
from the soil and give no return except the fodder. Some 
breeds bear several branches from nodes higher up the stem, 
but as a rule the stems are unbranched except for the suckers 
and the shanks of the ears, for the shanks are in reality only 
short branches. 


1 Of a cross between Iowa Silver-mine and Wisconsin white dent. 


79 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 


CHAP. 


IV. 


‘s}OOYs-1ay9NS puk $}OOI SNONHuUaape Sulmoys Gueyd azieur Sunod yo aseg—Ez “org 


CHAP. 
IV. 


80 MAIZE 


69. The Leaf and Its Functions —The leaves are borne on 
the stem around which the sheath (Figs. 12c and 25), or lower 
portion of the leaf, is closely wrapped ; the broad upper portion 
which spreads away from the stem is called the d/ade (Figs. 12B 
and 26c). At the junction of sheath and blade there is a pro- 
jection which clasps the stem, and which is called the /eule 
(Figs. 25 and 26). To a certain extent the ligule of the maize 
plant checks the entrance of water and soil, which might start 
decay between the sheath and the stem. 


Fic. 24.—Tassels of sucker-shoots, bearing small round grains as well as 
the normal male spikelets. 


The leaf blade of the maize plant is long, broad, and 
flat, with wavy margins; the mid-rib is broad and strong 
(Fig. 5). The surface is usually more or less rough with 
scattered, adpressed white hairs (Fig. 25), which may be short 
or longer. The cuticle is found by Wager (1) to form a thin 
layer on both surfaces, with practically no difference in thick- 
ness in the different breeds. 

In the dent variety of maize the number of leaves on a 
stem usually varies from 12 to 18, but as the lower leaves die 
off before maturity, it may happen that only about 12 function 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 81 


at one time; 15 is usually considered a desirable number. 
The average number for 313 plants’ at the Botanical Experi- 
ment Station, Pretoria, in 1907-8 was 10°3, the maximum 
being 14 (on 3 plants only) and the minimum 6 (on 2 plants 


only). Leaf measurements were made of these 313 plants, 
the sixth from the base was selected as the most fully de- 


Fic. 25.—Leaf sheath and base of blade, showing ligules, and hairs on 
blade. 


veloped ; the maximum width was 5:25 inches, the minimum 
2°5 inches, and the average 3°8 inches. 

The total external leaf-surface of a single maize plant has 
been measured, at the Missouri State Experiment Station, and 
found to equal 24 square feet. An acre often carries over 


1Of a cross between Iowa Silver-mine and Wisconsin white dent. 


6 


CHAP. 
EN: 


82 MAIZE 


CHAP. 8,500 maize plants, which, with 24 feet of leaf-surface each, 
would yield a total of 204,000 square feet, or 4°68 times the 
area of the soil covered by the crop. 


IV. 


B, A sheath 


sually long auricles. 
C, Blade removed, showing ligule at 


A, Sheath wrapped round stem, showing unu 


removed and opened, showing shorter auricles, with ligule between them. 


Fic. 26.—Leaf sheath. 
base (stem end). 


The following method of measuring the leaf-surface of 
maize has been recommended by some of the Agricultural 
Experiment Stations in the United States :— 


Select an average-sized leaf. 
Take the width at 3 inches from the ligule, 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 53 


Take the width at 6 inches from the tip of the leaf. 

Take the average of these two measurements and multiply by the length of 
leaf between the two points of measurement. 

Add the area of the isosceles triangle formed by the 6 inches left at the tip. 

Multiply by 2 for the two surfaces. 

Multiply by the number of leaves on the plant. 


The leaves absorb air into their tissues through microscopic 
openings called stomata (Figs. 14 and 27). At the suggestion 
of the writer, Mr. H. A. Wager (1), of the Transvaal University 
College, Pretoria, kindly undertook to determine the number 
of stomata on the maize leaf. He found that on the under 
surface they varied from 75 to 126 per square millimetre, and 
on the upper surface from 60 to 97. Carbon-dioxide (CO,) 
is one of the gases of which the air is composed, and consists 
of the two chemical elements 
carbon and oxygen. When the 
air comes in contact with the 
chloroplasts ({1 61) in the leaf- 
cells, in the presence of light 
and moderate warmth, the 
carbon-dioxide is decomposed, 
and some of the oxygen is 
given off into the air. The 
carbon is retained, and, com- Fic. 27.—Three stomata with sur- 
bining with the water and_ rounding epidermic cells (E). G, G, 
chemical substances obtained furl of some, Tom Si F 
from the soil through the roots, bridge University Press). ; 
various complex organic com- 
pounds are formed. This chemical action takes place chiefly 
during the day-time, and only in the presence of light, and 
is therefore called photosynthesis. The new compounds are 
used in the building up of tissues required for the increasing 
growth of the plant. 

All of that enormous quantity of starch required to fill out 
the endosperm of the maize grain must first be chemically 
formed in the leaf before it is carried to the grain on the ear, 
where it is finally deposited. The importance of the leaf in 
the life-history of the plant is thus evident; 7¢ 7s a chemical 
laboratory tn which the various elements of plant-food are separ- 
ated out from the compounds in which they originally occur, and 


are re-united into such forms as can be made use of by the plant. 
6 * 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


84 MAIZE 


Maize plants poor in leaf-surface, through lack of food or 
water, or from insect-injury, damage by hail, or undue short- 
ness of growing season, cannot manufacture and store as much 
starch, and therefore fail to develop as much weight of grain 
as those with a proper proportion of leaf. It does not neces- 
sarily follow, however, that the larger the leaf-surface the 


Fic. 28.—Tassel of Odessa maize. 


greater the amount of seed produced. Beyond a certain potnt 
(which perhaps varies in different varieties or breeds), the 
amount of seed produced appears to decrease in inverse ratio 
to the increase in leaf-surface. 

After the food-materials are used up, the surplus water in 
which they were dissolved and carried is transpired or given 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 85 


off from the leaf-surface, and is replaced by a fresh supply CHAP 
drawn up from the roots. Frank (1) notes that a single 1! 
maize plant can pass off into the atmosphere 31 Ibs. weight of 
water in 147 days of growth. This is less than the amount 
lost by some other plants, e.g. :— 

The maize plant can lose 31 Ibs. in 147 days. 


The hemp . 60 ,, in 140 
The sunflower __,, 147 ,, in 140 


” 


” 


The rate of transpiration is greater in light than in dark- 
ness. Inthe maize plant 
it has been found to vary | 
in the following ratio :— 

In darkness . * 4Q7. | \ 


In diffused light . 114 \\ 
In direct sunshine 785 | 


There is thus a stream aa 
of water constantly pas- \\\ 
sing away from the soil \\\ HI 
into the air, through the } \ : | / / 


leaves of the plant; it 


soon drains the soil dry \\\ \ \ We, 
unless replaced by rain : \\ | Hl 
orirrigation. It has been \\ 
found that 500 tons of \\ RS) 
water (containing salts ae AW | 

in solution) is required ~~ S\X_ 

to form one ton of dry ~ . ges S¥ 


matter (Bowman and ee ey." 
Crossley, 1). \\ HN 


The leaves are ar- AN \ 
wt 


ranged dzstechously, i.e. 

in two opposite rows, 

but there is no uni- 

formity as to the direc- 

tion in which the rows Fic. 29.—Young ear showing silks ready 

point. for first pollination; the husks have developed 
70. The Inflorescence. leaf blades, showing the homology of husk and 

. leaf sheath. 

—The maize plant is 

monecious, i.e. it bears the reproductive organs in separate 

flowers on the same plant (Fig. 12). The staminate or male 


CHAP. 
IV. 


86 MAIZE 


flowers are usually borne by themselves in the terminal inflores- 
cence called the tassel (Fig. 28). The pésél/late or female 
flowers are usually borne on one or more lateral inflorescences 
(Fig. 12b) called ears, at the ends of short branches arising 
from the nodes of the stem; the young ear is characterized by 
its long beard-like styles called sz/ks (Figs. 29, 30, 31, and 32). 
Moncecism is not always complete, i.e. the separation of male 
and female flowers into different inflorescences on different 


Fic. 30.—Young ears showing silks at different stages of development. 


parts of the same plant is not constant; bisexual tassels are 
frequently met with on sucker-shoots (in the dent breeds at 
least) (Figs. 33 and 34); in some cases also, the tassel of the 
main stem bears the two kinds of flowers (Fig. 35); this is 
said to be especially the case in pod maize, a breed rarely seen 
in South Africa. Bisexual ears are occasionally, though 
rarely, met with (Figs. 36 and 37). Where mixed inflorescences 
occur, stamens and pistils may be found in the same spikelet, 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 87 


and the writer has even found hermaphrodite florets (i.e. with 
stamens and pistils in the same floret), but in those cases one 
or other organ was abortive. 

Moncecism in maize facilitates cross-pollination and hybri- 
dization, though the only other species with which maize can 
hybridize, as far as we are aware, is the Mexican Teosinte, 


Fic. 31.—Young ear with fully developed silk. 


Euchlena mexicana (Fig. 10), of which hybrids have been ob- 
tained by Harshberger. 

71. Barren Plants.—One of the causes of low yield of 
grain is the occurrence of barren plants, i.e. plants which 
though bearing tassels produce no ears, or ears without grain. 
Cases are reported from America of 60 per cent of barren 


CHAP. 
IV. 


88 MAIZE 


CHAP. stems in a crop of maize. This subject has been much dis- 
IV. 


cussed by maize breeders, but it is still a moot point whether 
the tendency to produce barren stems is an inherited char- 
acter. Some writers, e.g. Hunt (1), maintain that ‘if it were 
an hereditary characteristic the fact that the stalks are barren 


would tend to eliminate them”. If barren stems were adso- 


Fic. 33.—Bisexual tassel of a sucker-shoot. 


Fic. 32.—Young ear with husks removed 
to show silks. Note that the silks at the tip 
of the ear are not yet fully grown. 


futely barren, in the strict sense of the word, this would be 
true, but the fact that they produce tassels and pollen lends 
colour to the view that they may tend to reproduce their 
kind. 

The percentage of barren stems on a given soil is said 


89 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 


CHAP. 


2 


‘aures Jo youeig ‘gq 


*pasiejua *yooys-sJayons 
*w9}8 UTUI UO Jasse} [eNxasIq—'SE ‘917 jo (srea pews Surreaq) jesse} yenxasig—PE “ory 


LZ 


CHAP. 
IV. 


go MAIZE 


(Hunt, 1) to vary with the thickness of planting and the 
season, and barrenness does not seem to be a variety char- 
acteristic, but rather the result of environment. The subject 
needs further investigation as a possible cause of low yields 
in South Africa. 

Sometimes the maize plant bears ears which are barren 


Fic. 36.—Bisexual ear. Fic. 37.—Bisexual ear. 


owing either to the destruction of the silk by the larve of 
certain moths (Fig. 38) or to failure to produce silks even 
when the ovules are developed (Fig. 39). 

72, Flowering Period.—Considerable difference is notice- 
able in the time taken by different breeds to reach the flower- 
ing stage; it usually requires nine to twelve weeks, This is 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS gI 


an important point for the farmer. A breed which répens off CHAP. 
too quickly after flowering will not have time to form and !Y- 
store enough starch to produce a heavy crop of grain; but if 

the shortening of the time of growth takes place between 
germination and flowering, it may, perhaps, not have such an 

effect on the yield. The shortest period between germination 

and flowering noted by the writer has been sixty-four days. 
Variation in this respect may be due in part to difference in 


Fic, 38.—Silks injured by larvae. 


amount and time of rainfall. If the grain is planted early in 
the season germination and growth are retarded because the 
temperature of the soil is not sufficiently high. In South 
Africa, drought in December and January sometimes checks 
vegetative growth and hastens flowering. But soil-moisture 
and temperature will not account for all of the differences 
noticed. 

Within the same breed the flowering period of individuals 
varies greatly ; the extremes noticed are fourteen and twenty- 


CHAP. 
IV. 


92 MAIZE 


one days. This is partly due to variation in the character or 
composition of the soil within a few feet of surface area; 
partly, perhaps, to variation in vigour between the individual 
plants; and perhaps largely to the occurrence of different 


Fic. 39.—Blind ear, on which the silks have failed to develop. 


strains in an ordinary commercial breed; a well-bred strain 
may be expected to show greater uniformity in time of 
flowering. Yet there seems to be a definite relation between 
the time of flowering and the time of ripening. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 93 
TABLE XVI, 


VARIATION IN TIME OF FLOWERING. 


al 
| First Flowers. | Last Flowers. | 
Breed. Date Sown. | = om 7 | 
Appeared. Days. Appeared. Days Later. | 
| ee ee | 
| Arcadia Sugar . . | 20 Aug., tga g Nov. 81 | Dec. 2! 23 
Louisiana . E . | 27 Sept., 1910 | 8 Dec. 73 Dec. 25 17 
| Black Sugar . ; ra | 30 Nov. 64 | 
| Hickory King . . | 15 Oct., gE | 30 Dec. | 77 | | | 
Yellow Dent a ie 27 Dec. 74 
| King of the Earliest? . g Dec., 1907 | 11 Feb. 64 
White-cap Dent” | ” | - | 64 | 
| Yellow Hogan 2 | | me | 64 | | 
Wealth of Nations? . | 8 12 Feb. 65 | 
| Hawkesbury Champion” rf | ee | 65 
Hundred-day Bristol? | fy | 14 Feb. 67 
| Skinner’s Court ro. . | 3 Oct., 1907 17 Dec. | 75 | 


1 Ears were ready for boiling on rr December, and these were not from the 
earliest-Alowering plants. 
2 Grown without irrigation ; Skinner's Court 10 was irrigated. 


An investigation conducted at the Botanical Experiment 
Station, Pretoria, in which careful records were obtained from 
thirty-eight different breeds or strains of maize (see Table 
XVIJ), resulted as follows :— 


Aggregate time taken from appearance above ground 


to period of flowering . . 2,125 days. 
Aggregate time taken from date ee open nee above 
ground to ripening of seed. : : ‘ . 4,256 days. 


From the figures in Table XVII we conclude that the 
period of flowering occurs, roughly speaking, half-way between 
the first appearance of the plant above ground and the ripen- 
ing of the seed. Hence a farmer should be able to foretell 
approximately the date at which he may reasonably expect 
his seed to be ripe and safe from frost. It is possible, how- 
ever, that results obtained in one district may not be repeated 
in another, and it is therefore desirable to obtain records of the 
results obtained by farmers in different parts of the country. 


CHAP, 
IV. 


94 MAIZE 
TaBLe XVII. 

CORRELATION OF FLOWERING AND RIPENING PERIOD. 

Corrected for Date of 

Days after Sowing. Appearance above the 

| Ground. 
Breed. | " ess 

Flowering. Ripening. Flowering. Ripening. 
Brewer Yellow Dent . ‘ 61 112 53, 104 
» noo : 63 115 57 10g 
Cuban Giant , y , 61 | 110 53 102 
" é ; ‘ 61 II5 54 108 
Snowflake . 3 : : 60 IIo 52 102 
4 A . . : 58 10g 52 103 
King Philip (flint) . - | 67 To8 59 100 
o Ni 2 : 59 113 54 108 
Queen of the Prairie . ‘ 61 IIo | 53 102 
a mo -| 59 130] 853 107 
Early Mastodon . : ; 63 122 54 113 
ae s « > 62 125 57 120 
Sanford ‘ ‘ : 60 113 52 105 
” . : : : a2 m5 53 10g 
Compton Early . . - | 59 | 108 51 100 
” : : - | 59 113 53 107 
Improved Early Canada Pll 56 I05 50 99 
Wills Gehu (flint) : : 54 87 49 82 
Wills Dakota (flint). , 54 87 49 82 
Champion White Pearl , 67 II7 59 109 
King of the Earliest . : 66 115 58 107 
a ae ; if 58 113 2 107 
Yellow Horsetooth  . ¥ 72 123 63 11g 
Chester County . : ; 67 128 60 121 
4s P F é 58 II5 53 110 
Eureka . : F ; 65 128 59 122 
New England 8-row . : 67 128 60 121 
Yellow Botman . : a 65 125 60 120 
Hickory King. : | 66 | 128 60 122 
Boone County. : st 65 | 128 60 123 
4 r . sil 64 128 | 59 123 
Pride of the North. ; 58 113 2 107 
Sheepstooth : 67 128 61 122 
Thoroughbred w.f. 62 12 57 120 
Wisconsin w.d. | 62 128 | 57 123 
Golden Dent | 65 | 128 59 122 
Iowa Silver-mine : | 205 128 59 122 
White Flint . y «| 67 128 61 122 
White Cap y.d. . . : 59 IIs 53 109 
Tuscarora . F : : 59 113 53 107 

Red Cob Fodder . ‘ é 75 | 131 ‘ 
| 
2,555 | 4,808 2,223 4420 
Deduct Wills Gehu and | 

Wills Dakota 108 174 98 164 
25447 | 4,634 2,125 4256 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 95 


The only exceptions are the two earliest flint breeds, and 
here the figures would seem to indicate that earliness is pro- 
duced by the hastening of the period between flowering and 
ripening. 

73. The Spikelet. — The tassel consists of numerous 
branches (Fig. 40) bearing more or less dstéchous rows of 
staminate spkelets 


(Fig. 40A) which are MY 
arranged in pairs, fe 
one pedicellate Mi 
(stalked), the other We 
: : ny; 
sessile (without a mi 
stalk). Each spike- Pi 
let consists of a pe 
pair of protective, ia $ 
sheath-like bracts, ia 5 
(i 
called glumes or 
“empty glumes” "ya MM 
(Fig. 41d), which SX y 


enclose two florets. 
Each floret consists 
of a pair of thin 
bracts, the lower or 
outer of which is 
called the valve 
(called also “ flower- 
ing glume” by some 
botanists), and the 
upper or inner the 
patea. 

Enclosed within 
the valve and palea 
of each floret, when 
in bud, are three stamens (Figs. 40 and 41); there are thus 
six stamens to each spikelet. When the flowers open, the 
stamens are exrserted (pushed out). Each stamen is composed 
of a long and narrow anther hanging freely at the end of a 
fine, slender thread, the fi/ament. Each anther consists of two 
sacs, attached side by side, and having an opening, a fore, 
at the lower end, for the emission of the minute, dust-like, 


QS WY, 
NN f 
fF 


Fic. 40.—Tassel of sugar maize, with male 


spikelet and stamens enlarged 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


Fic. 41.—Spikelets of the maize plant (much enlarged). A, male spike- 
let. B, female spikelet. a, anther; b, pore; c, filament; d and e, glumes; /, 
ovule. (After De Vries, from models by Brendel, Berlin.) 


Fic. 42,—Pollen grains of maize (much enlarged). A, normal shape of living ., 
grains; B, shrunken, ‘‘dead” grains; C, dead grains moistened and allowed to 
dry again. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 97 


yellowish follen (Fig. 42), which is the medium of sexual re- CHAT. 
production. At the base of the anthers are minute organs, 'Y- 
called /odzcules, which at the time of flowering become turgid 

and press open the valve and palea, allowing the stamens to 
protrude and scatter their pollen. 


Naf 
A 
Fic. 43.—Effect of complete or partial lack of pollination. A, Barren ear 
due to protection from access of pollen. B, Two ovules were fertilized, probably 
by pollen which caught on the husks before the bag was placed on the ear. 


Both glumes and anthers vary in colour from pale green, 
through cream, salmon, etc., to deep magenta. Often the 
glumes are striped longitudinally with magenta or pink. 

74. The Pollen and Its Vitality.—Pollen is the fine cream- 
coloured or golden dust which may be seen flying in clouds 
from the tassels when they are shaken on a still morning. It 

7 


CHAP. 
IV. 


98 MAIZE 


has a peculiar, heavy, sweet, lasting odour. Pollen is essential 
to the fertilization of the pistillate flowers and consequently to 
the development of the grain; without it no grain can be 
formed. This may easily be demonstrated by tying a clean 
paper bag tightly over a maize ear, before the silks develop, 


ee 


C3 
¢g 


tens F 
es 
Cras. 


iv Begg 


me on 
a paces 


v= 


Fic. 44.—Effect of partial pollination. A, Pollen was applied artificially 


> 


after most of the silks had ceased to be receptive. b, Imperfect pollination, 
possibly due to temporary injury to silks by insects. 


and leaving it so covered until after the silks have dried up 
(Figs. 43 and 44). 

Pollen “dust” is composed of an enormous number of 
roundish grains (Fig. 42). Each individual grain is a separate 
cell, consisting of a cell-wall of usually two layers or coats, 
surrounding a mass! of protoplasm; within the cell are two 


> 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 99 


smaller bodies called cle’, one being known as the vegetative 
nucleus and the other as the generative nucleus. 

The writer has counted 636 spikelets on a tassel of sugar 
maize, containing in all 3,816 stamens, while the more robust 
“field corns” (i.e. dent and flint varieties) may carry about 

200 stamens. The pollen grains produced in one anther 


Fic. 45.—Young ear showing homology of husks. 


have been counted and found to average about 2,500 each. 
At this proportion the tassel of sugar maize referred to would 
contain 9,500,000 grains of pollen. It has been estimated 
that a tassel of field maize will produce 18,000,000 grains, 
and especially vigorous plants from 30,000,000 to 60,000,000. 

An average ear of sugar maize produces from 250 to 350 
grains of corn; Afvckory King about 400; some of the more 

ie 


CHAP. 
IV. 


MAIZE 


100 


CHAP. 


IV. 


(“silks”). B, Ovaries and 
silks enlarged. 


Fic. 46.—A, Young ear showing ovaries and styles 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 1ot 


productive breeds from 1,100 to 2,800. Allowing for a pro- 
duction of 1,000 ovules ({75) requiring pollination, and a 
minimum of 6,000,000 grains of pollen available, we have 
6,000 grains of pollen for every grain of corn. As only one 
is actually required, there is abundance to spare for the bees 
and chafers, and for waste. The amount of waste must be 
enormous, yet we often find large numbers of cars incompletely 


1h 


oe 
ae 
e 


0@ 


4}; 


6: 


aco 


<6) 


Fic. 47.—Two-lobed ear. Fic, 48.—Bifid ear. 


fertilized, probably through having been receptive at a time 
when little pollen was available in their vicinity. 

Maize pollen retains its vitality for seven or eight days in 
the Eastern United States ; in the dry climate of South Africa 
it keeps well for three days, but after five days most of it is 
no longer viable. 

75. The Young Ear.—The ear is situate at the end of a 
much shortened branch, which develops leaf sheaths forming 
the Ausk of the ear (Fig. 45). It is composed of a more or 


CHAP. 


io2 MAIZE 


CHAP. less cylindrical or tapering core, the cob, bearing from 4 to 48 


IV, 


rows of immature grains or carpels (Fig. 46). 

Though the maize ear has a solid core, it is in reality made 
up of two or more connate, two-rowed sfzkes which have 
grown together, or failed to separate, during their early de- 


Fic. 49.—Branched ear of Hickory Fic. 50.—Branched ear of 
King. Ladysmith, 


velopment. Each spike bears at the nodes two two-flowered 
spikelets, as on the tassel, but the lower floret of each spikelet 
is abortive, leaving only a pair of carpels to develop at each 
node; this accounts for the uniformity in the development of 
rows of grain in pairs. Lobed and branched ears are _fre- 
quently met with (Figs. 47, 48, 49, and 50). 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 103 


The carpel consists of a roundish body called the ovary, 
and a long, slender, soft thread called the s¢y/e or “ silk” (Fig. 


46). Each ovary contains a 
minute egg, called the ove, 
which, on fertilization by the 
nucleus of the pollen-grain, 
develops into a seed, 

The cob does not complete 
its growth lengthwise before 
the first silks are ready for pol- 
lination. If the growth of the 
plant is checked through lack 
of sufficient moisture or plant- 
food, or inclemency of the 
season, the tip of the ear fails 
to grow out, and the cob, in- 
stead of being almost cylindri- 
cal, may remain tapering in 
shape through lack of develop- 
ment. 

In “pod maize” (variety 
tunicata) the glumes are large, 
completely enclosing the ovary 
and persisting around the ripe 
grain (Fig. 51). In the varieties 
usually under cultivation, how- 
ever, the glumes, valve, and 
palea (173) of the female 
flower cease to function, and are 
reduced to small rudiments 
around the base of the carpel. 

The position of the ear on 
the stem varies greatly in in- 
dividual plants according to the 
particular node from which the 
shank (81) is developed, and 
according to the length of the 
several internodes below it. 
Some positions are more desir- 
able than others (see chap. V.). 


Fic, 51.—Pod maize (Zea Mays 
var. tunicata). 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


io4 MAIZE 


76. The Silk.—The style or “silk” is a long, terete, hollow 
tube, bifid at the end (Fig. 524) and it contains a viscous sub- 
stance. When receptive, the silk is exserted from the apex of 
the ear to receive the pollen, and may then become 6 to 12 
or more inches in length. After pollination the silk dries 
up, but persists. If pollination is prevented or is incomplete, 
the silk continues to grow to an unusual length, and remains 
green much longer than otherwise. Under a lens the silk is 
seen to be covered with short, branched hairs, on which the 
pollen grains are caught. 


Fic. 52.—The style or silk (much magnified). A, Showing bifid end, and 
pollen grains caught among the hairs. B, Hairs magnified, showing cells and 
nuclei. 


The silks do not all mature at the same time; those at the 
base of the ear develop first (Fig. 32); then those from a 
little higher up, and finally those from the tip. It takes about 
a week for all the silks on an ear to mature (Figs. 30 and 31). 
This progressive development appears to be one of nature’s 
ways of ensuring the pollination of at least some of the ovules. 
It sometimes happens that there is not sufficient pollen avail- 
able at the appearance of the earliest or latest silks, which 
results in the production of incompletely filled ears or ‘nub- 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 105 


bins”; but such a shortage of pollen is not likely to occur CHAP. 
throughout the whole period of development of the silks. Ns 

If the silk be injured, the proper fertilization of the ovule 
may be prevented, with consequent reduction in yield of seed. 

77. Pollination.— Unless a pollen-grain reaches the style 
no seed will be formed (Fig. 43). The maize plant is 
anemophilous, i.e. wind-pollinated. The pollen is very light 
and is carried for long distances by the wind; there is thus 
danger of cross-pollination if two sorts of maize are planted 
near to each other—4oo yards is considered a safe distance 
though some writers recommend half a mile. Because it is so 
light, and easily carried by a breath of air, very little pollen 
usually reaches the silks of the same plant which produces 
it; it is carried by the least puff of wind to the plants beyond. 
The writer has observed cases in which the pollen fell directly 
on to the silks below, on a very still evening; but such cases 
appear to be rare in nature; and as a rule the arrangement 
of the leaves is such that they partially protect the silks from 
such a contingency. 

The maize tassel is much visited by bees, which collect 
the heavy-scented pollen for food for their young larvae. But 
the bees do not visit the silks, and are not, therefore, direct 
agents in pollination, and the amount of pollen produced is so 
great that the little taken by the bees is not likely to have 
any effect on the crop of grain. In South Africa at least three 
sorts of beetle also visit the tassels, to feed on the pollen 
(see chap. X.), without affecting the yield. 

An experiment was conducted at the Botanical Experiment 
Station, Pretoria, to determine the receptivity of silks to 
pollen at different stages of development, with the following 
result: Application of pollen on the first day of appearance 
of the silk resulted in the fertilization of only 14 ovules, 
situate toward the base of the ear. Of the ear pollinated the 
second day, about half of the ovules were fertilized, the upper 
part of the ear being bare of grains. The ear pollinated on 
the third day was three-fourths covered with grain, the 
extreme butt and the tip having no grains. From this we 
conclude that if pollen is not available by the third day, the 
earliest silks to develop may not be fertilized. 

78. Fertiltzation.—When a pollen grain is caught among 


CHAP. 
IV. 


106 MAIZE 


the stigmatic hairs of the silk or s¢y/e, it begins to grow. The 
pollen grain takes up moisture from the stigma and begins 
to swell; a tube, called the pollen tube, pushes out from one 
side of the pollen grain, penetrates the silk, and grows down 
its whole length till it reaches the ovary at the base (Fig. 53). 


Fic. 53.—Diagram showing course of pollen tube through style to ovule. 
A, Section near outer end of style, showing pollen grain (a) and pollen tube (g). 
B, Section through base of silk and through ovule (e). (After drawing by C. S. 
Ridgway, in Duggar’s Southern Field Crops, New York, The Macmillan Co.) 


Into this tube the contents of the pollen grain, including the 
nuclei, pass. During growth the vegetative nucleus becomes 
gradually disorganized and is lost in the protoplasm. The 
generative nucleus, however, has divided and formed two 
nuclei. On reaching the ovary, the pollen-tube enters the 
embryo-sac, and discharges its two nuclei; one of these fuses 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 107 


with the nucleus of the egg-cell to form the embryo (Fig. 54); 
fertilization is then accomplished. The other male nucleus 
fuses with the two fused female polar-nuclei; from these the 
endosperm is developed. Cell-growth and cell-division then 
commence, and are continued until the mature seed js developed. 

The chromosomes of maize are small and difficult to study, 
and scarcely anything is known of their behaviour during the 
maturation division (Zas¢, 6), 

79. Dichogamy.—According to Kerner (1 ), Most moncecious 
plants, including maize, are profo- 
gynous, i.e. the female flowers are 
receptive before the pollen of the p 
same plant is shed, thus necessitat- 
ing cross-pollination. If protogyny 
were complete, the very first plant 
in a field, which developed female 
flowers, would, in consequence, 
fail to propagate its kind, unless 
accidentally pollinated from a still 
earlier plant in a neighbouring 
field ; but there would always be 
one plant in a district that was Fic. 54.—The embryo-sac in 
earliest of all, and which would maize at the time of fertilization. 

< ; Pt., pollen tube which has just dis- 
therefore fail to develop grain. Sie che tin wale gues 
This habit would act to some g , egg-cell which, after union with 


extent as a check to any natural one of the male nuclei, forms the 
embryo; end., nucleus of the en- 
; dosperm, with which the second 
maturity. male nucleus may unite. (After 


If all the plants in a field drawing by F. E. Lloyd in Dug- 
flowered on exactly the same cee ees Sores 
day, and all were completely 
protogynous, there would be no pollination except from other 
and earlier-planted fields, and those of the first planting would 
always fail to develop grain. But this is not the case. As 
already pointed out (| 72), there is a great difference in time 
of flowering with individuals in the same field, due to many 
causes, e.g. individual characteristics, difference in depth of 
planting, variation in soil fertility, soil texture and soil moist- 
ure, etc. The flowering period in any one field or plot may 
thus extend over ten days or three weeks. 


end. 


tendency to increased earliness in 
y 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
1V. 


108 MAIZE 


Protandry is the opposite of protogyny, i.e. the anthers 
shed all or part of their pollen before the female organs of the 
same plant are receptive. The very earliest pollen shed will, 
in such a case, be entirely wasted unless there is a protogyn- 
ous plant in the vicinity which is receptive at the same time. 

Plants of Black Sugar-maise in Pretoria, which matured 
pollen on 14 December, 1907, did not have any receptive stig- 
mas till the 16th, 17th, and even later. In some instances 
the tassels had shed a// their pollen before any silk appeared. 

As far as the writer has been able to determine, from 
observation of Transvaal maize fields, protandry is the rule 
in South African maize. And Shamel (1) states that in 
America “in most varieties the pollen matures before the 
silks”. On this account well-filled butts are more frequent 
than well-filled tips. 

At the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, no case of 
protogyny was observed among seventeen plants under obser- 
vation for time of relative maturity of pollen and silk. 


See : =i Number of 
Relative Time of Appearance of Silk. Plants. 
3 days later than the pollen 3 
2 2 
2 oy ” ” 2 
Is ” ” ” 4 
Same day as the pollen 8 


In another experiment, however, with another variety of 
maize (a yellow flint, IV7e//s Gehu), every one of twenty-six 
plants under observation was protogynous. 

Plants of Arcadia Sugar-matze which developed silks on 
g November, 1910, had no anthers exserted until the 11th, 
while others had no anthers till the 13th. In some cases the 
tassels appear long before the anthers; the writer has a note of 
one vigorous plant of Loweszana Hickory on which the tassel 
first appeared on 25 November, but there were no anthers 
until 8 December, i.e. thirteen days later, the silks appearing 
on the same day. 

It seems probable that protogyny is a breed characteristic. 
It appears to be constant in Arcadia Sugar-matze and in 
IWells Gehu (yellow flint), while protandry is the rule in 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 109 


Black Sugar, Hickory King, Louisiana Hickory, and many 
other dent breeds. This matter is more fully discussed else- 
where (Burtt-Davy, 25). 

80. Form for Describing the Maize Plant in the Field.— 
The following is a convenient form for use in recording the 
vegetative characters of selected plants in the field or the 
breeding plot. It can be printed off on to record cards of 
uniform size for subsequent filing. By marking off the char- 
acter which is present, much time is saved. which would other- 
wise be spent in writing out the cards. For instance in (0), 
if the plant is in silk at the time of taking the notes, put a 
mark, thus /, over the word “silking,” or, if it is ripe, then 
over the word “ripe”. More space must be allowed for the 
writing than is here indicated :— 


(a) Namerot Breed). iieioi tick cain sarwes ada nemeeanteseses Date of record......... 
(BD): WIRES: BTOWT ecg. ce cece oms cuvadaigus nenaiwane aatanirene Date of planting......... 
(c) Maturity of plant; silking; roasting ear; partly dented or glazed; fully 


dented or glazed; nearly ripe; ripe. 

(d) Height of stem: average of ten plants......... feet caikis inches. 

(e) Stem; straight; medium; zigzag. 

(f) Stem circumference at middle of internode between second and third 
node from ground......... inches. 

g) Stem circumference at middle of internode below main ear......... inches. 

h) Number of ears on roo stems......... 

i) Number of barren stems in too plants......... 

J) Position of ear; in middle of stem; above the middle; below the middle. 

k) Direction of ear; pointing upwards: horizontal; pointing downwards. 

1) Length of shank; distance from node to base of ear, avcrage of ten 
plants........ inches. 

(m) Husks; abundant; medium; scanty. 

(x) Husks; tight ; medium; loose. 

(0) Number of leaves; average of ten plants......... 

( 


( 
(#) 
( 
(7 
( 
( 


p) Width of leaf-blades on ten plants: maximum......... inches; minimum 
en inches; average.........inches. 

(q) Length of leaf-blades on ten plants: maximum......... inches; minimum 
oasis inches; average.....,...inches. 

(ry) Length of tassel; average of ten plants......... inches, 

(s) Number of branches of tassel; average of ten plants......... 

(er Additional Notesy co.cc daradewiecavs ncqsssasdienen danlanweintnasasarac 3 arenes anew 


81. 
develops. It is a much-reduced lateral branch, arising from a 
node on the main stem, and, like the stem, having nodes and 
internodes, the latter much shortened. Each node of the 
branch gives rise to a leaf, and in some cases to one or more 
distinct secondary ears (Fig. 55); this may produce silks, but 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


ILO MAIZE 


appears rarely to develop grain; occasionally, however, fully 
developed secondary ears are produced (Fig. 56). A variation 
of one to twelve inches in length of shank has been noted. 
Very long shanks are undesirable because they allow the ear 
to hang too far away from the stem, which often results in 
its breaking off prematurely. 


Fic. 55.—Four secondary ears developed from the nodes on the shank of a 
single ear. 


The diameter of the shank also varies ; it may be ‘‘/arge,” 
i.e. nearly the diameter of the cob; “ medvuz2,” i.e. half the 
diameter of the cob; or “ swa//,” i.e. one-third the diameter 
of the cob. 

82. The Husk.—Vhe husk of the ear consists of the leaf- 
sheaths which arise from the nodes of the shank (Fig. 39); 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS Itt 


their homology is clearly indicated by the fact that often a 
diminutive leaf-blade, varying greatly in length, is developed 
at the end of each sheath of the husk (Fig. 45). Sometimes 
the husks are tightly wrapped around the ear; in other cases 
they are loose and baggy, giving a deceptive appearance of 
size to what may be only a small or medium ear. 

In some cases the husks 
entirely cover the ear, and even 
extend a long way beyond it; 
in other cases they may be so 
short that the tip of the ear 
protrudes beyond them; the 
latter is an undesirable char- 
acter, as it allows birds and 
insects to damage a good deal 
of the grain at the tip of the 
ear (Fig. 164). 

83. The Mature Ear.— 
The number of ears which a 
maize plant can bear varies 
considerably with the variety 
and breed, and also varies 
according to the richness or 
poverty of the soil and length 
of growing season. 

The tendency to produce 
more than one fully developed 
ear on a plant (Fig. 57) may 
be seen in any maize field. 
But it is not the usual thing, 
in South Africa at least, for 
more than one good ear (on 
a dent breed) to develop fully 
and to mature grain. Some 
varieties naturally develop more ears; eg. cases of ten 
or more ears on a flint breed have been reported, and one 
plant has been known to produce twenty-three ears; pop- 
corn has been known to produce twelve to nineteen ears; 
and six to fourteen have been reported for dent maize. But 
Hunt (1) points out that in the United States, dent breeds 


Fic. 56.—Secondary ear developing 
from a node of the shank. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


112 MAIZE 


produce but one ear under ordinary conditions of culture; 
‘no two-eared dent breed has ever been produced which has 
become extensively grown or widely popular”. It seems reason- 
able that it should be easier for a plant to develop one large 
ear than two or more small ones, and it is better from the 
farmer's point of view, for it costs less to harvest one good 


Fic. 57.-—Maize plants developing two ears. 


ear than to pick two small ones from each plant. The mature 
ear consists of a central pithy core, called the cod (Fig. 43) on 
which the grains are borne. The ear varies in length from 4 
an inch to 16 inches, but 4 to 9 inches is a usual range in early 
and medium-maturing sorts, and 9 to 14 inches in the later 
sorts, such as white Horsetooth. Occasionally we have an 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS Lr3 


early maturing sort which develops a long ear, e.g. Chester 
County. 

The circumference of a mature ear at 2 inches from the 
butt should average 3 inches in an ear 4 inches long, or 74 
inches in one 10 inches long. The weight at harvest may 
vary from 3 to 18 ounces or more, but in time it may lose in 
drying from one-half of 1 per cent up to 35 per cent. 

In shape the ear may be cylzndrical (of uniform circum- 
ference) throughout its entire length, or more or less ¢aperzng. 

The dutt or base varies in shape and size. In a normal 
ear it should be of the same diameter, and have the same 
number of rows of grain as the main part of the ear, but this 
is often not the case. If the entire end of the cod is exposed, 
with the butt-grains at right angles to the axis of the cob, the 
butt is described as even. It may be rounded at the end and 
show the marks of the tightly-clasping husks on the grain, 
when it is called compressed. If there is a greater space be- 
tween the rows at the butt than on the rest of the ear, it is 
open. It may be expanded by additional rows of grain, or 
enlarged without having any extra rows. 

The cavity formed by a rounded butt may be shallow and 
broad, of moderate depth and diameter, or deep and of small 
diameter. 

The apex of the ear is called the #. The tip may be en- 
tirely covered with grains ; it is then described as fi//ed¢. The tip 
grains may be scattered or in rows, or the tip may be bare 
through exposure, from lack of pollination or of adequate 
covering by the husks, or from ravages of ear-worm or birds, 
or through drought or lack of plant-food. Ifa central grain 
projects from a filled tip it is called capped. In shape the tip 
may be rounded or flattened. 

The spaces between rows are called su/cr, The smaller 
the number of rows, the greater the tendency to width of sulci. 
But if the grain is well shaped, the sulci will be narrow even 
when the rows are few, 

84. The Cob.—The cob (f 83) varies greatly in shape 
and circumference. If the latter is over 44 inches it is de- 
scribed as “J/arge,” if from 34 to 44 inches as “medium,” and 
if 34 inches or under as “ smad/’’. The cob increases in length 


during the growing season of the plant. In colour, the chaffy 
8 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


114 MAIZE 


glumes on the cob may be blood-red or white. Forms inter- 
mediate in colour occur, but this may be the result of cross- 
pollination. Asa rule, colour of cob is a fixed characteristic 
of a breed, eg. in true Wickory King it is always white. 
White-grained breeds should have white cobs; coloured chaff 
discolours the mill-products. 

85. Number of Rows of Grain.—The rows of grain on 
a cob vary in number from four to about forty-eight, but as 
a rule they range from eight to twenty in the breeds grown 
in South Africa. We have met with four-row and six-row 
ears, but these appear to be due to some abnormal condition, 
which has retarded the development of some of the rows. Odd 
numbers of rows occur very rarely ; such irregularity is prob- 
ably due to injury of one of the spikes of carpels during the 
stage of development. It often happens that a pair of rows 
fails to develop fully, both rows stopping short without reach- 
ing the apex ; this may, perhaps, occur to only one of a pair 
of rows (Fig. 83B), Sometimes one or two rows on one side 
of an ear fail to develop through lack of pollination (Fig. 62), 
probably owing to the silks having been unable to protrude 
properly. Ears are sometimes found in which the grains are 
so scattered that the number of rows cannot be traced (Fig. 
384A); sometimes this breaking up of the rows occurs through- 
out the whole ear ; and sometimes it is confined to one part 
of the ear, most commonly to the butt. 

Each breed has its characteristic number of rows, eg. 
Hickory King has 8, Loutstana Hickory 10, Hickory Horse- 
tooth 12, Arcadia Sugar-maise 12, Black Mexican 8. 

In some breeds, however, the number of rows is not yet 
definitely fixed, eg. Jowa Silver-mine, as grown in South 
Africa, has 14, 16, or 18. This is, perhaps, due to crossing 
with other breeds or with different strains of the same breed. 
In some cases the percentage of a given number of rows is 
found to be distinctly higher than in others, as shown by the 
following cases, which suggest crossing :— 


Fars, 
Rows. Per cent. Breed. 
I4 24°00 Iowa Silver-mine. 
I4 32°58 Ladysmith. 
16 57°00 Iowa Silver-mine. 


oF 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS TIS 


Rows. 
Kars, Ty-row, 10-TOW. 15-row, 
Breed. Examined. Percent. Percent. Per cent. 
Iowa Silver-mine — 24 57 1g 
Ladysmith 89 a2°5 45 22°5 


Increase in number of rows is often accompanied by a cor- 
responding decrease in the breadth of the individual grains. 
But this is not always the case; much depends on the thick- 
ness of the cob; the grains on a 16-row ear are sometimes 
broader than those on a 12-row ear of the same breed, if the 
cob of the former is thick while that of the latter is thin. 

Increase in number of rows means a larger number of 
grains, but it does not necessarily follow that it is accompanied 
by increase in amount of grain produced. In Golden Ning 
(yellow dent), the best I4-row ears gave more vrain than the 
best 12-row, but some of the 10-row also gave more than the 
12-row. In Vellow Fforsetooth (yellow dent), the ten best 
I4-row ears also gave more grain than the corresponding 
[2-row ears, but the ten poorest ears of the latter gave more 
than the ten poorest 14-row ears. In Yellow Hogan (yellow 
dent), the seven best 14-row ears gave more grain than the 
seven best 16-row ears (Lurtt-Davy, 18). 

The same number of rows does not give equally good 
returns in all breeds alike. Each breed seems to have an 
optimum number, which gives the best results in weight, 
shape, and size of grain, above or below which deterioration 
commences. 

In some breeds the rows occur in distinct pairs; the rows 
are then described as a7strchous. 

86. Lwisted Rows.—The occurrence of a twist in the rows, 
either to left or right (Figs. 58 and 59), is a common feature. 
It is often confined to the upper portion of the ear, but may 
start from near the base. It is an undesirable character, as it 
tends to the development of irregular grains. This twisting 
appears to be in some way associated with the development 
of the number of rows. Out of a number of cases examined 
the following figures were obtained (Burtt-Davy, 18) :— 


Row numbers. Left twist. Right twist. Ears examined. 
I4 17 = 59°6 per cent I2 = 41°4 per cent 29 
Id I2 = 60°0 a 8 = 40°0 eA 20 
16 Rows very straight, no twist. 


29 = 59°3 per cent 20 = 40°7 per cent 49 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


116 MAIZE 


87. Number of Grains per Ear.—The number of grains 
per ear varies to some extent with soil, seasonal rainfall, etc., 
but apart from this, there appears to be a definite relation be- 
tween the number of grains and the breed. H7ckory King 
in the Transvaal ranges from about 350 to 400; /owa Szlver- 
mine runs from 800 to 1,100. Burton (1) reports a case in 


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Fic. 58.—Left-hand twist of rows. 


Aliwal North Division, Cape Colony, 5. Africa, of an ear 
bearing 2,828 grains ; this was one of eight ears from the same 
plant, but the name of the breed was not stated. 

88. Proportion of Grain to Ear.\—Vhe proportion of grain 
to ear is exceedingly variable, not alone as between breeds 
and under different conditions of growth, but also in the same 


‘ie. percentage by weight of grain and cob. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 117 


breed grown under similar conditions. In the United States 
it is said that 86 or 87 per cent of grain per ear may be 
considered a fair proportion. In Transvaal-grown samples 
examined, the percentage has usually been much lower, aver- 
aging only 82°13 per cent. 


Fic. 59.—Right-hand twist of rows. 


There does not appear to be any connection between “igh 
yield of grain per ear and percentage of grain on the ear, 
The heaviest yielding breed sometimes gives the lowest per- 
centage of grain, while the one giving the highest percentage 
of grain may give a relatively low yield; but it does not 
follow that the breed giving the highest percentage of grain 
gives actually the lowest yield 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 


IV. 


iT8 MAIZE 


American growers lay much stress on high percentage 
of grain to ear, because a great deal of maize is there sold on 
the cob, and buyers prefer strains which, when shelled, will 
bag up well. The growers admit, however, that the /rofor- 
tion of grain to cob ts of less importance than the actual weight 
of grain per ear. In South Africa, where maize is sold, entirely, 
off the cob, the question of percentage does not appear to be 
of great importance. 

89. Form for Describing the Ear.—The following is a useful 
form for recording the characters of typical ears in order to 
determine from year to year whether any change is taking place 
or whether they are remaining true to type. Owing to the 
difficulty of keeping specimen ears for any length of time, a 
written record is desirable. For definition of terms, see 
preceding paragraphs under each head. 

This form can also be used to advantage by students in 
agriculture. In this case each student should have two or 
more ears of each of the five varieties of maize, or of five 
different breeds of the same variety. Ten ears of a given 
variety or breed are none too many for a thorough study. 
ars of other varieties or breeds, showing the characters here 
mentioned, should be shown for the guidance of students. 

The character present may be marked by a ,/ across the 
word. 


Name? Varlety.cvcssiscsaneaenece Bread riche ain ssanpeeacsmiaiaataanignton vasaserales 

Date of: (a) Record......... (6) Sowing......... (G)) RAVES tiie assess sence 

(a) Colour of grain: white; yellow; golden; red; purple; blue; or black. 

(b) Colour of cob: white; light red; deep red. 

(c) Surface: smooth; medium ; rough; very rough. 

(d) Sulci: absent; apparent; narrow; distinct; very distinct. 

(c) Pairs of rows: distichous; not distichous. 

(f) Number of rows: at $ length from butt......... ; from tipi. cicsce: 

(gz) Direction of rows: oeraehes right twist; left twist; irregular. 

(h) Grains: very loose; loose; firm. 

(‘) Grains: regular; mosaic-like; uneven. 

a Grains: upright; sloping; imbricated. 

(k) Ear: cylindrical; cylindraceous; slowly tapering; tapering. 

/) Butt: even; shallow rounded; moderately rounded; deeply rounded. 

m) Butt: depressed; compressed; depressed-rounded; depressed-com- 
pressed; enlarged; expanded; open. 

(x) Tip: sides of cob exposed; end exposed; end covered; capped. 

(0) Juncture of shank with ear: large; medium; small. 


( 
( 


(p) Extreme length of ear; maximum......... inches; minimum......... inches ; 
average of ten......... inches. 
(7) Circumference of ear at 2 inches from butt: maximum......... inches ; 


minimum,........ inches; average of ten.....,... inches, 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 119g 


(v) Circumference of ear at 2 inches from tip: maximum......... inches; CHAP 
minimum......... inches; average of ten......... inches. IV. : 
(s) Weight of ear: maximum......... 0z.; minimum......... oz.; average of 
CEN wicaanies O4. 
(t) Weight of cob: maximum......... 02.3 Minimums... +.. oz.; average of 
tet eaters oz 
(uw) Percentage of grain: maximum......... ; minimum......... ; average of 
ten......0.. 
(v) Circumference of cob at 2 inches from butt:......... inches. 
(w) Ratio of circumference of cob to that of ear:......... 


90. The Gratn.—The grain of maize and other grasses is 
often spoken of as a seed, but it is in reality more than a seed, 
it is a whole fruz¢t. It is a peculiar form of fruit, for the peri- 
carp or outer covering of the fruit is completely united with 
the seed-coat. This special 
form of fruit is called a 
caryopsts, 

The caryopsis of the 
maize plant comprises the 
following parts:—the /ad//, 
which is the combined peri- 
carp and seed-coat; lying 
immediately under the hull 
is a layer of cells known 
as the a/ewrone layer (Figs. 
15A and 60). The hull 
and aleurone layer together 
enclose the main mass of 
the grain. This consists 
of two distinct parts, the 
endosperm and the embryo 
(Fig. 15). The grains are 
arranged with the embryo 
side towards the tip of the Fic. 60.—Enlarged section through hull 
ear; when the ear hangs of maize grain. f, pericarp; ft, testa or 
down, the embryo is then seed coat; 1, perisperm ; a, aleurone 
fi layer; s, endosperm. (From Passmore and 
on the under side of the Webber.) 
grain. 

The grain may be firm on the cob or movable. Movable 
grains may, sometimes, be due to the ear being not fully 
mature when gathered, or to lack of adequate moisture at the 
time of ripening off. The grain may be set on at right angles 
to the surface of the cob, or it may slant towards the tip. 


me 


f, 


MAIZS: 


120 


(‘yoog-av9,X ainynousy jo juawziedag *S*~Q Wor) ‘sures aziew jo advys ul uONeIeA— ‘Ig “D1 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 121 


The shape of the grain varies greatly (Fig. 61). In most 
breeds it is flattened and more or less wedge-shaped, with an 
indented apex (Dent maize); in one variety it is spheroidal 
or conical (Flint maize); in Pop maize it is distinctly and 
sharply beaked; in Sugar maize, when dry, the grain is much 
wrinkled owing to absence of starchy endosperm. 


Depth and Breadth of Grain. 


The depth (or length) of the grain varies greatly, and is said 
to be a quite constant character in different breeds. Breadth 
and thickness of grain, on the other hand, are not considered 
so constant. 

Each of the five cultural varieties of maize (Pop, Flint, 
Dent, Flour, and Sugar) contains three well-defined sub-types, 
based on the relative breadth and depth of the grain. Thus :— 

Group A—Grain broader than deep. 


Group B—Grain as broad as deep. 
Group C—Grain much deeper than broad. 


According to Sturtevant (2) these depend on climatic con- 
ditions; the A group grows in short-season climates, the C 
group in long-season climates, while the B group is inter- 
mediate. A climate suitable for the C group will, naturally, 
also suit the other two groups, but they may not prove as 


profitable, and would therefore be less desirable. Deep grain 


appears, therefore, to indicate a long growing season, and 
vice versa; if this is constant, one should be careful not to 
select seed-maize having too deep a grain to suit the particular 
altitude or rainfall. 


Shape of Grain. 


(a) If broad above, tapering to a slender base with straight sides, the grain 
is described as straight cuneate. 

(b) If the same general shape, but with rounded edges, it is curved 
cuneate. 

(c) Broad above, narrower below, connected by straight lines, truncate 
cuneate. 

(d) Long and uniformly narrow above, only tapering to a more or less broad 
base, shoe-peg form. 

(e) Short, and as broad at base as at summit, rectangular. 

(f) Slightly rounded at corners, both above and below, round-cornered, 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


122 MAIZE 


Apex of Grain. 


(a) Roof-shaped at one edge, i.e. convex at one and flat at the other. 

(6) Shingled, i.e. overlapping like shingles on a roof. 

(c) Flat or square, corvers not rounded at summit. 

(d) Rounded, corners rounded at summit. 

(e) Rostrate or beaked, with long, sharp, tapering projection. 

(f) Mucronate or pointed, with small, sharp point at summit from embryo side. 

(g) Dented (only in dent breeds), with an indentation of varying size and 
form. 


Indentation of Grain. 


(a) Round dimple, rounded or cup-shaped and quite smooth. 

(6) Long dimple dented, i.e. longer than broad, and quite smooth. 

(c) Creased, i.e. edges pressed towards each other, leaving a smill space 
between and the edges parallel. 

(d) Pinched, the edges pinched closely together and projecting upward and 
forward. 

(e) Rough, with any rough, jagged, or beaked projection from the summit. 

(f) Bridged, with a fold across the centre. 

(g) Crumpled, or wrinkled, as in sweet maize. 


ol. The Hull.—The hull or outer covering of the ripe 
maize grain (Figs. 15 and 60) is hard and shiny. It comprises 
the pericarp of the fruit together with the Zesta or seed-coat 
(with which it is united), and the pertsperm, a layer of tissue 
beneath the testa and surrounding the endosperm (Fig. 15). 
Of these three tissues the pericarp forms the larger part of the 
hull of the ripened grain. 

The bull can be easily removed from the aleurone layer 
for study, by soaking in hot water for about fifteen minutes. 

92. The Aleurone Layer—Lying immediately beneath the 
hull, between the perisperm and endosperm, is a tissue com- 
posed of a single row of comparatively large cells, rather regular 
and rectangular in transverse or cross section (Fig. 60). This 
tissue is called the aleurone layer ; it comprises 8 to 14 per 
cent of the grain. 

Webber (2) has shown that the blue, purple, and black 
colour of the soft flour and sugar varieties of maize lies in the 
aleurone layer. In yellow maize, however, the yellow colour- 
ing matter is not confined to the aleurone layer, but penetrates 
the endosperm. In some of the red-grained breeds of maize, 
and in the red-striped Cusco, the red colouring matter is con- 
fined to the pericarp, which accounts for the fact that red 
maize is sometimes produced from white seed. 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 123 


93. The Endosperm.—This is the mass of tissue lying 
below the aleurone layer, but above and partly surrounding 
the embryo. It comprises about 73 per cent of the whole 
grain. Its function is that of a reserve store of elaborated 
plant-food for the use of the young seed-plant before it is able 
to absorb food materials from the soil or to elaborate them in 
the leaf. 

As seen in section, the endosperm shows a variation from 
translucence to opaque snowy whiteness. Hopkins (3) reports 
a difference of 2 per cent more protein in the corneous than in 
the white endosperm ; Hunt (1) questions whether this may 
not be due to lack of complete separation from the aleurone 
iayer in the samples analysed. The latter author points out 
that there is no material difference in structure noticeable under 
the microscope, which has led to the suggestion, not positively 
proven, that the difference between them is a difference in 
density analogous to the difference between snow and ice. 

The relative proportion and arrangement of the translucent 
or corneous and the white endosperm have been used in part 
to differentiate between the five varieties of maize. 

94. Form for Describing the Grain.—This may be used 
to advantage for the same purposes, and in the same manner, 
as the form for describing the ear. 

For the use of students in agricultural botany, twenty-five 
to thirty grains should be given of each of the five varieties, or 
of five breeds of one variety. For determining the points in 
(2) to (f) inclusive, a number of grains should be soaked in hot 
water for thirty minutes, or in cold water for twenty-four hours. 
For measuring the grains, a sheet of cross-ruled paper can be 
used to advantage for marking off distances, which can then 
be measured accurately by a scale divided to 32nds of an inch, 
or preferably to millimetres. 


Natnes: Varrety cs sicesioaasedieues Bre 6d spy srs aionmsvui ins seamen nwanarsenaaaysntennh 

Date of (a) record......... ; (b) sowing......... ; (c) harvest...... .- 

(a) Weight: ten average grains in duplicate (a)...... .. sD ace ceay 

(b) Length: ten average grains in duplicate (a)......... ra (2) oneness 

(c) Width: ten average grains in duplicate (a)......... © UB) iasoaienys 

(d) Thickness: ten average grains in duplicate (a)......... S(O cagicetaris 

(ce) Ratio of width to length: divide length of ten grains by width of ten 
grains (d)......... a (DNicemanraxs 


(/) Ratio of thickness to width: divide width of ten grains by thickness of 
ten grains (a)......... So (D)iseencase 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 
IV. 


124 MAIZE 


(g) Shape: flat; spheroidal; conical. 
(h) Shape (side view): straight cuneate ; rounded cuneate; curved cuneate ; 


truncate cuneate; shoepeg ; rectangular; round cornered. 


(1) Apex: roof-shaped; shingled; rostrate; mucronate; rounded; flat ; 
dented. 

(7) Indentation: round dimple; long dimple; creased; pinched; rough ; 
bridged ;_ wrinkled. 

(k) Colour: white; cream; yellow; golden; red; blue; purple; black ; 
striped; mottled; mosaic. 

(1) Place of colour: endosperm ; aleurone layer ; hull. 

(m) Character of endosperm: corneous; partly corneous; farinaceous ; 
sugary. 

(x) Proportion of corneous endosperm (in dent variety): large; medium ; 
small. 

(0) Embryo size: large; medium ; small. 

(p) Sketch of longitudinal cross-section: show arrangement to scale, of 
embryo, and of corneous and white endosperm. 


95. Tubular Glands in the Embryo.—Dr. C. Stuart Gager 
(1) describes the occurrence of true glands of the tubular and 
sub-racemose type in the tissue of the scutellum, formed by 
invaginations of the glandular epithelium of the latter. The 
significance of these glands, as in harmony with the theory 
that the scutellar epithelium is principally an organ of secre- 
tion, is indicated by the author. 

96. Afogamy.—Collins (4) has described a case in which 
the staminate flowers were replaced by young leafy and root- 
forming maize plants. 

Addendum.—Since this chapter went to press the writer 
has seen a paper by Prof. Emerson (1) of Nebraska, in which 
he describes and illustrates a family of maize in which the 
ligule and auricle were absent. He refers to a similar con- 
dition in oats reported by Nilsson-Ehle (1) and Hurst (1). 
Prof. Emerson notes that in the case of non-auriculate leaves, 
the sheath and the lower part of the blade are rolled some- 
what closely about the stalk, and that the leaf as a whole 
assumes an upright position nearly parallel with the stalk, 
the tip of the leaf curving away gently if the blade is long 


and the mid-rib sufficiently flexible. “Whether the abs- 
ence of the ligule proper is disadvantageous to the plant 
is somewhat questionable. . . . My own observations on 


liguleless corn are to the effect that the inside of the sheath 
is more often discoloured, as if from incipient decay, than is 
the case when a well-developed ligule is present. In no case, 
however, have I found decay of the stalk or leaf sufficient to 


BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 125 


be of any material injury to the plant—not even during the 
past summer when the plants were grown near Boston, where 
they were exposed to moister conditions than is usually the 
case in Nebraska.” 

He concludes that it is the absence of the auricle that 
makes the leaves stand so erect. “It is the triangular shape 
of the auricle that makes possible the immediate flattening out 
of the leaf blade at the termination of the cylindrical sheath, 
and that allows the blade to bend abruptly away from the 
stalk while the sheath still clasps it.” 


CHAP. 
IV. 


CHAP. 


CHAPTER V. 


INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS AND IMPROVEMENT BY 
BREEDING. 


Tis often seen adoption strives with nature, and choice breeds a native 
slip to us from foreign seeds. 
—SHAKESPEARE. 


And he gave it for his opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn 
. to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve 
better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country, than the whole 
trace of politicians put together. 
—Gulliver’s Travels. 


Necessity for [mprovement. 


97. The Olject of “ Breeding”.—Plant breeding is the 
application to crops of the principles applied in improving 
breeds of live stock. No breed of domesticated animals or 
plants is perfect in all respects; each one has its good and its 
weak points. There are therefore two primary objects which 
the breeder keeps in view in order to produce satisfactory 
results: (a) macnfenance of quality and type, by the elimination 
of the unfit and untrue to type; (0) zwprovement of the type 
by the substitution of desirable for undesirable characters. 

To allow the poor types in a herd or crop to propagate 
their kind always results in race deterioration. To allow only 
the strongest and best to mate and propagate means, on the 
other hand, race maintenance and also, within certain limits, 
race improvement. 

“In the herd of cattle to destroy the strongest bulls, the 
fairest cows, the most promising calves, is to allow those not 
strong, nor fair nor promising, to become the parents of the 
coming herd. Under this influence the herd will deteriorate, 
although the individuals of the inferior herd are no worse than 


their own actual parents. Such a process is called race- 
126 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 127 


degeneration, and it is the only race-degeneration known in 
the history of cattle or men. The scrawny, lean, infertile herd 
is the natural offspring of the same type of parents. On the 
other hand, if we sell or destroy the rough, lean, or feeble 
calves, we shall have a herd descended from the best. . . . 

“In selective breeding with any domesticated animal or 
plant, it is possible, with a little attention, to produce wonder- 
ful changes for the better. Almost anything may be accom- 
plished with time and patience. To select for posterity those 
individuals which best meet our need or please our fancy, and 
to destroy those with unfavourable qualities, is the function of 
artificial _ selection, Add to this the occasional crossing of 
unlike forms to promote new and desirable variations, and we 
have the whole secret of selective breeding. This process 
Youatt calls the ‘magician’s wand’ by which man may sum- 
mon up and bring into existence any form of animal or plant 
useful to him or pleasing to his fancy” (/ordan, 2). 

To accomplish the best results possible from breeding, it 
is necessary (@) to understand something about the manner in 
which characters are inherited from the parent; (0) to be well 
acquainted with the characteristics and variability of the plants 
or animals with which one is dealing; and (c) to understand 
clearly what characters are required by the market, or are in 
other ways desirable or undesirable. 

98. The Necessity for Improvement of Crops.—South Africa 
produces good maize and has established a good name in the 
maize market, thanks to the assistance rendered by the several 
Governments. There is no difficulty in selling the maize of South 
Africa; the difficulty is to supply the demand. There is even 
danger that, unless the output is increased, she may lose 
the market that she has gained, for Europe requires a steady 
and dependable supply; irregularity of supply tends to dis- 
credit the crop with the merchant, and reacts unfavourably on 
the producer. 

South Africa must produce more if she is to become the 
“maize granary of Europe”. Increased production depends 
upon three things: (1) more intensive cultivation of the area 
now under crop; (2) a larger farming population to increase 
that area; (3) increase of the yield per acre by scientific maize- 
breeding. 


CHAP. 
V. 


CHAP. 


128 MAIZE 


Intensive cultivation means greater profit; if we can pro- 
duce 600 muid bags of maize from 50 acres, che profit per bag 
is much greater than if we get only 300 bags from the same 
acreage, for the rent of the land and first costs of ploughing, 
harrowing, and cultivating are the same in each case. 

Through breeding we may further increase the produc- 
tion by developing drought-resistant or early-maturing sorts 
adapted to regions now outside the Maize-belkt. 

With low yields, maize-growing ceases to be profitable 
when prices also are low; but if we double and treble the yield 
per acre, prices may fall much lower and still yield a good 
profit. The remedy for low prices lies not in restrictive fiscal 
legislation, but in reducing the costs of production by increas- 
ing the yield per acre and improving the quality of the crop. 

99. Need for Increase tn the Yield per Acre.—QNiartley states 
that good farmers in the United States frequently grow from 
75 to 100 bushels of maize per acre. An American bushel of 
maize on the cob weighs 70 lbs.; 75 bushels or too bushels 
would, therefore, be equivalent to 26 or 35 muid bags per 
acre. An American bushel of shelled maize must weigh (by 
statute) 56 lIbs., which would be equivalent to 21 to 28 
muid bags per acre. Maximum yields are, of course, higher. 
A certain Pennsylvania farmer has been known to harvest 
no less than 100 bushels (23 muids) per acre during twelve 
successive years (excepting only two seasons), and in 1902 
his average yield over 90 acres was 130 bushels or 36°4 
muids. The Transvaal records are pretty good, for, at 
Tzaneen in the Zoutpansberg District, the Department of 
Agriculture has produced 354 muids (127 bushels of shelled 
maize) per acre, of dust7 Colossal yellow dent, and at the 
Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, 35 muids 
(125 bushels) of a white dent. There seems reason to expect, 
therefore, that given proper treatment of the crop, and with 
heavy-yielding varieties and well-bred seed, good farmers in 
the Transvaal will raise an average of 20 muids (71 bushels) 
per acre ; it is an ideal worth working toward! <A few farmers ! 
have already done this, but they are still too few to affect the 


' Messrs. Hutchinson and Shaw, and Messrs. Reynolds Brothers, of Zand- 
baken, Standerton District, have obtained averages of 19} and 20 muids per acre 
over areas of 30 acres or more. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 129 


average yield, which is estimated at between 4 and 5 muids 
(800 to 1,000 lbs., or 14:28 to 17°9 bushels). 

This is astonishingly low as compared with the 224 to 24 
muids obtained (without manure) in the United States. Even 
assuming that the soils of the South African Maize-belt are 
perhaps not as rich as those of the United States Corn-belt, 
there is still much too great a discrepancy between the average 
yields of the two areas; it has been clearly demonstrated on 
the Government Experiment Farms, and on many private 
farms as well, that average yields of 10 and 12 muids (354 
to 424 bushels) per acre over hundreds of acres can be secured 
without undue expense. 

But good as the American yields are as compared with 
those at present obtained in South Africa, American breeders 
find it is possible still greatly to improve them. Mr. C. P. 
Hartley, corn expert of the United States Department of 
Agriculture, writes (ardtley, 3) :— 


“Tt is possible within a few years to double the average 
production of maize per acre in the United States, and to 
accomplish it without any increase in work or expense. It is 
not to be understood from this statement that it is desirable 
to double the present maize crop, but that it is desirable to 
produce the same yield on a smaller number of acres and with 
less labour. If 60 bushels (a bushel of maize on the ear is 
calculated at 70 lbs. weight) are raised on I acre instead 
of on 2 acres, the labour of ploughing, harrowing, planting, 
cultivating, and harvesting is greatly reduced. The demand 
controls the quantity that should be grown. To meet demands 
the producers of the United States have, during the ten years 
previous to 1914, averaged in round numbers 2,000,000,000 
bushels of maize yearly. In producing this amount a little 
more than 82,000,000 acres have yearly been devoted to maize- 
growing. The average production . . . for the past ten years 
has been less than 25 bushels per acre, but from the best 
estimates that have been made the conclusion is unavoidable 
that half of those who grow maize harvest less than 25 bushels 
per acre. Twice this quantity is a fair crop, three times 25 
bushels is a good crop, and four t2mes 25 bushels per acre are 
Srequently produced. 

“ The lines of improvement that will most easily and quickly 
double the present production per acre are as follows: (1) 


9 


CHAP. 


130 MAIZE 


CHAP. improvement in the quality of seed planted ; (2) improvement 


V. 


in the condition of the soil; (3) improvement in methods of 
cultivation.” 


In the present chapter we shall deal with the first of these 
three points; the others are discussed subsequently. 

100. The Cause of Poor Vields.—Poor yields are not as a 
rule traceable to any single cause, but are due to a combination 
of causes, such as poor farming, poor seed, mixed strains, etc. 

Good seed is seed bred with reference to certain definite 
requirements and possessing high germinating power. 

Well-bred seed usually has a higher germinating power 
than ordinary seed of the same age, kept with equal care. If 
the germination is poor the stand will be poor; every ear 
should yield at least 8 ozs. of grain; every 400 failures in 
germination therefore reduce the possible yield by at least ove 
muid of grain. Since 8,800 seeds will plant I acre, 400 
poor seeds cause a loss of 4°5 per cent ; but very few average 
samples of seed-maize will show so high a germination as 95°5 
per cent. Of some seed planted only 80 per cent germinates ; 
this means, of course, that 20 per cent of the seed was unsound 
in one way or another. A 20 per cent failure in germination 
would mean a loss in some cases of 3 muids per acre, in other 
cases more. 

Poorly-bred seed, moreover, is apt to produce barren stalks 
and small ears yielding perhaps only 3 ozs. of grain apiece. A 
plant that does not produce 8 ozs. of grain is not giving an 
adequate return for the time and care bestowed upon it, nor 
for the space that it occupies. A good plant, yielding 8 ozs. 
and more of grain, takes up no more space, and requires no 
more scuffling or other attention than a poor one, and it costs 
as much to harvest the one as the other. It is plainly evident 
that it is unprofitable to grow crops from poor seed. 

The difficulty is to know beforehand which seed is going 
to produce a poor plant and which a good one. The object 
of this chapter is to help the farmer to determine these points. 

Studies of South African maize crops carried out by the 
writer have shown that, although the average yield per acre is 
exceedingly low, the average weight of grain per ear is com- 
paratively high. This is a most encouraging fact for it shows 
that the crops have inherent possibilities of improvement. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 131 


Out of 93 ears of Hickory King (grown at Vereeniging in 
1908), which were carefully weighed, the 10 poorest (Nos. 
231-80) averaged 7 ozs. of grain apiece (Table XIX). A 
full stand of 8,712 plants averaging 7 ozs. of grain apiece would 
give 19 muids per acre. The crop at Vereeniging in 1908 
only averaged approximately 6 muids per acre, on 3,500 
acres, while on the best land it ran to about 10 muids per acre. 
Allowing 10 muids in this case, for the purpose of discussion, 
how can we account for the other 9 muids, equivalent to 47 
per cent of the crop which an average yield of 7 ozs. of grain 
per ear should give? And what has become of those ears 
which averaged as much as 8°87 ozs. of grain per ear? It seems 
incredible that 47 per cent of the stand should fail completely 
to yield any return, or that the remaining 53 per cent should 
give an average of only 7 ozs. of grain per ear when the 
average of 93 ears is 7°90 ozs.! A yield of 10 muids would 
give the absurdly low average of 3°67 ozs. of grain per ear, 
with a full stand, while one of only 6 muids would be equal to 
only 2°20 ozs. per ear. 

This matter needs thorough investigation, including a large 
number of careful counts and weighings, for it is a state of 
affairs which should be altered. Whether the low yield is due 
to the imperfect stand, or to the low average of grain per ear, 
or whether partly to one and partly to the other, there is cer- 
tainly great need for improvement. If the stand is so poor 
that 47 per cent of the plants fail to grow, or to bear ears, it 
should be possible to secure better stands. Ifa stand of 53 
per cent bears an average of only 7 ozs. of grain per ear, it is 
clearly possible to improve that average, when we consider 
that a number of ears give 8°78 ozs., and the average of 93 ears 
is 7°90 ozs. A stand is never perfect; some allowance must 
always be made for vacant places due to misses in planting, 
accidents in harrowing and cultivation, destruction by hail, 
cutworm, stalk-borer, and cranes, losses in harvesting, etc. 
These losses often amount to 25 per cent, but just how many 
bearing stalks constitute an average stand has yet to be 
determined. 

101. Importance of a Perfect Stand.—From what has 
already been said it is evident that there are two things es- 
sential to securing the heaviest possible yields of maize: (a) a 

9 * 


CHAP, 


CHAP. 


132 MAIZE 


perfect stand of plants; (4) large ears, with a heavy yield of 
grain per ear. Deficiency in either of these two requisites will 
spoil the results obtained from the other. 

The influence of incomplete stands on total yield is one 
cause of loss which does not receive sufficient attention. The 
writer has made a careful examination of different maize 
stands, in various places, counting the number of bearing plants 
in a given area, and estimating the yield. The method adopted 
was to measure off 100 yards at various points which seemed 
to show an average stand. The plants in the row on either 
side of the measured strip were counted, omitting such as, 
through injury by stalk-borer or smut, were not likely to de- 
velop any grain. Where these fields were planted in continuous 
rows 3 feet apart, allowing 3 feet width of soil surface for each 
plant, the average number of plants in each 100 yards was 
multiplied by 48-40, which gives the approximate average per 
acre. The results obtained showed that the stands vary from 
gO per cent down to 25 per cent of the possible perfect stand. 
Following are the details of some of the examinations which 
were made on different farms :— 


No. 1. Yellow Horsetooth.— Messrs. Reynolds Bros., Zand- 
baken, Val Station, Standerton District. Main crop planted 
36 x 22 inches, equalling 5°5 square feet per plant, or 7,920 
plants per acre fora full stand. Average of two rows, 130°5 
plants per 100 yards, or 6,216°4 per acre, equalling 79°5 per 
cent of a fullstand. At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per plant 
the yield should be 3,158 lbs., or 15°79 muids per acre. 

No. 2. Vellow Horsetooth.—Messrs. Hutchinson & Shaw, 
Zandbaken, Val Station, Standerton District. Main crop 
planted 36 x 22 inches, equalling 5°5 square feet per plant, or 
7,920 plants per acre. Four rows averaged 132 plants per 
100 yards, or 6,375°6 per acre, or 80°5 per cent of the full 
stand. At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per plant the yield 
should be 3,194'4 Ibs., or 15°97 muids per acre. 

No. 3. Golden King.—Messrs. Hutchinson & Shaw. 
Planted 36 x 22 inches, equalling 5°5 square feet per plant, or 
7,920 plants per acre. Four rows averaged 113°5 plants per 
100 yards, or 5,480°6 per acre, which is 69-2 per cent of a full 
stand, At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per plant the yield 
should be 2,746°7. ibs., or 13°73 muids per acre. 

No. 4. Aickory King. —Messrs. Hutchinson & Shaw. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 133 


Planted 26 x 22 inches, equalling 4 square feet per plant, or 
10,890 plants per acre. 

An average of six rows carried 136 plants per 100 yards, 
or 6,577°5 plants per acre, equivalent to 60°4 per cent of a per- 
fect stand. At an average of 6 ozs. of grain per plant (the ears 
produced were smaller than those of the Ve//ow Horsetooth), 
this should give 2,466°5 lbs., or 12°34 muids, per acre. About 
2 per cent of the crop was affected with smut of the tassel, 
Ustilago Maydts. 

No. 5. MHickory King —Government Stud Farm, Stander- 
ton. Check-rowed, 3 feet by 2 feet 8 inches, equalling 8 
square feet per hill, two plants being planted on each hill. A 
full stand, therefore, would have 5,445 hills, or 10,890 plants. 
Six rows averaged 90 hills per 100 yards, or 8,668-4 plants if 
each hill carried two plants, but on account of the number of 
suckers it was not practicable to determine the actual number 
of individual plants; this is equivalent to 79°6 per cent of a 
full stand. At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per hill, ie. 4 ozs. 
of grain per plant (the ears were small), the yield should be 
2,178 lbs., or 10°88 muids, 

No. 6. Wisconsin White Dent.—Government Stud Farm, 
Standerton. Check-rowed, 3 feet by about 2 feet 8 inches, 
equalling 8 square feet per hill, two plants per hill. A full 
stand should give 5,445 hills, or 10,890 plants. Five rows 
averaged 88 hills per 100 yards, or 4,259 hills per acre, equi- 
valent to 77°8 per cent of a full stand. Number of plants per 
hill not counted, At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per hill this 
stand should yield 2,118 lbs., or 10°65 muids per acre. In 
this stand 2°65 per cent of the plants in some rows were 
affected by maize-smut in the tassel, and 11°3 per cent of the 
plants were injured by stalk-borer. 

No. 7. Early Leaming.—Government Stud Farm, Stander- 
ton. Check-rowed, 3 feet by about 2 feet 8 inches, equalling 
8 square feet per hill of two plants, or 5,445 hills, or 10,890 
plants, per acre. Six rows averaged 93 hills per 100 yards, 
or 4,500 hills per acre, or 82°6 per cent of the full stand. At 
an average of 8 ozs. of grain per hill the yield should be 2,250 
Ibs., or 11°25 muids per acre. 

No. 8. Yellow Hogan.—Government Stud Farm, Stander- 
ton. Check-rowed, 3 feet by about 2 feet 8 inches, equalling 
5,445 hills, or 10,890 plants per acre. Six rows averaged 101 
ears per 100 yards, or 4,888 hills per acre, equivalent to 89°3 
per cent of a full stand. At an average of 8 ozs. of grain per 
hill this stand should yield 2,444 lbs., or 12°22 muids per acre. 


CHAP. 


134 MAIZE 


TasLe XVIII. 
SUMMARY OF PERCENTAGE STANDS. 


Estimated Yield in Muids. 

Variety. | As the | Ona [°S* 

Stand | Full 

Stood. |Stand. 

Per Cent. | 
t. Yellow Horsetooth . | 79°5 at 8 ozs. per plant = | 15°79] 19°8 | 4:0 
2 yy . -| 805, ” = | 15°97 | 19°8 | 3°8 
3. Golden King : . | 6972 9 50 = | 13°73 | 19°8 | Or 
4. Hickory King. . | 604 3 by = | 12°34 | 20°4 | 8°1 
5. ¥é 7 ; . | 79°6 at 82 ozs. per hill = | 10°88 | 13°6 | 2°7 
6. Wisconsin White Dent | 77°8 5 9 = | 10°65 | 13°6 | 3°0 
7. Early Leaming . » | 826 s + . = | 11°25 | 13°6 | 2°3 
8. Yellow Hogan . . | 89°3 nm se * = | 12°22 | 13°6 | 1°4 
Average | 77°37 Average | 12°85 


1 This figure may be on the low side, but we find that where the plants are 
crowded together in hills, the ears are smaller and the average yield per ear less 
than when planted in continuous rows; it is doubtful, however, whether the 
difference in results obtained by the two methods of planting is quite as great 
as the difference here allowed. 


Messrs. Hutchinson and Shaw kept count of the yield from 
these several fields and found that they averaged very close 
to the estimate which had been made of them, except in one 
case of subsequent damage to the crop. 

In a number of rows tested promiscuously in different 
fields, in another part of the country, the stand percentage was 
found to average 65°1 per cent, ranging from 53 per cent to 93 
per cent. Where much damage has been done by hail, the 
stands (in individual rows) ranged from 19 per cent to 54 per 
cent and averaged only 38°4 per cent. Planted 3 feet 4 inches 
between the rows and 1 foot 6 inches in the rows, a full stand 
would carry 8,712 maize plants, which on an average of 7 ozs. 
of grain per ear (not an excessive amount to expect) should 
produce 19 muids per acre. A stand of 65:1 per cent carries 
5,671 plants which with the same weight of grain per ear 
should yield 12°4 muids per acre, while a stand of 38-4 per 
cent would produce only 7°31 muids. 

Poor stands may thus mean a loss of eight bags, or 64s. 
per acre, even where the crop has been considered a good one. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 135 


It appears also that, on fairly well-farmed land, losses may be CHAP. 

equivalent to nearly 25 per cent of the stand. 
102. Lmportance of Increasing the Size of the Ears.—We 

have seen that a stand of only 38-4 per cent of the possible, 

would produce 7°31 muids per acre if the ears averaged 7 o7s. 

in weight.‘ But*as this yield is about twice the estimated 


te 


1 
— 


Tena 


T 


ee 
a 


= 


a a 


isle! 


T 


ee iieteist 


Fic. 62.—‘* Nubbins”” of Hickory King; one cause of poor yields; 44 inch 
nubbins weighing 2% to 3 ozs. 


average for the Transvaal, we are forced to conclude, in the 
absence of other likely reasons, that the low yields are due, 
in part at least, to small ears, the average weight of grain 
of which does not exceed 34 ozs, per ear. In view of the 


1 Only 7 ozs. is allowed in this case, since the yields were lighter than those 
near Standerton. 


MAIZE 


= 
bigs a 
-_ 
Bind od 


é 


f 


é 


it 


CCGi0G 


dccececete 
LETT 


rot 


TTT 


f 


ne 


oi 


A 


Fia. 63.—Desirable and undesirable types ot Hickory King ; the shorter ear 
(A), 8 inches long, has a deeper grain and gives a heavier yield than the longer 
ear (B), to inches long, which has shallow grain. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMIENT BY BREEDING 137 


fact that 8 ozs. of grain per ear is a common return, and 
that ears yielding 15 ozs. of grain are not unknown, an 
average of 34 ozs. is absurdly low, and suggests great possi- 
bilities for improvement. 

“ Nubbins” such as are shown in Fig. 62, must tend to 
bring down the yield enormously. 

103. dverage Weight of Grain per Ear.—Such variations 
in weight of ear indicate that the composition of the average 
lot of seed-maize is very unsatisfactory. A difference of 
12 ozs. between the extremes is much too great; no stock- 
man would breed 800 Ibs. bullocks when he could produce 
2,000 lbs. animals with the same amount of care and feed. 
Although it may not be possible to bring the average up to 
the maximum, still by breeding, the average can be greatly 
improved, and the production of the 24 to 4 ozs. nubbins (Fig. 
62) which are so plentiful in South African crops at present, 
can be minimized, The following tables(XIX to XXIX) show 
the weights and yields of grain of 1,684 ears of maize grown 
at Vereeniging, Transvaal, in 1908, and selected for seed. 
They were carefully studied and weighed, at the end of the 
dry season when the grain was as dry as possible. 

104. Need for Increase in the Weight of Grain per Ear.— 
Allowing for losses to the extent of 25 per cent from external 
causes, misses, etc., we should still have 6,534 bearing plants 
to an acre, an average of one to every 74 square feet of soil 
surface. As is shown in the preceding tables, the average 
weight of grain from a medium-sized ear of Golden King in 
1908 was 7°397 ozs.; this was determined by weighing 250 
ears which had been picked for seed, but from which all the 
best ears had been removed for use on the breeding plot, 
leaving 150 medium-sized ears. On well-farmed land, 10 
muids of shelled grain per acre is not an uncommon average 
yield without manure. To produce 10 muids would require 
only 4,326 plants yielding 7°379 ozs. each, or less than two- 
thirds of the plants left on the acre. How are we to account 
for the remaining 2,208 plants? At 7°379 ozs. each they 
should produce an additional 1,020 lIbs., or 5 muids of grain, 
which would increase the yield per acre by 50 per cent. 
There are three possible explanations: (1) that the average 
yield of grain per ear is much lower than 7°379 ozs.; (2) that 


CHAP. 


ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 134 EARS OF HICKORY KING. 


MAIZE 


TABLE XIX. 


Hickory King, S. 2. 


|Average | 


| | 
Selection Average Average | Average | Per- Number|/Number 
Weight | Weight | Weight t f of Notes. 
Number, / Trier | Weeb | of tre. | deuce. | Rows. | Grains | 
| [per Ear.| | 
Exeeret ie) — a : _|___—_ | 
Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. | | | 
41 to 50 | 6:36 93 5°43 | 85°37 aes | as | 
51 to 60 6°85 | 1°28 5°57 81°31 | 8, 10,| 393 | 
| & 12 | 
61 to 70 5°54 | “04 4°60 83°03 8, r0 | a | | 
18°75 | 3:15 | 15°60 |2aqg7r | — | — | | 
Average, 30ears) 6°25 3°05 5°20 | 83 23 a S| | 
Hickory King (Narrow Grain), V. 8. 
14 to'r25 | 100 | gi25 | — = == 
146 10°00 I'lo g'00 — — oe 
147 II‘I2 1°40 rrmz | — == =) i 
148 . | Io‘4o0 1°40 goo oes mane | 
149 . | 10°80 | 1°50 G27O% iI) = Gee = | 
150 + | Ir0o | 1°64 936 | — = a 
151 - | 14°50 3°00 Ir‘75 | 80°70 _— = | 
152 + | 10°65 I'lo 9°65 = == a Th 
153 II‘'50 1°20 10°25 —_— —_ = 
154 Io‘"g0 | I'ro 9°90 _— _ _ 
155 995 | 130 | 8:60 I gee fleet) ee | 
| 
r20°945 | 15°74 |ro7-455| — | — | - | | 
Average, Ilears! 10-99 | 1°43 9°77. | 88:90 _ _ | 
Hickory King, V. 7. | 
144 10°35. | 165 | 8:70 | 84°05 8 —_— | 
145 II‘50 | I'40 10°1O 87°82 8 400 | 
146 10'00 | 1°20 | 8-80 88-00 8 pate | 
147 Io'Ilo 1730 | 8:80 881 8 384 | No loss. | 
| os 10°50 | 1°75 | 875 | 83°33] 8 | 336 | 
| 149 10°60 I'lo 9°50 89°62 ae) 490 
| I51 10°25 1°75 8°50 82°92 Io _ | | 
| 152 I0°LoO 12 8°85 87°62 | 10 _— 
| 153 9°50 1°25 | 8°25 86°84 8 =] 
154 10°20 r'7o | 850 83°33 8 400 
155 10°50 1'60 | 8-go 84°76 8 368 
158 9°85 1°60 8°25 83°75 8 — 
162 10°75 1°30 9°45 87°90 | To = 
134°20 18°85 | 115°35 lrerras — [2,378 
Average of 13 | 
V. 7 ears 10°32 I°45 | 8°87 86:00 | — 396 
201 to 210 8-98 I'225 7°755 86°36 | 12 — | Discards. | 
211 to 230 9°19 Vat 7°98 86°83 Io | — | Do. 
231 to 280 8:066 1'064 7°002 86°81 8 | — | Do. 
36°556 | 4°949 | 31°607 | 346°00 | — | = 
Average of 93 | 
V.7 «ears 9°139 11237 7°Q02 8650 | -— | = 
Average of 24 | 10°63 1°44 9°28 = a == 
ears (141-62) | 
Average of all 8:29 11g 7°12 85°85 | — | = 


INHERITANCE —IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 


139 
TaBLE XX. 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF too EARS OF NATAL WHITE 
HORSETOOTH. 
Natal White Horsetooth, V. 14. 
| Average | Average | Average | Percent- Number 
Selection Numbers. Weight | Weight | Weight age of of | 
| of Ear. | of Cob. | of Grain. | Grain. Rows. | 
aes Se eae gies ieee Pe 
Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. 
| £ to Io 12°68 2°98 9°70 76°50 iq | 
II to 20 13°08 3°07 1O‘OL 76°53 14 | 
| 21 to 30 14°47 3°78 10°69 73°88 | 14 
| 31 to 40 13°2 2°96 10°28 7794 | 14 
41 to 50 1518 3°56 11°62 76°55 14 
51 to 60 16°23 3°84 12°39 76°34 | I4, 16, | 
| 18, 12 | 
| 61 to 70 13°80 3°26 10°54 78°37 16 | 
71 to 80 14°54 3°32 II‘20 77°03 | 12 
| 81 to go 14°00 3°45 10°55 75°30 12 
| gt to 100 I4'05 3°45 10°60 75°42 12 
| 
| —— | 
| 141°27 | 33°67 107°58 | 763°62 —_ 
Average 14°27 | 3°367 10'758 | 76°362 | — 
pe ie | 
TaBLE XXI. 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 123 EARS OF LADYSMITH. 
Ladysmith, V. 6. 
iF ‘ 
| . Average | Average | Average | Percent- | Number Number 
Selection Fi : ‘ ppl 
Weight | Weight Weight of of of Notes. 
Numbers. of Ear, of Cob. of Grain. Gan Rows. Ears. 
| Ozs. Ozs Ozs 
| 132 to 145 | 10°55 =e — — 16 | 14 
146 to 155 | 12:00 | (1°76) | ro‘2q | (88°33)| 76 | Io to best. 
& over 
Ito 13 9°17 _— -— 12 13 
156 to 169 | 10°60 — — == 16 14 
170 to 18 g'or — 16 12 
183 to 193 10°09 2°11 79 78°99 18 Ir : 
I9s to 21 86 8 ‘21 83°00 — 2 Estimate of cob 
“a 7 3 : ? - based on ears 
183 to 193. 
183 to 197 12°05 2°05 9°94 82°49 18 15 
221 to 228 9°75 — — — 20 8 
229 12°70 = = er 22 5 
- 12°00 _ = = T4 ari 
& over 
ast 17°00 7°46 _ 332°81 18 — 
I16°61 7°68 35°36 as ca 123 
Average r0'60 1°86 8°84 83°20 _ | = 


CHAP. 
Vv. 


140 


CHAP. 


MAIZE 


TABLE XXII. 


ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 150 EARS OF IOWA SILVER-MINE AND 
to EARS OF CHESTER COUNTY. 


Poise Silver-mine, V. 9. 


| Selection 
| Numbers. 


Average of 10 


I to Io 
Ir to 20 
21 to 30 
31 to 4o 
41 te 50 


Average 
jes: 


Selection Numbers. 


II to 20 


Average 
Number 
of Notes, 
Grains 
per Ear 
— | Much grain 
lost. 
— | Some grain 
lost. 
— Some loss of 
grain. 
— Do. 
— Do. 
— Do. 
—_ Much loss of 
grain. 
| 664 | Io poorest. 
702 
| — | ro best. 
640 
—_ Not true to 
type. 
| 2,006 
668 


Average | Average | Average | Per- Number 
Weight | Weight Weight) centage of 
| of Ear. | of Cob. of Grain. | /of Grain.| Rows. 
a aS es a: 
Ozs. Ozs, | Ozs. | 
gir I'7I.| 7°400 | 81°23 | 16, 14, 
& 18 
10°55 1°86 | 8690 | 82°37 | 16, 14 
9°62 1°86 | 7°760 | 80°66 | 16, 74, 
& 12 
9°56 | 1°83 | 7°730 | 80°85 | 16, 14, 
18, 20 
9°94 r'77 | 8170 | 82°19 16 
9°36 | 158 | 7°780 | 83°12 16 
8°12 r'4t | G10 | 82°63 16 
8°92 | 1°56 | 7°360 | 82°51 14 
7°35 1°46 | 5°890 | 80°13 | 12, 18, 
& 14 
8°20 1°39 | 6810 | 83°05 | 12,14 
90°73 | 16°43 | 74°300 5 aka: TA Se 
g'07 | 164 | 77430 | 81°87 — 
Towa Silver-mine, S. 4. 
5°51 T'03 4°48 | 81°30 16 
7°34 1°46 5°88 | 8o°1r 16 
8g1 169 722 80°80 16 
6°53 r'r6 5°37 | 82'23 16 
8:27 rit | 7°03 | 85:00 16 
Sit ee ces | 
36°56 | 6°45 | 29°98 | 409°44 = 
areal | £2 5°996  81°888 16 
| 
Chester County, V. 4. 
Average | Average | Average | Percent- 
Weight Weight Weight age of 
of Ear. | of Cob. | of Grain. | Grain. 
| _ —_ Saeesermasesmenatans aes = 
Ozs. Ozs. | Ozs. 
-| 9°28 | 1546 | 7°734 | 83°34 


Notes. 


to best ears. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 


TaBLE XXIII. 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 1r10 EARS OF CHAMPION WHITE PEARL. 


(A breed closely allied to Iowa Silver-mine.) 
Champion White Pearl, V. 5. 


141 


{ 


| F Average | Average | Av | Per- Numbe 
| Sens raaas Weight Weight Weight Pee wf cs 
je OR ErS: of Ear. of Cob. | of Grain. of Grain. | Rows. 
Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. | | 
ItolIo. 7°62 1°47 6°15 80°71 I4 
II to 20. 7°99 1°45 6°45 81°85 14 
21 to 30. 8°67 1°53 714 82°35 14 
31 to 4o. 774 1°43 6°31 81°52 I4 
41 to50. 8°68 I'54 714 82°26 14 
| 51 to60. 7°50 162 5°88 78°40 14 
61 to 70. 8°52 1°62 6°90 80°99 16 
71 to 80. 8:12 I'49Q 6°63 81°65 16 
81 to go. | 10°26 24 8:52 83°04 16 
gI to 100 8°39 1°53 6°86 | 81°76 16 
— a —— 
83°49 | 15°42 | 67°98 |814°53 a 
Average | 
of 100. 8°35 I'54 6°80 81°45 — 
IOI to 110 6°65 1°42 5°23 78°65 | 12 


Ears poor and broken. 
Some loss of grain. 
No loss of grain. 
Slight loss of grain. 
Ears very broken. 
Ears a good deal 
broken. 
A little grain lost. 
Very little grain lost. 
Do. 


ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 170 EARS OF YELLOW HORSETOOTH. 


TaBLeE XXIV. 


Yellow Horsetooth, 12-row, V. I. 


Selection : 
Weight 
| Numbers. of Bor. 
| Ozs. | 
81to 90) rors | 
gi to 100 g‘go_ | 
Tol toIro|) 10°65 | 
| T1r to 120 | 12°06 | 
I2r to 130) 10°67 | 
131 to 140} Io'r5 | 
14 tom50| 9°55 | 
73°13 
Average 
of 7 I0'45 
31 to 40 12°96 
48 to 57 9°85 


Average | Average 


Weight 
of Cob. 


Yellow Horsetooth, 14-row, V. 2. 


2°25 


ae 


27 


| 


Notes. 


Io‘71 


7°58 


Average Per- Number 
Weight | centage of 
of Grain. | of Grain. Rows. 
Ozs. 
8°rI 79°90 I2 
8°23 83°13 —_ 
8°86 83°19 —_ 
9°97 82°67 | — 
5°86 83°03 — 
8°36 82°36 _— 
7°76 81°26 — 
60'I5 575°54 = 
8°593 82:22 _ 


82°64 


76°95 


CHAP. 
Vv. 


142 MAIZE 


after allowing for a loss of 25 per cent of the stand from the 
various causes mentioned before, one-third of the remainder 
are barren; (3) that each of these causes is’ partially account- 
able. 

Barren Stalks ——An examination of many maize crops 
shows that there is a small percentage of barren stalks, but 
that this is not likely to equal anything like 33 per cent of the 
standing crop. 


TABLE XXV. 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 352 EARS OF YELLOW HOGAN. 


Yellow Hogan, V. 3. 


a | ier see 


| Selecti Average Average Average | Percent- | Number | 
Soepete | Weight | Weight | Weight age of of | Notes | 
i | of Ear. | of Cob. | of Grain.| Grain. Rows. | 
| 
| = ss! | 
| Oz. | Ozs. ie | | | 
I ste 10°50 1°90 | ‘60 | 81°90 - : 
| 2  .. | 1030 | rg0 | 840 | 81°55 J | ‘i | aac | 
3to 14 908 | 1°54 | 7°54 | 83704 | 14 Do. 
| 15 to 24 945 | 150 | 7°95 84°13 | 12 | Do. 
| 25 to 34 8:00 1°38 | 6°62 | 82°75 | 12 Do. 
35 to 41 7°67 1°38 «| «629 81°99 | 12 | Do. 
| 42 to I51 — | r60 | — | — | -- 
| 151 to 190 = I°425 | a a — 
Ig2 to 201 785 | 13r | 654 83°31 12 | Red cob. 
202 to 208 | 608 | rear | 4°87 85°01 | I4 | 
209 to 216 844 1°40 | 7°04 83°56 14 
217 to 222 | 830 | 1°40 | 6°88 83°10 | I4 | 
223 to 226 8:90 | 1°43 | 7°47 83°09 | 14 | 
227 to 232 9°08 | T’4r | 8°50 85°81 | 14 | 
233 to 242 10°80 185 | 870 82°87 | 14 | Best 10 | 
243 to 252 10°57. | 177 | 8:80 83°25 14 | 
253 to 262 9°82 | 1°40 | 8-42 85°74 14 | | 
263 to 272 9°48 165 7°83 82°60 | 14 | | 
273 to 282 844 | 1°44 | 7°00 82°94 | 14 | 
283 to 292 7°66 1°34 6°32 82°51 14 | | 
293 to 307 Iolo | 1°73 | 9°20 83999 16 | | 
308 to 314 8°88 1°67 | 7°21 84°63 | 16 | 
315 to 324 913 | 160 | 7°53 | 82-48 12 | | 
325 to 334 10°59 | 94 | 865 | 81°68 | 13 | | 
335 to 344 9°46 I'90 7°56 | 79°91 | 52 | 
345 to 349 692 | 1°56 | 5°36 | 82trr | I2 | 
350 to 352 | 8:90 | 1°53 | 7°37 | 82°8r | 14 & 12 | 
| | | | : 
ipeeee canes ane | 
225°30 | 42°165 186°65 penree | — 
Average of | | | | 
25 lots . gor 1°56 7°46 | 83°10 | co | | 
\ | | | 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 143 


Nubbins—It also shows that in most crops there is a con- CHAP. 
siderable proportion of ‘nubbins,” i.e. small ears (cf. Fig. 62)  V: 
—often only 2 to 4 ozs. weight—which are imperfectly de- 
veloped owing to inadequate pollination, or other causes. A 
three-quarter stand of 6,534 bearing plants per acre, yielding 
10 muids of shelled grain, shows the low average of 4°89 ozs. 
of grain per ear, which is only 66 per cent of the average 
weight of the 150 medium ears mentioned above (p. 137), and 
is only 48 per cent of the average weight of 100 selected ears. 


TABLE XXVI, 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 200 EARS OF GOLDEN KING. 


Golden King, V. 13. 


| | 
: . Average | Avera | Avera; Percent- | Number | 
ga ie | Weight Weight Awelgkt age of of | Notes. 
: | of Ear. | of Cob. | of Grain.| Grain. Rows. 
Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. 
Iorto1io . Ir'64 2°37 9°27 79°64 12 
Tir tomo . II'Q4 2°21 9°73 81°49 I2 
121 to130 . = II"54 2°11 9°43 81°71 T2 
I3rtorgo .| I212 2°18 9°94 82°01 12 
141 toI50 .| 12°80 2°38 10°42 81°40 I2 
I5I to 160 .!| 13°30 2°41 10°89 81°88 I2 | Io best 12-row. 
| 161 tor7o . | 13°09 297 10°72 81°89 I4 
I7I1to 180 ., 13°90 2°33 II'57 83°24 I4 Io best I4-row. 
18rtoIgo . 12°7r 2°22 10°49 82°59 14 
Igl to 200 . | 1°43 2°25 g'18 80°31 14 
Total of 100 | 
Selected Ears | 124°47 | 22°83 |ror'64 | 816°16 — |Selected for 


| breeding plot. | 


| = a ee | 
earl aT aaa a | 


Average of 100, | 
Medium-sized’ 


| 


i Seley iO! 16 | 7°092 811 I2 |Nos. 1-100 se- 
i | : epee : lected for bulk 
| seed. 
5sodo. . .| gt4o2}] 1°7000; 7°7020) 81°92 14 | Nos. 201-50 do. 
5sodo. . .| 9828] 1°778 8-050 | 81'gI Io | Discarded. 
Saas 8 | 6. Nos. I0I-200 se 
; 2°2 Io'l — — S. -2 - 
| nae ae | ive. ; | : lected for breed- 
| ing plot. 
10 Best Ears 13°g0 2°33 II'57 83°24 14 |Nos. 171-80 se- 
| lected for breed- 


ing plot. 


CHAP. 
V. 


144 MAIZE 


TaBLe XXVII. 


ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF 370 EARS OF WISCONSIN. 


| Wisconsin, S. 1. 


| 
| Average | Average | Average Per- | | 
| Selection Numbers. Weight Weight Weight centage | Notes. | 
| | of Ear. of Cob. of Grain. | of Grain. | 
| poeta tens ee — 
SS as a 
\ Ozs. Ozs. Ozs 
1toIo . o | #9 1°33 67375 | 80°79 | | 
| Irto20 . : 9°375 1843 7°875 | 84:00 | Io best. 
17°275 3°173 | 14250 | 164°79 
| Average . eh 8°6375 | 175865 , 77125 | 82°395 
Wisconsin x = Skinner's Court 2. 
rto1o . |i 9°34 1°47 5°87. | 79°97 
| Irto20 . ‘ 8°70 160 7°10 8r°6r 
a1 i030 |. ‘ g'Io 1°82 7°28 80°00 to best. 
31to4o . i 8:00 I‘5r 6°49 8112 | 
| 41 to50 . | 7°55 137 6°18 81°85 | 
| 40°69 777 32°92 | 40455 | 
| Average . ‘ S140 I'550 6°580 | 8o'9r Selected ears. | 
| 51 to 150 ¥ 7°791 I'440 6°351 | 80°23 too large ears, bulk. | 
I5I to 250 ; 6°175 I‘I30 5°045 | 81°70 | roo medium ears, | 
| | ; bulk. | 
| 251 to 350 x | 4981 "922 47058 | 81°47. | toosmall ears, bulk. | 
| | ieecten UReR Ie yon S eat | 
| 27°087 5042 22°034 | 324°31 | Apices infertile, | 
| | | apparently from | 
| lack of pollen. | 
| Average of 350 | 6772 | 1260 | 5508 | 81°08 | | 


It has been amply demonstrated by American maize- 
growers that the tendency to produce barren stalks can be 
reduced by careful selection, and that the average yield of 
grain per ear can be very greatly increased by breeding. The 
figures in Table XXX (p. 147) show the yield per acre for 
every ounce of average weight of grain per ear on a 75 per 
cent stand of 6,534 plants per acre. 

These figures are somewhat startling. We are not 
prepared to say that an average yield of 23 muids can be 
obtained on any one South African farm without manure, 
even with the best of seed and of good management ; but 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 145 


TaBLE XXVIII. CHAP 
ANALYSIS OF YIELDS OF too EARS OF SKINNER’S COURT to. 


| Skinner’s Court to. 
| es 
| | | 
|| “Sélection aereee average Average Per- Number 
| Numbers. | orHer' | of Cab. |of Guin. | of Gran. | Rows. mea 
| Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. 
Itor1o .| ro‘r1o 205 7°95 78°71 14 
Irto20 . 7°95 1°85 6°Io 76°73 16 
| 2rto30 . 9°20 2°00 7°20 78°26 16 
| 31to 40 . | 10°30 2°40 7°90 76°70 16 
41 to50. . 9°84 2°22 7°62 77°43 16 Grains deep. 
51 to60 .| 10°95 PAs et 8°64 78°90 I4 to best; grains 
i deep. 
61to7o . 9°85 I'95 7°90 80°20 14 (8) Grain deep. 
& 12 (2) 
yrtoBo . 9°55 | 2°18 7°37 77°17 18 
8rtogo .| g'44 2°33 73l | 77°43 12 
gt to roo . 904 1°86 7°18 79°42 I4 
| 9622 205 «| 75°17 | 780°95 = 
| Average . 9°62 | 2°05 7°517 | 78°09 — 


25 per cent appears to be an ample allowance for losses by 
pests, etc. ; we should aim to secure a 75 per cent stand and 
an average yield of at least 6 ozs. of grain per plant, which 
would give 12 muids per acre. The writer confidently 
believes that this standard will be reached, and the figures 
given in Tables XIX to XXIX seem sufficient warrant for 
the assumption. 

All the defects referred to can be largely remedied by com- 
bining breeding with good farming; the tendency to produce 
barren stalks can be reduced by careful selection; misses in 
planting will be reduced by greater uniformity in shape and 
size of seed; the tendency to produce “nubbins” can be 
removed almost entirely by breeding; and the effect of cut- 
worm and stalk-borer are minimized by careful management. 

The tendency for like to produce like is found not only 
among animals but among plants. It is well known to all 
farmers that poor, weedy sheep, cattle and horses, reproduce 
their kind; and “nubbins” will generally reproduce the same 


sort of plant that bore them. When the poor-quality parent- 
Io 


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“AZIVW NMOND“IVVASNVUL AO SUVA *89' WONT NIVND AO SCIFIA AAILVUYVdNOD ONIMOHS AYVNWAS 


“XIXX ATV 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 147 
Tap_e XXX. CHAP. 


YIELD PER ACRE FROM A 75 PER CENT STAND, AT VARIOUS 
AVERAGE WEIGHTS PER EAR. 


So Foo ee -- 
Yield from a 75 per cent | 


Average Weight of Stand (6,534 Plants) 


eine in Muids per Acre, | 
Stick omitting fractions. : 
Ozs. Muids. 
| I | 2 
| 5 To 
6 I2 
7 leah I4 | 
V7 15 
9 18 
Io 20 
TI'S 


Thus every single ounce of grain added to the average weight of ear pro- 
duced makes a difference of 2 muids of grain per acre. 


plants are in the majority, as is generally the case in ordinary 
maize crops from unselected seed, they cross with the good 
ones and cause deterioration. The obvious remedy is (1) to 
save only the best ears for seed, and (2) to plant this seed 
entirely away from the rest of the crop so that the plants 
may not be cross-pollinated by inferior strains. 

It is true that large heavy-yielding ears do not always 
produce good ears in the next generation, but this is often due 
to the effect of previous cross-breeding with inferior plants, 
which continues to show in the second and even the third 
generation. 

It seems reasonable to expect that by using only the ten 
best ears of the crop for seed, we shall be able to breed up a 
strain that will eventually average a yield of 11°57 ozs. of 
grain per ear, which on a 75 per cent stand will give 23 muids 
per acre. There may be some adverse factors to contend with, 
which are not yet fully understood, and which may delay the 
attainment of this desired end; but South Africa can un- 
doubtedly do much better than at present. 

In tests made during 1908 the average difference in weight 
of grain per ear from the ten best ears, as compared with that 
obtained from the ten poorest ears, was 2°68 ozs., while the 


range of difference was from ‘97 oz. to 4°33 ozs. Though 
TOM 


CHAP. 


148 MAIZE 


268 ozs. is not a great increase, yet on the basis of 6,534 
bearing plants it means an increase of 54 muids of grain 
per acre’ This increase is 137 per cent of the estimated 
present average yield of 4 muids per acre. 

But there is no reason why we should be content even with 
an increase of 2°68 ozs. of grain. Some breeds show an aver- 
age increase for ten ears of 4°33 ozs. per ear; we should 
therefore aim at adding this to the average for the crop. An 
average increase of 4°33 ozs. per ear is equivalent to 1,764 
Ibs. (8°82 muids) of grain per acre. 

105. Percentage by Weight of Grain and Cob. — Where 
maize is sold on the cob for feeding to stock, or for seed, as is 
often the case in the United States, the amount of grain which 
can be obtained from a bushel or muid of ears is of great im- 
portance ; as this proportion varies, the price also will fluctuate. 

The following table shows the range of variation in pro- 
portion of grain to ear in selected ears of certain breeds :— 


TABLE XXXI. 
PERCENTAGE OF GRAIN TO EAR. 


| | 
Variety |No. of Ears 10 Best 10 Worst | Average of 
: Weighed. Ears. Ears. 100 Ears. 
Per Cent. | Per Cent. Per Cent. 
Hickory king, V. Aj : 93 86°83? 86°00 86°50 
Vv. : : II 86°42 | 80°70 88-90 
Ladysmith, V.6 3 ‘ . | 120 88°33? 82°49 83°20 
| Yellow Hogan, V.3 . ‘ « | 200 85°81 79°91 $3°r0 
Chester County, VAN ‘ ‘ pe) 85°27 79°39 83°34 
Golden King, 14-row. ‘ go 83°24 80°73 81°99 
Yellow Horsetooth, V. 1, 12-row 70 83°19 79°90 82°22 
Iowa Silver-mine, Vv. Qe Ae A 100 83°12 | 80°13 81°87 
Champion White Pearl, V.5  . 100 83°04 78°40 81°45 
Yellow Horsetooth, V. 2, 14-row 200 | 82°64 76°95 79°79 
Skinner’s Court No. r1 ‘ P 350 81°85 79°97 80°91 
Skinner’s Court No. ro " Too | 80°20 76°70 78°09 
Natal White Horsetooth, V. 14. Ioo_ | 78°37 73°88 76°36 
Total. : - | 1,364 1,088°31 I,034°73 1,067°72 
Average . 3 : 105 | 83°57 79°59 82°13 
| 


1 The maximum for a single ear was 89°62. 
? There is a possible error in this figure. 


Owing to the lateness of the season when the weights were 
taken, the dryness of the ears and the looseness of the grain, 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BV BREEDING 149 


there was a certain loss of grain from a few ears. -This was 
greater in some breeds than in others. In all cases, however, 
care was taken to select the least broken ears for weighing, 
and in many cases there was no loss from those that were 
weighed; at most it would not exceed half an ounce of 
grain, which would not alter the percentage of grain to ear by 
more than about ‘67 per cent. Making due allowance for this, 
the percentages are considerably below those which American 
growers consider fair (7 88, p. 117). 

106. Effect of Depth of Grain on Yield.—One of the prin- 
cipal factors, and perhaps the most important, in the production 


A B 


Fic. 64.—Increasing yield by increasing depth of grain (in Arcadia Sugar- 
maize). A, old type; B, improved type. 


of heavy yields of grain, is the depth of the grain (cf. Fig. 64). 
Even an eighth of an inch added to the diameter of an ear, 
when the cob remains of the same thickness, makes a marked 
difference in the amount of grain carried on that ear. 

In seed selection, therefore, this character is of great im- 
portance. To measure the relative depth of grain of each ear, 
when handling several thousand ears, is a most tedious process, 
and if some readily detected character can be found which is 
correlated with depth of grain, it will be a useful guide. One 
of the results of the writer’s recent investigations has been the 


CHAP. 


150 MAIZE 


CHAP. discovery that this character is often (in fact in nearly all the 
cases that have fallen under his observation) correlated with 


1072” 


80D 
INODEND 
CELL 1 


i 


Sk POMP Ged Pq 


ew eS 


ye 
< 
Z 
< 


ae 


ne 


2 


deve 


Fic. 65.—Rough-grained type of Hickory; a desirable type for selection. 
Rough ears of this type generally have a longer grain (in South Africa) than the 
smooth type. The ear is not well bred, for the tip tapers too much, the sulci are 
too wide, the grains are uneven and the rows are irregular, but it is a useful type 


to start with. 
roughness of the indentation of the grain (cf. Fig. 65), whereas 
very smooth grains (as in Fig. 67B) are often very shallow. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 151 


107. Increasing Yield by Increasing the Number of Rows at CHAP. 
the Butt and Tip.—Loss of grain also occurs through breeding ¥, 
ears with even, instead of rounded, butts (Fig. 66) and with 
badly covered tips. It has been completely demonstrated that 
these defects can be removed by breeding. 

108. Effect of Width of Sulci on Yteld.—Loss in weight of 
grain is often due also to wide sulci, as, for example, in 
the ear shown in Fig. 65, although this is not a bad case, and 
far worse specimens are often met with. The sulci should be 
as narrow as possible. The ears shown in Fig. 67 are not 


A B 
Fic. 66.—Increasing yield by increasing the number of rows around the butt. 
A (rounded butt) has a row of grains more than B (even butt). 


quite perfect in this respect, but nearly so. Narrow sulci may 
be produced in two ways: (1) by the development of wedge- 
shaped grains so that the empty space, such as is produced by 
straight-sided grains, is filled with grain. This is the right 
type to breed. (2) By the development of shallow grains 
which are not long enough to form wide sulci. This is the 
wrong type to breed, because more weight is lost by the 
shallowness of the grain than is gained by the closing up 
of the sulci. 

109. Effect of Shape of Grain on Yield.—The shape of the 
grain has a marked effect on yield; the grain which combines 


152 MAIZE 


CHAP. depth ({ 106) with the shape which allows the least waste of 
space between rows, is obviously the one that will give the best 
yield, other things being equal. The ideal shape for this pur- 
pose is known as the wedge-shape (cf. Fig. 68 and 4 108). 

110. Effect of Number of Rows.—It does not always follow 
that increase in number of rows of grain on the ear is accom- 


Perea =) 


KG 


A B 


Fic. 67.—Result of breeding for reduction of sulci; Doyle Hickory. 


panied by increase in amount of grain produced. Cases illus- 
trating this point have been mentioned in chapter Iv. (4 85). 
One number of rows usually predominates in a breed, thus 
in Jowa Silver-mine it is the 16-row, of which there were 57 per 
cent, while of the 14-row there were only 24 per cent in 
certain cases examined, It does not follow, however, that the 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 15 


1270 


1268 


1271 


1275 


Fic. 


68.—Variation in shape and size of grain in the same breed (Reid) ; 
No, 1271 approaches most closely to the ideal, 


CHAP. 
V. 


154 MAIZE 


type with the predominating number of rows is the one most 
suitable for propagation. 

The number of rows may either exceed or fall below that 
of the type; the whole gamut (from 8 to 24 or more) may be 
found in one breed. It does not necessarily follow that an 
18-row Jowa Silver-mine is not an Iowa Silver-mine, nor that 
a 10-row Hickory is some other breed. But it is found 
that either below or-above a certain number in any one type, 
deterioration takes place; in /Jowa Szlver-mine, for example, 
the ears bearing 12, 18, and 20 rows respectively, prove un- 
desirable for propagation, entirely apart from the question of 
the number of their rows. 

lit. Effect of Diameter of Cobs.—There is a popular idea 
that a thin cob is a highly desirable characteristic of a good 
type of maize, and a certain amount of simple selection on this 
basis has been carried out by South African farmers. In 
reality increase in the amount of grain is generally accom- 
panied by increase in the szze of the cob on which it is borne, 
not only in length but also in diameter. The writer's investi- 
gations show that increased yield of grain, by actual weight, 
is usually accompanied by zzcrease in average weight of cob. 
The /ongest ears, however, do not always carry the greatest 
amount of grain. Heavy yield does not depend entirely 
either on large ears or on thin cobs. 

Of two ears of egua/ circumference the one with the thin- 
nest cob is the most desirable, because it carries more grain. 
But a thick ear with deep grain on a thick cob is infinitely 
more desirable than a thin ear with shallow grain on a thin cob 
(Fig. 63). An ear of Golden King 94 inches long produced only 
8 ozs. of grain, while an ear half an inch shorter produced 10°25 
ozs. of grain, or 2} oss. more than the long ear. This was due 
entirely to the depth and weight of the individual grains. The 
cob that produced the most grain was half an inch shorter than 
the other, but it was half an tnch greater in circumference, and 
weighed } oz. more. On a half-stand of only 4,200 bearing 
plants per acre this difference means an increase in yield of 3 
muids per acre in favour of the thicker cob. 

112. Need for Earler-ripening Breeds—An important 
point for consideration in the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State, and in the Uplands of Natal, is early maturity. On the 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 1 55 


High-veld thousands of bags of 
maize are lost each year by early 
autumn frosts. Early spring 
sowing on deeply ploughed land 
reduces the risk of loss from 
this cause, but with every pre- 
caution in that direction, there 
is still need for earlier ripening 
sorts. These could be planted 
after the last safe date for put- 
ting in the later-maturing crops 
and, in this way, the total acre- 
age for the season could be 
increased, for at best the plant- 
ing season is short in many 
parts of the High-veld. Early 
maturing sorts would also enable 
the farmer to replant in cases 
where the first crop has been 
destroyed by cutworm, etc. 

Unfortunately we find that 
early maturity is often corre- 
lated with relatively light yield. 
Within certain limits, however, 
it should be possible to correct 
this, that is to say, to increase 
the yield of the earlier maturing 
sorts, by careful breeding. 

The Transvaal Department 
of Agriculture was successful in 
introducing and _ acclimatizing 
several sorts which take less 
time to mature than /A/zckory 
King, and these are becoming 
popular with farmers. Among 
them may be mentioned /owa 
Silver - mine, Chester County, 
Reid, and Minnesota Early. 

But the new importations 
do not meet the requirements of 


08 


bY Ebb uU 


TES 


nie” 
am * 
am 
- CM 4 
Ca 
= ; 
MDS 
RELY 


leet 


Fic. 69.—Shortening the growing 
season of Hickory King ; a new 120- 
day type. (The bare tip is due to 
having given hand pollination once 
only.) 


CHAP. 


156 MAIZE 


all parts of the country, and it is desirable to breed earlier- 
maturing strains for particular localities and special needs. 
That it is possible to do this has been demonstrated by the 
writer, who grew a White Horsetooth which produced a ripe ear 
in 97 days, and a Hickory King which ripened in 120 days 
(Fig. 69). 

Although it is fully recognized that the heaviest yields of 
grain cannot be expected from the earliest-maturing breeds, 
early planting will, in many districts, do much towards mini- 
mizing loss from early frost, and there are many other parts 
of the country where an early maturing sort will be welcome, 
if for nothing else than to supplement the main crop, and thus 
increase the acreage. 

113. Drought Resistance.—Although the South African 
climate is in the main admirably suited to maize-growing, there 
are districts towards the border of what we may call the Maize- 
belt, where the crops often suffer from the occurrence of droughty 
periods of perhaps twenty-one days of cloudless weather without 
rain. For such regions more drought-resistant breeds are re- 
quired than are necessary for districts of more even rainfall. 

Cultivation of many breeds, side by side, has shown a 
marked difference in constitutional ability to withstand drought. 
This difference can be made use of by breeders and emphasized. 
It is possible that great resistance to drought will be found 
correlated with lower yield, but if it enables us to produce 
even 6 muids to the acre where none could be grown before, 
it will serve a good purpose. 

114. Désease Reststance—Undoubtedly the parasitic dis- 
eases which affect all farm crops tend to reduce the yield, 
for if they do not destroy the host plant outright, the parasites 
use up some of the food material of the host, or interfere 
with photosynthesis. An important line of improvement, 
therefore, in cases where we cannot keep the parasite in check 
by cultural methods and the use of fungicides, is to breed 
strains which will be more or less immune against attack. 

This has been successfully accomplished with some crops 
in some countries. But the problem is not always an easy 
one, and in the case of some diseases has so far failed. 

Attempts were made in Java to render the maize grown 
there less subject to chlorosis (f 371) by crossing with teo- 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 157 


sinte (Huchlena mexicana var. luxurians), with a view to CHAP. 
adding to the maize plant the greater fertility and greater Y- 
resistance to chlorosis of the teosinte. The results were not 
satisfactory ; the first generation of hybrids resembled teosinte 
chiefly, but were uniform and intermediate in kind, while in 

the second generation all of the original characteristics had 
disappeared and still only intermediate forms were obtained. 

In the third and fourth generations marked chlorotic symptoms 
occurred while the fruitfulness and ear characteristics were still 
intermediate (Exp. Sta. Rec, Vol. XXVI, p. 40, 1912). 


Fic. 70.—Result of weak stalk. The weakness of the stalk allowed the 
ear to fall to the ground before harvest; the grain then germinated with the 
late rains. By breeding stouter stalks this can be avoided. 


115. Loss from Weak Stalks, Shanks, or Cobs—The de- 
velopment of strains with exceptionally thin cobs and shanks 
sometimes results in loss. If the cob is very thin, it is apt to 
break in two before harvest, and part of the ear is lost. If the 
shank or stalk are very thin they break off with the increasing 
weight of the ear, often before the main crop is ripe ; such ears 
fall to the ground and become food for rodents, or the seed 
germinates (see Fig. 70) and is worthless. 


CHAP. 


158 MAIZE 


116. Necessity for the Production of Pure Seed—As a rule 
it is not desirable to export mixed grades of grain, such as 
mixed yellows and whites, or dents and flints. The merchant 
may not object, because he can always sell cheap mazze, but 
the farmer is always paid less on the ground of mixed quality. 

We can only avoid having mixed grain to sell, by growing 
pure seed. To secure this we must plant pure seed and take 
he necessary precautions to prevent it becoming crossed. 

It is also necessary to reduce to a minimum the percentage 
of small and misshapen grains. This can be done only by 
the use of well-bred seed, combined with good cultivation. 

If a herd of dairy cows contains some poor milkers, many 
moderately good, and only a few very good ones, the yield of 
milk and consequent profit are undoubtedly less than if all of 
the herd were good milkers; it costs as much to feed and look 
after a poor milker as a good one; a wise dairyman therefore 
weeds out the poor animals and buys or breeds better-class 
stock. It is the same with farm crops; investigations made 
by the writer show that even the best maize crops are usually 
very zmpure or heterozygous, containing many different 
strains; the analyses of these crops, some of which are sum- 
marized in Tables XIX to XXIX, show that the different 
strains of which each so-called breed is composed, vary greatly 
in relative productiveness. This difference in yield power is 
heritable. 

A plant which gives a poor yield occupies as much soil 
surface as one which gives a heavy yield, so that it is a waste 
both of time and of money to use seed of a poor-yielding 
strain when we can grow something better. 

117. Other Destrable Points.—There are many other points 
in which the maize crop may be improved. For example, 
scientific maize-breeders have demonstrated that it is possible 
to greatly change the average chemical composition of the 
maize-grain in starch-content, protein-content, oil-content, 
amount of horny endosperm, etc., to meet special trade require- 
ments. By elaborate methods of selection and breeding, 
immense improvements have been effected in the United 
States, representing a monetary value of millions of dollars to 
the producing States, and amply repaying what at the time ap- 
peared to be very heavy expenditure for scientific investigation. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT PRY BREEDING 1 59 


The following table (Hopkins, 2) shows the variation in CHAP. 
results obtained on a breeding plot at the Illinois Experi- — V- 
ment Station from seed-maize with a 7-year pedigree. 


TaBLE XXXII. 


VARIATION IN COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF DIFFERENT EARS) 
SELECTED FOR BREEDING. 


Field Row No. PABtEIR in Seed | Weight of Ear Corn | 


| 
| ar. | in Crop. | 
| i? ee oa | 7 Per Cent. —_ tik ~ Lbs. 
I | 12°06 gI‘o 
| 
2 12°17 | 86°0 
3 | 12'Ig 98°5 
4 | 12°26 99°5 
5 12°31 77° | 
6 I2'40 T18'0 
7 12°66 116-0 
8 12°83 54°5 
Q « : : 12°90 107'0 ; 
Io. : 5 . 15°78 | 103°0 | 
Tigi . 3 ; 12°93 87°0 
12° ‘ : ; I2'90 127°5 
13. ¢ : : : 12°72 II3°0 
Iq. : a ; 12"45 123°5 
I5. : ‘ : 12°32 103°5 
rm. “ : F 12°31 g2°0 | 
LZ ji ; : 12°23 85°5 | 
18% : : ‘ 12°18 II7‘0 
19 . s : é 12°07 I40°5 | 
20. . i . 12°06 97°0 | 
| 
Average ‘ .| I2'5Q IOI'g 


The protein-content varied in the parent ears from 12°06 to 
15°78 per cent and the weight of ear-maize in the crop from 
54°5 lbs. to 140°5 lbs. 

Such improvements are also needed in South Africa, and 
would help her to meet the requirements of particular markets, 
especially when she develops her own factories for the local 
manufacture of articles now imported by her. The question of 
protein-content is of especial importance to compound man- 
agers as well as to stock feeders; it is believed that a higher 
proportion of protein would materially affect the efficiency of 
the native workers on the mines. 

118. Necessity for Development of New Breeds.—A fter test- 
ing in South Africa scores of the best breeds of maize grown 
in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, 


CHAP. 
V. 


160 MAIZE 


Argentina, France, Italy, the Balkans, India, Australia, Egypt, 
Somaliland, Nyassaland, and all the breeds and strains com- 
mercially grown in different parts of South Africa, the writer 
has reached the conclusion that none of them gives the best 
results which it is possible to obtain under South African con- 
ditions, and that it is necessary to breed improved types which 
will meet the varying conditions of different parts of the 
country, and combine high yield with market requirements. 
A good market has been established for South African maize, 
and the country must see to it that it is kept supplied with a 
steadily increasing quantity of grain suited to its various 
demands. 


Inheritance of Characters. 


119. Fluctuations —There are some plant-characters, such 
as relative height of stem, number of leaves, size of leaf, length 
of ear, etc., which are not stable, but are more or less in- 
fluenced by conditions of environment such as richness or 
poverty of soil, sufficiency or lack of moisture, temperature, 
and sunshine. These have been termed fluctuations, and “we 
have no valid reason for supposing that they are ever inherited” 
(Punnett, 1, p. 133). Such variations have also been called 
“acquired characters”. They are not to be confused with 
mere muzz/ations, due to borer, hail, smut, etc., which are not 
known to be transmitted. 

120, Heritable Characters ——There are other characters, 
such as colour and shape, flintness or dentness of grain, which 
are not dependent for their manifestation on the influence of 
environment. These are transmitted from parent to offspring. 
When such a character affects the vegetative part of a plant, 
as for example the height of the stem, number or breadth of 
leaves, etc., it may be difficult to tell whether it is a fluctuation 
or a heritable character, except by growing it on for one or 
two generations. 

121. Lmportance of a Knowledge of the Laws Governing the 
Transmission of Characters—\mprovement by scientific breed- 
ing must depend on a knowledge of the laws and methods of 
the transmission of characters from parent to offspring, inas- 
much as such knowledge will (1) prevent the selection of 
parents unfitted to produce definite desired results; and (2) 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 161 


y 


enable us to “fix” a new type when we get it. “Choose 
your parents” is the axiom of the successful breeder. It is 
true that considerable success has in the past been achieved 
by empirical mating; but it does not advance the farmer far, 
and at best it is but a slow, risky, and expensive means of 
attaining the desired end. 

The fact that maize is the basis of the agricultural wealth 
of a large country makes it eminently desirable that every fact 
about the inheritance of its characters should be learned as 
soon as possible. “It is only through the application of such 
knowledge that the present arbitrary and, in a way, unscientific 
methods of its improvement as an economic crop will be placed 
upon a definite and orderly basis” (Hast and Haves, 1). 

Certain phases of the question of inheritance are of definite 
practical agricultural interest, as, for instance, the possibility 
of increasing the yield of a farm crop. Other phases which 
are the subject of investigation by students of genetics may 
seem, on the surface, to be of less importance, or to have no 
bearing at all on practical problems. But it should be borne 
in mind that all problems in genetics, even though they appear 
to be of scientific interest solely, bring us nearer to the com- 
plete understanding of the transmission of those characters in 
our live stock as well as in our various crops, which are of 
definite importance from the financial point of view. 

122. Inheritance of Characters in Maize follows Mendelian 
Law.—Different students and writers have shown from time 
to time that the mazse plant behaves tn accordance with Mendel’ s 
laws of the inheritance of characters. As the result of extended 
investigation by East and Hayes (1), these authors conclude 
that in the behaviour of the maize plant there is no conclusive 
evidence of (1) failure of segregation of the male gametes; (2) 
selective fertilization; and (3) partial gametic coupling; and 
that aberrant ratios such as have occasionally been reported 
(e.g. Correns, 3) may be due to modification by other unknown 
characters possessed by the parents. 


“When Mendel’s Law of Heredity was rediscovered in 
1900, it was the general belief that it covered only a few 
isolated cases. Many apparent exceptions were cited. One 
by one, however, these exceptions have been found to yield 
to interpretation by simple extensions of the Mendelian nota- 

II 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 


162 MAIZE 


tion when fully understood. /x our experience, as reported 
here, xo exceptions to Mendelian interpretation have been found. 
Such exceptions may exist, yet it seems as unwise to say that 
Mendel’s Law is not general as to conclude at once that it 
can be made to cover every possible case. One may say that 
Mendel’s Law has covered so many cases that its generality is 
rendered highly probable, although insufficient genetic investi- 
gation has been accomplished to place it on equal terms with 
any of the great laws of physics and chemistry. Yet some of 
the great laws of chemistry were accepted when surrounded 
by seeming exceptions. Some of these exceptions have been 
cleared up by such recent advances as the Ionic Theory and 
the Phase Rule; some still remain. 

“Ts it not probable that other like generalities will be 
found in biology, which, although they may entirely change 
our general conception of the fundamental action of Mendel’s 
Laws, will nevertheless leave the facts upon which it was 
based as useful and practicable as have been left the facts of 
chemical recombination in definite and multiple proportions, in 
the light of the Electron Theory” (Zas¢ and Hayes, 1). 


123. Reproduction and Transintssion of Characters —As 
already explained (1% 74, 77, and 78) the higher types 
of plants, like animals, bear male and female organs of 
reproduction, and the formation of a new maize plant 
depends on the fertilization of a female cell by a male 
cell. Reproduction is effected by the union of the nucleus 
of the pollen grain (178) of the male flower with the nucleus 
of the egg-cell in the ovule of the female flower. These sexual 
cells, viz., the pollen grain and the egg-cell, are known as 
gametes or “marrying cells”. By the fusion of the nuclei of 
the gametes a new cell is formed, known as the svgote, The 
zygote gives rise—by repeated cell-division, called somatic 
diviston—to the complete adult plant, bearing new germ-cells, 
which subsequently ripen into gametes, thus completing the 
life-cycle of the plant. 

Since the gametes are the only connecting link between 
successive generations, each gamete carries the power of repro- 
ducing the parental characters. Jf the parents are alike, and 
are pure-bred (1125), the progeny will be like them. Selection 
in breeding is based on the principle that union between two of 
a kind produces the same kind, provided the strain is pure. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 163 


When we plant seed of Hickory King maize we expect 
to harvest a crop of white Hzckory King, and when we plant 
seed of Yellow Horsetooth we expect to harvest Yellow Horse- 
tooth grain; in other words, we recognize that in plants, as in 
animals, certain characters are inherited from the parent and 
again transmitted to the offspring, from generation to genera- 
tion. This is such a general rule that it is the exceptions to it 
which cause remark. 

124. Mechanism of Transmisston.— Although it is the 
gamete which carries the power of reproducing the parental 
characters, it is not yet known what part of the cell mechanism 
actually takes part in the process. As it is the nuclei of the 
two cells which unite in fertilization, they must be associated 
with the process of transmission. It has been suggested fre- 
quently that the chromosomes of the nucleus are the actual 
conveyors of the separate characters, but many botanists and 
geneticists see objections, apparently insurmountable, to the 
“chromosome theory” as it has been called, and the subject 
is still one of investigation. In the case of maize the small 
size of its chromosomes makes their study difficult, and little is 
known about them. 

125. The Zygote-—The term zygote was originally applied 
to the single cell produced by the union of two gametes (‘1 123). 
But since this cell, by growth through somatic division (% 123), 
develops into a complete plant bearing the characters of the 
original zygote, the term is often extended to the plant de- 
veloping from that zygote. 

As the zygote may be derived either from gametes which 
are alike as regards contained characters, or from gametes 
which are dissimilar, they may be either pure-bred or cross- 
bred. The pure-bred zygote, formed by the union of two 
similar gametes, is called a homozygote ; that derived from the 
union of dissimilar gametes is called a heterozygote. 

126. The Homozygote.—The homozygote is the progeny of 
parents similar in character, it is therefore like them as regards 
those characters which are common to the two parents, and 
its progeny are also like them and continue to breed true. 

It is probable that, strictly speaking, there is no such thing 
as a regularly domesticated plant which is homozygous (.e. 


pure-bred) for all its characters. We usually use the term with 
11% 


164 


MAIZE 


CHAP. reference to the most striking or important characters, and speak 


Vs 


Fic. 71.—A_ heterozygous 
ear of the F, seed generation of 
a cross between black wrinkled 
and white dent (4 127). 


of a plant as being homozygous for this or for that character. 


127. The Heterosygote—The 
heterozygote is formed by the 
union of gametes bearing the two 
characters of an adlelomorphic patr 
(7 129). It is the progeny of 
parents which are dissimilar in 
some, or all, characters, and may 
be either exactly like one parent, 
or may have derived some visible 
characters from each parent, in 
which case it will not be exactly 
like either, i.e. in all its main 
characters. 

The progeny of a heterozygote 
are unlike; some are more or less 
like one, and some like the other 
parent, while some are unlike either. 

128. Unit-Characters.—We 
learned from the preceding chapter 
that in maize the two gametes or 
sexual cells, which unite to form 
a zygote, often come from separate 
plants. These two plants may 
belong to different breeds, having 
different characters. We know 
from experience that if a white 
dent breed is fertilized with pollen 
from an ordinary pure-bred yellow 
dent breed, the resulting grain 
(i.e. of the first generation) will be 
yellow dent, but that in the fol- 
lowing generation some grains on 
one and the same ear will be white 
and some yellow; or that if we 
cross a sugar breed, having wrinkled 


grain, with pollen of a flint breed having rounded grain, the 
resulting grain will be round and flinty. That this is due not 
merely to what has sometimes been called “ prepotency of the 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 165 


male parent,” is shown by the fact that if the process is re- CHAP. 
versed, i.e. if we make the reciprocal cross by taking the pollen 
from the wrinkled sugar-maize, this being then the male 


Fic. 72.-Dominance ot one character from each parent, after crossing. 
A and B, parental ears of Arcadia Sugar-maize. A, White Flint ; B, Black Sugar; 
C, Black Flint (F, seed generation from cross AQ x B 3). 


parent, the result is just the same as in the case of the direct 
cross, i.e. the resulting (the first or F,) grain is round and 


CHAP. 
Vv. 


166 


\ 
Va 


HAs 


Fic. 73.—Segregation of characters 
in the F, seed generation. If the sepa- 
rate grains are planted and selfed they 
produce the nine types shown in the 
three following figures. 


MAIZE 


flinty. In the following (i.e. 
the second or F,) generation of 
either the direct or the recip- 
rocal cross, however, some 
grain is wrinkled and some, 
on the same ear, is round and 
flinty. 

If, asa matter of further ex- 
periment, we cross a pure white 
flint breed (Fig. 72A) with a 
pure-bred black wrinkled breed 
(Fig. 72B), the result is still 
more interesting and instruc- 
tive. In the first seed gene- 
ration a// the grains are b/ack 
fiints (Fig. 72C). But in the 
second seed generation /ou7 
kinds of grain occur on the 
same ear (Fig. 73); two of 
them are like those of the two 
grandparents (i.e. the original 
parents used in the cross), and 
two (a black flint and a white 
wrinkled) different from either 
grandparent. It is evident, 
therefore, that the characters 
we have been studying in this 
case, i.e. blackness and wrin- 
kledness, whiteness and flint- 
ness, may be segregated or 
separated from each other by 
crossing, and trans- 
mitted independently (or 
re-united) as separate and in- 
dependent units; they are, 
therefore, called wnzt-charac- 
vers. The individual character 
of any species of animal or 
plant is made up of many 
separate 


either 


unit-characters, and 


INHERITANCE —IMPROVEMENT BRS’ BREEDING 164 


the difference between races, breeds, varieties, or species CHAP. 
depends on the presence or absence of one or more such 
characters. 


“The demonstration that there exist definite and separable 


| HG Aus TN Wy 
Wa Rebeee ls: 


Fic. 74.—Segregation of characters in the F, seed generation; A, B, and 
C, all-black ears. 


CHAP. 


168 MAIZE 


unit-characters . . . is the first great debt that science owes 
to Mendel” (Lach, 1). 

Segregation of unit-characters derived from the union of 
two dissimilar gametes cannot take place in the first (F,) 
generation because only ove zygote is formed by the union of 
two gametes. However if the gametes are dissimilar, the 
zygote is heterozygous, and in the second (I*,) generation, 
segregation of unit-characters does take place among the 
many newly-formed gametes of the heterozygote. 

Segregation of unit-characters takes place prior to the 
separation of the two germinal nuclei in the pollen tube ( 78), 
since the two germinal nuclei of any pollen grain always bear 
the same allelomorph (‘1 129) (Loch, 1, p. 121). 

The completeness of the segregation may be still further 
demonstrated by planting all of the grains from the F, ear 
and se/fing each plant. The progeny (the F, seed generation, 
borne on the F, plant generation) will, if there are enough of 
them, consist of zzvze distinct types of ear (Figs. 74, 75, and 
76) as follows :— 

(2) The white wrinkled grains produce ov/y white wrinkled 
(Fig. 76G) ; they are therefore recessive (41 129) both for white- 
ness and for wrinkledness, and will breed true. These are 
called extracted recessives. 

(6) The white flints will produce ¢wo sorts of ear: (1) a 
few ears bearing all white flint grains (Fig. 761) some of 
which will probably breed true in the following generation ; 
if they do, they will be pure dominants (7 129), called ertracted 
dominants ; and (2) more ears producing both white flint 
and white wrinkled grains (Fig. 76) approximately in the 
proportion of 75 per cent of the former and 25 per cent of 
the latter, or 3 to 1. 

(c) The black wrinkled grains will produce fwo sorts of 
ear: (1) with all black wrinkled grains (Fig. 74C) some of which 
will probably breed true in the following generation, in which 
case they will be pure dominants, also called extracted domin- 
ants. (2) Some ears will be borne which produce both black 
and white wrinkled grains (Fig. 75F), in the proportion of 
75 per cent of the former to 25 per cent of the latter. 

(7) The black flints will produce four types of ear: (1) 
ears like the parent ear, carrying black flint, black wrinkled, 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 169 


white flint, and white wrinkled grains (Fig. 758); 


(2) ears CHAP. 
with black flint and white flint grains (Fig. 751); (3) Ms 


ears 


Fic. 75.—Segregation of characters in the F, seed generation; D, E, and 
F, black-and-white ears. 


with black flint and black sugar grains (Fig. 748); and (4) a few 
all-black flint ears (Fig. 744A); a few of these latter may breed 
true, being pure dominants for both blackness and flintness. 


170 MAIZE 


CHAP. 129. Allelomorphic Pairs of Unit-characters—A plant 
either possesses a particular unit-character or does not possess 
it; it is either tall, or it is not tall, its grain is either blue or it 


Fic, 76.—Segregation of characters in the F, seed generation; G, H, and 
I, all-white ears. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 19t 


is not blue. If it is not blue, it may be white, cream, or some 
other colour; if it is not tall, it may be short or medium- 
sized. These facts have led to the concept of pairs of opposite 
unit-characters, known as allelomorphic pairs, either one, but 
not both of which, can be present in any gamete. Any one 
allelomorphic pair consists only of its two allelomorphs, i.e. 
characters which will not unite in the same gamete; but a 
gamete may include any number of characters which are xof 
allelomorphic, i.e. not opposed to one another. The sygo/e, on 
the other hand, can carry both, since it is composed of two 
gametes each of which may contain either one of the two 
allelomorphs. But where each of the two parents possesses 
the opposite one of an allelomorphic pair of characters (e.g. 
blackness and absence of blackness), do¢/ of these allelomorphs 
cannot appear in the F, heterozygote with the same strength 
with which they appear in the parents; it is found that one of 
the two unit-characters a/ways appears (Fig. 72C) to the ex- 
clusion of the other, e.g. when we crossed yellow- and white- 
grained types of maize the resulting grain was yellow. 

The one unit-character which appears in the first filial (Fj) 
generation is called domznant, because when present it masks 
the other; the other is called recessive because it always re- 
cedes, or gives place to the dominant, when the latter is 
present. Bateson (1) has pointed out that dominance of cer- 
tain characters is often an important but never an essential 
feature of Mendelian heredity ; it is only a subordinate incident 
of special cases. 

We sometimes meet with cases in which two coleurs ap- 
pear to merge in the F, progeny, e.g. when blue- and yellow- 
grained breeds of maize are crossed together, the result is 
green; this latter is probably not a case of “incomplete 
dominance,” but the temporary merging of two dominants 
belonging to different allelomorphic pairs. 

From the examples cited in preceding paragraphs we 
learn that: (a) the characters of doth parents are transmitted 
to the offspring, even though the two parents are very dis- 
similar; (4) if the parents are dissimilar their immediate 
progeny cannot be like each of them in all particulars ;' 


1 Other experiments show that this also holds true when two similar parents 
are mated, if they are heterozygous ({] 127), i.e. themselves the progeny of dis- 
similar parents. 


CHAP. 


172 MAIZE 


CHAP. (c) that where unit-characters are opposed to each other, i.e. 
% belong to an allelomorphic pair, only one of them appears in 
the immediate progeny; this does not mean that the two 
merge, for they segregate again in the second generation ; 
(7) that parents markedly differing from each other in characters 
which are not allelomorphic, will, if mated, produce in the 
second generation offspring in ach these characters will be 

united in combinations differing from those of either parent. 

Cross-breeding is based on the principle that the union 
between two dissimilar plants or animals will produce some- 
thing dissimilar to either, though combining some of the 
characters of each, as in the case of the black flint maize 
produced by crossing a black wrinkled with a white flint, de- 
scribed in 7 128. 

“The complete segregation of the two allelomorphs in 
equal numbers of the germ cells of a heterozygote constitutes 
the first and most important section of the generalization 
known as Mendel’s Law. The second part of the law refers to 
the fact that, as a general rule, separate pairs of allelomorphs 
segregate quite independently of one another” (Lock, 1). In 
other words, the gametes formed by a heterozygote contain 
in equal numbers the pure parental allelomorphs completely 
separated from one another; and if the cross-bred plant is 
heterozygous in respect of more than one pair of allelomorphs, 
then all poss7b/e combinations of these allelomorphs occur in 
equal numbers of gametes.’ 

130. Dominant and Recesstve Allelomorphs.—The following 
characters in maize have been found to behave as Mendelian 
dominants and recessives respectively :— , 


Dominant : Recessive : 
Starchiness of endosperm. Wrinkled (i.e. non-starchy) endo- 
sperm. 
Flintness of endosperm.” Dentness of endosperm. 
Colour of endosperm (e.g. yellow,* Absence of colour; in a starchy 
red, purple, or black). grain this shows as white ; a non- 


1 But allowance should be made for such exceptions as occur in the case of 
coupling and repulsion of characters ([ 132). 

2In some cases observed by the writer; East and Hayes illustrate cases in 
which the F, grains were intermediate in character, and in the F, the flint was 
recessive in proportions indicating a dihybrid composition. 

* There is a second yellow endosperm character which behaves as though its 
appearance were dependent on the presence of a factor for colour; in the absence 
of this second factor the endosperm is white. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 173 


Dominant : Recessive: CHAP. 

starchy grain becomes  trans- V. 
lucent and horn - coloured or 
creamy. 

Development of ‘‘pods” around Nakedness of grain. 

the grain. 

Red colour of cob. Absence of red, i.e. white. 

Red silk. Greenish white silks with or with- 
out red hairs, and white silks. 

Red pericarp. Colourless pericarp. 

Green leaves. “White” leaves, i.e. absence of 


chlorophyll. In this case the 
heterozygous plants have striped 
leaves.! 
Tendency of the ear to split at the Normal type of ear. 
base into 2-rowed sections. 
Fasciation of the ear. Normal shape of ear. 
Presence of ligule and auricles. Absence of ligule and auricles. 


131. /nteractton of Unit-characters.—In some cases we find 
that a dominant character is present, although it does not 
appear; to such cases the term ‘‘imperfect dominance” has 
sometimes been given, because it has been thought that they 
were cases in which the so-called ‘‘ Law of Dominance” did 
not apply. It has been found, however, in several instances 
that the failure of the dominant character to appear is due to 
the absence or presence of some other factor on which its 
appearance or non-appearance depends. The phenomenon is 
known to occur in sweet-peas and other plants, and also 
among animals. 

The character of flintness is present in some breeds of 
sugar-maize, but is unable to appear owing to the absence of 
white starch in the endosperm. In some breeds of maize two 
kinds of yellow colour are present in the endosperm ; one of 
these depends for its appearance on the presence of a factor 
(C) for colour, though what this factor is, is not yet known; 
the result in this case is that by crossing two whites we obtain 
a yellow if each of the parents carries one of the requisite 
factors; this has sometimes led to the supposition that a 
dominant white was present (i.e., that the yellow colour was 
recessive), That this is not really the case is demonstrable, 
for by adding the factor for colour the two together are domi- 
nant over white. 


1 East and Hayes observe that several races exist in which the striping is 
apparently homozygous and the race breeds true. 


CHAP. 


174 MAIZE 


East and Hayes have shown that two white breeds of 
maize (Pc and pC), which show not the slightest trace of 
colour, may bring together the two factors P and C necessary 
for the full development of purple colour. They also refer to 
cases in which, owing to the presence of a certain factor, the 
red or purple colour of the aleurone layer is inhibited from 
appearing. Such cases are different from mere absence of the 
colour, for the colour factor is present even though not visible. 
The following results are obtainable by crossing between an 
allelomorphic pgir where such an inhibiting factor is con- 
cerned :— 


Inhibiting Factor 


| Male Parent. | Female Parent. | (Present P or | Fy Seed. 
| | Absent A). | 
ed ae ee 
Purple | White A Purple 
Purple White P | White 
| White | Purple | A Purple 
White | Purple P | White 
} 


132. Repulston and Coupling of Characters.—This subject 
is too complex to be discussed at length here, and we can- 
not do better than quote a few extracts from Professor’Punnett 
(1, pp. 81-8). “A few cases have been worked out,” he says, 
“in which the distribution of the different factors, to the 
gametes, is affected by their simultaneous presence in the 
zygote. And the influence which they are able to exert upon 
one another in such cases is of two kinds. They may refel 
one another, refusing, as it were, to enter into the same gamete ; 
or they may aétract one another, and, becoming linked to- 
gether, pass into the same gamete, as it were, by preference.” 
In the cases of repulsion cited by him, “ che original cross was 
such as to introduce one of the repelling factors with each of the 
two parents”. But “when both of the factors are brought into 
the cross by the same parent, we get coupling between them tnstead 
of repulsion, The phenomena of repulsion and coupling be- 
tween separate factors are intimately related, though hitherto 
we have not been able to decide why this should be so. Nor 
for the present can we suggest why certain factors should be 
linked together in the peculiar way that we have reason to 
suppose that they are during the process of the formation of 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 175 


the gametes. Nevertheless the phenomena are very definite, CHAP. 
and it is not unlikely that a further study of them may throw we 
important light on the architecture of the living cell.” 

East and Hayes report a case in which perfect coupling 
occurred between red cobs and red pericarp colour in their 
R, red (41 144), and another case in which the red pericarp colour 
of R; (1144) was completely coupled with red silks; ‘“ Coup- 
ling is proved by the fact that red silks occur wethowt red 
pericarp in other combinations”. Emerson has reported (cf. 
East and Hayes, 1) cases in which certain red colours of maize 
are absolutely coupled in their inheritance, while in other cases 
spurious allelomorphism occurs. 

133. .Verta.—When an ear of pure-bred white-grained 
maize is crossed with pollen of a pure-bred yellow-grained 
breed, the resulting grain is yellow, and the same result is 
obtained with the reciprocal cross. As this is the F, seed 
generation, and as a// the cross-bred grains are yellow, this is 
not a case of segregation of a unit-character (4128), but is the 
visible effect of the second male nucleus on the endosperm ; it 
is called venza. The term was originally proposed by Focke 
(1) to express the supposed influence of foreign pollen on 
maternal tissue. But Guignard’ (1) and Nawaschin (1) found 
that the endosperm is in reality a part of the filial generation, 
formed by the development of the endosperm nucleus after 
fusion with the second male nucleus of the pollen cell; this 
disposed of the only authentic examples of xenia as originally 
defined, and there is no further reason to use the word in that 
sense. But as the phenomena remain the same, the term is 
still used to express them. : 

Xenia, in the modified sense of the word, affects not only 
the colour, but also the chemical composition, of the endo- 
sperm; if wrinkled sugar maize is crossed with pollen of a 
starchy breed, the resulting grain is starchy (whether flint or 
dent). East and Hayes (1) find that when a flint (starchy) 
breed is crossed with a dent breed (also starchy) the resulting 
grain is intermediate, i.e. partial xenia shows in that the re- 
sulting grain may carry a slight, though often almost indis- 
tinguishable, crease. ° 

It will be noticed that in the cases cited it is the doménant 
factor, whether carried by the male or the female parent, 


CHAP. 
V. 


176 MAIZE 


which behaves as xenia; the reciprocal cross, in which the 
recessive allelomorph is brought in by the other parent, whether 
male or female, does not materially alter the endosperm. 
Xenia is therefore not due to the influence of ser, but is the 
immediate manifestation of the dominant character, in the 
F, seed. 

Correns (1), Webber (2), and East and Hayes (1) observed 
several cases in which xenia occurred in only one half of the 
endosperm. The last two authors suggest that these rare 
phenomena are probably similar in nature to the gynandro- 
morphs occurring in insects. They report having grown a 
number of them to see if the tendency was inherited, but with- 
out positive results. The present writer has met with a few 


Fic. 77.—Grain showing part starchy and part wrinkled characters. 


cases in which both the starchy and the wrinkled characters 
appeared side by side in the same grain (Fig. 77). These 
occurred on heterozygous F, ears, and it was therefore not 
possible to say definitely that they were due to xenia, but 
this seems to be the most probable explanation of the 
phenomenon. 

Experiments by East and Hayes confirm the observation 
of Correns that in every case where xenia may be expected to 
occur, the seeds showing xenia were always hybrids. This 
fact was assumed to prove that the second male nucleus (4 78) 
always bears the same characters as the one that fuses with the 
egg-cell to form the embryo, and that for this reason Mendelian 
segregation of the gametes must have occurred previous to the 
division of the pollen nucleus. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 177 


It is clear that when a female flower carrying a domdnant 
character such as flintness, or colour of the endosperm, is 
crossed with pollen from a breed carrying the recess’ve allelo- 
morph, it may be impossible to detect that a cross has taken 
place. 

There are cases, however, in which the recessive allelomorph 
does modify the dominant, behaving as xenia. In some breeds 
of dent maize, where there is a large area of crown starch (see 
chapter XIII. 1 608), the yellow when crossedwith white becomes 
somewhat lighter, xenia appearing as a cap of lighter colour 
than the homozygous yellow. In some breeds, e.g. Chester 
County, the modification of colour varies in degree; some 
grains have a distinct white cap, others are quite unchanged, 
and among the remainder numerous intermediate shades 
occur (Fig. 78B). Where the crown starch is plentiful in the 
white-grained female parent, xenia may only affect the body 
of the grain, leaving the white crown-starch unchanged 
(Fig. 78). 

When yellow-grained breeds of flour corn (var. amylacea) 
are crossed with pollen of white-grained breeds of the same 
variety, the lighter colour of the heterozygote is not confined 
to the cap, but extends throughout the endosperm. “In this 
case difference in colour is always great enough to be noticed 
by a careful observer, in either cross” (Hast and Afayes, 1). 

In the flint and pop varieties, having corneous endosperm, 
colour occurs as xenia, as a rule, only when the female parent 
carries the recessive character. But even here, East and Hayes 
have found exceptional cases in which a few heterozygous 
yellows were distinguishable from homozygous yellows when 
the female parent bore the dominant character. 

Both red and purple colour of the aleurone layer are com- 
pletely dominant, and xenia occurs only when they are trans- 
mitted by the male parent. 

East and Hayes also find that in the case of Pc or pC, 
as described in 131, purple appears as xenia when 
either of them is the female parent. The writer has found 
what appears to be a similar case, in the second (i.e. paler) 
yellow colour which occurs in some breeds of maize, but fur- 
ther evidence is required to demonstrate the actual facts of the 
case, 

12 


CHAP. 


178 MAIZE 


Be 
¥ 


bb 


Wy) 


al sf 2 abes= 


BORDEDEDD 


=. 


sono 


MID 


2 


uGTONUNTTICONN 


Se 
ae 


A B 


Fic, 78,—Xenia. A, etfect of ‘‘ yellow” pollen on white Hickory King (the 
yellow colour is indicated by the dark shade in the sulci). B, effect of ‘‘ white” 
pollen on yellow Chester County, 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 179 


When a purple is crossed with white, the resulting grain 
may be white. Xenia results when an inhibiting factor (4 131) 
occurs to prevent the appearance of colour. East and Hayes’s 
explanation of this phenomenon shows that it does not, as 
has been suggested, indicate dominance of whiteness. These 
authors also found cases in which the purple is not fully in- 
hibited, and then a “gt purple results, whichever parent 
carries the colour. ‘ 

Our knowledge of xenia in maize may be summarized as 
follows :— 

(1) When the parents of a heterozygote differ in a single 
visible endosperm character in which dominance ts complete, the 
pollen only produces xenia when tt carries the dominant allelo- 
morph. 

(2) When the parents differ in a single visible endosperm 
character in which dominance is incomplete, the pollen produces 
a modifying effect on the visible strength of the dominant allelo- 
morph. 

(3) When each parent carries one of two characters the union 
of both of which ts necessary to render the other visible, the pollen 
also produces xenia when tt carries the factor necessary to render 
visthle the dominant allelomorph borne by the female parent. 

(4) When the pollen parent bears the recessive allelomorph, 
full xenia does not result, though tn some cases a partial effect 
may be produced. 

Xenia does not appear to affect the shape or size of the 
grain, as these are plant characters; in crosses between two 
dent breeds of the same colour, but which differ in shape and 
size of grain, no difference has been detected in the first ear 
produced. 

From the foregoing it is clear that though xenia, ie. the 
effect of pollen on the F, seed generation, may in some cases 
be useful as an indication that crossing has taken place, the 
absence of xenia cannot be relied upon to indicate that crossing 
has not taken place; in many cases, therefore, the hand-picking 
of seed-grain is useless as a means of entirely eliminating the 
effect of crossing. 

134. Splashed Purple Colour of Aleurone Layer.—The cause 
of the occurrence of splashed purple colour in the aleurone 


layer has long been a subject of speculation and investigation, 
* 
12 


CHAP. 
V. 


CHAP. 
Vv. 


180 MAIZE 


and various theories have been proposed to account for it. 
Webber (1) thought that it might be due to mosaic develop- 
ment of cell descendants of the endosperm nucleus and of the 
second male nucleus. East and Hayes, on the other hand, 
attribute it to incomplete dominance caused by other factors, 
arguing that if it were due to mosaic development the same 
cause would act in the case of heterozygous yellow endosperm, 
whereas “ such cases have never been reported ”. 

135. Gametic Segregation.—The heterozygous maize plant 
obtained by the crossing of male and female gametes produces 
flowers, and these develop new gametes, approximately 1,000 
female (egg-cells) and several thousand times as many male 
(pollen grains). The new gametes are formed by the division 
of a primitive cell into pairs of daughter cells; this process is 
constantly repeated till the requisite number is reached. 

In this cell-division for the formation of new gametes, 
the constituent dominant and recessive characters of any one 
allelomorphic pair (such as yellowness and absence of yellow- 
ness) both of which were present in the heterozygous mother 
cell, do not pass into the daughter cells in combination, but 
the dominant passes into one gamete (e.g. either a pollen 
grain or an egg-cell) and the recessive into the other (eg. 
either an egg-cell or a pollen grain), so that each gamete con- 
tains only one of an allelomorphic pair of characters, ie. it is 
pure for that character. 

As regards any one allelomorphic pair of characters, e.g. 
yellowness and absence of yellowness, a heterozygous plant 
produces gametes of only two kinds, dominant (yellow) and 
recessive (non-yellow) and produces them in equal numbers ; 
thus the heterozygous maize plant would produce approni- 
mately 500 ovules carrying the dominant, and 500 the recessive 
character, while of its pollen grains one half (say a million) 
would contain the dominant and an equal number the recessive. 
But we find that a heterozygous parent does not produce an 
equal number of dominants and recessives; instead we get 
for every three showing the dominant only one showing the 
recessive character. Let us see why this is. 

136. The Reason for Segregation in Definite Mathematical 
Ratios.—We have seen that half of the ‘pollen grains of a 
heterozygote contain the dominant character and half the 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 181 


recessive (135), and that the same applies to the ovules. 
The chances are therefore equal that if the heterozygote 
is self-pollinated, as much pollen containing the dominant 
character will fall on ‘‘dominant” silks as pollen contain- 
ing the recessive character falls on “recessive” silks, the 
result being progeny homozygous for the dominant and for 
the recessive characters respectively. But there is equal pro- 
bability that some pollen with the dominant character will 
fertilize ovules bearing the recessive character, and vice versa, 
the net result being the same in either case, i.e., the production 


Black. White. 
S $ 
= 3 
= co P, Zygotes 
- First parental generation. 
@ oO © Py | 
Fy 
= heterozygous, Zygotes. 


F, Zygote co but black because 


Fic. 79.—Diagram to illustrate segregation of characters. 


of a new heterozygote. Thus the chances are equal whether 


the progeny will be heterozygous or homozygous. In practice 
we find that about 50 per cent of the progeny of a heterozygote 
are also heterozygous (if the total number is sufficiently large) ; 
the other 50 per cent are homozygous, one half of them being 
like the dominant grandparent and the other half like the 
recessive grandparent. But as all the heterozygotes contain 
the factor which is dominant, and as the essential feature of 
dominance is that it masks the presence of the recessive, we 


black is dominant. 
= produces my homozygous black. 
_ | mmm | (heterozygous, but black 
: = Q— produces | 1) | because black is dominant. 
% 
* 3 
gv BS | gmp | { heterozygous, but black 
os Or: (=. produces | | | because black is dominant. 
we} Se 
ne [5] 
ony eee : 
Q- oQ— produces — homozygous white. 


CHAP. 


ie MAIZE 


CHAP. find all of the heterozygotes (i.e. 50 per cent of the total) as 
Vv. well as half of the homozygotes (i.e. an additional 25 per cent 
of the total, making 75 per cent in all), showing the dominant 
character. This explains why we get ¢ivee dominants to ove 
recessive in the F, generation. This is illustrated in Fig. 79. 

This is known as a monohybrid ratio because only one 
pair of allelomorphs is concerned. 

The occurrence of definite mathematical ratios is a useful 
guide in the breeding of animals and plants, as it indicates the 
dominant and recessive factors, respectively, and which of the 
progeny of a heterozygote will breed true. 

137. The Monohybrid Ratio.—The notation usually adopted 
to indicate this ratio is 1:2:1 or 25:50:25 per cent, which 
indicates that there is 1 dominant homozygote to 2 hetero- 
zygotes and I recessive homozygote; it is often referred to 
as the 3:1 ratio, because there are three zygotes in which the 
dominant character is visible, to one in which it is absent. 
This ratio is due to the fact that where only one allelomorphic 
pair (Aa!) is concerned in the cross, there are only four 
possible zygotic combinations of the characters involved, ie. 
AA, Aa, aA, and aa. 

If, instead of selfing the heterozygote Aa it is re-crossed 
with either of the homozygous parental types (AA or aa) we 
naturally get a different ratio, for the homozygous parent 
carries only.one of each of the allelomorphs ; if Aa is crossed 
with AA for instance, it produces AA and aA in equal propor- 
tions; or 50 per cent homozygous for the dominant character, 
and 50 per cent heterozygous. Or if Aa is crossed with aa it 
produces Aa and aa in equal proportions; or 50 per cent 
heterozygous, and 50 per cent homozygous for the recessive 

_character. 

138. Dihybrid Ratios.—Where, however, /zwo allelomorphic 
pairs (eg. Aa and Bb) enter into the cross, there will be six- 
teen possible combinations of their four allelomorphs. When 
gametic segregation takes place in the heterozygote AaBb, 
the chances of B being distributed to a gamete containing A, 
or a, are equal ; hence the gametes containing B will be of two 
sorts, AB and aB; so, also, the gametes without B will be of 
two sorts bA and ba, and these will be produced in equal 


1A convenient notation, A = the dominant ; a, the recessive allelomorph. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BV BREEDING 183 


numbers. The heterozygous plant therefore gives rise to 
ovules comprising equal numbers of gametes of the four dif- 
ferent types AB, Ab, aB, and ab, and also to pollen grains 
comprising the same four types. When the heterozygous 
plant is self-pollinated, an ovule of any one of these four types 
has an equal chance of fertilization by a pollen grain con- 
taining any one of these four types. The result is mechanic- 
ally demonstrable by the “chess-board” method of plotting, 
as shown in Table XXXIII. Each of the four terms AB, Ab, 
ab, and ab of the gametic series, is first written four times 
horizontally across the table, from left to right; it is then 
written four times vertically, from top to bottom, care being 
taken to follow the same order. In this simple mechanical 
way all the possible combinations are represented, and in their 
proper proportions. 

The following are the possible combinations in which the 
gametes would segregate in a dihybrid :— 


TABLE XXXIII. 
DISTRIBUTION OF GAMETES IN A DIHYBRID. 


(AB (e (AB (a 
| AB | Ab |aB ab 
{Ab (Ab { Ab (Ab 
(AB | Ab |aB Jab 
{aB {aB {aB {aB 
(AB | Ab (aB {ab 
fab (ab fab {ab 
| AB | Ab {aB lab 
Summary: 

AABB = 1 AB 

AABb + AAbB = 2 ABb 

AAbb = 1 Ab 


AaBB + aABB = 
AaBb + AabB + aABb + aAbB = 


HN HDA NYHNDH 
> c 
» 
ies) 
os 


Aabb + aAbb = 2 Aabb 
aaBB = 1 aB 
aaBb + aabB = 2 aBb 
aabb = I ab 


Thus there are nine cases in which both dominants (A and 
B) meet; three contain the dominant A, without B; three 
contain B without A, and one carries the two recessives @ and 
6, without either dominant. This gives the ratio :— 


Oly Se 3 GB ss a8 
or 56:25 : 18°75 : 18°75 : 6°25 per cent, 


CHAP. 


184 MAIZE 


When this ratio is met with in a heterozygous family, we 
conclude that we are dealing with a adzhybrid. 

The following example of a dihybrid cross (ear 1,157) 
between a white wrinkled and a red starchy maize is taken at 
random from among the writer’s records :— 


TABLE XXXIV. 


ANALYSIS OF A DIHYBRID CROSS BETWEEN WHITE WRINKLED 
AND RED STARCHY MAIZE. 


| Starchy. | Wrinkled. | 
| | 5 ——_———| Total. 
| | Red. | White. | Red. | White. 
ee | | | 
| 15 ee || oe ee ar | 
| 16 6 | 10 | = 33 | 
| 18 3 | 8 | 3 2 | 

|, Z 9 i, Oe ees 31 

16 8 | 4 | 4 2 

, 79 4 4 | 4 31 

19 4 i SO i 3 2 

Ti: 9 ass ib 2 30 

14 7 | | 1 29 

| 18 5 | 6 hy 8 31 

oe) 4 | zy | 8 30 

| 17 Fs 4+ 3 31 

| | | 

| Total . : | 202 | 93 | <9: | 26 | 373 

| Average per row. : Sil SN 6 | 6 lee 31 

| Pereent . é ; .| 54°16 | 19°57 19°30 | 6°97 — 

Mendelian expectation | 56°25 | 18°75 | 18°75 | 6°25 _— 


139. Trthybrid Rattos——Crosses are met with in which a 
third factor, which we may designate as C, has an influence on 
the second factor B, so that when the two meet they produce 
colour, but when ether is absent, the appearance is the same 
as though wez¢her was present. In such cases we get the 
ratio 48:9:7. By growing on the seven recessives we find 
that they are not homozygous, but consist of 3 B, 3 C and 
1 abc, the latter only (ie. #y of all) a pure recessive; the 
actual ratio 1s therefore :— 

4d: Gas nO As ok 
or 
75: 14°0625 :9°375 : 15625 per cent. 

When three allelomorphic pairs (e.g. Aa, Bb, and Cc) enter 
into the cross, there are sixty-four possible combinations of 
these characters. In such a cross the results will be:-— 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 


ABC 27 
ABe 9 
— = 30 AB 
Abc 3 
AbC 9 
— = 12 Ab = 45 with A 
aBC 9 
—= 9BC 
aBe 3 
abC 3 
—= 6BorC=15 , BC,B,orC 
abc I Ey abe 
64 64 


185 


The distribution of the gametes is shown in Tables 
XXXV, XXXVI and XXXVII following. 


TaBLE XXXV. 


DISTRIBUTION OF THE GAMETES IN A TRIHYBRID CROSS. 


