Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, 1920 ' The Commonmealth of Massarhusetia DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner 136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON ORCHARDING REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING BOSTON WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 32 DERNE STREET 1921 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEW YorRK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library rcharding. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000357792 “pavyorio ofdde syyasnyoessvyy sunoA sursimoid W Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, £920 Che Commonwealth of Massachusetts DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner 136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON ORCHARDING REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING BOSTON WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 32 DERNE STREET 1921 Wan 7 318959 PusiicaTion oF THIS DocuMENT APPROVED BY THE SUPERVISOR OF ADMINISTRATION. Introduction, Cuap. I. CuHap. II. Cuap. III. CHap. IV. Cuap. V. Cuap. VI. Cuap. VIL Cuap. VIII. Cuap. IX. CHap. X. Cuap. XI. Bibliography, Index, . CONTENTS. ‘Establishing an Apple Orchard. By F. C. Sears, Renovating Old Orchards. By F. C. Sears” The Establishment and Maintenance of Peach Orchards. By J. K. Shaw, Pruning Fruit Trees. By J. H. Gourley, Grafting and Budding. By W. W. Chenoweth, Some Important Apple Insects in Massachusetts. By H. T. Fernald, et Set Aa ‘ Diseases of the Apple in Massaehusetts. By A. V. Osmun, ; . Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple. By H. T. Fernald and A. V. Osmun, : Apple Storage on the Farm. By W. R. Cole, Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. By Albert R. Jenks, . The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law. By Wilfrid Wheeler and H. Linwood White. Revised by W. A. Munson, 73 90 106 115 127 146 168 169 INTRODUCTION. Increasing interest in apple growing in Massachusetts and the many requests for information applying to Massachusetts conditions have made necessary a new edition of the bulletin on “Apple Growing.” Since the new book includes a chapter on peach growing, and it is planned to have a chapter on pear culture in the next edition, the title has been changed to “Orcharding.” In preparing this book the text of the last (fifth) edition of “Apple Growing” has been carefully revised and brought up to date. The three articles, “Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Orchards,’ “The Planting of a Commercial Orchard in Massachusetts” and “The New Orchard,” all by Professor F. C. Sears, have been combined into one new article, which appears as Chapter I. The material presented in the article entitled “Three Common Scale Insects” and “Plant Lice or Aphids,” both by H. T. Fernald, have been included in the chapter on “Apple Insects,” and the “Spray Calendar for Apples” by Erwin H. Forbush has been revised and included in the chapter on “Insecticides and Fungicides.” Orcharding is undoubtedly one of the most important branches of Massachusetts farming. Apple growing particu- larly is a well-established part of our agriculture, because Massachusetts produces good fruit and has the advantage of being at the door of large markets, which will take all she -produces as soon as it is properly graded and packed. The soil and climate are among the most advantageous known for the production of apples of the finest quality, and with the adoption of organized marketing methods by the growers there 6 is every reason to believe that the business will be more profit- able and will continue to increase in volume. The Apple Grading Law, which is fully explained in Chapter XI, has proved to be one of the best adopted by any State, and has given good service in establishing a high standard for grading and packing in closed containers. Every effort has been made in this book to present practical information for the guidance of orchardists, and to deal with all the principal points adequately and concisely. Boston, November 26, 1920. CuapTer I. ESTABLISHING AN APPLE ORCHARD. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. In any country which grows as fine apples as Massachusetts, and in a section where orcharding is as important a branch of farming as it is in this Commonwealth, there is a constant demand for information as to the setting of orchards. The following brief suggestions are offered in the hope that they may, in part, supply the desired information. FUTURE OF THE OrcHarD INDUSTRY. Naturally, any man who contemplates setting an orchard is anxious to know the answer to the above question, and while it cannot, of course, be answered conclusively, it would cer- tainly seem to the writer that with the conditions which obtain here in Massachusetts it is as reasonable to expect suc- cess in the orchard business as in any other branch of farm- ing. We are close to the best markets in the country; our land values are reasonably low; our transportation facilities are excellent; and our conditions as to labor, fertilizers and other factors which go to influence. the result of an orchard enterprise are certainly no worse than in other sections. The writer would therefore be inclined to believe that the future of the orchard business in Massachusetts is as good as it is in any other part of the United States. SELECTING THE ORCHARD SITE. If one is buying a farm with a view of using it as an or- chard proposition and wishes to ascertain how much of the land is useful for that purpose, or if one already owns a farm 8 and wishes to judge of the availability of certain blocks of land on that farm for orchard purposes, the following score card may prove useful: — Score Card for Orchard Site. 1. Soil, . 30 (a) Surface,. ; 15 (b) Subsoil, . 15 2. Water drainage, : . 30 (a) Surface, . 10 (b) Subdrainage, 20 3. Atmospheric drainage, . 15 4, Aspect, e 4 : . 15 (a) With reference to the sun, » 6 (b) With reference to winds, 10 5. Windbreaks, . 10 The attempt has been made here to give a list of the im- portant considerations which ought to govern the selection of a site and to attach to each factor a numerical value. Doubt- less these numerical values are not in all cases correct, but at least they are suggestive. Under each particular factor many different things might be considered, but the following are at least some of the important ones: — 1. Soil. (1) In the consideration of the surface soil one ought to take into account first of all the fertility of the land, whether it is rich enough to give a satisfactory growth of tree, which is of course desirable; and, on the other hand, whether by liberal use of barn manure it may by any possibility be too fertile for the best type of growth of the young tree. While the latter is much less likely to occur than the former, there are cases where land is too fertile to give the most satisfactory results. , (2) The second question under surface soil would be adapta- | tion of the particular block to the special type of fruit one - - wishes to grow. This is probably the most important single item in judging an orchard site. We recognize that, as a... class, peaches ought to grow on rather light soil, pears on . . 9 rather heavy soil, while apples do well on various types of soil, running from fairly light to rather heavy. As a matter of fact, in the case of apples, the work of Mr. H. J. Wilder and others has shown fairly definitely the soil preferences of certain varieties of apples, and we recognize that a Hubbard- ston or a Wealthy does well on light soil, while a McIntosh or a Baldwin requires a medium type of soil, and a Rhode Island Greening a rather heavy type of soil. (3) A third item to be considered in the surface soil is the ease with which it can be worked. Very stony land or heavy clay land would be scored down under the head of difficulty in working it, though it might be good enough in other re- spects to more than offset this. (4) A fourth item would be the question of whether the soil is sour or not. While it has not yet been definitely shown that apple trees prefer an alkaline soil, we do know that lime- stone districts are particularly noted for their fine fruit, and that the cover crops which we wish to grow in the orchard will not thrive, at least most of them will not, on an acid soil. This means that in case the soil in our block is sour, it will be necessary to apply lime to correct that condition. (5) A fifth item would be the humus content of the soil. It will be found that young trees will start off much better on soil which is fairly well supplied with humus, and while this deficiency may be made up through the agency of barn manure or cover crops, it will be found that the soils which need humus most are the last ones to grow satisfactory cover crops. One will therefore find it a slow proposition to correct this deficiency. Turning now to the subsoil, we have the question of the fertility of this subsoil, whether it is a pure sand and carries relatively small quantities of plant food, or a gravelly clay which may be decidedly fertile. This point is more impor- tant than is usually recognized, since the great bulk of the root system of our trees is down in the subsoil and not in the surface soil. One ought also to consider the ease with which the roots can penetrate this subsoil. Ledges and stiff clay hardpan would both be objectionable from this standpoint. 10 2. Water Drainage. The second general item in the above score card is water’: drainage, which is certainly extremely important. It is de- sirable to have sufficient surface drainage to carry off the sur- face water, since it is a well-recognized fact that trees will not do well in a wet soil. On the other hand, if the slope is too abrupt we may get washing of the soil, especially in the spring, and loss of water during summer rains when there may be a scarcity of water in the soil. For this reason very abrupt slopes are less desirable, at least in this respect. Un- der subdrainage would be considered the question of whether there was sufficient drainage or whether the water was held in the soil; and, on the other hand, whether there was too much drainage making the-subsoil too dry. 3. Atmospheric Drainage. The third question to be considered is the matter of at- mospheric drainage, and the importance of this varies a good deal with different fruits in different sections. In those sec- tions where frosts are likely to occur in the spring after the trees are in bloom, and with early blossoming classes or vari- eties of fruits, the question of atmospheric drainage may be very important. If one is considering this question there are several points which ought to be looked into. First, is there sufficient slope to carry off the cold air? This does not re- quire much slope, and one which will move the water over the surface will be ample to carry off the cold air also. One ought also to consider whether there is any obstruction at the bottom of the orchard against which the cold air will bank up and so cause a frost to occur in- the orchard. This obstruction might be a very thick block of timber or a rise in the land. 4. Aspect or Slope. The fourth item is the aspect or slope of the land, whether to the north, south, east or west, and the score card con- siders this first with reference to the sun, second with refer- ence to the wind. In the former point, slope with reference to the sun, we have the advantage of southern aspect in the 11 ripening of the fruit which makes it desirable, if this can be secured without subjecting the plantation to danger from frost. As a matter of fact, with apples in this State there is usually little danger of the blossoms being hit by late frosts. Another item which ought to be considered in this question of the aspect with reference to the sun is the danger of sun scald, which is considerably greater on a southwestern slope than on any other. But this is ordinarily not a serious matter in Massachusetts. The other side of the question of slopes, that is, slopes with reference to wind, is much more important, and it is very desirable to secure, if possible, a slope which is away from the prevailing winds of the section. In most sections of the State the northwest wind is the most dangerous, since we are likely to get gales from that quarter in the autumn before the fruit is picked, and this may cause serious damage from windfall fruit. 5. Windbreaks. The last item in the score card is the matter of windbreaks, which, in conjunction with the slope, help to protect the plan- tation from the effect of wind, and which are, in the opinion of the writer, very important. It is often possible to do such labor as spraying, pruning or harvesting in the orchard with entire comfort when it is protected by a good windbreak, while it might not be possible to work at all if exposed to the wind. This is peculiarly true of spraying, where one has to consider not only the discomfort of the wind, but also the difficulty of getting the spray where it is wanted. In this matter of windbreaks several items ought to be con- sidered. First, and most important, is the kind of trees. As a general proposition it may be said that no tree should be set which harbors a fungus or an insect which is likely to be troublesome on the orchard. This would eliminate cedars, oaks and cherries. All things considered, perhaps the best trees for windbreaks are the pines and spruces among: evergreens, and the hard maples among deciduous trees. The second item which ought to be considered in this matter of windbreaks is the question of how far away they ought to be. This depends somewhat on whether the orchard is set 12 down by the side of a windbreak already established or whether the windbreak is planted with the orchard. But in any case it is better to have them too far away than too near. Prob- ably 50 or 60 feet would be the minimum, and 100 to 150 would be more desirable. The land between could be used for grass or utilized in some other way. Where the trees are set too near the orchard there is always a good deal of dam- age and the fruit is much poorer on that side of the orchard. It is also desirable, if it can be arranged, to have both near-by and distant windbreaks; and where the windbreak is at the bottom of the slope (if the orchard is located in a section which is likely to be troubled by frost), care should be taken to keep it open at the bottom so that the cold air may drain through. It may be worth while to close this discussion of wind- breaks by a mere catalogue of the advantages to be secured from them. Some of the important ones would be as follows: — (1) To protect plantations from cold in winter. This de- pends somewhat on the type of winter, but it was shown very definitely in the winter of 1913-14 that those plantations that were out exposed to severe winds were damaged much more severely than similar plantations which were protected. (2) The windbreak reduces the number of windfalls. This needs no discussion, but is often a serious matter. The writer recalls one orchard man whose crop was around 3,000 barrels, and who one season picked up 700 barrels after a severe wind storm. (8) It prevents the breaking of trees when laden with fruit or covered with ice. (4) It reduces the evaporation of moisture from the soil. This might be extremely important during severely dry spells. (5) It facilitates labor. This has already been discussed. (6) It helps to retain snow and leaves in the orchard. This is important in those sections where deep freezing of soil is likely to occur and result in root injury. (7) It prevents injury to the blossoms where severe winds occur during the blossoming period. The California orchard plow. 13 This is a fairly impressive list of benefits and ought to con- vince any one that the windbreak is a useful thing to have in connection with the orchard if it is possible to get it. CHOICE OF VARIETIES. We may next attack the question of the choice of varieties for the plantation, and in the writer’s opinion this is the most critical question which can come up for decision so far as its bearing on the success of the orchard is concerned, One is more likely to succeed if he chooses the right varieties and puts them on the wrong soil than if he chooses the wrong ° varieties and has them on satisfactory soil. It is impossible in a paper of this type to discuss a long list of varieties, and those which have been selected are, in the opinion of the writer, the most useful for our State. Let us begin by considering the advantages of a fairly long list of varieties for the orchard, say the advantages of five or six varieties in the orchard as against one or two. These advantages stated briefly would be as follows: — First, it provides better for cross-pollination. This has been shown to be frequently