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To all ranks of the R.A.V.C.
and A.V.C. India who
faithfully served
their country
during the War
this Book’
is dedt-
cated.

“Moreover it is required in Stewards
that a man may be found faithful.”
(1 Cor. IV., 2)

Vv

ARMY VETERINARY
SERVICE IN WAR

BY

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR JOHN MOORE
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.C.V.S.
ARMY VETERINARY SERVICE

DIRECTOR OF VETERINARY SERVICES IN INDIA
AND LATE DIRECTOR OF VETERINARY SERVICES
BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCE, FRANCE, 1914-19.

WITH A NOTE By
GENERAL SIR CHARLES CARMICHAEL MOxro
G.C.B.. G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., A.D.C.
Commander-in-Chief in India

It 4 Ve VO} bl {4 |
VETER OMA RSP GOLL) G|
EE GRARY

f

LONDON :
H. & W. BROWN, 20 FULHAM ROAD, S.W.3

1921

PART III.

ARMY VETERINARY SERVICE
AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL AGENCY.

I. General . : ’ ‘ 87

II. Instruction during each : : é 90

III. Instruction during War 2 ; 92

IV. Instruction in view of men taking their distliseee 93

V. Instruction in Shoeing, and Schools of Farriery 96
PART IV.

THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE VARIOUS
BREEDS OF ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

I. General : : : 98
II. Heavy Draught aoe : ; ; 101
III. Light Draught Horses ‘ ; 112
IV. Hackneys , i ‘ 120
V. Riding Horses F i 121
VI. Mules : , , ‘ 135
VII. Donkeys : f 140
VIII. Ponies . : 141
IX. Bullocks ; 5 : 146
X. Yaks F : F 149
XI. Camels : 149
XII. Elephants 5 ‘ ; : 157
PART V.

ECONOMY TO BE EFFECTED IN THE DISPOSAL
OF ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

I. General. ‘ j ‘ 161
Il. Casting . : : : 164
III. Disposal for Work ; : 166
IV. Disposal for Food ; : ; 167
V. Disposal for By-products ‘ 5 171
VI. Accounting and Amounts realised ' , 174
VII. Disposal on Demobilisation F ‘ 176

Appendices I, II, and III ‘ i 179, 180, 181

PART VI.
EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES.

PAGE
British Armies in France ; ; : : 182
Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force . : ‘ 186
British Salonika Force : F : , 188
Egyptian Expeditionary Force F i 2 189

Expeditionary Forces in India : ' : 190

ILLUSTRATIONS,

Conditions on the Western Front

A Tented Veterinary Hospital

Veterinary Hospital—A converted Brick-shed
A Reception Hospital

On the Western Front

“ Packing” Shells to the Front

Winter in France

Within range—“ Packing ” Shells

Mange. A Dipping Bath

Before and after Treatment

Pack Transport Mule: Waziristan

Field Veterinary Hospital (Camels) at Kotkai
Bullock Transport : Waziristan

Condition of Camels under Stall Feeding
Camel under load of 480 lb.

Camels on a river road, Waziristan

Field Hospital (Camels), Dera Ismail Khan

PAGE

19
22
26
30
53
60
65
68
77
80
135
138
147
147
151
154
158

SIMLA

Gem 9 He Antes
ee Mpeg
Te ey tay

INTRODUCTION.

I have been asked, by reason of my having held the appoint-
ment of Director of Veterinary Services of the British Expedi-
tionary Force, France, during the late War, if I would contribute
a series of articles to the Journal of the United Service Institu-
tion India on the subject of Veterinary work in War. I am
very pleased to accede to the request, for two reasons. Firstly,
from an instructional point of view, I feel that, in my present
capacity as Director Veterinary Services of the Army in India,
it is part of my duty to supply any information which will tend
to the advancement and efficiency of the Army in India, and
secondly, I desire in every possible way, by precept and by
shewing example, to solicit the support of one and all in placing
the Army Veterinary Service in India on the same sound basis
which.it now enjoys at Home, both for Peace and War.

Veterinary Service in India, as it stands at present, is in no
way adapted for its success in a War of any big undertaking.

It is a curious mixture of elements seeking the light of day
and inviting the process of welding into one common interest
and organisation.