ABC | ABC | ABC | ABC | ABC | ABC | ABC | 
ABC | ABc | AbC | Abe | aBC | aBc | abC 
ABc | ABc | Ape || ee | ABc | ABc | ABc | 
ABC | ABc | AbC | Abc aBC | aBc abC 
See ae, fal —|—| (ae == 
| 
AbC | AbC AbC AbC | AbC | AbC | AbC 
ABC ABc AbC Abc | aBC aBc | abC 
| | | | | i | 
assent ner ee a ee ee eT 
Abc Abc Abc Abc | Abc Abc | Abc 
ABC | ABc | AbC Abc aBC | aBc | abC 
aBC | aBC | aBC | aBC | aBC | aBC abc 
ABC | ABc AbC Abc | aBC aBc abC 
: aie | | 
aBc | aBe aBc aBc aBe | aBc | aBe | 
ABC | ABc | AbC | Abe | aBC | aBe | abC 
(iene : | 
abC | abC abC abC abC abC abC 
ABC | ABc AbC Abe  aBC — aBe abC 
pee ee ee ee 
abe =| abe abe | abc abe | abe abc 
ABC | ABc AbC | Abc aBC | aBc abC 
| | 


The above “chess-board” is classified in Table XXXVI 


following :— 


CHAP. 


186 


MAIZE 


TaBLE XXXVI. 


CLASSIFIED SUMMARY OF TABLE XXXV. 


AABBCC. 
AABBCc + cC. 
AABBcc . 


AABbCC. | 
AABbCc + cC 
AABbcc 


AADbbCC . 
AAbbCc + cC . 
AAbbce 


AaBBCC. 
AaBBCc + cC. 
AaBBcec 
AaBbCC . | 
AaBbCc + cC 
AaBbcc . | 
AabbCC 
AabbCc + cC 
Aabbcc 


aaBBCC . 
aaBBCc+cC . 
aaBBcc 
aaBbCC . 
aaBbCc + cC 
aaBbce 
aabbCC 
aabbCc + cC 
aabbcc 


. + bB 


lip 


I I 
2 2 
I I 
tee 
oe aes 
ay cas 
) ie = 
| 20 — 
| ie 
| 24 Tt 
bop aA 3 a 
| Ir I 
| ge Se 
| 2 = 
J I= 
ees 
ae 
I 
I I 
2 Ps 
I I 
I — 
a = 
Pag cee 


BNR HN H ARDY 


| ww hes] tate 3 


4 
to 


(2 Aoi eae [S| neve oe DaED PE eee A 


TABLE XXXVII. 
SUMMARY OF TABLE XXXVI. 


Per Cent. 
ABC 27 = 42°1875 
AB 9 = 14'062 
AC 9 = 14°0625 
A 3= 4°6875 
BC 9 
B 3 = 46875 
Cc 3 = 476875 
abe T= 1°5625 


48 = 75'0 
9 = 14°0625 
7 = TO'9375 


Per Cent. 
1°5625 
3125 
1°5625 


16 


IZ | 


32 


. 


}10 


IZ | 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 187 


It is conceivable that there might be other interactions of CHAP 
factors in a trihybrid combination of this character, which would _ Y- 
give quite different Mendelian ratios; for instance if A were 
only visible in the presence of C we should have a ratio of— 


36 AC: 21 B:3 A:3 C:1 abe 


of which A and C might conceivably give the same appear- 
ance as abc, giving an apparent ratio of 36:21:7. 

Bateson gives the following scheme by which the number 
of types, and the ratios in which each will appear, is given for 
any number of pairs of factors, one factor of each pair being 
dominant and the other recessive. 


4=341 

TO= (31)? S37 +343 +0S 9+ 34342 

64 = (3 + 18 = 3% 4+ 33° +33 41527 + 27+ 941 
250 = (3: aL)? = 34 gest Org? tae a 


ll 


8r + 27 + 27 + 27 + 27 
TQ Oe Oba Oi FOr 


+3+34+ 343 
+1. 
So in general 
yt = 3" 

ae eat tae ea n times 
ee eee ec oe dn (uu — 1) times 
ne ea oa ean oe 4n (a — 1) (2 — 2) times. 
+ etc, 


140. Inheritance of Colour.—There are several different 
colours in the maize grain, and also in the vegetative part of 
the growing plant, which behave as separate allelomorphic 
pairs, transmissible independently. In a few cases coupling 
of allelomorphs appears to take place. Owing to the different 
behaviour of these several colours it will be convenient to dis- 
cuss them separately. 

141. Vellow Endosperm.—Yellow colour of the endosperm 
and its absence behave as an allelomorphic pair. 

Shull, East and Hayes, and the present writer have found 
two kinds of yellow each of which behaves with its opposite as 
an independent allelomorphic pair. One of these (the darker 
yellow) gives the Mendelian ratio 1: 2:1; the other (the 
paler) gives the ratio g: 3:3:1. In some cases the latter is 
so faint as to be easily overlooked ina poor light, and has been 
mistaken for a ‘‘dominant white”. If non-yellows breed true 


CHAP. 


188 MAIZE 


in the F, generation, they are usually considered pure (Aas¢ 
and Hayes, 1), but if the absence of yellow is due to the absence 
of a factor on which the appearance of colour depends, they 
may, even though heterozygous, continue to breed white until 
crossed with another white carrying the complementary factor, 
when yellow will appear. The relative amount of soft and 
horny starch contained in the seed is one cause of varying in- 
tensity of the yellow colour in F, crosses between yellow and 
white. 

East and Hayes appear to have found six shades of yellow 
in the progeny of a cross between yellow and white maize, for 
they observe that “in the case of the two yellow colours in 
the maize endosperm, the intensity of the yellow decreases in 
the following order :— 


Ya Ya Yo: Ya 

Y,y1 Y2 Y. or Y, Y, Y1 y 
Y, ¥i or Y, Yo 

Yi yi or Yy Yo 


Y1 1 Yo Yo [i-e. pure white ?]”’ 


The present writer has found six shades of yellow in the 
F, seed generation, and ten shades in the F, seed generation 
after crossing with white. The two yellows already referred 
to are involved in the production of these shades, and there 
is a distinct break in the gamut of tints between what appears 
to be the palest of No. 1, and the darkest of No. 2. 

142. ‘‘ White Starchy”’ Endosperm.—This was shown to be 
a Mendelian dominant by Correns in t901, and confirmed by 
Lock in 1904, and later by the writer and by East and Hayes 
working simultaneously though unknown to each other. East 
and Hayes found that dominance was complete; in no case 
was there the slightest difference between the homozygous and 
the heterozygous seeds in either outward appearance or in the 
character of the starch cells when examined microscopically. 

143. /nherttance of Characters which Affect the Growing 
Plant.—TVhe characters which we have been discussing are those 
which affect the endosperm, and are therefore visible in the 
daughter seeds of the ear that has been crossed, i.e. the first 
new generation. There are other characters, however, affecting 
the growing plant, which do not show in the seed, These will 
be discussed seriatim. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 189 


144. Pertcarp Colour.—The colour of the maize-grain is 
sometimes found in, and confined to, the pericarp; in such 
cases this is readily demonstrated by soaking the grain in 
water until the pericarp can be peeled off without removing 
the aleurone layer. The red striped Cusco flour corn is a case 
in point ; we also meet with sporadic cases of red ears appearing 
unexpectedly in crops of white breeds, which, on examination, 
prove to be cases of red pericarp colour. 

The pericarp of the grain belongs to the parental, and not 
to the filial, generation; it is part of the female plant parent. 
The pollen grain therefore does not produce xenia in the peri- 
carp. Thus if a white breed is crossed with pollen of a breed 
with red pericarp colour, the resulting grain (F, seed genera- 
tion) will not show the red colour, though this will appear in 
the second (F, seed) generation. 

The present writer has found four distinct red pericarp 
colours, and East and Hayes describe five, which they call R,, 
R,, Rs, Ry, and R,. 

R,.—An ordinary dark red pop-corn ; glumes of male florets 
sometimes reddish, but neither cobs nor silks red. Crossed 
with white it gave 75 R and 22 W ears in the F, generation, 
the reds being all dark and the whites showing no trace of 
colour. The writer has met with a red pop, answering to 
this description, in South Africa. 

R,.—A dark mosaic red, occurring as irregular red stripes 
radiating from the point where the silk was attached. A similar 
red occurs in South African maize. 

R,.—A dirty red colour, more abundant at the base of the 
seed and almost wanting at the summit; it appears to be 
coupled with red silks. The dye occurs in small amounts. 
“Tt is almost certain that this red forms an allelomorphic pair 
with its absence, that is entirely independent of R,, R,,and R,.” 

R,.—A rose-red, which “ develops only in the presence of 
light, hence the ears with thick husks show the colour but 
faintly. When the husks are stripped away and the ear 
matures in full sunlight, the colour appears over the entire ear 
as a bright rose-red.”. Red was not present in other parts of 
the plants grown. A rose-red answering this description 
occurs also in South Africa, where it threatens to give some 
trouble to growers. 


CHAP. 


1g0 


MAIZE 


CHAP. R,.—A rose-red resembling R,, but occurring in lesser 


careful examination. 


amounts, and on thick-husked ears only detected by very 
It behaves with its absence as a sepa- 


rate allelomorphic pair to R,. 
RK,.—Is a dark red pericarp colour of sugar maize, from 
an jear of unknown parentage, found by the writer in South 


lic. 80.—Somatic variation 
in pericarp colour. 


Africa. The combined red colour 
and wrinkled endosperm tend to 
give the impression of dried raisins. 

145. Somatic Variation in Peri- 
carp Colour.—Cases not infrequently 
occur in which an ear in a crop of 
white develops red pericarp on one 
side, or part of one side, of the 
ear, and white, or white striped 
with red, on the other side or part 
of that side (Fig. 80). Such cases 
have been attributed by East and 
Hayes to bud variations similar to 
those which occur in perennial garden 
plants, and also, though less fre- 
quently noticed, in annuals. In such 
cases the plant due to produce a red 
ear varies somatically so that one 
part of the ear becomes red and the 
rest white or striped. In a case 
which they record, this variation was 
transmitted by the seeds. 

146. Szlk-colour. — Maize silks 
vary from almost colourless, through 
cream and green, to dark red. Some- 
times the style itself is red, some- 
times only the hairs on the style. 
Sometimes the colour of the silk is 


coupled with that of the pericarp, and perhaps also with colour 
in the glumes. But redness of the silk occurs commonly 
when the cob and pericarp are not coloured. According to 
East and Hayes, study of the transmission of this colour char- 
acter is obscured by the action of the bag over the ear to be 
hand-pollinated, which prevents the full development of the 


INHERITANCE—/IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 191 


red colour by shutting out the light, so that it is difficult to CHAP. 
tell whether the F, silks which are selfed are full red, or only Me 
red-haired. 

147. Red Cob-colour.—ixperiments conducted by the writer 
(and it appears, simultaneously by East and Hayes (1)), show 
that red cob-colour is dominant to white cob-colour, and behaves 
asasimple monohybrid. These authors suggest that “it is not 
beyond probability” that dihybrid reds may be found in an 
extensive series of crosses. Cob-colour is not necessarily 
coupled with red endosperm colour, for red cob-colour is not 
infrequently found in a white-grained breed, e.g. Hickory King, 
which normally produces white cobs. Many yellow-grained 
breeds have red cobs, but white-cobbed ears are often found 
amongst them; other yellow-grained breeds normally have 
white cobs, but red-cobbed ears are occasionally found amongst 
them. East and Hayes record a case in which perfect coup- 
ling occurred between red cobs and red pericarp colour. 

148. Glume Colour—The glumes often carry red colour, 
and vary considerably in the amount of redness present ; some- 
times it is confined to very narrow or broader streaks along the 
nerves. Glume colour appears to be correlated with colour in 
other parts of the plant, for East and Hayes state that they 
have not yet found a plant which has red glumes and yet 
shows no red colour in other parts of the plant, though one 
has been found that is pure for red glumes and yet shows no 
red in other parts with the exception of the silks. 

149. Development of “ Pods”.—Pod maize (Fig. 51) when 
crossed with breeds free from pods, behaves as a simple Men- 
delian monohybrid. The podded character is dominant, and 
appears in the F, generation in the proportion of 3 to 1; the 
extracted recessives breed absolutely true (Zas¢ and Hayes, 1). 

150. Inheritance of Ligule and Auricles—Emerson (1) 
finds that absence of ligule and auricle behaves as a recessive 
to presence of these organs, and that they are transmitted as a 
single hereditary character. Four liguleless plants, crossed 
with unrelated normal-leaved plants, produced 103 F, individ- 
uals, all with normal leaves. Twelve of the latter were selfed, 
and produced 748 F, plants, of which 572 had normal leaves 
and 176 had no ligules, or practically a 3:1 ratio. Counting 
together all families in which both types of leaf occurred, he 


CHAP. 


192 MAIZE 


obtained a total of 672 normal-leaved and 221 liguleless- 
leaved plants ; to have given as nearly a 3:1 ratio as possible 
the respective numbers would only have to be changed to 670 
and 223. 

151. Physical Condition of the Starch.—Presence and ab- 
sence of starch, as we have already seen, behaves as a Men- 
delian allelomorphic pair; the presence of starch is a filial 
character, and shows as xenia in individual seeds. East and 
Hayes find, however, that the physical condition of the starch 
behaves as a plant character affecting the whole ear :— 


“The characters which give the flint or the dent appear- 
ance to maize are transmitted as plant characters to the entire 
ear and not as endosperm characters to the seed. They 
conform to the essential feature of Mendelism by showing 
segregation ; and they are due to the action of more than 
one transmissible character. The question remains, can any 
or all of these characters be named? Our experience suggests 
that the proportion of corneous starch to soft starch depends 
partially upon size and shape of the pericarp, and upon the 
number of rows per ear... . There is also some relation 
between -the size of the plants and the amount of soft starch 
in their seeds. . . . Relationship between the physical char- 
acter of the starch and shape of pericarp is much more intimate 
than it is between the former and size characters. . . . The 
shape of the pericarp depends somewhat on the number of 
rows, as the greater this number the more the seeds are 
crowded together and thus lengthened. . . . These relation- 
ships may simply be correlations and not direct causes of 
the proportion of corneous starch to soft starch that exists 
in various strains of corn, But even if they were directly 
concerned, they could not account for the large number of 
differences in varieties, for none of the correlations are suffi- 
ciently high. Many other characters, the exact nature of 
which is unknown, must be concerned in the matter. The 
simplest interpretation . . . seems to be the interaction of 
independent allelomorphic pairs, of the nature reported by 
Nillson-Ehle (1) and East (4) in earlier papers.” 


152. Stse Characters—Among size characters are in- 
cluded: height of plant, number and length of internodes, 
thickness of stem, breadth and length of leaf, length of sheath, 
length of ear, number of rows per ear, thickness of cob, size of 
seed, etc. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 1 93 


In the maize plant the factors which interact to cause the 
transmissible differences in the size of the organs are very 
complex, as has been pointed out by East and Hayes, who 
refer to the consequent difficulty of working out in detail their 
inheritance. 


“Tt is perfectly obvious to one familiar with the maize plant 
that it is almost impossible to work out in detail the inherit- 
ance of the complex factors that interact to cause the trans- 
missible differences in the size of the organs. 

“That size characters are complex in themselves is shown 
by the numerous varieties grown commercially. They each 
vary from their own means, but different variety means in 
height are found all the way from two and one half to fourteen 
feet, with but little actual difference between the most similar 
strains. Further to complicate matters, all size characters 
respond to environmental stimuli, and these non-inherited 
fluctuations obscure the analysis of pedigree cultures in a still 
greater degree. 

“For these reasons we do not attempt to analyse our results 
further than to say that they do show segregation tn every case. 
And segregation ts held to be the tmportant and essential feature 
of Mendelism. Therefore we belteve that size characters Men- 
delise. . . . But in size characters dominance is probably very 
incomplete or absent. . . .” 

“ Several genes for the same character may extst in the germ 
cells of one organism, the number being limited possibly by the 
number of chromosomes. The limited number of cases, thus far 
found, presumably is due to the fact that few size characters 
have been investigated, for nowhere would these phenomena 
be so likely to occur as in quantitative characters. . . . Several 
independent allelomorphic pairs may produce the same somatic 
character.” 

“A heterozygous combination presumably produces half 
the effect of a homozygous combination. Then as dominance 
becomes less and less evident the Mendelian classes vary more 
and more from the formula (3 + 1)” and approach the normal 
curve of error ($ + $)”. When there is no dominance and open 
fertilization, a state is reached in which the curve of variation 
simulates the fluctuation curve, with the difference that the 
gradations are heritable. The heritable variations are al- 
ways more or less obscured, however, by the ever present 
fluctuation,” 


13 


CHAP. 


MAIZE 


194 


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Keaneaers ~ es eas be ae 

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1 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 195 


‘In considering experiments in the inheritance of size 
characters in maize, we must remember that fluctuations are 
present, and that often many genotypes are present in one 
parent.” 

153. Inheritance of Hetght of Plants.—The results of East 
and Hayes’s investigations, as far as described in their paper 
(1), show segregation from the lowest class range of the shorter 
parent to the highest class range of the taller parent, but they 
do not consider these 
segregates as pure types, 
and “their behaviour in 
further generations is still 
problematical”. In every 
case the comparative size 
of the coefficient of varia- 
tion was at least 50 per 
cent higher in the F, 
generation than in the 
F, generation (see Table 
XXXVIII). The F, 
generation is not inter- 
mediate between the two 
parents, but is nearly as 
high as the taller parent. 
This fact, they point out, 
is not to be regarded as 
in any way connected 
with dominance, but is 


Fic. 81a.—Inheritance of size characters. 
due to the increased Hickory King, 8 tog feet high. (Type used 


to produce cross shown in Fig. 82 and grown 


vigour of the maize plan 
2 ae pleat the same season.) 


which comes from cross- 
ing, as pointed out by East (3) in a previous paper. 

An entirely different case has come under the observation 
of the writer, in the F, progeny of a cross between AHzckory 
King (Fig. 814) and IVzlls Gehu (Fig. 818). 

The relative height is shown by the walking-stick which 
stands alongside, at the same relative distance from the camera 
as the stem of the plant, in each case. 

In this case the F, plants, Figs. 824 and B, show the dwarf 
habit of the IW7//s Gehu parent, and little, if any, increase 

13 * 


CHAP, 


Fic. 818.—Inheritance of size characters. Wills Gehu, 4 to 44 feet high. 
(Type used to produce cross shown in Fig. 82 and grown the same season.) 


Fic. 82a,.—F, plant progeny of cross between types shown in Fig. 81; 
plants 44 to 5 feet high. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 197 


in vigour due to crossing was noticeable, such as was met 
with by East and Hayes. The same result was obtained with 
the reciprocal cross, showing that in this case the short habit 
is dominant. 

154. laherttance of Abnormal Dwarfness.— Abnormally 
dwarf forms, 14 to 3 feet high, sometimes appear, possibly as 
examples of “reversion” or of “mutation”. East and Hayes 


Fic, 828.—F, plant progeny of cross between types shown in Fig. 81; 
plants 44 to 5 feet high. 


find that segregation takes place in their inheritance, in the 
proportion of three normal to less than one abnormal, but the 
number of cases studied was perhaps inadequate to determine 
whether it was a case of Mendelian dominance. 

155. Inheritance of Length of Ears.—Ear length does not 
show the increased vigour, according to East and Hayes, due 
to heterozygosis, that is seen in the heights of the plants. 
They conclude that there is scarcely a doubt that the greatly 


CHAP. 


MAIZE 


198 


“S189 9914} WL] UMOID 5 
“S189 OM} WOIZ UMOID 
*sI¥9 JAY WO UMOID ; 


‘or6r ul uoNeiouad *y ‘6061 UL UAOIS UONLsaUAs | put og ‘ON $(1) SadvH puL seq WoL | 


x | || | ] l l 
bel of.c0 | Leo. F 1g.z | ger. F g.z1 | 1 | z | I zr jae |-or.)|) er.) te.) 2a | Ee | €o| Gb] £3 | S z | 
| | 
€1t.F thdr| €S0. F Sz.z | odo. F621 | —| —| x | 6 lor cz 6€ 89 | 99 €L | Lr gz 6x ort | 
Sige Hae | dears Beal geece tee a an teen eed el | ie Sex] og | oS | ez |S | + | 
gel. = gb.cr| ggo. F 1Sa | rer. Fut | — eee Beet es | + 6 | dr | tr | ex G1 ||-E Vata 
| | | | | | | 
r€6.F €r.11| ggo. F LZg.r | ri. FQ.gr | z ! | or | Sx | gz | Sx zi |air|e& |—|—]— costes | ee 
| 
€gl. 4 dz.cr! 10. F 1g. elo. ¥ 9.9 | — cee pe et eos vee =) ae ae Se Se nee 
| | | | a | =| | foment 
| | | | | | | 
pte | er ee a ae or | Sx | Fr | €x ut ie Ol ea. 
"AD a's ¥ dee Cole: ed seul ee ee eee eee eS ae 
| “sieq jo syIsuayT IOj “WD Ul samqUad Sse[D 
“(FS x 09) SSOND NI SUVA AO SHLONAT AO NOILAGINLSIG AONANOANA 


CHAP. 


V. 


UXIXXK @TA¥ LT 


INHERITANCE —TMPROVIE MENT BY BREEDING 199 


increased variability in F, (see Table XNNXIX) is the direct CHAP. 

result of segregation. Me 
156. Inheritance of Size and Weight of Grain.—East and 

Hayes conclude that segregation occurs in the progeny of 

ears heterozygous for size and weight of grain. 


B A 


Fic. 83.—Inheritance of row numbers. A, ro-row Hickory (Louisiana). 
B, Hickory with 10 rows below and 8 above. 


157. Inheritance of Row Numbers.—The number of rows 
of grain in an ear varies according to the breed. In some’ 
breeds it is more definitely fixed than in others, e.g. Hzckory 
King; many of the flint breeds are normally 8-rowed and 
rarely exceed that number when pure-bred; in these cases an 
ear carrying more than 8 rows is considered untrue to type, 


CHAP. 


200 MAIZE 


but it is doubtful whether any commercial maize crop grown 
breeds entirely true in regard to row numbers. That this is 
traceable, in part at least, to fluctuating variability, seems to be 
indicated by the following cases of irregularity :— 

Not infrequently ears are met with in which two or four 
rows cease before reaching the tip (Fig. $38). 

That such cases may be dependent on nutrition, as affected 
by variation in the character of the season, is suggested by 
the fact that in the season 1910-11 the writer found ears 
bearing two more rows on the upper (tip) portion of the ear 
than on the lower portion; the weather was dry during the 
early part of the season, which tended to check development, 
but was wet during the latter part of the season. The possible 
connection between the season and such cases requires further 
investigation before we can definitely connect them as cause 
and effect. 

In some cases, as shown in Fig. 84B, it is clear that a 
pair of rows has been dropped; this is unusual, however. 
More frequently one row of each of two pairs has stopped 
(Fig. 83B). 

Many cases have come under the writer’s notice, in which 
two ears borne on the same plant produce different row 
numbers; in thirty-three plants of Arcadia Sugar-maize each 
bearing two fully-matured ears on one culm, twelve plants 
bore an equal number of rows on each ear; fourteen plants 
had more rows on the lower ear than on the upper; on seven 
plants the largest number was borne on the upper ear; in 
most of these cases there were but two extra rows, but ina 
single case there were four more. The actual results obtained 
are shown in Table XL. 


INHERITANCE —IMPROVEMENT BY 


TARLE 


XL. 


BREEDING 


201 


ROW NUMBERS IN A FAMILY OF ARCADIA SUGAR-MAIZE., 
Plants with Two Ears. 


Plant No. wotlbiet Rows Surticrer news 
: | 8 12) 
2 | Io aie) 
3 | 10 14 
4 Io T2 
5 12 12 
6 10 8 
a | pas) 8 
8 10 12 
9 12 12 
10 38 To 
II 8 12 
12 12 12 
13 12 12 
14 Io 12 
15 | a4 L2 
16 12 12 
17 2 12 
18 12 Io 
19 12 14 
20 | Io 12 
ai | 8 10 
22 Io Io 
23 Io 8 
24 12 Io 
25 8 | 12 
26 12 | 12 
27 r2 To 
28 12 ace) 
29 Io ane) 
30 8 10 
31 Io 12 
2 3 ears upper middle 8 | 8 
| no grain 
33 Io 12 | 
| | 
| | Numb f 
T Of | 
Class. Upper Ear. | Lower Ear. es ae of Buys in 
Sy each Class. 
- (eh tte aes 
As many rows in lower as “| ae oe | ‘) | a 
in upper {70 | 1 | 3) ies 
ts a ee 1) J 
| (12 T4 T) 
: : (exe) | 14 I) | 
es in lower than in (10 | ay 6) T4 
(8 12 3) | 
(8 Io 3) 
Fewer rows in lower than { (12 0 4) \ 
in upper (10 8 3) yf 


202 MATIZS¢ 


Tas_e XL (continued). 


SUMMARY. 

Upper Ear. | Lower Ear. | Number of Plants. | 
( 8 I | 
8 se) 3 | 
{ 12 | 
| 
( 8 3 | 
To 3 | 
Io +3 6 } 
( 4 I | 

{ 8 fe) 

| 10 4 

ee 12 3 

| ( I4 I 


= — Total 33 


The total number of ears producing any given number of 
rows was as follows :— 


Rows. | Ears. 
| 
8 II 
10 2 
T2 | 30 
14 | 
Nees — 
| 
— | Total 66 


A few ears are also met with in which the grains are 
scattered promiscuously, in mosaic fashion, over the ear (Fig. 
84A), so that the number of rows can only be determined by 
cross-sectioning the cob. 

Experiments conducted by the writer show that the cross 
between an 8-row and an 18-row breed results in the produc- 
tion of an intermediate form in the F, generation. Of thirty- 
nine cross-bred F, ears examined, only two produced the same 
number of rows as either parent, while nearly 75 per cent 
produced either 12 or 14 rows, ie. more than one, and less 
than the other, parent; as regards these two row numbers, 
the cross and the reciprocal cross produced nearly the same 


INHERITANCE —IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 203 


proportions, the 18-row ? x 8-row @ giving 71°5 per cent, CHAP. 
and the 8-row ? x 18-row ¢ 76 per cent. The cross was 
made between No. 904, an 8-rowed white dent, and No. 
g05, an 18-rowed yellow dent, both pedigree ears as regards 
colour and row numbers, which bred true when selfed (Aurtz- 
Davy, 27). The results obtained are given in Table XLI. 


Fic. 84.—Undesirable types for seed. A, Mosaic arrangement of grains. 
B, Failure to develop two pairs of rows: a 4-rowed ear. 


Eighty-nine ears from a commercial crop of Ladysinzth, 
studied by the writer, gave the following figures :— 


Row Classes. : 2 I4 16 18 


Number of Ears ; : 29 40 20 
Percentages. é . 32°58 44°94 22". 


CHAP. 
V. 


204 MATIZ Ie 
TaBLe XLI. 
INHERITANCE OF ROW NUMBERS IN CROSS-BRED MAIZE. 


1063 ex go5 (18-row 2) x gog (8-row 3) Yellow Grain with Light Yellow Caps. 


1064 ,, do. do. Yellow Grain with White Caps. 
1066 ,, go4 (8-row 2) x g05 (18-row GC) Do. 
1067 ,, do. do. Do. 
1068 ,, do. do. Do. 


Separating the two crosses, we have the following figures :— 


18-row 2 x 8 row Jd 


Rows. | 
Parent Ear No. SS — ee 7 — a Total Lars. 
8 10 ui) 14 | 16 | 
eae ve9 ee ee = any 
1063 0 I | # > || 2 I 8 
1064 oO 2 | | fo) fo) 6 
Total . ; 0 al 8 2 7 14 
Per Gent) -. fe) 214 57°1 I4°3 72 = 100 
es = Meet begs cn | ec 8) ee 
8-row 2 x 18-row rf 
Rows. | 
| Parent Ear No. 5 SS aie ars —— | Total Ears. | 
| 8 10 | 12 | T4 16 | 
| se lecse ent 
| 
| 1066 I 2 3 I oO 7 | 
1067 oO 2 4 fe) 9 
T1068 ng fo) | 3 5 fe) 9 | 
| Total . 2 4 ro 9 fe) 25 | 
| Per Cent . 8 16 | 40 36 oO 100 | 
| = : : : <= 
Summary. 
| Rows. | 
| 
| Parent Ear No. ae ii ye ee oh Ota Bary, 
8 10 | 12 14 16 
18 x 8 o (| 3 8 2 I | 14 
8 x 18 2 | 4 1%) 9 oO | 1 25 
| Total . : 2 Caen hf eres Tt || 
| | | 39 
| Per Cent . BPE | wr | 462 28°2 | 2°6 | 100 
—— | | 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 205 


East and Hayes find that two distinct kinds of irregularity 
of row numbers occur: one a physiological fluctuation which 
is not inherited, and one a definitely inherited character, or 
possibly a set of characters, 


“The non-inherited fluctuations are always present, while 
the inherited irregularity may be present or absent. The latter 
kind has been isolated in several varieties [breeds], the most con- 
spicuous being the Country Gentleman [sweet] corn. . . . Since 
the inherited irregularity can only be distinguished from the 
fluctuation by breeding, and then with difficulty owing to the 
obscuring effect of the latter, it is difficult to come to any 
conclusion regarding the method of its transmission when 
dealing with mixed strains. It could undoubtedly be deter- 
mined by careful work with a cross of which Country Gentle- 
man formed one of the parents. We have not made such a 
cross, but observations of large commercial cultures of Country 
Gentleman \ead us to believe that irregularity is a Mendelian 
dominant, although it may not act as a simple monohybrid. 
... The one fact that stands out clearly is that 7f the per- 
centage of irregular ears increases much over 4 per cent in a 
commercial progeny row culture, the whole culture must be dis- 
carded to eliminate the undesirable ‘ blood’.” 


The results obtained by them, to the F, generation, are 
shown in Table XLII following :— 


TaBLE XLII. 
INHERITANCE OF ROWS IN A MAIZE CROSS. 


Row Classes. 
Rows 
No. Gen. of aa ] 7 a Fes —— 
Parents. | | 
( 8 | 10 | 12] 14 | 16] 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 
mee |e sell eee ed ea beer 
| i 
No. 8dent . ae 12 —= | 34) §4)) 36) 22] 2 | 
No. 54 sugar LP 8 89 | 25 7 | | 
No. 8 x 54. Fi 12 I 6) 14 | | 
8 x 54) -—1 F, 12 g | 22!| 16] 1 
ries Hy) or |) on) g]-a6| a) | 
ese Pa welled | | 
(i as -1i1-2.|F, 8 20 | 38 | 50 | | 
(eke ' -1-2a|F, 10 61 | 48 | 54 | | 
(Sen Eset be 10 32] 75 | 15 | 
(, )-1r-3a]|F; 8 § | 20 | 2 I | 
(Se Diese Serge | as; ore — | 33 |158| 26 | 3 | 
( , )-1-6.]F, 12 4|36 |1og| 8] 2 | 
( 4 )-—1z-—10 | F, 8 Very irregular, mostly 8-rowed | 
(Gj) = 73) | B 10 96 | 43 8 | | | | | 
| | 


CHAP. 
V. 


CHAP. 


206 MAIZE 


158. /vur-rowed Ears.—The writer has occasionally found 
in both flint and dent breeds, ears with only 4 or 6 rows (Fig. 
848). The occasional presence at the base of the ears of the 
beginnings of additional rows, suggests that they are cases of 
failure to develop certain pairs of rows. East and Hayes 
associate the condition with the tendency commonly met with 
in ears of 8-row flint breeds, to split at the base into 2- 
rowed sections. Their investigations indicate that the tendency 
to the abnormality is dominant to the normal condition. 

159. Inheritance of Fasciated and Lobed Ears,—F lattening, 


Fic. 85.—A, Fasciated ear. B, Lobed ear. 

fasciation, and lobing of the tip of the ear (Fig. 85.\ and Bb) are 
not infrequently met with, and flattening and fasciation are 
more common in some races than in others; in the Transvaal 
flattening is common in strains of Chester County. 

East and Hayes have studied the inheritance of this ab- 
normality and find that it is a dominant character, alternatively 
inherited, and that it is difficult to tell the pure normal ears by 
inspection, but that they appear to breed true when isolated. 

160. Inheritance of Laterally Branched Ears.—\aterally 
branched ears (Fig. 86) are occasionally met with. Attempts 


INHERIT ANCE—IMPROVEMENT BV BREEDING 207 


made by East and Hayes and by the writer to study the in- 
heritance of the tendency have not been very successful. But 
East and Hayes conclude that the character is transmitted 
and does segregate, for both normals and abnormals are pro- 
duced in the F, generation. Such ears are undesirable, 
especially as they produce irregular grain, and they should not 
be used for seed purposes. 

161. Striped Leaves.— 
Races of maize occur, as, 
for example, Zea Mays var. 
japonica, in which the leaves 
are green, with white stripes 
(they are deficient in chloro- 
phyll), but which breed true, 
the striping being appar- 
ently homozygous. 

But East and Hayes 
record cases in which the 
striping indicates a hetero- 
zygous condition; the 
dominant form in this case 
is fully green. Plants with- 
out chlorophyll died, when 
only a few inches high, 
from lack of the power of 
assimilation ; these were 
considered by the authors 
as “probably homozygous 
recessives ”. 

162. Difficulties En- 
countered in Studying In- 
heritance tn Matze-—The 
investigation of the inheri- Fic. 86.—Laterally branched ear. 
tance of characters in the 
maize plant is not as simple a problem as might at first 
appear. 

(az) The amount of pollen produced is so great that it is 
continually present during the flowering period, in the air of 
the maize field; it adheres to the clothes and hands of the 
breeder, or to the leaves and stems of the plant, and is easily 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
V. 


208 MAIZE 


transmitted from them to the silks of plants which are to be 
kept pure. In spite of all possible precautions, seeds of un- 
known paternal ancestry do creep into the cultures. With 
tassels bagged three days before any pollen was ripe, it was 
found that stray pollen was already present, and though old, a 
certain percentage was viable, although East and Hayes con- 
clude that the possible error from this source would be only 
one to about 10,000. But in the bagging of the silks there 
is also a chance of enclosing foreign pollen; the same investi- 
gators have found that about one ear in five would have one or 
more grains so crossed, even when the greatest care was taken. 

They conclude that in this work there is a_ possibility 
of an experimental error of five or six seeds out of the 
200 to 800 produced on an ear; this is to be considered 
as a maximum and not the probable error, the latter being 
less than one seed per ear. As they well observe, however, 
“the determination of a probable error in a mass of data is 
not sufficient in genetic work; an actual error, in which a 
single seed of unknown paternity becomes the ancestor of a 
pedigreed line, is sufficient to upset all inductions drawn from 
the data”. 

(0) The small size of the chromosomes makes them diffi- 
cult to study. 

(c) And, finally, maize seed is rather delicate; when pro- 
perly matured and dried it remains in fairly good condition for 
only three seasons ; seed older than this is almost worthless, 
and there is even a possibility of the results from second year 
seed being distorted. 

All these factors add to the difficulty of carrying out in- 
vestigations. 


Methods of Plant Breeding. 


A man should be very careful in the selection of his parents. 
—HEINE. 
163. 4 Few General Principles—In plant breeding it is 
necessary to carefully decide upon an ideal and to work 
steadily and persistently toward it. We must remember that 
it takes several generations of the plant to acquire and fix a 
desired character, and that any deviation from the original aim 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 209 


may involve us in complications difficult to unravel. With 
our present knowledge of genetics, the safest course to follow 
is to work step by step, building up the new type, one character 
ata time, rather than to attempt to add two or three characters 
at once. 

Promiscuous or aimless crossing, and crossing which is 
not followed by rigorous selection, is worse than useless, for 
it spoils an established breed only to produce a mongrel race. 
Vacillation in breeding is equally unproductive; success is 
then mere chance, and we work like men lost on the veld, 
wandering sometimes forwards, sometimes back on our tracks. 

In order to breed intelligently and to good purpose, it is 
necessary not only to know what we want, but also how to 
attain it, which involves a close and thorough study of each 
breed. In the case of maize, our ideal should include not only 
the colour and shape of the grain and ear, but also the average 
yield of grain from each ear, and the average stand of plants 
per acre. 

Briefly, we may say that there are three things essential 
to the development of pedigree stock, whether of animals or 
plants: (1) start with the best stock you can get ; (2) propa- 
gate only the best (which implies also the elimination of the 
unfit) ; (3) improve by crossing, when you know how to ob- 
tain and fix the desired character. 

164. Methods of Plant Breeding. ene methods employed 
in the breeding of plants are much the same as those used 
with domestic animals—horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, or poultry. 
The fundamental point, after the determination of the desired 
type, is the continuous mating (i.e. without interruption) of 
those parents, both male and female, which most nearly 
approach that type. 

In the breeding of plants three principal courses are 
followed: (1) selection, (2) cross-fertilization, and (3) hybridi- 
zation. Inbreeding necessarily follows any one of these three 
methods. 

Selection may be roughly defined as the choice of suitable 
parents for the production of a strain of the desired type. 
They may belong to the same or to different breeds. Selec- 
tion implies that there is a choice of characters to select from. 

It is necessary to resort to selection and inbreeding to 

14 


CHAP. 


210 MAIZE: 


obtain pure strains from mixed ones, and to propagate pure 
strains when one has them. 

By rigid selection we avoid the production or propagation of 
new forms ; by cross-breeding we encourage it. 

By cross-fertilization we mean crossing plants of different 
“varieties,” breeds, or races of the same species as, for instance, 
two kinds of maize. This will be discussed more fully a little 
farther on. 

The strict definition of the term /ybrzd7zation implies 
breeding from two parent plants belonging to different species 
or genera as, for instance, wheat and rye. It is of little or no 
practical importance in the improvement of farm crops, and 
need not be further discussed here. 

165. Selection of Parents—The first step in breeding is to 
secure well-bred stock. This does not always mean the im- 
portation of fresh strains, unless the latter offer decided im- 
provement over the old; if the breeds already acclimatized in 
the country are satisfactory as regards breed characteristics, it 
is sometimes better to use them as a basis for improvement 
than to rely entirely on something the adaptabttity of whitch 
to local conditions has not been proven. As Hartley (5) 
tersely puts it: “Under extremely difficult conditions of 
growth, teosinte and the buffalo will thrive better than im- 
proved types”. But local strains are often so mongrel (ie. 
heterozygous) in character that it would take years of patient 
toil, and much expense, to breed them pure; in such cases we 
must rely on the importation of fresh stocks, Whichever course 
we follow, we must select the parents best fitted to produce the 
desired type of offspring. 

Sheep farmers, who start with a highly-bred stud flock of 
acclimatized animals, do not take long to build upa large flock 
if they are good sheep farmers. But the best of them find it 
comparatively slow work to grade up a mixed flock. So it is 
with maize. If we can start with pure, high-bred, acclimatized 
seed, we gain enormously in time, for all that is then necessary 
is to maintain the purity, and continue the improvement already 
started. But at the present time it is impossible to meet the 
demand for pure high-bred seed, acclimatized to each maize- 
growing district in South Africa. 

In the selection of parents care is taken that both are as 


INITERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 211 


true to type as possible. The usual result of mating like with 
like, is to produce like, provided always that the strains are 
pure, the last point is essential. There are exceptions to this 
rule, due to the interaction of other factors (% 131) which we 
need not discuss at the moment as they do not affect the 
principle; we refer to such cases as the crossing of two 
white-grained breeds of maize, which sometimes results in the 
production of purple grain; and the crossing of two dwarfs, 
which in some instances results in the production of tall plants. 

It is equally important to remember that by crossing the 
unlike we usually produce unlike, at least in the second 
generation. 

Selection can carry us to a certain point, but no farther; it 
isolates characters and eliminates the unfit, but it cannot add 
characters which are not there. This is accomplished by cross- 
breeding. ‘‘Any permanent improvement that is made by 
selection is merely the separation of one of the extreme 
biotypes. When an extreme line is entirely separated, however, 
selection of zts extreme fluctuations causes no change (or at 
least no permanent change) of type, because there is almost 
complete regression to the mode of its line” (Zasv, 2). 

166, Effect of Inbreeding.—Strict inbreeding gradually leads 
to the isolation of the homozygous type, as was pointed out by 
Mendel, and as is demonstrated in the following diagram, for 
which the writer is indebted to Professor Punnett :— 


DR 


(Heterozygous Parent, inbred) 


Des af | ; - ae 
F, 4 DD selfed 38 DR selfed 4 RR selfed 


F, 64DD 32DD 16DD 32DR 16RR 32RR  64RR 


This gives, in the F, generation, 112 DD (pure extracted 

dominants), 112 RR (pure extracted recessives), and only 32 

DR (heterozygotes). This scheme supposes that each plant 

of the progeny produces but four offspring and that chances 
14* 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
Ne 


212 MAIZE 


are equal for the development of progeny of homozygous and 
heterozygous parents. 

But as Shull (1), East (2), and others have pointed out, in 
maize “self-fertilization, or even inbreeding between much 
wider than individual limits, results in deterioration”. Again: 
“ Although a study of the injurious effects of self-fertilization 
was not the aim of the investigation, it was immediately ap- 
parent in the smaller, weaker stalks, fewer and smaller ears, 
and the much greater susceptibility to the attacks of the corn- 
smut (Uszlago Maydis). The results were almost as marked 
when the chosen parents were above the average quality, as 
when they were below it, which in itself refutes the idea that 
the injurious effect is due to the accumulation of deficiencies 
possessed by the chosen parents” (S/z//, 1). 

“Inbreeding in maize gives the same effect as lack of 
nutrients, while cross-breeding gives the opposite effect. There 
is retardation or acceleration of cell division, respectively. 

It is an established fact, although the cause is unknown, 
that crosses between nearly related types are more vigorous 
than either of the types alone” (Zasv, 2). 

Collins (2) calls attention to the fact, however, that while 
it is fully recognized that isolating the pure strains or biotypes 
will very greatly reduce their vigour and yield, yet by making 
a combination of the proper strains, so isolated, it is believed 
that the degree of fertility of the cross will reach that of the 
most productive plants in the original mixed strain, and that 
an increase of the total yield can be obtained in this way. He 
also quotes an experiment of Dr. Shull, in which two self- 
fertilized strains which were separated from a common stock 
in 1904, and continuously self-fertilized since that time, were 
reciprocally crossed in 1907. In 1908 the yields of these re- 
ciprocal crosses were compared with each other, with the self- 
fertilized plants, and with cross-bred stocks of the original 
breed. The yield from the cross-pollinated seed was 30 per cent 
greater than that from the self-pollinated ear, and 2 per cent 
greater than the average of the original cross-bred stock. 

By this means it is found possible to isolate a homozygous 
type, the individuals of which, when mated, are as vigorous 
and productive as the original mongrel heterozygote, but with- 
out its objectionable features. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 213 


Inbreeding, then, has no permanently injurious effect on 
the breed. 

167. Improvement in Vield by Use of First-generation 
Crosses.—The facts mentioned in the last paragraph indicate 
the possibility of utilizing the added vigour gained by crossing. 
The suggestion of making practical use of this fact was made 
by Prof. W. J. Beal, as long ago as 1876, but no advantage 
appears to have been taken of the idea until quite recently, 
when it was again brought forward by Shull (1), East (2), and 
Collins (2). Increases of 51 per cent over the normal crop have 
recently been obtained in this way in the United States. 

In the case of maize the beneficial effect is noticeable mainly 
in the first season, and is said to disappear gradually. In the 
case of wheat, Professor Biffen finds it applies only in the F, 
generation. The principle, therefore, involves a new cross 
each year; this fact accounts for the loss of vigour and pro- 
ductiveness which new breeds often show when grown on a 
commercial scale. 

Difficulties in the use of first-generation crosses in farm 
practice have been met with, but will doubtless be overcome in 
time. 

168. Fundamental Points of Seed Selection —The funda- 
mental points in seed-maize selection are those which affect 
yield and quality ; briefly they include :— 

1. Depth of grain ; 
Shape of grain ; 
Thickness of grain ; 
Narrowness of sulci ; 
5. Length of ear. 
The following points are of lesser importance, but should 
not be neglected :— 
6. Shape of ear ; 
7. Straightness of row; 
8. Regularity of grain in the row. 
g. Covering and regularity of the butt ; 
10. Covering and regularity of the tip ; 
11. Thickness of the cob. 

169. Correlation of Characters.—It is well known among 
breeders both of plants and animals that certain characters in 
an individual plant are more or less related to each other, and 


fw iS) 


CHAP. 
V. 


214 MAIZE 


are inherited together. When one of such characters is present 
in an individual, another character is almost certain to be 
present which is correlated with it. These correlations may 
be of several kinds; Webber (3) divides them into four groups, 
which he has termed Environmental, Morphological, Physio- 
logical, and Coherital. 

By environmental correlation he means to indicate relation 
to physical conditions or environment, such as to soils of vary- 
ing degrees of fertility. Such correlations include increase in 
number of grains with increase in height of culm, etc. They 
“are merely the expression for equality or conformity to con- 
dition of luxuriance. Strictly speaking, these are not corre- 
lated characters, and their consideration is of little or no value 
to the breeder.” 

He defines morphologica! correlations as those cases where 
a variation in one character is the primary cause for variation 
in another character, e.g. where the relationship between the 
characters is similar to that which exists between size of germ 
and oil-content of maize-grain. 

Physiological correlations include such cases as the reduc- 
tion in yield of fruit and seed in inverse ratio to excess of 
leaf-production, as in some races of tobacco, or of wood as in 
the case of certain fruit-trees. 

Coherital correlations include ‘those characters which are 
not related to each other in any direct or causal sense, but 
which are inherited as single unit-characters”. Such cases 
include the naked grain of certain races of oat correlated with 
large number of flowers in a spikelet. 

It is of practical importance to the breeder to understand 
the correlations of the characters with which he deals. It is 
essential to a proper selection of parent plants that he should 
not only pick out those bearing good ears, but that he should 
also study the habit of growth of the plant, its stem, leaf, and 
flowers, for these have an important influence on the produc- 
tion of good grain, and their precise relationships should be 
accurately determined and defined. 

“As yield is the character of paramount importance, and 
as this character can now be determined only by laborious 
field tests, it is of the utmost importance that careful considera- 
tion be given to plant characters that may be correlated to 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 215 


yield. Discussions along this line have been almost wholly CHAP. 
confined to characters of the ear. A careful tabulation of 
yields as compared with other ear characters, covering six years’ 

work with four varieties, embracing in all more than 1,000 ear- 
to-row tests of production, indicates that no visible characters 

of apparently good seed-ears are indicative of high-yielding 
power. It is reasonable to expect, however, that a careful 

study of the entire plant in connection with its environment 

will reveal such characters” (Hartley, 5). 


plant, and corresponds to the individual animal, the form and 
size of which are so carefully selected by stock-breeders. 

For a grain-maize (i.e. apart from the question of ensilage), 
a desirable stalk should have no suckers or off-shoots, should 
have well-developed roots, be thick at the base and gradually 
taper to the top, and bear a good ear; this should be a little 
below the middle point of the stem to reduce the danger of . 
blowing down ina strong wind. For the same reason the stalk 
should not be too high; even in the Low-veld of South Africa 
it is doubtful whether a height of more than 8 feet is desirable. 

171. Destrable Leaves—To produce the large amount of 
starch which is stored in a full ear, a large leaf surface is 
necessary ; 14 to 16 blades is a good number, and, on well- 
grown plants, the blade of the middle leaf should be from 4 
inches to 6 inches across. 

172. Destrable Ears.—The shank of the ear should not 
be more than 4 inches or 5 inches long ; individual plants pro- 
duce shanks of g inches to 12 inches, which is an undesirable 
character. 

An ear of cylindrical shape, well rounded at each end, gives 
the largest percentage of grain to cob; its grains are also more 
uniform in shape. The number of rows should be uniform 
and typical of the breed (8, 10, 12, etc.); the rows should be 
straight and with little space between; the grains should fit 
together compactly and be firm on the cob, and should be 
uniform in shape and length on all parts of the ear. 

It is sometimes suggested that it would be desirable to 
save seed from plants bearing two or three ears, in order to 
develop a more productive race. Experience shows, however, 
that with most breeds it is preferable to grow one good ear 


CHAP. 
V. 


216 MAIZE 


on a plant rather than two medium or poor ones , few plants 
seem able to develop two really good ears, and much energy 
is wasted in the attempt, which might better be devoted to 
the production of one good ear per plant. 

The weight of the husked ear can be taken as a fairly good 
guide to the relative yield of grain. In some breeds, however, 
the heaviest ears do not a/ways give the greatest weight of 
grain, though such exceptions seem rare. Certain ears of 
Wisconsin x Iowa Silver-mine, weighing 10°95 ozs., gave 8°64 
ozs. of grain, while those of Yellow Hogan, weighing only 
10°80 ozs., gave 9°20 ozs. of grain, the difference in percentage 
of grain to ear being 5°81 per cent in favour of the Vedlow 
logan. Other similar cases have come under the writer's 
observation. It is quite possible, however, that such differences 
are not constant. American experiments show that the pro- 
duction of a large number of well-bred but medium-sized ears 
is more profitable than the attempt to produce abnormally 
large ears. 

In endeavouring to improve the yield by breeding, we may 
start with the moderate aim of a 75 per cent stand and an 
average of 8 ozs. of grain per ear. If this is attained it will 
give 6,534 plants (planted 40 x 18 inches), and 16 muids of 
shelled grain per acre. 

Some local breeds show strong tendency for the sheath 
of the ear not to cover the end of the cob. This is a bad de- 
fect, and should be bred out. It leaves the uppermost ovules 
and silks exposed to weather and insects, with resulting loss 
of grain. 

The most desirable character of a seed-ear is its power to 
reproduce abundantly a good quality of ears, but this can only 
be finally determined by comparative growing tests. 

173. Desirable Cobs.—“ Selecting for small cob results in 
reducing the size of the ear, and it is also an easy matter to 
reduce the size of the cob to such an extent that the pressure 
of the kernels causes the ear to break” (Hartley, 5). 

But it is important that the cob should not be too thick, or 
it will not dry out quickly, when it is apt to discolour the 
grain. 

174. Destrable Grains.—VYo again quote Hartley (5): 
‘Length is a very desirable character for the grains of maize 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 217 


to possess, as it is by increased length in proportion to the 
diameter of cob that the percentage of grain is increased. 
Soft, chaffy grains, though long, or grains with prolonged 
chaffy caps, are not desired. It is much better to select for 
increased length of kernel than to select for small cobs.” The 
most desirable shape of grain, he adds, is that of a wedge hav- 
ing straight sides and edges. This shape admits of the grains 
fitting together so compactly that little or no space is wasted. 
“The germ, the most nutritious portion, and the portion in 
which is located the embryo plant, should be large, smooth, 
and firm.” 

This American ideal excludes such broad types of grain as 
the broad Natal Hrckory King, and yet Hickory King is con- 


Fic. 87.—A, Desirable shape of grain. B, Device for standardizing grains. 


sidered one of the best selling types on the local South African 
market. But it does not necessarily follow that Weckory King 
is the most profitable type to grow. We need further informa- 
tion on several points in this connection before we can form a 
definite opinion as to the breed that will pay best. //fwe can 
get the best price, combined with good yield, from the broad 
Hickory King, that may be the best type for us to grow. But 
if we get, say, Ios. a muid for Hzckory King, yielding 12 muids 
per acre, and only 9s. per muid for some other variety yielding 
15 muids per acre, it will pay better to grow the gs. variety, 
for it will sell for 15s. per acre (or £7 IOs. per ten acres) more 
than the Hickory King. 

175. Fancy Points.— There are some points made use of in 
judging maize at shows which are good in their way, but which 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
V. 


218 MAIZE 


are not known to be of practical value in the selection of parent 
ears for breeding purposes; these include such fancy points as 
well-covered tips, perfectly straight rows, very thin cobs, etc. 
On this question we may think over the words of Dr. Hopkins 
of the Illinois State Agricultural Experiment Station :— 


“There is some danger of corn breeders making too much 
of what might be called fancy points in selecting seed ears. 
We would learn the facts which are facts and not base our 
selections too much upon mere ideas and opinions. For 
example, it is not known that ears whose tips are well filled 
and capped with kernels are the best seed ears. Indeed it is 
not improbable that the selection of such seed ears will cause 
the production of shorter ears and a reduced yield per acre. 
It is true that the percentage of shelled corn from a given ear 
is the greater, the greater the proportion of corn to the cob, 
but our interest in that percentage is very slight compared to 
that of yield per acre, and perhaps for the greatest possible 
yield of shelled corn per acre it requires that the ears shall 
have good-sized cobs. Possibly the corn which shall ultimately 
surpass all others for yield per acre will have tapering and not 
cylindrical ears. These are some of the points regarding which 
men have some ideas and opinions, but as yet we have no 
definite facts and we shall need several years more to obtain 
absolute knowledge regarding some of these points. Let us 
base our selections of seed-corn first upon known facts and 
performance-records, and secondly upon what one may call 
his ‘type’ of corn.” 


176. Methods of Selection,—The attempt to practise plant 
breeding without sufficient knowledge of either the science or 
the practice has led to disappointment and failure in many 
cases. One mistake has been the buying of prize bags of 
shelled seed at agricultural shows, irrespective of the pedigree 
of the seed. Now prize bags of shelled maize generally con- 
tain the largest grain the farmer is able to find; the largest 
grain is often borne on the smallest ears and therefore does 
not represent high crop-producing power; the largest grain 
does not always produce good ears and good yields. Prize 
maize may have been sifted from bulk grain, shelled in the 
field, and often consists of the tailings which pass over the 
riddles ; it is sometimes produced by a very indifferent crop! 

Again, too much reliance has been placed upon seed-maize 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 219 


taken from the biggest ears from the bulk crop. Big ears are 
more likely to reproduce their kind than big seed, and this is 
better than no selection ; but the farmer soon finds that it does 
not bring him beyond a certain point. This is because the 
ears in the ordinary bulk field have been cross-bred with inferior 
strains, In an ordinary commercial field of maize the pro- 
portion of good, typical ears is very small. Not long ago the 
writer went through a South African field of what looked like 
a good maize crop, running probably ten bags to the acre. In 
the course of about an hour he could find only two plants, in 
the best parts of the field of 15 acres, which could be con- 
sidered ideal for seed purposes. And though this was much 
superior to the ordinary crop of the country, he could not find 
100 plants in an acre that were worth picking for seed. An 
acre carried over 8,000 plants, and at this rate there would be 
80 poor plants to every good one. As the maize plant is 
usually not self-pollinated, but depends on cross pollination, it 
is probable that every plant in that field was crossed with 
pollen from one or more of the many poor plants with which 
it was surrounded. Deterioration in the quality of the seed 
produced must inevitably have followed. Such deterioration 
might not show in the ear produced that year, but it would 
show in the following crop. Deterioration is constantly taking 
place where breeding is not practised. 

It is not only big ears that produce heavy yields. A big 
ear is better than a little one, but big ears often produce 
small, light grains; medium ears with deep heavy grains 
usually produce the heaviest yield per acre. 

In practical plant breeding, three processes are usually 
followed in the selection of maize for the breeding plot :— 

(a) Field-selection of original mother plants ; 

(6) Selection of ears in the seed-store ; 

(c) Selection by continuous performance-record in the 
breeding plot. 

177. Linportance of Care in Selectton.—Selection should not 
be done carelessly, nor be left to the ignorant. Hand picking 
by Kaffirs may be better than no selection, but it will not carry 
forward the work of improvement. One _ season’s careless 
handling of the seed crop may undo all the good which has 
been accomplished in three or four years. The man who is 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 


220 MAIZE 


selecting must know thoroughly what points to select, and this 
knowledge depends on an intimate acquaintance with the laws 
governing the transmission of characters. The day of empiri- 
cal selection has passed; it can no longer be left in the hands 
of the ordinary farm labourer. 

178. Field Selection of Parent Ears.—\f we select only 
from among harvested ears, we cannot tell whether the mother 
plant was vigorous or weakly, tall or short, leafy or sparsely 
leaved, subject to rust or rust-resistant, or whether a particular 
ear has grown at the right place on the stem, or has had a 
desirable shank. All these points and many others have a 
definite bearing on the future yield of the crop to be grown, 
for they are correlated with characters directly concerning 
yield. Field selection is obviously most important. 

Good ears cannot come from poor plants any more than 
good wool from poor sheep! And the one is as likely to pro- 
pagate its kind as the other. A sheep witha poor constitution 
would not be used in a good stud flock. No more should the 
grain from a maize plant with a poor constitution be used for 
seed purposes, for it will not produce a heavy crop. It is not 
sufficient to select all the largest ears at harvest to be used for 
the seed plot. The large ear does not always come from a 
plant desirable in other respects. In breeding for wool, a 
sheep farmer does not base his selection of his stud sheep 
solely on the amount and quality of the wool. A shapely 
body and robust constitution also take an important place in 
the list of characters which make up a desirable stud sheep. 
Plants like animals are living things with varying degrees of 
vigour. As with live stock, it is important that we make 
a similar study of desirable points in selecting our parent 
seed plants. In order to produce good crops we must begin 
with the mother plant in the field, and that plant must be 
vigorous, must have plenty of leaf surface, produce large 
ears, and possess other qualities correlated with the characters 
which our standard demands. 

Having in mind the standard of stalk, leaf, ear, and shank, 
it is necessary to select 100 to 500 plants which come as close 
as possible to that type ; these should be marked conspicuously 
so that they will be found at harvest time. A field of from 
15 acres to 30 acres should be chosen for this purpose. The 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 221 


time when the selection is made will depend partly on the CHAP, 
object sought; if this be early maturity it will be desirable to 
go through the field when the frst ¢assels and silks appear, 
marking all the earliest plants, provided they are desirable 
from other points of view. It will also be desirable to repeat 
the process when the first plants begin to ripen, because it 
does not seem to be the case that the earliest plants to mature 
are always the earliest to flower; this point needs further in- 
vestigation, however. For ordinary selection for yield and 
quality the best time is probably when the ears are well de- 
veloped, and before the leaves have turned brown; at this 
stage the breadth and colour of the leaf can be observed to 
good advantage. 

By systematically walking through a field, row by row, 
and tying labels on the desirable plants, it does not take long 
to mark off 500. The principal points to be observed in field- 
selection are :— 


General vigour of the plant. 

Leafiness of plant and width of leaf. 
Size of ear. 

Straightness and strength of stem. 
Stem broad at base, tapering gradually. 
Ear borne about middle of stem. 

Shank of ear short. 

Husks compact and firm on ear. 

. Apex of ear well covered with the husk. 
10. Freedom from rust and smut. 


NOOO ae 


Where early maturity is desired, as on the extreme High- 
veld, this can also be taken into account. 

Each selected plant should be marked with a conspicuous 
label which will not be lost sight of when the leaves turn 
brown at harvest. For this purpose sized cloth labels prove 
least satisfactory ; they quickly blacken, lose the “size” and 
become indistinguishable, losing entirely the figures written on 
them. Our best results have been obtained with ordinary 
brown paper parcel-labels, numbered with ordinary black or 
blue pencil. But even these are too much like the dry maize 
leaves and husks in colour to be easily seen at harvest ; and 
when a label is tied near the tassel away from the leaves, 


CHAP. 


222 MAIZE 


both tassel and label will disappear in many cases by the 
breaking off of the tops of the culms. 

At harvest all the marked plants that can be found are 
cut by hand and removed before the rest of the crop is 
harvested. The ears. are hand-husked and stored until they 
can receive personal attention. By that time they should 
have dried out thoroughly, so that reliable comparative tests 
of weight can be made. 

The ears should be allowed to ripen well on the stalks; the 
stalks of the selected plants might be harvested and shocked 
by themselves to avoid delaying the rest of the harvest. When 
thoroughly dry, careful selection of the ears must be made, 
only forty or fifty of those which come closest to the ideal 


.being retained for the breeding plot. These should be weighed 


separately, and a record kept of the total weight and of the 
weight of shelled grain from each. 

179. Seed-room Selection of Ears.—The 500 ears selected 
in the field are weighed in bulk and then laid out on benches 
in the seed-room. All small, distorted, or otherwise undesir- 
able ears are at once discarded, their total weight being 
taken, as a check. Field selection cannot be so perfect that 
none but desirable ears will be harvested. In a test case of 
five breeds selected in the field, the following proportions were 
retained as suitable for the breeding plot :-— 


Per Cent. 
Yellow Hogan . : : : : . : 80 
Yellow Horsetooth . . : : ; ? 65 
Hickory King . 3 i ; : ; 5 61 
Golden King . . 4 2 é * . 59 
Lady smith . ; : : é ‘ : 56 


It is doubtful whether in ordinary selection of large ears 
at husking it would be possible to obtain even 10 per cent 
of desirable ears from an ordinary crop. And then one would 
not have the advantage of knowing that they came from 
robust and otherwise desirable parents. 

Of the 300 or so ears left, a more critical study is made. 
One hundred of the best are reserved for the centre of the 
breeding plot and the remainder shelled off at once to be used 
for the end rows. 

After some practice the selection of the best 100 ears can 
easily be made by eye. When increased yield per acre is the 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 223 


primary consideration, the points on which selection is made CHAP. 
can be reduced to the following :— “ 


Size and weight of ears; 

Depth of grain ; 

Closeness of rows (i.e. narrow sulci) ; 
Regularity of rows ; 

Regularity of grain ; 

Shape of ear, and character of tips and butts ; 
Yield of grain per ear. 


NOUR WYN 


Fic. 88.—Selecting seed-maize: the final selection. 


All these points have a direct bearing on the yield per acre. 
The final selection consists in classifying the picked 100 
ears into groups of ten each, according to depth of grain and 
size and weight of ear, etc. (Fig. 88). The weights of each 
group of ten are then taken; they are arranged in a row, with 
the twenty best ears in the centre, the next best next, and so 
on, the poorest of the 100 occupying the two ends of the row. 
In the final selection too much reliance must not be placed 
on weight or sizeof ear. The writer has frequently found that 


CHAP. 
V. 


224 MAIZE 


the smaller of two ears gives the greater weight of grain. This 
is due to the fact that there is an immense difference in the 
depth of the grain on different ears of the same variety. Other 
things being equal, the greater the length of the individual 
grains the greater the yield per acre. It is bulk of grain that 
is sought, not size of ear; the latter is important only as it 
aids to produce the former. It is true that the ear, as well as 
the vegetative characters of the plant, give an indication of its 
capacity; but it is the individual grain which carries the 
embryo plant, and as the grain is, so will its progeny be, 
except always for such changes as may be brought about by 
the influence of environment or cross-pollination. 

The ear must be taken into account only in connection 
with the grain that it bears. 

180. Character of the Gratn—Therefore, after the sub- 
division by size, weight, and other external characters, it is 
necessary to examine carefully the character of the grains of 
each ear, and to re-arrange the ears in accordance therewith ; 
it is surprising to find how great a range of variation occurs in 
respect to the size and shape of the grain within the limits of 
one breed (see Fig. 68). This comparison is best accomplished 
by taking six grains from each ear, two from a point about 
one-third from the tip, two from the same distance from the 
butt, and two from the centre. These six grains are laid on 
the table at the foot of the ear from which they are taken. 
Comparison is then made of the grains from all the ears, 
especially in regard to uniformity, length, shape, thickness, and 
size of embryo. It is important to consider uniformity of 
grain, for if—as is often the case—the grains on the upper part 
of the ear are shorter than those on the lower part, the weight 
of grain must obviously be less than if they were longer. After 
careful study of the grains, the ears must be arranged accord- 
ingly, even at the expense of size and weight; in some cases 
a compromise may be made with advantage, but this can only 
be done effectively by persons having a thorough knowledge 
of the subject. 

In the case of the ten best ears of each breed, full notes 
are taken of the length, circumference, and character of each 
ear; samples of the grain from each are retained for reference 
the following season, in order to determine whether the char- 


NHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 225 


acters for which the ear was selected are being transmitted or 
whether they are only of a temporary nature. If any one or 
more ears show fluctuating variability as regards such char- 
acters, the progeny of those ears can be discarded next season. 

The object of placing the very best ears in the centre, and 
the worst of the 100 on the outside, is that the same sequence 
may be preserved in the breeding plot. By this means, and 
as the grain from each ear will be used to plant only one row 
of the plot, the grain from all of the best ears will be removed 
as far as possible from danger of pollination by plants de- 
rived from poorer ears. In this way the tendency to deteriora- 
tion, through cross-pollination with poor plants, is reduced to 
a minimum. 

After this the ears are shelled by means of a hand-sheller ; 
the cobs of each ten are weighed separately ; the weight of 
cob deducted from the weight of ear previously taken gives 
the weight of grain. Being in groups of ten the average 
weight of individuals in a group can be determined at a glance. 

Each ear is shelled into a paper bag (half-pound bags 
with folding flap have been found satisfactory) and num- 
bered with a consecutive number from 1 to 100, preserving 
carefully the same sequence as that of the final selection. 
The packets of each breed are then placed in separate 
boxes, the highest number at the bottom, and carefully 
labelled ready to be taken to the breeding-plot at planting 
time. This completes the work of selection for the season. 

181. Selection by Continuous Performance-record. — This 
consists in the strict and continuous selection of parent ears 
from among the best progeny of the best plants which have 
year after year given the best performance-record in the 
direction desired (i.e. yield, early maturity, drought resistance, 
etc.). An idea of the method practised is given in Table 
XLIII following, which shows the sort of record kept each 
year of the performance of certain strains grown in the breed- 
ing plot of the Illinois State Experiment Station. Selection 
for the following year would be made of those ears which give 
the best record in this analysis. It is noticeable that the nine 
best ears! are those in the centre of the table, which come from 
the centre of the breeding plot, and that the best result of all 


1 As regards protein-content, for which the ears were selected. 


15 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
Ve 


226 MAIZE 


is obtained from the centre row (No. 10). .This indicates 
inheritance of good characters, for in the breeding plot the 
best ear was planted in the centre of the row, the two next 
best on either side, and so on, to prevent crossing of the best 
with the poorer plants. 


TaBLE XLIII. 
PERFORMANCE-RECORD OF BREEDING PLOT, 1gor. 
ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT STATION. 

(Breeding for High Protein.) 


| Relative Weight | | | 
Field Row of Ear Cornin | No. of Ears per | Weight per Acre Protein 
Namber. Crop (Average of | Acre (on an |(on an Average of in 
200 Plants per Average of 8,000). | 1 lb. per Ear). | Seed-ear. 
Row). | | | 
| | 
| Lbs. | No. Muids. Per Cent 
I ; ‘ gi‘o 7,280 | 182 12°06 
2 ; al 86°0 6,880 17°2 | 12°17 
4 AI 98°5 | 7,880 19°7 | 12°19 
4 aH 99°5 | 7,960 | 19°9 | 1226 
5 ‘ 77°0 | 6,160 15"4 12°31 
6 I18'0 | 9,440 23°6 | 12°40 . 
7 I16'0 ; 5250 23°2 12°66 4 
8 | 54°5 4,360 10°9 12°83 | & 
9 107'0 5,560 | 21°4 1290 | = 
10 103'0 8,240 | 20°6 15°78 | # 
11 870 6960 17"4 12°93 | 
| 12 127°5 | 10,200 25°5 12°94 | 8 
| 13 1130 Q,040 22°6 12°72! 
| 14 123°5 | 9,880 24°7 r2"45 J ; 
15 103°5 | 8,280 20'7 12°32 
16 92°0 | 7,360 18°4 12°31 
17 85°5 6,840 I7°I | 12°23 
18 II7'0 | 9,360 23°4 | 12°18 
19 140°5 11,240 28°1 12°07 
20 97°0 7,760 - 19°4 12°06 
ee ee eee | See ae | 
Average IOL'g | 8,148 20°37 12°59 


182. Method of Propagation.—Difficulty has been experi- 
enced by growers in propagating the seed-maize after it has 
been selected, and some have been so discouraged by the 
results of cross-pollination, that they have given it up. It 
should be remembered that it takes three years, at least, before 
material improvement can be expected. The difficulty is 
largely due to the small amount of seed available as the result 


of the first selection. The following method has been found 
satisfactory. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 227 


First Year's Selection —Let us suppose that only twenty CHAP. 
good ears, coming up to our ideal, have been selected this Me 


Fic. 89.—Selecting the best ears from the bulk plot. 


season; what are we to do to prevent this progeny being 
crossed by plants in the same field grown from unselected 


seed? The best plan is to plant the seed in a square of, say, 
15 * 


CHAP. 
V. 


228 MAIZE 


70 yards by 70 yards (an English acre), at one corner of the 
field where the bulk of the same breed is grown. This should 
be, preferably, on the side nearest the homestead or road, so 
that the plot may be watched. This is called the breeding 
plot (1 183). The rest of the field is planted with the best of 
the seed which is not considered suitable for the breeding 
plot. 

Second Year's Selection.—The three outer rows of the breed- 
ing plot (which have been most exposed to crossing with the 
plants in the bulk field) are harvested with the bulk crop. 
The rest of the breeding plot is harvested separately, and any 
nubbins or undesirable ears are rigidly discarded. From the 
remainder the twenty best ears are again selected and planted 
in the breeding plot. The remainder are used for what is 
known as the propagation plot, which may vary in size from 
five to ten acres or more, according to the amount of seed 
available. The propagation plot is planted around the breed- 
ing plot, and forms a buffer between it and the bulk plot. 
The best ears selected (Fig. 89) from the bulk plot are used 
to plant the current season’s bulk plot. 

Third Vear's Selection. At harvest time the three outer 
rows of the breeding plot are harvested with the propagation 
plot, and the three outer rows of the propagation plot are thrown 
in with the bulk crop. The remainder of the breeding plot is 
harvested separately, and any nubbins and undesirable ears are 
discarded; from the balance the twenty best ears are again 
selected for the next season’s breeding plot, and the remainder 
are used to plant the propagation plot. 

The remainder of the propagation plot is harvested sepa- 
rately ; nubbins and objectionable ears are discarded, and the 
best of the balance is used to plant the bulk fields. 

Thus in the third and subsequent years the bulk fields are 
supplied entirely from twice selected seed from the propagation 
plot, while the propagation plot is itself supplied from the 
breeding plot. 

In the fourth and subsequent years the work is continued 
as in the third year; it must always be maintained,-for though 
there is a maximum beyond which “selection” alone cannot 
carry one, deterioration takes place with remarkable rapidity 
when selection ceases. 


INHERITANCE —IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 239 


The fundamental principle of the method described above 
is the rigid elimination of undesirable types, which may appear 
owing to reversion, and the mating together in the breeding 
and propagation plots of the most desirable types. 

183. The Breeding Plot should be so selected that the soil 
will be typical of that on which the main crop will be grown. 
The same preparation should be given as for the main crop, 
no extra care or fertilizer being used. The object is to find 
out which plants will give the best results under normal con- 
ditions; if they do well, then they may be expected to do 
better on well-fertilized soils. 

It is absolutely necessary that the plot should be isolated 
at least 400 yards from any other sort, or from strains of the 
same sort, flowering at the same time. Any stray plants from 
previous plantings must be carefully rogued out before they 
have a chance to tassel. 

The rows should be 200 or more yards long and of exactly 
the same length. The seed should be planted on the principle 
of one row to each ear, After removing the tips and butts 
from the selected ears, the rest of the grain should be planted 
inasingle row. It is better to drill the seed than to check- 
row it, as it is difficult to isolate suckers from main stalks 
when more than one plant occupies a place. Each row should 
be numbered consecutively and labelled with a stake at the 
end. With the seed left over from the rows three or four 
border rows may be planted all round the breeding plot to 
protect the plot to some extent from depredation. 

184. Devices to Prevent or Detect Cross-pollinatton.—As a 
means of minimizing the amount of cross-pollination between 
breeds of maize grown near to each other on similar soils, the 
following devices, among others, have been resorted to at the 
Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria; none of them, how- 
ever, has been entirely successful. 

Planting one week and two weeks apart was tried. Several 
of the breeds tested were new to us, and their relative time of 
flowering in that climate was not known, so that some of the 
later-sown’ flowered earlier than those planted before them. 
The danger of cross-pollination was minimized by bagging 
and hand-pollination, but the number of plants of each that 
could be treated this way was small, and the amount of seed 


CHAP. 
V. 


CHAP. 
V. 


236 MAIZE 


saved was therefore limited. It was also found that in some 
cases in the same breed there was a difference of nearly two 
weeks in the time of flowering. This experiment demon- 
strated clearly that close planting, even allowing two weeks 
between plantings, cannot be relied upon to prevent cross- 
pollination, 

By planting first an early-maturing breed, and two weeks 
later a late-maturing breed, a certain degree of immunity may 
be secured. But there would be little practical advantage in this, 
except where it is necessary to plant several breeds in close 
proximity, for the farmer usually desires to plant all his late- 
maturing maize first, and afterwards that which takes less time. 

The use of rows of sorghum and kaffir-corn to separate the 
different sorts has proved unsatisfactory on the Transvaal 
High-veld, the maize having come into flower before the sor- 
ghum was tall enough to afford any protection. 

Detasselling is perhaps the most satisfactory method of deel- 
ing with the problem. But there is a certain amount of fluctuat- 
ing variability as regards time of flowering, and variability will 
be still more pronounced where the strain is heterozygous for 
this character. In practice this means that detasselling must 
be repeated (in the same row) two or perhaps three times within 
a week or ten days, and that great vigilance must be exercised 
to detect individual plants which flower later than others, and 
prevent pollen scattering from their earliest anthers, 

Covering the plots with cheese-cloth was tried at the 
Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, as a means of 
isolating the breeding plots, but was not found satisfactory. 

185. Production of New Types by Artificial Cross-pollination. 
—The popular idea of cross-breeding maize is that by crossing 
two sorts the result will be a hybrid combining the characters 
of the two parents. This may be the case with the first ear 
obtained by the cross, but it is not always the case in the pro- 
geny of the first generation. Experience shows, moreover, 
that even where it does occur, the second generation from the 
cross produces a great deal of variation, more particularly with 
moncecious plants like maize, and unless scientifically guided 
efforts are made, this variation will continue from generation 
to generation for an indefinite period. We have already dis- 
cussed the reason for this mixture of characters, and how it 
may be avoided or made use of. 


INHERITANCE—IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 231 

Cross-breds of unknown pedigree are difficult to deal with, CHAP. 
and it may take years before they yield any desirable progeny. 
They should, therefore, be avoided, and the work of improve- 
ment should be started with well-bred seed. 

Where it is desired to add new characters to a breed which 
does not already possess them, cross-breeding must be resorted 
to. The actual process of crossing is easy, but to isolate and 
fix the desired type is an entirely different problem. Crossing 
produces such varied heterozygous combinations that endless 
confusion results, and it requires knowledge of the laws of in- 
heritance, and infinite time and patience, to produce order 
out of chaos. Therefore cross-breeding should only be practised 
or permitted where the effect of crossing ts understood, the object 
sought ts well known, and the method well planned. 

186. Reciprocal Crosses—Where it is desired to transmit 
a definite unit-character from one breed to another, it appears 
to be immaterial which breed furnishes the male and which 
the female parent; the results in the F, generation are usually 
the same in either case. 

187. Method of Cross-pollinating.—Cross-pollination is a 
comparatively simple matter. The silks of the plant to be 
pollinated must be carefully protected from the access of any 
stray pollen (Fig. 90); and the pollen of the male plant must 
be carefully collected so that it will not be mixed with stray 
pollen of other plants in the neighbourhood. The pollen is 
then shaken on to the silks and the latter are again covered 
up until all danger from stray pollen is over. It should be 
remembered that the pollen is light and easily carried by the 
wind ; when the field or plot is in tassel, the air may be charged 
with pollen grains, so that difficulty is experienced in pre- 
venting contamination of the silks with stray pollen. 

188. Collecting the Pollen—The tassel should be covered 
with a paper bag, an ordinary 2 lbs. grocer’s bag, of zw but 
tough brown paper, is found satisfactory. This is tied tightly 
round the stem below the lowest branches of the tassels. The 
bag should not be placed on the tassels until the first anthers 
appear on the terminal branch of the tassel, otherwise the 
anthers are apt not to develop properly. In the Transvaal, 
much of the pollen is found to lose its vitality after the third 
day. 


MAIZE 


Fic. 90.—A new breed of maize in process of development. (Courtesy of the 
South African Railways Publicity Department.) 


INHERITANCE—1IMPROVEMENT BY BREEDING 233 


The tassels may appear before the silks, and sometimes even 
shed all their pollen before any silk appears (4 79). 

The appearance of the tassels is by no means uniform in 
individuals of the same variety. This is an important point in 
connection with the work of detasselling, for it makes it neces- 
sary to go through the breeding plot three or four times, at 
different dates, to effectually prevent self-pollination. 

189. Covering the Sitks.—This is done by means of paper 
bags similar to those used for covering the tassel (1 188). The 
ear should be covered just before the silks first appear, to pre- 
vent contamination with stray pollen. The ear may be left 
for four days or a week before the pollen is applied, in order 
to allow all the silks to develop. For pollination, the bag is 
removed and a good dose of pollen shaken on to the silk, care 
being taken that it reaches all the silks. The bag is then re- 
placed quickly to avoid contamination with stray pollen. The 
first attempts at hand-pollination are not always satisfactory, 
but excellent ears may be obtained as a result of skill gained 
by experience and practice. 

The silks may appear either before or after the tassels. 
Not all the silks mature at the same time; those from the 
ovules lowest on the cob appear first. Sometimes fresh silks 
continue to appear over a period of seven days. A single 
hand-pollination, effected when the silks first appear, is therefore 
inadequate; nor is it sufficient to repeat it on two successive 
days; this results in the lower half of the cob being well-filled 
while the apex remains undeveloped. Three pollinations, at 
intervals of three days between each, generally prove the most 
effectual, but by this means greater risk of contamination is 
incurred. 

In some cases, and in the same breed, the silks appear be- 
fore the tassels. When such an individual happens to be the 
earliest to flower in a field, it may fail to develop seed; this 
tendency is therefore unlikely to be propagated to any great 
extent. 

190. The F, Plants.—Three or four hundred grains will be 
obtained from a single successful crossing. If the parents 
differ in colour of endosperm, it will sometimes be possible to 
tell which grains have been crossed and which selfed acciden- 
tally, and the latter can be discarded. But F, seed should be 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
Vi 


234 MAIZE 


planted in an isolated breeding plot and each resulting plant 
should be carefully selfed. By this means it will be possible 
to detect the results of accidental crossing with stray pollen, 
and to prevent its spread to the other plants of the cross. 

The ears produced by these plants will show segregation 
in the seed, if the characters involved in the cross are seed 
characters, and from them selection of the desired grains can 
be made. 

191. The F, Plants—The F, plants must also be grown 
by themselves, and selfed. If the desired character is recessive, 
it will be possible to isolate it and commence propagation. 
But as our knowledge of the individual unit-characters is at 
present imperfect, it is desirable to grow the plants on for 
another generation, and self them, in order to eliminate any 
undesirable character which may not have appeared. If the 
F, generation breeds true, the new type may be considered 
fixed and we may proceed to propagate. 

192. [improvement by Breeding ts Slow at First—At best, 
improvement by breeding is a tedious process, and the man 
who is not prepared to be patient, methodical, and persistent, 
should not undertake it. The writer has known men who 
started out well, with no little expenditure of time and money, 
but who, seeing no visible results, gave it up in disgust after 
the first year. As has been said, visible results cannot be ob- 
tained during the first few seasons. It is probable that there 
is not a pure pedigree commercial crop of maize in South 
Africa to-day, and very few elsewhere, for maize is a remark- 
ably heterozygous mixture. Before we can hope to make 
definite progress, we must purify the strains we wish to im- 
prove. Hitherto time has been largely taken up with trying 
out breeds suited to different parts of the country. Now that 
we have formed definite ideas on this subject, we can devote 
our attention to their zzprovement by breeding. 

Addendum.— Arrangements have been made by the Agvv- 
cultural Supply Association, Limited, P.O. Box 1148, Johannes- 
burg, to supply pure-bred seed of heavy-yielding strains of 
maize especially suited to the High-veld of the Transvaal and 
Orange Free State. 


CHAPTER VI, 
JUDGING AND SELECTION FOR EXHIBITION. 


Send forth the best ye breed. 
—Kip.ina. 


193. The Object of Exhibiting at Agricultural Shows.—The 
agricultural show does not exist solely nor primarily for the 
purpose of winning and awarding prizes. Unfortunately there 
are too many people who exhibit merely for the sake of prize- 
winning, having in view either the value of the prize itself, 
or the advertising of their seeds and other farm products, 
Those who take all the prizes year after year discourage others 
who have not equal facilities for preparing special exhibits, 
but whose work is, nevertheless, worthy of a prize; therefore 
the number of prizes which can be drawn by any one ex- 
hibitor in any section should be limited. 

The main object of the agricultural show should be educa- 
tional: the farmer should be able to learn from the exhibits 
(1) the need for, and the means of, improving his own crops, 
(2) the relative merits of new breeds, and (3) where to obtain 
good seed. He may not realize the need for improving his 
methods and seed until he sees that other farmers’ results are 
better than his own, and an agricultural show should be the 
best place for him to see this, 

We agree with the American writer who says that exhibits 
arranged with respect to the ready comparison of typical 
samples of different breeds, offer one of the most effective 
methods of diffusing knowledge with regard to the character- 
istics of different breeds. 

The main points enumerated in this chapter are already 
familiar to maize judges of experience, but are given here for 
reference, Owing to the short time usually allotted to judg- 

235 


CHAP. 
VI. 


MAIZE 


236 


‘o161 ‘sinqsauueyof ‘moys snizig pue 
aZIe UBILYY YINOG IsIly OY} 3 ‘ainzNoIIsy Jo JusWIedag [eeasuLIy ‘AuRJOg JO UOISIAIG ay} JO WqQIyXY— ‘16 ‘OILY 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 237 


ing at local shows, certain of the details can be taken into 
consideration only where competition is very close, 

194. Rules Governing Maize Exhibits.—The following 
rules are based on experience gained at leading South African 
shows :— 

(1), Each entry must be accompanied by a certificate giving 
as nearly as possible the date of planting and date of harvesting 
of the crop and name of the district in which it was grown. 
These certificates must not be seen by the judge till after the 
judging. 

(2). No exhibit may be entered in more than one class. 

(3). An exhibitor may receive only one prize in any one 
class, 

(4). An exhibitor is barred from exhibiting in more than 
three classes in any one of Sections I to HI inclusive. This 
allows each exhibitor to show an early, medium or main-crop, 
and a late breed in each section. (At some American shows 
an exhibitor may enter only in ¢kree classes in all.) 

(5). Every exhibitor may enter for all classes in Section IV 
(special prizes), but may only take ¢wo przzes in this section ; 
should he obtain more awards he will have the option of 
choosing which two prizes he will take. All awards will 
count as points in the aggregate for the Grand Championship. 

(6). Where there is but one entry in a class a prize shall be 
awarded only if the judge considers the exhibit deserving of 
recognition. 

(7). In such a case the judge shall decide whether a first, 
second, or third prize shall be awarded. 

(8). Grand Championship —The Grand Championship Prize 
will be awarded for the highest number of points obtained 
by any exhibitor. Points will be given as follows: Com- 
mended, } point; highly commended, 4 point; third prize, I 
point ; second prize, 2 points; first prize, 3 points; champion- 
ship of first prizes in a section, 4 points extra. The last- 
named provision is made to prevent mere number of entries 
from scoring over quality of exhibit. An exhibitor A who 
makes three entries in each of the Sections I to III inclusive, 
and who obtains six first prizes, would score 18 points ; another 
exhibitor B who enters in only one class in each of the three 
sections may obtain the first prize and the championship in 


CHAP. 
VI. 


238 MAIZE 


CHAP. each section; unless the championship counted for more 


VI. 


than 3 points, B would score no more points than A, al- 
though the quality of his exhibit was superior as evidenced 
by his taking three championships. The aim of agricultural 
shows should be to encourage guality rather than number of 
exhibits from any one exhibitor. 

(9). In the event of a tie, the judge must decide as to the 
general relative merits of the two tieing exhibits and award the 
championship to the one which in his opinion is the best. If 
taken in an absolutely mathematical sense, the counting of 
points may result in an injustice to the best exhibit. It is 
obvious that ifan exhibit wins prizes against severe competi- 
tion, it is more worthy of a championship than one which has 
no competition. 

(10). The exhibits must have been harvested during the 
twelve months immediately preceding the show. 

(11). Exhibits must not, be treated unfairly by removing 
poor, cross-bred, injured, or otherwise undesirable grains and 
replacing them by good ones. Any unfair or tricky occur- 
rences bar the exhibitor from all entries and all privileges of 
the show. One, or not more than three, grains may be 
removed by the exhibitor from one or more sides of each ear, 
in order to decide whether the ear is fit for exhibition. 

(12). ‘‘Grooming” of the ears in such a manner as to allow 
of their best possible presentation, is strongly recommended ; 
e.g. shanks of ears should be neatly removed with a pocket 
knife, and loose silks should be carefully taken off. 

(13). Exhibits must be delivered to the stewards of the pro- 
duce section two clear days before the opening of the show. 
They must be carefully labelled both zvzs¢de and outside of the 
bag or box, for it often happens that the outside label is torn 
off in transit, and the owner is then traced with difficulty. 
The inside label should bear the name and address of ex- 
hibitor, the date of forwarding, and the section and class in 
which the entry is made. It is best to tie this on to at least 
one of the ears, or inside the mouth of the sack of shelled grain. 

(14). All exhibits are subject to necessary handling by the 
judge, but remain the property of the exhibitor, and may be 
secured by him immediately after. the show is declared closed 
and the awards have been made. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 239 


(15). Professional maize breeders, seed dealers, or expert 
judges will not be allowed to compete except in classes 
specially arranged for them. 

(16). A bag of shelled maize shall weigh 203 lbs. gross. 

(17). A bag of ears must be contained in a full muid maize 
sack, and must weigh about 100 lbs. 

(18). An ear of maize is a cob with the grain still attached, 
but with the husks removed. 

(19). In classes in which the breed is not specified, each 
entry must be conspicuously labelled with the name of the 
breed, or the entry will be disqualified, and the name of the 
breed, as given by the exhibitor, should be printed in the show 
catalogue. 

195. The Prise-list.—It is important that the growing of 
recognized standard breeds of maize be encouraged ; the offer- 
ing of prizes for specific named breeds is doing much to per- 
manently improve the maize industry of South Africa. The 
custom of allowing one recognized breed to compete with 
another in the same class (except for a championship) should 
not be allowed, except in certain special cases indicated farther 
on in this chapter. 

196. Classtfication.—The proper classification of exhibits 
is essential to the educational value of a show, and to suc- 
cessful judging. In the classification of maize two main points 
should receive consideration :— 

(1) The exhibition of ears selected for seed, by which the 
would-be buyer can determine by whom and where 
the best seed maize is grown in his particular dis- 
trict, province, or country. -In this section there 
are usually two subsections, (2) the ten-ear and 
(6) the single-ear competitions. It is sometimes 
argued that this section has no value to the prac- 
tical farmer because “anyone can grow ten good 
ears in his back garden”. This, however, is not 
the case. To produce ten really good exhibition 
ears from a small plot is almost impossible, owing 
to the much greater danger of imperfect pollination, 
attacks by insect pests, etc. The ten-ear and 
single-ear competitions are essentially educational ; 
through them a farmer learns what to select for seed. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


240 MAIZE 


(2) The exhibition of the commercial article—the maize- 
grain—by which the merchant and manufacturer 
are enabled to learn where and by whom are grown 
the best qualities for their particular classes of 
trade. 

Two distinct score-cards are required for the judging of 

these sections. 

197. Sections. —The following sections are found suitable 
for South African shows :— 

Section I.—Shelled maize for market or export. One 
muid (203 lbs. gross) of shelled maize, each bag to be ac- 
companied by one full bag (to weigh about 100 lbs.) of ears 
from the same crop; these ears to be taken into consideration 
by the judge in making the awards. 

Section I].—Seed-maize; ten ears selected for the breed- 
ing plot. 

Section IfI.—Best single breeding ear. 

Section 1V.—Special prizes. 

As far as possible all of these sections should be repre- 
sented in every prize list, in districts where maize is a staple 
crop. 

198. Classes—The following is a list of classes suitable 
for maize shows, It is usually only the central shows which 
are able to offer such a complete list as is here given; very 
few district shows need include all of the classes, for only a 
few of the breeds named are grown in any one district. 


SECTION I.—SEED-MAIZE: TEN EARS SELECTED FOR THE 
BREEDING PLOT. 


Entrance fee, 5s. per class. 
Prizes (in each class) : rst, £2; 2nd, £1 ; 3rd, tos. Cham- 
pionship (of all classes in this section), £3 


»y ADs 


Dent Breeds (white). 
Class. 


1. Hickory King (8-row). 

10-row Azckory or Louisiana. 

12-row Hickory or Hickory Horsetooth. 
Salisbury White, Masoe, or Brindette. 
Mercer. 


mk wind 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 241 


Class. 

6, Towa Silver-mine. 

7. Boone County. 

8. Ladysmith or Champton White Peart. 

9. Natal White Horsetooth. 

10. Any other white dent breed. (In this class entries 
‘must be conspicuously labelled with the name of 
the breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 

Dent Breeds (yellow). 

11. Eureka. 

12. Yellow Hagan. 

13. Chester County. 

14. Reid. 

15. Vellow Horsetooth or German Yellow. 

16. Golden Beauty. 

17. Minnesota Early. 

18. Golden Eagle. 

19. Any other yellow dent breed. (In this class entries 
must be conspicuously labelled with the name of 
the breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified. ) 

Flint Breeds (white). 

20. Any white flint breed. (In this class entries sust be 
conspicuously labelled with the name of the breed, 
or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 

Flint Breeds (yellow). 

21. Yellow Botan. 

22. Yellow Cango. 

23. Wills Gehu. 

24. Any other yellow flint breed. (In this class entries 


26. 


must be labelled with the name of the breed or the 
exhibit will be disqualified. ) 


Flour corn or Bread-mielies. 


Brazilian Flour corn or South African Bread-mtelve. 
Sugar maize. 
Any breed of sugar maize. (In this class entries must 


be conspicuously labelled with the name of the 


breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified. ) 
16 


CHAP. 
-ViI-L 


242 MAIZE 


CHAP. Pop-corn. 
VI. Class. 


27. Any breed of pop-corn. (In this class entries st be 
conspicuously labelled with the name of the breed, 
or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 


SECTION IJ.—BEST SINGLE BREEDING EAR. 


Entrance fee, 2s. 6d. per class. 
Prizes (in each class): ist, £1; 2nd, toa; 3rd, 5s. ; 
Champion Ear (the best ear of all the first prize ears), £2. 


Dent Breeds (white). 


28. Hickory King (8-row). 

29. 10-row Aickory. 

30. 12-row Hickory or Hickory Horsetooth. 

31. Salisbury White. 

32. Mercer. 

33. Lowa Silver-mine. 

34. Boone County. 

35. Ladysmith or Champion White Pearl. 

36. Natal White Horsetooth. 

37. Any other white dent breed. (In this class entries 
must be conspicuously labelled with the name of 
the breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 

Dent Breeds (yellow). 

38. Eureka. 


39. Yellow Hogan. 

40. Chester County. 

41. Reid. 

2. Yellow Horsetooth or German Yellow. 

43. Golden Beauty. 

44. Minnesota Early. 

45. Golden Eagle. 

46. Any other yellow dent breed. (In this class entries 
must be conspicuously labelled with the name of 
the breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified. ) 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 24 


Ww 


Flint Breeds (white), 
Class. 
47. Any white flint breed. (In this class entries aust be 
conspicuously labelled with the name of the breed, 
or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 


Flint Breeds (yellow). 


48. Yellow Botman. 

49. Yellow Cango. 

50. Wells Gehu. 

51. Any other yellow flint breed. (In this class entries 
must be labelled with the name of the breed, or the 
exhibit will be disqualified. ) 


Flour corn or Bread-mielies. 


52. Brazilian Flour corn or South African Bread-mielie. 


Sugar maize. 
53. Any breed of sugar maize. (In this class entries szs¢ 
be conspicuously labelled with the name of the 
breed, or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 


Pop-corn. 


54. Any breed of pop-corn. (In this class entries must be 
conspicuously labelled with the name of the breed, 
or the exhibit will be disqualified.) 


SECTION III.—SNELLED MAIZE FOR MARKET OR EXPORT. 


One muid (203 lbs. gross) of shelled maize; each entry 
must include one full bag (to weigh about 100 Ibs.) of ears 
from the same crop. These ears will be considered in judging 
the sample. 

Entrance fee, 5s. per class. 

Prizes (in each class): Ist, £3; 2nd, £2; 3rd, 41 ; cham- 
pionship (of all classes in this section), £5. 


White “Flat”. 
55. Hickory King. 
56. Natal White Horsetooth. 


57. Any other flat white dent breed. 
16 * 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


244 MAIZE 


Yellow “ Flat”. 
Class. 


58. Any flat yellow dent breed. 


White ‘“ Round”. 


59. Any round white breed. 


Yellow “ Round”. 
60. Any round yellow breed. 


SECTION IV.—SPECIAL PRIZES. 


Entrance fee, 20s. 

Every exhibitor will be allowed to enter for all classes in 
this section, but may take only two prizes; should he get 
more awards in this section, he will have the option of choosing 
which two prizes he will take. All awards will count as points 
in the aggregate for the Grand Championship Prize. 

61. Five muids of shelled “Choice White Flat” maize, 
suitable for export (any breed), with one bag of 
ears of seed-maize of the same breed, each bag to 
weigh about 100 lbs. 

Each entry must be accompanied by a certificate 
signed in the presence of the Field Cornet or the 
Resident Justice of the Peace, stating that the ex- 
hibitor has produced at least 500 muids of the same 
breed of maize on dry lands, during the past season, 
and that this particular exhibit was grown without 


irrigation. 
First prize : ; . £10 
Second prize . : BS 
Third prize. . B63 


62. Five muids of shelled “Choice Yellow Flat” maize, 
suitable for stock food or for export (any breed), 
with one bag of ears of seed-maize of the same 
breed, each bag to weigh about 100 lbs. 

Each entry must be accompanied by a certificate 
signed in the presence of the Field Cornet or the 
Resident Justice of the Peace, stating that the ex- 
hibitor has produced at least 500 muids of the same 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 245 


Class. 
breed of maize on dry lands, during the past season, 
and that this particular exhibit was grown without 
irrigation, 


First prize , : » 610 
Second prize . : » 2S 
Third prize. : S 63 


63. Five muids ‘ Choice Yellow Round” maize, suitable 
for export (any breed), with one bag of ears of seed- 
maize of the same breed, each bag to weigh about 
100 lbs. 

Each entry must be accompanied by a certificate 
signed in the presence of the Field Cornet or the 
Resident Justice of the Peace, stating that the ex- 
hibitor has produced at least 500 muids of the same 
breed of maize on dry lands, during the past season, 
and that this particular exhibit was grown without 


irrigation. 
First prize. . #10 
Second prize . : » BS 
Third prize. : 63 


64. Five bags of ears of Heckory King seed-maize (grain 
on the cob). Each bag to weigh about 100 Ibs. 


First prize. : ~ Blo 
Second prize . ; . 85° 
Third prize. : : $3 


65. Five bags of white seed-maize on the cob, of any one 
breed (except Hickory King). Each bag to weigh 
about 100 Ibs. 


First prize ; : . ALS 
Second prize . ; . £10 
Third Prize. 5 : L5 


66. Five bags of yellow seed-maize on the cob, of any one 
breed. Each bag to weigh about 100 Ibs, 


First prize : ; ¢ 3605 
Second prize. : . £10 
Third prize. : BS 


199. Champitonships.—Championships are a great stimulus 
to keen competition, if properly arranged and managed. But 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


246 MAIZE 


at some local shows in South Africa the whole purport of a 
championship seems to have been misunderstood, and the mis- 
take has been made of calling for separate entries for the 
championship, thus turning it into a distinct class, which is 
uncalled for and undesirable. The aim and object of the 
championship is to determine which is the best exhibit in any 
class in the whole show; experience proves that if separate 
entries are called for, for the championship, the end aimed at 
is defeated, for the majority of exhibitors will not make 
separate entries, nor pay two fees, on the chance of securing 
the championship. 

200. Principles of Judging.—Although each Province and 
District specializes in particular breeds of maize, and though 
the ears produced in each may differ in size, etc., the principles 
underlying maize judging are the same for all conditions, and 
these must be clearly understood in order to judge successfully. 
It is not merely a question as to which is the best exhibit in 
its class, on a particular show, but whether the exhibit com- 
pares favourably with a definite standard. This standard 
should be the one recognized by authorities as embodying all 
of the qualifications of the best maize. Therefore the judge 
must be thoroughly familiar with the points on which maize is 
judged, and with the standards which have been set for each 
breed. A printed “standard of perfection” is a useful guide ; 
such a standard cannot be final, but will grow or be modified 
from year to year as the various breeds are improved or 
altered. 

A well-arranged score card is of great assistance in main- 
taining a judicial balance. But the judge should bear in 
mind that there are no absolute rules which can be reduced to 
writing by which maize samples can be properly judged, in- 
dependent of that intuitive perception of good and bad points 
which in a good judge accompanies experience. The score 
card may easily be abused if it is used in a strictly 
mathematical sense, for there are certain points which 
cannot be reduced to precise figures, and which will be 
neglected in the effort to do so. If the score card is slavishly 
followed, a wrong decision will result. On this account the 
use of the score card is sometimes condemned, though it is 
usually not the score card but the lack of comprehension on 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 247 


the part of the judge which is to blame. The judgment of the CHAP. 
person who is comparing the exhibit must enter into the score, Y" 
and experience should guide him in marking each point on the 

card. There are some men who are born judges, who can 
intuitively judge by eye without the aid of a score card ; there 

are a few who even claim to find the score card a hindrance, 
because their perception and summarizing of points go together 

so quickly ; but we believe such men are rare. 

There are so many points in an exhibit, that one may easily 
place undue value on those which can be seen at a glance, 
such as length of ear, uniformity, narrow sulci, good colour 
and good tips, to the neglect of such important points as shape 
and depth of grain, circumference and shape of ear, yield per 
ear, percentage of grain to cob, and the like. To the average 
judge of maize, the score card is of great assistance in just 
such cases. 

201. Methods of Judging.—TVhe aim in judging is to de- 
termine which is the best exhibit, by careful comparison with 
a uniform standard scale of points. It is desirable to keep the 
separate scores of different exhibits side by side for comparison, 
and the most convenient way to do this is to have a printed 
score card of uniform size and shape. In scoring any point, it 
is useful to have the exhibits which have already been judged 
also laid out side by side, so that at any time a comparison 
of scores already made may be easily and quickly noted. Where 
there are many entries and the scoring is at all close, it is well 
to refer from time to time to the score previously given for the 
same point in the other exhibits. Unless this is done, it is 
difficult for the judge to keep clearly in mind the exact “cut” 
made on a point in previous cases. 

The stewards, judge, and assistants should use care not to 
injure the ears, which should be handled as little as possible, 
and should not be broken. If damaged by falling, the loss of 
grain will affect the percentage of yield. 

Good light is necessary in order to detect poor colour of 
grain and cross-bred grains. A convenient table is essential 
to good judging; it should be of such a height that the judge 
can see both tips and butts without handling the ears, and 
so that he need not stoop unduly to examine them. The 
judging table should be of such size and so arranged that 


248 MAIZE 


Fic, 92.—Maize Exhibits at the First South African Maize and Citrus Show, 
Johannesburg, Tgto0. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 249 


the ten ears of each exhibit can be laid out side by side for 
comparison. 

An exhibit of ten ears is desirable, as it facilitates scoring 
of points and rapid calculation of averages. Rapidity of 
movement is essential to success in judging a large number of 
entries; ten minutes should be long enough for any one ex- 
hibit of ten ears, except for determination of percentage of 
grain to cob and total yield of grain. To judge a sample 
accurately in ten minutes means that all unnecessary moves 
must be omitted. The eye must be trained to judge accurately 
at first sight. 

After the other points have been determined in any one 
sample, a competent assistant should follow to shell off and 
weigh up the ears to determine percentage of grain to cob. 
For this purpose the five alternate ears of the ten are weighed 
and shelled, the weight of shelled grain is taken, and the 
percentage determined. 

202. Judging Matze for Seed.—The aim in judging seed- 
maize is to determine which is the best sample for seed pur- 
poses. The dest seed-maize is that which will produce the 
heaviest yield per acre of grain, of the best quality for feeding 
or for manufacture. Such a type will, obviously, be the most 
profitable to grow. The competing exhibits are carefully 
compared with the standard recognized as embodying all of 
the qualifications of the best seed-maize. These qualifications 
include points 

(1) which ensure good yield, eg. size, uniformity, and 
shape of ears, straightness of rows, well-filled butts 
and tips, shape of grain, yield of grain per ear, per- 
centage of grain to cob, etc. ; 

(2) which ensure a perfect “stand”’ or crop in the field, 
e.g. uniformity in shape of grain, size of embryo, 
percentage and vigour of germination ; 

(3) which ensure good condition for consumption or export, 
e.g. maturity, soundness, dryness, etc. ; 

(4) trueness to type and breed characteristics in shape, 
colour, etc. ; 

(5) the value of the sample for feeding or manufacturing 
purposes as evidenced by the comparative percentage 
of protein, oil, starch, etc. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


250 MAIZE 


Shamel points out that these standards have been de- 
veloped and arranged by experienced growers, breeders, and 
judges to such a degree that a sample which comes up to 
these standards has been found (1) to give the best yield; (2) 
to have the greatest degree of vitality; (3) to be the most 
profitable seed to grow, and consequently (4) to command the 
highest price as seed. It is recognized, however, that not 
enough is yet known about the correlation of characters to say 
that the standards are perfect. 

203. Desirable Characters for Breeding FEars.—A casual 
glance at an ordinary harvested crop of maize ears conveys 
but little idea of the degree of variation among them. It is 
surprisingly difficult to find ten uniform ears in a heap of many 
thousands from an ordinary crop. 

Much remains to be done in the thorough scientific study 
of the maize plant to find out which visible characters are 
associated (“correlated ’’) with the invisible characters to which 
we owe yield and quality. That such visible characters 
exist is well known among stock-breeders ; an experienced 
dairyman buying a milch cow looks for one with a long, thin 
tail, prominent ‘‘milk”’ veins, good udder, and with a certain 
type of body and head. It is not probable that a thin tail has 
any direct connection with the supply of milk, but experience 
shows that a thin-tailed cow is usually a better milker than one 
with a thick coarse tail. So with plants; there are visible cha- 
racters which may be correlated with the invisible. Experience 
shows that certain characters of the ears are in certain breeds 
associated with heavy yields. A study of these correlations 
has led to the framing of score cards for judging. 

204. South African Score Card for Seed-maize-—The 
following score card has been successfully used by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture of the Union of South Africa. It has 
been carefully prepared by comparing and testing the various 
score cards in use in the United States. It differs from any 
one of them in that greater stress is laid on weight of grain 
per ear than on proportion of grain to cob; it is the yield of 
grain that is important, irrespective of the amount of cob. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 


Score CarD FOR JupGING Maize Ears. 


Nook Ex hibttiecsdcyccianecuicqecetee 
Name and Address of Exhibitor 


Disqualify any exhibit of white maize which has a red cob. 
If any exhibit is conspicuously deficient in one or more of the eight last. 
named points, those particular points should be taken into consideration first. 


SCoRE. 


1. Length of ears. (Measure and compare with standard 
of perfection; add the total sum of the deficiency, 
and for each inch cut 1 point) 3 ; : e 

2. Sulci, i.e. space between rows. (Cut 1 for sulci 4 inch 
wide or over, °75 for 41, to 43 *5 for ,') to at) a 

3. Shape of grain. (This depends partly” on the breed; it 
is usually desirable for the grain to be wedge-shaped, 
and even in Hickory King it should be longer than 
broad; take particular note of the shoulders at top 
and bottom of the grain. Allow ‘5 for every ear 
having well-shaped grain). 

4. Length of grain. (This must depend on the breed 
standard; a well-grown Hickory King may be }} 
inch long; and a good Yellow Horsetooth, Eureka, 
Reid, or Iowa Stlver-mine should reach ? inch; 
cut 1 for every ear having short grain) 

5. Uniformity of grain. (Place one grain from each ear 
side by side ; cut 1 for every grain which is not 
uniform with the majority) 

6. Yield of grain. (Carefully shell and weigh the. grain 
from half the ears in each exhibit; take the average 
weight per ear, and for each $ oz. below standard cut 
I point) 


If exhibits score at all closely on the above six points, 
the following eight additional points should be taken into 
consideration :— 


7. Trueness to type or breed characteristics. (Cut 5 for 
each ear not coming up to standard in this particular) 

8. Shape of ear and straightness of rows . 

g. Uniformity of exhibit 

10. Covering of butts . 

11. Covering of tips : : : d ‘ : 

12. Colour of grain. (Cut for variation in shade or oe 

13. Size of embryo 

14. Market condition (i.e. dryness and soundness of ear and 
grain and firmness of grain on the cob; the grains 
should be free from decay and should be well filled, 
not shrivelled nor chaffy) . 


N.B.—Some breeds, e.g. Ladysmith, Boone County, 
and Jowa Silver- -mine, have naturally rough 
grain; no cut should be made for roughness 
unless it is clearly due to lack of condition; cut 
1 for every ear out of condition. 


Points. 


“Possible. 


Io 


10 


Io 


10 


MAnnnnwn 


Io 


Award. ; 


CHAP. 
VI. 


252 MAIZE 


205. Length of Ear.—Standards at best are but approxi- 
mate, and especially is this true in regard to length of ear. 
Change of altitude and latitude affect development, so that it is 
necessary to vary the standard for length of ear of the same 
breed, according to the part of the world (e.g. America or 
South Africa) or even according to the part of the same 
country (e.g. the Transvaal or Natal), in which it is grow- 
ing. Seven and a half to 84 inches is the usual length for 
ears of Hickory King in the United States. We have been 
able to grow ears of this breed 114 inches long, and it may be 
necessary to fix the South African standard higher than that 
of the States. The difference is perhaps due to crossing and 
subsequent selection over a period of years. Variation of 
season also affects length of ear, so that it will not do to take 
the measurements of a single season as a guide in setting the . 
standard. But variation of season need not affect the use of 
the standard in judging. In an unfavourable season it may 
happen that no exhibit comes up to standard length; then all 
exhibits lose alike on this point, and, at the most, length cf 
ear only affects the score by 10 per cent. 

Very long ears are usually produced only when the season 
is long and particularly favourable, for long ears appear to 
require a relatively long season for full development. It is 
probable that the majority of the longest ears in a crop were 
produced on late-maturing plants, therefore we may reasonably 
expect that if in seed selection we pick the very longest ears 
we may be developing a late-maturing strain. This may be 
counteracted, to some extent, by selecting from among the 
long ears those that have the most perfect tips. 

In measuring ears take the full measurement from extreme 
butt to tip. This can be done best by the use of the foot-rule 
held in both hands, one end even with the butt the other end 
over the tip of the ear. Add together the deficiency and 
excess of length of each of the ten ears, as compared with the 
standard, and cut one point for each inch so obtained. 

206. Sulct or Spaces between Rows.—A wide space between 
rows means waste of space that should be filled by the grains, 
and therefore means loss of grain. lhere are two places at 
which waste space must be looked for— 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 253 


(1) the sude¢ or spaces between the rows of grain on the 

surface of the ear ; 

(2) the space between the tips of the grain, especially 

noticeable with sharply-pointed grains. 

The sulci are generally widest in broad-, shallow- and 
smooth-grained ears, and in those breeds having fewest rows. 
Cut 1 point for sulci } inch wide or over; -75 for 7s to } inch, 
and °5 for z's to 7's of an inch. But judgment must be 
guided by experience in this matter. 

The space at the tips can be judged fairly well by the shape 
of the grain, but in close judging it is well to shell off a space 
4 inches long and 4 rows wide, on the five ears that are to be 
shelled for determination of yield of grain. By examining 
the exposed ends and sides of the rows it is easy to determine 
the degree of loss of space; ‘25 may be cut for each ear show- 
ing too much loss of space. 

Reduction of width of sulci is well illustrated in Fig. 67 
of Doyle Hickory King. 

207. Shape of Grain. — Generally speaking, the wedge- 
shaped grain is the best type to breed to, because it neces- 
sarily furnishes the greatest amount of grain for the same size 
of ear. 

The shape of the grain is influenced to some extent by the 
number of rows, for we find that ears bearing eighteen to 
twenty-four rows usually have wedge-shaped grain, while those 
with less than eighteen rows are apt to have broader, rectangu- 
lar, or round-edged grains. This is not constant, however, 
for 10-row Azckory has more or less wedge-shaped grains. The 
question of the most desirable shape for each breed is largely 
a matter of experience. In South Africa the types have not 
yet been definitely fixed. The edges of the wedge should not 
be curved but straight. 

The proportion of starch is much higher in a ¢#zck grain 
than a thin one, and the proportion of bran and waste 
lower, which appeals to the miller and merchant ; therefore 
thick grains are more desirable than thin ones. By thick grains 
we mean thick in the direction of the main axis of the ear. 

The tip of the grain should be thick, plump, and not 
sharply pointed. Grain with a thin tip has a relatively low 
oil- and protein-content, and usually a lower vitality. 


CHAP. 
Vi. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


254 MAIZE 


In scoring, 5 is allowed for each ear having well-shaped 
grain. 

208. Length of Grain.—The longer the grain, the greater 
the yield, but the shape varies with the breed, and the length 
should be in good proportion to the width. Breeders classify 
by shape of grain, having three groups of breeds :— 

(2) Grain broader than deep. 

(6) Grain as broad as deep. 

(¢) Grain deeper than broad. 

Scoring should be based on the characteristic shape of the 
particular breed being judged, which implies a good knowledge 
of the different breeds: e.g. Hzckory King is judged as Heckory 
King, and should not be cut because the grain is broad in pro- 
portion to its length; but even in Afzckory Azng there is 
great variation in length of grain, and preference should be 
given to the exhibit having the longest grain, if true to breed 
characteristics. 

209. Uniformity of Grain.—Take two grains from every 
ear at about one-third of the distance from the butt and place 
them on the table in front of the ear, with the tip of the grain 
pointing to the ear. The shape of the grain will vary with 
the breed (see Fig. 61), and its shape should be true to the 
characteristic of that breed. Whatever the shape and size of 
grain in the breed, the grains should be uniform on all parts 
of the ear, not only in shape and size, but also (in dent breeds) 
in the character of the dent and smoothness or roughness of 
the grain end. Thus on smooth ears all the grains should be 
smooth, and on rough ears all should be rough. Roughness 
of grain is not necessarily objectionable, for as a general rule 
we find that a smooth grain is usually shallow, while a more 
or less rough grain is usually deep; but roughness may be too 
pronounced, and an extremely rough ear is difficult to handle 
and makes husking a slower and more expensive process. 

210. Yreld of Grain per Ear.—Weigh together the five 
alternate ears of the exhibit, shell them carefully so that none 
of the grain is lost, and weigh the grain; calculate the average 
weight per ear by dividing by five, and for each half ounce be- 
low standard cut 1 point. 

The percentage of grain to cob can then be calculated; 
this will depend partly on the condition of the ears, for ears 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 255 


that are thoroughly dry yield a greater percentage than those 
which are still wet. Ifthe yield of grain per ear is obtained, 
there appears to be little—if any—advantage in scoring for 
percentage ; it is the total weight of grain which we wish to 
increase, and whether it is borne on a thin or a comparatively 
thick cob is immaterial. Experience shows that very thin 
cobs do not give such heavy yields of grain as comparatively 
thick ones. 

211. Trueness to Type and Breed Characteristics.—In live- 
stock breeding the desirability of keeping to uniform types is 
universally recognized. It is equally important in plant- 
breeding, but the principle is less rigorously applied because 
the types of farm crops are not so definitely fixed. Stock- 
breeding on systematic lines has been practised for many 
generations ; maize-breeding on definite lines is much younger, 
and in some cases the types change as the breeds improve. 
But even in maize, standards have been set by Breeders’ As- 
sociations, for the older and well-established breeds, and where 
this is the case it is desirable to adhere to them. 

Variations of one sort or another are met with, more or 
less frequently, in most breeds of animals and plants; these 
are culled out by the careful breeder. If any such variation 
is likely to prove beneficial, the individuals showing it may be 
isolated and inter-bred in order to “fix” the new character, 
and by this means new strains, races, or breeds may be pro- 
duced. Lut tt 7s not desirable to start new breeds unless their 
distinctive characters are clearly worth having ; there is far too 
much naming and propagating of novelties based on trivial or 
unstable characters. Such “new creations” often lead to 
bitter disappointment on the part of the grower; the farmer 
would be wise to await the verdict of a competent Breeders’ 
Association before spending time and money over untried 
novelties, and the Show Committee should not include them 
in the prize list without good authority. 

Selection to type is necessary to the preservation of the 
characteristics of the breed, and also to the development of 
that uniformity which is essential to the production of the best 
merchantable article. With maize it is not always easy to 
furnish a written description of the breed characteristics, which 
could be recognized by anyone unfamiliar with them; in 
judging this point experience is the best guide. 


CHAP. 
Vi. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


256 MAIZE 


In the case of breeds the characteristics of which are not 
yet definitely fixed, the grower must choose for himself since 
there is no established standard to guide him. Among the 
ears in his crop which show variation in characters there is 
usually one type which is better than the others. 

212. Shape of Ears.—The shape of the ear affects the 
yield, quality, and uniformity of the grain. The object in view 
is the selection of the best shape of ear to produce the largest 
possible yield of shelled grain, and to ensure proper maturity 
under prevailing climatic conditions. The cylindrical ear is, 
on the whole, the best for these purposes, but some breeds are 
characterized by a more or less tapering ear, and where a 
tapering ear is a characteristic of the breed it should not be 
treated as a defect, nor should the exhibit be “cut” on that 
account. If the grower does not like a tapering ear he can 
discard that particular breed in favour of one with a more 
cylindrical ear, or he can begin to develop from the old breed 
a new one which will meet his particular requirements. But 
little is yet known as to the actual relative merits of the 
different ear-shapes. 

The principal objection to a tapering ear is that the grains 
in the upper portion are usually much smaller than those on 
the rest of the ear, and an uneven sample is the result. It is 
sometimes found that two rows run only part way up the ear, 
or in other words are “lost” (Fig. 83); this is a defect, as 
it means loss of grain. 

It is difficult to define the varying degree of tapering in 
different breeds, and here, again, experience rather than written 
rules must be the judge’s guide. 

Some breeds being grown in South Africa at the present 
time, e.g. Chester County, show a tendency to flattening or 
lateral compression of the ear which sometimes develops into 
a fasciation (Fig. 854) of either the whole, or the upper portion, 
of the ear, and sometimes to a lobing or division of the apex 
into fingers (Fig. 858). These features are undesirable, and 
all tendency towards them should be bred out by discarding 
ears which show flattening at the tip. A quarter point is 
allowed for each well-shaped ear in the exhibit. 

213. Straightness of Rows.—Straightness of rows may be 
less important than size or shape of ear and depth of grain, 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 267 


but aithough it may appear at first sight to be merely a 
“fancy point” (1 175), it has a bearing upon the yield and 
quality of the grain. An ear with twisted (Figs. 58 and 59) 
or irregular (Fig. 84) rows cannot carry as much grain of 
uniform quality as one of the same size but with straight, 
regular rows. Moreover, the tendency to twisted rows seems 
to be cumulative, and may develop into complete loss of rows, 
which tends to a reduction of yield and an unevenness of grain. 

At the same time it has been observed that some other- 
wise well-bred strains develop a marked tendency towards 
slight twist in the row, and an exhibit should not be scored too 
heavily on this account, if it has depth of grain and other de- 
sirable characters. 

214. Uniformity of Exhibit.—Uniformity of exhibit refers 
to uniformity in appearance, shape, size, colour, indentation, 
smoothness, etc., but not to the Azad of shape or colour. The 
shape and size may be poor, but if the ears are alike they must 
be given full marks for uniformity ; the poor shape and size 
will be scored down when those particular points are dealt 
with. In scoring for uniformity remove those ears which are 
distinctly different from their fellows; half a point is allowed 
for each of the remaining uniform ears. 

215. Butts of Ears.—To some extent the shape and cover- 
ing of the butt are breed characteristics, and in such cases 
allowance may be made for this fact. With most breeds, 
however, it is desirable that the rows of grain should be carried 
well over the butt (Fig. 664) leaving only a narrow opening 
through which the shank passes to the cob. If the rows of 
grain end abruptly on a level with the end of the cob (Fig. 66B) 
the ear will not yield as much (other things being equal) as if 
they are well carried over. A szwo//en butt is an undesirable 
character, for large, poorly filled butts usually have unduly 
large and thick cobs; these dry out slowly, and delay harvest ; 
in frosty parts of the country this results in damage to the 
grain. The shank should be medium in size, for large, 
coarse shanks break off with difficulty and delay the work 
of harvesting and shelling where the latter is done by hand. 
But the shank should not be too small (Fig. 70) or the ear 
will break off in the wind before the main crop is ready to 
harvest. Exhibitors at a show should trim out the shanks 

17 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


268 MAIZE 


with a penknife before sending in their exhibits, for if the 
shanks are left on, the appearance of the exhibit is spoiled 
and the judge is apt to mark down accordingly. 

Well-filled butts are more frequently met with than well- 
filled tips, because the silks from the butt appear first and 
remain in a receptive condition until sufficient pollen is avail- 
able for fertilization. The silks from the tip of the ear 
appear last, and it not infrequently happens that all the 
pollen has been shed before they appear. In most South 
African breeds the pollen is mature some days before the silks 
become receptive. 

The following scores are allowed for butts :— 

(1) For butts having the grains swelled out around the 
shank in a regular manner, leaving a concave de- 
pression, allow full marks. 

(2) Grains swelling out but not in a regular manner: cut ‘I. 

(3) Grains not swelling out beyond cob but regular in size : 
cut ‘2. 

(4) End of cob covered, but grains flat, shallow, and irre- 
gular: cut °3. 

(5) For poorly covered butt: cut °5. 

216. Thickness of Cob.—The cob is merely the support 
which carries the grains, and the larger the cob—other things 
being equal—the greater the number of grains that can be 
carried upon it. A careful study of this point shows that the 
best yielding ears have thicker cobs than those which give 
poor yields, or, in other words, that thin cobs generally result 
in poor yields. Buta very thick cob should be avoided, because 
it requires too long to dry out thoroughly and is more difficult 
to shell off in a hand-sheller. 

217. Tips of Ears.—There should not be any projection of 
bare cob beyond the uppermost grains on the ear, because this 
indicates lack of pollination through irregularity in flowering 
or other defects in the parent. The tip of a well-bred ear 
should be regularly covered with uniformly-sized grains. 
The percentage of such well-covered tips will vary with the 
season, and in some seasons it may be difficult to find any so 
covered ; but if the scoring is uniform in this particular, all 
exhibitors will be affected alike and no injustice will be done. 
It is usually found that short ears are better filled than long 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 259 


ones, and, other things being equal, it is preferable to select 
long ears which are not so well covered than uniformly short 
ears which are well covered. In judging, however, length of 
ear is dealt with independently and must not affect the scoring 
for covering of the tips. In a well-covered tip the grains 
should continue in straight rows up to the very end, and not 
be scattered irregularly; for irregular grains the tips should 
be scored down according to degree of irregularity. For 
every exposed or badly covered tip 1 inch long, a cut of °5 
may be made, while less is taken off for shorter exposed tips. 

218. Colour of Grain.—Yellow grains on a white ear in- 
dicate crossing, whether the yellowness is dark or pale; this 
means either :— 

(1) that the crop has been grown too near to a yellow 

breed ; or 

(2) that the seed used was not quite pure, containing some 

(perhaps only a few) yellow grains or white grains 
carrying a yellow “ factor”; or 

(3) that grains from a crop of yellow previously grown on 

the same ground have produced volunteer plants 
which have caused the crossing. 

In the first case the yellow grains are usually most plenti- 
ful near either the tip or the butt, owing to the fact that the 
volunteer plants, or the neighbouring field of yellows, came 
into flower at the beginning or close of the flowering period 
of the white breed. 

The effect of crossing a yellow breed with white pollen is 
not always as clearly marked as in the case of yellow on 
white ; in some cases the whiteness on the yellow is quite 
imperceptible, in other cases it shows in the form of a white 
cap on the yellow grain. Some pure breeds have a normally 
white-capped grain, e.g. White-cap Dent and Bristol roo-Day ; 
in such cases a white cap does not necessarily indicate crossing. 

For one or two yellow grains on a white ear, or white 
grains on a yellow ear, a “cut” of -25 points is made; for 
three or four such grains, ‘5 ; for five or six, ‘75 ; for seven or 
more, cut I point. 

Missing grains are considered as having been crossed, for 
the judge has no means of telling that they were not removed 


by the exhibitor to prevent a “cut” for crossing. In practice 
rye 


CHAP. 
Vi. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


260 MAIZE 


cut ‘I of a point for each missing grain, except for those grains 
(three only) (194, § 11) which have been removed by the 
exhibitor from near the centre of each ear to determine whether 
the ears were suitable for seed or exhibition. 

Richness of colour is a point in favour of yellow maize, 
but some breeds are naturally paler than others, e.g. Golden 
King as compared with Yellow Hogan.  Dullness of colour 
may be due to age, to damage in drying, or to harvesting 
before the grain was sufficiently dry. 

219. Size of Embryo.—A small, poorly developed embryo 
gives a poor germination and a weak seedling, which is less 
capable of withstanding drought, insect attacks, etc. Most of 
the oil of the maize-grain is contained in the embryo, so that 
the larger the embryo, the higher the oil-content. 

220, Market Condition.—By market condition is meant the 
best condition for marketing purposes. Condition includes 
dryness, firmness of grain on the cob, soundness, maturity, 
and freedom from injury or disease. Maturity is deter- 
mined by the filling out of the grain. Chaffy ends usually 
indicate lack of maturity, but some breeds naturally have 
rough ends even when the grain is thoroughly mature, and a 
good knowledge of breeds is essential, to avoid mistakes in this 
respect. Loose grain usually indicates lack of maturity, but 
here again knowledge of breeds is necessary, because some of 
them naturally have a loose grain. By twisting the ear 
sharply in the hand (but not sufficiently to break it) it is easy 
to determine whether it is mature or not; if it remains rigid, 
it is generally ripe and dry, but if it yields to the twist it 
generally means that the cob is still moist; a cut of half a 
point,(5) is made for each ear not in condition. At agricul- 
tural shows held early in the season it is difficult to obtain 
thoroughly dry ears, and allowance must be made accordingly. 

In the case of seed-maize the vitality of the sample is of 
very great importance ; this can be determined by means of a 
germination test, but at an agricultural show there is not time 
to make such a test, which takes five days. To determine 
the viability of a sample of seed-maize, three grains are taken 
from each ear, one from near the butt, one near the tip, and 
one near the centre. These will germinate between wet 
blotting paper, or preferably on a plate of pure damp sand; 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 2601 


the grains are planted with the point downward and barely 
covered with the sand. They are arranged and marked in 
such a way that the particular ear from which any set of three 
was taken can always be determined, so that ears with a poor 
germination may be discarded. A small plate or saucer or a 
sheet of glass are used to cover the germinating grain to 
check evaporation, and if the test is made in cold weather it 
should be carried on in a warm room. Daily examinations 
should be made and a note taken of the sets which take long- 
‘est to germinate. A germination of 97 per cent in five days 
is the usual standard. 
221. Colour of Cob—White maize should have a white 
cob. Yellow breeds of maize usually have red cobs. Some 
breeds of yellow, however, always have white cobs; this is 
particularly the case with most of the yellow flint breeds 
(Cango, Botman, New England 8-row,etc.)and with Golden King, 
Hawkesbury Champion, Yellow Horsetooth, and German Yellow. 
A red cob in a white breed or a white cob in a yellow breed, 
excepting in the cases noted above, is an indication of careless 
selection, and the exhibit is disqualified accordingly. 
222. Circumference of Ears.—An exceptionally thin ear 
_ usually indicates shallow grain, and an abnormally thick ear 
indicates an unusually thick cob; both will have been scored 
down when considering depth of grain, uniformity of exhibit 
and yield of grain per ear, while the lack of proportion will 
have received further consideration in scoring for length of ear. 

Where competition is keen it is customary to take into 
consideration the circumference of the ears as compared with 
their length. The standard is approximately as 74 inches 
to 10 inches of length, or 8 inches to 12 inches, but this varies 
to some extent with the breed. As in the case of length 
of ear, the excess or deficiency of each ear as compared with 
the standard, are added together, but the cut made for each 
inch so obtained is only -25. A mechanic’s small steel tape, 
divided into millimetres, is applied at a point about one- 
third the distance from the butt. With a little practice these 
measurements can be taken with ease and some degree of 
rapidity, but it is slow work at best, and as it is of minor 
value it is usually omitted unless necessitated, as was said 
before, by close competition, 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


262 MAIZE 


It is best to measure the circumference in centimetres. 
The average can be converted into inches by the following 
table :— 


TABLE XLIV. 


FOR CONVERSION OF CENTIMETRES TO INCHES, IN MEASURING 
CIRCUMFERENCE OF EARS. 


Centimetres. Inches, Centimetres. | Inches. 
— SS ——— ine as 

Ir‘o 4°32 17'0 5°7 
11'5 4°51 17°5 | 6'9 
12'0 4°71 17°78 7 oO 
12°5 4°92 18'0 | rae) 
12°7 5:0 18°5 73 
13°0 51 1g'0 | 75 
13°5 5°3 19°5 TREN 
14°0 5°5 20°0 | 78 
14°5 Si 20°32 | 8-0 
I5'0 5°9 20°5 | 8:08 
15°24 6-0 2I°O | 8°26 
15°5 61 21'5 | 8-46 
16'0 63 22°0 8°66 
16°5 65 | 


223. Standards of Perfection.—Standardization of breeds is 
essential to good judging ; where there are as many breeds as 
there are in maize it is impossible to carry their several measure- 
ments in mind without great risk of error. All the leading 
American breeds have been standardized. The word standard, 
as here used, is not intended to imply finality; probably no 
one of the recognized breeds is yet perfect or thoroughly 
fixed; as improvement takes place, standards gradually 
change. For the newer breeds, standards have yet to be es- 
tablished. The following provisional South African standards 
are given for the guidance of growers and exhibitors. Weight 
of ear refers to well-matured ears weighed! between July and 
October; weight per bushel varies with locality; the large, 
fine-looking Natal-grown //ickory King weighs less per bushel 
than the smaller Transvaal-grown grain. 

1 These weights exceed the figures for weight of grain per ear plus weight of 


cob, because they are taken from the best single ears available, whereas the 
weight of ear here given is the average of a number of ears. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 


PROVISIONAL STANDARD OF 


| 
| | Hickory King. 


Iowa 
Silver-mine. 


Ear: | | 


Shape .| Partly — cylin- | 
drical 
Length . gin. 
Circumference | 6°5 in. 
Rows [8 | 
Arrangement . | Distinct 
Sulci Medium to wide 
Butt Even 
Tip Regular rows 
of grain 
| Shank | Small | 
Weight . | 10 Oz. 
Cob: | 
Size Very small | 
Colour White | 
Weight . 1°45 OZ. 
Grain: 
Condition —. | Firm upright 
| Colour | Pearl white | 
| Apex |Smooth _ to| 
roughish 
Form of dent . | Crease 
Shape Broader than 
deep 
| 
Per cent to ear | 87 
Number per 
ear | 400 
| Weight per ear | 8°75 
Weight per 
| bushel : Ibs. | 53 to 62 Ibs. 


Cylindrical 


to in. 


een, 


I4 or 16 
Pairs 
Narrow 
Moderately | 
rounded 


Regular rows 
of grain 

Small 

17 02. 


Small 
White 
1°86 oz. 


Firm upright 
Cream white 
Very rough 


Pinched 


Medium 
wedge 


go 


800 to 1,100 
IO OZ. 


57 to 64 lbs. 


Boone County. 


PERFECTION.—DENT BREEDS. 


Natal White 
Horsetooth. 


263 


Ladysmith. 


CHAP, 


| 
— Cylindrical 


ro in. 
7°5 in. 
16-22 
Pairs 
| Medium 
Moderately 
| rounded 
compressed 
Regular rows 
of grain 
Medium 
17°5 OZ. 


Medium 
White 


Firm upright 
Cream white 
Rough 


Pinched 
|Medium 
| wedge 


| 86 


1,000 to 1,100 
| = 
| 
| 


Slowly taper-| Slowly taper 


ing 
12 in. 
8°5 in. 
14-18 
Pairs 
Medium 
Even to| 
shallow 
rounded 
Regular rows | 
of grain 
Very large 


22 OZ. 


Very large 
White 
3°84 Oz. 


Firm upright 
Pearl white 
Smooth | 


Crease | 
Broad and 
shallow but | 
thick 
78 


759 
12°5 OZ. 


62 | 


Ing 
1o'5 in. 


| 8°75 in, 


I4-20 
Pairs 
Narrow 
Even 


rounded 


Small 
18°5 Oz. 


Medium 


White 
1°75 OZ. 


Firm upright 
Pearl white 
Very rough 


Pinched 
Deep wedge 


| 88 


800 
10°25 OZ. 


574 to 62 


to | 
shallow 


224. Judging Shelled Maize and the Accompanying Ears.— 
Both quality and condition are taken into consideration in 
In a close competition it is impossible 


judging shelled maize. 


to give a just judgment without reference to thoroughly 


presentative ears from the crop. 

In the classes for commercial (shelled) maize there has 
been a good deal of divergence of opinion and practice as to 
whether tip and butt grains should be included or not, and 
owing to the loose wording of many prize-lists the decision 


of the judge has been a matter of bitter controversy. 


re- 


In 


264 


MAIZE 


CHAP. some cases the best entries have been disqualified on this 
*h account. 

Unless the prize-list clearly states that tip and butt grains 
are not to be removed, the exhibitor is entitled to remove 
them, and should do so. A good judge does not study the 
tip and butt grains, and it only makes it more difficult to 
determine the relative merits of the bulk of the grain (which 
is that from the centre of the ear) if the tips and butts are left 

PROVISIONAL STANDARD OF PERFECTION.—DENT BREEDS. 
scab Hickory: 10-row Hickory Yellow Yellow H. eats 
ieee’ or Louisiana. Horsetooth. SO eT OB ans Eureka. 
har: 
Shape Partly cylindri- | Partly cylin- | Slowly taper- | Slowly taper- | Slowly taper- 
cal drical ing ing ing 
Length . 8°50 in. 8°5 in. Io in. gin. II in. 
Circumference | 6’g in. 6°9 in. 7°75 in. 7°25 in. 7°25 in. 
Rows a2 10 14 I2 or 14 16 or 18 
Arrangement . | Pairs Distinct Distinct Pairs Pairs 
Sulci Medium Medium Medium Medium Narrow 
Butt Even to shal-| Even Even, some- | Evento shal-| Shallow 
low rounded times ex- low round- rounded, 
panded ed, slightly enlarged 
enlarged 
Tip Regular rows | Regular rows | Regular rows | Regular rows | Regular rows 
of grains of grains of grains of grains of grains 
Shank Medium Small Large Small Large 
Weight . 12 OZ. 13°5 OZ. 16°5 Oz. 14 Oz. 17°5 OZ. 
Cob: 
Size . | Small Small Large Small Large 
Colour | White White White Red Deep red 
Weight . _ _ 2°25 OZ. 1°85 oz. — 
Grain : 
Condition Firm upright Firm upright | Firm upright | Firm upright | Firm upright 
Colour Pearl White Pearl white | Yellow with | Orange yel- | Deep yellow 
light cap low 
Apex Smooth Slightly | Smooth Medium |Medium 
rough smooth or smooth 
: smooth 
Form of dent. | Crease Crease Dimple Crease Crease 
Shape Medium wedge |Medium | Broad shal-|Medium |Medium 
wedge low wedge wedge wedge 
Per cent to ear — — 82 86 = 
Number per 
ear. + | 500 450 625 650 goo 
Weight per ear — —_ TO"75 Oz, 9°25 02. — 
Weight per 
bushel : Ibs. | 63 5534-56 _— 594-64 62 


in. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 


Nothing is gained by leaving them in, and much precious 
time is saved if they are removed by the exhibitor; if he does 


265 


CHAP, 
VI. 


not do it the judge or stewards must do it for him (when 
judging the sample), and they have more important work. 

Tf the show committee considers that it is a fairer competi- 
tion to have the tip and butt grains left in, she fact should be 
clearly stated in the prise-list. 


It does not appear that any 


PROVISIONAL STANDARD OF PERFECTION.—DENT BREEDS. 


Chester County. Leaming. 


Ear: | 
Shape | 


Length . : | 
Circumference | 
Rows. : | 
Arrangement . 


Sulci 


Butt 


Tip 


Shank 
Weight . 


Cob: 
Size 
Colour 
Weight . 


Grain: 
Condition 
Colour 


Apex 


Form of dent . 
Shape 


Per cent to ear 
Number per 
ear. : 
Weight per ear 
Weight per 
bushel :; lbs. 


Slowly taper- | Tapering 


ing 


Io in. 8 in. 
7 in. 7 in. 
16 or 18 | 16-24 
Pairs or not Pairs 
| Narrow | Medium 


Well rounded |Shallow 


rounded, 
compressed, 
expanded 
Irregular rows | Irregular rows 
of grains of grains 
Small Medium 
13 OZ. | 13 Oz. 
Small | Medium 
Deep red | Deep red 


1°54 OZ. | 


Firm upright | Firm upright 


Deep yellow | Deep yellow 
with lighter 
cap 
Smooth or me- , Rough 
dium smooth 
Dimple | Crease 
Medium wedge) Medium 
wedge 
| 
85°25 | — 
1,000 | 1,100 
9 07. | — 
57-634 59-66 


Reid. 


Golden King. | Golden Eagle. 


| 
| 


Slowly taper- | 
ing | 
ro in, | 
7 in. | 
18-24 | 
Pairs | 
Narrow (,5 
or Jess) 
Deeply 
rounded, 
compressed 


Regular rows 
of grains 

Small 

12°5 Oz. 


Medium 
Deep red 


Firm upright 
Light yellow 


Medium 
smooth 

Dimple 

Long wedge, 
shoulder 
square 


88 


| 
Slowly taper- | Slowly taper- 


10-14 
Distinct 
Medium 


Even to 
shallow 
rounded 


Regular rows 
of grains 

Large 

14 OZ. 


Large 
White 


2'4 OZ. 


Firm upright 
Dull yellow 
Smooth 
Dimple 
Broad and 

shallow 
83°25 


600 
II*5 oz, 


| 


ing 
g in. 
7 in. 
16-20 
Distinct 
Medium 


Moderately 
rounded, 
compressed 


Regular rows 
of grains 
Small 


Small 
Deep red 


Loose upright 
Deep yellow 


Very rough 


Broad wedge 


go 


266 


MAIZE 


advantage is gained by this form of competition, and it 


It must also be 


New England 


8-row (Flint). 


Partly cylin- 
drical 
1r‘75 in. 


5°5 in. 
|8 


Pairs 


Medium 
Even, usually 
expanded 
Regular rows 
ot grains 
Large 
10 OZ. 


Medium 
White 


Firm upright 

Orange yel- 
low 

Smooth 

Flat sides, 
rounded 
above 


Brazilian Flour- 
corn (Flour). | 


Tapering 


g in, 
6°5 In. 
14 
Distinct 


Narrow 
Even 


Regular rows 
of grains 

Medium 

g OZ. | 


Large 
White 


Firm upright | 
Milk white 


Smooth 


Flat sides, 
rounded 
above 


680 


CHAP. 
] . e ay 
VI. certai nly offers the temptation to exhibitors to remove at 
least some of their tip and butt grains. 
borne in mind that with modern shelling machinery, some 
of the tip and butt grains can be removed in the process 
of shelling. Is a farmer to be penalized for using such 
machinery ? 
PROVISIONAL STANDARD OF PERFECTION.—DENT, FLOUR, AND 
FLINT BREEDS. 
| | Golden Beauty | Yellow Cango | White Cango 
(Dent). (Flint). | (Flint). 
= | | 
Ear 
Shape Slowly taper- | Cylindrical | Tapering 
Ing 
Length . 9°75 in. 11 in, | g in. 
Circumference | 7 in. 6°5 in. | 5°5 in 
Rows | 12 12 12 
Arrangement . | Pairs Pairs at the | Pairs at the 
| butt butt 
, Sulci Medium | Medium Medium 
| Butt : | Even Even de-| Even,slightly 
| pressed | enlarged 
Tip Regular rows | Regular rows | Regular rows | 
| of grains of grains of grains 
Shank 3 | Medium | Small Large 
Weight . 13°5 OZ. | 12 oz. | 8 oz. 
| | 
| Cob: | | 
| Size . | Medium | Medium | Medium 
Colour Deep red | White White 
Weight . _ — = 
Grain: | 
Condition Firm upright | Firm upright ) Firm upright 
Colour Deep yellow) Orange yel- | Dirty white 
paler cap low 
Apex. . | Smooth | Smooth | Smooth 
Form of dent. | Crease _— | = 
Shape Broad wedge, | Flat sides, | Flat sides, 
rounded) rounded rounded 
corners | above above 
Per cent to ear _ | —_— — 
| Number _ per 
ear. - | 550 | 600 | 600 
Weight per ear | _— = | = 
| Weight per | 
| bushel : Ibs. | a 62-67 | 60-68 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 267 
Score CarRD FOR JUDGING SHELLED Maize. 


Score. 


N.B.—Some judges find it more convenient to allow only Points. 
one point instead of five for each item on the score 
card ; it makes no difference so long as either method 
is used consistently throughout. Possible. | Award. 

Quality of Grain :— | 

| 


1. Length 
Shape 
. Thickness 
. Uniformity (in size, | shape, and thickness) 
. Colour (trueness to type) 
. Shade and uniformity of colour 
. Colour of cob . 
. Weight per bushel . 
g. Chemical composition 
Condition of Grain :— | 
10. Dryness . 
. Sweetness ; | 
12. Soundness (freedom from decay) | 
13. Plumpness (grain should be well filled not shriveled | 
| 


OI AUP W NHN 
eee Bea me momen moi mes! 


monn 


nor chaffy ‘ 
14. Cleanness and freedom from rubbish 
15. Brightness 
Ears Accompanying Shelled ‘Maize: — 

16, Length : : 5 

17. Sulci (space between n rows) : : F 3 5 

18. Trueness to type . ; ; : F 5 
5 
5 


monn 


19. Shape and straightness of rows 
20. Firmness of grain on the cob . 


Notes. 


Quality of Grain.—Quality refers to thickness, shape, size, 
uniformity, and colour of grain, weight per unit measure, and 
colour of chaff. 

Length of Grain.—A deep grain gives a larger percent- 
age of grain to cob than a shallow one, 


CHAP. 
VI. 


268 MAIZE 


Shape of Grain.—A rather narrow, wedge-shaped grain 
gives a larger percentage of embryo to endosperm than a very 
broad shallow grain, and for some classes of trade the embryo is 
of more value than the starchy endosperm. But wedge-shaped 
grains should not have narrow tips. 

Thickness of Grain.—A thick grain contains more starch 
in proportion to “ hull” or “bran” than a thin one, and is there- 
fore preferred for certain classes of manufacture. 

Uniformity in thickness, in shape, and in depth of grain, 
improve the quality ; these can be secured by good breeding. 

Purity of Colour.—White grain must be at least 98 per 
cent white, and yellow grain 95 per cent yellow ; all else is 
classed as “mixed”. This applies to bulk shelled grain only. 

Shade.—White grain should be pure white, free from 
black tips and brown blotches; cut for brownish tinge ac- 
quired in sun-drying. Yellow grain should be clear, deep 
yellow, and uniform in colour. 

Colour of Cob.—White grain should not have red tips, 
which spoil the colour for certain manufacturing purposes ; 
yellow grain should have white tips in Golden King, Austin 
Colossal, German Yellow, Yellow Horsetooth, and the standard 
yellow flint breeds. 

Weight per Unit Measure.—This is usually given in 
standard bushels. The American Standard in all but two 
States is 56 Ibs. of shelled grain. Although in South Africa 
grain is not sold by measure, it is desirable to take the weights 
per unit of measure, as samples vary greatly, and the weight 
gives some indication of quality and chemical composition, 
for the richer the grain in protein the heavier it usually is. 

Chemical Composition.—The character of the endosperm 
can be determined to some extent by holding the grain to the 
light and by cutting it longitudinally parallel with the broad 
axis; the larger the amount: of translucent horny starch the 
richer in protein. Inasmuch as most of the oil-content of the 
maize-grain occurs in the embryo a large embryo usually in- 
dicates a high oil-content. 

Dryness.—Dry grain should not (on the High-veld) con- 
tain more than 12 per cent moisture. A parcel containing 
not more than 12 per cent will travel safely from South 
Africa to Europe. 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 269 


Sweetness.—Sweet grain is free from mustiness or other 
objectionable smell. 

Soundness.—Sound grain is free from decay, or the 
ravages of insects and Dzflodva injury (Fig. 159). 

Plumpness.—Plump grain is well filled, not shrivelled nor 
chaffy. 

Cleanness.— This refers to freedom from bits of cob, chaff, 
and all extraneous matter. 

Brightness.—A prime choice parcel of maize should be 
bright and shiny. Some breeds, e.g. Golden King, lack the 
lustre of others. Grain which has been harvested wet, and 
then dried out, often loses its brightness, and a dull sample 
(from whatever cause) is assumed to be due to harvesting 
when wet. 

Condition of Shelled Grain refers to soundness, plumpness, 
sweetness, dryness, cleanness, and brightness. Soundness 
and plumpness are considered the primary points in studying 
condition ; sweetness comes third, dryness fourth—for a sweet 
sample, but not quite dry, may dry out, but a dry sample 
that is musty will never get quite sweet again. 

For grader’s requirements, see chapter NII. 

Twenty-five points may be reserved for the ears accompany- 
ing a sample of shelled maize. The points to be considered in 
this connection are those which particularly affect uniformity 
and the quality of the grain, i.e. trueness to type, shape, space 
between rows, straightness of rows and regularity of grain, and 
firmness of grain on the cob. 

Length.—Length of ear affects the yield; other things 
being equal, the longest ears should have the preference pro- 
vided they no not exceed the standard of length for the breed. 

Space between Rows.— Wide space between rows is space 
wasted, and usually implies badly shaped grain. 

Trueness to Type.— Unless the ears are true to type the 
sample will not be uniform. 

Shape of Ears.—The more cylindrical the ear the more 
uniform the grain. Allowance must be made for breed char- 
acteristics in this respect, for the ears of Leamzng, Chester 
County, and some other breeds are naturally tapering. 

Firmness of Grain on the Cob.—If grain is loose on the 
cob it may mean that it is not as plump and well filled as 


CHAP. 
VI. 


to judge maize. 


ing 


a 
o 
a 
a 
n 
ee 
S 
3) 
, 
=I 
ar 
7] 
S 
8 
(3) 
‘a 
E 
<< 
Sel 
i>) 
8 
jem 


JUDGING AND) SELECTION 2471 


possible. Observation of this point is the quickest and surest 
way to detect this defect. But the point is comparative only, 
for in some breeds the grain is always more or less loose ; 
however, this does not appear to apply to breeds grown in 
South Africa. 

Straightness of Rows and Regularity of Grain.—Unless 
the rows are straight and the grain is regular in the rows it 
will not be uniform. 

225. Judges Computing Sheet.—The following form has 
been found of great assistance in reducing the time required 
for judging exhibits. It was first designed for use with ex- 
hibits of ten ears, but by increasing the number of points from 
fourteen to twenty and leaving out the figures for possible 
award, it has been adapted for use with either ears or shelled 
grain :— 


CHAP. 
VI. 


272 MAIZE 


CHAP. Form For Usb In JupGinGc Maize By Pornts. 


DOE Hc rccesentniicniseircinsoay, AA Mecass 
Show....... 


Class. 


Points. 


N Possible | | 
Be Award. ¥ 2 |) 3 


4 
C0 ON OUFWHNH 


II | 


Yield of Grain 
per Ear ; | 
Weight of Grain 
per Bushel . | | 
Average Length | 
of Ear. 


| 
| 


AWARDS. | NOTEs. 


Ist Prize. 

and Prize. | 
3rd Prize. | 
Highly Commended. 
Commended. | 
Special Prize. | 


226. Useful Form of Judge's Card.—It is a great con- 
venience to the judge, and is conducive to greater rapidity and 
accuracy in the granting of awards, if a convenient form of 
judge's card is used. The variety of judge’s cards and note- 


JUDGING AND SELECTION 273 
books is almost as great as the number of shows held; it 
includes plain notebooks, printed triplicating books, and 
printed cards. The card of which a facsimile (reduced in 
size) is given below, is one.of the best for convenience and 
rapidity of handling. The actual measurements of the card 
are 10 X 6 inches. 


SCCEONy | ere as eet aa AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Class No. 


JupGe’s Carp. 


Judge's Name: iii, iawccaun dinguavenqasiiany nemnecessmndnudeasahanmanmiascquliaeuean ne 
Class No. 


JupGE’s REMARKS. 


AWARDS. 
ESt. Prize: Noi, masociasiavessaads 


3rd Prize No........... 
H. Commended No.. ais 
Commended No. ............... 
| Ch aM P10 Nisgsssiies edeorer eaaies 


| 
i} 
| and Prize No... 


Viaeiiiedseienaueis oo Oe | stewards 
Dat@hisieasandssovecntimetssandan I  <aheraaatnamaaiesbcasiia nts 


Triplicating carbon-books are also useful; as soon as a 
class has been judged the steward tears out the two carbons, 
one of which is sent to the Secretary’s office and the other to 
the Press room, while the original is retained for reference by 
the stewards and judge until all the classes have been judged. 


18 


CHAP. 
Vi. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAPTER VII. 
VARIETIES AND BREEDS. 


And whene’er some lucky maiden 
Found a red ear in the husking, 

Found a maize-ear red as blood is, 
‘Nushka! ” cried they all together, 
‘‘Nushka! you shall have a sweetheart, 
You shall have a handsome husband! ” 


—Hiawatha,. 

227. Botanical Varieties—TYhe genus Zea comprises but a 

single known species, Zea Ways Linn. As is the case with 
most of the older cultivated plants, the species is very poly- 
morphous. The various forms of maize are grouped under the 
ten botanical varzetzes described below. Of these, five only, 
flint, dent, flour, sugar and pop-corn, are regularly cultivated 
for their grain. Sturtevant (2) considered these and two other 
varieties to be distinct species, but later botanists have not 
followed him in keeping them separate. 

I. ZEA MAYS L., var. TUNICATA St. Hil.; (Zea crypto- 
sperma Bonaf., 1836; Zea Mays var. vaginata Sturt., 
1884 ; Zea tunicata (St. Hil.) Sturt., 1894). Pod maize. 

ZEA MAYS L., var. PR&CON Bonaf., 1836; (Zea Mays 

Lam., 1823 ; Zea irta Bonaf.; Zea Mays var. minima 
Bonaf.; Zea Marys var. rostrata Bonaf.; Zea canina 
S. Wats., 1891; Zea everta Sturt., 1894; Zea Alays 
L., var. everta (Sturt.) Bailey, 1902). The pop-corns. 

3. ZEA MAYS L., var. INDURATA (Sturt.) Bailey, 1902; 
(Zea indurata Sturt., 1894). The flint breeds. 

4. ZEA MAYS L., var. INDENTATA (Sturt.) Bailey, 1902 
(Zea tndentata, Sturt., 1894). The dent breeds. 

5. ZEA MAYS L., var. ERYTHROLEPIS (Bonafous) Alefeld ; 
(Zea erythrolepis Bonaf., 1836; Zea amylacea Sturt , 
1894 ; Zea Mays L., var. amyvlacea (Sturt.) Bailey, 
1902). Soft maize or flour-corns. 

274 


iS) 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 275 


6. ZEA MAYS L., var. RUGOSA Bonaf,, 1836; (Zea sac- 
charata Sturt., 1894; Zea Mays L., var. saccharata 
(Sturt.) Bailey, 1902). Sugar maize. 

7. ZEA MAYS L., var. AMYLEA-SACCHARATA (Sturt.) Bailey, 
1902; (Z. amylea-saccharata Sturt., 1886). The 
starchy-sugar corns. Grown by the San Pedro Indians 
of Mexico, and in Peru (Sturtevant, 2). 

8. ZEA MAYS L., var. JAPONICA (Van Houtte) Koern. ; (Z. 
Japonica Van Houtte; Z. véttata Hort.). A small 
plant with foliage variously striped with white ; 
grown for ornament. 

g. ZEA MAYS L., var. GRACILLIMA Koern. ; (2. gractllima 
Hort. and Z. wntma Hort.). A very dwarf, slender 
form with green leaves, sometimes cultivated for 
ornament. 

10. ZEA MAYS L., var. CURAGUA (Molina) Alefeld; (Z. 
Curagua Molina). A robust green-leaved form, grown 
for ornament. Considered by Sturtevant (2) to belong 
to var. precox, 

228. Pod Matze (Zea Mays var. tunicata St. Hil.) ; (Fig. 51). 
—In this breed each grain is enclosed in a pod or husk formed 
by the enlarged glumes; the whole ear also has its usual coat- 
ing of husks formed by the leaf-sheaths. 

Vernacular names: Pod corn, cow corn, stock corn, forage 
corn, husk corn, primitive corn, California corn, Egyptian corn, 
Rocky Mountain corn, Oregon corn (United States); pinsin- 
gallo (Buenos Aires); manigette (Ethiopia); balg-maiz 
(Germany), 

The grain is small and very flinty, often with a sharp beak, 
and is said to be particularly resistant to weevils. Dr. Sturte- 
vant (2) notes that once his whole collection of maize breeds 
(an exceptionally fine one) was destroyed by weevils, except 
the pod maize. The plant is excessively leafy, and has a 
great tendency to sucker. The tassels are unusually heavy 
and are inclined to be grain-bearing. 

Caspar Bauhin in 1623 referred to the occurrence of pod 
maize in Ethiopia, under the name of manigette. Sturtevant 
was inclined to look upon it as the aboriginal form of maize, 
but admitted that it may be an abnormal and _proliferous state 


of the flint variety. Darwin considered that the aboriginal 
18 * 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


276 MAIZE 


form of maize would almost certainly have had its grains pro- 
tected in this way. Sturtevant (2) points out that podded 
corn is less conspicuous than the naked kernels of cultivated 
varieties, and is looser on the cob, yet firmly attached. This 
favours both protection from, and distribution by, birds. As 
insect and bird depredation furnish the strongest barrier to the 
growing of wild forms of maize, these protective characters 
assume importance in the argument that pod corn is an ab- 
original form. The property of floating upon water, which 
the podded kernels possess in strong degree, would also facili- 
tate distribution in a state of nature, as also the moisture con- 
tained within the pod. But pod maize does not appear to 
have been found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru. 

Pod maize is said to be cultivated by the Guaycurus Indians 
of Uruguay and Paraguay; elsewhere only as a curiosity, 
though it is occasionally found in maize fields throughout the 
United States, in Brazil, and South Africa. 

229. Pop-corn (Zea Mays var. precor Bonaf.). Coyote corn ; 
German: frither swerg-matz.—Characterized by the exception- 
ally large proportion of corneous endosperm (in the best breeds 
it comprises the whole endosperm) and the small size of the 
grains and ear. The grain is sharply pointed in some breeds. 

The breeds of this variety are said to be more subject to 
sports and monstrous growths than those of any other, and 
the tendency to bear many ears to the stalk is highly de- 
veloped. The grain has strong vegetative power, and possesses 
the property of germination, after drying, to a great degree 
(Sturtevant, 2). It has the property of “popping,” which 
means the complete eversion, or turning inside-out, of the 
endosperm, through the explosion of the contained moisture 
and the swelling of the starch on the application of heat. The 
presence of a small amount of starchy endosperm does not 
greatly interfere with the property of popping, but when there 
is a large amount of starchy endosperm, the corn does not 
pop well, for only the corneous portion explodes, leaving the 
starchy portion unchanged. 

Pop maize has been much cultivated by native tribes both 
in North and South America, and has been found illustrated 
in sculpture, or petrified, among Peruvian ruins (Sértevant, 2). 
It is a favourite sweetmeat with Americans. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS a79 


Golden pop and Rice pop have been introduced into South 
Africa, but at present scarcely any pop-corn is grown there. 

A form of this variety was reported under the name of 
Coyote corn as having been found growing “ wild” in Mexico, 
and was named Zea canina by Dr. Sereno Watson ; subsequent 
investigations have shown, however, that it was a cross between 
pop-corn and some other variety, and there is no evidence that 
it was not an escape from cultivation. 

230. Flint Maize(Zea Mays var. indurata (Sturt.) Bailey).— 
Recognized by the corneous (horny) endosperm completely 
enclosing the starchy endosperm; the latter does not reach 
the apex as it does in the var. zzdentata, a fact which may be 
demonstrated in a split grain; the horny endosperm varies in 
thickness in different breeds. 

Most, if not all, of the earliest-maturing commercial breeds 
belong to the flint variety; in many places where they are 
grown, e.g. in Southern Europe, the growing-season is so short 
(forty to fifty days) that only a very small amount of grain can 
be produced and, as a rule, the flint breeds are relatively light 
yielders. 

Flint maize is the type usually grown by native tribes, 
eg. in South Africa, Egypt, Somaliland, Mexico, Honduras, 
Trinidad, Paraguay, and Brazil. Also ninety per cent of the 
Argentine crop, and practically all of that of South Europe, is 
flint maize. The greater demand for dent maize has relegated 
the flint breeds to a subsidiary place, mainly as catch-crops 
at the end of the season or for use in parts of the world where 
the growing-season is too short for dent breeds. Flint maize 
is grown in Canada as far north as 54° north latitude. 

The grains of some breeds of flint maize, being smaller than 
those of the dents, are preferred in the European markets for 
feeding poultry, game, and stock, and command a slightly 
higher price than the dents. 

The smaller-grained flint breeds grown commercially are 
known to the trade as “ round” maize. 

As flint grain is much harder than dent, it is less easily 
injured by weevil and grain-moth. It takes longer to dry 
out than dent, but when once dry, does not re-absorb moisture 
so easily, and is therefore better suited to a long sea voyage. 

231. Dent Matze (Zea Mays var. indentata (Sturt.) Bailey). 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


278 MWATIZE 


—Recognized by the indentation (or ‘‘dent”) at the apex and 
the presence of corneous (horny) endosperm at the sides of the 
grain; the starchy endosperm extends to the apex. The 
horny endosperm varies in height and thickness in different 
breeds ; this determines the character of the indentation, which 
is caused by the drying and shrinkage of the ‘‘starchy” endo- 
sperm at the summit of the grain, which is drawn in or 
together, as the grain dries; the horny endosperm is not 
affected in this way, which accounts for the fact that the flint 
breeds (in which there is no “starchy” endosperm at the 
apex) do not develop a “ dent”. 

The breeds of dent maize are far more numerous than those 
of any other variety, and in the United States they are more 
extensively grown than any others, furnishing nearly all of the 
maize exported. 

Dent maize is known to have been grown in Peru in 1650, 
and by some of the North American Indians in 1608. It is also 
grown by the native tribes of Mexico, Venezuela, and Brazil. 
The earliest-maturing breeds can be cultivated as far north as 
Ottawa, Canada (about 46° north latitude), but generally 
speaking the dent breeds are not so well suited as the flints 
to regions of short growing-season. 

232. Soft Maize (Zea Mays var. erythroleprs (Bonaf.) Alef.) 
—This variety includes the flour corns or “ bread mielies” and 
is recognized by the absence of corneous endosperm. The 
grain is soft, and although most of the breeds of soft maize 
appear to have been grown in tropical America, the grain does 
not keep well on account of susceptibility to weevil and grain- 
moth ; it is therefore not well suited to cultivation in tropical 
and sub-tropical countries. 

It is probably on this account that there are so few breeds of 
soft maize; Sturtevant describes only twenty-seven, some of 
which appear to be merely colour forms of others. Soft maize 
is used both for meal and for eating as “ green mielies,” but the 
feeding value is poor; both protein and fat-content are low. 
Two breeds are occasionally grown in South Africa, both having 
white grain, viz. South African Bread Mielie and Brastlian flour 
corn. Tuscarora and Cusco have been tested in the Transvaal 
and abandoned; red grains are met with in both of these 
breeds. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 279 


The “mummy-corns”’ from Peru, Chile, and Arizona were 
largely flour corns. Flour maize is still grown by native 
Indians of Brazil, Mexico, Arizona, and other parts of North 
America, for their own consumption, but it is not much culti- 
vated commercially. 

233. Sugar Matze(Zea Mays var. rugosa Bonaf.). French : 
mais ridé; German: Gekornelte matz.—Well defined by the 
more or less crinkled, wrinkled, or shrivelled condition of the 


grains and their translucent, horny appearance. Sturtevant 
describes sixty-three sorts. 

The cultivation of sweet maize in place of the ‘“ bread 
mielie ’’ and the “ field corns,” for use as a green vegetable, is 
slowly gaining ground in South Africa, and seed can now be 
obtained from most of the local seedsmen. Until recently 
difficulty has been found in obtaining good seed in South 
Africa, as American-grown sugar maize loses its vitality in 
transit. Good sugar maize ears bring as much as 20s. per bag 
on the Johannesburg market at the very beginning of the 
season (November and December), and should pay well at the 
price. 

Sugar maize is extensively used in the United States for 
canning, and in the State of Maine is grown as a field crop for 
this purpose, in localities which are too far north for the seed 
to ripen. A number of the early-maturing breeds ripen their 
crop as far north as Ottawa, Canada. Sugar maize is but little 
grown in the Southern States, and apparently improves in 
quality as it proceeds northward. The grain ripens on the 
cob even when plucked at an early stage of edible maturity 
(Sturtevant, 2). 

234. The Agricultural Breeds.—Botanical varieties produce 
cultural “breeds” or “races”, It is said that in 1814 there 
were only five breeds of maize known in the United States, 
viz., Big Yellow, Big White, Little Yellow, Little White, and 
Gourd Seed ; but by 1840 nearly forty breeds were recognized ; 
and at least one of those grown at the present day, viz., Leam- 
mg, originated before that date. 

Sturtevant (2) in 1894 described over 500 cultivated breeds 
of maize; to these many have since been added, while others 
have dropped out of cultivation. These 500 were grouped as 
follows :— 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 


VII. 


280 MAIZE 


Breeds. 
Pop-corns. i ; : ; : : ‘ : 25 
Flints . . : y F ‘ ; i i 5 69 
Dents . i ‘ i 4 ‘ : ; ~ 323 
Soft Maize . : . ‘ f ‘ 3 ‘ . 27 
Sugar Maize . : ; : ‘ ' F : é 63 
507 


The leading agricultural breeds are described in the follow- 
ing pages, but for a ready means of comparing their leading 
characteristics the reader is referred to the Standards of Per- 
fection in the preceding chapter (7 223). 

235. Comparative Yield of Dent and Flint Breeds—Dent 
maize is, with few exceptions, a much better yielding variety 
than flint maize. Each variety has its place, but where dents 
can be grown they are, generally speaking, the most desirable. 
On this account the American farmer grows only dents, except 
in localities which do not suit them. The difference in market 
value is so small that it does not pay to grow a poor-yielding 
sort if another can be grown which yields a bag to the acre 
more. Hunt (1) clearly shows the superiority of dents, even 
in Pennsylvania where the climate is not so well suited to 
them as in some other parts of the States. Asa result of a 
three years’ test he obtained the following result -— 


‘Wetehe, ie Ear 


Variety. Weight of Stover | Total Lbs. 


| in Lbs. 
oe | 
| | 
Dent Maize. é ray 3,012 | 3,258 | 6,270 
Flint Maize al 1,750 1,691 | 3,441 | 
—— | | 
Difference r : . | 1,262 | 1,567 2,829 | 
| | 


The following yields were obtained at the Maine (U.S.A.) 
Agricultural Experiment Station, as a result of a three-year 
test :— 


Variety. Breed: Total Crop per Yield of Dry Matter 
Acre Green. per Acre. 
Dent 5 White Horsetooth . ; 35,195 lbs. 4,798 lbs. 
Flint : Local. F ' F 19,197 ,, 2,893, 
Sugar. Early Crosby . i ‘i 16,908 ,, 2,420 ,, 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 28t 


At the Cornell (U.S.A.) Station a dent breed gave 10 per 
cent more dry matter than a flint. 

236. Principal Breeds of Dent Matze Grown in America,— 
The following are the twenty-five principal breeds of maize 
now grown in the “Corn-belt” of the United States :— 

Yellows.—Leaming (the oldest known breed), Reid, Legal 
Tender, Riley Favourite, Golden Eagle, Shenandoah, Farmers’ 
Reliance, Pride-of-the-North, Early Mastodon, Golden Row, 
Mammoth Golden, Willhoit, Cattle King, Kansas Sunflower, 
Minnesota 13, and Hildreth, 

Whites —lowa Silver-mine, Boone County, White Superior, 
Silver King, Chases, Wisconsin No. 7, McAuley, Nebraska 
White Prize, and Iowa Ideal. 

Nearly all of these have been tried in South Africa, and 
most of them have not proved satisfactory, indicating a differ- 
ence in condition of climate or soil, or both. 

237. Other Dent Breeds Grown in America.—In addition 
to the above, the following breeds are recommended by the 
several State Experiment Stations (at which they have been 
tested for the number of years stated), as suited to their vary- 
ing climatic and soil conditions :—! 


1. Adams Early (w.d.)— 7. Boston Market (Sweet) (w.d.)— 
Colorado (1). Massachusetts Hatch (4 e.). 
2. Albemarle Prolific (w.d.)— 8. Bradberry Improved (y.d.)— 


South Carolina (z, on thin upland). 


Georgia (7), I-II years. 
(2, on bottom land). 9 gia (7) 


” ” . Bristol -d 7.d.)— 
3. Blount (w.d.)— ated nanday 4) 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


Alabama (Auburn Sta.) (4), 5 years. 


4. Blount Prolific (w.d.)— 
New York State Sta. (2 e.).? 
North Carolina (3 g. and s.).* 


Io. 


North Carolina (x g. and st.).# 

Burrill and Whitman (w.d.)— 
New York State Sta. (3 e.). 
Vermont (I e.). 


Texas (1), 3 years. ir. Burrill and Whitman Ensilage 
5. Boggs Home-grown— Go 

South Carolina (z,on bottom land). isconsin (6). 

- - (5,0n thin upland). 1?- Burr White (w.d.)— 

6. Boone County White (w.d.)— Illinois (3), 6 years. 

Illinois (z), 6 years. 13. Calico (mixed)— 

Indiana (4), 5 years. Nebraska (11), 2 years. 

Kansas (5), 3 years. 14. Champion Pearl (w.d.)— 


Nebraska (14), 2 years. 


Vermont (3 €.). 