a very important factor in the success of the orchard; and while most of our varieties are reasonably self-fertile, yet nearly all of them are benefited by cross-pollination with other varieties,—the yields being steadied and made more certain. Second, a longer list of varieties lengthens the season for picking and handling the fruit. In the writer’s opinion this is the strongest argument for a fairly long list of varieties. Let us compare the orchards of two men, both of whom we will say are harvesting 3,000 barrels of apples in the season. One man has Baldwins alone, and if we allow a 15-day picking season (which would probably be a generous estimate count- ing from the time the fruit was in proper condition to pick up to the time when it would begin to drop badly), this would mean that the owner must pick 200 barrels per day during this picking season. On the other hand, suppose the adjoining owner has five varieties beginning with Oldenburg, which is ripe around the 14 middle of August, following this with Wealthy, then MclIn- tosh, then Baldwins, then Wagener. The latter need not be picked before the middle of October or even later. This would give the second man two months in which to do his picking, or an average of around 60 barrels per day. Any one who has ever attempted to manage a picking crew will easily see the great advantage to the second owner. Third, a longer list of varieties insures some fruit each year. If the McIntosh are not bearing the Baldwins will be; if the Baldwins are off the Wageners will be bearing. Fourth, it increases the chances of pleasing customers. This is not an extremely important item but still it is worth considering, since one customer prefers one kind of apple while another prefers some other kind. Fifth, it may utilize the types of soil better. One variety, as already suggested, does well on a light soil, another on a medium soil, and another on a rather heavy soil. Sixth, it enables the owner to hold his markets better. If he has a continuous supply of apples available from the beginning of the season until the end, he can dispose of them much better than if he has one early and one late and loses the market in between. Seventh, it lengthens the period of income. This ought not to be an important matter, but as most men are constituted it is. Looking at the other side of the question, the disadvan- tages from the increase in the number of varieties, we have, first, that it decreases the chances of selling the entire crop to one buyer. This would be an important consideration in those sections where the practice is to sell the crop, either on the trees or in the packing house, to a buyer who takes the entire crop at one sale; and in certain sections the advantages enumerated above might be more than offset by this single disadvantage. Second, it may lower the efficiency of the orchard because it includes less efficient varieties. For example, Wealthy and McIntosh are both extremely efficient varieties, growing large crops of good apples. If one plants some Oldenburgs or some Spies or some Gravensteins, he is likely to reduce the efficiency 15 of the orchard because these latter varieties are not as gen- erally efficient as the former. Third, the soils may not be suitable for the particular varieties one wishes to set. This might or might not be an important consideration. Turning now to a few specific varieties which seem to be well adapted to most of our orchard sections in Massachu- setts, we may suggest the following list: — Oldenburg. This is a Russian variety imported into this country about 1835 and probably more generally grown, take the United States as a whole, than any other variety with the possible exception of the Ben Davis. The tree is very hardy, very productive; comes into bearing early, often yielding fruit the third or fourth year; is a vigorous grower while young, but soon steadies down to a rather scant growth and therefore never makes a large tree. It is a reliable cropper, often yielding annual crops, but likely to be biennial, and is ex- ceptionally healthy in the matter of foliage. The fruit of the Oldenburg is of good and uniform size, a fine light yellow in color, striped more or less with red, but is only fair in quality. Its season is the latter part of August and early September, and it is usually a profitable variety on account of its many other good characteristics and in spite of the fact that it is not high in quality. Wealthy. This variety was originated by Peter Gideon at Excelsior, Minnesota, and is another variety that is very generally suc- cessful. The tree is very hardy; a good grower while young, but slowing down fairly rapidly and never making a large tree. It comes into bearing early, frequently by four or five years, and is extremely prolific. The fruit has a fine color, being well covered with a handsome red, its quality is excel- lent, and the fruit is very even in size and shape. It drops badly, which necessitates picking over the trees at least twice if the best results are to be secured. The fruit is of good size when the trees are young, but is apt to run small as the 16 trees get older, necessitating heavy pruning, good fertilizing: and thinning of the fruit. The season is September and October. At the present time it is doubtful if any other variety is more profitable than the Wealthy for Massachusetts orchards. McIntosh. This variety originated in Ontario, but has rapidly come to the front in Massachusetts of late years, and probably no: other variety is more popular or more profitable at the present time. The tree is a strong grower, very hardy, healthy ex- cept for a tendency to be attacked by scab; comes into bear- ing fairly early, say five or six years, and bears regularly and annually thereafter. Some trees in the agricultural college orchard have borne twelve successive crops. It makes an excellent tree in shape, being one of the best in that respect. The fruit of the McIntosh is wonderfully fine in color, with beautiful white flesh, juicy and tender, and of the very highest. quality. It is in season in ordinary storage from October to December, but under refrigeration much longer, and in any case keeps extremely well for an apple of its season. The fruit drops badly, necessitating several pickings if the best results are to be secured. Doubts are sometimes expressed as to whether the McIntosh is not being overplanted in this section, but it would seem that with an apple of this quality put on the market at a reasonable figure, there would be a chance to dispose of almost unlimited quantities. Baldwin. This is a Massachusetts variety, having originated at Wil- mington, near Lowell, and is the most generally grown of any variety, and next to the McIntosh is probably the most pop- ular for this State. The tree is a strong grower, long-lived, and bears abundantly in alternate years. It is not especially hardy, though it succeeds well in most parts of this State. It comes into bearing in seven or eight years, and usually bears very abundant crops biennially from that time forward. The fruit is excellent in quality when well grown, of fine color, of good size, and keeps well. In ordinary storage its Baldwin. McIntosh. Palmer Greening. THREE PoPpuULAR VARIETIES. 17 season is from November to February or March, and it is at present and always will be a leader in Massachusetts or- chards. Wagener. This apple originated in New York and is not widely grown in Massachusetts, but in some respects is a most promising variety. The tree is of medium size, a good grower while it is young, but slow as it gets older. It is remarkably early in coming into bearing, sometimes producing apples at the third or fourth year, and bears abundantly, at least biennially, after that. The fruit is of good size, fine color and excellent quality, though somewhat inclined to produce culls where there are few apples on the trees. The season is November to February. The special value of Wagener to orchardists is the fact that it is a late-keeping apple and yet a small tree, and is therefore adapted to use as a filler where that system of growing is adopted. Gravenstein. This variety, originated in Germany, was introduced into the United States about 1825 and has been a very popular variety in many sections. The tree is very vigorous, almost too much so, making a large tree and tending to overgrow and winter-kill as a result of late growth, unless soil conditions and soil management are just right. It is rather slow in coming into bearing, requiring about seven or eight years, and is an uncertain cropper. In some sections it bears very abun- dantly indeed and is extremely popular, and in others it is a shy and uncertain bearer. The fruit is of high quality, hand-, some in color, very popular in the market, and in sections where the Gravenstein succeeds it stands close to the head of the market varieties. Its season is September to November, and barring the fact that the trees are apt to go bad through winter-killing and other troubles, it would stand second or third in many sections. This difficulty could doubtless be overcome to some extent by setting other hardy varieties and topworking Gravenstein on these, Delicious. This is one of the newer apples, but is one of promise and is—- being fairly largely set in some sections. It promises to be a good variety of high quality to follow the McIntosh as a dessert apple. It originated in Iowa, but seems to be taking decidedly to New England conditions, and some excellent fruit of this variety is being grown in various parts of the State. The tree is a good grower, comes into bearing fairly early, and is said to bear annually. Conclusive evidence on this last point is lacking as yet for this State. The fruit is handsome in color, of good quality, though apt to lose its quality fairly quickly and become mealy. Its name and advertising make it popular in the market. It is probably not to be recommended for general planting as yet, but cer- tainly is a variety of promise. Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan and Williams Early. The two former varieties are Russian in origin, while the Williams is a Massachusetts production. All three of these are grown as early apples more or less freely in many sections of the State, the Yellow Transparent, coming in the last of July or the first of August, followed by Red Astrachan and then by Williams. For early varieties there are at present no others which can compete with them, though all of them have their shortcomings,— the Yellow Transparent being yellow in color, easily bruised and making rather a poor tree; the Red Astrachan being slow in coming into bearing and not producing freely; and the Williams being a poor, sprawling tree and not prolific. In the writer’s opinion the foregoing list of varieties com- prises the best sorts for Massachusetts orchards. Other varieties which are fairly popular, but of which space will not permit a detailed description, are Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Hubbardston, Palmer Greening, Winter Banana and Opalescent. To sum up the writer’s opinion on the variety question for Massachusetts orchards it would be that for a commercial orchard nothing but a red apple should be set. The five 19 leaders for most sections are, in the order of their ripening, Oldenburg, Wealthy, McIntosh, Baldwin and Wagener, with Gravenstein standing near the head for some sections and Delicious a promising candidate. Buyine oF Nursery STOCK. This question brings up many minor details which have to be settled before a satisfactory purchase can be made. A few of these questions would be — First, shall we buy northern or southern grown stock? This probably makes no difference provided the stock can be landed at the orchard in good condition. Second, the advantages of locally grown stock. These are certainly considerable and personally the writer would never go far from his orchard for nursery stock. Locally grown trees arrive at the farm in fresher condition, the transportation charges are less, and any disagreement with the nurseryman can be more easily adjusted. ' Third, shall one set dwarfs or standards? For most com- mercial propositions probably the standard is to be recom- mended. There have been cases where dwarf trees have done remarkably well, but, on the whole, the standard is more satisfactory. Fourth, the best age of trees to buy. This question is largely on one-year versus two-year trees, and in the writer’s opinion the one-year tree is likely to be more satisfactory where soil conditions are ideal, but the two-year trees are to be preferred where soil conditions are not of the best. It is unquestionably wise to buy direct from some reputable nurseryman instead of from an agent, and to get in your order as early as possible. If it can be done in November or December, one is sure to get the varieties he wants and to avoid many other difficulties. PREPARATION OF SOIL. If the land is not too sloping, it is desirable to plow the field the autumn before it is to be set, but on land which « slopes much, it is best to wait until early in the spring. After 20 plowing, the land should be fitted in the best possible manner, using the disc harrow first and following this with any other harrows that may be available, ending with a planker or clod- crusher, which should leave the land in first-class condition to be laid off. LAYING OFF THE ORCHARD. This is a matter which deserves much more care than it usually receives. The operation should be begun by setting a stake in one corner of the orchard block at the point where the corner tree is to grow. This ought to be not less than 25 feet and preferably 50 feet from either edge, and if there V yy V V are trees growing along either margin of the field, 75 to 100” feet is better. Next a range stake is set at the opposite end of the field and stakes are then driven every so often, being such a distance apart as it is desired to have the trees stand. The light-drayght orchard harrow. 21 Just what this distance ought to be is a much-discussed ques- tion. In the writer’s opinion it ought seldom to be less than 40 feet for the standard trees, which would make the fillers, if these are used, 20 feet apart. Next a row of stakes is set at right angles to the first row, usually about the middle of the field, these being all the stakes that are set by the sighting method, the balance being best set with what are. called measuring boards. These are two boards of a length equal to the distance between the trees. These boards have notches at the ends, and are laid down the end of one against a stake in one row and the end of the other against a stake in the second row of stakes as shown in the accompanying diagram, and the new stake is driven in the notch where the two boards meet. All this may sound like a good deal of work, but it would surprise any one who has not tried it to see how quickly the stakes may be set. LocatTING THE TREES. For locating the trees a planting board should be used. This is a device which is by no means new but which deserves much wider use than it gets. There are several types of them, but the one shown in the accompanying diagram is a fal G perhaps as good as any. The board should be 4 or 5 feet long by 8 inches wide, with a notch at each end and one in the middle. The middle notch is placed against the stake set for the tree and a short piece of lath is then driven down at each end in the notches, the planting board taken away, and the hole dug for the tree where the center stake stood. Then when it comes time to set the tree, whether it is that afternoon, or the next day, or the next week, the planting board is put in place again with the two ‘small stakes in the end notches and the tree is slipped into the middle notch and planted out, and of course stands exactly where the original stake stood. This is another operation which may sound bungling but which in actual practice works out very satisfactorily. 