Prior to the late War, the personnel of the Army Veterinary
Service consisted of 63 officers, Army Veterinary Corps, detailed
for a tour of five years by the War Office, and 23 Non-Com-
missioned Officers of the Unattached List borne on the strength
of what was termed the Indian Subordinate Veterinary Corps.
These officers were primarily and essentially for the care and
treatment of animals of British units. Treatment was carried
out in Station Veterinary Hospitals, the personnel for attend-
ance, dressing, grooming, etc., being detailed from units. In
Silladar units and Transport, Veterinary attendance was run on
regimental lines, Sowars of Silladar Cavalry being sent to the
Punjab Veterinary College, Lahore, to graduate after a three
years course as Salutries or Veterinary Assistants ; those for
Transport being engaged locally and departmentally from men

2 INTRODUCTION.

who were College graduates. Only for periodical inspections
and on the occasion of outbreaks or apprehended outbreaks of
contagious disease were Officers, A.V.C. called in to Silladar
Units and Transport. In a few words, the pre-war system was
a purely scratch arrangement of borrowing personnel from
units for departmental purposes, totally excluding from skilled
veterinary care and treatment the great majority of Indian
Cavalry, and the whole of the Transport. In war, the whole
of the animals comprising a Field Force came under the Army
Veterinary Service, and treatment for the most part was
centred in Field Veterinary Hospitals specially mobilized.
The personnel for these again was obtained under temporary
arrangements. It will be seen that a different system was
followed in war to what existed in peace, and it will be agreed
that such a state of affairs does not commend itself to efficiency,
and particularly with a personnel for the most part untrained.

In 1918 an improvement was made. The Government of
India sanctioned the transfer of the Veterinary Assistants of
Indian Cavalry and Transport to the Veterinary Service, and
they were incorporated into the Indian Veterinary Corps. The
Cadre strength in Officers of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps
was increased from 63 to 95, to admit of the more direct super-
vision and care of animals. The borrowing of the balance of
the necessary personnel, however, still continues, carrying in its
train an evil principle of counting men effective in two places
for two separate purposes. This is absolutely opposed to esprit
de corps and truly efficient service.

I have purposely outlined the above Indian system, as I hope
to show by contrast in the course of this article what good
organization, tempered in the fire of war, really means, and
how easy it is for a service well knit, and with its component
parts and individual items of personnel knowing its functions
and particular duties so well, to undertake anything that a war
of any magnitude can produce, where difficulties are but wafer-
cakes, and responsibilities become a pleasure. At the same
time I should like to mention that there is now under consider-
ation a scheme for the formation of a self-contained Army
Veterinary Corps in India which, if it materializes, will place
Veterinary Service in that Country on the topmost rung of the

INTRODUCTION. 3

ladder. It would be impossible to find a more promising field
or better material wherewith to build an efficient Corps than in
India, and it goes without saying that with the experience of
the late war fresh in the minds of those in authority, the
present moment is most favourable for erecting a sound
structure.

To return now more directly to the subject. of the article, I
propose to divide it into the following headings, and as my
experience—or at least the most valuable and up to date part,
chiefly relates to the four and a half years’ struggle in France
and Belgium, I shall have to point my remarks with occurrences
in that theatre of war :—

Organization and functions of Army Veterinary Service in

War.

Wastage of animals in War.

Army Veterinary Service as an Instructional Agency.

Economy to be effected in the Disposal of animals wasted

by Wav.

The Merits and demerits of the various breeds of animals

used in War.

PART I.

Organization and Function
of Army Veterinary Service in War.

CHapv. I—GENERAL.

Unquestionably, all administrative services should be separately
constituted in peace, with their own fixed establishments ; and
their inflation to meet the purposes of war should not be at the
expense of fighting units, but should be carried out by their
own agency.

The Army Veterinary Service at Home—or the Army
Veterinary Department as it was then called, learned its lesson
of organization during the War-in South Africa. Previous to
that war there was no properly organized field veterinary
system. The old watertight method of regimental treatment
existed. In war, ineffectives were sent to the second line
transport of their units, taken along with such transport until a
favourable time presented itself for their clearance to the Base.
‘The wastage of animals during the South African War was not
happy reading, and much suffering, disease, and loss would have
been avoided if an efficient chain of veterinary assistance in the
field had existed. Strange to say, India, by reason of the
experience gained in Frontier Campaigns, was ahead of England
in Veterinary Service in those days, and maintained, as it does
to-day, Field Veterinary Hospitals or Sections as part of its
war organisation. Some of these were sent to South Africa,
performed very useful service, and though the personnel was
but of a scratch nature, have merited their place as pioneers of
Veterinary Service in the Field.