1 The numbers in brackets refer to the relative position which the particular 
breed occupies at the Station named; thus ‘Albemarle Prolific, South Carolina 
(z, on thin upland)” indicates that it is considered the foremost breed at that 
Station for that particular soil, where Mosby Prolific occupies only 6th place. 


2e, = grown for ensilage. 


3g. and s. = grown for grain and silage. 


4o,. and st. = grown for grain and stover. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


28 


15. 


16. 


2 MAIZE 


Champion White Pearl (w.d.)— 
Arkansas (4), 2 years. 
Illinois (2), 6 years. 
Towa (5), 3 years. 
Utah (9), 10 years. 

Champion Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 
Kansas (7), 3 years. 
Louisiana (3 g. and st.), 1 year. 


. Clarage (y.d.)— 


Ohio (1 medium), Io years. 


. Clark’s Early Mastodon (y.d.)— 


Louisiana (7 g. and st.), T year. 
Utah (5), 9 years. 


. Clark’s Iroquois (y.d.)— 


Illinois (5), 6 years. 


. Cleveland Colossal— 


New York State Sta. (4 e.). 


. Cocke Prolific (w.d.)— 


Georgia (6), I-II years. 
North Carolina (1 g. and s.). 
Dakota Dent (y.d.)— 
Wyoming (2). 
Darke Co. Early Mammoth (y.d.)— 
Ohio (5), 6 years. 
Delaware Co. Dent— 
North Carolina (2 g. and st.). 
Early Butler (y.d.)— 
Ohio (3 early), 10 years. 
Early Cattle King (y.d.)— 
Nebraska (12), 2 years. 


. Early Ripe Fodder, No. 152— 


North Dakota (2). 


. Early Huron Dent (y.d.)— 


Utah (7), 7 years. 


. Early Mastodon (y.d.)— 


Arkansas (3), 2 years. 
Texas (7), 3 years. 
Vermont (5 e.). 


. Early Prolific (w.d.j— 


Vermont (4 e.). 


. Early Thompson (y.d.)— 


Kansas (1), 3 years. 


. Early White (w.d.)— 


Kansas (3), 3 years. 


. Early Yellow (y.d.)— 


Indiana (6), 5 years. 


. Early Yellow Rose (y.d.)— 


Kansas (6), 3 years. 
Nebraska (7), 2 years. 


. Edmonds (y.d.)— 


Illinois (8), 6 years. 


. Ellis— 


Tennessee (3 Fodder), 1 year. 


. Eureka (y.d.)— 


Georgia (4), I-II years. 
Massachusetts Hatch Sta. (3 e.). 


. Evans (y.d.)— 


Vermont (6 e.). 


. Evergreen (Sweet)— 


Wisconsin (8). 


40. 


63. 


64. 


Experiment Station Yellow (y.d.)— 
Alabama (Auburn Sta.) (3), 5 
years. 


. Extra Early Huron Dent (y.d.)— 


Ohio (4 early), 9 years. 


. Fargo Brothers Ensilage— 


Wisconsin (5). 


. Farmers’ Favourite (y.d.)— 


Ohio (4), 3 years. 


. Fitzpatrick Improved (y.d.)— 


Georgia (10), I-Ir years. 


. Fleming Yellow (y.d.)— 


Indiana (3), 5 years. 


. Florida— 
Tennessee (L. Fodder). 
. Forsyth (w.d.)— 


Oregon (4 g. and s.). 


. Forsyth Favourite (w.d.)— 


Texas (4), 2 years. 


. Gandy— 


Louisiana (2 g. and st.), I year. 


. Garrick Improved— 


South Carolina (2, on thin upland). 


. Golden Beauty— 


Arkansas (I), 2 years. 

Illinois (10), 6 years. 

Iowa (6), 3 years. 

Missouri (1), 3 years. 

North Carolina (5 g. and st.). 
Texas (3), 3 years. 


. Golden Beauty, Improved (y.d.)— 


Tennessee (2). 


. Golden Cap (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (5), 2 years. 


. Golden Dent (y.d.)— 


Arkansas (6), 2 years. 


. Golden Dent, Improved (y.d.)— 


Georgia (15), I-II years. 


. Golden Row (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (4), 2 years. 


. Hartman (w.d.)— 


Kansas (2), 3 years. 


. Hartman White (w.d.)— 


Indiana Sta. (2), 5 years. 


. Henderson Eureka (y.d.)— 


Ohio (3), 3 years. 


. Henry Grady (w.d. ?)— 


Georgia (2), I-11 years. 


. Hickory King (w.d.)— 


Alabama (Auburn Sta.) (5), 5 years. 
Arkansas (5), 2 years. 

New York (r e.). 

Texas (5), 3 years. 

Utah (10), 9 years. 

Vermont (7 e.). 


. Hogue Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (1), 2 years. 
Huffman (w.d.)— 

Tennessee (4 Fodder). 
Hughson Dent (y.d.)— 

South Dakota (2), 


85. 


86. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 28 


. Huron Pure Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Oregon (3 g. and s.). 


. Iowa Gold Mine (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (13), 2 years. 


. J. E. Lewis Prolific (w.d.)— 


South Carolina (3, on thin up- 
land). 


. Johnston & Stokes Giant Beauty— 


North Carolina (3 g. and st. ). 


. King of the Earliest (w.d.)— 


Ohio (2 early), 9 years. 
Utah (6), ro years. 


. Leaming (y.d.)— 


Arkansas (7), 2 years. 
Illinois (4), 6 years. 

Missouri (2), 3 years. 
Nebraska (9), 2 years. 

New Hampshire (1). 

North Carolina (4 g. and st.). 
Ohio (6), 4 years. 

Texas (6), 3 years. 


. Leaming Cuppy (y.d.)— 


Ohio (2 medium), 5 years. 


. Leaming Field (y.d.)— 


Massachusetts (Hatch Sta.) (2 €.). 


. Leaming, Improved (y.d.)— 


Tennessee (3). 


. Legal Tender (y.d.)— 


Illinois (6), 6 years. 
Iowa (2), 3 years. 
Nebraska (3), 2 years. 


. Lenocher Homestead— 


Iowa (10), 3 years. 


. Long Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Utah (3), 5 years. 


. Loveland Dent (y.d.)— 


South Dakota (z). 


. Madison County Red (y.d.)— 
Alabama (Canebrake Sta.) 2 
years. 


. Mammoth Cuban— 


Iowa (7), 3 years. 


. Mammoth Golden Yellow (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (10), 2 years. 


. Mammoth White Pearl (w.d.)— 


Nebraska (15), 2 years. 


. Marlboro Prolific (w.d.)— 


Georgia (I), I-11 years. 
Louisiana (6 g. and st.), t year. 


. Minnesota King (y.d.)— 


Oregon (2 g. and s.). 
South Dakota (4). 
Wyoming (r). 


. Minnesota No. 13 (y.d.)— 


Nebraska (19). 
Missouri Leaming (y.d.)— 
Ohio (x), 1 year. 
Mosby (w.d.)— 
Alabama (Auburn Sta.) 
years. 


387. 


88. 


Too. 


IoOl. 


108. 


. Nebraska White Prize (w 


. Nebraska White Prize (w. 


. North-western 


ess 


Mosby Prolific (w.d.)— 
Mississippi (1). 
South Carolina (6, on thin up- 
land). 
Moyer Improved (y.d.)— 
Georgia ©), ay years. 


. Murdock (y. 


Illinois ( y ee years. 


7 
. Murdock (yd J 


Texas (2), 3 years. 

1d.) — 
Iowa (9), 3 years. 

d.)— 
Nebraska (8), 2 years. 


. Normandy White Giant— 


Wisconsin (4). 


. Northern White Field (w.d.)— 


North Carolina (2 g. and s.). 


. North Star Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Ottawa (Canada) (1), 3 years. 

Dent (No. 124) 
(w.d.J)— 

North Dakota (r). 


. Piasa King (w.d.)— 


Missouri (3), 2 years. 


. Piasa Queen (w.d.)— 


Nevada (2 st.), I year. 
New York (5 e.), I year. 


. Pride of Kansas— 


Kansas (4), 3 years. 
Prairie Queen (y.d.)— 
Vermont (8 e.). 

Pride of the North (y.d.)— 
Nebraska (18), 2 years. 
Nevada (rt), I year. 

Ohio (x Early), 8 years. 
Oregon (1 g. and s.). 
South Dakota (3). 


2. Purdue Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Indiana (r), 5 years. 


- Queen of the Field (y.d.)— 


Utah (8), To years. 


. Queen of the North (y.d.)— 


Utah (4), 7 years. 


. Red Cob Ensilage (w.d.)— 


North Carolina (5 g. and s.). 


. Red Driver— 


Louisiana (4 g. and st.), 1 year. 


. Reid Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Iowa (1), 3 years. 
Nebraska (2), 2 years. 
Ohio (2), 2 years, 

Riley Favourite (y.d.)— 
Illinois (9), 6 years. 
Indiana (7), 5 years. 
Nebraska (17), 2 years. 
Texas (9), 3 years. 


. Rural Thoroughbred— 


Massachusetts: (Hatch Sta.) (z e.). 


CHAP. 
VIt. 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


284 MAIZE 


110, Salzer Earliest Canadian Yellow 125. St. Charles (w.d.)— 


(y.d.)— Alabama (Auburn Sta.) (2),5 years. 
Utah (1), 5 years. Missouri (4), 2 years. 
111. Sander Improved (y.d.)— 126. Stones White (w.d.)— 
Georgia (3), 1-11 years. Georgia (9), I-I1 years. 
112, Sander Improved (y.d.)— 127. Stones Yellow Show Pad (y.d.)— 
South Carolina (4, on thin up- Georgia (16), I-11 years. 
land). 128. Tatum Choice— 
113. Seckler Perfection (w.d. ?)— Mississippi (2). 
Iowa (4), 3 years. 129. Tennessee No. 3889— 
114. Shaw White (w.d.)— Tennessee (1), I year. 
Georgia (12), I-11 years. , (2 Fodder). 
115. Shaw Yellow (y.d.)— 130. Virginia Horsetooth (w.d.)— 
Georgia (11), I-11 years. Vermont (9 e.). 
116. Sibley Sheep Tooth— 131. Virginia White Dent (w.d.)— 
Wisconsin (7). Louisiana (1 g. and st.), t year. 
117. Silver-mine (w.d.)— 132. Weekley Improved (y.d.)— 
Nebraska (16), 2 years. Georgia (5), I-Ir years. 
118. Smedley Dent (y.d.)— 133. Western Yellow Dent (y.d.)— 


Wisconsin (3). Iowa (8), 3 years. 
11g. Smith Improved (y.d.)— 134. White Cap Yellow Dent (w.d. and 


: yd. )— 
Georgia (13), I-11 years. y. : 
120. Snowflake (w.d.)— oe f medium), 7 years, 


: . 135. White Dent (w.d.)— 
Georgia (Atlanta Sta.) (14), I-11 35 Apiansas ( 5 aes 


Eats: : North Carolina . and s.). 
t21. Snowflake White (w.d.)— 136, Whitmire Monin Seed Cas 
Nebraska (6), 2 years. South Carolina (3, on bottom 
122. Southern Ensilage— land). 
Wisconsin (2). 137. Wisconsin Early White (w.d.)— 
123. Southern Horsetooth— Utah (2), 8 years. 
Wisconsin (1). 138. Yellow Creole— 
124. Southern White Gourd Seed Louisiana (5 g. and st.), I year. 
(w.d.)— 139. Yellow Speckled Dent (y.d.)— 
Texas (8), 3 years. Indiana (5), 5 years. 


238. Principal Breeds of Dent Maize Grown in South 
Africa.—White dents: Hickory King, Louisiana or 10-row 
Hickory,,12-row Hickory or Hickory Horsetooth, Natal White 
Horsetooth, Lowa Silver-mine, Ladysmith, Boone County, and 
Salisbury White are the breeds most largely grown. ; 

The following have been tested and discontinued: Large 
White, Late White Horsetooth (not the breed known by this 
name in Natal), Mayfield Earliest, Champion-of-the-North, 
Blount Prolific, Minnesota White, Ninety-day White, Wiscon- 
sin, Woods Northern, Improved Early Horsetooth, Virginia 
Horsetooth, Red-cob Ensilage, Cocke Prolific, Snow-white, 
McMackin Gourd-seed, Snowflake, McAuley, Silver King, 
and Sheep’s Tooth. 

Yellow dents: Vhe principal sorts grown are: Yellow 
Horsetooth, German Yellow, Golden Beauty, Chester County, 
Eureka, Yellow Hogan, Golden Eagle, Reid Yellow Dent, 
Minnesota Early, Leaming, and Golden King, 


wm 


is] 


AND BREEDS 


VARIETIES 


\ Olt GI 8 Mi 1 
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aqdaadai dada tay Wael Ssacee 
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yeu eau is Bh AUNT yy yyy <a 


veaaiaititviiii an CDONADANNHANNATLEN 
« ar MF UudaMvadtucennvonygontnt 00000000) rhe 


Wine WRAY Ca ALS Uhh hah SALRAL LARA ADARAR AS 


Mog 


A 


B 


Fic. 94.—A, Hickory King, unusually good ear, but sulci rather wide. 


Ladysmith. 


B, 


CHAP. 
VII. 


286 MAIZE 


The following have been tried and discontinued : Waterloo 
Extra Early, Late Mastodon, Yellow Butcher, Bloody Butcher, 
Wealth of Nations, King Early, Pride of the North, Improved 
Leaming, Legal Tender, Early Mastodon, Extra-early Huron, 


‘Minnesota 13, White-cap, Early Butler, Droughtproof, Austin 


Colossal, Bristol roo-day, White-cap, Brewer, Riley Favourite, 
Clarence River, Hawkesbury Champion, Iowa Gold-mine, Red 
Hogan, King-of-the-Earliest, Kansas Sunflower, Queen of the 
Prairie, Hildreth. 

239. Hickory King.— Figs. 944, 95, and 96. Class: medium 
late white dent ; rows, 8; length of ear, 9 inches ; circumference 
of ear at 2 inches from butt, 6} inches, from tip, 54 inches ; grain, 
often as broad as deep, narrow crease-dented, roughish to 
smooth. First introduced into Natal before the War, thence 
into the Transvaal and Orange Free State; fresh introductions 
from the United States were made by the writer after the 
War. 

Flickory King is the best known and most extensively 
grown breed in South Africa, although its average yielding 
capacity is lower than that of several other breeds. It is later 
in maturing than several other sorts grown, and is therefore 
better suited to Midland or Bush-veld conditions than to 
the Upland or High-veld climate. Generally speaking, it is 
not a good drought-resister, but is considered less particular 
about its soil-requirements than some other breeds, and is 
grown successfully on lighter, sandy soils, where Boone County 
fails. The grain is large and attractive in appearance, which 
probably accounts for the general popularity of the breed, 
and the cob is extremely thin, drying out quickly. The 
breed is typically 8-rowed, but there has been a good deal 
of inter-crossing with 10- and 12-rowed breeds, and there may 
also be a certain amount of fluctuating variability in this 
direction; but as a rule well-bred Aizckory King is more 
constant in row numbers than other dent breeds. The 8-row 
character appears to be partly responsible for low yield, inas- 
much as there is too great width of sulci when there is any 
depth to the grain; or when there is no loss of space between 
rows, the grain is shallow and apt to be too thin; these facts 
suggest that 10-row and 12-row types of Afickory should be 
better yielders, and breed tests show that this is the case. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 287 


ue Pp. 
ve P 
a — Pe 
mn sl 
ee ele ae . 
ar aa 
a 
iis 
é - 
N 


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hago : - 
a * OF 
a ; a 
3 = 
om ee Game his 
r mee Gace A 
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: ane) 
a ota aoe, 
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om te =F 
va” e 
4, om. 
i, % 


A B 


Fic, 95.—Hickory King. A, defective tip. B, a good average ear. 


285 WAIZE 


CHAP. 
VII. 


Fic. 96.—Variation in ears of Hickory King. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 289 


In spite of the lack of crowding, or possibly on account of CHAP. 
it, there is a great tendency to irregularity in the rows. The V! 
frequent occurrence of an extra grain out of place (see Fig. 97), 
forming an irregular star, suggests the possibility that a larger 
number of rows is more normal. 

The extensive cultivation of A/éckory King has led to the 
accidental production of innumerable crosses, most of which 
appear to be useless, and none of which are definitely fixed. 
Of these Ladysmith Hickory (Fig. 97) is a promising type, 
characterized by the length of ear; it was found by the writer 
among some exhibits at the Ladysmith Show in 1912. Other 
probable crosses with Hickory King are referred to under the 
types which they more nearly represent. 

240. Hickory Horsetooth, or 12-row Hickory.—Fig. 08. 
Class: medium late white dent ; length of ear, 9 inches on the 
High-veld to 10} at lower altitudes ; circumference of ear at 
2 inches from butt, 62 to 7} inches, from tip, 6 to 6} inches ; 
rows, 12; grain, deep wedge-shaped, broad crease-dented, 
smooth to roughish. Grown in the United States, both sepa- 
rately and in mixed stands of //zchory, and sometimes known 
as Texas Hickory. 

At the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, the writer 
isolated this type as likely to prove more productive than 
Hickory King owing to the greater depth and better shape of 
the grains, which allow greater yield of grain to the same 
size of ear. This type was subsequently propagated at the 
Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom; also by Mr. 
McLaren at Vereeniging, and by other Transvaal farmers. 
The writer has started selections of individual strains of this 
breed on several farms in the Transvaal and Natal ; the yield 
is proving better than that of Azckory King. There is a ten- 
dency for the length of ear to fall to 84 inches, when close selec- 
tion for well-covered tips is practised at expense of length, 
with consequent reduction of yield, and this should be over- 
come by selection. 

Hickory Horsetooth varies in time of maturity, according to 
the character of the particular cross from which it has been 
segregated, and the part of the country in which it has been 
acclimatized. The strain grown at Potchefstroom has proved 
to be a late sort (i.e. later than Aeckory King, and about the 

19 


290 MAIZE 


CHAP. 
VII. 


3 

Gan : -— 

: + 
—_ = 
Wd a cae: 
axa : 

— mes 
Fa 


—e Z 8 = 
, a a “ 
Pe aa = 
Coorg aaa — 
ied — zs . es 
1. os, E me 4) 
ial \ pe 
Dm, " : 
Fic. 97.—Ladysmith Hickory ; Fic. 98.—Hickory Horsetooth, or 
a promising but unfixed cross-bred 12-row Hickory. 


grown at Ladysmith, Natal, 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 291 


same as Ladysmith, Yellow Hogan, and Golden Beauty), but 
some strains grown on the High-veld are medium early. 

Several different strains occur, due to the fact that the 
South African type has been isolated from other breeds, and 
variously crossed with such breeds as Hechory King, Virginia 
Horsetooth, etc.; some of these strains have been named, e.g. 
Mercer, Novodsberg Horsetooth, Salisbury White, ete. 

241. Salisbury White.—Fig. 99. Class: late white dent ; 
rows, 12; length, 8? to 9 inches ; circumference at 2 inches from 
butt, 7% inches, from tip, 7 inches; grain, medium wedge- 
shape, broad crease-dented, smooth. 

Appears to be a cross between 12-row //ickory and some 
other type, and not very different from Avchory Horsetooth 
except in length of ear and width of sulci. Said to have 
originated at Salisbury, and to be extensively grown in 
Rhodesia. Sometimes called J/asve or Brindette. 

242. Noodsberg Horsetooth.—Fig. 100. Class: late white 
dent ; rows, 14; length, 10 inches: grain, deep wedge-shaped, 
shallow crease-dented, roughish. 

This was exhibited at the Weenen County Show, Estcourt, 
Natal, 20 June, 1912, by two growers, Mr. C. How of Willow 
Grange and Mr. John Kencken, J.P. It is said to have 
originated on the Noodsberg from a cross between A/tckory 
King and Natal IVhite Horsetooth. Some farmers in that 
vicinity have called it the Wercer, but it is quite different from 
that breed; it is not unlike Salisbury IVhite as grown in 
Swaziland. Noodsberg Horsetooth is said to breed true to 
type, and to be fairly drought-resistant ; in spite of a bad season 
it had produced compact, well-covered ears. 

243. Mercer.—Figs. tot and 103. Class: late white 
dent; rows, 12; length, 9 inches; circumference, 7,°, inches at 
3 inches from butt; grain, deep wedge-shaped with pinch- 
creased dent, roughish. 

Originated as an accidental cross between Hickory King 
and “ North American Horsetooth” (i.e. Virginia Horsetooth, 
Fig. 102), on the farm of Mr. W. Mercer, Cato Ridge, Natal. 
Mr. Mercer informs the writer that about the year 1904 he 
planted for comparative test with, and alongside, his Heckory 
King some seed of “ North American Florsetooth’’ which had 
been introduced by Mr. Gavin of Umhlaas Road, Natal. Some 

19 * 


CHAP. 
VU. 


MAIZE 


292 


2 
Li ltl iil a itt 


Rl. ‘ 
hibothnia lout edalalitedi 


g 


ae 
a 
we 
ss 


oo 


] iF 


a promising. 


’ 


Noodsberg Horsetooth 


TO00.+ 


Fic. 


specimen cour- 


Fic. 99.—Salisbury White; 
teously furnished by the Department of Agricul- 


ture, Salisbury, Rhodesia. 


unfixed cross-bred. 


293 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 


CHAP. 


VII. 


Fic. to1.—Mercer. 


294 MAIZL: 


CHAP. two years later he found that his Hickory Aing crop produced 


VII. a number of ears carrying 12 rows of grain of a much deeper 


Fic. 102.—Virginia Horsetooth, 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 295 


character than Hickory King and somewhat resembling the 
“North American Horsetooth”. 

These he selected and planted by themselves, with the 
result that he obtained from among the progeny both 8-row 
Hickory King and the deep-grained 12-row type, some ears 
also producing 10 rows. By continued selection of the 12- 
rowed, deep-grained ears his crop now produces mainly that 
type, although it still gives some 8- and 10-rowed ears. 

Although the characteristic features are not yet fully fixed, 
the type is so distinct, and of such good quality, and is, more- 
over, proving such a good yielder (as is to be expected where 
the grain is of such depth), that it seems worthy of further 
attention, but it is only likely to suit localities with a long 
growing-season. 

Description of ear No. 11,137, selected from Mr. Mercer’s 
crop :— 


kar— 
Length—g inches. 
Shape—Slowly tapering. 
Circumference, 3 inches from butt—7,°; inches. 
Rows—r12. 
Arrangement of rows—In pairs. 
Sulci—} inch between pairs, less between the rows of a pair. 
Butt—Deeply rounded, slightly enlarged; rows regular, passing 
straight over. 
Tip—Regular rows up to the end. 
Shank—# inch diameter. 
Weight—16'5 ozs. 
Cob— 
Size—Medium ; 4} inches circumference. 
Colour— White. 
Weight—2 ounces. 
Grain— 
Condition—Firm upright ; very rigid. 
Colour—Cream white. 
Indentation—Roughish. 
Form of dent—Pinched crease. 
Shape—Medium wedge. 


Length—22 to 42 in. ; the latter is the type for selection. 


Width at apex—8,-& inch. 
Per cent of grain per ear—87'I per cent. 
Number of grains per ear—600. 


Weight of grain per ear—13°5 Ozs. 


244. 10-Row Hickory, or “ Loutsiana”.—Figs. 104 and 105. 
Class: medium late white dent ; leneth, 84 inches; circumference, 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


296 MAIZE 


4 inches ; rows, 10; grain, medium wedge-shaped, deep crease- 


dented, slightly rough. 
One of the types of Hickory grown in the United States 


and usually found segregating in fields of Hzckory King, both 


Fic. 103.—A, grains of Mercer : B, surplus crop after filling Mr. Mercer’s barn 
(Cato Ridge, Natal). 


VPANTETIES AND BREEDS 297 


there and in South Africa. The writer isolated a strain of this CHAP. 
type some years ago, which now breeds fairly true though a VY! 


Fic. 104.—10-Row Hickory or “ Louisiana 


CHAP. 
VII. 


298 WAIZE 


certain amount of fluctuating variability occurs. The tendency 
is for the ear to be rather short and well filled, which is an 
advantage for the High-veld as it tends to hasten the time of 
maturity. 

As the local market is still prejudiced in favour of a broad 
grain, it is a matter of opinion whether the broad-grained 


Fic. 105.—Two prize ears of to-row Hickory at the Johannesburg Maize 
Show. A, grown by Reynolds Bros.; B, grown by Hutchinson and Shaw (Val 
Station, Transvaal). 


10-row Louisiana type is not preferable to the narrower- 
grained 12-row of the /Yickory Horsetooth (although the dif- 
ference is but slight), especially on the High-veld, where the 
earlier-maturing habit of the former is in its favour. It may 
be possible to develop a Hickory Horsetooth with equally broad 


VARIETIES AND BRIELDS 299 


grain and earlier-maturing habit. Sometimes the 10-row grain 
is no broader than that of the 12-row, in which case the 12-row 
is preferable where the climate suits it; the 12-row produces a 
larger percentage of embryo than the 10-row, and at Potchef- 
stroom the latter has been discarded in favour of Aichory 
Horsetooth. 

245. lowa Silver-mine. — Figs, 
106 and 107. Class: medium-early 
white dent; rows, 14 or 16; length, 
10 inches ; circumference at 2 inches 
from butt, 7 inches, from tip, 6 
inches ; grain, medium wedge, pinch- 
dented, very rough. 

A drought-resistant, early-matur- 
ing breed, producing compact, heavy, 
rough ears. It does not seem suited 
to wet soils and climates, in which 


its behaviour is exactly the opposite 
of Boone County (Fig. 108). Sowa 
Silver-mine was introduced by the 
writer in 1905, from J. M. Thor- 
burn and Co., New York, U.S.A.; 
it has given excellent results in the 
drier parts of the South-western 
Transvaal, in British Bechuanaland, 
the Orange Free State and fiear 
Aliwal North. It proves to be rich 
in protein and horny endosperm, 
and is therefore well suited for the 
manufacture of samp, and makes a 
nutritious mielie-meal if ‘‘ whole- 
ground”. 

An improved strain of S7/ver- 
mine, known as Johnson County, was introduced by the writer 
a few years ago, and has been widely distributed and used to 
cross into the acclimatized strain. 

A strain of Sz/ver-mine from Illinois, U.S.A., was intro- 
duced into Natal some years ago, and is said to have become 
a favourite there, standing next to Boone County in point of 


yield. 


Fic. 106.—Iowa Silver-mine, 
a prize ear. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


300 MAIZE 


246. Boone County.—Fig. 108. Class: late white dent ; 
rows, 16 to 22; length, 10 inches; circumference at 2 inches 
from butt, 74 inches, from tip, 6 inches; grain, medium 
wedge-shaped, pinch-dented, rough. 

Introduced into the Transvaal by the writer in 1905 and 
previously into Natal from Indiana, U.S.A. 


Fic. 107.—Two prize ears of Iowa Silver-mine at the Johannesburg Maize 
Show. A, grown by W. A. McLaren (Vereeniging); B, grown by M. Geerdts 
(Boksburg), Transvaal; the tip of the latter is very defective. 


It has been grown successfully, but to a limited extent, in 
the wetter parts of Natal, in the Eastern Transvaal (in warm, 
sheltered localities) and in Rhodesia, but the conditions most 
generally prevalent throughout South Africa do not seem 
favourable to this breed. According to Sawer it is found in 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 301 


Natal to be hardy and resistant to rust, but a rank feeder, CHAP. 
with extensive root system, Vil. 
yielding record crops only 
on rich, heavy vlei soil, and 
requiring 135 to 150 days 
to mature. 

247. Ladysimith.—Figs. 
948 and 109. Class: late 
white dent ; rows, 14 to 20; 
length, 104 inches ; circum- 
ference at 2 inches from 
butt, 82, from tip, 62 inches ; 
grain, deep wedge, pinch- 
dented, beaked, very rough. 

Grown by Mr. Walter 
Pepworth of Pepworth, near 
Ladysmith, and taken from 
his farm to Vereeniging by 
Mr. McLaren, who called 
it the Ladysmith for want 
of another name. It prob- 
ably originated from Cham- 
~ pion White Pearl, which it 
resembles in its beaked 
grain, and it is known by 
“that name among many far- 
mers inNatal. But it differs 
in other respects (larger size, 
later maturity, better yield, 
etc.) from typical Champzon 
White Pearl as imported by 
the writer some years ago, 
and grown for several years 
at the Botanical Experi- 
mental Station, Pretoria, 
and the Government Ex- 
periment Farm, Potchef- 
stroom. 

Ladysmith is a_ late- 
maturing breed, and best Fic. 108.— Boone County. 


sob bh 


sffyal 


iN 
\ 


302 MAIZE 


CHAP. suited to the Midlands and wetter parts of the Bush-veld. 
VII. When planted early it has matured satisfactorily at Vereenig- 
ing, but cannot be recommended as a High-veld breed, nor for 


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Fic. tog.—Variation in types of Ladysmith. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 303 


regions of low rainfall. Ladysmith has been discarded at Pre- CHAR. 
toria and Potchefstroom. Champion White Pearl is stillgrown.! VIL 
The grain is appreciated on the English market, for samp 
and grit manufacture, as it contains a large percentage of 
horny endosperm. 
248. Natal IVhite Horsetooth.—Figs. 110 and itt. Class: 


Fic. t10.—Natal White Horsetooth. 


very late white dent ; rows, 14 to 18; length, 103 to 12 inches ; 
circumference at 2 inches from butt, 84, from tip, 6} to 7 inches ; 
grain, broad and shallow, but thick, crease-dented, smooth ; cob, 
very thick, drying slowly. Synonym : Late IVhite Horsetooth. 
According to Sawer it takes 140-150 days to ripen in 
Natal, but is a good drought resister and heavy cropper. 


| Under the name Potchefstroom Pearl, which is a selected strain of Champion 
White Pearl. 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


304 MAIZE 


This breed has been grown for some years in Natal, but 
owing to its late-maturing and slow-drying habit its cultiva- 
tion has not extended much to other parts of the country. It 
is one of the six best yielding breeds at Potchefstroom and has 
been grown successfully at Vereeniging, but is too late as a 
main-crop for the High-veld. The grain is floury, and valued 
for the manufacture of starch, corn- 
flour, and mielie meal. 

Crosses between Natal White 
Horsetooth and Hickory King are not 
infrequently met with; some of these 
have a narrower ear (Fig. 111), with 
thinner cob than the Horsetooth, while 
retaining something of its thickness 
of grain. The so-called J/azoe or 
Lrindette grown in Swaziland may 
perhaps have some WNatal IVhite 
FHlorsetooth “blood” in it, though said 
to have been brought down from the 
Mazoe Valley, Rhodesia. 

249. Eureka—Fig. 112A. Class: 
medium or mid-season yellow dent ; 
rows, 16 or 18; length, 9} to 11 
inches ; circumference at 2 inches from 
butt, 74 inches, from tip, 5% to 64 
inches; grain, medium wedge-shaped, 
crease-dented, medium smooth. 

Introduced by the writer in 1905 
from Peter Henderson, New York, 
U.S.A.; now widely distributed in 
the Transvaal, but apparently not 
equally suited to all climates and 
soils, Topped the list for yield at the 
Government Experiment Farm, 
Potchefstroom, for three years (1907-8 to 1909-10), and gave 
the highest average yield for six years, Valuable for 
stock-food and export. 

250. Chester County —Fig. 1128. Class: early yellow dent ; 
rows, 16 or 18; length, 10 inches; circumference at 2 inches 
from butt, 64 to 7 inches, from tip, 5% inches; grain, small, 


Fic, 111.—Natal White 
Horsetooth x Hickory King. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 


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Fic. 112.—A, Eureka; B, Chester County. 


20 


CHAP. 
VII. 


306 VWAIZE 


deep, narrow wedge-shaped, thick, round dimple-dented, smooth 
or medium smooth, deep yellow with lighter cap. 

Introduced by the writer in 1905 from Peter Henderson, 
New York, U.S.A., and now widely distributed. Valued for 
its early maturity, drought resistance, and heavy yield. Gave 
the heaviest yield at Potchefstroom in 1910-11, and the second 
highest average for six years. Is proving suited to the Up- 
lands of Natal, which have hitherto been considered outside 
the Maize-belt, or only suited to flint breeds. 

The small size of the grain is considered objectionable 
by some local buyers, but the grain is appreciated for stock- 
food on the European markets. 

251. Vellow Hogan.—Fig.113b. Class: late yellow dent ; 
rows, 12 or 14; length, 9 inches; circumference at 2 inches 
from butt, 7} inches, from tip, 6 inches; grain, medium wedge- 
shaped, crease-dented, medium smooth or smooth, rich orange 
yellow. 

Introduced by the writer in 1904 from P. L. C. Shepheard 
and Son, Sydney, N.S.W. At Potchefstroom Yellow Hogan 
beat Zureka for yield in 1905-6 and 1906-7, and came a close 
second in 1910-11; it stands third in the average for seven 
years. 

252. Golden Beauty.—Fig. 1134. Class: late yellow dent ; 
rows, 12; length, 12 inches; circumference at 2 inches from 
butt, 64 inches, from tip, 5+ inches; grain, deep, broad wedge- 
shaped rounded corners, crease-dented, smooth to medium 
smooth, rich orange-yellow. 

Introduced by the writer, in 1904, from Burpee, Phila- 
delphia, U.S.A., but did not prove satisfactory in the Trans- 
vaal, and was subsequently discarded. Separately introduced 
into Natal where it has proved more satisfactory, and is 
grown in the Richmond District. A handsome ear, producing 
a fine, well-coloured grain. 

According to Sawer, Golden Beauty-takes 140 days to 
mature in Natal, proves a vigorous grower, is very drought 
and wind resistant and does not sucker; ‘‘a good general 
purpose breed, but rather slow for the High-veld””. 

253. Yellow Horsetooth —Fig. 114. Class: medium-late 
yellow dent; rows, 14; length, 9 to 10 inches; circumference 
at 2 inches from butt, 74 to 8 inches ; from tip, 6 inches; grain, 


3°7 


EDS 


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VARIETIES AND BRE 


CHAP. 


Vil. 


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Fic. 113.—A, Golden Beauty ; 


20* 


308 


MAIZE 


CHAP. thick, shallow wedge, with shallow crease-dent; cob, large, 


VII. 


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Fic. 114.—Yellow Horsetooth or 
German Yellow. 


white. Synonyms: Ger- 
man Yellow Horsetooth ; 
Natal Vellow Horsetooth ; 
Bishop. 

There are two types 
in South Africa, known 
respectively as German 
Yellow (Fig. 114) ‘and 
Natal Yellow, Horsetooth ; 
the former is apt to be 
earlier in maturing and 
more drought resistant 
than the latter, but both 
vary greatly in these re- 
spects, according to the 
part of the country in 
which they have become 
acclimatized, and_ the 
character of the other 
strains which have en- 
tered into their composi- 
tion, for both are very 
impure. In some cases 
the type grown under 
this name is a mongrel 
flint, segregating each 
year into flints and dents, 
and in others it is a par- 
tial dent which segregates 
into dents and flints. We 
are not aware that any 
distinctive and pure 
strains have been iso- 
lated. 

If planted early, Ve/- 
low Horsetooth does well 
on the High-veld, where 
it proves a good yielder 
both in grain and fodder. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 309 


The grain, when true to the dent type, is valued on the 
London market, both for manufacturing purposes and for the 
preparation of flakes. 

254. Reid Yellow Dent.—Fig. 115. Class: medium-early 
yellow dent ; rows, 18 or 20; length, 9-10 inches ; circumference, 
7 inches; grain, long wedge, dimple-dented, medium smooth 
(the rougher grains usually have greatest depth). 

An early maturing and comparatively drought resistant 
type, giving good yields. Introduced by the writer from the 
United States, in 1909; gave excellent results at the 
Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, in 1909-10, IQIO-11, 
and 1911-12; now being tested at Potchefstroom, where the 
returns have so far been good. 

Retd Yellow Dent was originated in 1846 by Mr. James 
L. Reid, of Tazewell County, Illinois, U.S.A., as a cross be- 
tween ‘‘ Gordon Hopkins” of Brown County, Ohio, and Lizéle 
Yellow. Its characteristics of shape, length and circumference 
of ear, filling out at tips and butts, size and shape of cob, and 
shape and indentation of grain, are said to have been strongly 
fixed by careful and intelligent selection, and are uniformly 
reproduced, and it is considered one of the most improved 
breeds of maize grown in the United States. The following 
are characteristics as recorded by Sturtevant and Myrick :— 

Ear, 93 inches long, 6{ inches (6’9 inches) circumference, 24 
inches diameter, slowly tapering ; rows, 18-20 in distinct pairs ; 
sulci narrow, scarcely well defined ; butt deeply rounded, very 
compressed, with diverging grains. Grains very firm on the 
cob, upright, broadly truncate-cuneate, tapering to a point by 
straight lines, ,°, inch broad, $ inch deep ; long dimple-dented, 
smooth ; tip grains conical ; colour horn-orange with yellow cap. 
Cob red. Shank medium to small. Season reported as 118 
days in Indiana. According to Sturtevant this appears from 
the description to be the same as Queen of the Field from Iowa. 

255. Minnesota Early.—Fig. 116. Class: medium-early 
yellow dent; rows, 16 or 18; length, 94 inches ; grain, medium 
wedge, fairly deep, dimple-dented, medium smooth. 

An early-maturing yellow dent introduced by the writer in 
1909 from the United States; it gave promising results at the 
Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, in 1909-10, and. is 
being tested further, 


CHAP. 
VIl. 


310. MAIZE 


CHAP. - 
VII. oe 


A B 


Fic. 115.—Two types of Reid Yellow Dent, showing improvement by selec- 
tion, B is the improved type. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 311 


256. Star Leaming.— Fig. 117. Class: medium - early 
yellow dent ; rows, 16 to 20; length, 10 inches ; circumference, 


AEA 


ERSTE SCAT 


AULA AS 


& 


f 


suoUHehoaralL 


ea ta 


DALE 


{ ; 


{ 


} 


4 


Fic. 117.—Star Leaning. 


Fic, 116.—Minnesota Early. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


312 MAIZE 


7 inches; grain, medium wedge, crease-dented, rough. Intro- 
duced by the writer in 1904 from P. L. C. Shepheard and Son, 
Sydney, N.S.W. Proved particularly useful on the eastern 
High-veld. 

Leaming is one of the most extensively grown breeds of 
maize in the United States, and is said to have the most uni- 
form characteristics of any yellow maize grown. It there 
proves adaptable, by selection, to widely different conditions 
of soil and climate. It was originated in 1826 from a common 
yellow sort growing on the bottom lands of the Little Miami 
River, Hamilton County, Ohio, by Mr. J. S. Leaming, and was 
selected by him towards a standard type for a period ot fifty- 
six years. It is supposed to be the type from which many 
breeds of yellow maize have been developed, as most of the 
yellow breeds show some of its characteristics, and many of 
them can be actually traced back to Leamzng. 

The general characteristics of the Leamzng group are: Ear 
tapering, 9,", inches long, 7 inches circumference; butt rounding 
or moderately rounding, more or less compressed, with tendency 
to expand; rows in distinct pairs but mixed at tip, 16 to 24, 
with a tendency to reduction about the middle of the ear; sulci 
medium. Gvazns generally firm (sometimes loose) and mostly 
upright ; generally wedge-shape with square-cut summits and 
nearly straight edges, long dimple to pinch-dented, horn-orange 
with yellow cap. Cod red, medium. Sax’ medium to large. 

Sturtevant recognized five strains of Leamzng, viz.: (1) Early 
Leaming (Illinois); (2) /uproved Leaming , (3) Leaming Yellow 
(Ohio); (4) Messourd Leaming ; (§) Star Leaming (Ohio). Of 
these Early Leaming, Improved Leaming, and Star Leaming 
have been tested at the Government Experiment Farm at 
Potchefstroom, but have now been discarded in favour of 
better yielding breeds. They were also distributed among 
farmers on the High-veld, where they have done well in some 
cases. 

257. Golden Eagle.—Fig. 118. Class: late yellow dent; 
rows, 16 to 20; length, 10 to 11 inches ; circumference, 7 inches ; 
grain, broad wedge, dimple-dented, rough to very rough (or 
medium smooth, Fig. 118k). 

Introduced from the United States, where it was originated 


by Mr. H. B, Perry of HMlinois in 1871, 


CHAP. 
VII. 


313 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 


HPLCE 
HOHE 
cachh 


, Salisbury. 


Fic. 118.—Golden Eagle, as grown in Rhodesia; ears courteously supplied by 
the Department of Agriculture 


CHAP. 
VII. 


314 MAIZE 


In South Africa the cultivation of this breed appears to be 
mainly confined to Rhodesia, and even there (we are informed) 
the tendency is to discard yellows in favour of whites for 
export purposes. Reported (Sawer, 1) as a strong, gross 
feeder, requiring heavy and fertile soils. 

258. Principal American Breeds of Flint Matze.—The 
following twenty-one breeds of flint maize are recommended, 
principally for grain production, by the Agricultural Experi- 
ment Stations of the States mentioned after their names, as 
reported by Hunt (1):—! 


zr. Angel of Midnight (r): Utah or1. Milliken’s Prize (y): Vermont. 
(tested ten years), Vermont, 12. *North Dakota (w): North Dakota~ 


Wyoming. (No. 148); Utah (tested seven 

2. *Canada yellow (y): Nevada (did years). 
not ripen grain). 13. Orange County (w): Vermont. 

3. Canada 12-rowed (y): Vermont. 14. Rideout corn (y): Wyoming. 

4. Early Demand (0): Vermont. 15. “Sanford (w): New Hampshire, 

5. French Squaw No. 32 (w): North Vermont. 

Dakota. 16. Smut-nose (w): South Dakota. 

6. *Gehv, No. 123 (y): North Dakota. 17. Squaw corn (w): Utah (tested 

7. Golden Dewdrop (y}: Utah (tested seven years). , 
seven years). 18. *Thoroughbred (w): Vermont. 

8. *King Philip (y): Ottawa, Kansas, ~19. Waushakum (y): Vermont. 
Oregon, South Dakota, Utah 20. White flint (w): Utah (tested ten - 
(tested nine years), Wisconsin. years). 

g. *Longfellow (y): Ottawa, Vermont. ~21. Yellow Flint Corn (y): South 

to. Long Yellow flint (y): Utah (tested Carolina (on thin upland soil). 
ten years). 


259. Principal South African Flint Breeds. —Flints appear 
to have been grown in South Africa long before the introduc- 
tion of dents, and still persist in the Native Territories, and in 
districts of poor rainfall devoted mainly to stock-raising. 
The breeds principally grown were: So¢nzan (both white and 
yellow) ; Cango (both white and yellow); Repatriation (yellow) ; 
Bushian (yellow); and “Kaffir mieltes” (mixed white, red, 
blue, and yellow). The three first-named are now so mixed 
as often to be indistinguishable, except that difference in time 
of maturity is associated with the strains grown in one part of 
the country as compared with those of another. “ Bushman” is 
rarely met with. The“ Kaffir mielie” is probably a descendant 
of the old Squaw or “native” corn still grown in Canada, anda 
similar type has been received from Italian Somaliland. The 
natives are said to have a predilection for parti-coloured ears, 

' Red = (r); orange = (0); yellow = (y); white = (w). Those marked with 
an asterisk have been tried in South Africa. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 315 

The Transvaal Department of Agriculture introduced and 
tested a number of the improved American and other sorts, 
some of which have been discarded as unsatisfactory, while 
others having proved superior to the older sorts already 
grown, have been widely distributed, and are now mixed with 
the old types. Among the best of these are New England 
8-row (y) and Rural Thoroughbred (w). Wills Gehu (y) and 
North Dakota (w), introduced in 1909, matured in eighty- 
seven days at the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, and 
gave a very fair yield for such a short season; a fresh con- 
signment of seed was obtained and widely distributed among 
farmers for the season of 1910-11. 

The early-maturing flints of South Europe, such as C7n- 
guantino, Odessa, and Bessarabia, while maturing quickly (some- 
times in forty to fifty days) give such poor yields as to be 
unsuited to the broad type of agriculture necessarily in vogue 
ina large part of South Africa. They seem better suited to 
the small farm areas of the south of Europe. Another draw- 
back is their habit of bearing ears low down on the stem, 
which renders them particularly liable to injury by vermin and 
to damage by torrential summer rains. These breeds might 
be useful to plant late, where the regular crop has been 
destroyed by hail or locusts; but the difficulty would then be 
to obtain a sufficient quantity of seed at the moment when it 
is needed, as no one cares to grow for seed those breeds for 
which there will only be a demand in a bad season. 

The following have also been tested :-— 

Vellow Flints—Compton Early, Canada Early (8-rowed), 
Vilmorin Early, Vilmorin Early (long-eared), Henderson Large 
Yellow, Ninety-day, Longfellow, Improved King Philip, Harris 
Golden, Cinquantino, Odessa, La Plata, Argentina, and Shep- 
pard Yellow Flint. 

Red Flints.—Indian Pearl; the ears often carry white, red, 
and blue grains mixed. 

White Flints—Egyptian, Somali, and Western Beauty 
have been tried and discarded. Burlington Hybrid is grown 
to a very limited extent. 

260. Cango, white.—Class: medium white flint; ears, 9 to 
10 inches long ; 5§ inches circumference at tip, 13 inches diame- 


ter; slowly tapering ; butt even; rows distinctly distichous 


CHAP. 
VII. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


316 MAIZE 


below, 8 to 10.  Grazu rather large, 6 lines broad, 44 deep ; 
roundish at apex, flattish at sides (sometimes classed as a 
“flat” in the trade), brownish white, embryo large. Shank 
medium. Coé thin, white. Medium early; roth in average 
yield at Potchefstroom ; useful breed for late districts. Svea 
medium short ; tillers freely. Extensively grown throughout 
the country. Supposed to take its name from the Cango Dis- 
trict, Oudtshoorn Division, Cape Province, whence it is said 
to have been brought north. A form of white flint with larger 
ears than the Botman, and with grains “ flatly rounded on 
top,” is described by Sturtevant as being grown at Rio Claro, 
on the uplands of Brazil, under the name A7/c/ho catete ; it was 
distributed by American seedsmen between 1881 and 1884 
under the names “ Homdny,” ‘White Pearl” (not Champion 
White Pearl), and “ Large White Flint”. 

There is no demand for this class of maize on the London 
or Liverpool markets. 

Cango and Botman are probably the types introduced by 
the Portuguese, from their Brazilian settlements, into the East 
Indies and China, and dropped at Mossamedes, Cape Town, 
and on the East Coast ex route. An African-grown ear of 
white flint maize, received probably from the late Prof. 
MacOwan, Cape Town, about the year 1884, was classified by 
Sturtevant as differing only in colour from Chinese samples 
exhibited at the Centennial Exposition, and from the sz7/ho 
dourado grown at Rio Claro, in the Province of Goyaz, on the 
uplands of Brazil; Rio Claro is on the trade route from Rio 
de Janeiro to Matto Grosso and Bolivia. Colour we now 
know to be a most inconstant character, due to crossing ; 
there are both white and yellow Canxgos and white and yellow 
Botmans. 

261. Thoroughbred, Rural—Ear, 11 to 12 inches long, 2 
inches diameter, depressed, very open, strongly distichous, often 
expanded at butt; rows, 8. Gvrain 632 lines broad, scant 44 
lines deep, rounded, dingy white. Shank large. Cob medium, 
white. Early to medium early. Szes medium short ; growth 
fair. Introduced by the writer in 1905 from Thorburn, New 
York, under the name “ Thoroughbred White Flint,’ but it ap- 
pears to be the same as the standard breed known as Rura/ 
Thoroughbred. Widely distributed and fayourably reported 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS S17 


on from the Heidelberg, Standerton, Bethal, and Carolina 
Districts. The “blood” of this strain has entered into the 
composition of much of the “ ll’Azfe Cango” now grown, from 
which it is no longer kept distinct, and the name of 7 horough- 
bred has been dropped. 

262. Cango, yellow.—Fig. 119A. Class: medium-late 
yellow flint ; ear, 84 to 9 inches long; circumference at butt, 

# to 64 inches, at tip, 54 to 5,', inches; diameter, 14 to 14 
inches ; cylindrical; butt even, slightly compressed ; rows, 10 
or 12. Gratn medium, 4% to 5 lines wide, 4} to 5 lines deep, 
shallowly rounded above, flat on sides, colour golden yellow. 
Shank small. Cob thin, white. Stew medium-tall, robust, 
leafy, tillering ; good drought-resister, well acclimatized. 
Medium late. Valued for maize hay, and at one time exten- 
sively grown in small plots. 

263. Wells Gehu.—Fig. t1gc. Class: early yellow flint ; 
ears, 6 to 74 inches long; circumference at butt, 4% to 5 
inches, at tip, 32 to 4% inches; diameter, 1} to 14 inches; 
almost cylindrical to slowly tapering; butt even; rows, 12, 
10, or 8. Gran 5 lines broad, 4 lines deep, shallow rounded 
above, flat on the sides (intermediate between ‘flat’? and 
‘‘round”’), bright yellow. Shank large. Cob white. De- 
scribed from ears imported by the writer in 1910 from the 
breeders, Oscar H. Will & Co., Bismarck, North Dakota. 
Stem short; inclined to stool; early maturing, ripened at the 
Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, in eighty-two days. 
Has given excellent results in British Bechuanaland and the 
semi-arid regions of the S.W. Transvaal and western Orange 
Free State. 

264. North Dakota —Fig. 1198. Class: early white flint ; 
ears, 7 to 8 inches long; circumference at butt, 4} to 5 inches, 
at tip, 44 to 44 inches; diameter, 1} to 14 inches ; cylindrical 
to tapering; butt even; rows, 12 (rarely 8). Grau small, 
roundish, 4 lines broad and deep, shallowly rounded above, 
flattish on sides (intermediate between round and flat), greyish 
white. Shank large. Cob white. Described from ears im- 
ported by the writer in 1910 from the breeders, Oscar H, Will 
& Co., Bismarck, North Dakota, U.S.A. Sen short, inclined 
to stool. Early-maturing; ripe at Skinner’s Court, Pretoria, 
in eighty-seven days, in 1910. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


318 MAIZE 


Fic. 119.—Three flint breeds grown in South Africa. A, Yellow Cango ; 
B, North Dakota; C, Wills Gehu. 


319 


AND BREEDS 


VARIETIES 


CHAP, 


Vil. 


: PPeR dP ELD 


SESPLSSDSELINE STS eee 


B, Improved Yellow Botman. 


Fic, 120.—A, New England 8-row Yellow Flint ; 


320 MAIZE 


265. Botman, white.—Class: medium-early white flint ; 
ears, 83 to g inches long; 54 to 6% inches circumference at 
butt, §$ to 5} inches at tip; 14 inches diameter ; tapering to 
cylindraceous, even and slightly enlarged at butt; rows, 12, 14, 
or 16. Grain rather small, 44 lines broad and deep, rounded 
above, flattish on sides (classed as “round” in the trade), 
white. Shank variable. Cod thin, white. Sze medium 
height, tillering, leafy below. Early maturing, earlier than 
white Cango but less robust. One of the principal sorts for- 
merly grown in small patches in the drier parts of the Western 
Transvaal and adjacent Bechuanaland, as far west as Kuruman. 
After seven years’ trial at Potchefstroom it remains, as usual, 
at the bottom of the list as regards yield, a striking demonstra- 
tion of the fact that new types developed by sound scientific 
breeding are superior to some of the older established and 
longer acclimatized breeds. 

266. Lotman, yellow.—Fig. 1208. Class: medium-early 
yellow flint; ears, 8 to 84 inches long; circumference, 54 
inches at butt, 42 inches at tip; diameter, 14 inches; slowly 
tapering, even at butt; rows, 12 or 14. Grazu 44 lines broad, 
3% lines deep, rounded above, light yellow, said to be softer 
than that of Vew England 8-row and therefore preferred by the 
older residents of South Africa. Shank small. Cod slender, 
often found to be white, but the typical yellow Lotman is said 
to have a red cob. Considered less drought-resistant than 
New England 8-row. Tillers freely. One of the principal 
sorts formerly grown by the smaller producers in the Transvaal 
and Orange Free State. Synonym: 7vansvaal Yellow. 

267. New England 8-row.—Fig. 120A. Class: medium- 
early yellow flint; ear, 9 to 12 inches long; circumference 
at butt, 5,', inches, at tip, 44 inches; diameter, 14 inches ; 
a little enlarged at butt, but rarely depressed or expanded ; 
rows, 8. Grain hard, 6 lines broad, 44 to 7 lines deep, 
rounded above, flat on sides (sometimes classed in the trade 
as “flat”), golden yellow. Shank large. Cod thin, white. 
Medium-early ; s¢emz medium height ; plant stools freely ; said 
to stand drought better than yellow Lotman,; one of the best 
of the flint breeds. Introduced by the writer in 1904 from 
Burpee, Philadelphia (No. 758:04). Subsequently grown and 
distributed by the Government Experiment Farm, Potchef- 
stroom, and by Messrs. John Fowler & Co., at Vereeniging. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 321 


268. Burlington Hybrid.—Class : white flint; ear, 84 to CHAP, 
9 inches long; circumference, 64 inches at butt, 52 inches at VII. 


t ‘ 


i 


Fic. 121.—Gillespie Yellow Flint. Fic. 122.—Brazilian Flour Corn, 


21 


CHAP. 
VII. 


32/2 MAIZE 


tip; diameter, 14 inches; slowly tapering ; butt even, enlarged 
and open; rows, 10. Gvazz 6 lines broad, 5 lines deep, thick, 
rounded above, flattish on sides, dusky white, embryo large. 
Shank large. Cob rather thick, white. Stems, 5 feet, not 
tillering, ears borne low; maturing fairly early. Ears from 
W. Gillespie, Rietpoort, Zandspruit, Transvaal, 1909, who 
grew it from seed obtained in Natal. Grown in Natal for 
some years; catalogued by Kirchoff, Howie, etc. ; said to make 
a good table maize. Has been described as a hybrid between 
sugar and flint maize, but in South Africa it shows no sign of 
sugariness, 

269. Gillespie Vellow.—Fig. 121. Class: medium yellow 
flint; rows, 12; length, 10% to 11 inches; circumference at 2 
inches from butt, 54 inches, from tip, 4% inches; cob red; grain 
reddish. Selection towards a lighter coloured grain would be 
desirable from a commercial point of view. 

A red-cobbed segregate obtained by Mr. W. Gillespie, 
Rietpoort, Zaudspruit, Transvaal, and exhibited at the Johan- 
nesburg Maize Show, 1910. 

270. Indian Pearl,—Class: parti-coloured flint. Ears long. 
Cob thin, white. Gratz small, roundish, of high feeding quality, 
mixed dark red, purple, blue or pearly white on the same or 
on separate ears. Medium early; yield good to medium. 
Stem medium height, tillering freely, leafy, good for ensiling. 
Introduced by the writer in 1903 from Vilmorin, Paris (No. 
639°03). Grown for some years at the Government Experi- 
ment Farm at Potchefstroom, and distributed, but now dis- 
carded. The strain has entered into the composition of other 
breeds, and occasionally crops out as a “reversion”; probably 
the source of the red colour in Claret Sugar. Probably one 
of the earliest forms introduced into the Old World, and of 
common parentage with the “Sguaw” or “ Native” maize 
grown by the Indians of the Northern United States and 
Canada. 

271. The Principal Breeds of Soft Matse or Flour Corn.— 
Owing to their poor keeping quality in districts subject to 
weevil and grain moth, and their consequent unsuitability for 
export, the flour corns are now but little grown in countries 
of large maize production. There are, therefore, but few com- 
mercial breeds. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 323 
The old South African Bread-mielie differs but little, if at 
all, from the Brastlian Flour Corn of America. It is stated ! 
that before the Boer War, there were two sorts of flour corn 
grown in the Transvaal: (1) the Kaffir Bread-mielve (known in 
Zulu as whlansa-gazaan), having a short stem, small ears, and 
white grain; and (2) the true Bread-mze/ie, with taller stem, 
larger ears, and dirty-white grain with red tips; this latter 
type is said to be most nearly approached by the sorts of bread 
mielie recently exhibited at local shows in the Transvaal. 

A white flour corn was exhibited at the Johannesburg 
Maize Show, by Mr. Glass of Grahamstown, Cape Province, 
under the name G/ass’s Early Flour Corn. 

272. Brazilian Flour Corn.—Fig. 122. Class: white soft 
maize; rows, 14; length, 9 inches; circumference, 64 inches ; 
grain rounded above, with slight dent, and flat sides; cob 
large, white. 

Probably the original type from which the old South African 
Bread-mielie was derived. Introduced by the writer in 1903 
from the United States; chiefly grown for local consumption, 
especially on High-veld farms. Mr, F. le Roux of Oudehouts- 
kloof, YVolksrust, Transvaal, often exhibits it at local shows. 

273. Principal Breeds of Sugar Matse Grown in Amertca. 
—The following breeds are mentioned by Hunt (1) as having 
been recommended by three or more of the State Experiment 
Stations. 

Early Sorts —Cory, Marblehead, Crosby, Chicago Market, 
Early Landreth. 

Medium Sorts.—Squantum, Maule XX, Stabler Early. 

Late.—Ne-plus-ultra, Stowell Evergreen, Country Gentle- 
man. 

274. Sugar Breeds introduced into South Africa.—Several 
breeds have been introduced into South Africa by seedsmen and 
by the Transvaal Department of Agriculture. These include: 
Black Mexican (7.D.A.), Crosby Early (7.D.A.), White Cory 
(Clark), Landreth (7.D.A.), Stowell Evergreen (C/ark, Howie), 
Country Gentleman (Clark, Howze), Golden Bantam (7.D.4A.), 
New Cory (Clark), Cory Early (fowze), Marblehead (Howze). 

Poor germination has generally been experienced with 
imported seed of sugar maize. To Mr. James Clark, seeds- 


le.g. by Mr. C. J. Morgan, at the ots. Show, 3 March, 1g10. 
21 


CHAP. 
VI. 


CHAP. 
VII. 


324 MAIZE 


man and florist of Pretoria, is due the credit of what was pro- 
bably the first attempt to produce a distinctly South African 
breed of sugar maize. In one of his early catalogues (un- 
dated, but from internal evidence issued later than 27 Septem- 
ber, 1904), he offers “ Clark’s Favourite” as a South African 
production. 

275. Clark Favourtte—Mr. Clark issued the following 
account in the catalogue referred to above :— 


‘« Szweet Corn: Clark’s Favourite (Early Sugar Corn).— For 
years I have been working to get a cross with our Bread 
Mealie ; this lam pleased to say is a true cross with the Early 
Cory and Bread Corn. Clark’s Early Sugar Corn is not only 
the earliest, but has a good-sized ear, white cob, very tender, 
sweet and nutritious ; it also keeps a long time in good condi- 
tion before hardening. In all-round good qualities it is the 
finest of all Sweet Corns; it grows to a medium height, and 
the ears are formed low and two or three on each stock. This 
is undoubtedly the most important Vegetable Novelty of this 
year [1904-5]. Stock very limited.” 


276, Arcadia Sugar-maize.—Fig. 123. In 1906 the 
writer obtained a few white sugar grains from a cross between 
Black Mexican’ and a Transvaal white flint; in the season 
of 1907-8 these were propagated and bred true, producing 
ears of white sugar maize, without any admixture of black. 
The new breed has since been improved, and was distributed 
in 1911. It produces two good ears on a stalk ; the ears are 
12-rowed ; planted on 20 August, I911, it flowered on 9 Nov- 
ember ; ears were ready for boiling on 9 December, ie. in I10 
days ; it was ready to harvest for seed on 4 January, or 137 days 
(Burtt-Davy, 8). Earlier-maturing strains producing larger 
ears have since been produced (Fig. 1238). 

277. Claret Sugar.—Developed from a few grains selected 
by the writer from a Black Mexican cross grown in his garden 
in Arcadia, Pretoria. A dwarf, early-maturing sort, with 
pale claret coloured grains. Planted 8 November, flowered 
6 January, ready for eating 6 February, i.e. ninety days. It 
seems likely that the red colour (an aleurone colour) was ob- 


' Brought to South Africa in 1903 by Miss Florence Bolton, from the farm 
of Mr. B. Hayward ot Pescadero, California, U.S.A. 


DS 


7 


TIES AND BRI} 


y 


VARTE 


CHAP. 


Meartcan and 


lack 


) 
) 


tained by an accidental cross between / 


Indian Peart. 


VIL. 


Breeds true. 


2 


| 


i 


| 


é mt Li 


Nie, 


pryt 


oie 


| 


| 
se 


{ 


Wee 


ty 


Pn 


me 


A 


ie a 
g | 


blob 


A, original type ; 


Improvement by breeding. 


B, improved type. 


Ze. 


Fic. 123.—Arcadia Sugar-mai: 


290 
320 


MAIZE 


CHAP, 278. Union Sugar.—Developed from a few grains obtained 


VII. 


Fic. 124.—Pop-corn ; a hetero- 
zygous F, (seed generation) ear 
(yellow and white). 


by the writer from a cross between an unnamed red sort and 


Arcadia Sugar, grown at the Bo- 
tanical Experiment Station. The 
grains were obtained from the red 
ear, and are blood-red, and very 
deep (4 inch), giving an excellent 
bite. Probably contains some 
Indian Pearl strain. Breeds true. 

279. Golden Sugar.— Developed 
from a few grains selected by the 
writer from a multiple cross grown 
in his garden in Arcadia, Pretoria. 
Grains shallow, but broad. Breeds 
true. 

280. Pop-corn.—Fig. 124. Pop- 
corn is at present but little grown 
in South Africa, though the demand 
is increasing. Several breeds have 
been introduced from time to time 
from the United States and South 
Europe. 

281. Spectal-purpose Sorts.—It 
is an axiom in agriculture that 
breeds adapted to particular classes 
of trade generally command a better 
price than ordinary general-purpose 
sorts, provided they are well grown, 
and that their production is not 
overdone. The manufacture of 
corn-flour, corn-flakes, silver-flakes, 
grits, semola, hominy, samp, and 
other special food preparations, calls 
for particular qualities of grain, 
which the climate of South Africa 
seems better fitted to produce than 
that of most parts of the world. 
But good ‘condition” (due to 
climate) is not the only requisite 
of the manufacturer, and it is 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 


327 


necessary to produce for him the Zy/e of grain called for by the 
market. One of the first requirements is a large percentage 
of endosperm in proportion to “bran” or “hull”; to secure 
this we should aim to produce a ¢hzck (not necessarily broad), 
long grain, instead of the very thin, flat type which is being 
grown so much to-day. . 

There is a large demand in Europe for a small, ‘ round,” 
flint maize suitable for feeding poultry, pheasants, etc. This 
commands from 6d. to Is. 6d. per muid more than ordinary 
yellow flint maize. South African Cango and New England 
8-row are too large for this trade, and are being classed as 
“Flats” instead of rounds by buyers for Europe. If South 
African farmers can grow the smaller type of maize, it may 
prove worth while as a catch-crop, provided the yield is satis- 
factory. 

282. Srlage Breeds.—I\n growing crops for silage, it is an 
object to get as large a yield of forage as possible from an 
acre of ground. For this purpose tall, leafy sorts which tend 
to sucker freely are preferred. Useful sorts are ‘‘ Red-cob En- 
silage,” “Indian Pearl,’ and “ Sweet Fodder-corn” 

But it is difficult to obtain seed of breeds specially suited 
to silage production, as they are not regularly grown for seed. 
South African farmers do not care to grow their own seed of 
special silage maize, because of the danger of crossing with their 
grain crops. Most farmers, therefore, prefer to grow for silage 
the same sorts which are grown for grain, planting them closer 
in order to get the requisite yield. In America we find that 
it is mainly those States which are not grain producers which 
grow special sorts for silage; in the ‘ Corn-belt” the ordinary 
grain sorts are used, but dents are always preferred to flints 
because of the greater yield. 

There is a tendency to use as silage-crops, on the High- 
veld of South Africa, breeds which are grown as grain crops 
only at lower altitudes, such as Nadal IVhite Horsetooth and 
Yellow Horsetooth. The reason is that their season of growth 
being longer than the upland sorts, they continue to grow 
later in the season, and thus may produce a greater yield of 
green-stuff per acre than those breeds grown mainly for grain. 
But the percentage of ears to stalk and leaves is lower, and the 
percentage of water to dry matter is apt to be higher, requiring 


CHAP. 
VII. 


CHAP, 
VII. 


325 MAIZE 


the handling and storing of a larger mass and weight of green- 
stuff in proportion to amount of dry matter and feeding value. 
It is not desirable to cut silage too green, and it is therefore 
doubtful whether it is desirable to use very Jate-maturing sorts 
even for this purpose. 

283. Classes Best Sutted for Cultivation in South Africa.— 
There is not, and probably never will be, any one breed or 
variety of maize which can be said, without reserve, to be the 
best for general cultivation throughout the Union, or in any 
one Province. Maize is sensitive to changes in climate or 
soil, and a breed which proves suitable in one district is not 
equally suited to all, owing to the great variations in altitude, 
temperature, moisture, and soil between different parts of the 
country. 

Speaking generally, the dent breeds are the best for the 
main crop, as they usually give the highest yields, and are in 
greatest demand. The flint breeds are most suitable for 
localities where the rainfall is limited and the growing season 
short, or for planting after the last date suitable for dents, to 
increase the acreage under crop. On the other hand, the flint 
breeds are generally richer in protein than most of the dents, 
and are therefore more nutritious for stock-food; but on 
account of their lower yield they cannot be recommended for 
the main crop where dents can be grown satisfactorily. A 
certain amount of flint maize is useful on every farm, however. 
Yellow flints are more suitable than white, for the yellows 
have a better flavour, and are preferred for stock-food, though 
the yellow colour does not necessarily indicate higher feeding 
value. The oversea demand for white flints seems to be nil, 
while for yellow flints it is unlimited. 

Hickory King is now more widely grown in South Africa 
than any other breed of dent maize. It is in special demand 
for the mines’ trade, though it does not appear to command a 
higher price than any other well-grown breed of white dent, 
unless a glut in the market gives the buyer a choice. For the 
export trade, well-grown Heckory King has met with a favour- 
able reception on the European markets, especially among 
manufacturers of grits, flakes, breakfast foods, etc., and among 
distillers and brewers, The higher price already obtained 
indicates that ifthe trade is carefully fostered by rigid grading 


VARIETIES AND PREEDS 324 


PD ae 


and the exclusion from the ‘No, 1 white flat” grade of all 
but the very best, there is a possibility of securing increased 
demand and still better prices for the best Mickory Ning. 
Ladysmith and lowa Silver-mine sell readily in Europe as “ No. 
2 flat white,” and choice parcels as ‘' No. 1”. 

For the grade known as No. 2, or fair average quality 
(‘F.A.Q.”), yellow dents are in demand for stock-feeding 
purposes, but yellow flints may be of equal market value if 
of good quality. 

For the supply of the present markets, the course for the 
South African farmer to follow is clearly to produce :— 


(a) A very “choice” (No. 1) grade of Azckory King, in 
order to increase the promising, though at present 
very limited, export trade in this class of maize. 

(6) A good quality of white dent maize of the No. 2 
grade, such as Hickory Horsetooth, 10-row Hickory, 
Ladysmith, Boone County, Mercer, or Towa Stlver- 
mine, for use on the mines and for export. 

(c) A No. 2 quality of yellow dent maize, to be used for 
stock food locally and in Europe. 

(¢) A limited amount of yellow flint (where dents cannot 
be grown profitably) for feeding his own. stock, 
and for export when the price warrants. 


In the present condition of the market, farmers will pro- 
bably find it better to limit their export trade to the first, 
second and third classes indicated above, though it is not 
improbable that the export demand for yellow flint. will 
increase. 

With the exception of choice Hickory King for export, and 
yellow maize for local stock food, it does not appear to matter 
what particular dreed is grown so long as it meets the above 
general requirements. From the farmer’s point of view, there- 
fore, the question resolves itself into finding out which breed 
gives the best yield of maize of good quality under the con- 
ditions of climate and soil of his particular farm, and this de- 
pends largely on (1) the time taken by a breed to mature, and 
(2) length of growing season, which latter depends in turn on (a) 
altitude, (4) amount and (c) incidence of rainfall. 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


330 MTAIZL: 


284. Relative Length of Growing Season.—The time taken 
for the crop to mature varies greatly from year to year, accord- 
ing to the fluctuations of the seasons; in a dry, warm, sunny 
season the crop takes a shorter time than in a cold, wet, rela- 
tively cloudy season. Therefore no definite time limit for the 
ripening of the grain can be assigned to any variety or breed 
of maize; the time fluctuates with the season. Prof. Morrow, 
of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, notes the fol- 
lowing differences in the ripening of Burr IVhite Dent :— 

1888 in 135 days. 

1889 in 144 and 156 days. 
18go in 130 days. 

1892 and 1893 in 127 days. 

Prof. Burrill, of the same experiment station, notes the 
following difference in time of reaching edible maturity in 
Crosby Early sweet maize :— 

1888 in 62 to 64 days. 
1889 in 83 to 85 days. 
1890 in 79 days. 

The season does not affect all breeds in equal degree, but 
there is a relative proportion between their times of maturity 
which can be used for classificatory purposes and as a guide 
to the adaptability of the different breeds to climatic conditions 
in different parts of the country. 

The relative ripening period of the different breeds may be 
roughly classified as follows, the time referring to the period 
between appearance above ground and the time when the plant 
is safe from injury from early frost :— 


Very Late i : ‘ : . 150 days and over. 
Late ‘ : , : : . 40 to 150 days. 
Medium Late. i é : = 25 a Rae. 
Medium Early i ‘ i i. THO EAS ys 
Early. : ‘ F 4 e 05. LTO” 35 
Very Early. ‘ . é s 985 4 05> 3s 


The relative time of maturity for different breeds is shown 
in the following list, but the reader should understand clearly 
that such a list is only approximate, and that the relative posi- 
tion of different breeds varies in different districts and in 
different seasons. Asa rough guide, however, such a list has 
its uses. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 331 


Very Lates (150 days and over), for early planting :— 
Natal White Horsetooth (White dent) 
Ladysmith (White dent). 

Salisbury White (White dent). 
Yellow Horsetooth (Yellow dent). 


Lates (140 to 150 days), for early planting :— 
Hickory King (White dent) ; in parts of the Transvaal and Natal. 
Hickory Horsetooth (White dent). 
Yellow Hogan (Yellow dent). 
Golden Beauty (Yellow dent). 
Golden King (Yellow dent). 
Brazilian Flour Corn (White soft). 
Mercer (White dent). 
Boone County (White dent) ; in Natal. 


Medium Lates (125 to 140 days), for main crop :— 
Hickory King (White dent). 
to-Rowed Hickory or ‘‘ Louisiana” (White dent). 
Yellow Cango (Yellow flint). 
German Yellow (Yellow dent). 
Eureka (Yellow flint). 
Boone County (White dent); in Transvaal. 
Golden Eagle (Yellow dent). 


Medium Earlies (110 to 125 days), for main crop :— 
Iowa Silver-mine (White dent) ; in Natal. 
Reid (Yellow dent). 

Star Leaming (Yellow dent). 
White Botman (White flint). 
White Cango (White flint). 

New England 8-row (Yellow flint). 


Earlies (95 to 110 days), for late planting :— 
Wills Gehu (Yellow flint, 85 days). 
North Dakota (White flint, 85 days). 
Chester County (Yellow dent). 
Thoroughbred (White flint). 
Transvaal Bread-mielie (Flour corn). 
Minnesota Early (Yellow dent). 
Iowa Silver-mine (White dent) ; in Transvaal. 


285. Breeds Suitable for the High-veld.—On the extreme 
High-veld (5,000-6,000 feet) it is now generally recognized that 
Flickory King is too risky for the main crop owing to danger 
from early frost; many thousands of bags are annually lost 
from this cause. Where this is the case farmers would be well 
advised to discontinue growing it, except for very ea7/y planting, 
and to choose a sort which will supply one of the three other 
classes of merchantable grain mentioned in 7 283. /owa Sz/ver- 
mine is said to make as good a “ mielie meal” as Hickory King, 


CHAP. 
VII. 


332 MAIZS: 


for use on the mines. For the export trade, or for stock food, 
earlier maturing yellow dents, such as Chester County, Reid, or 
Minnesota Early, cau generally be sown where the season is too 
short for Hickory King. The two early flints already referred 
to, Wills Gehu and North Dakota, prove particularly valuable 
for late planting. 

For Early Planting —Hickory King (w.d.) ; Hickory 
Horsetooth and 10-row Hickory (w.d.); Eureka (y.d.). 

For Matin Crop.—lowa Silver-mine (w.d.) ; Chester County 
(y.d.); Reid (y.d.). 

For Late Planting —Wills Gehu (y.f.). 

286. Breeds Suitable for the Maise-belt of the Transvaal 
and Orange Free State—For the Maize-belt proper, lying 
(roughly) between 4,000 and 5,000 feet, the following seem 
most suitable :— 

For Early Planting —Ladysmith (w.d.); Yellow Horse- 
tooth (y.d.); Yellow Hogan (y.d.). 

For Main Crop.—Hickory King (w.d.); Hickory Horse- 
tooth and 10-row Hickory (w.d.); Eureka (y.d.). 

For Late Planting.—lowa Silver-mine (w.d.) ; Chester 
County (y.d.); Reid (y.d.); Minnesota Early (y.d.). 

For Very Late Planting, or as a catch-crop.—Wills Gehu 
(y.f.). 

287. Breeds Suitable for the Maisze-belt of the “ Midlands” 
East of the Drakensberg.—F¥or the lower-lying country east of 
the Drakensberg, 2,000 to 3,500 feet elevation, later-maturing 
breeds can be grown owing to the longer growing-season and 
larger rainfall. 

For Early Planting.—Natal White Horsetooth (w.d.). 

For Main Crop.—Hickory King (w.d.) ; Ladysmith (w.d.) ; 
Boone County (w.d.); Mercer (w.d.) ; Golden Beauty (y.d.) ; 
Yellow Horsetooth (y.d.). Yellow Hogan (y.d.) is worth trial, 
the quality of the grain being superior to that of either of the 
other two yellow dents named. 

For Late Planting.— Eureka (y.d.) is worth trial. 

288. Breeds Suitable for the Coast-belt,—TVhis part of the 


_ country is suitable for the cultivation of late-maturing sorts 


when the incidence of the rainfall gives a long growing-season. 
Boone County (w.d.), Ladysmith (w.d.), and “ Yellow Dent” do 
well. Hickory King and Golden Beauty are also grown. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 333 


At the Government Experiment Station, Stanger, the three 
following breeds stood out prominently in the breed tests of 
1907 :— 


Yield per Acre. 


Ladysmith . : : : : 5,100 Ibs. = 25°5 muids. 
Hickory King , . : $ 4,260: 5; Ser. , 
Golden Beauty. ‘ : : 3,950 ,, = 19°75 4, 


289. Breeds Suitable for the Semi-arid \WVestern Regton.— 
The region west of a line drawn between Bloemfontein and 
Lichtenburg is with small exception too dry for any but short- 
season breeds. Avtiman (flint) is the breed which has been 
grown most extensively but it yields poorly; a white Botman 
is grown successfully at Grootfontein and Blikfontein on the 
Kaap Plateau. German Yellow (y.d.) is favourably reported 
on from parts of the Orange Free State, as fairly drought- 
resistant, early, and a good yielder. AHechory Azug is only safe 
in exceptionally favourable seasons and when planted early : 
10-row Heckory (w.d.) is more suitable. /owa Stlver-mine and 
Chester County have given excellent results in the Wolmarans- 
stad District. [7s Gehu (y.d.) and Wells Dakota (w.d.) 
should be especially valuable here. 

290. Breeds Suitable for the Upper Bush-veld.—There is an 
enormous area of territory in the Northern Transvaal, west of 
the Drakensberg, which is at present but thinly settled by 
white people. It is a good cattle country and grows excellent 
maize in ordinary seasons. But the rains fall late and the 
growing-season is somewhat short. On the Springbok Flats, 
Hickory King (w.d.) has given good results, but Hckory 
FHlorsetooth is more promising. /owa Szlver-mine (w.d.) should 
do well and Chester County (y.d.) is worth trial. 

201. Breeds Grown in Rhodesia.— Hickory King, Salisbury 
White, and Golden Eagle appear to be favourites, and do 
excellently in those parts of the country suited to maize 
growing. 

292. Relative Vields of Different Breeds in the Transvaal. 
—The relative yields obtained in any one district do not 
necessarily apply, except in a very general way, to districts 
belonging to a different crop-zone or to localities having a 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


different soil. Nor will the returns obtained during one or . 


two years be a safe criterion as to the relative merits of differ- 


CHAP. 
VII. 


334 WAIZE 


ent breeds. Seasonal conditions affect the various breeds 
differently, and as it requires a ten-year average of the 
various factors to determine the character of the climate, so 
also a ten-year average is desirable for determining accurately 
the relative yields of different breeds. But some breeds can 
be discarded after two seasons, and many before the expiry 
of ten years, so even without the full ten-year record a table 
of relative yields has its value. 

Breed tests have been conducted on the Government Ex- 
periment Farm, Potchefstroom, since 1905-6, and the results 
are summarized in Tables XLV and XLVI. 


TABLE XLV. 


SUMMARY OF POTCHEFSTROOM BREED TESTS. 


| Average Yield in Muids for 


3 Years (1906-7 | 5 Years (1906-7 


6 or 7 Years. | 


| to 1908-9). to IgI0-11). 
eS Se eee 
1. Eureka : a 25°79 24°I 21°75 (6) 
2, Chester County. ere) LeaeT? BAHT 2115 (6) 
3. Yellow Hogan . : | 23°27 213 20°59 (7) | 
4. Hickory Horsetooth . | 23°00 20°65 20°00 (6) 
5. Natal White Horse. | 
ae Pe : noe | 23°33 22°10 19°73 i | 
6. Hickory King =| 25°14 21°9 19°53 (7 
| 7. New England 8-row . | 20°82 Ig'T — 
8. Iowa Silver-mine! . | 21°70 20°4 18°76 (6) 
g. Champion White Pearl | 21°50 20°0 18°72 (6) 
| 10. White Cango . | 23°50 20°3 17°36 (7) | 
tr. Yellow Cango 21°58 20°1 17°24 (7) | 
12. White Botman . 18'6 16°4 14°73 (7) 


The following brief notes giving some idea of the method 
followed in conducting these tests are taken from the Reports 
of Mr. Holm (1) and Mr. Bell (1) :— 

Definite comparative experiments with maize were com- 
menced on this farm in the season 1904-5. 

Breeds.—The crops were grown on land which had, during 
the previous year, produced mangels or potatoes, which received 
from 8 tons to Io tons dung per acre, and about 300 lbs. of a 


' The low position held by this breed at Potchefstroom is not maintained in 
some other parts of the country; it does not like low-lying, damp ground, and 
does better in localities with less soil-moisture. 


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CHAP. 
VI. 


336 MAIZE 


phosphatic manure, but no manure was applied directly to the 
maize crop. 

The first comparative” trials were put down in the season 
1904-5. More breeds were procured for the 1905-6 planting, 
but as they largely consisted of imported seed it would not be 
safe to take the results of the first year’s growth as a basis of 
comparison. In this report, the comparative records are there- 
fore dated from the season 1906-7. During that year and the 
previous two years the results, however, served a useful purpose 
in the determination of breeds which could be discarded. 

The Seed—Most of the breeds were procured by the 
Division of Botany from America, Canada, and Australia, but 
attention was also paid to local sorts from the best seed 
procurable, 

It was soon seen that the results obtained in the first 
two years of experiment could not be regarded as strictly 
comparative, since the seed of most of the breeds was not 
acclimatized. This is a further reason for only dating these 
records from the year 1906-7. 

The Cultivations.—As a general rule the land was deeply 
ploughed once after the potatoes or mangels were cleared. 
Such cultivations as “cultivating,” “harrowing,” and “ rolling” 
were performed to procure a satisfactory tilth prior to planting. 
Immediately after planting the land was harrowed ; subsequent 
cultivations generally consisted of one or two harrowings, one 
hand-hoeing, and one horse-hoeing. 

In the year 1906-7, the breeds were planted with the 
ordinary “2-row planter,” and a special series of plates was 
used to plant grains of such great diversity, equidistant, but it 
was found that this did not give as great accuracy as could be 
desired for experiment. Consequently, in succeeding years, 
the planting for this breed test was done by hand, the grains 
dropped in hills 3 feet apart in each direction, three to each 
hill. 

In 1909-10 the trials were conducted on land consisting 
of a brown loam in a very good state of fertility. 

The actual piece of land devoted to the experiment was of 
course selected for its uniformity, and to ensure results most 
favourable for comparison, two rows of each breed of maize 
were planted across the full length of the field, breeds of 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 337 


similar robustness and general character of growth being 
placed next to each other. 

In previous years the trials had been conducted on check- 
row principles, the seed being sown in hills 3 feet apart in 
each direction; but in this year that system was discarded 
and the seed planted in continuous rows 3 feet apart. 

“The field was watched throughout the season, and any 
blanks in the ‘plant’ due to borer, faulty germination, or other 
such accidental cause, carefully noted. Such blanks, of course, 
affect the yield, and as they are the result of accident, and not 
a characteristic of particular breeds, allowance must be made 
for them in comparative experiments. These allowances, and 
the fact that the most even stand in a field, even if not the 
best part, is certainly not the worst, together make the cal- 
culated yield per acre come out at a higher figure than is 
actually obtained over large areas. This, however, though 
giving a somewhat inflated appearance to the yield generally, 
does not affect the relative positions of the different breeds.” 

In harvesting, two stretches, each 22 yards in length, were 
selected out of the full length of the rows at places where the 
stand seemed to be the most even for all breeds. The ears 
from both rows of each breed were harvested from these two 
selected areas, shelled, the grain weighed, and the result 
calculated out to weight per acre, after the necessary additions 
for blanks were made. This makes a total of four chains 
length harvested for each breed. 

The character of the season should be taken into account 
in comparing the yields. In 1905-6 two very severe droughts 
were experienced during the growing period, viz., in January 
and February, and it is probable that the medium-early 
breeds were most affected, as these droughts took place at a 
critical stage in their growth. Late breeds also suffered to 
some extent, but the early breeds did not appear to have 
been much affected. 

The year 1906-7 was ideal for securing heavy yields. A 
good rainfall took place throughout the growing period, and 
at no stage of its growth did the crop suffer either from 
“ drought” or a supersaturated soil. 

The year 1907-8 was too dry in February, a critical stage 


in the crop's development, while in 1908-9, though a sufficient 
22 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


338 MAIZE 


total rainfall fell during growth, the crop suffered during 
December from drought, and, later, from a water-logged soil 
and absence of sunshine. 

In the season 1909-10 the crops suffered from drought in 
the early stages, were flooded out in December, recovered 
somewhat, and produced a fair crop. 

In the last season (1910-11), owing to heavy early rains, 
the young plants made rapid growth and got an excellent 
start. Then came the drought, which reached, and continued 
at, its worst at the time when the majority of the breeds were 
at the most critical stage of growth, ie. during the flowering 
period. Owing to this, in many cases imperfect pollination 
took place, which resulted in an abnormal proportion of small, 
badly-filled ears. Rain fell after this, but to the end of the 
season the fall was considerably below the average and quite 
insufficient to produce the best results. 

The rainfall for the period 1906-7 to 1909-10 is given in 
Table XLVII following :— 


TasLeE XLVII. 


RAINFALL AT GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENT FARM, POTCHEF- 
STROOM, 1906-7 TO Ig0g-Io. 


1907-8. 1908-9. 1909-10. 


] | 
| | 1906-7. | } 910-11. | 
| | | 
| | Pa [ee = ae Sai g 
| | Inches. | ¢ eu Inches. | ee | Inches. | ¢ 2 | Inches. ae | Inches.| ¢ @| 
E fee OE cial aeee (Siet 22) ee 
| | | | 
July . : Fo ee ee eee Fae oy Mr | 030) 2) = | — 
August ; — _ —_ — “98 4 | 0°31 2) — —_ 
September | ‘ro | 3 | 2°04 | 6 | 167 5 | 0702 I | 0°88 I 
October | 2°03 9 | 148 | ro | 1°73 7 | 0°39 4 | 6°00 | 13 
| November | 3°93 | To | 3°96 | Io | 2°64 9 281 | 10 | 162 Meer 
| December } 350] Q| 4Ir | 12] 2°59 | 7 \10°26 | 14 | 4'13 | 33 
| January | 640 | 15 | 4°21 | 12 | 7:00 | 17 | 3°45 | 12 | 1°46 | x0 
February . | 894 | Io | 2°95 | 16) 4°72 | 13 | 1°77 | Ir | 3°33 | ro 
March - | 2°00 | IO | 3°39 | 12 | 2°93 7 | 2°49 5 | I'gt | It 
April : - | 5°25 | 1x 02 Ij} ‘80 | 4] org | 3 | 2°53 | 9 
| May | £39] “7 | 706 t | E2r 6 | om5 3 | 2°68 | g | 
June | 02 I 03 tr) — | =| 006) 2 | o'or I | 
| Total Rainfall . | 33°56 | — |22°25 | — | 269r | — | 22°21 | — | 24°35 ies 
| Number of Days | — | 85 | =) Bro) | 83 | — |69) — | &4 | 
Ye eee ae | | | | 


These climatic conditions are reflected in the yields. In 
each year all the breeds were safe before frost occurred. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 339 


293. Relative Vields of Breeds in Natal.—TVhe following 
report on breed tests carried on at Cedara, Natal, is furnished 
by Mr. Sawer (1) :— 

“In 1904-5 the variety tests were mace in Block 1C of the 
variety section. The rows were 35 feet long and 3 feet apart, 
and there were two rows of each variety. Ten tons of farm- 
yard manure were ploughed in, and a mixture of 200 lbs. 
sulphate of ammonia, 400 lbs. superphosphate, and 100 lbs. 
potash chloride was spread broadcast and harrowed in. The 
same lots of seed from America, France, and England were 
used as in the previous year; also several lots from Dammann 
and Co., of San Giovanni a Teduccio, near Naples, Italy, and 
some two or three other lots. In all cases the seed was 
planted too late for the best results, the Brazilian and the 
Virginian Dent on 28 and 29 December, and all the others on 
19 December, three weeks later than desirable. Some of the 
yields were good, but in all probability the general average 
would have been higher had the seed been planted earlier. 
The peculiarity of the 1904-5 season, to produce much stalk 
but comparatively little grain, was shown throughout. The 


following are the results in detail, arranged in order of grain 
yield” :— 


22 


CHAP. 
VII. 


340 MAIZE 


Tas_e XLVIII. 


CHAP. 


VII. 
RELATIVE YIELDS OF MAIZE BREEDS AT GOVERNMENT 


EXPERIMENT FARM, CEDARA, NATAL, 1904-5. 


| | ee Yield. | 
| No. Variety. | Source. Height 
| | | Feet. | Grain. Statlete| 
|. J | 
| x| Hickory King (L.) . | Trelawny Adams | 73 | 3,538 | 6,128 | 
| 2} Boone County (L.) . | Henderson (grown | 7 2,917 | 10,417 
| by W.Pepworth) | 
| 3| White Flint Henderson, New 6 1,719 | 6,771 
York | | 
Hig Yellow Hogan Hawkesbury Exp. 7 | 1,614 | 6,406 | 
| Farm, N.S. Wales | | | 
| 5| Adams Early Kilminster, Durban) 4 = | 1,510 2,838 | 
| 6] Early Butler Henderson 6 1,432 | II,041 | 
| 7| Longfellow i | 6 | 1,354 | 6,328 | 
| 8| Improved Leaming 46 6 1,237 | 6,341 
| g| Improved Early Horsetooth is | by} 1,224 | 8,346 | 
| t0 | Early Yellow Long Eared . | Vilmorin, Paris 6 1,175 1,680 | 
| rr | Early Mastodon . Henderson 7 1,172 | 12,578 | 
| 12 Sugar Corn, Evergreen Late Vilmorin 5 1,167 5,768 
| 13 | Early } Minnesota . | Dammann, Italy 5 1,167 | 3,633 
| 14 | Golden Beauty . . | Henderson esr: 1,146 | 10,286 
| 15 | King Philip . at Z | 6 1,133 5,300 
| 16] Rural Thorawslbred . < | 6% | 1,120 9,895 | 
| r7| Large Yellow Flint : rs | 6 1,015 | 6,419 
| 18} Southern Horsetooth | te I) Ce I,OIl5 | 4,297 | 
| xg | Queen of the Prairie . . | 63 | 975 | 7,526 | 
| 20 | Late White Horsetooth | Vilmorin | 6 gir | 10,338 
| 21 | Six Weeks, or Quarantino . | Dammann Ih oa gil 1,953 | 
| 22| Crosby Early Sweet Corn . 43 | 34 898 | 6,706 | 
23 | White Cap Yellow Henderson 6 885 | 4,948 
24 | Extra Early Huron i I) 36 7941 4,414 | 
25 | White Early Pyrenean | Vilmorin | 53 791 | 1,706 | 
26 | Sweet Fodder . . | Hend.rson eee 755 | 2,905 
27 King Philip Early White Vilmorin | 5 743 | 2,070 
28 | Compton Early . Henderson | 6 72 4,674 
| 29 | Henderson Eureka e aan 716 | 11,783 
30 | White Pyrenean Sutton, England 4 703 2,200 
31 | Pearl White ‘ Dammann 53 664 | 2,473 
2| Extra Early Szekely . Vilmorin | 4 664 | 1,068 
33 | Stowell Evergreen Kilminster, Durban) 5 651 6,627 
34 | Curagua Dammann h-6 612 | 4,805 
| 35 | Sugar Corn, Early Dwarf . | Vilmorin | 44 586 | 1,549 
36 | Indian Corn Yellow ‘ 53 567 1,693 
37 | Ambra Dammann 3 560 1,719 
38 | Seven Weeks, or t Cinquan- 
tino . c ” 4 547 2,317 
39} Early Dwarf Sugar Cane . | Sutton 3 531 2,578 
40| Kansas King (in the ey Dammann 43 521 | 6,016 
4t | Hickory King | Henderson ] 508 9,778 
2| Extra Early Yellow Sutton 4 504 | 1,354 
| 43 | Brazilian (L.) C. Harding, near 
Estcourt 6 456 | 3,398 
| L. = local seed 
| 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 


TaBLE XLVIII (continued). 


RELATIVE YIELDS OF MAIZE BREEDS AT GOVERNMENT 
EXPERIMENT FARM, CEDARA, NATAL, 1904-5. 


Variety. 


Late Bicolor Pearl a 
Early Small Yellow Au- 
xonne é 


Evergreen Sweet 5 
Extra Early Small Yellow 
Mastodon Improved . 
Moor Early Concord . 
King Philip, Early Brown. 
Iowa Silver-mine 
Japanese Striped 

Perry Hybrid 

Virginia Dent 

Cuzco White 

Mammoth . 

Nanerotollo 

Egyptian 

Cuzco Red : 

Very Early August 
Adams Extra Early 

Cory Early Red Cob . 
Iowa Gold-mine 
Longfellow Yellow 
Leaming Yellow 


Average of 60 


Source. 


Vilmorin 


a 
Henderson 
Vilmorin 
Dammann 


” 
Vilmorin 
Dammann 
Sutton 
Dammann 
Henderson 
Vilmorin 
Dammann 


” 


” 
Vilmorin 


” 
Dammann 
” 

2 
” 


” 


weig 


* The ears were all destroyed by 


hed 200 Ibs. per acre. 


crows. 


34i 
| Anes | Yield 
| age = 
Height 
Feet. | Grain. | Stalk, etc. 
al — 
| 5 | 443 | 12,174 
4 | 420 1,146 
44) 377 | 45353 
3 | 266 846 
7 182 963 
| 3 | 156 gil 
I) sds ely A382 625 
3. | 133 664 | 
| 38 | 20¢ | tabd | 
|) 3 | 104 443 
| 6 39 | 9,127 | 
5 26 1,380 | 
5 20 304 | 
I 20 
| 54 13 ae 
5 a 3,125 
2 * 2,083 
| | 
- |Failed 
| | 
| 
| eR res 


768 | 4,496 


The grain would perhaps have 


CHAP, 
VI. 


CHAP. 


VII. 


34 


MAIZE 


TABLE XLIX. 


RESULTS OF MAIZE BREED TESTS, CEDARA, NATAL, 


WKH 


a) 


aI DN 


WwWwWwnhh 
WnH OW 


ww 
ns 


Www 
NOD 


Ww 
[o's) 


w 
Ko} 


Variety. 


Hickory King 

Virginia White Dent 1 I 
Early Mastodon 
Boone County White. 


Yellow Hogan 


Mastodon Improved . 

Queen of the Prairie . 

Zulu Red, Zululand 
Mealie 

Golden Beauty . 

Late White Horsetooth | 

Extra Early Huron 

Horsetooth and Hick- 
ory King, Greytown 

Hickory King 

Improved Early Horse- | 
tooth 

Virginia White Dent 2 

Burlington Hybrid, 
Ingogo . : 

White Cap Yellow 

Japanese Striped 

Southern Horsetooth . 

Henderson Eureka 

Improved Leaming 

Iowa Silver-mine =| 

Large Yellow Flint 

Horsetooth or Cura- 
gua, N.S 

Rural Thoroughbred . 

Early Butler 

Curagua 

King Philip 

Brazilian 

White Flint 

Evergreen Sweet 

Compton Early . : 

King Philip Early 
Brown : % 

Longfellow ‘ 

Kansas King (in the 
Husk) 

Mammoth . 

Small Yellow S. Ameri- 
can, N.S. 


King Philip Early 
Brown, N.S. . 4 

Late Bicolor Pearl, 
NGSa ee ae eet 


Source. 


Trelawny Adams 


Henderson 


» through 

W. Pepworth 

Hawkesbury Ex. 

Farm, N.S.W. 
Dammann 
Henderson 


Rawlins 
Henderson 
Vilmorin 
Henderson 


Thresh 
Henderson 


” 


” 


Panzera 

Henderson 

Sutton 

Henderson 
i 


” 


Dammann 


| Henderson 


Vilmorin 
Henderson 


” 
Dammann 
Henderson 
C. Harding 
Henderson 


” 


Vilmorin 
Henderson 


Dammann 


Natal 
Dept. 


Agricult. 


Vilmorin 


1905-6. 
ey i al 
Yield. 
lAverage oe een ee | SD AteTOF 
Height Harvest- 
Feet | Grain as ing: 
| i 
eee) oe) (ence 5 
7 |5,990| 9,869 | 30 May 
7 | 5,220/18,385],,  ,, 
7 4,844 | 5575.5: as, Fo 
7 iia 8,242] ,, 4, 
| 
74 | 4279 | 9,247) 4, 45 
8 | 4206 | nara }3i4 4, | 
8 | Bde | or ae | 
eee 
8 4,075 | 18,789 | 30, | 
9 |4oro} 6745/14 ., | 
64 | 3,906 | 15,729] 30 ,, | 
Se | 3037) S073 | Ta | 
7h | 3,633| 8,507/30 ,, | 
7 | 5,482] ,, 5 | 
| | 
7% |3515| 5.4601, ,, 
6 |3,4Ir] 4,662),, ,, | 
| sil 
7 3,398 4,453 | Bh 
8 | 3,372 | 5182 | ta 45 
4 | 3,268| 4,844] 30 , 
7% | 3,255 | 12,696] ,, 4 | 
383 | 39255 5560/14 ,, | 
G- || B3s2TGl 25776 a yes 
7 | 3,190 | 6,107 | 12 ,, | 
7 | 3,060) 3,515] 3 | 
63 | 3,008 | 11,042 30 | 
5 | See | PeeD Te ess || 
a 2,956 | 4,779 | 3 
Ta | 2,903) 7274. (124, | 
6§ | 2,786] 4.375] 3 5, | 
6 | 2,760 | 7,865 | 30 ,, 
64 2,760 | 3,763} 3. ,, 
64 | 2,760] 3,620} 12 ,, 
6} | 2,708} 3,685] 3 4, | 
| 
6 2,682 | 6,797 ie Raut | 
63 | 2,630] 5,651] 3 May| 
| 
7. | 2,408) 5,52r/14 ,, 
62 | 2,356| 427r| 2 ,, | 
5% | 2,356] 4,219] 30 4, | 
6 2,253 | 4,948 | 12 April 
5 | 2,161 | 5,654 | 30 May | 


| 
| 
| 


| 
| 
| 
| 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 343 
TaBLE XLIX (continued). 
RESULT OF MAIZE BREED TESTS, CEDARA, NATAL, 1905-6. 
| | , | 
| | Yield. | 
| Average £4 oe Dateiof. 
No. | Variety. | Source. Height Harvest- 
| Feet. Giain: ae ing. 
| 
| 
| 40| Boone County White, | 
N.S. . | Henderson 64 | 2,148] 5,248 | 30 May 
41 | Indian Corn, Large 
Yellow Vilmorin 54 | 2,122) 3,893 | 12 April 
42 | Perry Hybrid | Dammann y) ,096 | 2,773| 2 May 
43 | Sweet Fodder Henderson 6 2,083 | 3,125} 3 4, 
44 | Late Bicolor Pearl Vilmorin 54 | 2,051) 5,937}30 ,, 
45 | Moor Early Concord. | Dammann 5+ | 2,005] 2,304] 2 ,, 
46 | White Early Pyrenean, | 
I). Ns. é | 6 I,QI2 | 3,711 | 12 April 
47 | Crosby Early Sweet | | 
Corn . «| Dammann | 54 | 1,784| 2,565| 3 May) 
48 King Philip Early | | 
White, N.S. . | Vilmorin lj, 2:6 1,706 | 4,167 | 12 April 
49 | Sugar Corn, Evergreen, 
Late, N.S. =A 52 | 1,680) 4,844 | 2 May 
50 | Pearl White Dammann 5% | 1,667) 5,768) 30 ,, 
51| Early Yellow, ne 
Eared | Vilmorin 53 | 1,653) 2,044 | 12 April 
52| Early Minnesota Dammann 5% | 1,627] 2,395) 2 May 
53 | Large Yellow, N.S. . | Vilmorin 54 | 1,615 | 3,503 | 12 April 
54 | White Early Pyrenean | Fn 54 | 1,615] 2,825!1,, 4, 
55| King Philip Early 
White x 6 7,602 | 3,006|,, 
56 | Sugar Corn, Everoteen| 
Late ‘ re 6 1,588 | 3,633| 2 May 
57 | Sugar Corn, Early | | 
Dwarf, N.S. | Pe | 42 | 1,536] 2,109 | 12 April 
58 | Adams Early : | Kilminster, Dur- | 
: | ban 5 1475 | 21457] yo 
59 | Stowell Evergreen. | a i 6 AZ4 |) 22261 be. 55 
60 | Early Yellow, Long | 
Eared, N.S. Vilmorin 429i! 35807) ay ae ‘I 
61 | Ambra Dammann 53 1406 | 1,693] ,, 4, 
2| Egyptian . ‘ i F 64 5380 |} 5,912) 2 May 
63| Seven Weeks, or 
Cinquantino a 6 1,380 | 2,773 | 12 April 
64) Extra Early Dwarf 
| Sugar Corn Vilmorin | 43 5380'| 2,526] ,, 45 
65 | Six Weeks, or Quaran- 
| tino : . | Dammann | 53 g828'| TOOT) as 4 
66 | White Pyrenean | Sutton | 43 3315 | 2,330 | 31 Mar. 
67. Early Szekely . | Vilmorin 6 | 13,146) 2,317/26 ,, | 
68 | Early Small Yellow | 
; Auxonne . Pe 54 | 1,016] 3,368|21 ,, 
69 | Austin Yellow Corn . Ferguson 6 989 | 2,486 | 30 May | 
70 | Extra Early Yellow Henderson 44 g89 | 1,015 | 3x Mar 
71 | Extra Early Szekely . | Vilmorin 6 976 | 4,447] 21 ,, 
72| Extra Early Small 
| Yellow - af 53 926 | 2,279 35 
23 | Early Small Auxonne re 6 871 | 3,385 rf 
74 | Early Dwarf Sugar 
5 Corn x . | Sutton 38 599| 2,669| 31 ,, 
75 | Very Early August Vilmorin 13 13 218/17 4, 


CHAP. 
Vil. 


CHAP. 
VI. 


344 ; MAIZE 


294. Third Season’s Results, Cedara, Natal.— In 1905-6 
tests were carried out on the same grounds as in the previous 
season, but as there were more varieties to be tested the ground 
had to be extended into Block 1D. This block in the previous 
season had been manured with 1o tons per acre of farmyard 
manure, and 200 lbs. superphosphates and 50 lbs. potash 
chloride. The whole ground was manured again in 1905-6 
with 10 tons per acre of farmyard manure ploughed in, and 
415 Ibs. per acre superphosphate applied in the drills with the 
seed. The seed used was from the previous season’s variety 
plots in all cases except those marked ‘n.s.’ which means new 
stock or newly imported seed, or with the words Zululand, 
Greytown, or Ingogo. The rows were, as before, 35 feet long 
and 3 feet apart, and the plants: were 18 inches apart in the 
rows, There were two rows of each variety. The seeds 
were all planted on g December, about ten days later than 
they should have been, but the 1905-6 season was favourable 
to late sowing, so that no great harm was done by the delay. 
Some very fine yields were obtained : the average of seventy-five 
varieties was at the rate of 2,424 lbs. grain and 5;085 Ibs, stalks, 
etc., to the acre, and the highest yield was only 10 lbs. short of 30 
muids of grain per acre, or actually 106} bushels.”’ 

Table XLIX gives the results in detail. 

295. Relative Weight of Grain per Bushel of Different 
Breeds.—The standard weight of a bushel measure of maize, 
in the United States, is 56 lbs. But there is great difference 
between the relative weight per bushel of the different breeds. 
The grain which weighs heaviest in the bag or bushel measure 
does not necessarily give the heaviest crop, in fact the re- 
verse is generally the case; the flint breeds usually weigh 
heavier than the dents, but we generally find that they give 
fewer muids per acre of ground. 

The weight per bushel varies with the degree of dryness, 
so that to make a reliable comparison between them, it is 
necessary to take all the weights at the same time. It would 
be more accurate to take them in conjunction witha moisture- 
test. The comparative weights per bushel of some leading 
South African breeds, taken at the Johannesburg Maize Show, 
July, 910, are given in Table L. 


VARIETIES AND BREEDS 345 


TaBLe L. 
WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF SOUTH AFRICAN SHELLED 
MAIZE. 
Breed. | Where Grown. mS Pet 
: | | 
ee | | Lbs 
Hickory King . ; : : é . | Natal 53 
” yt . : . : : ” SE: 
1o-row Hickory (Louisiana). j . | Transvaal 554 
m2 oy ” . . =| ” 553 
Iowa Silver-mine . . ‘ ; x | ‘8 58 
ns ey ‘ , : : a ” 57 
Ladysmith ‘ . ; F ' . | Natal 574 
Yellow Hogan ‘ ; . : . | Transvaal 5904 
” ” . . = . » | ” 60 
Chester County. 3 : : el 3 | 60 
* ; : ; ; : ” 57 | 
Leaming : : : : ‘ 5 59 | 
Yellow Cango. P : . ; . ‘ 62 | 
New England 8-row ‘ : : ' ia 62 
Gillespie Yellow ; . ; ‘ 3 * 62 
White Cango . ; : : : Hs 60 
Glass Early Flour Corn . : : . Cape Province 55 
Brazilian Flour Corn é ‘ : . Transvaal 524 
18/r0404 
Average for 18 samples ‘ : ; P| 57°8 
Lightest of all = Brazilian Flour Corn : | 523 
Heaviest Flint = Cango, New England and Gillespie Yellow 62 
Lightest Flint = White Cango . : 60 
Heaviest Dent = Yellow Hogan and Chester County . : 60 
Lightest Dent = Hickory King .. : : : 5 53 
American Standard Weight : i : : . -| 56 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAPTER VIIL 
SOILS AND MANURES. 


The fundamental secret of continued success in farming is the maintenance 
of soil fertility—Mr. Runciman, President of the Board of Agriculture. 


Maize requires a better quality of land, and a higher grade of farming, than 
any other of the great staple crops. —Prof. T. N. Carver. 


By dung we are limited to the quantity of it we can procure, which in most 
places is too scanty. But by tillage we can enlarge our field of subterranean pas- 
ture without limitation. JETHRO TULL. 


296. The Soil—Soil is the medium in which plants grow 
and from which they draw the chemical substances used in the 
processes of growth. Soils are produced by the weathering 
and decomposition of rocks. They vary in texture, and are 
described as stony, sandy, loamy, or clayey; a loam is inter- 
mediate between sand and clay. 

Soils vary in chemical composition according to the nature 
of the rocks from which they have been derived, and may thus 
vary in the amount of plant-food which they contain. Ninety 
to 95 per cent of most of the fertile soils consist of the following 
substances: phosphoric acid, potash, lime, soda, magnesia, iron 
oxide, sulphuric acid, chlorine, silica, and alumina, which, how- 
ever, do not usually exist in a free state. The remaining ro 
or 5 per cent is made up of /Azmus or decayed vegetable matter 
containing nitrogen. Sometimes a fertile soi] has only 2 or 3 
per cent of humus, while in other cases it may contain 25 and 
even 50 per cent. Nitrogen is also contained in rain-water, 
in varying amounts, and is further added to the soil by the 
action of nitrifying bacteria living on the roots of leguminose 
plants (41 311). 

Both texture and chemical composition of the soil have an 
important bearing on plant growth. 

346 


SOILS AND MANURES 347 


297. Chemical Elements of the Soil Required by Plants.— 
All of the above-mentioned chemical substances of the soil 
occur likewise in plants, with the exception of alumina (oxide 
of aluminium), and this is always present in good soils, so that 
it may be said that all are requisite to plant growth. Some 
are always present in such abundance that there is no danger 
of their becoming exhausted. The supply of others, how- 
ever, especially phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and nitrogen, 
is frequently insufficient for the production of good crops, and 
the deficiency has to be supplied by the farmer. Of these, 
nitrogen is the one which is most expensive to replace. 

All of the mineral substances found in the ash of plants must 
come from the soil; plants cannot get them in any other way. 
The carbon used in the structure of plant tissue is taken from 
the air. The hydrogen and oxygen come from the water in 
the soil. 

298. Sol Moztsture.—The chemical substances in the soil 
can only be made use of by the plant when they are dissolved 
in water, and water is capable of dissolving from the soil all 
the substances that it contains which enter into the food of 
plants; this explains why moisture is necessary to plant life. 
Dilute solutions of these substances are drawn in through the 
minute hairs which clothe the ends of the youngest rootlets, 
and are carried up into the plant, where they undergo a 
chemical change into the various compounds on which the 
plant feeds. 

Soil has the power of absorbing and retaining water that 
passes through it, and also of drawing up water from below ; 
the latter is known as capillary action, and is similar to the 
action by which the oil is ‘‘drawn” up into a lamp-wick. Good 
soils will frequently absorb and hold one-half or more of their 
own weight of water; some, much more, and those containing 
most humus will hold most water. Soils also absorb a small 
amount of moisture from the air. Even when a soil seems 
perfectly dry it still contains considerable moisture. Soils ex- 
posed to the direct rays of the sun or to drying wind give up 
much of their moisture by evaporation, and as the surface dries 
water begins to ascend from the lower strata by capillary 
action. When the soil is protected by a “ mulch,” evaporation 
is checked. 


CHAP, 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


348 MAIZE 


299. Conservation of Moisture by Tillage.—South African 
maize-growers in the drier districts have often experienced loss 
of their crops, and have had to plant twice or thrice because 
the stands have “burned off” in a long drought following a 
good spring rain. Such loss may often be prevented—or 
greatly reduced—by good tillage. After a rain or after 
irrigation the surface of the soil is packed tight and a “crust” 
is formed. Through this crust capillary action is set up, and, 
as the water evaporates from the surface, more is drawn up 
from below, until the soil is dried out to a considerable depth. 
But if that crust is finely broken up, capillary action cannot 
take place ; the fine soil on top forms a “mulch,” evaporation 
is checked, and the soil moisture is left for the young plants 
instead of being drawn into the air. 

300. Dry-land Farming.—By the conservation of soil-mois- 
ture, through the adoption of better tillage, it is probable that 
maize-growing may be extended considerably beyond the pre- 
sent western limits of the South African Maize-belt ; just how 
far, has yet to be determined, but the practice of dry-farming 
methods would undoubtedly add greatly to the area at present 
under crop. Jethro Tull (1) says :— 


“The well hoed earth, being open, receives and retains the 
dews; the benign solar influence is sufficient to put them in 
motion, but not to exhale them from thence. The hoe pre- 
vents the [growth of] turf, which would otherwise by its blades 
or roots intercept and return back the dews into the atmos- 
phere, with the assistance of a moderate heat. So that this 
husbandry [i.e. dry-farming] secures Luserne from the injury 
of a wet summer, and also causes the rain-water to sink down 
more speedily, and disperse its riches all the way of its passage ; 
otherwise the water would be more apt to stand on the surface, 
chill the earth, and keep off the sun and air from drying it: 
for, when the surface is dry and open, Luserne will bear a very 
great degree of heat, or grow with a mean one.” 


301. /rrigation.—Irrigation, also, might extend the area 
now planted to maize. But irrigated land is too valuable to 
be devoted to this crop except in the vicinity of good markets, 
where early ‘green mielies,” for table use, command a suffi- 
ciently high price, or where climatic conditions do not permit 
maize to be grown otherwise; and then only if the cost of 
importation exceeds the local value of the crop. 


SOILS AND MANURES 349 


302. Available Plant-food.—Some of the phosphoric acid, 
potash, etc., present in the soil is in a state of chemical com- 
bination in which the plant cannot make use of it for food, 
until a certain amount of “ weathering” and decay has taken 
place through the action of moisture and air. Estimations of 
the fotal guantities of such salts present in the soil are there- 
fore of comparatively little value, alone, as indications of its 
actual fertility or of its manurial requirements, without a know- 
ledge of the amounts available as plant food at any one time. 

303. Recuperative Power of Sotls.—Soils are possessed of 
great recuperative power, and if the conditions are favourable 
the renewal of the available plant-food may take place with 
considerable rapidity. Under the action of moisture and air a 
process of ‘‘ weathering” is constantly taking place, and the 
salts are thereby rendered soluble. This is one reason why 
summer fallowing often proves so beneficial. Even if the 
avatlable salts had been quite exhausted before fallowing was 
resorted to, the soil would not long remain unproductive; the 
available plant-food would soon be restored by the action of 
moisture and air on the mineral matter. 

304. Character of South African Soils.—As a general rule 
South African soils are not rich in the total amount of salts 
required by plants, as compared with those of many parts of 
the world. Yet the peculiar fact remains, as pointed out by 
Ingle (1), that Zxruriant crops are yielded by soils which, on 
analysis, appear to be extremely deficient in plant-food. This is 
partly explained by the favouring influences of abundant sun- 
shine and high temperature. In tropical and sub-tropical 
countries the processes of soil renewal appear to go on more 
rapidly than in other climates. Soils poor in available salts 
may, under these conditions, give the plants actually greater 
nutriment than soils containing a considerably larger percent- 
age of salts under conditions less favourable (/ng/e, 1). 

308. Sorls Suitable for Maize-growing.—Maize as a sur- 
face-rooting plant is quickly affected by change of climate 
(Burtt-Davy, 16). It is also sensitive to variations of soil— 
perhaps more so than other cereal crops. To succeed well 
it requires a good deal of moisture, but standing water or 
water-logged soils are injurious; to secure the best results the 
soil should be moist, but well drained. It should also be of 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


35° MAIZE 


good depth, for shallow soils require manuring sooner than 
deep ones. A friable soil which neither bakes nor cracks much 
in dry weather is desirable. The black “turf” soils of parts of 
South Africa are often rich, but in seasons of drought are apt 
to dry out too much, or in wet years to become water-logged. 
Red clay soils, also, give good crops in some districts. Some 
of the more sandy soils bear two or three crops and are then 
exhausted, or become so loose with cultivation that they blow 
away from the roots of the young maize plants. 

There are some soils along the Drakensberg range of 
mountains which Prof. Watt (IVa¢t, R. D., 1) has found to 
contain so much of the ferrous iron compounds that maize 
and kaffir corn do not grow more than a few inches in height 
even in favourable seasons. Loamy soils, whether red or 
grey, with some admixture of sand, are among the best all- 
round soils for maize. In the Transvaal such are found 
largely in the Heidelberg, Standerton, Bethal, Ermelo, and 
Lichtenburg Districts, and on that large stretch of country 
known as the Springbok Flats. Deep, loamy, alluvial river- 
bottom soils, such as are found along parts of the Vaal River, 
Kaffir Spruit, the Crocodile, Hex, Marico, and other Transvaal 
streams, are admirably suited to maize-growing. The rich 
soils found in pockets along the foot of the eastern slopes of 
the Drakensberg produce some of the finest crops in the 
country, but only a short distance out on the plains beyond, 
there occurs a strip of ashy grey soil which seems unsuited to 
maize or almost any other crop. 

306. New v. Old Lands.—A common practice in South 
Africa is to abandon maize lands after the third year, either 
because they are supposedly “ worn out,” or on account of 
weeds. New lands usually give poor maize crops. Experi- 
ence at the Government Experiment Farm at Potchefstroom, 
the Government Stud Farm at Standerton, and the demon- 
stration farms of Messrs. John Fowler & Co. at Vereeniging, 
all in the Transvaal, shows that the best crops may be ob- 
tained in the fourth and fifth year of continuous cultivation 
of the soil. As the land becomes well opened up to air and 
water, chemical changes take place in the soil which liberate 
the plant-food or make it available to the plant. There 
are a few places in the Transvaal where the soil does not 


SOILS AND MANURES 351 


seem able to stand cropping with maize for more than three CHAP. 
years, but in most cases the abandonment of the land at the V!!- 
third year means giving it up just when it should be pro- 
ducing the very best crops. At Vereeniging an average of 

18 muids per English acre has been obtained over a field of 

32 acres, without manure, on steam-ploughed land; this was 

the sixth crop of maize from the land, five having been in 
succession. On new lands the Vereeniging crop has been as 

low as 24 muids per acre. 

307. Effect of Tillage.—“ Tillage is manure” is an oft- 
quoted saying attributed to Jethro Tull, but sometimes mis- 
understood. Prof. Morrow states that proper tillage of the 
soil increases its productive power; the ability of a soil to 
produce crops is often as directly increased by tillage as by the 
application of manures (JZorrow and Hunt, 1). 

Tillage is described by Jethro Tull (1) as “ breaking and 
dividing the ground by spade, plough, hoe, or other instru- 
ments which divide by a sort of altition (or contusion), as dung 
does by fermentation. . . . Tillage (as well as dung) is bene- 
ficial to all sorts of land. . . . The finer the land is made by 
tillage, the richer will it become, and the more plants it will 
maintain.” But it should not be concluded from this that 
good tillage makes it unnecessary to manure, for manure 
adds to the soil, while tillage only makes available what 
is already there. Fora few years after the first breaking of 
the veld, land may continue to improve and yield better crops, 
under good tillage, but after that, deterioration begins. 

The following are the principal reasons why cultivation 
makes soils more productive :— 

(1) Stirring and pulverizing a hard, compact soil enables 
the roots of plants to penetrate more easily and reach a larger 
quantity of the salts which are to be converted into plant-food. 

(2) It opens the soil to the weathering effect of air and 
water, which increases the supply of available plant-food. 

(3) With very fine, loose soils tillage (and rolling) may 
make them more compact, increasing the capillary action. 

(4) Surface cultivation, which keeps the surface soil loose 
and dry, forms a mulch, which checks evaporation. 

(5) Tillage kills weeds, which otherwise rob the soil of 
food and water. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


MAIZE 


ioe) 
mn 
nN 


308. Effect of Continuous Cropping.—It is well known that 
the crop-producing power of the soil is reduced to a point 
below that of profitable cultivation by continuous cropping 
with maize or any other cereal, even where the soils are rich 
in the constituents of plant-food. As the average soils of 
South Africa are not rich in these substances (1 304) they 
will the sooner become exhausted, unless steps are taken to 
renovate them. There has been a tendency in parts of South 
Africa to crop continuously over a long series of years, until 
the soil has become “sick”? or ‘‘worn out”. Continuous 
cropping means the annual removal of a certain amount of 
plant-food from the soil, without replacing any. Neither the 
greatest quantity, nor the best quality, can be produced by 
growing the same crop year after year on the same soil. 
Fortunately there are still large tracts of unbroken veld, but 
they cannot be drawn upon indefinitely ; the time is rapidly 
approaching when there will be no more raw veld to be broken 
to the plough. When this time comes South Africa will be 
compelled to resort to some means of restoring the fertility of 
the soil. 

This has been the experience in every farming country, until 
the lesson was learned and a more normal practice established. 
Where the soils are naturally poor in plant-food farmers 
should not wait until they are “ worn out” before adopting a 
better method of treatment; it is easier and cheaper to main- 
tain and add to what is already there than to undertake to 
renovate an already impoverished soil. 

309. Maintaining the Crop-producing Power of the Sotl.— 
Continuous cropping with a heavy-yielding crop like maize, 
will inevitably result in exhaustion of the soil unless steps 
are taken to maintain its crop-producing power. 

Quoting Mr. Runciman,! the President of the British Board 
of Agriculture: “The fundamental secret of continued success 
in farming is the maintenance of soil fertility. This is where 
England excels. Her system of land tenure is often criticized, 
but it is a significant circumstance that it is associated with 


'In a speech at the Government dinner given in honour of the American 
Commission on Agricultural Credit and Co-operation, July, 1913, as reported in 
The Field, Vol. CXXII, p. 128, 19 July, 1913. 


SOILS AND MANURES 353 


the best and most enduring methods of husbandry known in 
any country.” 

There is no need for South African farmers to become 
pessimistic on the question of soil exhaustion, if they will 
study the example of England in contrast with that of the 
United States; in the latter we find, according to Hopkins 
(6), thousands of acres of land practically ruined from an agri- 
cultural point of view, after but 200 years of farming; while 
on the other hand we learn from Mr. Runciman that “ ¢he 
older England grows the richer become the average soils ; cases 
of impoverishment are few and far between”. The English 
tenant-farmer is compelled, under the terms of his lease, to 
restore to the soil what he takes from it, and nothing ends 
a tenancy more speedily than evidences of exhaustive 
farming. 

If proper steps are taken to maintain the crop-producing 
power of the soil, maize does not prove an exhaustive crop. 
Hunt (1) makes the following points—that (1) the amount of 
soil elements removed is small in proportion to the amount of 
foodstuff produced; (2) large quantities of organic matter are 
produced which when fed to live-stock make large quantities 
of organic manure to return to the soil; (3) the intercultural 
tillage required by the maize crop is beneficial to the soil. 

Hopkins (5, p. 200) says that to return the maximum 
amount of organic matter to the land requires that the manure 
shall be applied to the soil before losses occur by fermentation 
and decay. ‘In ordinary farm practice more or less loss of 
organic matter is almost certain to occur unless the manure is 
applied to the soil within a day or two after it is produced.” 
English farm practice is changing in accord with this view, 
largely owing, no doubt, to the effect of the dairy regulations 
which require that the manure shall be removed daily from the 
immediate vicinity of the milking sheds; dairy farmers now 
find it convenient to cart it direct to the land, and the results 
appear to be entirely satisfactory. 

The best means of maintaining the crop-producing power 
of the soil on a maize farm, as at present demonstrated, 
are :— 

(1) The use of stable manure and kraal manure wher- 
ever available. The available amount can be increased by the 

23 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


354 MAIZE 


adoption of the best methods of preserving the fodder and 
stover of the crop, and conserving the manure. 

(2) The ploughing-in of green-manure crops. 

(3) The suitable rotation of crops in connection with stock- 
raising. 

(4) The use of suitable artificial manures. 

310. Summer Fallowing.—Where large areas are under crop 
on any one farm (as in many parts of the western United States 
and parts of South America and South Africa) it is not practicable 
to give the same amount of cultivation as would be possible on 
a farm of smaller area. It needs too large an investment of capi- 
tal in machinery and draught animals, not to mention the diffi- 
culty of getting labour. But without cultivation weeds soon 
get hold of the land, smother the crop, and greatly reduce the 
yield. Under such circumstances summer fallowing may be 
resorted to with advantage. By summer fallowing we mean 
leaving a portion of the land without crop during the summer 
season, so that it may be cleaned of weeds. Crops of young 
weeds are allowed to grow, and are then ploughed under as 
‘‘green manure,” or harrowed off before they get too large to 
be pulled out or old enough to scatter seed. The latter point 
is of great importance, for there is much truth in the old pro- 
verb that ‘‘one year’s seeding makes seven years’ weeding ” 

Summer fallowing has been decried alike by practical far- 
mers and writers on agriculture, because no immediate return is 
obtained from the land for a whole season. Another objection 
offered is that much of the plant-food may be leached out of 
the soil and carried away in the drainage water, if the lands 
have a steep slope and the rains are heavy. Experiments 
conducted by Mr. W. A. McLaren at Vereeniging, Transvaal, 
have shown, however, that summer fallowing was followed 
by an ¢ucrease of 11 muids (2,200 Ibs.) per acre in the maize 
yield, without the use of fertilizers. At one of the American 
State Experiment Stations the yield of wheat from a field 
cropped only in alternate years, during a period of ten years, 
was greater than from a field cropped every year during the 
same period, thus five crops gave a heavier yield than ten. 
Somewhat similar results were recorded by Lawes and Gilbert 
at Rothamstead, England. 

If the total yield obtained by cropping in alternate years 


SOILS AND MANURES 356 


is equal to that obtained by cropping each year over the same 
period, the cost of production is reduced and the profit con- 
sequently increased. Unless the cost of fallowing and rent of 
the land (or its equivalent in interest) are heavier than the 
cost of production of a crop without fallow, fallowing will 
thus pay for itself while at the same time it cleans the land. 

Not only so, but the cost of cultivation is lessened by plough- 
ing under two or more crops of weeds on the fallowed land 
before they have had a chance to seed. Where farms are large 
and land is cheap, there need be no loss of revenue, if each 
year only one-third or one-quarter of the land is kept in fallow 
and the rest under crop. For example, if 1,000 acres of arable 
land is all that a South African farmer can maintain each year, 
owing to lack of either capital or labour, or both, he might 
have 200 or 300 acres of it under fallow each year. During 
the comparatively slack season, from the end of December to 
the end of March, he could usually employ his draught animals 
and “boys” to cultivate these fallow lands. By this means 
he would save much of the time and expense which would 
otherwise have to be devoted to cleaning the crop during the 
following growing season. 

311. Rotation of Crops for Fertility Conservation.—One of 
the cheapest and most profitable methods of resting the land 
after it has once reached good cropping condition ({ 306) is'to 
adopt a system of change or “ rotation” in which some other 
crop than maize is grown every third or, even, second year. 
Some farmers grow potatoes the third year with the aid of 
commercial fertilizers, but for unmanured land the best kind 
of rotation for maize is a leguminose crop, such as cowpeas, 
kaffir beans, velvet beans, soybeans, peas, or peanuts ({ 313). 
This rotation crop may be cut for hay or silage, or, better 
still, ploughed into the ground at the beginning of winter. 

Practising rotation of crops is one of the best methods of 
checking the wearing-out of the land (Aurtt-Davy, 15). The 
principal advantages of rotation are :— 

(1) That as some crops require more of one kind of plant- 
food than others, an intermediate crop can be grown between 
two crops of a kind without interfering with the general fertility 
of the soil, and still allow time for the chemical changes which 


replace a certain proportion of the available salts required for 
23 * 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


356 MAIZE 


CHAP. the following crop. For example, a crop of wheat withdraws 


VIII. 


large amounts of phosphoric acid from the soil, but takes re- 
latively small quantities of lime and potash, while a crop of 
beans requires a great deal of potash and relatively less 
phosphoric acid. 

(2) Some crops are surface feeders while others root more 
deeply, drawing their food from the lower layers of the soil. 
By alternation of deeper with shallower rooted crops the avail- 
able food supply is utilized to better advantage and made to 
last longer. 

(3) Certain crops replace in the soil certain ingredients 
which have been removed by other crops, for instance such 
crops as lucerne and peanuts give back nitrogen. 

(4) Rotation of crops helps to clean the ground of ‘“vol- 
unteer” plants from the preceding crop, which, in the case of 
wheat, oats, and especially of maize, cause so much mixing 
or crossing of seed, with resulting loss to the farmer. 

(5) As different crops require different treatment of the 
soil, a change enables the farmer more easily to clean the 
land of such weeds as are particularly injurious to a given 
crop. In the rotation the farmer can use crops which are 
known as “ cleaning” crops. 

The general results of rotation may be summarized as :— 

(a) The production of crops of greater vigour and better 
yield. When crops of the same kind are grown continuously 
on the same land the crop becomes less vigorous and, con- 
sequently, more susceptible to attack by insect and fungous 
pests. Rotation disturbs the “balance of nature” in such a 
way that the pest dies from lack of its normal food or goes 
away to search for it elsewhere. 

(6) The reduction of the manure bill. 

(c) A principle of rotation is the division of the land into 
two to four portions, no two of which bear the same crop in 
the same season. A well-arranged rotation reduces the labour 
required at any one time, inasmuch as not all crops require to 
be planted, cultivated, or harvested at once. 

The principal points to observe in planning a rotation are :— 

(1) Have at least one leguminose crop in the rotation. 

(2) Have at least one cultivated or “cleaning crop,” or, in 

its place, a ‘‘smother crop” for weeds. 


SOILS AND MANURES 387 


(3) Alternate shallow-rooting crops with deep-rooting 
crops. 

(4) Where there is danger of loss of plant-food from leach- 
ing of the soil owing to the slope of the land, plan 
to have a growing crop on the land all the summer. 

(5) Bare summer fallow can be used to advantage if the 
weeds are allowed to grow during the rainy season 
and are ploughed in defore they seed. 

(6) Do not rotate cereals with cereals. 

(7) Plan the rotation so as to have about the same amount 
of forage, hay, and roots each year. 

(8) Unless it is thoroughly rotted, so that the weed-seeds 
which it contains are killed, apply the stable manure 
to the root crop (if one is used in the rotation) or 
to a rank-growing crop like maize. 

312. Organic Matter.—By organic matter is meant matter 
composed of substances that are or have been living organisms, 
in contradistinction to the inorganic matter derived directly 
from rocks, metals, etc. Organic manures include farmyard 
manure and humus, which are valuable sources of plant-food, 
especially nitrogen. Humus and organic matter are not 
synonymous, for humus includes only that part of the organic 
matter which has passed the most active stage of decomposition 
and completely lost the physical structure of the materials 
from which it is made; it has thus become, as a rule, 
thoroughly incorporated with the soil mass (//opkzns, 5). 

Beside returning plant-food to the soil, organic matter im- 
proves its mechanical condition; when it is in the proper state 
it may materially modify the water-content. Soil which has 
been manured with stable manure is usually moister than un- 
manured ground; this may be for some or all of four 
reasons :— 

(1) It may absorb more rain-water ; 

(2) It may draw up more water from below, by capillary 

action ; 

(3) It may lose less water from the surface by evaporation ; 

or 

(4) It may lose less water by drainage. 

Briefly, then, organic matter improves the texture of the soil, 
adds to its moisture-retaining power, and furnishes nitrogen. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


358 MAIZE 


South African soils are frequently deficient in humus, and 
where this is the case organic matter must be added if good 
crops are to be obtained. This may be done by manuring 
with farmyard manure (% 309), or by ploughing into the soil 
some ‘‘green-manure ” crop. 

313. Use of Leguiminose Green-manure Crops.—On sandy 
soils a leguminose crop, such as soybeans, velvet beans, 
cowpeas, or kaffir beans, proves very beneficial to the maize 
crop following. A greater yield of maize may be obtained on 
a poor, sandy soil from the use of a crop of this character, 
with the addition of a phosphatic fertilizer, than would be 
secured in two years where maize is grown continuously (IVat¢z, 
KD), 2). 

To the South African farmer a particularly important feat- 
ure of crop rotation is the possibility it furnishes of adding 
humus (¢ 312) to the soil by ploughing in a growing crop, 
usually a legume, which at the same time adds one of the 
most expensive elements of plant-food, namely nitrogen, to 
the soil, The leguminose crop in the rotation ({ 311 and 
314) is often treated in this way, but a crop of any kind of 
green weeds may also be ploughed in to advantage, where 
humus only is wanted, and this may be done when the land 
is in summer fallow. 

Hopkins (5, p. 199) definitely states that the most zimport- 
ant, and least appreciated, method of maintaining or increasing 
the supply of organic matter in the soil is dy the use of green 
manures and crop residues. A ton of clover ploughed under 
will add nearly ¢hree ¢2mes as much organic matter to the soil 
as can possibly be recovered in the manure if the clover is fed ; 
but with maize only one-tenth of the dry matter of the crop is 
found in the manure. 

314. Rotations with Matse in other Countries.—A look at 
a few rotations practised elsewhere may be instructive. One 
in use in the Northern United States is :— 


First year : : . Wheat or rye. 
Second year. ‘ . Clover or grass. 
Third year. : . Maize with farmyard manure, and with 


winter rye sown at the last weeding to 
furnish late pasture and winter feed. 
Fourth year. ‘ . Oats. 


SOILS AND MANURES 389 


In the State of Rhode Island two different rotations with 
maize have been practised on light and worn-out lands :— 


(1) A four-year course . Maize, potatoes, rye, clover. 
(2) A five-year course . Maize, potatoes, rye, grass and clover for 
two years. 


In the State of Delaware the following rotation has been 
practised to advantage :— 


First year é , . Maize, followed by crimson clover. 
Second year . - . Cowpeas, followed by winter oats. 
Third year. : . Red or crimson clover. 


In Louisiana, where the climatic conditions are more nearly 
like those of the warmer parts of South Africa, the rotation 
recommended by the State Agricultural Experiment Station 
is :— 


First year i é . Maize. 
Second year . é . Oats, followed by cowpeas. 
Third year. : . Cotton, 


Another rotation practised in parts of the United States 


is -— 
First year ‘ Wheat. 
Second and third years . Clover and pasture (or hay) grass. 
Fourth year. : . Maize (manured with farmyard manure). 


In the Maize-belt of Illinois a twenty-year test was made 
with maize after maize, as compared with maize in a six-course 
rotation, viz., oats one year, clover three years, maize two years. 
The average increase the first year after clover was 5 muids 120 
lbs., and the second year 4 muids 51 lbs. (Ant, 1). 

315. Some Transvaal Rotations—No systematic plan of 
rotation has yet been adopted in the Transvaal. On the light 
sandy loams of some of the potato farms in the Standerton 
District it is customary to grow maize for two years in suc- 
cession after potatoes. From 600 to 800 Ibs. per acre of 
commercial fertilizer is applied to the potato crop; the two 
maize crops which follow use the residue of the manure not 
required by the potatoes, and give crops varying from 20 down 
to 15 muids per acre. On these soils, however, it has been 
found that after six years’ cropping a change is required, to 
add humus to the soil. Farmers are, therefore, conducting 
experiments to include green-manure crops in the rotation ; 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


360 MAIZE 


cHap. the kaffir bean, cowpea, and soybean have given the most 


VIII. 


promising results. 

In the Standerton District ploughing in of teff for green 
manure has been tried.!- The rapid growth of this grass makes 
it possible to get it in as a catch crop where other crops might 
not be practicable. 

At the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, experiments 
conducted to determine the effect of green-manure crops on 
subsequent crops of maize, wheat, and sunflowers all gave 
marked results in favour of the green-manured plots. 

The Division of Tobacco and Cotton of the South African 
Department of Agriculture is conducting a series of rotation 
experiments at Rustenburg, Tzaneen, Barberton, and Piet 
Retief, in the Transvaal. These experiments are designed 
to determine the best rotation for the improvement of worn- 
out tobacco lands. The experiments include the following 
rotation :— 


First year. ¥ : . Tobacco. 

Second year. : . Cotton, 

Third year : : . A leguminose crop such as velvet beans, cow- 
peas, peanuts, or soybeans. 

Fourth year. 5 . Maize. 


It is intended to add to this a small cereal winter crop 
such as wheat, barley, or oats, on irrigated lands, to come 
between the tobacco and cotton, or between the legumes and 
maize crops. The experiments are not yet complete. 

316. The functions of manures are twofold, restorative and 
additive; to maintain fertility and to increase it. Restorative 
manures are merely intended to replace in the soil those ele- 
ments of plant-food which have been taken out of it by 
cropping. Restorative manures should be of a “complete” or 
genera] character, i.e. must contain all the fertilizing ingredients. 
Restoration is chiefly effected by farmyard manure. <Addztive 
manures should be adapted to the special requirements of the 
soils and crops to which they are applied; they may be, but 
are not necessarily, or usually, complete. As a rule, addition 
can only be made in the form of the so-called artificial manures. 

317. Manurial Requirements of the Maize Crop.—Hunt (1) 
concludes that, as far as maize is concerned, the influence of the 


1 By Messrs, Reynolds Bros., Zandbaken, Val Station. 


SOILS AND MANURES 361 


several ingredients of commercial fertilizers appears to be more 
dependent upon the soil than upon the crop. At the Govern- 
ment Experiment Farm, Ottawa, Canada, mixed horse and 
cow manure gave an average return during fourteen years of 
14°32 tons of green silage per acre, as compared with 8-02 
tons on the unmanured plots ; of the artificial manures, phos- 
phates, nitrates, and potash, mixed, gave the best result, viz. 
11-97 tons per acre (Canadian Government, 1). At Koedoes- 
poort, Pretoria, superphosphate and nitrates gave the best 
results. At Potchefstroom superphosphates alone and dung 
have given good crops. At Manderston, Natal, bone-meal is 
said to have given excellent results for a series of about 
fourteen years. 

318. Does the Use of Fertilisers Pay ?—Experiments con- 
ducted at Vereeniging, under the direction of Prof. Watt, 
showed that on unmanured land an increase of 60 per cent 
in crop can be secured by the direct application of 150 Ibs. 
of commercial fertilizer per acre, when drilled in with the 
seed. When 300 lbs. was applied broadcast the increase was 
very slight the first year, but it is probable that some effect 
would have been noticeable the second year if the test could 
have been carried on. On a certain farm at Manderston, in 
Natal,! 400 lbs. per acre of bone-dust was used the first year, 
and 200 lbs. every subsequent year, and excellent crops have 
been harvested for twenty-three years in succession. On poor 
soils at Koedoespoort, Prof. Watt obtained an increase of 
114 muids in two years through the use of artificial fertilizers. 
The net increase from the use of suitable manures has been 
found by Prof. Watt and Mr. Holm to amount to 42 or 
#2 58. per acre; in one case the expenditure of 18s. 8d. per 
acre resulted in an added gain of £2 19s. 6d. per acre. It is 
evident, therefore, that it pays to manure if a suitable quantity 
of the right kind of fertilizer is used. 

The kind of fertilizer will vary with the chemical composi- 
tion and physical character of the particular soil, and this 
should be determined by analysis by a competent agricultural 
chemist before the farmer invests heavily in any chance manure 
offered, which may not at all suit his soil. 

319. Cost of Ferttlizers in the Interior Provinces—One of 

1 Mr. John Moon’s. 


CHAP. 
VIL. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


the greatest hindrances in the past to the use of commercial 
fertilizers in the interior provinces has been their high cost, 
due to high rate of transportation inland. In view of the fact 
that South African soils are not as fertile as those of other 
countries competing for the maize trade, it is important to the 
farmer that the cost of fertilizers should be reduced to the 
lowest possible figure. It would result not only in an enor- 
mous increase in the output of crop, both for local consumption 
and for export, but in tremendous increase in the amount 
of fertilizer’ used and consequently in the increase of trade in 
that commodity. 

320. Residual Value of Manures—Farmyard manure and 
the chemical manures do not always yield up the whole of their 
component salts to the crop the first season. Prof. Watt (2) 
found in carrying out manurial experiments that the veszdua/ 
value of the fertilizers used is a matter of greater importance 
in the Transvaal than in almost any other part of the world. 
Phosphatic fertilizers, like superphosphate and basic slag, may 
have a greater effect on the second crop than on that to which they 
are applied. WNith the dry winter climate of the South African 
Maize-belt, even such a soluble manure as nitrate of soda has 
some residual value. A judicious use of maize fertilizers will 
give a profitable return, even from poor land, provided two 
years’ results are taken into account. On some soils the use 
of 600 lbs. per acre of commercial fertilizer for a crop of pota- 
toes leaves enough plant-food in the soil to afterward produce 
two excellent crops of maize in succession (7 315). Farmers? 
in the Standerton District of the Transvaal have obtained 20 
muids of maize per acre the first year, and 15 the second year, 
after a potato crop which had been manured in this way. 

321. Stable and Kraal Manure-—Organic manures, such 
as farmyard manure, are found to be among the best of fertilizers, 
perhaps because of the effect of the large amount of organic 
matter contained, on the texture of the soil (7 312). As 
already pointed out, the function of farmyard manure is chiefly 
restorative. The pasturing of cattle on the old maize fields 
undoubtedly has a beneficial effect on the soil, but is not an 
equivalent compensation for such a large amount of grain 
(over a ton per acre) as is removed from the land. 


1 Messrs. Hutchinson and Shaw, and Messrs. Reynolds Bros. 


SOILS AND:\ MANURES 303 


The Indiana (U.S.A.) Station (Bul? 55, p. 29) manured a 
series of plots which had grown maize continuously for five 
years, with about 50 tons per acre in two years, of fresh horse 
manure, no manure having been used either before or after. 
Comparing the manured with the unmanured plots, it was 
found that during twelve years the average yield was about 
560 lbs. per acre, and on the last year of the twelve about 
280 lbs. per acre, more on the former than on the latter. The 
total increase, due to the use of the manure, was about 334 
muids. 

At the Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, 
Transvaal, the effect of a dressing of 8 tons of dung per acre 
had almost entirely disappeared in the third year following 
the application (/fo/m, 1), indicating that frequent applications, 
or larger amounfs at a time, are necessary to produce satis- 
factory results. The quantity usually applied in the United 
States varies from 10 to 20 tons per acre. 

Owing to the size of the farms and the sparseness of the 
white population in South Africa, the amount of stable manure 
produced is not sufficient to permit of its use on a large 
scale, and Holm (1) concludes that the comparatively small 
amount available on most South African farms can be more 
profitably used on other crops, such as mangels and potatoes, 
than directly on the maize crop. In the United States, even 
to-day, the supply of dung is totally inadequate to the demands 
of the field crops, and hardly more than is needed for the 
kitchen garden and a few “truck patches” near the farm-house. 

The value of stable, and kraal, and other home manures, 
should not be underestimated. The farmer should endeavour 
to increase the supply of them rather than try to become inde- 
pendent of their use. But it would be just as unwise to so 
overestimate the value of home manures as to lead to the policy 
of ignoring altogether the aid of commercial forms of plant- 
food. Director Redding of the Georgia State Experiment 
Station (1) points out that the true farm economy is that which 
utilizes to the fullest every home resource and then supple- 
ments their use by the purchase of commercial forms of plant- 
food in the proportions demanded by different crops, and 
modified to some extent by the character and condition of 
the soils to be fertilized. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


364 MAIZE 


22. Artificial Manures or Commercial Fertilizers. — The 
scarcity of farmyard manure has led to the manufacture and 
use of the so-called Commercial Fertilizers or Chemical Manures. 
Their principal function in the economy of the farm is to 
increase fertility, not to maintain it. They are obtained from 
natural deposits, such as the nitrate beds of Chile and guano 
from the Guano Islands or from caves, or are manufactured 
from bones, blood, and refuse of various sorts. Artificial 
manures are of two sorts, “general” or complete, and 
“special” or incomplete. 

323. Method of Applying Fertilizers Experiments con- 
ducted on a large scale have clearly shown that the best 
method of applying the fertilizer to the maize crop is through 
the planter with the seed; this is usually done by means of 
the fertilizer attachment which can be bought with every good 
planter. Some commercial fertilizers are not so well dried as 
others and are apt to stick in the box of the machine unless 
watched; the result is that the machine may run for the 
greater part of a row without dropping any manure, and an 
uneven stand and growth will result. 

One of the great advantages derived from the application 
of these fertilizers in the climate of South Africa is the 
stimulus which they give to the young seedling, enabling it 
to get a good start in life. Broadcast sowing of artificial 
manure generally benefits the weeds rather than the maize 
plants, for in the often dry spring of the South African Maize- 
belt it rarely gets washed down to their roots. 

324. Influence of Season on the Efficacy of Fertitizers.—It 
has been found that fertilizers produce different effects on the 
crop in different years, and this has been traced to seasonal 
variations, such as difference in rainfall. In the United States 
it has been found that in dry seasons Jand manured with stable 
manure may give poorer returns than land which has had no 
manure at all. Also that the best results from the use of either 
stable manure or commercial fertilizers are obtained in seasons 
of good rainfall. 

325. Use of Lime.—Lime is an essential constituent of 
good soils and is extensively used for the improvement of agri- 
cultural land. It is absorbed by the crop, being found in the 
ash of plants, but its specific action in promoting plant growth is 


SOILS AND MANURES 365 


not well understood. Lime is not in itself a manure. It has 
a beneficial effect on the soil, and therefore on the crop. It 
encourages nitrification, rendering nitrogenous matter in the 
soil available to the growing plant. It also improves the soil 
texture, making heavy adhesive soils more friable and granular, 
and reducing their tendency to puddle, while it makes loose, 
sandy soils more compact and retentive of organic matter. 
Lime counteracts acidity of the soil, thus improving it for the 
development of nitrifying organisms, and is useful for sweeten- 
ing freshly drained swampy lands. Lime hastens the decom- 
position of decaying matter, and may therefore be applied with 
stable manure to advantage. But continuous application of 
lime without the addition of real plant-food tends to impoverish 
the soil; there is a good old adage to the effect that “all lime 
and no manure soon makes the farmer poor”. 

For soils deficient in lime, maize is a good crop with which 
to apply it; in the United States it is used with this crop toa 
considerable extent, with apparently satisfactory results. 

326. Indication of Need of Lime.—Many South African 
soils are deficient in lime, but others contain sufficient, and 
where that is the case the application of more would only be 
a waste of money. The farmer can tell whether lime will im- 
prove his crops or not: (1) by chemical analysis, which will 
show the percentage of lime (CaO) present; for agricultural 
crops O'2 per cent is usually considered the minimum require- 
ment ; (2) by a test with neutral litmus paper which, if it 
turns red, will indicate acidity in very sour soils and the con- 
sequent need for lime; (3) by the excessive adhesiveness of 
clay soils ; (4) by the character of the native vegetation (e.g. 
in South Africa theVaalbosch (7 archonanthus camphoratus) and 
Salvia rugosa generally occur on soils rich in lime); (5) by 
the persistent failure of certain crops, such as lucerne or sain- 
foin ; (6) by experimental application—and this is probably 
the most reliable test—of a good dressing of lime on say one 
acre of a field of maize where the soil is uniform, and under 
conditions which make it possible to tell whether there is any 
increase of crop as a result of the application. 

327. Kinds of Lime.—Commercial lime is not always of 
the same chemical composition. Two kinds are commonly 
met with in South Africa, W/cte and Blue lime. Blue lime 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


366 MAIZE 


made from dolomite or ‘‘magnesian”’ limestone is found 
by experience to be unsuitable for agricultural purposes 
(Vipond, 1). White lime (calcium carbonate or carbonate of 
lime) is the sort recommended by agricultural chemists. 

328. Preparation of the Lime.—For agricultural purposes 
lime is usually burned and slaked before using. To slake 
lime for use in the field, it is heaped and covered with earth to 
exclude the air; water is then poured on it ; in a few days it 
‘‘falls” into a fine powder suitable for spreading on the land. 
Full advantage of the lime dressing is obtained only if the 
lime is very fine in texture; if it is still coarse after burning 
and slaking it should be ground. 

The Pennsylvania Station (Ref. 1902) shows that the con- 
tinued use of caustic (i.e. burned) lime, tends to erhaust or 
destroy the fertility of the soil (see also Hopkins, 5 and 6). 
Both the Pennsylvania and Maryland Stations found that 
ground limestone gave better results in sustaining the productive 
capacity of the soil, than burned lime. Hopkins (6) cites 
results obtained in Germany and England favouring the use 
of the former as a more profitable and effective form than the 
latter. 

329. Method of Applying Lime.—As lime is somewhat 
soluble and apt to be carried off in the drainage, it is best to 
apply it after the soil has been partly prepared; it is then 
spread broadcast and cultivated into the surface. The amount 
used should vary according to the texture and chemical com- 
position of the soil. Halfa ton per acre is often recommended, 
but on very heavy, sour soils a ton to the acre may not be too 
much. In the United States up to 4 tons per acre is some- 
times used for maize, but ordinarily not more than 2 tons 
(funt, 1). The Agricultural Chemist of the Department or 
College of Agriculture should be consulted as to the amount 


‘to be used on any particular soil. 


330. Phosphatic Manures.—Phosphatic manures, such as 
superphosphate, bone-meal, and basic slag, may have a greater 
effect on the second crop than on that to which they are ap- 
plied. Where they are used on sandy soils a greater yield of 
maize may be obtained after a crop like cowpeas than would 
be got in two years where maize is grown continuously 
without fertilizer (Watt, R. D., 2). The experiments at the 


SOILS AND MANURES 367 


Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, Transvaal, in- 
dicate (Hfolm, 1) that these manures greatly increase the yield, 
and that profits are obtained on the expenditure; from 
34 muids per acre without manure the yield was raised to 
8 muids, an increase of about 133 per cent. 

331. Superphosphate Alone.—At Stanger, Natal, in 1903-4, 
the use of concentrated superphosphate, at the rate of 120 lbs. 
5 oz. per acre, resulted in an increased yield of 4 muids 82 
lbs. per acre (Azon., 1). At Koedoespoort, Pretoria, in 1907-8, 
the increase was only 240 Ibs. of grain per acre and in 1908-9, 
360 lbs., and the net cash gain (at Ios. per muid) from the use 
of this manure only 5s. 4d. per acre (Watt, R. D., 2). In the 
experiments at Potchefstroom, superphosphate proved the most 
profitable manure to use, the average yield for the three years 
being 14 muids 97 lbs. per acre, a gain of 300 per cent, and a 
net gain of £2 os. 1od. per acre, estimating the value of the 
crop at 8s. per muid. The cost of the manure was 18s. 8d. 
per acre (Holm, 1). 

332. Bone-meal Alone.—In the experiments at Potchef- 
stroom no increase was obtained the first year from the use of 
bone-meal alone. But in the second and third years the 
yield was good. The average for the three years was 6 muids 
164 lbs. per annum (A/o/, 1), which is very low, showing that 
this manure when used a/one, on this particular type of soil, 
did not supply the requirements of a good maize crop. 

333. Superphosphate and Bone-meal Mixed.— Holm (1) con- 
cludes that a mixture of superphosphates and bone-meal is 
likely to give the best results of any artificial manure, especially 
in the first and perhaps also in the second year; after that only 
bone-meal need be applied. The mixing of bone-meal with 
superphosphate facilitates the sowing of the latter. An English 
Agricultural Chemist states that: “By mixing and allowing 
them to stand some little time before using, the action of the 
superphosphates on the bone-meal tends to increase the solu- 
bility of the phosphates in the bone-meal, which in a dry climate 
is anadvantage”. To get the best results, the bone-meal must 
be very finely ground; according to competent agricultural 
chemists, ‘‘ the bulk of that offered on the South African market 
is too coarse”. Such coarse particles may remain many years 
in the soil before they are rendered available for plant-food, 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


368 MAIZE 


CHAP. and it is likely that chemical action eventually takes place which 


VIII. 


renders a part at least of their phosphate insoluble and there- 
fore of no value as plant-food (Holm, 1). 

Steamed bone flour is more readily soluble than bone-meal. 

334. Basic Slag Alone-—At Koedoespoort, Pretoria, on 
sandy soils poor in lime, Prof. Watt found that a dressing 
of basic slag was beneficial to the leguminose crop grown in 
rotation with the maize (Watt, R. D., 2). At Potchefstroom 
the average yield for three years with the use of basic slag was 


Fic. 125.—Effect of basic slag on maize (cf. Fig. 126). 


8 muids 106 lbs. per acre, and the net gain 17s. 5d per acre 
(Holnt, 1). 

335. Nitrate of Soda Alone.—TVhis is a very soluble manure 
and is apt to leach out in the drainage, so that in some climates 
there is little or none left for the following year; but with the 
dry winters of South Africa some residual value may remain 
for the succeeding crop. Though an important element of 
plant-food, experiments show that the application of this 
manure is not always profitable. As it is one of the most 


SOILS AND MANURES 369 


expensive of commercial fertilizers, the farmer should make 
sure that it will prove beneficial before going to the expense 
of purchasing. 

A three-year series of trials at the Government Experiment 
Farm, Potchefstroom, showed that the average yield of grain 
was only 30 lbs. per acre more (worth Is. 3d.) with the use of 
nitrate of soda than without. As the cost of this manure 
was 41 Os. Id. per acre, the net loss from its application was 
18s. 10d. per acre. The amount used was 200 lbs. the first 


Fic. 126.—Effect of growing maize without manures (on plot adjacent 
to that shown in Fig. 127). 


year and 100 lbs. each year in the two succeeding years (Holm, 
1). Similar results have been obtained with maize at Cedara, 
Natal (Sawer, 1), and with other cereals at Potchefstroom. 
336. Superphosphate and Nitrate of Soda.—On poor sandy 
soils at Koedoespoort, near Pretoria, Prof. Watt obtained an 
increase of 500 per cent on his maize crop, the first season, on 
the plot on which nitrate of soda (200 lbs. per acre) and super- 
phosphate (400 Ibs. per acre) were used, as compared with that 
on which superphosphate was used alone. The second crop 
; 24 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


370 MAIZE 


after the application of the mixed fertilizer was nearly double 
that obtained with the use of superphosphate alone. The 
total increase was more than 114 muids per acre in two years, 
and the net value of the increase due to the use of the mixture 
was £2 16s. 3d. per acre, as against $s. 4d. per acre gained by 
the use of superphosphate alone (Watt, R. D., 2). 

The conflicting results obtained with nitrate of soda at 
Koedoespoort and at Potchefstroom emphasize the fact already 
alluded to, that different saz/s require different manures to 


Fic. 127.—Effect of superphosphate and nitrate of soda mixed. 


produce the same crop. They also point to the necessity for 
extended manurial experiments in different parts of South 
Africa. 

337. Manganese Compounds.—Experiments conducted in 
Japan and Italy, and at Woburn, Groénigen, and Uitenhage 
(Sutherst, 1), have shown that manganese has a beneficial effect 
on certain crops and especially on maize. Large amounts of 
manganese salts are injurious to crops, and the manganic salts 
much more injurious than the manganous, but small amounts 
(50 to 60 Ibs. per acre) are found to improve the crops, 


SOILS: AND ATANURES 271 


re) 


Mr. Ingle (Sutherst and /ugle, 1) concludes that for the pre- CHAP. 
sent it will be safer to assume that manganese exerts a ‘tonic’ Ma 
action, and that its application to a soil must not be regarded 

as at all an efficient substitute for the plant-food required, and 
usually supplied by means of artificial manures. In other 
words, it is probably better regarded as a medicine than as a 

food. 


Russel (2) observes that manganese is considered by 


Fic. 128.—Effect of manganese compounds on maize; A, Effect of 
manganese dioxide. 


Bertrand (1) tobe a constituent of oxidases, and, therefore, 
necessary to the plant; minute traces only are required, larger 
quantities being harmful. A number of field experiments’ have 
shown that manganese salts may act as manures. Bertrand 
classes them as “engrais complementatres ”. 


1Numerous Japanese experiments are recorded in the Bull. Coll. Agric., 
Tokyo, 1906 e¢ seg., and Italian experiments in the Studi e Ricerche di Chimia 
Agraria, Pisa, 1906-8. 


24* 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


372 MTAIZF 


338. Potasstuim.—At Koedoespoort, Prof. Watt obtained 
an increase of 452 lbs. of maize per acre the first year and 360 
Ibs. the second year, after an application of 150 Ibs. per acre 
of sulphate of potassium, but the net value of the increase due 
to manuring was only 5s. 5d. per acre. At Potchefstroom 
the use of sulphate of potassium (150 lbs, per acre the first 
year, and 75 lbs. in each of the two succeeding years) resulted 
in an average Joss of 252 lbs. of maize-grain per acre, valued at 
tos. As the cost of the manure was 16s. Id. per acre, the 


ofS EN 


Fic. 129.—Effect of sulphate of potassium on maize (cf. Fig. 126). 


total loss due to its use was #1 6s. 1d, per acre. As sulphate of 
potash is considered the least deleterious of all potassic manures, 
it has been suggested (/7o/i, 1) that it is not likely that either 
kainit or chloride of potassium (“ muriate of potash”) would 
give any better results; but it has been pointed out by an 
agricultural chemist that it is just possible that the property 
possessed by kainit of holding moisture—due to its sodium- 
chloride content—may prove it to be better than potassium 
sulphate for such crops as are not injurtously affected by the 


SOILS AND MANURES 373 


use of the salt, and this to some extent would apply to chloride 
of potassium also. He refers to the fact that in Ingland 
it has been proved in many cases that potassium in the 
form of chloride (i.e. ‘* muriate of potash”) applied to potatoes 
is not so beneficial as when the potassium is applied in the 
form of sulphate, and in fact has caused deterioration in the 
quality of the crop, while kainit has given the best results. 
Addendum.—The writer is informed that in Rhodesia the 
“chocolate” soils prove best suited to maize, and produce 
heavy crops year after year without the application of manure. 
The ‘‘red” soils produce maize for about three years in suc- 
cession, and then require a rest. The granite soils, though 
producing good tobacco, are found unsuited to maize-growing. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


CHAPTER IX. 
TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION. 


Two or three additional ploughings will supply the place of dung. . . if 
they be performed at proper season.—JETHRO TULL. 


There ain’t but one principle to follow in raisin’ corn; keep it clean.—AN 
Iowa FARMER. 


CHAP. 339. Time of Ploughing.—In the Maize-belt of South Africa 

IX. new lands, and lands which have been fallowed with a rotation 

crop, may be ploughed as early as is possible in the autumn 

(preferably in January, February, and March), in order to pre- 

pare a proper seed bed and to conserve the moisture for early 

planting. Old lands may with advantage be ploughed as soon 

as they can be eaten off by the cattle. In the Transvaal the 

lands should not be left unploughed any longer than can be 

avoided, and should be ready for planting as soon as good 

rains fall in September or early October, but in parts of Natal, 

on light, grey sandy loams subject to much washing, it is found 

desirable to leave the ploughing as late as possible before 
planting. 

340. Depth of Ploughing.—Shallow ploughing causes the 
maize plant to suffer from drought in a dry season, and from 
waterlogging (on some soils) in a wet season. It has been 
demonstrated clearly during many years that, in the Transvaal 
and Orange Free State, deep ploughing conserves soil moisture. 
In very wet seasons it has also been demonstrated in Natal 
that deep ploughing enabled the surplus moisture to drain — 
away better; on one farm it was shown that the only maize 
crop produced was on land which had been deeply steam- 
ploughed ; on adjacent land, which had been ploughed to the 
ordinary depth of ox-ploughing, the maize crop had been 
either washed away or “ drowned out”, 

374 


. 


. 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 37 


Fic. 130.—Primitive method of preparing land for maize, in Zululand. 


Fic. 131.—Deep ploughing by steam, 12 furrows at a time by direct traction. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


376 MAIZE 


Eight to nine inches is a good depth for ox-ploughing ; but 
steam-ploughing to a depth of 12 to 15 inches generally 
gives better results. Deep ploughing is more necessary for 
maize than for wheat. On shallow soils, however, with an 
unfavourable subsoil, 6 to 8 inches is found sufficient. 

‘Whether it is done well or badly, ploughing is a slow 
business, and I think it is important that when it is done, it 
should be done well” (W. A. McLaren). 


Fic. 132.—The “ Fowler” direct traction engine (for oil or coal). 


Subsoiling' is generally considered most effective where 
the subsoil is heavy. 

341. Different Soils Require Different Treatment.—It has 
already been pointed out (4 307) that the object of tillage is 
(1) to improve the texture or physical condition of the soil so 
that the plant-roots may have the best chance to reach food 
and moisture ; (2) to render the salts more readily available 
to the plant ; (3) to retain the moisture of dry soils and remove 
surplus moisture from those that are too wet. 

'Subsoiling has been described as a method of increasing the depth ot 


ploughing by running a special ‘subsoil plough” in the bottom of every furrow 
made by the ordinary turn-plough (Duggar, 2). 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 307 


Thus different soils will require different treatment to 
secure the best results. The difference in returns from ap- 
plying uniform treatment to different soils can be deduced 
from the experiments conducted in Natal by Mr. Pearson, 
then Director of Agricultural Experiments at Cedara, as 
shown in the following table :— 


TasLe LI. 
EFFECT OF TREATMENT OF SOIL ON YIELD. 


| Light Sandy Soil. | Soil of Less Open Texture. | 
aA —— —— ee ee ee = =" 
Yield without Subsoiling . | 1945 lbs.= 9°725 muids 1640 lbs. = 8°20 muids | 
Yield with Subsoiling 1035. 3. S".9'675°- 4; 1800 55 = OG: ye | 
| Yield without Surface Cul | | 
| tivation . F ‘ . | 2001 ,, =10°005 ,, | 1860 ae i ee 
Yield with Surface Culti- 
vation 1894 ,, = 9°47 a 2040 ,, = 10°20 ,, 


The returns from the same treatment were practically 
reversed on the two soils. It is clear, therefore, that there 
are some soils in South Africa so light and sandy that they 
will not bear much cultivation; in fact, as Mr. Pearson states, 
the less such soils are disturbed beyond the ordinary plough- 
ing, the better the results. In some cases in the Transvaal— 
such as certain lands along the Vaal River—the soil blows 
away if too much cultivation is practised. But such soils 
are exceptional; often they do not bear good crops for more 
than about three seasons. 

342. Preparation after Ploughing.—Maize requires a deep, 
loose seed bed, though the soil need not be as fine as for 
wheat. To produce this, it is essential, in the climate of South 
Africa, that particular attention be paid to the after prepara- 
tion of the seed bed. This will vary with different soils and 
in different districts ; we can only speak here in general terms, 

A well-known agriculturist has said that very much de- 
pends upon performing each tillage operation when the soil 
is in exactly the right condition ; two hours of sunshine will 
often make the difference between success and failure in the 
operation of a tillage implement ; compare the old couplet :— 


He that by the plough would thrive 
Himself must either hold or drive, 


CHAP. 
IX. 


378 MAIZE 


CHAP. Land becomes very hard and lumpy if left rough to dry 
IX. Gut, but new land, broken at the end of the summer, may be 


Fic. 133.—Disk cultivating ; double-engine system. 


allowed to lie fallow till the spring rains in order to “weather” 
and kill the sod. Old lands broken in summer may be pul- 


Fic. t34.—Harrowing by steam; double-engine system. 


verized at once and harrowed to produce a mulch and to 
conserve moisture for early spring planting. 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 379 


After ploughing old maize lands, the stalks and roots lying CHAP. 
in or near the surface should be gathered together by means  !* 


ey 
Nu 


Fic. 135.—Zigzag harrow. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


' of the harrow and burned in heaps to kill the stalk-borers 
(‘‘mest-worms”) which are hiding through the winter in the 
hollow part of the base of the stem (cf. § 407). 


Y, ie AN wa 
<a A Aw QS, ; 
PA LTT) Zeer NOS ene 
lm Ke) A: Ai ma 
S VB Ny /Zey,: 


NENT Vga . 
6 Ne \ 


aN 


z 
4 
4 
Y 


Fic. 136.—Riding cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


Cross ploughing or cross cultivation are useful methods 
of treatment for closing up the air spaces by drawing together 


380 MAIZE: 


CHAP. 


Fic. 137.—Riding disk cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


Fic. 138.—Spring-tooth harrows, (Courtesy of Messrs, Malcomess & Co.) 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 381 


the sod. The implements used must necessarily vary with the 
character of the soil, but the plough, Martin cultivator, disk 
harrow, spring-tooth harrow, and zigzag harrow are the imple- 
ments most in use. The Cambridge roller is a useful implement 
at times and on certain soils, but great care must be exercised 
not to use it unless the soil is sufficiently dry or otherwise fit ; 
a roiler may do much damage if used at the wrong time. 
After planting it is desirable to harrow at least twice with 
the zigzag harrow or anti-clog weeder ; this may be done when 


Fic. 139.—Harrowing the young maize plants, Vereeniging, with zigzag harrow. 


the maize plants are just up above the ground, and again while 
they are still quite young. The second harrowing should 
kill the first crop of weeds, but should not be given till the 
maize plants are well out of the ground, otherwise too many 
of the young plants may be pulled up; for the same reason 
this harrowing should be done across the drills, not along the 
rows; if it runs down the drills, a harrow tooth may pull out a 
large part of a row of maize; on some soils, it is true, harrow- 
ing with the rows is found preferable to harrowing across 
them. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


382 MAIZE 


343. Time of Planting.—Soutly African farmers have a dis- 
tinct advantage in being able to plant for at least eight consecu- 
tive weeks, whereas in the Maize-belt of the United States the 


time is only three to four weeks : this means that with the same 


Fie. 140.—Part of the gang of fifty-two “ Champion ” planters at work on 
Messrs. John Fowler & Co.’s demonstration farms at Vereeniging. 


amount of labour we can plant double the acreage. The time 
of planting undoubtedly has an influence on the yield. Late 
planting does not allow the plants time to develop a full crop 
before the frosts set in, and is responsible for much loss. In 


- TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 393 


good seasons late planting may give satisfactory returns, but CHAP. 
one cannot depend on the seasons; to plant late is to“ tempt | 
Providence”. On the other hand early planting means danger 

of injury from late frost. It also tends to induce ripening 
before the summer rains are over, with consequent injury to 

the grain. However, it has been shown on a large scale 

that in the South African Maize-belt seed can safely be 
planted and germinate before the rains begin, as early as 

26 August. 


Fic. 141.—Fowler’s steam planter. 


At Vereeniging (4,750 to 4,900 feet) large areas have been 
successfully planted during the last week of August. Here the 
season usually ends about 5 December, though in some seasons 
it has been successfully extended to 26 December. There are 
some disadvantages in planting very early (1) because the 
weeds do not start as soon as the maize plants, and when they 
do come they cannot be destroyed as easily by the harrow, on 
account of the size of the maize plants; (2) there seems to be 
more loss from cutworms and other insect pests. This diffi- 
culty can usually be overcome by clean cultivation and winter 


CHAP. 
IX. 


384 MAIZE 


ploughing of the maize fields. No actual planting calendar can 
be given which would apply,.equally to all parts of the country, 
for this necessarily varies with temperature and time of arrival 
of the spring rains, which vary greatly in different districts and 
different seasons. 