22 SETTING THE TREE. Where soil conditions are just right, that is, land well pre- pared and well drained, and where the nursery stock can be bought near by so that it is certain to be on hand when wanted, and yet will not have been dug while too immature, autumn setting will succeed. But it is usually best, in our climate, to set orchards in the spring, and the earlier in the spring they can be set the better. The field operations of digging the holes and setting the trees will vary greatly according to the number to be set, and various other factors, but in general would be somewhat as follows. The holes should be dug about 18 inches to 2 feet wide and perhaps 15 inches deep. The top 8 or 10 inches of soil should be put in one pile and the subsoil in another. The tree is prepared for setting by cutting off all large roots. that are broken, and shortening in any long, straggling roots. The actual setting can best be done by two men, one holding the tree and the other shoveling in the soil. The tree is. slipped into the notch in the planting board mentioned above, and is held at the proper height by the man setting it while the other man shovels the soil into the bottom of the hole. If the hole is considerably deeper than necessary for the depth of the tree, some soil may be shoveled in before the tree is put into the hole. The tree ought to be set at about the same depth at which it grew in the nursery; an inch or two deeper is probably all right, but it should not vary greatly from its original depth. The soil should be packed in care- fully under the crown of the tree and the roots brought out into approximately their original position. When the soil has been filled in so that all roots are covered, the man setting the tree should tramp the soil down firmly about the roots so that there will be a good contact between them, and the tree can start off properly. The surface soil should be used first, and subsoil filled in at the top of the hole. Where operations are being conducted on a fairly large scale, it is well to mount a barrel on a stone-boat, fill it half full of water and then put the trees into this barrel to be transported around the orchard. This insures their ar- riving at the holes in first-class condition. 23 PRuNING THE TREE AFTER SETTING. If one-year trees have been set they will usually consist of a straight whip, and the only question with regard to pruning is the height at which this whip should be cut off. Opinions vary on this, but probably most growers would say around 30 inches. Eighteen inches would be considered a very low head, and 40 inches a fairly high one, though many growers head even higher than this. If the tree is a two-year tree, the question of pruning it is considerably more complicated. But, to begin with, all branches ought to be removed except those which are wanted for scaffold branches, and these should not be over five, and preferably three or four. These scaffold branches should be well distributed around the central trunk of the tree so as to give a well-balanced head, and a good deal of time and thought ought to be given to this first problem. When the superfluous branches have been removed, then those remaining ought to be cut back from a third to half their length. CULTIVATING THE ORCHARD. As soon as possible after the trees are set, cultivation ought to be begun in the orchard and kept up from that time until about the first week in July. For this cultivation one of the V-shaped cultivators is perhaps as good as anything, and the land should be worked with it every week or ten days in order to keep up a good dust mulch and to keep down all weeds. Everything possible should be done to protect the trunks of the trees from damage through this cultivation. This means a steady horse, a careful man, and padding the ends of the whiffletree with an old bag in order to prevent the trees from being barked if the whiffletree accidentally touches them. In addition to the cultivating some hoeing may be necessary provided weeds are abundant. But, on the other hand, with good cultivation, upon land not too much infested by weeds, the cultivator may do all the work that is necessary. 24 FERTILIZING THE TREES. The type and quantity of fertilizers used in the orchard will vary a good deal according to soil conditions and according to the cultivation that is maintained. With a reasonably fertile soil and with good cultivation, it may not be necessary to use any fertilizers whatever; while, when the soil is poor and the cultivation not of the best, a considerable quantity of fertilizer may be necessary. For this fertilizing nothing is better than good barn manure, and where this is available it may be the only fertilizer needed. Two or three forkfuls around a tree will bring along a more satisfactory type of growth than can be got in almost any other way. While this may be all that is necessary it frequently is desirable to put on a little nitrate of soda at the start to bring the trees along quickly. Where barn manure is not available some nitrate of soda, say 2 or 3 ounces per tree, and some tankage, say a half pound per tree, will usually result in a very satisfactory growth of the trees. The question of the application of any other types of fer- tilizers to trees the first year is still a matter of debate, but probably in most cases it is not worth while to apply potash; and while the case of phosphoric acid is less certain and a half pound of acid phosphate per tree might be worth using, still, if the soil is handled properly in other respects, the trees will probably make a very satisfactory growth without any other types of fertilizers than some form of nitrogen. CROPPING THE ORCHARD. It is a much debated question whether it will pay to grow other crops among the young trees during the first few years of the orchard, and the answer to this question depends very largely on the type of land and the type of market available. In most cases it is probably wise to attempt to grow some sort of crops in the orchard. If the right crop is selected it will usually help towards carrying the expense of bringing the orchard along, and the cultivation is apt to be more thorough and systematic where there is a crop involved than where there is nothing but the orchard on the land. Barley as a cover crop in a young orchard. This is one of the best cover crops for Massachusetts orchards. 25 The choice of this crop will be largely a personal matter and is frequently a rather difficult question to settle, but it ought to be a cultivated crop-without any question, and usually an annual crop. Some of the most generally successful companion crops for young orchards are late potatoes, beans, late cabbage, corn (preferably sweet corn or small-growing flint corn) and squash. Cover Crops FOR THE ORCHARD. Whether the orchard is cropped or not the land along the tree rows should be sowed down about the first week in July to some type of cover crop. If the land is not cropped then the entire orchard should be seeded down. This cover crop is a very important part in the proper management of the orchard. Some of the things which it does to the orchard are to check the growth of the tree toward the latter end of the season, thus insuring that it goes into the winter in a well- ripening condition; to prevent the washing of the soil during winter and spring rains, which of course is extremely important where the land has any great slope; to add humus to the soil, which has already been discussed and which is very im- portant; and if a leguminous crop is used, to add nitrogen to the soil. In sections where the soil is likely to freeze deeply the cover crop also assists in preventing extreme depths of freezing and still more important in preventing alternate freezing and thawing of the soil. Various crops are used for this purpose. One of the best plans is to use a mixture of two crops; and it will be found that a half bushel of barley with either 6 or 8 pounds of crimson clover added, or with a peck of winter vetch added, makes an excellent combination. Another good plan is to substitute buckwheat for barley, using a half bushel of buck- wheat with 6 or 8 pounds of crimson clover or with the peck of winter vetch. These mixtures insure that nearly all of the functions mentioned above will be satisfactorily performed in the orchard. 26 PROTECTING THE TRUNKS OF TREES. The last thing which ought to be done to the orchard in the autumn is to adopt some plan of protecting the trees from damage by mice. If mice are not plentiful in the section and are seldom known to do any damage of this type, then merely clearing away the trash and cover crop from around the trees may be all that is necessary. But if there is any great proba- bility of damage, then it is better to use some sort of protectors; and a strip of good waterproof building paper about 18 inches wide, placed around the tree at its base and tied in one or two places to hold it snugly, will usually insure the tree coming through without damage. Do not use tar paper! 27 CuHapter II. RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. There are undoubtedly thousands of old apple trees in Massachusetts, some in orchards and others scattered about fields, which would pay good returns if they could be thor- oughly “renovated” and thereafter be given proper treatment. On the other hand, there are just as many, and probably far more, which would be more profitable on the woodpile than anywhere else. The first question, then, for one to decide, if he owns such trees or orchards, is “Will it pay to make the attempt to get them into a thrifty condition again?” In the writer’s opinion this depends on three conditions: (1) the age and vigor of the trees; (2) the stand of trees in the orchard; and (3) the varieties. To discuss each of these briefly : — 1. The Age and Vigor of the Trees. — If the trees are vigorous, with good trunks and main branches, unaffected with canker or other injuries to the bark, it has been my experience that they can be brought into a profitable condition even though the tops are full of dead branches and they have been system- atically neglected for years. This is supposing, of course, that the other factors mentioned above are favorable. It is truly surprising what can be done with an old orchard when it is taken in hand and given modern, up-to-date treatment. On the other hand, if the trunks or main branches are damaged by canker, or have been injured by cold so that the bark has fallen away in patches of any size, as very often happens, or if the trunk and main branches are badly rotted out in the center, then it is very doubtful if the orchard will pay for renovating. It must be remembered that the trunk is the 28 highway by which the results of our improved care are trans- ported back and forth from the roots to the top, and if this highway is in a demoralized condition we are not going to get the best results. 2. The Stand of Trees. — This is supposing, of course, that the trees to be treated are in an orchard, and it will be easily seen that if half of the trees are out it is not going to pay to cultivate and fertilize the whole of the land for trees which could be put on half of it. And it is seldom satisfactory to attempt to grow anything else in such vacant spaces in an old orchard, or to plant young trees in the vacancies. If the trees are along fences or odd corners, so that cultivation of the soil will not be attempted, then the question of stand is less important, and may, perhaps, be ignored altogether. But in an orchard there ought to be a three-quarters stand at least to make it worth while to take the matter up, except under the most favorable circumstances. 3. The Varieties in the Orchard. —'This is of less importance than the two points already mentioned, vet it is a factor that is decidedly worth considering and that has an important bearing on the cost of the renovating process. It is possible, of course, to graft over the trees, but this is both an expensive and a lengthy operation, and I should condemn to the brush heap an orchard which needed to be grafted far more quickly than one which already had the right varieties in it. Of course the question of varieties is very largely personal, and need not be discussed here, but I should mean by “right” such varieties as suited the grower and the markets for which he was producing, preferably standard sorts, like Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury Russet, The above, as I have said, are the main factors in deciding for or against the renovation of an old orchard, yet perhaps I have omitted the chief factor after all, and that is the man himself. If he has just come into possession of the orchard, and is making an attempt to clean up all along the line, I should have far more faith in the ultimate good results of the matter than if he were author and finisher of the neglect from which the orchard has suffered, even though he might 991} JUIT[IOXS UB OYVUT TIM YI pouUryy do} puv pesourar udseq AVY soyouTAd pvap USYA, “BuryeAouar 10J 9aI} Jo odA4 Bursiwoid YW — ‘T ‘DI Soars = wo : : < 29 have firmly determined to “do the right thing by the or- chard” henceforth. Having finally decided that the orchard is worth while, the work of renovating will fall naturally under the follow- ing heads: first, cultivation; second, pruning; third, spray- ing; fourth, fertilizing; fifth, cover crops; sixth, grafting, — arranged somewhat in the order of their importance, though, of course, this will vary greatly with different orchards, and all with the possible exception of grafting will be needed to secure the best results. I have placed cultivation first because though trees will often do well in sod, if otherwise well cared for, and though it may sometimes be necessary, even in attempting to revive an old orchard, to let the trees stand in sod, yet, as a rule, to get them into satisfactory condition cultivation is the prime requisite, and will do more than any other one thing to start the orchard on the right road. It is usually difficult in an old orchard, such as we are considering, to do anything like a thorough job of plowing. If one can secure an ox team they will do the work better than a team of horses, as they will be able to get under the trees better, and the slow, steady gait of the oxen is better than that of most horses. Do not be alarmed over cutting some tree roots with the plow, even some large roots. A little root pruning will not hurt the trees, and the fresh, new feeding-roots, sent out from the broken and cut ends of the old roots, will very soon equal in absorbing ability the parts of the old roots which are cut away. Another point in plowing is the question of throw- ing the furrow towards or away from the trees. One. fre- quently finds an old orchard in which the plowing has been for years always in the direction of the trees, until each row stands along a ridge, with deep hollows between. Such an orchard should be plowed away from the trees, until the land gets back reasonably level again. After that it is well to plow the orchard alternately towards and away from the trees, — one year north and south and the next east and west. In this way the land can be kept in the best condition for the trees. 30 Occasionally it is impossible to do even a makeshift job of plowing, and then one can sometimes begin operations by running a heavy dise harrow through the orchard, to cut up the sod and start things in the right direction, and per- haps plow it the following year. After the plowing has been done it is always advisable to use the disc harrow and follow it with the spring tooth harrow, going both ways with each of them, and going over the land several times, so as to get the land in good tilth. After this, through the balance of the season, it is best to cultivate the land once every week or ten days, up to per- haps the first week in July. And let this weekly cultivation be thorough! If the two harrows suggested, disc and spring tooth, are available, it is well to run the disc over the long way of the orchard first, and then finish with the spring tooth the opposite way. This insures all the land being worked over, and leaves it more level than if one finishes with the disc, which of course is desirable on account of re- ducing evaporation. It is difficult to overdo cultivation at this season of the year, and with an old, neglected orchard I should feel inclined to let this be the principal feature of the program, so far as the soil is concerned. Now for our second point in the program, pruning. This is apt to vary more in the extent to which it is needed and in the character which is best to apply than any one of the other factors. If the trees are very high, with little or no bearing wood near the center, as is apt to be the case, then they should be given drastic pruning, so as to grow an entirely new top, a good many feet nearer the ground than the old one. If there are water sprouts in the center of the tree, as is frequently the case, then the tree may be de- horned, as it is called, that is, all the old top can be cut away, leaving stubs perhaps 3 or 4 feet long at the base of each main branch. If there are no water sprouts, or very few, then the top should be pruned severely but not dehorned, in the hope that it will send out water sprouts and thus allow of dehorning later on. This seems like heroic treatment, and it is, but in the great majority of cases, if the trees are other- wise healthy, they will send out a bushy top which, with Fic. 2.