6 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

The outcome of the South African War was the creation
of an Army Veterinary Corps with its own personnel, and with
a Record Office and Depot to carry out transfers, postings,
training, etc. Regimental Sick lines in the larger garrisons
were re-constructed into Veterinary Hospitals and manned by
Army Veterinary Corps personnel. The personnel was grouped
into Sections, A.V.C., and these formed the nuclei of Veterinary
units in the field. Expansion on first mobilisation was by
means of Cavalry reservists, ear-marked as horse-keeper or
groom personnel, but subsequently these were obtained by
recruitment direct. ,

The introduction of Mechanical Transport revolutionised the
old idea of drafting back ineffective animals to the Second line
Transport, and brought about the necessity for suitable means.
for evacuation, and Mobile Veterinary Sections for this purpose
were conceived as a veterinary war measure.

Such progress had Army Veterinary Service at Home made
in the year before the late war that it was drawn into staff
exercises, and even a few months before the outbreak of hostil-
ities a Veterinary Staff exercise, complete with its administrative
Officers, Veterinary Officers in charge of Field units, Mobile
Veterinary Sections and Veterinary Hospital arrangements,
was successfully carried out at Aldershot on a Scheme arranged
by the General Staff.

So that, when the crucial moment of War came, Véterinary
Service in the field had more or less a definite policy on which
to work, which may be briefly summarised as follows :—

Administrative Vety. Officers with G.H.Q. and I.G.C.

Administrative Vety. Officers with Field Formations.

Executive Vety. Officers with Units and Remount Depots.

An Officer I/C Records at the Base (III Echelon).

Mobile Vety. Sections for evacuation of sick.

Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Communication.

Base Depots of Veterinary Stores.

The Veterinary units of the original British Expeditionary
Force which landed in France during August 1914 comprised:
6 Veterinary Hospitals, each for 250 patients.
11 Mobile Veterinary Sections.
2 Base Depots of Veterinary Stores.

GENERAL. 7

while the entire strength of the A.V.C. personnel numbered :—
122 Officers, Administrative and Executive.
797 Other Ranks.
The total number of horses of the Force was then 53000.
The subsequent record of Veterinary Service, in common
with practically all other Branches of the Force, was one of
rapid expansion and change of organisation consequent on the
growth of the Army and the general evolution of modern
warfare. In a little over three years, the above units increased
to :—
18 Veterinary Hospitals. - Accommodation for 39800
4 Convalescent Horse Depots. sick animals.
17 Veterinary Evacuating Stations.
66 Mobile Veterinary Sections.
5 Depots of Veterinary Stores.
1 Bacteriological Laboratory.
7 Horse Carcase Economisers (for By-products).
In addition, Overseas and Dominion Governments supplied :—
2 Veterinary Hospitals (each for 1250 patients).
2 Veterinary Evacuating Stations.
11 Mobile Veterinary Sections.
. while the total personnel amounted to :—
Officers. Other Ranks.

Imperial Vety. Service... 651 15000

Overseas and Dominion
Vety. Services .. 114 1446
Total ... 765 16446

The Canadian, Australian and New Zealand Veterinary
Services were modelled exactly on the same lines as the Imperial
Service, excepting that they could afford to have more officers
for executive duty. They were complete in every item of
organisation, even to Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Com-
munication associated with our own, and there are now in these
respective Forces, Officers and other ranks who are thoroughly
conversant with the procedure of Veterinary Service, both_
Administrative and Executive. This isa point to be remembered
if ever India requires assistance from our Overseas Dominions
and Colonies, in fact 1 am inclined to think that an association

8 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

so happily constituted should be continued, and be transformed
into an assimilation or fusion of Service throughout the Empire.
If India is by any mischance shut off from the West, there is
an efficient field available on her Hast.

To deal more closely with the subject under review, it will be
convenient to divide it under the following headings :—

Administration.

Personnel.

Regimental Veterinary Assistance.

Evacuation of sick and wounded.

Veterinary Hospitals and Convalescent Horse Depots.

Supply and distribution of veterinary equipment
and medicines.

Bacteriological Laboratories.