Experiments conducted at the Government Experiment 
Farm, Cedara, Natal, gave the following results :— 


TaBLeE LII. 


EFFECT OF TIME OF PLANTING ON YIELD. 


Maize sown 22 Oct., 1904, yielded 720 lbs. (3°6) muids of grain per acre. 
a 3 3 Nov., ,, i 760 ,, (3°80) ; * ‘ 
” » 15 45 ” » 1690 ,, (8°45) ” ” ” 
a BF aya » 1890 ,, (9°45) » , 
a 9g Dec., ,, », 1680 ,, (8740) , ” ” 
2 a » 600 4, (3700), ” , 


Plantings made on the same dates in successive years are 
not likely to show uniform results, for time of planting can 
have no direct bearing on the crop except as it is correlated 
with conditions of the weather and seasonal variations in the 
prevalence and effect of pests and diseases. At the same time 
it should be noted that observations of this character, conducted 
over a long series of years, with the same variety of crop and 
in the same locality, are of the greatest importance for localities 
having similar conditions. For every district there must be a 
time for sowing when weather conditions are, on the average, 
at the best for the production of good crops. 

At the Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, the 
usual time for maize planting is between 15 October and 7 
November. 

In parts of the Pretoria District (4,000 to 4,500 feet altitude) 
the usual time is from the occurrence of first rains, until 
Christmas. In this district the “planting rains” rarely come 
before 15 November, which throws the growing season so 
late that there is danger of early autumn frost catching the 
crop before it is mature; these frosts sometimes fall as early 
as 28 March. By ploughing the ground in January, February 
or March, and choosing the moister soils of the farm, planting 
can be started the following season independently of the spring 
rains, even as early as I September, and by deep plant- 
ing (4 to 5 inches) and frequent harrowing, the seedlings do 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 385 


not suffer from the usually intermittent character of these CHAP. 
rains. Asa rule the occasional light frosts of early September |: 
do not seriously affect the young plants. At the Botanical 
Experiment Station, Pretoria (4,300 feet), planting commences 

on 1 November and continues until Christmas. 

At Witbank, Middelburg District, Transvaal, one crop was 
planted as early as 26 August in 1909 and did not suffer 
from cutworm or stalk-borer. 

On the eastern High-veld, where the rainfall is heavier, 
October is the general month for main crop planting, which 
continues till the middle of November. Planting at the Govern- 
ment Stud Farm, Standerton (5,000 to 5,500 feet), on well-pre- 
pared land, begins about 25 September and is continued till 
25 October. At Bethal, 31 October is considered about the 
last safe date for planting Hickory King. 

In the drier parts of the Waterberg and Western Zoutpans- 
berg (3,500 to 4,000 feet) the rains usually fall late, and the 
commencement of planting is often delayed until the middle of 
December ; but as the early frosts fall later here than at higher 
altitudes, the planting season for early maturing sorts may 
continue till the middle of January. 

In the Lower Bush-veld of the Transvaal the planting 
season is independent of frost, but the rainfall being less than 
on the High-veld, and evaporation and transpiration greater, 
the season varies with the rainfall and must be so planned that 
the plants will secure about 13 inches of rainfall during the 
three principal growing months of the crop. In Rhodesia, 
according to Mr. Odlum, maize is planted as soon as sufficient 
rain has fallen to thoroughly saturate the soil. Sometimes 
this is in November, but more often not until December. 

At Himeville, Natal, in the Underberg District, planting 
sometimes commences at the end of August, while at Cedara, 
in the Umgeni District, the end of November has been found 
the best time. At Manderston, Camperdown District, the ten 
days from 22 November to 1 December have given the best 
results! 

344. Lesting. — Planting with a lister (Fig. 142) is a 
common practice in those parts of the United States in which 
the soils are friable and the rainfall scanty. It is claimed, 


' According to Mr. John Moon. 
25 


386 MAIZE 


CHAP. says Shelton (1), that listed corn endures dry weather much 
IX. better than that planted near the surface; that it gives in- 
creased yield ; and that the labour of growing a crop is there- 

by reduced one-fourth to one-third. In 1888 “nearly or 
quite three-fourths of Kansas corn was raised by the method 
known as listing; which . . . consists of drilling the seed in 

the bottoms of deep furrows struck at the usual intervals, in 
ground not otherwise ploughed” (S#e/tox, 1). In experiments 
conducted at the Kansas and Oklahoma Stations, five out of 
eight trials of listed maize gave the best results, with an 
average yield of the eight trials 6 per cent greater than that 


Fic. 142.—Combined lister and planter. 


with surface planting ; but at the Illinois Station the results 
were in favour of surface planting (A/wmz, 1). 

A few listing implements have been introduced into South 
Africa, but the writer has not yet seen the results of any trials 
conducted with them. ; 

345. Use of Planters.—The use of planters is rapidly gain- 
ing ground. An implement dealer in a small country town of 
the Transvaal stated that in 1908 he sold nineteen planters, 
which was more than he had sold in the previous six years. 
In 1909 he sold fifty-one planters before the end of August ; 
and there were two other firms in the same town who dealt in 
planters. This means progress. The great advantage of the 
planter lies in the uniformity in distance and in depth of 
planting, rapidity of work, and economy in labour, Many 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 387 


planters are on the market, such as the Moline Champion, 
Deere & Mansur Improved, Black Hawk, Rock Island, 
Farmers’ Friend, Hoosier, Bradley, and Planet Junior. The 
simpler the mechanism the better, where farm labour is in- 
efficient and unskilled. 

Some of these machines are furnished with centre-hole 
plates for the seed to pass through into the hopper, while the 
plates of others have edge-hole plates, i.e. the holes are in the 
form of notches in the edge of the plate. The general ex- 
perience seems to be that for ordinary purposes, and with 
ordinary seed of variable size and shape, the centre-hole plate 


Fic. 1438.—Home-made marker 


Fic. 1434.—A home-made hand planter for planting maize by hand. 
for maize. (After Myrick, The (After Myrick, The Book of 
Book of Corn.) Corn.) 


does the best work, resulting in fewer misses in the row. It 
seems likely that the edge-hole plate would plant more evenly 
and accurately, provided the seed were very evenly graded 
and uniform, otherwise the centre-hole plate is preferable. 
346. Check-rowing on small areas (up to, say, 200 acres) has 
an advantage in that it enables the farmer to cultivate both 
up and down and also across the field, and thus to get rid 
of a large proportion of weeds. But it takes a longer time, 
and on large areas the farmer may not have labour enough 
for this inter-cultural tillage. Moreover when check-rowing 


bunches four or five plants in a hill, the results appear 
25° 


CHAP. 
IX. 


388 MAIZE 


CHAP. to be unsatisfactory (1 350) unless the surplus plants can be 
1 pulled or hoed out; this means extra labour and loss of 
time, and where maize is grown on a large scale it is doubt- 
ful whether the extra work would pay. If check-rowing is 
practised, care should be taken not to leave too many maize 
plants together ; probably two will be found sufficient for any 

one “hill”. 


347. Distance of Planting. —Distance of planting affects 


Fic. 144.—Maize planter, ‘‘ Moline Champion”. 


the crop in several ways. Too close planting is injurious, be- 
cause, in the first place, it reduces the amount of plant-food 
available for each plant, maize being a surface-feeder; in dry 
times it injuriously reduces the amount of moisture available 
to each plant ; it also retards photosynthesis since less light is 
available to the leaves (‘1 69) ; finally it prevents proper weed- 
ing. On the other hand the plant does not require an indefi- 
nite amount of space, and if more than a certain optimum of 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 389 


soil space is allowed, the ground area lies waste. In brief, to 
secure the best yield, it is necessary that an acre should carry 
as many maize plants as possible without injury to one 
another. 

It is obvious that as the richness and texture of the soil and 
the amount of available moisture vary tremendously, not only 
in different parts of South Africa, but also on the same 
farm, the optimum distance of planting will vary in different 
places, and even on the same farm. There ts no uniform 
distance suitable for the maise crop tn all parts of the country. 
Owing to the difference in amount and incidence of the rain- 
fall in different seasons, a greater distance of planting would 
be desirable in some seasons than in others; but as the farmer 
cannot foretell the rainfall, he cannot vary his planting in 
anticipation, but should regularly adopt the average distance 
which his own records over a number of years have proved 
most satisfactory for a particular field. 

Distance should also vary with the kind of maize grown ; 
a large-growing sort naturally requires more plant-food, and 
therefore more soil and light space, than a small kind. 

The farmer will find it to his advantage to carry out a 
series of distance tests on his own farm over a series of years 
and on different soils: a comparison of the average yields from 
each planting at the same distance will (if carried out long 
enough) give the optimum distance for that particular soil and 
locality. But a single test is not sufficient; it should be re- 
peated for several years and the results should be compared 
carefully. In order to start an experiment intelligently, it is 
well to know something of the results obtained elsewhere, as a 
basis on which to start; a few such results have been given in 
the following paragraph. 

348. Destance Tests tn the Transvaal.—The following results 
(Table LIII) were obtained from an experiment conducted at 
the Botanical Experiment Station, Skinner’s Court, Pretoria, on 
shallow red soil of poor quality. The breed used was Hzckory 
King and only one grain was planted to each hill. It will be 
noted that at the greater distances the results were not satis- 
factory. 

Further results (Table LIV) were obtained from a subse- 
quent experiment conducted at the Botanical Experiment 


CHAP. 
IX. 


CHAP. 


IX. 


490 MAIZE 


TaB_Le LIII. 
RESULTS OF DISTANCE TESTS ON YIELD OF HICKORY KING. 
| { 
: | Equivalent Number , | Per Cent 
we . | Soil Surf Yield 
Distance: | res per Plant, | of sees Per | of Grain. | saan eats: 
| 2 se ee Ess 
| Square Feet. | | Lbs. | 
3° x 3 | (ohe) 4,840 | 100 15°36 
| 
3° x 2h" | ile. | 5,308 | 180 27°65 
By | 6-0 | 7,260 | 175 26°88 
| 
Bree || 4°5 | 9,680 | 196 | 30°10 
| 
| | 651 | 99°99 


TaBLe LIV. 


RESULTS OF DISTANCE TESTS ON YIELD OF IOWA 
SILVER-MINE. 


ee : | ‘ | : as | 
; Experiment , Crop | Equivalent Yield per 
Number. Distances. | Harvested. Acre, | 
| 
ad 9 it ale e a a | | | 
Ears. | Lbs. Lbs. Muids, | 
| A.217 | 3 OP S276. | g60 | 384 2,846 | 14°23 | 
| | 
| | | 
| A.218 | 3/4" x 16" | 997 290 2,249 | I1°25 
| | | | | 
A.219 es ces ee oad 1,038 352 2,559 | 12°79 
| | | | 
A.220 36" x 7 I,2Ir | 255 2,890 | 14°45 
| 
A.221 | ay ee | 932 | 200 555 | 97 
| I | 
| 
| 3 Possible Return if every Hill 
enermneut Soil Surface Foeaonae? Average | had borne a Plant, and every | 
Neches Area per Plante: a Weight Plant one Ear up to the Aver- 
. Plant. A iis per Ear. age weight for that Distance. 
| ONS Total Weight per Acre. 
— a 
| aes Feet. | Oz. Lbs. Muids. | 
A.217 | 5°25 | 8,297 6402 | — 3,318°8 16°59 
| | 
| A2i® | 4-995 | 8,720 465 | 2,534°2 12°67 
sa 
| A.219 5°49 7934 5°42 | — 2,688-0 13°44 
| | 
| A.220 3°50 12,445 3°37 2,621°1 I3°IO 
| A.221 | 3°33 13,081 3°44 | 2,812°4 14°06 
| 


1 Some vient: evidently bore more than one ear. 

*The largest ears gave the largest yield per acre, but the lowest yield per 
acre was not obtained from the plants which produced the ears of smallest 
average size (cf. experiments A.218 and A.220). 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 3y1 


Station, on red soil, with Jowa Silver-mine. This breed was 
used, as it was already being grown for other purposes which 
would not interfere with the distance tests. 

The plot was 56 yards long, and ten rows were grown at 
each distance. The distances chosen were based on the results 
obtained in the previous experiment. ; 

From Table LIV it is obvious that the heaviest ears 
were obtained, in all cases except one, from the plants having 
the largest amount of free soil space per plant; in the one ex- 
ception the difference is so slight that it does not affect the 
results. But in an experiment with sunflowers conducted at 
the Botanical Experiment Station a few years previously, it 
was clearly proved that the plants which produced the smaller 
heads gave a better crop than those which bore very large 
heads, because there were more of them. 

We must therefore find out whether the reduced weight of 
ear, in cases of less soil space per plant, may not be compen- 
sated by the larger number of plants per acre. Table LIV 
shows that in the above experiment this was not the case. 
In Illinois, however, the smaller ears gave the heaviest total 
yield (4 350). 

One of the factors which affects the maize yield is sunshine, 
and on this account distance detween the rows may be of greater 
importance than distance zz the rows. But this again is some- 
times affected by the direction of the rows, especially in a 
cloudy, wet season; in such a season wide rows, running 
north and south, have an advantage over narrow rows running 
east and west. 

At Vereeniging Mr. McLaren has tried various distances, 
and now usually plants 3 feet 4 inches between the rows, the 
grain being dropped on the average at about I foot 6 inches 
in the row, giving 5 square feet to each plant, or 8,712 plants 
per acre. 

On some of the Transvaal soils it seems likely that 3 feet 
x 1 foot 6 inches, or 9,680 plants per acre, will give better 
results, but this requires further investigation. 

349. Distance Tests in Natal.— At the Government Experi- 
ment Farm, Cedara, Natal, the following returns of yield of 
grain per acre were obtained :—! 


1Tn 1904. 


CHAP. 
Ix. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


392 MAIZE 


TaBLe LV. 


RESULTS OF DISTANCE TESTS IN NATAL. 


| Distance in the Rows, 24 feet Apart. Rows, 3 feet Apart. Rows, 4 feet Apart. 
Rows. | 
Ieee Ge Ee 
Lbs | Muids. | Lbs. Muids. Lbs. Muids, 
1 foot apart 1,880 | g'4o 1,908 0°54 1,696 8°48 
is, 5; 1,702 | 8-51 1,744 8°72 1,510 7°55 
a feet oy 1,632 | 8 16 1,592 7°99 1,290 6°45 
| 2h » w» | 1580 | 7°90 1,458 7°29 1,174 5°87 
| ee | — | 1,342 6-71 1,014 5°07 
| = = 864 4°32 


Clearly the best distance, in that locality and soil and for 
that season, was 3 feet between the rows and 1 foot apart in 
the rows. It must be remembered, however, that unless such an 
experiment is conducted over a series of years, or on a large 
area, and an average taken, the variations which occur may be 
due to slight differences in soil, or to greater insect attack in 
some spots than others, these being usually restricted to 
patches and not uniformly distributed. 

A farmer at Manderston, Natal,! informed the writer that 
he planted Hickory King 2 feet 8 inches x 14 inches, which 
is equivalent to about 14,000 plants per acre; this was on 
well-manured land. His crop when planted at this distance 
averaged 14 muids per acre which appears like a good yield ; 
but this means that with a full stand of plants the average 
yield per plant would have been only 3:2 0z., which is very 
low, indicating either that an unusual allowance must be made 
for misses, grubs, etc., or that the planting was too close. 

350, Distances Tried in the United States——From accounts 
of experiments in the United States it would appear that the 
best crops are obtained at distances giving 11,000 to 12,000 
plants per acre, but there, also, we find variation according to 
climate and richness of soil. Recent experiments have shown 
that the crop is apt to suffer if the plants are bunched, four or 
five together in a hill, and from this point of view continuous 
row planting seems to be superior to check-row planting. At 
the Missouri Station, the largest yield on poor land (36 bushels) 
was obtained from leaving only two stalks per hill, with the hills 
3 feet g inches apart each way, or 6,480 stalks per acre; while 

‘Mr. John Moon. 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 393 
on good land 70 bushels was obtained with four stalks per hill, 
the hills being the same distance apart (A/a, 31). At the 
Ilinois Station (Lu//, 13, p. 410) close planting (23,760 plants 
per acre) gave smaller ears, 100 weighing only 39 lbs.; but a 
heavier yield of shelled grain (76 bushels) per acre, as compared 
with 5,940 plants per acre which gave large ears (100 weighing 
66 lbs.) but only 55 bushels of shelled grain per acre. 

351. Planting Distance for Silage or Fodder Maize —When 
the object is to get the heaviest possible yield of fodder from 
each acre of ground, the plants may stand much closer together 
than when grain is to be harvested. At the Botanical Experi- 
ment Station, Pretoria, the rows are kept the same distance 
apart as when planted for grain, i.e. 3 feet 6 inches, in order 
to allow space for cleaning, for sunlight, and for leaf-develop- 
ment, but the seed is planted every 5 or 6 inches instead of 
18 inches. But no definite rule can be laid down because so 
much depends on the local conditions of soil and climate, and 
the particular breed grown. The Pennsylvania and Michigan 
Stations found the most satisfactory distance to be rows 40 
inches apart and single stalks 3 to 9 inches apart in the row. 

In the Standerton District (Transvaal) some farmers! leave 
3 feet between the rows, planting 10 inches apart in the row, 
and cultivate just as they would for grain; but they are not 
sure that 2 feet 6 inches x 10 inches might not give a better 
yield, though ‘if planted too thick the bottom leaves die,” and 
the leaf is the most valuable part of the fodder. They use 
Natal Yellow Horsetooth, a vigorous grower, which could not 
be grown as thickly as some other sorts; they plant I4 to 
15 lbs. of seed per acre. 

352. Effect of Thickness of Planting on Composition of the 
Fodder.—The American Experiment Stations have found that 
where the crop has been planted thickly the protein content of 
the fodder is materially reduced and the percentage of crude 
fibre considerably increased; but when there is no greater 
variation in rate of planting than that of one grain every 6 to 
12 inches, there is no material difference in the composition of 
the fodder (7/7, 31). 

353. Number of Plants toan Acre of Ground at Different 
Distances :-— 


le.g. Messrs. Hutchinson and Shaw of Val Station. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


MAIZS 


4 


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CHAP. 
IX. 


1 Ur ooueIsIg 


“SMOY 
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“. TMH» Yad LNWI1d 
ANO ONIMOTTY ‘SAONVLSIG DNIMOTIOIN AHL LY NMOS NAHM AXOV UAd SLNW1Id JO YAAWAN 


TAT FTIvV 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 498 


354. Amount of Seed Planted per Acre.—This varies greatly 
with the method and distance of planting, and with the breed 
of maize planted. If plates with suitable holes are used, a muid 
of Chester County will plant many more acres than a muid of 
Hickory King, because it contains so many more grains. It is 
usually estimated that 18 to 20 lbs. of Heckory King are required 
to plant an English aere (70 x 70 yards), or, in other words, 
that a muid will plant 10 acres. 

355. Depth of Planting —The rule with maize is to plant it 
just deep enough to ensure a continuous supply of moisture. 
In countries subject to periodic drought, like most parts of 
South Africa, deeper planting is required than in countries of 
more uniform rainfall. Deep planting allows the seed to re- 
main in contact with moist soil; at the same time it takes 
longer and requires more effort for the plant to reach the 
surface. But there is a possibility of planting too deeply, and 
in the United States it has been found that too deep planting 
reduces the yield per acre, apparently because too many seeds 
fail in germination. 

Deep planting does not appear to materially affect the 
depth to which the roots penetrate the soil, nor does it ap- 
parently affect the yield per individual stalk, which has been 
found to be the same at all depths tested. 

Tests made at the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, 
gave the best results with seed planted at depths of 4 and 5 
inches. In drier seasons it seems probable that 6 inches would 
be still better. Seed planted at 8 inches, even, germinated well, 
though slowly. 

Seed of the same breed, planted the same day, at different 
depths, at the Botanical Experiment Station, gave the follow- 
ing results. Sown 23 November, followed by a rainfall of 
0°95 inch on the 26th, appeared above ground as follows :— 


TABLE LVII. 
EFFECT OF,.DEPTH OF PLANTING ON GERMINATION, 


Depth. 

1-inch ; seedlings first appeared above ground 27 Nov. 

2 45 ” ” ” ” ” 27 ” 

3- “4 ry em re », 28 ,, appeared next best to 5 


inches, 


4+» ” 20) ” ” or) 3° ” 


CHAP. 
IX. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


396 MAIZE 


Depth. ? 
5-inch; seedlings first appeared above ground 30 Nov. germinated most evenly 
and looked best. 


30 +,, only a few appeared. 
2 Dec. 


Germination was poorest (though growth was at first most 
rapid) in those planted at 1 inch; but these had made the least 
subsequent growth when examined a few weeks later. The 
most vigorous growth was attained by those planted at 5 
inches. 

This experiment should be repeated, for some at present 
unexplained factor affected the growth of those planted at 4 
inches, which were less vigorous than those planted at 3 inches. 

356. Planting behind the Plough—This method is largely 
practised by Boers and natives, especially in breaking new 
veld, but the resulting crop is not as good as when the land 
has been properly prepared. 

357. Planting before Ploughing.—This method is sometimes © 
practised by natives, especially on sandy soils; it naturally 
results in an uneven stand, and in irregularity of germination, 
growth, flowering, and ripening, and is not the best method of 
producing a profitable crop; as a rule it is said to result in a 
crop of not more than 14 bags per acre. 

358. After-cultivation.—Maize requires a better quality of 
land and a higher grade of farming than any other of the great 
staple crops. One of the principal causes of low yields is the 
prevalence of weeds, such as pig-weed, mest-briede (A marantus 
paniculatus), Bermuda quick or quagga kweek-gras (Cynodon 
Dactylon), uintjes (Cyperus esculentus), and the sweet grasses 
(Chloris virgata and Panicum levifolium). Weeds rob the 
maize roots of moisture and plant food, and thus reduce the 
yield of grain. Their successful eradication is one of the most 
important problems the South African farmer has to face, 
Occasional fallowing of the soil and rotation of crops do much 
to reduce the weed crop. Frequent harrowing, while the weed 
seedlings are small, is one of the most economical and rapid 
methods of treatment. But the frequent use of the cultivator 
between the rows of a check-rowed field is far the best. Cul- 
tivation not only keeps the land clean but also helps to retain 
the moisture in the soil during dry spells, by maintaining a soil 


397 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 


CHAP. 


IX. 


‘eLIeIYey Ul 


spur] azieul 


surjealyyng 


—'Sbr “D1 


MAIZE 


398 


(‘Bulstusa1aA “O09 Y Ja[MOoy uYyol ‘sussoy Jo Asaz1N09) 
SUIT] & JE SMOI Q SUIOP SIOZLATIND yI00;-SuUds YA ‘YSIy sayour gf syueyd azrew Surjeanjns-weajg—‘orI “OI 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 399 


mulch. Some South African maize-growers cultivate between 
the rows as much as eight times ina season. To | keep the maize 
crop clean one must have the land in good condition before 
the crop is planted, and then keep working it, xever allowing 
the weeds to get a start. This subject is more full y disenssed 
in chapter Xx. 

For these reasons the small maize farmers of the United 
States who give their crop thorough cultivation, obtain heavier 
teturns per acre than those who grow maize on a larger scale 
and are unable to give it the same attention. Prof. Carver 
notes (cf. 6) that there is a noticeable general decline in the 
intensity of cultivation of the maize crop, with the increase in 
size of farm in the Western States. There is also a noticeable 


CHAP. 
IX. 


Fic. 147.—“ New Western”’ cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. 
Malcomess & Co.) 


decrease in yield per acre; that this is associated with the less 
intensive cultivation rather than to geographical reasons, is 
indicated by the fact that the highest average yields per acre 
are obtained in the North Atlantic States, quite out of the 
Maize-belt (41 41). 

Care should be exercised in the use of the cultivator, for 
if it is set too deeply, or run too close to the plants, it may 
prune off a proportion of the roots, below the surface, which will 
probably reduce the yield below the potential; for this reason 
some American Stations recommend that after the first cultiva- 
tion the implements should not be allowed to cut deeper than 
2 inches; deep cultivation also tends to turn up a fresh crop 
of weed seeds. 


CHAP. 
IX. 


400 MAIZE 


359. /ieplements for IWVeeding.—Many implements are in 
use in South Africa for cleaning the land of weeds and keeping 
a loose mulch on the surface after rains. Probably no one of 
these can be said to be the best implement for all classes 
of soil. 


Fic. 148.—Anti-clog weeder. 


The use of the ordinary zigzag harrow and the anti-clog- 
weeder have already been alluded to. Among others should 
be mentioned the Planet Junior, Collet, and Howard scufflers, 
which are in use at the Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom ; 
the Martin cultivator and the Captain Kidd disk cultivator, 
both of which are in use at Vereeniging ; and the Peg-tooth 


Fic. 149.—‘t Captain Kidd” cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


cultivator used by farmers in the Standerton District.) The 
following are also in use in the Transvaal: The Hallock, In- 
dependent, Keystone-adjustable, Corn King, Dandy, Golden 
Rule, New Age, New Western, etc. 

Where the crop is in danger of suffering from excessive 


‘e.g. Messrs. Reynolds Bros., Val Station. 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 4ot 
moisture, it is useful to run a mouldboard plough down the CHAP. 
rows to throw up the earth around the maize roots and forma ©: 
shallow channel down which the surface water can run instead 


Fic. 150.—‘ Single Dutchman” cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess 
5 g y 
& Co.) 


Fic, 151.—Adjustable cultivator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


of standing. The maize plant does not like stagnant water, 
and many a crop has been saved by this simple method of 


treatment. 
26 


CHAP. 
IX, 


402 MAIZE 


360. Power.—The usual source of power employed on the 
South African farm is the ox, most frequently the Africander 
breed. The argument generally used in favour of the ox is 
that he requires little artificial feed, and can be sold to the 
butcher when his draught days are over. This may have held 
good in the days of the 6,000-acre farm, and when the beef 
market was less critical than it is to-day. But when we 
think of the number of oxen required to haul a load or draw a 
plough, and consider that the same grass necessary to keep 
them might be making prime beef such as the trek-ox never 


Fic. 152.—Adjustable Weeder. (Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


can produce, we begin to question where the economy of the 
trek-ox comes in; he is, at best, a slow beast and an expensive 
form of power. When drawing the planter he makes crooked 
rows, and when drawing the cultivator through the growing 
maize he cuts out the plants in the bends which he made when 
planting, thus still further decreasing the yield; and he is so 
ponderous and so slow in getting over the ground that a larger 
number of planters and natives must be employed to cover a 
given area in the limited amount of time available for planting 
and cleaning, than would be needed if horses or good mules 
were used. 

For the preparation of the land there is nothing to equal 


TILLAGE, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION 403 


steam cultivation, and the best machinery and implements for 
steam ploughing are apparently those manufactured by Messrs. 
John Fowler & Co. (Leeds), Limited (Figs. 131 to 134, 141 and 
153), whose extensive and long-continued demonstrations at 


Fic. 153.—Steam-ploughing and subsoil packing the land at Vereeniging ; 
double engine system. (Courtesy of Messrs. John Fowler & Co.) 


Vereeniging have proved beyond doubt the efficiency of this 
form of power for maize-growing in South Africa. This firm 
is now putting on the market a direct-traction oil-tractor (Fig. 
132), the “Fowler,” which, if it proves adapted to South 
African conditions, is likely to greatly reduce the cost of 
machine ploughing. 


26* 


CHAP. 
Ix. 


4o4 MAIZE 


Fic. 154.— Lucky Jim” weeder. An implement for cleaning the growing crop. 


j 


- 155.—‘* Red King”? cultivator. Another implement for cleaning the growing crop. 


CHAPTER X. 
DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP. 


Every crop has its pest. 
—Proverb. 


Overgrown, through long years of peace and neglect, with grass and alien 


weeds, 
— HAWTHORNE. 


Plant Diseases, 


SPEAKING broadly, maize in South Africa appears to be less 
seriously affected by disease than most crops; though the 
maize plant is the host of certain rusts and smuts, they 
do not appear—at present, at least—to materially affect the 
yield. The principal. diseases are: brown rust (Puccznita 
Maydis Bereng), red rust (Puccinia purpurea Cooke), maize 
smut or “brand” (Sorosporium retlianum (WKithn) McAlp.), 
dry-rot (Diplodia Zee (Schw.) Lév.), and leaf scorch (/fe/- 
minthosportum turcicuim Pass. ). 

361. Brown Rust of Maize—This is a fungus, Puccrnea 
Maydis Bereng (Fig. 156), which usually appears when the 
maize plants are in flower, or a little earlier. At first a few 
isolated brown pustules are to be seen on the leaves and, later, 
the leaves and sheaths are gradually covered with pustular 
areas, which bear both the uredo- and teleuto-spores. Accord- 
ing to the Plant Pathologist of the Department of Agriculture, 
Union of South Africa, ‘abundant teleutospore masses are 
formed on the leaves, sheaths, and stalks towards the close 
of the rust season, and the incubation period of its uredo-stage 
is of considerably shorter duration as compared with that 
of other cereal rusts, viz. five and six days instead of about 
ten days; this must aid in the rapid spread of the disease. 
The parasite is widely distributed, occurring practically wher- 

405 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 


406 MAIZE 


ever maize is grown, eg. in the United States, France, 
Germany, Italy, India, and South Africa. 

He (EZvans, 3) notes that some breeds of maize “are 
far more susceptible than others; those varieties which have 
been longest in the country, eg. 7vansvaal Yellow, seem to be 
affected most” ; apparently this depends in part on seasonal 
conditions and the stage of development of the maize plant at 
the time these conditions prevail. In Rhodesia it has been 
stated that Hickory King, Golden Dent, and His Excellency 
were particularly susceptible. In the season 1905-6 over 
one hundred strains of maize were under cultivation at 
the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, and brown rust 
appeared on nearly all of them, to a greater or lesser extent ; 
Transvaal Yellow and Egyptian were very appreciably affected 
by it, but there was little damage apparent on the others. 

Brown rust is also said to propagate upon the teosinte 
and sugar-cane plants. 

A serious outbreak of rust in the maize crop of the Pretoria 
district in February, 1911, coupled with reports concerning the 
damage done elsewhere, especially in the Eastern districts of 
the Cape Province, in Rhodesia and in British East Africa, 
rendered an investigation of the life-history of the pest advis- 
able, for in many instances a large proportion of the plants 
were so severely attacked that they set no ears. To quote 
directly :— 

“The severe epidemic of the rust at the Botanical Experi- 
ment Station, Pretoria, was preceded by a heavy and most 
noticeable zcidial infection of Oralis corniculata plants close 
by, and the probable association of these two rusts, the one 
with the other, was immediately suggested by Prof. J. C. 
Arthur's cultures of Uredinezw in 1904, in which he found that 
the ecidiospores of #ecidium Oralidis Thuem., on Oxalis 
cymosa Small., when sown on maize produced the uredo-form 
of Puccinia Maydts Bereng. 

“ A collection of the infected Oralis corniculata leaves was 
made and a number of healthy maize plants, growing in the 
greenhouse, inoculated with the acidiospores thus obtained. 
In ten days all the inoculated plants were showing a profuse 
development of uredo-pustules of Puce‘nia Maydis. This 
result left no doubt as to the connection between the ecidium 
on Ovalzs corniculata and the brown rust of the mielie. Thus 


0 
N 
we 
< 
=| 
el 
° 
» 
wn 
=} 
a 
c 
Es 
° 
6 
fl 
re} 
ra) 
H 
g 
em 


CHAP. 


408 MAIZE 


it was evident that the little yellow sorrel, Oxalzs corntculata, 
was in part responsible for the rust epidemics in the mielie ; 
but whether it is the only host for the ecidial stage of the 
rust is a matter for further investigation. Strange to relate, 
the first A®cidium recorded on Oxalis was collected in South 
Africa as far back as 1876 by the late Prof. P. MacOwan on 
Oxalts Bowtet and was named and described by Von Thuemen 
as Afcidium Oxalidis, Whether this /Kcidium is the same 
fungus as that which occurs on Oxralis cymosa and on Oxatts 
corniculata seems at present doubtful, although Arthur is of 
opinion that they are identical. 

‘““My reason for regarding the Atcidium on Oralis Bowtet 
to be different from that on Oxal7s corniculata, is due to the 
fact that repeated inoculations of Oxal?s Bowtez, Oxalis setosa, 
Oxalis Smithti, and Oxralts corniculata, have only resulted in 
the infection of the last-mentioned plant, whereas the others, 
which are endemic to the country, have always remained 
immune. 

“Specimens of the artificially infected Ovralis corniculata 
leaves were submitted to Prof. P. Magnus of Berlin and the 
Agcidia were confirmed by him as being identical with Ladium 
Peyritschianum Magn., which was collected on the same species 
of Oxalis in the Austrian Tyrol in the year 1893” (Evans, 4). 


The brown rust has not hitherto been regarded as a 
serious pest of the maize crop in South Africa, but Mr. Pole 
Evans considers that before very long it will have to be 
reckoned with as one of its most serious enemies; “the more 
that maize is grown, the more the disease will manifest itself”. 
He (3) does not suggest remedial measures other than “ paying 
all possible care and attention to the cultivation of rust- 
resistant varieties, while those which show tendency to rust 
should be discontinued at all costs, as they are to a large extent 
responsible for the rapid spread of the disease,” but he hopes 
“shortly to publish full details regarding the life-history of this 
rust”. 

362. Red Rust of Maize—This is the fungus Pwccinia 
purpurea Cooke ; as far as observations in South Africa go it 
is at present confined to the Province of Natal. It is readily 
distinguished from the brown rust of maize by the discolora- 
tion produced in the leaf by the uredo-pustules, which are 
distinctly red, to blood-red (Evans, 4). 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 409 


363. “ White Rust” or “ Blight”.—In certain seasons the 
maize crop in some localities is affected by a disease which 
causes the plants to “ whiten” and wither off prematurely as 
though frost-nipped ; sometimes it becomes so serious that a 
large part, or it may be the whole crop, is lost. This trouble 
has been reported from the Transvaal, Orange Free State, 
Natal, and Rhodesia, under the name of “white rust” or 
“blight”. Some farmers consider certain breeds to be more 
susceptible than others ; inquiry shows, however, that in some 
cases Hickory King was affected and Jowa Szlver-mine or Yellow 
Fforsetooth on the same farm appeared to be less susceptible, 
while in other cases Jowa Szilver-mine suffered and Hickory 
King was not affected. Whether this disease is due to fungus 
or bacterial causes does not appear to be yet known; the 
writer has observed that somewhat similar symptoms are some- 
times produced by droughz, and disappear when the crop has 
been irrigated. If drought should prove to be the cause of 
white rust, the incidence of the disease as referred to above 
would be explicable ; the varying conditions of the soil might 
easily account for one field being affected while another, per- 
haps carrying a different breed of maize, remained healthy. 

The occurrence and serious nature of this disease in Rho- 
desia were referred to by Mr. Odlum (4) in 1906, but he does 
not explain the cause of the trouble. He suggests, however, 
as a remedial measure, the breeding of “ blight-resistant ” 
strains ; if drought is the cause, the breeding of ‘“ drought- 
resistant” strains would probably assist in some measure. 

364. Matse Smut or “ Brand”.— Vhis fungus parasite, 
Sorosportum reilianum (Kiihn) McAlp.,’ is conspicuous in 
one stage of its life-history as large, black, sooty masses on 
the tassel (Fig. 157) or the ear (Fig. 158); when it occurs on the 
leaves it appears generally in the form of black streaks. How 
long maize smut has been known in South Africa is not clear, 
but its occurrence in the Cape Province was commented on in 
June, 1906 (Anon, 3). It is now a familiar phenomenon to 
almost every farmer throughout South Africa ; the microscopic 
fungus-plant lives as a parasite within the tissues of the maize 
plant, and is only seen by the ordinary observer when it breaks 


1 Also known as Ustilago Maydis (DC.) Corda, and Ustilago Mays-sea@ 
Magnus (Evans, 1). 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
X. 


410 WAIZE 


out on the surface of the invaded parts as a black dusty mass. 
To quote Mr. Pole Evans 


(1,2, and 3): ‘‘ The black 
powder or smut consists 
of myriads of microscopic 
reproductive bodies, com- 
monly known as spores. 
‘They serve to propagate 
the fungus and dissemin- 
ate the disease, and corre- 
spond in function to seeds 
in the higher plants. Each 
spore is brown and spheri- 
cal, and measures about 
one thirty-three hun- 
dredths of an inch in dia- 
meter. Under favourable 
conditions these spores 
germinate, and give rise 
to a number of secondary 
bodies, which are blown 


about by the wind. 


Fic. 157.—Maize smut or brand on the “Tt is found that the 
tassel. spores germinate more 
readily, and also give rise to a larger number of secondary 
bodies, in fresh stable manure than in ordinary soil. Conse- 
quently, if a heavy dressing of fresh stable manure is applied 
to land infested with smut spores just before planting, the risk 
of infection will be much greater to plants growing in such 
ground, inasmuch as more secondary bodies will be produced 
than would have occurred in untreated land. 

‘‘As the secondary spores are able to infect all young and 
tender parts of the maize plant, their presence in the maize 
lands should be prevented as far as possible. This can best 
be done by removing and burning all smutted plants, by using 
seed free from sniut spores, and by avoiding the use of fresh 
stable manure at the time of sowing.” 

This parasite is said to occur wherever maize is grown. 
It appears to be spreading in some parts of South Africa. In 
some cases in the Standerton District, Transvaal, it was found 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 411 


to affect 2 per cent of the plants in several crops of maize; CHAP. 
2 per cent ona 10 muid per acre yield means a loss of 2 muids — *- 
from every IO acres, or 20 muids from 100 acres, which at 8s. 

per muid amounts to 48. The general average of infected 

plants in the United States crops is said not to exceed 1 or 2 


per cent; but Prof. Brewer reports having heard of cases of 


Fic. 158.—Maize smut or brand on the ear. 


16 per cent, and Prof. Bessey states that in a garden where 
sugar maize had been grown for several years in succession, 
66 per cent of the crop was destroyed by smut in one season 
(IVeed, 1). 

Maize smut is quite a different fungus from the smut of 
wheat, oats, etc. ; it gains access to the plant ina different way, 
and is not controlled by dipping seed in bluestone or formalin 
solutions but by destruction of infected plants. Most people, 


CHAP. 


412 MAIZE 


says an American writer, do not begin picking smutty ears until 
it is too late, when the sooty spores have already begun to be 
scattered by the wind and to infect the ground; if the work is 
begun earlier in the season, and all plants showing the small 
pustules on the young tender parts of the plant are gathered 
and burned, the enormous crop of spores which would other- 
wise be produced will be prevented from coming to maturity. 
The ear, when it is first affected, appears as a white malformed 
mass, sometimes the whole ear, sometimes a part only of the 
grains, being changed ; the white mass gradually grows darker, 
finally becoming brownish-black and powdery ; on the tassels 
the swellings are not so large, and on the stem and leaf their 
size varies greatly (IVced, 1). 


“Where domestic animals are allowed to eat smut in the 
field they become the carriers of the spores, and their drop- 
pings, filled with the still living spores, become the centres of 
infection. No animal should be permitted to eat smutted 
corn, even though the owner be convinced of its harmlessness 
to the animal itself. The harm lies in the distribution of the 
spores, which are little, if at all, injured by passing through the 
alimentary canals of animals” (Bessey, quoted by Anon., 3). 


Many farmers believe that corn smut is injurious when eaten 
by cattle. Cases of death attributed to this cause are not 
common, however, and feeding experiments made by Professors 
Gamgec, Henry, and others, indicate that the amount of smut 
which cattle are likely to eat, under ordinary circumstances, 
would do little, if any, injury (IVeed, quoted by Anon., 3). 

The only other known host plant of Sorosporium retlianum 
is teosinte (Euchlena mexicana), which suggests the near re- 
lationship of the latter to Zea Mays. 

365. Leaf Scorch or Maize “ Blight” — Leaf scorch or 
maize “ blight,” Helwinthosporium turcicum Pass., is a fungus 
parasite common on the leaves of the maize plant in South 
Africa, “forming somewhat elongated, reddish-brown areas”. 
It is said to commonly attack the plant also in Southern 
Europe, Queensland, and the United States. This fungus is 
sometimes discussed in the literature under the names 
/Telininthosporium tneonspicunm Cooke and Ellis, /Ze/minthos- 
portum eramtnum Rab., and “leaf-blight fungus”, In the 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE (AlAIZE CROP 413 


United States this disease is considered to have ‘little CHAP. 


Ps 


economic importance” (//wnz, 1). 

366. Ear-rots of Maize-—In 1910 at Vereeniging and at 
Potchefstroom, and in 1912 at Ladysmith, Natal, the writer 
found maize ears affected with a fungus reminding him of 


Diplodia Zee (Schw.) Lév.! (Fig. 159) as it occurs in the 


A B 


Fic. 159.—Dry-rot of maize, Diplodia Zew (Schw.) Lév. A, Ear showing white 
hyphe; B, Grains showing small black fruiting bodies of the fungus. 


United States. Subsequently these were so identified by the 
Acting Plant Pathologist in Pretoria. In the State of Ilinois 
the annual loss from ear-rots is said to be from 2 to 4’5 per 
cent of the entire crop, representing a money loss of from 


1 Also known as Diplodia Maydis (Berk.) Sacc. 


4i4 MAIZE 


CHAP. $2,000,000 to $5,500,000. Ninety per cent of the rot is found 

ae to be due to Diplodia Zee (Heald, Wilcox, and Poole, 1). In 

Nebraska it has been found that there is a loss of weight on 
infected ears of over 50 per cent (Lurr7/ and Parrett, 2). 

This disease is shown in Fig. 159, and is very fully de- 
scribed and well illustrated by Burrill and Barrett (1 and 2), 
who conclude that “in the case of the Diplodia disease, . . . 
the fungus perpetuates itself over winter on old diseased ears 
and old stalks,” and recommend that all diseased ears be col- 
lected and burned, and that where fields are infected to any 
considerable extent, the stalks be deeply ploughed under or 
burned. “If the first suggestion is adopted and the second 
followed wherever necessity demands it,” they consider that 
serious losses will be practically prevented. 

In Illinois three species of /wvsarzu are found to be largely 
responsible for 10 per cent of ear-rot in that State; the char- 
acteristic rot of each species is described by Heald, Wilcox, 
and Poole (1). 

Smith and Hedges (1) point out that there is little doubt 
that the manner of infection by ear-rots is from the soil into 
the roots, from these to the interior of the stems, and thence 
upward to the cobs, and finally to the grains, but that it is 
not unlikely that certain soil conditions may favour or hinder 
the root infection. 


“ Unquestionably the Dzplodia, like the Fusarzum, is a soil- 
organism persisting from year to year in infected fields, which 
for this reason should be staked off and planted to other crops 
than corn.” 

They further suggest that “it is also worthy of inquiry 
whether this fungus may not be the cause of the so-called 
‘cornstalk’ disease prevalent among cattle in the West. It is 
also possible that to Dzplodia should be referred the great 
number of deaths of negroes in the South during the past 
three years, from the so-called fe//agra (Chap. XIV) following 
the consumption of mouldy corn-meal and mouldy hominy. 
This fungus (Dzplodia) is also a cause of mouldy corn in Italy. 
The only other fungi we have reason for suspecting in this con- 
nection are species of Aspergillus” (Smith and Hedges, 1). 


‘See also Barrett (1). 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 415 


367. Dothtorella.—A disease of maize is recorded as oc- CHAP. 
curring in Cochin China, caused by a fungus of the genus ™ 
Dothiorella (Foév and Berthault, 1). 

308. Burrill’s Bacterial Disease of Dent and Sugar Maize. 

—A bacterial disease is reported as affecting the roots of young 
maize plants in some parts of the United States, but the writer 
is not aware that it has yet made its appearance in South Africa. 


“The young plant is first affected in the roots. After mid- 
summer the disease manifests itself also in the full-grown corn 
stalks, more particularly on the leaf-sheaths, by certain dis- 
coloured areas. Even the developing ears are often infected, 
showing a jelly-like disposition, occasionally becoming a mass 
of rotten slime. An attack upon the very young plant means 
the dwarfing of its growth and destruction of the crop. A 
lessened yield and valueless fodder are the only results of infec- 
tion of the more mature stalk. The presence of the disease is 
noted to a greater extent some years than others. Means of 
prevention have not yet been carefully studied, but destroying 
affected parts is said to be the only sure way of absolute 
eradication. This disease is sometimes known as ‘corn 
blight’ ” (2//¢nots Station Bull., 5). 


369. Stewarts Corn Wolt.—Another bacterial disease, in 
this case caused by Pseudomonas Stewartit, has been reported 
as destroying whole fields of maize in the United States. 
Affected plants are said to wilt and dry up, but do not roll up 
as when they suffer from lack of moisture. Young plants die 
in a few days, but older plants may live for some time after the 
first attack (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

370. Vellow Foliage.—Yellowness of leaves points to an 
unhealthy condition of the plant. It need not necessarily 
indicate the presence of a parasitic disease, but is often caused 
by a wet, cold soil, or the lack of sufficient sunshine, either 
condition interfering with the proper nutrition of the plant. 

371. Chlorosis—In Java the maize crop is said to be 
particularly subject to Chéorosts, i.e. absence of chlorophyll, 
which results in the development of white leaves. Cavers (1) 
notes that chloritic culture plants are easily obtained with 
maize, and that the condition is readily remedied by adding an 
iron salt to the culture fluid. 

372. Physiological Effect of Drought.—Drought usually 


CHAP. 


416 MAIZE 


causes the leaves of the maize plant to curl up their edges in 
folding, and to assume a bluish- or in extreme cases whitish- 
green tint. 

IVeeds. 


Rich soils are often to be weeded.— Bacon. 


373. Weeds—A weed is a plant growing spontaneously 
where it is not wanted. 

When newly-broken veld is used for maize, weeds are not 
very troublesome, and cleaning is then a comparatively small 
item in the cost of production. But in three years, or less, of 
continuous maize cultivation the land becomes foul and more 
time and labour are required to keep it clean. Cases occur 
where maize has been grown continuously for several years 
and where, owing to scarcity of labour, weeds have become 
such a pest that the yield is not more than one muid (200 Ibs.) 
per acre. 

The weed question does not appeal to the farmer who con- 
trols such large areas that he can plough up new lands for 
maize, year after year, and abandon the old to grass. But 
the number of those who have no more suitable unbroken veld 
available for cropping is yearly increasing; as the farms be- 
come divided into smaller holdings, and as it becomes necessary 
to crop the old lands, the weed problem is certain to become 
more acute. The farmer who has been used to the method of 
breaking new lands each year, already complains that under the 
changed conditions maize-growing is becoming unprofitable, and 
that as the new lands become exhausted South Africa will cease 
to be a maize-producing country. We do not agree with this 
pessimistic view; in other countries maize is grown profitably 
on old lands, lands which have been for centuries under the 
plough, and the same can be done in South Africa; it is only 
necessary to revise the methods to meet the changed conditions. 
In any case maize requires cu/¢z7vatzon to give the best returns, 
and the cultivation of the lands for the purpose of cleaning 
them of weeds will, in addition to destroying the weeds, greatly 
increase the maize crop (4 307). 

374. Parasitic |Veeds.—Weeds may be profitably dis- 
cussed under two heads, Parasttie and Non-parasitic weeds. 
Plant parasites in general are those which draw some, if not 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 417 


all, of their food materials directly from the plant on which 
they grow, thus obliging the host to provide food for two, 
when it is constructed to feed only itself. Under this head 
come the smuts, which have already been discussed, as well as 
certain weeds such as the is-ona or witch-weed which are con- 
sidered later (% 388). 

375. Non-parasitic Weeds, on the other hand, starve the 
young plants by robbing them of light and air, and indirectly of 
their provision of food and moisture. A farmer cannot profit- 
ably grow both weeds and maize on the same land at the same 
time; in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred one or the other 
will suffer, and that one will be the maize, inasmuch as a weed 
is a weed because it is usually hardier than the crop that it 
infects. 

The principal non-parasitic weeds are of two sorts :-— 

(1) Those which are Perennzal, or continue from year to 
year by means of a persistent root-stock which keeps alive, 
though often dormant, through the winter. 

(2) The Axnual weeds, or those which die in the winter 
and are reproduced again next year from seed scattered in the 
preceding autumn. 

376. Perennial Weeds.—From one point of view perennial 
weeds are the most difficult to eradicate, but as they can be 
dealt with during the dry winter months, when other agri- 
cultural operations are largely at a standstill, they are, in a 
way, more easily disposed of than annual weeds. 

The most pernicious perennial weeds are: Bermuda quick- 
grass (Cynodon Dactylon), and uintjes (Cyperus esculentus and 
C. rotundus). Two others also threaten to become troublesome 
in South Africa, viz., bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) and 
sorrel (Rumex Acetosella), but up to the present time we have 
not met with them in the maize crops. Khaki-weed (Adternan- 
thera Achyrantha) and bachelors’ buttons (Gomphrena globosa) 
appear from their habit less likely to become injurious. 

377. Annual Weeds.—The annual weeds grow, on the 
High-veld of South Africa, almost exclusively in the wet 
summer months. When the rains fall at sufficiently long 
intervals to allow the soil to dry out thoroughly, the weeds 
can be kept down with the horse-cultivator. It often happens, 
however, that the rains fall so continuously during the height 

27 


CHAP. 
xX. 


CHAP. 
es 


418 MAIZE 


of the growing season, that the lands remain too soft for 
cultivation, over a long period, and: the weeds are apt to get 
ahead of the maize crop unless other methods of treatment 
are adopted. 

The principal annual weed-pests of the maize crop in South 
Africa are: mest-briede (Amarantus paniculatus), black-jacks 
(Bidens pilosa and B. leucantha), the sweet-grasses (Chlorts 
virgata and Panicum levifolium), goosegrass (Eleusine indica), 
stink-blaad (Datura Stramonium and D. Tatula), wild goose- 
berry (Physalts minima), Mexican marigold (Tagetes mznuta) 
and Necandra physalotdes. 

Many other annual weeds occur in the maize fields, such 
as rooinek (Zinnia pauciflora), burweed (Nanthium sptnosuit) 
and kaffir melons (C7trudlus vulgarts), but they are less trouble- 
some than those mentioned in the preceding paragraph. 

378. Volunteer Maise-—Volunteer maize plants may be 
considered weeds in the sense of our definition. They cross- 
pollinate plants of the main crop, thus producing “ mixed,” 
and consequently inferior, grain. When volunteer plants 
come up between the rows, they are usually removed by the 
cultivator; but it often happens that they come up in the 
rows themselves, and it is then more difficult to eradicate them. 
When it is remembered that a single maize tassel may produce 
from 3,000,000 up to 30,000,000 grains of pollen, that these 
pollen grains are so light that they may be carried by the wind 
for a distance of a quarter of a mile, and that it requires only 
a single grain of pollen to fertilize one grain of maize, it is 
readily seen that much damage may be done by a single 
volunteer plant. 

The appearance of volunteer maize is due to several causes, 
e.g. the planting of different breeds on the same land in suc- 
cessive years; the dropping of ears or of loose grains on the 
land at harvest ; the dropping of undigested grain in the dung 
of animals working in the fields or pasturing on the stover.! 

379. How Weeds Spread.—The question sometimes arises 
as to how weeds get into the lands, and how they spread so 
rapidly in spite of cultivation. It is often found in the first 


' The Ohio Station found that 43 per cent of the dry maize grains which pass 
whole through the alimentary tract of cows will germinate, but none of those 
which have been ensiled. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 419 


season after breaking new veld that weeds appear which do 
not grow in the unbroken veld, such, for example, as Mest- 
briede, Amarantus paniculatus. This particular weed is 
greedily eaten by mules and other stock ; the seeds are hard 
and pass through the alimentary tract undigested, ready to 
germinate with the first favourable opportunity ; if the drop- 
pings of the mule or ox fall on land newly broken, the Amar- 
antus seeds become buried in the loose soil and a seedling 
soon follows the advent of favourable weather ; but if it falls 
on hard, unbroken veld, the probability is that the Amarantus 
seed will be picked up by a seed-eating bird ; or it may lie on 
the hard ground, sprout with the rains, and fail to grow into a 
fully-developed plant because the soil is too hard for the roots 
to penetrate quickly, and in the meantime the grass and other 
veld plants choke it. 

The seeds of other weeds, such as the sweet-grass (Chloris 
virgata), are carried by the wind and scattered broadcast over 
the veld; they do not grow readily in the unbroken veld be- 
cause the soil is too hard. But they will grow readily in loose, 
washed soil deposited along the roadsides, and soon develop 
seed ready to be blown across to any newly-ploughed Jands in 
the vicinity. A few plants along a roadside will soon supply 
enough seed to cover whole fields. 

Blackjacks and burweed are carried on the legs of the 
mules and oxen which plough and work the land, or which are 
turned into the waste lands to eat down the stalks. These 
animals also spread weeds such as stink-blaad (Madura), the 
seeds of which pass through their alimentary tracts undigested. 

A South African farmer was once heard to remark that he 
would never turn cattle into his lands to eat his maize stalks 
because they would spread the seeds of weeds in their drop- 
pings. He might with as much reason argue that he would 
not use a gun because people have been killed through accidents 
with guns. Both guns and dung are necessary ; even the weeds 
brought in by the dung are valuable if turned into manure. 

Perennial weeds, such as quick-grass (Cyzodon Dactylon) and 
uintjes (Cyperus, spp.), are spread from one field to another by 
the plough, cultivator, or harrow, if these implements are not 
properly cleaned before they are transported from a weedy part 
of the farm to clean lands. 

* 


27 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 


420 MAIZE 


380. Plant Less Maize and Produce More.—The solution 
of the weed problem lies in planting only so much maize as can 
be well cultivated. A small acreage well cultivated gives 
better returns than a large area allowed to become weedy. 
In maize-growing it is the high average yield per acre which 
pays; a low yield per acre makes an unprofitable crop. 
Unless one can get a high average yield the cost of production 
takes too much out of the cash returns; ¢/ez the farmer finds 
that “maize-growing does not pay”. 

381. Cultivation.—The South African farmer complains 
that it costs too much to keep the lands well cultivated and 
clean. The American maize-grower cultivates thoroughly 
though he has to pay more for his labour, yet he finds it 
profitable; the secret of this is the higher yield per acre 
which he obtains through clean cultivation. The average 
South African farmer says that he cannot get enough labour 
for clean cultivation; the American has less labour, and 
therefore plants only 90 or 100 acres to the South African’s 
300 or 400. Those successful South African farmers who 
produce 15 to 20 muids per acre, do so by dint of good 
cultivation; some give as many as eight cultivations in 
a season. Those who complain of having too little labour 
for more than four cultivations could give eight by halving 
their acreage. Where there is a small acreage, check-rowing 
may be practised; this allows the land to be cross-cultivated 
and facilitates clean cultivation. 

The initial costs of ploughing, disking, harrowing, and 
cultivating an acre of ground are the same, whether the resulting 
crop is light or heavy; so that every additional 100 Ibs. of 
maize from that acre means so much extra profit, or, in other 
words, reduces the cost of production per bag. 

382. Effect of Clean Cultivation of the Maize Crop.—To 
demonstrate the value of cultivating the maize crop and keep- 
ing it free from weeds, an experiment was carried out at the 
Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, in 1905-6, on a piece 
of good black vlei land, which was weedy with sweet-grass, wild 
gooseberries, and mest-briede 7ransvaal Yellow flint and 
Hickory King dent were used. The land was treated uniformly 
before planting and all the seed was planted on the same day ; no 
manure was given in either case. No cultivation was done on 


DISEASES AND PESTS OL THE MAIZE CROP 42t 


one half of the plot, which was about one-eighth of an acre in size 
(70 x 150 feet); the other half was cultivated and cleaned of 
weeds three times during the period of growth. 

The increase in yield on the cleaned plot was marked; the 
difference in total weight of stalks as cut was 75:7 per cent. 
In weight of cobs it was 57 per cent with the 7ransvaal Yellow 
flint and 70 per cent with Aickory King. 

383. Harrowing.—The cost of cultivation can be greatly 
reduced by the liberal use of the harrow both before and after 
planting, until such time as the maize plants are too large for 
the harrow. To be effective, the harrowing must be done as 
soon as a new crop of weed-seedlings appears, and while these 
are so small that the harrow will break their roots instead of 
merely passing over the weeds. 

384. Fatllowing.—In localities where the soil is apt to re- 
main so wet, for a long period, that it is impossible to get on to 
it with the cultivators until the weeds are injuring the crop, 
some other method of treatment must be adopted. A season’s 
crop of weeds comes from the seeds lying within the first few 
inches of soil. Those which lie deeper remain dormant till 
brought to the surface by the plough. It is obvious, therefore, 
that if all the surface weeds are killed, and no fresh crop of 
seeds is brought up from below by frequent ploughing, the cost 
of cleaning may be materially reduced. The principal weeds 
of the Maize-belt grow mostly in the summer, which facilitates 
the cleaning of lands allowed to lie fa/ow for a summer ; during 
this time two or three crops of weeds are ploughed in or disked 
in, as fast as they come up, and before they go to seed. Weeds 
ploughed in in this way form a manure, adding humus to the 
soil. The resting of the land after two or three seasons’ 
cropping with maize is also advantageous; land cannot be 
cropped continuously with the same crop, unless methods are 
practised which will replace some of the ingredients removed 
from the soil by that crop; fallowing and ploughing-in the 
weeds helps to renovate the soil (4 310). 

385. Rotation of Crops for Cleaning Purposes.—A suitable 
rotation of crops assists in keeping the land clean (4 311); 
another crop, such as vetches, black medik, or teff, may be 
grown at a different season, or sown later than the maize crop, 


1T.A.%., Vol. V, No. 18, p. 450, January, 1907. 


CHAP. 


422 MAIZE 


and thus allow the land to be harrowed free of those kinds of 
weeds which are not affected by winter tillage. One of the 
advantages of a catch crop like teff is that it is a short-season 
crop, which allows the farmer time for a certain amount of 
summer fallowing, while it also enables him to get some cash 
return the same season, for his labour. Teff, velvet beans 
and some other crops are useful as “smother-crops” ; if sown 
thickly they will sometimes clean the land by choking-out a crop 
of such weeds as grow more slowly than the smother-crop. 

Mangels and potatoes are useful “cleaning crops” for maize, 
as the cultivation necessary for these crops greatly reduces the 
stock of weeds stored in the land. Cabbages would have the 
same effect, but it is said that a cabbage crop greatly reduces 
the subsequent crop of maize, possibly because of the poisonous 
nature of the decomposition products of the cabbage stem and 
roots. 

386. The Best Time to Kill \Veeds.—* The best time to kill 
weeds is just as the seeds are germinating, or while they are 
yet very small. When this is done, but little moisture is lost 
through them, and they render but little plant food insoluble. 
In the thorough and early preparation of the seed-bed many 
weeds are destroyed by killing them just as they are coming 
up. So, too, in the case of a grain field which is rolled after 
being seeded, and is then harrowed; the rolling hastens the 
germination of the weed seeds, and the harrowing then throws 
them out into a dry soil, which kills them. If such a field is 
again harrowed just after the grain is up, a second crop of 
weeds may be destroyed, and the yield made greater as a con- 
sequence. In the case of potatoes and maize it is very easy 
to destroy at least two crops of weeds before the maize or 
potatoes are large enough to cultivate, by harrowing before 
and just after the plants are up. This is very important, 
because it not only saves plant food for the crop, but it can 
be done so much more cheaply and rapidly with the broad 
light harrows and weeders than it can later with the cultivator ” 
(Azug, 1). 

387. Weed Seeds do not all Germinate at once.-—* It must 
be remembered in handling soils to kill weeds that the seeds 
do not all germinate at once. The first harrowing which is 
done to kill weeds may itself bring up from below seeds which 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 423 


were too deep in the ground to grow, or it may cover some 
seeds which were lying upon or too close to the surface to 
germinate, hence frequent cultivations for hoed crops are 
needful” (Azzg, 1). 

388. Ts-ona, IV7tch-weed, or Rootbloem.—The is-ona, witch- 
weed, or rooibloem, S¢r7ga /utea Lour. (Figs. 160 and 161), 


feoriG | 


Fic. 160.—Rooibloem, Striga lutea Lour. 
is one of the most troublesome pests with which the South 
African maize-grower has to deal. It is a small, branching, 
herbaceous plant, 6 to 9 inches high, bearing green leaves and 
bright scarlet and yellow flowers, and is a parasite on the roo/s 
of the maize plant, to which it is very destructive. It also 
grows on the roots of kaffir corn, sorghum, and sugar-cane, and 
has recently been found apparently attacking teff-grass and 
the pea-nut plant. The seeds are extremely small and light, 


CHAP. 
xX. 


CHAP. 
X. 


4o4 MAIZE 


and are easily carried by the wind, blown away in the dust, or 
carried by flood-waters. 

They may also be carried on seed-maize, especially if it is 
sent from place to place on the cob. In 1912 the writer 
got an ear of Chester County from a locality where is-ona 
occurs, and planted a dozen grains in his garden; the ear 
itself was taken into the garden and the grain was shelled off 
on the spot where it was planted; in the middle of January, 
following, there was a single plant of S¢rzga “fea in flower at 
the foot of one of the plants of Chester County. This is the 
eighth consecutive year in which maize has been grown in 
this garden, and is-ona has never appeared there before. 

Is-ona is known .by several other names, e.g. soani, in 
Natal (see Anon., 2); moloane, i.e. ‘‘fire-burner,’ by the 
Basutos of the Rustenburg District, Transvaal; fire-weed ; 
rooibloemetje ; rooi-bosje; mielie-gift; miuelie-poison; the 
Zulu name ?zs-ona indicates that the weed ‘“ bewitches” the 
maize, and supplies the English equivalent by which it is 
known (Fadler, 2). 

Is-ona is particularly abundant in the warmer parts of the 
country, e.g. in Zululand, parts of Natal, and the Bush-veld 
of the Transvaal. It is occasionally met with on the High- 
veld Plateau, but does not appear to be really troublesome at 
the higher altitudes. It would not be wise to conclude, how- 
ever, that the High-veld is immune; possibly it is only a case 
of time before it will be established there, and it will be well 
to take every precaution not to introduce it. 

On the Springbok Flats, Waterberg District, Transvaal, 
there are five leading types of agricultural soil: (1) bright 
red, (2) grey sandy loam, (3) chocolate, (4) black turf, (5) 
black loam. It is stated by local farmers that is-ona does 
not thrive on the first two of these; on the other three it is 
very troublesome, but does more damage on the chocolate 
than on the black turf. 

The first explanation of the parasitic nature of this pest 
appears to have been given by Mr. Claude Fuller (2) as early 
as 1900. He illustrated the mode of attack and the haustoria 
of the parasite, and showed that the seeds only germinate 
when a growing root of their host-plant approaches closely to 
them as they lie in the soil. Also that they are endowed with 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZIO CROP 425 
creat longevity, remaining dormant in the soil probably six CHAP. 
or more years, until the root ofa suitable host-plant approaches x. 


Gray Fe Ne 


a 
Fic. 161.—Rooibloem, Striga lutea Lour. (Drawn from plate by Mr. Claude 
Fuller, in first report of Government Entomologist of Natal.) 


them. Investigations have recently been conducted by Prof. 
Pearson (1 and 2) which confirm Fuller’s earlier observations. 


CHAP. 
X. 


426 MATZAL: 


The anatomy, and the structure and development of the 
haustorium, of S¢r¢ga lutea Lour., have recently been worked 
out by Miss Edith L. Stephens (Stephens, 1 and 2). 

389. Remedies for Is-ona.—Discussing this pest in 1904 
(Burtt-Davy, 1) the writer recommended that the farmer’s 
main efforts should be directed towards preventing the seeding 
of the ts-ona plants. ‘This can be done by hoeing them out 
wherever they are seen, before they form seed, and by keeping 
those places constantly cultivated so that the new growth 
may be killed before it has time to develop. If carried out 
thoroughly and persistently, this method cannot fail to be 
successful in the end. If, however, a single crop of the weed 
is allowed to scatter seed, all the previous work will be lost.” 

Further investigation of the life-history of this pest has 
emphasized the importance of this point. 

390. Early Planting.—Early planting, if sufficiently early, 
also acts as a check, for in this way the maize plants become 
well established before the witch-weed has had time to injure 
them. In the Transvaal Bush-veld the is-ona plant rarely 
appears above ground until the end of January or the begin- 
ning of February. Unfortunately, however, this treatment is 
not always possible as it depends largely on the favourable 
nature of the season, and it is not recommended as a final 
remedy. In the Transvaal Bush-veld the rains usually fall 
too late to make it practicable (zdzd.). 

391. Manuring. — Stimulating the rapid growth of the 
young maize plant with fertilizers has a beneficial effect on the 
crop; but where the soil is full of is-ona seed it is not likely 
that there will be a good maize crop in any case, and it will 
be a waste of money to put manure upon such land. Where 
is-ona has not, however, taken a strong hold, heavy manuring 
with good kraal-manure or steamed bone-flour is likely to be 
beneficial, as it will produce a stronger growth of the maize 
plants, and may enable them to develop ears while supporting 
the parasite as well. But this is only a temporary expedient, 
making final eradication still more difficult and more remote, 
for it does not prevent the ground becoming more and more 
foul with the pest, and more and more heavily charged with 
its seeds (cbzd. ). 

392. Clear the Land of Is-ona Seed already there.—On 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 427 


land which has become infested with is-ona seed, attention 
should also be directed towards clearing the land of the seed 
already there. Attempts have been made to starve out the 
rooibloem by short rotations (one or two years) with leguminose 
or other crops; these attempts failed to secure the desired 
result, but demonstrated that the is-ona seed could remain 
dormant five or six years, and that it would be necessary to 
clean the land of is-ona seed before maize could again be 
grown successfully. Two methods of treatment suggest them- 
selves, and are recommended by Pearson (2)—burning and 
the use of trap crops. (1) Burning: immediately after harvest 
the rubbish, weeds, and maize roots should be gathered into 
large heaps and burned ox the places where the ts-ona has grown. 
(2) Trap-crops: infected areas may be sown down to kaffir 
corn for silage or fodder ; it is essential, however, that the crop 
be cut, and the roots ploughed in, defore the ¢s-ona flowers, 
otherwise the kaffir corn will only tend to propagate the pest. 

393. Buy Seed-maize from Clean Farms,—As previously 
noted (1 388) is-ona seed may be carried on an ear of maize 
from an infected to a clean farm. There is less likelihood of 
its being carried with shelled maize which has been machine- 
cleaned, but it would be safer not to take unnecessary risks 
and to refuse to buy any seed from infected farms. 

For his own sake the farmer should not allow the harvested 
maize ears to be laid on infected land, as they may carry the 
is-ona seed to clean lands. 


Animal Pests of the Maize Crop. 


394. The Chacma PBaboon.—In some districts of South 
Africa, especially where rocky kopjes and kranses abound, 
the common Chacma baboon, Papio (Ch@ropithecus) porcarius 
(Bodd.), Fig. 162, sometimes does considerable damage to 
the ripening maize crop; “if a herd once takes to a mielie 
field it will not leave off its daily visits until every cob is 
destroyed”. . The general experience, however, is that baboons 
retreat before the advance of civilization; as closer settlement 
takes place, and vacant farms become occupied, the pest 
becomes less troublesome. On the open High-veld plateau 
one does not hear of damage done by baboons. 

The baboon is a wily animal, most difficult to capture ; 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
X. 


428 MAIZE 


various plans have been suggested by writers to the Agrzcu/tural 


Journals of the several South African Provinces, but none of 


them appears to have given uniformly satisfactory results. To 
quote the late Dr. J. W. B. Gunning, Director of the Transvaal 
Museum :—! 


“ They live in troops of ten, fifty, seventy, or even more, 
and their system of spying, and putting out sentries on the 
highest cliffs would compare favourably with that of any 
European army. 


Fig. 162.—Chacma baboon, Cheropithecus porcarius (Bodd.). (From Trans- 
vaal Agricultural Fournal.) 


“T have tried poison in many ways. Mealies soaked inan 
arsenical solution and afterwards sun-dried so as to have the 
aspect of the original size of the corn, and thrown broadcast 
in places daily frequented by a troop of baboons, were left un- 
touched. Whether the poison was detected and therefore the 
mealies discarded, or whether the baboons had noticed the 
human beings near by and therefore did not return to these 
places for some days, I cannot say; at any rate the mealies 
were not picked up and no damage done to the baboons. An 


'T.A.F., Vol. Il, pp. 528-31, Plate CXXIII. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 429 
old remedy advocated by the early settlers was to make a hole 
in a pumpkin just big enough to let the empty baboon hand 
through; the baboon would then come and put his hand 
through the hole, fill it with pumpkin seed and would not be 
able to get his full hand back, nor would he think of letting 
the seeds go in order to withdraw his empty hand, and there. 
fore would be caught. I can only say that I have never been 
able to catch any baboons in this or any other traps; I have 
found pumpkins with holes much wider than those made by 
myself, but the inside’of the pumpkin had been eaten or carried 
off by the intruders. 

“In captivity I have tried in vain to destroy baboons with 
strychnine. I remember one old dangerous specimen which | 
tried to poison with about fifteen grains of pure strychnine, 
hidden ina banana. The banana was eaten—almost swallowed 
whole without biting—in my presence and the baboon did not 
show the slightest trace of indisposition. I have made similar 
attempts two or three times with the same negative results. 
The animals had simply to be shot. 

“ Neither is it an easy task to approach a troop of baboons 
with a rifle, and even if one should be fortunate enough to kill 
one sentry by a well-directed and lucky shot, the troop will 
escape unharmed, and smarter sentries will be put out next 
time.” 


He concludes, however, that the rifle is the only means of 
destruction ; the fight must be kept up continuously for a long 
time, before an old-established troop will be permanently 
driven away from its accustomed haunts. He advises the 
organization of large “drives,” at frequent intervals, to surround 
the favourite haunts of a troop and exterminate it. 

Lyddekker in his book, Ox Mountain Excursions, quotes 
Mrs. Martin (in Home Life on an Ostrich Farm) :— 


“ No vegetable poison has the slightest effect on the baboon’s 
iron constitution ; and, indeed, if there exists any poison at all 
capable of killing him, it is quite certain that, with his superior 
intelligence, he would be far too artful to take it ; and when the 
fiat for his destruction has gone forth, a well-organized attack 
has to be made on him with dogs and guns. He can show 
fight, too, and the dogs must be well trained and have the 
safety of numbers to enable them to face him ; for in fighting 
he has the immense advantage of hands, with which he seizes 
a dog and holds him fast, while he inflicts a fatal bite through 


CHAP. 


430 MAIZE 


the loins. Indeed, for either dog or man, coming to close 
quarters with Adonis (as the chacma is ironically called by the 
Boers) is no trifling matter.” 


Mr. D. E. Hutchins, late Conservator of Forests, Cape 
Town, notes! that some years ago a troop of baboons was 
doing a good deal of damage in the Government timber planta- 
tions at Tokai, near Cape Town, by scratching up the pine 
seed as fast as it was sown. Ona certain day a quantity of 
pine seed, poisoned with strychnine, was left within their reach, 
and the next morning seven baboons were found dead near a 
mountain stream ; after this the band forsook the pine seed for 
a time. Later they returned, but the seeds meantime had 
developed into seedlings which were left unharmed by the 
baboons. Mr. Hutchins concludes, however, that baboons 
“are so intelligent that I am doubtful whether it would be 
possible to destroy a whole troop with poison ; after one or 
two deaths they would either forsake the locality or learn to 
avoid the poison ”. 

Mr. P. Thomsen ? makes this suggestion for ridding a farm 
of baboons :— 


Near the drinking or sleeping places of the baboons sow a 
small patch of maize. Before the ears appear, begin scatter- 
ing in the same neighbourhood a little maize grain at intervals 
of a day or two. When the baboons come to inspect the grow- 
ing maize they will find the grain on the ground and eat it. 
After a time begin putting out a few ordinary sweets with the 
maize grains, and when these have been found to disappear 
make bonbons in the following manner: Boil some yellow 
sugar, as for ordinary sweets, and drop it in lumps ona stone slab 
to cool. When these have been eaten by the baboons, make 
more in the same way but add to the sugar, while it is still 
soft in the pan, some glass which has been well cleaned and 
then pounded fine. Drop this mixture, as before, on a slab to 
cool. Feed regularly for some time with these glass and sugar 
sweets, and gradually the baboons will cease to come to the 
field—the glass is sure to kill them. 

Another method recommended ® is to put out near the 
haunts of the baboons a number of little heaps of grain or 
pumpkin seed, each with a detonator or dynamite cap in it. 


1T.A.F., Vol. III, p. 385. ’ T.A.F., Vol. III, p. 188. 
’ Mr. W. R,. Life, of Rustenburg, Transvaal, in the U.A.F. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 431 
It is said that the inquisitiveness of the baboon will lead him 
to pick at or bite this bright object and so bring about his own 
destruction. The caps may also be laid on the twigs of wild 
fruit trees. It is as well to warn the natives of the nature of 
these attractive looking things. 


au : 1 ae 
From another source' we get this idea for the use of 
arsenic :— 


Cut the tops nearly off some prickly pear fruits, take out 
part of the seeds, put a small quantity of arsenic in their place, 
and close down the lid formed by the top of the fruit. Put 
these near a “ krans” or other place where the baboons sleep, 
taking care to keep away all stock (including goats) as long as 
any of these poisoned fruits are left. 


395. Monkeys. — Where bush-land on the sub-tropical 


coast-belt of South Africa is cleared for agriculture, the com- 
mon monkey, Cercopithecus pygerythrus Cuv., is a source of 
much annoyance and loss, raiding the maize fields unless the 
latter are constantly guarded; in some places piccanins are 
regularly employed for this purpose. Doubtless as more ex- 
tensive bush-clearings are made on the coast the number of 
monkeys will be reduced; but under existing conditions the 
coast-belt is considered less suitable for maize-growing than 
the midlands. 

An effective method of poisoning is to boil arsenic with 
maize, mix it with sugar and put the mixture in places fre- 
quented by the monkeys. It is reported* that in this way 
one man killed fifty-five at one time. 

396. Hares.—The jumping hare or spring-haas, Pedetes 
caffer (Fig. 163), hares, Lepus capensis and L. ochropus, and other 
rodents occasionally damage the maize crop, digging out the 
young plants in spring when green food is scarce, and eating 
the ears of low-cobbing breeds in the autumn. The jumping 
hare is usually shot at night by the aid of a lantern which at- 
tracts the attention of the animal when out feeding. Various 
other methods for ridding the farms of this pest have been 
recommended as follows :— 


.Mr. G. L. S. Holland, in T.4.%., Vol. II, p. 386. 
2Mr. F. Oosthuizen, in U.A.f. 


CHAP. 
X. 


432 MAIZE 


CHAP. (1) Parboil some ears of green or ripe maize, break them 
x. into three or four pieces, slit down a row of the grains cutting 
fairly deep, widen out the slit a little, fill the cut with a small 
quantity of strychnine and squeeze the edges together again 
to prevent the strychnine from falling out. Lay the poisoned 

bait around the haunts of the jumping hares.! 
(2) Scatter about the field tiny cake$, about a cubic centi- 
metre in size, made of pollard or some attractive meal in which 


Fic. 163.—Jumping hare or spring-haas, Pedetes caffer. (Photograph from 
specimen in Cambridge University Museum of Zoology.) 


has been mixed yellow phosphorus dissolved in carbon bisul- 
phide (the cakes should not be too wet). Five hundred rab- 
bits were reported killed at one time by this method.” 

(3) A farmer * of the Orange Free State says that maize- 
grain cooked with arsenic is effective, but that the bait must be 
put out before the young maize plants come up, otherwise the 
hares will leave the grain in favour of the fresh green shoots. 

(4) The same farmer has had great success in driving off 
the hares by watching carefully for the first signs of digging 


'Mr. J. J. Keely, of Mosita, in the U.A.¥., January and March, rgr2. 

“Mr. J. van S. Wansbrough, of Holpan, Marico, Transvaal. 

*Mr. N. A, Oberholzer, of Marseilles, Orange ree State, 23 Nov., rg11, in 
U.A.F. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 433 


ao 


for the young maize shoots. He harrows the land immediately 
and when the hares find that the ground has been disturbed 
they do not return. 

(5) Dissolve as much wolf-poison as can be held on the 
point of a knife, in a little boiling water, together with a large 
spoonful of sugar, stir into this a large cup of crushed maize 
and distribute the mixture in the fields.! 

(6) To one dessertspoonful of Government red poison add 
three-quarters of a gallon of maize-grain, and make up to one 
gallon with water. Let it stand for twenty-four hours, then 
strew the mixture in the field, where the animals are likely to 
find it.” 


397. The Reed-rat.—In Swaziland, Zululand, and other 
parts of the north-eastern region of South Africa, considerable 
damage has been done to growing maize by the reed-rat, 
Thryonomys swinderenianus Temm. It does not appear to be 
frequent in the Transvaal, but specimens are occasionally met 
with, and Dr. Gunning reports that whereas it was formerly 
scarce it now appears to be on the increase. The reed-rat isa 
large and destructive rodent ; in November, 1910, a male reed- 
rat was killed on the farm ‘“ Busby,” Lake Chrissie Ward, 
Ermelo District, weighing 11 lb., and measuring 20 inches in 
length to the root of the tail, and 19 inches in circumference. 
The reed-rat is hunted with dogs. 

398. The Porcupine or Yster-vark.—The porcupine, ystrixr 
africe-australts, does some damage to the maize crop of the 
Bush-veld, as it likes the young tender ears. On the High- 
veld there is no complaint of loss from this cause. 

399. Birds.—Some damage is usually done to the young 
newly-planted crop through the depredations of birds, among 
which are the African rook or zwarte kraai, Heterocorax capensts 
(Licht.), and the blue crane or blaauwe kraanvogel, Axchro- 
poides paradisea (Licht.), which dig up whole rows of grain, 
and appear to be the worst offenders. 


It is said that the rook is a great evil-doer; “he delights 
in continually stealing maize, and does not, apparently, render 
any useful services. . . . The guinea-fowl [Mwmdza coronata|, 
arid blue cranes or kraanvogel [A zthropoides paradisea (Licht. )], 

1Mr, W. L. de Wilde, Heidelberg, Cape Province, 4 Dec., r9rt. 


2Mr. A. du Plessis, of De Aar, Cape Province. 
28 


CHAP. 
X. 


AP. 


434 MAIZE 


though undoubtedly useful at times as destroyers of locusts 
and other insects, have got into the way of plundering maize 
and other crops.” ? 

A farmer ” of the Cape Province states that the crows dig up 
his mielies wholesale, as fast as the young plants appear above 
the ground. He tried shooting the crows and also employed 
small boys to scare them away, but while these methods were 

fairly successful after 


sunrise, the birds visited 
the fields before sunrise 
or just after daybreak, 
and with about 100 
acres of maizeto watch, 
it proved impossible to 
keep them on the wing. 
He tried with great 
success the use of ar- 
i senic,’ in the following 
manner: An ordinary 
paraffin tin was_ half 
filled with maize which 
was boiled until the 
grains burst open; to 
this was added half a 
pound of the arsenic ; 
the maize was well 
stirred until all the 
arsenic was absorbed, 
and was then strewn 
about the field. 


BB) 
Pe aes 


The spurwing 
goose, sporen gans, or 
wilde makauw, P/ec- 


tropterus gambensis 
(L.), is often seen on 
the fields of young maize in early spring, but although the 
writer has frequently watched he has never detected it digging 
up the grain or pulling out the young plants. 


Fic. 164.—Maize ear damaged by small birds. 


‘Senator H. G. Stuart, of Elim, Winberg, Orange Free State, in T.A.¥., 
Vol. III, p. 187. 

* Mr. Ben. Norton, Berlin, Cape Province, in U.A.¥. 

“As specially stocked by South African chemists, at 1/6 per lb., for bird- 
killing. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THK MAIZE CROP 435 


Some damage is done at times to maize standing in the 
field to dry off before harvest, by birds which pick out the 
grains at the ends of ears (Fig. 164) imperfectly covered by 
the sheath, and especially of ears standing upright on the stalk. 
Ears so damaged are more liable to injury from moisture 
which penetrates the end of the ear where the sheaths have 
been torn off. One remedy is to breed strains of maize 
having well-developed sheaths, and ears which hang down on 
the stem when ripe; selection of the very longest ears for seed 
purposes is apt to result in badly covered ears. 

The birds which do most damage in this way are the 
Spermestine: or bishop-birds, especially the southern pink- 
billed weaver or quela weaver, Quelea sanguintrostris latham? 
(A. Sm.), the red bishop-bird or roode kaffervink, Pyromelana 
oryx (L.), and the sakkaboola, long-tailed widowbird or flap, 
Diatropura procne (Bodd.). 

In many parts of the country the natives erect in the 
fields wooden platforms thatched with grass, or in the treeless 
High-veld, mounds of turf sods, from which stones or lumps 
of earth are thrown with switches; they also adopt the old 
European country methods of beating empty tins and shouting 
to scare away the birds, 


Insect Pests. 


400. Lnsect Pests of the Martse Crop.—lIt is often stated 
that South Africa is peculiarly cursed with plagues, especially 
insect pests. On the other hand it requires only a glance at 
American literature on the subject to demonstrate that South 
Africa is more favoured than this great maize-producing 
country in its comparative freedom from insect pests. Hunt 
(1) says that there are 214 species of insects known to be 
injurious to the maize plant in the United States; this gives 
some idea of the difficulties with which other maize-growers 
have to contend as compared with the few South African 
pests described below. In addition to the cutworms, 
ear-worms, and stalk-borers with which we have to contend, 
the American farmer has to fight wireworms, white grubs, 
corn-root worms, corn-root web-worms, seed-corn maggots, 
click-beetles, flea-beetles, army worms, the corn-root louse, 

28 * 


CHAP. 
X. 


436 MAIZE 


corn bill-bugs, and the chinch-bug, none of which occur 
in South Africa. 

The insect pests of maize appear to multiply in greater 
numbers as the acreage under crop is increased. Some 
farmers, accustomed to the easy production of good crops of 
maize before maize pests were as troublesome as they now are, 
have been inclined to abandon the crop in favour of some- 
thing else which they hope may be produced more easily. 
Speaking generally, the man who cultivates his land well and 
at the proper time, and who adopts ordinary methods of 
precaution, is not seriously troubled by insect pests, and this 
fact should be borne in mind by those who are inclined to be 
discouraged. 

The most troublesome pests of the maize plant in South 
Africa are: (1) the cutworms, larve of several species of 
moth (Agrotis); (2) the stalk-borer, top-grub, or tassel-worm, 
the larva of the moth Sesamza fusca Hampson ; (3) the striped 
beard-grub or ear-worm, the larva of the moth Hedothzs arit- 
ger Hubn.; (4) the maize cricket, which feeds on the young 
silks; (5) locusts (Acredide); and (6) the tok-tokje (Psam- 
modes Retchet S.). All of these attack the growing plant. 

401. Methods of Combating Insect Pests of the Maize Crop. 
—The maize crop appears to suffer most from insect attack 
either when it is grown on newly broken veld, which has for 
a long period lain in grass or weeds, or when it has been grown 
on the same land for several years in succession and has there- 
fore become weedy. 

Some of the weeds of the veld and of maize fields are the 
partial host-plants of certain insects which also live upon the 
maize plant. These weeds therefore serve to carry over 
the pest from one crop of maize to another. By preventing 
the growth of the weeds we interfere with the life-cycle of the 
insect ; hence the most effective preventives against such insect 
attack are short and systematic rotation of crops, together with 
clean culture of the maize fields and of the surrounding: land. 

Where the land is neither in grass nor maize for more than 
two years in succession, the attacks of insects are comparatively 
limited, except perhaps in the case of certain migratory ones 
such as locusts, whose increase in numbers has been brought 
about by special conditions. 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 437 


402. Cutworms, Agrotis spp.—Cutworms are among the 
most troublesome pests with which maize-growers have to deal. 
They are largely responsible for the relatively poor yields ob- 
tained, because they destroy so many young maize plants, thus 
thinning the stand. They are particularly destructive to early 
planted maize; to delay planting in order to avoid them may 
seriously shorten the season and increase the risk of loss from 
frost before the crop is mature. The following notes have 
been kindly furnished by Mr. C. W. Mally, Government Ento- 
mologist, Cape Province, who informs the writer that much work 
has yet to be done on the systematic entomology and life- 
histories of these insects, of which there are probably six or seven 
species in South Africa. 

Cutworms vary in colour; some are green to yellowish, 
while many are of a dirty greyish or light-brown colour. They 
are smooth (without hairs or spines) and greasy looking, often 
similar in colour to the soil in which they spend the day. 
Some feed day and night, but others rest during the day just 
below the surface of the soil or under logs, stones, bags, bark, 
or rubbish, and come ,out to feed at night. They feed for 
about two weeks before pupating, and remain in the ground 
in the pupal state for ten to fifteen days in warm weather, 
or longer in the cold season. The female moth which emerges 
from the chrysalis (“ pupa”), flies about at dusk and lays eggs 
on any suitable weed or plant. The eggs hatch out in a few 
days and the young caterpillars at once begin to feed on any 
green thing accessible to them. A life-cycle may thus be 
completed in about six weeks, or longer in a cold season. 
There are at least two broods of cutworms in a season, but 
how many more is not yet known. 

403. Remedies for Cutworms.—A large number of cutworm 
eggs may be destroyed by keeping the land clean of weeds, 
and by the winter burning of, or deep ploughing-under of, 
such haulms of harvested crops as are not eaten off by stock. 
Where the cutworms are bad, Mr. Mally has found the use of 
poisoned bait to be effective. This is prepared by dipping 
bundles of green-stuff into a strong mixture of Paris green 
(1 oz. toa bucket of water) or sprinkling them with a mixture 
made according to the following recipe :— 


CHAP. 
x 


CHAP. 
xX. 


438 MAIZE 


Arsenite of soda. 3 : : : ; ‘ 1 Ib. 
Treacle or brown sugar . é : ; . é 8 lbs. 
Water. . Io gals, 


Dissolve the arsenite of soda and the treacle or sugar 
in the water. 


Mr. Mally describes his method as follows :— 


By cutting up any available green-stuff (lucerne, barley, 
oat-forage, cabbage, rape, young succulent weeds, etc.) into 
small bits, say half an inch in length, it can be moistened with 
the poisoned sweet and then scattered broadcast over the fields. 
If distributed evenly, and at frequent intervals, the cutworms 
are practically certain to find it before they find the growing 
crop. Their fondness for sweets induces the caterpillars to fully 
engorge themselves on the bait, a fact which makes their de- 
struction certain. There is also no danger to stock, for the 
pieces of bait are so small that nothing but poultry can pick 
them up, and it is not likely that even they will get enough 
to injure them. But, as a precaution, poultry should be kept 
from the lands where the bait has been spread. Care should 
be taken not to make the bait too wet or it will not scatter 
well when broadcast. For the best results the bait should be 
distributed a few days after the ground has been ploughed, and all 
green succulent vegetation has been destroyed. The cutworms 
that are not crushed in ploughing will then be on the surface 
again, and on account of their long fast, practically all of them 
will be prowling around in search of food. In this way one 
application will probably be sufficient. If injury is noticed 
after the young maize plants appear, the application should 
be repeated. 


Where infestation of a crop takes place from outside 
stretches of unploughed veld, Mr. C. French, Jr., Assistant 
Government Entomologist, Victoria, recommends (French, 1) 
running a flock of sheep in the infested paddock adjoining the 
crop, as the constant walking about of the sheep will destroy 
the cutworms. 

Autumn and winter ploughing has some reducing effect by 
disturbing and exposing the hibernating larve to the weather 
and the attacks of insectivorous birds, and by destroying the 
food-plants on which they might feed in spring. 

404. The Maize Stalk-borer.—The maize stalk-borer is 
variously known as the mielie stalk-borer, mielie grub, top- 
worm, or top-grub, and tassel-worm, and is often also called 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 439 


CHAP. 


Fic. 165.—Maize stalk-borer, Sesamia fusca Hampson. (From coloured plate by 
McManus, illustrating article by C. W. Mally in Cape Agricultural Journal.) 


CHAP. 
X. 


440 MAIZE 


cutworm. Mr. Mally finds that two distinct insects with 
similar habits are known by the name stalk-borer, one of 
which is the larva of the moth Sesamza fusca Hampson (Fig. 
165) which was ably described by Mr. Mally and beautifully 
illustrated by Mr. McManus, in the Cape Agricultural Journal, 
August, 1905, pages 159-68. This pest is well known to all 
South African maize-growers, and is responsible for the loss of 
anywhere from 25 to over 50 per cent of the maize crop, ac- 
cording to estimates made by Mr. Mally and Mr. Claude Fuller. 


According to Mr. Mally the first evidence of the presence 
of the borers is the withering of the top of the young plant, 
which turns a brownish-red colour, as if scorched, due to the 
fact that the centre or “heart” has been eaten away. Although 
the centre of the plant has been destroyed, the outer leaves and 
roots do not always perish, but make an effort to recover. The 
leaves may become somewhat darker than in surrounding plants 
and in some cases “suckers’’ are thrown out later, so that in 
time the plant fills its place in the field. All such plants must 
be counted as loss, for they seldom or never produce ears ; their 
only value is for ensiling or for feeding to stock as green fodder. 
The second brood of stalk-borers does not exert such a decided 
influence, because the plant is then strong enough to resist the 
attack, for the burrows of the insect (Fig. 165, 3) are not suf- 
ficiently large to prevent the flow of sap. 


405. Life History of the Stalk-borer— There are two 
broods of Sesamza fusca and three of the other species of stalk- 
borer, during the season. The last brood passes the winter as 
larve within the stalks or in the cob, and in late-harvested 
ears they are often found wrapped up between the husk and 
the ear. These larve pupate and then change into moths, 
which emerge between October and December. If maize plants 
are available, the female moths begin to lay their eggs almost 
immediately, but always at night, hiding during the day. These 
eggs are deposited in clusters under the edges of the leaf- 
sheaths, and hence are protected from destroying agents ; they 
are faintly visible through the sheaths, and vary in number 
from 5 or 10 to over 100. The eggs hatch in seven to nine 
days. The young larve begin feeding on the maize-stalk at 
once, quickly eating their way towards the centre; ‘they are 
very careful to remain under the sheath all the while, and it 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 441 


affords them perfect protection from rain or insecticides”. 
When the food supply of one plant is exhausted, the larve 
leave it and search for fresh plants. 


On reaching maturity, about the first week in January, the 
larva clears out a portion of the burrow which it has tunnelled 
into the stalk, prepares an opening through which the adult 
can escape (Fig. 165, 3), and then transforms to a dark-brown 
pupa, as shown in Fig. 165, 7, and 7A. It remains in the 
pupal stage from a fortnight to three weeks, and then trans- 
forms to the dark-brown moth. . . . After pairing, the female 
lays eggs and dies, thus marking the end of the first brood. 
The eggs for the second brood are deposited under the edges 
of the leaf-sheaths about the first of February, and may be 
found anywhere from the main stem well up to the tassel, 
preference apparently being given to the younger portions of 
the plant. The eggs hatch about the end of the first week in 
February, and the larve burrow into the centre of the stalk as 
before. They mature by the first of June, depending on the 
condition of the maize. They do not transform to pupz at 
once, as in the first brood, but pass the winter as larve within 
the stalks, occurring anywhere from the cob down to the roots, 
much depending on the size of the plant. . . . Observations 

. lead me to believe that the moths do not travel far in 
search of food-plants and that they are content to stay in the 
first maize plant they find (JZa//y, 1). 


406. Parasites of the Stalk-borer.—Mr. Mally has found 
a few natural parasites of the maize stalk-borer, but study of 
their habits led him to the conclusion that ‘“ while they do 
some good, they have not shown themselves able to keep the 
pest under control; hence we are forced to adopt artificial 
means to avoid serious loss ”. 

407. Burning the Stalks to Destroy the Stalk-borer.— 
“From the brief sketch of the life-history of this insect it is 
apparent that there is no hope of destroying it during the sum- 
mer by the use of insecticides, because all its transformations 
take place zwthin the plant, and the moth itself is protected 


through being nocturnal. . . . Our main hope lies in the pos- 
sibility of establishing a system of cultural methods which will 
enable us to prevent injury. . . . The fact that the winter stage 


of the insect is passed within the remains of its food-plant is 
its weak point, and gives a control measure in the destruction 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 


442 MAIZE 


of the over-wintered stalks which, if carefully followed, makes 
it possible to prevent appreciable loss. The advisability of 
burning the stalks has often been suggested. . . . When the 
stalks have been left to dry up in the field they are of little 
value except as ‘stalk-pasture’ for cattle and horses. Since 
the moths do not emerge till spring it is an advantage to use 
the stalks for pasture, for it reduces the bulk to be handled in 
burning them. Their value as a source of plant-food in the 
soil must not be overlooked, but there is also the disadvantage 
that coarse material tends to augment the effect of drought in 
certain soils. The stalks are not [altogether] lost by burning, 
for the ashes remain and are readily available [as plant-food]. 
From the standpoint of value as stock-food or fertilizer the 
stalks can easily be turned to better advantage by means of the 
silo or by cutting them in time for ‘fodder, as pointed out later, 
and ultimately returning to the land as manure” (J/a/Zy, 1). 

To destroy all the borers the maize stalks must be pulled or 
hoed out, after having been browsed by cattle, and be piled up 
in convenient heaps and burned ; especial care must be taken 
to completely burn the stumps. It is not sufficient to let the 
fire sweep through the heap and then gradually smoulder away ; 
the stalks and stumps around the edges must be raked up on 
to the centre of the burning mass, otherwise a few borers will 
remain alive. “It must be clearly understood that half-hearted 
work is of little use. The occasional stalks and stumps, which 
it seems hardly worth the trouble to clear up, may harbour 
enough borers to discredit the work when the young mielies 
are examined in the spring. The same is true of neglected 
spots or lands to be left fallow for the season. .. . Neglect 
is the strongest ally of the pests, for it provides them with a 
good base of supplies on which to gain strength for the next 
season’s depredations.” 

Kaffir corn, sorghum, Johnson-grass, teosinte, and sugar- 
cane are recorded as additional host plants of the maize 
stalk-borer, and they should be treated in the same way as 
the maize stubble. 

408. Ploughing-under the Stalks.—This method of treat- 
ment is frequently suggested, but Mr. Mally does not recom- 
mend it owing to the difficulty experienced in burying a// of 
the stalks, and because those which are left on the surface are 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 443 


enough to harbour a crop of borers for next season. Where 
steam-ploughing is practised, however, and the stalks are 
buried 12 to 18 inches below the surface, this is fairly efficacious, 
and in fact it seems the only practicable method where a 
farmer has between 1,000 and 6,000 acres under maize. 

409. Early and Late Planting to avoid Stalk-borer.— 
Early planted maize may miss the stalk-borer, but is liable 
to destruction by the spring brood of cutworms, and if the 
area under crop is large, the application of poisoned bait 
may be impracticable. Late planted maize, on the other 
hand, is in the best condition for the second brood of borers 
(405) and to provide a supply of them to pass the winter, 
and is in danger from early frost. Moreover, as the emergence 
of the moths lasts over a period of four to six weeks, variation 
in time of planting with a view to avoiding the borer is of 
doubtful utility. 

410. Trap Crops for Stalk-borer.—* A few rows of maize 
planted very early would render good service by attracting 
the moths so that the eggs for the first brood would be deposited 
on these few rows. It would be an easy matter to go over 
them, say once a week, to destroy the plants showing signs 
of withering. An early breed of maize is preferable for this 
purpose because it tends to grow more rapidly and so 
augments the effects of early planting. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that unless the trap maize is looked after 
carefully, it is a positive danger because it will be the means 
of saving the eggs from the earliest moths and ensure the 
greatest possible number of the first brood coming to maturity ” 
(Mally, 1). Kaffir corn and sorghum appear to be more 
attractive to the stalk-borer than the maize plant, and might, 
therefore, prove more useful as trap crops. 

411. Ensiling and Shredding Maize as a Remedy for Statk- 
borer —“ For either ensilage or fodder the maize could be 
cut some time before the second brood of larvae has matured. 
Although no test has been made, it is difficult to see how 
they could survive in the silo. They survive without difficulty 
in maize cut and dried in the ordinary way for fodder but 
they would stand little chance of escaping the shredder. In 
case the fodder was dried without shredding, the coarse stalks 
should be collected and burned before the middle of September, 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
X. 


444 MAIZE 


to prevent the escape of moths from larva that are not de- 
stroyed in tramping. The question of turning the crop into 
ensilage and fodder as preventive measures raises the whole 
problem of how best to utilize the maize crop when once it 
has been produced. A great many possibilities suggest them- 
selves in this connection. For the present we must be content 
to follow the methods which promise the greatest measure of 
success under existing conditions” (Ma/ly, 1). 

412. The Striped Beard-grub or Ear-worm, Heliothis 
armiger Hubner.—According to Mr. Claude Fuller (1), Natal 
Government Entomologist, this insect feeds upon a variety of 
plants, but especially on maize and kaffir corn. The larvae 
(“worms”) vary in colour, Those which feed on kaffir corn 
heads are always dark, generally reddish, resembling the colour 
of the food-plant. Feeding on the silk (‘‘beard”) (Fig. 38) 
of the maize plant they may be green, brown, or reddish, 
according to the colour of the silk; hidden away in the ear 
they will at times be dark in colour, but more frequently of a 
pale-pinkish or pinkish-brown. In all cases, however, they 
are characterized by dark stripes running the full length of the 
body, and cannot readily be confused with the larve of the 
stalk-borer or the cutworms. The striped beard-grub usually 
pupates zz che soz/, though the pupe are occasionally found in 
the maize stalk or ear (Fig. 166). There are probably three or 
more generations in a summer, the broods overlapping. They 
make their appearance earlier than the stalk-borer, the first some- 
times as early as August, another about the end of January, 
and yet another during April and May. The early brood 
seems to do no conspicuous damage, but the caterpillars which 
feed upon the beards during February, often cause a lot of 
injury; the moths of this brood emerge during April and 
May ; these are believed to lay eggs almost at once ; the eggs 
soon hatch and the caterpillars feed and come to full growth 
and crawl into the soil to pupate, remaining there enclosed in 
little earthen cocoons, at depths varying from a half to two 
inches below the surface, and emerging as moths about the 
month of August in Natal, and perhaps rather later on the 
High-veld. 

413. Remedies for the Striped Beard-grub,—From the above 
sketch of the life-history of this insect it is clear that the com- 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 445 


mon practice of leaving the old lands unploughed until spring 
encourages the propagation of the beard-grub, whereas winter 
ploughing and cultivation of the land (before August) must 
destroy a large proportion of the insects which are pupating 
in the soil. To reduce the size of the first spring batch of 
moths must help greatly to keep down subsequent sets. 


Fic. 166.—Striped beard-grub pupa in sheath at base of ear. 


Dipping or soaking the seed-maize in one or other of 
various preparations (eg. saltpetre) is frequently recom- 
mended as a preventive measure against ear-worm and stalk- 
borer; such methods of treatment were tersely likened, by 
the editor of an American agricultural paper, to “advising a 
man to soak his feet to prevent his hair from falling out” 
(Pacific Rural Press, 14 May, 1904). 

414. The Maize Cricket-—Writing to the Cape Agracul- 


CHAP. 


CHAP. 
».« 


446 MAIZE 


tural Journal for May, 1907,! Mr. D. van Zijl, of Dichaking, 
Kuruman, British Bechuanaland, stated :— 


“We are greatly troubled in these parts with a certain in- 
sect generally called corn cricket. As it causes an enormous 
amount of damage to growing crops, I should be very glad if 
any of your readers could suggest a remedy for this destructive 
insect. In December, during the first rains, they hatch out 
just like small locusts, and December being in this district the 
month for sowing and planting, the insects develop simultane- 
ously with the growing crops, and start their work of destruction 
when the crops are in bloom. They climb up the mealie- 
plants, causing little or no damage to the stalks and leaves, 
but eating, within the space of a few minutes, all the grains of 
the mealie-cobs. They also consume the flowers of all creep- 
ing plants as pumpkins, water-melons, sweet melons, and beans, 
just when they make their appearance. Last January I had a 
splendid plot of beans, of which I expected a yield of 15 
muids, but, as described above, no sooner had they come in 
flower than the corn crickets appeared on the scene, and all I 
reaped was 24 muids. Even all shoots were destroyed by 
them ; and this work of destruction is not limited to one year 
only, but goes on year after year with unabated vigour. I 
have tried several kinds of poison to kill the pest, such as 
Cooper’s dip and Little’s dip, and even wolf-poison. A 
strong solution of tobacco dip also failed to kill them. I 
should, therefore, be greatly obliged if you or any of your 
readers could advise me what to do to get rid of this pest.” 

The Assistant Entomologist, Cape Colony, replied :— 

“We are not aware of any remedial measures having been 
used in this country against these insects. We would, how- 
ever, recommend Mr. van Zijl to give a trial to poisoned bait 
as used against locusts... . The endeavour should be to 
ascertain the breeding spot of the pest and, as this is probably 
somewhere on the veld, the ploughing of the cultivated land 
probably preventing the escape of the young hatched from 
eggs laid there, the vegetation could be very effectively sprayed 
with the arsenic-soda-treacle. solution, for instance, which 
should do excellent execution amongst the ‘corn crickets’. 
This has been recommended for the destruction of a similar 
pest in Colorado. . . .” 


415. Locusts (Acridide@).—Shortly after the war the agri- 
cultural crops of South Africa were decimated by enormous 


'Vol. XXX, No. 5, p. 599. 


447 


THE MAIZE CROP 


OF 


STS 


ND PE 


SA 


9 


DISEASI 


(‘sjsnoo] Bury 0} anp are 
arerd ayy jo yred saddn ayy ssoise syevans ayy :|eeasuvsy, ‘Binqsiajaig ‘uo xy &q yder80j0y4g) 


*sysnod0J—‘LgI “oy 


CHAP. 


448 MAIZE 


swarms of locusts (Fig. 167). These consisted of the common 
purple locust, Acridium purpuriferum, in the central and western 


_parts of South Africa, and the brown locust, Pachytilus sulct- 


collis in Natal and the eastern districts of the interior Pro- 
vinces. During the season 1906-7, the locust scourge was 
very severe in the northern, central, and western districts of 
the Transvaal. The wet, cool summer was partly respon- 
sible, as the crops were late in maturing, and the locust plague 
came at a time of year when, in a normal season, they would 
have been ripe and free from danger. One hundred and 
ninety-nine experimental crops being grown by Transvaal 
farmers in co-operation with the Division of Botany of the 
Department of Agriculture, were reported as having been 
destroyed by locusts. Locusts lay their eggs, a large number 
together, in the soil; they hatch out when weather conditions 
are favourable, i.e. after good spring rains have fallen, which 
not only help to hatch the eggs, but also bring on the grass 
and spring vegetation which the young locusts require for 
food. The young locusts are not able to fly for some time after 
hatching, and are therefore known as voetgangers (i.e. walkers). 
They feed voraciously, and not being able to travel far, are easily 
dealt with in this stage, if their breeding grounds are known. 
Although the efforts of the Entomologists of the South 
African Locust Bureau, assisted by the locust birds, practically 
wiped out the scourge, there is always danger of fresh migra- 
tions from the North, and it is well to be prepared to combat 
the pest if it should reappear. After experimenting in various 
ways with the numerous remedies recommended, the Locust 
Bureau finally adopted the remedy tested and recommended 
by Mr. C. P. Lounsbury, Cape Government Entomologist. 
This consisted of a mixture of arsenite of soda and molasses 
or other syrup, which was sprayed on to the veld immediately 
surrounding the newly hatched swarms. In order to locate all 
the swarms before they developed wings and began to migrate, 
a corps of volunteer swarm-reporters was organized throughout 
the country. These gentlemen, located in every district, re- 
ported by means of franked post cards, and by wire, the laying 
of eggs, the hatching of voetgangers, and later the migration 
of swarms from one part of the country to the other. The 
Government stocked and distributed free to farmers supplies 


DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE MAIZE CROP 449 


of spray-pumps and the components of the spray, and by 
means of public meetings and lectures enlisted their hearty 
co-operation. 

Much good work was also done by large flocks of locust- 
birds, the principal among which were (1) the true locust- 
bird, wattled starling or klein springhaan vogel, Creatophora 
carunculata ; (2) the small locust-birds or pratincoles, Glareola 
pratincla and G. melanoptera ; (3) the white stork, Céconza 
alba ; and (4) the white-bellied stork, Addtméa abdimit. 

416. The Tok-tokye.—Mr. Mally reports damage done to 
young maize plants in the Eastern Province, Cape Colony, by 
the tok-tokje, Psammodes Retcher S.:— 


“The larva attacks wheat, oats, barley, and maize. It 
evidently tunnels along in search of food, and when it locates 
a stool of wheat or other grain it comes to the surface, so that 
it can just reach the base of the stem, It then pulls off the 
hard outer layers in little shreds and arranges them so as to 
form a protectionary cover for itself. It evidently feeds on 
the soft juicy inner layers of the stem, and when one stem is 
eaten off it makes for another one, the attacks usually being 
limited to the short basal joint. In a number of cases noted 
the larva had drawn the stem down into the burrow and de- 
voured it almost entirely. The plant may be injured at any 
time during its growth, and there may, therefore, be a heavy 
drain on the crop in addition to that indicated at the time of 
ripening. In one instance a larva was found feeding on the 
maize roots. There was a very poor stand of maize in this 
field, and the farmer was inclined to think that these larvae 
were the cause of it. He said that early in the season many 
of the plants seemed to die off, and that others were blown 
down, but in time recovered and regained an upright position. 
This is due to the fact that the larva feeds from the side which 
it finds first, and in that way destroys about half of the roots, 
and the remaining half support the plant sufficiently to enable 
it to make a short turn at the base and make fairly good 
crowth ; but it always remains a stunted plant.” 


417. Remedies for the Tok-tokye.—Mr. Mally adds :— 


“T doubt the practicability of trying to starve out the larve 
by clean cultivation, for they can go a long time without food. 
Frequent ploughing, harrowing, and rolling would be more 
likely to give good results, because the great majority of the 


29 


CHAP. 
xX. 


CHAP. 
De 


450 MAIZE 


larvee would be injured, and thus destroyed. If the ground 
could be kept under constant cultivation, by adopting a system 
of rotation and the ploughing-in of green manure, so as to pre- 
serve its fertility, in place of exhausting it by constant cropping 
for a term of years and then letting it lie fallow for a time to 
recuperate——as is done in the present system—1I believe injury 
from this pest would be almost entirely avoided. Cultivated 
lands apparently do not attract the beetles, and they therefore 
take to the native veld to deposit their eggs. But before we 
can hope to induce the farmers to go in for a system of rota- 
tion in place of the present practice of long fallowing, it will 
be necessary to show by means of demonstration farms that 
the intensive cultivation necessary to make rotation answer 
will pay them better than the present system of extensive 
cultivation. J am satisfied myself that an intensive rotation 
would be much more profitable than the present system, and 
would combine numerous other advantages—not the least of 
which will be the fact that it will open the way for a much 
larger farming population.” 

418. Plant-lice (Aphides).—Aphis or green-fly is commonly 
found on the maize tassels in some seasons, but does not ap- 
pear to cause serious damage. A common opinion is that 
prevalence of green-fly coincides with drought; the writer has 
noticed, however, that in some seasons (e.g. February, 1913) 
it was abundant during a time of plentiful rains. 

419. Rose-chafers.—Some species of Rose-chafer, notably 
Porphyronota hebre and Plesiorhina plana,’ feed on the male 
flowers of the maize plant, probably on account of the pollen. 
These two chafers are particularly troublesome in eating holes 
in paper bags used for the collection of pollen in maize-breeding, 
the pollen escaping through these holes ; from three to a dozen 
chafers will be found in one bag. They do not appear to 
injure the maize plant. 

The common hive bee, Afzs mellifera, also visits the tassels 
of the maize plant for the purpose of collecting pollen ; on this 
account it is popularly supposed to effect cross-pollination, but 
during an extended series of observations the writer has never 
seen a bee carry pollen to, or even visit, the maize-silks, so that 
it is not at all probable that it is a factor in cross-pollination. 

Weevils and grain-moths are dealt with in chapter XI. 


' Both kindly identified by Dr. L. Péringuey, Director of the South African 
Museum, Cape Town. 


CHAPTER XI. 
HARVESTING AND STORAGE, AND PESTS OF STORED MAIZE! 


. when the Autumn 
Changed the long green leaves to yellow, 
And the soft and juicy kernels 
Grew like wampum hard and yellow, 
Then the ripened ears he gathered, 
Stripped the withered husks from off them, 
As he had once stripped the wrestler. 


And they called the women round them, 
Called the young men and the maidens, 
To the harvest of the corn-fields, 
To the husking of the maize-ear. 
—Hiawatha. 


Now the broad fields of maize are cut and the maize-cobs garnered. 
— CRAWFORD. 


420. Matze Harvesting.—TVhe usual method of harvesting CHAP. 
maize in South Africa, before the acreage reached its present *!. 
extent, was to pick the ears by hand as the stalks stood in the 
field, after the ears had become thoroughly sun-dried. Native 
labour, alone, has been employed for this work. But with 
increased development in agriculture, mining and manufactures, 
native labour is becoming scarcer and consequently more ex- 
pensive, and the necessity for adopting other methods of 
handling the crop is becoming apparent. A case has been 
reported within the last few years where, when the new 
planting season came round, it found the last crop not entirely 
harvested, owing to lack of labour; another case came to 
the notice of the writer in which harvesting was only com- 
pleted the day before the planting of the new crop was begun. 


'Much of the information on the use of maize-harvesting machinery in 
America has been taken from a special bulletin of the United States Department 
of Agriculture (Zinthco, 1). 

c a 
451 29 


CHAP. 
XI. 


452 MAIZE 


Maize is less easily harvested than almost any other cereal 
crop, except perhaps the sorghums, because of its large size 
and hard stem. Whereas machinery has for a long time re- 
placed hand labour in the harvesting of most cereals, it is 
only quite recently that the application of machinery to the 
harvesting of the maize crop has been practically and economic- 
ally successful. 

The method and time of harvesting depend to some ex- 
tent on the uses to which the crop is to be put, e.g. whether 
it is required for grain only, or whether for grain and stover, 
fodder or silage. - 

The present method in general practice in South Africa, 
with local variations, is for native labourers to walk up and 
down the rows with sacks into which they put the ears as they 
break them from the shanks; the husk is opened by hand, 
and the ear dexterously removed with a twist. One great 
drawback to this method is the amount of labour involved in 
walking back and forth with the sacks between the picking 
place and the headlands where the ears are to be shelled. 

Mr. W. A. McLaren, South African Manager for Messrs. 
John Fowler & Co. (Leeds), Ltd., has improved on this method 
by making the shelling machine accompany the pickers 
through the standing stalks (Fig. 179). 

421. Best Condition of the Crop for Harvesting.—The 
stage of maturity of the crop affects the total yield of dry 
matter. Also the difference in nutritive value at different 
stages is shown by analyses to be considerable. It is, there- 
fore, important to know the best stage of development at 
which to harvest maize intended for grain, stover, fodder or 
silage. 

In some fodder plants the feeding value increases gradually 
up to a certain stage of growth, but begins to decrease before 
the plant reaches full maturity, which is due in part to the 
transfer of nutritive matter from the leaves and stems to the 
seed, and in part to the loss of some of the leaves themselves. 
In the case of the maize plant, however, both the total amount 
and the feeding value of the dry matter increase up to, or 
nearly up to, the stage of complete maturity. The Kansas 
Station obtained the following yields at different stages of 
maturity :— 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 453 


Yield per Acre, | 


| Grain (bushels). | Fodder (tons). 
‘ | : _ | 
Cut in the “ milk ” stage i ; 355 | "4 
jo on “ dough ‘ : ; 51°0 2*4 
Z 


», When ripe . ‘ : | 74°0 | ia | 


The experiments conducted by several other stations show 
general agreement with these results. 

In some instances, however, the yield of the whole plant 
has been found to decrease slightly in weight of water-free 
substance, during the last one or two weeks of development, 
doubtless because of loss of leaves. 

The plant, erclusive of the ear, may decrease materially in 
weight, owing to translocation of material to the grain. At 
the Iowa Station (Bu//. 21) this decrease was found to equal 
17 per cent of dry matter during the three weeks from the 
time most of the ears were dented (but leaves and husks still 
all green) until the plant was entirely ripe. This was perhaps 
partly due to loss of leaves, but chiefly to translocation of 
material. 

When the maize plant is in full tassel it has developed 
one-third to one-half its weight of water-free substance. 
When it is in the roasting ear stage three-fourths to four-fifths 
of its dry matter has developed; when at the silage stage it 
has developed from three-quarters to nine-tenths of its dry 
matter (/Wznors Bull. 31, p. 361; Michigan Bull. 154, p. 
283; Cornell Bull. 4, p. 52). The greatest rate of growth in 
height precedes that of the development of dry matter 
(Hunt, 1). 

The increase in percentage of starch and of soluble carbo- 
hydrates is rapid during the development of the ear, and there 
is a coincident decrease in proportion of crude fibre. After 
ripening there is a considerable loss of dry matter from the 
fodder, partly due, no doubt, to loss of the lower leaves in 
drying off The Iowa Station found that two months after 
ripening, under ordinary field conditions, the crop had lost 
about one-half of the dry matter and more than half of the 
feeding value. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI; 


454 MAIZE 


We conclude, therefore, that the maize crop should not be 
cut very early, whether intended for grain, or for fodder or 
silage; nor, on the other hand, should it be allowed to stand 


in the field after ripening, if it is desired to obtain the maxti- 
mum yield of do¢h grain and fodder. When the grain is in 
the “dough” stage, or even a little harder, the plant makes 
excellent silage, especially if passed through a chaff-cutter. 


Fic. 168.—Maize crop ready for harvest (for grain only). 
(Courtesy of Publicity Department, South African Railways.) 


MHARVIESTING AND STORAGE 455 

422. The Best Stage of Growth Jor both Grain and 
Stover.—The total weight of grain increases up to the period of 
full maturity (A7wzt, 1). When the plant is grown for ears 
alone, it is not only allowed to ripen, but the ears are allowed 
to remain on the standing stalks until they have become dry 
enough to be safe for storage, usually about a month after 
the maize is ripe, or after the first killing frost. But when the 
stover, as well as the grain, is to be harvested, it is well to 
allow the plant to become as ripe as is possible without risk of 
the leaves falling off before or during the operation of shocking. 
The ears should be all, or nearly all, dented or glazed, the 
husks dry, and the leaves from one-third to one-half green 


(Hunt, 1). 


According to the Iowa Station ‘the sfover of a crop of 
maize seems to reach the highest yield and the best condition 
for feeding at the stage of growth indicated by a well-dented 

‘kernel and the first drying of the blades. The grazz of a crop 
of maize seems to reach the highest yield and the best condition 
for utility at the stage of growth indicated by a well-ripened 
ear and a few dry blades; and the best time for securing the 
crop with reference to the highest utility of doth maize and 
stover would be found at a stage of ripening between the 
above.” 

The Wisconsin Station recommends the cutting of flint 
breeds for silage when just past glazing, and dent breeds when 
“well dented”; while the Vermont Station recommends that 
maize be allowed to stand before ripening as long as it is safe 
from frost. The Ohio Station found there was little difference 
in the yield of grain from maize left standing, or maize cut 
and shocked, provided it was sufficiently matured at cutting 
time. 

In the field-curing of maize at the Colorado Station, large 
shocks lost 31 per cent of their dry matter, small shocks 43, 
and maize spread on the ground 55 per cent, largely because 
of the active fermentation in the seemingly dry and well-cured 
stalks. At the Oklahoma Station the outside stalks of maize 
shocks exposed to the sun, rain, and wind lost fully one- 
fourth of their feeding value as compared with the inner stalks. 
The average loss in dry matter at the Wisconsin Station, 
in ensiling maize, was 15°6 per cent and in field-curing the 
same fodder 23°8 per cent. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI: 


450 MATIZ I 


“To sum up, Aarvest matse for both grain and stover soon 
after the kernels are well dented and the blades begin to dry, but 
before the ears are thoroughly ripened. lor silage, harvest fltut 
vartettes when just past glasing and dent varieties when well 
dented” (Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture). 

423. The best Stage of Growth for Fodder.—It is usually 
considered that the fodder stage is reached when the lower 
leaves have turned yellow, but have not become dry, while the 
husks on the ears are still green; the grain should be fully 
glazed and practically mature. In this stage it has been found 
to give about the heaviest yield without loss of palatability, 
and to be in a suitable condition to “shock” without danger 
of becoming mouldy. Some farmers recommend that the 
stalks and the leaves above the ears should have begun to turn 
golden; but as the whole crop cannot be cut at once, it would 
probably be best to begin in the earlier stage of development, 
i.e. when the lower leaves have turned yellow, but the upper 
are still green. 

When food of very high palatability is wanted, as, for in- 
stance, for young, growing stock, or animals being fattened 
for market, it is considered desirable to cut it rather earlier, 
i.e. when the lower leaves have just begun to turn and the 
ears are in the “roasting” stage (Hawt, 1). 

Maize fodder cured in the field has been found to lose 
from 19 to 21 per cent of dry matter. The loss is nearly 5 
per cent less if the fodder is cut in the ‘ green-mielie” stage, 
than if cut when nearly ripe. 

424. Best Stage of Growth for Enstling.—The degree of 
maturity and the condition of succulence are the important 
factors in deciding when the crop is ready for ensiling. It is 
impossible to make a hard-and-fast rule on these points, as 
so much depends on local and seasonal conditions; local ex- 
perience based on careful observation is therefore the best 
guide. 

Generally speaking, maize for silage should be cut rather 
greener than for fodder, otherwise it does not pack so well in 
the silo, too much air is left in the mass and it is apt to mould. 
Hunt (1) describes the best condition as reached when many, 
but not all the ears have become dented in the grain, a portion 
of the husks dry, and the bottom three or four leaves dry, with 


MARVESTING AND STORAGE 457 
the rest still green. Until this stage has been reached, it may 
be considered that the greener the maize, the greater the loss 
in the silo, He summarizes as follows the advantages of 
allowing the crop intended for silage to arrive at the stage of 
maturity indicated above :— 

(1) Greater yield of water-free substance. 

(2) Less total weight to handle. 

(3) Less loss in silo, 

(4) Superior composition. 

(5) Greater digestibility. 

(6) Greater palatability, resulting in a greater feeding value 

per acre at less cost, 

The following table (LVIII) prepared by Prof. Hunt at the 
Cornell Station shows the influence of maturity upon weight 
of fresh and dry substance and loss.in the silo. 


TaBLe LVIII. 


INFLUENCE OF MATURITY ON YIELD. 
| Dry Matter. | | 
Dry Matter 


Date of | Green Matter | —— in Silage ; Condition of Maize. 


Cutting. per Mere: Per Acie. | Per Cent Loss per Acre. | 
| ast’* | Green Food. | 
== sat ee | 
Lbs | Lbs. Lbs. 
Aug. To 19,200 2,672 13°% | 752 In full tassel 
» 16) 20,800 3,144 T5°r | 502 | Maize in silk 
» 221 21,840 3,712 204 | 305 Grains fully formed | 
i 28 19,200 3,744 19'5 288 Grains in milk | 
Sept. 3 16,960 3,82 22°5 195 | Grains stili in milk | 
ey g| 16,400 | 4,168 25°3 188 | Grains past milk 


ad 14,720 | 4,536 30°5 126 ee glazed 


If put into the silo before the grain has reached the 
“glazed” or “roasting” stage, the silage is less nutritious 
than it would otherwise be and is apt to be unduly acid. 
If, on the other hand, it is allowed to get riper than the 
“glazed” stage, it is less likely to pack well, and mouldy 
spots or masses will be found among the silage. The over- 
acd condition is due to ercess of succulence, and the mozldy 
condition to lack of succulence. A partial remedy for the first 
trouble is to wilt the maize more or less before putting it into 
the silo; for the mouldy condition, prevention is the best 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


458 MAIZE 


remedy—the maize should be cut rather younger, If, how- 
ever, it has already become a little too old before it has been 
practicable to cut it, the condition may be improved by pour- 
ing a little water over the mass while the silo is being filled, 
or by adding a little succulent material—such as green 
lucerne, velvet beans, cowpeas or soybeans. The amount of 
wilting required for immature maize depends on the degree of 
succulence, and must be learned by experience; the younger 
the plants, the more they must be wilted. 

425. Frosted Maize-—The value of maize for silage is re- 
duced by freezing; but if the crop is cut and put into the silo 
immediately after being frosted, the value of the silage made 
from it, though reduced, is not seriously impaired ; if, on the 
other hand, the maize is allowed to stand uncut for any length 
of time after being frost-nipped, it is greatly injured for feeding. 

426. Composttion of the Maize Plant at Different Stages 
of Maturity.—Vhe following analyses made at the Maine 
Station (Rep. 1893, Pt. 2, p. 25) show the variation in com- 
position of the maize plant at various stages of growth and 
have been generally verified at other stations ( /ordan, 3, p. 211). 
The percentages (Table LIX) are those of water-free matter. 


TaBLe LIX. 


INFLUENCE OF MATURITY ON COMPOSITION. 


|. Totat- | 
Stage of Growth. Protein. | Sugar. | Starch. Nitrogen | Fat. | Ash. crude | 
| Extract. | | | 
‘eo pests | reseed eRe fe 
toed eal Gala ee 
Very immature. : 150 myj| — 40°6 2°6 | g°3 | 26'5 | 
| (15 Aug.) | | | | 
| A few roasting ears =. | 117 204 ap | 55°6 2°9 | 6°5 | 23°3 | 
(28 Aug.) | | 
| All at roasting ear stage | I1r‘4 20°6 4°90 59°7 3'°0 | 62 | 19°7 
| (4 Sept.) | | | | | | 
Some ears glazing | 96 21°I 5°3 62°5 | 3°0 | 5°6 19°3 
D 5 | | 
| (12 Sept.) | 
| Allears glazed. Sh Oe | T6'5 | T5'4 | 63°3 | 30 | 5°9 | 18'6 | 
(21 Sept.) | | | | 


Though there is nearly 6 percent less protein at the glazed 
stage, there is an increase of nearly 17 per cent of nitrogen- 
free extract, and a decrease of nearly 8 per cent of crude fibre. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 459 


427. Composition of Maize hodder at Different Stages of CHAP. 
Growth.—Maize fodder varies in protein-content according  *! 
to the stage of growth at which it is cut, as is shown by the 
oe table (LX) extracted from Jenkins & Winton’s (1) 
tables :— 


TasBLe LX, 


INFLUENCE OF MATURITY ON COMPOSITION OF FODDER. 


| | | rn Gee 
| | | Nitrogen: | | Number | 

Water. | Ash. | Protein. | Fibre. | free | Fat. of 
| | | Extract. Analyses. | 
eed eee et eee eee | | 
| | | | ieee | 
| Fodder from flint breeds} 7g'S | rr 20 | 43 | T2!T | o-7 | 40 | 

| cut early | | | | | 

| Fodder from flint breeds} 77° | I't | 2T | 4°3 | t4°6 [oS] ro 


| cut after kernels had | | 
glazed | | | | | 
Fodder from dent breeds | 79:0: | I°2 7 56) 12°70 | 05 | 63 | 
cut early | | | | | 
Fodder from dent breeds | 73°4 | I°5 2°0 | O7 | 155 | 0'9 | 7 
| cut after kernels had | | | | 
| glazed | | | | 
Leaves and husks cut) 66°2 | 2.9) 2:0 87 | Ig’ | Iz | | 
green | | | | 
| Stripped stalks cut green | 76°I | 0°7 | 05 ie I4'Q | 0'5 A | 
| Silage : | 79r | 4} 17 6:0 | rrr =| oS 99 
| | | 


428. Comparative Digestibility of Maize Fodder and Silage 
at Different Stages of Maturity—There is also a variation in 
the degree of digestibility, according to the stage of maturity 
at which the maize has been cut. Both with silage and fodder 
the digestibility is higher after the grain has glazed, or dented, 
than before. It has been found that the total digestible food 
value of the maize crop was 200 to 300 per cent greater in 
the fully mature crop than at the silking stage, and 36 per 
cent greater than at the time the ears were glazing (Armsby, 
Pennsylvania Rep. 1892). 


Maize Fodder. Maize Silage. | 
= 
| 


| Max. | Min. | Av. | Max. | Min. ee 


| | 
eres “ = —|——|— Sees Seed | Soto | eee 


a eee =| 
| | 
53°6 | 65°77 | 77°38 | 566 | 674 


Cut before glazing; thirteen | 71°4 
experiments 

,Cut after glazing; ten ex- | | 65 

| periments | | | | | 


CHAP. 
XI. 


460 MAIZE 


Jordan (3, p. 212) gives the above summary of experi- 
ments on the digestibility of maize fodder and silage; the 
figures show the amount digested out of 100 parts of organic 
matter. 

The average difference in favour of the more mature crop 
is thus 5 per cent in the case of fodder and 6 per cent in the 
case of silage. 

429. Feeding Value of Maise Fodder at Different Stages of 
Growth.—The feeding value of maize fodder at different stages 
of growth, as determined by milk production, has been in- 
vestigated by the Pennsylvania Station (Ref. 1892) and the 
Ohio State University. The fodder was cut at three different 
stages of maturity: the roasting ear stage, the silage stage, and 
when ripe or nearly so. The weight of field-cured fodder 
increased with the stage of ripeness, the increase being greatest 
during the first interval. The percentage eaten was least in 
that cut early, though prepared with a feed cutter. Compared 
with the earlier cutting, the intermediate stage gave the greatest 
increase of milk and of live weight ; compared with the later 
cutting the difference was less marked. 

430. Pulling.—tin the Southern United States there is a 
tendency for the maize leaves to dry up before the ears are 
sufficiently mature, and in consequence it has been customary 
to strip the leaves from the stalks while they are still green 
and the ears immature. 

In the States “fodder pulling is effected, according to 
latitude and season, from the first of August to the middle or 
even the last of September. When the operator’s hands are 
full of blades and he can hold no more, the quantity is termed 
a ‘hand, and is bound rapidly with a twist and hung ona 
broken stalk to cure. On gathering a day or so later, from 
three to four hands form a ‘bundle,’ which is, also, bound 
with a few twisted blades. The bundle weighs from 12 to 2 
Ibs. and forms the staple ‘roughage’ of southern draft stock” 
(Myrick, 1). 

The Georgia Station (4u//. 23) finds that the practice is 
only expedient under the most favourable circumstances ; but 
that where it is done, the best method is to strip the blades, 
from and including the ear-blade downwards, and in a week or 


1p, A. Crowner, Thesis, 1896, quoted by Hunt (rz). 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 401 
ten days to cut off the stalks above the ear; this is more ex- 
peditious than the ordinary method and adds largely to the 
yield of stover. 

The effect of this “ pulling” on the yield of grain has been 
investigated by eight, at least, of the State Experiment 
Stations, and the general result shows a loss of 10 to 20 per 
cent of grain. The Florida Station (Bu//. 16) finds that the 
‘“pulling”’ of fodder has the effect of loosening the husks in 
the ear before the grains become hard, thus promoting the 
ravages of weevils. 

431. Lopping.—This is a method which has been practised 
in some parts of the United States, when the stover is required 
to supply lack of food before the maize crop is ripe. The 
prevailing conditions in South Africa do not call for the 


practice of this method, because there is usually abundance of 


food at the time when the maize crop could be topped. In 
any case the practice cannot be recommended, for investiga- 
tions show that topping results in a loss of grain which is 
“more than the feeding value of the fodder secured” (A/7ssis- 
sippi Bull. 33, 1895, p. 63; Pennsylvania Rep. 1891, pp. 
58-60). 

432. Methods of Harvesting for Grain.—Briefly the 
following methods and devices for harvesting maize for grain 
are in vogue: (1) Husking the ears from the standing crop; 
(2) picking the ears from the standing crop with a “corn- 
picker”; (3) cutting the stalks by hand, with knives; (4) 
cutting with sled harvesters and similar devices, or cutting 
with (5) maize binders and (6) maize shockers. 

433. Husking by Hand from the Standing Stalks.—When 
the crop is allowed to dry off as it stands in the field, as is 
most usual in South Africa, husking is easily done by the 
“boys” who harvest the ears; opening the husk with one 
hand and catching hold of the ear with the other, a sharp 
twist or bend breaks the ear from the node above the upper 
husk ; the ears are dropped into a bag slung around the neck, 
and when this bag is full it is emptied into a sack common to 
three or four pickers, to be carried when full to the headland 
(Fig. 169); the sheller is moved from heap to heap. 

434. Cost of Hand-picking in the United States—From 
300 replies furnished by farmers in different parts of the 


CHAP. 
XL. 


CHAP. 


XI. 


462 MAIZE 


United States, the following figures were obtained, as to cost 
and efficiency of picking by hand ;— 


Yield of maize on the ear, average per acre : : 44 bushels. 
Average quantity picked per man per day, 59 bushels, or at 40 Ibs. 

per bushel of unshelled maize F ‘ * ‘ 4,130 lbs. 
Cost per bushel for picking maize by hand, averave : . 34 cents, 13d. 


435. Cutting Maize by Hand—A common method of 
harvesting maize in the United States is to cut the stalks by 
hand, close to the ground. The implement first used for 
corn-cutting was the hoe, but as this was rather heavy and 
awkward, the more progressive farmers substituted the corz 


Fic. 169.—Harvested ears of maize carried to the headland ready for shelling. 


knife. At first this was made from scythe blades, but these 
have been largely replaced by various sizes and shapes of 
factory-made knives. A short-handled, short-bladed scythe- 
like corn hook is much used in the States. In Natal the caxe 
knife (Fig. 170) used by the coolies for cutting sugar-cane is 
now largely employed for maize-cutting, and its use has ex- 
tended to the Transvaal. This tool is so constructed that the 
weight of the falling knife is almost sufficient to sever a stalk, 
which facilitates rapid work. 

In America one man is able to cut and shock by hand 
about 34 shocks, 12 hills square, or nearly 1} acres of corn a 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 463 
day. The average cost for cutting by hand is reported to be 
6'5 cents per bushel, or $1°50 (6s. 3d.) per acre. 

436. Does tt Pay to Use Machinery for Harvesting the Maize 
Crop ?—As the result of an exhaustive inquiry into maize- 
harvesting machinery in use in the United States, Mr. Zintheo 
(1) concludes that by the use of the proper machinery in place 
of hand methods of harvesting 
the ears (leaving the stalks to 
waste), the farmer may consider- 
ably increase the net income from 
his maize crop, and still allow 
full price for the use of the dif- 
ferent machines. But he also 
says that there is a limit beyond 
which it is not profitable for a 
farmer to invest in maize-har- 
vesting machinery, and that the 
amount of work to be done by 
the machine each year should be 
carefully considered before a pur- 
chase is made. Asa general rule 
“it is better not to invest in ex- 
pensive implements unless there 
is sufficient work in sight to 
make them profitable”. 

The relative advantage of 
using machine or hand-labour 
depends in the first instance on 
the amount of work to be done; 
the U.S. Department of Agricul- 
ture finds that a farmer who has 
only 20 acres of maize to cut per Fic. 170.—Cane knife used for 
year, and who does not intend to cutting maize. 
cut any for his neighbours, would 
lose money by purchasing a maize binder if he could hire one 
from a neighbour, or had sufficient labour to harvest his crop 
by hand; and further that it would require a cut of at least 80 
acres per year before the investment in a corn binder would 
be profitable! We have heard of a farmer on the Transvaal 


1It is admitted, however, that this is a conservative estimate, for with proper 
care the life of the machine would probably be considerably longer than the 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


464 MAIZE 


High-veld having 200 acres under crop, who used a binder for 
one or two seasons and then “scrapped” it in favour of hand- 
labour; but he was exceptionally well situated as regards a 
steady supply of the best native labour, and this single case 
cannot be relied upon as a demonstration of the relative value 
of machine and hand-labour in South Africa. 

“The farmer who would secure the full value of his corn 
crop should secure the fodder with as much care as he gives 
his clover hay, harvesting it at the proper period, and not 
allowing it to become ruined by rain or frost”; for South 
Africa we should have added: and drying-out by desiccating 
winds. 

437. Sled Harvesters —In the United States many home- 
made harvesting devices of the sled pattern have been made 
from time to time (cf. Figs. 171 and 172). These were adapted 
for cutting either one or two rows at a time, according to 
draught available and other requirements. With most of 
these sled harvesters the driver rode on the platform, and it 
was necessary for him to gather the stalks in his arms in 
advance of the cutting edge, to prevent them falling in various 
directions. This method proved very exhausting to the men, 
and the acreage which could be handled per man per day was 
reduced in consequence. 

An improved harvester was designed, in which the stalks 
were collected on the platform by a guiding arm (Fig. 172), and 
it was only necessary for the driver to remove the stalks from 
the sled at intervals and to throw them on the ground. A 
further improvement was effected when, in order to reduce 
the draught, the sled was mounted on wheels. With this 
machine, two men sit on the platform, one facing each row, to 
guide the maize stalks against the cutting edge with one hand, 
and with the other hand and arm to collect the cut stalks 
on the tilting side-part or wing of the platform, holding the 
stalks against the leg, until enough have been collected to form 
a shock. 

438. Mechanical Harvesters.—These simple devices, while 


eight years used as a basis of calculation. ‘¢ There is no doubt that in general 
half the money spent for implements could be saved if they were given better care 
when in-use, and when not in use protected in an implement shed, from wind, 
rain, Sunshine, and farm animals.” 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 465 


an improvement over cutting by hand, were felt to be inade- 
quate, and further improvements were effected to reduce labour. 
A later machine consists of two driving wheels, between which 
is mounted the frame for the driving mechanism and platform. 
It is drawn by one horse, which walks between the two rows 
that are being cut. The dviders pick up the lodged maize, 


Fic. 171.—Device for cutting maize in the field. 


(After Myrick, The Book 
of Corn, Orange Judd Co.) 


except such as lies in the row of maize away from the 
machine, and guide it to the cutting apparatus, which consists 
of two stationary side blades, above which is a movable sickle ; 
this cuts the maize and deposits it horizontally on a platform 
elevated about 6 inches above the cutting apparatus. On 
the inner side is a guide chain, which helps in directing 


Fic. 172.—Another device for cutting maize in the field. 
(From Transvaal Agricultural Fournal.) 


the stalks of maize to the knife and the platform, The rear 
part of the machine is provided with-a small wheel, above 
which is a tilting lever; by means of this lever the dividers 
in front can be raised or lowered to gather up the lodged maize 
until it comes in contact with the endless chain, and is thus 
carried backward to be cut and deposited on the platform. 

30 


CHAP. 
XL. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


466 MAIZE 


Machines of this type gather and cut the maize and drop it 
on the platform. When there is enough to start a shock, the 
horse is stopped and the shock is set up. 

439. Cost and Efficiency of Harvesters. —The different 
forms of maize harvesters vary in price from $5 (41) to $55 
(411), and “ while their low cost is a great advantage, their 
degree of efficiency is not very high. The cheap sled harvesters 
can be used only when the corn stands straight, and the 
horse must walk rather fast in order that the work may be 
perfectly done. It is also hard work for the men to gather and 
shock the corn. The work of harvesting corn is such that only 
the best construction can withstand the strain for any great 
while, hence these machines are being used less than formerly.” 

The following figures indicate the cost and efficiency of 
these machines :— 


Area of maize cut per day ‘ 2 to To acres. 
Use of machine and repairs - 84 cents per day 18 cents per acre. 
Twine j fi f ‘ . 19 4, a qs * 
Expenses tor one horse and man $2°75__,, o ig er 3 
re of second man . « BEFS 43 55 37°54 Se 
Average area cut and shocked per day by two men 
and one horse, with sled harvester é , is 4°07 acres. 
Area cut by one man with a knife ‘ ‘ F : 1°47 
Cost of harvesting per acre f : ‘ 5 55 cents to $2. 
4 oe te (average of all reports) . $re18 
Cost of harvesting by hand, per acre . : : . RI50 
Saving in favour of the machines ‘ cl : ‘ 32 cents. 


440. The Maize Binder.—The maize binder is a machine 
drawn, usually, by horses, and so designed that it will cut off 
the maize stalks near the roots, pick up any lodged plants 
lying across the rows, and bind the stalks into bundles. There 
are three different forms of maize binder, the vertical, the 
horizontal, and the inclined ; the last is a blend of the other 
two rather than a distinct type. These implements differ 
only in the relative position of their several parts, which are 
essentially the same in all. These are: the adviders, which 
pick up the lodged stalks, except such as lie zw the row (ie. in 
the direction in which the machine is travelling), and guide them 
to the cutting apparatus ; the latter consists of a serrated knife 
which passes to and fro across two stationary blades, one 


ITARVEESTING AND STORAGE 467 


attached to each jaw; the stalks are collected on the binder CHAP. 
XI. 


(Courtesy of Messrs. Malcomess & Co.) 


173.—McCormick maize binder. 


Fic. 


deck, where they are tied in bundles with twine; each bundle 
30" 


CHAP. 
XI. 


468 MAIZE 


as it is tied is discharged on to the ground. Two or three men 
follow and shock the corn, i.e. set the sheaves up in the form 
of stooks or, as they are usually called, shocks. 

Maize binders weigh from 1,400 to 1,800 lbs. ; “ generally 
speaking, those weighing in the neighbourhood of 1,500 Ibs. 
have been most successful, this weight seeming to give the 
proper relation between driving power and durability ”. 

“The corn binder is used to greatest advantage in fields 
where the corn is check-rowed, as it is possible to cut around 
a block, keeping the machine constantly in operation.” 


Fic. 174.—Maize binder at work in America. 


“The corn binder is well adapted for cutting corn for the 
silo, as the bundles are bound into convenient size for handling, 
but this saving of labour is accomplished at the cost of twine.” 

441. Estimated Cost of Using a Maize Binder.—We have 
no available data as to the relative cost of harvesting by hand 
and machinery in South Africa, since harvesting machinery 
has not yet come into general use. We must therefore take 
American figures as a basis on which to work. 

The following figures give some idea of the efficiency of the 
maize binder :— 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 409 


Number of acres cut per day, average. : 3 : : 3 798 
Number of horses used. , ‘ : ‘ é 3 :  % 
Number of men employed 3 ‘. ‘ ‘ : é r « .30r a 
Lbs. of twine per acre cut, average . , ‘ ; F ‘ 3 2hga 
Life of corn binders, average in years. ; » OL7 
Acres of corn cut per binder, average (spread 0 over 8: 17 poate) . 668°77 
First cost of corn binder, average . H i , . 125 
Cost per acre cut, including price of roiling, cepane, 
and interest on the investment, average per acre . 29 cents, ie. 1s. 24d. 
Cost of driver and team : 
perday . : ‘ 7 ‘ a . A : 33°55 5, I4s. gdd. 
per acre cut 46 cents ,, 1s. 11d. 
Cost of twine peracre . : . . 305) yy Ss TSs 3d. 
Cost of shocking after a corn pines per acre < 44°84, 45, «Is. 103d. 
Total cost of harvesting maize with a corn binder, 
peracre . : ‘ * : ; ‘ ‘ 5 $I'50, ,, 6s. 3d. 


“The cost of cutting corn with the corn binder is therefore 
the same as the cost of cutting corn by hand, and 32 cents per 
acre higher than the cost of cutting with a sled harvester. 
This extra cost of cutting with the corn binder over the cost 
of cutting with the sled harvester may be attributed to the cost 
of the twine and the interest on the investment in the higher 
first cost of the machine. 

“One disadvantage in the use of the corn binder is that it 
knocks off more or less ears of corn, which either have to be 
picked up by hand, at a cost of about 10 cents (5d.) per acre, 
or left to waste or to be found by the cattle after the field is 
cleared.” 

442. The Maize Stubble Cutter—When the maize is cut 
high with a corn binder, the farmer may have difficulty in 
getting rid of his stubble. In order to obtain a clear field and 
to have the corn stalks cut close to the ground, an attachment 
to the corn binder has been invented. This is a knife, attached 
to the under side of the machine; it floats on the ground, 
cutting the stalks even with the surface. The cutter has a 
drawing, slanting cut against spring resistance, which makes 
a clean cut. When this attachment is used, the binder is 
usually set to cut higher. The stubble may be ploughed in, 
and if cut when sappy, will decay quickly and form humus in 
the soil. By cutting the stubble in this way the ground may 
be more thoroughly prepared for the next crop, and the 
stubble and roots buried more deeply, with consequent de- 
struction of the stalk-borer, if present. 


CHAP, 


CHAP. 
XI. 


470 MAIZE 


443. Draught of Maize Binders.—The average draught of 
a maize binder is about the same as that of a 6-foot wheat 
binder. It therefore requires the same number of animals to 
draw it, i.e. the equivalent of three good horses. Draught 
tests made by the United States Department of Agriculture 
show the following results :-— 


Lbs. 

Draught of maize binder with stubble cutter ‘ ‘ «437 
” ” » without stubble cutter. ‘ » 420 
Draught of stubble cutter P z 2 : : : ee, 


444. Shocking Maize—When the maize is cut before the 
stalks are dry, it must be put up in shocks (Fig. 175) in the 


Fic. 175.—Shocking maize in America. 


field, to allow it to cure properly. In the United States the 
shocks vary in size from 36 hills to the shock, i.e. collected 
from an area 6 hills square with check-rowed maize, to 256 hills 
from an area 16 hills square; but a common size is 144 hills 
or 12 hills square, which at a minimum of 2 stalks to the hill 
is at least 288 stalks. The smaller-sized shocks are common 
in the North Atlantic States, where it is found more difficult 
to properly cure the stover if the shocks are larger. In the 
North Central States 10 and 12 hill shocks are common: 10 
x 10 hills of check-rowed maize would be equivalent to about 
30 feet of continuous row-planting, for 10 rows, or 30 square 
feet if the rows are 3 feet apart. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 471 


A common method of building shocks is to tie together 
the tops of four hills, as they stand, uncut, and then to cut and 
shock around them the rest of the hills in the square ; this is 
called the four-saddle method. Another way is to use a 
three-legged wooden horse as a temporary support. ‘In 
either case the shock is built around the support with great 
care, to prevent it from being blown over by heavy winds or 
damaged by rain. In some cases the maize is tied into small 
bundles which are set together to form the shock; more 
commonly the stalks are gathered as cut, and set up, an arm- 
ful at a time. Where the wooden horse is used, the shock is 
built about it by leaning the first bundles or armfuls against 
a pair of projecting arms formed by inserting a stick through a 
hole bored at right angles to the horse. When the shock has 
been set up the stick is withdrawn, the horse removed, and 
the shock tied lightly near the top or left without tying, as 
the case may be. A rope with a hook at one end is some- 
times used to draw the tops together before tying. 

In the South African Bush-veld, where sticks are easily 
obtained, stakes are driven into the ground at suitable intervals, 
in rows through the fields, and the cut stalks are stood around 
the stake until a shock of suitable size is made, which is finally 
tied with a strip of bark from the “mimosa” thorn (dcacea 
horrida). Strips from the fresh green leaves of the New 
Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) are also useful for this 
purpose. 

In the United States it takes about a month for shocked 
fodder to cure properly. After this the shocks are gathered 
together and stacked to prevent loss from frost and winds, 
or are husked by hand if it is not intended to feed the grain 
with the fodder. 

445. The Maize Shocker.—Maize shockers have the ad- 
vantage over binders in that they require the work of but one 
man, as the machine does the shocking of the maize bundles. 
Maize shockers cost about as much as binders and weigh ap- 
proximately the same. But the shock is not so easily loaded 
on a wagon, for the whole shock must be loaded at once, 
requiring some form of loading device or horse-power derrick, 
whereas the individual sheaves made by the binder can be 
loaded with a pitchfork, 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


472 MAIZE 


Number of acres cut per day, average . f . ; : 4°7 
Number of horses used . ; ‘ : : f ; : 3 
Number of men employed I 


Total cost of harvesting maize with shocker, per acre . . $106, ie. 4s. 5d. 


“The wear and tear is less than on a corn binder, and the 
life of the machine ought to be greater. . . . A corn shocker 
arranged to load the shocks on a wagon, would no doubt prove 
the cheapest method of harvesting corn for the silo. Zhe 
general verdict of farmers who have used both the corn binder 
and the shocker, ts that the shocker ts the preferable machine for 
harvesting corn.” 

446. A Maize Shock Loader.—A \oading device for hand- 
ling the shocks adds greatly to the value of the shocker, for 
with it the maize can be more cheaply handled. “An im- 
proved loading device which can be carried along with the 
wagon or left in the field and driven about independently, is 
mounted on four wheels, and consists of an adjustable vertical 
mast on which is a horizontal steel cross-arm. On this is 
mounted a travelling block fitted with pulleys through which 
a rope passes. To the end of this rope a horse is hitched 
to lift the load. For loading corn shocks a grapple fork 
is used; this is slipped under the shock, the grapple arms 
are closed, and with the pull of the horse the shock is lifted up 
on the wagon and laid on its side or stood on end; the grapple 
arms are released by simply turning the handle of the fork. 
This machine was originally designed to load corn shocks, and 
it easily handles two shocks per minute, and will bear a stress 
of 2,000 lbs. It can also be applied to many other uses, such 
as loading hay, manure, small grain, dirt, lumber, telephone 
poles, and other heavy objects.” 

447. Husking Shocked Maize by Hand.—When the maize 
is cut before it is dead ripe or dry, it must be husked after the 
crop has cured. Where large acreages are grown, the Com- 
bined Husker and Shredder is used to advantage, but where 
the acreage is small and labour plentiful and cheap, husking 
may be done by hand. 

A correspondent writing to the Rhodesian Agricultural 


Journal, under date 13 May, 1910, describes the method of 


husking adopted by him, as follows :-— 


“T give each native a piece of hard pointed stick about 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 473 
5 to 6 inches long, with a string round two notches in the 
centre. The stick is held in the palm of the right hand with 
the point between the thumb and forefinger, the string 
being round the middle finger; the mealie, still on the stalk, 
is grasped in the left hand, the point of the stick is inserted at 
the top of the cob, the forefinger and thumb grasping the husk, 
a sharp tug pulling half of the husk away, the remaining half 
comes away easily, and a sharp twist detaches the cob. The 
straw is then carted away and stacked alongside the wire 
kraals for winter use, to be fed to the cattle at night. I cart 
the cobs after this fashion; the large, medium and small cobs 
are bagged separately. The large cobs are placed at the 
farther end of the mealie hock, the medium-size in the centre, 
and the smaller ones near the door for immediate use. 

“T may say the above methods are the quickest I have yet 
seen, and the natives are delighted with the pointed stick, 
which saves their fingers considerably. I make the mealie 
hock with wire woven with the Kitselman woven-wire fencing 
machine. The size of mesh can be altered from mouse-proof 
to any desired size. The hock is raised above the ground on 
posts.” 


448. Maize Pickers.—In the American Corn-belt, where 
maize is the staple crop, it is grown for the ears principally. 
““The use of the corn binder and the shocker, while quite ex- 
tensive, does not solve the corn-harvesting problem in the 
purely corn-raising regions, where a large share of the corn is 
still picked by hand from the stalks as they stand in the field.” 
It is often difficult to get sufficient labour for this somewhat 
tedious work, and for over fifty years inventors have been busy, 
trying to perfect a machine to pick the ears from the stalks. 

Several machines have been introduced since 1902 for this 
purpose. 


“The corn picker as now constructed, resembles the 
corn binder in the construction of the main frame, drive wheels, 
and dividers. It passes along the row of corn, which is 
straddled by the dividers, and the stalks, after being righted 
by the points, chains and other devices, pass between a pair 
of inclined, corrugated rollers that snap or strip off the ears. 
The rollers are so placed that the ears fall naturally into a 
trough that extends along beside them. In order to provide 
snapping rollers to remove the ears and force them to fall 


CHAP. 
XI, 


CHAP. 
XI. 


474 MAIZE 


always to the same side, yet permit free entrance of the up- 
right stalks at the receiving end, snapping rollers have been 
arranged in slightly skewed relation, by which the upright 
stalk may be gradually forced to one side as the picking 
rolls pass along, and the ears are broken off and directed 
to one side. The ears are carried back by a travelling con- 
veyor and either delivered to a set of husking rolls or else, 
without being husked, carried by an elevator and delivered 
into a wagon which is driven alongside the machine. 


Fic. 176.--Maize picker at work in America. 


‘“Another form of modern practical corn picker has the. 
guide chains with the usual prongs for straightening up the 
stalks. The chains form a stalk-passage extending rearwards 
through the machine. A rapidly moving chain provided with 
fingers is located at one side and between the guide chains in 
such a position that, as the machine passes over the row, the 
fingers engage the ears on the stalks and snap them off. By 
means of a deflector the ears are directed to a receptacle from 
which they are carried to the husking rollers and then to the 
wagon. The tops of the cornstalks are cut off, and by means 
of a conveyor this and other trash is carried to the rear and 
dropped on the ground. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 475 

“ The corn picker is intended to remove the ears from the 
stalks, which are left in the field. Most of the machines are 
built on the assumption that the stalks are valueless, and 
therefore they are practically destroyed. It has not been 
possible to construct a picker that will not to some extent 
break down or tear down the stalks. his is somewhat 
objectionable because, where the corn is picked by hand, the 
dried corn leaves and stalks serve as roughage for cattle during 
the fall and winter. The machine has, however, this advant- 
age, that the field can be picked more quickly and the cattle 
turned in earlier to make use of the roughage before the snow 
falls. 

« Another objectionable feature of the corn picker as com- 
pared with the hand method of picking corn is that it shells 
considerable corn; and, if the corn is lodged and tangled, 
more or less ears are missed by the machine. The corn 
picker with the husker attachment requires considerable 
motive power, at least four horses being required to pull it. 
For this reason some manufacturers have dispensed with the 
husking attachment and depend upon the snapping rollers 
for removing most of the husks. | Machines of this kind will 
remove from 25 to 75 per cent of the husks, depending upon 
the stage of maturity of the corn, the brittleness of the stalks 
and the effects of freezing and damp weather. Where 
machines without the husker attachment are used, a stationary 
husker may be provided at the crib, in which the corn is 
husked and elevated into the corn-crib. 

“ There is a variance of opinion among farmers as to the 
advisability of husking the ears clean. In the South the 
common practice is to leave the husks on the ears, and it is 
claimed that this practice tends to prevent injury by insects. 
In the North it is the common practice to husk the ears clean 
before they are cribbed. The objections offered, in reply to 
inquiries, to using a corn picker which leaves the husks on the 
ears, are: that more crib room is required for the ears , that 
they will serve to attract and harbour rats and mice ; that the 
ears will not dry out, but will be liable to mould; that the 
husks interfere with the shelling; that, while for feeding 
cattle and hogs the husks will be advantageous, as they will 
serve as a roughage, horses will toss the ears in trying to 
remove the husks, and thus lose ear and all. For selling 
purposes the corn needs to be husked clean in order to 
command the best market price.” 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 


XI. 


476 MAIZE 


449. Cost and Effictency of Maize Pickers.—The United 
States Department of Agriculture gives the following figures 
concerning cost and efficiency of American maize pickers :— 


Number of acres harvested per day, about . 4 i . . : C73. 
Life of maize pickers, average in years : F é : 8°17 
Acres of maize harvested, per picker (average over 8: 17. years) : : 668°77 
First cost of maize picker, average. ; : .  $250°00 


Cost per acre harvested, including price of machine; 
repairs, and interest on the investment, average 


per acre ; : , : ; : . 58 cents, ie. 2s. 5d. 
Cost of driver and tears 

per day : ; ‘ : : : : : $3°55. 4, z4s. dd. 

per acre harvested : ‘ . 46cents ,, Is. r1d. 


Cost per acre of two wagons with eee to remove ears 
from the machine and deliver them into the crib, at 


$3 per day foreach. : . 77 cents ,, 38. 24d. 
Total cost of harvesting maize itt a maize plekeen, 

per acre ef F z $r°8r,, 7s. 64d. 
Weight of maize iaiea per ‘ane ashes 5 é ; : ‘ 341 
Number of men required to do the same work by feud . : : 38 
Cost of labour for same - ‘ ‘ _ F é i : ‘ SI1‘93 
Cost of extra teams for same 4 33°00 
Total cost for picking the same mumber of acres iy hand, as can be 

picked with a maize picker per day ; f ‘ ; : , SI4°93 
Cost per acre by hand . ; : : : : . : F ’ $1I'93 
Cost per acre by maize picker. : aS : ; : ‘ : $181 


‘While the saving effected with the corn picker is not 
large, the use of a machine makes the farmer more independent 
of the labour market, as the work may be done without hiring 
extra men at a time when they are hard to secure. 

“ But the advantage of hand over machine picking in the 
removal of the husks should not be overlooked.” Moreover, 
“the corn picker is s¢¢// an experimental machine, and not until 
it has been perfected should the farmer purchase it”. At the 
same time it will be well to watch the development of the 
maize picker, as it may become of great importance to the 
South African farmer. 

450. Hand-husking tn America.—The method of hand- 
husking practised in America is described as follows :— 

For convenience in husking a movable table is sometimes 
used, on which the stalks are laid while being husked. The 
ears are thrown in piles on the ground near the shocks, and 
afterwards hauled to the crib. The stover is sometimes 
hauled to the barn and stored, but often it is left standing 
in shocks in the field till needed for feeding during the winter. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 477 
It is important to choose suitable weather conditions for husk- CHAP. 
ing, since if the plants are too dry the stalks will break and  *! 
blades will fall off and be lost. On the other hand extremely 
wet weather makes the ground too soft for hauling in the ears 
to the barn, and the grain gets wet and damaged. 

Various forms of husking pegs and hook huskers are used 
for this purpose in America; they are made in various sizes 
and shapes to suit different hands by ‘The Boss Manufactur- 


Fic. 177.—Deering combined husker and shredder. (Courtesy of Messrs. 
Malcomess & Co.) 


ing Company,” of Kewanee, Illinois, and probably by other 
firms also. Simple husking pins may be made of wood, Other 
aids to maize husking consist of gloves with projecting points 
or pegs; equipped with such a glove, the man husks the ears 
by tearing off the husks and snapping the stems. 
461. Combined Husker and Shredder.—Vhere is a particu- 
larly useful machine on the market for handling shocked 
maize, known as the Deering combined husker and shredder. 


CHAP. 


XI. 


478 MAIZE 


This machine takes the stalks with the ears on them, removes 
the ears, husks them, and shreds the stalks and leaves for 
feeding. 

There are many other makes, differing in design, but 
having much the same general construction. Where these 
machines are used it is a great advantage to have the stalks 
harvested by a maize binder, as they are then bound in 
straight bundles, thus saving time and avoiding the danger of 
choking the machine. 

Special threshing machines have sometimes been used for 


Fic. 178. 


Marshall & Son’s sheller. (Courtesy of Messrs. D. E. Hockly & Co., 
East London.) 


threshing maize fodder, but they do not appear to be in general 
use; Hunt (1) suggests that the chief objection to the threshing 
machine was that it shelled the grain, which at that time of year 
usually contained too much moisture to be stored safely in 
that condition. 

452. Combined Husker and Sheller.—Where large crops of 
say 500 acres and over are grown, hand-husking is a practic- 
able impossibility owing to shortage of labour and the time 
involved. To meet this difficulty combined huskers and shellers 
have been designed, and a large number of them are now in 
use. In South Africa these are mostly of English make, and 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 479 


among the firms in the market are: Marshalls of Gainsborough ; 


’ 


Clayton & Shuttleworth, Ruston Proctor & Co, and Robey & 


Co., all of Lincoln ; Ransomes Sims & Jefferies of Ipswich, and’ 


Garrett & Sons of Leiston. Some of these machines will shell, 
on an average, two muids per minute, or where they husk 
as well, one muid a minute. The price in South Africa is 
about £200 to £250 according to capacity. They are usually 
driven by portable engines of 6 to 7 nominal horse- power 
or 10 effective horse-power. In this case the sheller remains 


Fic. 179.—Steam traction sheller (Fowler engine and Ransomes sheller). 


stationary and the ears are carted from the fields to the machine. 
At Vereeniging Mr. McLaren has attached a Fowler traction 
engine to a Ransomes sheller ; this pushes the sheller before it 
at walking pace, through the field of standing maize ; the machine 
is fed by fifty boys who walk ahead, each pulling the ears from 
two rows of maize, and carrying them in sacks or buckets to 
the hopper of the machine; a strip of 100 yards wide is thus 
cleared at each trip down the field. In this way the machine 
has been found by actual tally to average 60 muid bags of 
shelled maize per hour, in a ten-hour day. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


480 MAIZE 


A smaller machine, the Marseilles-Adams, is also on the 
South African market; the listed price varying from £75 to 
£135 according to capacity. 

Owing to the capital outlay involved in the purchase of a 
shelling outfit, and the short period in the year for which it is 
required, comparatively few private farmers in South Africa 
own one. But the number of itinerant machines is on the 
increase: these travel from farm to farm, husking and shelling 


Fic. 180.—Convertible hand or power sheller, suitable for small crops. 


for a percentage of the crop, or at a fixed price per muid, or 
at so much per day. 

453. Machines for Shelling Husked Maise.-—For shelling 
husked maize there are on the market many machines, worked 
either by hand or power, and varying in capacity and price to 
suit the needs of every farmer. Listed prices range from 
41 tos. for the little C/nton hand sheller (weight 80 lbs.) 
to £50 for the Champion, requiring 6 to 8 brake horse-power, 
and having a capacity of 150 to 250 muids per day according 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 481 


to the condition of the crop and the manner in which the 
sheller is operated and fed. 

There are so many good shellers offered, that it is im- 
possible to say which is the best, without giving each a 
thorough trial. 

454. Limportance of Drying-out the Grain—Where the 
crop is grown for grain only, it is advisable to leave it in the 
field until it is thoroughly dry. The ear continues to ac- 
cumulate nutriment for a considerable time after the stalk 
has been cut. The value of the grain in the European 
market depends largely on its dryness; for export it should 
not contain more than 12 per cent moisture. To secure this 
degree of dryness without injury to the grain, it should be 
allowed to dry out on the stalk. If the ears are “snapped” 
(i.e. broken from the stalk) before the grain is dry, the grain 
shrinks and is more or less damaged. Cutting and shocking 
the stalks, if done at the right stage of growth, does not 
interfere with the proper drying out and conditioning of the 
grain. 

455. Loss of Weight in Drying.—A considerable loss of 
weight is found to take place in maize, left on the cob between 
harvest and the middle of November. The lost moisture is 
not replaced in spring by humidity of the atmosphere, even 
when good rains occur after the middle of October. Tests 
made at the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, in 1908, 
showed that the loss of moisture averaged 21 per cent in seven 
months, but ran as high as 35 per cent. In the United States 
it averages about 15 per cent. South African maize is usually 
5 per cent drier than the American, which added to their 15 
per cent loss gives an average of about 20 per cent. Weighings 
were made on 1 April, at the beginning of the dry season, and 
again at the end, 17 November. The loss in drying on thirty 
ears of yellow dent, averaged 21°73 per cent of the original 
weight and varied from ‘42 per cent to 31°2 per cent. Numer- 
ous tests have been made in the United States and have 
ranged from 3 per cent to an extreme of 30 per cent, ac- 
cording to degree of dryness at time of storing in the crib, 
in four and a half months, 

The amount of loss depends largely on the condition of 


the ears at the time that they are first weighed, and varies 
31 


CHAP. 
XI. 


482 MAIZE 


CHAP. considerably according to season and mode of storing. The 
XI. yesults given in Table LXI have been obtained in the United 
States :— 


TasLe LXI. 


SHRINKAGE IN WEIGHT OF MAIZE STORED ON THE COB. 


Stored for: | Total Shrinkage. | Average per Month. 


— | 
| 
3 months | 3 percent | I'o per cent? 
33s II ” ) 33 on 
5 ” | t5 ” | 3°0 ” 
5 ” TI’5 ” 2°3 ” 


Average shrinkage in five months, 2°4 per cent per 
month or g°6 per cent in four months. 


8 months I5°5 per cent I'94 per cent 
9 ” Pia ” "BO> 45 
Io 33 20°'0 Ps 1°67 a 
12 ” 37°90 ” “31 ” 


Average shrinkage 1'1g9 per cent per month, or 11'9 
per cent in ten months. 
The method of storage in these cases appears to 
have been in open cribs or in stacks, and the larger 
the crib or stack the less the shrinkage. 


In the case of shelled grain, a large number of experiments 
showed that the loss averaged 7°5 per cent in five months or 
I°5 per cent monthly. 

“Assuming a loss of 74 per cent on shelled grain in five 
months, and a price of 1os. per muid of 200 lbs. at the start, the 
muid at the end of five months would weigh only 185 Ibs. and the 
price at that time would have to be tos, o#d. per muid to 
cover the loss through shrinkage. To this price would have 
to be added interest, which, at 8 per cent per annum, would 
amount to 2d. on 10s. for five months. There would also be 
storage charges, which, if the storing were done on the farm, 
might be taken as a halfpenny per muid. In addition to all 
this, there has to be taken into account the risk of damage by 
rats and weevils. This risk amounts to very little if the grain 
is stored in suitable bins, and the weevils are destroyed by use 


'Jn this case the maize was in very dry condition when put into the crib. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 483 


of bisulphide of carbon, 1 to 14 Ibs. bisulphide to 2,000 Ibs. CHAP. 
grain. ale 
‘*Reckoning everything, it may be said that 10s, per muid 
at harvest time is equal to 11s. td. per muid in five months, 
In a general way it may be considered that there would have 
to be a rise of 74 percent in three months, 94 per cent in four 
months, and I1 per cent in five months, in the selling price of 
mealies, in order that there should be no loss in the money 
value. Anything over and above these prices would be a gain. 
Thus there would be a 
decided gain if mealies, in- 
stead of being sold at Ios. 
per muid at harvest time, 
were sold at 12s. five months 
later” (Pearson in N.A./.). 
456. Variation in Moits- 
ture-content ts not Identical 
wrth Loss or Gain tn Wetght 
Due to Change in Moitsture- 
content.— Loss in weight due 
to the drying of maize 
always exceeds the per- 
centage reduction in mois- 
ture, because only part of 
the moisture is lost in or- 
dinary drying, and_ the 
second percentage of mois- 
ture is determined on the 
reduced total weight in- 
stead of on the original 
weight. The original per- 
centage was determined on the dry material, plus a certain 
amount of moisture; after the loss of part of this moisture 
the percentage is again determined, but this time on a new 
basis, i.e. that of the net weight of dry grain, plus the dalance 
of moisture. Therefore the variation in moisture-content is 
not identical with the loss or gain in weight. 


Fic. 181.—Native method of storing maize 
in the husk, in trees, Swaziland. 


For example, 100 Ibs. of maize containing 25 per cent 
free water is dried out till it weighs only 85 lbs. ; after losing 
15 per cent moisture by drying out, the percentage of moisture 

gue 


CHAP. 