— A poor type of tree for renovating. Trunk is toolong and main branches have no bearing wood except at tops. If renovation is attempted this tree should be severely cut back to renew the top. 31 judicious thinning, will make practically a new tree out of the old one. And one great reason why such old trees as we are now considering (tall, overgrown ones) are not profitable is that they are so tall that every operation — pruning, spray- ing, picking, etc. —is four or five times as costly as with lower trees. So it is absolutely essential to get them down nearer the ground if they are ever to be made profitable. On the other hand, if the trees are reasonably low, the pruning may consist largely in thinning the top throughout, beginning, of course, with the dead branches, and then taking enough live ones to leave the head fairly open to light and air, and to the sprayer when that comes on the scene. Even in this class of trees (those which are not unreasonably tall) it is often possible to reduce their height to advantage, with- out materially altering their form, by simply cutting back each of the main, upright branches to one of its strong, main offshoots. At the start the effect may not be just what we should like, and the top may be thrown somewhat out of bal- ance, but with a year’s growth it will largely recover its symmetry, and even if it should not altogether the advantages of the lower top will offset any disadvantages. Another point in this latter type of pruning, and one often neglected, is not to remove too large branches in the thinning. Of course it is much easier to remove what one considers the required amount of wood by taking out a few large branches, but the results are much better if one will take comparatively small branches (not above an inch, and preferably much smaller, in diameter) and take more of them. This thins the top uniformly, letting in light, air and spraying materials to all parts equally; while the removal of a few large branches leaves the top too open in some places and as thick as ever in others. Still another point which one should bear in mind in his pruning is to keep a sharp watch for diseased branches, and take these out in preference to healthy ones. The Euro- pean and some other cankers are, in particular, liable to be found in such an orchard, and may be largely held in check by such pruning. And lastly, after the pruning has been done, and the wounds made have had time to dry up and. “check”? somewhat, all wounds of an inch and a half or over 32 should be thoroughly painted with thick lead paint, to keep out moisture and prevent decay. White lead and boiled lin- - . seed oil make the best kind of covering for such wounds, but it is well to add a little brown color, merely to take off the glaring whiteness of the painted wounds. One frequently sees the advice to take the paint pot into the tree when prun- ing, and attend to the painting at once, when the limb is removed, but in the writer’s experience the pruning tools are all that one wants to be bothered with at one time, and the paint will certainly adhere better to the cut surface when this has dried somewhat. Our “thirdly” is the spraying problem. This will vary somewhat, according to the insect and fungous diseases which may be present in the orchard or locality. If the San José scale is there a thorough spraying with oil in the autumn, after the leaves have fallen, and with lime-sulfur just as the buds are swelling in the spring, will be found to be the most efficacious treatment. Where one does not have too bad an infestation of scale, in the writer’s observation the best thing to use is the lime-sulfur, and one has the satisfaction of knowing that while he is. driving this pest out of his planta- tion he is also most effectively reducing the vigor of a num- ber of fungous diseases which might have caused trouble later in the season. In this connection (fighting insects and fungi) one is frequently asked as to the desirability of scrap- ing the trees to remove the rough, scaly bark. While this ought not to be necessary as a regular practice in orchards which are cared for, and especially in those which are sprayed, yet in the beginning I believe it is an excellent treatment for such orchards as we are considering. Certainly it will add materially to the effectiveness of any spraying which may be done in the orchard. It will not usually be found necessary to use oil after the orchard is once cleaned up, and the following spraying schedule will generally be satisfactory for future years. First Spraying. — Early spring, just as the buds are break- ing. Commercial lime-sulfur, about 6 gallons, and arsenate of lead paste 4 pounds, or powder 2 pounds, 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, three-eighths of a pint, to 50 gallons of water. This Fig. 3.— Type of tree which should be cut back severely in renovating; 10 or 12 feet at least could be removed to advantage. Except for poor trunk (see Fig. 2), this tree could be very successfully re- modeled. 33 is for scale, aphis, bud moth, and also for certain fungous diseases. Unless buds are well broken and tips of leaves showing when this spray is made, omit arsenate of lead. Second Spraying. — Just before the blossoms open. Lime- sulfur 1 gallon, 40 per cent nicotine sulfate, three-eighths of a pint, arsenate of lead paste 3 to 5 pounds, or powder 1} to 23 pounds, water, 50 gallons. There is some experimental evidence to show that 5 to 10 pounds of lime, slaked and added to each 50-gallon cask of spray containing lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead, will prevent the burning of foliage which sometimes follows the use of this combination. It is at least worth trying. This spraying is for bud moth, tent cater- pillar, browntail moth, curculio, aphis, red bug and scab. Third Spraying. — Within a week after the petals fall. Warm weather shortens and cool weather lengthens this period. Same as second spraying. This spraying is especially for cod- ling moth, curculio, apple scab, red bug, gypsy moth and aphis. Fourth Spraying. — About four weeks later. Same materials as the third, omitting nicotine. Especially important for cod- ling moth, lesser apple worm, scab, gypsy moth, sooty fungus of apples, ete. The relative importance of these different sprayings will vary with different orchards. Some may be omitted alto- gether in certain sections. There are few localities, however, where the second and third will not give excellent returns on the cost of applying. ; In some sections of the State injury to the foliage has re- sulted from spraying with the combination of lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead. In similar climates this difficulty has been avoided by substituting’ Bordeaux mixture for com- mercial lime-sulfur in the second spray in the above pro- gram, and self-boiled lime-sulfur for the commercial in any later applications. This has worked out well in New Jersey, Nova Scotia and elsewhere, and is certainly worthy of trial here. Of course one may be confronted by special problems, like an acute attack of canker worms or a scourge of apple aphis, in which case a specialist should be consulted. But for all 34 ordinary cases the foregoing program ought to be entirely adequate, and it would certainly surprise most old orchards to receive half of this attention. The fourth factor in our operations is the fertilizer question, which is naturally very closely related to our cultivation problems and sometimes has to be varied to suit the cultural methods adopted. At the beginning I do not believe it is desirable in most cases to apply any nitrogenous fertilizers, or if they are applied it should be in very limited quantities, and early in the season. A moment’s reflection will show the philosophy of this. Trees which have been allowed to grow in sod, as the old orchards which we are considering will undoubtedly have been, and in soil which has been im- poverished by constant removal of the grass as hay, and of the fruit, without any return of fertilizer, will have long, straggling roots sent out to forage at a distance for all the plant food possible. And these long roots will have com- paratively few branches or small feeding roots, as it is a well- known fact that roots branch freely in a fertile soil and sparsely in a poor soil. Now when the land in the orchard is plowed and cultivated, and fertilizers are applied, the conditions become very much more favorable in the soil, and the roots begin to branch freely in response to these improved conditions. If the fertilizer has been applied in the form of barn manure, as is often the case, this requires some time to decay and get into soluble condition so that the roots can take it up, but when this has taken place it furnishes a large amount of highly nitrogenous food which tends to stimulate a very strong wood growth late in the season. The trees having the root systems such as we have described, long and spreading, and having sent out an abundance of feeding roots all along these original main roots in response to improved conditions, are sure to take up an unusual amount of this plant food, much more than trees which have had regular care from the beginning, and which therefore have more compact root systems. The result is that the growth is continued very late in the season, that the new layer of tissue between the old bark and wood does not ripen up in the autumn as it should, and that when cold weather comes on it is no better fitted to Fig. 4. — Trunk injured by cold. Such trees are usually not worth renovating. 35 withstand freezing than a potato or a cabbage, and is destroyed during the winter. Soon after this the bark separates from the wood, and the tree dies if the bark has been killed all round, or is seriously weakened if only part way. For these reasons, as I said in the beginning, I should advise with- holding nitrogenous fertilizers almost entirely the first season in the case of most orchards. If the soil has any fertility to it at all the cultivation and consequent improved physical condition will liberate all the nitrogen that the trees need to make an entirely satisfactory growth. In a few orchards, where the soil is very poor, it may be necessary to apply some nitrogen, and if this is done it should be in the form of nitrate of soda. An application of perhaps 200 pounds of this material, made early in the spring as soon as growth starts, will usually be all that is necessary even in the worst of cases. Other fertilizers may or may not be needed. It is very difficult to make a general recommendation. On light, sandy land some potash is often desirable, and 200 pounds of sulfate of potash may well be applied. For supplying phosphoric acid the most common material used is acid phosphate, and a good application of this is 200 to 300 pounds per acre. Nearly all of our old orchard soils are benefited by lime, and an application of 2 tons of ground limestone per acre may well be made. Just how much this will affect the trees themselves is still a matter of doubt, though there is some evidence to support the belief that it is an advantage to them. ‘But there is no question that it will benefit the cover crops grown in the orchard, especially the leguminous ones, and this is sufficient justification for its use. We come now to the question of cover crops for the orchard, by which is meant some crop grown in the orchard, usually late in the season, and exclusively, or at least mainly, with the object of improving the soil of the orchard. That it can be made to play a very important part in the upbuilding of an old orchard has been shown time and again. Some of the best ones for Massachusetts orchards are buckwheat, barley, soy beans, turnips, dwarf Essex rape and the vetches. The chief advantages derived from their use would be that 36 they take plant food away from the trees in the autumn and. thus help to ripen them up; that they catch and hold nitrates in the soil after the growth of the trees has stopped, and when these substances might otherwise be washed out of the soil; that they help to pulverize and rot down the sod, which is especially important at the beginning; that when they are plowed under the following season they furnish humus, which in turn furnishes plant food to the trees; and that, in the case of soy beans and the vetches, they help to keep up the store of nitrogen in the soil by what they take up from the air and store in their roots. This is by no means all that these cover crops do, but it covers the main points, and serves to show how important they are. The general plan of their use would be this: that the orchard would be plowed as early in the spring as the soil would permit and thoroughly fitted as outlined earlier. Then thorough cultivation would continue up to the first week in July, when the cover crop would be sown. The only important deviation from this course would be in the case of some of the leguminous cover crops mentioned, particularly soy beans, which often give better results if sown in drills earlier in the season (the middle of June), and cultivated several times before the orchard is laid by. Of course the objection to this is that the cultivation by this method is much more costly, since it must be done with a one-horse cultivator, a row at a time, instead of with a disc or spring-tooth harrow, covering three or four times the space. But even this objection is often, if not usually, over- balanced by the much better growth of the cover crop. After cultivation ceases and the cover crop is sown, nothing further is done to the soil until the following spring, when the cover crop is plowed under, and the program begins again. Where a good growth of one of the nitrogenous cover crops can be secured it is often possible to obtain all the nitrogen needed for the orchard in this way. I should feel inclined to begin with buckwheat as a cover crop in starting an old orchard because it is peculiarly effective in rotting down sod and putting the soil in fine physical condition. This might be followed in a year or two by either soy beans or a mixture of one half bushel of buck- wheat, and one peck of summer or winter vetch. Note also the fine Fic. 5. — A dehorned tree after one year’s growth, showing how well these trees recover. crop of buckwheat used as a cover crop. 37 As to amounts of seed per acre of the different crops sug- gested the following will be found right for ordinary con- ditions: — Buckwheat, . 1 bushel. Barley, 13 bushels. Soy beans, 1} bushels broadcast; 4 bushel in drills. Summer vetch, 13 bushels broadcast; 1 bushel in drills. Winter vetch, . . 1 bushel broadcast; $ bushel in drills. The principal objection to the vetches is the cost of seed, and they are probably best used in the mixtures above sug- gested. Lastly there is the question of top-grafting the trees. I have already said that I should consider the necessity of this a strong factor against the orchard, for it requires con- siderable time, two to four years, and not a little expense, to work over the trees into other varieties. But it frequently happens that odd trees in an orchard are of unsatisfactory varieties, and it is sometimes worth while to graft over an entire orchard where the trees are relatively young and other- wise in good condition. Where this is to be done I believe it is generally advisable to employ an expert grafter if one can be found in the neighborhood; or, if the orchard is of sufficient size to warrant it, a professional grafter can be secured from a distance. In either case it is better business, and more satisfactory generally, to pay by the stub, and to have the grafter guarantee the scions to live. Of course in such a case one must have confidence enough in the man to insure that he will not put in grafts needlessly, but after all it is better to have too many grafts than not enough, and with a little knowledge and supervision on the part of the owner there is usually little difficulty on this score. If the owner js situated so that he can do so I should strongly advise his furnishing the scions himself, and too great care cannot be exercised in selecting them. They ought to be taken from bearing trees, and they should be thoroughly well matured and not too long-jointed. Let them be selected while the trees are still dormant, and stored in moist soil or sawdust in the coolest possible place; if an ice house is available so much the better. 38 A great many problems will undoubtedly come up in reno- vating an old orchard besides those which have been dis- cussed, and modifications will have to be made to suit special fruits, such as peaches and plums, but if a campaign along the general lines indicated could be made among the old, and at present profitless, orchards of the State, either cleaning them up or cutting them down, it would certainly do a great deal toward putting Massachusetts fruit on a better footing with both dealers and consumers, and it would make an addi- tion to the income of the farmers of the State by no means to be despised. 