At the outset I desire to pay a tribute of grateful acknow-
ledgement to the constant sympathy and material assistance
given by those in authority at General Headquarters, and by
General Officers of Commands and Formations, to a Corps
which was practically untried in its war organisation. Without
such help under circumstances which were difficult, and at times
critical, the individual efforts of the Corps itself would have
been of little avail to achieve so high a degree of efficiency as
was, without doubt, attained during the late war.

Cuap. II—ADMINISTRATION.

The Army Veterinary Service, being one of the Administrative
Services, has a Director as its Head. Hein common with other
Directors acts under the Q.M.G. of the Force, who is virtually
a Chairman of a Board of Directors.

The duties of the Director of Veterinary Services and the
location of the Headquarters of his Directorate are laid down in
Field Service Regulations, Part II, Sections 22 and 23.

At first the majority of the Directors of the British Expedi-
tionary Force, France, were under the I.G.C., a Deputy Director
of each Service being at G.H.Q. with the Q.M.G. This was
subsequently altered to Directors being under Q.M.G. direct. So
far-as the Veterinary Directorate is concerned, the latter dis-
position and location is the correct one, as the Director having

‘ADMINISTRATION. 9

to administer his service equally at the Front as on L. of C., he
can only satisfactorily do it from and through the Headquarters
of the Force. Moreover, under a system whereby the Director
is back on L. of C. with the 1.G.C., and is represented at G.H.Q.
by a Deputy, the advice of the Director is exposed to over-ruling
by or through his Deputy, and thereby conflict may ensue.
With a Director at G.H.Q. the chain of Administrative
Veterinary Organisation is :—
Deputy Directors with each Army, Cavalry Corps and L. of C.
(rank of Colonel).
Assistant Directors with each Corps and Cavalry Division.
(rank of Lieut.-Colonel).
Deputy Assistant Directors with each Division (rank of Major),

It has been suggested by the After-war-Reorganisation
Committee that the A.D.V.S. of a Cavalry Division and the
D.A.1).V.S. of a Division should be styled “ Commmander,” as
their duties to a considerable extent are executive. There
would appear to me to be very little advantage in the change of
designation. ‘The chief duties of these officers are advisory—
inspection, supervision, and general direction of Veterinary
Services in their Formation, and they are therefore more
concerned in administration than in actual command, though
the latter is included in the former.

Whether an Administrative Veterinary Officer, A.D.V.S. or
D.A.D.V.S., will be required at the Base, or at Base Ports, will
depend entirely on local circumstances and requirements. It
may also be necessary, as-it was in France and will probably be
usual in India, to have two Lines of Communication, each
requiring an Administrative Veterinary Officer of a status in
accordance with other Services.

To assist the Director at G.H.Q. an Assistant Director and
a Deputy Assistant Director are necessary, according to the
magnitude of the Force. .

For the above administrative appointments, clerical establish-
ments are required. In various theatres of war these were
Army Service Corps personnel, and were subject to promotion
and re-posting within that Corps. This is unsatisfactory to a
special technical Service like R.A.V.C. and the proper course is
for that Corps to maintain its own clerks, who are trained to its
particular requirements.

10 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Cuav. III.—PERSONNEL.

To deal with personnel, i.e. maintenance of reinforcements,
postings, transfers, and records, a Veterinary Section of the
Office of the D.A.G. III Echelon is requisite. A retired Officer,
A.V.C., or a Warrant Officer promoted to Commissioned rank
is quite suitable for the appointment of Officer in Charge,
A.V.C. Records. There is no need to waste the services of a
highly technical Veterinary Officer for this duty.

The posting of officers to Formations and the selection of
officers for Administrative and Special appointments must in all
cases rest with the Director.

The provision of Officers during the late war presented many
difficulties on account of the rapid expansion of the Army and
the requirements for so many theatres of operation. Establish-
ments of Veterinary Officers with Divisions, Cavalry Brigades
and Veterinary Hospitals were reduced to a bare working num-
ber of Officers, but the loss in point of numbers was counter-
balanced by the experience and the knowledge of duty of those
who remained. Added to this, Veterinary Service had a
remarkably efficient second string in its Non-Commissioned
Officers, both with Field Units and in Veterinary Hospitals and
Convalescent Horse Depots on L. of C.

In the early part of this Chapter it was mentioned that on
first mobilisation of the Field Veterinary Units with the
original Expeditionary Force for France, expansion of A.V.C.
was made by Cavalry Reservists for horse-keeper or groom
duties. General Headquarters, kindly, and I think with great
forethought, permitted the Veterinary Service to retain these
men. The majority of them transferred to the Army Veteri-
nary Corps, became Non-commissioned Officers, and together
with our own well-trained and proved original Corps N.C.O.
became the backbone of the Veterinary Service throughout the
war.