XI. 


484 MAIZE 


left will not be 10 per cent but 11°67 percent. But 75 Ibs. 
of dry matter, plus 15 lbs. of water lost, plus 11°67 per cent 
moisture remaining, equals 101°67, or 1°67 more than the 
original weight. The discrepancy is due to the fact that the 
11°67 per cent of moisture remaining in the sample is not 
11°67 per cent of the original 100 lbs., but of the 85 Ibs. total 
weight left after partial drying. 

457. Storage in the Husk.—In order to keep the grain 
until market conditions are favourable for its disposal, the 
methods of storing to preserve it from depredation by vermin, 


Fic, 182.—Maize on the husk, stored in a pear-tree, by Coloured people, _ 
Swellentiam District. 


etc., vary according to the climate and the materials available 
for the construction of stores. In the Bush-veld of Swaziland 
the natives leave the ears in the husk, till required for use, and 
hang them in the branches of trees near the kraal or garden 
(Fig. 181). 

The same method is practised by the Coloured people of 
the Cape Province (Fig. 182). 

Among white people in South Africa it isnot customary to 
leave the maize in the husk, owing to the danger of sweating 
and rotting if it is left in uncovered heaps in the field, and to 
the greater space required when stored. 


HARVESTING AND STORAG 


Fic. 184.—Maize hock, Bechuanaland. 


CHAP. 
Xi. 


486 MAIZE 


458. Storage of Husked Maize-—Nor is it advisable to 
leave the husked maize on the ground, on account of damage 
by termites. It is customary, therefore, to store it in some 
sort of crib, called a hock. This is variously constructed ac- 
cording to the materials available in different parts of the 
country. 

Modern maize hocks of various sorts are shown in Figs. 
183, 184, and 185. 

459. Storage of Shelled Grain.—To reduce bulk and to be 
ready for a sudden rise in the market, it is becoming custom- 
ary to shell early and sack the shelled grain. The sacks of 


Fic. 185.—Method of storing maize, Government Experiment 
Farm, Potchefstroom. 


shelled grain, containing 200 Ibs. net each, are stored in sheds 
(Fig. 186), or, in the usually dry winters of the interior, may 
be stacked on large platforms, raised above the ground 
(Fig. 187), and covered with sailcloth. 

The following description of the method of storing maize 
employed at the Trappist Monastery, Mariannhill, Natal, is 
taken from the Natal Agricultural Journal ;— 


‘The mealie store is an independent building erected on 
the face of the hill just above the mill proper. It contains 
five large cement-lined compartments, each capable of holding 


1 Vol. VIII, No. ro, p. rorg, Oct., 1905. 


el ee eee ne er aa 


See ea a a ara 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 


Fie, 186.—Re-weighing and shipping stored maize, Messrs. John Fowler & Co.’s 
Store, Vereeniging. 


Fic. 187.—Stacks of shelled maize at Vereeniging, ready for market. (Courtesy 
of Messrs. John Fowler & Co., Leeds, Ltd.) 


CHAP, 
XI. 


488 MAIZE 


500 muids of mealies. The building is 40 feet high, and the 
walls, for coolness and strength, are hollow and 3 feet in 
thickness. The floor at the top is of cement, small trap doors 
giving entrance to the five silos or bins. Here there is an 
ingenious appliance for cooling and airing the mealies as soon 
as the time for weevil life begins. Let us suppose that the 
contents of one bin have been consumed, and in consequence 
that one bin is empty. A trough in which a spiral worm 
continually revolves is built below the exits of the bins. 
Number two, we will assume, will be taken in hand. The 
door of the exit, about a foot square, is opened sufficiently to 
feed the trough; the revolving worm, like an archimedean 
screw, then brings along the mealies to the end of the building. 
Here they fall into a box in which an elevator—a band with 
buckets—carries them to the top of the building. Here they 
go into another trough and are forced along by a worm as far 
as the vacant bin, where an opening in the trough permits 
them to fall through. It will be seen that as soon as one bin 
has been emptied this automatic work can go on without 
cease—and to the discomfiture of the weevils. The cost of 
the appliances—two troughs with worms, and an elevator— 
being small, the system deserves consideration of those who 
handle large quantities of corn, where the climate, as at 
Mariannhill, is favourable for the weevil.” 


460. Kaffir Method of Storage.—After harvest the native 
hangs up the maize ears to dry in the open air (Figs. 188 and 
189) for two or three months. In regions of winter rain this 
simple method would be impracticable owing to probable 
injury from damp. When sufficiently dry the grain is shelled 
off and stored in enormous jars of earthenware, wicker-work or 
grass ; the latter is called in Sesutu a sesco (Fig. 190). These 
are sometimes buried in the ground. In Cape Province 
according to Wallace (1) they are simply buried in a pit 
shaped like a short-necked water-bottle, dug 8 to 10 feet deep 
underneath the cattle kraal, the narrow mouth being covered 
by a flat stone, and the joints drawn with fresh dung to her- 
metically seal it. A foot or so of well-trodden manure on the 
kraal floor is an effectual protection against rain, and there is 
little damage from soil moisture ; the few grains on the outside 
which become mouldy, can be used for kaffir beer. The 
aroma inside the pit is said to be fresh and agreeable, not 
unlike that of malt or fresh sweet silage. 


459 


E 


7 


HARVESTING AND STORA( 


“[eRasURI], ‘OUISIC, Ode ‘azreut SulArp yo poyya{—"SSI OA 


490 MAIZE. 


CHAP. Burchell (1, Vol. II, p. 520) gives the following account 


XL. 


of the method of grain storage practised by the Bechuanas, in 
1811 :— 


“The corn is preserved in what may be termed large jars, 
of various dimensions, but most commonly between 4 and 5 
feet high, and 3 wide. The shape of these corn-jars is nearly 
that of an egg-shell having its upper end cut off: sometimes 
their mouth is contracted in a manner which gives them a 
great resemblance to a European oil-jar. They are formed 


Fic. 189.—Native method of storing maize, Zoutpansberg District. 


with stakes and branches fixed into the ground and interwoven 
with twigs, this framework being afterwards plastered within 
and without, in the same manner as the walls of the building. 
Frequently the bottoms of these jars are raised about 6 inches 
or a foot above the ground: and the lower part of the stakes 
then being uncovered, gives them the appearance of standing 
on short legs, Their contents are usually protected by a 
covering of skin or straw.” 


461. Need for Public ,Matze Stores or Silos tn South 
Africa.—The problem of storage pending favourable market 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 491 


conditions is already felt to be a serious one. Winter 
is the best time for hauling the crop to the station, for the 
weather is dry, the roads are good, and the farmer has more 
time and more transport and labour available than at other 
seasons of the year. Moreover when the crop is once at the 
station it can be railed more promptly should a temporary 


Fic. t90.—Basuto ‘“‘sesco”’ of woven grass, for storing grain. (Courtesy 
of the Director, MacGregor Memorial Museum, Kimberley.) 


rise in the market require immediate delivery. The large 
grower can provide his own store at the station, but for the 
small producer it may not be worth while to do so. The 
Bloemfontein Maize Conference of 1910, therefore, recom- 
mended that the Government be requested to erect covered 
storehouses at the chief inland grain exporting railway stations 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


4y2 MAIZE 


for the convenience of farmers and merchants, and that a 
charge be made for storing and holding the grain, to cover 
cost of such services ; regulations to be made to prevent grain 
from being held in such storehouses for speculative purposes. 

Owing to danger of increase of moisture and of injury 
by weevil and grain, in the damper atmosphere of the coast, 
the Bloemfontein Conference recognized that such stores, ware- 
houses or elevators should be erected at inland centres, at 
high altitudes (5,000 feet or over), preferably within about an 
engine run from the coast. It was stated that at low alti- 
tudes like Ladysmith (3,284 feet), maize could not be stored 
safely after the end of October on account of weevil. 

At such centres, maize could be stored until sufficient 
quantities of one grade were accumulated to furnish a cargo of 
that grade, which could be run down to the wharf by special 
fast freight. 

At some railway stations the Co-operative Societies have 
already erected warehouses for storing the grain of their 
members. 

The South African Railway Administration leases land for 
the erection of stores for storage, but not for trading purposes. 

In default of adequate storage, some farmers stack their 
grain under tarpaulins. This method is expensive and waste- 
ful, for a certain amount of grain is damaged by leakage of 
water. 

402. Vreld of Grain from a Given Measure of Ears.—At the 
Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, it has been 
found that a cubic yard of average husked ears will produce 
three muids (600 lbs.) of grain. In the United States it is 
found that 2 cubic feet of sound, dry maize on the cob will 
make a bushel (56 lbs.) of shelled grain. 

To get at the quantity of shelled grain in a hock, crib, or 
barn of cobs, measure the length, breadth, and height of the 
crib. Multiply the length by the breadth, and the product by 
the height. Then divide the product by 2; this gives the 
number of bushels in the crib. For example, if the crib or barn 
is 20 feet long, 10 feet broad, and 8 feet high, and this is 
packed with husked maize: an area 20 by 10 by 8, equals 
1,600 cubic feet; divide by 2, and we get 800, the number of 
bushels of shelled grain in the barn. 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 493 


463. Country Damage.—In some seasons the maize crop 
is characterized by inferior quality in two directions: (1) by 
the abundance of poorly filled grains; (2) by the prevalence 
of discoloured or rotten grains. 

Rotten grains occur largely at the tips of the ears, and are 
then due to weathering from exposure of the tip to the heavy 
rains of late summer. This exposure is caused by the short- 
ness of the husks, which in many cases allow the tip of the 
ear to become exposed. This character is one that can and 
should be bred out by breeding from parent plants having 
ears well covered by the sheath. 

In some cases the whole ear is made up of these rotten or 
discoloured grains; this is sometimes due to breakage of a 
weak stem, which allows the ear to fall to the ground, where 
it lies in the wet till harvest. 

Where maize is grown on a large scale it is desirable that 
some means of removing damaged grains should be devised. 
Such damaged grains are lighter than sound ones ; 


by ein 
weight of a 


large. number the writer found a difference of 3 
per cent to 40 per cent in their average weight as le 
with an equal number of good grains, as shown in the follow- 
ing table (LXII); the weights were taken 30 October, 1909, 
at the end of the dry season. 


TABLE LXII. 


RELATIVE WEIGHT OF SOUND AND COUNTRY DAMAGED GRAIN. 


| Hickory King. | Iowa Silver-mine. 
| 1 Tea-box full of good grains weighs. -|4I ozs. 42 OZS. 
JI oy » bad ,, fee sh Ge “218286 85s 300s 
Difference in weight 85 I2 ozs. 
| Percentage difference. 20°73 percent] 28°56 per cent 
| I Tea-box full of unselected grains weighed 40°50 OZS. == 
| 500 good 2 x 5 weigh | 15 $s 6°75 ozs. 
| 500 bad if ‘3 4s y bie) % 4°00 ,, 
| Difference in weight 5 ozs. 2°75 OZS. 
| Percentage difference 33°33 percent] 40°74 per cent 


With such a marked difference 


possible to remove the bad grains by means of a winnower or 


in weight 


it should be 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


494 MAIZE 


aspirator. The term “country damage” is applied to such 
grain, in the English corn trade, in contradistinction to 
damage in storage or transit. 


Pests of Stored Grain. 


Lay up for yourselves treasures . . . where neither moth nor rust doth 
corrupt.— Matthew VI. 20. 

464. Losses Accruing from Storage of Grain.—lIf maize is 
stored for any length of time, it is subject to injury from the 
ravages of weevils and other insects, and of rats and mice. 
Loss of weight and depreciation in quality result. Rats and 
mice occur all over the country, but weevils are most trouble- 
some at altitudes below 4,500 feet; the High-veld is therefore 
more suitable for the winter storing of maize prior to export, 
than localities at lower altitudes. 

465. Lnusects [ngurious to Stored Grain.—The principal 
insects which are injurious to stored grain in South Africa 
are the larvae of (1) the angoumois grain-moth (Gelechia 
cerealella); (2) the granary weevil (Calandra granaria) and 
the rice weevil (Calandra Orys@). 

As there is much confusion in the minds of merchants and 
others who handle and store grain, as to the way in which 
these insects live and propagate their kind, and as this ignor- 
ance of the actual facts makes it more difficult to combat the 
pest, a brief account of their life-history is here given. These 
insects either destroy, or greatly impair, the vitality of the 
grain. Trucks, stores and ships become infested with the 
adult insects, and whole consignments of sound grain may 
thus become infected in transit. 

466. IWeevils—The popular idea with regard to weevils 
(Calandra granaria and C. Orys@) is conveyed in the ex- 
pression often heard, that “ Weevils come out of the grain but 
don’t go into it”. Like many untrained observers, those who 
make this statement utter a half-truth, the knowledge of which 
is perhaps more dangerous than total ignorance of the subject. 
It is true that the weevil does not enter the grain 7 the 
same form as the mature insect which the merchant finds 
emerging from it in his store, or crawling over his bags of 
grain. But it is equally true that the weevil could not 
come out of the grain unless it had first gone into it! How 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 495 


are these two statements to be reconciled? The facts are CHAP. 
briefly: a few weevils Bhs 

are found crawling over 
the maize ears in the 
field; they are carried 
into the yard or shed 
where the ears are stored 
for shelling, and thus find 
their way into the build- 
ings. When conditions 
are favourable, the female 
weevil lays her eggs on 
the maize-grain, near the 
soft end. From the egg 
there hatches out a min- 
ute grub which bores into 
the soft end of the grain 
and begins to feed there, 


gradually working — to- 
wards the upper part of 
the grain, and eating out 
a tunnel large enough to 
fit its enlarging body, 
leaving only a thin piece 
of the hull between itself 
and the outer air; it then 
pupates, and when com- 
bined conditions of mois- 
ture and temperature are 
favourable, the mature, 
blackish weevil pushes 
its way out of the hole. 
The two sexes then seek 
each other, mate, and 
the female lays her eggs ; 
thus the life cycle is 
complete. 

There may be several 
generations of weevils 


Fic. 191.—Effect of larvae of the angoumois 
In a year. grain-moth on maize-grain in the ear. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


496 MAIZE 


467. The Angoumots Grain-moth (Gelechia cerealella).— 
The eggs of the moth are laid on the grain and in due course 
the larva, in the form of a minute caterpillar or “worm,” as in 
the case of the grub of the weevil, bores its way into the soft 
part of the grain, feeds and grows, pupates and finally emerges 
as a full-grown moth, ready to mate and lay a fresh lot of eggs. 
The holes in the grain formed by the larva of this insect are 
shown on Fig. 191. 

468. Remedies for Insect Pests—The storage of grain in 
weevil-proof tanks and silos greatly reduces the loss from this 
source, but it is not entirely effective because weevils and grain- 
moths (in the egg or larval stage, or even as adults) may be 
brought into the tanks with the grain, and thus start fresh 
infection. An application of carbon-bisulphide in the propor- 
tion of 1 lb. to 1 ton of grain or in empty tanks or stores 
1 lb. for every 1,000 cubic feet, is said by entomologists 
to be the simplest and best remedy. This substance is highly 
explosive, and the greatest care must be exercised that no 
light be allowed in or near the place where the carbon-bisul phide 
is in use. 

The late Mr. C. B. Simpson, Entomologist of the Trans- 
vaal Department of Agriculture, replied as follows to a corre- 
spondent, in the Zransvaal Agricultural Journal ;— 


‘“You are indeed unfortunate on account of the fact that your 
mealies became infested in the field. The weevil usually hides 
in cracks and crevices, or in grain which is strewn about and 
attacks the new grain as soon as it is stored. A thorough 
cleaning of the building in which mealies are to be stored is, 
therefore, one of the best preventive measures. Many farmers 
in Natal and Cape Colony have found that large tanks, made 
of corrugated iron, are most admirable for storing mealies. 
These tanks, which hold from fourteen to fifteen bags of mealies, 
are filled almost to the top with the grain and a lighted candle 
is placed in the tank and is allowed to burn until the air is 
exhausted, after which the tank is securely closed. Some 
farmers go so far as to state that this burning candle kills all 
the weevils already in the grain and prevents others from 
entering; I do not, however, place any confidence in the 
candle as a destroyer of insects, but on account of the fact that 
the tank is tight, no insects can enter. Bags of mealies may 
be stored in tight iron buildings or large tanks. The ideal 


HARVESTING AND STORAGE 494 


granary from the standpoint of insect ravages should be built CHap, 
at some distance from the other buildings and made as nearly — XI. 
vermin proof as possible, the doors should fit tightly, the 
windows covered with wire gauze, the floors, walls and ceilings 
should be smooth, so as not to afford any lurking place for 
insects, and it would be well to have them oiled, painted or 
white-washed ; a coat of coal tar has been strongly recommended 

for the latter purpose, 

“You are, undoubtedly, already aware that  kiln-dried 
mealies are but little attacked by weevils; however, this method 
has many disadvantages. 

“If the mealies have already been attacked by weevils, the 
following methods may be employed, which will depend largely 
upon the means at hand, as well as other conditions. ‘The 
grain is put into some air-tight bin or barrel, such as may be 
at hand, and carbon bisulphide is applied. This chemical is 
a colourless liquid with a strong, disagreeable odour, vaporizes 
rapidly, is highly inflammable, explosive and poisonous. The 
vapour is about two and a half times heavier than air and, 
consequently, the liquid should be placed at the top of the 
bin. For large masses of grain, from 1 Ib. to 14 Ibs. is used 
to a ton of grain; for smaller masses, I oz. is sufficient for 
100 lbs. of infested matter. The bins are rendered as air- 
tight as possible, and the liquid poured in into an open dish, 
which is placed upon the grain. The infested grain is gener- 
ally subjected to this treatment for 24 hours, but may be 
exposed much longer without harming it for milling purposes ; 
if not exposed for more than 36 hours, its germinating 
power will not be impaired nor is it rendered unfit for feeding 
purposes. 

‘The greatest care should always be taken with this 
chemical, as the vapour is explosive and a lighted pipe or 
cigarette may be sufficient to cause a disastrous explosion. 
I am quite sure that you will find carbon bisulphide the best 
method for the purpose, as it is largely used iri other countries 
with universal success.” 


469. Rats and Mice tn Matzse Stores —WRats and mice are 
as troublesome in South Africa as in other grain-producing 
countries. Numerous remedial measures have been recom- 
mended from time to time, in the Agricultura! Journa/s of the 
several Colonies, but perhaps none of them is more efficacious 
than the old-fashioned cat or a good trap. 


32 


CHAP. 
AIT. 


CHAPTER XII. 
COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN. 


Merchandising . . . is the vena porta of wealth in a State.—Bacon, Essays. 


I thank my fortune for it, my ventures are not in one bottom trusted, nor to 
one place; nor is my whole estate upon the fortune of this one year: therefore 
my merchandise makes me not sad.— Merchant of Venice. 


470. Time of Arrival of the South African Crop.— Harvest- 
ing of the earliest-maturing South African maize begins about 
the end of May on the Transvaal High-veld, but the grain is 
still apt to be rather wet. The real harvesting season begins 
on the High-veld towards the end of June, and in the Midlands 
of Natal about the middle of July. 

If earlier-maturing breeds were more extensively planted, 
there is no doubt that South Africa could begin to ship dry 
maize to arrive in Europe by the middle of June, especially if a 
better price could be secured to compensate for a possible lower 
yield per acre. 

471. Local Markets.—South Africa is not only fortunate in 
being able to produce good maize and in having an oversea 
market for it, but also in having an increasingly large and 
profitable local market for what is rapidly becoming the most 
important crop of the country. A local market is often better 
for the small producer than that oversea. Maize is the staple 
foodstuff of the South African native, both in his kraal or on 
the mines. The consumption on the mines is large, but may 
not be increasing materially ; there is, however, a rapidly 
increasing amount used for feeding stock such as ostriches, 
horses, mules, cattle and sheep; in this connection it is well to 
remember that the United States, which at one time exported 
some 50 per cent of her crop, now exports barely 1°5 per cent, 
although her total annual production has increased enormously 
inthe same time. A repetition of history may be confidently 

498 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 499 


expected in the South African maize industry ; the consumption 
of maize on the farms, and eventually also in local manufactures, 
will steadily increase. 

472. The Mines Trade.—With regard to the quantities of 
maize, maize meal, and other maize products such as samp, 
which are consumed on the mines of South Africa, actual 
statistics seem to be lacking. 

The method of feeding differs on different mines; some 
buy the rations for the “boys,” while others prefer to let 
them buy their own, on the ground that they are less likely to 
waste it. The amount given in rations also differs, some 
mines allowing as much as 3 lbs. of mielie meal a day for 
each boy, and some giving less than 2 lbs., making up the 
difference with other foodstuffs. 

According to the 7ransvaal Leader of 21 November, 1908, 
the local consumption of maize in “ Johannesburg” was then 
calculated to be “at a low estimate” 70,000 muids per month, 
or 840,000 muids per annum; but it is not certain how much 
of the Witwatersrand was included in this calculation, and it 
would also include the maize used for feeding draught animals, 
which is no inconsiderable item. The writer is informed, how- 
ever, by one of the large controllers of mines on the Rand, 
that 2 Ibs. of maize meal a day, for each native, may be 
considered a good average figure as a basis of calculation. 
According to the 1911 census there were then employed in 
the mines of the Union 261,835 natives. Two pounds of meal a 
day is equivalent to 3°65 muids a year for each native, or a 
total of 955,697°75 muids of mielie meal per annum. Allow- 
ing 8 per cent for ordinary loss in milling, this represents 
1,038,801 muids of maize consumed each year by the natives 
on the mines. 

473. Consumption on the Kimberley Mines.—Tables LXIII 
and LXIV show the amount of maize consumed by the 
properties of the De Beers Consolidated Mines, in the year 
1912. With an average monthly population of 14,306 
natives and 1,173 draught animals, there is a total con- 
sumption of 

15,396 bags of white mielie meal. 
934 5 4 samp. 


13,025 ,, ,, yellow maize. 
32 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


500 MAIZE 


Allowing for 8 per cent loss in milling the maize into mielie 
meal and samp, this represents 16,076 muids of white maize 
actually used. 

TaBL_E LXIII. 


MAIZE CONSUMED BY THE DE BEERS CONSOLIDATED MINES, 
LTD., DURING THE TWELVE MONTHS ENDING 31 DECEM- 
BER, tg12. 


| Kind of | Amount of Maize Average Number of 
ngte: | Maize. Bags. Cattle. 
January Yellow I, 181 | 1,204 
February : a “a 1 £92 1,161 
March . . ; a 1,006 | I,160 
April : - | “a 1,085 I,161 
May. : ‘ , is T,017 | 1,169 
June. 3 2 : rs 1,239 | 1,182 
Jralty~ 2: , ¥ : + 1,034 | 1,159 
August 7 . x, | = T,053 | 1,129 
| September | E gsr | 1,155 
October i 1,084 I,r98 
| November *h 1,074 1,204 
| December. e | F 1,064 1,193 
Total (200 lbs. per bag) . : + “13,02 I,173 
(Average number of 
cattle per month.) 


TABLE LXIV. 


MAIZE MEAL CONSUMED IN THE COMPOUNDS OF THE DE 
BEERS CONSOLIDATED MINES, LTD., DURING THE TWELVE 
MONTHS ENDING 31 DECEMBER, 1rog12. 


| 
Kind of Maize | Amount of Average Number | 
1g: Meal. Maize Meal. of Boys. 
= | ee eee — 
January | White 1,391 | 15,195 
February 1,449 14,910 
March ” 1,271 14,749 
April . | ay 1,491 I4,QOr 
May . | +s 1,338 14,610 
June . | ¥ 1,143 14,712 
July | ” 1,400 14,673 
August 4 a 1232 14,192 
September . ‘ 5 1,190 | 13,694 
October 3 53 1,327 | 13,436 
November . o 957 13,275 
December . 43 I,207 | 13,329 
Total (180 lbs.-per bag) 15,396 bags, | 14,306 
( = 18,856°4 muids of 200 Ibs.) | (average monthly 
| population). 


Notre.—g34 bags, each 196 Ibs., of samp were also consumed in the Com- 
pany’s Compounds, by the natives, during the year 1g12. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN : 501 


474. Cape Stock Farmers.—A_ considerable quantity of 
maize is imported into the Cape Province from the other 
Provinces, for feeding ostriches and other live-stock. During 
1908, 174,827 muids were exported from Durban to Cape 
ports. Since Union, reduction of railage rates has permitted 
the direct consignment of maize by rail from the interior 
Provinces to consuming centres in the Cape Province. 

475. The Native Trade—The native trade provides a 
valuable local market for those farmers who live in proximity 
to Locations of sufficient importance. The South African native 
is characteristically lacking in thrift; no sooner is the crop 
harvested than he—or more often she—starts to barter it off 
for trinkets, salt, etc., without any thought of the future. The 
individual crop is small, and in this way soon exhausted ; 
then the native begins to buy back from the local store-keeper 
or farmer at greatly enhanced prices. The native’s methods of 
agriculture are not conducive to the conservation of soil-moist- 
ure; in seasons of only comparative drought his crop often 
fails, and he is compelled to purchase from the more successful 
white farmer, paying for his grain in labour or in kind. It is 
this improvidence which largely maintains the supply of native 
labour; if the native were himself a good farmer and thrifty, 
he would not be under the necessity of working for wages, 
and the white farmer would lose the benefit of his services. 

476. Local Prices.—There is no doubt that the establish- 
ment of an export trade for South African maize has had a 
steadying effect on the local market. Although it is true that 
before it was established farmers were often able to realize 
20s. per muid for their maize, it should not be forgotten that 
when there was a ‘‘bumper” crop prices fell to 4s. or even 
3s. per muid, figures at which maize-growing did not pay; 
these low prices were due to the fact that production had 
exceeded local consumption; now that it is possible to ex- 
port the surplus, the local market can no longer drop below 
paying prices. 

The following figures, culled at random from the pages of 
the several South African Agricultural Journals, the Keeling 
Agency Reports, etc., etc., will give some idea of the range of 
prices prevailing in the several markets, 


CHAP. 
XI. 


502 MAIZE 


CHAP. TaBLE LXV. 
XII. VARIATION IN MAIZE PRICES IN SOUTH AFRICAN MARKETS. 


(Price per muid.) 


Date | Johanesburs | Kimberley. La Durban. Bulawayo. | Salisbury. 
1904. March (1) - | 23/- 224 = 32/6 | 25/- 
» Oct. (6) 10/9 : nafs — 7/6 — = = 
| 2905. Sept. (3) .| 8/-tog/- | — — — — — — 
1906. Feb. (4) | 12/9 to 13/- | 14/6 to 16/- | — _— 24/- to 25/- | 22/6 to 25/- 
», Oct. (5) = es to 13/9 | 15/- - — 1g/- to 22/- | 17/- to 20/- 
108. July (7) gece: = ro]- me — 
5, March (x1). / 8/- to 9/6 — — | 12/6 to 15/- — — 
» Feb. (8) 8/- to 8/9 8/- to 1o/- g/- 9/6 = = 
» Nov. (ro) . | 16/9 to 17/3 — — 13/- to r4/- = — 
1g0g. Nov. (9g) .| 7/10 to 9/3 = — pe pee = 
1g08. Oct. (12). | g/9 to 11/10 | — _ _— — — 
(1) Rhodesian Agricultural Fournal, Vol. 1, No. 5, April, 1904, p. 143. 
(3) 3 5 A Vol. III, No. 1, October, 1905. 
(4) 5 a 8 Vol. III, No. 3, February, 1906. 
(5) m Vol. IV, No. 1, October, 1906. 
(6) Wotal Avvieuliurat Fournal, Vol. VII, No. IO, October, 1904, p. 1006. 
(7) oy * »  Wol. X, No. 7, July, 1908, p. 914. 
(3) 5» Vol. XI, No. 2, February, 1908, p. 229. 
(9) Cimewlar of ae Keeling Agency, Ltd., dated 19 November, 1909. 
(10) Transvaal Leader, 21 November, roak. 
(11) Natal Anvicntiural Fournal, March, 1908. 
(12), ” mn October, 1908. 


The prices paid by the native are usually good ; in districts 
remote from rail-communication as much as 60s, per muid was 
paid in the years 1911 and 1912. 

477. Classes of Matze called for tn the Local Trade.—¥or 
the mills supplying the Rand Mines, the large, flat, white grain 
produced by Azckory King (8-row), 10-row Hickory, Hickory 
Fforsetooth, Mercer, Ladysmith, and similar large-grained dent 
breeds, is in greatest demand when a choice is offered. This 
is partly due to “trade fancy,” but millers state that there is 
less bran produced in milling these sorts than is the case with 
the small grain. Where there is no choice of white flats, any 
flat white dent is acceptable to the miller in preference to 
yellows or even to round whites. At one time, the writer is 
told, the natives employed on the mines would eat yellow mielie 
meal in preference to white, but now it is the exception for a 
Rand native to eat any but white meal. Various excuses are 
given—such as the undoubted difference in flavour between 
white and yellow meal ; the supposed injurious effect of yellow 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 503 


meal on the digestive system, etc. But in view of the large CHAP. 
amount of yellow “ corn-meal” consumed in the United States, *!! 
one is scarcely prepared to accept these as valid reasons; it 
seems more probable that the real cause is the tendency of the 
native to imitate the white man, and that as the white man in 
South Africa eats only white mielie meal, the native thinks 
he ought to do so too. The reason may also be partly com- 
mercial ; millers prefer to mill only one colour of maize, and 
may have been instrumental in gradually inducing the mine 
natives to use white meal, not only for that reason, but also 
because white maize is usually cheaper than yellow in the 
Johannesburg market. 
TasLe LXVI. 
COMPARATIVE LOCAL PRICES OF MAIZE CLASSES. 
| Large White | Small Yellow. | White Round. | Yellow. Mixed. 
pera saree SS |e le see, eee | 
Johannesburg, 
Sept., 1904 10/9 to 11/3 4 =< 11/- to 11/9 = 
Johannesburg, : 
Sept., 1905 8/6 to 9/- = _— 8/- to 8/6 _ 
Johannesburg, 
Feb., 1906 . 13/- = — 12/9 — 
Kimberley, 
Feb., 1906 . 14/6 to 15/6 _ — 15/3 to 16/- — 
Cape Town, 
Sept. (1906) 11/9 to12/- | 13/3 to 13/6 | aa 12/- to 12/9 | 11/9 to r2/- 
Kimberley, 
Sept. (1906) == giz | 8/- to 9/6) 8/6 totro/- | 7/- to 9f- 
Bulawayo, | 
Oct., 1906 . at/- to 22/- _— — 1g/- to 20/- _— 
Kimberley, | 
Dec. (1906) — — g/- toto/- | g/- tor0/3|) 8/9 to a/9 
Cape Tuwn, 
14 Feb., 1908 13/- to 13/6 | 13/6 to 13/9 == a! = 
Cape Town, 
14 Feb., 1908 13/9 to r4/- — — 13/6 to 13/9 | 13/- 
Kimberley, ; 
14 Feb, 1908 = = | 8/6 to ro/- | 8/6 toro/- | 8/- to 9f3 
Pretoria, 
14 Feb., 1908 8/3 to rr/- — _— 8/6 to rr/- | 8/6 to roj- 
Cape Town, 
Ir July, 1908 12/6 to 12/9 | 14/9 to r5/- _— 14/6 to 15]- — 
ohannesburg, 
i Oct., 1908 . g/9 to 11/5 — — 11/6 to 11/10 — 
ohannesburg, 2 : 
: 1g Nov., baer . | 8/3 to 8/5 _ ae to 8/- | g/- to 9/3} 7/10 to 8]- 


1Small white flat, 8/- to 8/3. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


504 MAIZE 


For feeding draught animals, however, on the Witwaters- 
rand, in Kimberley, and elsewhere, there is a demand for ye//ow 
maize, based on the idea that white is injurious to stock, espe- 
cially to horses and mules. And in these markets yellows 
generally command 6d. to Is: per muid more than whites. 

That this demand is by no means small or to be despised 
is shown by the amount consumed by the De Beers Con- 
solidated Mines, Ltd., alone (1473). This class of trade will 
not buy white maize. 

The municipality of Johannesburg and the firms of cartage 
contractors on the Rand are large buyers of yellows ; in 
November, 1908, the municipality referred to was reported to 
have purchased 4,000 muids of yellows at 16s. 9d. (Zvansvaal 
Leader, 21 November, 1908). 

478. Comparative Local Prices of Maize Classes.—The 
comparative figures in Table LX VI have been taken at random 
from the pages of the various South African Agricultural 


Journals, 


TaBLe LXVII. 


NATAL PRODUCTION, IMPORT AND RE-EXPORT OF MAIZE AND 
MAIZE PRODUCTS, 1904-6.) 


1904. 1905. 1906. 
- Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Maize produced in Natal ‘ » 155,301,600 140,098,000 113,008,200 
Imports :— 
By Sea . 4 “ . 43,038,365 524,627 1,299,853 
Overland ‘ : ‘ A 190,000 884,626 2,530,510 
43,828,365 1,409,253 3,830,363 
Exports (not S.A.P.?) :— 
By Sea . ‘ ‘ { i 180,534 19,775 — 
Cape Colony . ‘ : : 8,736,101 133,592 _— 
Orange River Colony. : 4,881,551 80 48 
Transvaal ‘ . 4 - 16,270,817 1,042,696 20 
Southern Rhodesia ; ‘ — 6,985 — 
Basutoland. . : ‘“ 152,120 _— = 
30,221,123 1,203,128 68 
Exports (S.A.P.*) :— 
By Sea ‘ % : f 5 899,208 4,628,088 1,390,216 
Cape Colony . : F . 17,071,092 79,038,771 39,404,961 
Orange River Colony. ‘ 599,679 314,023 450,477 
Transvaal : : ‘ » 90,143,272 44,668,807 31,874,661 
Southern Rhodesia . ‘ 1,000 13,200 508,600 
48,714,251 129,262,389 73,028,915 


‘From N.A.¥., Vol. X, No. 9, Sept., 1907. 
2S.A.P.= South African Produce. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 505 


479. Transvaal Maize [mports.—A further idea of the local 
consumption is gained from the figures of Transvaal imports 
furnished by the South African Customs Statistical Bureau. 
From these we find that in addition to the large amount pro- 
duced locally in this colony alone, she imported in the year 
1907 (chiefly from Natal and the Orange River Colony) 
389,649 muids of maize, valued at £177,006. The preceding 
table (LXVII) shows the export from Natal to the Trans- 
vaal in 1904, 1905, and 1906, both of Natal grown and im- 
ported maize. 

TasL_e LXVIII. 


TRANSVAAL MAIZE IMPORTS, 1907 and 1908. 


| | S 1907. — 1908 
ae eee wae 
| | S.A.P Not S.A.P. S.A.P. | Not S.A.P 
| Month. 2 Lee eee =. | tease 
| Quantity. Value. iss Value.| Quantity. | Value. ee Value. 
r= me | eo Le = ae all eres cee 
| Lbs. £ Lbs. | of Lbs. E | Lbs. Va 
January 31542,515) 10,596] 4,032 13 | 3,617,788] 6,794) 4,450} 15 
| February .| 5,593,583] 15,460] — | — | 3,778,022] 6,816 | — — 
| March. 4,960,123] 13,449/ — | — | 7,890,250] 3,637; — 
April 2,693,074| 6,880} — | — ) 2,840,710] 5,833 796 3 
| May 4,070,155| 10,222 /136,195) 292 | 3,163,707] 7,679 — 
June 4,298,887 | 10,541 100, — | 3,722,656) 7,575 — a 
| July -| 9,192,755 | 22,338] 2,300 26 | 3,250,891) 6,674) — a 
| August . |'10,135,652| 20,277 898) 6! 2,467,792| 5,378] — | = 
September | 17,047,320] 31,923] 400, 5 | 3,193,449) 7,389) — — 
October .} 10,594,039] 20,277/ — | — | 2,393,604] 6,037 222 2 
November 563,768] 1,135] 4,800 18 | 1,323,129| 3,829 | 20,000 75 
December | 2,186,259} 4,340] 2,640! 10 | 2,530,996| 8,111 | 44,352 | 170 
| Total . | 74,878,129 [167,438 |151,365) 370 | 34,172,994 | 73,752 | 70,852 | 265 
*S.A.P. = South African Produce. 
Summary. 
[ a | | 
| | Lbs. | £ Lbs. | if | 
| S.A.P » | 345172994 735752 74,878,129 167,435 
| Not S.A.P 70,852 265 151,305 | 370 | 
| | : 
| 34,243,846 74,017 75,029,494 167,808 | 
| Muids 171,219 375,147 | | 
| 


i 


480. Rapid Increase in Production.—With the settlement 
of the Transvaal after the war, there soon came a great in- 


CHAP. 
NIL. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


506 MAIZE 


crease in the area planted to maize; farmers realized that they 
had a good local market, worth competing for. 

The increase in local production was so rapid that the 
imports into the Transvaal fell from 375,147 muids in 1907 
to 171,219 in 1908, a reduction of about 55 per cent. From 
1904 to 1908 the value of the imports of maize and maize 


products fell from £218,689 to £74,017, a reduction of about 
66 per cent. 


| Maize. Maize Meal. | Total. 
Fiscal Year— | £ £ 
1904-5! . | 194,324 | 24,335 218,659 
1905-6! . R ; 141,300 | 23,329 164,629 
Calendar Year— 
1907 ims ions 167,808 
1908 = = 74,017 


These figures are instructive in view of the fact that the 
consumption was increasing during this period, owing to the 
increase in mine development and in number of boys employed. 
No doubt this decline, which largely affected Natal, helped 
to induce that colony to look elsewhere and oversea for a 
new market. 

There is no question that there will be an enormous in- 
crease in the production of South African maize within the 
near future. The falling off in exports during the season 
1911-12 and the poor prospects for the season 1912-13 are 
merely temporary phases, due to a series of unprecedented 
droughts; to be able to do as well as South Africa has done 
under such adverse conditions, proves the soundness of the 
basis on which the industry has been established. But it is 
equally clear that however good her local markets may be, she 
must look to an export trade for the building up and main- 
tenance of the industry. The time is coming when, instead of 
exporting grain for the manufacture oversea of articles which 
are required for consumption in South Africa, large factories 
will be established for the local manufacture of maize products. 
In time, also, every farmer will be feeding his stock on maize 
and turning it into beef, mutton, pork, wool, or ostrich feathers 


' Figures furnished by the South African Customs Statistical Bureau. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 507 


for export. But even then there must be a surplus to send over- 
sea. No farmer will be able to carry stock enough—in the maize 
belt at least—to consume all the maize he can produce, and 
every farmer will be well advised to plant a larger acreage than 
his anticipated local requirement, to provide against the partial 
failure of his crop. Although the United States no longer 
grows for export, her surplus is no mean figure, and she still 
furnishes huge cargoes of maize for the European markets—in 
fact she continues to be the Jargest supplier. However much 
local consumption increases, South Africa may always expect 
to have a good surplus. The recent ill-advised outcry 
against the export trade suggests an origin in the selfish 
motives of those who see that the steadying influence of 
the export reduces their chances of exploiting the local 
market. 

481. Importance of the Export Trade.—It may be ac- 
cepted as a fact that but for the export trade, the production 
of maize in South Africa could not have gone ahead as it has 
done; the local market alone, although good, was too easily 
flooded. The export of South African maize stimulates local 
trade, offers a profitable outlet for the surplus crop of the 
country, and prevents the accumulation of supplies and conse- 
quent glutting, with the inevitable result of low prices. While 
it is true that it is more profitable to export manufactured or 
second products than the raw materials or first products, 
there are conditions—especially in a new country—under 
which it is desirable to export the raw material. It has been 
said by a well-known South African financier that every 
sovereign brought into the country from oversea is worth 
two of those which merely change hands locally, because the 
former brings capital into the country, and in a new country 
capital is badly needed for the development of its agricultural 
resources. 

482. Oversea Markets.—There is always a ready market 
for maize in Europe, as it is one of the best and most largely 
used foods for stock and poultry, and is also an important 
item in the distillation of whisky and gin, the brewing of beer, 
the manufacture of starch, glucose, etc., and the preparation 
of foodstuffs for human consumption. 

Manufacturers in Europe are constantly finding new uses 


CHAP. 
SLs 


CHAP. 
XII. 


508 MAIZE 


for maize and the demand is steadily increasing. Owing to 
the increase in population in other producing countries of the 
world, the tendency is for them to export less and less; and 
the climatic conditions seem to preclude any very great in- 
crease in area available for maize production in those countries. 
With an increasing demand for maize and a tendency for the 
supply to diminish rather than to increase, there is a golden 
opportunity for South Africa to step into the market already 
made for her. This market is practically limitless and will 
take all that she can produce. 

South African maize, when shipped in a thoroughly dry 
condition (to ensure which it is desirable not to export before 
1 July), sells readily and commands good prices on the 
European markets. Owing to its relatively dry condition 
it is in good demand, but the great difficulty of the oversea 
merchant is to find enough of it to meet this demand. 
There is a danger that unless European consignees can de- 
pend upon steady and regular supplies, South African trade 
will not be permanently established. 

It is therefore to the advantage of the South African 
farming community, as a whole, to increase the output and 
establish a permanent market. It has been demonstrated by 
actual experience that South Africa can produce maize at a 
cost that permits of profitable oversea export. 

483. European Consumption.—The United Kingdom is the 
largest and best single oversea market for maize. It absorbs 
during the year something like 30,000,000 (thirty million) 
muids of maize, or nearly as much as the whole of continental 
Europe, which, at an average value of 10s. per muid or £5 per 
ton of 2,000 lbs., represents £15,000,000 (fifteen million 
pounds). Why should not the South African farmer earn a 
fair share of this amount and so enrich both himself and his 
country ? 

If South Africa can capture but a fifth of this trade it will 
mean about £2,500,000 after allowing for freight and other 
charges, and such a sum would obviously be a valuable help 
to the country. But she can do so only by putting on the 
market an article which is either better than, or cheaper than, 
that supplied by other competing countries, or at a time when 
they are unable to compete. Otherwise she must rely on 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 509 


increased demand and decreasing supplies to open these 
markets, at best an uncertain and unreliable policy. 

The continent of Europe, especially Germany, Holland, 
Belgium and France, is a large and increasing consumer. 
In the eight months ended 30 August, 1907, Europe im- 
ported 18,000,000 quarters (432,000,000 muids) of maize, of 
which 8,000,000 went to the United Kingdom and 10,000,000 
to the Continent. Of this amount the United States supplied 
the largest proportion. South Africa has also exported to 
the Canary Islands, Madeira, St. Helena, Australia, Mexico, 
Canada, India, Ceylon, Portuguese East Africa, Portuguese 
West Africa, Rhodesia, Katanga, Nyassaland, British East 
Africa, the Kerguelen Islands and Madagascar. 

The shipments made by South Africa in 1908 are small 
in comparison with what they may or ought to be. It should 
be remembered that in 1906 over 27,260,000 muids of maize 
were imported into England. If only ;¢5 part of the whole 
of South Africa were planted with maize it would be 
7,100,000 acres; estimating an average of four muids per 
English acre, the yield would be 28,400,000 muids, or a net 
weight of 5,680,000,000 lbs., a little over the amount con- 
sumed in England alone, without allowing for the enormous 
and increasing quantity used on the Continent. 

484. Possibility of Developing Trade with Canada.—Vhe 
Canadian Trades Commissioner in Cape Town reported some 
time ago that large quantities of white maize are imported into 
Canada every year for manufacturing purposes, from dis- 
tances up to 1,500 miles by rail. Several shipments of South 
African Flat White maize were made, between 1907 and I910, 
to the Ogilvie Flour Mill Co. of Montreal, and were pro- 
nounced the finest ever seen by them. 

The Archer Manufacturing Company, St. John, N.B., re- 
ported that if the price could compete with that of the Ameri- 
can article, a very large business could be done. Canadian 
steamers visit South African ports every month, and it is 
thought that the owners would be prepared to quote low 
freights for return cargoes. 

485. Egypt as a Posstble Market.—Although Egypt is a 
considerable producer of maize, there seems to be an opening 
for the South African article in that country. The following 


CHAP, 
XII. 


510 MAIZE 


CHAP. letter from a correspondent at Helouan, near Cairo, was pub- 


XII. 


lished in the 7ransvaal Agricultural Journal, Vol. VU, No. 26, 
page 309, January, 1909 :-— 


Having made inquiries here as to the demands and price 
of maize, I think the opportunity offers of doing a certain 
amount of business if I can obtain shipments, properly bagged 
and of uniform quality and size. lam prepared to do business 
with the Government, that is, if they have a department which 
is superintending the shipment of maize, or with a reliable 
firm, but I must impress upon you that if a shipment is not of 
uniform quality, and according to samples, it will destroy all 
confidence with the bank that advances on grain, and also 
local buyers, and will prevent me establishing a trade. I know 
the Government is doing its utmost to encourage export, and 
I leave it to them to see that I am protected. 

Methods of Dealing.— There are two ways :— 


1. Selling on commission, that is, for firms, which does 
not appeal to me. 

2. Buying direct. This would be better for both parties, 
as it might be necessary for me to split up the ship- 
ment and sell it in different districts. 


Method of Shipment.—The sellers would ship via East 
Coast to Suez, avoiding canal dues. The shipping company 
might grant low rates for some time in order to start the trade. 

Prices.—Sellers’ prices include insurance and everything 
else, including landing charges by steamer at Suez. 

Duty.— Payable by me at Suez. 

Samples.—1 would require 5 lb. samples of the different 
grades, with inclusive price, sent me every six weeks. 

Method of Purchasing.—\ should purchase by cable, and 
on receipt of your advices through which bank and on whom 
to draw. I use the expression on whom, as I may have to 
deal with some firms here who have agencies in the provinces, 
and the facilities for storing grain. 

Prices.—State price per 100 lbs. 


486. /ndia.— Although India is herself a large producer 
the possibilities of that country as a market for South African 
maize should not be overlooked, especially in the periodically 
recurring seasons of drought. 

487. Australia.—The direct service of steamers to Australia 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN Sir 


and New Zealand affords the opportunity of developing a 
market there, especially to the stock-raising centres. The fact 
that South African cargoes for Australia do not cross the 
Equator should enable them to arrive in excellent condition. 
Some extensive shipments have recently been made. 

488. Prices in European Markets —Of some of the early 
consignments of South African maize, exported in 1907, it 
was reported: ‘The consignments of Natal mielies which 
have recently come to hand have met an active market, as 
much as 26s., and in some cases 26s, 6d. per quarter having 
been realized. A large quantity has reached Hamburg, Antwerp, 
and Rotterdam, during the last few days, to be used for dis- 
tilling purposes, and good business is stated to have been done.” ! 

489. Prices on the English Market, 1880-1908.—During the 
thirty years from 1880 to 1909 the average yearly price of 
“ American” and Argentine maize on the English markets has 
fluctuated between 12s. god. per quarter (5s. 3d. per muid) in 
1897, to 28s. per quarter (11s. 8d. per muid) in 1882. The 
mean of the yearly averages for the twenty-nine years from 
1880 to 1908 was as follows :— 


London Market. Liverpool Market. 


Per Quarter.) Per Muid. ‘Per Quarter. Per Muid. 


So =D, Ske De 1h Sem RD: Ss Ds 
American Mixed Maize . el | 2T Ber 8 10°56 20 5°53 8 6:2 
La Plata Maize, 20 years e|\ Ge -BF3 8 249 Ig 3°4 8 o4 


= 


The average yearly prices of American mixed and La 
Plata yellow maize, for London and Liverpool, prompt ship- 
ment, per quarter of 480 lbs., for the years 1880-1908, inclusive, 
will be found in Table LXIX. 

From the following table we see that the average price of 
American and La Plata maize has been rising steadily from 
the year 1897, with but a slight drop in 1904. 

490. The High London Prices of 1907-8.—The beginnings 
of the South African export trade are traceable to the con- 
junction of two fortuitous circumstances: (1) the temptingly 
high prices prevailing in Europe, and (2) increased production 


1N.A.¥., Vol. X, No. 10, Oct., 1907. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 


XII. 


512 MAIZE 


of maize in the Transvaal and Orange Free State, which not 
only made it unnecessary to import from oversea, but seriously 
curtailed the demand for Natal maize on the mines, at the 
same time that her own production was increasing enormously. 


TaBLe LXIX. 


AVERAGE YEARLY PRICES OF AMERICAN AND LA PLATA 
MAIZE IN LONDON. 


London, per 480 Ibs. Liverpool, per 480 lbs, 
Year American. | La Plata. Year. | American. ei) La Plata. 
aera eater | meet ere Fs an | 
| Se Di Z S. BD. Ss. D. | Si. Ds 
| 1908 24 11 | 23-6, 1g08 24° 9 «| 24 0 
1g07 22 9 | 24 6 G07 | 22> «60 2 24 0 | 
1906 20 9 20 6 1906 | ~=20 «6 | 20 2 | 
1g05 20 9 | 2t 6 1905 | 20 6 | ar 3 | 
Tg04 20° 3 20 2 1gog | 20 fF | Ig II 
1903 20 7 | 20 2 1903 | 20 4 | 19 9 
Igo02 ar 2. || 22: 3 1oo2 | 20 11 25 7 
Igol 25-0) ar s Igor 20 I | So 9 
Igoo 79 0 chs a i Igoo 18 2 Ig 6 
1899 TZ 2 1 F 1899 I5 10 | ny feo) 
1898 16 4 Ig 0 1898 £5; 52 || 18 9 | 
1897 | 14 6 14 6 1897 12 9 | £3; 15 | 
1896 | 14 7 I4 0 1896 35 I4 5 
1895 | 18 8 17 10 1895 179 | 17 6 
1894 | 19 6 Failure 1894 19 2 Failure 
1893 | 1g 10 rr 1893 TS 33- |i} $6 
1892 ar 0 20 6 1892 20 3 | 20 0 
| 1891 26 6 Failure 1891 e6 5 Failure 
| 1890 20 6 Ig 10 1890 | 19 7 | Is 6 
| 1889 18 6 17 9 1889 | 18 oO 7 5 
| 1888 22 3 21 3 E888» |||) ar os | | 20 7 
| 1857 20 8 20 0 1887. | 19 6 Ig 6 
| 1886 | 1g I0 17 6 1886 | 20 0 | m7 ea 
| 1885 | 21 Q None shipped 1885 | ar 6 None shipped 
| 1884 22 0 a 1884 | 21 11 a 
1883 | 26. 6 as 1883 | 26 6 | a 
1882 28 0 $3 1882 27 0 5 
1881 | 25 9 a 188r | 26 0 or 
1880 | 24 0 6 1880 | a4 0 | s8 | 
| | 


In July, 1907, when it became necessary for Natal to find 
an outlet for her new season’s 
23s. todd. per 


crop, London prices were firm. 
492 lbs. was paid for Galatz-Foxanian maize 
ex steamer. In September, 1907, South Russian realized 
26s. 6d. per 492 Ibs. and La Plata 26s. 6d. per quarter ; 
in September, 1908, La Plata rose to 26s. 104d. per quarter, 
and in December to 27s. 6d. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 513 


The high prices maintained during 1907 and 1908 were CHAP. 
said to be due to the increased demand for maize for stock *": 
food and manufacture in the United Kingdom and on the 
Continent, coupled with very unfavourable reports of the crops 
in all three of the leading areas of production, the United 
States, Argentina, and South-Eastern Europe. 

491. Early Export Prices for South African Matze.— 
When in 1908 American Mixed averaged 24s. 11d. on the 
London market, and La Plata 23s. 6d., South African White 
Flat realized 26s. to 28s. per quarter, i.e. 10s. 10d. to IIs. 8d. 
per muid. 

In September, 1908, sixty-eight bags of Transvaal white 
maize shipped per S.S. ‘“ Tintagel Castle,” for the Government, 
were sold at 26s. 6d. per quarter ex ship. A consignment of 
770 bags of white maize below grade sold at 27s. per quarter 
c.i.f.; “this maize was of an irregular description, and it was 
solely owing to Plate maize coming forward damaged that so 
high a price was obtained”. 

In September, 1909, South African yellow round, in passage 
to London, sold at 27s. 74d., a fall of nearly Is. on the previous 
quotation. Prices were further reported as follows :— 


2 October, 1go9. 


South African w.f., choice . : : 25s. od. to 26s. 3d. 
a mH w.f., flag.  . ‘ ‘ 25s. 6d. to 26s. 
7 + w.t., faq. - 3 : 24s. 6d. to 25s. 
ae o y.t., fia.q. 5 : F 24s. gd. 


7 October, 1909. 


South African w.f., choice ; 27s. 6d. for delivery Hamburg, October 
and November shipment. 
rr is Yolen 4 3 : 24s. arrived. 


12 October, 1909. 


South African y.r., afloat. . : : : i : 24s. 


14 October, 1909. 


South African w.f., afloat. ; : ‘ : ; 258. 


33 


514 MAIZE 


TABLE LXX. 


PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN MAIZE IN EUROPE, 2 NOVEMBER, 
1gog. !" 


Translation of Cable No. 48, Received from the Agent-geneval, dated London, 
2 November, 1909. 


November or December shipment. Market is reported steady. 


| 


London. | 
Per 480 Lbs, Net. Per 200 Lbs. Net. | 
s. d s. S 
| Choice White. : : : 25 6 Io 74 | 
| F.A.Q. White. : ‘ : 25 3 10 64 
Choice Yellow . ‘ ‘ 3 25 I 10 5% | 
F.A.Q. Yellow . : : ; 25 0 10 5 | 
Amsterdam. 
Choice White. 3 : é 25 7 to 8 
F.A.Q. White. : : : 25 4 Io 63 
| Choice Yellow, ; : : 25 6 Io 74 
| F.A.Q. Yellow . : ; : 25 0 To 5 | 
Antwerp. | 
| Choice White 25° 5 10 7 
| F.A.Q. White 25 2 Io 53 
| Choice Yellow 25 0 Io 5 
| F.A.Q. Yellow 24 10g Io 4% 
| 
| Hamburg. 
| Choice White 25 5 Io 7 
| F.A.Q. White 25 2 ro 5¢ 
| Choice Yellow 25 0 Io 5 | 
| F.A.Q. Yellow 24 104 to 4h | 
| 


By deducting 2s. 8d. per bag from the figures in the last 
column, we get the net price realized by the South African 
shipper. 


‘From Transvaal Agricultural ¥ournal. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 515 


TABLE LXXI. 


COMPARATIVE PRICES OF SOUTH AFRICAN MAIZE IN EUROPE 
DURING FEBRUARY, sgro.! 


Per Quarter of 480 Ibs. 
: 
1 Feb. g Feb. 15 Feb. 23 Feb. | 
| | 
Ss). idl Sivdiy Wi Gsacd) }) see cdes || 
London— | 
Choice White : : S| 839 36 26° To: |) 29-6 | 366° | 
F.A.Q. White. : .| 26 9 26 9 | 26 9 | 26 a 
Choice Yellow ‘ 26 Io 26 10 | 26 ro | 201359. 
F.A.Q. Yellow 26 9 26 10 | 26-59) | 20 oO | 
| Amsterdam— | 
Choice White. - : a 27 4 6 | 27 6 | 26°27 
F.A.Q. White. : é | ey keer 29. 3) || Seog: | S26: 6 
Choice Yellow . : 5 i) Sey s 27 3 27 3 | 26 6 
F.A.Q. Yellow . . , : 27. oi ody Made | 27. 0: | 26° 3 
Antwerp— 
Choice White. : , f 2-3 255 3 27 3 36 <4 
F.A.Q. White. ; ; F 27 1 29-0" |) 25-6 26 3 
Choice Yellow . ; ‘ Ai} 29 sf 27 27.0 26. 4 || 
F.A.Q. Yellow . 3 ; d 27.0 27.0 26 Io 26 =I 
Hamburg— 
Choice White . ‘ : . a7 3 26 Io 20 Io 26 3 
F.A.Q. White. F r : 29 0 206 3 20) 7 25 9 
Choice Yellow ; ‘ ; 27 0) 264 26. 7 26 3 
F.A.Q. Yellow | 26 I0 26 6 | 26-0. 26 0 | 


Fractions of a penny have been omitted. 


On 30 November, 1910, South African Flat White sold at 
23s. per quarter ex quay, while both Odessa and La Plata 
were 21s. per quarter ex ship. 

On 1 December, 1910, it was reported that South African 
was ‘too dear” for the London market, at 21s. 6d. for choice 
and 20s. od. to 21s. 2d. for fia.q., so attention was directed to 
American which was selling at 19s. 74d. to 20s. 

492. Changing Prices per Quarter to Prices per Muid.—\n 
the London market maize is always sold by weight, the unit 
being the “ quarter” of 480 lbs. To convert the market quota- 
tions from quarters to muids, we may remember that :— 


248. per quarter is equal to Ios. per muid. 


36s. + ” 15s. ” 
6s. 1” 5 2s. 6d. , 
Is. ” ” 5d. ” 
3d. ‘A - 14d. i, 


1From the South African National Union Fournal, March, rgt0; supplied 
by the Central Agency for Co-operative Societies. 
Sa. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


516 MAIZE 


The following table is useful for ready reference :— 


TABLE LXXII. 
TO CHANGE PRICES PER QUARTER TO PRICES PER MUID. 


P | as _ Per Equivalent per 

Quarter Equivalent per Muid. Quarter. Muid. 
=a meet 

| 

Sx ids | S..-id., Sx, id. s. d. 

oo. | 0 0'4166 16 0 6 8 

o 2 | 0 08333 17-0) 7 

o 3 | 0 172500 (i.e. 14d.) 18 oO 2 6 

0 4 | Oo 1°6666 19 0 7 II 

0 5 | © 270833 20 0 8 4 
| o 6 | 0 275000 (i.e. 23d.) ea 8 9 | 
| Oper | 0 2°9166 Soro 9 2 | 
Hl OBS lg OLS 3asta 230 | og 7 | 
| 0 9 | 0 3°7500 (i.e. 3d.) aio 6 IP age | 
| 0 to | 0 4°1666 —— | —. | 
0 11 Oo 495833 a ; Ff eee | 
tr © | © 5'0000 (i.e. 5d.) = | | 

) ze | os one 
| 3 . . : 29. 0 | #204 
af 6 | aE 30 0 1 6 
| 2 4 Bake BL) AO 12 II | 
| CO es 32 0 3 4 | 
ease ih sce 33.0 39 «COI 
pane | S48 34. (0 Iq 2 | 

| a (a) Q = 

| Bs A | 3 : 35 0 I4 7 | 
| | + 36 0 15 0 | 
y aes WN bee 37.0 5 | 
aie Dae 8 0 15 10 | 
I3 0 | 5 5 3 
| : Ses 39 0 16 3 | 
eee tegee | Ae 40 0 16 8 | 
I) 2855-0 6 3 | 
| = | | 


493. Changing Prices per 1,000 Kilograms to Prices per 
Muid.—Maize is usually quoted on the continental market at 
so many marks per 1,000 kilograms. The English sterling 
value of a mark is 11°75d.; a kilogram equals 2°20462 Ibs. 
avoirdupois, therefore 1,000 kilograms equals 2,204°62 lbs. or 
11 muids 44 lbs. For conversion table see Table LX XIII. 
494. Market Reports—The position of the local South 
African maize markets can be gleaned from the pages of the 
Union Agricultural Journal, issued monthly, free in South 
Africa, from the Government Printing Works, Pretoria. 
Among the papers which report the oversea market 
are :— 
George Broomhall’s Corn Trade News (Liverpool). 
The Corn Trade News (Mark Lane, London). 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 517 


TaBLeE LXXIII. 
TO CHANGE PRICES PER 1,000 KILOGRAMS TO PRICES PER 


MUID. 
Per 1,000 Kilo- Per 1,000 Kilo- | 
Marks. gram eos hes ae EBs: Marks. grams ie Per sees | 
fo 1S.) ads s. di. £ 383. dy s. d. 
Ir o o ir} oO 1'0658 102 4 19 104 9 0°72 
2 o Tf 1rd 0 2°1319 103 5 o rot 9 1°79 
3 o 2 114 0 3°1979 104 5 I 10 Q 2°86 
4 O, 33: ET Oo 4°2638 105 5 2 oF 9 3°¢2 
5 Oo 4 loz © 5°329 106 5 3 98 9 4°99 
6| 0 5 10% © 6°3957 to7 | 5 4 92 g 6°05 
g o 6 tof o 7°4617 108 a Q 7°12 
8 0 7 10 o 85276 109 5 6 8B g 818 
9 o 8 of © 9°59355 110; 5 7 8 9 9°25 
10 0 9g Of 0 10°6595 III 5 8 8s g 10°32 
15 Oo 14 84 zr 3°90 TI2 5 9 8 g 11°39 
20 omg 7 I 9°32 II3 5 10 7} IO 0°45 
25 I 4 5% 2 2°65 114 5 Iz 7% IO I°51 
40 tig 2 3 6°64 115 5: 12; “75 Io 2°68 
50 2 8 114 4 5°30 116 era Io 3°65 
55 2 13 10+ 4 10°63 117 5 14 63 Io 4°72 
60 218 9 5 3°96 118 515 64 Io 5°78 
65 3 3 72 5 928 119 5 16 64+ IO 6°85 
70 3 8 64 6 2°62 120 5.17 6 Io 7'°QT4 
OE 3 9 6f 6 3°68 121 5 18 5 To 898 
72 3 20 6 6 4°75 122 5 19 54 TO 10°04 
73 3 11 52 6 5°31 123 6 0 5 IO II‘IL 
74 3-12 54 6 6°88 124 OF 5 Ir ors 
75 3.13 54 6 7°95 125 6 2 48 Ir 12 
76 a a4 45 6 gor 126 6 3 44 Et. -2°4% 
77 315 42 6 10°08 127 6 4 42 II 3°37 
78 3 16 4% 6 Ir°r4 128 6 5 4 II 4°44 
79 3.17 44 7 0°21 129 6 6 3f Il 5°51 
80 3.18 4 7. 128 130 6 7 34 Il 6°57 
81 3.19 32 7 2°34 131 6 8 33 Ir 7°64 
82 4 0 34 7 3°41 132 6-9 3 II 8-70 
83 4 I 34 7 447 133 6 10 2f Il 9°77 
84 A 32. 3 7 5°54 134 6 1r 24 II ro'84 
85 4 3 2% 7 6°60 135 6:72 2} II Ir*go 
86 4 4 2g F 9509 136 6132 I2 0°97 
87 4 5 24 7 8°74 137 614 3 I2 2°04 
88 4. 0. 2 7 9'80 138 615 i I2 3°Io 
89 4 7 If 7 10°87 139 6 16 14 I2 4°17 
go 4, 8 3% 7 1I°G35 140 6 17 r £2 5°2 
gI 4 9 If 8 roo 141 618 of I2 6°30 
92 4 To 2 8 2°07 142 6 19 o8 i2 7°36 
93 4 11 of 8 3°13 143 7 0 of IZ 843 
94 4 12 08 8 4°20 144] 7 I Oo 12 9°49 
95 4 13 0 8 5°265 145 7 1 13 12 10°56 
96 414 0 8 6°33 146 7 211% I2 11°63 
97 4 14 I1f 8 7°40 147 7 3 114 13 0°69 
98 4 15 114 8 846 148 G4 tT 13 1°76 
99 4 16 114 8 9°53 149 7 5 lo} 13 2°53 
100 4 17 il 8 10°595 150 7 © ros 13 3°89 
IOI 4 18 ro# 8 11°66 


CHAP. 
XIL. 


518 MAIZE 


Beerbohm’s Evening Corn Trade List (London). 
George Dornbusch’s Floating Cargoes Evening List. 
Cincinnatt? Price Current. 

Orange Judd Farmer. 


495. Prices Affected by the World's Supply and Demand.— 
Prices are governed by the European demand for maize for 
stock food, and also by the surplus supply available from the 
larger producing countries. The world’s supply is increasing, 
and it is only the recurrence of unfavourable seasons, in 
various parts of the producing area, that has kept prices so 
high. Nevertheless the world’s demand for maize for stock 
feeding and manufacturing purposes is also increasing rapidly, 
and this will tend to keep prices up, though it cannot reason- 
ably be expected that they will remain as good as they have 
been in recent years. 

496. Some Factors which Control Prices in the World's Maize 
Market.—South Africa is in the rather fortunate position of 
being able to market her maize before the North American 
crop is in sight, and after the bulk of the Argentine crop has 
been moved. Nevertheless the crops of these two regions will, 
for some time to come, largely govern the prices obtainable for 
South African maize in the European markets. The size 
and condition of the South European crop also affects prices. 
In those quarters in which maize can be substituted for wheat, 
or wheat for maize, either as food or in the arts and manu- 
factures, fluctuations in the size of the world’s wheat crop also 
affect the maize market. 

497. The World's Supply of Maize-—The importance of 
maize as a source of food for man and his domestic animals 
has led to its cultivation in practically all the tropical and sub- 
tropical parts of the world. It is also grown in those parts of 
the warm-temperate zone where the summer temperature and 
rainfall are relatively high and sunshine is plentiful. 

Its wider distribution is limited, however, by its climatic 
requirements. In countries thus meeting its requirements, 
maize is the most extensively grown of any cereal crop, 
because it is at the same time one of the most productive 
and most easily produced crops. Some idea of its import- 
ance may be gained from the fact that the world’s crop of 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 519 


maize amounted in 1906, which was a “ bumper” crop year, 
to 3,928,947,000 bushels, i.e. 1,100,237,180 muids of 200 lbs. 

South Africa’s greatest competitors in the maize trade are 
the United States of America and Argentina. The former 
produces 2,927,416,000 bushels, or nearly 820,000,000 (eight 
hundred and twenty million) muids, which is 74°5 per cent of 
the total. At 8s. per muid this is worth £328,000,000, or many 
times the annual gold production of South Africa. Yet the 
United States exports (1909) under 11,000,000 muids, or 
about I-4 per cent of her crop, and every year the percentage 
exported grows less. This is because home demands are in- 
creasing, while climatic conditions prevent a corresponding in- 
crease in the area of production. 

Argentina produces less than 55,000,000 muids, and ex- 
ports about 50 per cent of the crop. As her population 
increases, more will be consumed locally for stock food and 
manufacture. There has been a marked drop in the export 
from Argentina, as compared with that of any one of the three 
years 1904, 1905 and 1906. 

Accompanying this fall in the exports from our com- 
petitors, we find the European demand steadily increasing ; 
new uses are being found for maize every day, for stock food 
and in the arts and manufactures. This means that either the 
price of maize will rise, or new fields for its production must 
be found ; but if the price increases it will tend to restrict the 
demand. 

In addition to the United States and Argentina the prin- 
cipal sources of supply at the present time are: South- 
east Europe (Austria-Hungary and Roumania), Egypt, South 
Africa, Australia, and Mexico, No other large areas of the 
world seem to have climatic conditions ideally suited to maize 
production. Of these countries South Africa is the only one 
in which there seems any prospect of a large increase of acre- 
age in maize. She has an ample average rainfall, coming at 
the right season of the year, and phenomenally dry winter 
weather for the natural production of the quality of grain most 
suitable for shipment. 

South Africa, therefore, has a great opportunity for com- 
peting for the trade in a commodity the demand for which is 
steadily increasing, while the supply is tending to decrease, 


CHAP, 
XIL. 


CHAP. 
>be 


520 MAIZE 


and for which increased production seems limited to her own 
territory. 

498. Early Attempts at an Export Maize Trade from South 
Africa.—According to Mr. John Moon of Manderston, a 
consignment of Natal maize was shipped from Durban to 
London by Mr. T. P. O’Meara, M.L.A., somewhere about the 
years 1886-7, but the attempt to establish an export trade 
failed because the surplus available was not sufficient to 
establish and maintain a steady supply, and the export trade 
ceased practically when it began. Another attempt appears 
to have been made about 1890. Mr. Moon writes under date 
16 November, 1910: “Some twenty years ago mealies were 
very low in price and we could only get about 4s. 6d. to 5s. 
per muid. A New Leeds farmer then decided to try the 
English market, and we as members each sent so many muids, 
making in all, as far as my memory goes, 1,000 bags ; to our 
disappointment, after all expenses were paid, we were only 
left 4s. od. per muid. I think that ship freight was then Ios. 
3d. per ton.” 

In the Natal Agricultural Journal for 23 February, 1906, 
we find the following :— 


“ Mealies for England.—In a letter from Mr. A. R. Rennie, 
of Messrs. Rennie & Sons, shippers, to Dr. Gubbins, M.L.A., 
published in the daily papers, some interesting facts are given 
with regard to shipments of mealies to London last year. The 
average price obtained was from 24s. 6d. to 24s. 9d. per quarter 
of 480 lbs. This works out at ros. 24d. per muid, and 
the sacks fetched 2d. The price may therefore be calculated at 
tos. 6d. per muid for mealies in London. Mr. Rennie says 
the mealies were not first-class. Reference to our exchanges 
shows the top price for mealies in London in the beginning 
of last month to have been 25s. per quarter. July, August and 
September are the months in London, according to Mr. Rennie, 
when the market is pretty bare. These facts are useful in 
showing that in the event of big crops there is no need for 
practically throwing away a large portion. Merchants should 
be able to buy at from 7s. to 8s. at the Point and be able to 
pay freight and shipping charges and come out with a little 
to the good. The price of mealies has been rising in England 
for some years. The reasons are various; one of them is the 
favour into which this cereal has risen with Scotch and Irish 
whisky makers.” 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 521 


499. Natal Government Enterprise.—Until the year 1907 
the possibility of the South African maize crop as an article 
for oversea export was not thoroughly appreciated. As long 
as the local markets consumed more than was_ produced, 
there was little incentive to look abroad, and farmers were 
content to grow only enough for local requirements. In an 
unfavourable season this resulted in prices rising to 20s., 40s., 
and even 60s. per muid, while in a season favourable to the 
crop they were known to fall to 5s. and even 4s. 6d. per muid 
because there was no outlet for the surplus. Maize was there- 
fore a very speculative crop. The writer well remembers, on 
his arrival in the Transvaal, being told by a well-known _ busi- 
ness man, who is also a farmer, that maize was not a white 
man’s crop, but was only fit for Kaffirs to grow. 

Four causes finally contributed to the establishment of the 
export trade in South African maize: (1) a “bumper” crop in 
1907, which threatened to bring local prices below a paying 
basis (3s. and 2s. 6d. per muid were publicly suggested! as 
possible prices) ; (2) the financial depression following the close 
of the Boer War which put business men on the gz7z vzve for 
new openings; (3) the high maize prices prevailing in Europe 
(| 490), which made it possible to export at a profit and thus 
stimulated production in South Africa ; and (4) the wisdom and 
foresight of the several South African Governments in render- 
ing practical assistance and encouragement to start an export 
trade, by offering reduced rates and other facilities. In addi- 
tion to these, the exhibits at the South African Products 
Exhibition held in London, in February, 1907, undoubtedly 
led English merchants to make inquiry in South Africa. 

The fact that the railways were under Government con- 
trol enabled them to reduce railage rates to a nominal figure 
in order to meet the exigencies of the situation. Severe 
criticisms were levelled at the Governments for their action ; 
they were accused of paternalism and interference with private 
enterprise; but whatever mistakes may have been made, the 
results have certainly justified the action taken, and credit 
should be given where it has been so well earned. Anyone 
who looks into the matter with an unbiased mind, and who 
knows anything of the vicissitudes, difficulties, discourage- 


1N.A.F¥., Vol. XI, No. 2, p. 137, Feb., 1908. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP 
XIL. 


522 MAIZE 


ments and losses connected with the starting of new industries, 
will admit that the successful establishment of the export trade 
in maize is due in no small measure to the prompt assistance 
given to the infant industry by the several Governments. 

To the Hon. Mr. W. A. Deane, Minister for Agriculture of 
the Colony of Natal, is said to be due the credit for definitely 
starting the export trade. Where so many officials were 
necessarily concerned it seems almost invidious to mention 
names, but there are some which stand out conspicuously, 
viz.: The Right Honourable General Louis Botha, Transvaal 
Minister for Agriculture ; Sir T. R. Price, General Manager of 
the Central South African Railways; the General Manager 
of the Natal Government Railways; Mr. W. J. Palmer, 
Director of Agriculture, Orange Free State; Mr. F. B. Smith, 
Director of Agriculture, Transvaal ; and Captain Rainnie, Port 
Captain, Durban. But in the words of Messrs. Wm. Cotts 
& Co., local exporters of grain, etc.: “ Everybody concerned 
became enthused with the prospects this trade held out, and 
soon were hard at work to try and make it a success. The 
railway and harbour officials bent their full energies into their 
part of the business, and much credit is due to them for the 
unceasing efforts they put forward to carry things towards a 
successful issue” (Coéts, 1). 

“Saturday, 3 August, 1907, is a historic date in the South 
African maize export. The Prime Minister and the Minister 
for Agriculture, of Natal, met at Maritzburg a number of 
persons interested in the production and handling of maize, 
to discuss the proposed organization of the export trade. A 
committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Hayne, H. A. 
Light, and A. G. May, representing the commercial community, 
and Messrs. J. G. Colenbrander, John Moon, and Walter 
Pepworth, representing the farmers, to decide the grades to be 
adopted.” 

Owing to lack of statistics as to supply and demand, 
Natal over-exported in the latter part of 1908, and it became 
necessary to import again. A case was reported in which 
a cargo of maize, which left Durban and was sold in Hamburg 
at 12s. 6d. per muid, was re-purchased, while still on the water, 
by the dealer who had originally sold it, for 17s. 6d. per 
muid. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 523 


$00, Reduction tn Freight Rates.—Yhe Natal Government 
approached the Union-Castle Mail S.S. Co., Ltd. on the 
subject of reduced ocean freight rates. This resulted in their 
agreeing (as representing the “ Conference Lines”) to convey 
the traffic from Durban to London at a rate of 10s. per 
ton of 2,240 lbs., and they shortly afterwards extended the 
rate to include all South African ports as well as the con- 
tinental ports of Antwerp and Hamburg. In July, 1909, the 
rate was raised to [Is. 6d. to cover the sorting at the port of 
discharge, as it had been found to the advantage of the trade 
to have this expense included in the freight rather than pay- 
able by the consignee. This low freight brought South 
African farmers and merchants into touch with the world’s 
markets, and Canada, Mexico, Australia, London, Liverpool, 
Glasgow, Antwerp, and Hamburg have since become her 
customers. 

The early experiences with maize export have been the 
same as those met with in most beginnings, and it was soon 
evident that methods would have to be greatly improved and 
abuses corrected. In April, 1907, Natal granted the traffic a 
rebate on the “South African Produce” railway rate. 

In July, 1907, the Natal, Portuguese and Central South 
African Railway systems came to an arrangement whereby the 
coastward rate on maize for export would be considerably 
reduced. The rate per ton from Pretoria and Volksrust was 
fixed in both cases at 13s. 4d.; coupled with this, there was, 
also, a reduction in ocean freight, so that “it is now ap- 
parently possible to forward a bag of mealies from Pretoria 
via Delagoa Bay to London for something like 2s. 6d.”" 

In November or early December of the same year, ac- 
cording to a Reuter telegram to the daily press, quoted by 
the Natal Agricultural Journal,’ negotiations were concluded 
between the Central South African Railways and the Cape 
Colony and Portuguese Railway Administrations, whereby the 
maximum rate for the conveyance of maize for export by any 
route, from any station in the Transvaal or Orange River 
Colony, was reduced to 10s. per 2,000 lbs., i.e. Is. per muid, 


1N.A.F., Vol. X, No. 8, p. 833, Aug., 1907. 
2Vol. X, No. 12, Dec., 1907, Pp. 1468: see also Transvaal Agricultural 
Fournal, Vol. V, p- 339, Jan., 1908. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


524 MAIZE 


This rate was to include delivery to vessels, and other services, 
and was to come into operation on 1 January, 1908. Negotia- 
tions were later completed with the Natal Government Railway 
Administration by which the same rates were made to apply 
over its lines. The special railway rate then worked out at 
4d. per ton (of 2,000 Ibs.) per mile, with a maximum of 10s. per 
ton, and was made to apply to all stations within 506 miles 
of the port. 

At the same time arrangements were made by the Central 
South African Railway Administration for through booking 
and sales under Government auspices, 

In Rhodesia a rate of 4d. per ton per mile is in force ; 
there is a flat rate of Is. per bag to Beira, for export. 

501. Government Control of Export.—The several Govern- 
ments of the four Colonies which are now united in the Union 
of South Africa, agreed upon the policy of keeping the control 
of the export trade in their own hands, to avoid the experience 
of previous years and a repetition of the old charge of mala 
fides which had been laid to the account of the public of South 
Africa. Officials were appointed at the ports by the several 
Departments of Agriculture to inspect the grain and grade it 
according to an accepted standard, to deal generally with the 
traffic in such a way as to ensure the confidence of the oversea 
buyer, and to prevent those who had not the interest of South 
Africa at heart from gaining any temporary benefit at the ex- 
pense of the country’s good name. The code of regulations 
drawn up also provided that the grain must be properly dry 
before being railed for export, that it must be packed in new 
2} lb. bags, and must weigh 203 lbs. gross (Hoy, 1). 

502. Effect of Good Prices in Stimulating Trade.—Fortun- 
ately for South Africa, local prices were at the time well 
in favour of the South African exporter. Some Natal 
farmers between Durban and Maritzburg obtained Ios. per 
muid f.o.r., their station, for large white Yzckory King. During 
the season, local prices ranged between 7s. and ros. on the 
Natal coast and in the Midlands, and between 5s. 6d. and 
8s. 6d. in the northern districts of Natal, the Orange River 
Colony, and the Transvaal, according to distance, quality, and 
market. As much as 36s. per quarter (15s. per muid) was 
realized on the London market. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 525 


There is no question but that the inauguration of an export 
trade was very greatly stimulated by the exceptionally good 
market which prevailed in 1907 and 1908. The editor of the 
London Corn Circular stated that conditions during 1907 had 
been abnormal: “There have been no such prices for many 
years,” he said, “ and while it is fairly safe to say that the high 
rate will continue on the present crop, next year may see a 
drop of 5s. per quarter to the average. The American crop 
has been poor as to quantity and quality, and even last season’s 
yield was indifferent.” The Corn Trade List, in its issue of 
1 November, 1907, remarked that : “There is very little or no 
improvement in the Roumanian crop prospects, and none in the 
outlook of the American crop, whilst the Argentine surplus 
shows evident signs of approaching exhaustion ”, 


The 7¢mes of Argentina, of 30 September, 1907, expressed 
the opinion that there was then “ very little maize left in the 
country, and since then nearly 1,000,000 quarters have been 
exported. We have for some time held the opinion that the 
high prices have drawn out this year’s surplus at a far greater 
rate than usual, and it is not improbable that the exports will 
come to a somewhat abrupt conclusion much earlier than many 
expect. It has been reported this week, indeed, that some 
November-December contracts have been cancelled. The 
present week’s shipments are cabled as 114,000 quarters, 
against 151,000 quarters last week, and 243,000 quarters in 
the corresponding week last year: and our correspondent adds 
that the inland movement is now small.” 


503. Cause of Abnormal Prices.—The cause of these prices 
was undoubtedly the unusual combination of ‘ short” crops in 
the United States, Argentina, and Roumania, combined with 
an increased demand for stock-feeding and manufacture, both 
in England and on the Continent. Fortunately for South 
Africa, she had bumper crops, with a corresponding tendency 
to reduced local prices, which induced her to look abroad for 
an outlet for her surplus crop. It may thus be said that pro- 
pitious circumstances forced her into the oversea market. 

According to Beerbohm’s Evening Corn Trade List (Nov- 
ember, 1907), estimates of the yields in the big surplus-pro- 
ducing Maize States indicated a shortage in those States of 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


526 MAIZE 


284,000,000 bushels as compared with the previous year, and 
of 211,000,000 bushels as compared with the yield of 1905. 
But “it is always a difficult matter to suggest what surplus 
for export may exist in America ; it largely depends upon the 
price obtainable ”. 

504. Natal Shipments, 1907.—In September, 1907, the 
Natal Agricultural Journal (Vol. X, No. 9, p. 1022) reported 
that :— 


“Mr. J. M. Westbrook, of the Dalton Farmers’ Association, 
has been appointed by the Government as Inspector of Mealies 
at the Point. Not only are many farmers taking advantage 
of the Government grading, but the majority of the merchants 
also recognize the advantages to be derived therefrom and are 
having all the mealies passing through their hands for export, 
graded and weighed before shipment. This enables the 
mealies to be sold on sample before arrival. Reuter’s agent 
cabled on 20 September that mealies were realizing 25s. 74d. 
a quarter of 480 lbs. on the London market, a price equivalent 
to 10s. 8d. gross per muid of 200 lbs. If the Natal mealies 
realize the same figure, the net amount will be from 8s. 2d. 
to 8s. od. a muid according to the distance from the port. 
Merchants have this season—up to the date of these notes 
being written—sent away some 50,000 bags, and there are 
some 20,000 more at the Point ready for shipment. Farmers 
have sent away some 2,000 odd bags through the Government, 
and other consignments are coming forward by rail, so that it 
will be seen that a sufficient quantity is being shipped to prove 
the success or otherwise of the exportation.” 


In October, 1907, we find the following note in the Natal 
Agricultural Journal, Vol. X, No. 10, page 1185 :— 


“Most gratifying are the results of the effort that is being 
made to establish an export trade in grain with Great Britain. 

“Once more we see the truth of the principle that adversity 
brings strength—in national as in individual life. Our com- 
mercial depression—one day we shall have cause to bless this 
much-maligned depression of ours !—has made us look to our 
own resources ; and here we are with every prospect of some 
£200,000 or more coming into the country within the next 
two or three months as payment for the sale overseas of the 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN Se 7 


500,000 muids of mealies that we expect to export this season 
—and this season, moreover, we expect to do more than 
experiment ! 

‘The future lies with our farmers. What we are capable 
of doing now is evident. Our mealies are pronounced excel- 
lent, and they are realizing good prices in Europe: a well- 
informed Durban correspondent tells us that 27s. 3d. per 
quarter has been paid in London for our grain this month, and 
in a cable to the Minister of Agriculture on 16 October, the 
Agent-General stated that he had been informed that it is 
‘extremely probable that the market will remain at 27s. to 
28s. per quarter landed at wharf, until the end of November’. 
Freights are low enough ; and the presence of a Government- 
appointed inspector at the port ensures adherence to standard. 
What more do we want? The next step is to extend the 
cultivation of our staple crop: there is plenty of land lying 
fallow on private farms all over the country, which can be cul- 
tivated and a bumper crop be ensured next season. We have 
nothing to fear as regards the market. In the old days, to 
extend the cultivation of a crop beyond a certain limit spelt 
loss : to a certain degree, the smaller the crop was, the greater 
was the gain. Now, however, with the limitless market that 
lies before us, we can safely put more and more land under 
mealies ; and the extent of our income from this grain will 
only be bounded by our ability to produce. 

“The following from the Natal Mercury comes as a re- 
freshing breeze over the parched veld in these times of depres- 
sion, and gives a good idea of what is being done: ‘ Mealies 
are being sent to the port from up-country faster, almost, than 
accommodation can be found for them, and at the present rate 
the shed space available at the Point will be presently exceeded. 
Bags of yellow and white grain lie stacked in tens of thousands 
in Sheds C, D, E, and F, five and six deep, and covering every 
foot of the floor area, except the space that is kept clear for 
narrow alleyways between the ramparts of grain bags. Rows 
of railway trucks, loaded with mealies, are constantly passing 
in and out of each shed, discharging fresh consignments of 
grain for the great oversea market which Natal has just freshly 
discovered, and the Government inspector, Mr. Westbrook, is 
being kept employed each day, from half-past seven in the 
morning to half-past five in the afternoon, in doing nothing 
else but testing the grain in the bags, grading it according to 
quality, and certifying it to be fit for exportation as first-class 


Natal produce.’”’ 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


528 MAIZE 


In November, 1907, Beerbohi’s Evening Corn Trade List 
wrote regarding Natal maize in London :— 


‘“A new source of supply has lately made itself felt, viz., 
Natal; some very fine samples of both white and yellow 
corn have lately been received in London, and there is, 
we believe, a fair quantity still to come; the value is about 
27s. landed, whilst for shipment 25s. c.i.f, bags included, is 
quoted.” 


In December, 1907, the following London opinions were 
published in the Natal Agricultural Journal :—' 


“Discussing the newly-awakened activity in the exporta- 
tion of maize from Natal, South Africa says: ‘While coming 
seasons may not offer the same inducement in respect of very 
high prices, there will always be a good market in London for 
the grain, and the South African Colonies must be prepared to 
secure their share in this market by exporting in much larger 
quantities, and by making up in the bulk the turnover for the 
proportionately smaller profits. The difference of the seasons 
will enable South Africa to supply the European market at a 
time of the year when fresh North American mealies have 
ceased to compete. . . . The South African article has made 
an excellent impression on the European market, and is sub- 
ject to no disadvantages that do not apply to maize from other 
parts of the world. Indeed, in several respects, it is reported 
as superior to the North and South American article. For 
these reasons, South African growers and exporters should do 
their best to increase the quantity and the regularity of the 
supplies, while, of course, keeping up or even improving upon 
the present quality.’ 

“A representative of the same journal recently obtained 
the views of various people intimately connected with the 
London corn market respecting the importation of mealies 
from Natal, and the precise causes of the high prices that have 
been realized. While all admitted the hopeful character of 
the new movement, there was a general disposition to avoid 
prophecy as to the ultimate result. 

“The editor of the Lowdon Corn Circular, a leading organ 
of the trade, stated that conditions during the past season have 
been abnormal. . . . The white African variety was described 


‘Vol. X, No. 12, p. 1468. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 529 


as a very bold, floury grain, and worth 6d. to Is. per quarter 
more than the American maize. Although there is a prejudice 
against South African mealies on account of their being less 
known, the opinion was offered that if regular supplies were 
forwarded, they would obtain a firm hold on the British market 
in three or four years. A parallel case was instanced. Ran- 
goon haricots on their first appearance met with nothing but 
hostility from the buyers, but by the perseverance of the ship- 
pers, they have now come to the front. Replying to a question 
as to the best means of making the brands known, it was stated 
that there was nothing like a good market for the purposes of 
publicity in such a case. The maize should be allowed to sell 
on its merits while there was a demand, and should not be held 
back for a price which the buyer refuses to pay. As a staple 
article it would be rapidly distributed, and with showy-looking 
stuff like the Natal mealies, inquiries would soon be made, thus 
leading to a regular trade. It was added that South African 
maize germ meal, which has been coming to hand in small 
quantities during the past three months, has created a very 
good impression, the latest price being about £6 7s. 6d. per 
ton. It is regarded by English stock keepers as an excellent 
food. 

“A member of the firm of R. & W. Paul, Ltd. was 
somewhat more critical. He said that while the mealies came 
in their present condition people would buy them readily. 
When the maize arrived it looked very nice, but it showed 
traces of weevil, and the longer it stayed on their side the 
worse it became. On that account many firms would not take 
it, the Omnibus Companies objecting to it on that ground. 
‘There are very few American mealies coming in, was the 
concluding remark, ‘and there is every hope of creating a solid 
trade with South Africa if we can get anything like a regular 
supply. If the stuff comes in fits and starts no progress will 
be made. Putting the American and Natal mealies together 
there is very little to choose between the two. The African 
variety is always dry, and if the American should be in a bad 
condition its rival will have every opportunity of getting the 
best of the market.’ 

‘Messrs. Berry, Barclay & Co., who have been handling a 
quantity of Natal maize, held similar opinons to those men- 
tioned, emphasising the importance of keeping the weevil in 
check as much as possible. It was agreed that the British 
market can absorb practically any quantity provided the quality 
is maintained.” 

34 


CHAP, 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


530° MATIZ IE 


505. Lransvaal and Orange Free State Shipments.—As 
South African maize was from the start particularly well received 
on the London and continental markets, and favourably com- 
mented on in market reports, the demand soon exceeded the 
supply, and Durban merchants began to look to the Orange 
River Colony and the Transvaal for supplementary cargoes. 
From May, 1907, and onwards, they were able to obtain con- 
siderable quantities of the small round yellow and white 
Basutoland maize. 

In July, 1907, the Johannesburg correspondent of the 
Natal Witness reported that there was a movement on foot 
to export from the Transvaal some 100,000 muids of maize 
during the current season.! 

The Johannesburg correspondent of the Natal IV7tness, 
writing on 27 November, 1907, according to the Natal Agr?- 
cultural Journal,’ stated :— 


“The Transvaal Government is so greatly impressed with 
the success of the Natal mealie exportation experiment that 
they intend to make a special effort to establish a big mealie 
growing industry in this colony. A million sterling is to be 
spent in settling white men on land which is suitable for 
mealies, on lines similar to the tin-mining scheme at Potgie- 
tersrust—that is, on a profit-sharing basis. The men will be 
given ground which, if they care to work hard, will eventually 
become their own. They will be supplied with provisions and 
tools, and Government steam ploughs will break up the land 
for them. Arrangements are being made with Delagoa Bay 
to provide shipping facilities enabling sailing vessels to take 
grain in bulk (thus saving the cost of bagging), and a uniform 
railway rate from all parts of the Transvaal will be charged. 
Hence, farmers living at a great distance from the port will be 
able to make the same profits on their grain as those nearer 
the line. The new land settlement scheme will, it is stated, 
be commenced next year, thus enabling settlers to sow their 
first crops next spring. It is believed that hundreds of men, 
who are unable to find work, will be glad of this opportunity 
of becoming successful farmers. Those who are prepared to 
work hard will be able, under ordinary circumstances, to make 
a good living, as mealies can be grown in almost every part of 
the Transvaal, and millions of acres of virgin soil are available.” 

'N.A.F., Vol. X, No. 8, Aug., 1907, p. 833. 
“Vol. X, No. 12, p. 1467. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 5 


31 


3 


At the close of the season of 1907 it was found that the 
Transvaal and Orange River Colony had been the largest 
contributors to the oversea trade (Coéts, 1). 

506. Some Difficulties Encountered.—In the earliest stages 
of the industry the grain received at the coast was often in a 
condition quite unfit for export: “the bags used were mostly 
old, patched with calico, badly sewn, or even ‘perished,’ while 
the grain itself was unscreened, mixed, sometimes wet, and of 
varying weights”. This seemed likely to nip the industry in 
the bud by giving the product a bad name, and it entailed 
much re-bagging, re-screening, re-weighing, and consequent 
loss in weight. 

The difficulties experienced due to grain arriving in a con- 
dition unsuitable for shipment, soon showed the necessity for 
regulating the trade, if it was to be conducted under Govern- 
ment auspices. When the inland Colonies became contributors 
the several railway authorities and merchants concerned met in 
consultation, to recommend to their respective Governments 
uniform regulations. These were amended in conference from 
year to year as experience showed it to be necessary. Con- 
ferences were held under official auspices at :— 


Pretoria, 1908, 7 and 8 January (% 508). 
Durban, 1909, 6 to 10 September. 
Bloemfontein, 1910, 18 and 19 January (4 510). 


At the last named conference, a committee to be called the 
“ Annual Maize Committee” was organized to carry on the 
work, this committee to consist of ‘““one representative from 
each Province to be nominated by the Associated Chambers 
of Commerce ; one member of the Agricultural Department of 
each Province to be nominated by the respective Province; and 
one member representing each Province to be nominated by 
the South African Agricultural Union”. The committee met 
in Durban on 11 May, 1910, and again in Bloemfontein on 
1r July the same year, and has held subsequent meetings 
annually. 

Owing to difficulties experienced by farmers in obtaining 
suitable bags of uniform weight and quality, the Railway Ad- 
ministrations undertook, as a temporary measure, to furnish bags 
on application; when, however, local firms stocked adequate 

34% 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XIL. 


532 MAIZE 


quantities of suitable quality, this assistance was withdrawn 
as no longer necessary. 

307. Inter-colontal Conferences.—The following — resolu- 
tions were passed by the several inter-colonial conferences, 
previously referred to, and are instructive as showing some- 
thing of the problems which had to be faced in dealing with 
the new industry. 

508. Pretoria Conference, 7 and 8 January, 1908.— 


Present :— 

Cape Colony : Mr. A. Robb, Assistant General Manager, C.G.R.; Mr. W. 
Binns, Cape Government Railways; Mr. P. J. Hannon, Agricultural Department ; 
Mr. H. Moss, Agricultural Department; Mr. H. B. Briscoe, Port Goods Manager, 
East London, ‘ 

Natal: Capt. J. Rainnie, Port Captain, Durban; Mr. J. McConnachie, 
District Traffic Superintendent, N.G.R., Durban. 

Orange River Colony; Mr. A. C. Lyell, M.L.A. 

Portuguese Territory : Dr. Eduardo Saldanha, Portuguese Government ; 
Mr. Correa Mendes, C.F.L.M., Chief Clearing Officer; Mr. V. L. L. deWaegenaere, 
Port Agent and C.F.L.M. Agent. 

Transvaal; Rt. Hon. L. Botha, M.L.A., Minister for Agriculture; Hon. 
H. C. Hull, M.L.A., Colonial Treasurer; Mr. Smith, Director of Agriculture ; 
Mr. Jacobsz, Agricultural Department; Mr. Enslin, Agricultural Department ; 
Mr. McDougall, Private Secretary to Colonial Treasurer; Mr. Bok, Private 
Secretary to Minister for Agriculture; Mr. T. R. Price, General Manager, Central 
South African Railways. 

Union Castle Steamship Company : Mr. L. Clarence, Agent, Johannesburg. 

SUMMARY OF DECISIONS. 

1. Advisability or otherwise of encouraging the change of name from 
mealies to maize to correspond with the name this class of produce is now 
known by throughout Europe. 

It was resolved that the policy to be pursued was to encourage as far as 
possible the use of the word ‘‘ Maize” and in all invoices and consignment notes 
as well as bills of lading that this traffic be referred to as maize. 

2. Size of bags. 

The view of the Conference was that for the present it was undesirable to 
alter the size, namely 200 lbs. The Natal representatives reserved their assent 
meantime. 

3. To consider :— 

(a) Advisability or otherwise of bags being sold by Administration to senders 

on application ; 

(b) If it be so decided, the procedure to be adopted for obtaining the bags 

for sale and the price at which bags are to be sold. 

The following resolutions were arrived at, the Natal representatives reserv- 
ing their assent pending the Conference to be held at Durban in a few days :— 

(1) The Administration should not supply bags to traders. 

(2) Tenders for the supply of bags required by the Administration should be 

called for in South Africa. 

(3) The same conditions of railway carriage to apply to the conveyance of 

bags by the Administration as if they had been brought up for merchants 
or other traders. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 533 


(4) The Administration should add on its sale price an amount that would 
cover cost of handling, interest on capital and other charges. The 
amount of percentage to be added to be a matter for agreement between 
the respective Administrations. 

(5) The bags only to be sold for cash on delivery. 

4. The charge, if any, to be made for grading and stamping bags with 

Government mark, 

5. To decide :— 

(a) whether mealies exported not through the Administration, but forwarded 
to independent consignees, are to be stamped with the Government 
stamp, and, if so, the charge to be made; 

(4) the course to be taken in the event of the foregoing being agreed to, 
and the procedure to be taken in the case of senders who decline to 
submit to Government examination and stamping. 

It was unanimously agreed 

(1) that all bags of mealies to receive the advantage of the low railway rate 
would require to be graded and stamped by the Government and that 
the charge for such services in the case of mealies other than those ex- 
ported through the Government would be 4d. per bag ; 

(2) where consignor did not agree to this course the full ordinary grain rate 
would be charged for conveyance of such consignment ; 

(3) the grading of export maize from South Africa should only take place at 
the ports, the Natal delegates reserving their assent pending the decision 
arrived at at the forthcoming meeting at Durban. 

6. To consider :— 

(a) by whom the Bills of Lading shall be prepared and to whom forwarded, 

also whether 
(b) such officer is to be authorized to prepare bills of lading in the case of 

consignments not forwarded through the Administration for disposal, 
and, if so, the charge therefor. 

(a) It was agreed that in the case of maize entrusted to the Government for 
conveyance and for sale in Europe, the respective Coastal Administrations 
would arrange for the preparation of the bills of lading and other requisite 
documents, render the necessary services at the port of shipment, and would 
forward the documents as may be required. 

(6) It was agreed where consignor desired the service rendered that for 
making out bills of lading and other documents and rendering the other 
usual services necessary for consignments not forwarded through the Ad- 
ministration, a charge of 3d. per ton be made, with a minimum of Ios. and a 
maximum of £2 Ios. per consignment from one consignor to one consignee in 
one shipment, these charges to include provision of forms, preparation of bills 
of lading and clerical work in connection with payment of wharfage and other 
port charges, and the payment of stamps required by law to be affixed to the 
documents in compliance with Customs formalities and requirements, as well as 
any other usual and necessary services not included in the special export railway 
rate. 

Messrs. Smith, Lyell and Price recorded their dissent from the stipulation 
that a separate charge would be made for the second instalment, in case of part 
shipments due to no fault of the sender of a consignment. 

7. To decide whether the consignments are to be carried at owner's risk, or 
otherwise the course of procedure to be followed. 

It was decided that the special railway rate quoted should be regarded as an 
owner’s risk rate, but that the Administration would insure the maize against 
ordinary risk, in the case of consignments entrusted to it for conveyance and 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


534 MAIZE 


disposal, but against any special risk, such as heating, etc., consignors should be 
required to insure themselves if it was desired to be covered from such risks. 

8. Allowance to be made on weight of consignments of mealies when 
dispatched, to cover processes of drying out and sifting in transit. 

It was agreed that while the maize, as far as advantageously possible, would 
be sold on the weight as ascertained at the port of shipment, the Administration 
reserves the right of requiring an allowance of 2 per cent for sifting and drying 
out in the case of maize sent for disposal in Europe, in the event of its appearing 
that such loss in weight has occurred from such causes after actual weighing at 
destination. 

g. To decide the charge to be made to cover :-— 

(a) Preparation of bills of lading and other documents and the services 

usual and necessary in case of shipments ; 

(b) Customs charges and forms ; 

(c) Stamps ; 

(d) Any municipal charges levied ; 

(c) Charges leviable at port of discharge and by agents entrusted in London 

and elsewhere with disposal of mealies. 

It was agreed that it should be left to the discretion of the Administration to 
sell the maize on the most favourable terms, and that 2s. 6d. per bag was a 
reasonable inclusive charge to levy. 

It was further recommended the maize be insured if possible on the full 
out-turn, 

The Natal delegates undertook to represent the foregoing resolutions to the 
favourable consideration of their Administration. . 

10. To decide the time to be allowed for free storage at the port pending 
the shipment of the mealies, and the charge, if any, to be levied thereafter. 

It was unanimously agreed that free storage be given at port of shipment 
where the maize was shipped by the first available steamer, but if maize was 
detained for subsequent shipment owing to absence of shipping instructions, a 
reasonable charge for extra handling and storage shall be made. 

It was also agreed that the forwarding Administration would as far as 
possible regulate the traffic in accordance with shipping facilities. The Coast 
Administrations will advise the Inland Administration of the requirements in 
this respect. 

It was further agreed that the charge be is. per ton to cover such extra 
handling and storage for one fortnight or part thereof. After such time the rent 
to be 3d. per ton per week or part of a week: the charge to be leviable from 
date of completion of the loading of a vessel by which such consignment or 
part thereof could have been shipped. 

Notc.—The foregoing extra charge if incurred at the request of sender, on a 
consignment entrusted to the Administration for conveyance and disposal, must 
be paid by such sender in addition to the suggested usual inclusive charge of 
2s. 6d. per bag. 

11. Desirability or otherwise of making advances to consignors on con- 
signments of maize entrusted to Administration for transit and disposal and the 
amount of advances so recommended. 

It was unanimously decided that this Conference suggest the advisability of 
the Government’s consulting financial institutions as to senders (desiring it) 
receiving advances from them on consignments of maize which the grading 
officer had certified to having been received at the port for shipment and graded, 
in preference to the Administration considering the advisability or otherwise of 
undertaking such service. 

12. To consider the steps to be taken to establish a uniform South African 
standard for mealies and grading. 


COMMERCE [N MAIZE GRAIN 535 


It was agreed that a uniform system of grading be adopted for all South 
Africa, and that the same official brand shall be adopted for the whole of the 
grading, with the name of the port through which the grain was shipped, added. 

It was also agreed there shall be six grades for South African maize, namely : 
White, Ar and Az; Yellow, Ar and Az; and Mixed, Ax and A2; all falling 
below these standards to be distinctly marked ‘‘ Below grade ”’. 

Instead of having the words in full, it would be sufficient if the following 
were adopted: W1, W2; Yz, Y2; and Mz, Ma, according as to whether the 
maize is white, yellow, or mixed. 

It was agreed that stencils should be kept at stations, and consignors should 
be required to mark bags W., Y., or M., as the case may be, to indicate descrip- 
tion of maize brought for conveyance. This was to bea condition of forwarding, 
and the lettering was to be in addition to the marks each bag must PLAINLY bear 
to identify the consignor thereof. 

It was agreed that maize below grade be stencilled, in bold type, ‘‘ Below 
grade,” in a square with a diagonal bar across, beneath a crown, the interpreta- 
tion being that the Government had handled the maize and declared it to be of 
inferior quality. All maize sent to the port for export where the reduced rate 
had been made applicable, should be shipped irrespective of quality, provided that 
the bags had been passed through the hands of the grader. 

South African grade No. 1 would be considered as choice, and the grade No. 
2 would be equivalent to what was considered in other places as F.A.Q. 

Graders should select standard samples for exhibition at all railway 
stations for the information of farmers, and also the same standard should be 
forwarded to the various corn exchanges of Europe, distinctly labelled, as what is 
understood to be Standard No. 1 and Standard No. 2. 

It was unanimously agreed to record that some consideration should be re- 
ceived from the Inland Administration for the services rendered in grading and 
marking at the Cape ports and, presumably, also at the Port of Durban, but the 
details of this shall be matter for discussion by correspondence and ultimate 
settlement between the Governments concerned. 

Maize received in a weevily condition or showing the slightest sign of 
weevil should be refused and isolated and the sending station telegraphed to for 
instructions as to disposal, it being made a condition of acceptance of a consign- 
ment from senders at reduced rates that the Administration is given the right to 
dispose of weevily consignments of maize on account of whom it may concern, 
without first waiting for the instructions of senders should the circumstances 
indicate such a course to be expedient. In such a case, where the maize is dis- 
posed of locally, the low railway rate would not apply. It is also to be a strict 
instruction to the forwarding station staff that if any portion of a consignment of 
maize shows the slightest sign of being affected by weevil the whole consign- 
ment must not be accepted for export. Where weevils manifest themselves sub- 
sequent to grading, the consignor shall have the benefit of the lower rate with the 
exception of the rate for the portion of lines Ressano Garcia to Lourengo 
Marques, over which section the ordinary rate will apply. 

13. To consider the measures to be taken to ensure the observance of the 
agreement as to common standard of grading by all Administrations. 

Occasional samples are to be taken from the bags at each port and sent to 
some central depot to be examined, such depot to be hereafter named by the 
Agricultural Departments, and that the grading officers meet periodically to 
exchange views, compare notes, and inspect these samples. 

14. Consideration of sea freight charges to be levied on grain when forwarded 
for disposal through Administration, and when forwarded for disposal through 
independent channels, and arrangements to be made in connection with any 
difference. 


CHAP 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


536 MAIZE 


It was agreed that it was unnecessary to pursue this question as 1t was the 
business of the Administrations to enter up any charges the steamship com- 
panies notified. 

15. Discussion of preliminary arrangements necessary in connection with 
booking of export fruit at through rates. 

It was agreed that as this was more of a local matter between the 
C.S.A.R. and Cape Administrations, Mr. Price would discuss the details with 
Mr. Robb, Mr. Hannon and Mr, Smith. 

16. Channel of communication with London and distribution of information 
for European market. 

It was unanimously agreed that this Conference having adopted standards 
for South African maize for export, and having also come to a definite 
agreement as to the charges and methods to be adopted for the export of such 
maize, regards it as a matter of material importance that similar action should be 
taken at the London end, whereby the maize of South Africa and the information 
in regard thereto shall be dealt with and be available through one channel, and 
by means of which channel information shall be furnished to the various European 
Corn Exchanges and the public generally. 

The Conference, therefore, submits to the favourable consideration of their 
respective Governments the desirability of their taking such action as may be 
necessary to secure this desirable end. 

17. Proposal that steps be taken to encourage the establishment of a market 
at Southampton for the disposal and distribution of maize from South Africa. 

It was resolved that it be represented to the several Governments that it 
would be in the general South African interests if steps be taken to encourage 
the establishment of a market at Southampton for the disposal and distribution of 
maize from South Africa, and that the respective Governments be respectfully 
requested to take the subject into favourable consideration, and to take such action 
thereafter as may be deemed expedient to secure the end indicated. 

18. Charging of exchange and cost of cables in connection with maize sold 
by the Administration. 


5 and z 3 
It was agreed that if a charge for exchange = cabling was to be made, it 


should be the same on maize exported via each port; whether exchange and 
cabling was to be charged for or not, the respective Governments were respect- 
fully requested to ensure uniformity of practice being observed in this respect. 

1g. Whether, having come to an agreement, a joint notice should be issued 
to the public or an independent notice by each Administration. 

It was agreed torecommend that whilst a joint notice might not be essential 
it was very desirable. 

20. Confirmation of decisions by respective Governments. 

It was agreed that it be understood that the resolutions arrived at by the 
Conference were subject to formal confirmation by the respective Governments, 

21. Date from which recommendations were to be given effect to. 

It was agreed that recommendations be given effect to as from 1 February, 
1908, with the understanding that, where necessary, the spirit of the resolutions 
would be observed in the interval where it is necessary to do so. 

22. Method of arriving at agreement with Natal. 

It was unanimously agreed that in regard to the resolutions arrived at, as the 
Natal Delegates were not authorized to give decisions in certain matters, that 
this Conference decide that the channel of communication in regard to any re- 
presentations that may be made by the Natal Administration in regard to the 
resolutions, with a view to modifying the same in some minor details, shall be 
the C.S.A.R. Administration, who will be authorized to communicate with the 
other Administrations for the purpose of arriving at.a common agreement, 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 537 


23. Consignments dispatched by co-operative societies to be regarded as 
from one consignor. 

It was unanimously agreed to record an answer to an inquiry as to whether 
a co-operative society when exporting maize was to be regarded in the light of a 
firm entitled to forward as one consignor, that the position of the co-operative 
society was the same for the purpose of the resolutions arrived at by this Con- 
ference as a farmer or private individual. 

24. Certificate of weighing at ports. 

The following resolution was come to unanimously: ‘“ That in the opinion 
of this Conference, where certificates of weight are required, a weighing of 10 
per cent of the consignment be regarded as adequate to enable the official grader 
to sign his certificate of weighing, and that to ensure uniformity of practice 
measures be taken as soon as possible to ascertain what the practice is in this 
respect in the case of exporters of maize from other parts of the world to Great 
Britain”. 


309. Establishment of a Clearing House at Durban.— 
Owing to the threatened congestion of the maize trade through 
failure to secure shipping, the Durban Chamber of Commerce 
approached the Natal Government with a suggestion that a 
clearing house be established under government control and at 
government expense. The Natal Government agreed, the 
several parties concerned came to an agreement, and the 
clearing house came into operation at the end of August, 
1909. This in some considerable degree facilitated the ex- 
port business,-and on occasions was instrumental in inducing 
the Conference Lines to put on an extra steamer. It also 
placed the merchants in a position to charter outside steamers 
through the clearing house, and three of these were taken up 
at intervals. But as the quantity of freight available was 
small, and the low rate offered not very tempting, there was 
no competition, and few outside steamers could be induced to 
do business. Also the chartering of outside steamers was 
subject to the consent of the Conference Lines (Kaznmze, 2). 

510. Bloemfontein Conference, 18 and 19 January, 1910.— 

Present :— 

Railway Representatives ; Sir Thomas Price, General Manager, C.S.A.R. ; 
A. J. Robb, Assistant General Manager, C.G.R.; W. Binns, C.G.R.; J. 
McConnachie, District Traffic Superintendent, N.G.R.; John Rainnie, Durban 
Harbour Captain; W. J. k. Skillicorn, N.G.R., General Manager’s Office; S. 
Seruya, C.F.L.M. ; D. Watson, C.S.A.R.; G. S. Oettle, C.S.A.R. 

Chambers of Commerce: A. Keeling, Johannesburg; A. Lewis, East 
London; M. W. Hayne, Durban; K. Spilhaus, Cape Town; Geo. Hobson, 


Basutoland; W. Ehrlich, Bloemfontein; C. F. Kayser, Port Elizabeth; H. 
Ruffel, O.R.C. Chamber of Commerce. ; 

Shipping Interests : L. MacLean, Union Castle Line; Otto Siedle, Natal 
Direct Line, Durban; A. H. Rennie, Natal; W. Macfarlane, Union Castle 


Line, Durban. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


538 MAIZE 


Departments of Agriculture: W. J. Palmer, Director of Agriculture, 
Bloemfontein; M. J. Joubert, Bloemfontein; B. Enslin, Pretoria; B. Stilling- 
Anderson, Co-operative Expert, Transvaal; J. Burtt-Davy, Government Botanist, 
Transvaal; R. W. Thornton, Cape Town. 

Producers: H. A. Light, Natal; J. Moon, Natal; H. Stanley, Wepener ; 
Wm. A. McLaren, Vereeniging ; J. B. de la Harpe, Blackwoods, Fouriesburg ; 
J. Pierce, Heilbron. 

Official Graders: T. A. Westbrook, Durban; P. Rose-Innes, Cape Town; 
C. H. Keet, Lourenco Marques. 


SUMMARY OF RESOLUTIONS AND DECISIONS. 


1. Propuction AND HarvestinG oF Maize ror Export—Brst VARIETIES 
to GrRow—GRADING ON Farm, ETC. 
Resolution I— 

‘This Conference recommends to the favourable consideration of the South 
African Governments the advisability of issuing a joint notification, to be renewed 
periodically, to farmers throughout South Africa, giving :— 

“1, (a) The descriptions of maize which experience has shown to be calcu- 

lated to give the best yields in the several districts ; 

(b) the best methods to be employed in preparing the land for sowing and 

the best methods of harvesting ; 

(c) the descriptions of maize most in demand ; 

(d) the disadvantages of mixing maize, either as regards colour or quality, in 

the same bag ; 

(e) particulars as to the supply of pure seed and where procurable ; 

(f#) any other information calculated to be of service to growers and buyers. 

“9. That the different Departments of Agriculture issue small samples of 
pure seed to interested producers for experimental sowing, but that such distribu- 
tion be limited to experiments only, so that commercial interests will not be 
interfered with.” 


2. GRADING. 


(a) Appointment of chief government grader, with assistants, at ports and 
inland centres. 
Resolution II— 

‘« This conference recommends that in order to secure uniformity of practice 
and standards, immediate measures be taken to place the grading of maize under 
one authority, and that for giving effect to this object a Chief Government Grader 
be appointed, with assistants, solely in Government employ, at the ports and in- 
land centres.” 

It was also decided on 19 January that the following telegram be dis- 
patched to the Prime Minister and Ministers of Agriculture of the Transvaal, 
Cape Colony and Natal; a similar communication to be addressed to the Prime 
Minister and Minister of Agriculture of the O.R.C. :— 

‘The Conference at which representatives of the farming and mercantile in- 
terests, and officers of the agricultural, port, and railway administrations of the 
Cape, Orange Free State, Natal, and Transvaal are present, as well as a delegate 
from Basutoland and a representative of the Province of Mozambique, has to-day 
passed the following resolution unanimously: ‘ This Conference recommends 
that in order to secure uniformity of practice and standards immediate measures 
be taken to place the grading of maize under one authority, and that for giving 
effect to this object a chief Government grader be appointed, with assistance, 
solely in Government employ, at the ports and inland centres’, 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 539 


‘It is of importance to our maize industry in its competition in English 
and other European markets that uniformity of standard practice and authority 
should be established without delay, and I was directed to express the hope that the 
Governments would be pleased to take measures in- concert to establish such 
authority which would, ipso facto, be necessary under Union, at once instead of 
waiting until next June. The drawbacks the Colonies are subjected to under ex- 
isting differing control and directions will be explained to you by your Govern- 
ment representatives.’’— (Signed) , Chairman. 

(b) Fixing grading standards. What body is to fix grades ? 

Resolution IT I— 

“ This Conference recommends that a committee be appointed annually to 
meet at a time to be notified by the Union Minister of Agriculture, for the purpose 
of deciding the standard grades for each year, such committee to consist of one 
representative from each Province to be nominated by the Associated Chambers 
of Commerce, one member of the Agricultural Department of each Province to 
be nominated by the respective Governments, and one member representing each 
Province to be nominated by the South African Agricultural Union”. 

The Conference was further of opinion that the committee recommended in 
terms of the above resolution should be appointed in the first instance as early as 
possible, so as to enable the required regulations and certificates to be issued in 
good time for application at the outset of the approaching maize shipping season. 
The Conference also suggests that such committee be empowered to consult the 
representatives of the shipping, mercantile, agricultural, railway, and port in- 
terests, as it may deem necessary. 

With a view to giving effect to the foregoing suggestion, the Chairman is 
authorized to communicate with the respective Governments on behalf of this 
Conference urging them to arrange—in anticipation of Union—the appointment 
of the committee. 


3. GRADING STANDARDS. 


(t) Should present standards be reduced ? 
(2) Should one standard be selected for each grade ? 
(3) What percentage of sound grain is required ? 
(4) Annual distribution of standard samples in South Africa, Great Britain, 
Europe, and other purchasing countries. 
Resolution IV— 
“ This Conference recommends that the committee referred to in Resolution 
No. 3 also deals with— 
(a) Reduction or otherwise of present standards. 
(b) The advisability of one standard being selected for each grade. 
(c) The percentage of sound grain necessary. 
(d) The annual distribution of standard samples in South Africa, Great 
Britain, Europe, and other purchasing countries. 
(e) That it be an instruction to the said committee that it should ascertain 
from the European markets the grades most acceptable and decide 
accordingly.” 


4. Gravine av Porrs. 


Examination of every bag. 
Resolution V— 
“ This Conference recommends that it be an instruction to the official grader 
that every bag must be examined at the port of shipment before granting a 
certificate ”’, 


CHAP. 
XII. 


540 MAIZE 


CHAP. 5. Expory TRAFFIC. 


XII. Standard official documents. 


Resolution VI— 

“This Conference recommends that a form of certificate, applicable to all 
ports in connection with the export of maize, shall be prepared by the Committee 
referred to in Resolution No. 3, in consultation with the chief grader. Any certifi- 
cate to be issued must bear no alterations or erasures. The committee should 
further consider the advisability that all certificates be filled in with ink or type- 
written.” 

6. Baas. 

(a) Purchase of. 

(b) Use of old bags. 

It was agreed— 

‘That the Chairman obtain information relative to the correct methods of 
sewing up bags, and that he have diagrams prepared for the information of 
producers ”’. 

Resolution VII— 

“ This Conference is of opinion that old or second-hand bags shall not be 
used for export purposes, and also urges that at least 24 lbs. reputed shall be 
insisted upon for the present, but that actual 24 1b. bags of ‘‘ A” quality twill, or 
heavier bags if necessary, be used at the earliest possible date; such bags to be 
of a given measurement to carry 200 lbs. of maize ”’. 


7. Bacs or Maize. 


Limiting weight to 200 Ibs. 
Reduction of weight to 160 lbs. 
Resolution VITI— 
“This Conference recommends that the contents of bags of maize be limited 
to 200 Ibs.” 


8. Marks AND CERTIFICATES. 


(a) Grade marks as leading marks. 

(6) Reduction in number. 

(c) Stencils to be used by different Provinces. 

(d) Use of distinctive colour at each port for shipping marks. 

(e) Full truck loads of one grade without marks. 

(f) Grader’s certificates and bills of lading. 

(g) Weight certificates. 

(2) Rejected grain certificates for maize rejected at ports. 

Resolution IX— 

Resolutions passed by sub-committee formed by this Conference and sub- 

sequently adopted by general conference :— 

(a) That the various grades and sub-divisions thereof be indicated by run- 
ning numbers from 1 to 15, such numbers to be stencilled in red and placed 
in a circle on the upper side of the mouth of the bag. 

(b) That the leading mark and the port mark be one, and that the shipping 
companies be requested to submit to the committee appointed as per 
Resolution No. 3 the lettering they desire adopted for the different ports 
of discharge. 

(c) That a uniform system of stencilling or stamping be adopted for marking 
purposes, such to be decided by the Chief Grading Officer. 

(d} That the following colours be adopted by the several ports of shipment 
for indicating the port marks :— 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 541 


Durban... eae oe 2 or Black: CHAP 
East London on nha ... Blue. XII. . 
Port Elizabeth oe A als segue Red: 

Cape Town eee a as 4 Geen, 

Delagoa Bay alae ie ... Yellow. 


(e) That it be optional for full truck loads of one grade, from one consignor 

to one consignee, to be sent without sender’s marks. 

That all particulars stated on the grader’s certificate, also appearing on 

the bill of lading, shall be identical on both documents, which must also 
bear the same date. 

(g) That the railway and harbour authorities shall provide the proper 
facilities for correct weighing at the ports and shall issue weight certifi- 
cates to the shippers when requested, and that it be an instruction to the 
port authorities not to issue such certificates unless the trucks have been 
retared, 

(i) That it be a recommendation to the committee. referred to in Resolution 
No. 3 to frame uniform certificates to be issued for grain passed or 
rejected by the Government graders at the several ports. 


(gi 


— 


g. SHIPMENT or Wer or OrHerwisk Unriv Maize. 

(a) Can reduced rates apply to certain months of the year only ? 

(b) Reduction in rates on weevily maize. 

(c) Rates on rejected maize. 

Resolution X— 

‘‘(a) In the opinion of this Conference it is not advisable that reduced rates 
for maize apply to certain months of the year only. 

‘“(b) That maize railed apparently in sound condition, which was found to be 
slightly weevily on arrival at the port, be allowed to be shipped at 
export rate, providing the shipping companies were willing to accept 
same.” 

to. MINIMUM CONSIGNMENTS. 


To be accepted at reduced rates of export. 
Resolution NI— 
“ This Conference recommends that the present arrangements as to the 100- 
bag minimum consignment should continue ” 


tz. Raitway, Ports, AND STEAMSHIP FACILITIES AND RATES, 


(a) Radius of exportation for inland centres. 

(b) Port charges and services. 

(c) Similar practice to be adopted at all ports. 

Resolution NII— 

‘““(a) This Conference recommends that the export rate of tos. per ton of 
maize shall apply to all South African centres represented at this Con- 
ference, where the export rate does not amount to less than ros. 

‘(b) This Conference urges the necessity of similarity of practice being 
introduced at all South African ports, together with the services per- 
formed at each in regard to the export of maize oversea.”’ 

(d) Difference in weight of grain as ascertained by consignor and at port of 

shipment. 

Withdrawn. 

(e) Transmitting of maize and consequent mixing up of consignments. 

No resolution arrived at. (Note: For decision re ‘‘ Numerical checking of 

bags’ vide Resolution 17.) 


CHAP. 
XII. 


542 MAIZE 


(f) Advice of dispatch of maize. 

Inter-railway departmental matter. Withdrawn. 

(g) Forwarding of respective descriptions of qualities of maize in separate 
trucks. 

Vide Resolution No. g (e). 

(h) Shipping freights. 

Resolution XITI— 

“This Conference, having heard the views of the representatives of the 
steamship companies, desires to urge upon the several Governments and upon 
the Union Government the seriously prejudicial effect any increase of shipping 
freight will have on the production and export of grain; this Conference therefore 
resolves to urge upon the Governments to take such measures as may be necessary 
to ensure, if possible, 

(a) maintenance of the present freight ; 

(b) sufficient ship tonnage to carry the maize traffic ; 

(c) opportunities to ship directly to other leading ports in the United Kingdom 

and the Continent, in addition to the present ports of landing ; and 

(¢) a contract for at least three years to fix these conditions.”’ 


12. COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS BY THE GOVERNMENT. 


Such statistics to include a forecast of harvests. 
Resolution XIV— 

“This Conference recommends that a properly constituted statistical bureau 
be at once inaugurated and an expert appointed. This bureau to provide statistics 
of acreage planted, report monthly on seasons and probable yield of crops, and 
show extent of South African consumption, estimates of final yield and of export- 
able surplus, the estimates to cover native crops and monthly statistics of quantity 
exported, etc.” 


13. STORAGE OF Maize. 


On farm, stations, inland storing stations, and at ports. 
Resolution XV— 

‘This Conference is of opinion that maize for export should be stored up- 
country as long as possible, and that for this purpose the Government should be 
requested to erect covered storehouses but open,at the sides, at the chief grain- 
exporting railway stations, for the convenience of farmers and merchants, and 
that a charge be made for storing and holding grain to cover the cost. Regula- 
tions to be made so that grain cannot be held in such stores for speculative 
purposes.” 

t4. GRAIN ELEVATORS. 


Are such required ? 
Resolution XVI— 

“This Conference having! heard the views of the representatives of the 
steamship companies regarding the erection of elevators recommends that, before 
any decision be taken, exhaustive inquiries, preferably by the appointment of 
competent persons visiting Argentina, the United States, Canada, and Russia, be 
made by the Government ”’. 


15. Export Trarric. 
Numerical checking of bags by railway authorities. 
Resolution XVII— 
“This Conference is of opinion that it is desirable that arrangements be 
made by the railway authorities to check (if requested by sender) the number of 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 543 


bags loaded, even if extra expense has to be incurred by the individual desiring 


such service. The department in such instances to accept responsibility for 
numerical shortages.”’ 


16. MILLING MAIZE EN ROUTE FOR ENGLAND. 


Rail charges on maize milled and subsequently exported. 
It was agreed that the prevailing practice be continued. 


17. ANNUAL COMMITTEE FOR GRADING STANDARDS. 


Powers and scope. 
Resolution XVIII— 

“That this Conference is of opinion that the committee recommended in 
Resolution No. 3 be appointed as early as possible, so as to enable the required 
regulations and certificates to be issued in good time for application at the outset 
of the approaching maize shipping season. 

“The Conference also suggests that such committee be empowered to con- 
sult the representatives of the shipping, mercantile, agricultural, railway, and 
port interests, as it may deem necessary. 

“With a view to giving effect to the foregoing suggestion the Chairman is 
authorized to communicate with the respective Governments on behalf of this 
Conference, urging them to arrange—in anticipation of Union—the appointment 
of a committee.” 


18. IDENTIFICATION Marks. 
Grower’s initials. 
No decision arrived at in view of Resolution No. 9 (e). 


Ig. CONSIGNMENT NOTES. 
Receipts. 
No decision arrived at. 


20. MarkETS. 
Supply of colonial. 
Withdrawn ; out of scope of conference. 


511. Annual Maize Committee—The committee appointed 
in terms of Resolution III of the Bloemfontein Conference, 
January, 1910, held its first meeting in the Town Hall, Durban, 
11 May, 1910, Mr. W. J. Palmer, Director of Agriculture, 
Orange Free State, in the chair. There were present :— 


Messrs. W. Batting (Cape), J. A. Westbrook (Natal), J. M. B. Stilling- 
Anderson (Transvaal), M. Joubert (O.R.C.), nominated by their respective 
Agricultural Departments. 

Messrs. K. Spilhaus (Cape), M. W. Hayne (Natal), A. Keeling (Trans- 
vaal), H. Ruffel (O.R.C.), nominated by their respective Chambers of 
Commerce. 

Messrs. J. Moon (Natal), W. A. McLaren (Transvaal), G. A. Kolbe 
(O.R.C.), nominated by the S.A. Agricultural Union. 

Messrs. W. J. Palmer, Director of Agriculture, Bloemfontein, and Captain 
J. Rainnie, Port Captain, Durban. 

Mr. J. Woodin (Cape), nominated by the S.A. Agricultural Union, was 
not present. 

The following is a summary of the resolutions and decisions arrived at :— 


CHAP. 
XI, 


CHAP. 
XII. 


544 MAIZE 


t. Classes and Grades.—That the classes and grades for the coming season 
be designated White Flat 1, 2, and 3; White Round 1 and 2; Yellow Flat 1 
and 2; Yellow Round 1 and 2; Mixed Colours Round, Mixed Colours 
Flat, and Below Grade (all others). 

2. The Word “Class” Substituted for the Word ‘“ Standard ”’.—That the 
word ‘class ”’ be used in future instead of the word “‘ standard”. 

3. Mixed Consignments.— This sub-committee recommends that the con- 
signor be required to state on the consignment note full details, stating quantity 
of each class, and the consignor to be responsible for any extra charges incurred 
at the port through failure todo so. The railway consignment note should in 
every case reflect the class or classes of the grain.” 

4. Grader’s Certificates.—** That the two specimen certificates submitted by 
the sub-committee, be adopted, and that it be an instruction to the graders to 
issue certificates for maize classed as below grade.” 

5. Marking of Every Bag.—‘ That this committee confirms the Resolution 
X (e) of the Bloemfontein Maize Conference.” 

6. Numbers Substituted in Place of Letters.— That the grades in the order 
in which they appeared on the schedule of description be allotted each a number 
from I to 12, within a circle, and that these numbers be used instead of the 
letters and numbers appertaining to each grade as grader’s marks, and that the 
grading certificate also state the same number and indicate to which of the grade 
letters and number it corresponds.” 

7. Next Meeting.—'‘ That this committee meet again at a later date in the 
season for the purpose of deciding upon the question of samples.” 

8. Weevily Maize.—‘‘ That this committee recommends that if weevil is 
apparent on any bags in a truck, and, on examination, the grain in such bags is 
found to be weevil eaten, the whole truck be considered weevily.” 

g. Official Certificates.—“ That the grader’s certificate be written in ink or 
by means of a typewriter in terms of Resolution VI of the Bloemfontein Con- 
ference.” 

10. Steamship Facilities and Rates.—‘‘ That the Governments be asked to 
at once take up the question of shipping freights with the Shipping Companies 
in order that it might be settled at the earliest possible date.” 


512. Government Facilities for Export.—When the oversea 
export of maize was seriously taken in hand the several South 
African Governments agreed to offer the following special 
facilities to exporters :— 

(a) Special reduced rail rates from sending station to all 
South African ports. 

(2) Special reduced sea freight from South African ports 
to oversea markets. 

(¢) Service of grading officer at ports. 

(7) Low insurance when handed to Government for dis- 
posal. 

(e) Minimum of risk to consignments in handling or transit. 

(7) Government shipment arranged at minimum of ex- 
pense. 

(g) Maize sold afloat. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 54 


(2) Storage facilities. 

(¢) Information regarding export arrangements, maize 
samples, etc., furnished by the High Commissioner for South 
Africa in London. 

The conferences held from time to time resulted in con- 
certed action amongst the several colonies. 

The export business from its inception provided for three 
systems or schemes to meet the wishes of South African 
producers. 

(1) Scheme C, where the special railway rate (now 10s. 
per ton) is granted for the export traffic. 

(2) Scheme B, under which, at a combined rail, port, and 
agency charge, the railway and harbour authorities will act 
as shipping agents on behalf of the exporter. 

(3) Scheme A, whereby not only are the foregoing facil- 
ities granted, but the Union Government’s British represen- 
tative will dispose of, on the London market, the consignment 
which has been handed to the Railway Administration, at a 
rate inclusive of rail, sea freight and all other charges 
incidental to the disposal of the grain. The results of the 
sale, which are cabled out, minus the fixed deduction, are paid 
over to the consignor. 

Where full truck loads travel long distances, such traffic is 
more easily and economically handled than part lots for 
similar or short distances ; hence the Government insisted that 
if advantage was to be taken of the low export rate, a minimum 
of 10 tons for all export traffic was to be maintained. 

By endeavouring to ship unripened grain, for the purpose 
of completing oversea contracts secured at high prices, the 
ports were sometimes blocked with maize detained on the 
wharves to dry. The Government therefore provided that 
instead of receiving the benefit of the cheap export rate, 
exporters who are in the unfortunate position of having their 
grain rejected by the Government grader at the port have 
to pay ordinary rates, on which no rebate will be granted, even 
though the grain be subsequently declared fit for the oversea 
market. (Since the above was written this has been amended, 
as provided in the Regulations below.) 

513. Government Regulations and Railage Rates.—(1) The 
following Regulations were in force on and from 1 October, 


T9Q13 -— 35 


CHAF. 
XII. 


540 MAIZE 


CHAP. SECTION I. 


XU. | Scueme A.—Maize, Oats, Kaffir Corn, Maize Products and Kaffir Corn Products 
handed to the Administration for Disposal through its Agents in London. 


. All bags of maize and kaffir corn must weigh 203 Ibs., oats 154 lbs., maize 
are and kaffir corn products 183 lbs. each, and this weight is to be charged 
for as one bag in each case. 

3. (a) Ordinary consignment notes must be used, gntloreed “‘ Delivered to 
the S.A.R. Administration for export and sale in terms of conditions published 

145 Transvaal, 
in Government Gazette No. 49 O.R.C., which I accept” 
9038 Cape, 
ple hag nesnjeetie oe remnlensmeamce ttn Signature of Sender. 

(b) Consignment notes must be made out in triplicate, and each copy signed 
in ink by sender. The special endorsement must also be signed by sender. The 
full christian name and surname of sender, and the name, number, and district of 
the farm must be shown on consignment notes. 

(c) Consignment notes must be disposed of as follows :— 

(1) Original copy returned to sender receipted. 

(2) Duplicate which must give reference number and date of invoice, 
sent to Chief Accountant. 

(3) Triplicate retained at station for reference. 

(4) Charges will be as follows :— 


(a) From Stations on the Transvaal and Orange Free State Sections. 
2s. 11d. per bag in the case of maize and oats. 


38. 3d. Pe . kaffir corn, maize products, and kaffir corn 
products. 
(b) From Stations on the Cape Section. 
Maize and Kaffr Corn. 
Oats. 
s. d. sd. 


If consigned from stations 150 miles or under 
front the port . 
If consigned from stations ioe 300 males fom 


is) 


2 per bag 2 6 per bag 


the port . 205" 4) 2210), 63 
If consigned from stations over i360 ‘miles fom 
the port . ‘ ‘ . , P Sees BO. <5 


(c) From Stations on the Natal Section. 


The local rates at per bag (i.e. the local rate divided by 10) as quoted under 
Scheme C :— 
Plus (a) 1s. 11d. per bag in the case of maize. 
(b) as. 2d. 9 x oats. 
or (c) 2s. 3d. Ae ny kaffir corn. 


{d) From Stations on the Vryburg-Bulawayo Section of the Rhodesia Railways. 


Maize. Kaffir Corn. 
s. d. s. d. 
If consigned from stations distant 100 
miles or under from Vryburg . - 211 perbag 3 3 per bag 
If consigned from stations distant ro1-200 
miles from Vryburg : 3.2 ‘a 3 6 ‘i 
Ifconsigned from stations distant 2o01- Hae 
miles from Vryburg ‘ 3°05 ‘ 3 9 
If consigned from stations distant 301- a 
miles from Vryburg 2 ‘ e358 . qierO-. Fy 


COMMERCE IN MATZE GRAIN 547 


If consigned from stations distant 481-588 miles from Vryburg, the charge 
per bag will be :— 

( Plus railway carriage from forwarding station 
to Vryburg calculated at 4d. per ton per 

ee mile. 


Maize . 28. 8d. per bag 
Kaffir Corn 3s. od. 


5. All charges must be prepaid. 

6. Invoices must be endorsed ‘‘ Maize (Oats, Kaffir Corn, etc., as the case 
may be) for sale by the Administration in London”. 

7. Custom Export Form (L) must be only made out when the traffic is for- 
warded via Lourenco Marques. 

8. (a) Every assistance practicable must be rendered by the station staff, but 
senders must perform the loading themselves. Station masters should ascertain 
as far as possible beforehand when consignments are likely to come forward, so 
that truckage may be arranged, and double handling and storage at stations 
avoided as far as possible. 

(6) Trucks must be carefully sheeted to prevent wet and subsequent danger 
of heating. 

g. Particulars of consignments must be immediately telegraphed to the 
Headquarters Offices, Johannesburg, when forwarding instructions will be issued. 
This is necessary to arrange shipping accommodation, and to effect marine 
insurance on the consignments. 

to. (a) On arrival of the consignment at port, delivery will be taken by the 
official to whom the grain is invoiced, who will grant quittance to the Railway 
Department and arrange, in the case of maize and kaffir corn, for it to be graded. 
The authorized officer at the port will take the necessary steps for shipment, pre- 
paration of the requisite bills of lading, etc., and other duties incidental to the 
shipment of the consignment. 

(6) Bills of lading in triplicate must be made out in favour of the High Com- 
missioner for South Africa, London. 

11. Free storage is allowed at ports, if shipped by first available steamer, or 
such other vessel as may be convenient to the Department, but if detained at 
request of sender, the extra charges given in paragraph 39 will be levied in addition 
to the charge per bag mentioned in paragraph 4. 

12. The official to whom the grain is consigned will advise forwarding 
station master (giving reference to invoice) particulars of the grain dispatched, 
name of vessel shipped by, and date of sailing. 

13. On arrival of the vessel in London, the agent of the High Commissioner 
will take delivery, arrange for the grain to be either placed on the market or 
disposed of c.i.f., and cable by code word the amounts realized to the Chief 
Accountant, quoting reference to bill of lading. 

14. The grain will, as far as is advantageously possible, be sold on the weight 
ascertained by request at port of shipment, the Administration reserving the right 
of requiring an allowance of 2 per cent for sifting and drying out thereafter, 
should such loss appear to have accrued from such causes after weighing at 
destination. 

15. On receipt of cable advice the chief accountant will send a cheque to 
forwarding station, payable to sender, for the amount realized by each particular 
consignment, less the particular charges referred to in paragraph 4, and less 10 
per cent pending receipt of final account sales documents. On receipt of these 
latter documents a full statement and final cheque will be forwarded. These 
cheques must be handed to the original sender by the station master personally, 
who will cash same for consignor, if desired, and provided sufficient cash is on 
hand for the purpose, on receipt at foot of cheques agreeing with signature on 
original consignment note, so as to ensure payment to, proper individual. 


35 * 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 


XII. 


548 MAIZE 


16. The Administration is responsible for loss or other damage due to 
negligence or carelessness on the part of its servants or agents, and will provide 
therefor by insurance of consignments entrusted to the Administration for 
disposal, but is not responsible for any loss arising from inherent defects or 
natural causes such as weevils, heating, etc., providing ordinary care has been 
taken to prevent these arising. 

17. Consignments showing the slightest sign of weevil, either wholly or in 
part, must not be accepted under this scheme of export. 

18. Grain found at the port to be in a weevily condition before shipment, 
will not be exported under this scheme, but will be sold to best advantage on 
account of whom it may concern, at the port or such other place as may be con- 
venient, without first waiting sender’s instructions should circumstances indicate 
such a course to be expedient. The export rate for grain will not apply unless 
the weevils manifest themselves after grading, but in the latter case the C.F.L.M. 
proportion of the higher rate must be paid. The port official concerned will 
advise chief accountant and sending station of such action. 

ScHEME B.—Maize, Oats, Kaffir Corn, Rye, Wheat, Maize Products and 
Kaffir Corn Products for Export Oversea for Disposal otherwise than 
through the Government Agent, but where it is desired that the Government 
shall Undertake the Duties of Shipping Agent at the Port of Shipment. 


This section does not apply in regard to grain forwarded for shipment via 
Point, and is only in force for consignments forwarded from Transvaal and 
Orange Free State stations. 

1g. Ordinary consignment notes must be used, embody all special shipping 
instructions, and be endorsed ‘S.A.R. Administration to undertake shipping 

145 Transvaal, 


agents’ duties, in terms of Government Gazelle No. 49 Orange I River Colony, 


9038 Cape, 
the terms of which I accept,” the special endorsement being signed by sender. 
These consignment notes will be filed by stations for reference in the usual way. 
20. All grain will be charged at actual gross weight of bags. 


21. The rates are as quoted in paragraphs 22, 29, and 30. 

22. Further charges as follows must be entered up on the invoice :— 
(1) Grading Fee, when leviable_. . 3d. per bag 
(2) Shipping Fees, including swhiariiee 0 or dock dues . 3d. per ton 
(3) Agency . ; ; : : : : . . 3d. per ton, 


with a minimum of ros. per consignment and maximum of 20s. for agency work 
from one consignor to one consignee. 

23. All railage and other charges incurred must be collected before shipment, 
uuless ledger account has been sanctioned, and recharge arranged. 

24. Sender’s shipping instructions must be endorsed on Sriginal 1 invoice and 
loading note. 

25. Shipping will be arranged by the first available steamer, unless in- 
structions are received to the contrary. If detained at port of shipment pending 
shipping instructions, the charges detailed in paragraph 39 will be levied to cover 
extra handling and storage. 

26. On arrival of the consignment at port, delivery will be taken by the 
official to whom the grain is invoiced, who will grant quittance to the Railway 
Department, and arrange in the case of maize or kaffir corn for it to be graded. 
The authorized officer at the port will take the necessary steps after the grain is 
graded, for delivery to ship, preparation of the requisite bills of lading, etc., and 
other duties incidental to the shipment of consignments, including the posting of 
the bill of lading as directed in shipping instructions on consignment note, re- 
peated on invoice and loading note. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 549 


27. (a) Senders must make their own arrangements for accommodation of CHAP, 


the consignments on the vessel and for payment of freight. 

(b) After shipment of maize, oats, kaffir corn, rye, wheat, maize products, 
and kaffir corn products wader this scheme, the Administration takes no responsi- 
bility, and consignors must make their own arrangements for insurance. 

28. Grain found at the port to be weevily may be exported provided it is not 
shipped in the same hold of any vessel carrying sound grain. It may, however, 
be sold to best advantage on account of whom it may concern without first waiting 
sender’s instructions, should circumstances indicate such a course to be expedient. 
The export rate for grain will only apply in those cases where the weevily grain is 
exported oversea or is milled before export. The port official concerned will 
communicate to chief accountant and sending station the action taken. 


ScHEME C.—South African Grain, its Products, and Compressed Fodder, Forage, 
Oat-hay, and Chaff for Export Oversea through Private Agents at the 
Respective Ports. 


29. (a) The following is the railway export rate for maize, oats, kaffir corn, 
rye, wheat, maize products, and kaffir corn products :— 


To Cape Ports (Buffalo Harbour, From any station in Transvaal or Per Ton. 
Algoa Bay, Mossel Bay, and - Orange Free State TOs. 
Table Bay Docks), and Point, 

Port Natal 
Harbour or wharf dues are vo?¢ included in the above rate. 


Wharfage or dock dues on export grain and its products at Cape and Natal 
ports are levied and calculated at 5s. per cent ad valorem. 

(b) The following consolidated railway and harbour rate (including wharf- 
age or dock dues) is charged for the conveyance of South African grain, com- 
pressed fodder, forage, oat-hay, and chaff, for export beyond South Africa from 
stations in the Cape Province, via Table Bay, Algoa Bay, or Buffalo Harbour, 
and from stations in Natal to Point :— 


Upto 4gomiles. ; : : Rate 15 plus 1s. 4d. per ton 
Ito120.,, : ; ‘ ‘ f 5s.od.,, 
I21to 240 ., : . : : : . $d. per ton per mile 
Over 240 - : . é ‘ i : tos. od. per ton 


(c) The following are the rates for export for the commodities referred to in 
paragraph (b} via any Cape port from stations on the Vryburg-Bulawayo section 
of the Rhodesian Railways :— 


From Stations distant Rate per ton to any 
from Vryburg. Cape Port. 
I to 100 miles . 3 : : : ‘ t2s. 6d, 
Iorto 200 ,, . , 4 : i ‘ 15s. od. 
201 to 300 ,, . ; : , . . 17s. 6d. 
301 to 480, . : : : : : 20s. od. 
481 to 588 ,, . : : : . td. per ton permilefrom 


forwarding station to 
Vryburg plus ros. per 
ton from Vryburg to 
any Cape port. 


XI. 


CHAP, 
XII. 


550 MAIZE 


(e) The rate charged for the commodities mentioned in paragraph (a) is :— 


To Lourenco Marques. From all stations in the Transvaal (except 
those west of Klerksdorp and south-east 
of Germiston on the Natal line) ros. per ton. 


Note.—Manufactured products of grain via Lourenco Marques will be 
subject to a wharfage charge of 1s. per ton at that port, whilst in the case of 
grain the Customs at Lourenco Marques will collect the sum of 8°7d. per ton for 
similar services. 

Rates to Lourenco Marques from stations not given in above areas will be 
quoted on application. 

30. The charge for grading is $d. per bag. 

31. All the special rates which have been quoted for oversea export trade 
are owner’s risk. 

32. Storage charges will be levied as laid down in paragraph 39. 

33- All grain will be charged at actual gross weight of bags. 

34. All grain and its products for export, however, must pass through the 
Government grader, otherwise full ordinary rates as given in the Tariff Book 
will apply. If found to be weevily, wet, unripe, or mouldy, the consignment will 
be detained pending sender’s or consignee’s instructions, and the export rate will 
be increased to the ordinary rates before parting therewith; if finally refused ex- 
port by the grader, or if sold by the Administration, the higher rate will be de- 
ducted from proceeds of sale. 


General. 


35. Stencils for marking the class of maize, vide Clause 65, will be supplied 
to stations on requisition, as will also a rubber stamp with the endorsement to 
be made on consignment notes (see Clauses 3 and 19). 

36. The grain export rate must be treated as a Station to Station rate, 
including handling at the port, in the same way as Rate 15, and cartage only 
raised when performed. 

37. (a) Export grain and its products under Schemes B and C are charged 
at actual gross weight. 

(b) Grain for export will be, if desired, weighed upon arrival at the coast 
and the necessary certificate furnished at a charge of gd. per 4-wheeled and Is. 3d. 
per 6- or 8-wheeled vehicle. (Note.—The truck must be re-tared within the 
twenty-four hours subsequent to off-loading having been performed.) A similar 
charge will be made if re-weighing, and the necessary certificates, are required 
immediately prior to shipment for export. 

38. Grain and its products ex the Pankop line, for export, will be charged a 
special rate of rs. 8d. per ton of 2,000 lbs. for railage over the branch line. 

39. Shipment must be arranged by the first available steamer, unless in- 
structions are received to the contrary. If detained at port of shipment pending 
further instructions, the following charges will be levied to cover extra handling 
and storage at Lourengo Marques and Point :— 


(1) Grain awaiting shipment 21 consecutive days’ free storage, 
and thereafter to be charged at 
the rate of 3d. per ton per diem. 


(2) Grain which has been rejected 7 consecutive days’ free storage, and 
as wet, weevily, mouldy, or thereafter charged at 3d. per ton 
on any other account, and is per diem. 


not shipped. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 551 


ao 


Grain which has been rejected Same terms as No. 1. 
as wet, or on any other ac- 

count, and is subsequently 

treated and rendered fit for 

shipment and is actually 

shipped 


(4) Any additional handling performed by the Administration to be charged 
at actual cost of labour and supervision plus ro per cent. 
Fractions of a ton to be reckoned as 1 ton. 

Fractions of a day to be reckoned as 1 day. 

(5) On all other cargo received 7 days’ free storage, and thereafter 
from up-country by rail and to be charged at the ordinary 
bona fide for shipment, when Harbour Tariff rates. 
storage accommodation is 
available. 


40. Particulars of sailings of vessels available for this traffic can be had on 
application to Headquarters Offices, Johannesburg. 

41. The Administration does not now sell bags to the farming community. 

42. (a) In all cases bags of not less weight than 24 lbs., new and double 
sewn, must be used, and consignors dispatching grain for export must endorse 
the consignment note to the effect that the whole parcel of grain is double sewn 
and packed in new 2}-Ib. bags. The staff handling this traffic must inspect the 
consignments frequently during loading into trucks, to ensure the bags being in 
accordance with these regulations. 

(b) From and after 1 July, roz1, “ A” quality twill bags, 8 porter, 8 shot, 
of not less weight than 23 Ibs., new and double sewn, have been insisted upon. 

Note.—The weight of bags used for oats may be 2} Ibs., but the bags must 
in all other respects conform to the terms of this regulation. 

43. To prevent any misunderstanding with the public, the definition ‘“ double 
sewn”’ is that the mouth of the bag must be sewn with double thread first one 


composed of thread across the closed bag. No “lugs” or “ears” should be made 
on the bags. (This latter stipulation has since been made optional.) 


No marks of any description to be placed by senders on the mouth of bag. 


44. A register of private marks on bags will be prepared if senders will 
forward their proposed mark. Private marks should be of simple design, a 
square, circle, diamond, or other geometrical figure, with the initials or code word 
of owner and station code mark from which goods are forwarded. 

45. Consignments are limited to a minimum of ro tons of one kind of grain. 
Under Scheme A the Administration is prepared to accept smaller consignments 
and store them, free of charge, until such time as the ro-ton minimum can be 
made up either by original sender or by combining several small consignments 
to make up the ro-ton minimum. Station masters who think that small consign- 
ments are likely to remain on hand over a week under this arrangement must 
immediately telegraph to this office tor instructions ve forwarding. This arrange- 
ment is purely for senders’ convenience and entirely at their risk, and its accept- 
ance should be specially endorsed on the consignment note. 

46. Every assistance practicable must be rendered by the station staff, but 
senders must perform the loading themselves. Station masters should ascertain 
as far as possible beforehand when consignments are likely to come forward, so 
that truckage may be arranged, and double handling and storage at stations 
avoided as far as possible. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP, 
XII. 


$52 MAIZE 


47. Only clean trucks, or those not likely to stain or taint the grain, must 
be used. 

48. All grain for export must be loaded properly, the loading to be in rows 
and tiers, according to the particular class of truck utilized. This will facilitate 
checking the numerical quantity of bags by the staff. 

49. (a) No export grain should be dispatched from stations and sidings un- 
less the trucks be properly and securely sheeted to prevent wet and consequent 
danger of heating of the grain. All open trucks should be double sheeted, and 
roofed cattle trucks single sheeted. Windows of cattle trucks must be securely 
closed, to remain thus throughout the journey. Consignments loaded in open 
trucks should be ‘‘ridged”’ to prevent sagging of sheets, accumulation of water, 
its subsequent percolation, and damage to the consignment. 

(b) Sending stations having an insufficient supply of tarpaulins should send 
special advice to the nearest depot station requesting trucks to be sheeted when 
en route to destination. 

50. All the special rates which have been quoted for oversea export trade 
are owner’s risk. 

51. Although all the special export rates quoted herein are owner’s risk, the 
Administration will accept responsibility for numerical shortage on grain export 
traffic loaded at stations where staff is available, at an extra charge of 1d. 
per bag. Consignors desirous of taking advantage hereof must endorse the con- 
signment note, ‘‘ Administration to accept responsibilty for numerical shortage”. 
Stations must enter up these extra charges separately on the invoice, and give 
the ‘‘numerically checked ”’ receipt. 

52. The attention of station masters and others is specially directed to the 
fact that serious exception will be taken if bags of grain should arrive at the port 
dirty, soiled with coal dust, or droppings, etc., of animals, or stained with oils, 
such as paraffin, etc., owing to the unclean state of the truck prior to loading the 
grain. Particular care must be exercised as regards the cleanliness of the trucks 
when loading grain for transport. 

Should any carelessness in this respect on the part of the staff be brought to 
light suitable notice will be taken. 

53. (a) Stations must not certify as to the “quality” of the grain when 
giving sender’s receipts for consignments. 

(b) Seeing that the duplicate consignment note is commonly utilized by the 
mercantile community in its banking transactions, care must be taken when re- 
ceipting to also date and stamp the duplicate consignment note with the station 
tubber stamp, as well as endorse whenever possible the truck number in which 
the consignment is loaded. 

54. Samples of grain dispatched by the Agricultural Department to stations 
for the purpose of exhibiting grades will be conveyed ‘‘O.R.S.”’. Cartage, when 
performed, should be debited to the Agricultural Department. 

55. No export maize or kaffir corn traffic must be accepted if the bags 
weigh more than 208 Ibs. gross, Test weighing on the station scales should be 
made from time to time during the loading of the consignment. 

56. (a) Maize for two different consignees or of two different classes should 
not be loaded in the same truck, but when this is unavoidable, each class and 
consignment must be loaded separately and truck labels endorsed showing 
position. 

(6) Consignment notes should be endorsed that the grain is thoroughly ripe 
and dry, and should also state the class of grain and number of bags of each 
class, 1.e. Hickory King, Iowa Silver-mine, white (round or flat), yellow (round 
or flat), red, mixed, or any other class, and should also furnish the year it was 
reaped, i.e. ‘* Reaped, rg12” or “ Reaped, 1913,” as the case may be. 


COMMERCE 


IN MAIZE 


GRAIN 


553 


(c) All invoices for this traffic must show the number of bags of each class 


of grain, ice. Hickory King, Iowa Silver-mine, white (round or flat), yellow 


(round or flat), red, mixed, or any other class and be endorsed with the remark 


“ Reaped, 1912 


” 


or ‘* Reaped, 1913,” as the case may be. 


57. The special rates which are in operation for export traffic are only ap- 


plicable to South African products sent for export beyond South Africa (excluding 


Portuguese East Africa). 


58. The name or private code of sender, with name of station dispatched 
from, as well as a letter indicating the class of grain, must be shown on the 


bags. 


W will indicate White 


M 


” 


” 


” 


P will indicate Pink 


Yellow. Maize. Wes 
Mixed ) Mo 
Jo» 


” 


” 


” 


White | 
Mixed 
Jiba ) 


Example.—A bag of white maize, say, from Morris, Vereenig- 
ing, would be marked : 


59. (a) To facilitate handling at ports and to provide space for the addition 
of the Government grading brand, the consignor must place his private marks in 


the centre of the sack. 


(L) No senders’ marks are to be placed at or near the mouth of bags, as this 


part is wholly required for the grade and port marks. 


60. The following colours have been adopted at the several ports of shipment 


for indicating the port marks :— 


Cape Town—Table Pan Docks 
Delagoa Bay 
Durban— Point 
East London—Buffalo Hosen 
Port Elizabeth—Algoa Bay 


61. To reduce the number of marks on the bags the following is a list of 
code letters which have been adopted by the Conference Lines for oversea ports, 
and consignors should, whenever possible, endeavour to make their code and 


shipping mark as one leading mark :— 


Antwerp A Hamburg 
Amsterdam AM Havre 
Belfast BT Hull 
Bremen BN Las Palmas . 
Bristol BL Leith 
Cardiff CF Liverpool 
Cherbourg CG London 
Christiania CA Madeira 
Copenhagen Cc Middlesbrough 
Cork CK Portsmouth 
Dundee DD Rotterdam 
Dunkirk D Southampton 
Falmouth F Swansea 

G Waterford 


Glasgow 


Gre 
Yell 


Kafhr 
Corn. 


en. 
Ow. 


Black, 
Blue. 
Red. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


554 MAIZE 


62. (a) All maize and kaffir corn (including jiba) for export will be graded 
by the Government grading officer at port of shipment. 

(b) Each bag will be Government marked according to grade, if to standard. 
Every bag will be examined before a certificate is granted in respect of any 
consignment. 

(c) The classes will be as follows :— 


Maize. Kaffir Corn. 
(a) White Flat. (a) White. 
(6) White Round. (b) Pink. 
(c) Yellow Flat. (c) Mixed. 


(d) Yellow Round. (d) Jiba (or jhiba). 
(e) Round Mixed. 
(f) Flat Mixed. 


(d) All grain not coming up to standard will be Government marked “ No 
Grade” except in such cases as are referred to in paragraphs 62 (g) and 63. 

(ce) Weevily grain and wet grain which has been dried to the satisfaction of 
the grader will be permitted export under Government supervision, but will be 
granted a special form of certificate, which will be marked ‘ weevily”’ or “ wet 
maize dried to the satisfaction of the grader,” as the case may be; provided also 
that no consignment of weevily maize be shipped in the same hold of a vessel 
carrying sound grain, 

(f) The charge for grading is 3d. per bag. 

(g) All grain rejected by the grader shall be removed from the wharf sheds 
not later than the fourth day after such rejection ; provided that grain rejected 
on account of dampness may be dried by the consignee on premises to be pro- 
vided by himself and at his own expense, and again offered for inspection within 
one month from date of rejection. Such grain will, if dried to the satisfaction of 
the grader, and tendered for export in the name of the original consignee who 
received the wet grain now dried, be allowed export under Government super- 
vision, with a special certificate as provided for in clause.(¢). 

63. (a) All grain rejected by the Government grader at the ports as unripe 
or mouldy is to be charged at full ordinary rates, and no reduction of railage will 
be afterwards granted, even if the grain be subsequently exported. 

(6) Export of unripe or mouldy grain will not be allowed under Government 
supervision ; and any exported must be charged ordinary railage rates. 

64. Weevily grain stored in the sheds awaiting shipment will be charged 
the same storage charges as good grain. Additional haulage and handling 
charges will have to be paid. A cleansing fee of 6d. per short, and rs. per 6- or 
8-wheeled vehicle must be entered up, in addition to other charges. 

65. (a) To further facilitate the simplification of marks appearing on the 
bags of maize shipped to oversea markets, it has been decided to indicate the 
various grades and sub-divisions thereof by running numbers from 1 to 12, such 
numbers being stencilled in red and placed ina circle on the upper side of the 
mouth of the bag :— 


Flat White No. 1 
es ‘< No, 2 
ae oa No. 3 
» Yellow 

Round White 


mbwnnw 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 555 


Round Yellow 6 
Flat Mixed . 7 
Round ,, 8 
No Grade 9 


(6) Bags containing kaffir corn will be similarly dealt with, and the marks 
are as follows :— 


White ‘ a, ; : é ‘ Kr 
Pink . ; 2 ; 3 : ; Ke 
Mixed , ; : é ‘ k3 
No Grade . ; : ‘ : « Ke 
Jiba (or jhiba) . : ‘ ? a 


66. The consignee must in all cases be held responsible for the extra charges 
on any rejected grain or its products which have originally been charged at the 
export rate. 


SECTION II. 
Export of Grain Products Oversea. 


1. Maize and kaffir corn consigned from inland stations (including stations 
on the Vryburg-Bulawayo section) to be milled in transit or at the ports, and 
exported beyond South Africa, will be carried at the rates referred to in para- 
graph 4 of Section I of this Notice, and subject to all the conditions given in the 
“General” section thereof, plus ros. per short truck (20s. per bogie vehicle), 
plus ordinary charges for any services such as off-loading, cartage, etc., at the 
station where the grain is milled. 


(A) Where Milling is Performed at an Intermediate Station on the Direct 
Route, Prior to Export. 


2. Forwarding stations will invoice the traffic at the export rate plus 10s. 
per short truck (20s. per bogie vehicle), paid or to pay, as the case may be, direct 
to the port from which shipment will be effected. 

3. (a) In addition to this it will be necessary for forwarding stations to render 
a memo. invoice to intermediate station at which the grain is to be milled, giving 
full particulars and reference to entry to port. 

(b) When all charges are to be paid at the milling centre, sending station 
will invoice consignment ‘‘ charges paid” direct to the port and obtain credit by 
recharge entry to the intermediate station. 

4. When the manufactured product is forwarded to the port, the intermediate 
station will issue a memo. invoice to cover the consignment, giving full particulars 
and reference to charges entry from original forwarding station. (This reference 
will be obtainable from latter station’s memo. invoice to the intermediate station.) 

5. Should any charges be incurred at the intermediate station in respect to 
off-loading, cartage, or any other services, the charges should be raised at the 
intermediate station, clearance being effected by recharge on the destination 
station except when payment is made at the milling centre. Reference to charges 
entry from original forwarding station must be shown. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


556 MAIZE 


(B) Where Milling is Performed at a Station off the Direct Route, Prior to 
Export. 


6. Forwarding stations will invoice the traffic at the export rate plus ros. 
per short truck (20s. per bogie vehicle), paid or to pay, as the case may be, 
direct to the port from which shipment will be effected. 

7. When all charges are to be paid at the milling centre, sending station 
will invoice consignment to milling point, showing charges referred to in 
paragraph 6 as a “paid on” and add charges at Rate 15 for total mileage 
travelled off direct route to port, plus sidings charges where leviable, for both 
inward and outward services at milling station. 

8. When charges are to be collected at port of shipment, entry to milling 
station must show the local charges as ‘ Paid,” and forwarding station will 
obtain credit by including recharge on entry to port. 

g. No higher charge is, however, made than the local rate for haulage 
from the station of origin to the station at which the grain is milled, plus the 
export rate from the latter point in addition to the other charges referred to in 
paragraphs 6, 7, and 12. 

1o. In addition to this, it will be necessary for the forwarding station to 
render a memo. invoice to the intermediate station at which the grain is to be 
milled, giving full particulars and reference to entry to port. 

11. When the manufactured product is forwarded to the port the inter- 
mediate station will issue a memo. invoice to cover the consignment, giving 
particulars and reference to charges entry from original forwarding station. 
(This reference will be obtainable from latter station’s memo. invoice to the 
intermediate station.) 

12. Should any charges be incurred at the intermediate station in respect of 
off-loading, cartage, or any other services, the charges should be raised at the 
intermediate station, clearance being effected by recharge on the destination 
station except when payment is made at the milling station. 


(C) Where Milling is Performed at a Station on an Alternative Route, 
Prior to Export. 


13. Forwarding stations will observe the instructions laid down in para- 
graphs 2 to 5. 

14. When alternative routes are available traffic must, generally speaking, 
be forwarded via the shorter, but should the consignor elect to have the consign- 
ment milled in transit at a station on a longer route the difference in the through 
mileage between the longer and shorter routes must be charged for at local rates 
in addition to the charges referred to in paragraph 13. 


General Instructions. 


15. Grain ground into meal for cattle-feeding purposes loses no weight, 
therefore coarse meal must be reconsigned from the mill in quantities equal to 
the weight of the grain received, but in the case of maize ground into meal for 
human consumption, approximately 8 per cent of the maize is lost in milling, 
and, therefore, for such meal, shippers cannot be called upon to export more than 
g2 per cent of the weight of maize received, but of course railage charges must 
be collected on the quantity of maize invoiced by forwarding station. 

16. When the manufactured product is reconsigned from the mill, which 
must take place within twenty-eight days of the inwards arrival of the grain, 
consignors should be called upon to furnish a certificate, in writing, in the 
following form :— 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 557 


I hereby certify that the............ bagsiof mieal fore. sctsnctawacuvenedin egies 

AF hasan nment (state whether for cattle feeding or human consumption) consigned 
sala inaaunenlajnni aainite sieduanmnenaudeninn teenachisMonwned on behalf of...........e 

to be exported beyond South Africa, are the total pro- 
daieaiateuintncgamarasaiie bags of maize received from 


17. In the case of grain consigned to be milled at Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, 
East London and Durban, and subsequently exported, the Goods Superintendent 
at the ports will advise the harbour officials of such consignments, so that in the 
event of the manufactured product being carted to the docks, the necessary steps to 


protect the revenue and collect the charges due may be taken by that Depart- 
ment. 


18. Forwarding station must see that the labels on trucks containing weevily 
grain are distinctly marked as ‘‘ WEEviLy Maize ” or WEEVILY KarFir Corn,” 
and the grain described as such on the consignment note, and that such grain 
is not loaded with other traffic. The staff at stations where weevily grain is tran- 


shipped must also see that such grain is not transhipped into trucks containing 
other traffic. 


Trucks which have been used for the conveyance of weevily grain must be 
properly cleaned before again being utilized. 


514. American Ratlage Rates —The South African farmer 
grumbles against the Government, as much as the farmers of 
other countries, and has not been slow to lay the blame for 
grievances-—actual or imaginary—to Government ownership 
of railways. He has even suggested that the reduced rates 
and other facilities for the export of maize were inadequate. 
Some experience of private ownership of railways in new and 
thinly populated countries like South Africa, leads us to the 
conclusion that the South A frican farmer is far better off than the 
farmers of most other countries, and that he will be well advised 
to cling tenaciously to the ownership and control of his own 
railroads. The South African export freight rate for maize 
compares favourably with the American through rate of 26 
cents (Is. Id.) per 200 lbs. from Chicago to Boston. The 
following figures are given by Bowman and Crossley (1) :— 

“Maize is usually shipped from terminal to terminal 
export markets. The freight varies according to the route 
and method of exportation. In 1909 the rate for corn by 
river from St. Louis to New Orleans was 10 cents per 100 lbs. 
Corn shipped from Chicago to New York by lake and canal 
cost in 1906 ‘0551 cent per bushel, exclusive of Buffalo charges 
and transferring from lake steamer to canal boat. By lake 
and rail, 02572 cents per bushel covered the entire cost of 
transportation, shipped by rail entirely cost ‘0952 cent per 
bushel during the same year. Ai freight rate of 13 cents per 


558 MAIZE 


CHAP. 100 lbs, is charged from Chicago to Boston. Twelve cents 


XII. 


to Montreal, Quebec and Portland, 12 cents to Philadelphia 
and 114 cents to Baltimore, Norfolk (Virginia) and Newport 
News.” 

515. Amounts and Sources of Supply of South African 
Maize Exported, 1906-12.—The following is an approximate 
summary of South African maize exports for the seven 
years ended 31 December, 1912. It is instructive to note 
that in the dry years of 1g11-2 the Transvaal exports 
exceeded those of the Orange Free State :— 


TasLe LXXIV. 


MUID BAGS OF MAIZE EXPORTED OVERSEA FROM THE UNDER- 
MENTIONED UNION PROVINCES AND BRITISH SOUTH 
AFRICA CUSTOMS UNION STATES DURING THE TWELVE 
MONTHS ENDED 31 DECEMBER.! 


| | Cape | 
Orange Free Province Ongin 
31 Dee. Transvaal. State and Natal. and British Speci- | Total. 
Basutoland, Bechuana- fea: 
land. 
1906 3,716 not stated | not stated | not stated | — 3,7162 
1907 435764 ” ” » ome 428,663 
1908 114,825 141,203 289,535 ” 428 545,991 
1909 202,943 1,035,602 312,522 120 — | 1,551,187 
IQIO 759,330 802,149 192,026 6,203 _ 1,760,208 
IQIL 652,254 314,731 41,566 7,892 — | 1,076,443 
1912 4445756 323,991 | 63,954 140 = 832,742 ° 
ene eee eet aera ee ONE Ne oe reed ome neem 
Totals | 2,222,088 2,617,676 899,603 14,355 428 | 6,138,950 
| 


516. Details of Exports, 1911 and 1912.—Although the 
season of 1912 was a poor one from the point of view of pro- 
duction, South Africa, nevertheless, managed to export over 
1,000,000 muids (3,897,210 bushels) of maize, valued at 


'The 1909, 1910, and rgrr returns are obtained from the Annual Report, 
Union Department of Agriculture, year ended 31 December, rorr. 

* Probably incomplete, and mainly to other South African ports. 