39 Cuapter III. THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF PEACH ORCHARDS IN MASSACHUSETTS. J. K. SHAW, RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT STATION. Massachusetts is on the northern frontier of peach growing. While there is limited production in southern New Hampshire and still more limited production in southern Maine and Vermont, the commercial crop in these three States is almost negligible. It follows that the peach industry in Massa- chusetts is beset with many difficulties and calls for wide and thorough knowledge and a high degree of skill on the part of the grower if he is to attain a commercial success in the business. During the past few years peach growing in the northern and central portions of the United States has been passing through a period of depression. There have been several years of partial or complete crop failure, while apple growing has been more profitable, causing many growers to turn from peaches to apples as a more profitable crop. Peach growing has always had its ups and downs, and it is reasonable to suppose that in the near future there may be a revival of interest in the business. Limitine Factors. 1. Winter-killing of Fruit Buds. The most frequent cause of crop failure in Massachusetts is winter-killing of the fruit buds. Buds that are perfectly dormant may survive a temperature of 20 degrees below zero, but higher temperatures are often fatal especially when, as fre- quently happens, the buds are started into slight growth by warm periods in midwinter. Buds are sometimes practically all 40 killed by a temperature of 10 degrees below zero, but it is prob~ able that in such cases they have been caused to swell by warm winter days. Just what temperatures will bring this about is uncertain, but a maximum of 45 degrees or higher for two or three days will often have an appreciable effect. During November or December high temperatures will have no effect, as may be learned if one will bring peach twigs into a warm room and put them in a jar of water. In early winter the buds will not respond, while in midwinter, or later, they will in a few days come into full bloom. The date of completing this resting period depends on many things. It is desirable to have it continue as long as possible and to this end we may encourage the trees to grow reasonably late in the fall. Vari- eties differ greatly in bud hardiness, and Greensboro seems hardiest of the common varieties. Carmen and Champion are hardier than the average, while Elberta is very tender in bud. Air temperature varies greatly with the local elevation, and it follows that peach trees should be planted only on elevated sites. If possible one should choose a site 200 or 300 feet above the stream level of the locality, with free outlet for the downward flow of cold air, and without broad slopes above which may cool the air so that it will flow down over the orchard. At the same time it is important to avoid sites exposed to sweeping winds. In Massachusetts one should be careful about planting peaches more than 1,200 feet above sea level. Open expanses of water serve to modify extreme winter cold, and therefore locations near the open ocean should be less subject to harmful winter temperatures though they may be somewhat objectionable for other reasons. Still the writer believes that the region about Buzzards Bay and portions of Cape Cod ought to be favorable for peach growing. Direct means for preventing the winter-killing of peach buds are of rather small practical value. Keeping the trees thoroughly whitened during December and January by spray- ing with whitewash has been recommended and it is often quite effective., The writer hesitates to express an opinion of its practical value in Massachusetts, but it is worth experi- menting with. Small trees may be covered with corn stalks ‘olfnoins ey} OJ ABLas 0} ey apIveu ‘TTeJ oy Butuurseq syonys J UL BIMy '10jU9D *1OJUTM ZULINp UdTOMs YeYMoWOS spNq FINIZ YIM ssrAy “YJoT PY —“T “OL ‘qusNy “urOOTq TM, Se SRS Te 41 or similar material. Some growers have laid down the trees in the fall with success, but the labor involved and the check to the trees from cutting the root system on two sides in order to bend the trees over will interfere with a general adoption of this scheme. In general one must rely on select- ing hardy varieties and on a wise choice of site, and the latter is a point that cannot be overemphasized. Certain soil conditions are believed to favor bud aetaeee Among these are a warm, dry, gravelly soil, yet retentive enough of moisture to promote good growth and prevent ex- cessive drying out of the tree in winter; moderate fertiliza- tion, giving vigorous growth completed so that the tree may go into winter with well-ripened wood; and the growth of a good cover crop as a winter protection of the soil. Low- headed trees are thought to be more hardy than high-headed ones. ; It ought to be possible to make progress in solving this most important problem of peach growing by breeding bud hardy varieties, and this is now being attempted at the State Ex- periment Station. 2. Winter-killing of the Wood. The fruit buds are considerably more tender than the wood, yet in severe winters there is often considerable killing of the branches and sometimes of the whole tree. The remarks con- cerning bud injury will apply fairly well to wood injury, and it is to be prevented as far as may be by much the same methods. Varietal hardiness of wood and bud do not always go together, as Elberta, which is tender in bud, is about as hardy in wood as any variety. Peach trees will recover from winter injury if not too severe, when proper steps are taken. These are a severe pruning of the tree, cutting back into three or four year old wood, and removing half or two-thirds of the top. Extremely heavy pruning, spoken of as dehorning, is not to be resorted to. Then the tree should be encouraged to make a strong growth by thorough cultivation and fertilization with material rich in nitrogen. 3. Diseases. Peach diseases often limit the crop in Massachusetts, yet by proper measures they may be controlled so that losses are not serious. Brown rot is the most destructive, especially in years when warm, humid weather persists just before and during the harvesting period. When the disease is present in the orchard it does a great deal of damage to the fruit after it is sent to market. Sound fruit, but carrying spores of the disease and exposed to warm, moist air, often rots to an alarming degree while on the way to the consumer. Not only does the disease cause characteristic decay of the ripening fruit, but it may destroy the bloom, small twigs and even larger branches by causing cankers thereon. The disease carries over winter chiefly in dried fruits hang- ing to the tree or fallen to the ground and known as “mum- mies.”’ It follows that these should be destroyed by plowing under or in some other way, but the main reliance is on proper spraying, which will be discussed later. Yellows occasionally causes great havoc by destroying the trees. The first symptom is likely to be premature ripening of the fruit on a part or all of the diseased tree. Often the fruit shows reddish spots and reddish streaks through the flesh. The same season or the next tufts of weak, yellowish shoots appear through the tree, and in a very few years the tree perishes. The disease is contagious, passing from one tree to another commonly through budding in the nursery. It follows that great care should be taken to plant stock free from the disease, and any tree in the orchard showing possible symptoms should be watched, and the moment it seems prob- able that it is suffering from yellows it should be dug and destroyed. A new tree may be planted at once in its place if desired. Spraying is of no avail with this disease. Leaf curl sometimes causes extensive defoliation and con- sequent weakening to the tree, but does not directly affect the wood or fruit. The swollen, distorted leaves, often yel- lowish or reddish in color, are very characteristic. Once seen the disease is readily recognized. It is easily controlled by 43 spraying, but the application must be made early before the buds start into growth in the spring. Scab affects some varieties more than others, Greensboro being especially susceptible. It is readily recognized through the appearance of black spots’ over the surface of the fruit. The usual spraying program will ordinarily prevent the disease. There are other diseases that sometimes cause damage, but these are the most common and serious in Massachusetts. Their prevention by spraying will be discussed later. _ 4. Insects. The toll taken by insects is serious, but by care and, watch- fulness their ravages may be held in check. While there are a great many insects feeding on the peach, only three are deemed important enough to find mention in this brief dis- cussion. Borers work just beneath the bark on the tree trunk, below and a little above the ground. Their presence is indicated by the appearance of masses of a brownish jelly-like material, commonly at the surface of the ground. The only satisfactory remedy is to dig them out. Go over the trees in the fall, and, if the insects are abundant, again in the spring. Dig away the soil 5 or 6 inches deep and go over the bark care- fully. Dig out the “worms” and kill them. Put back the soil and do it all over the next year. Various protective and repellant materials have been tried for borers, but while they may decrease the number of borers, nothing has been devised yet that will remove the necessity of digging them out. Heaping up a mound of earth 6 or 8 inches about the trunk of the tree in late June, forcing the insects to locate where they are more accessible, is as helpful as anything. Liberal fertilization with nitrate of soda to promote vigorous growth will help the trees to overcome borer injury. The San José scale is found on peach as well as other fruit trees. Formerly it was very destructive, but now it does serious damage only in neglected orchards. Nevertheless, one should watch for the ashy-gray scurfy appearance on the 44 twigs caused by this pest and take energetic control measures. if necessary. Curculio causes serious damage in three ways: (1) by caus- ing heavy drop of the young fruit during the few weeks fol- lowing fruit setting; (2) by blemishes on the fruit from the egg punctures; and (3) by furnishing an opportunity for in- fection by brown rot through the egg punctures, the last being more serious than often. realized. The adult insect. passes the winter in rubbish along fence rows, in neglected fields and near-by woods. Care should be taken to locate the orchard away from the immediate vicinity of such places or to clear them up as the case may be. The chief preven- tion, however, is spraying as discussed later. er d. Marketing Conditions. After one has overcome the limiting conditions of produc- tion, the efforts of the commercial grower go for nothing unless a satisfactory market is at hand. Fortunately for the Massa- chusetts grower he has a first-class market at his doorstep. The only difficulty that arises is that he is likely to have a crop only in years when peaches are abundant and the price consequently low. Great profits in growing such perishable fruits as peaches are secured only when a combination of good prices and a good crop occurs. It should therefore be the effort of the grower to get, so far as possible, a crop in years when other growers fail. Means of attaining this rather difficult aim, in part at least, will now be considered. EstTaBLISHING THE PEACH ORCHARD. From the foregoing discussion it follows that one should direct all efforts towards overcoming these limiting factors and especially the most important and difficult one of winter- killing of fruit buds. Several factors not previously men- tioned may be considered in establishing the orchard. Soil. The importance of local elevation, slope and protection from sweeping winds has been mentioned. Peach trees succeed on a wide range of soils, but it is in all cases imperative that the spnq #Iniz 4ynq sArTTe SIM} “QUSIE yW “ploo qo}UIM AQ pel[ly sIM4 yoved “491 VW — "S “DIA “MOLIE OY} 1B YO Nd Udaq aavy Plnoysay ‘Surjzyas }v sands }.10Yys 04 peunid 9e14 yoved jos ATMON --'Z “DI 45 soil be well drained. The subsoil should be open, preferably with a layer of gravel 2 or 3 feet down, underlaid with a more compact soil that will retain moisture. If these con- ditions prevail, the character of the surface soil is of less im- portance. It may be of medium clay to decidedly sandy. Peaches prefer a more fertile soil than apples, but may do well on soils too poor for first-class production of field or garden crops. Slope. Peaches do well on lands sloping in any direction, but it would seem that northerly slopes ought to be a little better in Massachusetts as there will be less tendency for the buds to start during winter thaws. A gentle slope falling off sharply below the orchard and without great expanse of sloping land above ought to be ideal. Trees. One-year-old trees are the rule and the medium sizes are generally to be preferred, but the planting and care of the trees is of more importance than any small differences in the stock. One should not plant trees if the bark is shriveled or if they are badly infested with San José scale or crown gall. Large well-branched root systems are important. Varieties. The number of varieties of peaches is legion, yet those that have found favor with any considerable number of com- mercial growers in the State are few. The following are dis- cussed in approximately the order of ripening: — Greensboro is the hardiest in bud of the common varieties,- and is adapted to as wide a range of soil conditions as any. The quality is not especially good, yet coming among the first it is acceptable. In the market it competes with later varieties from the south and is sometimes less profitable on that account. It is susceptible to scab which is easily con- trolled by spraying. Carmen is in higher favor than Greensboro, being ten days to two weeks later and of better quality. While less hardy in bud than Greensboro, it is hardier than most of the yellow- fleshed sorts. It is one of the very best for Massachusetts orchards. Champion follows Carmen at a week or ten-day interval, and is reputed to be about the best in quality of any. It is apt to crack in wet seasons and is much subject to brown rot. Belle would be in higher favor if it did not compete in season with the yellow-fleshed Elberta; it is hardier in bud and equal or a little better for eating fresh, but does not hold its shape so well in canning. Hale (J. H.) has been brought forward as a substitute for Elberta. It is a trifle earlier, somewhat larger and hand- somer, but does not seem to have the adaptability to all sorts of conditions that Elberta has. It is a fine peach, but will hardly replace its well-established competitor. Elberta is the standard peach all over the country. Prob- ably more are grown than of all other varieties put together. It has two serious faults: it is not of the highest quality for eating fresh, and it is tender in bud. Often an orchard will have good crops of Greensboro and’ Carmen when Elberta is totally killed. Other varieties worth trying to fill out the season are, in approximate order of ripening, Mayflower, Arp, Waddell, Edgemont, Mountain Rose, Hiley, Rochester, Stump and Fox Seedling. Planting. Before planting, the soil should be put into good tilth by deep plowing and harrowing. The trees should be set 18 or 20 feet apart. The hole should be large and the soil well packed over the roots. If trees can be secured from near-by ‘nurseries, they may be set in the fall, but generally spring planting is best. Immediately after planting they should be severely pruned, cutting the tree back to 24 inches or lower, and cutting off all weak branches and shortening in the strong ones two-thirds or more. The branches to form the head should come out from 6 to 24 inches from the ground. Soil Management. A successful peach orchard cannot be grown in sod. It is imperative that continuous cultivation be kept up from early 47 spring till midsummer or later. For this reason peach orchards on steep slopes are generally undesirable on account of the soil washing that is apt to occur. In July or early August a cover crop should be sown. It is impossible to say what crop is best further than that it should furnish the largest possible amount of organic matter to plow under in the spring. The trees should grow fairly late in the fall so they may not com- plete the resting period too soon, yet it is important that the leaves fall and the wood ripen up before the cold days of November come. It is probable that a good cover crop on the soil as the trees go into the winter is helpful in securing the bud hardiness that is so important in