To compensate for the reduction of Veterinary Officers in
formations, Non-commissioned Officers of the A.V.C. with the
temporary rank of sergeant, were attached to Infantry Brigades,

PERSONNEL. 11

Batteries R.F.A. and R.G.A., Auxiliary Horse Transport Com-
panies, Reserve Parks, Machine Gun Battalions, Sections of
Divisional Ammunition Columns, and the Headquarters of
Armies and Corps. These “ Sergeants, A,V.C.” were carefully
selected and trained in the use of Vety. equipment and in first
aid treatment, The appointments were much sought after, and
were filled by men with a good practical experience of horses.
They were much appreciated by Commanding Officers of Units
and Veterinary Officers, between whom they constituted an
efficient liaison. Their good service rendered was not forgotten.
by Commanding Officers, as was evidenced by the considerable
number of rewards which fell to their lot.

Before leaving the “ Sergeants, A.V.C.” I must tell of one, a
retired Officer of the Indian Civil Service, who for over two.
years, through danger and foul weather, served most gallantly
with a Brigade of Guards in this capacity, and whose proud
thought to-day is that he served his country as a private soldier.

The majority of A.V.C. personnel employed during the War,
with the exception of those with Mobile Veterinary Sections,
were either over 41 years of age, or were of a category unfitted
for service in the front line. Recruits or transfers, as a rule,
had a working knowledge of horses. Their usefulness, however,
was not confined to actual attendance on animals. Records of
their Civil occupations were kept, and it was quite easy from
their number to find skilled and semi-skilled men for any kind
of work required, even to that of stable construction, boot
repairing, carpentering, tailoring and other duties appertaining
to the interior economy of units. Under the Man Power
Scheme (“Combing out”) 4500 men of A.V.C. in France were
transferred to fighting units, and were replaced by men of
lower category.

No regularly constituted A.V.C. Reinforcement Depot was
established in France. Men were sent out in drafts from the
A.V.C. Depot, Woolwich, and they were held on charge of the
Veterinary Hospital at the base pending posting. This was
more suitable than establishing a separate Depot, as the
personnel could be used for hospital purposes pending their
allotment to various Veterinary Units. If held by a General
Base Depot they would be used for any purpose.

12 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Cuap. IV—REGIMENTAL VETERINARY ASSISTANCE.

All animals belonging to units within a Formation must be
on the Veterinary charge of an Officer of the Veterinary
Service. A definite allotment of Veterinary Officers is made
to each Formation in accordance with Establishments, and
they are attached to the principal or largest units. Veterinary
arrangements for the smaller units are made from this allotment
by administrative Veterinary Officers of the formation con-
cerned. It is most important that every unit should have
proper Veterinary supervision and care, as it is only by this
means sickness, inefficiency and diseases of a contagious
character can be adequately controlled. It was a practice in
the B.E. Force, France, that Veterinary Officers, in addition to
their daily routine work, should make a weekly inspection of
animals in their charge for contagious diseases, i.e., Glanders,
Mange, and Epizootic Lymphangitis, and should certify on their
weekly returns of sick and lame that such had béen carried out.
The bad case of Mange, the “open” case of Glanders, and the
advanced case of Epizootic Lymphangitis is usually to be found
in a unit that has not, for some reason or other, been under
immediate veterinary care. Freedom from disease is in direct
relation to the degree of care bestowed on animals, and the
spread of mange or any contagious disease is a certain indi-
cation of neglect in management and supervisionary care.

It has been suggested by the After War Reorganisation
Committee that Veterinary Officers of formations should be
pooled under their respective administrative Veterinary Officers.
Owing to shortage, which casualties and expansion of an army
are apt to produce, recourse to pooling may be forced on one, as
happened during the late War, but looking at it from the point
of view of an initial system of organisation, provision must be
calculated on definite lines of allotment.

It is, moreover, much more ‘satisfactory to units and to
Veterinary Officers for the latter to be attached to certain units

REGIMENTAL VETERINARY ASSISTANCE. 13

of a formation (i.e. the principal units) and that a continuity of
service thereby should be maintained. Commanding Officers
and Veterinary Officers get used to each other, a spirit of bon
camaraderie and faithfulness to the unit’s interest is engendered,
which makegfor more efficient service. It often happens that
a Director is asked by a Commanding Officer for the return of a
Veterinary Officer to his unit after the latter has become a
casualty, and a like request often arises from the Veterinary
Officer for return to his previous charge.