* This is lower than the total export for that year (as given in Table LXXV) 
by 140,756; the higher figure probably includes overland exports. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 559 


£518,690. In addition to this, she also exported maize products 
to the value of £73,458, making a grand total of 1,197,483 
muids, of the declared value of £592,148. 

Of these products maize meal was the largest and most 
valuable export, amounting to £51,302. It is instructive also 
to note (Table LXXV) that the manufacture of other maize 
products is developing, and now includes samp, corn-flour, 
maizena, starch, and hominy-chop. This last item is of 
growing importance. In IQII over 75 per cent of the ex- 
port of hominy-chop, which reached a total value of 420,000, 
was exported to Germany for stock-feeding, which is sugges- 
tive of possibilities to the British feeder. 

It is instructive to note that, as buyers of South African 
maize, Australia comes first with 242,000 muids, and Germany 
and Belgium next, each taking over 204,000 muids, while the 
United Kingdom comes only fourth with 194,000 muids. 

The following figures showing the export of maize and 
maize-meal in 1911 and 1912 are obtained from the Seventh 
Annual Statement of the Trade and Shipping of the Union of 
South Africa, 1912 :— 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 


XII. 


500 MAIZE 
TaBLe LXXV. 
EXPORT OF MAIZE AND MAIZE MEAL, tog1r-r2. 

ne IQII. | 1912. 

Country of Destination. euaaiiie: SalGes Guanine | Vatie 
sees = | ] 

Maize— Muids. | Muids. =| £ 
United Kingdom aa 494,008 | 195,628 193,941 | 88,042 
Ceylon ra I I _ (ise 
Australia ‘ 

N.S. Wales . : = od 185,675'79 | 81,179 
Queensland : 2,971 891 37,918°7 16,250 
S. Australia. 5 — pe 7,040 2,992 
Victoria : 659 264 11,684 5,282 
| Total Australia ; 242,318'49 | 
| New Zealand . | == = 2°5 5 
| British East Africa . | 5 | 3 I ir 
| St. Helena ‘ | 107 69 152 97 
| Belgium . : | 344,833 | 126,759 204,787 94,043 
| Belgian Congo : =e ae 10,574 5,215 
| Kerguelen Isles : — _ 4 | 2 
| Madagascar a 4 3 5 —_— 
Germany . | 136,375 54,509 204,861 935724 
| German S.W. ‘Africa 15,018 6,219 3,130°5 1,956 
| Madeira . i | 13,970 6,155 1,770 885 
Portuguese E. Africa | 6,665" 6| 3,506 79,120'75 | 40,827 
Portuguese W. Africa Sjeau 6 | 1,348 796 
| Canary Islands 18,140 8,661 24,843 12,189 
| Ships’ Stores . | II'5 6 27°5 15 
Hse — raee 
| 
| 1,032,772 | 402,680 | 963,882 | 443,500 
| S. and N.W. Rhodesia — _— III,690 60,308 
_ 1,032,772 | 402,680 | 1,075,572 503,808, 
| Maize Meal— | Lbs. La ail Lbs. £ 
West Australia , | 200 I | 200 I 
St. Helena : 360 2 | _ eh | 
Belgian Congo i | 224 3 942 13) | 
Madagascar . —_— — 137,250 375 
| German $.W. Africa | 1,288,073 3,047 120,080 325 
Portuguese E. Africa | 1,325, ssi 3,658 | 10,693,805 35,850 
| Ships’ Stores . ce oc — — | 
2,614,424 6,711 | 10,952,277 36,564 
| S. and N.W. Rhodesia — gee 14,026 62 | 
2,614,42 6,711 | 10,966,303 36,626 | 
Corn-flour and Maizena— | 
| Belgian Congo | 1,552 26 | 884 15 
Madagascar 26 ws poe on 
German S.W. Africa 900 1g | 800 I5 
Portuguese E. Africa 1,170 se) 120 I 
| Portuguese W. Africa 80 2 | — = 
| Ships’ Stores . 226 6 | 565 17 
3,954 63 | 2,369 48 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 561 
TaBLeE LXXV (continued). 
a ieee. a earn a | 
Country of Destination. | aes oe eae a 
Quantity. | Value Quantity. | Value 
Samp— | Lbs, | £4 | Lbs. 2 aah 
Mauritius : | — a 200 1 | 
German S.W. Africa 134,389 359 206,261 617 
Portuguese E. Africa — = 37° T 
Ships’ Stores . 50 — — — 
; 
1345439 359 206,831 | = 619 
S. and N.W. Rhodesia — 964 | 5 
134,439 359 | 207,795 624 | 
Hominy Chop— 
United Kingdom 1,593,207 3,425 | 1,640,179 4,495 
Germany 6,927,846 16,342 | 6,424,750 5,087 
8,521,053 | 19,767 | 8,064,929 20,182 
Starch— 
United Kingdom ie — aaa 304,375 1,302 
Exported by Southern and N. Western Rhodesia. 
Maize— Muids. | £ | Muids. 4 
S. Rhodesia 41,362°75| 16,878 6,796 6,694 
N.W. Rhodesia | 9,572 5,020 8,982 8,188 
—_ 50,934°75| 22,498 15,778 14,882 
Maize Meal— Lbs. 4 Lbs. 4 
S. Rhodesia 1,938,576 5,620 1,672,143 5,591 
N.W. Rhodesia 2,345 1,896 9,124 9,085 
1,940,921 7,516 1,681,267 14,676 
Summary — i 
Maize — 22,498 — 14,882 
Maize-meal — 7,516 — 14,676 
30,014 | 29,558 
Suiurimey: IgI2. 
Union of South Africa— Muids. Value. 
Maize . 1,075,572 £503,808 
Maize Meal . 54,831 36,626 
Samp . 1,039 62 
Corn-flour and Maizena 12 48 
Hominy Chop 40,324 20,182 
Starch . ‘ 1,521 I,302 
Total Maize Products 1,173,299 £562,590 
S. and N.W. Rhodesia— m5 
Maize . 15,778 £14,882 
Maize Meal . 8,406 14,676 
——— =. 24,184 ———— 20 558 
Total Maize Export from 
British S. Africa in rgt2 1,197,483 £592,148 
Quantity. Value 
Maize. 1,091,350 £518,690 
Maize Meal 63,237 51,302 
Other Maize Products 42,896 22,156 
1,197,483 £592,148 


36 


562 MAIZE 
CHAP. EXPORTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN MAIZE FOR FIVE YEARS|! 
XI. 
Quantity. Value. 
Lbs. Muids. L 
Tg08 92,688,535 463,442 207,291 
1909 302,102,606 1,510,513 650,940 
IgI0 356,303,905 1,781,519 693,413 
IQIr 206,554,439 1,032,772 402,680 
Igt2 192,775,746 963,878 443,492 
TABLE LXXVI, 
GRADED MAIZE EXPORTS EX EACH PORT, torr. 
7 Durban. Cape Town. | Algoa Bay. |East Tondons Totals. | 
AON Muids. Muids. |  Muids. Muids. Muids. 
January 27,344 45427 21,952 = 95,223 
February 47,675 16,401 35,500 2,406 TOI,g88 
March 7,262 7,476 12,584 230 27,552 
April 1,961 2,792 = = 45753 
May 1,818 = =a — 1,818 
June 460 22 — — 782 
July 2,857 71904 a= = 10,761 
August 67,629 40,237 16,000 6,22 130,091 
September . 139,612 83,858 42,870 33,884 300,224 
October 105,588 75,501 34,563 7,376 222,888 
November 40,450 17,391 26,575 2,885 87,801 
December 17,715 — 12,447 2,400 32,562 
aes ae fare eee areas | Pree Ds | 
Totals, 1gIr 460,671 297,869 202,407 55,406 | 1,016,443 | 
>,  IQito 1,238,269 285,816 115,700 120,423 | 1,760,208 | 
| 
| 1» 1909 1,001,081 | 346,978 47,919 | 155,209 | 1,551,187 | 
i | 2 | | Capeand | 
| Transvaal. eae Natal. | British Be- Totals. 
| | 2 || chuanaland. 
| Totals, Igtr_ . 652,254 | 314,731 | 41,566 | 7,892 | 1,016,443 
| 5,  Igto 759,830 | 802,149 | 192,026 | 6,203 1,760,208 
| »» 1909 202,943 | 1,035,602 | 312,522 120 | 1,551,187 


1 These figures do not quite agree with the totals, also from official sources, 
in Table LXXX, but a competent statistician would be required to go into them 
fully and explain the difference. 


4 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 563 


517. Monthly Exports—Vhe following table (LXXVII) cHap. 
shows in which months there is the largest movement. in ane 
South African maize :— 

TaB_E LXXVII. 


MONTHLY MAIZE EXPORTS FROM DURBAN, 1907-8. 


1907.1 1908. | 

Month. Maize. Other Grain. | 

Quantity. CUI peer rae easy cee = | 

| pS: & Quantity. | Value. Quantity. | Value | 

| Lbs. £ Lbs. sf 

nee 7 | | 

January A | 610,337 | 2,039 | 9,698,234] 19,326 | 1,422 | 
February - | 1,725,543 | 5,882 6,835,389) 14,330] 1,202,327| 4,671 
March . : 948,343 | 3,007 | 1,984,846) 3,980) 634,920] 2,348 

April. : 682,960 | 2,228 | 3,310,669; 6,730 941,423 3,902 | 
May... 546,339 | 1,639 | 1,651,430) 3,588 | 1,698,r6r| 5,348 
June. ; 501,508 1,542 3,820,368 8,120 ee a 3,107 

July. ‘ 736,105 | 2,353 | 9,603,177] 20,315 | 2,260,704! 6,383 
August . - | 1,472,142 | 3,869 | 11,255,764, 23,623) 1,738,014 5,199 

September . | 1,578,911} 3,965 | 7,352,950] 17,590] 1,739,305, 5,665 | 

October - | 3,743,840] 8,040 | 4,003,747] 10,824 1,861,042 | 6,077 | 
November . | 3,712,225} 8,528 1,767,666 5,105 | 1,070,530) 3,785 

December. | 3,509,079) 8,354 | 1,985,805 3233 | 1,482,515} 5,453 | 

—_——— | 

Total Lbs. . | 19,767,632 | 51,446 | 63,270,045 | 141,764 | 15,851,427 53,220 | 

»» Muids | 98,838 | — 316,350) — | eon) = | 

| 


518. Destination of Maize Exported.—The following table 
of official figures on the maize export of 1908 was _ pre- 
pared by the Natal Government Railways, and published by 
the Press Agency, in various South African papers, e.g. the 
Sunday Times, Johannesburg, 24 January, 1909. The total 
amount exported through Durban for the year was 545,991 
muids, valued at £251,494, as compared with 428,663 muids 
in 1907, valued at £171,169. The increase amounted to 
117,328 muids, valued at £80,325. 


.N.B.—The figures for 1907 include all other sorts of grain and meal; in 
order to indicate the relative proportion which the latter occupy, their figures for 
1908 are given alongside the maize figures for that year. 


% 


oe 


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THAXXT S14¥ 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 


565 
Taste LXXIX. 
DESTINATION OF MAIZE EXPORTED, tort. 
eon oa ve Sh eee oat 
| Dentnaion. [Rasta | ape Town.) Aig Be. | and, | Ze 
Muids. 
Antwerp . 7 | 99,890 ILI,326 | 125,804 | — 337,020 
Hamburg . | 61,395 16,367 | 19,162 35,572 132,496 
London 229,265 106,256 579531 19,834 | 412,886 
Liverpool 5,639 — | _— | = 5,639 
Southampton —_ 1,351 | — ; o— 1,351 
Belfast = 3,501 _ jf o— 3,501 
Glasgow . — 43,876 | — leet 43,876 
Canaries . : ; 30,487 -— | — Hee 30,487 
German West Africa — 15,192 | — — 15,192 
Inter-colonial 33,995 _— | _ — 33,995 
| hes 
Totals, rgIt 460,671 297,369 | 202,497 55,406 | 1,016,443 
| 


519. South African Ports of Export.—Durban is the prin- 


cipal maize-ex porting port of South Africa, for her geographical 
position with regard to the Maize-belt gives her an advantage, 
of which her enterprising merchants and energetic Harbour 
Board have made good use. The tonnage sent through this 


port in 1907, 1908, and 1909 is given by Downie (2) as 
follows :— 
Tons. Bags. Bushels. 
1907 51,740 517,460 1,724,870 
1908 54579 545,790 1,819,971 
1909 102,280 1,022,800 31409, 336 


In 1909 the amount was approximately two-thirds of the 
total amount of maize exported from British South Africa, 
the remaining third was shipped through East London, Port 
Elizabeth, and Cape Town. Practically none was sent through 
Delagoa Bay. 

Durban merchants claim the following advantages for their 
port :— 

(1) It is the nearest port to almost all the best maize 
districts. 

(2) The grain, therefore, has the shortest time on rail, with 
less risk of loss in weight and damage through heating, weevil, 
etc. 

(3) Speedier realization and quicker returns. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


566 MAIZE 


CHAP. (4) Storage under covered sheds. 

see (5) No other port offers the same facilities for quick 
shipment. It is the starting-point for all the regular liners ; 
a direct service to London is given by two steamship com- 
panies. 

(6) The more expeditious the shipment, the less risk of 
grain getting out of condition before shipment. 

(7) Durban is the largest market for the export trade. 

(8) It is also the largest local market, possessing an in- 
creasing number of mills and factories, and grain which is 
not exported has a better chance for local disposal, at better 
prices. 

Table LX XX, obtained from official documents, shows the 
relative quantities exported through the several ports in 1912. 
The figures in this table must be approximate only, as the total 
does not quite agree with the export total given in the Axnzal 
Statement of the Trade and Shipping of the Union of South 
Africa, for 1912. 


TaBLE LXXX. 


AMOUNTS OF MAIZE EXPORTED THROUGH THE SEVERAL 
PORTS, ror2. 


| Maize. | Maize Meal. Be 
| ee Value. 
i 7 ene fil elegy 
| Muids. if | Lbs £ | £ 
ee Pome: eel erecta ieee | 
| 
Cape Town . | 296,419 | 128,032 | II4,950 | 306 128,338 
Port Elizabeth | 30,537 | 13,642 | — i) 13,642 
East London. | 16,771 6,918 | _ | _— | 6,918 
Durban. . —. | 536,302 | 250,461 | 7,910 | 35 | 250,496 
Other Union Ports . I1,474 | 5,678 | 60 | I 5,679 
Delagoa Bay . ‘ 72,283 38,761 10,828,251 36,206 | 74,967 
Beira Feira and | | | 
Overland . / | 9,718 | 9,034 | 2,729,487 12,083 | OT TL 
ieee ee eee oot et eae | 
Total : + | 973,597 | 452,526 | 13,680,658 48,631 | 501,157 
| 


Lourengo Marques, though the nearest port to the Central 
Transvaal, has taken very little maize for export. East Lon- 
don and Port Elizabeth have taken some of the crop, and have 
been found useful outlets when Durban was congested. Cape 
Town, being farthest removed from the producing centres, 


567 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 


a. j 
= S| | 6.66 EFb‘g1o'r ‘ * yeqoy 
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‘(SGINW NI) 1161 ‘VOINAY HLNOS WOYA GALYOdXA AZIVW AO SASSVTO GNV SAILAINVA 


‘TXXX'T STEVE 


CHAP. 
XII. 


568 MAIZE 


has in previous years received little attention from exporters, 
but now that the export railage rate has been made uniform 
to all the ports, Cape Town is worth consideration, because 
of her dry summer climate, which should tend to check the 
development of weevil and grain moth, and to reduce the per- 
centage of moisture absorbed by the grain, thus making her 
an especially good summer port of export. Beira is the port 
for Rhodesia. 

320. Varieties and Classes of Maize Exported—Of the 
1,000,000 muids exported by South Africa in 1911, 804 per cent 
consisted of the three grades of flat white (73°5 per cent was 
No. 2 grade and 51 per cent was No. 1), and 134 per cent of 
round yellow. The balance was made up in the following 
order: flat yellow, 2°77 per cent; round mixed, 1°3 per cent ; 
below grade, ‘9 per cent; round white, -7 per cent ; and flat 
mixed, °3 per cent. The details are given in Table LX XXI. 

521. Grading at the Ports.—Graders are established at each 
of the exporting ports, and are under the direction and control 
of the Chief Inspector of Grain of the Union Department of 
Agriculture ; all grain exported must pass through their hands. 
Brown-Duvel moisture testers are placed in their offices and 
have proved of inestimable value in determining the moisture- 
content of the grain offered for export. During the season 
I9QII, 147,302 bags of maize were rejected at the ports as 
wet or mouldy. It is found that maize railed from the 
interior Provinces in a wet condition is usually more or less 
musty on arrival at Cape ports, whilst wet maize railed to 
Durban does not have time to become musty, owing to the 
shorter railway journey. Warnings against sending wet maize 
to the ports are issued in all the leading South African news- 
papers and journals. The Annual Maize Committee (1911) 
recommended that the Government should discourage the ex- 
port of kiln-dried maize, and the Regulations were accord- 
ingly amended. 

522. Effect of Grading at the Ports—The grading regula- 
tions enforced at the South African ports during the season 
1912-13 gave great satisfaction in the English market, and the 
writer was urged by merchants on the Baltic, Mark Lane, and 
Liverpool Exchanges to impress upon the Government the 
importance of not relaxing these regulations one jot. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 569 


It is satisfactory to note that no complaints from Europe CHAP, 
were received by the Department of Agriculture during the *!/ 


Fig. 192.—Grading maize for shipment, Durban, 


CHAP. 


XII. 


570 MAIZE 


TaBLeE LXXXII. 
MAIZE es aaa ED BY GRADERS, tort. 


aoe 
| Wet. Mouldy. | Weevily. 
| 
eee are ae See | pee 2s 
| Muids. Muids. Muids. 
Durban . 67,340 4,319 7,017 
Cape Town | 46,115 | 10,764 124 
Algoa Bay | 6,136 | 8,404 | — 
East London. 2625 | 2,103 | 1,124 
| —s 
Totals, rgtr . | 121,712 | 25,590 | 8,865 


VARIOUS SHIPPED WEEVILY OR RE-DRIED. 


From Weevily. Re-dried. Kaffir corn. Oats. | Chop 
| 
[ae = = | 
Muids. Muids. Muids. Muids. | Muids 
Durban i Pi = 13,665 — _ | 39,758 
Cape Town : _ 18,789 | — 13,121 300 
Algoa Bay... —_ eae | 
East London 709 1,903 | IIo | _ | aS 
| | 
Totals, 1911 709 34,357 | IIo | 13;T2r | 40,058 
| 


year IQII, in respect of any consignment of grain exported 


under Government supervision. 

523. Description of Grades—The Annual Maize Com- 
mittee ( 506) of 1910 adopted a schedule of twelve grades 
for maize, but the 1911 Committee, sitting at Cape Town on 
24 April, considered it desirable to abolish the No. 1 grades 
for Flat Yellow, Round White, and Round Yellow, thus 
reducing the grades to nine! This was agreed to by the 
Government, the change published by Government Notice No. 
196, of 10 February, 1912, reading as follows :— 

With reference to Government Notice No. 964, of the § 
June, 1911, in regard to the grading of maize, kaffir corn, and 
jiba intended for export from South Africa, the Right 
Honourable the Minister of Agriculture has been pleased to 
approve of the deletion of clause ¢ze/ve thereof, and to sub- 
stitute therefor the following. This alteration to have force 
and effect on and after 1 May, 1912 :-— 


' These could be still further reduced by combining F.W.3, R.W., F.M. and 
R.M. in one grade, to be called either ‘Mixed ” or ‘* Maize ” 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 571 
12. The following shall be the classes for grading -— 


MAIZE GRADES. 


Grade Mark | 


to be Shown | Class. | Description. 
on Bags. | | 
| 
ie | rea ae 
| I | F.W.1 | To be sound, dry, plump, and well cleaned, with a | 
y, plump , 


| maximum of together 1 per cent of yellow, dis- 
__ coloured or defective grain. 

F.W. _To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
| containing more than 3 per cent of defective grain 
| and 5 per cent of other coloured grain. 

% F.W. 3 | To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
| | containing more than 8 per cent of defective grain 
and 5 per cent of other coloured grain. Berries 
may be of irregular size and shape. 
4 F.Y. | To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
containing more than 4 per cent of defective grain 
and 5 per cent of other coloured grain. Berries may 
be of irregular size. 
5 R.W. To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
containing more than 4 per cent of defective grain 
and 5 per cent of other coloured grain. Berries may 
be of irregular size. 
6 RY. To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not con- 
taining more than 4 per cent of defective grain and 
5 per cent of other coloured grain. Berries may be 
of irregular size. 
7 F.M. To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
containing more than ro per cent of defective grain. 
8 R.M. To be sound, dry, and reasonably cleaned, and not 
containing more than ro per cent of defective grain. 
9 No Grade | To include all maize which cannot be classed in a 
| higher grade but in a dry condition and fit for ship- 
ment. 


to 
nN 


| 


524. Graders Certificate——The following is the form of 
certificate recommended by the Maize Committee :— 


UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


OFFICE OF THE GRADER OF GRAIN, 


Grain Certificate No.......... 


I hereby certify that the grain described hereunder has been duly 
examined by me and found to be in sound condition and equal to the standard 
herein set forth, and is contained in bags in accordance with Government 
regulations. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


572 MAIZE 


CHAP. Shipment per S\SsnAs ccsnacnsersncnsemecsnnnenmrncngatins 
XII. Consigned to port of............ 
Consignor ween 


Number of bags ....... 
Condition of bags...... 
Shipping marks 
Class and grade casted i master coe cb ava courses (cist a aint ea 
Grade-mark shown: on bags). secsisaicacussasswcunmannaareaian 
» Remarks wcccscccccsne sess 


This certificate is issued by the Government of the Union of South Africa 
without involving any responsibility whatever on the part of the said 
Government. 


Government Grader. 


” Chief Inspector of Grain. 

525. MWeevily Matze-—The Maize Committee (1911) 
recommended, and the Government approved, that in the 
event of grain developing weevil after it has been graded, the 
consignee shall, upon receipt of notice thereof from the grader, 
remove the same forthwith ; this stipulation has been embodied 
in the grading regulations. 

526. Removal of Rejected Maize at Ports.—A regulation 
was promulgated by the Railway Administration, in 1911, to 
the effect that all grain rejected by the grader shall be removed 
from the wharf sheds not later than the fourth day after such 
rejection, but consignees were allowed to dry wet maize on 
premises provided by themselves, and to again tender same 
to the grader, for export. 

527. Re-bagging.—The Annual Maize Committee (1911) 
resolved that if a consignment arrives at a port, and the grader 
cannot pass the bags, the consignee shall be permitted to re- 
bag; this was accepted by the Government, and the necessary 
instructions were issued to the graders. 

528. Marking Grades on Bags.—In the season of 1910 
there was some complaint about the ink used for marking 
grades on bags; a new ink was introduced in 1911, which 
seems to be satisfactory, no complaints having reached the 
Department during that year. 

529. Untformity in Practice of Handling and Storing at 
Wharves.—At the time when the export trade was inaugur- 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE'GRAIN 573 


ated, different methods of handling and storing grain were 
in vogue at the several ports, as they were not then adminis- 
tered by one central authority. Uniform methods and charges 
for handling and storing grain in the wharf sheds at the dif- 
ferent ports have now been instituted. 

530. Bag Handling of Grain.—The South African grain 
crop is entirely handled in bags, so also is the Australian 
wheat crop and that from the Pacific States of North America 
(California, Oregon and Washington), as well as part of the 
wheat and maize crops of Argentina. 

The principal objections to bag handling are: (1) the cost 
of the bags; (2) the loss of time in handling the crop both at 
port of export and port of import; (3) greater storage space 
required. On the other hand, small parcels of bagged grain 
of different grades can be carried in any sort of railway truck 
and any type of vessel, whereas bulk handling limits the type 
of truck. 

Much dissatisfaction exists with regard to the bag grain 
trade of Argentina, and shipment in bulk seems to be on the 
increase. 

In the case of “Choice” (No. 1) flat white maize, the 
European trade appears to think that as it is a special quality, 
commanding a special price, it would be well to continue to 
ship it in bags; as it comprises only about 5 per cent of the 
export, this might be done without difficulty. 

531. Quality of Grain Bags.—It has been found necessary 
to regulate the size, weight, and quality of bags used for export. 
The Annual Maize Committee (1911) confirmed the decision 
previously arrived at, that maize intended for export oversea 
shall be contained in new bags, of 24 lbs. weight, ‘‘A” quality 
twill, 8 porter, 8 shot; bags when filled must weigh 203 lbs. 
gross, and the mouths must be double sewn, i.e. with double 
thread, first one way across and then in the reverse direction. 
“ Ears” on the bags are objected to; it is better to sew right 
across the bag from side to side. 

The grain bags at present in use are made of jute and are 
obtained from India. Their manufacture is said to be largely 
in the hands of small makers, and the trade is ‘cut so fine,” 
that it leaves but a small margin of profit to be divided 
between manufacturer and dealer. Cases have been reported 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


574 MAIZE 


where some unscrupulous manufacturer or oversea dealer has put 
lighter-weight bags in the centre of the bale, to the annoyance 
and loss of the farmer. The bags now in general use measure 
44 x 26 or 27 inches, and cost about 40s. per 100 f.o.r. Durban, 
or 7d. each wholesale, and gd. each retailed in small lots, in 
the interior. If not badly damaged, they sell on delivery in 
Europe for about 34d. apiece. Some farmers and merchants 
have advocated the use of 3 Ib. bags as more serviceable and 
more generally useful than the 24 Ibs. weight, but it is con- 
sidered that the latter, if made of good quality twill, should be 
sufficiently serviceable. Some even advocate the use of 24 Ib. 
bags on account of their lower cost, and the fact that they are 
used in the Argentine maize trade ; the price paid in Argentina 
is said to be about 4d. wholesale, as compared with 53d. whole- 
sale at the coast, in South Africa, for the heavier bag ; buyers 
would allow 2d. for these bags in England; the difference of 
13d. per muid or 34d. per quarter, although in favour of the 
South African shipper, would not, it is believed, compensate 
for the loss and inconvenience entailed by the use of the lighter 
bag. H.B.M. Consul at Rosario, Argentina, reports that owing 
to the poor quality and irregular sizes of the bags used in the 
Argentine trade, a large quantity of grain is lost in handling, 
and that shippers of Argentine maize are endeavouring to 
arrange for the use of stronger bags of uniform size, recog- 
nizing that the saving of grain now lost, and the greater 
facility in handling and storing bags of uniform size, would 
more than compensate for the slight increase in cost. 

At Bahia Blanca the bags on arrival are ripped open by 
men armed with sharp knives, the grain is poured into the 
ship’s hold and the empty bags are returned. 

For retail in Europe, bags of close, heavy twill, carrying 
240 lbs. (half a ‘“‘quarter”) are used. These are returned to 
the wholesale merchant, by the buyer, or retained at a charge 
of Is. 6d. each. It has been suggested that South Africa might 
ship in this half-quarter sack ; but it is too expensive, the trade 
does not ask for it, and the 240 Ibs. bag is too heavy to handle 
on the farm and at the store. It has even been suggested 
that 120 lbs. bags (quarter of a “ quarter”) should be used ; 
but this would mean a higher total cost for bagging, and it 
would be inconvenient, as the South African unit of weight is 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 575 


the muid of 200 Ibs. The muid bag of 203 lbs. gross (200 Ibs. 
net) seems to be the most satisfactory, all things considered. 

532. Bulk Handling.—The value of bulk over bag ship- 
ment appears to depend on three factors, viz.: (1) Saving in 
cost of bag charges to the farmer, inasmuch as he can use the 
same bags over again; (2) reduced cost of shipment, resulting 
in lower rates, due to saving of time at each end of the voyage, 
in loading and unloading the cargo; cargo entirely bulked 
does not fetch quite as much as a cargo in bags, but this is 
because the value of the bags is always calculated very 
carefully by importers in offering a price; bulk shipment un- 
doubtedly facilitates the loading and unloading of the vessels ; 
(3) greater uniformity in cargo, slight variations being evened 
up in the bulk. 

Odessa, and other Russian and Danubian maize, is almost 
invariably shipped in bulk ; so is North American. Argentine 
maize is shipped in three ways: in bulk, in bags, and some- 
times part bulked and part bagged, but most of it is exported 
in bulk. 

Sir Thomas Price found that the greater part of the Euro- 
pean trade was in favour of bulk shipment from South Africa. 
The reasons advanced were: the greater expedition in dis- 
charging ; lesser cost of handling ; better arrangements for and 
accuracy in weighing ; and the dislike there is in many quarters 
to a bag of a special description (such as that used by South 
Africa) which differs in size, and in fastening at the mouth, 
from the bags which are common in the grain trade at the 
ports of Great Britain and on the Continent. 

Bulk shipment means the minimum of cost in handling, the 
cheapest transport, and, what is perhaps of most consequence, 
it ensures that the grain will be placed on the purchasing 
market according to sample. The conclusion arrived at by 
Sir Thomas Price is that “it would be an advantage to South 
Africa to ship in bulk, but before any decision is taken or 
expense incurred in making facilities for so doing, it would 
be well to ascertain whether the shipping companies would 
be prepared to ship in bulk, or whether the apparatus to be 
provided at the ports should be suitable for dealing with 
bags as well as bulk until such time as the steamship com- 
panies can be induced to resort to bulk loading, as is becom- 


CHAP, 
XII. 


576 MAIZE 


CHAP. ing so increasingly the practice in practically 'all other parts 


XII. 


of the world—that is, if the shipping companies insist upon 
carrying the grain in bags” (Price, 2). The question is one 
which should be decided as early as possible, before vested 
interests and outlay on rolling stock, warehouses, and ma- 
chinery make it too expensive to change. There is no question 
that whichever system is finally adopted, a good deal of saving 
in time and expense can be effected as compared with that 
incurred by present methods. Economical handling must be 
adopted if a large export trade is to be built up. 

533. Leme Saved by Bulk Handling. —Bulk grain can be 
loaded in at most two-thirds of the time required for bagged 
grain. At Bahia Blanca it has been found that the capacity 
of the electric conveyors is 150 tons per hour of bulk grain, 
but only 100 tons per hour of bagged grain ; at some ports 
the movement is said to be more rapid. This fact is of great 
importance in regulating the cost of export. Ifa ship takes 
six days to load and six to unload a cargo of bagged grain, 
instead of four days required for each operation of handling 
bulk grain, the extra cost to the shipping company, which is 
ultimately borne by the farmer, would be large. 

534. Saving in Cost by Bulk Handling —A competent au- 
thority, of many years’ standing in the handling of maize ship- 
ments, calculates the saving to South Africa by bulking the maize 
cargoes, at 41,225 for every steamer of 6,000 tons capacity. 

“Bulk grain is worked very much quicker in some places 
than is the case at Bahia Blanca, and it can, I am sure, be 
safely stated that as a rule it is done in one-third of the time 
that it takes for bagged grain, and therefore that saving, alone, 
at ports of shipment and discharge, would justify bulk ship- 
ments. 

“Take a 6,000-ton capacity steamer. She would cost in 
port to her owners about £40 per diem and would save at the 
loading and discharging ports an aggregate of eight days with a 
bulk grain cargo, compared with a pag cargo, and with the extra 
cargo displacing the bags, say 56 tons, besides the reduced 
stevedoring cost at both ends, i.e. from 9d. with bags to 6d. 
with bulk, the aggregate monetary saving to her would ap- 
proximate £500. 

“Then South Africa’s direct gain would be a saving on 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 577 


the shipping expense of possibly 4d. per ton, equalling £100. CHAP. 
Also, in a6,000-ton bulk cargo 16,000 bags would be sufficient *!I- 
for securing purposes, giving a saving of 50,000 bags which 
would in the case of bag cargoes be at least 3d. per bag lost to 
South Africa each voyage, whereas with bulk cargoes the same 

bags could be used over and over again. This item of loss 
could be safely stated at £625, giving a total of £725 as South 
Africa’s direct gain or a total gain of £1,225 to work on for 

a cargo of 6,000 tons; and on that basis 100,000 tons shipped 

in bulk would mean that we were in a better position by 
420,000, equalling 4s. per ton, to meet competition, etc.” 

As a result of his investigations in Europe and America, in 
1911, Sir Thomas Price (2) found some diversity of opinion as 
to the aggregate saving by shipping in bulk, but he was inclined 
to accept the opinion of Hamburg merchants that it might be 
put at 5s. per ton, with no less price, but the possibility of ob- 
taining a higher price, for the grain; this 5s. per ton would 
obviously go into the pockets of the producer of the grain. 
There can be no doubt, he adds, as to the greater expedition in 
handling, and that there would be a saving of at least half the 
cost of the new bag which is now used; and, if the worst comes 
to the worst in the matter of the price paid for exporting the 
grain, i.e. if South Africa had to pay more than 11s. 6d. per ton 
(which it should not have to do), this saving in the price of the 
bags, which should amount to at least 2s. 11d. per ton, and 
probably 3s. 4d. per ton, would be valuable. 

535. Accumulation and Storage at Inland Centres.—The 
present method of handling grain in South Africa is not 
entirely satisfactory. Maize is indiscriminately forwarded by 
the farmer or storekeeper direct to the coast, whenever he so in- 
clines, irrespective of shipping facilities. There it is ware- 
housed to await arrival of the steamer ; as there are no elevators, 
the bags of grain are stored in flat sheds, causing serious con- 
gestion of wharf accommodation. It is highly desirable that 
transit grain silos or warehouses should be erected at large 
inland collecting centres, as is done in Australia and the United 
States ; then, when a sale was effected, particulars of the steamer 
and date of arrival at the port could be communicated to the 
railway administration, which could, if necessary, run special 
fast maize trains from the elevators direct to the port and 

37 


CHAP. 
XII. 


578 MAIZE 


alongside the vessel, where the grain could be rapidly dis- 
charged into the hold by electric belt-conveyors. Such a 
system could be adapted to the handling of grain either bagged 
or in bulk. 

In Australia and the Pacific Coast States of North America, 
where the wheat crop is bagged, the bags of grain are stacked 
in flat sheds at the railway stations awaiting truckage. Where 
the crop has exceeded the accommodation provided, as is likely 
to happen in years of exceptionally good harvests or where 
new ground is constantly being broken by the plough, it often 


Fic. 193.—Re-bagging maize from small dealers, Vereeniging. 


happens that the surplus sacks of grain must be stored outside 
the sheds, under tarpaulins. 

536. Transit Silos and Elevators—The growth of the 
Elevator System in the United States and Canada has been 
rapid ; in tgor the total capacity of the whole of the Chicago 
elevator warehouses was only 28,150,000 bushels (7,885,154 
muids), while in 1910 it had increased to 58,945,000 bushels 
(16,371,150 muids) (Downe, 1). Now, the major portion of 
all grain handled in the United States and Canada is trans- 
ported in bulk. At nearly all the important roadside stations 
in the Maize-belt, ‘ransit warehouses and elevators are placed, 
for storage purposes and to facilitate loading and off-loading ; 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 579 


at the more important of these stations there may be as many CHAP. 
as a dozen such elevators. a 


Fic. 1¢4.—Granary and elevator. 


ar 


CHA 
XI 


Pi 


580 MAIZE 


Arrangement of spouts 
for delivering into 
and discharging 
from various 
\ ‘ 
\ bins. 


Arrangement of floor 
spouts for delivering 
to and discharging 
from various 
floors. 


Band conveyor with travelling 
throw-off. 

Telescopic door shown closed. 

To be raised when required to 

discharge from floor as shown at A. 


Delivery _ 
spout 


5 
is 

peu Telescopic door shown fa 
closed. To be raised to 

EP receive removable 

| spreaderfordischarging Ff 

1@l to floor asshownat B. gf 


, Telescopic door shown raised 
to discharge from floor, 


Telescopic door shown 
closed. To be raised to 
receive removable 
spreader for discharg 
ing to floor as show: 
at B. 


AGRO SUT EA TRAE 


N. 
y 


lid\ Telescopic door shown closed. 
sae) To be raised when required to 
i J\\ discharge from floor as shown at 4. 


Telescopic door 
« shown raised for 
~ delivery on to floor 
3 below. 
Removablespread- 
er shown in posi- 
tion. ou 


ao Bl 


Fic. 195.—General arrangement of Spencer’s improved system of granary floor 
spouts. (Courtesy of Messrs. Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham.) 


The transit warehouses act as local collecting centres, from 
which the grain is dispatched in bulk to the large markets, 
where it is received into the larger ¢ermnal silos. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 501 


Fig. 196.—Automatic weighing and bagging off, from terminal silo, with Avery 
scales. (Courtesy of Messrs. W. T. Avery, Ltd., Birmingham.) 


CHAP. 
XII. 


552 MAIZL 


537. Payment to Farmers.—In the United States it is 
customary to pay the farmer for his grain as soon as it has 
been delivered, weighed, classified and graded at the warehouse. 
The price paid is usually slightly below the ruling market 
rates. But the farmer is generally anxious to realize on his 
crop, as soon as it is threshed, so that he can pay his rent or 
other debts, or turn the money into stock for fattening. 
Immediate payment relieves him of much trouble and anxiety ; 
as soon as he is paid, his control over the grain ceases 
(Downe). 


Fic. 197.—Loading trucks, Vereeniging. 


538. Tracking in Bags and in Bulk —YVhe principal 
advantage of the bag system of handling grain is that it enables 
the railway administrations to turn to account their whole 
freight rolling-stock, to handle a rush of grain to the coast. 
For handling bagged grain any size or shape of truck can be 
used (Fig. 197), whereas a stock of special types of truck would 
be required to handle the bulk trade and thus involve a large 
additional capital outlay for rolling-stock. On the American 
railways covered box-trucks, specially designed for the pur- 
pose, are used for conveying grain in bulk. These vary in 
capacity from 20 to §0 tons (i.e. 200 to 500 bags). To fill a 
truck, the grain is drawn from the bottom of the elevator bin 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 


CHAP. 


XII. 


( 


“pY] ‘uowrg Aruayzy ‘sIssayy 


jo Asajyino0g) 


-euluadly 


‘ 


ueATeDH) OVONg 3 SOTIS 
TeD d I! 


uleIn—g6I “S14 


CHAP. 
XII. 


584 MAIZE 


into the ‘boot,” elevated to the top of the building, weighed 
in large hoppers, and then allowed to flow by gravity directly 
into the trucks. 

539. Storage at Ports of Export.—In Argentina, at the 
port of Bahia Blanca, a large timber shed is provided for 
bagged grain, 200 metres long by 33 metres wide. At the 
back run two tracks for goods wagons, from which bagged 
grain is unloaded and carried to this warehouse or direct to 
the ship lying alongside the mole. For bulk grain, large 
terminal elevators are provided. 

Some of the flat sheds on the Pacific Coast will store up 
to 560,000 bags, and most of them belong to, or are controlled 
by, the railway companies. 

In the United States terminal elevators are used, but 
grain storage at the ports is said to be very limited and de- 
creasing, while it is increasing at the inland terminals, such 
as Chicago and Minneapolis (Bowman and Cross/ey, 1). 

540. Electric Belt-conveyors for Bagged Grain. —Vhe 
present method in vogue in South Africa is to off-load the 
sacks to the wharf, whence they are swung into the hold of the 
vessel by means of stout cranes (Fig. 199). At some of the 
Australian and Argentine ports the grain is either shipped 
from the sheds or from the trucks direct, by means of a 
mechanical device known as the electric belt-conveyor. The 
sacks are placed on this belt, rapidly transferred to the ship, 
and automatically discharged into the hold of the vessel. 
Conveyors of this type were put into operation at Williams- 
town and Geelong, Victoria, in 1905, to supersede the primitive 
and expensive method of manual labour and slings, and to 
more economically and expeditiously cope with the increasing 
export of grain; they are said to have given every satisfaction. 
At Bahia Blanca, Argentina, there are sixteen fixed conveyors 
with rubber belting covered with steel sheetings ; their capacity 
is 100 tons per hour loading grain in sacks. There are in 
addition fifteen electric movable conveying-belts, which may 
either operate independently or serve as complementary to the 
others ; their capacity is 100 tons per hour and their length 
10 metres. A travelling belt-conveyor is in use at the Kaf- 
fraria Steam Milling Company’s warehouse at the Congella 
Wharf, Durban, South Africa. 


ALN 


> 
L 


1N MAIZE GI 


4 
4 


COMMERCI 


“S°S apseg-uorug Jo Asaqin09) 


“saaTeyA ueqing ‘saueso Aq ‘azieu YUM a] {svg aonjUNG “8's Buipeo[—'66I “OI 


CHAP. 
XII. 


386 MAIZE 


In England belt-conveyors are also used for moving 
bulk grain (Fig. 200). 

541. Wharf-shed Storage Charges —At Durban any grain 
stored over five days in Government Harbour sheds, in 1908, 
had to pay 3d. per ton per day, or any part of a day, for the 
first three days thereafter, and for the remaining period Is. per 
ton per day, or part of a day. It was claimed by shippers that 
this regulation caused a good deal of unsatisfactory shipping. 
It tended to the quicker shipment of small parcels, but Mark 
Lane buyers were already complaining about the smallness of 
the parcels shipped from Durban, and the shippers complained 
that this regulation had forced them to ship small parcels to 


Fic. 200.—Grain conveyor-belts. 


avoid payment of this storage. Doubtless the Administration 
made the tariff so high to avoid congestion in the limited stor- 
age space available. The remedy seemed to lie with the 
shippers, who might arrange for larger parcels, by holding up- 
country, or storing in their own sheds. 

Messrs. W. Cotts & Co. suggested that the time be extended 
to a week, charging a nominal rental of 3d. per ton per week 
the following week, making it Is. per ton per week thereafter. 

On tt August, 1909, the following notice was issued by 
the General Manager of the Central South African Railways :— 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 587 


“Tn view of the accumulation of maize at the Point, Dur- 
ban, and the failure of consignees to effect prompt clearance, 
it is hereby notified that on and after date the Department 
holds itself free to call upon consignees to take delivery of any 
consignments within thirty-six hours of arrival, and that failing 
such delivery being effected, the maize will be off-loaded in the 
open when shed-accommodation is not available, and will re- 
main at the entire risk of consignees, Government taking no 
responsibility in regard to them either as to their safety, or as 
to any damage which they may incur from wet, or from any 
other cause whatever. Owners are reminded that export 
maize is conveyed and handled solely at the risk of the owner, 
and the Department undertakes no liability in connection 
therewith either during transit, or at any other time. Previous 
notices as to free storage are modified accordingly.” 


With reference to the wharf storage charges at Durban, 
Messrs. W. Cotts & Co. pointed out in 1908 that :— 

In London no storage is charged for the first three weeks ; 
then the average rent is 3d. per ton per week ; in Hamburg 
the charge is 10 pfennig (1d.) per ton per day after five days; 
in Antwerp about 4d. per square metre per day, but with ex- 
port goods these charges are rarely enforced if there is any 
just reason for delay. 

It should be noted, however, that conditions at the above- 
named ports are not comparable with those in South Africa, 
where storage room is more limited, paying traffic is much 
less, and the ports are struggling to cover expenses. 

542. Construction and Capacity of Elevator Warehouses.— 
One of the latest erected Canadian elevator warehouses, at 
Windmill Wharf, Montreal, is 238 feet long x 84 feet wide, 
and built entirely of non-combustible material. The structure, 
bins, bin-bottoms, etc., are of steel, roof of tile, and floors of 
concrete. It has ten elevator legs, equipped with cups 20 x 7 
inches. Five of the legs are used for receiving grain and all 
ten can be used for discharging. The total elevating capacity 
is 100,000 bushels per hour. The grain is weighed in ten 
hopper-scales, each holding 2,000 bushels (about 560 muids). 
Two belt-conveyors in the cupola distribute the grain length- 
wise through the building, through trolley spouts on the dis- 
tributing floor. There is also an extensive belt-conveyor 


CHAP. 
XII. 


588 MAIZE 


CHAP. system with nineteen marine loading spouts to deliver grain 
XII. from the elevator to the ships. “hese belt-conveyors are 36- 


(Courtesy of Messrs. Goldstiick, 


Hainzé & Co., London.) 


Fic. 201.—Central granary, Milwall Docks, London, showing stationary elevators. 


inch concentrated belts with a shipping capacity of 15,000 
bushels per hour each. On the Buenos Aires elevators the 


COMMERCE [N MAIZE GRAIN 589 


whole of the machinery is driven by electricity, each band and 
elevator being supplied from its own motor (Dowznze, 1). 

The buildings are so constructed that the different grades 
of grain are received into separate chambers. They are 
equipped for expeditiously receiving and conditioning the grain 
when necessary, and for loading train-loads of trucks, or a 
large steamer, in a few hours. 

543. Cost of Erection.—The cost of erecting, and equipping 
with all necessary mechanical appliances, a small country 
elevator warehouse of 10,000 bushels (2,800 muids) capacity, 
and measuring 20 x 30 feet x 50 feet high, is said to be about 
4700, in the United States. The Buenos Aires terminal 
elevator silo cost over £230,000 (Dowmnze, 1). 

It is estimated that a transit elevator silo at Durban, of 
8,000 tons capacity, would cost not less than £116,000. 

544. Firms of Elevator Engineers—There are two large 
British firms engaged in the construction of elevator and grain 
handling and storage plants in different parts of the world— 
Messrs. Spencer & Co., of Melksham, Wilts, and Messrs. 
Henry Simon, Ltd., of Manchester. 

545. Elevator Systems.—There are two principal methods 
of conveying bulk grain by elevators: the pneumatic or suction 
and the bucket and belt-conveyor method. Sir Thomas Price 
found that the Hamburg and Rotterdam authorities were in 
favour of the pneumatic method, as by it the grain could be 
worked out much more quickly than by the bucket elevator 
system. They admitted, however, that a certain amount of 
damage is caused by the grain becoming “ floured ” in passing 
so rapidly through the suction pipes and into the elevator. 
There was some disagreement as to the extent to which the 
erain suffered from the suction operations. 

The testimony was uniform, however, that so far as South 
Africa is concerned, the bucket and belt-conveyor system 
would be found by far the best and cheapest to use, and 
speaking generally (still remembering South Africa’s require- 
ments), it was agreed that it was the cheapest to maintain, and 
was the most expeditious method of handling that had yet 
been generally adopted, and that it had been in operation 
sufficiently long to enable a definite and final opinion to be 
formed, The question therefore reduces itself to the adapta- 


CHAP. 
XII. 


MAIZE 


59° 


rgouadg ‘sissayq jo <saqino9) 


(weysy[>Il ““P¥T “OD ¥ 
‘UOPUOTT ‘SyDOG BIOIDIA ‘IOWRAI]a Suyyaavsy Aq pesivyosip Bulaq Jawiva3G—"c0z “Oly 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 591 


tion of this system, in the most suitable and economical form, CHAP. 
to the handling and conveying of grain, to each individual case “1! 
which presents itself. 

Elevator warehouses for dagged grain are in use in Argen- 
tina. These possess some of the most modern installations 
for effecting the loading and off-loading of grain, for weighing 
separately, classifying, and drying. 

546. The Working of Elevators.—The grain for a bulk 
elevator is run loose from the spout of the threshing machine 
into the farmer’s cart, which is so constructed that when 
unhitched from the shafts it tips backwards and dumps the 
grain into the elevator spout. 

At the Windmill Wharf elevator, Montreal, the system of 
working is as follows. Trucks conveying grain are shunted 
over large pits on the floor of the building ; the truck doors 
are opened and the grain flows out into a hopper or pit leading 
to the boot of an elevator leg. The movement of the grain 
is assisted by a man with a large two-handled power shovel 
or scoop to which is attached a rope wound upon a rotating 
drum. From the boot the grain is constantly being elevated 
up the leg, weighed, classified, and transferred by gravity into 
the storage bins. From these bins it can be delivered in whole 
or part, as required, into trucks or direct into the hold of the 
ship. 

At Mannheim the elevator spout can be extended suff- 
ciently far out to discharge grain from a second vessel placed 
alongside the one next the wharf, while ordinary merchandise 
is being discharged from the latter by means of cranes. When 
the grain is emptied from the boats into an elevator, it is 
passed through a telescoping tube to automatic weighing 
machines, thence by means of conveyors to inside elevators. In 
the latter it is carried to the topmost story and discharged 
upon a conveyor by which it is carried to the various bins. 

547. Elevator Charges.—The usual elevator warehouse 
charge in Chicago is # cent per bushel (1°335d. per muid) 
for the first ten days or part thereof, and ;4 cent per bushel 
(045 of a penny per muid) per day for each additional day 
thereafter, so long as it remains in good condition. This 
charge includes off-loading grain from trucks, storage, and 
re-loading into steamers or trucks. One elevator charges only 


AMTAIZE 


392 


Issa Jo Asajino09) 


“uopuo’'T 


‘ 


yoog 


(09 Y azureH ‘y¥ONISploH 
elsawwi0d 


Agung ‘iojeaaja Suneoy Aq pasivyosip Suiaq sawve3gG—"Eor “old 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 593 


4 cent per day for the first ten days or part thereof. For grain 
damp or liable to early damage (as indicated by its inspection 
when received) 2 cents per bushel (about 34d. per muid) for 
the first ten days or part thereof, and 4 cent per bushel (about 
‘87 of a penny per muid) for each additional five days or part 
thereof. No grain will be received in store until it has been 
inspected and graded by authorized inspectors (Bowsan and 
Crossley, 1). Operating expenses of terminal elevator ware- 
houses in the States are usually covered by the sale of 
screenings, and the storage charges pay interest on capital 
expenditure as well as profit. The average running expense 
of each elevator in the State of Iowa is reported to be equiva- 
lent to 24 cents per bushel of grain handled. 

548. Elevator Certificates.—At terminal points grain is 
inspected and graded by State officials before being deposited 
in the elevator warehouse. Immediately it has been stored 
according to grade (and if necessary cleaned or dried) a ware- 
house receipt is given to the owner. This receipt has to be 
presented at the State Statistical Bureau for registration and 
must be signed by the owner; it is then as negotiable on the 
money market as the grain itself. When it is desired to draw 
the grain, the owner presents his certificate at the Bureau for 
cancellation, and the grain is surrendered by the warehouse 
authorities. The length of time the grain remains in the bins 
depends upon circumstances, and it may so happen that the 
receipt will be sold and bought several times before the grain 
itself is moved. To deliver grain without scrupulously adher- 
ing to the Government regulations is treated as a criminal 
offence. 

In Chicago there are two types of grain warehouse, the 
“regular” and “irregular,” about an equal number of each 
sort. The “regular” houses are licensed by the Chicago 
Board of Trade; the grain handled by them is subject to in- 
spection by the State Grain Inspection Department. They 
issue warehouse certificates which are negotiable, and which 
are treated as collateral security by banks, which issue loans on 
them at low rates of interest. ‘ Irregular” warehouses are 
not operated under the rules of the Board of Trade, but are 
subject to inspection by the State Grain Inspection Depart- 


ment (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 
38 


CHAF, 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XII, 


594 MAIZE 


549. Qualifications for Managership of Local Elevators.— 
‘The manager of an elevator warehouse should be a good 
judge of commercial grades. Experience and observation will 
teach him the grading of corn as indicated by its colour, moist- 
ure-content and amount of dirt present. 

“An understanding of the meaning of local regulations is 
necessary for an intelligent interpretation of market reports. 
Familiarity with steps in the shipment of consignments will 
enable him to better appreciate the method of lining cars before 
loading. A knowledge of railway rates and the details of 
clear handling will often do away with shortage of shipping 
facilities at the time of a good market. 

‘Some education in regard to book-keeping and banking 
will stand the manager in hand in case his business grows. 
The present margin on shipments of grain demands close 
figuring to ensure profits. 

“The manager should be the business man of the locality. 
His opinion upon the market should be respected by the 
shippers and farmers. His interest in the farming community 
should be substantial in the way of promoting corn and small 
grain exports besides introducing new seed and advocating 
improved varieties” (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

550. Heating of Grain in the Elevator—The duties of an 
elevator superintendent or manager go much farther than the 
receipt, storage, and re-shipment of the grain. The superin- 
tendent should be able not only to keep grain in good condition 
during storage, but where possible also to send it out in even 
better condition than that in which it was received. He should 
therefore be able to judge, on receipt of a particular sample, 
just what kind of treatment it will require. He should be able 
to locate the particular part of a bulk lot of maize in which 
heating is taking place. Large accumulations of dust should 
be watched for closely. ‘‘In moving or changing grain from 
bins the weather should be favourable, both dry and cool. 
Warm, moist air when allowed to come in contact with mov- 
ing grain may spoil it even if previously dry ” (Bowman and 
Crossley, 1). 

551. Heating Caused by Morsture—Heating is due to an 
excess of moisture in the grain at the time of storing. Maize 
which is dried on the cob in the field, or in the crib, or local 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 595 


elevator warehouse, shows little tendency to heating except at 
the time of year when germination usually takes place (which 
in the Corn-belt is about the middle of June) and in September ; 
and in South Africa about October and November. When 
there is a tendency for the grain to sprout, special care should 
be taken to keep it dry. ‘‘ Winter-shelled corn keeps as long 
as cold weather lasts, but when spring opens up it should 
be sent to the consumer at once as it is almost sure to heat” 
(Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

552. Loss of Weight and Damage Due to Heating.—“ Grain 
in a heated condition loses rapidly in weight. The SAzppers’ 
Manual for 1907, of the Chicago Board of Trade, reports a 
single car-load of hot corn shrinking 3,600 Ibs. The Chicago 
Board of Trade has frequently weighed cars of hot corn on 
railway truck scales, day after day, the loss of weight being 
150 lbs. per day per car-load.”’ According to Prof. L. G 
Michael, Chemist of the lowa State Agricultural Experiment 
Station, ‘heating occurs when grain originally in a moist con- 
dition is put in bulk, thereby preventing it from drying out 
and consequently subjecting it to the action of fermentative 
bacteria or of plant growths resembling yeasts. All changes of 
this kind generate heat, which in time raises the temperature to 
such a degree that oxidation sets in. This may be so rapid as 
to cause spontaneous combustion. The heating is due almost 
entirely to fermentation which attacks the starch, changing it 
first to sugar which produces alcohol, and later acetic acid. If 
heating is continued for any length of time a decided loss of 
starchy matter results from the conversion of the starch to 
alcohol, with of course more or less injury to the unconverted 
starch. The matter of damage through heating is one of 
degree, from almost no harm, through slight rises in tempera- 


ture, to almost complete ruin when fermentative changes are’ 


allowed to reach any advanced stage.” 

553. Degree of Dryness Required for Ao —Te maize 
contains more than a certain percentage of moisture when 
shipped, it is apt to heat in the hold of the vessel, and to get 
musty and “out of condition”. North American and Argen- 
tine maize often arrives in Europe in a damaged condition on 
this account. and some of the earlier shipments of South 


African maize also caused complaint. 
387 


CHAP. 
XI. 


596 MAIZE 


CHAP. 


Experiments wer j Hae 
oe periments were conducted in 1909 by the writer, in 


collaboration with the Port Captain, Durban, to determine the 
degree of dryness requisite for safe shipment. These experi- 


lic. 204.—A, Drying wet maize, ae wharves, 1909. B, Maize dried 
and re-graded ready for shipment, Durban, 1909. 
ments were described in the Transvaal Agricultural Journal, 
and it is, therefore, unnecessary to repeat the details here. 
Our conclusions were as follows :— 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 597 


Maize may contain from 12°5 to 13°5 per cent of moisture 
on arrival in London, and yet be perfectly sound and sweet. 
But as it may gain from 1°5 to 2 per cent moisture in transit, 
it should not contain more than 12 per cent moisture when it 
leaves South African ports. A sample containing 12°7 per 
cent on shipment was slightly damaged on arrival, but this ap- 


FG. 205.—The Hess grain-drier for conditioning grain. 


pears to have been due to contact with wetter bags, for it 
gained 1°7 per cent moisture in transit, bringing the moisture- 
content up to 14'2 per cent. 

Maize containing 16 per cent moisture does not absorb 
much (02 to °36 per cent) in transit; but dry maize contain- 
ing only 12°7 per cent moisture may absorb more. We 


CHAP. 
XIE. 


598 MAIZE 


conclude that 12 per cent is about the maximum moisture- 
content which can be permitted for safe shipment. 

554. Conditioning Wet Maize.—Different contrivances are 
in use for conditioning wet maize. The earlier consignments 
which were rejected by the graders at Durban were sun-dried 
on the wharves (Fig. 204). 

The Hess grain-drier and cooler, for conditioning maize, 
is illustrated in Figs. 205 and 206. The following description 


Fic. 206.—Vertical section through Hess grain-drier. 


has been kindly furnished by the manufacturers, Messrs. Henry 
Simon, Ltd., Manchester :— 

The general plan of this machine embodies: First, an ar- 
rangement for supporting the grain in layers. Second, means 
for warming or otherwise modifying the air to be forced 
through! the material. Third, the use of a fan or fans to 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 599 


direct the air through the layers of grain. It consists of two 
series of racks, of which the upper series constitutes a drying 
or heating chamber, and the lower a cooling chamber ; these 
chambers are separated by horizontal steel bulkheads, to pre- 
vent the mingling of the air, and the racks are fitted with 
steel slides to confine the grain to the proper chamber. 

The heating chamber is subdivided into two sections, with 
the heat spaces on opposite sides of the grain racks. Above 
the heating chamber is placed a steel garner to contain a sup- 
ply of grain for the heating chamber, and below the cooling 
chamber is placed a steel hopper, into which the cool grain 
is dropped from the cooling chamber. 

The fan and steam coils are placed back of the racks, the 
fan drawing its air-supply from openings in the front wall of 
the housing, thence through the racks and grain of the cooling 
chamber. It is then forced up through the steam coils, and 
through the racks and grain in the heating chamber, and out 
of the drying-house through windows or through ventilators 
in the roof. The heat given off by the cooling grain is drawn 
through the fan and discharged into the drying grain, thus 
utilizing ‘the heat which in other driers is wasted. 

In operating this drier the damp grain is first spouted 
into the garner at the top of the machine, filling the racks of 
the heating chamber and the garner. The fan is then started, 
and the air, heated by the steam coils, is forced through the 
grain layers till the grain is dry, which ordinarily consumes 
thirty to forty minutes. The heated air is applied upon both 
sides of each grain column, treating every individual grain 
fully and equally. The operator then throws the levers at the 
bottom of the heating racks, having first closed the slides in 
the middle of the cooling chamber. This allows the grain in 
the bottom half of the heating chamber to drop down, filling 
the top half of the cooling chamber, and at the same time the 
damp grain in the garner fills the top half of the heating 
chamber. The motion of the grain in the racks thoroughly 
mixes the grain, so that every kernel ts fully exposed to the 
drying and cooling currents. 

After another period of drying, the slides in the middle 
of the cooling chamber are opened, and the grain in both 
chambers is allowed to drop, now filling all racks completely ; 


o 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


600 MAIZE 


from this time on, the bottom half of the cooling chamber is 
emptied of its contents as they cool, the grain in the remaining 
racks progressing and mixing at each drop until it lands in the 
hopper below, uniformly dry and cool, and is then drawn off 
into storage. 


Fic. 207.—Granary and barge elevator on the Thames; bagged grain has 
been poured from the steamer into the barge, for more convenient handling by 
the elevator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham.) 


555. Ocean Freight.—The arrangement made by the South 
African Governments with the Conference Lines was that 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 601 


maize should be shipped at the rate of ros. per ton of 2,240 
Ibs., to Southampton, London, Hamburg, and Antwerp. 
Later this was raised, on account of extra cost due to sorting 
grades, etc., to r1s. 6d. plus 10 per cent primage.! This rate 
includes the charge for sorting at port of destination. To 
Canagian ports the freight is 12s. 6d. per ton, inclusive of 
primage, by steamers of the Elder-Dempster Line. 

Where the shipment is made through Government, the 
charge, including shipping and harbour charges, preparation of 
shipping documents, Customs entries, and stamps, is 12s. 6d. 
per ton. 

556. Shippieng.—South African grain takes about twenty- 
eight days to land in Europe, which is the same time as taken 
by the voyage from Buenos Aires, so that, as far as time is 
concerned, bulk shipments could be made as successfully in the 
one case as in the other. The case of Australia and the Pacific 
Coast of North America is different, the voyage occupying 
about sixty days. The Pacific Coast shipping companies ob- 
ject to carrying bulk grain round Cape Horn, on the ground 
that there is danger of the cargo shifting; the vessels used in 
this trade (unlike those employed in the Atlantic grain trade) 
are not constructed for carrying grain in bulk. The question 
between shipment in bulk or in bags has been a matter of 
controversy on the Pacific Coast for many years (Dowwze, 1); 
a correspondent writes that there is often a good deal of 
complaint made in Europe against Californian cargoes, solely 
because they are shipped in bags. 

Hamburg merchants have expressed the opinion that 
full cargoes of South African grain shipped in bulk should 
secure steamship freight at less than ris. 6d. per ton. As 
against this, information was given by competent London 
authorities that the reason (more or less) why low freights 
were secured for grain from Argentina to Great Britain and 
the Continent was due to the fact that the “tramp” steamers 
obtained outward as well as homeward loads, and that if they 
failed to get any better paying cargo for the Argentine they 
could fill up with coal, whereas with South Africa, under the 
existing conditions, the “tramp” steamers would have to go 


11n September, 1910, it was stated that the lowest charters obtainable out- 
side the Conference Lines ranged from 14s. to 20s. per ton. 


CHAP. 
XI. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


602 MAIZE 


out empty, and naturally would require such a rate of freight 
as would pay them for the journey outward as well as for the 
return with a full cargo (Price, 2). 

It is sometimes argued against bulk shipment that the 
vessels engaged in the South African trade are not equipped 
for this purpose, and that until the trade assumes far larger pro- 
portions than at present, the steamship companies would hardly 
be warranted in making the necessary changes. The writer is 
informed by a reliable shipping authority that although no 
“whaleback” steamers, such as are used in the American 
trade, are at present available for the South African trade, the 
vessels at present engaged could carry bulk grain by using a 
small proportion of bagged grain for trimming; thus with a 
6,000-ton bulk cargo, 16,000 bags would be sufficient for 
securing purposes. Another correspondent, familiar with 
shipping conditions, writes: “The danger of shifting cargo 
is much more imaginary than real; in my opinion xo danger 
exists if the reasonable and acknowledged precautions are 
taken”. : 

557. Tonnage—lIt is imperative that the best possible 
shipping facilities should be available to exporters, if the South 
African export trade is to be firmly established. Shipping 
arrangements should provide for tonnage being available to all 
United Kingdom and continental markets, as and when re- 
quired, subject to reasonable notice being given by the Govern- 
ment Department in charge of the shipping arrangements. 
The need of direct freight to British ports in addition to Lon- 
don and Southampton is very apparent; Liverpool, Glasgow, 
Bristol, Hull, Leith, Belfast, and other great centres would 
take South African maize readily enough, but that there is no 
direct service, and the grain dealers at these ports are not 
accustomed to handling smal! parcels through other ports. A 
Liverpool merchant remarked to the writer, that ‘‘it borders on 
the ridiculous that there should be no direct freight from South 
Africa to Liverpool, the premier maize port in the United King- 
dom”. When there is enough through freight to warrant it, the 
shipping interests will lose no time in taking advantage of it, and 
as the South African maize export expands it will necessarily 
require freight for these ports. Such an arrangement would 
also enable South Africa to ship other produce, particularly 


603 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 


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CHAP. 
XII. 


604 MAIZE 


wattle-bark and wool, direct to other large centres of consump- 
tion, and avoid the heavy railage rates now paid in effecting 
distribution to these markets through London, as at present, 
which severely reduces net returns. 

During the last two years insufficient tonnage has been 
available in Durban from time to time, resulting in quantities 
of 8,000 to 10,000 tons of maize being held up in the wharf 
sheds for weeks at a time. When applications were made to 
the Conference Lines for additional tonnage, they generally 
replied that the rate was too low to attract outside shipping, 
and further that before they could agree to put on an extra 
steamer of their own they must be given a guarantee that 
a full cargo was available. This guarantee no individual 
shipper was in a position to furnish. It is quite evident, from 
the difficulties experienced during two seasons, in securing 
adequate shipping as required, that the solution of the problem 
lies in producing more maize. When South Africa produces so 
much matse for export, that tramp steamers can always be sure 
of a cargo on arrival at her ports, she will be able to command 
the shipping situation. 

558. Importing Ports of Europe-—¥ngland is the largest 
consumer of imported maize, and Liverpool (Alexandra Docks) 
is the leading port of import, her supplies coming chiefly from 
the United States. Glasgow is also an importer from the 
States. South African maize is landed at London, Southamp- 
ton, Antwerp, Hamburg and Rotterdam, and South European 
at London and Hull. 

The principal European distributing points for maize are: 
Liverpool, Glasgow, Hull, Bristol, Manchester, Rotterdam, 
Hamburg, Antwerp, Bremen, Christiania, Copenhagen, Havre, 
Marseilles, Genoa and Naples. 

559. Bulk Handling at Ports of Import—The warehouses 
at Liverpool, London, Southampton, Antwerp, and Hamburg 
are so situated that grain can be sucked from the hold of the 
ship by elevators, floating (Fig. 208) or otherwise (Fig. 209), 
and discharged into the warehouse at the very minimum of 
expense. This can be done only where the grain is shipped 
in bulk. Where it is shipped in bags, it is often necessary to 
open and empty the bags into barges lying alongside the 
vessel, from which it is transferred by elevators to the silo 
(Fig. 207). 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 605 


Fig. 208 shows a type of floating pneumatic elevator de- 
signed by Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd., of Manchester, which 
has been largely adopted for the unloading and transport of 
grain from large ships at various ports, both at home and 
abroad. The plant is installed wholly on the pontoon; its 
operation is described as follows :— 

“The intake pipes, two or more according to capacity, are 
lowered into the hold of the vessel, and the engines, which are 


Fic. 209.—Diagram showing general arrangement of barge elevator and auto- 
matic weigher. (Courtesy of Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd., Manchester.) 


directly connected through a vacuum pump, are started up. 
The pumps create a vacuum in the pipes, causing the grain 
to be sucked through the nozzles at the end and to be carried 
to the receiver. This appliance extracts the dust, which is 
again mixed with the grain and delivered into the seal at the 
bottom. Loss of weight is thus eliminated. From the seal 
the grain passes along the worm to the small elevator which, 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP, 
XII. 


606 MAIZE 


in turn, delivers it to an automatic weighing machine, which 
weighs the grain in bulk. It is then fed into the large elevator, 
whence it passes to the sacking-off weigh-house, where it is 
again weighed and sacked off. The grain can then be de- 
livered in sacks to barges alongside, or alternatively to the 
quay direct. 

“The plant illustrated is capable of dealing with 180 tons 
of bulk grain per hour. All the tackle, etc., is carried on the 
pontoon and control can be easily effected from any point at 
will. 

‘A small engine and generator are provided, for supplying 
current to various small auxiliary motors for operating winches, 
etc., and also current for lighting purposes. The plant is self- 
contained, compact, and economical in working and is ideal 
for the purpose for which it was designed.” 


560. British Silos and Elevators.—At the larger British 
grain importing ports, such as London, Liverpool, Manchester, 
Southampton, Hull, Bristol and Barrow, several excellent ap- 
pliances have been erected. At Manchester a silo of 1,500,000 
bushels capacity has been erected for the Manchester Ship 
Canal Company. 

561. New Silo and Gratn-handling Plant at Immingham 
Dock.—Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd. have recently completed 
the equipment of a grain silo at Immingham Dock, which has 
a holding capacity of 15,000 tons. The silo is situated at the 
east end of the dock, is constructed of reinforced concrete and 
stands over 100 feet high. 


“It is approached by means of an overhead steel gantry 
300 feet long and a front gantry runs parallel to the dock for 
a distance of some 550 feet, the approach gantry to the silo 
being at right angles to this. The grain is unloaded on the 
dock-front by means of a travelling ship elevator (Fig. 211) 
which runs on rails; these extend the whole length of the front 
gantry, making it possible to discharge at any point. The ship 
elevator forms a complete machine in itself, being fitted with 
bands, elevators, weigher and motors. The method of un- 
loading ships, which can be in any position on the quay side, 
is briefly described as follows :— 

“The intake elevator on the travelling ship elevator is 
lowered into the hold of the vessel, and the grain is then 
elevated, weighed and passed on to 27-inch wide band-con- 


(ureysurang “pry ‘Assay 9 “Ay ‘Sassayy fo Asazino0p) = ‘sayeos Asaay yiiay paqay ‘sy90q] uOpuO’T ‘sasnoyaiea uleIQ—"oIz “OL 


608 MAIZE 


CHAP, vey 


ors in the front gantry, and these feed on to cither of two 
XI. 


bands, one 27 inches wide and the other 36 inches, in the ap- 
proach gantry. The grain is conveyed by means of these band- 


IG, 211.—Travelling ship elevator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd.) 


conveyors to the receiving house of the silo, where is situated a 
warehouse separator capable of dealing with 50 tons per hour, 
in connection with a patent cyclone dust-collector. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 609 


‘The grain is lifted by two elevators, each having a capa- 
city of 150 tons per hour, to the top of the silo, and from 
thence by means of band-conveyors running in two galleries it 
is distributed to any required bin or storage floor. There are 
eighty-two bins, and six floors where the grain can be stored 
in bulk. These six floors are each arranged with thirty-six 
floor spouts. These floor spouts are fitted with sliding sleeves 
at the top and bottom by means of which the grain can be fed 
to or taken from any floor. 

‘On the first floor of the building, arrangements have been 
made for sacking-off. On this floor are six Avery portable 
grain weighers with sacking-off appliances. The grain when 
sacked-off can be delivered by means of sack shoots, either to 
trucks or to sack bands which run along the approach gantry, 
at the end of which they can be delivered by means of an out- 
side conveyor direct to barges.. This conveyor can be lifted 
back into a tower in the centre of the front gantry and is then 
protected from the weather. Outgoing grain can also be 
handled in bulk with equal ease. 

“On the ground floor of the silo are placed a number of 
conveyors which are fed from the bins and lead to either of the 
two elevators. These are used for the purpose of ‘ turning- 
over’. It is possible to ‘turn-over’ at the rate of 300 tons 
per hour; this large capacity is obtained by means of cross 
bands at the top of the silo, which allow the two elevators 
to feed simultaneously to one band, the two bands in the 
galleries having been specially made to deal with 300 tons per 
hour. 

‘Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd., have also installed all the 
electric motors, the lighting, and a complete system of tele- 
phones. The power is transmitted to the travelling ship 
elevator through a series of plugs placed along the front 
gantry. By means of these same plugs the ship elevator tower 
is also connected to the silo by a loud-speaking telephone, an 
arrangement which is particularly useful.” 


562. New Silo for the Manchester Ship Canal Company.— 
The silo which Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd., are building and 
equipping for the Manchester Ship Canal Company at the end 
of No. 9 dock, Salford, is to have a holding capacity of 40,000 
tons, is to be five stories high and constructed in reinforced 
concrete. 


“The building is to have a sacking shed running right 
39 


CHAP. 
XIl. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


610 MAIZE 


round, and two subways will run the whole length of the north 
and south sides of the dock and form the receiving connection 
from the quays to the elevator. There will be six band-con- 
veyors in the subways, each capable of conveying 200 tons per 
hour. These will be fed direct from vessels lying alongside 
the quay, by means of floating elevators. The band-conveyors 
will in turn feed six receiving elevators in the silo, the elevators 
having a capacity of 150 tons per hour. 

‘The grain will be elevated to the top of the building, 
weighed, and then distributed, by means of a series of con- 
veyors on the distributing floor, to the various bins. The 
upper portion of the outside row of bins, on the four sides of 
the building, will form the sacking and shipping bins. Spouts 
are to be arranged so that the grain can be weighed, loaded, in 
bulk or in sacks, to railway trucks on any side of the building, 
to carts on three sides, and directly into ships or barges on one 
side. 

“In order to fill these shipping bins the bottoms of the 
storage bins are connected by conveyors and spouts to six 
shipping elevators of 150 tons capacity each, by which the 
grain is elevated, then weighed and distributed to any shipping 
bin. 

“The grain will be cleaned, before sending out, by means 
of one large separator having a capacity of 4,000 bushels per 
hour. The wheat will also be subjected to an aspiration by 
two large fans. The building will be provided with goods- 
hoist and passenger lift. All the power required for the dif- 
ferent operations will be supplied by electric motors. Each 
section of belt-conveyors, receiving and shipping elevators, 
will be driven by independent motors of 1,500 h.p.” 


563. Continental Elevators —The ports of Antwerp, Ham- 
burg, Rotterdam and Novorossijk, where grain is off-loaded 
in quantities, possess both suction and ordinary elevators and 
conveyors for transhipping direct in bulk and sacks from ocean- 
going vessels into trucks, river boats, etc. Grain arriving at 
these ports in sacks is frequently emptied in bulk into the river 
boats, etc. 1 

At Mannheim, on the River Neckar, there is an adjustable 
ship elevator, capable of delivering from 79 to 89 tons per 
hour. Mechanical appliances for off-loading and storing grain 
are to be found at Ludwigshaven, Worms, Frankfort, Mayence, 
Cologne, Duisberg, Uerdiger, etc. (Dowmze, 1). 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 611 


564. Canadian Elevators.—One of the largest elevators in 
the world, having a capacity of 7,250,000 bushels (2,000,000 
muids), is situated at Port Arthur, on Lake Superior. Fort 
William, also on Lake Superior, has nine elevators, with 
a capacity of 14,000,000 bushels of grain. At Montreal 
there are several elevators on the most approved and 
modern plan, with a total capacity of over 1,000,000 bushels 
(Downte, 1). 

565. United States Terminal Elevator Warehouses.—In 
the United States there are 422 terminal elevator warehouses, 
having an aggregate capacity of 73,000,000 muids, distributed 
among twenty-five large terminal markets or exporting ports. 


TaBLE LXXXIII. 


NUMBER AND CAPACITY OF UNITED STATES ELEVATORS. 


Exporting Points. No. of Elevators. Capacity. 
Chicago , : : 87 16,371,000 Muids. 
Minneapolis . , : 48 11,453,781 4, 
Duluth . ‘ j ‘ 2 8,453,781 4, 
Buffalo . ‘ 4 oa | 28 6,766,000 _ =, 
Milwaukee . : ‘ 21 3,910,300, 
New York . ‘ i 18 3,706,000 —s—=,, 
St.Louis .  .. 39 35383,753 os 
Kansas City. : Ee 38 3,162,465, 
Toledo. ; : | Io 6,250,000 Bushels. 
Omaha . F . ks 15 6,040,000 __—, 
New Orleans : ; 9 5,180,000 __—,, 
Baltimore. ‘ : 5 5,100,000, 
Detroit. | 14 4,540,000 _,, 
Montreal . a | Io 4,150,000, 
Galveston. : etl 4 3,800,000, 
Philadelphia . 4 3,100,000 _,, 
Louisville | a 3,000,000__—=7", 
Newport News 2 2,560,000 _—=, 
Boston . 4 2,200,000 __,, 
Cincinatti 12 2,010,000 __,, 
Indianapolis . 9 I,Q55,000_,, 
Cleveland 6 I,g16,000_——=, 
Nashville 5 I,700,000_,, 
Seattle . 2 I,550,000_,, 
Evansville 2 740,000, 

422 


The above table does not include the vast number of smaller transit 
elevator warehouses to be found at the many small centres in the Grain-belts. 


39* 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


612 MAIZE 


566. Argentine Elevator Silos.—Buenos Aires has a series 
of elevator warehouses with a combined capacity of 91,600 
tons. There are also six shipping silo towers, having a capa- 


city of 900 tons per hour, or 150 tons each silo per hour. 
Besides these, however, 450 tons per hour can be received and 
stored in bulk on the floor. The storage capacity of the three 


(Courtesy of Messrs. Spencer & Co., Ltd., Melksham.) 


Fic. 212.—Terminal grain silos, Bahia Blanca, Argentina. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 613 


shipping blocks next to No. 2 dock amounts to 25,000 tons 
in bags. The main silo tower has a storage capacity of 
19,500 tons, and grain is received into the silos at the rate 
of 780 tons per hour. The hourly quantity that can be re- 
ceived into the whole block of warehouses is 2,400 tons. The 
total bulk capacity of the silos is 29,100 tons. The whole of 
the machinery is driven by electricity, each band and elevator 
being supplied from its own motor (Downie, 1). 

At Bahia Blanca there are two pontoon elevators, each of 
75 tons capacity per hour, for loading grain from lighters 
into ships; these were constructed by Messrs. Spencer & Co., 
of Melksham, Wilts, England. 

567. Selos and Grain-handling Plant at Puerto Galvan, 
Argentina.—Four silos and grain-handling plants have been 
erected at Puerto Galvan, for the Buenos Aires and Pacific 
Railway Co., by Messrs. Henry Simon, Ltd. 


Grain elevator, No. 1, is built on the docks at Bahia 
Blanca, and is a typical example of silos constructed in re- 
inforced brick. There is accommodation for storing grain 
either in bulk or in sacks, the grain arriving in bulk being put 
into one of the eight large circular bins, while that arriving in 
sacks is stored in the spacious warehouse at the back. The 
holding capacity of the bins is 1,000 tons each, or a total capacity 
of 8,000 tons, while the warehouse has accommodation for 
12,000 tons of grain in sacks. The machinery for handling 
the grain consists of band-conveyors, elevators, weighers, etc., 
for receiving, weighing, and delivering the grain to ocean- 
going vessels at the rate of 2,000 tons per hour. 

The facilities for discharging railway trucks are good; 
there are five separate sidings on which thirty-five wagons, 
each of 40 tons capacity, can be discharged simultaneously. 
The bands for receiving the grain run in subways below the 
railway lines, so that the grain is delivered on to the bands 
direct from the trucks, thus effecting a considerable saving in 
time and labour. 

When the grain arrives at the silo, in bulk or in sacks, it 
can either be stored in the bins or warehouse, or, on the other 
hand, it can be weighed and delivered direct to vessels without 
entering the silos. Grain stored in the silos is delivered to 
vessels by gravity, while that stored in sacks is delivered by 
means of band-conveyors and shoots. The equipment includes 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


614 MAIZE 


no fewer than twenty-six sack band-conveyors, nine bulk band- 
conveyors, fourteen elevators, and fifteen large automatic 
weighers. The various machines are driven by separate elec- 
tro-motors. This plant was completed in 1909. 

Grain elevator, No. 2, has no accommodation for storing 
grain, but is equipped with machinery for handling grain at 
the rate of 450 tons per hour, and the equipment includes 
appliances for receiving, weighing, and loading grain out to 
vessels at this rate. It is supplied with an efficient exhaust 
plant to minimize the troubles arising from a dusty atmosphere, 
and also complete electrical equipment for driving the machin- 
ery and lighting the granary. In this instance the building is 
of steel with floors of ferro-concrete. This plant was erected 
in conjunction with elevator No. 3, and was completed in 
1912. 

Grain elevator, No. 3, is arranged on similar lines to No. 2, 
with the difference that it has storage accommodation for 
12,000 tons of grain in sacks on the floors of a large ware- 
house. The handling capacity of this plant is 600 tons per 
hour. This plant was erected in conjunction with elevator 
No. 2, and was completed in 1912. 


568. Private Ownership.—The large majority of elevators 
in the United States are owned and operated either by com- 
panies uncontrolled by railways, but organized solely for the 
purpose of storing and handling grain, or by co-operative 
societies or private firms. 

569. Railway Ownership and Control of Elevators.—What 
is probably the largest elevator warehouse in the world be- 
longs to the Canadian Northern Railway Company, and is 
situated at Port Arthur. The Canadian Pacific and Grand 
Trunk Railway Companies have several elevators at Montreal 
on the most improved and modern plan. The Santa Fé Rail- 
way has a large elevator at Chicago. The number of terminal 
elevator warehouses, owned and operated by railway com- 
panies in the United States, is said to be small, but the 
number operated by companies which the railways control is 
substantially larger. The Argentine railways have erected ele- 
vators, with the permission of the Government, including one 
at Buenos Aires, built by the Buenos Aires and Rosario 
Railway Company (Dowmze, 1); the Buenos Aires and Pacific 
Railway Company has erected four elevators at Puerto Galvan, 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 615 


and the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway two at Bahia 
Blanca. 

570. Co-operative Elevator Warehouses.—Of recent years, 
numerous co-operative farmers’ elevator warehouses have been 
erected in the United States. The stock in these concerns is 
held by farmers of the district. In some cases they have not 
proved profitable, but others have given excellent returns 
(Downte, 1). 

The following is taken from the articles of incorporation of 
the Farmers’ Co-operative Society of Rockwell, Iowa: ‘“ The 
capital stock shall be, at the beginning of the business of this 
co-operation, not less than $1,000, paid in at such beginning, 
and may be increased from time to time to, and not exceeding, 
$25,000, and all increases of $1,000 shall be paid in from 
time to time on the issuance of shares of stock to purchasers 
becoming members. The said shares to be $10 each, and no 
member shall at any time own, or have any interest in, more 
than ten shares, and no shares shall be issued to anyone, ex- 
cept upon actual payment in cash, or for signed notes of the 
purchases, with security approved by the officers and director, 
and such note must be made payable during period in time not 
exceeding sixty days, and drawing interest of 6 percent. No 
shareholder shall have more than one vote in conducting the 
affairs of this Society’ (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

571. The European Market.—Although South Africa ex- 
ports parcels of maize to many markets, Europe is her largest 
buyer, and is a more steady and reliable market than any 
other. Though the continental ports are beginning to absorb 
considerable quantities of maize, Great Britain is much the 
largest consumer, and the corn markets of Liverpool and 
London are by far the largest in Europe; parcels of South 
African maize sent to Antwerp and Hamburg are often sold 
through London. 

The most important corn exchanges in which maize is 
bought and sold are: Mark Lane, and the Baltic (St. Mary 
Axe), London; Liverpool; Manchester; Hamburg ; Antwerp, 
and Rotterdam. 

When one first asks a corn merchant what types of maize 
are required on the English market, the invariable reply is 
that ‘any sort will sell”. This is quite true, but it is never- 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


616 MAIZE 


theless only half the truth, and therefore is misleading from the 
points of view of the producer and exporter. Further inquiry 
from the same source elicits the information that while the 
merchant can sell any sort of maize, in any condition, sales 
will depend on two important factors, (1) the price, and (2) 
the quantity available. London is described as “ the cheapest 
grain market in the world,” and the ready sale of produce in 
that market depends on the price at which it can be delivered. 
It is, furthermore, much easier to sell whole cargoes than small 


Fig. 213.—Interior of the Baltic Exchange, London. 
(Courtesy of the Secretary.) 


“parcels” of say 400 quarters, ie. 1,000 bags. The latter, if 
of good quality and condition, are bought up for special lines 
of trade, and as there are fewer buyers for these special in- 
dustries than in the general market, small parcels are not 
placed so readily, though they often command a better price 
than low grade material. 

For countries having a long and relatively expensive journey 
to the European market, it is desirable to export the article 
which will bring the best price and the largest profit after de- 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 614 


ducting cost of freight. So long as North America, Argen- 
tina, and S.E. Europe are able to supply cheap bulk maize, it 
would appear to be a sound policy for South Africa to cater 
for special lines of trade which are willing to pay a good price 
for a choice article in prime condition, rather than to attempt 
competition with the producers of ‘‘any sort” of maize such 
as will sell only at the cheapest rate. The English markets 
will even buy a cargo of damaged maize, provided it is 
uniform in quality and condition; but they will not pay much 
for it, which leaves but a small margin of profit for producer 
and local merchant ; it is better, therefore, to keep such stuff 
at home for local manufacture, or for use as stock-food, and to 
export only the better qualities, which will command a good 
price, with a good margin of profit. 

572. Sale by Sample.—\n some American markets the 
inspection and grading have been developed to such a degree 
of perfection, and work so satisfactorily, that grain which is 
deliverable on contract is never shown by sample (Scofield). But 
in other markets, with less well-developed systems of grading, 
purchases for consumption or manufacture are made on the 
basis of sample, and this system prevails in many countries. 
Average samples of the various types are agreed on by either 
the Chamber of Commerce or the Produce Exchange, at the 
beginning of every season; these are sealed up and sent 
to all the corn exchanges in England and on the Continent, 
and on them all contracts for that particular season are based. 

South African graders’ certificates are accepted on the 
London market. 

573. Import Duty.—Maize is admitted duty-free into 
England, Belgium, and Russia. Duty is payable in France, 
Germany, Spain, Sweden, and Egypt. 

The following are the duties charged (Bowman and Cross- 
ley) :— 


France—3 francs (2s. 4°9d.) per quintal (220°462 lbs.) 
Germany—3 marks (1s. 5°8d.) per quintal (_ ,, He 
Spain—2'25 pesetas (10°8d.) per quintal (its ae): 
Sweden—3°70 kroners (2s. 0°7d.) per quintal( ,, geal 


Under Article IV of the South African Customs Conven- 
tion, the rebates of Customs duties granted on goods and 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


618 MAIZE 


articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United 
Kingdom, were, from 1 October, 1908, extended to goods 
and articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the Com- 
monwealth of Australia. The Australian Commonwealth 
extended reciprocal privileges which included a rebate of 6d. 
per 100 lbs. on maize. 

574. Classes of Matse Required by the European Market.— 
Each class and grade of maize has its particular place on the 
European market, and the price fluctuates to some extent 
with the demand for a particular grade. At one time “ Below 
Grade” sells for as much as—or even more than—‘‘ Choice”’ i.e. 
(No. 1), not because it is better for the market, but because, at 
the time, the particular trade requiring Choice is fully supplied, 
while there is a shortage of Below Grade, which is sold to an 
entirely different class of trade. Weevilled maize, even, has a 
place on the market, but it should be distinctly labelled as such. 

Mr. H. M. Colebrook, a large London dealer in grain, 
reported ' as follows :— 

(1) Round Vellows.—The classes of maize which command 
the best prices in Europe at this time are the small round 
yellows, of uniform size and colour, such as C?ngquantrno, 
Odessa, Bessarabian, and other Russian breeds. The small 
round yellows are used largely for feeding poultry and 
pheasants, and command a ready sale. Next to these in value 
come the larger round yellows from Argentina. 

(2) Flat IVhettes.—South African flat whites, such as 
Hickory King, etc., come close to the above in value. ‘“ There 
is a demand springing up for the flat white maize in the manu- 
facture of glucose and flaked maize used in brewing. If this 
demand continues, and should there be in addition demand in 
Europe for South African white maize for human food, the 
white varieties must appreciate and the relative values change 
correspondingly.” 

(3) Flat Vellow.— The South African flat yellows are 
very close in value to the flat whites. There will always be 
a good demand for the South African large, flat yellow, and 
Cango types, at prices ranging from od. to Is. a bag under 
those obtainable for small round yellow varieties, and (ie. 
flat yellows) will be used for cattle food.” 


1 24 March, 1go8. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 619 


(4) Mexved.—Lowest in value are the mixed varieties, and 
poorly grown maize of any description. 

(5) American.—In “ American” maize, those types most 
in demand on the English market are the flat yellow and 
white mixed known as “ No. 2 American Mixed”. Occasion- 
ally there are small shipments of large, flat white maize which 
command, with a very small market, a very high price, for 
seed purposes only. There is but little round maize of any 
sort from North America. 

Mr. Clement, of Messrs. Harris Bros., of the Baltic Ex- 
change, stated that White Flat Choice will command a special 
price so long as too much is not shipped, but that if a glut 
came in the market, it would have to be classed with the 
ordinary and sold at ordinary price. 

Mr. Hislop, of Messrs. Berg, Sons & Co., of London, while 
not taking exception to the quality and feeding value of the 
“infinite variety ” of maize grown in and exported from South 
Africa, stated that if the export were confined to Vat yellow, 
Flat white, and Round yellow, it would be better from a mar- 
keting point of view. Special care must be taken with respect 
to white maize, which is largely used for making a special 
corn-flour, which suffers if the grain is off colour. This trade 
requires that the grain be delivered in perfect condition, when 
it commands the highest price. Some Liverpool merchants, 
on the other hand, would welcome mixed flat maize. 

575. Differences in Market Value of Maize Grades.—In the 
United States the difference between grades, under normal 
conditions, ranges from 34d. to 54d. per muid. . At other 
times, as in the case of a corner, the difference may be much 
greater. 

European quotations show but little difference in value 
between the South African grades. On 6 January, 1910, the 
extreme variation was only from 4d. to 1d. per muid. This 
slight difference may have been due to the fact that shipments 
being relatively small may have rendered them particularly 
uniform ; or it is possible that at that time the system of grad- 
ing not having been fully developed it was not as severe as 
might have been desirable, 

576. Number of South African Classes.—Criticism has 
sometimes been levelled at South Africa for producing so 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
X11. 


620 MAIZE 


many types or classes of maize instead of concentrating on 
one, on the ground that (1) better prices are obtainable for 
large flat whites; (2) Rhodesia is said to be discarding yel- 
lows altogether, and concentrating on //zckory King, 10-row 
Hickory, and Salisbury White (a 12-row Hickory); and (3) 
because of the greater difficulty in handling and marketing 
so many grades, 

It should be remembered, however, that by growing several 
types, South Africa will be able to enormously increase her 
producing area, and the amount available for export. The 
United States, which is the largest maize-producing and maize- 
exporting country in the world, produces fwenty-five standard 
breeds, covering all four classes: flat white, flat yellow, round 
yellow, and round white. Moreover, (1) the English market 
calls for a large number of types; no one type is handled to 
the exclusion of others; (2) the best price is obtainable not for 
large flat whites but for small round yellows; (3) the demand 
for large flat whites is limited, and South Africa has been 
warned that it may be overdone; under such circumstances it 
is well not to have “all the eggs in one basket’; (4) the 
demand for “ yellows” and “mixed” is unlimited. 

With reference to the alleged difficulty in handling so many 
types, it is not likely that restriction to one type by white 
people will affect the supply of other types, inasmuch as native 
growers produce a considerable amount of that which is ex- 
ported; it is bought from them by the small merchant in 
barter, and will always furnish a number of extra types, which 
will have to be handled. 

The market wants larger shipments ; it behoves us to make 
every possible district a producing centre, even if we have to 
add new types in order to do it. 

577. Standards of Werght and Measurement.—In the English 
market maize is sold by the ‘‘guarter” of 8 bushels, 1.e. 480 
Ibs., the standard bushel of maize weighing 60 lbs. Gadlats- 
Foxanian quotations are for 492 lbs. On the continental 
markets it is sold by the 1,000 Av/ograms, equal to 2,204°62 
lbs., or the guzvtal or doppelsentner of 100 kilograms or 220°462 
Ibs. avoirdupois, or 1,'5 muids. 

In South Africa maize is sold by weight only; the unit is 
the muid of 200 Ibs. or 3°571 American bushels. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 621 


In the United States maize is sold by the bushel. The 
standard weight for a bushel of shelled maize is 56 lbs. in all 
the States except Arizona and California, in which it is 54 Ibs. 
and 52 Ibs. respectively. For maize on the cob, the standard 
weight is 70 Ibs. in all the States which sell “ear maize,” ex- 
cept Missouri, in which it is 72 \bs., and Ohio, in which it is 
68 Ibs. In Indiana and Kentucky the standard of weight 
is lowered to 68 Ibs. during certain months of the year, ice. 
1 May to 1 November in Kentucky, and 1 December till the 
arrival of the new crop, in Indiana; this means that extra 
weight is allowed for moisture for the six months from 1 
November to 1 May in Kentucky, but approximately for one 
month only (November) in Indiana. The following table 
shows the corresponding weight of American bushels in 
muids, 


TaBLeE LXXXIV. 


TABLE FOR REDUCTION OF BUSHELS TO MUIDS. 


1 muid = 3°571 American standard bushels of 56 Ibs. 


Bushels. Muids. Bushels. Muids. 
“I = 028 27°0 = 7°56 
| 2 = "056 28°0 = 7°84 
23 = 084 29'0 = 8-12 
| “4 = 112 30°0 = 8-40 
5 a *I40 310 = 8°68 
| 6 = 168 32°0 = 8°96 
| we = “1.96 33°0 = 9°24 
| 8 = "22 34°0 = 9°52 
| 9 = 252 35°0 = 980 
L'o = 280 36°0 = 10°08 
| 2°0 = 560 370 = 10°36 
370 = “340 35°'0 — 10°64 | 
470 = I'l2 39°0 = Lo'g2 | 
50 = 1°40 40°0 = I1‘20 
6:0 = 1°68 50°0 = I4°00 
| 70 = 1°96 60°0 = 16°80 
8-0 = 2:2 70°0 = 1g'60 
9:0 = 2°52 80°0 = 22°40 
| 10'0 = 2°80 go'o = 25°20 
20°0 = 5°60 100°0 = 28°00 
| 21'0 = 5°88 IIo‘0 = 30°80 
22'0 — 6°16 120°0 = 33°60 
23'0 = 6°44 130°0 — 36°40 
24°0 = 6°72 140°0 = 39°20 
25°0 = 7°00 150°0 = 42°00 
26°0 = 7°28 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


622 MAIZE 


578. Relative Weight and Bulk of South African Maize.— 
The following figures are given by Sir Thomas Price (2) as 
the result of an investigation into the cubic space occupied by 
South African maize in bulk and in bags :— 


. YELLow Maize. 

In Bulk. In Sacks.! 
1,289 lbs. = 27. cubic feet. | 29°8g5 cubic feet. 
2,000 ,, = 41°88 a 46°38 ry 
2,240 ,, = 46°QI Fr 51°98 6 

WHITE Maize. 

In Bulk. In Sacks.! 
1,232 lbs. = 27. cubic feet. —_ 
2,000 ,, = 49°82 ss 49°822 cubic feet. 
2,240 ,, = 49°09, 55°80 ” 


379. International Trade in Maize.—The following figures, 
statistics of the international trade in maize, including maize 
meal, for the years 1905-9, are furnished by the United 
States Department of Agriculture (Year Book, 1910), and re- 
present, substantially, the international trade of the world. 
As there stated, “it should not be expected that the world ex- 
port and import totals for any year will agree. Among sources 
of disagreement are these: (1) Different periods of time 
covered in the ‘year’ of the various countries; (2) imports 
received in year subsequent to year of export ; (3) want of 
uniformity in classification of goods among countries; (4) 
different practices and varying degrees of failure in recording 
countries of origin and ultimate destination; (5) different 
practices of recording re-exported goods; (6) opposite 
methods of treating free ports; (7) clerical errors, which, it 
may be assumed, are not infrequent. 

“The exports given are domestic exports, and the im- 
ports given are imports for consumption as far as it is feasible 
and consistent so to express the facts. While there are some 
inevitable omissions, on the other hand there are some dupli- 
cations because of re-shipments that do not appear as such in 
official reports. For the United Kingdom, import figures re- 
fer to imports for consumption, when available, otherwise total 
imports, less exports of ‘foreign and colonial merchandise’. 

1 These results are only approximate, as the number of sacks measured was 


small, and they therefore took up more space than they would have done if 
stowed tightly in the ship’s hold. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 623 


Figures for the United States include Alaska, Porto Rico, and cHap. 
Hawaii.” one 


TaBLeE LXXXV. 


WORLD'S EXPORTS OF MAIZE (IN BUSHELS OF 56 LBS.). 


, Year 
Country. Begin- 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 
ning. | 
aed Net eens pore Re eeerns 
pls : | t Jan. | 87,487,629 | 106,047,790 | 50,262,705 | 67,390,728 | 89,499,359 
ustria- 

Hungary soon | 62,218 22,361 | 120,144 | 381,821 48,218 
Belgium! | er 8,078,215 6,588,557 | 7,644,848 | 6,134,920 7,088,377 
Bulgaria P | 4, | 3,870,090 5,058,543 | 10,225,452 4,393,880 5,009,230 
Netherlands } a | 4,278,515 | 6,010,176} 8,215,931 | 6,957,524 | 7,308,873 
Roumania_. ” 1,441,437 | 23,756,349 | 54,721,194 | 28,960,339 | 29,091,447" 
Russia . -| 9 | 75372,386] 9,879,982) 38,636,221 | 23,545,445 | 26,531,945" 
Servia . ell os 806,115 1,755,446 4,046,392 1,934,483 3,767,180 
United States | an 113,189,271 | 105,258,629 | 86,524,012 | 39,013,273 | 38,114,100 
Uruguay . |r July | 28,519 9,746 88,659 25,432 399,229 
Other 

Countries . | — | 4,199,950 2,713,077 | 5,214,098 G5455,000 | I1,739,000? 

——— : = IE es 

Total : | _ | 230,815,345 | 267,700,656 | 265,699,656 | 188,192,445 | 218,596,958 
| | 


580. United States Exports.—\t is sometimes queried how 
the United States can afford to export maize so cheaply. In 
the ‘“‘Corn-surplus States,’ from which most of the export 
crop comes, farm-labour is not cheap (there is practically none, 
if any, coloured or “native” labour, such as is available in 
South Africa). The farm value, in 1909, was 7s, 3d. per 
muid, or about the same as in ordinary years in the Transvaal 
It should be borne in mind that—speaking generally—the 
American farmer does not grow for export; he grows to feed 
to stock, and sells only his swrpéws for manufacture or export. 
He usually has a surplus, because he must plant enough to 
provide for a possible bad year; if the crop is moderately 
good, he will still have some surplus for export, and if it is 
very good, he will have a large surplus. 

The United States crop is so enormous that in 1905 she 


1 Belgium and the Netherlands are non-producing countries, therefore these 
amounts must be re-exports. 
2 Preliminary. 


624 MAIZE 


CHAP. exported 31,700,000 muids (113,189,271 bushels) ; this re- 


ae presented under 3 per cent of the crop of that year. 

581. American Maize Grades.—The rules recommended by 
the Chief Grain Inspectors’ National Association of the United 
States of America classify maize-grain into three classes, viz. 
“yellow corn,” “white corn,” and “mixed corn”. The follow- 
ing are the rules :— 

No. 1. Yellow Corn shall be pure yellow corn, sound, 
plump, dry, sweet, and clean. 

No. 2. Yellow Corn shall be 95 per cent yellow corn, dry, 
sweet, and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound or 
plump for No. 1 Yellow. 

Taste LXXXVI. 
WORLD’S IMPORTS OF MAIZE (IN BUSHELS OF 56 LBS.). 
Year | 
Country. Begin- 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908, 1909. 
ning. | | 
| 
Austria- | | | 
Hungary .| 1 Jan.| 18,511,368 7,198,839 4,002,712 3,106,663 4,050,645 
Belgium a [i) 35 24,169,780 | 20,125,507 | 23,505,832 | 19,158,096 | 22,099,848 
British South 
Africa! ry 3,448,054 315,835 51,298 145,275 155,389 
Canada . : a 11,898,604 | 12,714,257 | 16,187,579 6,812,833 7,503,688 
Cuba . . a 1,843,348 | 2,489,087 | 3,153,495| 1,837,974] 2,249,996 
Denmark. rs 10,859,257 | 18,855,752] 2,383,282 | 10,445,555 | 9,151,750 
Egypt . . +3 1,279,749 | 1,438,435 196,539 845,205 748,865 
| France . ; a 11,122,512 | 14,509,103 | 16,850,618 9,629,979 | 11,213,413 
Germany .| ,, 36,538,366 | 44,883,052 | 49,293,029 | 26,372,295 | 27,833,917 
Italy. : “) 5,902,875 8,666,763 2,815,120 2,987,496 8,459,986 
Mexico . ee 1,115,007 1,882,218 1,554,145 179,157 I,16 7,733 
Netherlands . | 7 16,234,785 | 25,305,233 | 29,192,195 | 25,261,400 | 22,914,269 
Norway “| om 544,596 718,276 | 1,937,926 809,541 905,347 
Portugal. .) 4, | 2,724,050 370,611 677,726 | 2,015,388 | 2,367,800 | 
Russia . : | 163,979 456,481 550,841 355,769 174,7607| 
Spain. . 7,904,186 | 2,647,975 45552178 | 3,320,040 | 6,411,009 
Sweden : a 491,035 564,946 330,588 488,077 272,284 
Switzerland . i | 2,498,380 2,887,291 2,867,764 2,480,164 3,143,216 
United 
Fa cee 84,156,490 | 97,736,853 | 106,708,048 | 68,186,271 | 78,057,368 
ther 
Countries .| __,, 7,432,369 | 4,812,269 | 3,163,038 | 2,909,000 | _—_1,785,0007 
Total .| — icc 268,578,783 | 269,873,953 | 187,346,478 | 210,786,283 


1Only Cape Colony and Transvaal before 1906. 
2 Preliminary. 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 625 


No. 3. Yellow Corn shall be 95 per cent yellow corn, CHAP. 
reasonably dry, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound ae 
and dry for No. 2 Yellow. 

No. 4. Yellow Corn shall be 95 per cent yellow corn, not 
fit for a higher grade in consequence of being of poor quality, 
damp, musty, or dirty. 

No Grade Yellow Corn. (See general rule.) 

No. 1. Maxed Corn shall be mixed corn, sound, plump, dry, 
sweet, and clean. 

No. 2. Mixed Corn shall be mixed corn, dry, sweet, and 
reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound and plump for 
No. 1 Mixed. 

No. 3. Mzxed Corn shall be mixed corn, reasonably dry, 
reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound and dry for No. 2 
Mixed. 

No. 4. Mixed Corn shall be mixed corn, not fit for a higher 
grade in consequence of being of poor quality, damp, musty, 
or dirty. 

No Grade Mixed Corn. (See general rule.) 

No. 1. White Corn shall be pure white corn, sound, dry, 
plump, sweet, and clean. 

No. 2. White Corn shall be 98 per cent white corn, dry, 
sweet, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound and plump 
for No. 1 White. 

No. 3. White Corn shall be 98 per cent white corn, reason- 
ably dry, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound and dry 
for No. 2 White. 

No. 4. White Corn shall be 98 per cent white corn, not fit 
for a higher grade in consequence of being of poor quality, 
damp, musty, or dirty. 

No Grade White Corn. (See general rule.) 

No Grade—General Rule.—All grain of any kind and 
variety that is wet, hot, or in a heating condition, burned or 
smoky, contains weevil, or is for any reason unfit for ware- 
housing, shall be classed and graded ‘No Grade”. 

“ These rules have met with some criticism on the ground 
that the terms give great latitude for individual variations of 
opinion, ‘reasonably dry’ and ‘ reasonably clean,’ for instance, 
being quite indefinite ; and it has been suggested that the judg- 
ment of the inspectors should be guided and checked by actual 

40 


CHAP. 
XII. 


626 MAIZE 


scientific determinations of the percentages of moisture, of 
coloured grains, of damaged grains, and of broken grains, and 
dirt; though of course this could not be done with every 
consignment, but only with a certain number of selected 
samples with a view to keeping the standard of grading 
uniform.” 

As Chicago is probably the largest maize market in 
America, it is well to see what classes and grades are recog- 
nized by the Illinois State Board of Railroad and Warehouse 
Commissioners. These are :— 


Classes. Grades. 
‘* Yellow maize”’ ; ‘ ' : Nos. 1, 2, and 3. 
“ White maize” Z . é : Nos. I, 2, and 3. 
“Maize” .. ‘ ‘ : ‘ . Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. 


There are thus ten grades, as compared with South A frica’s 
nine. It must be borne in mind, however, that these grades are 
mainly for the use of local buyers (distillers, manufacturers, 
and stock feeders) and not necessarily for the export trade. 
The Chicago grades differ from the South African in several 
important points, e.g. there are but three classes as against 
South Africa’s five, which simplifies handling and shipping ; 
no distinction ts made between flats and rounds, i.e. Yellow 
Flats and Yellow Rounds are classed as “yellow maize”. 
“Mixed” maize is called ‘“ maize,” which is simpler and less 
derogatory. Mixed maize is given one additional grade, (4). 

In the Chicago market “maize” is more extensively dealt 
in than yellow and white together; and much more yellow is 
handled than white. No. 3 is the grade usually dealt in in 
all classes. In the case of ‘“ maize” (i.e. mixed), No. 4 grade 
is much more common than No. 2. 

Under the rules of the Board all maize that is less than 
4 (75 per cent) yellow or less than { (824 per cent) white 
is classed as “Maize”. In other words, “yellow” maize 
may contain up to 25 per cent of white and white maize 
up to 124 per cent yellow, without being classed as mixed. 
But for No. 1 grade (i.e. Choice) it must be either pure white 
or pure yellow. In other parts of the United States it is 
considered that yellow maize should be at least 95 per cent 
yellow; white maize at least 98 per cent white, and that all 


COMMERCE IN MAIZE GRAIN 627 


maize not included in these limits should be classed as CHAP. 

“mixed”, ee 
The maximum limits for each grade of maize are suggested 

in the following table :— 


Taste LXXXVII. 
MOISTURE-CONTENT OF AMERICAN GRADES. 


Maximum Percentage of | Maximum |Maximum Per- 


Grade Water a ae “Dry” Percentage} centage Dirt 


No Damaged | and Broken Remarks. 
Grain Grains 
Allowed. Allowed. 


Nov.-Mar. | Apl.-Oct. 


Per Cent. | Per Cent. 
I 13 12 oO o Shall be dry, plump, 
and well cleaned. 


2 15 | 14 I 2 Shall be dry, reason- 
| ably clean, but not 
plump enough for 
| No. tf. 
3 17 | 16 3 3 Shall be reasonably dry 


| and reasonably clean, 
but not. sufficiently 
sound for No. 2. 

4 19 | 18 6 5 Not fit for a_ higher 
grade in consequence 
of being of poor 
quality, damp, musty 
or dirty. 


582. Kiln-drying American Maize for Export.—For several 
years past bitter complaint has been made as to the condition 
of North American maize arriving on the European markets. 
Although steps have been taken to remedy the trouble, by the 
erection of artificial drying apparatus at the ports of New 
Orleans (whence much of the wet maize comes), Baltimore, 
and Boston, criticisms of the condition of the North American 
article are still very severe on the Liverpool Exchange. Un- 
doubtedly this state of affairs has helped to foster the South 
African trade, and has counteracted the bad impression given 
by the irregularity and small size of the parcels offered. The 
United States Department of Agriculture (10) reports as 
follows :— 


“The trade in Argentine corn has grown, both because it 
is sold in London by tons, and because it stands shipment 
40 * 


628 MAIZE 


CHAP. better than corn from this country on account of its hard, flinty 


XII. 


character. Our softer dent corn is nevertheless preferred in 
all the European markets, and the maintenance and increase 
of our export trade are dependent only upon its being shipped 
so that it will arrive in uniformly good condition. As de- 
terioration of corn during ocean transit is directly dependent 
upon the amount of moisture it contains, there is an easy and 
practicable remedy for the present condition, in artificial 
drying.” : 


CHAPTER XIII. 


THE MILLING, MILL-PRODUCTS, AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
OF MAIZE GRAIN. 


They .. . beat to death poor Pau-Puk-Keewis, 
Pounded him as maize is pounded. 
—Hiawatha. 


The information on milling contained in this chapter has been most kindly 
furnished by Mr. W. H. Horsfall, the well-known South African miller of 
Aliwal North. Mr. Horsfall comes from an old Yorkshire family, engaged in 
milling for generations, and is thoroughly familiar with the business. He has 
made it a point not only to keep posted on all the latest improvements in milling 
methods and machinery, but has gone minutely into the chemistry and mechanics 
of the subject to find out how to get the most nutritious and best products. The 
illustrations of milling machinery are from blocks kindly supplied by Messrs. 
Samuelson of Banbury, and Messrs. W. S. Barron & Son of Gloucester. 


583. Native Methods of Grinding —The method of crush- 
ing and grinding maize grain between two stones, the one 
hollowed and stationary on the ground, and the other rounded 
and held in the hand, was in vogue among the primitive 
American Indians, and is still employed by the natives of 
Basutoland and those of other Native Territories and Reserva- 
tions of South Africa (see Fig. 231). But when once the 
South African native gets into the town he is as particular 
about his mielie meal as any white man, even to its colour 
and the fineness of the grinding ; he has a strong partiality for 
white meal in preference to yellow. 

884. Modern Milling Methods.—Millers have adopted im- 
proved methods, during the last few years, for the milling of 
maize. In the old types of mill, maize is ground just as it is 
received from the farm, whereas in the most modern milling 
plants it is now subjected to a cleaning process which removes 
all the dirt or refuse left on or among the grain after it is 
shelled. 

All maize mills do not turn out the same products ; these 

629 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


630 MAIZE 


differ according to the particular machinery used, and there is 
no uniformity of composition in the products turned out under 
the same name. In South Africa there are mills producing, 
from one lot of grain, the following products :— 

Samp. 

Mielie meal, No. 1 quality. 

Mielie meal, No. 2 quality. 

Germ meal. 

Hominy-chop. 

By such a process there is practically no waste; jist, the 
grain is cleaned; second, it is steamed to soften the hull, 
which is then removed, chopped up, and mixed with screen- 
ings from other steps in the process, to form hominy-chop, 
which is sold for stock food; ¢#zrd, the grain is cracked and 
the “germ” removed (“degerminated”); the latter is then 
ground into “germ meal,” which is also sold for stock food ; 
this contains much of the protein and oil; fourth, the larger 
portions of starchy grains, free from ‘‘germ,” are sifted out to 
form samp; this contains less protein and practically no fat; 


fifth, the finer portions are ground into mielie meal, from 


which the No. 1 grade is sifted; s¢rth, the siftings of No. 1 
meal are again ground and form No, 2 meal. 
$85. Condition for Mitling.—Maize for milling should be 
in dry condition; to produce the best results the moisture- 
content should not be more than 10 to 12 per cent; if this is 
much exceeded, the capacity of the milling plant is consider- 
ably reduced, and an uneven grade of meal is produced which 
will not keep in good condition for any length of time. South 
African maize is pre-eminent for its dry condition, as the maize 
crop is dried by the sun, Nature’s own method and the best. 
If due care is taken that the maize is dry before shelling, it is 
unnecessary to resort to artificial means of “conditioning” the 
crop, either for home consumption or for export, as is done in 
so many other parts of the world. 
586. Mill-products of Matze-—The various mill-products 

which can be obtained from maize include :— 

Ordinary maize meal. 

High-grade maize meal for table use. 

Crushed maize. 

Maize-and-cob meal, 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 631 


Samp, hominy, and grits. CHAP. 
Flaked maize or corn-flakes, ee 
Starch, 

“ Corn-flour.” 

Flourine. 


The by-products include — 
Maize bran. 
Hominy-chop or hominy-feed. 
Maize germ. 
Germ meal. 
Gluten-feed. 
Gluten meal. 
587. Hominy Mill Products — Hopkins (3) gives the follow- 
ing interesting account of the products obtained in American 
hominy mills :— 


“The whole corn is somewhat softened by steaming and is 
then run through a hulling machine, which not only removes 
the hull, but loosens the germ and breaks off the horny gluten 
and more or less white starch. The dust or pulverized material 
coming from the hulling machine consists largely of white starch 
and horny gluten. The hulls and germs are each separated 
but not in very pure condition, leaving what is termed homzny, 
which consists chiefly of the horny, starchy part of the kernel, 
with more or less adhering white starch. 

“The product which is known as gv7¢s is made from the 
hominy and consists of the horny, starchy part separated in 
very pure form. In making the grits the coarse hominy is run 
through a grinding machine and reduced to a coarse powder 
which may be termed coarse grits, much of the adhering white 
starch being rubbed off from the horny starch in this process. 
The coarse grits are then run through one or two more grinding 
machines, until the horny starch is reduced to a rather fine 
powder, which may be termed fine grits. This material con- 
sists of the horny starch in very pure condition. After each 
grinding the fine dust, consisting largely of the white starch, is 
separated from the grits and goes into the product known as 
corn-flour. 

“In addition to the corn-flour thus regularly separated, 
and handled in considerable quantities, there is constantly pro- 
duced a small amount of what is termed ‘break’ flour. This 
is an exceedingly fine dust, also produced in the process of 
breaking the corn particles in the grinding machines which 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


632 MAIZE 


reduce the hominy to grits The break flour is carried from 
the machine by an air current through conduits and finally 
collected. This is another very pure form of the white starch. 

“ Thus, in the regular milling process, there are two physi- 
cal parts of the corn kernel separated in very pure form, 
namely, horny starch (fine grits) and white starch (break flour 
or corn-flour), and two other distinct parts which are separated 
somewhat less perfectly, the hulls and the germs.” 


The following table shows the composition of the several 
parts of the maize-grain, as separated by the hominy mill and 
by hand respectively :— 


TasBLeE LXXXVIII. 


COMPOSITION OF PARTS OF THE GRAIN AS SEPARATED BY THE 
MILL AND BY HAND. 


| 
| Names of Parts. Lee es Protein. Oil. Ash. hice 
| | PerCent | Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent | 
Hulls < é By mill 6°85 2°94 rl 89°10 | 
| 33 : By hand 4°97 "92 "82 93°29 
| Horny starch | ( By mill 8°46 "44 26 90°84 
(fine grits) f | \By hand 812 “16 “18 QI'54 
| : 
White — starch 
| (corn-flour) . By mill Sor 163 “49 91°97 
White starch | 
(break flour) . 45 5°88 2°04 68 gt'4o 
| White starch | 
| (from tip) ; By hand | 610 | 2 ‘29 93°33 
| Germs ‘ : By mill | 15°84 | 21°26 7°41 55°49 | 
| re . : By hand Ig‘QI 36°54 10°48 37°07) — | 
| Whole corn .| Millsample | 9°31 4°20 1°43 85°06 
4 2 : Ear No. 1 9°28 4°20 I'4t 85°11 


Hopkins (3) points out that 


“In general the composition of these mill separations 
agrees with the composition of the same parts separated by 
hand, although in nearly all cases the mill products show more 
or less contamination or mixture with other parts of the ker- 
nel. Thus the mill hulls are noticeably high in protein and oil 
owing to the presence of some particles of horny gluten and 
germ; while the mill germs are too low in protein and oil 
because of the presence of some hulls and tip caps. Further- 
more, some oil is lost from the germ and absorbed from other 
parts in the milling process. The fine grits are almost pure 
horny starch, except that they contain about twice as much oil 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 633 


as the hand-separated product. This is doubtless due to the 
fact that some germs are broken or crushed in the hulling 
machine, and the liberated oil is absorbed to some extent by the 
hominy, chiefly, of course, by the white starch, as indicated by 
the high oil-content of the break flour and the other regularly 
separated corn-flour, although it is evident that a small por- 
tion of this liberated oil remains adhering to the fine grits. 
The white starch contains 5°88 to 5-91 per cent of protein, 
while the horny starch (fine grits) contains 8:46 per cent, or 
almost one-half more. 

“It will be observed that the two samples of whole corn 
(Table LXX XVIII) are almost identical in composition. While 
the corn is fairly representative of much of the white corn grown 
during the season of 1902, attention is called to the apparent 
fact that this is not the most suitable corn for the manufacture of 
hominy and grits. It seems evident that corn containing a 
higher percentage of the horny starchy part would be more 
valuable for the hominy mill. Fhe manager of the American 
Hominy Company’s mills at Decatur has assured the writer 
that he prefers corn which shall run high in grits (horny starch), 
but he does not desire that the oil-content should be increased ; 
indeed, it would be much better for milling purposes to have the 
percentage of oil in corn reduced, because of the difficulty of pre- 
venting the cil from being absorbed by the other products and 
injuring their quality, the tendency being for the oil to become 
rancid when exposed to the air. The hominy mills offer some 
encouragement to farmers to grow corn especially suited for 
their use.” 


588. The Best Sorts of Maize for Milling.—The best sorts 
of South African maize for milling are found among the flat 
dent breeds, and include :— 

White Breeds :— 

Hickory King ; 

10o-vow Hickory ; 

Towa Silver-mine ;' 

FHlorsetooth types (including Natal White Horse- 
tooth, Mercer, Ladysmith, Hickory Horse- 
tooth, and Salisbury White). 

For the manufacture of samp, hominy, cerealine, etc., white 


1 Since the above was written, Dr. Juritz has issued a report on some 
comparative analyses of Iowa Silver-mine and Hickory King mielie meal which 


CHAP 
XIII. 


CHAP. 
XUI. 


634 MAIZE 


maize of a long-grained type, such as /Jowa Silver-mine, Lady- 
smith, or Mercer, yielding a high percentage of horny endo- 
sperm, is required. Soft, starchy, immature, or mixed maize is 
said to be useless for this purpose. 

The “ flour corns,” “flour maize” or “ bread-mielies”” make 
the softest floury meal of any variety of maize, but as their 
protein-content is low, their nutritive value is poor; moreover 
they do not keep well, being more quickly attacked by weevil 
and grain moth than the harder types. 

Yellow breeds :— 

Chester County ; 
German Yellow (the true dent type); 
Eureka. 

Yellow Horsetooth, Golden Beauty, and Reid Yellow Dent 
are also suitable for milling and the manufacture of flakes. 

The different breeds of hard round flint maize, such as 
the IVh7zte and Yellow Cangos, are not considered suitable 
for milling as they produce a very sharp, gritty meal, and it 
requires more power to reduce them than is the case with any 
of the other sorts named. 

589. Construction of a Modern Mill and Modern Machinery. 
—The modern mill is designed and planned by the milling 
engineer before a brick has been laid. In the arrangement of 
the machines, elevators, shafting, and belt drives, it is essential, 
in order to produce the best results with the smallest con- 
sumption of power, that the engineer should have the “first 
say’ as to the internal construction of the building. He will 
see to it that there is sufficient floor space to get comfortably 
round every machine for inspection and sampling of products, 
etc., with some space to spare for additional machines when 
necessary ; sufficient height between floors for spouting by 
gravitation, and plenty of light; and the best driving arrange- 
ments for each machine. Another desideratum is the lowest 
possible fire risk and insurance rate, which means that there 
should not be a machine in the store, nor a bag of produce in 
the s//, except the sacking-off products; the two buildings 


show, among other things, that Iowa Silver-mine is an ideal mielie for samp- 
making, even preferable to Hickory King (assuming that it does not make too 
much meal in the process of degermination), because of its lower percentage of 
fat; one object in samp-making is to get the product as free from oil as possible, 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 635 


should either be a few feet apart or, if adjoining, a fire-proof CHAP. 
party-wall should divide them. XIII, 

The selection of the most suitable and economical form of 
motive power depends greatly on the location of the mill and 
an abundant supply of good water. If it is near the coal- 
fields a steam-plant is generally preferred, but this must be of 
the very latest type of construction; it should include a com- 
pound condensing engine worked with superheated steam of 
120 to 150 lbs. boiler-pressure, and with feed-water heating 
apparatus, if it is to be as economical as a suction gas engine 
and plant of the latest type, such as “The National Gas 
Engine’’! 

In some of the large centres, such as Capetown, Johannes- 
burg, and Durban, electric motors have been adopted, but they 
are only practicable where the current can be obtained at a 
price under one penny per unit. 

The selection of the best milling machinery is probably the 
most difficult task confronting the purchaser of a new plant, 
as there are five or six first-class English milling engineers 
represented in South Africa’ who turn out machines which 
are not surpassed in design, results, economy of power, and 
durability. Apart from any favourite make or design of 
machine, the point which appeals most to the practical miller 
is the best “flow sheet” which the engineer can supply, as 
this is really where the results and the profits come in. It in- 
variably follows that the best machines and the best ‘flow 
sheet” go together, for the engineer who recognizes the im- 
portance of keeping his machines strictly up-to-date, and 
perhaps a little ahead of his competitors’ machines, is wide- 
awake enough to engage the services of the most competent 
milling expert (who prepares the diagrams for the mill) whom 
money can employ. 

1 For which Messrs. Stewarts & Lloyds are the agents in South Africa; they 
also supply an apparatus for producing steam from the waste heat of the exhaust 
eases, which is necessary for the steaming-worm, gelatinizers, and dryers of the 
mill. Mr. Horsfall speaks highly, from his own practical experience, of the 
economy in fuel and general running of this make of engine. The ‘Lister ”’ 
petrol engine, for which the Agricultural Supply Association, Ltd., Johannes- 
burg, is the South African agent, is also highly spoken of by those who have 
used it. 

2In addition to Messrs. Samuelson and Messrs. Barron, Messrs. Henry 


Simon, Ltd., of Manchester, and Messrs. E. R. & F. Turner, Ltd., of Ipswich, 
supply milling machinery to South Africa, 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


636 MAIZE 


Apart from the commercial side of the business, the ideal 
combination to produce the ‘‘ fattest” balance sheet is the 
best machinery, the best “ flow sheet,” and a thoroughly prac- 
tical miller to work them; unfortunately the last named is a 
rara avis, comparatively speaking, in South Africa. 

590. Cleaning and Preparation.—The machine used first, 
for the cleaning of maize, is the zigzag separator. This 
consists of a number of sieves built in a frame in zigzag shape 
(Fig. 214) (whence the name) and covered with perforated 


Feed Aspiration Zab Feed 
i, 
ul I 
s Vv 
ad Exhaust Trunk } 
to Fan ES 
x Shoe 
; 4J--J and feed 
pst Sieve 5 Distributor 
=< Large 
(Pras Rubble 
offinst ~) PYASSsss= eo . 
creenings © OQyertai d Sieve y 
Tip is Sieve arse aes 
¥ 
4 Sieve 
Overtails Througas F% Overtat!s 
4 Sieve 2° Sieve 
| I. 


| T 


Grain Delivery 
Fic. 214.—Zigzag separator. (Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson.) 


steel similar to those used in a wheat-cleaning machine, except 
that the perforations are larger to suit the different types of 
maize milled. It is operated by an eccentric shaft; a large 
fan is fixed on the frame, and the grain is subjected to a 
strong air current on entering and leaving the machine. After 
passing over a magnetic separator, which extracts any nails, 
pieces of wire, or metal, the grain is fed into a special 
‘“scourer” which polishes it and takes out any weevils if 
old maize is being treated. 

If it is desired to turn out a high grade mielie meal for 
table use, the grain is subjected to further treatment by 
passing it through a “steaming-worm,” into which is con- 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 637 


ducted “live” steam to toughen the bran-skin just before the CHAP. 
grain passes to the ehee NIT. 
grinders. The pro- Fa Separator 
cess is diagrammati- 

cally shown in Fig. 

21.5) 

591. Grinding. 
—The grain is now 
in a fit state for  Magnetic| Separator 
grinding. This 
operation is per- 
formed either by 
stones or rollers, or 
by a combination of 
both. 

For grinding 
maize and other  ‘teaming| Worm 
cereals or mill-pro- 
ducts, which require 
to be ground into a Kibbling Rolls 
fine meal,a millstone Y { 
has been put on the pee ee eee Bran 
market in recent RIESE 
years, constructed Fic. 215.—Diagram of maize-meal plant. 
of emery, or carborundum of a hard grain which, when dressed, 
has a fine, sharp, cutting face. 

592. The Millstone Process.—The popular form of machine 
consists of two stones placed vertically, one stationary and the 
other or “runner stone” fixed to a disk-plate on a horizontal 
shaft turning at the rate of 400 to 500 revolutions per minute, 
according to the size of the stones. These stones are en- 
closed in a suitable cast-iron case, with feed-hopper and inlet, 
and two outlets to suit the position of the discharge spout. 
The shaft has automatic self-oiling bearings with ball-bearing 
thrust collar, and adjustable safety springs to prevent break- 
age, allowing the stone to give, in case any hard substance 
gets in. Better work is done if the maize is passed through 
“kibblers” or a pair of “kibbling rolls,” with the feed-regulat- 
ing roll specially fluted for treating maize, before it is passed 


Stone Milf 


Rotary Sifter 


Centrifugal 
Scourer & Aspirator 


Scratch| Rolls 


CHAP. 
XMM. 


638 MAIZE 


on to the stones, and by this means also the life of the stones 
is lengthened. 

The original type of this machine is believed to have been 
introduced by Messrs. W. S. Barron & Son of Gloucester, 
England; it was named the “Dreadnought,” and has de- 
servedly met with great success. It has lately been much 
improved by being fitted with ‘“kibblers,’ which dispenses 
with the use of a kibbling roll, relieves the main stones of the 
rough work, and—the makers claim—entirely does away with 


CoPATENT. 
OREADNAUGHT 
GRINDER 


Tic. 216.—‘‘ Dreadnought” grinder. (Courtesy of Messrs. W. S. Barron & Son, 
Gloucester. ) 

stone dressing. The ‘ Dreadnought” cuts up the maize, bran 

included, into a fine, even-grained meal, and the whole design 

and arrangement of the machine are admirable. (Figs. 216 

and 217.) 

If ‘sifted mielie meal” is required, the product is then 
passed on to a “rotary sieve scalper” which separates the 
meal from the bran. 

For making the highest grade mielie meal for a nourishing 
and wholesome breakfast porridge, suited to the most fastidious 
palate, the type of maize is carefully selected, and the process 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 639 


is elaborated. A “centrifugal dressing machine” (Fig. 218), CHAP. 


’ 


clothed with a steel slatted wire cover of suitable mesh, is sub- “IT. 


Details of Roll Feed. 


VL GL 
Vit 


Fic. 217.—Diagram of ‘‘ Dreadnought” grinder. (Courtesy of Messrs. W. 
S. Barron & Son, Gloucester.) 


A, Fixed stone. B, Runner stone. C, Scrapers. D, Fixed kibbler. 
E, Runner kibbler. FF, Kibbler runner plate. 1, Scrapers. 2, Feed spout. 
3, Feed hopper. 4, Shaker shoe. 5, Feed roll. 6, Magnets. 7, Pulley. 


fy tice saa 
- 


Fic. 218.—Centrifugal dressing machine. (Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson, 
Banbury.) 


stituted for the rotary sieve scalper; the head-end is clothed 
fine for dressing-out the fine meal, and the tail-sheet has a 


640 MAIZE 


CHAP. coarser cover for separating the granular meal from the bran, 


XIII. 


which passes out of the machine at the tail-end. The product 
of the tail-sheet is then purified on a ‘‘cyclo-separator”’ which 
subjects the material to a strong air current and eliminates the 
fine bran and other impurities. After it has been reduced ona 
pair of finely fluted rollers it passes to the posser (Fig. 219) 
for sacking off as a fine, pure meal. 


POSSER BY SAMUELSON, BANBURY. 


Fic. 219.—Posser. (Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson, Banbury.) 


593. The Roller Mill Process.—The roller process of maize 
grinding is generally carried out on a three-pair, high roller- 
mill (Fig. 220), consisting of three pairs of fluted rolls, super- 
posed in an iron frame, with suitable feed roll and feed hopper 
fixed on the top of the frame. The grain is fed on to the first 
pair of rolls (which are coarsely fluted), through the feed hopper 
and feed roll, and are then passed on to a sieve, operated by a 
cam or reciprocating motion, which takes out the fine meal 
before the remainder passes on to the second “break” or pair 
of rolls, when the same process is repeated ; it finally passes 
from the third pair of rolls, which are finely fluted, as finished 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 641 


meal and bran. For ‘sifted meal” it is treated on the rotary cHap 
sieve scalper previously referred to. XI. 


Fic. 220.—Three-pair high roller mill for grinding maize. 
(Courtesy of Messrs. Samuelson, Banbury.) 


The advantage of this system lies in the fact that it re- 
quires less power to work it than is necessary for the mill- 
stone process, and that it makes a meal comparatively free 

41 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


642 MAIZE 


from bran chips. But while the percentage of bran given off 
is larger, the meal produced is more granular and, it is said, 
has not as high a nutritive value as that obtained by the stone 
mill process; moreover, the wear and tear of the corrugations 
on the rollers is very heavy and they require constant refluting, 
otherwise the power must be considerably increased. 

504. Loss in Milling. —The normal loss in milling should 
not exceed 14 to 2 per cent if the maize is good, sound, and 
dry; this loss is due to cleaning and evaporation during the 
milling process. From 3 to 124 per cent of bran is extracted 
when making “sifted mielie-meal,” according to the system 
employed (i.e. the emery-stone or the roller process), the 
degree of fineness in dressing, and the kind of maize which is 
milled. In South Africa, a bag of mielie meal usually weighs 
183 lbs. gross. 


TITUS IMPROVED DEGERMINATOR 


Fic. 221.—Improved degerminator. 


595. Samp.—Another mill product largely used is known 
as samp, the manufacture of which has increased rapidly in 
South Africa during the last few years. Owing to the excep- 
tional suitability of the South African types of maize (such as 
Towa Silver-imine, Ladysmith, and Hickory King) for the manu- 
facture of samp, and the adoption of the American system of 
manufacture and types of machinery, South African millers 
have practically ousted the American product from the local 
market. 

For samp making, the grain is cleaned by the same process 
employed before milling, as described above (590). But a 
different manufacturing plant is required. This consists of a 
degerminator (Fig. 221) which removes the bran-skin and 
“germ” (i.e. the embyro), and breaks the grain into coarse 
particles. After passing through a steam dryer, the broken 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AIAIZE GRAIN 643 


grain is treated on the ‘‘hominy separator” (Fig. 222), a 
double-dressing machine clothed with perforated steel or wire 
of suitable mesh, which takes out the “hominy-chop”. This 
by-product consists of the “ scourings” made by the degermina- 
tor in the breaking-process, combined with the bran and the 
“germ”; it contains a fairly high percentage of protein, is rich 
in oil, and therefore makes a highly nutritious cattle food, for 
which purpose a considerable quantity is exported from South 
Africa to Europe. The hominy separator also grades the 
samp and grits into suitable sizes; they are then subjected to a 


yy 


strong “aspirating ” current. The grits are either reduced to 


Fic. 222.—Hominy separator. 


meal, on fluted rolls, or, if required for table use, are first purified. 
The process is diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 223. 

396. Flaked Maise.—Flaked maize is prepared as a break- 
fast food, and is also used by the brewing trade. The process 
of preparation is a continuation of that employed for samp. 
After the samp has been reduced to pure grits, these are 
“gelatinized,” and then “flaked” by heavy rolls of special 
construction. The flakes are conveyed to a drier and sub- 
sequently sifted by a sifter to remove dust and flakes too large 
in size. A diagram illustrating a flaked maize plant is shown 
in Fig. 224. 

Chemical Composition. 


597. Importance of a K nowledge of the Chemical Compost- 
tion. —A knowledge of the chemical composition and nutritive 
4i* 


CHAP. 
XII. 


CHAP. 
XIII, 


Cleaned Maize 


Hominy Separator 


Degerminator 


Aspi 


644 MAIZE 


value of maize is important to us in order that we may intelli- 
gently “ balance” the ration, by the addition of proper amounts 
of foodstuffs containing suitable proportions of other sub- 
stances, and feed it so judiciously and economically that we 
shall secure the best results at the least cost. 

It is also important that we should know the composition 
of the various mill products in order to take the fullest advan- 
tage of them, and utilize what otherwise might be waste. 


Scratch 
Rolls 


Centrifugal 
Sam, 
¥ Gelatinizer 


esd Sneak rand Rotary Sifter 


Scratch 


Rolls (a 


Second Break P 


eI 


Rotary Sifter 


Third Break Rotary Sifter 


Preliminary Oryer 


Flake Dryer 


tors 


A 


U 


Fic, 223.—Diagram of samp plant. 


; a a 4 


VY _ /3tGrade 2°4Grade Homin 
Samp Maize Meal MaizeMeal y Maize Meal Flaked Maize 


Foodstuffs vary in nutritive value according to their chemical 
composition and digestibility. Some are better suited for 
developing the necessary muscle and bone of growing animals, 
others for producing fat or milk. Some, though rich in certain 
ingredients, are so poorly “balanced,” that if fed alone they 
result in malnutrition and the consequent arrested development 
of growing animals. No one foodstuff can meet all the require- 
ments of the successful feeder. The art of preparing food for 
either human beings or domestic animals, lies in producing 


Vic. 224.—Diagram of flaked-maize plant. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 645 


rations so well balanced that the most complete develop- 
ment and the greatest amount of vital energy are secured at 
the lowest cost; or, in the case of animals for special uses, 
providing such rations as will bring about the particular re- 
sults desired. In other words, the feeder must know, either 
by practical experience, or by scientific knowledge—and better 
by a combination of both—what particular combinations of 
foodstuffs will produce the desired results. A comprehension 
of foods and feeding is of value no less to the manager of the 
Mine Compound, feeding his thousands of natives with a view 
to producing the maximum of efficiency, than to the producer 
of beef, mutton, wool, and horse-flesh. 

To acquire knowledge of all these points by practical ex- 
perience alone, unaided by scientific study, is at best a very 
expensive and slow process, if indeed it is possible. The 
practical stock feeder, without any scientific knowledge, may 
be very successful with his stock up to a certain point, and as 
long as economic conditions and the state of his crops and of 
his veld remain the same; but when any of these change he 
finds himself in difficulty, and does not usually readjust himself 
without loss of time and money; often he fails financially 
through his inability to effect an adjustment. 

But with a fair knowledge of the composition and nutritive 
value of the different available foodstuffs he is in a position to 
calculate what combination of materials producible on his farm, 
or readily and cheaply obtainable, can be most effectively and 
economically used at any time, under varying conditions of 
season, market, and other factors which affect prices and 
relative values. 

On the other hand, scientific knowledge is not likely to help 
a man much unless he can combine it with sound business 
management and practical understanding of the feeding of 
animals. 

598. The Important Chemical Constituents of Foodstuffs.— 
The important chemical constituents of foodstuffs in general 
are as follows :— 


Protein (i.e. nitrogen x 6°25)—muscle-forming material. 

Nitrogen-free extract (or carbohydrates minus the crude fibre)—fat forming 
material. 

Ether extract, or fats, waxes, oils, and resins—heat producers. 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


646 MAIZE 


Ash or mineral substances, which have an influence on the formation of the 

bones. 

Crude fibre—indigestible matter. 

Water. 

A large amount of work has been done in the United States— 
the home of the maize crop—in investigating the composition, 
digestibility and feeding-value of different parts of the maize 
plant, both by means of chemical analyses and by feeding 
tests and experiments to show its digestibility. To no other 
country can we turn for such complete information on the 
subject as to this one, where hundreds of such tests and 
analyses have been made. 

599. Chemical Composition of the Whole Gratn.—Careful 
studies have been made by the New Jersey and other State 
Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States. These 
analyses show that the average composition of maize grain is 
as follows :— 


TasLe LXXXIX. 


AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN. 


= - : 
| Moist.! Dry.2 | Dry.3 


., =e = = - = ae —— — ence? 

| Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent. 

| Protein. ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ , 10°3 126 | 12°85 

| Nitrogen-free Extract (Starches, Sugars, | 

| ete.) . : : F ‘ : ; 704 794 | 8orr23 
Ether Extract (Fats) F i ; : 50 423), tl 5°36 
Crude Fibre. . ‘ ' , f 2°2 250" 4) _ 

| Ash . ? : 15 | re | 1°67 

| ‘ : | 

| ‘ 80°4 100°0 100°0 

| Water. ‘ é ‘ . ; : 10°6 (exe) exe) 

| 1000 100°0 = |_—:100°0 

Pes eects es | | 


600. Profen.—By the protein of feeding-stuffs we mean 
those ingredients which contain nitrogen, e.g., maize gluten 
and the white of eggs. The average nitrogen-content of 
protein is about 16 percent. Itis the protein of the foodstuffs 
which builds up various tissues of the animal body such as the 
muscles, tendons, internal organs, skin, etc., as well as the 
organic part of the bones. 


' Myrick (1). ’ Henry (1). * Hopkins (3). 
4 Including crude fibre. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 647 


Protein occurs to some extent in all parts of the maize CHAP. 
grain, but not in equal proportion. Voorhees (1) finds: that. “40: 
the portion richest in protein is the horny layer, and this is 
confirmed by Hopkins (4). The latter (3) gives the distribution 
of the protein, in a medium protein maize, as follows :— 


TABLE XC, 


DISTRIBUTION OF PROTEIN IN PARTS OF THE MAIZE GRAIN. 


Totals. 
In Tip Cap : : : ; : , 1'l4 
jin Hull. ‘ : : : . : 2°07 | 
Total in Pericarp : 5 : 3°21 | 
In Horny Gluten : : : ; 4 16°67 
In Horny Starch : ; ‘ ‘ 42°36 
Total in Horny Endosperm 5 ; 59°03 | 
| In Crown Starch : : : ; j 11°88 | 
In Tip Starch . : : : : 5 5°75 
Total in Starchy Endosperm , < d 17°63 | 
pamesate! | 
Total in Endosperm . ; ‘ : ; 5 ‘ 76°66 | 
_In Embryo, or ‘*Germ” . F : ; : ; : : 20°14 | 
Total . . : : F : : ° : ¢ I00'01 | 


« As an average, about 22 per cent of the total protein is 
contained in the horny gluten, nearly 40 per cent in the horny 
starch, and nearly 20 per cent in the germ, thus these three 
parts contain about 80 per cent of the total protein in the 
kernel” (Hopkins, 3). 

High protein maize is characterized by the large proportion 
of the 4orzy part, and a correspondingly smaller proportion of 
the white s¢archy part. 

601. Protein obtainable from 100 lbs. of Matze Grain.— 
Hopkins (3) gives the following tables showing the weight and 
distribution of the protein that may be obtained from 100 Ibs. 


of maize grain :— 


648 MAIZE 


CHAP. 
XII. 


PROTEIN IN too LBS 


TaBLe XCI. 


. OF MAIZE. 


| g 
| Low Protein Corn. High Protein Corn. Differ- 
| ence. 
Per Cent | Per Cent 
Per Cent , °° aa | Lbs. of | Per Cent | af Lbs. of Lbs. of 
of Corn. | Breen: Protein. | of Corn | Protein Protein. | Protein. 
Ene eo eet eee oe a ae ee ee = 
| | 
In Embryo or‘ Germ”! 9°33 18-o1 1°68 II"44 20°25 | 2°43 75 
In Endosperm 90°67 569 5°16 88°56 | 13°80 Tee? 7°06 
| 


“We thus find,” he says, ‘‘as a result of corn breeding, 
that in the seventh generation we have a maximum difference 
of only ‘75 lb. of protein in the germs from 100 lbs. of low 
protein and high protein corn, while in the endosperms from 
these two kinds of corn we have a difference of 7°06 lbs. of 
protein in 100 lbs, of corn. In other words, in changing the 
protein-content of corn, the effect produced in the endosperms 
amounts to almost ten times the effect produced in the germs.” 


TaBLE XCII. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PROTEIN IN 100 LBS. OF MAIZE. 


In Low Protein | 


In Medium | In High 
Corn. Protein Corn. Protein Corn. 

Haes| toew tre = | | 

In Tip Caps “09 | 13 | “08 
In Hulls : : 227, | 23 2 | 
In Horny Endosperm . 5°25 | 6°69 8:20 | 
In White Starch . 2°37 2°00 | 1°80 | 
In Embryo or ‘‘ Germ ” Ig | 2°28 | 2°33 

| | 

Total 9°89 11°33 | 12°64 | 
| | | 
602. The Proteids of Maize Grain.—Chittenden and 


Osborne (2) find that the maize grain contains several dis- 
tinct proteids, well characterized in reactions and composition. 
Of these, there are three globulins, one or more albumins, and 
an alcohol-soluble proteid known as ze7v. The quantities of 


the different proteids in the maize grain are estimated (Hopkins, 
4), as follows :— 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 


649 

Per Cent. a D 
(1) Proteose, soluble in pure water : x : : 0:06 ae 
(2) Very soluble globulin . : : : F : ; 0°04 f 
(3) Maysin, soluble in extremely dilute salt-solution . 0°25 
(4) Edestin, soluble in more concentrated salt-solutions oro 
(5) Zein, soluble in alcohol ; 6 5°00 
(6) Proteid matter! soluble in dilute alkalies 3°15 
(7) Proteid matter insoluble in any of these solvents 1°03 


— Crown starch 


Re 


eA 
C2 


: Horny 
: pA gluten 
Be 
¢ HYG ——= Hull 
5 tLe H 
6s 
AGA ———Embryo 
9400: 
Tip starch 
a es 
Radice — = Tip-cap 


Fic. 225.—Physical composition of low-protein maize grain. (After Hopkins; 
from Bulletin of Illinois State Agricultural Experiment Station.) 


The mean percentage of nitrogen in maize proteids is cal- 


culated by Hopkins as 16°02. 
603. Zein.—The proteid se7z is soluble in warm dilute 
alcohol, but insoluble in water. It is characterized by a high 


1 The protein is estimated by multiplying the amount of the nitrogen-con- 
tent in the residue from too parts of maize, by the factor 6°25 (Hopkins, 4). 


CHAP. 
XII. 


650 MAIZE 


content of carbon, by its resistance to the action of dilute 
alkalies (i.e. non-convertibility into alkali-albuminate), and by 
the ease with which it is converted into an insoluble modifica- 
tion on being warmed with water, or with very weak alcohol. 
Soluble zein and the insoluble modification have the same 
chemical composition. Both respond to the ordinary proteid 
reactions (Chittenden and Osborne, 2). 

604. Ether Extract or “ Fat”.—This consists of fat, wax, 
resins, and similar substances. In grains and seeds it is nearly 
all fat or oil, and has a corresponding feeding value. In the 
case of maize, over 80 per cent of the fat or oil is contained in 
the embryo, and the rest nearly equally divided between the 
pericarp and the endosperm. 

The following is the distribution of the ether-extract or fat 
in the grain of a medium protein-content maize, as determined 
by Hopkins (3) :— 


TaBLeE XCIII. 


DISTRIBUTION OF FAT IN MAIZE. 


Totals. 
In Tip Cap : ; : ; : : “69 
In Hull. : ; f ; : - 108 
Total in Pericarp i : ; Z . re c ® 77 
In Horny Gluten . ; ; ' 5 £2*21 
In Horny Starch : ‘ : : i 2530 
Total in Horny Endosperm : ; : ‘ 14°53 
In Crown Starch ‘ . ‘ ‘ 59 
In Tip Starch . : : : : : 68 
Total in Starchy Endosperm — . F ; , 1°27 
Total in Endosperm . : ‘ : P ; Fl . 15°80 
In Embryo or *Germ”’. ‘ 4 ‘ ‘ i , . 82°43 
Total . F j E é ; : ; . 100°00 


“The germ [embryo] contains from 80 to 84 per cent of the 
while all other parts combined contain only 15 to 20 per 
cent of the total oil in the kernel. Based upon this fact is the 
method for selecting high oil or low oil seed-corn by mechanical 


— 


ol 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 651 


examination, the ears whose kernels show a large proportion CHAP. 
of germ being high-oil corn, and those with small germs, low-  *!!. 
oil corn, About 12 per cent of the total oil is contained in 
the horny gluten, leaving only about 5 per cent of the oil 
distributed among the remaining five physical parts, and more 
or less of this small amount is undoubtedly absorbed from the 
contiguous germ.or horny gluten.” 

To breed maize for high oil-content, select for seed those 
ears having grain with large embryo. 

605. Carbohydrates.—The carbohydrates include the starch, 
sugar, pentosans, gums, organic acid, crude fibre, and bodies 
other than the protein, ether-extract (fats) and ash. In ana- 
lyses made to determine feeding-value, the amount of “crude 
jibre,” which includes the cellulose and is largely indigestible, is 
‘given separately and the remainder of the carbohydrates stated 
under the heading “ Vetrogen-free extract”. 

The function of the carbohydrates as foodstuffs is to pro- 
duce fat. Hopkins finds the carbohydrates to be distributed 
as follows in the grain of a medium protein percentage ear :— 


TaspLE XCIV. 
DISTRIBUTION OF CARBOHYDRATES IN MAIZE. 


| Totals. 
In Tip Cap : : ; 3 : : 1°56 
In Hull. ‘ F " j ‘ , 6°80 
Total in Pericarp : ‘ z _— 8°36 
In Horny Gluten : ‘ : : : 715 
In Horny Starch f ‘ : : F T'I2 
Total in Horny Endosperm : oo 58°27 
| In Crown Starch : : : ; . 18°96 
| In Tip Starch . : ‘ . . 9°45 
| Total in Starchy Endosperm_. oo 28°41 
{ ——— 
Total in Endosperm . . : : 3 : : . 86°68 
| In Embryo or ‘‘Germ” 4 : : 3 ; : , 4°97 
| Total. : Z % : : : . 1o0o"or 


606. Ash.—The percentage of ash in maize grain is com- 
paratively low, i.e. I°5 per cent in moist grain and 1:7 per cent 
in dry. The following is the average of 15 analyses as given 
by Wolff (Aschen Analysen, 1880) :— 


k,O Na,O MgO CaO Fe,O,, P.O; So, SiO, Cl 
298 I'l 15°5 2°2 08 45°6 a8 21 0-9 


CHAP. 
XII. 


652 MAIZE 


“Tt seems evident that as a rule the ash of corn [maize 
grain] contains at least 95 per cent of the phosphates of potas- 
sium and magnesium, about twice as much potash as magnesia 
being present ” (Hopkins, 3). 

An extended investigation of the ash of maize grain, with 
reference to its content of fertilizing elements, was made by 
Scovell and Peter at the Kentucky Station (Ae/. 1891). They 
found an average of 51°91 per cent phosphoric oxide (P,O,) 
and 29°15 per cent of potassium oxide (K,O). 

The low percentage (2°2) of lime has an important bearing 
on the feeding value of maize for growing pigs ; whether used 
alone or with skim milk only, the addition of some substance 
containing more bone-making material is necessary. It is 
found that maize-fed pigs readily eat ashes to which they are 
allowed access. 

The following is the distribution of the ash in the grain 
of a medium protein-content maize, as determined by Hop- 
kins (3) :— 

TasL_e XCV. 


DISTRIBUTION OF ASH IN MAIZE. 


Totals. 
In Tip Cap 1°06 
In Hull 3°06 
Total in Pericarp : 4°12 
In Horny Gluten 9°56 
In Horny Starch 7°38 
Total in Horny Endosperm : 16°94 
In Crown Starch : ; : : 207 
In Tip Starch. : : ; ; : 72 
Total in Starchy Endosperm 4°39 
Total in Endosperm . : : ; ‘ F ‘ — Brees 
In Embryo or “Germ” 74°55 
Total T0000 


607. IWVater.—Water is essential to the animal metabolism. 
But it is usually obtainable with so little difficulty from other 
sources than the foodstuffs that the relative value of foodstuffs 
is, as a rule, calculated on the basis of water-free material. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ALAIZE GRAIN 653 
The percentage of water contained in the various foodstuffs CHAP. 
varies greatly ; dry maize-grain contains 10 to 12 per cent; *'UE 
dry oat-hay or “ forage’ about 15 per cent; pasture-grass up 
to 75 per cent; cabbages, pumpkins, and “ prickly-pear,” of 
spineless cactus “ leaves,” about 90 per cent. 

608. Physical Composition of the Grain—The maize grain 


is not a homogeneous mass, and from the milling and feeding 


ee 
4) 
na ww Crown 
an starch 
Cuy 
aye 
oot 
B95 
; [so] et) 
( ier ~ Horny 
a Sci s I 
wa en saad starch 
Ro Fe, ‘ ate 
be i UL ee Horny 
be roa HEA Sage gluten 
b2e50. A Jolss 
maggunwas YAN Booties 
eacaaeeny FY Bac ae ~— ul 
‘po a8) ae ee sin) Talon 
mets agey oe cy) iE jal aloe 
Ke ano sje §S Veen (J ORE 
OO aN A pay peared 
Se Bice ager ne rr: oy —— Embryo 
erated otal Ew LS cig @ Oalelecron 
oS sac BAS) Baan 
ool! G if J ie) \] 
Vaseeus eit paces 
Wet Rea Boe 
Voor BED noe: acon) 
3.8) é ne 4 
\enae Iw, Chr Tip starch 
Plumule——— “ ™ 7 NS 
‘« 
Radic] € —$— $< ie 


Fic. 226.—Physical composition of high-protein maize grain. (After Hopkins ; 
from Bulletin of Illinois State Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

points of view it is important to know the chemical composi- 

tion of the several parts into which it is separable. A grain of 


maize consists of six readily observable and distinctly different 
physical parts, known as :— 


CHAP. 
XII. 


6e4 MAIZE 


A. The Pericarp. 
(i) The Tip Cap. 
(ii) The Hull. 
B. The Embryo (“Germ ’’). 
C. The Endosperm. 
(iv) The Horny Gluten. 
(v) The Horny Starch. 
a. Crown Starch. 
b. Tip Starch. 
(vi) The White Starch. 

609. Mechanical Separation of the Different Parts for 
Analysis.—Comparatively pure samples of these six principal 
parts may be made by the use of a small, sharp knife. Waste 
will be obtained in the process, consisting of horny gluten, 
horny starch, and white starch. 

To make the separation, the grains should be first soaked 
for 1§ or 20 minutes in hot water. The tip cap is then easily 
and completely separated by simply cutting under one edge 
and then pulling it off. 

The hull is separated without difficulty by peeling it off in 
strips, using the knife to start the peeling at the tip end where 
the hull has been broken by removing the tip cap. By taking 
care, the complete hull can be peeled out of the dext in the 
grain of dent maize. 

The horny gluten is then more easily distinguished. It 
will be plainly seen that it covers the whole grain, except, 
possibly, the exposed part of the embryo. The horny gluten 
is removed by carefully shaving it off with the knife; if the 
pieces have been allowed to dry for some time, the adhering 
particles of starch can be more easily separated ; in scraping 
them off, more or less horny gluten will also be scraped off, so 
that while it is possible thus to obtain a pure, clean sample of 
the horny gluten, some waste material is also obtained, which 
consists of the three endosperm substances—horny gluten, 
horny starch, and white starch. 

With care the embryo can be removed completely ; if any 
particles of starch adhere to it, they can be easily and com- 
pletely scraped off. The remaining part of the grain consists 
only of the horny starch and the white starch; this is allowed 
to dry, and is then broken in two, lengthwise. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 655° 


The crown starch may be dug out with the knife, care CHAP. 
being taken not to remove any of the horny starch. ne 
The tip starch is removed in the same way. 


== = Ge 


Fic. 227.—Enlarged longitudinal section of maize grain. The internal 
structure is diagrammatic, the cells as here shown being about 100 times larger 
than their true proportion to the rest of the illustration. A, 1, hull; 2, testa; 
3, aleurone layer; 4, endosperm cells; 5, scutellum; 6, plumule, or bud of the 
embryo; 7, primary root; 8, root-sheath; 9, a row of cells similar in appearance to 
the aleurone layer but smaller. B, section more highly magnified, showing, 
I, epicarp; 2, testa; 3, aleurone layer; 10, perisperm. (From Hunt, The Cereals 
in America, Orange Judd Co.) 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


656 MAIZE 


The horny starch from each half will then, usually, remain 
in one piece; this is then carefully scraped to remove all 
adhering particles of white starch or horny gluten, the scrapings 
being carefully saved and added to the waste material. 

By this method of separation eight different products are 
obtained, one of these being the waste material made up of 
particles from the different parts of the endosperm. 

The above notes are taken from Hopkins (3), and the 
present writer has followed him in employing the term 
“starch”? in a technical or commercial sense, and not as the 
name of a definite chemical compound. 

610. Relative Proportions of the Parts of the Grain.—The 
relative proportions of the parts of the grain, as obtained by 
averaging three analyses compiled from Hopkins’s tables, 
are :— 


Taste XCVIL 


RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF THE PARTS OF MAIZE GRAIN. 


Totals. | 
Tip Cap. : : . : ; : 1°43 | 
Hull . ; 9 ‘ z : ' P 5°83 
== | 
Total Pericarp . : ‘ : : : : : 7°26 | 
Horny Gluten . . : . : : IL'I5 | 
Horny Starch . : ’ i ; ‘ 43°04 
Total Horny Endosperm : : 54°19 
Crown Starch . ; : : : 17°38 
Tip Starch i ; : : F : 1016 
Total Starchy Endosperm . ‘ ; : 27°54 
Total Endosperm : : : 3 ‘ a : 81°73 
Embryo or “*Germ”’ . : ; : , 3 ; : ; II‘02 | 
| Total . : 3 ; : ; : : . .  -Looror | 


611. Chemical Composition of the Physical Parts of the 
Grain.—The New Jersey Station has obtained the following 
results of analyses of the three primary parts of the maize- 
grain :-— 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 657 


TaBLe XCVII. 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HULL, EMBRYO AND ENDOSPERM. 


Hull. | Embryo. Endosperm. 
ere: ect SY EO a ee ee eee ee 
Protein . : : : : : 6°6 | 21'7 12'2 | 
Ash ‘ A 4 é : 13 | I1‘Z 7 
Fat ‘ ; 5 ‘ j i 16 29°6 U5 | 
Carbohydrates— | 
Nitrogen-free Extract. ; Farr | 34°7 85'0 | 
Crude Fibre . ‘ : ‘ 16°4 2°9 06 | 
| | 
| 
100°0 100°0 1000 | 


The chemical composition of the grain and its several parts 
varies in different breeds and different strains. The following 
is the percentage composition of an ear of medium protein- 
content as ascertained by Hopkins (3) :— 


TABLE XCVIII, 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PHYSICAL PARTS OF THE 


GRAIN. 
i] 
Per t 

ot Whole Protein. Oil. Ash. cig | Total 

Grain. | 

e — oo 
Tip Cap. : 1°46 8°83 2°30 II 87°76 | 1000 
Hull ‘ : 5°93 3°96 0°89 0°79 94°36 | 1000 
Horny Gluten . 5°12 22°50 6-99 E72 69°09 | 100°0 
| Horny Starch . 32°80 10°20 0°24 0°24 89°32 100°0 
| Crown Starch . 11°85 7°92 O17 O24 91°67 | 100°0 
Tip Starch £ 5°91 7°68 0°39 O31 g1°62 | Too"o 
Germ : : 11°53 19°80 34°84 | 9°90 35°46 100°0 
Mixed Waste . 25°40 II‘IO 1°23 0°57 87°10 100°0 
Whole Kernel. —_— 10°95 4°33 | 1°55 83°17 | L000 

| | | 


The percentage distribution of the total content of protein, 
oil, ash, and carbohydrates through the different parts of the 
grain is shown in the following table (/Topkzns, 3) :— 

TaBLe XCIX. 


PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHEMICAL COMPONENTS 
OF THE GRAIN. 


| Protein. Oi, | eh, wack iy 
| 

Tip Cap : ‘ F 5 Iq 0°69 1°06 1°56 
Hull ch A : ; : 2°07 1°08 3°06 6:80 
Horny Gluten ; : : 16°67 12'21 9°56 | 715 
Horny Starch : ; Pail 42°36 2°32 7°38 5112 
Crown Starch ‘ , | 1188 0°59 2°67 | 18°96 
Tip Starch . : : : 5°75 0°68 1°72 9°45 
Gems.  « + «© «| 20% 82°43 74°55 | 497 
Total . | 100°0I 100°00 100'00 | 100°0I 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


CHAP, 


XIII. 


658 MAIZE 


612. The Tip Cap.—The tip cap is a small cap which covers 
the tip end of the grain and protects the end of the embryo. 
It is composed of material somewhat resembling that of the cob, 
and comprises from 1} to 13 percent of the whole grain, It con- 
sists mainly of catholdnies (87 per cent). When the grain 
is very dry and hard, the tip cap sometimes remains attached 
to the cob in shelling; failure of the seed to germinate has 
been attributed to the consequent exposure of the radicle of 
the embryo. 
The chemical composition of the tip cap is as follows :— 


TABLE C. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE TIP CAP. 


Percentage Composition 


| Of Tip Cap. | Of Whole Grain 

Dee ape 2 Sen | eee ce eee eee ee Peevee eee | 

Protein | 3°83 | I'l4 | 
Oil. : : , i - | 2°30 “69 

| Ash . : : : : aa Lil | 1:06 | 

| Carbohydrates . ae 76 | 1°56 | 

| 100°00 i | 


613. The Hull.—The hull, ee or skin, is the thin outer 


covering of the grain, corresponding to the pericarp of a fruit. 
It comprises from 54 to 6 per cent of the whole grain. 


TasLe Cl. 
ee COMPOSITION OF THE HULL. 


| 
| Percentage Composition 


| Of Hull. Of Whole ae 
ion es — | 
Protein. ‘ ; ‘ : 3°96 2°07 
Oil. ‘ : 3 z , “89 1°08 | 
Ash . | 79 3°06 
| Carbohydrates . : 3 ‘I 94°36 6:80 | 
| acoree i 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 659 


It consists mainly of carbohydrates (94 per cent) and con- 
tains nearly all of the crude fibre of the grain; it contains a 
lower percentage of protein than any other part of the grain. 
In the process of manufacture the hull is usua lly removed as a 
by-product known as maize bran. 

614. The Embryo or “ Germ”.—The embryo lies at the 
tip end of the grain, on the upper side facing toward the tip of 


Fic. 228.—Hull, endosperm, and embryo. (a) The husk or skin, which 
covers the whole grain; it consists of two distinct layers, the outer and inner, 
which when removed constitute the bran and contain practically all the crude 
fibre of the whole grain. (b) A layer of gluten cells, which lies immediately un- 
derneath the husk ; it is yellow in colour, and cannot be readily separated from the 
remainder of the grain. This part is richer than any other in gluten. (c) The 
embryo, which is readily distinguished by its position and form; it also contains 
gluten, though it is particularly rich in oil and mineral constituents. (d) The 
endosperm portion, which is composed chiefly of starch; the dark colour in- 
dicates the yellow, flinty part, in which the starch-holding cells are more closely 
compacted. (From Myrick, The Book of Corn, Orange Judd Co.) 


the ear, and practically in the middle, usually extending from 
one-half to two-thirds of its length (Figs. 227 and 228). The 
embryo contains all the vital parts of the young plant, as de- 
scribed elsewhere (¢ 63). It ysis greatly in size, comprising 


42* 


& 


CHAP. 
OCLs 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


660 MAIZE 


from 94 to 12 per cent of the whole grain; is particularly rich 
in oil (82 per cent) and ash, and carries one-fifth of the protein of 
the whole grain. In the process of manufacture of hominy and 
starch-products the embryo is usually separated and treated as 


) 


a by-product under the name of “germ”. 


TaBLeE CII. 


PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE EMBRYO. 


Percentage Composition 
Of Embryo. Of Whole Grain. 
Protein. : . , , 19°80 20°14 
Ou. F ‘ : F é ‘ 34°84 82°43 
Ash . ‘ ‘ : 3 ; | 9'90 | 74°55 
Carbohydrates . ; ; ‘ | 35°46 | 4°97 
| | aoe 
| Total . ; i ‘ | 100°00 | 


615. The Endosperm.—The endosperm of the grain is not, as 
we have seen, homogeneous, but consists of two very distinct 
portions, the “horny ” and the “ white starchy ” parts ; the horny 
portion is further subdivided into two parts, the “ horny gluten” 
and the “horny starch”. The horny part is readily distin- 
guishable by its translucence when the grain is held up to the 
light, and the relative proportion of translucent horny endosperm 
and of white starchy endosperm forms some guide to the relative 
feeding-value of the grain. 

616. The Horny Gluten.—The “horny gluten” or aleurone 
/ayer lies immediately beneath, and is usually much thicker 
than, the hull. It constitutes a second covering of the seed 
and surrounds the starch ; in some breeds of maize it is readily 
distinguishable because it carries the colouring matter of the 
grain. The amount of horny gluten varies greatly in the grain 
(Hopkins notes variations between 5:12 per cent and 14 per 
cent), and may be increased by breeding. It does not consist 
of pure gluten, but is richer in percentage of protein-content 
than any other single part, though it contains only 164 per 
cent of the total protein-content of the grain. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 661 


TasLe CIIL. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE HORNY GLUTEN. 


Percentage Composition | 


—= 

Of Horny Gluten. | Of Whole Grain. 
in ae aie peaai eae |e 
Protein | 22°50 16°67 
Oil . | 6°99 | 12°21 | 
Ash , ; | n°72 9°56 
Carbohydrates | 69°09 715 

| 100'30 | 


617. The Horny Starch.—The “ horny starch” is found on 
the back and sides of the grain, lying next below the horny 
gluten. It does not consist of pure starch, but contains con- 
siderable amounts of other substances, especially protein. In 
an examination of the grain with the unaided eye the horny 
glutenous part and the horny starchy part are not readily dis- 
tinguished from each other, the line between them being 
somewhat indefinite and indistinct. Together they constitute 
the horny part of the grain. 


TaBLe CIV. 


PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE HORNY STARCH. 


een Percentage Composition 
Of Horny Starch. Of Whole Grain. 
Protein . . ; : : : 10°20 42°36 
Oil . ? : ‘ ‘ : | 24 | 2°32 
Ash ; : : : é ; | 2. | 7°38 
Carbohydrates : ‘ 89°32 | 51'I2 
100°00 | 


The horny starch is only half as rich in protein as the 
horny gluten, but as there is so much more of it (it comprises 
up to 45 per cent of the whole grain), it contains 42 per cent 
of the total protein-content, and 51 per cent of the total 
carbohydrates. 

The percentage of horny starch varies in individual plants, 
and may be greatly increased by breeding. 


CHAP. 
NII. 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


662 MAIZE 


618. The White Starchy Parts.—The white starchy part 
occupies the crown end of the kernel above the embryo, and 
it also nearly surrounds the germ towards the tip end of the 
grain. Forconvenience this substance is called “ whzte starch” 
(7 609), though it does not consist of pure starch. In some 
grains the horny starch extends nearly or quite to the embryo, 
near the middle of the grain, and thus separates the “white 
starch,” more or less completely into two parts, called respec- 
tively “crown starch” and “tip starch”. 


TABLE CV. 


PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF WHITE STARCH. 


Percentage Composition 


Of White Starch. = ~~“ Of Whole Grain. | 


| 

re | ao || ee ee | 

a a a ——— “= = | peas i eee ia ts 

Protein . : : , a 7°92 | 768 11°88 | 5°75 | 

| Oil 4 . : | “L7 | 39 "590 | 68 | 
| Ash F : 3 : a "24 | 31 2°67 172 

| Carbohydrates : ; | 91°67 | gt62 | 18°96 | 9°45 | 

10900 10000 | | | 


Breeds of South African Maize.—Ingle (5) has given the 
following analyses of ten breeds representing three botanical 
varieties of maize, grown at the Government Experiment 
Farm, Potchefstroom, Transvaal. It will be noticed that in 
all cases the flint are distinctly richer in protein, ash, and fat, 
and poorer in carbohydrates than the dent breeds, while the 
flour corn is lowest in protein, ash, and fat, though richest in 
starch, 

It would appear from these analyses that flint maize is 
better for feeding purposes than the dent breeds, and that 
Transvaal maize is drier (doubtless due to climatic condi- 
tions) than the average North American product, which con- 
tains (average of 154 analyses) 10°95 per cent of moisture. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 663 


TABLE CVI. 