Massachusetts. Peach orchards require more fertilization than apple orchards. Barnyard manure in moderate quantity is good, but it is often unobtainable. Of the chemical fertilizers, nitrogen- carrying materials are most often of benefit and nitrate of soda has given good results. The amount to use will depend on the soil. Generally 4 pounds per mature tree will be profitable. Nitrogen, especially in liberal amounts, will delay ripening of the fruit, which may or may not be desirable. It will cause the tree to grow late in the season, which, if not overdone, will favor hardiness to cold. Phosphoric acid has not generally proved of benefit to peach trees, but it is often helpful to the cover crop and its use may be justified on that account. Potash alone is sometimes profitable, but has generally given better results when used’ with nitrogen and_ possibly phosphoric acid. The leading shoots of a bearing peach tree ought to make a growth.of 12 to 20 inches each season, and if they are not doing this an application of 2 to 4 pounds per tree of nitrate of soda is likely to prove profitable. The peach owner is advised in such cases to try it with and without potash and phosphoric acid and judge if the use of the last two is profitable. The amount of acid phosphate should be 2 to 4 pounds per tree, and muriate or sulphate of potash 1 to 2 pounds per tree. It is best to use rather small amounts until one is satisfied that that particular element is needed; then it may be increased to the limit of profit. ‘tO Pruning. Few Massachusetts peach orchards are intelligently and systematically pruned. More attention to pruning should pay large dividends in increased crops and longer life of the trees. The peach bears by lateral buds on the new annual growth and on lateral or terminal buds on short, straight spurs. Most fruit buds are of the former kind, and as a result of this habit the bearing wood gets farther away from the center of the tree each year. This tendency is to be checked by heading back. Sometimes the fruit buds are near the base of this new growth, sometimes near the tip, and sometimes evenly distributed the entire length. These facts should be observed before pruning so that intelligent limiting of the crop may follow pruning. Heavy heading back should follow a loss of crop from winter cold, but one should make sure that the buds are destroyed before cutting, lest he destroy a crop. Dead buds will show a brown center within forty-eight hours after killing, but 90 or 95 per cent of the buds may be killed and the remainder make a fair crop. This is why the peach crop is sometimes destroyed in April and yet floods the market in September. If the buds are really all killed, cut the branches back into three or four year old wood and cut to a side branch; also cut back the side branches and remove all weak shoots. If a crop is promised, less severe pruning should be practiced. The new growth should be shortened one-third or more and weak side shoots removed. Cut to a side branch whenever possible. Every effort should be made to keep the tree from going high in the air by cutting back severely the upright growth in the center of the tree. Spraying. The summer spraying program in the peach orchard will differ considerably from that for apples largely because lime- sulfur and lead arsenate will burn the foliage severely and cause partial defoliation. Thoroughness of application is of vital importance as with all spraying work; every leaf, twig and fruit should be completeli covered with the spraying material. Ss er ten ae Fig. 4. — Peach tree cut back into three or four year old wood, after severe winterkilling, making a good recovery. over crop of buckwheat. 4 / Fia. 5.—C 49 Self-boiled lime-sulfur is the best material for summer spraying. It is made by putting 8 pounds of lime in a wooden or iron container and slaking in the usual manner. When it starts to boil, sift in 8 pounds of finely ground sulfur and con- tinue boiling with constant stirring for a few minutes. At the first appearance of a very slight reddish tinge, add cold water to make up to 50 gallons and apply at once. Only the best of lime should be used. If it does not start slaking readily use hot water, but do not use any artificial heat to cook the mixture. Better results follow if twice or four times the amounts given are prepared in a single batch. For small operations a proprietary material known as atomic sulfur is sometimes used with good results. No fixed spraying program will be the best under all con- ditions and in all seasons, but the following will give generally satisfactory results: — _ First Spraying. — Before the buds start to swell, commercial lime-sulfur, 1 gallon to 9 gallons water, for San José scale and leaf curl. Not needed if these pests do not occur. Second Spraying. — For the curculio, arsenate of lead, 3 pounds paste, or 13 pounds powder, to 50 gallons of water, just as ‘the shucks are falling,—a week or ten days after blossoming. It is a safe thing to add 2 or 3 pounds freshly slaked lime to prevent possible injury to the foliage. Third Spraying. —For curculio, brown rot and scab, self- boiled lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead two weeks after second spraying. Atomic sulfur may be used in place of the self- boiled lime-sulfur, in which case it is best to add milk of lime as in second spraying. Fourth Spraying. — For brown rot, self-boiled lime-sulfur four or five weeks before the fruit ripens. To be omitted with Greensboro and other early varieties. Atomic sulfur may be used as a substitute. Dusting has recently been recommended as a substitute for liquid spraying and is fairly satisfactory for peaches. It is generally most desirable for large growers where haste is im- portant or when water is difficult to obtain. 50 Harvesting and Marketing. Peaches should be allowed to hang on the trees until as nearly ripe as possible. For near-by markets the time to pick is when they are well colored and at the first signs of softening on one cheek. Then they should be hurried into the con- sumer’s hands as rapidly as possible. If several days must elapse on the way they must be picked a little sooner. Gener- ally it will be necessary to go over the trees twice or three times to get all the fruit in the best condition. If hot weather prevails at ripening, they will often all come on at once. As with all fruit great care should be taken to avoid bruising and consequent decay. The package most commonly used is the 14-quart Jersey basket. Except in years of a generally heavy crop marketing is a simple problem, and as previously pointed out the greatest success follows where one can get a good crop in years of scarcity. The American people spend too much money in carrying food products long distances. Let us produce more peaches at home and avoid this transportation cost. 51 CHAPTER IV. PRUNING FRUIT TREES. J. H. GOURLEY, PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE COLLEGE, DURHAM, NEW HAMPSHIRE. The pruning of fruit trees is a subject which is as old as fruit growing itself. Definite and elaborate systems of prun- ing trees were in vogue centuries before such practices as thinning and spraying were heard of. Yet in spite of the antiquity of the practice it is only in recent years that well- conducted and thorough experiments have thrown light upon the underlying principles involved. At present the views of competent fruit growers are somewhat at variance as to how much pruning should be done, ranging all the way from none whatever to very heavy cutting, and also there is no uni- versal agreement as to the best form into which a tree should be trained. Pruning may be defined as the art or science of cutting away a portion of the plant in order to improve its shape, to in- crease its fruitfulness, or to repair damage. It should be recognized that training and pruning a tree are for different purposes. There are not many who would not attempt to train a tree for the first few years in order so to distribute the branches as to make the tree capable of carrying the maximum load of fruit when it becomes mature as well as to secure “the ideal” which the grower has in mind, Neverthe- less, it is easily possible to overemphasize its importance, for the object of pruning a tree is certainly not to produce a beautiful or shapely object, but rather to make a tree well balanced and capable of carrying a heavy load and having the crop so distributed as to give it maximum size and color. It is not uncommon in some sections to have a ton and a OZ half of fruit hanging on a tree, and the tree’s capacity to carry it must be a matter of foresight by the orchardist. On the other hand, the matter of producing a fruitful tree is a complicated problem intimately associated with other prac- tices and varying with different kinds of fruits and varieties of them. SHAPE AND ForM OF THE TREE. The general shape or form of a tree is largely a varietal character and is not easily changed, A tree which is quite upright in habit of growth, such as the Wealthy or Sutton, cannot be made to develop into a spreading type by any system of pruning. Likewise a tree of a spreading habit, such as the Rhode Island Greening, or one with a drooping habit, as the Wolf River, cannot be developed into an upright grow- ing one by pruning or training. Yet much can be done to curb a wayward grower or improve the natural proclivities of a variety. Types or TRAINING THE APPLE TREE. The grower should ‘first. decide upon the general type of tree which he wishes to develop and then begin with the newly set tree to follow out his plans. There are several general forms into which the young tree can be trained, the three principal ones being the vase or open-headed tree, the semi-leader or modified leader, and the central or pyramidal type.!. The vase-shaped tree is developed by selecting from three to six scaffold limbs which are to be somewhat equal in importance and all of which are lateral branches from the main trunk or stem, the central branch or leader being cut out at planting time. These scaffold branches are usually cut back to from 4 to 8 or 10 inches in length at time of planting, provided the tree is two years old, but if it is a one-year-old tree the top is cut back to from 20 to 30 inches in height and the scaffold branches are selected from the initial ones sent out during the ensuing summer or the following spring when they receive their first pruning. These 1 In addition to these three general types of training we should perhaps include the natural type of unpruned tree, although this sort of neglect is not common in commercial orchards. Fic. 1.— An apple tree in which the central leader has been allowed to develop. Such trees are inclined to grow too high. Compare with Fig. 2. Fig. 2.— The open-center habit of growth. ~~” PANCYGRADE S& MIN.SIZE 38 INCHES ONE STD. BBL BA L DWINS PACKED BY+ L. i. TOWNSEND MALDEN, MASS. 155 Another style of stencil is illustrated below. With the ex- ception of the words “PACKED BY,” the letters, before reduction, were all 36 point Gothic. This allows more space for other marks, but does not in any way alter the provision that such other marks as refer to grade or brand must not be more conspicuous than the marks required by law. UNGRADED MIN.SIZE 2% INCHES ONE STD. BBE. BALDWINS -~PACKED BY-~< L.E. TOWNSEND, MALDEN, MASS. NOTE.— Where apples are marked ‘‘ Ungraded,” the word “‘standard’’ must be omitted. Packages Other than Barrels: How Branded. Regulation No. 9. — The branding or marking of closed packages other than barrels shall be in letters and figures of such a size that the state- ments required by sections 103 and 104 of the law and by the regulations shall, when properly spaced, cover at least one-half the outside of one end of the package or at least one-half the label affixed thereto. 156 This is illustrated by the following: — MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD A GRADE MIN.SIZH 8 INCHES COUNT 100 BALDWINS =Pached by <« L. Kh. PrOWNSEND, MALDEN, MASS. or MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD B GRADE MIN. SIZE 2% INCHES ONE BUSHEL BALJIWINS Packed hy L.. TOWNSEND MALDIEN. MASS. 157 OtHER MARKS. The packer or distributor may put any marks on the package other than those required by law, provided, however, that such marks as relate to grade or brand are not inconsistent with, or more conspicuous than, the required marks. This gives an opportunity for the grower or packer to affix his own brand, or name of farm, and facts concerning the quality or other characteristics of the apples. In the case of the type of label illustrated below, the brand is subordinated to the grade. The words “Townsend Farm,” however, might be as conspicuous as the words “ Massachusetts Standard Fancy Grade,” but should not be more conspicuous. The name of the variety might be substituted for the word “Apples,” and the label would then read, for example, “'Town- send Farm Baldwins.” MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD FANCY GRADE TOWNSEND FARM APPLES GROWN AND PACKED BY L.E.TOWNSEND MALDEN, MASS. U.S.A. VARIETY MIN. SIZE INCHES COUNT 158 Regulation No. 10.— Such marks as “No. 1’s,” “No. 2’s,” “XX,” “XXX,” “Extra,” and the like shall not be used on closed packages. CoLp StTorAGE REGULATION. Regulation No. 11.—In order that an inspection can be made of apples which have been in cold storage, as provided for in section 109 of the Massachusetts Apple Grading Law, owners of closed packages of Massachusetts apples in cold storage, who have not received a Massa- chusetts certificate of inspection, are hereby required to notify the Depart- ment of Agriculture of the intended date of removal of such apples. 159 APPENDIX. UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW. [Pusiic — No. 307 — 63p Conaress.] ({H. R. 4899.] An AcT TO FIX THE STANDARD BARREL FOR FRUvITS, VEGE- TABLES, AND OTHER Dry CoMMODITIES. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the stand- ard barrel for fruits, vegetables, and other dry commodities other than cranberries shall be of the following dimensions when measured without distention of its parts: Length of stave, twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of heads, seventeen and one-eighth inches; distance between heads, twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches, outside meas- urement; and the thickness of staves not greater than four- tenths of an inch: Provided, That any barrel of a different form having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches shall be a standard barrel. The standard barrel for cranberries shall be of the following dimensions when measured without distention of its parts: Length of staves, twenty-eight and one- half inches; diameter of head, sixteen and one-fourth inches; distance between heads, twenty-five and one-fourth inches; circumference of bulge, fifty-eight and one-half inches, outside measurement; and the thickness of staves not greater than four-tenths of an inch. Section 2. That it shall be unlawful to sell, offer, or expose for sale in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or to ship from any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia to any other State, Territory, or the District of Columbia or to a foreign country, a barrel containing fruits or vegetables or any other dry commodity of less capacity than the standard barrels defined in the first section of this Act, or subdivisions thereof known as the third, half, and three-quarters barrel, and any person guilty of a willful violation of any of the provisions of this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and be liable to a fine not to exceed $500, or imprisonment not to exceed six 160 months, in the court of the United States having jurisdiction. Provided, however, That no barrel shall be deemed below stand- ard within the meaning of this Act when shipped to any foreign country and constructed according to the specifications or direc- tions of the foreign purchaser if not constructed in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which the same is intended to be shipped. Section 3. That reasonable variations shall be permitted and tolerance shall be established by rules and regulations made by the Director of the Bureau of Standards and approved by the Secretary of Commerce. Prosecutions for offenses under this Act may be begun upon complaint of local sealers of weights and measures or other officers of the several States and Terri- tories appointed to enforce the laws of the said States or Terri- tories, respectively, relating to weights and measures: Pro- vided, however, That nothing in this Act shall apply to barrels used in packing or shipping commodities sold exclusively by weight or numerical count. Section 4. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and sixteen. Approved, March 4, 1915. UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW. “Tue Suizer BIL.” (Pusiic — No. 252 — 61st Conaress.] (H. R. 21480] An ACT TO ESTABLISH A STANDARD BARREL AND STANDARD GRADES FOR APPLES WHEN PACKED IN BARRELS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the standard barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured without distention of its parts: Length of stave, twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of head, seventeen and one-eighth inches; distance between heads, twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches outside measurement, representing as nearly as possible seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels containing the interior dimensions provided for in this section shall be construed as a compliance therewith. Section 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in barrels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in 161 interstate or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within the District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States shall be as follows: Apples of one variety, which are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of good color for the variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and fungous injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety which are not more than ten per centum below the foregoing specifications shall be “Standard grade minimum size two and one half inches,” if the minimum size of the apples is two and one half inches in transverse diameter; “Standard grade mini- mum size two and one-fourth inches,” if the minimum size of the apples is two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter; or “Standard grade minimum size two inches,” if the minimum size of the apples is two inches in transverse diameter. SEecTION 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in accordance with the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with section two of this Act. Section 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be below standard if the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein defined, and the capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity prescribed by section one of this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end and side with words or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by section one of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point one inch gothic. Section 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be misbranded within the meaning of this act — First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating that the apples contained therein are “Standard” grade and the apples when packed do not conform to the re- quirements prescribed by section two of this Act. Second. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating that the apples contained therein are “Standard” grade and the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name of the variety, the name of the locality where grown, and the name of the packer or the person by whose authority the apples were packed and the barrel marked. Section 6. That any person, firm or corporation, or asso- ciation who shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples 162 in barrels or who shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one dollar and costs for each such barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United States in any court of the United States having jurisdiction. Section 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen. Approved, August 3, 1912. MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW. GENERAL Laws, CHAPTER 94. INSPECTION AND SALE OF Foop, DruGs, anpD Various ARTICLES. Sections 1 (part), 100 to 107, inclusive, 109 to 114, inclusive. “Closed Package’’ defined. Section 1. ... “Closed package” in sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and thirteen, shall mean a barrel, box, or other container, the con- tents whereof cannot be sufficiently inspected without opening TBs tec see 53 Standard Barrel and Box for Apples. Section 100. The standard barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured without distension of its parts: length of stave, twenty-eight and one half inches; diam- eter of heads, seventeen and one eighth inches; distance between heads, twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches, outside measurement; and the thickness of staves not greater than four tenths of an inch: provided, that any barrel of a different form having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty- six cubic inches shall be a standard barrel. The standard box for apples shall be of the following dimen- sions by inside measurement: eighteen inches by eleven and one half inches by ten and one half inches, without distention of its parts; and shall have a capacity of not less than two thousand one hundred and seventy-three and one half cubic inches. Standard Grades of Apples. Section 101. The standard grades of apples when packed or repacked in closed packages within the commonwealth shall be as follows: “ Massachusetts Standard Fancy” shall include only 163 apples of one variety which are well matured specimens, hand- picked, above medium color for the variety, normal shape, of good and reasonably uniform size, sound, free from disease, insect and fungous injury, bruises and any other defects except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing, and shall be packed properly in clean, strong packages; provided, that apples of one variety which are not more than three per cent below the foregoing specifications may be graded as “ Mas- sachusetts Standard Fancy”’. “Massachusetts Standard A” shall include only apples of one variety which are well matured specimens, properly packed, of medium color for the variety, normal shape, sound, practically free from disease, insect and fungous injury, bruises and other defects except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing; provided, that apples of one variety which are not more than five per cent below the foregoing specifications may be graded as “ Massachusetts Standard A”’. “Massachusetts Standard B” shall include only apples of one variety, which are well matured, properly packed, practically normal shape, practically free from disease, insect and fungous injury or any other defect which materially injures the appear- ance or useful quality of the apples, but they may be less than medium color for the variety; provided, that apples of one variety which are not more than ten per cent below the fore- going specifications may be graded as “ Massachusetts Standard B”. Apples not conforming to the foregoing specifications of grade, or, if conforming, not branded in accordance therewith, shall be classed as ungraded and so branded. Other Designations Forbidden. Section 102. The marks indicating the grade, as described in the preceding section, shall not be accompanied by any other designation of grade or brand which is inconsistent with, or marked more conspicuously on the package than, the marks re- quired by section one hundred and four. Minimum Size. Term defined, etc. Section 103. The minimum size of all apples in all grades, including ungraded apples as defined in section one hundred and one, shall be marked upon the package, and shall be determined by taking the transverse diameter of the smallest fruit in the 164 package at right angles to the stem and blossom end. Minimum sizes shall be stated in variations of one quarter of an inch, such as two inches, two and one quarter inches, and so forth, in ac- cordance with the facts. Minimum sizes may be designated by figures instead of words. The word “minimum” may be desig- nated by using the abbreviation “ min.” Certain Information to be marked on Closed Packages of Apples. Section 104. Each closed package of apples packed or re- packed within the commonwealth and intended for sale within or without the commonwealth, shall have marked in a conspicu- ous place on the outside of the package in plain letters a state- ment of the quantity of the contents, the name and address of the person by whose authority the apples were packed, the true name of the variety, and the grade and minimum size of the apples con- tained therein, in accordance with sections one hundred and one and one hundred and three, and the name of the state where they were grown. If the true name of the variety is not known to the packer or other person by whose authority the apples are packed, the statement shall include the words “variety un- known”, and if the name of the state where the apples were grown is not known, this fact shall also be set forth in the state- ment. If apples are repacked, the package shall be marked “repacked”’, and shall bear the name and address of the person ~ by whose authority it is repacked, in place of that of the person by whose authority they were originally packed. Branding and Marking of Barrels. Section 105. The branding or marking of barrels under sec- tions one hundred and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive, and one hundred and twelve shall be in block letters and figures of a size not less than thirty-six point Gothic. The commis- sioner of agriculture shall prescribe rules and regulations as to the lettering to be used in branding or marking other closed packages. Adulterated Apples. Term defined. Section 106. For the purposes of sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and thirteen, apples packed in a closed package shall be deemed to be adulterated if their measure, quality or grade does not con- 165 form in each particular to the brand or mark upon or affixed to the package, or if the faced or shown surface gives a false rep- resentation of the contents of the package Misbranded Apples. Term defined. Section 107. For the purposes of sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and thirteen, apples packed in a closed package shall be deemed to be misbranded: First. If the package is packed or repacked in the common- wealth and fails to bear all statements required by sections one hundred and one, one hundred and three and one hundred and four, made as required in section one hundred and five. Second. If the package, whether packed or repacked within or without the commonwealth, is falsely branded or bears any statement, design or device, regarding the apples contained therein, which is false or misleading, or if the package bears any state- ment, design or device indicating that the apples contained therein are of a specified Massachusetts standard grade, and said apples, when packed or repacked, do not conform to the require- ments prescribed for such grade. Sale of Cold-storage Apples regulated. Section 109. Apples which have been in cold storage shall not be sold or distributed, or offered or exposed for sale or dis- tribution, in closed packages until they have been inspected in accordance with rules and regulations prescribed by the com- missioner of agriculture. Commissioner of Agriculture to make Rules and may enter Certain Places. Section 110. The commissioner of agriculture shall make and may modify rules and regulations for enforcing sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine and one hundred and twelve, and shall, either in person or by his assistant, have free access at all reasonable hours to each building or other place where apples are packed, stored, sold, or offered or exposed for sale. He may also, in person or by his assistant, open each box, barrel or other container, and upon tendering the market price may take samples therefrom. 166 Prosecution for Violation of Certain Sections. SEecTIon 111. The commissioner of agriculture and his duly authorized assistants shall have authority to enforce sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine and one hundred and twelve, and to prosecute all violations thereof. Penalty jor Adulterating, Misbranding, etc., Apples. Section 112. Whoever adulterates or misbrands apples within the meaning of sections one hundred and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive, and one hundred and nine, or packs, repacks, sells, distributes or offers or exposes for sale or distribution, apples in violation of any provision of sections one hundred and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine and one hundred and thirteen, or apples so adulterated or misbranded, or wilfully alters, effaces or removes, or causes to be altered, effaced or removed, wholly or partly, any brands or marks required to be put upon any closed package under section one hundred and four, shall be punished for the first offence by a fine of not more than fifty dollars, and for a subsequent of- fence by a fine of not more than two hundred dollars. Certain Exemptions from Penalties. Section 113. No person who sells or distributes or offers or exposes for sale or distribution apples adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of sections one hundred and six and one hundred and seven, shall be deemed to have violated any of the provisions of sections one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine and one hundred and twelve if it appears that he acted in good faith solely as a distributor, or if he furnishes a guaranty signed by the person from whom he received the apples, together with the address of such person, that the apples are not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of said sections. In such case, the person from whom the distributor received the apples shall be liable for the acts of the distributor, if he relied upon the guaranty, to the same extent that the distributor would have been liable under said sections. 167 Apples in Interstate Commerce exempted. Section 114. Apples shipped in the course of interstate com- merce and packed and branded in accordance with the act of congress approved August third, nineteen hundred and twelve, and known as “The United States Apple Grading Law”, shall be exempt from sections one hundred and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and thirteen. * 168 BIBLIOGRAPHY. GENERAL PUBLICATIONS. AUTHOR. Title. Publisher. Price. Bailey, L. H., Nursery Manual, Macmillan, 1920, $3 25 Bailey, L. H., Principles of Fruit Growing, Macmillan, 1915, 3 25 Bailey, L. H., Pruning Manual, , Macmillan, 1916, 3 25 Brown, B. S., Modern Fruit Marketing, One Judd Company, 1 60 Browh, B. S., Modern Propagation of Tree | John Wiley & Son, 1916, 1 50 Gould, H. P., Beach Croniing Macmillan, 1918, 3 00 Hesler, L. R., and Whet- | Manual of Fruit Diseases, . Macmillan, 1917, 3 00 Kah M. a Principles and Practice of Prun- | Orange Judd Company, 2 50 Sears, F. C., Productive Orcharding, Je SY riawineehs 1917, 2 50 Slingerland, M. V., and | Fruit Insects, Macmillan, 1914, 3 25 eo American Fruit Culturist, . Orange Judd Company, | 3 50 Waugh, F. A., American Peach Orchard, lies Judd Company, 175 Waugh, F. A., Beginners’ Guide to Fruit Grow- Orange Judd Company, 100 Wilkinson, A. E., The Apple, . Ginna & Co., 1915, 3 20 OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. Wilder, H. J. Soils of Massachusetts and Connecticut with their Special Reference to Apples and Peaches. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 140. Spraying Peaches for Control of Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 440. Growing Peaches: Sites and Cultural Methods. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 917. Peach Varieties and their Classification. United States Department of Agriculture, Farm- ers’ Bulletin No. 918. INDEX INDEX. “A” grade, requirements of, Acid phosphate, use of, . in old orchards, in peach orchards, . Aphids (or plant lice) in old orchards, on apple trees, @ methods of control, Apple diseases, Fi bitter-pit or stippen, bitter-rot, black-rot, brown-rot, cankers, bitter-rot, black-rot, European, nail-head, classification of, Control measures for, crown-gall, economic Joss from, fire-blight, fruit-spot, 4 miscellaneous injuries, rust, scab, sonty Elotot ane fly-speck, . spongy dry-rot, . ‘ storage rots, ‘ blue-mold, pink-mold, scald, Apple Insects in Massachusetts, Some Important, shaptee on, by ‘Pros fessor H. T. Fernald, 5 Apple maggot (or railroad a9 , methods of control, ‘ Apple Orchard, Establishing an, chapter on, by Professor F. C. Sears, Apple Grading and Packing, Laws and Regulations on, chapter on, by Wilfrid Wheeler, H. Linwood White and W. A. Munson, Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers, chapter on, by Albert R. Jenks Apple Storage on the Farm, chapter on, by Professor W. R. Cole, Apple worm, lesser, Arp peach, “B” prade, requirements of, ‘Baldwin, variety of apple, apples, prices for, fruit-spot (bitter-pit or stippen), PAGE 149-151 149-151 16 119 94 172 Barley as a cover crop, Barrel, apple, standard, contents, of, legal, . defined, method of aokine 4 in, score card for apples packed in, storage of, when filled, tables for packing in, Belle peach, Bibliography, . Bitter-pit or stippen, dcanetion of, control of, Bitter-rot, description of, . 