The following distribution of Veterinary Officers with Field
Formations as they are at present constituted is satisfactory,
and represents the minimum allotment which can be made
without incurring a breakdown in the necessary amount of
supervision which all units in a Field Army require :—

Division Cavalry Division of 3 Cavalry
Brigades
D.A.D.V.S. si 1
3 Infantry Brigades, R. E. } A.D.V.S. des ol
Units. + 1 Cav. Dv. Troops we OL
Machine Gun Cos., &e. 7. - Cav. Regiments
3 Brigades of R.F.A. at one each $36) 9.
at one each ... ... 38 8 Mobile Vety. Bedhions
D.A.C. ee cig at one each ae PS

Divisional Train ae
O.C. Mobile Vety. Section 1

Total 8 Total ... 14

Corps Army

A.D.V.S. oa . Ll DD.V.S. wee wwe
Corps Troops... .. 1 Army Troops 1
Corps Heavy Artillery ... 1 Army Brigades, R.F. A,
O.C. Vety. Evac. Station... 1 at one each ee

(Allotted as Army Troops).

Veterinary Officers with Cavalry.

When Cavalry is operating, single regiments are constantly
being detached, or if not detached, a Cavalry Brigade may
work on an extended front, and the necessity for a Veterinary
Ofticer to each regiment has been shown time after time.

14 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

If Cavalry operates as a Corps, say of two or three Cavalry
Divisions, it is necessary to add to Corps Headquarters an
Administrative Veterinary Officer and an Executive Veterinary
Officer for Corps Troops.

Sergeants, R.A.V.C., and Farriers of Units,

Veterinary Officers in charge of units require within those
units someone to represent the Veterinary Service, to render
first aid, to report sickness to them and to carry out their
instructions with regard to treatment or evacuation. In the
old or Regular Army this representation was effected by the
Farrier Sergeants of units (¢.e. Squadrons, Batteries, Field
Companies R.E., A.S.C. Companies, Infantry Transport
Sergeants, etc.), who were sent in peace time to Army Veteri-
nary Schools for instruction; but in units of the new armies,
where farriers were not only untrained in veterinary matters,
but had enough to do in shoeing animals (their first and
essential duty) representation was vested in Sergeants, A.V.C.,
specially attached under War Establishments in consequence
‘of an enforced reduction in Veterinary Officers. The success
of these N.C.O. has already been alluded to, and it is a war
measure which has everything to commend it.

Veterinary Assistants.

In India Veterinary representation in units of Indian Cavalry,
Mountain Artillery and Transport is by means of Veterinary
Assistants of the Indian Veterinary Corps, two Veterinary «
Assistants being allotted to each Silladar Regiment and each
Mule, Bullock and Camel Corps, and one Veterinary Assistant
to each Indian Mountain Battery.

Veterinary Aid Post.

The bulk of Transport in India is utilised on Lines of Com-
munication, and a feature of veterinary organisation of the
nature of “Veterinary Aid Posts” has been adopted during
recent operations at various staging points en rowte. Each
Veterinary Aid Post consists of a Veterinary Assistant detailed
from.a transport unit and one or two “ Dressers,” with a small
amount of veterinary equipment.

EVACUATION OF SICK AND WOUNDED. 15

Veterinary Equipment with Units.

All units are provided with field veterinary equipment, the
scale of which is given in their Mobilisation Store Tables. In
the B.E.F., France, the scale was cut down to a very low
degree. Replenishment was easily effected from Advancep
Depots of veterinary stores. Wastage of equipment was
curtailed thereby, and to limit wastage still further, certain
equipment was allocated to personnel charge instead of unit
charge. The ultimate allotment was :—

Officers Wallet .. 4b. ... in personal charge.
Officers Chest .. 40lb. ... 4 3
Veterinary Wallet ... 7lb. ... in personal charge of
Veterinary N.C.O.
Unit Chest ... 25lb. ... on charge units and kept

by representatives of Veterinary Service in units,
a.e., Sergeants, A.V.C. or farriers of units.