CHAP. 
. . x str . ST 2T> > C: XI I, 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES AND BREEDS. 
roel ee ss es ee 
Deeerintion: Nvtoretire: he | Crude Mtrogen- | ther Protein | 
escription. oistur | Ash | Fibre. | Pham Gatiaee | Nes B25). 
Flint Maize— | | | | | 
White Cango : 781 | 2:26 1°70 72:33) 1) 53 : 
V Ca ‘ Bie ||) 12:2 2°83 | 5:09 I0°31 
Vilmorin s Early Yellow , 6:92 | 1°42 1°68 | 73°98 5°25 oe 
| bien Rese : F | 7°47 1°88 2°23) 7140 | 5°40 II‘62 
ean of Three . | 7-40 r85 | 1:87 | 72°74 | 5°25 10°89 
Dent Maize— | | | | | | 
Golden King ; , POd |, BO. il <3128: | 7518 | 4°61 g'00! 
Hickory King 4 wh 6276 | 124 | 1°68 | 76°64 | 4°24 O44 
Yellow Hogan. ‘ Or73- |) aas2 ror | 7611 | 4°87 913 
King of the Earliest . 9°29 r*24. | 2°19 75°49 4°25 +56 
| | | | a 9°5 
Red Hogan . ‘ : 660 | 1°28 1°75 76°33 4°73 9°31 
Early Leaming eh O70 Sasa g | 1°83 | 75°45 | 4°63 10°06 
Mean of Six ; 6°97 | I'2 | 1°94 | 75°87 | 4°53 9°42 
| | 
Soft or Bread Maize— | | | 
Brazilian Flour corn. | 772 | Ira r5r | 76°26 | 4°37 g‘00 
Mean of Ten o4) 98EO. |) “Tego | 1°86 | 74°96 | 4°74 g8r | 


| | \ | 


At the suggestion of the writer, Mr. R. D. Watt (3) later 
carried out a further series of analyses of Transvaal-grown 
maize in order to prove or disprove the idea then prevalent in 
some quarters that a broad-grained type of maize like Azckory 
King is of higher feeding value than the narrow, wedge-shaped 

_ type. ‘As the feeding value of maize depends almost entirely 
on the percentage of protein it contains, this ingredient, only, 
was determined.” The protein-content, as shown in Table CVI1 
(following), entirely upsets this idea, for a// the broad dent 
varieties, except Woods Northern IWhite Dent, are very near 
the bottom of the list; Hzckory King itself comes very low. 
The average protein-content of the four breeds of the broad 
type is 9'44 per cent, whereas the average of the thirteen wedge- 
shaped breeds is 9°77 per cent. It is evident from the table 
that the colour of the maize grain is no guide as to its protein- 
content, though the difference in flavour of the yellow maize 
may affect its feeding-value. 

1 Two other samples of Golden King analysed at the Pretoria laboratories 


gave only 8:98 and 8°88 per cent of protein respectively. It is evident that this is 
not a good breed of maize for feeding purposes. 


CHAP. 


XIII. 


664 MAIZE 


TaBLe CVII. 
PROTEIN-CONTENT OF EIGHTEEN SAMPLES OF TRANSVAAL 


MAIZE. 
| | 
| Variety. Colour of con | Protein 
} a ine ae a 2 | Per Cent 
| Improved Early Horsetooth .| Dent | White Narrow | 10°47 
Thoroughbred White Flint ‘ Flint | a | Broad 10°43 
Woods Northern White Dent . | Dent ” 10°43 


White-cap Dent : | vi Yellow and I Narrow | 10°25 
Early Star Leaming | 2 Yellow | ‘4 10°07 
Extra Early Huron Dent (1) | 3 | ” | ” _ Lo'06 
Extra Early Huron Dent a a a ” | 9°93 
Yellow Hogan . : ae " | ” oG1 
Iowa Silver. mine. : : | White | “a 9°90 
Champion White Pearl . 5 | a il ” » 9°86 
Hawkesbury Champion . Sse an eNellow= 7] a 9°69 
Hickory Horsetooth j e White | 3 | 9°64 
Austin Colossal ; | ss | Yellow a | g'6r 
Hickory King (good sample) | aay | White Broad 9°34 
Chester County ‘ : ‘Ss Yellow Narrow , 9°30 
Hickory King (crossed) ; - White Broad g'oL 
Golden King. ; : : = Yellow = | 8:98 
Wisconsin White Dent - | aaa | White | Narrow | 8°58 | 
| sa 


From this table it is also perfectly clear that high-protein 
maize can be grown in the Transvaal, five of the dent breeds 
averaging as high as, and two of them erceeding, the analyses 
of American-grown dents. Another interesting and valuable 
point brought out is that dent maize may contain a higher 
protein-content than flint maize. The question of the produc- 
tion in South Africa of maize of high feeding value, therefore, 
resolves itself entirely into one of breeding.! 

620. Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of North 
American Maize—The following figures are given by Jenkins 
and Winton (1) as the average results of 208 analyses of 
samples representing the five important botanical varieties of 
maize grown commercially in the United States :— 


' Since the above was written Dr. Juritz reports as the result of recent ana- 
lyses, that ‘‘ Iowa Silver-mine gave distinctly better protein percentages than 
Hickory King”? 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 665 
TasBLe CVIIL. CHAP. 
; ie XIII. 
| es \ a “i 
| Nit - 
Water. | Ash. |Protein., Saude cy Fat 
yore. Extract. 
SS ——— ees aes | ere pe eae 
Dent maize; average of 86 analyses r0°6 | 175 | 103 | a+9 7o'4 | 5:0 
Flint ,, 5 », 68 ay I1°3,| Iq | 105 | 17 Jor | 5'0 
Sweet _,, SS 328 i 8:8 I'9 Ir°6 | 2°8 66°8 81 
Pop re a soe a 10°7 | 5 rr2 | 1:8 69°6 | 52 
Flour ,, ” » 5 ” . 93; 16 | rq | 2°0 LOZ. 05'S 
Average of 203 analyses of all varieties . | 10°9 T:5°| -Lo%5. | 2x 69°6 | 5"4 
| 


621. Composition of Maise Grain Grown tn Different Lo- 
calities—The cultivation of maize under the different telluric 
and climatologic conditions of different parts of the country 
does not appear to materially affect its composition. As the 
result of over 200 analyses of maize grain, from different parts 
of the United States, Richardson (1) found it to be “very con- 
stant in its composition, within narrow limits”. 

A very interesting and valuable series of twenty-seven 
analyses has recently been completed by Mr. H. J. Vipond, 
Chemist of the Department of Agriculture, Union of South 
Africa, to determine the percentages of— 

Protein 

Ash 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Sulphuric Acid 

Phosphoric Acid 
in samples of various breeds of maize grown in parts of the 
country with different soils and widely different climatic con- 
ditions. The result is given in Table CIX following. The 
suggestion had been made in the public press that South 
African grown maize appeared to be less nutritious than that 
grown in the United States, and that the climate or soil might 
cause a difference in the chemical composition. The results 
of these twenty-seven analyses clearly prove that South African 
maize is usually quite as rich and sometines richer tn nutrients 
than that grown in the United States and subjected to the same 
analysis. 

Protein: the extreme range of variation in protein-content 
was 4°72 per cent or from 8:23 per cent to 12°95 per cent, 


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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 667 


The average protein-content of all samples was 10:20 per cent, CHAP. 
and twenty-two samples ranged from 84 to 114 percent with ™!) 
the mode at 94 to 10} per cent, as follows :-— 


8 — 84 per cent 


= I sample 
84-94 i = 6 samples 
gs - 104 = II Ps 
tog — 1rd = oe. tha 
114-124 = 24 Ay 
124 - 13 ‘a = 2 45 
27, 


It is also clear that variation in protein percentage depends 
on the breed rather than on the locality, the range of variation 
in protein-content of maize of different breeds grown on the 
same farm extending to 1°5 per cent; between two different 
breeds both grown at Leeuwdoorns there was a difference of 
2°11 per cent protein. The difference between samples of the 
same breed grown in the one case at Richmond, Natal, and in 
the other case on the Transvaal High-veld, is only -44 per cent. 

As compared with the United States, a sample of W7//s 
Gehu grown in the Pretoria District shows an c¢zcrease of '44 
per cent protein over the original sample imported from the 
breeder in the United States (but the imported grain was 
more than a year old). 

622. Relative Feeding-value of Maize, Wheat, and Other 
Cereals.— According to the Bureau of Chemistry of the United 
States Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A., 9), the same 
amount of digestible matter in wheat and in maize is pur- 
chased for the same amount of money when both are selling 
at the same price per bushel. The maize would yield 24 lbs. 
more carbohydrates than the wheat, and the wheat 24 lbs. 
more protein than the maize. 

As compared with wheat, maize is rich in starch and fat 
and low in protein-content As compared with rice it is richer 
in protein and fat, but contains much less starch. The follow- 
ing table (CX) taken mainly from Church (1), shows the 
relative chemical composition of the principal cereals of the 
world :— 


CHAP. 
XIII. 


668 MAIZE 


TABLE CX. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIFFERENT CEREALS OF THE 
WORLD. 


cae eas I cipe epee ae iter oe moar [te en ee 

| Water. fexorcans| Starch., Fat. | Fibre. | Ash. Authority. | 
| | i | 

| | | | 


| 


| | | 
| Per Per | Per | Per Per | Per | | 


Cent | Cent | Cent Cent | Cent | Cent | 

Maize (India) : | 12; 9°5 | 70°7 3°6 2°0 u7 | Church 

oy (WS TAs). . | 10g | 10°5 | 69°6 | 54 21 15 | Jenkins 

», (Transvaal) 3 | ‘2 | IO'L | 74°3 +9 19, 16 | Ingle 

| Rice (India) F . | r28 a3 73°3 "6 "4 | 6 | Church 

| Kaffir corn (India). 12°5 gy | 72°3.| 2o 22M rege is 

Buckwheat . | 13°4 | 15°2 | 63°6 | 374 21 | 2:3 a | 
Barley (India) . . | 125 | rng | goo | 13 26 ae $A | 
Wheat (India) . = | -12*5 13°5 | 68-4 12 2 sberyall oe | 
Oats (India) ‘ .| 12°7 | ro°r | §6°0 23] 166 | 2°3 oe | 
Kaffir Manna-koren | | | 
(Pennisetum  spica- | 
tum) (India) . . | 113 | 104 | 705 33 rg | 20 45 | 
M‘Pawha or Ragi | | | | 
(Eleusine Coracana) | | | 
(India) . ‘ » | 13:2 | 73. | 732 1'5 25 | 2°3 os | 
| Common millet (India) | 12°0 | 12°6 69°4 3°6 ro I'4 | oo | 
| 


623. Composition of Maize By-products—The following 
report on analyses of maize products used for stock-food is 
furnished by Hunt :— 


TasLe CXI. 
COMPOSITION OF SOME MAIZE BY-PRODUCTS. 


Protein : ee Nitrogen- Crude 

Water. (N x 6°25) Ash. Fats. ee Fibre. | 

Gluten Meal 9°2 36°9 ror 3°9 46°7 2°2 | 

Maize Bran. gl 9°9 ee 5°6 62°0 rar | 
Gluten Feed 85 25°7 12 4°4 53°5 6-7 
Germ Meal . or 23°0 2°6 10'7 45°6 9°0 
Hominy Feed 9°3 II‘2 27 3-6 637 4°5 
Cerealine Feed . | Lo'2 I1‘2 2°6 or 63°3 4°6 

Distillers’ Grains (mostly | 

Maize) . : 8:8 35°0 2"4 11°3 | 30%4 12'1 
New Corn Product 8°5 6°5 54 29 | 4953 27°3 


Some of the products of the maize mill or factory are 
superior in nutritive value to the best products of the wheat 
mill, as is shown by the following table :— 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 669 


TaBLe CXII. CHAP. 
COMPARISON OF MAIZE AND WHEAT PRODUCTS. SIL 
Total Digestible Nutrients in 100 Lbs. | 
— SS 
Protein. ae Fat. | Total 
Mazze Products— | | 
1. Glucose Meal 30°3 | 35°3 14°5 | Sor | 
2. Gluten Meal 25°38 | 4373 ro | 80'r 
3. Sugar Meal 18:7 || 5 1°7 Sz || 7ort 
4. Grano gluten 26°7 38°8 12.4 | 77°79 | 
5. Germ Meal go 612 6-2 | 76-4 
6. Hominy Chop 75 | 55°2 6:8 | 69°5 
Wheat Products— | 
7. Dark Feeding Flour - | 13°5 613 2°0 76°8 
8. High Grade Flour. , .| 89 62°4 og | 722 | 
g. Low Grade Flour ; : 8-2 62°7 og } 718 | 
10, Wheat Bran : : : : | 122 BO°2> | ‘at | 541 | 
| 


624. Composition of Matze Bran Swine wth Wheat 
Bran.—The composition is shown in the following table :— 

Maize bran, though proportionately rich in carbohydrates, 
is relatively poor in protein, and contains more indigestible 
matter (crude fibre) than wheat bran, so that it is not a 
suitable food by itself. If used to mix with meal or other 
carbonaceous foods, a larger proportion would have to be used 
to yield sufficient protein, than in the case of wheat bran. 


TasBLe CXIII. 
COMPOSITION OF MAIZE BRAN AND WHEAT BRAN. 


| 
Dry.t Moist.2 | Moist.2 


Per Cent Per Cent | 


Protein (N x 6°25) . 66 9°9 | 15°4 
Nitrogen-free Extract (Starch, Sugar. etc.) | 741 62°0 53°9 
Ether Extract (Fats) : c : 16 56 4°0 
Crude Fibre. . : : : . 16"4 12°1 g'0 
Ash . é : . ; : F : 13 1°3 | 58 
Water ‘ : ‘ ‘ ; 4 ; oMe) gr | eae) 


100°0 TO0O0°O | 100°0 


The analysis of wheat bran is given for comparison. 


1 New Jersey Station. 2 Hunt. 


CHAP. 
XII. 


670 MAIZE 


625. Digestibitity of Maize Products —The comparative 
feeding-value of certain maize foods, based on their digestibility, 
has been worked out by Henry (1), as follows :— 


TaBLE CXIV. 


DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN MAIZE PRODUCTS. 


| Digestible Nutrients in 100 Lbs. 
«e8, -—— 
| oo ies .  Carbo- | Ether 
| | Protein. | hydrates. | sae Total 
| | | | = 
| Dent Maize Grain . | 8974 78 =| 66:7 4°3 | 78°38 | 
| Flint a . | 887 80 | (662 430 | 785 | 
| Sugar 3 . | grr2 88 | 63°7 70 | 79°5 | 
| Maize Cobs. ; , | 80° or4 52°5 os | 59% 
| Maize-and-cob Meal | 84°9 474 | 60°0 29 67°3 
Maize Bran : : go'9 74 | 59°38 4°6 78 
| Germ Meal . : : 89°6 go | 612 02 76°4 
| Hominy Chops . . | 88°9 75, |) 755°2 68 69°5 
Starch Refuse. ‘ | gis Trg | 584 | 65 76°3 
Gluten Meal -| 918 25°8 43°3 | Ir‘o 80°! 
| Gluten Feed : g2°2 20°4 484 | 88 776 
| Grano-gluten , ‘ 04°3 26-7 | = 38°8 | 12°4 77'O 
Glucose Meal. -| 919 303, | 35°3 14°5 80° 
| Sugar Meal . : | 93°2 187 | 517 3-7 | 79°. 


626. Actual Amounts of Protein, etc., obtainable from each 
Part of the Grain.—From the tables given in the preceding 
pages we have seen (a) the amount of each of the four ingre- 
dients, protein, ash, fat, and carbohydrates, found in the 
grain of different varieties, breeds, and strains of maize ; (b) 
the proportion of each of the physical parts of the grain ; and 
(c) the percentage of each of the four chemical compounds 
found in each of the physical parts of the grain. 

But these tables do not show us at a glance the actual 
amount of each substance obtainable from any one physical 
part of the grain ; for instance, we find from one table that the 
grain contains 4°67 per cent of oil or fat, and from another 
that the embryo carries about 82 per cent of the total amount 
of fat contained in the grain, but they do not show what 82 
per cent of 4°67 per cent actually amounts to, It is not suffi- 
cient for the manufacturer to know that the grain contains 4°67 
per cent oil, because we know that some of this oil is distri- 
buted among all of the physical parts of the grain, from which 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE GRAIN 671 


it would not be practicable to recover it ; only that—or a por- CHAP. 
tion of that—which is contained in the germ, is available to“!!! 
the manufacturer. Multiplying 4°67 per cent by 82 per cent 
we obtain 3°8 per cent, which is the amount of oil contained 
in the embryo. 

For convenience of reference the writer has worked out the 
several percentages from Hopkins’s (3) tables of analyses of 
low protein, medium protein, and high protein ears. These 
are given in Table CXV, following :— 


672 MAIZE 


CHAP. TABLE CXV. 

XUI. ACTUAL WEIGHT OF PROTEIN, CARBOHYDRATES, FATS, AND 
ASH IN 100 Les. OF GRAIN, AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN EACH 
OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF THE GRAIN. 


i i tl Se | 
| Low Medi | High ; | 
| Protein. Protein: | Protein. | EVETABE) | 
| | 
Protein. 
Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 
Tip Cap . : : "09 *13 “08 | “10 
Hull 5 z : *2) 23 22 | °2 
Horny Gluten . =| 2°23 1°89 3°27 2°46 
Horny Starch . e | 3°02 4°80 4°93 4°25 
Crown Starch . : 1°53 1°35 1°20 1°36 
Tip Starch 3 ‘ 84 65 60 *70 
Embryo . é al I°gt 2°28 2°33 2°17 
| | 11°28 | 
Ash. 
Tip Cap. . | ‘OL 02 | 03 "02 
Hull : ; F “04 05 ‘07 05 
Horny Gluten . : ‘Ir 15 23 16 
Horny Starch . ; 07 ‘IT ‘09 “09 
Crown Starch . , ‘07 04 05 | 05 
Tip Starch 2 : 04 | 03 05 *O4 
Embryo. F : I‘or | erg I'1g ir 
| | I'52 
Fat. 
Tip Cap . : : ‘OI "03 ‘03 “02 
Hull : ; a 05 05 05 | *05 
Horny Gluten . me "46 “59 “61 | 55 | 
Horny Starch . a 06 Ir ‘IO 09 
Crown Starch . oa 04 03 ‘07 | 05 
Tip Starch | 04 03 ‘II | 06 
Embryo | 3°50 4°02 4°02 3°85 
| NE i See 
Carbohydrates. | 
Tip Cap . : =] T*0g | 1°28 1°48 | 1:28 | 
Hull : : | 5°10 5°60 5°74 5°48 | 
Horny Gluten . | 8-81 | 5°88 9°20 | 7°96 
Horny Starch . : 34°01 | 42°05 | 39°76 38°61 
Crown Starch . ‘ 19°62 | 15°59 | 12°56 15'92 
Tip Starch ; i 12°79 | 797 | 7°51 9°36 
Embryo . ‘ : 3:17 | 4°09 4°38 3°88 
| | ———_| 
| | | 8249 _| 
\ | \ | 
Summary. | 
Lbs | 
Protein. : é i ; ; 3 : : 11°28 | 
Ash . , : ‘ is $ § ; ‘ I'52 
Fat . ‘ : : : F : F ; R 4°67 
Carbohydrates . : ; ; : ; : i 82°49 
ee ae | 
99°96 | 


CHAPTER XIV. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD.! 


Gave the first feast of Mondamin, 
And made known unto the people 
This new gift of the Great Spirit. 


— Hiawatha. 


627. The Uses of Maize Grain.—After considering the cHap. 
vast production of maize and the enormous commercial *!V- 
interests involved in handling the crop, the question naturally _; 
arises, what is all this grain used for? The principal uses of 
maize grain are: (1) for human food, ground into meal and 
other products; for this purpose white maize is usually pre- 
ferred in Europe and South Africa, and yellow in North and 
South America; (2) as a source of alcoholic beverages ; (3) for 
stock food, either whole or crushed, or ground; yellow maize 
is preferred for this purpose; (4) in the arts and manufactures, 
for which cheap, damaged grain, either yellow or white, is 
largely used. 

In the course of preparation for human food and for 
manufacture, certain by-products are obtained which are also 
used, in addition to the whole or crushed grain, for stock food. 


For Human Food. 


628. Maize the Staple Foodstuff of the American Abo- 
rigines.—The earliest European explorers of America found 
the Indian tribes cultivating maize as their principal cereal. 
Longfellow’s poem Hzawatha gives an insight into the im- 
portance of the place held by maize in the life of the American 
Indians, and the legends which they wove around it. 


1 In this chapter has also been included a discussion of the uses of the juice 
of the maize stalk for the preparation of sugar and syrup. 


673 43 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


674 MAIZE 


The ancient Aztecs of Mexico used maize as a staple food, 
and Prescott tells us that they were addicted to ‘confections 
and pastry, for which their maize flour and sugar supplied 
ample materials”. Maize, he adds, was “the great staple of 
the country” in the sixteenth century, “as, indeed, of the 
American Continent. . .. The Aztecs were as curious in its 
preparation, and as well-instructed in its manifold uses, as the 
most expert New England housewife.” Hernandez (1) “ cele- 
brates the manifold ways in which the maiz was prepared”. 
Torquemada obtained possession of the royal account-book from 
the palace of Tezcuco, from which he found that among the 
items of yearly expenditure of the palace was one for 4,900,300 
fanegas of maize, the faxega being equal to about 100 Ibs. 
weight (Prescott, 1). 

Describing the natives of the lands adjacent to the Bay of 
Campeachy, Dampier (1) wrote in 1676 :— 


“This country is very fruitful, yielding plentiful crops of 
maiz, which is their chiefest subsistence. After it is boiled, 
they bruise it in such a rubbing stone as Chocolate is ground 
on. Some of it they make into small thin cakes, called Tar- 
tilloes. The rest is put intoa Jar till it grows sowr ; and when 
they are thirsty, mix a handful of it in a Callabash of Water 
which gives it a sharp pleasant Taste, then straining it through 
a large Callabash prick’d full of small Holes to keep out the 
Husks, they drink it off If they treat a friend with this 
drink, they mix a little honey with it ; for their ability reaches 
no higher: And this is as acceptable to them as a glass of 
wine tous. If they travel for two or three days from home, 
they carry some of this ground Maiz ina Plantain leaf, and 
Callabash at their girdles to make their drink, and take no 
further care for victuals till they come home again. This is 
called posole: and by the English poorsoul. It is so much 
esteemed by the Indians, that they are never without some of 
it in their homes. 

“Another way of preparing their drink is to parch the 
maiz, and then grind it to powder on the rubbing-stone, 
putting a little Anatta to it; which grows in their plantations, 
and is used by them for no other purpose. They mix it all 
with water, and presently drink it off without straining. In 
long journeys they prefer this drink before Posole.”’ 


The Incas of Peru, at the time of the Spanish conquest 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 675 


(1524-33), are said to have been “well acquainted with the 
different modes of preparing this useful vegetable,” though it 
seems they did not use it for bread, except at festivals (Pres- 
cott, 2). 

629. Matze Adopted as the Staple Food of the African Races. 
—The size of the grain and the heavy yield and easy cultiva- 
tion of the maize crop were probably responsible for the early 
and rapid spread of this cereal over Africa, ousting the much- 
grown native grains of the continent such as Sorghum vulgare, 
Eleusine Coracana, Pennisetum spicatum, and Eragrostis abys- 


Fic. 229.—Shangaan kraal, Zoutpansberg District, Transvaal, with basket for 
storing maize grain, and wooden mortar and pestle for stamping mielies. 


sinica. Maize is now so largely used as a staple article of 
food by the Bantu races, that it is somewhat difficult for the 
younger generation to realize that it has not always been so. 
But history ‘and the accounts of travellers tell us, and it is 
confirmed by white men and natives still living, that within 
the memory of man, maize was not known as a cultivated 
crop to the natives of certain parts of South Africa (4 13). 
South of the Equator it was introduced by the Portuguese 
voyagers of the sixteenth century (113) under the name of 
mitho, i.e. grain (7 18). F 


43 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


676 MAIZE 


The usual method employed by the South African native 
for preparing maize for food is to grind it into meal with 
stones (Fig. 231) ; it is then made into porridge with boiling 
water, and partially cooked until of a coarse bread-like nature, 
when it is eaten alone, out of the hand, or mixed with milk 
and eaten with the long spoons which they carve out of some 
soft wood such as that of the maeroola-tree, Sclerocarya caffra 
(Fig. 230). 

A favourite dish among some South African tribes is pre- 
pared by soaking mielie meal in water for some hours, until 


Fic. 230.—Zulus eating maize-meal pap. 


fermentation has commenced, when the mixture is well stirred 
and then strained through a sleeve or bag made of one or 
another of the various native fibres found in different parts of 
the country. This preparation is known to the natives of 
some parts of South Africa as marewiu. 

630. Use of Maize in Tropical Africa in 1795.—Mungo 
Park (1) writing of the natives of the Gambia, in 1795, speaks 
of several articles of food prepared by them from maize. The 
most common was a sort of “pudding” called houskous, de- 
scribed as follows :— 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 679 


“It is made by first moistening the flour with water, and 
then stirring and shaking it about in a large calabash or gourd, 
till it adheres together in small granules, resembling sago. It 
is then put into an earthen pot, whose bottom is perforated 
with a number of small holes ; and this pot being placed upon 
another, the two vessels are luted together, either with a paste 
of meal and water, or with cow’s dung, and placed upon the 
fire. Inthe lower vessel is commonly some animal food and 
water, the steam or vapour of which ascends through the per- 
forations in the bottom of the upper vessel, and softens and 
prepares the £oushous, which is very much esteemed throughout 
all the countries that I visited. I am informed that the same 
manner of preparing flour is very generally used on the Barbary 
coast, and that the dish so prepared is there called by the same 
name. It is therefore probable that the negroes borrowed the 
practice from the Moors.” 


For gratifying a taste for variety, another sort of pudding 
called nealing was sometimes prepared from the maize meal. 

In preparing their maize for food, he says, that these 
natives use a large wooden mortar called a faloon, in which 
they bruise the grain until it parts with the outer covering or 
husk, which is then separated from the clean corn by exposing 
it to the wind, nearly in the same manner as wheat is cleared 
from the chaff in England. The corn thus freed from the 
husk is returned to the mortar, and beaten into meal, which 
is dressed variously in different native countries. 

He also states (zdcd.) that the anthers of the maize tassel, 
stewed in milk and water, were eaten in times of great scarcity 
of food, by the Mandingoes. 

631. An Important Article of Diet of the American People. 
—Weare told that “the first generations of English-Americans 
subsisted mainly on maize” (Century Magazine, 1). Bacon 
(1) describes the method of preparation in the early days of its 
introduction into Europe as follows: “Indian maiz . . . must 
be thoroughly boyled, and made into a maiz-creame, like a 
barley-creame,” doubtless having imported the recipe from the 
American continent. 

Maize continues to be an important article of diet of the 
American people ; in one form or another it is met with in all 
parts of the country and among all classes of people. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


678 MAIZE 


632. Probable Increase in Demand among the White Races. 
—lIncreasing knowledge of the value of maize as an article of 
human food is increasing the demand in Europe. A set of 
recipes for the use of maize in domestic cookery, published by 
the Transvaal Department of Agriculture and now in its fifth 
edition, has done much to stimulate its use in South Africa. 
The increase in population among the wheat-consuming peoples 
of the world, and the threatened shortage in the world’s wheat 
supply, should also tend to increase the consumption of maize. 

633. Advantages of Maize as an Article of Food.—Maize is 
an important food-stuff, whether for man or for his domestic 
animals. It is more highly nutritious, digestible, and whole- 
some than is usually recognized. In total amount of digestible 
nutrients it is only excelled by wheat, and then only to the 
extent of about 2 per cent (2°2), as is shown in the following 
table :— 


Tap_e CXVI. 
TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN too LBS. OF SEVERAL 


CEREALS. 
| | protein. | Carbo | Fat Total. | 
Protein. hydrates. - | ene | 

| | 
| 1. Wheat ‘ : 5 10°2 69'2 7 8r'z Ib | 

2. Maize . : : ral 79 | 66°7 4°3 78°9 |b | 

3. Rye. : : , 9'°9 67°6 Ir 78°6 Ib 

ae Rice 43 | 722 03 77°3 \b 

5. Barley 5 : ; 8-7 | 65°6 16 75°9 |b 

6. Kaffir Corn . F G3 || 571 2n7. 67°6 lb | 
| 7. Oats. ; 4 | g'2 4773 4°2 60°7 Ib | 
8. Buck-wheat : : | 77 492 | 18 58-7 Ib 
| 


Director W. A. Henry (1) observes that, considering the 
nutrition it carries, and the market price, maize is by far the 
cheapest food offered to mankind over a large part of the 
civilized world. That it has not been more generally used 
can be explained only in part. In the first place, maize meal 
alone cannot be made into a light, porous loaf, as can flour 
from the wheat grain, owing to differences in the character of 
its gluten. Again, when reduced to meal by grinding, the oil 
of the grain, and especially that in the embryo, soon becomes 
rancid, and the meal loses its palatability; this trouble is 
remedied in part by processes of manufacture in which the 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 679 


“germ” is removed. The impression as to the keeping qualities 
of maize which this latter statement appears to convey is, per- 
haps, rather misleading; the writer has known maize meal to 
have been kept for more thana year, through the hottest summer 
known in Pretoria (1911-12), without having turned in the least 
rancid at the end of the period. In 1903, however, maize 
meal imported from Baltimore, U.S.A., to South Africa, and 
which had, therefore, crossed the Equator, was so rancid as to 
be unfit for food. 

Though maize flour contains a comparatively small propor- 
tion of protein, this defect will probably be remedied in course 
of time; the Illinois State Agricultural Experiment Station has 

already, after but a short period of work, succeeded in increas- 
ing the protein-content by about 2 per cent. 

The following comparison of the food value of “ Johnny 
Cake,” i.e. maize meal bread, and of wheat bread, is drawn 
from analyses by Atwater and Wood, and Dr. Robert Hutch- 
inson :— 

TasL_e CXVII. 


COMPARISON OF THE FOOD-VALUE OF WHEAT BREAD AND 
MAIZE BREAD. 


| : | 
| Wheat Bread. | “ Johnny Cake.” | 
| Per Cent. | Per Cent. 
| | 
| es 

Water . . : : : : : . 40°0 | 38-0 

Protein . ; ‘ ; ; : : F 6°5 85 | 
Fat ‘ : F , : ; ; rare) 27 | 
Carbohydrates \ S : 
(Starch, i as and picasa ue 47°3 | 
Cellulose : : ‘ ; 3 — 
Ash ‘ : ‘ : : ‘ : : pare) | 3°5 
100°0 100°0 | 

| 
ee | | 


The “ Johnny Cake” is drier by 2 per cent, and contains 
2 per cent more protein,’ 12 per cent more fat, and less 
starch than wheat bread. 

Bowman and Crossley (1) state that maize is “ very well 
digested in the human body. Experiments show that 90 per 
cent of its dry matter is absorbed, as compared with 82 per 


1 The higher percentage of protein is probably due to the addition of milk, 
egg, and wheat flour. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


680 MAIZE 


cent in the case of wheat. Of the protein of maize, but 19‘2 
per cent escapes absorption; in wheat about 20 per cent is 
lost. Maize is an economical food.” Table CXIV (in the 
previous chapter) shows that several foodstuffs prepared from 
maize are extremely rich in protein, the surplus carbohydrates 
having been removed for the preparation of starch, etc. 

634. Lnjurtous Effect of Unsound Grain.—Unsound maize, 
particularly if it is mouldy, is likely to be as injurious to man 
and domestic animals as other unsound grain, and should be 
avoided. It is stated that some years ago, when tens of 
thousands of bags of maize were imported into South Africa 
from oversea, there was practically a plague of “scurvy” 
among the natives, causing loss of life and enormous loss to 
the mines, through sickness. This was attributed to the fact 
that the imported maize was ‘‘kiln-dried,’ and, therefore, 
lacking in certain nutritive properties (7ransvaal Leader, 
21 Nov., 1908). 

The possible connection between these cases and pellagra 
does not appear to have been suggested. 

635. Pellagra.—lIn parts of Italy, Roumania, Spain, Egypt, 
and the United States, a serious disease of human beings, 
known as pellagra, occurs, which produces eruptions, gastro- 
intestinal trouble, and often insanity and death. Persons 
affected with pellagra are known as fellagrins. This disease 
has been attributed to the consumption of mouldy or otherwise 
damaged maize,! and Hackel observes, referring no doubt to 
pellagra, though he does not name it, that the erclusve use of 
maize as human food “gives rise to a skin-disease”. It has 
been stated that :-— 


“In Italy, pellagra is one of the chief plagues of the 


country, and it is dreaded not so much on account of its 


deadliness, but because of the indescribable wretchedness and 
suffering to which it gives rise during its slow, cruel course of 
many years... . Anexamination of the mortality tables shows 
very clearly that pellagra is not decreasing, but increasing. . . . 
It has been pointed out again and again by numerous observers 
that the areas of pellagra endemicity and those of maize culture 
by no means overlap. . . . When once established in a region, 


‘It has been variously called ‘‘ Maidismus”’ and ‘“' Psychoneurosis maidica”’ ; 
see also chap. x., under Diplodia. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS, FOOD 681 


pellagra is very permanent, but its prevalence varies consider- CHAP. 
ably from year to year, not always in direct ratio to the amount X!V. 
of rainfall, or the hygrometric state of the air, as has been 
erroneously asserted, but in connection with other cecological 
conditions not yet determined” (Sammon, 1). 


Hunter (1) informs us that for 200 years pellagra has been 
a subject of serious inquiry, but that up to the present 
its cause is purely a matter of conjecture. “The solution 
of this problem,” he adds, ‘has at various times been pro- 
claimed, but subsequent investigations have failed to furnish 
corroborative material.” Generally speaking, medical men 
are divided into two schools of thought over the etiology of 
pellagra: (1) those who hold the zei-toxic theory, based on the 
work of Balardini in 1844, and who have therefore been called 
“ seests” ; and (2) the “ anéz-zests,” including those who hold 
that pellagra is a protozoal disease, or due to some other 
cause than the consumption of maize. 

The Illinois (U.S.A.) State Pellagra Commission, appointed 
in 1909, issued a report in November, 1911, which was pub- 
lished in 1912. This report covers 250 pages, and furnishes an 
interesting summary dealing with the clinical manifestations, 
pathology, and theories as to etiology of the disease. From 
this summary the following information as to the possible con- 
nection between maize and pellagra has been extracted ; 
the italics are supplied by the present writer :— 

“1. Pellagratn Relation to Matse.— ... All work directed 
to this question has uniformly yielded negative results... . 
The evidence collected in this report all tends to discredit any 
such assumption. . . . It seems to us that the burden of proof 
must rest with the zeists. The following facts may be es- 
pecially emphasized as tending to adscredtt any causal relations 
between maize and pellagra: (1) Sound Maize ; (a) excessive 
corn-feeding was not accompanied by more pellagra than was 
observed in individuals kept upon a strictly corn-free diet, 
other conditions being, as far as possible, identical as regards 
the age, sex, mental and bodily condition, habits, and occupation 
of the patients and the size, location, and general arrangement of 
the buildings, although cases developed under both conditions ; 
(6) maize products constituted only a moderate proportion of 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


682 MAIZE 


the general diet of those affected; (c) cutaneous tests in 
pellagrins, with extracts of corn, gave rise to no anaphylactic 
symptoms. (2) Damaged Maize; (a) the corn used in the 
State Institutions (where the cases investigated occurred) has 
been of high grade; (4) all experimental work has necessarily 
been performed upon animals. In none have there been any 
pellagra-like manifestations, and in fact with few exceptions 
the toxicity has been low; (c) cutaneous anaphylaxis tests with 
extracts from damaged corn were negative. 


“Tf one adds to these direct observations the keen critical 
analysis by Sambon of the foundations upon which the maize 
hypothesis rests, one cannot but feel that the arguments in its 
favour are extremely slender. 

“2, Antizeist Theories.— ... All investigations carried 
out by us with the object of demonstrating the presence of a 
blood parasite have so far failed. Nevertheless, it is quite pos- 
sible that a parasite may live and propagate in the blood but 
require special methods for its demonstration, not yet discovered. 

. The relation of Simulia to pellagra, hypothecated by 
Sambon, finds but little support from the researches we have 
been able to make. . . . 

“ This discussion would not be complete without considera- 
tion of the problems of prevention. The evidence seems con- 
clusive that poor nutrition is an important factor in predisposing 
to the disease, although we fully admit and can confirm the 
occurrence of pellagra in persons well nourished and apparently 
robust. The investigation of the dietaries of the State Institu- 
tions reveals no defect in quality or quantity, but only a low 
animal protein content. The Italian peasantry have suffered 
more from pellagra than any other people, and their diet con- 
sists almost exclusively of maize in the form of polenta. They 
eat practically no meat, fish, milk, or eggs. In fact it may be 
said that meat becomes a luxury in all conditions of poverty. 
Maize has a large protein value, but this apparently cannot 
satisfactorily take the place of animal protein altogether. It 
may be, then, that conditions in which the animal protein con- 
stituent of the diet is low, constitute a predisposing factor to 
infection with pellagra. . . . We do not consider that pellagra 
is due to lack of food or even to deficiency in any particular 
constituent of the food. Ourimpression is rather that pellagra 
is due to infection of the body with some micro-organism. It 
does seem possible, however, that a diet deficient in animal 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 683 


protein may so alter the body that the infecting organism has 
a better chance to grow.” 


lhe Commission closes its Report with the following con- 
clusions and recommendations :— 


(1) According to the weight of evidence pellagra is a disease 
due to infection with a living micro-organism of unknown 
nature. 


(2) A possible location for this infection is the intestinal 
tract. 


(3) Deficient animal protein in the diet may constitute a 
predisposing factor in the contraction of the disease. 

(4) The number of cases of known pellagra renders this 
disease a decided menace to the public health of this State. 

(5) Careful search for, and investigation of, suspected cases 
outside the State hospitals for the insane, is extremely desirable 
in view of experience elsewhere. 


We therefore beg respectfully to recommend :— 


(1) That a new Commission be appointed and funds pro- 
vided for a continuance of this investigation with adequate 
assistance. 

(2) That as a prophylactic measure the animal protein con- 
tent of the State Hospital dietaries be increased. 

(3) That the State Board of Health be advised to require 
notification of all cases of pellagra. 


Pellagra produces a skin eruption, most common on the 
backs of the hands and lower parts of the forearms, often ex- 
tending as a cuff around the wrist just above the palm; the 
elbows and areas on the inner sides of the arms and forearms ; 
the forehead and cheeks ; the neck, and finally the dorsa of the 
feet ; at times the eruption is widespread over the whole body. 
Gastro-intestinal troubles are very frequent. There is a great 
tendency to the development of mental disorder of delirious 
type. The mortality may be very high ; pellagra was given as 
the immediate cause of death in 49°61 per cent of the 258 cases 
at the Peoria, Illinois, State Hospital. 

One of the latest (14 March, 1913) reports published in the 
United States concludes: ‘The great prevalence of pellagra 
in certain districts and the important relation that exists be- 
tween pellagra and the public health would seem to be ample 
justification for undertaking on a large scale the herculean task 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


634 MAIZE 


of unravelling the etiology of this puzzling disease, in order 
that measures based on fact might be instituted for its preven- 
tion” (Grem, 1). 

For the information of readers who may wish to pursue the 
subject farther, the writer has extracted the most promising 
titles from the Judex Medicus from October, 1912, to April, 
1913, inclusive; these and other references will be found in the 
bibliography under the names of the following authors :— 

Andenino, Cesa-Bianchi, Forbes, Frosini, Grim, Hirschfelder, 
Hunter, Jennings, Krauss, Lavinder, Lombroso, Merck, Nicolas, 
Nicholls, Pieraccini, Procopin, Rondoni, Roy, Sambon, Sand- 
with, Sheppard, Singer, Tuczek, Wood, and Wussow. 

Lavinder (1), writing in 1908, states: “ Most of the literature 
is in Italian, French, or German. There is but little in English. 
The writings of Roussel [1845] and Lombroso are important. 
The monographs of Tuczek and Procopin are more recent and 
give a good account of the disease; I am especially indebted 
to these two authors. Sandwith’s article, in English, is brief, 
but gives a good account of the disease in Egypt. Most of 
the dictionaries, encyclopedias, and reference handbooks give 
good brief articles. In Allbut’s System of Medicine, edition 
of 1905, will be found a fairly satisfactory account. In most 
of the larger textbooks on the skin will also be found some 
description of the disease.” 


The editors of the /zdex Medicus, who adopt the policy 
of classifying it as far as possible upon the latest accepted 
views in medicine, have since the beginning of the present 
year (1913) removed pellagra from the catalogue of “ Diseases 
due to Specific Infection,” where it appeared in 1912, to the 
class ‘‘ Intoxications,” which includes also beri-beri. 


636. Variety of Maize Preparations Avatlable.—An objec- 
tion sometimes raised against the use of maize for food is the 
supposed lack of variety which its extended use would entail. 
This idea is erroneous, as we shall endeavour to show. 

Cracked maize, called “samp,” “hominy” or “stamped 
mielies,” is boiled (often with salt meat) as a vegetable, and 
may be used as a substitute for potatoes or rice. Coarsely 
ground under the name of “fine hominy,” “ grits,” or “hominy 
grits,” and in South Africa “semola,” it is boiled and eaten 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 685 


with milk and sugar as a porridge, or made into puddings, 
scones, fritters, etc. Maize meal, known in South Africa as 
mielie meal and in America as corn meal, is cooked and eaten 
in the form of porridge, called variously “corn meal mush” 
(United States), “stirabout” (Ireland), and “ mielie meal 
porridge” or “pap” (South Africa); in Italy cheese or other 
protein foods are added, when it is called “polenta”; maize 
meal is also made into puddings, cakes, fritters, etc., and (in the 
United States) into corn pone, hoe cakes, or, with the addition 
of wheaten flour in the right proportions, into griddle cakes, 
muffins, and a light friable wholesome bread, known as corn- 
bread or “ Johnny Cake,” and in Mexico into tortillas and 
enchilladas. 

Mixed with wheaten flour, or wheat and rye flour, it makes 
the famous “ New England” or “ Boston” brown bread. Ground 
to a very fine flour and sifted, it is known as cornflour or corn- 
starch, and used in the preparation of blancmanges or puddings. 
The grains of pop-corn are “popped” or roasted until they 
burst open, mixed with a boiled sugar-syrup and eaten as 
sweetmeats. The young ears of sweet or sugar maize are 
boiled or roasted and highly esteemed as a fresh or “green” 
vegetable, they are also pickled in vinegar or tartaric acid, or 
preserved in brine. 

A pamphlet containing 134 selected recipes in which maize 
in some form is the main ingredient, was prepared in 1909 by 
Mrs. Burtt-Davy with the assistance of Miss J. C. van Duyn, 
and published as Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1 of the Transvaal 
Department of Agriculture. These recipes include dishes 
under the following heads :— 


Recipes. 
Porridge . ‘ ‘ ‘ 4 i ; £ 4 
Pancakes . ‘ é : ; r ‘ - 8 
Muffins, Gems, etc. . F : : é A 20 
Bread ‘ ‘ ‘ 4 : 3 ‘ 10 
Soups 4 . é ‘i : ‘ % 5 7 
Maize with Mea ‘ : F ‘ ; , 5 
Meat Substitutes F , : : : : I4 
Maize as a Vegetable : : ‘ : . 12 
Custards, Puddings, etc. . ‘ : i ‘ 35 
Cakes : : : ‘ : 3 , F II 
Sweets ‘ : " ‘ F , 2 
Preserved Maize for Winter Use. - . 6 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


686 MAIZE 


These are but a few of the many hundreds of recipes in 
use in the United States and other parts of the world, and 
were selected to illustrate the possibilities of maize as a food, 
not as a complete or comprehensive list. 

637. Matze Meal, Corn Meal, or Mielie Meal.—The 
method of treatment practised by aboriginal peoples, both in 
Africa and America, was to rub the grain into a meal ona 
hard and slightly hollowed stone, using a smaller, rounded 
stone with which to do the rubbing (Fig. 231). The product 
was coarse, consisting of endosperm, hull, and embryo 
(“germ”) more or less mixed with particles of stone. Fre- 
quent use of this rough meal by white people, in the early 
days of South African settlement, was said to produce intesti- 
nal troubles, due partly, perhaps, to the coarseness of the 
particles and the bits of stone worn off in the process, and 
partly to the lack of cleanliness in preparation. Maize meal 
is now ground by machinery, between ridged steel plates or 
rollers (see chapter XIU.) which produce a meal of much finer 
quality than that obtained by the older processes. Twoclasses 
are produced: (1) whole meal, in which the embryo is ground 
up with the endosperm ; (2) the new process meal in which 
the embryo, as well as the hull, are removed by special 
machinery. 

Owing to the amount of oil it contains, the old-fashioned 
whole meal does not keep as well in hot weather as the new 
process maize meal, for the embryo holds 82 per cent of the 
total oil-content of the grain. But the higher oil content, on 
the other hand, adds greatly to the food value in cold weather. 

Ordinary maize meal is classified into white and yellow, 
and graded into coarse, medium, and fine. 

Maize meal is sometimes used as an adulterant of wheaten 
bread. ‘‘Flour so adulterated yields fewer loaves than an 
equal quantity of pure wheat flour, and the bread produced is 
more moist than wheat bread, and has a tendency to be 
sodden. An addition of 10 per cent of maize flour is calcu- 
lated to mean a reduction of five loaves on the sack” (Bowman 
and Crossley, 1). Good loaves, though dark in colour, can be 
made by adding good wheat flour to fine maize flour. 

Maize meal forms an important item of export from the 
United States, amounting in 1907 to 766,880 barrels, valued 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 687 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


Fic, 231.—Native women grinding maize. A, Transvaal Basutos ; 
B, Xosas. 


CHAP. 


XIV. 


688 MAIZE 


at £475,000. The principal countries importing from the 
United States in 1904 were (U.S. Government, 1) :— 


Per Cent. 
British Africa . ‘ F ‘ 32°79 
West Indies (excluding Ports Rico). ji : ‘ 27°30 
United Kingdom. ; 21°32 
Canada (including Labrador aed Newfoundland) 4 9°675 
Other Countries : d . 8°Q15 

I00°00 


638. Cornflour, Oswego, Maizena, etc., consist mainly of 
starch, much of the proteid and mineral matter having been 
removed by treatment with dilute alkaline solutions. These 
forms of maize starch, as has been said, are used largely in the 
preparation of puddings, blancmanges, etc. 

639. Matze Starch.—The finer qualities of maize starch 
are said to be largely used as a substitute for arrowroot. 

Maize starch is also commercially mixed with wheat flour, 
and the mixture sold at a considerably lower figure than “all- 
wheat” flour. The pure food laws of many of the North 
American States now prevent the sale of this compound under 
the name of wheat flour, and require that the fact of its being 
a mixture must be clearly designated. 

640. Samp, Hominy, and Cerealine.—These are prepara- 
tions from which the hull, embryo (“germ”) and soft “ crown 
starch” have been removed, sometimes by treatment with 
lye, leaving only the hard ‘“‘horny endosperm’! (615). 
Practically all of the oil and some of the protein have been re- 
moved ; the percentage of carbohydrates is therefore high, but 
there is still a considerable proportion of protein left. 

641. Stamped Mielies—Stamped mielies, so well known 
in South Africa, differ from hominy in that the embryo is not 
removed, and they are not treated with lye; the oil-content 
is therefore greater. 

Stamped mielies are prepared by the native women (Fig. 
232) of the country districts or smaller towns, with long hard- 
wood pestles, and a narrow, deep wooden mortar hollowed out 
of the trunk of some soft-wooded tree, especially the wilge- 


'Called ‘horny ” from the translucent appearance of this part of the grain. 
It does not imply that it is insoluble or indigestible. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 689 


boom (Salix babylonica), the wilde wilge-boom (Salix capensis) 
or the maeroola (Sclerocarya caffra). To prevent the dry, 
hard grain from scattering during the process of stamping, 
the succulent leaves of a wilde vyg-bosje (Mesembrianthe- 
mum sp.) are sometimes added, to be removed again in the 
subsequent washing. 

642. Whole or Crushed Maize as a “Cereal Food” .— 
“Sweet corn” or Sugar maize, parched and ground, and 


Fic. 232.—Modjajie women stamping mielies. 


served with cream or milk, makes a delicate and nutritious 
substitute for the boiled breakfast porridge. 

Freshly popped “corn,” served with cream, is a much used 
breakfast food in the United States, though pop-corn is most 
commonly eaten hot from the popper with a little salted 
butter or merely a sprinkling of salt. 

643. Corn-flakes, Silver-flakes, Corn-crisp, Fanko, etc., 
are prepared from grain from which the germ and hull have 
been removed, and which has been treated with sugar and 
salt. The prepared grain is cooked by steam, dried, rolled, 
and toasted in a special oven. It is said that No. 3 or No. 4 

44 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


690 MAIZE 


grade maize may be used for this purpose. The use of these 
and similar preparations is extending steadily in the United 
States, Europe, and South Africa. Their protein content 
is relatively low. One of the largest firms of manufacturers 
in the United States uses 210,000 muids of choice maize per 
annum in the manufacture of these and other products (Bow- 
man and Crossley, 1). 

644. Tortillas and Enchilladas.—The “tortilla” or Mexi- 
can corn-cake is said to be the main food of 90 per cent 
of the native population of Mexico. The total annual con- 
sumption of tortillas is valued at $76,560,000 gold (Bowman 
and Crossley, 1). In Mexico the tortilla is made from shelled 
maize which has been allowed to soak over-night in rather 
strong lye water, made from wood ashes, in an earthenware 
jar; this process swells the grain and softens the hull. The 
whole grain is then pounded or water-ground into a paste in a 
metate or hollowed stone, with a more or less cylindrical 
pestle. The paste is afterwards rolled or patted into thin 
cakes (sometimes 2 feet in diameter) which are baked or 
fried. In California the paste or meal is mixed with salt, 
water, and a little fat, into a batter stiff enough to be moulded 
with the hands into round, flat cakes which are baked in the 
ashes or on a hot stone. The echzllada is a tortilla cooked in 
a pan and then fried in olive oil and stuffed with a mixture of 
red pepper, onions, raisins, and garlic, and dressed with hard- 
boiled eggs and grated cheese. 

645. Matse as a“ Green” Vegetable-—The young grains of 
the maize ear, before they harden, form a favourite article of 
food in maize-growing countries. The ears are either boiled 
or roasted, and if not overcooked? the grains are creamy and 
palatable. In order to make this vegetable available the year 
round, and for use in countries where the crop is not grown, 
a large industry in the “canning” of green maize has been 
established in the United States. Canning factories exist 
which every season put up thousands of tins of “green 
corn” cut from the cob, ready to be warmed and eaten when 
the fresh article is out of season; ‘‘canned corn” is a staple 
vegetable in the United States during the winter months. 


1 At a low altitude 8 minutes in rapidly boiling water usually suffices— 
long cooking only tends to harden the grains and make them indigestible. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 691 


South African housewives “bottle” it for domestic use, and 
there seems to be no reason why the bottling or canning of 
green mielies should not become an industry in South Africa. 

Sugar-maize is usually considered the best type to eat as 
“green corn” or “green mielies,” as it is softer and has a 
sweeter flavour than either the flint or dent varieties. 

The green or canned corn is often cooked with Lima, string, 
or French beans; this mixture, known as “succotash,” is a 
favourite dish in the United States. 

646. To Keep Maize on the Cob,—The following recipe for 
keeping maize on the cob appeared in the 7ransvaal Agri- 
cultural Journal, having been taken over from the Rhodesian 
Agricultural Journal :— . 


Take a basket of corn after all the husks and silks have 
been picked off, and place in a tight box with a stone jar of 
water. 

Now in an earthen dish place some sulphur, and with a 
paper or live coal light it, and close the box that the fumes of 
the sulphur may not escape. In eight or ten hours open the 
box, turn the charred sulphur over and light again, and close 
the box for twenty-four hours. Then take the corn and put 
into the crock of processed water; add more sulphur to the 
dish, light, close the box, and repeat again in twelve hours. 

When wanted for use soak in soda water for twelve hours, 
changing the water at least twice—it is very hard to get the 
acid taste from the cob—and then boil as green corn; or cut 
the corn from the cob, put on in a kettle of water with a large 
teaspoon of soda, and boil five minutes; then change the water 
three times, only letting the water come to the boil. When you 
add the last water also add one tablespoon of white sugar, and 
cook ten minutes. Season with cream or butter and salt and 


pepper. 


647. Dried Maize for \WVinter Use.—Maize dried in the 
following manner retains more of its sweetness, is much easier 
to prepare, and takes less space in the pantry than if canned 
or bottled: Husk the maize, put into a kettle of boiling water, 
and cook for three to five minutes, to “set” the milk in the grain. 
Then cut from the cob and, with the back of the knife, scrape the 
cob to get all the milk, and spread in shallow pans. Dry in’ 
slow oven or in the sun. When perfectly dry put into paper 

44 * 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP, 
XIV. 


692 MAIZE 


bags. Before using, soak the maize over-night in milk, or water, 
or equal parts of both; cook in the same liquid ; a little sugar, 
salt and butter may be added. 

648. Maize as a Sweetmeat.—Candied pop-corn is a form of 
sweetmeat in the United States ; it has also found its way into 
Europe and South Africa. As its name implies it is prepared 
from the variety of maize known as pop maize (Zea mays var. 
precox) or pop-corn, This type has a very hard surface, and 
is so constructed that under the application of a strong heat 
the contained moisture expands, causing the grain to burst and 
the starch on the inside to evert. In this manner the hard 
grain is transformed into a light, edible mass. This is stirred 
into thickened sugar syrup until the grains adhere to each 
other, then rolled lightly into the favourite “ pop-corn balls”. 

649. Glucose.—Glucose is the largest single product pre- 
pared from maize starch (chap. XVII, {| 757) by conversion 
into grape sugar. It is made in various degrees of density, 
from syrup to solid grape sugar, each of which is designed for 
a specific purpose. Pure glucose syrup has but little flavour 
and but half the sweetness of cane syrup; its principal use ap- 
pears to be asa “filler” or adulterant of cane syrup. Maize 
syrup is, therefore, mixed with 10 per cent, more or less, of the 
latter, and sold as a substitute for golden syrup and molasses, 
under such names as ‘‘ Karo Corn Syrup,” “Korn King Syrup,” 
etc. It is used asa basis for many of the manufactured jellies, 
which are then flavoured with fruit juices. It is also used in 
the preparation of sweetmeats, preserved fruits, non-intoxicating 
beverages and beer, and in the tanning of leather (Bowman 
and Cvossley, 1). In 1906 the United States exported 94,827 
tons (short) of grape sugar, valued at £716,466. 

Glucose is extensively manufactured in the United States } 
and in Germany. A glucose factory has recently been estab- 
lished in Manchester, England, and another in Melbourne, 
Australia, is reported as having a capacity of about 150,000 
bushels of maize per annum. South Africa would appear to 
be as favourably situated as Australia for a glucose factory. 

1 The principal glucose manufacturers in the United States include: The 
Corn-products Manufacturing Company of New York and Chicago ; the Glucose 
Sugar Refining Company of Chicago; the New York Glucose Company of New 


York; Thos. Sealy, New York; the Perfection Jar Glucose Company, Phila- 
delphia ; and W. F. Stark, Milwaukee. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 693 


650. Matze Stalks as a Source of Sugar and Syrup.— 
Prescott (1), quoting Zuazo, states 

That the gigantic stalks of maize produced in the equinoc- 
tial regions of Mexico “ afford a saccharine matter not found 
to the same extent in northern latitudes, and supplied the 
Aztecs with sugar (see { 653) little inferior to that of the 


[sugar] cane itself, which [latter] was not introduced among 
them till after the Conquest ” (1521-2). 


Quite recently the question of the commercial production of 
sugar from the maize stalk has been brought into prominence 
in the United States by Mr. W. A. Kerr and Prof. Stewart. 
These gentlemen state that if the ears are removed from the 
growing maize stalk at a certain time before the plant ceases 
growth it will continue to grow from four to six weeks beyond 
its normal period, and that during that time the plant increases 
in size and weight, and that the saccharine content increases to 
more than double the normal amount. 

The following table of analyses, showing the progressive 
stages of sugar accumulation in the juice from the beginning 
to the close of the period of saccharine development, was pub- 
lished in American Industries (February, 1910, pages 16 and 
51), and is stated to be typical of the average result obtained 
by Messrs. Kerr and Stewart :— 


TaBLE CXVIII. 
SUGAR IN MAIZE JUICE AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF PLANT 


GROWTH. 
et st 
Before Sterilization.! | After Sterilization. | 
‘ SS a ees | 
Grain. | 
aoe One Two Four Six 

SVEIOP: ] Week. | Weeks. | Weeks. | Weeks. | 

98 | Tn Silk.) In Milk. | 

| a 
a a st | 
| 
| 


Sucrose, Per Cent | 0°000 | 2°90 6°70 | 970 Ir-09 13°79 14°66 
Reducing Sugar. | 1°87 3°00 2°50 go | 847 LIL 1'79 | 
Combined Sugar | 1°87 5°90 | 12°56 I4'go 16°45 


| | 

Sp. Gr. ‘ 1 I'0126 1'034 | 1048 T°050 | 1058 1069 10759 
| 
| g'20 | 11°60 


S.N.S. ‘ 7. | aSE3 2°80 | 1&0 r°80 1°44 barele) 192 
Total Solids . | 3°00 870 | I1°00 | 13°40 | 13°90 | 16°80 | 18°37 | 


Co. of Purity .| — {333 | 60°9 | 723 | 79°7 82°4 798 | 
| | | ! 


1 The context indicates that by “sterilization is meant the removal of the 
ears before the growth of the plant has ceased, 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


694 MAIZE 


The article above referred to continues :— 


“ The results obtained from the corn under the conditions 
which existed this year were entirely satisfactory. The defe- 
cated juice worked perfectly and I believe there will be less 
loss in defecating the corn juice than that from the cane. The 
whole operation during the boiling to massecuite was beyond 
my expectations and entirely satisfactory. The sugar cbtained 
from the runs has all the good qualities of cane sugar, shows a 
very good colour, and by washing it with a little water showed 
a polarization of 98°5 degrees... . 


“A ton (2,000 lb.) of corn [maize] cane utilized under this 
patented process, contains an average of 570 lbs. perfectly dry 
solid matter, and of this 270 lbs. were in solution in the juice. 
Of this dissolved matter an average of 240 lbs. per ton is 
sucrose, 20 lbs. uncrystallizable sugar and 10 lbs. organic matter 
not sugar. The average yield of dry crystallized sugar is: 
Ist sugar 96° centrifugal, 160 Ibs. ; 2nd sugar 89° centrifugal, 
30 lbs. 

“About 6 gallons of molasses, containing about 70 Ibs. 
of uncrystallizable sugar, remain as a by-product, which is 
converted into ethyl spirits producing 5°18 gallons of 95 per cent 
alcohol, . . 

“Tn one ton of green ear and husk product there is about 
580 lbs. of dry substance, of which 21 per cent, or 420 lbs., is 
fermentable matter, 85 lbs. of dry pulp and about 30 lbs. of 
corn gluten. The fermentable matter will yield half its 
weight (210 Ibs.) or 31°1 gallons of 95 per cent alcohol.” 


Writing in the Agricultural Journal of the Union of 
South Africa in May, 1911, Dr. A. I. Perold gives extracts 
from an article on this subject which appeared in the Resw- 
men ai Agricultura, of October, 1910, which was taken over 
from the Boletin de la Soctedad Agricola Mexicana. Dr. 
Perold summarizes his article as follows :-— 


“1, Maize will, under proper treatment, give as high a 
percentage of sugar as cane sugar does on an average. 

“2, It will give as much crystallizable sugar as the sugar 
cane. 

“3, Permit area, the total production of maize stalks is 
equal to that of the sugar cane in the fertile soil of Louisiana. 

“4. The sugar obtained is proper ‘cane sugar’ (sac- 
charose), 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 695 


“5. It gives by-products that are easily sold and realize 
as much as, and even more than, the sugar. 

“6. The cost of manufacturing this sugar is much less than 
in the case of either sugar beet or sugar cane. 

_“7. This sugar can be produced in unlimited quantities, it 
being possible to supply the whole demand of the United 
States within a few years. 

“8. Although the operations of manufacture are distinct, 
the machinery does not essentially differ from that used for 
cane sugar. 

“9. The whole of the residue (after extraction of sap from 
stalks) can, at a low cost, be converted into a pulp for paper 
or into cellulose, which can be used for the manufacture of 
smokeless powder, celluloid, collodion, etc., at a lower cost 
than when produced from cotton. 

“ro. The green ears are easily sold as maizena, gelatine, 
or even as ensilage or cattle food. 

“ti. The combination of the manufacture of the sugar 
with that of the various by-products will keep the staff and 
the machinery of the factory busy during the whole year, 
instead of being at a standstill for a greater part of the year. 

“12. The cultivation of maize for this purpose will give 
higher profits than if the crop were disposed of in any other 
way, and will therefore be to the advantage of all maize-grow- 
ing countries,” 


Owing to the wide publicity given to the claims of Messrs. 
Kerr and Stewart by the press of many parts of the world, it 
seems desirable to refer to the subject, if only to bring this 
method of treatment to the attention of those in a position to 
give it a thorough test. To quote the editor of the Unzou 
Agricultural Journal :-— 


“The production of sugar, starch, and other by-products 
from maize is by no means new, but whether the very sanguine 
estimates outlined by our contributors will be realized on an 
industrial basis has yet, we understand, to be proven. How- 
ever, the subject is of such importance to this country that 
further inquiries are being set on foot... . It has always to 
be remembered, however, that to set such an industry firmly 
on its feet in a country like South Africa, with its peculiar 
labour conditions, would call for the greatest care and fore- 
thought, as well as much capital and organizing ability. The 
sugar-cane industry of Natal is the nearest approach to any- 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


696 MAIZE 


thing of this kind which we have as an example, and the 
history of that effort is sufficiently full of warnings to give 
thoughtful men pause before embarking on similar adventures. 
The sugar industry is now well established, but its path has 
not been entirely beset with roses.” 


651. Corn Ovl_—The larger American corn factories ex- 
press the oil from the maize embryo after the grain has been 
“de-germinated” for the manufacture of starch, etc. About 
go per cent of the oil may be extracted in this way. When 
properly refined it is clear and tasteless, and is used in the 
United States as a salad oil. A large quantity of corn oil is 
exported from the States to countries which manufacture 
olive oil, for which it is supposedly used as a substitute or 
“filler’’; the exports for a single year have amounted to 
4,383,926 gallons, valued at £277,590, or 1s. 3d. per gallon. 

652. Matze Vinegar.—According to Blyth (1) the great 
majority of the commercial vinegars in the United Kingdom 
are derived from the acetous fermentation of a wort made 
from mixtures of malt and barley. 

In 1910, Dr. Juritz (1) observed that, “with an increasing 
cultivation within, and a growing export from the Union of 
South Africa, of cereal grain, and notably of maize—the use 
of which for the manufacture of malt vinegar is expressly 
allowed in the Cape Colony Statute—it is by no means un- 
likely that, ere very long, the manufacture of malt vinegar 
may also become a local industry of considerable standing ”. 

The principal differences between malt vinegar and other 
commercial vinegars, such as rice vinegar, sugar vinegar, and 
spirit vinegar, are defined by Blyth as follows -— 


The extract in malt vinegar is very much higher than in 
sugar vinegar, and nearly ten times as much as in spirit 
vinegar, 

The acid-extract ratio is considerably lower in malt vinegar 
than in spirit vinegar. 

The ash of malt vinegar is about ten times the amount of 
the ash percentage in spirit vinegar, and is nearly double the 
amount found in sugar vinegar. At least one-half of this ash 
should, in the case of a genuine malt vinegar, consist of potas- 
ae phosphate, with an additional quantity of calcium phos- 
phate. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 697 


_ Proteins and phosphoric oxide are both considerably 

higher in malt vinegar than in either spirit or sugar vinegar. 
Sulphuric acid, on the other hand, is, as a rule, high in 

Sugar vinegar, but never so in genuine malt vinegar. 


Juritz (1) finds that vinegars prepared from rice and 
maize grits, i.e. the maize grain from which the embryo and 
hull have been removed, do not contain as much as 30 per 
cent of phosphoric oxide in their original solids, that is to 
say, less than half the quantity found in genucne malt 
vinegar solids; in such cases the phosphoric oxide sometimes 
falls even as low as 15 per cent in the vinegar solids. He 
concludes an interesting discussion of the analytical problems 
which would be involved in limiting the definition of malt 
vinegar to the product obtained from whole grain, as follows :— 


“One thing is clear from even a casual consideration of 
all the questions concerned. If the manufacture of maize 
vinegar is ever to become a large local industry, two alterna- 
tives are open: either (a) the use of maize grits must be 
studiously avoided in the general interest, lest the market be 
flooded with the products of fermentation of damaged rice— 
products which would be indistinguishable from vinegar pro- 
duced from maize grits, but would possess a sufficiently evi- 
dent distinction from whole-maize vinegar, or (4) definite 
standards will have to be laid down by legislation, discrimin- 
ating more clearly than at present between vinegar prepared 
from whole grain containing a certain proportion of phos- 
phates and nitrogen, and vinegar made from more exclusively 
starchy materials like rice or maize grits” (/wre¢z, 1). 


Matze for the Manufacture of Beverages. 


Maize whisky could be bought then for 15 cents a gallon.—LeELanp, 
“Mem.,” 1. 13, 1893. 

653. Maize Juice—The Indians of Virginia appear to have 
made use of the saccharine juice of the maize stalk in the 
preparation of a beverage, for Bruce (1) informs us that 
“except the juice sucked from the crushed fibre of the maize 
stalk, they had no knowledge of any spirits ”. 

The Aztecs also seem to have made use of the juice of 
the stem, for Prescott (1) states that Zuazo extols the “honey ” 


of maize as equal to that of the bees, He says that the Peruvians, 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


698 MAIZE 


also, extracted a sort of honey from the maize stalk, and adds 
that :— 

“ The saccharine matter contained in the maize stalk is much 
greater in tropical countries than in more northern latitudes, 
so that the natives in the former may be seen sometimes 
sucking it like the sugar cane”. 

In South America alcoholic drinks, called chzca and 
pulque de mahiz, are said to be prepared from the saccharine 
juice of the maize stem. 

654. Fermentation Products of the Grain.—The large quan- 
tity of starch present in maize-grain renders it particularly 
suitable for the preparation of alcoholic liquors. 

After cleaning and crushing the grain, the hull and embryo 
are removed. The remainder is then ground and cooked to 
dissolve the starch. The starch is fermented with 10 per cent 
of barley-malt and yeast, and 40 gallons of water per bushel 
of grain. The enzymes of the malt change the starch into 
sugar, and the yeast plants (Saccharomyces), feeding upon the 
latter, deposit alcohol as a waste-product. The alcohol is 
evaporated off from the remaining water, etc., and is then con- 
densed over cold coils. The residue left in the fermenting 
tanks is washed to remove any alcohol left, and pressed to 
take out as much as possible of the liquid. The latter is known 
as “dstillery slop,’ while the more solid portion is called “ ds- 
tiller’s grains”; both are used for stock food (41676 and 677). 

The preparation of alcoholic drinks from maize was prac- 
tised by the aborigines of America in prehistoric times; for 
although, according to Bruce (1), the Indians of Virginia had 
no knowledge of the use of spirits at the time of the advent 
of the ‘‘pale-face,” Prescott (2) tells us that the Incas of Peru 
made an intoxicating liquor from fermented maize-grain, to 
which, like the Aztecs of Mexico, they were immoderately 
addicted. “One kind of the fermented liquors, sora, made 
from the corn [maize] was of such strength that the use of it 
was forbidden by the Incas, at least to the common people. 
Their injunctions do not seem to have been obeyed so implicitly 
in this instance as usual.” In some parts of South America, 
we are informed, a kind of beer called chzca or maize beer is 
made from the grain (A7o/oney, 1). 

The African native has long been accustomed to brew 


WMAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 699 


soph ana eee : ee se 
beers” from his native grains, and it is not surprising, there- 
fore, that he soon learned the art of preparing an alcoholic 
beverage from maize, either alone or as an additic some 
ition to some 
other starchy foodstuff. Torday (1) informs us that the 
national beverage of the Basonge of the Kasai Basin in the 
ase 3 ; : 
Belgian Congo is a kind of beer made from i 
manioc anc 
maize. 
Damaged maize is commonly used in the preparation of 
kaffir beer, a fermented beverage which is both a food and an 
intoxicating drink (Fig. 233). Because it is of greater value 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


Fic. 233.—Zulu women carrying kaffir beer for a ‘ beer-drink ”. 


in the form of “pap” than the other cereals grown by the 
natives, it is probable that less maize is used for this purpose 
than mabele or kaffir corn (Sorghum vulgare), um-velli-velli 
(Pennisetum spicatum), or um-pawha (Ldeusine Coracana). 
Wallace (1) referring to the native method of storing maize in 
pits in Cape Colony, observes that a few mielies round the 
edges of the pit, which become mouldy, ‘“‘are utilized for making 
kaffir beer, a beverage having the consistency of thin porridge, 
of which the natives are fond”. 

The Rev. A. T. Bryant (1) states that, in the native kraals 
of South Africa, kaffir beer is properly made of mabele alone, 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


700 MAIZE 


but at times or in localities where that grain is scarce, maize 
may be partly, or even entirely, substituted. Dr. Klein (1) 
adds that on the Witwatersrand a certain amount of mielie- 
meal is used to mix with ground kaffir corn malt, in the 
preparation of kaffir beer for use in the compounds. 

655. Beer.—The whole maize-grain is not used for the 
production of malt, on account of the large amount of oil con- 
tained in the embryo. When the embryo has been removed 
by the process known as de-germination, the remaining starch 
of the endosperm, prepared in the form of “ flaked maize,” can 
be used as a raw material for the brewing of beer, when malt, 
prepared from some other cereal, usually barley, is added. 
The advantages claimed for the mixture are that, as the malt 
contains a much higher percentage of dextrine than is re- 
quired to change its own starch into sugar, there is a surplus of 
dextrine which can be used to convert the maize starch into 
sugar. Maize flakes are practically soluble, and it is stated that 
beer brewed from this mixture “clears” much more rapidly 
than if brewed from malt alone, and is practically fit for table 
use within ten days after brewing. 

656. Whisky and Gin.—Large quantities of maize are 
consumed in distilleries, for the manufacture of whisky and 
gin. The writer is informed that approximately 30,000,000 
gallons of British whisky and gin are prepared from maize, 
with the addition of a certain amount of malt to convert the 
maize starch into sugar. The “Bourbon Whisky” of the 
United States is said to be largely manufactured from maize ; 
20,000,000 bushels (over 5,500,000 muids) of maize are 
consumed annually in the United States distilleries. Sixty- 
eight per cent of the grain used in the manufacture of distilled 
spirits in the United States in 1900 consisted of maize, the 
total value of the maize so used that year being 41,542,170. 
In Roumania, also, there are distilleries for the manufacture of 
maize spirits. 

657. Coffee Substitute.—Before coffee was plentiful and 
cheap in South Africa, and where it is still scarce and expen- 
sive, roasted maize-grain has been used by the Boer as a coffee 
substitute. This use is probably quite old, for Burchell (1) 
tells us that in 1811 the missionaries in Griqualand West used 
it for this purpose: ‘‘ When their store of coffee became low, 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 701 


the ripe grains [of maize], roasted and ground, were mixed CHAP. 
with it, but the beverage made from this mixture, though not alt 
unpleasant to the taste, had a heating quality which would not 

agree with every stomach ”. 


Maize Gratin for Stock Food. 


658. Matse Grain for Stock Food.—The importance of the 
maize crop as stock food, to supplement the wild pasturage of 
countries like South Africa, can scarcely be over-estimated ; 
maize is the most profitable crop that can be grown for the 
purpose. The export price of the grain is not the measure of 
the crop value; to constantly export the raw products of the 
soil is not a sound policy either from an agricultural view or 
from the point of view of State economics; for, unless the 
plant-food removed froin the soil in this way is replaced (see 
chap. VIII.), it results in depletion of the land; therefore it is 
an unsound policy. 

The better way is to turn the raw material into a second 
product ; this may be done in factories, which should be estab- 
lished in the country of production if economic conditions 
permit ; but generally speaking the farmer finds it better to 
produce the secondary products himself, in the form of beef, 
mutton, pork, wool, hides, feathers, etc. 

Maize grain is one of the most valuable and best relished 
foodstuffs for farm animals, Their fondness for it is remark- 
able ; a possible explanation of this, suggested by Henry (1), 
may lie in the relatively high oil-content of the grain, which on 
mastication breaks into flinty, nutty, sweetish particles, and is 
therefore more palatable than, for instance, the wheat grain, 
which on crushing and mingling with saliva turns to a sticky 
dough. 

Being rich in starch and oil, the function of maize is to 
produce fat and heat ; for fattening purposes, Henry says, 
no other grain equals maize, 

In the largest maize-producing country in the world, the 
United States, the farmer usually finds it more profitable to 
make his maize crop walk to market on four legs than to sell 
the grain to the manufacturer or dealer, for export, unless the 
prices offered by these men are unusually good. As a rule he 


702 MAIZE 


CHAP. sells only the surplus of his crop; a farmer who has foresight 
on naturally plants more than he expects to use, to avoid the risk 
of a shortage of food-stuffs for his stock in the event of a bad 
season, In ordinarily favourable seasons he harvests more than 
he actually needs for feeding, and is able to sell the balance. 
Of the enormous United States crop of 747,000,000 muids only 
14 per cent (about 10,000,000 muids) is exported. 
Hunt (1) says that in America, the home of maize, the 
chief use of this crop is as food for domestic animals. 


“Tn connection with grass it is ¢ze meat-producing material 
otf the United States. The wonderful development of our pork 
industry is directly related to our maize crop. . . . The ears of 
maize are the natural food of the civilized hog.” “The total 
amount of digestible nutrients in the grain and stover are about 
in the proportion of two to one, but the proportionate food 
value of the grain is greater on account of its greater net avail- 
able energy.” 

The use of maize grain as an addition to veld grazing, veld 
hay, or other roughage is increasing in South Africa, though its 
value is not yet fully appreciated. Some farmers perhaps go 
to the other extreme, and think that because maize is a good 
food it may be fed without stint; but this is not the case. 
The grain by itself is too concentrated for a ration, and it con- 
tains too high a percentage of carbohydrates (fat formers) to 
be used alone. Moreover, a mixed ration is more suitable and 
more economical in any case. 

But, as Henry (1) has well said, “Let us not despise maize 
because, when wrongly and excessively used . . . it failed to 
develop the normal framework of bone and muscle. Each feed 
has its function in the nutrition of animals, and only by its 
abuse can unfavourable results follow. This grain has enabled 
the United States to take first rank among nations in the 
quantity of pork produced, and upon its judicious use rests 
future success.” 

659. Grain and Pasturage—Where the natural summer 
pasturage is scarce, and the lack of food, together with flies 
and heat, are reducing gains in the ‘condition ” already made 
by slaughter bullocks, Henry recommends that feeding with 
maize grain should be adopted. The feeder begins by supplying 
about a peck (14 Ibs.) of maize per head, increasing the amount 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 793 


by midsummer to fully } bushel (18 Ibs.) daily, for grown 
bullocks. The grain is dealt out once a day in a feed box 
in the camp. Pigs are allowed to follow to save the 
waste, 


“Instead of giving maize only, it is better, when possible, 
to substitute 2 or 3 Ibs. of oil-meal or bran for the same weight 
of grain. The feed should always be supplied at the same 
hour. Where maize is fed not over half the usual area of 
pasture land is required. Pasture-fed steers eat about as 
much grain as if confined to the feed-lot.” 

J. D. Gillett, the great Illinois steer feeder of the last 
generation, is quoted by Henry as having said that he could 
not afford to fatten steers 7 wéuter. His cattle were fattened 
in the summer and autumn, subsisting in winter in the maize 
stalk fields, and on the dry grasses of the pastures. In summer 
they luxuriated in rich old blue-grass pastures where the feed 
boxes always stood loaded with grain. “The great success of 
this feeder is sufficient evidence of the wisdom of his practice, 


with the conditions and markets then prevailing, i.e. good - 


prices for well-fattened cattle.” 

But Wallace (2), in summarizing the experience of numerous 
cattle feeders in the Western States, writes: “The general 
opinion seems to be that good steers fed grain or grass will 
gain from 75 to 100 lb. per month, and that steers on good 
pasture will, during the two or three most favourable grazing 
months, gain almost as much on grass alone. . . . From all 
the facts I have been able to obtain, I am inclined to the 
opinion that in general there is not much money in feeding 
grain to steers that are on full pasture of the best kind.” 
Henry (1) also concludes that, “where pastures carry a suffi- 
cient growth of [nutritious] grass for full feed, even during 
midsummer, it is usually best to allow the cattle to subsist 
entirely on natural herbage, for this is of low cost, and animals 
relying upon their own exertions gather their food vigorously 
and willingly, wasting no time in standing idly waiting for it”. 

“One mistake that is sometimes made, is turning on pasture 
steers that have been heavily grained during the winter. This 
is usually a losing operation, and the more radical the change 
from the dry lot to the pasture, the greater will be the loss” 
(Pacific Rural Press, 9 June, 1906). 


Transvaal sheep farmers have found it useful to feed about 
4 Ib. of maize grain per sheep per day during the winter 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


404 MAIZE 


months, to those animals which are kept on the High-veld 
pastures (4 687). 

The Illinois Station found it profitable to feed maize to pigs 
running on pasture (1 688). 

660. Feeding Maize on the Cob.—Where labour is scarce 
and high-priced, and maize is cheap, it is found economical to 
feed the grain on the ear without husking it. The simplest 
way is to use maize direct from the shock, throwing the long 
stalks, with the ears attached, into the mangers. The cows 
first pick out the ears, and after eating these finish off the leaves 
and then the stalks. 


‘‘ By supplying maize on the stalk for the evening feed so 
as to allow the cows a long period for working them over, all 
will be consumed before morning except some of the coarser 
portions of the stalks, thus reducing the labour of removing 
the waste. Dairymen generally prefer, however, to run their 
shock maize through the feed-cutter or shredder, which leaves 
the material ina form relished by the cow and easily handled ; 
the broken ears of maize are then easily masticated, the cobs 
also being consumed” (/fenry, 1). 

But in feeding in this way care should be taken to obtain 
a fairly close estimate of the proportion of grain to roughage. 
By selecting an average shock, husking out the ears, and as- 
certaining how much shelled grain it carries, the amount which 
should be fed can be determined. 

Although the maize cob (i.e. after the grain is shelled) con- 
sists largely of crude fibre, and therefore has a low feeding 
value, it can be used to advantage for stock-feed under certain 
conditions. If the grain has not fully rzpened, the cob is less 
hard and woody, and contains more nutriment, and such cobs 
are readily eaten by cattle, provided no deleterious fermentation 
or fungous growth has developed. As a result of experience 
and observation, many cattle feeders find it advantageous to 
use this otherwise waste product by feeding the whole ear, i.e. 
cob and grain together (ery, 1). 


‘“The practice, common in the Corn-belt, of supplying 
unhusked or unground maize to steers has developed the 
feeling among eastern feeders that the method is wasteful, and 
could be immensely improved by grinding the grain.” Henry 
combats this idea : ‘‘ No one,” he says, “can study the western 


WAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 705 


situation without becoming impressed with the belief that the 
better class of these [western] feeders are, after all, about right 
in this practice. Maize,” he adds, ‘is never so acceptable to 
a steer as when in the husk. There is a freshness and palat- 
ability about an ear of corn wrapped in Nature's covering 
which every steer recognizes and shows by the eagerness with 
which he consumes it.” 

“ Snapped corn,” i.e. the ear severed from the stalks but still 
wrapped in the husks, is successfully used for steer feeding. 

“In general, directions for feeding cheap maize may be 
summed up by the single statement: Let the feeder supply 
this grain to his cattle in the most inexpensive manner possible 
so long as they consume full rations without difficulty in 
mastication.” 


The Texas Station (Au//, 2) made a saving of 3 per cent 
by feeding both cob and husk with the grain. The husked 
ears were coarsely ground. 

661, Freguency of Feeding Grain.— ‘It is reasonable that 
all young animals should be fed at least three times a day, 
while those approaching maturity and not being heavily fed are 
amply provided for in two feeds. 

“ Maturing cattle prosper, and perhaps do their best, when 
supplied grain but once a day. The once-fed steer goes to 
the trough with paunch well emptied and appetite at the best ; 
filling himself to the utmost, he has ample time for rumination 
and subsequent digestion ” (Henry, 1). 

662. Preparation of Grain for Feeding.—In the dry interior 
districts maize on the cob stored in the hock becomes very 
hard and dry, the moisture-content falling from 20 per cent 
to 10 or even 9 per cent. In this condition it may hurt the 
mouths of animals in the process of mastication. With some 
breeds of maize the large size of the ear makes it difficult to 
get it into the mouth. In such cases some form of treatment 
before feeding may be found necessary. The methods usually 
practised are (1) to break the ears in the feed-box into three 
or four pieces with a hatchet—this is somewhat crude, but 
simple ; (2) to run the ears, with or without the husks, through 
a crusher, which reduces them to a reasonable degree of fine- 
ness, breaking the cobs into many pieces and cracking some of 
the grains; (3) to soak the grain, which enables the animal to 

45 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


106 MAIZE 


crush it more easily, and often to consume a larger quantity ; 
(4) to grind into “corn-and-cob meal,” or to shell and grind 
into maize meal. 

663. Dry v. Soaked Maize.—By soaking, the grain is made 
more easily masticable, though apparently less digestible. 

A trial was made in Germany of the comparative feeding 
value of dry and soaked maize. Twenty sheep, nearly two 
years old, were fed 1-4 Ibs. of whole maize grain per head per 
day, ten receiving the grain dry and ten receiving it soaked 
with as:much water as it would absorb. This was continued 
for fourteen weeks. At the end of the trial the lot which had 
received dry grain had increased 12°1 Ibs. per head more than 
those which had the soaked grain. The investigators concluded 
that the poor results obtained from the soaked grain were 
due to decreased secretion of saliva (Mueller in Braunschw. 
Landw, Zett., 1885, p. 209; Jahresbh. Agr. Chemie, 1885, p. 
576). 

Wolf (Landw. Jahrb. 16, 1887, Sup. III, p. 21, quoted 
by Henry) found that in the case of healthy horses with good 
teeth the utilization of beans and maize remained about the 
same, whether fed whole and in dry condition, or after having 
been soaked in water for twenty-four hours, with due pre- 
caution in the latter case against loss of nutrients. 

Experiments at the Kansas Station (Sw//. 4) showed 
that steers fed with soaked maize did not consume quite as 
much as the other lot, yet made a better gain; there was a 
saving of 15 per cent by soaking shelled grain. Where, how- 
ever, pigs followed the steers, and got more than one-half of 
their feed from the droppings, the droppings from the steers 
which had dry maize gave the best results, and the saving by 
soaking was only 5 per cent, 

664. Matze-and-cob Meal—The unshelled ears of maize 
are in many cases ground up with the cob. The resulting 
product is known as “corn-and-cob meal” or “ maize-and-cob 
meal”. There is very little nutriment in the cob itself, which 
consists largely of cellulose. On the other hand, pure maize 
meal is too concentrated, lying heavily in the stomach, and 
while in this state is not so easily penetrated by the diges- 
tive fluids, whereas the particles of cob mixed with the meal 
keep it looser and in a condition to be more easily digested. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 797 


The following extracts from Bulletins show what practical 
feeders think of this mixture :— 

‘Practical experience is strongly in favour of using the cob 
with the grain when feeding meal to farm animals.” “Corn- 
and-cob meal has been found very satisfactory by feeders, the 
animals not getting ‘off feed’ so easily as when pure meal is 
fed.” “ Stockmen quite generally report favourably on its use.” 
“It will be found satisfactory for dairy feeding, and is recom- 
mended whenever it is possible to secure it at not too great 
expense for grinding.” “For horses it is preferable to pure 
maize meal . . . on account of its higher percentage of cellu- 
lose, which renders it more like oats.” 

For dairy cows the Ohio Station tested its value when fed 
with hay, as compared with ear maize, with satisfactory results 
in favour of the corn-and-cob meal. 

For fattening bullocks, the Kansas College of Agriculture 
(1) found that it gave a better daily gain than maize meal, and 
that a pound of corn-and-cob meal is equal to a pound of pure 
maize meal in feeding steers. 

In trials at the New Hampshire (1) and Kansas (2) Colleges 
of Agriculture corn-and-cob meal proved superior to the same 
weight of maize meal for pigs; at the Missouri College (Az//. 
1), however, it required very much less maize meal than corn- 
and-cob meal to produce 100 Ibs. gain in weight. 

Experiments conducted by the Paris Omnibus Company 
showed that it proved more acceptable than pure maize meal 
(Pott, Fuhling’s Landw. Zeitung, 1893, p. 483). 

It sometimes happens that the cob is not sufficiently 
ground owing to the additional power required to make it 
fine; if it is left too coarse, the animals usually pick out only 
the meal, and reject the pieces of cob. Ifthe cob is ground 
as fine as meal (not merely crushed, but ground into a perfect 
meal), it is probable that 100 Ibs. of corn-and-cob meal will 
give the same result as 100 Ibs. of pure maize meal, the per- 
centage of cob to meal on an ear being between 1: 3 and 1: 4, 
in South Africa. The relative value will therefore depend 
on the cost of grinding, assuming that there will be a one-fifth 
gain in feeding value; if the cost is not more than 50 per 
cent greater than that of shelling and grinding the grain into 
maize meal, it is estimated that it will pay to grind the un- 

aa 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


jos MWAIZE 


CHAP. shelled ears. It is recommended by the School of Agricul- 


XIV. 


ture, Middelburg, Cape Province, that, after husking, the ears 
should be allowed to dry in the hock for at least two months, 
until ¢horoughly dry, before grinding. 

Maize-and-cob meal can be ground on the farm by machines 
specially constructed for the purpose;! they are driven by 
horse- or ox-power, or by oil, gas, or steam engines. Where 
cheap power is obtainable, it is obviously desirable to grind up 
the nubbins for stock-food, instead of shelling them off with 
the bulk of the crop. 

665. Maztze-cob Charcoal—Where maize cobs are burned 
for fuel, the ashes should be saved for the pigs (4! 688). 

Maize cobs are plentiful in many parts of the country. 
Henry (1) states that where pig-feeding is largely practised, 
they can serve no better purpose, as far as needed, than in 
producing charcoal for use in the feeding pens. The follow- 
ing directions for reducing maize cobs to charcoal are given 
by Theodore Louis (1), “a breeder of high repute in the 
north-west ” :— 


“Dig a hole in the ground § feet deep, 1 foot in diameter 
at the bottom, and 5 feet at the top, for the charcoal pit. 
Take the maize cobs, which should have been saved ina dry 
place, and starting a fire in the bottom of this pit, keep add- 
ing cobs so that the flame is gradually drawn to the top of 
the pit, which will thus be filled with the cobs. Then take 
a sheet-iron cover similar to a pot-lid in form, and over 5 feet 
in diameter, so as to amply cover the hole, and close up the 
burning mass, sealing the edges of this lid in turn with earth. 
At the end of twelve hours you may uncover and take out a 
fine sample of corn-cob charcoal.” 

Charcoal so produced may be fed directly or, better still, 
compounded, as directed by Mr. Louis, in the following man- 
ner :— 

“Take 6 bushels of this cob charcoal, or 3 bushels of 
common charcoal, 8 Ibs. of salt, 2 quarts of air-slaked lime, 1 
bushel of wood ashes. Break the charcoal well down with 
a shovel or other implement, and thoroughly mix. Then take 
14 lbs. of copperas and dissolve in hot water, and with an 
ordinary watering-pot sprinkle over the whole mass and then 


' These machines are now stocked in South Africa by Messrs. Malcomess 
& Co, and other leading agricultural implement dealers. 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 709 


again mix thoroughly. Put this mixture into the self-feeding 
boxes, and place them where hogs of all ages can eat of their 
contents at pleasure.” 


666. Maize Meal—Maize meal is a somewhat heavy, rich 
food, which is apt to induce indigestion and other troubles if 
fed alone. ‘It should always be lightened or extended by the 
use of bran, shorts, oil meal, or some other feed of light char- 
acter . . . in which case the dangers incident to its use are 
usually overcome.” The dry meal is unpalatable, and should 
be soaked with water before feeding (Henry, 1). 

Whether meal or whole grain should be fed appears to 
hinge on cost of grinding. Henry (1) concludes :— 


“Whether corn should be fed whole or as meal, depends 
upon circumstances. Ifthe kernels are so hard as to cause 
sore mouths, thereby preventing easy mastication, the grain 
should be ground. If no trouble arises from this source, the 
utility of grinding hinges on the relative cost of grain and 
grinding. We have seen that some grain is saved by reduction 
to meal, and the feeder can easily estimate whether he should 
incur the extra expense of grinding. Where grinding is not 
possible, hard corn may be prepared for feeding by soaking 
the grains,”’ 

For Dairy Cows.—TYhe Maine Station (Rep. 1895) tested 
maize meal for dairy cows, as compared with wheat meal. 
Making allowance for normal decrease in milk-flow with the 
lengthening of the lactation period, the results were practic- 
ally equal. 

For Bullocks.—Trials at the Experiment Stations of the 
United States show that maize meal gives larger gains with 
steers than the same weight ofunground grain. It is probable 
also that meal permits of a higher “finish” with steers than 
unground maize. But practical experience and studies by the 
Stations show that pigs following steers fed on maize meal got 
very little from the droppings; not because such droppings 
are without nutriment, but rather because the meal in the 
droppings is in a form which cannot be utilized by the pig. 
Henry, therefore, concludes that where maize is cheap, and 
there is a demand for pork, the western custom of feeding 
maize whole to steers, with lively shotes following, is the most 
economical, all things considered, if rationally practised. 


CHAP. 
NIV. 


CHAP. © 


XIV. 


710 MAIZE 


The Kansas Station (Bu//. 34 and 60) tested the value 
of maize meal as compared with ear maize for feeding steers. 
The steers fed ear maize gained somewhat more than those 
fed maize meal, but they required 6 per cent more grain. 


Georgeson observes that “this is not a very favourable 
showing for maize meal, and I confess the result is contrary 
to my expectations. A considerable percentage of the whole 
maize passes through the animal undigested, and it would 
seem that the digestive juices could act to better advantage 
on the pure maize meal than on the partially masticated grains 
of maize, and extract more nourishment from it, but apparently 
this is not the case.” 

Referring to the same experiment Henry (1) notes that :— 

“Jn the second trial there was a saving of 35 per cent of 
the maize by grinding, which may be regarded as the extreme 
saving possible in such feeding. This result is the largest 
saving of grain by grinding yet reported by any of the Stations 
so far as the writer is able to learn ” (/fenry, 1). 

667. Maize Meal for Pigs.—Henry (1) made a careful test 
with seventy pigs to determine the relative value of whole 
maize and maize meal; the maize used was a yellow dent 
containing about 12 per cent moisture. In three out of four 
trials the meal was more economical than whole grain: a 
saving of 8 per cent in weight fed was effected by grinding. 
Tests conducted at the Kentucky, Ohio, and Missouri Stations, 
with only two, three, and four pigs in each lot (twenty-six in 
all) showed a saving of only 2 per cent. But the experiments 
of several Stations show that maize meal is of practically equal 
value with wheat meal for feeding pigs. Henry’s own experi- 
ments show that a mixture of wheat meal and maize meal is 
superior to wheat meal alone for feeding pigs, resulting in a 
saving of 3 per cent in weight of material fed. He points out 
that while larger returns can be secured from maize meal than 
from whole grain, it has several disadvantages in practical use, 
though towards the close of the fattening period it is especially 
useful in giving more finish. 

668. Maize Meal for Lambs.—Experiments at the Wiscon- 
sin Station (2) show that maize meal can be used satisfactorily 
for fattening lambs; it proved a more economical food alone 
than in combination with oats or peas, before weaning, and of 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 711 


equal value to these combinations after weaning. Henry (1) 
concludes that it is probable that maize meal will force the 
largest and most economical gain with lambs both before and 
after weaning, the protein required being obtained from the 
mother’s milk and pasture grass respectively. Craig (IW7s- 
consin, U.S.A., Rep., 1897) found that maize meal was more 
economical than oats, wheat, bran, or cracked peas, for feeding 
slaughter lambs before weaning ; it took 86 lbs. whole oats, 77 
lbs. wheat bran, 73 lbs. cracked peas, and only 63 lbs. of maize 
meal to produce 100 lbs. gain in weight, and the weekly returns 
were as good. 

The Wisconsin Station (1) also made a comparative test 
of feeding lambs with and without grain before weaning, with 
the result that those which received grain continuously from 
birth until ten months old sheared a heavier fleece, containing 
more “ yolk”’ or grease, and matured much earlier, than those 
without grain, and were fit for market at any time, so that 
advantage could be taken of any favourable fluctuation in 
market prices. 

669. Mill and Factory By-products for Feeding. — Up-to- 
date milling and maize manufacturing companies now make a 
good deal out of the sale of by-products obtained in the manu- 
facture of maize meal, starch, and glucose (see chap. XIII). 

Some of these by-products are rich in fats and protein, 
and are too concentrated to be fed alone, but may be diluted 
or extended with some light material like wheat bran or maize 
bran (/fenry, 1). 

The products of the factory are sometimes disposed of in 
a wet condition, and are then called “wet starch,” “ wet 
glucose feed,” ete. 

Feeding tests conducted at American Experiment Stations 
have proved that some of these by-products, especially “ gluten 
meal” and “ maize feed,” have a high nutritive value. 

670. Maize Bran.—This consists of the hulls of the maize 
grain, and its feeding value is relatively low (1 623 and 624), 
but it is useful for extending concentrates such as maize meal. 

671. Gluten Feed. — This substance is obtained in the 
course of the manufacture of starch from maize, and consists 
of all the by-products obtained in the process, which are com- 
bined into one feed under this name. It is really the maize 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


712 MAIZE 


grain deprived of most of its starch, This feed is rich in fats 
and protein (#623), and is considered well suited for dairy 
cows and for fattening stock. The separate by-products of 
the starch factories, which together constitute “gluten feed,” 
are known separately as “sugar feed,’ ‘‘ wet starch feed,” 
“wet glucose feed,” and “dried starch”. 

The Vermont (U.S.A.) Station (AulZ 48), tested the 
value of ‘‘ maize feed” as compared with maize meal and bran, 
equal parts by weight, for feeding dairy cows; the roughage 
consisted of two parts of hay and one of silage. There was a 
gain of 10 per cent milk and 11°8 per cent fat with the use of 
gluten meal (Henry, 1). The composition of “ maize feed” is 
not stated, but presumably it is practically the same as “ gluten 
feed”. 

672. Gluten Meal.—This differs from gluten feed in that it 
does not, as usually manufactured in the United States, contain 
either the hull or bran of the grain, or the embryo, It is a 
highly concentrated foodstuff, rich in protein (about 30 per 
cent) (1623). 

The Vermont (U.S.A.) Station (Bz//. 48) tested the value 
of gluten meal, as compared with maize meal and bran, for 
dairy cows. These were fed daily with 8 lbs. maize meal and 
bran, equal parts by weight, during the first and third periods, 
In the second period gluten meal was substituted for half the 
maize and bran mixture. Because of the heavy character of 
the gluten meal it was deemed advisable that not over one-half 
of the concentrates in the ration should consist of this material. 
The roughage was of equal parts, by weight, silage, and hay. 
There was a gain of 10°4 per cent of milk and 13:2 per cent 
of fat by substituting gluten meal for half the maize meal and 
bran ({fenry, 1). 

The Maine (U.S.A.) Station (Rep. 1896) tested the value 
of gluten meal as compared with cotton-seed meal for dairy 
cows. Six cows, averaging 900 lbs. each, were fed for two 
months on rations containing cotton-seed meal and gluten 
meal. The results showed that gluten meal is fully equal to 
cotton-seed meal when fed in sufficient quantity to make the 
amount of digestive nutrients equal in each ration. It is not 
equal to cotton-seed meal, pound for pound, as a source of 
protein, as it contains on an average about one-quarter less of 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 713 


that nutrient. It makes a very good quality of butter, but 
slightly softer than that made from cotton-seed meal, when 
fed at the rate of 3 Ibs. per day. The rations in this test con- 
sisted of :— 

(1) Gluten meal, 3 lbs.; maize meal, 2 Ibs.: bran, 2 Ibs. ; 
timothy hay, 15 lbs.; silage, 20 Ibs. 

(2) Cotton-seed meal, 2 Ibs.; maize meal, 2} lbs. ; bran, 
3 Ibs. ; timothy hay, 15 lbs.; silage, 20 lbs. 

The Cornell (U.S.A.) Station (Bu//. 89) found that for 
feeding pigs a combination of gluten meal and maize meal 
was about 7 per cent superior to wheat meal, when both were 
fed in connection with skim milk. 

The Ohio (U.S.A.) Station (Bu//. 60) found that gluten 
meal was of approximately equal feeding value, pound for 
pound, with oil meal, for fattening steers, and that the one 
which can be bought for the least money is the one to use. 

The Virginia (U.S.A.) Station (Bu//, 156), comparing the 
feeding value of gluten meal and cotton-seed meal, concluded 
that they have nearly the same value for milk production; the 
results of the investigation are shown in the following table :-— 


TaBLe CXIX. 


RELATIVE FEEDING VALUE OF GLUTEN MEAL AND COTTON. 
SEED MEAL. 


FEeep. 


| Gluten Meal. | Cotton-seed Meal. 


Cost per ton . ‘ : , : . | $28-4o $27°00 
Per cent of protein. : ye es ei] 36°25 | 37°81 
Coefficient of digestion . : i | 3g*00 | 88-00 
Per cent digestible protein. i | 32°26 | 33°27 
Protein on unit basis (equivalent) . . |  103'00— | 100°00 
Cost per roo lbs. of digestible protein. | 440 | 4°05 
| 
673. JJatse “ Germ’’.—The embryo of the maize-grain is 


rich in oil and protein (4/614). The oil is usually extracted 
for commercial purposes, and the residue, in the form of cake 
or meal, used for stock-food; these by-products are highly 
concentrated foodstuffs and ‘‘should never be fed in large 
quantity, but mixed with other grain feeds”. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


a14 MAIZE 


674. Corn-otl Cake.—In the form of large thin slabs “ corn- 
oil cake” and “ Kositos oil-cake” are prepared from the residue 
of the maize embryo after extracting most of the oil; this 
residue still contains a good deal of oil and is rich in protein. 
The United States exported to European markets 2,444 tons 
in 1900, and over 7,000 tons in 1906, valued at £34,900. This 
went to the following countries, arranged in the order of the 
quantities purchased: France (most), then Germany, Holland, 
Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and British 
Columbia. 

675. Germ Meal or Corn-otl Meal.—This is prepared either 
from corn-oil cake or from the unpressed embryo. Of this 
article the United States has exported as much as 24,210 tons 
per annum, valued at £124,300, most of which was purchased 
by the United Kingdom and Germany for feeding stock. In 
the United States its commercial value is lower than that of 
linseed-oil meal. 

A mixture of unpressed germ meal with one-third its 
weight of whole oats is said to be a popular horse feed 
among American draymen and breeders (Aowman and 
Crossley, 1). 

676, Distillers Grains.—Distillers’ grains are a by-product 
obtained in the manufacture of alcohol, spirits, and whisky. 
The annual output of distillers’ dried grains from the United 
States is said to exceed 40,000 tons, which is largely exported 
to Germany for cattle feeding. According to the Vermont 
Station (Rep. 1903) :— 


“There are, quite generally, three grades made, one from 
the distillation of alcohol and spirits, a second from the distil- 
lation of Bourbon whisky, and a third from that of rye whisky. 
The first-named is the higher in feeding value, and is most apt 
to be of even quality, maize being the main, and sometimes the 
only, grain used. The other grades vary in their composition 
in proportion to the relative proportion of maize, rye, and 
malt used in the mashes; the more the maize, and the less 
the smaller grains, the better the grade of the product.” 


The high protein content (35 per cent) should render this 
foodstuff most valuable. It is also rich in fats (11°3 per cent) 
and correspondingly low in carbohydrates (30°4 per cent). 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 715 


677. Distellery Slop— After the alcohol has been taken off, 
in the distilling of spirits, the residue is pressed to remove as 
much of the remaining liquid matter as possible; this is used 
by cattle feeders under the name of distillery slop. 

678. Brewers’ Grains—Brewers’ grains are a by-product 
obtained in the brewing of beer; they usually consist of a 
mixture of several grains, varying according to the locality 
where they are made; commonly maize, barley, and _ rye. 
Brewers’ grains form an acceptable food for milch cows, where 
large percentages of protein are required (Hud, 1). 

679. ‘‘ New Corn Product.’—Under this name a substance 
has been sold for stock-food in the United States which is 
composed of the husks, leaf-blades, and stalks (freed from the 
pith) of the maize plant, ground into a coarse meal. Though 
it contains a high percentage of indigestible matter (“crude 
fibre”), the Maryland (U.S.A.) Station (Bu//. 51) found it more 
digestible than timothy hay, in place of which it was success- 
fully used for feeding horses. The protein content is only 
6°5 per cent, which is less than that of maize bran; the ash is 
high (5:4 per cent); carbohydrates moderately high (49:3 per 
cent). 

A somewhat similar product is made by mixing maize 
leaves with the rough outer part of the stalk and other refuse 
from the cedlulose factories (see chap, XVII.), and grinding the 
whole finely for stock-food. A by-product of the paper fac- 
tories (tbid.) is also sold for stock-food; experiments show 
that the feeding value of this material is higher than that of 
the original stalk containing the pith. 

Another stock- and poultry-food sold in the United States 
is said to be prepared from the dry leaves, husks, and outside 
of the maize stalk, mixed with ox blood, molasses, meals, and 
chopped meat. 

680. Cerealine-feed.—This is a by-product obtained in the 
manufacture of ‘“cerealine” breakfast foods. The crude fibre 
is low; the protein, ash, and fat are moderate, and the carbo- 
hydrates high ; it is almost identical with “ hominy-feed aes 

681. “ Hominy-chop” and “ Hominy-feed” —These consist 
of the hull, germ, and starchy refuse from the samp or hominy 
factory, and differ from crushed maize in that a large portion 
of the starchy endosperm has been removed, leaving a higher 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


716 MAIZE 


proportion of protein and oi]. The Geneva (N.Y., U.S.A.) 
Station (Lu//. 166) reported the protein content to be about 10°6 
per cent, and the starch and sugar 46 per cent, while if screenings 
and bits of cob are included the fibre content may equal 7 per 
cent. It is almost identical with “cerealine-feed ”. 

682. Maize for Dairy Cows.—Henry (1) says that the 
pre-eminence of the great dairy region of the Western 
United States is “due in no small measure” to the use of 
maize products for feeding dairy cows. ‘No article is more 
palatable to the cow than maize in almost any form, and her 
fondness for it has often led to its abuse”; it should not 
form more than one-half or three-fifths of the concentrates fed 
to the dairy cow. It is better to feed the grain mixed with 
roughage. 

‘The relation of concentrates to roughage should always 
be borne in mind. The rule should be to feed nearly as much 
roughage as the cow will consume without overtaxing her; 
then supply sufficient concentrates to bring the digestible 
matter up to the required standard. About ;jths of the 
digestible nutrient should be given in the form of concentrates 
and ,',ths in the roughage. It will not do to feed all grain in 
expectation of better returns. A satisfactory ration must pos- 
sess a certain bulk or volume in order to properly distend the 
abdomen. Without this the process of digestion cannot pro- 
ceed normally. This should never be forgotten, even when 
forcing cows in dairy contests.” 

The dairy cow when yielding a liberal supply of milk 
“should be regarded as an animal at hard labour. . . . The 
work-horse must have more grain and less roughage as his 
labour increases, and the same is true with the cow. A por- 
tion of the provender must therefore take the form of grain or 
concentrates. Moreover, if she is yielding a large amount of 
milk, i.e. working hard, it is best to aid her by reducing the 
grain to fineness by grinding. The ‘dry’ cow is doing little 
work and can subsist on less feed, and this may be coarser in 
character.” ° 

‘Gluten meal, cream gluten, grain gluten, corn germ, and 
other by-products of maize are all excellent articles for feeding 
the cow, and their use is strongly recommended. Eastern 
dairymen have learned to appreciate these articles and use 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 717 


them extensively, while western dairymen, often living at no 
great distance from the factories where they are produced, 
know little or nothing concerning them” (Henry, 1), The value 
of maize meal for cows is mentioned in 4 666, and the com- 
parative value of gluten meal and cotton-seed meal in 1 672. 

683. Matse Rations for Dairy Cows.—The Wisconsin 
Station obtained a number of reports from particularly suc- 
cessful dairymen, in all parts of the United States, of the 
rations used by them. From these the writer has selected the 
following as containing maize or maize products :— 

Connecticut.— Maize silage, 35 lbs.; maize-and-cob meal, 3 
Ibs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; bran, 3 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. ; Chicago 
gluten meal, 2 lbs. 

[ltinots.—Maize grain, 8 lbs. ; oats, 14 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 
Ibs. ; timothy hay, to Ibs. 

Indiana.—Maize silage, 30 lbs. ; maize fodder, 3 lbs. ; clover 
hay, 5 Ibs. ; oat straw, I lb.; wheat straw, I lb. ; bran, 5 lbs. ; 
oil meal,' 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 

Towa.—Maize silage, 50 Ibs. ; maize fodder, 5 lbs.; maize 
ears, 5 lbs.; oat straw, I lb.; barley straw, 1 lb.; hay, 5 lbs. ; 
ground oats and barley, 2+ lbs. 

Kentucky.—Maize silage, 324 lbs.; maize fodder, 3 Ibs. ; 
maize meal, 5 lbs. ; clover hay, 6 lbs.; ship-stuff, 4 Ibs. ; ‘oil 
meal, 2 lbs. 

Massachusetts.—Maize silage, 40 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; 
clover hay, 5 lbs.; English hay, 5 lbs. ; bran, 2 Ibs. ; cotton- 
seed meal, 1 lb. ; oil meal, 1 Ib. 

Michigan.—Maize silage, 274 |bs.; clover hay, 34 lbs. ; 
timothy hay, 34 lbs. ; bran, 3°6 lbs. ; oats, 3 Ib. ; oil meal, 4 Ib. ; 
rye, I Ib. 

Minnesota.—Maize stover, 8 lbs. ; maize meal, 3 lbs. ; clover 
and timothy hay, 7 Ibs. ; oat forage (dry), 5 Ibs. ; oats, 3 Ibs. ; 
ruta-bagas, 3 lbs.; bran, 2 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 lbs. 

Nebraska.—Maize stover, 5°7 lbs.; maize meal, 29 lbs. ; 
prairie hay, 20 lbs. ; bran, 2°9 lbs. ; oil meal, 1-4 Ibs. 

New Hampshire.—Maize stover, 10 lbs.; maize-and-cob 
meal, 2 Ibs. ; clover and witch-grass hay, 10 lbs. ; barley forage, 
5 Ibs. ; shorts, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 Ibs. 


1Qil meal: the residue after expressing the oil from linseed. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


718 MAIZE 


New Jersey.—Maize silage, 24 Ibs. ; maize meal, 8 lbs. ; 
bran, 2 lbs. ; oats, 4 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 Ibs. 

New Vork.—Maize silage, 25 Ibs.; maize meal, 4 lbs. ; 
mixed hay, 7 |bs.; bran, 5 Ibs. ; oil meal, 4 lb. ; cotton-seed 
meal, } Ib. 

North Carolina.—Maize silage, 30 lbs. ; maize fodder, 8 lbs. ; 
maize meal, 3 lbs. ; bran, 3 Ibs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. 

Ohio.—Maize stover, 20 lbs. ; maize meal, 8 lbs. ; maize-and- 
cob meal, 3 Ibs. ; clover hay, 10 Ibs. ; bran, 1 lb. ; roots, 8 Ibs. 

Pennsylvania.—Maize silage, 45 lbs. ; mixed hay, 7 lbs. ; 
bran, 6 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 Ibs. 

Texas.—Maize silage, 30 lbs. ; maize meal, 1°3 lbs. ; sorghum 
hay, 134 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2°6 lbs. ; cotton seed, 2:2 Ibs. ; 
wheat bran, 1°3 Ibs. 

Vermont.—Maize silage, 35 lbs. ; maize meal, 3-2 lbs, ; mixed 
hay, 10 lbs.; bran, 2 lbs. ; oil meal, 1 Ib. ; cotton-seed meal, 
8 Ibs. 

IWest Virginta.— Maize silage, 48 lbs. ; maize-and-cob meal, 
lbs.; ground wheat, 24 lbs.; barley meal, 23 lbs.; oats, 


Wisconsin.—Maize silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; bran, 
6 lbs.; pea meal, 2 lbs. 

Canada (Eastern).— Maize silage, 15 lbs. ; turnips, 45 Ibs. ; 
wheat chaff, 7 lbs. ; oats, 24 lbs.; pea meal, 24 Ibs. 

Summarizing the above we find that ‘ 

Maize Silage is used for feeding dairy cows in the States 
of Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
Michigan, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsyl- 
vania, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia and Wisconsin, and in 
Eastern Canada. The amount used ranges from 15 lbs. in 
Eastern Canada to 50 lbs. in Iowa, the average being about 
34 lbs. 

Maztze Stover.—Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, and 
Ohio. Amount used: from 5:7 lbs. in Nebraska to 20 lbs. in 
Ohio. 

Maize Fodder.—Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, and North 
Carolina. Amount used: from 3 Ibs. in Indiana and Kentucky 
to 8 lbs. in North Carolina. 

Maize Grain.—lllinois ; amount used: 8 lbs, 

Matze Ears.—lowa; amount used: 5 Ibs. 


WAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 719g 


Maise Meal.—Kentucky, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jer- 
sey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, and Vermont. 
Amount used ranges from 1°3 Ibs. in Texas to 8 Ibs. in New 
Jersey and Ohio. 


Matsze-and-cob Meal. — Connecticut, New Hampshire, 
Ohio, and West Virginia. Amount fed: 2 to 3 Ibs. 


Gluten Meal.\—Connecticut and Massachusetts. Amount 
fed: 2 lbs, 

684, Matse for Fattening Cattle—Prof. Henry (1), who 
is the foremost American authority on stock feeding, says: 
“Indian corn must continue the great grain-food for steer 
fattening in the United States. While we cannot vie with 
England in luxuriance of pasture, the advantage given our 
farmers by the corn-plant more than offsets this, and places us 
at the front in beef production. No concentrate is so relished 
by cattle as corn, the kernels of which carry considerable oil, 
rendering them toothsome and palatable to a degree not 
equalled by other grain. Not only does corn carry oil, but it 
is loaded with starch, likewise a fat-former, thus affording the 
nutriment needed for filling the tissues of the steer’s body with 
fat, rendering the muscles tender and juicy. The success of 
steer-feeding in America must depend largely upon the supply 
of Indian corn available for this purpose.” 

In feeding whole maize grain to cattle some of it passes 
through the alimentary tract undigested. The Wisconsin Station 
(Rep. 1892) found that over 18 percent of the maize fed as dry 
grain (but only 3 per cent of the grain from the silage) passed 
through cows in unbroken form. The Kansas Station (w//. 
47) found 11 per cent of soaked maize and nearly 16 per cent of 
the whole and broken dry maize passed through steers. It takes 
twenty-one to twenty-four hours for the grains to pass through 
them. The dry grain voided by steers does not become fully 
saturated, although it has passed through the whole length of the 
alimentary cana]. This grain need not be wasted, as already 
pointed out, if vigorous young pigs are given the opportunity 
of searching it out among the droppings. 

Some idea of the extent to which maize is used for fatten- 
ing cattle in the Western States may be gathered from the 
statements of the Standard Cattle Company, Ames, Nebraska, 


! Gluten meal: prepared from maize, 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


720 MAIZE 


of which an extended account is given by Coburn (2). Taking 
one year, 1896-7, as an example, we find that 5,454 head of 
cattle were marketed ; these were fed for 215 days, the average 
gain per beast being 238 Ibs., or I'l Ibs. per day. To secure 
this gain the average amount of food consumed per head was :— 


Lbs. 
Maize Grain . : P ‘ : 3,900 
Maize Stover ; : : : 2,150 

6,050 
Hay. ‘ é : , ‘ 1,483 

Bushels. 

Bran ; é : ; 23 
Oats “a 
Barley 9 
Oil Cake 7 


Henry (1) has worked out the following rations, com- 
pounded in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann feeding 
standard for steers weighing 1,000 lbs,: “ These rations are 
constructed on purely theoretical grounds, but will be found 
satisfactory where the feeding-stuffs called for are reasonable 
in price”. 

TABLE CXX. 


THEORETICAL RATIONS FOR STEERS OF 1,000 LBS. 


Digestible Nutrients. | 


Amount Dry Protei SSS 

Fed. | Matter. etl Garbo: Ether 

| | hydrates. pit 

ie = a 
Ration 1— Lbs. | Lbs. 
Maize Fodder . : : 8 4°62 | ‘20 ng 03 | 
Clover Hay ; : : 2. || Gg | #43 7D 03 | 
Dent Maize : : ; 14 | 12°52 T'09 | 9°34 Co 
Oil Meal, O.P. . P F 4 3°63 lz I°3I 28 Ci 
2 | 

Total 28 22°46 | 2°59 I4°T4 04 
Ration 2— | 
} Maize Silage. : ; 30 6°27 27 : : | 

‘ 2 2 9 21 
| Oat Straw . . 3 ; 5) 6| 4°54 06 | sh 04 | 
| Roller Bran “ : : 10 | S81 i22 | ‘gtg2 27 | 

Corn-and-cob Meal. A 4 || S4o- | "28 | Sao 12 
Cotton-seed Meal a) |) Bas [tay | -38 “2 | 
| Se 
| Total . , ; : 5r | 24°86 | 2°47 | 12°02 “88 | 

| i} 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 


721 


The following rations, which include maize in some form 
or another, have been selected from those used by the various 
Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada :— 


Stover and Maize Grain (Kansas 
Station, Bull. 39). 


t Lbs. 
Maize Stover . ‘ : F 5 
Ear Maize 26°7 
Total — 
Average weight of Steers fed = 1,211 
Daily Gain. 5 : : I'7 


Maize Meal ‘“‘ Balanced” (Kansas 
Station, Bull. 34). 


Lbs. 
Maize Meal . ‘ . 2 f0 
Shorts. F : ‘ : 5 
Bran : : ‘ ‘ : 2 
Oil Meal 5 : 4 , 4 
Tame Hay . é ; : 65 
Total 27°5 
Average weight of Steers fed 1,083 
Daily Gain. ‘ ‘ 2°4 

Maize Silage (Texas Station, 
Bull, 27). 

Lbs. 
Maize Silage . : : . 20 
Cotton-seed Meal . é : 5 
Cotton-seed Hulls . ; : 72 
Total 32°2 
Average weight of Steers fed . 638 
Daily Gain ; F 1°76 


Maize Silage (Oregon Station, 


Bull. 37). 
Lbs. 
Maize Silage . : ; . 18 
Clover Hay . ‘ : : 8 
Chopped Wheat 10°3 
Total 36°3 


Average weight of Steers fed . 847 


Daily Gain : ‘ 22 
Maize Grain and Roots (Ontario 
Agricultural College, Rep. 1883). 

Lbs. 

Maize Grain : 9°25 

Roots. : ‘ : . 34 

Hay ‘ é x . : 0°5 

Bran ‘ : ‘ j A BS 

Total 56°25 

Average weight of Steers fed . 1,106 

Daily Gain : : 2°31 


Maize Grain and Meal, plus Oil Meal 
(Iowa Station, Bull. 20). 


Maize Grain and Cotton Seed (Texas Station, Bull. 27). 


Maize Grain . 
Cotton Seed 
Hay 


Total 


Lbs. 
Snapped Maize 3 22°5 
Maize Meal . : : : 37 
Oil Meal ‘i ; : : 4°2 
Hay ‘i 5°7 
Average weight of Steers fed . 1,340 
Daily Gain. z 3 : 2°8 

Lbs. 

5°3 

5°2 

533 

15°38 


Average weight of Steers fed 576 


Daily Gain 


: : Ig 


685. Mazse for Work-oxen.—A little crushed maize grain 
fed with a ration of hay and silage (7 718 and 726) during 
the winter months keeps oxen in good condition, and enables 
them to continue at work throughout the South African winter, 


when natural herbage is scarce. 


686. Maize for Horses.—Next to oats, maize is the grain 


46 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


722 MAIZE 


CHAP. most commonly fed to horses in America; it is used most 


XIV. 


largely in the southern portion of the Corn-belt and southward 
in the cotton States. While conceding that maize is not the 
equal of oats as a grain for the horse, Henry (1) concludes 
that, because of its low cost and high feeding value, it will be 
extensively used wherever large numbers of horses must be 
economically maintained. 

Maize may be fed whole to horses, but generally it is made 
fine by grinding, and mixed with various other concentrates. 
Maize-and-cob meal is preferable to pure maize meal (“I 664) ; 
the latter should be diluted or extended with something of a 
light character, such as bran, which is light and cool in effect 
and furnishes protein and mineral matter (/7enry, 1). 

“Maize contains a high proportion of digestible carbohy- 
drates, and tends to make the animals fat and liable to sweat ; 
while it improves their appearance, it somewhat detracts 
from their physical energy” (Lehmann, quoted by Wolff, 1). 

The conclusions reached as a result of the maize feeding 
experiment of the Paris Omnibus Company, employing nearly 
10,000 horses, were that -— 


“A mixture of 6°6 lbs. of maize and 12°1 lbs. of oats will 
prove the most satisfactory for work-horses, the ratio varying 
in each case according to the temperament of the animal. 
Compared with the time when only oats were fed, they are 
more calm at the present and lack the former abundance of 
vivacity ; but, on the other hand, work as well and as rapidly 
as before.” 


The company saved about 38s. 7d. per horse during the 
year by the partial substitution of maize for oats (Henry, 1. 
See also Journ, de? Agric., 1877, p.127; Biederm. Centralbl., 
1877, p. 255.) 

Further experiments in maize-feeding were conducted by 
Muntz in 1881 with 362 horses belonging to the Paris Omni- 
bus Company. With a daily ration of :-— 


Lbs, 
Maize A ! 7 . : : : 6-7 
Oats : : : P , 3 ‘ 9°5 
Beans . . ° . . 2 is Pe f 
Bran ‘ z - , : i ; rr 
Hay. 10'4 
Straw Iro 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 723 


the average weight of the horses remained the same during 
the experiment, and the amount of work done did not 
change, showing that the ration met the requirements of the 
animals. 


In a second test the following ration was used :— 


Lbs. 
Maize ; i : ; : ; ; 07 
Oats ' : : ‘ , : ‘ 68 
Beans : i ‘ ; i : : 33 
Bran . : ‘ ; : A o'9 
Hay , : : 5 é : i 6°6 
Straw : ‘ ; : A - 4 132 

40°5 


On this ration, not only did the animals continue to work as 
before, but also gained in weight. 

In these experiments it was found that maize is best if 
crushed before feeding to horses, and if crushed with the cobs 
left in. ‘‘Corn-and-cob meal is considered a better feed than 
pure corn meal on account of its higher content of cellulose, 
which renders it more like oats. Thirty per cent of an oat 
ration may be replaced by maize-and-cob meal.” Similar re- 
ports as to the availability of maize for horse-feeding are pub- 
lished in regard to the Berlin Street Car Company (Wordd. 
Landw., 1881, p. 141; Bederm. Centralbl., 1881, p. 768), 
the Berlin mail-horse stables (Landw. Blatt. f- Oldenburg, 
1880, p. 180), and the New York Omnibus Company (7/zr. 
Ldw. Zett., 1880, p. 16); see also the exhaustive report on the 
subject by Bruckmiiller on experiments conducted with army 
horses under the auspices of the Austrian Government, in 
Ocest. Viertel), f. Wiss. Vet. Kunde, 49 (1878), p. 1; Brederm. 
Centralbl., 1878, p. 420. 

The Utah Station (Bu//, 30) found that horses fed maize 
and timothy hay did as well as those fed oats, clover, and 
timothy hay ; also (Bw//. 36) that maize sustained the weight 
of horses better than oats. 

On the other hand, it is stated (fiihling’s Landw. Zeitung, 
39, 1890, p. 63) that the stockholders of the London Omnibus 
Company objected to the intensive feeding of maize to the 
horses of the company “because the mortality had increased 


with the extensive feeding of maize, and the horses seemed to 
46 * 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


724 MAIZE 


CHAP. wear out much sooner”. The horses fattened by the maize 


XIV. 


feeding, but the muscular system was not kept strong, and the 
nervous force of the animals decreased, as a result of which the 
veterinarian was oftener consulted than before the extensive 
use of maize began. Similar experiences were reported in the 
case of the street-car horses of Berlin (/akrd. Agri. Ch, 
1890, p. 641, quoted by Henry, 1). 

In Germany, Dr. Kloepfer draws the following conclusions 
(Biederm. Centralbl., 1895, p. 275) from investigations con- 
ducted by himself and others concerning the value of Indian 
corn as a food for horses: “ Maize is well adapted to replace 
oats, since the chemical composition of both cereals, especially 
as regards protein and fat, are nearly the same. The whole of 
the grain feed may be made up of maize in winter time, and 
three-fourths of it in summer time. Five pounds of maize 
are equivalent to 6 lbs. of oats. The heaviest feed should 
be given at night. The change from oats to maize feed 
should occur very gradually, the transition period lasting 
from two to four weeks according to the extent to which the 
oats are to be fed in connection with the maize. New maztze 
should not be fed to horses. The American dent varieties are 
the best adapted to horse feeding” (envy, 1). 

Settegast (Lhzersucht, 1. 110) concludes that, while among 
all cereals oats are the best adapted for horses, and can hardly 
be replaced for colt-raising, maize may be considered as ap- 
proximating oats in value for work-horses. ‘Experiments 
have shown that a ration of 18°7 lbs. maize and 11 lbs. of straw 
is profitable for omnibus horses. Maize is best suited to 
animals at plain steady work. Its supply should be limited 
with colts and growing horses because of its lack of ash and 
protein” (Henry, 1). 

687. Mazze for Sheep.—During the last twenty-five years 
a new industry has sprung up in the Western United States— 
that of fattening “plains” sheep in the Corn-belt. In the 
winter of 1889-90, 625,000 head of plains sheep were fattened 
in the State of Nebraska alone, the great maize crop of that 
year forming the basis of operations (U.S.D.A., 8). The 
system is described briefly as follows :— 


During the summer, plains sheep purchased in New Mexico, 
Colorado, or other western ranges, are gradually moved east- 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 725 


ward, grazing as they go. . . . By the time the maize is ripe 
the sheep have reached some point where it is for sale in vast 
quantities and at a low price. A corral or enclosure is made 
of pickets, and into this the sheep are driven, to remain until 
fattened. . . . Often 20,000 to 30,000, divided into a few 
bunches, are fed at a single point. Wild hay [ie. veld hay] 
is unloaded against the picket fence through which the sheep 
feed; the only labour in handling the hay after unloading 
is for an attendant to keep it moved up close to the fence. 
In addition, from 14 to 2 bushels of maize [84 to 112 lbs.], 
fed in troughs, are required per day for every 100 head 
of sheep. To this is usually added a few pounds of oil 
meal (linseed or cotton-seed). The feeding continues about 
100 days, the sheep gaining on an average 15 lbs. per head 
during that time. The profit comes mainly from increasing 
the original value of the sheep. The industry is an irregular 
and uncertain one. . . . The profit depends upon the price of 
maize, which varies greatly from year to year and cannot be 
foretold much in advance of the time for feeding. Large 
numbers of Montana sheep are fed in much the same manner, 
in Minnesota, on the screenings from mills and elevators, this 
feed proving excellent for the purpose. Because of bits of 
straw and chaff in the screenings, fattening sheep do not 
surfeit so easily on them as on maize grain, and they may 
even be fed on the screenings without giving any hay in 
addition. 


A large proportion of the slaughter sheep of the United 
States are fattened on maize grain. The Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and Minnesota Stations have studied the ration of maize 
grain and hay required for fattening lambs; they found that 
lambs averaging 81 lbs. each, during feeding trials averaging 
thirteen weeks in length, made gains of 7 lb. per head 
daily, requiring about 500 lbs. of maize grain and 400 Ibs. 
of hay for 100 lbs. increase in live weight (Henry, 1). The 
average daily ration of the 45 lambs tested was 1°42 lbs. of 
maize and 1:03 lbs. of hay per lamb. The highest average 
daily gain was obtained with the highest average daily ration 
of maize (1°53 Ibs.); this ration was also the most economical, 
for it required the smallest weight of both maize and hay to 
produce 100 lbs. live weight. 

Except in rare cases (such as valuable breeding sheep with 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


726 MAIZE 


CHAP. poor teeth), whole grain only should be used for sheep, for of 


XIV. 


all farm animals the sheep is best able to do its own grinding. 
There is a common saying among stock feeders that “a sheep 
which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding” 
(see also 1 668). 

Henry (1) concludes that it is not desirable to feed maize 
grain alone to ewe lambs which are later to be used for breed- 
ing purposes. But he finds that maize is the best single grain 
for slaughter lambs, causing them to put on fat rapidly and not 
forcing growth as is the case with some other concentrates. 
“Grain never gives such large returns as when fed to thrifty 
young animals, and the grazing lamb is no exception.” 

Several sheep farmers on the Transvaal High-veld are find- 
ing it profitable to give about } lb, of maize grain per day 
to their sheep in winter, especially the stud rams and ewes. 
The grain is fed either crushed or whole. Some farmers feed 
it in troughs in a shed near the kraal, before the sheep are 
turned out into the veld in the morning. To prevent the 
animals stealing from one another, other farmers find it prefer- 
able to scatter the grain broadcast among the grass of the veld 
so thinly that the animals have to hunt for it. If the grain is 
fed always at the same spot, the sheep keep too closely to 
that part of the camp, and do not forage enough for their food, 
so it is usual to scatter it one day on one part of the camp 
and the next day on another part. For breeding ewes maize 
should form a small part, at most, of the winter ration; with 
good summer pasture they need no grain. 

For fattening older sheep, as much as I'4 lbs. of whole 
maize grain per head, per day, over a period of fourteen 
weeks, has been found satisfactory in Europe. Soaked maize 
proved far less profitable than dry (1 663). 

The use of maize meal for lambs is discussed in { 668. 

688. Maize for Pigs.—If barley is the natural food of 
the domesticated English pig, maize is certainly the natural 
food of the American hog, and will also be that of the South 
African. In America, Henry (1) says that, although the 
special function of maize in pig feeding is for fattening pur- 
poses, maize, as the cheapest grain, must continue to be the 
common feeding stuff for all sorts of pigs. 


‘‘ Having a proper knowledge of its composition and limita- 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 727 


tions,” he adds, “the feeder is in a position to wisely use this 
great cereal. For breeding-stock, maize should constitute not 
over half the ration at any time, the amount being smallest 
with young animals. As the body increases in size and nears 
maturity, the demand for protein and ash becomes less, and the 
proportion of maize to other grain can be gradually increased 
until, during the fattening stage, the ration may, if desired, 
consist almost wholly of this grain.” 


There can be no doubt that many valuable sows have been 
utterly ruined for breeding purposes by over-feeding on maize 
and meal alone. . . . On this account sows should not be 
allowed to run with fattening hogs kept on maize, but in pas- 
ture, and allowed plenty of sop made of equal parts of shorts, 
maize meal, and wheat bran (Codurn, 3). 

Henry (1) summarizes the investigations of the several 
American Experiment Stations with regard to pig feeding, and 
finds that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, averaging 38 lbs., 
consume on the average 2°23 lbs. of grain or grain equivalent 
daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual 
increase in the amount of food consumed, until the 450 lbs. pig 
was eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as 
much as the 50 lbs. pig. 

He finds that when pigs have maize as their exclusive 
ration, they acquire a strong craving for wood ashes, consider- 
able quantities of which are consumed if opportunity offers. 
He experimented to determine whether the ashes were of any 
benefit to the pigsor not. ‘As the trials progressed, it became 
evident that none of the pigs were properly nurtured, though 
the difference in favour of those getting bonemeal or ashes was 
very marked. The pigs which were allowed neither ashes nor 
bonemeal were most plainly dwarfed. It was evident that the 
maize meal, salt, and water did not supply all the elements 
essential to building a normal framework of bone and muscle, 
These dwarfs became so fat that the jowls and bellies of some 
of them nearly touched the ground. 

“The pigs getting ashes or bonemeal grew very well for 
some time, but toward the close of the trial they made only 
fair gains, showing that the nutrients supplied were still too 
limited in character to allow normal development... . Feed- 
ing bonemeal or hardwood ashes to pigs otherwise confined to 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


728 MAIZE 


CHAP. a maize-meal diet effected a saving of 23 per cent in the maize 


XIV. 


required for 100 Ibs. of grain; . . . the strength of the thigh 
bones was about double that of pigs not allowed bonemeal 
or ashes. .. . The bones ... of the pigs getting ashes or 
bonemeal contained about 50 per cent more ash than the 
others: . . . and still retained their form after burning, and did 
not crumble when carefully handled,” while the others crumbled 
at once on handling, The strengthening effect of the ashes is 
attributed to the lime present. For further information on 
the effect of an excess of maize in the ration on the character 
of the bones, the reader may refer to Ludlet?n 201 of the Ohio 
Station, page 164. 

Henry (1) notes a growing demand in the market for leaner 
pork. He advises that the demand can be met by “ using more 
protein-rich feeds, with less maize, during the growth of the 
pig, and especially by shortening the fattening period. Feed- 
ing the by-products of milling, oats, barley, or the waste pro- 
ducts of the dairy, with maize, the fattening period not being 
unduly prolonged, produces pork which will easily meet the 
requirements of the most discriminating market.” 

“ Whether maize should be fed whole or as meal (1 667) 
depends upon circumstances... . Where grinding is not 
possible, hard maize may be prepared for feeding by soaking 
the grains. Ear maize and shelled maize can be satisfactorily 
fed to fattening pigs upon a feeding floor of matched lumber 
swept clean each day. Maize meal should always be soaked 
with water before feeding, the dry meal being unpalatable. Re- 
membering that feeds in combination are better than the 
same feeds given singly, the prudent stockman will provide 
some complementary feed for pigs getting corn, even though 
the proportion of the secondary feed be small.” 

For pigs running on blue-grass pasture the Illinois Station 
(Bull. 16) found that the best returns were secured when 
giving a half feed of maize grain during the first eight weeks, 
then following for the next four weeks with a full feed of 
maize, the pigs still running on pasture. Where a full feed of 
grain was given for the whole period a much larger amount 
of maize was consumed for an equal gain in weight. ‘ There 
was a saving of 30 per cent when a half feed of maize was 
given on pasture, and of 20 per cent when a full feed was 


MAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 729 


given, as compared with feeding hogs in the lot without 
pasture” (Henry, 1). 

Henry (1) found the saving of feed effected by allowing 
pigs to follow steers feeding on maize or maize meal amounted 
to 52 per cent in the case of maize, and 3 per cent in the case 
of maize meal, over the amount required to feed pigs in the 
pen. The amount of maize required to produce 100 Ibs. gain 
was found by the Illinois Station to vary from 333 to 808 Ibs. 
with an average of 534 lbs. The average daily gain was about 
1‘t Ibs. Eleven pounds increase, live weight, is considered in 
the United States to be a satisfactory return from a bushel (56 
Ibs.) of maize. 

For feeding trials with gluten meal and maize meal for pigs, 
see { 672. 

689. Matze for Ostriches and Poultry,—Maize grain has 
become an important item in the dietary of the domesticated 
ostrich, In the districts in which ostrich growing is carried 
on most extensively, comparatively little maize is produced, 
and considerable quantities are imported from those parts of 
the country better suited to its production. One pound of 
grain per day, per bird, is recommended by many ostrich 
growers, and this amount is fed the year through. 

In England there is an extensive trade in maize for feeding 
pheasants and poultry. For this purpose the small-grained 
sorts, such as Odessa, Galatz, Bessarabia, and Cinquantino, are 
preferred. This class of maize commands from 5d. to 74d. 
(rarely up to Is. 8d.) per muid more in the London market 
than the larger-grained classes. Unfortunately these types 
are in South Africa poor yielders, and the extra price obtain- 
able is not sufficient to compensate for the smaller crop. 

In warm climates maize seems to be too fat-forming a 
food for poultry except in the winter months, and Mr. Bourlay, 
the poultry expert of the Department of Agriculture of the 
Union of South Africa, recommends that even then it should 
not be used more than three times a week. A handful per 
bird, given at night, is the usual ration. 

A Transvaal farmer once remarked to the writer: “I don’t 
sell my mielies, but give them to my wife. I tell her that a 
bag of mielies will feed ten fowls; she can at any time sell 
those ten fowls for the table at Is. 6d. apiece, which ‘s 15s. in 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


CHAP. 
XIV. 


730 MAIZE 


all. How else can I get 15s. for a bag of mielies?” He 
might have added that he also got the “droppings” from the 
ten fowls, a most excellent fertilizer for the garden. 

690. Manurial Value of Foodstuffs—A factor of import- 
ance in determining the relative values of foods is their effect 
in enriching the excreta of the animals which consume them, 
and thus adding to their manurial value. This aspect of the 
question is fully recognized in most European countries and in 
the United States. Ingle (2) gives the following example :— 


Average samples of linseed cake contain 4°75 per cent of 
combined nitrogen, 2 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 1°4 per 
cent of potash. Although a certain proportion of these con- 
stituents is retained in the animal, being used in forming new 
tissue, the larger proportion eventually passes into the excreta 
and is available for manurial purposes. The proportion of the 
whole retained in the body, varies greatly with the age and 
condition of the animal, being greatest in young animals and 
least in adult working animals. In English farm tenancy, 
compensation is paid by the incoming to the outgoing tenant 
for every ton of food consumed, on the basis of the assumption 
that half the nitrogen, three-quarters of the phosphoric acid, 
and all the potash passes into the excrement; and that (1) 
all the constituents from the food consumed on the farm the 
previous year, (2) half those consumed two years ago, (3) one- 
quarter of those consumed three years ago, and (4) one-eighth 
of those consumed four years ago, are still available in the 
soil. 


Messrs. Voelcker and Hall (1) prepared a table showing 
the valuation per ton as manure of the leading foodstuffs, which 
was reprinted by Mr. Ingle (2) in the Transvaal Agricultural 


Journal for 1906. They show that the oil-cakes, pulse, and 


leguminose hays, as naturally to be expected, have the highest 
manurial value. The cereals take the following sequence in 
compensation value for each ton of food consumed during the 
previous year ; probably the money values would not be the 
same in South Africa, but their re/ative value would be ap- 
proximately the same :— 


S. dD. 
Malt Culms 35 It 
Wheat Bran 28 II 
Oats 


5 5 


MTAIZE GRAIN AS FOOD 731 


Ss. D. 
Malt 15 2 
Wheat I4 10 
Rice Meal 14 3 
Barley 13 9 
Maize Grain I3- <0 
Oat Straw ; , : F : : ; ; a 
Barley Straw. : : : : : : ‘ 6 9 
Wheat Straw. ‘ : : ; ; : ‘ 6 5 


Henry (1) gives the following as the fertilizing constituents 
in 1,000 lbs. of certain maize products :— 


TABLE CXXI. 


FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF 1,000 LBS. OF CERTAIN MAIZE 


PRODUCTS. 

| | Nitrogen. | Fear Potash, 
| [~ =——_ vere 
| Maize Grain (Average of all American | Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
| Analyses) : j : ; || 18°2 70 470 
| Dent Maize Grain : P s | 16'5 — — 
| Flint Maize Grain : ; ‘ i | 16°38 _ - 
Sweet Maize Grain. : : : 18°6 — — 
Maize Cob ‘ ; x 2 sil 50 06 60 
| Maize-and-cob Meal . F ; | I4°I 5°7 4°7 
| Maize Bran : é : ; : 16°3 12°I 6°8 

Gluten Meal 3 : ’ : : 50°3 373 05 
| Germ Meal ' : : : : 26°5 8:0 50 

Starch Refuse. : : : "| 22°4 70 5°2 
| Grano-gluten ' ‘ : val 49°8 SI L'5 

Hominy-chop. : ' ; ? 16°3 98 4°9 

Glucose Meal. . : . ca DL: oa 

Sugar Meal é . 2 . | 36°3 471 03 

Gluten Feed : : , : om 384 41 03 

{ 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAPTER XV. 


THE PRESERVATION AND USE OF MAIZE STOVER, HAY AND 
SILAGE, FOR STOCK FOOD. 


Fields of corn brandishing their myriad swords under the impulse of the 
breeze.—LeEroy Scorrt (1). 


691. Loss of Stock from Lack of Winter Food.—The winter 
of 19f2 will long be remembered for the heavy loss of stock 
incurred by farmers in each Province of South Africa. 

In countries where the climate is such that the pasturage 
does not grow all through the year, or does not remain green, 
the stockman must take the precaution either (@) to keep only 
so many head of stock as can be carried on his winter or dry- 
season veld, or (4) to preserve as much food during the growing 
season, as is needed to keep his stock through the period when 
the pasturage is scarce. The first method necessitates locking 
up too much capital in keeping extra pasturage for winter ; 
the second means the growing of surplus food in the summer, 
and is the more economical. 

The mild South African winter makes stock-farming com- 
paratively easy, and in consequence the stock-farmer is apt to 
become somewhat easy-going. If frozen ground compelled 
him to house his cattle in winter and to hand-feed them, as is 
necessary in some countries, he would have to be more provi- 
dent ; but because in most winters his animals manage to keep 
alive without artificial feeding, the average farmer does not 
trouble to provide winter feed. The South African farm is 
often too large, and in consequence the farmer does not get the 
full value from it; many farmers possess two or more stock- 
farms, one on the High-veld plateau and the other in the Bush- 
veld or ‘‘winter’s-veld” as it is sometimes called, the latter 
being used, as its name implies, for the pasturing of stock 
during the winter months; this conduces to slovenly farming 

732 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 733 


and tends to the propagation of scab and other evils among 
the animals, si 

The usual arguments against providing winter food are 
(1) that it involves too much personal labour, or (2) that it 
costs too much for hired labour, or (3) that trekking to the 
winter-veld is easier and cheaper. The answer is, that without 
necessarily working harder himself, the farmer can increase his 
profits by more intensive agriculture, and thus afford to employ 
more white labour; that trekking results in too much loss of 
stock and risk of infection, and indirectly involves the locking 
up of too much capital in a second farm, with consequent loss 
of interest ; therefore it is not cheaper. By keeping the same 
amount of stock on a smaller farm, the farmer could either (a) 
let a portion of his present large holdings and use the rent for 
the hire of labour or purchase of labour-saving machinery, or 
(6) sell one farm, or a portion, and use the proceeds for the per- 
manent improvement of the remainder. Farmers who have 
given up the annual trek to the winter-veld have found that 
their profits are greatly increased, as they lose less stock from 
the depredations of vermin and Kaffirs, and do not incur the 
risk of annual reinfection of their farms with scab and ticks. 

At best, trekking isa poor makeshift ; it cannot be depended 
upon as an infallible means of saving the stock in winter, for 
in some seasons, such as the winter of 1912, even the Bush- 
veld grass is insufficient to save the stock. 

692. The Remedy.—When we speak of such losses as 
occurred during the winter of 1912, as unnecessary, we do so not 
merely from a theoretical point of view, nor merely because 
the farmers of other countries have proved them unnecessary, 
but because we already have the proof of it before us in South 
Africa, We can point to farmers whose stock did not suffer 
during the winter of 1912; their oxen were ploughing through 
the winter, and were still fat at the end of the season, their 
cows were giving milk, and their sheep and lambs were healthy 
and in good condition. And these men did not have irrigated 
lands on which to grow lucerne and root-crops. Many South 
African farmers now have hundreds of acres of winter pasture- 
grass—New Zealand tall-fescue (festuca arundinacea), Phalarts 
bulbosa, Paspalum dilatatum, and sheep’s burnet (Sanguisorba 
minor)—which prove particularly valuable in the months of 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


734 MAIZE 


September and October when there is usually the greatest 
scarcity of food. 

But it is the despised mielie that will do most to save 
the situation. Maize is not only the staple crop of South 
Africa, but it is essentially the dry-farmers’ crop. It was 
proved in the dry season of 1911-12 that a paying crop could 
be produced with less than 12 inches of rain, and the writer 
saw crops which were actually grown in the Orange Free State 
with a rainfall of only 8 inches between 1 October and 30 
April. 

Even in the driest years, and when the rains come late, 
maize can be grown for fodder or silage over a large part of 
South Africa, because it can be planted, for these purposes, so 
much later than when grown for grain. 

There are farmers who grew winter food, and who yet were 
on the verge of suffering and loss, because their supplies were 
practically exhausted before the new grass came on. But 
these men, while they did well to keep their stock in condition 
so long, might have done better by providing two stacks of 
hay and two pits of silage for every one which they did make. 
Even if not required, it would not have been wasted, for in the 
climate of South Africa hay or silage will keep till a second 
year, if necessary, without any difficulty. It is the regular 
practice of European farmers to have one stack of old hay un- 
touched when the new one is built, and it has been the 
plan at the Botanical Experiment Station, Pretoria, to start 
winter feeding with a two-year-old silage pit, reserving the 
current season’s pit for the succeeding year, or for an emer- 
gency. One of the truest remarks made at the 1912 Dry 
Farming Congress, at Bloemfontein, was that, instead of ex- 
pecting a drought once in five years, the farmer should prepare 
for one every year; if this advice is followed, he will be safe. 
Another good point was made at the same Congress, when 
Mr, J. J. van Niekerk urged farmers not to carry more stock 
than they could provide winter food for. 

693. The Keeding-value of an Acre of Maize.—lf we should 
hear to-day, for the first time, of a grass which would yield up 
to 18 tons of dry food from an acre of ground, and of which 
the supply of seed was limited and the cost exorbitant, there 
would be a scramble for it such as there was for Vorthern Star 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 735 


potato a few years ago. People would willingly pay ros. a 


pound for the seed, and every one would soon be growing it! 
Maize is a fodder grass that offers just such returns at 24d. the 
pound for seed, yet most farmers do not think it worth the 
trouble to find out what can really be done with it; when its 
possibilities are hinted at they answer: “Oh! we know all 
about the mielie!” Why should there be this indifference to 
the value of the most wonderful fodder crop on earth, the 
world’s “wonder-grass”? The reason is threefold: (1) Be- 
cause the maize plant grows so easily that the average farmer 
allows it to grow without care or attention, therefore com- 
paratively few people ever see, or have any conception of, a 
really good maize crop; their only idea is of a crop such as 
a Kaffir might grow. If the maize plant could not be grown 
without as much care and attention as is given to the mangel 
or onion, we should think more of it! (2) Because maize 
is an old and well-known crop it does not appeal to us as 
an attractively advertised novelty would; (3) because to pro- 
duce a Heavy crop of maize, the land must be well prepared 
and fertilized, and the crop carefully cultivated, which un- 
doubtedly requires work; and it is human nature to be on 
the lookout for the easy thing in life. We read of some novelty 
(such as ‘“ Heléanti”) which purports to give large returns 
without labour, and eagerly buy it, only to learn that the 
advertisement has failed to note the universal truth about farm 
crops, that ”o good crop of any kind can be produced except “ by 
the sweat of the brow”. 

But it has been well and truly said (Pu, 1) that there 
is no crop which will produce the same amount of equally 
nutritious fodder from an acre of land, and at so small a cost, 
as maize, and it will pay us to give it closer attention. Myrick 
(1) points out that the maize p/ant, quite apart from the ear, 
whether green or dry, is a palatable and healthful food for 
horses and ruminants, and that the dry matter is more digestible 
than that of timothy or clover hay. When properly prepared, 
the food value of the dry matter is rather less, but with the 
grain added, rather more than that of timothy hay. Investiga- 
tions carried out at the Maryland (U.S.A.) Station by H. J. 
Patterson (1) show that a crop of maize will produce over a ton 
and a half (3,172 lbs.) of ¢otal digestible matter from an acre of 
ground. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


730 MAIZE 


CHAP. 694. Yield of Dry Fodder—The yield per acre of dry 
XV. maize fodder varies from 11 tons (colonial) on very rich land 
and in a favourable season, down to 2} tons on poor land in a 

bad season. The following figures are on record :-— 


TasLe CXXII. 
YIELD PER ACRE OF DRY MAIZE FODDER. 


| Lbs. | Colonial Tons. 
Victoria, Australia : : : ; | 36,000 to 14,000 18 to 7 
Natal . : : ; ; : . | 23,607 to 10,117 118 to 5 
Illinois Station. Z é ‘ ; 10,000 ) 5 
Various Experiment Stations (cited by | 
Henry, 1) ‘ ‘ ‘ 9 5 g,000 to 5,000 4°5 to 2°5 
New Jersey . , . : : : 8,200 41 
Ontario, Canada . ; ‘ . 5 8,135 4 
Ohio Station 5 . : ‘ 4 6,000 3 
Maine Station . ‘ : ‘ eal 5580 2°79 
Pennsylvania Station . ‘ 4 : 5,520 2°79 
Cornell Station. ; : : : 45536 2°26 
; Wisconsin Station ; ‘ ; . 45490 2°24 


695. Veeld of Green Maize Forage and Silage.—From 10 
to 55 tons per acre of green forage or silage can be obtained 
from the maize crop under favourable conditions. Henry of 
Wisconsin (1) quotes 15 to 25 tons as the yield obtained at 
a number of stations in the United States, presumably in the 
Corn-belt. Bowman and Crossley (1) give 12 to 15 tonsas the 
usual yield in the United States. Sawer (1) mentions 24 to 
354 tons for parts of Natal. 

The following figures are also on record :— 


TaBLeE CXXIII. 
YIELD PER ACRE OF GREEN MAIZE FORAGE. 


| 
Tons. 

Victoria, Australia : ‘ ; ‘ 21% to 55¢! 
Ontario Station . ‘ . ‘ ‘ 203 
Maine Station. : : : 5 193 
New Jersey Station. : ‘ ‘ 11} 
Pennsylvania Station : § 9 
Cornell Station . ; ‘ ‘ if 74 to Ir 


‘Calculating a loss of two-thirds moisture in drying, this would give roughly 
7 to 18 tons of dry fodder (see Victorian Fournal of Agriculture, Vol. VIII, 
Pt. 6, June, gto). 


PRESI-RVATION FOR STOCK LOOD 


ol 

The five stations last named are vot in the area known as 
the Corn-belt. 

Hunt (1) concludes that 12 tons per acre of suitably ripened 
maize is a good yield, and that 8 to ro tons is a safer estimate 
when calculating how much land should be planted to provide 
silage for a given number of animals, Messrs. Hutchinson 
and Shaw, Standerton District, Transvaal, calculate their 
average yield at about 9 tons per acre. 

696. Food Value of Weeds.—There is always a certain 
amount of food to be obtained off the maize lands, from the 
late crop of weeds. Some of these, especially black-jacks 
(Bidens pilosa) and the sweet-grasses (Chlorts virgata and 
Panicum levi, oftumt), are undoubtedly nutritious, but it would 
not be sound or profitable farming to allow the maize crop to 
become weedy for the sake of the food to be obtained from 
the weeds. 

607. Forms tn which Maise can be Preserved Jor Stock 
Frood.—Maize is used for stock food in the following forms :— 


CI) Maize stover. 

(2) Maize fodder. 

(3) Green maize forage. 

(4) Maize silage. 

(5) Maize grain and grain-products. 

The value of maize grain for stock food is discussed in 
the previous chapter; in this chapter we shall deal with the 
other parts of the crop. 

698. Relative Composition of Matse Stover, Fodder, Silage, 
and Grain.—The relative composition of maize grain, silage, 
fodder, and stover is shown in the following table (No. 
CXXIV), compiled by Henry (1), from the results of 194 
American analyses, i.e. 99 of silage, 35 of fodder, and 60 of 
stover. A comparison is also made with the average of 208 
analyses of maize grain. 

Hunt (1) calls our attention to the fact that the average 
composition of the water-free substance of the sixty samples 
of maize stover is almost identical with the average composi- 
tion of sixty-eight samples of timothy hay, except for a some- 
what higher percentage of fat in the latter and a corresponding 
higher percentage of nitrogen-free extract in the maize stover. 


47 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


735 MAIZIE 
TaBLeE CXXIV. 
RELATIVE COMPOSITION OF MAIZE SILAGE, FODDER, 
STOVER, AND GRAIN. 
j | nea | | | | 
Protein |%!trogen- * E Crude , 
| (N~6-25). Begs | re et ise e | 
| : : See an ere | Ue otte (bee reet| 
| | | | 
| Fresh Silage. . ; | rz | rr | o8 4 | 6'0 79Q'1 
| Field-cured Fodder . oh aS | 347 | “T°6 | 2-7 || t4'3 42°2 | 
Stover : ; |) 308." Wegtege ||| ate 374 19'7 4o'L 
| Dry Grain : d o) EOS | 69:6. | 5% |) 185 | Pie 109 | 
Water-free— | | | 
| Silage . ; A -| 80 | 53:0 | 38 66 | 27 | — 
| Fodder . : : ; 78 | 601 28 | 4°97 | PLT ON Nie 
Stover . : A o) Ova 532 | 17 age 3370 — 


But the relative value cannot be determined alone by the 
relative amounts of nutrient substances contained. These 
substances are not always of equal digestibility, and it is there- 
fore desirable that we know the relative digestibility of the 
food eaten. Then again there are the questions of relative 
palatability and of waste of material in preparation and feed- 
ing, all of which affect the relative value from the point of 
view of the feeder. 

699. Relative Digestibility of Matze Fodder, Stover, and 
Stlage— Henry (1) has worked out the following table to 
show the comparative feeding-value of maize fodder, stover 
and silage, based on their digestibility — 


Taspte CXXV. 
RELATIVE DIGESTIBILITY OF MAIZE FODDER, STOVER, AND 


SILAGE. 
Digestible Nutrients in roo lbs. 
Dry | peas | Ether | 
| Matter in Protein. ae Extracts Total 
| 100 Ibs. | | bydrates. | (Fats). | 
| | | — = 
Maize forage, green 2077 ro || §EEOS i O"4 13'0 
Maize fodder, field- | 
cured . adie a5eer | 25 t 300 4 ra | 38°3 
Maize stover, field- | | | | 
cured . ‘ . | 59°5 | iy 32°4 oF | 34'8 
Bae | | | 
Maize silage. i 20°9 o'9 Ir3 o7 12°9 
| 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 739 


700. Amount of Digestible Matter tn Different Parts of the 
Marse Plant.—Patterson (1) shows that in a crop of maize the 
fodder produced contains a larger amount of total digestible 
matter than the grain. The figures for total digestible matter 
in the crop of an acre, as given by him, are -— 


Lbs. 
Inears . : : : : 1,530 
In fodder F : : 1,642 


zor. Loss of Weight and of Feeding-value and other Changes 
due to Curing.—In the preservation of maize for winter use the 
amount of feeding-matter obtained from the stack or silo 
will be less than the amount put down. This loss is not only 
in moisture-content, but also in actual dry matter ; there is also 
a slight loss in feeding-value. 

Motsture-content.—Approximately two-thirds of its mois- 
ture-content is lost in curing maize fodder in the field. 

Dry matter.—Maize fodder loses from 19 to 21 per cent of 
dry matter in the process of field-curing. This loss is nearly 
5 per cent less if the fodder is cut in the green-mielie stage 
than if allowed to become nearly ripe, which appears to be 
due to the larger amount of soluble carbohydrates present in the 
latter stage of development. 

Loss in Feeding-value.—There is also a slight loss of food- 
value in the process of preservation. This occurs principally 
in the “nitrogen-free extract,” i.e. the carbohydrates other than 
the fibre. This loss is found to be less in the case of silage 
than of fodder, and greatest in the case of stover. 

702. Losses in the Silo.—These vary in amount, depend- 
ing on the construction of the silo (chapter Xvi.) and the 
care and method employed in filling and covering it. But 
even with the best of silos, filled in the best possible manner, 
a certain amount of loss cannot be prevented. This is partly 
due to fermentative bacterial agency, but partly also, as shown 
by Babcock and Russell (1, pp. 177-84), to the respirating 
activity of the protoplasm, which still lives and continues to 
give off carbonic acid gas (CO,) for some time after the maize 
plant has been cut for the silo. This latter item of loss has been 
shown to amount to about I per cent of the total weight of the 

47° 


CHAP. 
XY. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


7.40 MATZL- 


silage, and the total unavoidable loss to from 2 to 4 per cent 
(IVisconsin Bull, 83, p. 64). Hunt (1) considers it probable 
that, if the silo is properly constructed and filled, and feeding 
begins as soon as it is filled, the total loss need not exceed 10 
to [2 per cent. What the extent of the loss is in general farm 
practice does not appear to be known, but the American Ex- 
periment Stations have frequently reported up to 20 per cent, 
which means that, if we wish to provide 160 tons of silage for 
the latter part of winter and early spring, we must grow and 
put into the silo 200 tons; if the loss is only 1§ per cent we 
shall have 170 tons of silage from our 200 tons of maize. 


Pic. 234.—Cattle feeding on standing maize stover, Transvaal. 


703. Matze Stover.—Maize ‘“stover” is the residue of 
the maize crop after the ears have been removed, and its 
feeding value is therefore lower than that of maize fodder. 
After the ears are harvested, the stalks are sometimes left 
standing in the field, and cattle are turned in to pick up the 
ears lost in harvesting, and to eat what they can of the stover 
and the grass and other weeds found in the rows (Fig, 234). 
But useful as the stover is, this simple method of treatment is 
not the most, but the least economical. 


“It is to be deprecated because of the wastefulness of the 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 741 


process. The stover dries so much after maturity that a great CHAP. 
deal of nutriment in the stalk is lost before the maize is eaten, XV: 
Because of this over-curing, the palatability of the maize is 
greatly lessened ; hence much of it will not be consumed. A 

large proportion of it becomes broken down and fouled, which 
causes still further waste. The cattle are often required to 
graze upon it when the weather is unfavourable, hence there is 

a loss in thus exposing the animals. Of course it is better to 
pasture the maize than not to use it at all, but the stover 
would furnish much more food if it were harvested and fed to 

the animals as needed. The prodigality of some of the western 
farmers of this country [United States] furnishes a striking illus- 
tration of this wasteful method of handling, or rather not 
handling, maize stover. Each acre of the food, ¢f properly 
utilised, is worth as much as an acre of average timothy hay”’ 
(Shaw, 1). 


The most nutritious part of the stover is the /eaf; but the 
leaf left in the field becomes so brittle in a dry atmosphere 
that it is easily broken into minute fragments by the animals 
. Which wander over the field in search of stray ears of grain ; 
these pieces are carried away by the wind or, falling on the 
eround, are trampled under foot ; a few days after the stock are 
turned into the standing stover very little is left but bare stalks 
which are the least nutritious and least digestible part. 

The less wasteful way is to harvest the maize stalks before 
the ears are quite dry, and to stook them in the field; by this 
method there is not so much loss of dry matter and of feeding- 
value. Even when stover which has been harvested is fed to 
stock, there is a considerable waste, not only in loss of leaf, but 
the Wisconsin Station found that 34 per cent of the whole 
stover was not eaten. 

Stooked maize may be passed through a ‘‘ combined husker 
and shredder” (Fig. 235), which removes the husks, shells the 
ears and ‘‘shreds” the stover into short lengths which are 
more readily eaten by the animals and are thus less wasteful 
than whole stover. 

In some countries maize stover is fed with the addition of 
a little molasses to render it more palatable. 

704. Stover for Dairy-cows.—Cows are fond of the finer 
parts of the maize stalk, and if the stover is run through a 


Tae MAIZE 


CHAP. feed-cutter and not too liberally supplied, only a small part of 


XV. 


the stalk will be wasted. Henry (1) points out, however, that 
in some parts of the United States, especially in the South, 
the maize stalks are coarse and inert and not much relished by 
cows; it is said to be so, also, in the warmer parts of South 
Africa. But he adds that the same maize stalks are relished 
when preserved in the form of silage. 


Fic. 235.—Shredding stover in the United States. 


The Wisconsin Station (Ref. 1884) tested uncut maize 
stover for dairy cows, as compared with mixed hay and clover ; 
the results were practically equal; but it was found that three 
tons of maize stover, as fed in this experiment, were worth 
only one ton of mixed clover-and-timothy hay. It required 
193 lbs. of maize stover, plus 60 Ibs. of maize meal and bran, 
to produce 100 lbs. of milk; and 3,880 Ibs. stover, plus 1,233 
Ibs. maize meal and bran, to produce 100 Ibs. of butter. 

705. Stover for Sheep.—The Michigan Station made a 
comparative test of feeding lambs with maize stover, maize 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 743 
grain, and roots, as compared with clover-hay, bean-straw, 
maize grain, and roots. The results were highly satisfactory 
and in favour of the stover, grain, and roots, as the more 
economical of the two feeding mixtures. 


“The principal objection to feeding maize stalks [stover] 
to lambs is that, when fed in the bundle from racks, the lambs 
waste a large percentage of the fodder. The only satisfactory 
method of feeding them is in racks after the stalks have been 
cut in a cutting-box or silage machine. The stalks fed in this 
experiment were cut with an ordinary silage cutter and fed 


Fic. 236.—Shredded stover on an American farm. 


from racks. The average daily ration of this fodder was 1°18 
Ibs. for each of the ten lambs. Each lamb in the lot receiving 
maize stalks as the fodder ration, gained an average of 2°15 
Ibs. per week, or 30°2 lbs. for the whole period. Such pa 
ing results should make every sheep-feeder value his ee 
stalks highly, and induce him to take every possible precaution 
to properly preserve them” (Mamford, in Michigan Station 
Bull. 136). . 

706. Maise Fodder or “ Shocked - corn”, — The simple 
method of preserving maize for winter use in the form of 


CHAP. 
XV. 


744 MAIZE 


cHap, “fodder” or “shocked corn,” is largely practised in the North 


XV. 


Atlantic and Southern States, and in parts of the North Cen- 
tral States, and has been successfully adopted by a few South 
African farmers for several years. By maize “ fodder” we 
mean the whole plant as taken direct from the “ shock” with- 
out husking, thus supplying in one both concentrated food 
and roughage, and with a minimum of labour. 


“The fodder, with its wealth of ears, is thrown into long 
feed racks standing in an open lot or under a shed, the steers 
doing the husking and grinding ” (Hezry, 1). 


This method is largely employed in the fattening of beef 
for the large American markets. 

Maize fodder has a higher feeding value than maize stover, 
but slightly lower than maize silage; it is less palatable than 
the latter, and there is a larger amount of waste in feeding. 

707. Matze Fodder for Datry Cows.—The Pennsylvania 
Station (Rep. 1892) tested the feeding value of maize fodder 
for dairy cows, as compared with timothy hay. More milk 
was obtained from the timothy but more butter from the 
maize fodder. The cows fed on the timothy gained in weight, 
while those on maize fodder lost. The cows ate about 
3 per cent more of the hay than of the maize fodder. “The 
trials show these two feeds to be substantially equal, pound 
for pound.” From this the high value of maize fodder is 
apparent ; for while 4,000 lbs. of timothy hay per acre is con- 
sidered a good return, the maize fodder used in the trial 
yielded at the rate of 8,885 lbs. per acre. The trial suggests 
the possibility that timothy hay conduces to the storage of fat 
in the body of the cow, while maize fodder turns the fat into 
milk (fens, 1). 

708. Matse todder for Bullocks.—Stewart (1, p. 311) re- 
ports a trial conducted by himself with ten steers averaging 
1,175 lbs. weight each, which were fed 4 measured acres of 
shock-maize, estimated to yield 40 bushels (11-2 muids) of 
grain per acre. The unhusked shock-maize was passed through 
a feed cutter, and 4o lbs. of the mixture, with 2 Ibs. of linseed 
meal, was fed daily. The 4 acres kept the 10 steers, or an 
average of 2°5 steers per acre, for 70 days, each steer gain- 
ing 200 Ibs., on the average, in that time. Making allowance 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 745 


for the oil-meal, this author concludes that the crop gave a CHap. 
return of 400 Ibs. of beef per acre » at § cents (24d.) per lb. the XV- 
increase was worth $20 (44 3s. 4d.) per acre of maize so. fed. 

This is about dowd/e the return obtained by Morrow from an 

acre of Illinois pasturage grazed by yearling steers. 

709. Composition of Dry Maize Fodder — The combined 
result of a very large number of analyses shows that in field- 
cured dry fodder the leaf-blades are the richest in protein (6 
per cent), the stalks containing only I°9 per cent and the husks 
2°5 percent. Maize fodder, cut before the grain is dead ripe, 
is much more nutritious than the stover, the fodder containing 
more protein, nitrogen-free extract and fat, and less ash and 
fibre. The following table is extracted from Jenkins and 
Winton’s (1) tables -— 


TasLle CXXVI, 


COMPOSITION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DRY MAIZE 


FODDER. 
| sas ae Nitrogen- Number | 
| Dey bers pclae Water. Ash. | Protein. | Fibre. free |} Fat. of | 
eured, Extract. Analyses, | 
| oe el a a CS ed 
ie | : i | 
Fodder : ; 42°0 2:9 45 | 14°3 7) 16 35 
| Stover ; : 4o'L 3°4 35 ror? 319 bias 60 
Leaves , ; 30°0 555 60 214 35°7 I"4 17 
Husks ‘ 3 50°9 8 2°5 15°8 28°3 rz 16 
| Stalks F ‘ 684 i ae) Ig ILO 170 05 15 
| 


710, Relative Value of Fodder from Different Varieties.— 
Comparison of Jenkins and Winton’s (1) tables also shows 
that there is but little difference in feeding value of the fodder 
of any one variety and that of another :— 


TasLe CXXVII. 


RELATIVE VALUE OF FODDER FROM DIFFERENT VARIETIES. 


| | Nitrogen- ' Number 
| Water. Ash. | Protein., Vibre. free Fat. of 

| | Extract. Analyses. 

eee acon 2 een | | ae 

i ‘8 ‘ | 2A : Lae oO 40 
| Flint breeds | 79°8 ; ut 2 ies a of 2 
| Dent breeds ay PQ 80.) ul ee a). can 56 12"0 15 : 
1:33 19 4*4 12°8 oO 21 


| Sugar breeds  . | 7g1 | | 
| | | 


CHAP. 
XV. 


746 MAIZE 


711. Motsture-content of Maize Fodder and Stover.—The 
amount of water in field-cured maize fodder has been found 
to vary from 23 to 60 per cent, and in field-cured stover 
from 15 to 57 per cent in different localities and seasons 
(fTunt, 1.) 