5 canker, description of, Black-rot, description of, canker, description of, in pruning, Blue-mold, Bordeaux mixture, as a fungicide, Borer, round-headed apple-tree, * methods of control, Borers attacking peach trees, Boxes, produce, standard bushel, ‘ packing apples in, risers on, , slats on, standard apple, contents of, legal, lining of, packing apples in, score card for, systems of, = table for, Branding. (See Marking.) Bridge grafting described, diagram of, pruning after, Brown-rot of apples, description of, of peaches, . spray for, Brown-tail moth, Brown-tail moth caterpillar on apple rang: Buckwheat as a cover crop, Bud moth, Bud sticks, préparation of, Budding, definition of, diagram of, . in top working trees, method of, object of, F time for, in Massachusetts, : By-products, apple, . Calyx spray, “Cambium layer”’ defined, Canker, black-rot, in pruning, PAGE 25, 35 132 152 . 148 132, 134-136 163 173 PAGE Canker worm, . ‘ 33 Cankers on apple trees. ¥ 99-101 bitter-rot, 100 black-rot, F 99 European, 100 nail-head, 100 Carmen peach, ' 45 Caterpillar, tent, 33 Caterpillars on apple trees, 83 brown-tail moth, 83 fall web-worm, 84 gypsy moth, 83 ° red-humped, 84 tent, : 83 yellow-necked, ' 84 Central or pyramidal type of trees, 52 Champion peach, 46 Cleft grafting described, 59, 60 diagram of, 60 on girdled trees, 66, 67 “Closed package”’ defined, 148 _ Closed packages, marks prohibited on, 158 required on, 151 color of ink in marking, 153 method of marking, 155 other than legal marks on, 157 Clover, crimson, as a cover crop, 25 Cluster-bud spray, iis Coburn (or notch) grafting, 61 diagram of, 62 Codling moth, on apple trees, ; 85 methods of control, 86 “Collar-blight”’ (or ‘‘crown-rot’”’) phase of fire-blight, 98 Color of apples in grading under law, 150 Concrete, in apple storage houses, 121, 122 Condition of apples for storage, 116 : relation of color to, 116 Contents, table of, F 3 Control of apple diseases, general, 105 Copper sulfate-lime dust as a fungicide, 111 Corrosive sublimate, disinfectant, 101, 111 Counts of apples in boxes, 140 sizes of apples for various, 140 Cover crops for apple orchard, 25 advantages of, 25, 36, barley as a, 25, 35 buckwheat as a, . 25, 35, 36 clover, crimson, as a, 25 Essex rape, dwarf, as a, 35 in peach orchards, : 47 as aid to bud hardiness, 47 method of cultivation, 36 proper quantities of seed for, F ‘ 37 soy beans as a, 35, 36 35 turnips as a, , vetch, winter, as a, . 25, 35, 36 174 PAGE Crops, cover, in new orchard, r 25 in old orchards, 35 in peach orchards, i 47 growing of, in orchard, ‘ 24 Crown-gall on nursery stock, 102 control of, : 102 “Crown-rot”’ (or *collar-blight’’) phase of fe-blight 98 Cultivation in new orchard, E 23 in peach orchard after setting, . 47 after winter-killing, 41 before setting, 46 in renovating old orchards, 29 Cultivator, V-shaped, use of, 23 Curculio on apples, ¥ P 89 methods of control, 89 in old orchards, 33 on peaches, ‘ 44 spray for, 49 Definition of ‘‘closed package”’, 148 ‘standard barrel’’, 148 ‘standard apple box”, 149 “standard grades”, 149 “Dehorning”’ of old trees, 30, 55 Delayed dormant spray, 113 Delicious, variety of apples, 18 Diseases of the Apple in Massachusetts, chapter on, by Praeue A. Vincent Osmun, ‘ 90 Diseases of peaches, 42, 43 brown-rot, 42 leaf-curl, 42 scab, . 43 yellows, 42 Dormant spray, delayed, . P A 113 Doucin apple, stock for dwarfing, 72 Drainage, atmospheric, 10 water, , 10 Dusting in apple orchards, ‘ é 7 ‘ ‘ 111 in peach orchards, p 49 Dwarf trees, method of production, To Eastern Massachusetts, spraying in, 111, 114 Edgemont peach, ‘ 46 Elberta peach, 46 ‘Essex rape, dwarf, as a cover crop, 35 European canker on apple trees, 100 Fall web-worm on apple trees, i. ote . 84 “Fancy’’ grade, requirements of, ( : 149-151 Fertilizers, nitrogenous, in old orchards, . ‘ . 34 in peach orchards, . , : 47 Fertilizing, after planting, i i ‘ 24 in renovating old aatanty, ‘ f 34 of peach orchards, 47 of peach trees after winter-killing, ' 41 Field receptacles for apples, ‘ : é ‘ i 129 PAGE Fire-blight, description of, 3 : : . . 98 control of, : a 5 98 Fox Seedling peach, . ‘ - i 46 Fruit-spot, of apples, dexctiption of, " 4 94 Baldwin (bitter-pit), ; 5 , é 94 Fungicides for the apple, . . . : ‘ P 106, 110, 111 description of : : ‘ F 110, 112 Bordeaux mixture, . : 110 copper sulfate-lime dust, @ 111 rt corrosive sublimate, . ‘ 111 lime-sulfur solution, . 110 sulfur dust, 111 object of use of, . , . 110,111 and insecticides, combined, ‘ i 112 Girdled trees, repairing, . s ‘i 65 ‘‘Graders,”’ apple (sizers), ‘ ‘ 125, 133 Grading of apples for box packing, . ‘ 3 138 Grading laws, purpose of, i 146 when adopted, 146 Grafting and budding, chapter on, by ‘Pootaneoe Ww. Ww. ‘Chenoweth, 5 57 definition of, 57 growing of stock for, : 72 object of, 57 Grafting, applicable to what fruits, . 58 bridge, described, ‘ 67-69 diagram of, 68 ca after, . 69 chisel, < ‘ ‘ 58 cleft, described, 59, 60 diagram of, 60 on girdled trees, 66, 67 equipment for, . : 8 58 notch or Coburn, described, 61 diagram of, 62 root, described, . ‘ 62 tongue, described, ‘ 63 diagram of, . 63 top, described, . é 59 wax, how made, ‘ F 58 Grafting, top, of old trees, 37 Grafts, setting out, . ‘ 65 storage of, : f 64 Gravenstein, variety of apple, ‘ 17 Green apple aphid, 80 Greensboro peach, 45 Gypsy moth, 33 Gypsy-moth cenouailla on apple trees, ‘ 6 . : 83 Hairy-root, phase of crown-gall on nursery stock, : ; ‘ 102 control of, ‘ - 102 Hale (J. H.) peach, eee as Harrow, disk, use of, in old orshanda, * ‘ ‘ : 30 spring-tooth, use of, in old orchards, F F . i 30 Harvesting, of apples, 127, 128 of peaches, é , c : F : ‘ 7 , 50 time for, A ‘ , : 50 176 “Heading back”’ in pruning, Hiley peach, Injuries, physical, to apples, < : Z f : < Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple, chapter on, by Professors H. T. Fernald and A. V. Osmun, . Insecticides, combination, : ‘ 3 A k arsenate of lead and nicotine sulfate, lime-sulfur wash and nicotine sulfate, . and fungicides combined, i ' lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and nicotine sulphate, lime-sulfur and lead arsenate, contact, defined, described, . kerosene emulsion, lime-sulphur wash, miscible oils, nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, sulfur compounds, dry, for the apple, A classification of, stomach poisons, arsenate of lead, of lime, Insects, apple, apple maggot, caterpillars, codling moth, leaf hoppers, oyster-shell scale, plant lice or aphids, plum curculio, red bugs, round-headed apple-tree borer, San José scale, scurfy scale, Insects, attacking peaches, borers, curculio, , scale, San José, Inspection of apples in cold storage, Introduction, *‘Jumble”’ pack, Kerosene emulsion as a contact insecticide, Law, Massachusetts, on apple grading, regulations under, summary of, text of, United States, on apple grading, summary of, text of, 104 106 112, 113 112 113 106 108-110 108 109 110 108 110 106-110 106 106-108 106 107 73 87 83 85 82 142, 144 108 148-158 146 162-167 147 160-162 177 PAGE Law, United States, on standard barrels, summary of, . 147 text of, . 159, 160 Laws and Regulations, on Apple Grading and Packing, chapter on, by Wilfrid Wheeler, H. Linwood White, and W. A. Munson, 146 Lead, arsenate_of, use of, P 32, 33 as insecticide for apples, 106 to control caterpillars, 83 to control codling moth, 86 in combination insecticides, 112 in combined insecticides and fungicides, 112 in peach orchards, 48 Leaf-curl of peaches, 42 spray for, 49 Leaf-hoppers on apple trees, 82 Lime, in fertilizing old orchards, 35 in spray mixtures, 33 Lime, arsenate of, as an fnaentioide, 107 Limestone, ground, use of, in old orchards, : 35 Lime-sulfur, commercial, use of, : 32, 38, 82 : in combined insecticides and fungicides, 112 self-boiled, use of, A 33 in peach orchards, 49 method of mixing, 49 solution, as fungicide, 110, 111 wash, use of, to control San José nie. 79 as an insecticide, 109 in combination insecticide, 113 Manure, barn, use of, ke 5 24 in old orchards, 34 in peach orchards, 47 Marketing, of peaches, conditions affecting, 44 methods of, 50 Marking, of closed packages, 153-158 Marks, on closed packages, 151 . color of ink for, 153 kinds prohibited, 158 method of applying, 155 other than legal, 157 Massachusetts Apple Grading Law, regulations under, 148-158 summary of, 146 text of, 162-167 Massachusetts, eastern, spraying in, 11, 114 future of orchard industry in, vg Mayflower peach, 46 McIntosh, variety of apple, 16 Measuring boards, use of, 21 Mice, protection of trees from anaes by, 26 Miscible oils as contact insecticides, 110 Mountain Rose peach, 46 Nail-head canker on apple trees, 100 Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, use of, : : F 32, 33, 76, 82, 88 as a contact insecticide, 108 in combination insecticides, 112, 113 in combined insecticides and fungi- cides, 112 178 PAGE Notch (or Coburn) grafting, : ‘i P ‘ , 61 diagram of, . ‘ x 62, Nursery stock, , , ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 19 advantages of locally grown, ‘ i 4 19 best age of trees to buy, ‘ ‘ . 19 buying of, . F Z j 4 19 dwarfs or standards, . F - ‘ ‘i 19 northern or southern, . : r . ; 19 Oldenburg (Duchess of), variety of apple, . . x 15 Open-headed (or vase-shaped) trees, . : 3 ‘ 52 “Open package,” effect of covering, . ‘ ‘ 153 Orchard, apple, cover crops for, . . ‘ 25 cultivation of, . : 23 fertilization of, é < ‘ 24 growing crops in, ‘ ‘ 24 laying off, i 20 site for, selection of, . , 7 score card for, 5 i ‘ 8 industry, future of, in Massachusetts, . ‘ 7 Orchards, Renovating Old, chapter on, by Professor F. c. sees ‘ 27 conditions for, . ‘ 27 Oyster-shell scale, . - x a % % é 75 methods of control, F : 76 Pack, ‘‘jumble”’, , ‘ « . 142, 144 Packages, for apples, 129, 130-133 closed, ‘ x + 4 144 market, . . 4 ‘ - 180-133 barrel, standard, . é : 132 baskets, ” ‘ “131, 132 boxes, . é . 130, 131 open, . ‘ ‘ 143 used for field senentadlen: : . : 129 Packing, pad, use of, in box packing, . F ‘ 143 in standard produce box, . . 142-144 room, in storage house, 3 i ° . 123,124 systems of, in boxes, . ; 4 . 139-142 sizes of apples for, : 140 types of, . e é ‘ 140 2-2, ‘ . 140 3-2, ‘ F r ‘ 141 4-4, . 141 Painting of cut surfaces after pruning, F : 4 o2 after removing cankers, : : 101 Paper, building, use of, to protect trees, . ‘ ‘ “ i , 26 Paradise apple, stock for dwarfing, . 4 72 Peaches, cultivation of, 2 ‘i 47 fertilization of, . F ‘ 47 harvesting of, ‘ P 50 method of planting, P 46 setting of, . 46 time for planting. ‘ A ‘ 46 varieties of, ‘ ‘ ° é 45, 46 Peach growing, limiting factorsin, . A r : 39 marketing conditions aieetnw, P 44 179 Peach growing, proper sites for, soil conditions affecting, soil types for, Peach Orchards, Establishment and ivaintonance of, in inasachwsdlts, _ chapter on, by Professor J. K. Shaw, cultivation of, fertilizers for, management of, pruning of, setting trees in, spraying of, : steps in establishing, Phosphoric acid, use of, ‘ in old orchards, in peach orchards, Picking apples, equipment for, proper method of, Pink-mold, Planting board, use of, Plant lice (or aphids), on apple trees, in old orchards, methods of control, Potash, use of, in old orchards, in peach orchards, Preparation of soil for apple orchard, for peach orchard, Prices for Baldwin apples 1912-17, apples out of storage, Pruning Fruit Trees, chapter on, by Professor J. H. Gourley, . Pruning, after bridge grafting, of apple trees after setting, definition of, important points in, in renovating old orchards, methods of, object of, of peach orchards, of peach trees after winter teltine, after setting, principles of, summer, Railroad worm (or apple maggot), Rape, dwarf Essex, as a cover crop, . Red Astrachan, variety of apples, Red bugs, on apple trees, methods of control, Red-humped ticianiol on apple trees, Risers, Rochester 7 Root grafting, described, Rosy apple aphid, Rust, apple, on cedars, control of 33, 180 San José scale, on apple trees, methods of control, on peach trees, Scab, apple, . description of, of peaches, spray for, Scald, Scale, oyster-shell, 4 , methods of control, San José, on apple trees, methods of control, on peach trees, . spray for, seurfy, . F ‘ methods of control, “Scion,” defined, method of cutting, preparation of, for tongue grafting, when to be cut, Score card for judging barreled apples, boxed apples, Scraping of old trees in renovating, Scurfy scale, on apple trees, methods of control, Seed for cover crops, proper quantities, Semi-leader or modified leader trees, Setting of grafts, Site for apple orchard, score card for, selection of, Sites for peach orchards, Sizers, apple (‘‘graders’’), Sizes of apples, minimum, Sizing of apples before storage, machines for, Slats, Slope of land in orchard, with reference to sun, to wind, in peach orchard, . Soda, nitrate of, use of, é in old orchards, in peach orchards, Soil conditions favoring bud hardiness in peaches, suitable for peaches, Soil for apple orchard, ‘ adaptability to types of fruit, ease of working, fertility, humus content, preparation of, sourness, subsoil, character of, Sooty-blotch and fly-speck (sooty-fungus), ' control of, 40 125, 133 151 125 125, 133 145 10 Sorting of apples for packing, tables, types of, Soy beans as a cover crop, Spongy dry-rot, description of, Spraying, effect on quality for Sicttaiie: in eastern Massachusetts, in renovating old orchards, mixtures for, of peach orchards, materials for, to control apple diseases, Spray schedule for apples, for peaches, Stakes, setting, in laying off orchard, . “Standard apple box”’ defined, “Standard barrel”’ defined, “Standard grades” defined, Stippen (or bitter-pit), control of, description of, “Stock” defined, growing of, for grafting and wudding: preparation of, for budding, for tongue grafting, Storage, common, for apples, advantages of, conditions affecting eapare sieitter 3 ip, dark, desirability of, proper temperature of, time to pick apples for, type of package for, weather conditions for, Storage houses, examples of, functions of, locations for, management of, material for, packing rooms in, principal types of, principles of construction, size of, use of old cellars for, ventilation system for, Storage of apples in bulk, promptly after vidlcinis cold or refrigerated, of grafts, prices for apples out of, Storage rots of apples, : blue-mold, pink-mold, scald, Stump peach, Subsoil in apple sechend, Sulfur, atomic, use of, compounds, dry, as contact jnsaatictdes, dust as a fungicide, inspection of apples in, 181 121, 123, 121, 123, 103, 104 182 PAGE Tables for packing apples in barrels, 134 in boxes, 137 Tankage, use of as fertilizer, 24 Tent caterpillar on apple trees, 83 Thinning of tops of old trees, eal “Thinning out’’ in pruning, 53 Top-grafting, described, 59 by budding, 71 of old trees, 2 37 Trees, apple, age and vigor of, in old ordtiards, 27 locating, in planting orchard, 21 natural shape of, 62 preparation of, for setting, 22 proper distance between, 21 protecting trunks of, Z 26 pruning after setting, 23 setting, method of, 22 size of holes for, . 22 stand of, in old orchards, 28 types of training, . 52 central or pyramidal, 52 methods of development, 52 semi-leader or modified leader, 52 vase or open-headed, 52 peach, method of setting, sar 46 proper age for setting, 45 pruning of, 48 after setting, 46 rate of growth of, 47 time for setting, 47 Turnips as a cover crop, 35 Ungraded apples, under Massachusetts law, 149 United States, Apple Grading Law, summary of, 147 text of, 4 160-162 Standard Barrel Law, summary of, 147 text of, 159, 160 Varieties of apples, : 13 advantages of proper choice of, 13 Baldwin, . 16 Delicious, 18 discussion of proper number of, 14 Gravenstein, 17 importance of, in old sarthuwels: 28 McIntosh, 16 Oldenburg eee of), 19 Red Astrachan, 14 Wagener, 17 Wealthy, & Williams Early, 1g Yellow Transparent, 1& 183 PAGE Varieties of peaches, 45, 46 Belle, 2 F 46 Carmen, : 45 Champion, ‘ 46 Elberta, ‘ 46 Greensboro, 45 Hale (J. H.), 46 others, 46 Vase or open-headed trees, 52 Ventilation of storage houses, system of, 121, 123 management of, 126 Vetch, summer, as a cover crop, 36 winter, as a cover crop, . 25, 35, 86 Waddell peach, é 46 Wagener, variety of apple, 17 Water sprouts in old trees, 30 Wealthy, variety of apple, 15, Williams Early, variety of apple, 18 Windbreaks, . r Li advantages of, 12 kinds of trees for, 11 near-by and distant, A 12 proper distance from orchard, ‘ + Winter-killing of peach fruit buds, 39 of peach tree wood, 41 pruning after, 5 48 Wrapping of apples for box packing, 138 paper, kinds and sizes, 138 Yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar, 84 Yellows of peaches, 42 Yellow Transparent, variety of apple, 18