The moisture-content may also vary up or down, according 
to the weather. The Connecticut Station (Ref. 1878) records 
a case in which the moisture-content of field-cured maize fodder 
doubled between 11 November and 8 February; it weighed 5 
tons when put in storage, and 8 tons three months later ; “this 
is probably unusual, but it shows the possibility of variation of 
weight due to atmospheric conditions”. 

To determine the amount of digestible nutrients in any 
given sample, therefore, a fresh analysis should be made for 
any particular part of the country or any given season; the 
average of all analyses can be of no practical use for this pur- 
pose. The relative amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrates 
will probably not vary very greatly from the mean, 

712. Green Matse lorage.— Maize is sometimes grown for 
green fodder for dairy cows, horses, etc. But there is usually 
such an abundance of summer feed on South African farms 
that it is not required at that time of year except perhaps for 
dairies in or near towns. Being sensitive to frost maize cannot 
be grown as a winter erop, except in quite frostless localities 
where Jucerne might in many cases be produced with equal or 
greater advantage. 

sir J. Perey Fitzpatrick observes :— 


“T saw in many places in Germany that the small farmers 
plant maize for cow and pig feeding. The grain of course 
cannot mature there, but they get a good weight of green food. 
Most plots are only about 10 yards by 50 yards. The maize 
is planted in rows, the plants being about 6 inches apart and 
the rows about 12 inches apart. The result (on presumably 
highly manured ground) is a dense mass of stems, with leafy 
tops, 10 feet high. It struck me that this would be a good 
addition to feed for cows in milk. Such small plots could be 
sown close to the cow sheds and the reaping and transporting 
costs would be trifling.” 


713. Relative Value of Green Matse Forage from different 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 747 


Varieties.— Henry (1) gives the following as the average com- CHAP. 
position of green maize forage in the United States :-— ae 


Digestive Nutrients 


in 100 Ibs, Nutritive Ratio. 
Dent breeds , : ‘ : 13°5 Ibs. I: 14°5 
Flint Pe ; : : ; ra 4, ti 373g 
Sweet ,, i . : P 1 a I: 1r'25 


There is, therefore, a marked difference in favour of flint 
and sweet maize as regards nutritive ratio, and of sweet maize 
as regards digestive nutrients. But there is another aspect of 
the case from the farmer’s point of view. The yield per acre 
is usually so much larger in the case of the dent breeds that it 
may be more profitable to grow them and to make up the 
deficiency in protein—which must be supplied in any case—with 
a rather larger proportion of protein-rich foodstuffs. Still 
another aspect is that, as the quality of the stalks and leaves 
declines rapidly after maturity, their feeding value will be 
found to depend more on the length and manner of storing 
than on the variety of maize grown. The application of 
manures also affects the quality. 

714. JJatsze Sdlage—Of the three forms in which maize 
fodder is preserved (i.e. silage, fodder, or stover), the silage 
is the most palatable and gives the least waste in feeding. The 
protein content of the silage is slightly higher than that of the 
fodder; the fat is 1 per cent higher and the ash 2 per cent 
higher; on the other hand, the nitrogen-free extract (carbo- 
hydrates) is 7 per cent lower, and the indigestible matter 
(“crude fibre”) 4 per cent higher in the silage than in the 
fodder. To compensate for the latter the palatability of the 
silage is greater than in the case of the fodder, and there is far 
less waste in feeding it, because the silage—if properly prepared 
and properly fed—is eaten up clean, while the rough ends of 
the fodder are usually wasted. The succulence of the silage is 
of value in the dry period of early spring, and a rather higher 
rate of feeding can be maintained with it than with dry fodder, 
which helps to increase the yield of butter-fat. 


“Experiments show the digestibility of silage and maize 
fodder to be about equal, when all other conditions except 
method of preserving, remain the same. A large number of 
feeding experiments, mostly with milch cows, show, in general, 


CHAP. 
XV. 


748 MAIZE 


about equal food value for amount of dry matter consumed, but 
that ordinarily there is less waste in the consumption of silage, 
thus adding to the total returns per acre”’ (Heury, 1). 


The following definition of silage is given by Russell (1) :— 


“When the green parts of living plants are cut up and 
packed in a loosely covered vessel allowing entrance of air, 
mould soon makes its appearance and decomposition begins ; 
the mass becomes alkaline and is ultimately converted into 
black humic bodies quite unfit for cattle food. But if air is 
excluded the change is fundamentally different; no mould 
develops, the temperature rises, the mass takes on a greenish- 
brown colour and characteristic odour, it becomes acid and for 
a long period is suitable for cattle food. The former is a 
putrefactive change, the latter gives rise to silage. The general 
chemical changes known to take place during ensilage are the 
conversion of sugar and similar bodies into carbon dioxide and 
water, the production of volatile acetic and butyric acids and 
of non-volatile lactic acid and the conversion of protein into 
non-protein material.” 


The modern meaning of the word sc/age is green, succulent 
food-stuff which has been preserved in a silo. <A svo is a pit 
or erection in which such food-stuff is preserved. The process 
of preserving the material is known as ezseling. The process 
of ensiling food-stuffs is a very ancient one (4 743) but was 
originally applied mainly to grain; it was practised by the 
South African native to preserve his kaffir corn, probably long 
before the advent of the white man. 

The relative weight of crop which can be obtained from an 
acre of cultivated land is one of the main considerations in 
deciding between the relative merits of the various silage crops. 

It is false economy to make silage of any crop which can 
be preserved in the ordinary process of haymaking, and in the 
climate of South Africa, with its dry atmosphere and abun- 
dance of sunshine, the making of silage from grass, and such 
crops as teff or manna, is not recommended. There is a mini- 
mum loss in the feeding value of such crops when made into 
hay, but they do not make such good silage. With bulky, 
succulent crops like maize, kaffir corn, sorghum, and teosinte, 
which do not dry readily, ensiling is often the best method 
of preservation, especially at the time of year when they 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 749 
are usually ready to be preserved, and when—except in the 
Western Province—South African farmers are apt to have 
many days, and sometimes several weeks, of continuous rain. 


“If the stockman desires a cheap, succulent feed for his 
cattle in winter, he will find it in maize silage. The same 
quantity of nutriment that a root-crop yields can be produced 
more economically in maize forage stored in the shape of 
silage” (Henry, 1). 


715. Matse for Silage may be Planted Late.— Another 
advantage of ensiling maize is that for this purpose it may be 
planted after the last safe date for planting the grain-crop, and 
harvested before the grain crop is ready. Much of the silage 
maize of the Transvaal is planted in January, and it is ensiled 
during the months of March or April. On the High-veld of 
the Transvaal and Orange Free State, the planting period 
starts earlier, ize. from the first week of November to the first 
week of December, according to the breed of maize grown. 
Harvesting should be completed before the frosts begin, for 
although frosted maize can be ensiled profitably if cut im- 
mediately after it is frosted, it is difficult to get it all cut quickly 
enough. The preparation of silage can be continued during 
the rain, as the green fodder may be ensiled safely even when 
wet. 

716. Uses of Silage-—Maize silage is especially useful for 
feeding to cattle (717 and 718) and sheep, and is also suit- 
able for horses and mules. It is particularly valuable for 
breeding-stock, especially dairy cows and ewes with lamb, 
because it stimulates the milk flow. For fattening slaughter- 
stock it is an invaluable addition to the veld grass or dry hay 
during the winter months. In limited quantity it is also used 
for working oxen and other animals, to help in maintaining 
their condition. It is generally advisable not to feed silage 
alone but as part of a mixed ration. 

717. Silage for Dairy Cows.—Silage, principally from the 
maize plant, is now a factor of first importance on thousands of 
American dairy farms. ‘That it is well liked by the cow; that 
she thrives on it and yields milk liberally; that properly fed, 
it does not impair her health ; all these points have been settled 
‘1 favour of the silo and its product (Henry, 1). See also 
7683 and 724. 


CHAP. 
Ve 


CHAP. 
XV. 


450 MAIZE 


The New Jersey Station (u//. 122) tested silage for milk 
production in comparison with maize fodder. A portion of the 
fodder was left uneaten, but the silage was eaten without waste. 
While both lots of cows gained in weight during the trial, those 
which had the silage ration produced 12°8 per cent more milk 
and 10°4 per cent more fat than those fed on dry maize fodder. 

718. Silage for Bullocks—Maize silage is used satisfactorily 
for steers during the early stages of fattening. “ At first as 
much as 40 or 50 lbs. of silage may be given daily to each 
steer. When the full grain-feeding period arrives let the 
allowance be cut down to 25 or 30 lbs. per day; a limited 
use of this feed will keep the system cool and the appetite 
vigorous” (/feury, 1). 

At Vereeniging, Mr. McLaren’s working oxen receive from 
20 to 30 lbs. per day of maize silage and 6 to 8 Ibs. of crushed 
maize grain, which keeps them in good working condition 
during the dry spring months (September, October, and 
November) when veld grass is scarce; the actual amount 
varies with the amount of hard work being done. 

719. Maise Silage v. Trinothy Fay.—The Maine Station 
(Rep. 1889) tested maize silage for dairy cows, as compared 
with “good hay” (mostly timothy) for milk production. There 
was an increase of 7 per cent milk when changing from hay to 
silage and hay, and a decrease of 8 per cent when changing 
back from silage to hay. 


‘‘In this experiment the addition of silage to the ration 
resulted in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, 
which was not caused by an increase in the digestible food 
material eaten, but which must have been due either to the 
superior value of the nutrients of the silage over those of the 
hay, or to the general physiological effect of feeding a greater 
variety of foods. In other words, 8°8 Ibs. of silage proved to 
be somewhat superior to 1°98 Ibs. of hay (mostly timothy), 
the quantity of digestible material being the same in the two 
cases. . . . Assuming the digestible matter of hay and silage 
to be of equal value, pound for pound; when hay is worth $10 
[42]a ton, silage of the kind used in this experiment would 
be worth $2°25 [Os.] per ton. But this silage contained more 
water than the average... . Had it been of average quality, 
then the ton value reckoned on the above basis would be 92°62 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 


1 


or 


5 
[11s.]. But in this case we should give the silage the credit of CHAP. 
the increased milk production, which seems to have been at %Y: 
the rate of 85 Ibs. of milk to each ton of silage” ( Jordan, 1). 


720. Maize Silage v. Roots —Vhe Michigan Station (Dud/, 
84, p. 107) concludes that “ until further trial, we may consider 
roots and maize silage practically equal in feeding value for 
fattening lambs”. ‘‘ Maize silage is only slightly inferior in 
feeding value to roots such as mangels and swedes, and to all 
intents and purposes can replace them in the feeding ration” 
(Flolim, 7). 

721. Comparative Farm Value of Maize Grown for Silage 
and for Gratu,—Comparing the value to the farmer of maize 
grown for silage or for grain to put on the market, in the latter 
case the stover being consumed on the farm, Holm (7) obtains 
the following figures :— 


Per Acre. 

Yield of say 8 muids of maize per acre at Tos. : ‘ £4 0 0 
Value of stover per acre say. : : . : ‘ 0 10 0 
£4 10 0 


Estimating 4 tons of silage to be equivalent in value to say 
1 ton of oat-hay, and calculating oat-hay at 45 per ton, the 
silage would be worth 25s. per ton. ‘The value of an acre of 
maize yielding only 10 tons of silage would therefore be worth 
£12 tos. as against £4 10s. for the grain and stover, leaving 
a difference of £8 in favour of the silage; if we deduct from 
this £2 per acre for extra cost of labour in making the silage, 
we still have a dalance of £6 per acre tn favour of silage. But 
that is perhaps the least important aspect of the case, as the 
value of plenty of good succulent fodder for live stock during the 
winter season can hardly be estimated (Folin, 7). 

722. Cost of Silage Production.—Vhe cost of producing 
maize silage in the Transvaal is estimated by Holm (7) at 
10s. to 12s. per ton, the figures working out as follows :— 


Per Acre. 
Ploughing, cultivation, seed, and seeding. L ofa 35.0 
Cutting and hauling to silo . , ? : : I 15 0 
Chaffing and pitting. : : 3 : : I I0 Oo 
Total cost per acre . d : : 5 0 0 


At Io to 15 tons per acre the cost per ton works out, 
therefore, at 10s. to 6s. 8d. according to yield per acre. The 


752 MAIZE 


wn 


CHAP, interest and depreciation on capital expenditure for excavation 
XV. of pit and cost of machinery would, he calculates, bring the 
cost up to [2s. or 10s. per ton. But it is, of course, impos- 
sible to form an exact estimate, as the cost varies under dif- 
ferent circumstances. If the loss in weight in the silo equals 
5 per cent, this amount should be added to the cost. It is 
calculated that maize silage should prove “a very cheap feed- 

ing stuff at the above figures”’ (Zoli, 7). 

Some farmers who do not include in their costs the labour 
regularly employed on the farm for other purposes, nor make 
any charge for their working oxen, put the cost as low as 5s. 
per ton, 

723. Amount of Stlage Required for leeding.— Twenty 
acres (English), or an area of 96,800 square yards, say 346 
x 280 yards, should produce 200 tons of maize suitable for 
ensiling. With a loss of 15 per cent in the silo this will give 
170 tons of silage at the time it is most required. For capa- 
city of silos and acreage required to fill them, see chapter 
XVL, 1746. 

If they have roughage such as veld grazing or veld hay in 
addition, 170 tons of silage will feed and keep in condition 
680 sheep, or 170 oxen, or 113 dairy cows, for 100 days; or 
500 sheep and 24 oxen and 4 dairy cows, for 109 days. These 
figures are based on the allowance of 5 Ibs. of silage for a sheep, 
20 lbs. for an ox at work, and 30 lbs, for a dairy cow, in addition 
to roughage. 

On the dry lands of the North-western Orange Free State 
and parts of Bechuanaland, it is possible that not more than 
5 tons of maize silage per acre will be produced ; but even 
then the crop is well worth preserving for winter feed. 

724. The Feeding of Silage-—Much waste of good silage 
often takes place through ignorance of the fact that it spoils 
quickly if exposed to the air; the advent of fresh oxygen 
facilitates decomposition. To prevent such waste, a certain 
amount of the exposed surface should be removed regularly 
each day after the pit has once been opened. With a rect- 
angular pit, a better check can be kept on the amount of sur- 
face exposed than with a circular pit. In opening the pit it is 
customary to first remove the soil for a width of 6 feet at one 
end, and to feed the material from this space until the bottom 


PRESERVATION FOR § TOCK FOOD 793 


Is reached; this makes room for subsequent work. After this 


a portion not less than 2 inches thick is removed from the 


exposed surface every day, and no more is uncovered than can 
be treated in this way. Chopped silage may be filled into 
bags and is then easily carted to the place where it is re- 
quired. 

Care should be taken when the feeding of silage is begun, 
for if fed indiscriminately at first it may cause scour. The 
quantity should be small for a few days, and should be in- 
creased gradually. Chopped silage can be conveniently mixed 
with the maize grain and bran when these are also used. If 
silage is fed in the open, it is well to put out each day only 
so much as will be consumed during that day, as it is likely 
to deteriorate if exposed to the atmosphere for any length of 
time (/foli2, 7). 

The character of silage is such that, though cows seemingly 
thrive on it, even when fed alone, some dry roughage should 
be supplied with it (Henry, 1). This should preferably be a 
nitrogenous food such as lucerne, cowpea, velvet-bean, or pea- 
nut hay ; even teff hay, though not as rich in protein as these, 
may be used with advantage. 

Good maize silage should contain a liberal supply of ears, 
and the amount to be fed will depend directly on the propor- 
tion of ears to forage. From 30 to 50 Ibs. is the usual daily 
allowance for a cow (Heury, 1). 

725. Silage Feeding Table.—The following table (CX XVIII) 
given by King (1), shows the inside diameters of silos 24 feet 
and 30 feet deep, which will permit the surface to be lowered in 
feeding at the mean rate of 1°2 to 2 inches per day, assuming 40 
lbs. of silage to be fed to each cow. 

726. Importance of a‘ Balanced” Ration.—Ingle (2 and 3) 
has pointed out the danger of feeding draught animals upon 
an exclusive diet of cereals, because such a diet does not 
adequately supply the needs of animals with respect to bone- 
forming materials, especially lime and phosphoric acid. The 
value of foodstuffs is usually based on the proportions present 
of the three following classes of constituents :— 

(1) Proteids or albuminoids (i.e. nitrogenous substances) ; 

(2) Carbohydrates (e.g. starch and sugar); and 

(3) Ether extract or fatty ee 

4 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


54 MAIZE 


~ 


TaBLeE CXXVIII. 
SILAGE FEEDING TABLE. 


| | Feb ror 240 Days, Freep ror 180 Days. | 

| | Silo 24 ft. Deep. | Silo 30 ft. Deep. Silo 24 ft. Deep. Silo 30 ft. Deep. 

| | —————— eee 

| Cae | Rate 12 in. Daily. | Rate 1°5 in. Daily. | Rate 1°6 in. Daily. Rate 2 in. Daily. | 

hee ieee Wee | Se éides le. | oieside 
| Tons. | ates | Tons | Beebe ons: | Spee an | Tons; Diameter. | 

| | aetna |e a 4 7 aA 7 | pean peter 

| ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. 1 ftec iat +] 

| Io 48 II Ir 48 Io 2 36 eae | 36 8 9 | 

| 6 q2 iq 7 2 25 34 2 8 | 54 eee) 
20 | 96 | 16 10 96 | 14 4 72 | te. 7 72 2 5 | 

1 2 120 18 I0 120 i (o go 16 4 go | 13 «10 

| 30 | 144 | 20 8 144 17 6 108 | 17 10 108 | iI5, 2 

| 35 | 168 | 22 4 | 168 18 rr | 126 To 4 | 126 | 16 4 

| 40 | 192 23 10 192 26:9 3 144 20 8] a44° | az (6 
45 | 216 25 7 216 2I 5 162 ai 41 162 |\-78) 9 

| 50 | 240 26 8 240 22 7 180 2 I 10 | 19 (7 

| 60 | 288 29 2 288 bd 9 216 2 3 216 Or 

| 70 | 336 | 31 6 336 26 g 252 2 4 252 2 2 

| 80 384 33. «8 384 2867 288 2 2 288 24. @Q 

| 90 | 432 | 35 9 | 432 | 30 4 | 324 | 30 IL 324 26 3 

| 100 | 480 37 <8 480 31 It 360 | 32 8 360 2 8 

| I | | : | 


To secure satisfactory results in stock-feeding, it is neces- 
sary to supply these three classes of materials in zwe//-balanced 
rations, i.e. in proportions suitable to the special requirements 
of the particular class of animal we are feeding. The propor- 
tion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous materials is known 
as the “nutritive ratio”, This ratio is approximately fixed 
(within limits) for different classes of animals under different 
conditions, and it is found that to secure the most satisfactory 
results these limits cannot be exceeded. 

Ingle gives the following nutritive ratios as those which 
have been found, by experiment, to be most suitable in the 
rations required for various purposes; in this table the first 
column represents the proteids and the second the carbohy- 
drates and fats :— 


Taste CXXIX. 
NUTRITIVE RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 


For very young animals I 40 
» Oxen at rest A 5 : P é I i Ir‘o 
+, oxen moderately worked. ; : i i 4 Geka 
», oxen heavily worked 5k 60 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD is 


55 
lor horses moderately worked 1 70 
» horses heavily worked I 5°5 
5, cows giving little milk f 6°0 
4 cows giving much milk I 5'0 
», Sheep for wool production I so 
», fattening sheep, cattle, and pigs . T 5°5 
5, laying hens or ducks I 40 


Ingle (2 and 3) notes that working horses or mules 
fed upon an exclusive diet of maize grain and oat-hay are 
receiving either too little nitrogenous matter for their require- 
ments, or, if they secure the requisite amount by eating more 
food, are taking more fats and carbohydrates than they require. 
This is, therefore, a wasteful method of feeding, and is likely 
also to injure the health of the animals. Ingle recommends, 
not the reduction of the amount of maize grain, but the sub- 
stitution for a portion of the oat-hay of some foodstuff with a 
“narrower” albuminoid ratio, ie. of some product richer in 
nitrogenous material, such as teff grass, lucerne, velvet-bean 
hay, peanut hay, maize forage, maize stover, soybeans, peas, 
beans, or the various oilcakes. ‘In other words, we should not 
—as we are too apt to do—run to the extreme of condemning 
maize grain because it is too ‘dread” a ration to be used 
alone, but should “ varrow @¢ down” by the addition of suit- 
able “ balancing ” material. 

727. Nutritive Ratios of some Food-stuffs.—Ingle has also 
given the following list of nutritive ratios :— 


TABLE CXXX. 


NUTRITIVE RATIOS OF DIFFERENT FOODSTUFYS. 


Maize (‘‘ bread” or * flour-maize” ; Transvaal grown) 1 gO 
Maize (dent; Transvaal grown) 1 g'2 
Maize (flint; Transvaal grown) . 1 so 
Kaffir corn I 82 
Oat grain I 6-0 
Wheat grain I 6'4 
Barley grain I 60 
Buckwheat : I Orr 
Millet (grain). : : : : : : : : Dee ey 
Linseed Ese 
Peas I 27 
Soybeans I ae 
Horsebeans I 2°0 
Cowpeas I 25 
Linseed cake : te 

3°2 


Coconut cake 


750 MAIZE 


Peanut cake I oO” 
Bran . I 36 
Lucerne hay é ‘ , ; I 2:2 
Teff grass (Eragr dats aby shila) jay (Lransvaal grown) . I TF: 
Boer manna (Setaria italica) hay Pee grown) I { To'r 
Natal blue-grass hay ! : fi £10°2 
Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) (Taine on: grown) I 3°5 
English meadow- hay I 4°9 


| Several grasses pass under the name of Natal Blue-grass, e.g. Theneda 
Forskalii, and species of Andropogon. 


728. Mivtures to Increase the Feeding \alue of Maize Silage. 
—To give more “ balance” to the ration of maize silage some 
nitrogenous material should be added. Where concentrated 
foodstuffs such as linseed meal, peanut meal, hominy-chop, or 
soybean cake are cheap, they can be added to the daily ration. 
But many farmers will probably find it more economical to 
grow a leguminose crop which can be cut up and mixed with 
the maize in the silo. There are several such crops which can 


be grown in the summer season and used in this way. These 
include :— 
Velvet-beans (V/ucuna utilis). A Bush-veld and Low-coun- 


try crop, rather slow of growth, but giving a remarkably heavy 
yield. The seed should not be planted until the ground is 
warm. It is usually planted in rows 4 feet apart, with two or 
three seeds dropped every 2 feet in the row. Sometimes the 
velvet-bean is planted with the maize for silage, but this may 
interfere somewhat with the cleaning of the fatter crop. 

Cowpeas or kaffir-beans (I vena Cafjang) form a valuable 
crop for silage or for hay. In cold soils the seed is apt to rot 
if planted before the ground is warm. The principal drawback 
to the cowpea as a farm crop ts the difficulty of threshing 
the seed, as the pods do not open easily. In the Southern 
States, where it is largely grown for stock-food, farmers usually 
shell out only enough to plant their own crop; the seed is 
particularly subject to weevil; for these reasons it is both 
scarce and costly, but there is generally a limited supply on 
the local markets. A good plan is to sow cowpeas broadcast 
among the maize at the time of the last (say the fourth) 
cultivation. This adds to the feeding value of the stover or 
fodder and helps to check the seeding of weeds. 

Velvet-beans and cowpeas are usually cut for silage when 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 


7 


ue 


/ 
the beans are well filled in the pod. But as the velvet-bean 
is a slow-growing crop, it is often rather late in coming to 
maturity, and it is sometimes necessary to cut it in the fGen 
Ing stage. 

The hyacinth-bean (Dolichos Lablab) is another admirable 
fodder crop. 

Peanuts or monkey nuts (Arachis hypogea). When grown 
for the “nuts” the peanut straw can be used in the silo, but 
the crop is too light to be grown especially for silage. 

Soybeans (G/retne hispida) are being grown in the Trans- 
vaal and Natal for rotation crops, and can be used for silage. 
In some localities they are considered less satisfactory as re- 
gards yield than either velvet-beans or cowpeas. 

Sugar-beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) can be grown for silage ; 
the running sorts are preferable as they give a greater yield 
of fodder. 

Lucerne (Medicago sat?va) can be cut green and used to add 
nitrogenous matter to the maize silage; if the weather is not 
suitable for making lucerne hay, this is a convenient way of 
utilizing the crop. Lucerne is considered to be in the best 
condition for ensiling when it is beginning to flower. 

729. Kinds of Stlage.— Silage may be either “sour” 
(‘ereen’’) or “sweet” (“brown”). The difference depends 
on the degree and kind of fermentation, and this, again, is 
regulated by the temperature of the mass. If the temperature 
is allowed to rise above 130° F., sweet silage results; if it 
reaches 150 F, it becomes ‘‘brown”; if it gets to 160° F. 
and over, it becomes what is known as “burnt” silage, which 
is undesirable, If the temperature does not exceed 120° F. 
the silage will be green or sour. Sour silage is found to keep 
better than sweet, after the silo or stack has once been opened 
for use. When the stock have been fed on sour silage for a 
few days and have become accustomed to it, they are said to 
prefer it to “sweet”. But “sour” silage is apt to leave an 
unpleasant odour about the premises. ‘The best silage is 
probably that which is intermediate between the sour and 
sweet stages ” (f/o/m1, 7). 

730. Composition of Maize Silage.—Russell (1) has studied 
the chemical changes taking place during the ensiling of maize, 
and finds that the main groups of compounds found in maize 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


758 MAIZE 


silage are: fatty acids, hydroxy-acids, amino acids, basic 
diamino acids, purin, and other bases besides the ordinary 
constituents of the plant cell, the celluloses, protein, etc. The 
non-nitrogenous acids are not found in maize at the time of 
cutting, and the nitrogenous acids, though they are found, 
occur to a smaller extent than in silage. 

The characteristic silage changes are the disappearance of 
sugar, of some less resistant celluloses, and of part of the 
protein, and the formation of the bodies enumerated above. 

Three agents appear to be involved in making silage: the 
living maize cell, the enzymes, and micro-organisms. It is 
considered that the two former bring about the primary and 
essential changes, the latter only secondary and non-essential 
changes. 

The formation of acetic and butyric acids appears to be 
a respiration effect, and comes about when the living cell is 
deprived of oxygen. Sugar disappears during the process. 

The decomposition of the protein and nucleo-protein is 
effected by enzymes present at the time of cutting the maize, 
which can go on acting in the silo even after the cell is dead. 
Characteristic products of protein-hydrolysis were identified in 
the silage. 

These are regarded as the primary and essential changes. 
Bacteria are, however, always present, and attack the less re- 
sistant celluloses, the products of protein-hydrolysis, and no 
doubt other substances as well, but not the resistant fibre. 
Typical products of bacterial activity were found—formic acid, 
higher fatty acids, humus, and amines. 

The growth of mould is inhibited except at the surface 
layer where fresh air has access. Here the changes are funda- 
mentally different; there is no development of acetic or 
butyric acids, the mass is alkaline ; non-protein material already 
existing in the maize is converted into protein, and there is 
also a loss of nitrogen. 

731. Changes in the Protein due to Ensiling—The New 
Jersey (U.S.A.) Station (Bu//, 122) found that ensiling resulted 
in the conversion of about two-thirds of the more complex 
albuminoids into the simpler amides. ‘Silage often contains 
nearly half its nitrogen in amide form, while dry fodder-corn 
has not more than from 12 to 15 per cent of its nitrogen in 


PRESIERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 759 
the form of amides” (/Texry, 1). The albuminoids are usually 
insoluble in water, or may be rendered so by heat, while the 


amides are soluble in water. This would suggest that the 


amides might be more readily digestible than the albuminoids, 
and in partial corroboration of this view we find that maize 
silage will produce 12°8 per cent more milk and 10-4 per cent 
more butter-fat than maize fodder. 

Henry (1) says that “it is now fairly well established that 
a large majority of the amides found in plants are nutrients 
proper, that is, when fed they enter the system and are oxidized 
in the same way as other food nutrients”. “ Asparagin, an 
amide present in most young plants, has repeatedly been shown 
to cause a gain of protein in the body when fed with a fodder 


poor in protein.” . . . “In some of their functions at least, 
amides may replace albuminoids.” . . . “ Equally good results 


have been obtained where amides have been substituted for part 
of the albuminoids in the ration for growing animals and milch 
cows, as were obtained when albuminoids only were fed.” 

732. VWotsture-content of Maize Silage-——The moisture- 
content of maize silage varies considerably, but not as much 
as that of maize fodder, e.g. the variation is recorded as rang- 
ing from 62°4 per cent to 87:7 per cent. A ton of silage con- 
taining 62°4 per cent water would, of course, contain more 
than three times as much dry matter as that which contained 
87°7 per cent water. Much of the silage in the United States 
contains 70 per cent or less of water. The Wisconsin Station 
(Rep. 1895) reports a case in which the water in the silage 
increased 2°3 per cent after it was put into the silo; Hunt (1) 
concludes that ‘the loss of dry matter in silage is greater than 
the loss of water”. 

733. Composition of Maize Silage Compared with that of 
Green Matse Forage.—Analyses of green maize and of maize 
silage by Feruglio and Mayer are reported in Table CXXXI. 

734. Popular Objections to Stlage.—Objection is sometimes 
raised to feeding dairy cows on silage for the reason that sil- 
age is supposed to give an unpleasant smell and flavour to the 
milk. When such is the case, it is because sufficient and 
suitable care has not been taken with the feeding. Neither 
the flavour nor the odour of the silage pass through the body 
of the cow to the milk, but they may be acquired from bits of 


CHAP, 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


760 MAIZE 
TaBLe CXXXI, 


COMPOSITION OF MAIZE SILAGE COMPARED WITH THAT 
OF GREEN MAIZE FORAGE. 


Green Forage, } Silage, 


On a Dry Matter Basis. Pér Cent. Per Cent: | 
Crude Protein ‘ ‘ : j : 8°419 8°562 
Ether Extract ? : ‘ : : . 2173 5°000 | 
Invert Sugar . : : : : 4 14°296 4°701 | 
Sucrose . : j : i : . 2 STt 0273 | 
Amids . . : 3 ; 5 ‘ 1'960 I'I0O | 
Pentosans ‘ : ‘ ‘ : i 20°686 | 19°130 | 
Cellulose ; : ‘ i ‘ , 28248 | 27°758 | 
Ash ‘ : : ; i ; i 7°050 | 6°400 
Undetermined (obtained by difference) . 12°380 | 20°171 | 
Acidity . : z ; ‘ 1 - | 977 | 67905 | 
is Veeearet eee 
T00'000 100'000 | 
Water Content : : : : | 79°205 78°770 
The Pure Protein : ‘ ‘ eG 4°000 | 2°560 


silage left scattered about during the milking. On this account 
silage should not be fed before but immediately afer milking, 
so that any odour which may have been disseminated through 
the cowshed may have gone before the next milking time, thus 
preventing the absorption by the milk of any undesirable 
flavour. 

735. The Lest Breeds of Maize for Silage.—In farm prac- 
tice it is often the custom to plant for silage the same breed of 
maize that is grown for grain, the extra weight of green stuff 
being obtained by closer planting. The usual experience is 
that it involves too much labour and expense to keep a special 
sort of maize for silage; as the silage crop is planted too 
late to ripen seed, it is necessary either to buy seed of silage 
maize, or to grow a special seed plot; if the latter plan is 
adopted, it involves the danger of cross-pollination with the 
main grain crop, especially through the scattering of the seed 
and the consequent growth of volunteer plants. 

But if'a special sort is desired, it should be (a) one that is 
early in maturing, so that it can be sown late and yet be ready 
for harvest before the first frost falls ; (4) one suited to the soil 
and climate ; (c) one that will give a large amount of foliage 
and succulent stems. The choice is therefore limited to those 


meats! 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 761 


breeds which suit the particular district, \’e//oqw Lflorsetooth CHAP. 
and Netal White Horsetooth are favourites in some parts of BV 
South Africa, as they are vigorous growers and heavy yielders 
under favourable conditions, but they are inclined to be rather 
late in maturing, and in cold localities, therefore, must be 
planted early. 

The Argentine maize, a yellow flint breed recently intro- 
duced into the Transvaal, is a promising silage maize. Some 
of the ordinary breeds, such as Hickory Aung, have developed 
strains with a habit of stool/ng (i.e. branching from the base), 


Fic. 237.—Filling silage-pit, Vereeniging. (Courtesy of Messrs. John Fowler 
& Co. (Leeds), Ltd.) 


which are better suited for silage than the unbranched strains ; 
but here again, the difficulty of maintaining the supply of seed 
o be faced. _ 

ve ie Planting Distance for Silage or Fodder Maize— : ne 
distance for planting maize for silage is discussed in chaptei 
Ix. (Tillage, Planting, and Cultivation). . eee 

737. Best Condition of the Crop for Harvesting.— The Be 
of growth and best condition of the crop for harvesting, anc 
the chemical composition at various stages of growth, are dis- 
cussed in chapter XI. (Harvesting and Storage of Maize). 

738. Methods of Ensiling. _—-The modern silo is sometimes 


CHAP. 
XV. 


702 MAIZE 


an elaborate and expensive structure, which may cost hundreds 
of pounds (Figs. 241-3); but good silage can be made in a 
very simple manner and at small cost. Three methods of 
preparation are in vogue: stacking, burying in a pit, and pre- 
serving in an air-tight chamber. The principle is the same 
in all cases, i.e. development of a limited degree of fermenta- 
tion followed by the exclusion of air to prevent desiccation 
and to arrest decomposition. These ends are attained by 
building up a mass of moist vegetation, which then begins to 
sweat ; if this sweating were allowed to continue indefinitely 
“ spontaneous combustion” would ensue, and the mass would 
be spoiled. The most suitable temperature is from 130° to 
140° F. To allow the whole mass to reach this temperature 
it must not be too deep at any one time; to prevent increase 
of temperature above this point, fresh material is added, the 
added weight tending to compress the lower mass, force out 
the air, exclude a fresh supply of oxygen, and thus check 
fermentation. In practice it is not necessary to use a ther- 
mometer to determine the actual temperature; if the surface 
heat becomes so great that one can only with difficulty bear to 
keep the hand in it, more fodder should be added or the pit, 
if filled, should be sealed up; but if it does not get warm, it 
should be kept open a few days, and a little water may be 
poured on it to assist in starting fermentation. 

739. The Addition of Salt—Silage is greatly improved by 
the addition of salt ; Prof. Wrightson recommends the use of 
1} lbs. to every ton of the green material. Salt has a stimu- 
lating influence on the appetite of the animal, facilitates the 
passage of the albuminoids from the digestive canal into 
the blood, and in general increases the energy of the vital 
processes. The feeding of salt is therefore especially useful 
with horses, young animals, and milch cows fed to their full 
capacity. Another effect of salt is to increase the excretion 
of urine (/feury, 1). 

740. The Modern Silo.—* The more compact the silage, 
the better it keeps. The greater its diameter and the more 
nearly circular the silo, the less the resistance of the sides to 
packing. The deeper the silo, the more compact the silage 
and the less the surface exposure in proportion to the whole 
mass. . . . The surface area of the silo should be such that 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOO) 703 
the silage will be fed rapidly enough to prevent decay. It 
should never be more than ten square feet per cow ; five is 
better, while seven and a half gives good results. The riper 
the silage, the /ess weight the silo will hold. The higher the 
silo and the greater the diameter, the sore weight the silo will 
hold. The weight and keeping quality will depend also upon 
the manner of filling. . . . The more slowly the silo is filled, 
the more it will hold. A silo 16 feet in diameter and 30 feet 
high will hold, when continuously filled with suitably ripened 
maize, 334 to 40 lbs. of silage per cubic foot, or about 100 tons 
of silage. A cubic foot of such silage is a standard daily 
ration for a cow in milk. The capacity of the silo required 
may be calculated in cubic feet by multiplying the number of 
animals to be fed by the days of feeding desired ” (/Tuz/, 1). 

The construction of modern silos is discussed in the follow- 
ing chapter (XVI.). Some silos in South Africa have been 
constructed of double walls of corrugated iron, well braced 
and hooped together, and are reported as having been quite 
successful. 

But at best the silo is an expensive item, and where other 
and more imperative outlay is required on the farm, its con- 
struction may well be left till a future time. In the climate 
of South Africa, at least the greater part of which enjoys a 
dry winter, excellent silage can be made either in a pit or ina 
stack, 

741. Lhe Stack Silo.—The stack silo is built up in the form 
of a haystack (Fig. 238) of maize stalks not cut into lengths, 
Several Transvaal farmers have made stack silage for years, 
and find it an economical and easy method of preserving 
winter feed. The principle to be followed in making stack 
silage is to pack the maize stalks as closely and evenly as 
possible, a small quantity at a time; four or five ox-wagon 
loads per day are sufficient for a moderate stack. This is built 
up to the required height (usually 10 or [2 feet), and when a 
suitable temperature has been obtained the stack is weighted 
down to prevent further increase of temperature. Some 
farmers use a thick layer of veld hay, which gives the neces- 
sary weight and can afterwards be used as bedding. — In the 
Bush-veld, where wood is plentiful, poles can be utilized ; in 
other places, bricks, stones, and even corrugated iron and soil 


CHAP. 
XV, 


TO4 MATIZI- 


CHAP. are used with success. Some Bush-veld farmers build the silo 
on timbers laid on the ground, with cross-pieces under the 
ends; a similar arrangement of poles is laid on top of the 
stack; the upper and lower cross-pieces are connected by 
chains or strong steel rope, and tightened by leverage; this 
operation is carried out every few days, until the mass ceases 
to settle. 

In making stack silage there is a good deal of waste on 
the outside of the stack; this may be reduced by paring off 


Fic, 238.—Making stack-silage, Standerton District, Transvaal. (Farm of 
Messrs. Hutchinson & Shaw, Zandbaken, Val Station.) 


the sides and ends every three or four days while the stack is 
being built (Fig. 239), the parings being thrown into the centre. 
Some farmers put a layer of wet dung 9 to 12 inches thick, 
to seal up the top of the stack and prevent injury and waste. 

742. The Pit Stlo.—At the Botanical Experiment Station, 
Pretoria, at the Government Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom, 
at Messrs. John Fowler and Company’s Demonstration Farms, 
Vereeniging (Fig. 237), at Major Doyle’s farm, Woburn, on 
the Springbok Flats, and on several other farms the pit method 
of preparing silage has been in use for several years; in the 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 765 


climate of the Transvaal it proves both economical and effective. 
At Potchefstroom it has been customary to make about 150 
tons of pit-silage per annum, and at Vereeniging about 600 
tons. These pits (Fig. 240) are not lined in any way and have 
no floor other than the solid ground. They are covered with 
earth, and there is no roof over them, so that the cost of pre- 


Fic. 239.—Stack-silo, Springbok Flats, Transvaal. (Note that the rough 
sides have been pared smooth.) 


paration of the silo is very small. As the silage is stored 
during the dry season, there is usually no danger of seepage, 
provided a suitable site for the pit is selected; in some 
localities a catch-water ditch around the upper side of the pit 
is found desirable. If the pit has to be made in loose soil, a 
lining of corrugated iron or other suitable substance may be 


CHAP. 
XV. 


7006 


MAIZE 


Fic. 240.—Cutting silage and filling pit, Burttholm, Vereeniging. 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 767 


used. If there is danger of springs breaking into the pit, 
some provision for drainage may be found necessary. Rect- 
angular pits are preferable to circular ones, because in the 
former, when opened for use, the silage can be removed in 
sections without uncovering the whole surface, thus preventing 
loss from exposure to the atmosphere. Several small pits are 
preferable to one very large one, because it may be desired to 
reserve one or more of them for another year, and there need 
be no damage to the silage through its having been kept over 
if protected from the weather and from seepage of moisture ; 
but once opened to the air, the contents do not keep. 

A pit 25 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 8 feet deep, containing 
3,000 cubic feet, would hold about 55 tons of silage. If the 
maize has been well cut and packed, a cubic foot should weigh 
from 35 to 40 lbs. Some farmers put the maize stalks into the 
pit whole, as they would on to the stack, but the usual method 
is to cut them into lengths of $ to 14 inches with a chaff-cutter 
(Fig. 240), which results in closer packing and a better quality 
of silage; in this form it is more easily removed from the pit, 
and there is little or no waste in feeding, such as there is when 
the material is left long. The time consumed in cutting is 
well spent. The pit may be filled as rapidly as the maize can 
be cut, or the filling may extend over a fairly long period, 
without affecting the quality of the silage ; the usual method is 
to put 2 or 3 feet of silage into each pit each day, allowing it to 
heat and settle for a day or two (not more than three), when 
another 2 or 3 feet may beadded. To prevent loss of time, two 
or three pits, in close proximity, may be kept going by moving 
the chaff-cutter from one to the other. For small pits the 
cutting may be done by hand-power, but horse-gear or steam- 
power are used for the larger. Much of the success of the 
work depends on the management of the pit; the fodder 
should be kept spread evenly over the surface as the cutting 
proceeds, and exceptional care should be taken to keep the 
outsides well trodden; if the mass at the edges of the pit 
remains loosely packed, it will become mouldy and unfit for 
food. When the mass is a few feet deep a mule or horse is 
kept walking about in the pit to tread it down. If the maize 
is rather too mature and dry, a little water should be thrown 
over the mass occasionally. The pit is filled to about a foot 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XV. 


768 MAIZE 


above the ground level and allowed to settle for a day or two ; 
it is then covered with a layer of soil about a foot deep and 
evenly spread to give the necessary pressure and to exclude 
air. The silage can be kept indefinitely in the pit, or feeding 
can commence (if the latter is kept sealed) in about two 
months. 

742A, The American Cornstalk Disease.—In the central 
maize districts of the United States many farmers continue to 
follow the old practice of picking by hand the ears from the 
standing stalks, turning the cattle into the stalk fields to 
eather the stray ears left by the huskers, and to eat what they 
like of the maize leaves and stalks, and the weeds found 
among them. 

“Not infrequently, within a day or two after turning the 
cattle into the fields, they suddenly sicken and die. Thousands 
of cattle are lost each fall in this way, and the subject has 
attracted much attention and elicited several theories as to the 


cause.” ' Moore concludes that “the disease is probably due 
to some poisonous principle in the dried cornstalk or its 
leaves".? This disease is commonly known as “cornstalk 
clisease ”. 


Moore (z6¢¢.) points out that animals which are fed with 
shocked matse, or cut matse stover, do not get cornstalk disease. 

Brimhall * considered that the so-called “ cornstalk disease” 
is ina large percentage of cases to be included under hemor- 
rhagic septicaemia, which he traces to Bace//us boorsepticus. 

Price reported the presence of an enzyme in cornstalks 
from a field where cattle had died of cornstalk disease ; ‘‘ this 
peroxydase had the properties of catalase; it lost its power of 
splitting up glucosides when subjected to a temperature of 
78° C. The proteolytic enzyme was broken up at 68° C. 
The cornstalk enzyme appeared to have the same resisting 
power toward heat as that obtained from bitter almonds.” 
Negative results were obtained from attempts to find either 
prussic acid or a glucoside which might break up into prussic 
acid. Although not conclusive, Price believes that his in- 


'US.D.A., Bur. An. Ind. Bull. 10. See also Kansas Station Bull, 58. 

“Henry, Feeds and Iecding, p. 175. 

‘See Exp. Sta, Ree., XPV, zor (1902-3); XVI, 603-4 (1904-5); and Report 
of the Vet, Dep. of the Minn, State Bd. of Health, 1903, St, Paul, 1903. 


PRESERVATION FOR STOCK FOOD 76g 
vestigations indicate the presence of an enzyme in maize 
stalks, which may give rise to the formation of prussic acid 
by the splitting up of glucosides, and that this would account 
for a certain percentage, at least, of the cases of cornstalk 
disease; see U.S.D.A., Bur. Anim. Ind. Rep., 1904, pp. 66-75 
(reprinted as Circular 84) and Z.S.R. XVII, p. 702, 1905-6. 

Craig notes that a disease referred to by this name ap- 
peared quite extensively in Indiana during 1902 and 1906. 
After summarizing the theories held by different observers, he 
concludes that there are probably several diseases referred to 
under the same name. While the symptoms resemble those 
of toxic poisoning, which it had been suggested might be due 
to potassium nitrate in the maize stalks, it is by no means 
certain that potassium nitrate in the maize is the cause of the 
trouble. He suggests that prussic acid may at times be de- 
veloped in the corn. See /ndiana Sta. Circ. 3, p. 10, 1906, 
and &.S.R. XVIII, 676-7, 1906-7. 

Though subjected to a thorough test, Alway and Trumbull 
reported failure to find even a trace of prussic acid in cornstalks 
or suckers from a field in which several cattle had just died. 
Feeding tests to calves gave negative results. Similar tests 
with Sorghum confirmed Brunnich’s findings of prussic acid 
(E.S.R. XV, p. 355), so that the negative results with maize 
do not appear to be due to fault in the method adopted. 

Further information on the cornstalk disease may be found 
in the publications cited in the Bibliography under the names 
of Price, T. H.; Craig, RK. A.; Alway, F. J., and Peters, 
AT, > Billings, F..S.; Peters, 4. T., and Avery, S.; Peters, 
A, T.+ and Mayo, N. 5. 


49 


CHAP. 
XV. 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


CHAPTER XVI. 
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS. 


Probably the most important change that has been made in the handling 
of the maize plant in the last quarter of a century is the practice of putting the 
unripened plant, cut into small pieces by a feed-cutter, into a receptacle with 
air-tight sides and bottom, called a silo.—Prof. T. F. Hunt. 


The information contained in the following chapter was prepared by Mr. A. 
Morrison Hay, of the Public Works Department, Union of South Africa, and 
appeared originally in Farmers’ Bulletin 59 of the Transvaal Department of Agri- 
culture; it was subsequently revised and published in the Agricultural Fournal 
of the Union of South Africa (Hay, 1). Mr. Hay has kindly given permission 
to reproduce it here, with certain alterations and additions which he has himself 
suggested. The present writer has omitted Mr. Hay’s paragraph describing 
silage, as the information has already been given in chapter xv. 


743. Hestortcal—Silos, or chambers for the storage and 
preservation of food, have been in use in one form or other in 
various countries from very early times. At the time of Pliny, 
in France, Spain and other parts of Europe, grain was pre- 
served in trenches, dug in the ground; he mentions in certain 
of his writings that ‘‘the best plan of preserving grain is to 
lay it up in trenches dug in a dry soil, called siri, as they do 
in Cappadocia, Thracia, Spain, and in Africa”. This method 
of preserving grain was not confined to the East, as at the time 
of the discovery of America by Columbus the natives were in 
the habit of storing grain in pits, and certain tribes continue 
the practice to the present time. The ancient Egyptians, as 
we learn from Scripture, stored sufficient grain in the seven 
years of plenty to serve themselves and other nations during 
the seven years of famine that followed. The Egyptian silos 
were evidently of a more improved and permanent nature than 
the rude trenches above referred to, as Wilkinson in his work, 
‘The Ancient Egyptians,” states that “some of the rooms in 
which they housed the grain appear to have had vaulted roofs. 
These were filled through an aperture near the top, to which 

770 


THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 771 


the men ascended by steps, and the grain, when wanted, was 
taken out from a door at the base.”’ 

It is important to note that the early silos were used prin- 
cipally for the preservation of corn and other dried cereals, for 
indefinite periods, and there are instances of corn having been 
preserved in good condition for the long period of 200 years. 
On the other hand, the silos of the present day are used more 
particularly for the storage of green fodder, to provide food for 
cattle during the winter months, or for a year at most. Food 
thus preserved may, however, be kept indefinitely, provided 
that air is not allowed to enter the silo. For this reason it is 
important that the sides and floor should be perfectly air-tight, 
and it is also essential that the sides be smooth and vertical, so 
that the silage may settle uniformly and compactly, leaving no 
vacant spaces for the accumulation of air. 

The word “ silo,” taken from the Greek ‘“siros”—a pit for 
holding grain—is the name now applied to any air-tight 
chamber formed for the preservation either of dried grain or 
green food. It may be simply a trench or pit dug in the 
ground in any dry position, into which the silage is filled and 
weighted down with planks, earth, or other material. More 
commonly it is a structure of wood, metal, brick, stone, or 
other building material, or a combination of these, built en- 
tirely above ground or extending down only a few feet, and 
standing either by itself or forming a part of the other farm 
buildings. The origin of structural silos on the modern plan 
is of very recent date, but the progress of siloing has been so 
rapid and successf{ul—in America, at any rate—that in the 
short period of thirty years, over a hundred thousand silos 
were built in the United States alone, and the number is 
steadily increasing. Bey 

744. Form.—In form the silo may be built either square, 
rectangular, octagonal, or circular on plan. If forming part of 
a scheme of buildings its shape would probably be decided by 
the position it occupied and the space available, but if standing 
alone, either form could be adopted at will. The round silo 
(Fig. 241) is more favourable to the even and compact settling 
of the silage owing to the absence of corners and, consequently, 
more favourable to its perfect preservation. On the other 
hand, it does not fit in with other buildings so readily and with- 

49° 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


92 MAIZE 


out loss of space, as a square or rectangular silo, and for this 
reason the latter are likely to be more frequently built. The 
same remarks would also apply to octagonal silos. If standing 
alone, however, no objection can be raised either to the round 
or the octagonal form of silo, and as the proper preservation of 
the silage is the main object to be attained, one or other of these 


Fic, 241.—Filling round silo in the United States. 


forms should be adopted in preference to the others. The 
main objection to square or rectangular silos is the presence 
of corners, which prevent the silage from settling uniformly 
and compactly, thus causing waste of space and creating un- 
desirable accumulations of air. This defect may be remedied 
to a considerable extent by having the corners well rounded. 
Of the two, the square silo is perhaps the better form, and 
probably somewhat cheaper than a rectangular one of equal 
capacity, as the wall space is rather less, 

745. Sise—-Where a large quantity of silage is required it 
is advisable to have it stored in two or more moderately-sized 


CHE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 173 


silos in preference to one very large one. With very large CHAP. 

silos too much surface of silage is exposed while feeding ; and, *Y! 

if the height is increased to modify the surface atmensene 

beyond a reasonable limit, excessive labour is involved in the 

working. With rectangular silos the difficulty can be obvi- 

ated by having one or more partitions dividing the silo into 

two or more square, or nearly square, compartments. The 

height above ground should not exceed 20 to 25 feet, and 

the depth under ground should not be more than 5 or 6 feet 

the limit from which a man can conveniently lift the forage. ) 
Whatever form is adopted for the silo, it should always be 


Fic. 242.—Filling twin tub-silos, Australia. 


built with a greater capacity than would be necessary it it 
could be filled at once to the top with good silage, as con- 
siderable allowance has to be made for waste from settling 
and from spoiled silage. Even if material is added a second 
or third time there will still be a certain amount of waste 
space to be allowed for. One-fifth is considered a low estimate 
for loss of space and waste silage. 

746. Capacity.—As a basis on which to ascertain the size 
of silo necessary to hold food for a certain number of cattle 
for a certain period of time, 40 lbs. may be taken as the 
average amount of silage required to feed one animal per 
day, and 40 lbs. may also be taken as the average weight of a 
cubic foot of silage. Therefore, if the number of animals is 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


174 MAIZE 


multiplied by the number of days during which they have to 
be fed, the result will equal the number of cubic feet of silage 
space required. Supposing thirty animals have to be fed for 
six months, or 184 days, the total amount of space required 
would be 30 x 184 = 5,520 cubic feet. 

To find the number of cubic feet in a square or rectangular 
silo multiply the length in feet by the width, and then by the 
height, and the result will give the total number of cubic feet. 
Thus, if a square silo measures 14 feet each way on plan and 
25 feet in height, the cubical contents would be 14 feet x 14 
feet x 25 feet = 4,900 feet. 

In the case of a round silo, multiply the square of the 
diameter in feet by the height, and then by ‘7854. For 
example, if a round silo measures 14 feet in diameter and 
25 feet in height, the cubical contents would be 14 feet x 14 
feet x 25 feet x -7854 = 3,848 feet approximately. 

The following table (No. CXXXII) shows the capacity 
of silos of different dimensions and the acreage of maize re- 
quired to fill them, on the basis of a crop of 15 tons (Colonial) 
to the acre :— 


TaBLE CXXXII. 
CAPACITY OF SILOS. 


Acres of Crop necessary 


Capacity in Tons. (15 Tons per Acre). 


| Dimensions. 


ie | 28 | | 


20' | 3 
12' x 20’ | 30 | 3 | 
T2! x 24! 49 3% | 
| 12’ x 28/ 60 | 4 | 
14’ x 22’ 61 44 | 
| 14’ x 24’ 67 45 | 
14’ x 28" 83 | 53 | 
| 14’ x 30° 93 6 
16’ x 24’ 87 62 
| 16’ x 26’ 97 | 7 
16’ x 30’ I1g | 8 
18’ x 30' 151 | To} 
| x 124 


18’ x 36’ 189 | 4 | 
747. Position.—As regards position, the silo should be 
placed as near as possible to the centre of feeding, to minimize 
the labour of carrying food to the various mangers. In round 
or octagonal farm buildings, such as are common in America, 


THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 7175 
the silo usually takes the same shape as the main building, cHap. 
and is placed in the centre, where it occupies a convenient *V!. 
position from which to feed the various animals stalled around 
the building. A circular silo may be situated at a corner of 
the main building, where it not only proves a useful adjunct 
but also forms a very pleasing feature. A convenient arrange- 
ment is to have the doors of the silo opening into a passage- 
way, or into the feed store or mixing room, which usually 
occupies a central position, A saving in the cost of erection 


Fic. 243.—Filling square stone-silo, Irene, Transvaal. 


can often be effected by utilizing one or more of the walls 
of the main building in the construction of the silo. 

748. Materials —The material to be used in the construc- 
tion of a silo would probably be decided by local conditions. 
That most readily obtained in the locality in which the silo is 
to be built would naturally be chosen, provided it fulfils the 
conditions required for a good silo, Metal has been tried in 
some countries, but has not been found satisfactory, on ee 
of the initial cost and the readiness with whee it gies se : 
corroding action of the silage juices. In America wood has 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


776 MAIZE 


hitherto been very largely used in the construction of silos, on 
account of the abundance of timber in that country and the 
comparative ease and cheapness of erection, and wood is con- 
sidered one of the best materials for the preservation of silage. 
It is not likely, however, to be much used in South Africa, 
on account of its scarcity and want of durability. 

For durability, either reinforced concrete, stone, or brick, 
or a combination of these materials, is to be recommended. 
Reinforced concrete is probably the best material, especially 
for circular silos, but requires more skilled labour in the con- 
struction, and is consequently more costly. Stone or brick 
structures require less skill in building, and as either one or 
other of these materials can usually be readily obtained 
throughout South Africa, they are likely to enter more largely 
into the construction of silos. 

Whatever material is used—whether concrete, stone, brick 
or wood—the foundation should always be of some material 
that is not subject to early decay, more particularly if it 
extends for some depth below the surface of the ground. In 
a dry soil a good quality of brick or stone built with lime 
mortar is sufficient, but if there is a tendency to dampness, 
either cement concrete or stone, built with cement mortar and 
plastered on the outside with any damp-proof composition, 
forms the best foundation. It is important that the founda- 
tion should go down to a solid bottom, and it should extend 
a few inches above the highest point of the ground, and be 
covered on top with a damp-proof course to prevent moisture 
from rising to the structure above. 

749. Reinforced Concrete-—The methods of building with 
either brick or stone are too well known to everybody to require 
any explanation, but concrete construction being less familiar, 
a short description of the materials used and methods adopted 
in the erection of reinforced concrete silos may be useful. The 
walls, only, need to be described, as the foundations, floor, roof, 
doors and other parts can be practically the same as for brick 
or stone silos. The concrete should be composed of one part 
best Portland cement, two parts clean sharp sand and four 
parts stone broken to such a size as will pass through a ring of 
¢ inch diameter, all thoroughly mixed together to the proper 
consistency with clean water. The reinforcement should con- 


THEA CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 777 


sist of round iron rods arranged both vertically and horizontally 
and embedded in the concrete near the outer surface of the 
wall. The vertical rods should be { inch in diameter, spaced 
from 12 inches to 15 inches apart and extending from founda- 
tion to top of wall. The horizontal rods should be 4 inch 
in diameter, spaced from 9 inches to 12 inches apart. They 
should be in as long lengths as possible, hooked together at 
ends so that each row forms a continuous band round the silo. 
The horizontal and vertical rods should be securely wired 
together at all points of intersection to form a rigid network of 
iron. There are of course other methods of reinforcement, but 
the above with a 6-inch thickness of concrete is simple and 
sufficient for any silo up to say 18 feet in diameter and 30 feet 
in height. To erect the walls it is necessary to have moulds 
or forms curved to the same radius as the silo, one convex on 
face placed inside the wall, and one concave on face placed out- 
side the wall, the two 6 inches apart from each other with the 
reinforcing rods between. <A sufficient number of these forms 
must be provided to go completely round the silo, and when they 
are placed in position and firmly fixed, the concrete is gently 
dropped into the space between them in layers of not more than 
6 inches deep and carefully and thoroughly rammed. These 
forms can be made of a rough framework of wood with a lining 
of galvanized sheet-iron on the curved face to give a smooth 
finish to the surface of the concrete. Each of the forms may be 
of approximately the same size as the sheet-iron lining to avoid 
waste, viz. 6 feet long by 3 feet wide. When the concrete 
has sufficiently set the forms should be carefully removed and 
refixed at a higher level and again filled with concrete and this 
process repeated until the top of the wall is reached. It is an 
advantage to have two sets of forms, so that the second and 
succeeding rows can be placed in position before the next lower 
is removed. The door openings should be formed as the work 
proceeds, the reinforcement should be modified and strengthened 
around the openings and a splayed recess should be left all 
round on the inside into which the door will fit without any 
framework of wood. The roof can also be of concrete, either 
flat or cone shaped, and if so constructed the concrete should 
be approximately the same thickness as for walls and with 


similar reinforcement. 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


498 MAIZE 


750. Hloor.—If the silo is built on a soil that is dry all the 
year round no other floor is necessary. Broken stones might 
be laid over the floor to a depth of 6 to 8 inches, and then 
covered with a layer of clean, dry earth or ant-heap, and rolled 
or rammed till a compact and even surface is formed. Such a 
floor could only be used where the ground is sufficiently dry 
and where there is no danger of destructive insects or vermin 
entering through the floor. In other cases a floor of cement 
concrete should be laid, 4 to 6 inches thick, on a bed of broken 
stones, as above described, and tile-pipe drains might also be 
put in to carry off the water to some lower level. 

751. IWValls——The thickness of the walls depends greatly 
on the material used in the construction, and on the size of the 
silo. The larger and deeper the silo the greater is the pressure 
on the walls, and with an increase of pressure there must be a 
corresponding increase in the thickness of the walls. Fora silo 
of the capacity referred to in the preceding pages, built with 
stone, the walls should be at least 22 inches thick at the base, 
but may be diminished to 16 inches at the top, where the 
pressure is considerably less. If built with brick, the thickness 
might be 22 inches, or 24 bricks, at the bottom, diminishing 
to Iq inches, or 1} bricks, at the top. Stout hoop-iron bands 
or iron rods are frequently built into the walls to strengthen 
them, particularly near the doors, where the proximity of so 
many openings tends to weaken the masonry. If built of rein- 
forced concrete a thickness of 6 inches for the full height is 
sufficient. 

752. Plaster.—To facilitate the settling of the silage the 
walls of brick or stone silos should be plastered inside to a 
perfectly smooth surface, with a thick coating of cement plaster, 
which must be of the very best quality and well put on, as the 
acids in the silage are apt to soften it and cause it to crumble 
away. Concrete silos require only to have all rough parts 
scraped off, and the surface, both outside and inside, rubbed 
over where necessary with a canvas pad and neat cement to 
fill up any air bubbles or other small holes. Where an inferior 
class of bricks is used in the construction of the walls the out- 
side face should be plastered with cement plaster, but if the 
bricks are of good quality they may be left exposed and the 
joints filled up and struck as the building proceeds, or after- 


THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN STLOS 


= VENTILATOR 


‘ 


| 
| 


' AFILLING DOOR. 


i) 
t 
1 | an 
ts | 


l 
ghee (ee ee aes oil 


w—- —- 


ELEVATION. 


PLAN. 


SCALE !2FEET TO ONE INCH. 


Fic. 244.—Plan of silo. 


ALA" 


O 


Lp JOLIE ify 7 


SECTION. 


SILO. 


WALLS BUILT WITH STONE (NM LIME 
MORTAR AND PLASTERED WITH CEMENT 


INSIDE. OUTSIDE POINTED WITH CEMENT, 


GAOUND LEVEL. ROOF CORRUGATED /FON. 
SILE 17/0 17'0X 35/0 173108. 
CAPACITY 2OO0TONS. 


A.M.HAY. 


(Courtesy of Mr. A. Morrison Hay.) 


779 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


FLOOR CEMENT CONCRETE SFEET BELOW 


780 MAIZE 


CHAP. wards raked out and pointed with cement mortar. Stone 
XVI. walls require only to have the joints of the outside face raked 
out and pointed with cement mortar. 

753. Roof—Any of the materials in general use may be 
used for a roof covering, and any form of roof may be adopted, 
provided adequate provision is made for filling the silo and 
also for ventilating it during the process of fermentation. The 
‘“‘lean-to” roof does not fulfil these conditions, and is seldom 
used. The ordinary pitch roof witha gable at either end, or 
the pyramidal or conical roofs shown on the accompanying 
diagram, are undoubtedly the best forms, as they allow for 
the filling door being placed either in the gable or on the slope 
of the roof, and also admit of proper ventilation being arranged 
for. With a roof of corrugated iron, which is the covering 
most commonly used in South Africa, the slope of the roof 
need not be very steep, and the timbers forming the trusses 
need not exceed 44 inches x 14 inches, or 6 inches x 14 inches 
at most, according to width of silo. A ventilator should be 
placed at the apex of the roof, and openings should be formed 
at the eaves to create a draught and assist in carrying off the 
foul air and gases rising from the silage. 

754. Doors.—The doors required for a silo consist of a filling 
door placed in the gable or in the roof, above the highest point 
to which the silage is filled, and three »r four emptying doors 
placed one above the other at converignt intervals apart and 
usually at one side of the building. The filling door should be 
large enough to freely admit the carrier, say 2 feet 6 inches 
wide and 3 feet to 4 feet high, according to available space, 
and should be placed at the side most convenient for filling. 
The cut fodder is conveyed straight from the cutting machine 
through the filling door to the centre of the silo by means 
of a carrier or an elevating tube, up which it is forced by air 
pressure. 

The doors through which the silage is emptied should be 
about 24 inches wide and 30 inches high, one at the top and 
one at or near the level of the ground, and the others placed 
at intervals of about 4 feet apart vertically. They should be 
of well-seasoned timber, strongly made to resist the excessive 
pressure and heat, close fitted to exclude all air, and placed 
flush with the inside face of the wall. The doors may be 


THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN STLOS 781 


hinged to the frame, or they may simply be put in place while 
the silo is being filled, and suspended with chains to the wall 
when not in use; the former method being perhaps the more 
satisfactory. To make the doors more perfectly air-tight, thick 
felting is sometimes tacked to the frame, and stout paper is 
often pasted over the doors for the same purpose, 

755. Chute.—In most cases it will be found of great ad- 
vantage to have a vertical chute attached to the silo, down 
which the silage can fall when emptied from any of the doors. 
It is made in the form of a long box, extending from near the 
ground to the top of the silo, and covering the doors. It 
requires only three sides, the wall of the silo forming the fourth, 
and should measure about 2 feet 6 inches by 2 feet inside. A 
ladder running up the full height is fixed inside the chute, 
giving access to the doors when the silo is being filled or 
emptied. The lower end may be left open or may be fitted 
with a sloping bottom to slide the silage into a cart, barrow, 
or other receptacle used for conveying it to the cattle <A 
small door can be formed in the front or side to give access to 
the ladder. 

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 244) shows a square silo 
measuring 17 feet each way on plan and 25 feet in height (above 
ground) and having a capacity of 4,900 cubic feet, equal approxi- 
mately to 98 tons of silage. It is on the lines described in the 
preceding paragraphs, built of stone in lime mortar, covered with 
a roof of corrugated iron, and having a floor of cement concrete 5 
feet below the ground level. Four emptying doors are shown 
on one side and a filling door in the roof. There is a triangu- 
lar ventilating panel over the filling door and a large ventilator 
at the apex for escape of foul air, and for the admission of 
fresh air there is an opening of about 4 inches high between 
the walls and the roof all round. The inside corners are 
shown well rounded to facilitate the settling of the silage. 
Though shown standing alone, it need not necessarily do so, 
but could be attached to other buildings where found most 
convenient. : 

Such a building, if erected by contract at current prices in 
South Africa, would cost approximately £230, but a farmer 
could build it much more cheaply by employing local trades- 
men and providing all necessary transport and native labour. 


CHAP. 
XVI. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP. 


Take of Indian maiz half a pound.—Bacon, Medical Remedies and Workes, 
111. 828 (1626). 


756. Importance of Matze Products for Manufacturing Pur- 
poses. —The importance of maize as raw material for manufacture 
is but little realized outside of the United States. A single 
firm of Chicago manufacturers uses every year over 10,000,000 
(ten million) muids (20,000,000 centals) of low-grade maize 
(No. 3 and No. 4 grade, mostly the latter) for manufacturing 
purposes. Much of this grain would be almost valueless upon 
the market for any other purpose (Lowman and Crossley, 1). 
Starch, glucose, dextrine, corn oil, glycerine, sugar, alcohol, 
cellulose, rubber filler, paper, mats, hats, charcoal, tobacco- 
pipes, fire-lighters, gunpowder, and medicines are among the 
many materials and articles now prepared from maize. 

The grain furnishes the larger part of the raw material 
utilized in these manufactures; but the stem, pith, leaf, husk, 
cob, chaff, and silks are also used. 

Much attention has of late been given in South Africa to 
the question of establishing more local industries, and to the 
cultivation of special crops to maintain factories for the local 
production of the goods used in South Africa. But in such 
discussions and inquiries attention seems to have been directed 
largely to the introduction of new crops such as sugar-beets, 
ramie, rubber, soy-beans, linseed, etc., the profitable cultivation 
of which on a large scale is problematical, or at least not yet 
established ; the further utilization of crops such as maize, 
already well-established in the country, is a sounder and more 
economical policy. 

In every young country there are peculiar difficulties to be 

782 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 783 


oO 


overcome before new industries can be established; these may 
include climatic conditions, relative scarcity of water, high cost 
of living, scarcity and cost of skilled labour, cost of land for 
factory sites, etc. With so much to handicap manufacturing 
enterprises, their success must depend on the availability of 
raw materials at low cost. It is evident, therefore, that— 
other things being equal—the supply of crops well-established 
and largely grown in the country is more likely to be uniform 
in quantity and price than in the case of crops specially grown 
to support a special industry. 

The conclusion seems reasonable that if maize can be ex- 
ported profitably from South Africa for manufacture in Europe, 
the saving on cost of export should materially offset the extra 
cost incurred by manufacture in South Africa. Certain local 
industries have already been established, and are running 
successfully, even though a large part of the raw material used 
by them is zported from over-sea. Maize is the staple crop 
of South Africa, and the amount annually produced is increasing 
rapidly ; it is therefore worth the careful attention of business 
men looking for good business openings. It promotes eco- 
nomical production for the factory to be as near as possible to 
the source of supply of the raw material. 

A crop which can be utilized for the manufacture of many 
distinct products and by-products is likely to be more eco- 
nomically and profitably handled than one which is limited in 
its application and from which there ts a large residual waste. 
The object of this chapter is to describe the large and varied 
number of products which not only can be, but ave, manufactured 
from the maize plant, xo part of which need be wasted. 

707. Starch,—The manufacture of maize starch has become 
an extensive and important industry in North America. The 
total output of the grain-starch factories of the United States, 
in the census year 19900, had a value of over $8,000,000, or 
approximately 41,700,000. Of this amount $6,900,000, or 
86°25 per cent, was the value of the starch itself, and $1,100,000, 
or 13°75 per cent, the value of the by-products of starch manu- 
facture, In 1906 the starch export of the United States 
amounted to 33,287 tons, of 2,000 lIbs., valued at £306,120. 
Starch is used in the preparation of baking powder, and by 
cotton and paper manufacturers for stiffening ; maize starch is 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


484 MAIZE 


CHAP. said to have largely replaced potato-starch in the preparation 


XVII. 


of commercial laundry starch (Bowman and Crossley, 1). 

The Amylum, or Starch of materia medica, is officially 
described in the United States pharmacopceia as “ the fecula 
of the seed of Zea Mays Linné (Nat. Ord. Graminez),” 
and in the British pharmacopeeia as “ the starch procured from 
the grains of common wheat, 7r¢tecum sativuin Linn., maize, 
Zea Mays Linn., and rice, Oryza sativa Linn.” 

“The granules of maize starch are very small, with a 
diameter not exceeding—according to Payen—one-sixth of 
that of the potato, and little more than one-half of that 
of the wheat granules. They have a very distinct hilum, but 
no evident concentric strie. .. . Starch is nutritive and de- 
mulcent, but in its ordinary form is seldom administered in- 
ternally. Powdered and dusted on the skin it is sometimes 
used to absorb irritating secretions and prevent excoriation. 
Dissolved in hot water and allowed to cool, it is often employed 
in enemata, either as a vehicle or as a demulcent application in 
irritated states of the rectum. It may be used as an antidote 
to iodine” (Wood, Remington, and Sadtler, 1). 

Starch is prepared from maize grain by soaking the latter 
until soft, in a warm solution of sulphurous acid, when it is 
ground into meal in running water: the hulls float on the 
surface and are removed by sieving through silk ; the germs 
sink to the bottom, and the water, carrying the gluten and 
starch in suspension, passes on through long “‘settling-troughs,” 
in which the heavier starch settles to the bottom while the 
gluten floats on. The various by-products thus separated are 
dried and sold separately or variously combined, The starch 
obtained from the settling-troughs is known as “green starch ”. 
The “green starch” is treated in different ways for various 
manufactured products. The starch by-products together con- 
stitute “gluten feed”; separately they are known as “ sugar 
feed,” ‘“‘dried starch,” “wet starch feed,” ‘wet glucose feed,” 
etc. (1671, chap. XIv.). In the process of manufacture the 
addition of one part of water changes starch into cane sugar ; 
cane sugar, by the addition of one part of water, becomes 
glucose. By heating to 280° Fahr., in the presence of dilute 
nitric acid, green starch is converted into dextrine, or by treat- 
ment with dilute hydrochloric acid (or sulphuric acid with a 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 785 


limited amount of nitric acid) glucose is formed. The sul- 
phuric acid is afterwards neutralized with chalk or marble 
dust, and the hydrochloric acid with soda (Bowman and Cross- 
ley, 1). 

758. Dextrine.—Dextrine is a gummy substance into which 
starch is convertible by diastase or by certain acids.’ It is 
prepared from the “green starch” as it first comes from the 
settling-troughs. Dextrine in various forms has a wide use in 
sizing cloth and as a mordant or medium for conveying colours 
in cloth and calico printing. It is used extensively in the 
manufacture of paste and mucilage ; American postage stamps 
are “ gummed” with dextrine. It is also prepared in granular 
form and used as a substitute for gum-arabic, 

759. Corn Orl.—Corn oil is expressed from the embryo or 
“germ” of the maize grain. It is used as a lubricant and 
illuminant ; for the mixing of paints and, to some extent also, 
as a filler for certain animal oils. It has also been advertised 
as a cheap substitute for cod-liver oil in cases of tuberculosis, 
as a palatable and easily assimilated fat. The most important 
part of the process of manufacture appears to be the deger- 
mination of the grain. There are two systems of degermin- 
ation, the wet and the dry. The extraction of the embryo is 
said to be much more perfect in the wet than in the dry pro- 
cess, but the latter is said to be considerably less expensive, 
and is the one usually adopted. Messrs. Rose, Downs, and 
Thompson, of Hull, England, who are manufacturers of deger- 
minating plants, state that they have known cases where the 
“germ, extracted by the wet process, has contained 52 per 
cent of oil, whereas it usually contains about 20 per cent by the 
dry process, showing that in the latter case a considerable 
quantity of the endosperm or hull is removed with the 
embryo. The embryo, after extraction, may be treated in 
an ordinary Anglo-American mill or in a chemical extracting 
plant. 

760. Rubber Filler.— By vulcanizing maize oil, what appears 
to be a satisfactory rubber “ filler” is now manufactured. The 
material is coarse in texture and is said to lack some of the 
characteristics of real rubber, but it can be mixed with certain 
proportions of the latter in the manufacture of articles where 
durability, rather than great elasticity, is required. It is some- 

50 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


786 MAIZE 


times called a rubber substitute, but the term is misleading 
in this case, as the corn oil product can only be used _ satis- 
factorily in combination with real rubber. It is then em- 
ployed in the manufacture of “solid rubber” tyres, buffers, 
sole-rubber, ete. ; it’ is reported to be very popular on account 
of its usefulness as an insulator and filler, and because of its 
low cost. 

761. Glycerine-—Glycerine is a sweet, colourless, inodorous, 
viscid liquid, formed from fatty substances and consisting of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glycerine is obtained from 
different oils and fats, including maize oil, in the processes of 
manufacture. 

762. De-natured Alcohol—Enormous quantities of com- 
mercial alcohol are prepared from maize grain. In a single 
year the United States used 16,555,804 bushels of maize grain 
valued at $5,968,198 in the manufacture of distilled liquors, 
including alcohol, Cologne spirit, and whisky, ete. 

After the removal of the hull and embryo, 10 per cent of 
barley malt and yeast are added, and the grain is allowed to 
ferment. The enzymes in the malt change the starch of the 
grain into sugar, and the sugar into alcohol. A_ bushel of 
maize will produce about 2°7 gallons of 95 per cent alcohol, 
anda muid will produce from 8 to 9°5 gallons. At an average 
price of 6s. per muid for maize grain, its cost for manufacturing 
a gallon of 95 per cent industrial alcohol would be about 74d., 
according to American prices. This figure may be doubled to 
cover cost of manufacture, storage, etc., and another 5d. added 
for profits of manufacturer and dealer. At these figures in- 
dustrial alcohol, if untaxed, could be sold for about Is. 8d. 
per gallon (U.S.D.A., 1). 

De-natured alcohol has a large and increasingly important 
place not only as a solvent but also as a source of heat, light, 
and power. Cheap alcohol is used in Germany on a large 
scale in place of paraffin, petrol, gasoline, etc., for industrial 
purposes. Germany, like South Africa, is not a producer of 
mineral oils, and although she can obtain her oil at much lower 
cost than the South African farmer can, she finds it cheaper to 
use alcohol ; apart from motor carriages, Germany is reported 
to have in use over 5,000 small alcohol-propelled engines for 
agricultural and similar purposes. As an illuminant it is 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 787 


stated that alcohol, when burned in a suitable lamp, gives 
about twice as much light, with a consumption of only half 
the quantity of liquid, as compared with paraffin. The 
various forms in which alcohol is applied to industrial purposes 
in Germany include: motor-cars, motor-boats, motors for 
threshing, grinding, wood-cutting, ploughing, pumping, churn- 
ing, and other agricultural purposes; for house, shop, and 
street lamps ; heating-stoves, cooking-stoves, heating laundry 
irons, etc. In the United States the use of small engines and 
motors on the farm, to replace expensive manual labour, is 
rapidly increasing. In England, too, there has been a notice- 
able increase within the last few years in the application of 
these engines to agriculture. 

The principal drawback to the more extended use of this 
fuel for mechanical purposes has been the fact that alcohol is 
an important source of Government revenue in most civilized 
countries, and Governments have been reluctant to run the 
risk of losing any of this revenue. The excise duties were for 
a long time so high as to practically prohibit the use of alcohol 
for domestic purposes. The difficulty which faced the Govern- 
ment was to provide that, if the prohibitive duty were removed 
in the case of alcohol used for industrial purposes, the latter 
should not be used as a beverage without paying full duty. 
Germany and the United States overcame the difficulty by 
enacting legislation which provided that alcohol which had 
been de-natured, i.e. mixed with a certain proportion of de- 
naturing materials sufficient to prevent its use as a beverage, 
should not be taxed. The passage of the United States Act 


‘©was alcohol’s new day, and is destined to have a wide 
influence upon the agricultural pursuits of the country. In 
the matter of small engines and motors alone, one estimate 
places the farm use of these at three hundred thousand, with 
an annual increase of one hundred thousand. This means an 
economical displacing of horse and muscular work almost 
beyond comprehension. If now the farmer can make from 
surplus or cheaply grown crops the very alcohol which is to 
furnish the cheaper fuel for his motors, he is placed in a still 
more independent and commanding position in the industrial 
race... . The wisdom of the German system, established by 
the law of 1887, has long ceased to be a question of debate. 

ove 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


788 MAIZE 


For every RKeichsmark of revenue sacrificed by exempting 
de-natured spirits from taxation, the empire and its people have 
profited tenfold by the stimulus which has thereby been given 
to agriculture and the industrial arts” (IVrzght, Spon, and 
Chamberlain, 1). 


By de-natured alcohol is meant alcohol which has been 
rendered unpalatable by the addition of some poison or other 
dangerous or unpleasant substance which renders it unfit to 
drink. This is done with the object of rendering the spirit so 
objectionable that if allowed by Government to be manufac- 
tured and sold duty free, for industrial purposes, it shall not 
be used as a beverage and thus defraud the Government of 
legitimate revenue. ‘To be effective such treatment must not 
render the alcohol unfit for use in the arts and manufactures, 
and at the same time it must be of such a nature that the 
objectionable matter ,cannot be readily removed by dis- 
tilling. 

The substances used for this purpose include wood alcohol, 
benzol, benzine, ether, camphor, petro-naphtha, caustic soda, 
castor oil, oil of nicotine, ammonium iodide, sulphuric acid, 
pyridine, cadmium iodide, etc., which render the alcohol dan- 
gerous, or at least undrinkable, while not impairing its value 
for industrial purposes. 

The following account of the manufacture of de-natured 
alcohol in Peoria, Illinois, U.S.A., is taken from Harper's 
IVeekly, and appeared in the Natal Agricultural Journal 
(Anon., 6) :— 


‘Maize explains Peoria; ina way .. . it is thedistilleries, 
seventeen all told, that have made Peoria famous. It is the 
centre of spirit manufacture, for it is, or has been until the 
last few years, the very heart and geographical middle of the 
Corn-belt, and the other grains are not so far distant as to 
involve an excessive haul. This is the economy of manufac- 
ture, to be near the raw materials. 

“One of the biggest and most thoroughly equipped of the 
great distilling establishments of Peoria was the Atlas—a sky- 
scraping collection of brick buildings in the outskirts of the 
town, with a row of mighty steel stacks towering up into 
the sky. 

“When the knowledge of what Germany and the other 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 789 


European countries were doing with de-natured alcohol began to 
be disseminated in this country, when its big utility for purposes 
of heating, lighting, motive power, and commercial manufacture 
were made known, the Atlas Distillery stopped making whisky. 
The last gallon of the national stimulant was shipped out from 
its doors some three years ago, and to-day, instead of contri- 
buting its thousands upon thousands of barrels of strong 
drink, its mills are grinding grain, its cookers and vats and 
stills are seething with the processes that go to the making 
of de-natured alcohol. 

“The Atlas has ceased to be a drink-maker, and is helping 
to turn wheels and heat houses by the new cheap agent and 
assisting the cunning works of commerce and the arts. 

‘Last year the establishment used something over 3,000,000 
bushels of maize, rye, and barley. The long trains, grain- 
laden, drawn in by the railroads from various sections of the 
farming country, are taken over its sidings and up to the 
unloading sheds at the side of one of the tall buildings. 

‘‘From the car doors it is shot down through a grating at 
the side of the track under the long shed. Underneath this 
is a hopper from which the flying carriers, whisking up and 
down on their swiftly moving belting, take it up into the big 
storage receptacles high in the roof. 

“Thence it is delivered as needed to the groaning mills, 
and all the air is resonant through the long days with the 
sound of the grinding. When ground it is transferred to the 
‘cookers’ in an adjoining room, vast metal receptacles that 
themselves look like big boilers. Here in the shape of ‘mash’ 
the grain lies for an hour, and then is forced by vacuum 
pressure into a vat, where a revolving beam keeps it constantly 
agitated and through which with only brief delay it is pumped 
into the fermenting-tubs. 

“ These are gigantic wooden affairs, with their tops away 
up in the shadows under the roof. Here the grains lie for 
seventy-two hours. Underneath the iron-grated floor of the 
gloomy house where these tubs are crowded together wee is 
a huge cistern into which the mash drops from the tubs. From 
this cistern, after a short period of retention, it Is pumped into 
a beer-still. At this stage of progress the mass is known to 
the distilleryman as ‘beer’. 

“While it lay in the fermenting-tubs the yeast was intro- 
duced, so that now, when it reaches the beer-still, it is ina 
lively state of fermentation and vapours are thrown off which 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


790 MAIZE 


are the first material results of the changes it has undergone. 
Inside of the still when these vapours rise to the top they are 
condensed into ‘high wines,’ which are drawn off, while the 
mash, with its remaining moisture after all the high wines 
have been collected, is carried away to the feed-house. 

“ Now that Nature’s mysterious work of chemical extrac- 
tion has been perfected, modern ingenuity takes the grains in 
hand to see what can be made of them. Here is where science 
achieves her finest triumphs and becomes the true servant, for it 
is in the saving of every atom of waste, the conversion to profit 
of things already used and which former ages considered of no 
worth, that latter-day manufacture makes its surest margin of 
gain. Millions have thus been added to the wealth of the 
world in the past decade. 

‘“When the mash, now known as ‘slop,’ heavily saturated 
with moisture, is first taken to the feed-house it is subjected 
to heavy pressure and all possible liquid squeezed out of it. 
The residuum of the grain is then dried by being run through 
heated chambers and over spiral evaporators and packed as 
feed for cattle. 

“There still remains, however, the liquid, and this upon 
examination is found to be high in nutritive elements. After 
sundry experiments a mechanical method was obtained of 
converting this into solid form, and now it comes out from the 
final stage of reduction in the shape of a thin, breadstuffy 
brown sheet which when it first leaves the compressing-rollers 
has the appearance of crepe paper. Added to the dried-out 
grains before mentioned, about 4 lbs. to the bushel, there 
results a nutritious cattle feed, which wet down with corn 
stalks and other fodder is one of the most effective of milk- 
producers, showing as high as 33 per cent of proteids, 14 per 
cent of fats, 40 per cent of carbohydrates, and from 12 to 14 
per cent of fibre. This utilization of the fluid residuum adds 
about 1 cent a Ib. to the value of the food. Thus the last 
elements of worth in the grain are saved, and preserved in 
this way go back through the medium of manure to the land 
to make more corn. 

“Meantime the work of making de-natured alcohol goes on 
without interruption, The high wines which were solidified 
from the vapours thrown off from the mash in the beer-vat are 
again vaporized by means of steam coils and redistilled in a 
similar fashion, after which they come out in the shape of 
alcohol. 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 791 


“It is at this stage that the real making of de-natured CHap. 
alcohol by these several chemical and manufacturing processes “VII. 
begins. The pure grain alcohol is carried over in long pipes 
from the distillery to the de-naturing bonded warehouse in 
another part of the great plant and stored in an immense 
tank. 

“All along one side of the place are huge, white-painted 
wooden tanks, and at the head of the line a weighing-tank 
with scales attached, into which the pure alcohol is drawn for 
measurement, and where wood-alcohol and benzine are added 
before the de-naturing process begins. Pipes lead to each of 
the de-naturing tanks, one tank being reserved for each of the 
formulas at present prescribed by the Government. 

“Uncle Sam keeps scrupulous watch of the manufacture 
to see that no pure alcohol escapes to any quarter without 
paying its due portion of tax, and that all is used in the de- 
naturing processes which render it, nominally at least, un- 
drinkable. 

“What is known as the ‘complete’ de-nature is made up 
of 10 gallons of wood-alcohol to 100 gallons of grain-alcohol 
and the further addition of 4 gallon of benzine. This is the 
mixture as it is weighed in the weighing-tank and cast off 
thence into the other tanks where special formulas are 
prepared. Off at one side of the warehouse is a room in 
which are stored all the materials used in the different com- 
mercial de-natures, . 

‘“When these de-natures are finished the barrels are rolled 
up and filled from the tanks, and the gaugers keep record of 
it all, To distinguish the de-natured alcohol in shipment from 
the ordinary alcoholic products, green-painted barrels are 
used to contain it, and for the shipments to the great 
chemical manufacturing houses of the East steel drums are 
employed.” 


It is largely the damaged or inferior quality grain which is 
used for the preparation of de-natured alcohol, and distillers 
state that the better qualities of South African maize will be 
too expensive for this purpose. But there will always be a 
certain amount of damaged, inferior, and native-grown grain 
which would be available in South Africa, and there is a large 
distilling plant a few miles from Pretoria, now lying idle, which 
could be made available for the purpose. 

Alcohol could also be obtained from the stalks of the 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


792 MAIZE 


maize plant if they were cut at the right stage of growth, and 
especially if the sugar-content of the stalk were to be increased. 
It has been suggested (Pacific Rural Press, 8 Sept., 1906) 
that alcohol will yet be produced at a much lower cost 
than has ever been known, by the utilization of waste maize 
stalks, husks, cobs, etc., but this problem appears to be still 
a subject of experiment. 

763. Gas for IMuminating and Heating.—I\n an article in 
The Garden Magazine for November, 1907, the following 
statements were made :— 


“The Middle West has found a new use for the straw and 
corn cobs which heretofore it was necessary to burn in order to 
get them out of the way. On June 15th, 1907, at Beatrice, 
Neb., a plant was put into operation which manufactures 
illuminating gas from straw, corn-cobs, and things of that sort. 
The gas is sold to the residents for one dollar per 1,000 ft., 
which is seven dollars less per 1,000 ft. than the price charged 
for coal gas by a Company in the same city. Ton for ton 
more gas was produced from the vegetable matter than could 
be produced from the best Pennsylvania coal, 16,000 cu. ft. 
being taken from a ton of cobs and straw, which is 60 per cent 
more than the coal could have produced. 

“ Another advantage of the vegetable gas is that it produces 
660 British Thermal units of heat against 600 units for the 
coal gas. From now on there is no reason why towns of the 
Middle West should not be provided with gas plants, for there 
is abundance of fuel which may be had for the hauling, which 
costs a very small amount per ton. It costs six dollars a ton 
in Beatrice, Neb., for coal from which to manufacture gas. 
Gas plants already in operation can be converted to use straw 
and such things.” 


The following information on the subject was obtained 
from an attorney of long standing in Beatrice, Nebraska, 
the city referred to, and was courteously forwarded by Dean 
C. EF. Bessey, of the Department of Botany, University of 
Nebraska :— 


“Tt is true that when the new Gas Company first started 
here they used straw, cornstalks, cobs, etc. They advertised 
this fact very much in advance, claiming that a better and 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 793 


much cheaper gas was to be the result. Soon after they were 
started they were forced to mix oil with their straw. I just 


phoned to the Company, and they tell me that now they use 
coke and steam.” 


764. Matze Charcoal.—A fine quality of charcoal is manu- 
factured in the United States, from maize cobs, by the following 
process: A hole, 5 feet deep, 1 foot in diameter at the bottom 
and 5 feet at the top, is dug in the ground for a charcoal pit. 
A fire is started at the bottom of the pit with a few dry maize 
cobs ; these are added to until the flame is gradually drawn to 
the top of the pit, which is then full of cobs, A shect-iron 
cover, shaped like the lid of a kaffir pot, sufficiently large to 
cover the 5-feet hole and close up the burning mass, is placed 
over the aperture and sealed down at the edges with earth or 
cow-dung to keep out the air. It requires twelve hours to 
complete the burning. This method may perhaps require 
slight alteration to adapt it to local conditions. 

705. Paper Material.—The increasing scarcity and cost of 
wood are leading manufacturers to inquire for other materials 
for the manufacture of paper. The cost of paper is a particu- 
larly important question in South Africa, where it is claimed 
that some 43 per cent of the cost of the paper on which news- 
papers are printed goes to pay for transport from Europe, or, 
in other words, that for every 4100 spent in London for the 
paper, another £75 is spent to transport it to the Transvaal. 
If the paper were manufactured in South Africa, that extra 
43 per cent would either be saved to the publishers and go 
towards a reduction in the cost of the threepenny dailies, 
or it would, at least, be expended in South Africa (Burte- 
Davy, 5). ; ; ; 

Much has been said and written from time to time in 
favour of growing a special fibre crop in South Africa for the 
local manufacture of paper. But before attempting the pro- 
duction of special crops for the purpose, it is worth while to 
consider whether it would not be cheaper to make use of 
material already being grown in the country. 

In 1906 the writer went carefully into the question of the 
utilization of maize stalks and husks as paper materia] and, 
after correspondence with the Imperial Institute and the United 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


794 MAIZE 


States Department of Agriculture, it was found that the ma- 
terial was quite satisfactory for the purpose; in fact paper 
made from maize husks is described as remarkably tough and 
lacking the undesirable brittleness of common straw papers. 
The leaves, stalks, and sheaths (“husks”) of the maize plant 
have been extensively used in Southern Europe and the United 
States for the manufacture of paper. According to Simmonds, 
maize paper appears to be the least exceptionable of all papers 
not made from rags. It is remarkably tough and devoid of 
the silicious matter usually characteristic of straw papers, and 
is considered particularly suitable for bank-note paper and for 
envelopes. The coarser husks are used for the manufacture 
of wrapping paper. 

The practical aspect of the problem depends on whether 
suitable paper can be manufactured locally at the price of the im- 
ported article, viz. about £16 10s. perton. This, again, depends 
largely on the cost of erection and maintenance of plant, and 
cost of the necessary chemicals, most of which must be im- 
ported. The problem is chiefly an economic and commercial 
one, and the Imperial Institute advised that “a careful survey, 
by a practical expert, of the local conditions and the cost of 
manufacture would be necessary before a decision could be 
arrived at”. 

The following information on the subject is contained in a 
now rare publication by Mr. J. R. Dodge (1), and is given for 
the benefit of readers interested in this subject :— 

The husks or spathes enclosing the ears of maize have been 
used in various ways in many countries :— 


(1) As a fibre for yarns, for crash ; 

(2) For plaiting, like many of the reeds ; 

(3) For filling mattresses and for upholstery ; and lastly, 
(4) For making paper. 


There is a record of two maize-paper establishments existing 
in Italy in the eighteenth century. 


“ Economic Considerations —The commercial industry be- 
longs chiefly to Germany, Austria, and Hungary, though a 
patent for maize-paper process was issued by the United 
States in the beginning of the present century, to John Har- 
kins, of New Jersey, in 1802; another was issued in 1838 to 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 798 
Homer Holland of Massachusetts, and in 1860 a patent was 
issued for making paper pulp of corn cobs. Among the first 
serious experiments in manufacturing paper from maize were 
those made just prior to 1860 by Moritz Diamant, a Bohemian, 
who suggested to Baron Bruck, Austrian Minister of Finance, 
a process for making paper from maize. The imperial paper 
mill at Schlogemuhl, near Glogegnitz, undertook the manu- 
facture under Diamant’s direction; the product was not quite 
satisfactory either in quality or in cost of manufacture. His 
first application for Government aid was in 1856. After the 
unsuccessful experiment, followed by effectual efforts to induce 
private individuals to continue the work, he made a second 
request of the minister of finance, fortified with recommenda- 
tions from judicious, practical men, and the experiments were 
continued, but were not yet fully successful. To reduce the 
cost a ‘half-stuff factory’ was erected in a maize district, 
designed to cut off the heavy expense of transportation of the 
crude material. The product was so inferior that Diamant 
became disheartened, absented himself, and was released from 
his position, leaving the question unsolved. The cost of this 
experiment was about $1 3,000, which had been advanced by the 
imperial paper mill. The direction of the Schlogemuhi paper 
mill, not disposed to discontinue the effort to make a good 
and cheap paper, continued the experiments, aiming first to 
reduce the cost of production and, secondly, to investigate the 
cost of using only the finest husks enclosing the ear, rather 
than the leaves of the stalk entire. The result was, if nota 
material for paper cheap as rags, the discovery of a new fibre 
capable of being spun and woven, and furnishing in its waste 
a cheap paper. Specimens resulting from these Austrian 
experiments were sent to the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Among them were yarns to be used as a substi- 
tute for flax in crash, and oilcloth made from it, with a variety 
of papers, including ‘Royal Chancery,’ letter paper, flower 
paper, cigarette paper, silk paper, and drawing paper, ranging 
in price from $1°60 to $4°80 per ream. 

“The progress made in perfecting the manufacture of 
paper has of late been very satisfactory. Evidence of this is 
abundantly afforded in the specimens recently received at the 
U.S.A. Department of Agriculture from Dr. Chevalier Auer de 
Welsbach, director of the imperial printing establishment at 
Vienna and superintendent of the imperial paper mills at 
Schlogemuhl, who had been unremitting in his efforts, which 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


796 MAIZE 


CHAP. have been crowned with a large measure of success. Among 


XVII. 


these papers are found parchment and document papers of 
great strength and durability ; tracing paper of superior tenacity 
and transparency, an effect of the natural gluten of the husks, 
rendering unnecessary the present expensive process of its 
manufacture and supplying draughtsmen with the cheapest 
material known; letter paper in various styles and in several 
colours, with a smooth and polished but soft surface, which takes 
the ink kindly ; ‘chancery papers’ of great variety in size, very 
heavy and durable; beautiful silk paper of several colours, of 
wonderful delicacy in structure and finish; paper for the manu- 
facture of artificial flowers, in lilac, rose, blue, green, and brown, 
gossamer-like yet strong, weighing but 6 lb. to the ream ; and 
cigarette paper, but little heavier, weighing but 7 |b. to the 
ream. Of most varieties, both hand and machine papers are 
produced. A peculiarity of this paper, due to the large pro- 
portion of gluten it contains, is worthy of mention: placed 
with common paper in water and left to soak until the latter 
will fall to pieces by its own weight, the maize paper on trial 
seems nearly or quite as tenacious as ever. The process of 
manufacture is claimed to be simple; the humblest labourer 
can readily understand it with little instruction and practise it 
with success. The cost of the husks (and it seems that leaves 
are to some extent included) is from 32 to 56 cents per 125 
English Ibs. (per centner), or $9 per ton at the higher price, 
which represents more the labour of gathering than the value 
of the material. This is, of course, in the locality of their pro- 
duction. The cost of extracting the fibre from 100,000 cent- 
ners (6,250 tons) is estimated: For coal and other materials, 
$15,705; labour, $6,400; interest and loss, $4,296; raw ma- 
terial, including local freight, $80,000: total, $106,401. To 
this add for labourers and repairs to swell the total to $109,496. 
The product is 10 per cent of spinning fibre, 19 per cent of 
paper stuff, and 11 per cent of feed stuff, or 40 per cent in 
all, leaving a loss of 60 per cent. The spinning stuff is worth 
$64,000; paper material, $72,200; feed stuff, $15,400: total, 
$151,600. Deducting the expenses of manufacturing, a profit 
of $42,104 is shown.” 


In the year 1908-9 the Natal Government, through its 
Commercial Agent, received the following memorandum on 
the subject from the United States Department of Agriculture 
at Washington (V.4./., Vol. XII, No. 2, February, 1909) :-— 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 7197 

‘That good paper can be made from corn [maize] stalks 
was proven long ago. The Government's present experiments 
which are being carried out by the Forest Service and the 
Bureau of Plant Industry in co-operation, are merely to obtain 
authentic data on this subject, and to determine if possible just 
what is necessary to make the manufacture of paper pulp from 
corn stalks a commercial success. The corn stalks thus far 
experimented with have been those grown locally during the 
season of 1907, but there is no reason to suppose that the 
material grown in the Corn-belt would not yield fully as goed 
a product. 

“The stalks are received in the laboratory in bundles, which 
are opened out and shaken to remove loose dirt. They are 
then cut into short pieces and washed to remove as much field 
dirt as possible, and are then ready to put into the digester 
for cooking. Before the regular cooking process is commenced 
the stalks in the digester are extracted several times with water 
and live steam under 10 to 25 pounds pressure. This removes 
much soluble material, containing most of the nutritious matter 
originally present in the stalks, and after partial evaporation 
of the extract it could probably be used as cattle food. After 
the extraction with water is completed, the caustic soda is 
added to the material in the digester and the regular cooking 
process is proceeded with. The ‘cooks’ made have varied 
from several hours at 95 pounds steam pressure down to one 
and a half hours at 110 pounds, and the caustic soda used has 
been from 10 to 25 per cent of the bone-dry stalks removed. 
It is found that the best results are obtained by using about 
15 to 10 per cent of caustic soda and cooking about two hours 
after a pressure of 110 pounds is reached. 

“ After the ‘cook’ is completed the fibre is blown out of 
the digester into a vat with a false bottom which allows the 
waste liquors to drain away. The material is washed in this 
vat with hot water until the waste liquors, which are very dark 
brown, are removed, and it then goes toa specially constructed 
screen which separates the pith cells from the long fibre. This 
process is necessary as the pith cells tend to make the paper 
harder than is desired for many grades. The fibre, after 
separation of the pith, is found to be long and strong and 

could be used for nearly any grade of white paper as it is 
- found to bleach easily with 7 to 12 per cent of bleach. it 
could also be employed in the unbleached state for wrapping 
paper, and with the addition of ground wood for the production 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


798 MAIZE 


of cheap printing paper. The pith-pulp in its dry state is very 
hard, and in some ways resembles horn; it has limited water 
and grease proof qualities, which might make it of value in 
certain grades of wrappings. Its remarkable bending qualities 
when slightly moist would probably make it serviceable in the 
production of box board. 

“From the results of these tests already completed it is safe 
to conclude that one ton (2,000 Ibs.) of bone-dry stalks will 
yield about as follows: Food extract, 300 Ibs. ; long fibre, 300 
Ibs. ; pith, 600 Ibs. ; waste, 800 lbs.” 


Writing in June, 1910, the Agricultural Technologist of 
the United States Department of Agriculture reported :— 


“This office has in charge projects for the utilization of 
corn stalks for paper, and incidentally we are at work on making 
a food extract of commercial value. But it is quite safe to say 
that at the present time no process can be recommended as 
having stood the test of practical manufacture. With the 
increasing price of wood and other sources of paper it is quite 
possible that corn s¢a/ks may be utilized as raw material for 


paper.” 


766. Cellulose.—TVhe inside of the maize stalk is a pithy 
mass mainly composed of cellular tissue, free from sap and 
other impurities, It therefore furnishes a nearly pure “ natural” 
cellulose, easily and cheaply produced from an almost inex- 
haustible supply. In the United States, according to Dodge 
(1), this pith is extracted by machinery, and is used in the 
manufacture of celluloid, paper-pulp, a floor-covering resem- 
bling linoleum, viscose nitrates, insulation for refrigerator 
trucks, steam-pipe and boiler coverings, and dry cells for elec- 
tric storage batteries. 

Treated with nitric and sulphuric acids cellulose produces 
guncotton. Guncotton and nitro-glycerine form smokeless 
powder. Pyroxylin varnish is a by-product obtained in the 
manufacture of cellulose. It is stated that “this source of 
cellulose will make possible the practical production of many 
articles that have heretofore been only made as the result of. 
laboratory experiments ” (Il’a¢/s, quoted by Dodge, 1). 

An interesting use of the cellulose obtained from maize 
stalks was recorded by Cramp (1) as follows :— 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP - 799 


ee Phe corn-pith cellulose is employed as a packing material 
in the coffer-dams in connection with the armour plating of 
United States war vessels. The corn pith is suitably cleaned 
and pressed into blocks, when it is ready to use. A cellulose 
belt of three feet may be said to be as efficient as six inches of 
best steel. Experiments have shown that there is no danger 
of the substance being washed out through shot holes by the 
action of the sea, and it is considered better in many ways 
than other substances, such as coco-nut fibre, which have also 
been used. Coir fibre employed as packing has been ignited, 
while corn pith has proved incombustible, A special advan- 
tage results from its great absorption of water, whereby a 
shot hole is soon filled up through the filling of the corn-pith 
packing.” 


In some parts of the United States the prepared p77 from 
the maize stalk is said to be used in the manufacture of horse 
collars and mattresses; while in Florida it is said to be made 
into many forms of “pottery,” ‘delicately tinted in greens 
and greys, which make exquisite decorative novelties for the 
drawing-room” (Dodge, 1). It is also said to be used in the 
manufacture of box board at a much lower cost than that pre- 
pared from rags or wood-pulp. 

767. Other Uses for Maize Husks.—In addition to its use 
as a paper material (1 765), the thin papery ws surrounding 
the maize ear is used in the United States as filling for mat- 
tresses and pillows and for packing horse collars. In South 
Africa and in the Northern United States maize husks are 
twisted and plaited into artistic door-mats, which are very 
durable; good examples have been turned out by the 
native schools in Natal, and in the Zoutpansberg District, 
Northern Transvaal, under the direction of the Transvaal De- 
partment of Education ; also by prisoners undergoing sentence 
at the Central Prison, Pretoria, where the industry has been 
wisely fostered by Mr. J. de Villiers Roos, Secretary of the 
Law Department. Maize husks are also used in the Southern 
United States, in Jamaica, and South Africa, in the manufacture 
of light summer hats, both for women and men; in Florida, 
U.S.A., the husks, split into strips, are made into “ chip hats,” 
and when properly trimmed are said to be both stylish and 
pretty, and are sold in the Florida bazaars. The Moqui 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


S800 MAIZE 


CHAP. Indians of the Western United States plait their food-trays out 
XVII. of maize husks, according to Dr. Fewkes (Dodge, 1). Useful 
and durable baskets and mats are woven out of maize husks 
and string. The husks are placed between damp cloths for 


Fic. 245.—Mats, etc., made of maize husks. (Courtesy of Ladies’ Home 
Fournal.) 
several hours to make them flexible, thus preventing breaks 
and tears in working. Throughout the construction small 
headless nails or #- to $-inch brads are used. A woven mat 
like that shown in Fig. 245 can be made on an ordinary loom; 


OTHER USES OF THE MAIZE CROP 801 


it measures 28 by 22 inches; the warp consists of common 
twine and is woven with ripe maize husk. 

768. Other Uses for Maize Cobs.—In addition to their use 
for the manufacture of charcoal and corn-and-cob meal already 
alluded to (4 665 and 764), maize cobs are used in St. Louis, 
Mo., U.S.A., for the manufacture of ‘“ Missouri corn-cob ” 
tobacco-pipe bowls; these are prepared from a particularly 
large type of maize, and are chiefly used locally, but there is a 
limited export to the British Islands and the Colonies. Cobs 
are also used in America and France as fire-lighters ; at one 
time maize-cob fire-lighters were retailed in Paris for twelve to 
twenty francs per 1,000. On the treeless parts of the South 
African High-veld, where wood and coal are scarce and 
expensive, maize cobs are in some cases the only fuel used ; 
they make an excellent “baking fire” ; in the United States a 
ton (2,000 lbs.) of maize cobs is estimated to be worth one-third 
of a ton of dry, hard wood. In some parts of South Africa 
maize cobs are used for firing the tobacco seed-beds, and are 
considered the best fuel for the purpose. 

In 1906-8 experiments were conducted at the Dynamite 
Factory of the British South African Explosives Company, 
Limited, Modderfontein, Transvaal, in the use of maize cobs, 
ground down to an impalpable powder, as a substitute for the 
imported “ wood-meal” or wood-pulp in the manufacture of 
explosives. Writing in September, 1908, the General Manager, 
Mr. Cullen, stated that the trials had not been very success- 
ful, so that the idea of working up the maize cobs had been 
abandoned. : 

In parts of Iowa, where maize is shelled on a large scale, 
the cobs are carted back to the land as a fertilizer for the 
addition of humus, potash, and phosphoric acid. Majze-cob 
ash contains about 50 per cent potash. 

769. Maize Chaff-—Maize chaff, obtained in the cleaning 
of shelled maize in the mills, and in the preparation of corn cob 
pipes, is used in upholstery and mattress-making. 

770. Zeaor Maize Silk.—The “ styles and stigmas of Zea 
Mays Linné (Nat. Ord. Graminee)” are official in the United 
States pharmacopceia under the name “ zea,” “ Maidis stigmata” 
or ‘‘corn silk”. The portion which is used in medicine is that 
which is commonly known as the “silk” of the “ ear,” being 

51 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


CHAP. 
XVII. 


802 MAIZE 


the elongated styles and stigmas collected from the “ nearly-ripe 
maize fruit”. It is officially described as “ thread-like ; about 
15 cm. long and o-5 mm. broad, yellowish or greenish, soft, 
silky, finely hairy, and delicately veined longitudinally ; in- 
odorous, taste sweetish” (U.S. Pharmacopwia: Wood, Rem- 
ington, and Sad¢ler, 1). 

Wood, Remington, and Sadtler (1) describe the composi- 
tion, medical properties, and uses as follows :— 


“Rademaker and Fischer (1) determined the presence of 
2°25 per cent of mazzenzc acid in dried corn silk. It was first 
described, however, by Dr. Vautier. It is freely soluble in 
water, alcohol, and ether, but insoluble in benzin. Rademaker 
and Fischer found, in addition to the acid, fixed oil, resin, 
chlorophyll, sugar, gum, extractive albuminoids, phlobaphene, 
salt, cellulose, and water. 

“Zea has been highly recommended by various surgeons as 
a mild stimulant diuretic, useful in acute and chronic cystitis, 
and in the bladder irritation of z7ze aced and phosphatic gravel. 
It has also been employed in gonorrhea, and has been affirmed 
by M. Landreux to be a useful diuretic, and even cardiac 
stimulant in the dropsy of heart disease. It has been commonly 
used in the form of infusion, two ounces to the pint of boiling 
water, taken almost ad /zbctum ; but the fluid extract dose, 
one to two fluidrachms every two or three hours, is an excel- 
lent preparation. A solid aqueous extract would probably 
represent all the activity of the drug, and may be given in 
doses of five to ten grains three to six times a day. Maizenic 
acid has been used in doses of one-eighth of a grain (0-008 
gm.),” 


771. Maids Ustilago.—Maize smut is said to be used 
sometimes, under the name AMazd's Ustilago, in Materia 
Medica, in the place of Ergot. 

772. Use of Maize Straw for Thatching.—Tucker (1, p. 
299) speaks of maize straw as used for thatching roofs in parts 
of south-east Europe. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


In the following list of books and papers, the writer has included not only 
references cited, but such other papers and books which bear on the subject as 
he thought would be useful to those who wish to go into further detail. But 
he has made no attempt to produce an exhaustive bibliography of maize. 


ABBREVIATIONS USED IN CITING REFERENCES. 


A.J.U. = Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa; commenced 
IQII. 
Ann. Rep. = Annual Report. 
Assn. = Association. 
Bull. = Bulletin. 
Bur. Pl. Ind. = Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S.D.A. 
C.A.J. = Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope. 
Exp. Sta. = Experiment Station Record, published by the United States 
Rec. Department of Agriculture. 
N.A.]J. = Natal Agricultural Journal. 
R.A.]J. = Rhodesian Agricultural Journal. 
TAs]: = Transvaal Agricultural Journal. 
T.D.A. = Transvaal Department of Agriculture. 
U.S.A. = United States of America. 
U.S.D.A. = United States Department of Agriculture. 
A 


Alway, F. J., and Peters, A. T. Losses from Cornstalk Disease in Custer Co., 
Nebraska, during the winter of 1906-7. Nebraska Exp. Sta. Press, Bull. 27, 


uae 

Ae. E. (1). Mais e Pellagra. Arch. di antrop. crim. [etc.]. Torino, 1912, 
4s., [V, 648-61, 1 pl. 

Anderson, D. C. Silage and Silos. T.A.J., Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 74-5, April, 
1903. 

Annett, H. E., and Russell, E. J. The Composition of Green Maize and of the 
Silage produced therefrom. Journ. of Agric. Sci., Vol. II, Pt. 4, pp. 382- 
gt, July, 1908. 

[Anon. (1)]. Report of Working Committee of Stanger Experiment Farm, Natal, 
for period ending 31 January, 1905. N.A.J., Vol. VIII, No. 2, pp. 129-30, 
Feb., 1905. 

[—— (2). Maize Cobs and Straw for Manufacture of Illuminating Gas.] In 
The Garden Mag., Nov., 1907. 

[—— (3)]. Fungi Affecting Mealies: CornSmut. C.A.J., June, 1906, pp. 761 4. 


803 ie 


804 MAIZE 


[Anon. (4)]. Witchweed; in N.A.J., Vol. VII, No. 3, p. 231, March, 1904, and 
Vol. IX, No. 3, p. 197, March, 1906. 

[——— (5)]. Argentine Republic Ministry of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural 
Statistics and Rural Economy ; Bull. “Agricultural Argentina,” May, I9ro. 

[—— (6)]. Maize for the Manufacture of Alcohol; in N.A.J., Vol. XII, No. 2, 
pp. 196-9, Feb., rgog. 


B 


Babcock and Russell (1); in Wisconsin (U.S.A.) Station Report, 1gor. 

Bacon, Sir F. (1). Sylvarum, § 49 (1626). 

—— Medical Remedies and Workes, III, 828 (1626). 

Barrett, J. T. (rt). Dry Rot of Corn and its Causes. Science, 27, pp. 212-3, 1908; 
Exp. Sta. Rec., 19, 1048-9. 

Bateson, Prof. W. (rand 2). Mendel’s Principles of Heredity. Cambridge 
University Press, pp. 1-396, Igog. 

—— and Punnett, R. C. Reports to the Evolution Committee, Vol. IV, pp. 
I-60, 1908. 

Bauer, E. Das Wesen und die Erblichkeitsverhaltnisse der ‘‘ Varietates 
Albomarginate Hort’? von Pelargonium Zonale. Zeitschrift fiir induktive 
Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre, Vol. I, pp. 330-51. 

Bell, T. O. Maize Experiments at the Experiment Farm, Potchefstroom; U.A.J., 
IgIt. 

Bertrand, G. (1). Les engrais complémentaires : Internat. Congress of Applied 
Chem., Berlin, 1903; Bericht III, 839-40. 

Billings, F.S. Corn-fodder Disease Investigations, Nebraska Sta. Bull. 7, 8, 9, 
Io, 22, and 23 (1892); Exp. Sta. Rec., Vol. IV, p. 843. 

Blyth (1). Foods: their Composition and Analysis; 6th edition, 1999. 

Bonafous. Histoire Naturelle Agricole et Economique du Mais, Vol. I, Folio, 
Paris, 1836. 

Bowman, M. L., and Crossley, B. W. (x). Corn-growing, Judging, Breeding, 
Feeding, Marketing. Published by the authors. The Kenyon Printing and 
Mfg. Co., Des Moines, Iowa (U.S.A.), Nov., 1908. Issued 1 Dec., 1908. 

Brewer, Prof. (1). Report of the Tenth Census of the U.S.A.; “ Agriculture”. 

Brigham, A. A. Der Mais. Inaugural Dissertation. Géttingen, 1896, W. Fr. 
Kaestner. 

Bright, Major R.G. T.(z). Survey and Exploration in the Ruwenzori and Lake 
Region, Central Africa. Geogr. Journ., Vol. XXXIV, No. 2, pp. 128-55, 
Aug., 1909. : 

Brown, E. (rt). Legal and Customary Weight of a Bushel of Seeds. U.S.D.A., 
Bur. Pl. Ind., Bull. 51, Pt. V, 14 Oct., rgo4. 

Brown, E., and Duvel, J. W. T. A Quick Method for the Determination of 
Moisture in Grain. U.S.D.A., Bur. Pl. Ind., Bull. 99, 1907. 

Browne. Maize or Indian Corn. In American Institute; Ann. Rep., Vol. V, 
p. 412, 1847. 

Bruce, P. A. (1). Econ. Hist. Virg., I, 167 (1896), as cited in Murray’s Diction- 
ary, under Maize. 

Bryant, Rev. A. T. (1). A Description of Native Food-stuffs and their Pre- 
paration. 

Bull, C. P. Corn-breeding in Minnesota. “Minn. (U.S.A.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 107, 
March, 1908. 

Burchell, W. J. (1). Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, 2 vols., 1822-4. 

Burrill, T. J., and Barrett, J. T. (z). Dry Rot of Corn. Illinois (U.S.A.) Exp. 


—— Ear Rots of Corn.  Hlinois (U.S.A.) Sta. Bull. 133, Feb., 1909. Science, 
N.S., XXX, No. 779, p. 811, 3 Dec., 1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 805 


Burton, A. R. E. (r). Ensilage. Transvaal Govt. Handbook for Settlers, 1902, 
PP- 47-9. 

—— (2). Cape Colony for the Settler. London, 1903. 

Burtt-Davy, J. (1). Witch-weed or Rooi-bloemetje. In T.A.J., Vol. II, No. 7, 
pp. 288-90, April, rg04. 

—— (2). Note on Maize Varieties. T.A.J., Vol. III, No. ro, pp. 300-1, 


Jan., 1905. 
—— (3). Maize-growing in America. T.A.J., Vol. IV, No. 14, pp. 370-1, 
Jan., 1906. 


—— (4). Feeding Value of Maize Silage and Maize Stover. T.A.J., Vol. IV, 

No. 14, pp. 371-2, Jan., 1906. 

(5). Maize Husks as Paper Material. T.A.J., Vol. IV, Nos. 14 and 15, Jan. 

and April, 1906, pp. 366-70 and 611-2. 

—— (6). Notes on the Selection of Maize for Breeding. T.A.J., Vol. IV, No. 
15, pp. 594-7, April, 1906. 

—— (7). How to Secure Good Seed Maize. T.A.J., Vol. VI, No. 23, April, 
1908, and Farmers’ Bull., No. 6. 

—— (8). An Experiment in Breeding a New Type of Maize. T.A.J., Vol. 
VIII, No. 31, pp. 450-3, April, rgro. 

—— (9). A Note on Correlation of Characters in Maize Breeding. T.A.J., 
Vol. VIII, No. 31, pp. 453-5, April, rgto. 

—— (10). Degree of Dryness of Maize Required for Safe Shipment. T.A.J., 
Vol. VIII, No. 31, pp. 456-60, April, rgro. 

—— (11). Relative Maize Yields of Different Districts of the Transvaal. T.A.J., 
Vol. VIII, No. 31, pp. 461-2, April, rgro. 

—— (12). The Finest Ear of Maize in America. T.A.J., Vol. VIII, No. 31, 
p- 462, April, 1910. 

—— (13). The First South African Maize and Citrus Conference and Show, 
rgto. T.A.J., Vol. VIII, No. 32, pp. 593-8, July, roto. Also issued as a 
separate Report, with addenda. 

—— (14). Need for Uniformity in Maize Prize Lists at Local Shows. T.A.J., 
Vol. VIII, No. 32, pp. 627-32, July, rgro. 

—— (15). The Rotation of Crops for Irrigated Lands. T.D.A., Farmers’ Bull. 
r18, June, rgto. Revised for “ Agricultural South Africa: the Farmers’ 
Annual, 1910,” Cape Times, Ltd. 

—— (16). Climatic Requirements of the Maize Crop. T.A.J., Vol. VII, No. 
27, p. 431, April, tgog, and reprint. 

—— (17). Botanical Characters of the Maize Plant. T.A.J., Vol. VII, No. 27, 

1909; Transvaal Education Department Code Leaflet, No. 3 (Nature Study). 

(18). Maize Studies. T.D.A., Farmers’ Bull. 55, 1909. 

—— (19). Verbetering van het Gezaaide. Geillustreerd Jaarboek van ‘‘ Het 
Westen,” 190g. 

—— (20). Varieties and Breeds of Maize for the Transvaal. T.A.J., Vol. VII, 
No. 28, 1909, and Farmers’ Bull. 64. 

—— (21). (See Burtt-Davy, J., and Holm, A.) 

—— (22). In South African Railways Maize Brochure, 1gog. 

—— (23). Additional Uses of the Maize Crop. T.A.J., Vol. VI, No. 24, pp. 
566-8, July, 1908. 

—— (24). Maize-growing for Profit. Year-book of the Agric. Judges Assn. of 
the Orange River Colony, 1909. 

—— (25). Incomplete Dichogamy in Zea Mays. Journ. Bot., May, rgog, pp. 
180-2. 

—— (26). The Judging of Seed Maize. TT.D.A., Farmers’ Bull. 79, Sept., 


1909, p. T4. 


806 MAIZE 


Burtt-Davy, J. (27). Observations on the Inheritance of Characters in Zea 
Mays Linn. In Trans. Roy. Soc. of South Africa, Vol. II, Pt. 3, pp. 261-70, 
1912. (Read 17 May, rgir.) 

—— and Holm, A. Silage Crops and the Making of Silage. T.D.A., Farmers’ 
Bull. gi, 1909. 


Cc 


Canadian Govt. (1). Exp. Farms Report, 1902. 

Carter, Miss Marion Hamilton (1). Pellagra, the Medical Mystery of To-day. 
In McClure’s Magazine (August ?), 1909, pp. 94-107. 

Carver, Prof. T. N. (1). Corn Growing and the Corn Grower. The World’s 
Work, Vol. VII, pp. 4127-37, Nov., 1903. 

Cavers, Dr. F. (1). Practical Botany. London, W. B. Clive, rorr. 

Cecconi, H. Erythémes pellagreux et E. pellagroides. Paris, Thésis, 1903. 

Century Magazine (r), April, 1894, p. 849. 

Cesa-Bianchi, D., and Vallardi, C. (x). Alimentazione maidica ed ipersensibilita 
agli estratti di mais. Path. rev. quindicini, Geneva, rgr1-2, IV, 375-¢. 
Chiappini, C. du P. The Classes of Maize best suited for the European Markets. 
Paper read at the Johannesburg Maize Conference, July, rg1o (published 

in Report of the Conference). 

Chittenden, Dr. R. H., and Osborne, Dr. T. B. (x). Report on the Use of Maize 
(Indian Corn) in Europe, etc., U.S.D.A. Special Report, 1891. 

—— (2). A Study of the Proteids of the Corn or Maize Kernel. American 
Chemical Journal, Vol. XIII, Nos. 7 and 8, and Vol. XIV, No. 1, 18g2. 
Church, Prof. A. H. (1). Food Grains of India. London, 1886, and Supple- 

ment, Igol. 

Coburn, F. D. (1). Corn: its Cultivation, Handling, Utilization, Cost, and 
Values, more especially from a Kansas standpoint. Report Kansas State 
Board of Agriculture, Topeka, Kansas (U.S.A.), 31 March, 1896. 

—— (2). In Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Quarterly Report, Dec., 1897. 

—— (3). Swine Husbandry. 

Collins, G. N. (rt). Heredity of a Maize Variation. U.S.D.A., Bur. of Pl. Ind., 
Bull. No. 272, 21 Jan., 1913. 

—— (2). The Value of First-generation Hybrids in Corn. U.S.D.A., Bur. 
Pl. Ind., Bull. r91, rgr0, 45 pp. 

—— (3). A New Type of Indian Corn from China. U.S.D.A., Bur. Pl. Ind., 
Bull. No. 161, g Dec., 1909. 

—— (4). Apogamy in the Maize Plant; in Contributions from the U.S. 
National Herbarium, XII, 10, rgog. 

Cooke, B., F.R.S. Part of a Letter from Mr. Benj. Cooke, F.R.S., to Mr. Peter 
Collinson, F.R.S., concerning Mayze or Indian Corn; in Philosophical 
Transactions of the Royal Soc., London, Vol. XLVI, pp. 205-6 (for the 
years 1749 and 1750, published in 1752). 

Correns, Prof. C. (z). Untersuchungen tiber die Xenien bei Zea Mays: Ber. 
Deutsch. Bot. Gesellsch., 1899, XVII, No. 10, p. 410 i 

—— (2) Uber Levkoyenbastarde: zur Kenntniss der Grenzen der Mendels’schen 
Regeln; Bot. Centr. BI., Bd. LXXXIV, p. 97, 1g00. 

—— (3). Bastarde zwischen Maisrassen, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der 
Xenien; Bibl. Bot. Original-Abh. a. d. Gesamtgebiete d. Bot., Heft 53, 
Igor. 

—— (4). G. Mendel’s Regel iiber das Verhalten der Nachkommenschaft der 
Rassenbastarde. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., Bd. XVIII, p. 158, rgoo. 
—— (5). Scheinbare Ausnahmen von der Mendels’schen Spaltungsregel fir 

Bastarde; Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., Bd. XX, P. 159, 1902. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 807 


Cotts, Wm., & Co. Maize, Indian Corn, or Mealies. Export Notes; A little 
History, a few Recommendations; Durban (Natal), May, rg08 (pamphlet). 

Courchet. Recherches sur les chromoleucites. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., Ser. 8, Vol. 
VII, p. 263, 1888. 

Craig, R. A. Cornstalk Disease. Purdue Univ. Exp. Sta. Cir., III, p- Lo. 

—— (z). Silage Poisoning. Purdue Univ. Exp. Sta. Supplement to Bull. 147, 
p. 628. 

Cramp, H. W. (1). Paper read before the American Society of Naval Architects 
and Mining Engineers, rr December, 1896, quoted by Dodge (1). 

Crawford, O. Round Cal. Portugal, 197 (1890). 

Crook, William. Rural and Agricultural Glossary. Gives a number of alter- 
native Oriental names for maize. 


D 


Dampier (r). Voyages. Masefield’s Edition, Vol. II. 209, 1906. 

Darwin, Charles (r). A Naturalist’s Voyage in H.M.S. ‘ Beagle,” 1860. 

—— (2). The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, Vol. I, 
p. 320, London, 1899. 

—— (3). The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. 
London, 1876, 482 pp. 

Davenport, C. B. Degeneration, Albinism, and Inbreeding. Science, N.S., 
Vol. XXVIII, pp. 454-5, 1908. 

—— Inheritance of Characteristics in Domestic Fowl. Carnegie Institution of 
Washington, Publication, Vol. CXXI, pp. 1-100, 1909. 

—— Imperfections of Dominance, and some of its Consequences. American 
Naturalist, Vol. XLIV, pp. 129-35, rgro. 

Davis, W. G. (x). Climate of the Argentine Republic. Published by the Argen- 
tine Ministry of Agriculture, Buenos Aires, 1go2. 

—— (2). ‘Agricultural Argentina.” Bulletin of the Argentine Republic 
Ministry of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural” Statistics and Rural 
Economy, May, 1gto. 

Dawe, M. T. (z). Report on a Botanical Mission through the Forest Districts 
of Buddu and the Western and Nile Provinces of the Uganda Protectorate. 
Cd. 2904. London, H.M. Printers, 1906. 

De Candolle, A. (x). Origin of Cultivated Plants. London, 1884. 

De Vries, H. Plant Breeding. Chicago and London, 1907. 

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816 MAIZE 


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52 


818 MAIZE 


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52 


INDEX. 


ACCLIMATIZATION, 43. | Aphides, 450. 

Acre, feeding value of, 734. | Apogamy, 124. 

— yield per, 128, 147. Apogeotropism, 73. 

— value in U.S.A,, 5. | Argentina, 51. 

Acreage under maize in S. Africa, 8. —- temperature, 27, 29. 

Acridida, 446. | Argentine Elevator Silos, 612. 

Adventitious roots, 75. Ash, 651, 652. 

Africa, native method of preparing | Asia, growth of maize in, 14, 53. 
maize, 676. | Atlantic States, 49. 

— staple food of races of, 675. Auricle, absence of, 124. 


— (S.) acreage under maize, 8. Auricles, inheritance of, 191. 
— breeds of Dent maize, 284. | Australia, 55, 510. 

— breeds of Flint maize, 314. | 

— character of soils, 349. | BaBoons, 427. 

— classes best suited for cultivation in, Barren plants, 87. 


328. | — stalks, 142. 
— future possibilities, 7. | Basic slag, use of, 368. 
— introduction into, 12, Iq. | Basin, Great, 49. 
— maize-belt, 58. | Basutoland, 58. 
— production in, 127. | Beer, maize, 700. 
— rainfall, 4o. | Bees, 105. 
— staple crop, 6. | Beetles, 105. 
— time of arrival of crop, 498. | Bethal, temperatures at, 32. 
— tropical, production of maize, 56. | Beverages, manufactured from maize, 
—— use of maize in, 676. | 697. 
Agricultural shows, 235. | Binder, 466, 468, 470. 
Alcohol, de-natured, preparation of, 786. Birds, 433. 


Alcoholic drinks, preparation from! Bisexual tassel, 86, 88. 

maize, 698. Blade, 80. 

Aleurone layer, 122, 179, 660. | Blé de Turquie, 10, 15. 
Allelomorphic pairs of unit-characters,, — portugais, 14, 19. 
170. Blight, 409, 412. 
Allelomorphs, dominant and recessive, | Blind ear, 92. 

172: | Bloemfontein Conference, 537. 
Altitude affecting crops, 26. Bolu (Eleusine Coracana), 57. 
America, aborigines of, maize staple }Bone-meal, use of, 367. 

foodstuff, 673. Botanical characters, 65. 

— breeds of Dent maize, 281. Botanical relationship, 65. 

— breeds of Flint maize, 314. | Brace-roots, 75- 

— consumption of maize, 677. | Bran, maize, 669, 7II. 

— origin of maize in, 9, Io. | Brand or maize smut, 409. : ; 
— Central, 50. | Bread, wheat compared with maize 
— S., tropical, 51. bread, 679. _ 

— U.S. of, see United States. | Breed characteristics, 108, 255. 
American cornstalk disease, 768. | — tests, Cedara, 344. 

— farmer, opinion of, 4. — — Potchefstroom, 334. 


Angoumois grain-moth, 494. — — Natal, 339. | 
Animal pests, 427. Breeding ears, desirable characters for, 
250. 


Anther, 95. 
821 


822 


Breeding, improvement by, 126, 234. 
— methods of, 208. 
— object of, 126. 
— plot, 229. 
Breeds :— 
Agricultural breeds, 279. 
Arcadia sugar maize, 108, 324, 325. 
Bishop, 308. 
Boone County, 300, 301. 
Botman, 320. 
Brazilian flour corn, 321, 323. 
Burlington Hybrid, 321. 
Cango, Yellow, 317. 
Champion White Pearl, 
yields of, 141. 
Chester County, 513, 140, 304. 
Claret sugar, 324. 
Clark Favourite (early sugar corn), 
324. 
Coyote corn, 276. 
Dent breeds, 112, 
Eureka, 304, 305. 
Flint breeds, 51, 277, 280, 314. 
Flour corn, principal breeds, 322. 
German Yellow, 308. 
Gillespie Yellow, 321, 322. 
Golden Beauty, 306. 
Golden Eagle, 312. 
Golden King, 143. 
Golden Sugar, 326. 
Guinea corn, 42, 57. 
Horsetooth, 112. 
Hickory Horsetooth, or 12-row Hick- 
ory, 289, 290. 
Hickory King, 33, 44, 63, 286; 
analysis of yields ‘of, 138; average 


277, 280, 281, 284. 


ear, number of grains, 99; branched | 
desirable and undesirable | Burrill’s bacterial disease of dent and 


ear, 102; 


types, 136; growth of in South 


analysis of 


MAIZE 


| heed tale ea 


Thoroughbred, Rural, 316. 

Star Leaming, 311. 

Sugar maize, Arcadia, 323, 324. 
Sweet corn: Clark’s Favourite, 324. 
Union sugar, 326. 

Virginia Horsetooth, illus. of ear, 294. 
White Cango, 315. 

Wills Gehu, 317, 318. 

Yellow Botman, 319, 320. 

Yellow Cango, 318. 

Yellow Hogan, 142, 306. 

Yellow Horsetooth, 141, 306. 


Breeds and sections for shows, 240. 


experiments at Potchefstroom, 334- 
338. 

for silage, 327, 760. 

grown in Rhodesia, 333. 

necessity for new, 159. 

need for earlier ripening, 154. 

number of rows, I1q. 

relative yield of, 333, 335, 340. 

S. African, 314, 328. 

suitable for coast-belt, 332. 

suitable for high-veld, 331. 

suitable for ‘‘ Midlands,”’ 
Drakensberg, 332. 

suitable for Transvaal and Orange 
Free State, 332. 

suitable for upper bush-veld, 333. 

suitable for Western region, 333. 


east of 


Brewers’ grains, 715. 
Brown rust, 405. 

Bulk handling, 577. 
Bullocks, fodder for, 744. 


maize meal for, 709. 
silage for, 750. 


sugar-maize, 415. 


Africa, 328; illus. of ear, 285, 288. | Butt, shape of, 113. 
| Butts of ears, 257. 


Indian corn, 12. 

Indian Pearl, 322. 

Iowa Silver-mine, 140, 299, 300. 
Ladysmith, 102, 139, 285, 301, 302. 


Leaming, breeds of, 312. 
Louisiana, 295, 297, 298. 
Mercer, 291, 293, 296. 
Minnesota Early, 309, 311. 
Natal White Horsetooth, 139, 303. 
Natal Yellow Horsetooth, 308. 
New England, 8-row, 319, 320. 
Noodsberg Horsetooth, 291, 292. 
North Dakota, 317, 318. 

Pod maize, 103, 275. 

Popcorn, r11, 276, 326, 692. 
Reid Yellow Dent, 309, 310. 
Salisbury White, 291, 292. 
Silver-mine,J2g9. 

Skinner’s Court, 145. 

Soft maize, 278, 322. 


| By-products, 668, 711. 


| Caxe, corn-oil, 714. 
Ladysmith Hickory, illus. of ear, 290. | Canada, 50, 509. 

Canadian Elevators, 611. 
Canning maize, 690. 

Cape Colony, production, 63. 
, Cape Province, 64. 

Cape stock farmers, 501. 

_ Carbohydrates, 651. 
Carbon-dioxide, 83. 


Card, form of Judge's, 


273. 


Carpels, 102. 

| Caryopsis of maize-plant, r19. 
‘Cattle, maize for fattening, 719. 
Cedara, tests at, 340. 

Cells, 68, 69. 

“Cellulose, 68, 77, 798. 

Cerealine, 688, 715. 

‘Cereals, comparative world’s crop, 1 


INDEX 823 


Chacma Baboon, 427. 


Composition of maize by-products, 668. 
Chaff, maize, 8or. | fet 


| — of maize-grain of different localities, 


Championships, 236, 245. 665. 
Characters, acquired, 160. | — of plant at different stages, 458. 
— botanical, 65. eo of silage, 737, 757, 759. 
— correlation of, 213. | Computing sheet tor judges, 271. 
— eee of plant, 160. | Conference, Bloemfontein, 537. 
— heritable, 160. — Pretoria, 532. 
— inheritance of, 126, 160, 188, 195. Nieeierentes Inter-Colonial, 532. 
— reproduction and transmission of,| Constituents, chemical, of foodstuffs, 
162. | 645. 
— repulsion and coupling of, 174. | Consumption, European, 508. 
— segregation of, 166, 167, 170, 181. | — in Canada, 509. 
— size, 192. | on the Kimberley mines, 499. 
— tee of, 160. Corn, ee ce 
unit, 164. — use olf word, 18. 
Charcoal, maize, 708, 793. | Corn-belt, 5. 
Check-rowing, 387. | Corn-crisp, 689. 
Chemical composition, 45, 643, 646, ; Corn-flakes, 689. 
662. Cornflour, 688. 
— constituents of foodstuffs, 645. | Corn-oil, 696, 785. 
Chlorophyl, 68. Corn-oil cake, 714. 
Chloroplasts, 68. | Corn-smut, 212. 
Chlorosis, resistance to, 156. | Corn-surplus states, 48. 
Chromosome theory, 163. | Cornstalk disease, 768. 
Chromosomes, 107. | Correlation of characters, 213. 
Circumference of ears, 261. Cotyledon, 7o. 
Classes ne eat ae oo | cas of Lier 174. 
— number of S. African, 619. ows, 709, 716, 741, 749. 
Classification of exhibits, 239. Cricket, insect, 446. 
Cleaning and preparation of maize, Crop in U.S.A., amount and value of, 5. 
636. | Crop, importance of, 1. 
Clearing House at Durban, 537. (= eo ae of, 127. 
Climate, 25, 42, 44, 45. — uses of, 782. 
Cob, characteristics, 113. — White Man’s Crop, 5. 
— colour of, 191, 261. — World’s, 1, 9, 47. 
— keeping maize on the, 691. | Crops, rotation of, 355. 
— percentage by weight of grain and Cropping, effect of continuous, 352. 
cob, 148. Cross-fertilization, 210. 
— shape, 113. }— peat, S, I05. 
— thickness of, 258. |— — method of, 231. 
Cobs, desirable, 216. | — — prevention of, 229. 
— effect of diameter of, 154. | — — production of new types by, 230. 
— loss from weak, 157. _ Crosses, reciprocal, 231. ; : 
— uses of, 8or. Crossing between an allelomorphic pair, 
Coffee, substitute, 700. 174. 
Colour, glume, 191. Culms, 78. 
— inheritance of, 187. | Cultivating disk, 378. 
— of cob, rgr, 261. | Cultivation, 374. 
— of grain, 259. |— after, 396. 
i 89. — effect of clean, 420. 
— pericarp, 189 : 
— silk, rgo. '— experiments at Potchefstroom, 334. 
Composition, chemical, of the physical | — history of, rT. 
parts of the grain, 656. | — in England, 27. 
— chemical, of varieties and breeds of | — intensive, 128. 
South African maize, 662. Curings, loss of weight, etc., due to, 739. 
— chemical, of varieties of North Cusco Mexican breed, 75. 
American maize, 664. | Cutter, maize stubble, 469. 
— of dry fodder, 745. | Cutting maize by hand, 462. 


— of maize bran compared with wheat | Cutworms, Agrotis spp., 437- 
bran, 669. — remedies for, 437. 


824 


Dairy cows, see Cows. 
Demand, increase in, 678. 
Description of plant, 65. 

— form, tog, 118, 123. 
Development of pods, rgr. 
Dextrine, preparation of, 785. 
Dichogamy, 107. 

Diet preparations available, 684. 


Digestible material of parts of maize 


plant, 739. 


Digestibility of fodder and silage, 459, 


738. 
— of maize products, 670. 


Dihybrid cross, analysis of, 184. 

— distribution of gametes in a, 183. 
— ratios, 182. 

Disease resistance, 156. 

Diseases and pests, 405. 

Disk cultivating, 378. 

Distance of planting tests, 389. 
Distillers’ grains, 714. 

Distillery slop, 715. 

Distribution— 

— geographical, 46. 

— in U.S.A., 48. 

— limitation of, 25. 

Domestic consumption in U.S.A., 1. 
Dominant allelomorphs, 172. 
Dominants, extracted, 168. 
Dothiorella, 415. 

Drainage of maize land, 36. 
Drakensberg, breeds suitable for, 332. 
Dried maize for winter use, 691. 
Drought, effect of, 38, 415. 

— resistance, 156. 

Dry-farming, 36, 348. 

Dry v. soaked maize, 706. 


MAIZE 


| Ear, weight of, 113. 


young, IOI. 


| Ears, analysis of yields, 138. 


bisexual, go. 

botanical characters, 86. 

butts of, 113, 257- 

desirable, 215, 250. 

exhibition of, 239. 

four-rowed, 206. 

‘« grooming,” 238. 

increasing size of, 135. 

inheritance of fasciated and lobed, 
206. 

inheritance of laterally branched, 
206. 

inheritance of length of, 197. 

mature, III. 

number of, 111. 

plants developing two, 112. 

secondary, I10, III. 

seed-room selection of, 222. 

selection of parent, 220. 

single-breeding, classes for shows, 


| Ear-rots of maize, 413. 
Ear-worm, Heliothis armiger, Hubner, 


| 444. 
Ege-cell, 69. 

| Egypt, 56, 509. 
Egyptian corn, 16. 
Eleusine Coracana, 13. 
Elevator certificates, 593. 


charges, 591- 

Silos, Argentine, 612. 

systems, 589. 

warehouses, construction of, 587. 


Drying American maize for export, 627. |— warehouses, co-operative, 615. 
' Elevators, Canadian, 611. 


— for export, 595. 

— loss of weight by, 481. 

— the grain, 481. 

Durban, Clearing House at, 537. 
Duties, import, 617. 


Continental, 610. 
heating of grainvin, 594. 
in U.S., 611. 

ownership of, 614. 


Dwarfness, inheritance of abnormal, Embryo, 70, 659. 


197. — plant, 69. 
| — -sac, 107. 
Ear, average number of grains per, 99. — size of, 260. 


— average weight of grain per, 137. 
bifid, rox. 

blind, 92. 

branched, 102. 

circumference of, 113, 261. 

form for describing, 118. 
heterozygous, 164. 


number of grains per, 116. 
percentage of grain to, 148, 254. 
proportion of grain per, 116. 
shape, 113, 256. 

standard length for judging, 252. 
two-lobed, ror. 


tubular glands in the, 124. 


Enchilladas, 690. 
| Endosperm, 70, 107, 123, 187, 188, 660. 


| En 


gland, cultivation in, 27. 
Ensiling, best stage of growth for, 456. 


/— method of, 761. 
| Ether extract or fat, 650. 


increase of weight of grain per, 137. Etymology, 16. 


| Euchlaena Mexicana, 66, 87. 
Europe, 12, 52. 
| European consumption, 508. 


market, classes required for, 618. 


| Exhibiting, 235, 248, 257. 
| Exhibition, S. African Maize Show, 237. 


INDEX 


825 


Export, Government facilities for, 544. | GAMETES, 162, 183, 185. 


— — control, 524. 

— grading at the ports, 568. 
— importance of, 507. 

— world’s, 623. 

Exports, Argentine, 52. 

— from Durban, 563. 

— from 8S. Africa, 520, 558. 
— U.S.A., 5, 623. 

— varieties and classes of, 568. 
Extracted dominants, 168. 
— recessives, 168. 


F, and F, plants, 233, 234. 
Fallowing, 354, 421. 

Fanko, 689. 

Farm value, 2, 751. 

Fat, 650. 

Feeding, by-products for, 711. 

— grain, frequency of, 705. 

— maize on the cob, 704. 

— preparation of grain for, 705. 
— of silage, 752. 

Feeding-value of an acre of maize, 734. 
— of fodder, 460. 

— of maize and other cereals, 667. 


— of silage, mixtures to increase, 
756. 
Fermentation products of the grain, 

698. 


Fertilization, 105, 212. 

Fertilizers, 361-4. 

Field corns, 99. 

— selection of parent ears, 220. 

Filament, 95. 

Flaked maize, 643. 

Flower, 69. 

Flowering period, go, 94. 

— plants of maize, 68. 

Fluctuations of plant-characters, 160. 

Fodder, best stage of growth for, 456. 

— for cattle, 744. ° 

composition of, 459, 745- 

crop, 27- 

moisture content of, 746. 

or ‘shocked corn,” 743. 

planting distance for, 393. 

relative value of, 745. 

— yield per acre of dry, 736. 

Foliage, yellow, 415. 

Food, maize as, 673, 678. 

Food value of maize bread, 679. 

— — of the weeds, 737- 

Foodstuffs, nutritive ratios of, 755. 

Forage, green, 736, 740. 

Forms for describing maize, 
123. 

Freight, ocean, 600. 

— rates, 523. 

Frost, 32. 

Frosted maize, 458. 


Iog, 118, 


Gametic segregation, 180. 


| Gas, manufacture of, from maize, 792. 


Generative nucleus, 99. 
Geographical distribution, 9, 46. 
Georgia, rainfall at, 38. 
Geotropism, 73. 

Germ, maize, 713. 

Germ meal or corn-oil meal, 714. 
Germination, 71. 

Giant millet, 13. 

Gin, 700. 

Glands in the embryo, 124. 


| Glucose, 692. 


| Glume colour, 191. 
Glumes, 95. 
Gluten feed, 711. 
— horny, 660. 


— meal, 712. 
| Glycerine, manufacture of, 786. 
|Government Experiment Farms, 
| Cedara. 
|— — — see Potchefstroom. 
Grades, American, 624, 627. 
Grading, 568, 571. 
Grain or corn, use of word, 18. 
LIQ, 224. 
|— and pasturage, 702. 
apex, 122. 
as food, 673. 
best stage of growth for, 455. 
colour of, 259. 
composition of, 632, 646, 653, 656. 
country damaged, 493. 
depth and breadth, raz. 
depth of, effect on yield, 149. 
desirable, 216. 
drying of, 481. 
fermentation products of the, 698. 
form for describing, 123. 
grinding, 629, 637. 
indentation, 122. 
inheritance of size and weight of, 199. 
judging, 253, 254. 
number per ear, 116. 
percentage by weight of grain and 
cob, 148. 
percentage of grain to ear, 148. 
preparation of, for feeding, 705. 
proportions of parts of the, 656. 
proportion to ear, 116. 
proteids, 648. 
protein obtainable from, 647. 
quantity in ears, 115. 
rows, number of, 114. 
shape, 120, I5I, 153, 253. 
standardizing, 217. 
unsound, injurious effect of, 680. 
uses of, 673. 
weight of, per ear, 137. 


séé 


yield of, per ear, 254. 


826 MAIZE 


Grain, yields of, Transvaal maize, 146.) | Insect pests, 435, 490. 


Great Basin, 49. Insects injurious to stored grain, 494. 
Green corn, 49. Intensive cultivation, 128. 
Grinding grain, 629, 637. Interaction of unit-characters, 173. 
Grooming » ears, 238. Internodes, 77. 
Growing season, relative length of, 330. | Introduction into Africa, 12, 14. 
Growth of plant, 73. — — Asia, 14. 
Guncotton, manufacture of, 798. — — Europe, 12. 

Irrigation, 348. 
Halt, 34. Is-ona or Rooibloem, 423, 426. 
Hail-belts, 35. 
Hand-husking in America, 476. JOINTS, 75. 
Hand-picking, cost of, in U.S., 461. Judging, card for, 267, 272, 273. 
Hares, 431. — computing sheet for, 271. 
Harrowing, 378, 421. — for exhibition, etc., 235. 
Harvesters, 464, 466. — for seed, 249. 
Harvesting, 451, 452, 461, 463. — methods of, 246, 247. 
Heating caused by moisture, 594. — shelled maize, 263. 
Heating, loss of weight due to, 595. Juice, maize, 697. 
Height of plants, 194, 195. 
Heritable characters, 160. | KaFFIR corn, 13. 
Hermaphrodite florets, 87. | Kibbling rolls, 637. 
Heterozygote, 164. | Kimberley mines, consumption on, 499. 
High-veld, breeds suitable for, 331. | Koren, derivation of, 18. 
History, origin, etc., 9. 


— of cultivation, 11. Lands, new v. old, 350. 


— of botanical name, 16. Lames, maize meal for, 710. 
Hominy, 631, 688, 715. | Larve, silks injured by, gr. 


Homozygote, 163. Layer, see Aleurone layer. 
Horny gluten, 660. | Leaf, arrangement of, 85. 
— starch, 661. functions of, 80. 
Horses, maize for, 721. = importance of, 83. 
Horsfal, W. H., 629. |— sheath, 67, 81, 82. 
Hull, or outer covering, 122, 658. — surface, 81. 
Husk, the, 99, I10, 799. less scorch or maize ‘‘ Blight,” 412. 
Husker and shredder combined, 477,| Leaves, desirable, 215. 

478. | — number of, 80. 
Husking by hand, 461, 472, 476. — striped, 207. 
Hybridization, 87, 210. Leguminose crops, use of, 358. 

| Life cycle of maize, 69. 

IMMINGHAM Dock, new silo at, 606. Ligule, 80, 124, Igr. 
Importation, 505, 604, 617, 624. | Lime, use of, etc., 364-6. 
Improvement of maize, 126, 127, 23 | Linneeus, 16. 
Inbreeding, effect of, 211. | Listing, 385. 
India, 53, 54, 510. | Local markets, 498. 
Indians, cultivation by, 11. Local trade, classes of maize for, 502. 
Inflorescence, 85. Locusts, 446. 
Inheritance, difficulties in studying, | Lodicules, 97. 

207. 
— of characters, 160, 188. MacuHinery, medern milling, 634. 
— of colour, 187. | Maidis Ustilago, 802. 
— of dwarfness, 197. | Maize, origin of name, 16. 
— of fasciated and lobed ears, 206. |— various spellings, 16-18. 
— of height, 195. Maize Cricket, 445. 
— of laterally branched ears, 206. — products, importance of, 782. 
— of length of ears, 197. Maizena, 688. 
— of ligule and auricles, 191. Manganese compounds, 370, 371. 
— of row numbers, 199, 204. Manure, artificial, 364. 
— of rows in a maize cross, 205. — functions of, 360. 
— of size and weight of grain, 199. — phosphatic, 366. 


— of size characters, 195. | — remedy for is-ona, 426. 


INDEX 827 


Manure requirements, 360. | NAME Maize, The, 16. 
-— residual value of, 362. | Names, vernacular, 19. 

— stable and kraal, 362. | Natal, production in, 60, 61. 
— value of foodstuffs for, 730. 


ote | — shipments, 526. 
Market condition, 260. |— yields of breeds in, 339. 


— value, differences of grades, 619 |— yield: 
alue, d , 619. yields per acre, 29. 
Markets, Egypt, 509. jou trade, sor. 
— English, 511. Native methods of grinding, 629. 


— European, 511, 615, 618. New corn product, 715. 
— local, 498. Nitrate of soda, use of, 368. 
— oversea, 507. Nodes, 75, 77. 


Marrying cells, 162. 

Maturity, influence of climate upon, 
42. 

— influence of, on yield, 457. 

— need for early, 155. 


Nubbins, 104, 135, 143. 

Nuclei, gg. 

Nutrients, digestible, of several 
cereals, 678. 


— time taken for crop to reach, 330. | OpEssa maize, 84. 

“ Manigette,” 13. | Oil, corn, 696. 

Mays, use of name, 16. | Orange Free State, breed ssuitable for, 
Meal, germ, or corn-oil meal, 714. | 332. 

— gluten, 7T2, 713% |— production in, 58. 

— maize, 709. | Organic matter, 357. 

— maize and cob, 706. | Organs of the plant, 69. 

— maize, corn, or mielie, 686. Origin, 9. 

Mealte or mielie, derivation of, 19. | Ostriches, maize for, 729. 


Mealies, 13. 


J Oswego, 688. 
Measuring leaf-surface, method of, 


Ovaries and styles, 100. 


82. Ovary, I03. 
Mendel’s laws, 161. Oversea markets, 507. 
Mexican Teosinte, see Teosinte. | Ovule, 69, 103. 
Mexico, 50. | Oxen, maize for, 721. 
Mice in maize stores, 497. 
Mielie, origin of word, 14, 18, 19. Paciric slope, 49. 
Mielies, stamped, 688. | Palea, 95. 
Milho, r4. Paper material, manufactured from 
— de Guine, 14. | maize, 793. 
Milium, 19. Parasitic weeds, 416. 
Mill, construction of a modern, 634. Parents, selection of, 210. 
— products of maize, 630. | Pasturage, grain and, 702. 
Millet, 13, 19, 57. | Pearl millet, 13. 
Milling, 629. Pellagra, 680, 681. 
— condition for, 630. Perfection, standards of, 262, 263. 
— loss in, 642. | Performance records, 225, 226. 
— modern methods, 629. Pericarp, 69. 
— sorts for, 633. |— colour, 189. 
Millstone process, 637. | Pests, insect, 435, 496. 
Mily, 19. |= animal, 427. 
Mines trade, 499. — of stored grain, 494. 
Moisture, conservation of, by tillage, Phosphatic manures, 366. 

348. | Photosynthesis, 34, 83. me 
— content of fodder and stover, 746. | Physical composition, sce Composition. 
— — of silage, 759. | Pickers, 473, 476. 
—  — variation in, 483. Pigs, maize for, 726. 
— heating caused by, 594. |— maize meal for, 710. 
— requirements, 36. Pith, 77. : 
— soil, 347. | Plant breeding, methods of, 208. 
Monkeys, 431. — diseases, 405. g ; 
Moncecism, 86. Plant-food, available in soil, 349. 
Monohybrid ratio, 182. | Plant-lice (Aphides), 450. 
Morgen, 59- | Plant structure, 67. 


Muid, 2, 239. Planter, Fowler’s steam, 383. 


828 


Planters, use of, 386. 

Planting, 374. 

— before ploughing, 396. 

— depth of, 395. 

distance of, 388, 761. 

effect of, on yield, 384. 

time of, 382, 749. 

to avoid stalk-borer, 443. 

Plants, F,, Fy, 233, 234. 

Ploughing by steam, 375. 

— depth of, 374. 

— preparation after, 377. 

— time of, 374. 

— under the stalks, 442. 

Plumule, 70. 

Pods, development of, rgr. 

Pollen, 97. 

— collecting, 231. 

— grains, 96. 

— tubs, 106. 

— vitality of, ror. 

Pollination, 85, 97, 104, 105. 

Porcupine or Yster-vark, 433 

Portuguese wheat, 14. 

Potassium, 372. 

Potchefstroom, comparative  experi- 
«ments at, 336. 

— rainfall at, 338. 

— relative yields of breeds at, 335. 

— summary of breed tests, 334. 

Poultry, maize for, 729. 

Power, oxen and steam, etc., 403. 

Preservation for stock food, 737. 

Pretoria Conference, 532. 

Prices, S. African, 502. 

American and La Plata maize, 512. 

cause of abnormal, 525. 

comparative, 503. 

controlling factors, 517. 

effect of, in stimulating trade, 524. 

English, 511. 

European, 511. 

local, 501. 

Prizes, rules for awarding, 236, 244. 

Production in S. Africa, 127. 

— in U.S.A, 4. 

— rapid increase in, 505. 

Products, fermentation, of the grain, 

698. 

— importance of maize, 782. 

Propagation, method of, 226. 

Protandry, 108. 

Proteids of maize grain, 648. 

Protein, 646. 

— changes in, due to ensiling, 758. 

— content, 664, 665. 

— distribution in maize, 647. 


— obtainable from maize grain, 647, 


670. 
Protogyny, 107, 108. 
Protoplasm, 67. 


MAIZE 


Pulling of fodder, 460. 
Pure seed, necessity for, 158. 
Purple colour of aleurone layer, 179. 


| RaDICLE, 70. 
Railway rates, American, 557. 
— — Government regulations, 545. 
| Rainfall, 37. 
| — at Potchefstroom, 338. 
| — of S. Africa, 40. 
| Rapoko (Eleusine Coracana), 13. 
| Ratio, monohybrid, 182. 
| Ratios, dihybrid, 182. 
| — nutritive, for different animals, 754. 
| — trihybrid, 184. 
Ration, importance of a balanced, 753. 
Rations for dairy cows, 717. 
Rats in maize stores, 497. 
| Recessive allelomorphs, 172. 
| Recessives, extracted, 168. 
| Reciprocal crosses, 231. 
| Red cob-colour, 191. 
— rust of maize, 408. 
| Reed-rat, 433. 
| Reproduction of characters, 162. 
|Repulsion and coupling of characters, 
174. 
Resistance to disease, 156. 
— to drought, 156. 
| Rhodesia, breeds grown in, 333. 
| Ripening period, 94. 
| Rocky Mountain zone, 49. 
Roller mill process, 640. 
| Rooibloem, Striga lutea Lour., 423. 
| Root, 69, 79. 
— and its functions, 74. 
| Roots v. maize silage, 751. 
Rose-chafers, 450. 
Rotation of crops, 355, 421. 
Rotations in Transvaal, 359. 
— with maize in other countries, 358. 
Rots of maize, 413. 
Rous, 15. 
Rows, effect of number of, 152. 
— four-rowed ears, 206. 
| — increased yield by number of, r5r. 
| — number in each breed, 114. 
| —— numbers, inheritance of, 199, 204, 
| 205. 
|— straightness of, 256. 
le twisted, 115, 116, 117. 
| Rubber filler, manufacture of, 785. 


| SAHARA, 57. 

| Sale by sample, 617. 

| Salt, addition of, for silage, 762. 

| Samp, 642, 688. 

| Sample, sale by, 617. 

Sarracen’s corn, 15. 

| Score card for judging, 246, 250, 267. 
'Scutellum, 70. 


INDEX 


Secondary ears, IO, IIt. 

Sections at S. African shows, 240. 

Seed, 69. 

— amount planted per acre, 395. 

classes for shows, 240. 

from clean farms, 427. 

Judging for, 249. 

necessity for pure, 158. 

score card for, 250. 

selecting, 223. 

— undesirable types for, 203. 

Seed-leaf, 70. 

Seed-selection, chief points for, 213. 

Seedling, 72, 74. 

Segregation of characters, 
181. 

— gametic, 180. 

— reason for, 180. 


222 


222, 


166-170, 


Selection by continuous. performance — 


record, 225. 
for breeding, 209. 
for exhibition, 235. 
importance of care in, 219. 
methods of, 218. 
of ears, seed-room, 222. 
of parents, 210, 220. 
Separation, mechanical, of parts for 
analysis, 654. 
Shank, rog. 
Shanks, loss from weak, 157. 
Shape of grain, 120. 
Sheep, maize for, 724. 
— stover for, 742. 
Shelled maize, classes for shows, 243. 
— — judging of, 263, 267. 
Shelling machines, 480. 
Shipments, Natal, 526. 


— Transvaal and Orange Free State, | 


530. 

Shipping, 6or. 
Shock loader, 472. 
Shocked corn, 743. 
Shocker, maize, 471. 
Shocking maize, 470. 
Shoots, sucker, 78. 
Shows, agricultural, 235. 
Silage, 747. 
— addition of salt, 762. 
amount required for feeding, 752. 
— breeds, 327, 760. 
— composition of, 757, 759- 
— cost of production, 751. 
— farm value of, compared with grain, 

751. 
feeding of, 752, 753. 
for bullocks, 750. 
for dairy cows, 749. 
kinds of, 757. 
late planting for, 749. 


of, 756. 


mixtures to increase feeding value | 


829 


Silage, moisture-content of, 759. 
| — objections to, 759. 
| — planting distance for, 393, 76r. 
'— uses of, 749. 
— v. roots, 751. 
= v. Timothy Hay, 750. 
|— yleld of green maize forage and, 
| . 7ab: 
| Silk, 67, To4. 
|— colour, Igo. 
— relative appearance of, 108. 
— Zea or maize silk, 801. 
| Silks, 86, 88. 
/— covering the, 233. 
|— injured by larve, gr. 
| Silo, capacity of, 773. 
chute, 781. 
doors, 780. 
floor of, 778. 
form of, 771. 
losses in the, 739. 
Manchester Ship Canal, 609. 
materials of, 775. 
modern, 762, 770. 
— pit, 764. 
plaster of, 778. 
position of, 774. 
reinforced concrete, 776. 
roof of, 780. 
size of, 772. 
the stack, 763. 
walls of, 778. 
| Silos and elevators, 578. 
|— British, and elevators, 606. 
| — historical account of, 770. 
|— need for in S. Africa, 490. 
| Silver flakes, 689. 
Single breeding ears, classes ter shows, 
242. 
Size characters, 192, 195. 
Smut or ‘* Brand,” 409. 
Snapped corn, 705. 
Soaked maize, 706. 
Soda, see Nitrate of soda. 
Soil, 346, 347- ‘i 
— character of S. African, 349. 
maintaining the  crop-producing 
power of, 352. 
moisture, 347. 
| recuperative power of, 349. 
| — suitable for maize growing, 349. 
— temperature, 36. 
— treatment, 376, 377. 
Soils and manures, 346. 
Somatic division, 163. 
— variation in pericarp colour, 190. 
Sorghum vulgare, 13, 16. 
South Africa, see Africa (S.). 
Sowing, early, as a check against 
witch-weed, 426. 
| Special purpose sorts, 326. 


= 
i= 
jo 
eer 


830 


Spikelet, 95, 96. 


Spikes, 102. 

Splashed purple colour of aleurone | 
layer, 179. 

Stalks, as a source of sugar and syrup, | 
693. 


— desirable, 215. 

— loss from weak, 157. 

Stalk-borer, 438, 443. 

Stamped mielies, 688. 

Stand, importance of a perfect, 131. 
Standard for judging, 246. 
Standards of perfection, 262, 263. 

— of weight and measurement, 620. 
Stands, summary of percentage, 134. 
Staple crop of South Africa, 6 

— food of African races, 675. 

— foodstuff of American aborigines, 


673. 

Starch, formed, 83. 

— horny, 661. 

— maize, 688. 

— manufacture of, 783. 

— physical condition of, 192. 

Starchv parts, the white, 662. 

Stem, 69, 76, 77, 78. 

Stewart’s Corn Wilt, 415. 

Stock-food, forms of, 737. 

— maize-grain for, 701. 

Stock, loss of, from lack of winter-feed, 

732: 

Stomata, 83. 

Storage at inland centres, 577. 

— at ports of export, 584. 

— in the husk, 484. 

— Kaffir method of, 488. 

— of husked maize, 486. 

— of shelled grain, 486. 

Stored grain, pests of, 494. 

Stover, 3, 33, 740. 

— best stage of growth for, 455. 

— for dairy cows, 741. 

— for sheep, 742. 

— for stock-food, 732. 

— moisture content of, 746. 

Strains, 92. 

Straw for thatching, 802. 

Striped Beard grub, 444. 

Structure, plant, 67. 

Stubble cutter, 469. 

Style, see Silk. 

Sub-arid zone, 49. 

Sucker shoots, 34, 78, 80. 

Sugar, stalks as a source of, 693. 

Sugar maize, 45, 49, 279. 

— — breeds introduced into S. Africa, 
323. 

— — — grown in America, 323. 

— — tassel of, 95. 

Sulci, effect of width on yield, 151. 

— points for judging, 252. 


MAIZE 


| Sunshine, 42. 

| Superphosphate and bone-meal mixed, 
use of, 367. 

— — nitrate of soda, 369. 

— used alone, 367. 

, Sweetmeat, maize as a, 692. 

| Syrup, stalks as a source of, 693. 


| TASSEL, fseicual. 88, ‘89. 

— of Odessa maize, 84. 

| Tassels of sucker-shoots, 80. 

Tegmen, 69. 

| Temperature, 78 

at Bethal, 32. 

at Johannesburg, 31. 

at Vereeniging, 32. 

average, of Argentina, 2 

mean monthly, 28, 30. 

night, 30. 

soil, 36. 

Temperatures, mean, of Argentina, 29. 

Teosinte, 11, 66, 87. 

— crossing with, 156. 

Testa, 69. 

Tillage, conservation of moisture by, 
348. 

— effect of, 351. 

— planting, etc., 374. 

Timothy hay v. maize silage, 750. 


Tip, 113. 

— cap, 658. 

— — chemical composition, 658. 

Tips of ears, 258. 

Tissues, 69. 

Tok-tokje, 449. 

Tonnage, 602. 

Topping, 461. 

Tortillas and enchilladas, 690. 

Trade, International, in maize, 622. 

— with Canada, 509. 

Transmission of characters, 160, 162. 

— mechanism of, 163. 

Transpiration, 82, 85. 

Transvaal, 58. 

— breeds suitable for, 332. 

crop rotations in, 359. 

districts, yield, 59, 60. 

grown maize, comparative yields of 

grain, 146. 

maize plants, 67. 

mean monthly temperatures of, 30. 

production in, 28. 

suitability for maize production, 8. 

yields of breeds in, 333. 

Trihybrid cross, distribution of gametes 
in a, 184. 

— ratios, 184. 

Tropical ‘Africa, 56. 

— 8S. America, 51. 

Tubular glands i in the embryo, 124. 

Type, trueness to, 255. 


INDEX 831 
Types for seed, undesirable, 203. 


J | Winter frosts, 32. 
— production of new, 230. 


| Winter use, dried maize for, 691. 

| Wisconsin, analysis of yields of, 144. 
UNIT-CHARACTERS, 164, 170, 173. | Witch-weed, or Rooibloem, 423. 
United States, amount and value of | World’s crop, 1, 9, 47, 517- 


crop, 5. 

— distribution in, 48. 

— elevators in,.611. 

— not grown for export, 5. 

— — leading product of, 4. 

Upper Bush-veld, breeds suitable for, 
333- 

Use of maize in Tropical Africa,. 676. 

Uses of maize crop, 782. 

Ustilago Maydis, 212. 


_ VALUE, farm, of maize, 2. 

— food, see Food value. 

Valve, 95. 

Variation in shape of, 120, 121. 
Varieties, influence of climate, 44. 
— of maize, see heading BREEDS. 
Vascular bundles, 76, 77. 
Vegetative nucleus, 99. 
Vereeniging, temperatures at, 32. 
Vernacular names, 19. 

Vinegar, maize, 696. 

Vitality of pollen, ror. 

— of seed, 72. 

Volunteer maize plants, 418. 


WarteER, 652. 

Weather, effect of, 38, 39. 

Weeding implements, 400. 

Weeds, 416, 417. 

— food value of, 737. 

— germination of seeds, 422. 

— parasitic, 416. 

— perennial, 417. 

— spreading of, 418. 

— time for killing, 422. 

Weevils, 494. 

Weight and bulk of South African 
maize, 622. 


— of grain per ear, need for increase, | 


137. 
— percentage by, of grain and cob, 148. 
West Indies, 50. 
Western Province, 64. 
Wet maize, conditioning, 598. 
Whisky, 53, 700. 
White rust or blight, 409. 
White starch, 662. 
White starchy endosperm, 188. 
Wild state, not known, II. 
Winter-feed, loss of stock from lack of, 


732. 


| XENIA, 175, 178, 179. 
| Xylem, 77. 
| 
| YELLow endosperm, 187. 
(— foliage, 415. 
Yield, analysis of, 138-145. 
cause of poor, 130. 
comparative of Dent 
breeds, 280. 

effect of depth of grain on, 149. 

— of shape of grain on, 151. 

— of width of sulci on, 151. 

improvement of, 213. 

increased by rows of butt and tip, 
I5I. 

influence of maturity upon, 457. 

of different breeds in Transvaal, 


and Flint 


333- 

of dry fodder, 736. 

of grain from a given measure of 
ears, 492. 

of grain of Transvaal maize, 146. 

of grain per ear, 117, 254. 

per acre, American breeders’ im- 
provement of, 129. 

per acre at various weights per ear, 
147. 

per acre, need for increase, 128. 

telative, at Cedara, 340. 

relative, at Potchefstroom, 335. 

variation in, 159. 


Ys 


ter-vark, 433. 

ZEA, 16, 65. 

— canina, 277. 

— Mays, 16. 

— —var. erythrolepis (Bonaf.) Alef., 
278. 

— — var. indentata (Sturt.) Bailey, 
AE: ’ 

— — var. indurata (Sturt.) Bailey, 
277. 


var. precox (Bonaf.), 276. 
var. rugosa (Bonaf.), 279. 
var. tunicata St. Hil., 275. 
— or maize silk, 801. 

Zein, 649. 

Zone, Rocky Mountain, 49. 
Zone, sub-arid, 49. 

Zygote, 163. 


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