In India the principle is practically the same, but the allot-
ment to units until recently was on too liberal a scale. The
supply and distribution of field veterinary equipment will be
dealt with more fully later on. It is sufficient to say for the
present thaf the Veterinary Service has given very careful
thought to appliances necessary for carrying out successful
treatment in the field.

Cuap. V.—EVACUATION OF SICK AND WOUNDED.

For a unit to be efficient in the field, it must get rid of its
ineffective animals, and have them replaced by fit animals. A
policy of retention of sick animals with units in the field not
only impedes the mobility of such units, but it absorbs the
attention of a proportion of the unit personnel who might other-
wise be employed in combatant duties. Only minor cases—say
those that would be fit again within seven days, should remain
on the fighting strength of units, others should be evacuated to
Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Communication where
conditions are more favourable for treatment and rest. The

16 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

adoption of this policy has resulted in unparallelled reduction
of wastage over that of previous wars, and the hard lot of
animals under war conditions has been greatly mitigated by the
measure. When we think of the haphazard method pursued
during the War in South Afric a where sick and enfeebled
animals had to be destroyed because they could not keep up
with their unit, were abandoned on the roadside, or dumped at.
places until they could be collected, our present field method is
paradise in contrast.
The Veterinary units specially organised for the clearance of

sick and wounded consist of :—

Mobile Veterinary Sections (M.V.S.).

Veterinary evacuating Stations (V.E.S.).

Mobile Veterinary Sections.

These small units and their development, supply an interesting
page of history in the Great War. They took the field as L. of C.
units with an establishment of one Officer and thirteen other
ranks, and their allotment was on the basis of one per Division
and one per Cavalry Brigade. They were located at Railheads,
and their movements were directed from Headquarters I.G.C.

This might be quite satisfactory with an advancing Force,
but when our Troops were retreating and Railheads changed
several times daily, it was found impossible to administer them
from L. of C. It was a fortunate chance that in the early
months of the war some of them were not captured by the
enemy. It was soon realised that the only practical way of
utilising them was to incorporate them in formations. This
was speedily done, though not without difficulty, and their
record subsequently as Field units forming part of Divisional
and Cavalry Divisional organisation has been one of unqualified
success. The original establishment was based on the
assumption that it might be possible to hire or impress local
civilian labour for conducting duties, but it was soon found that
this was impracticable and an altogether unsatisfactory pro-
cedure. An increase of A.V.C. Horse-keeper personnel to admit
of road or rail conducting parties was then made, and the unit
became self-contained in all its arrangements, including its own
transport. For the collection of serious cases a horse drawn

EVACUATION OF SICK AND WOUNDED. _ 17

ambulance was added as part of the transport and many animals
were salved thereby. The English horse ambulance of pre-war
days is much too heavy, cumbersome, and with too little road
.Clearance for field work, but a light two-wheeled cattle float as
used in France, which can be drawn by one horse, proved very
excellent. There yet remains to be devised a suitable horse
drawn ambulance as a standard army pattern.

In its function, a Mobile Veterinary Section is not only the
centre to which all animals from units of a Division or Cavalry
Brigade are sent for evacuation, but at times of stationary
warfare, or during periods of inactivity of the formation to
which it belongs, it can undertake a certain amount of treat-
ment of the less serious class of cases.

Advanced Collecting Posts.

During offensive operations it was common to throw out
Advanced Collecting Posts to act as dressing stations and to
receive battle casualties just in rear of fighting line. These
posts consisted of a N.C.O. and three or four men of Mobile
Vety. Sections, but they did not meet with sufficient success to
warrant their adoption as a regular routine measure, for the
reason that Mobile Vety. Sections cannot afford to split up their '
small number of personnel, and moreover battle casualties are
never so numerous as might be anticipated.

Corps Mobile Detachments.

With the growth of Corps Troops in the B.E.F., France, it
became necessary to provide for the evacuation of casualties
from units in the vicinity of Corps Headquarters, and further-
more, as Mobile Veterinary Sections of Divisions were so
heavily pressed during the operations on the Somme that they
could ill afford to send their men down to Veterinary Hospitals
on L. of C. with casualties (including those of Corps Troops)
it was considered necessary to interpose some veterinary
organisation at or near corps railheads. A certain number of
N.C.O. and men from each Mobile Vety. Section of Divisions
comprising the corps, supplemented by 20 to 30 privates from
a Vety. Hospital L. of C. as required for conducting duties,
were grouped at corps railheads under the Vety. Officer Corps
Headquarters and termed “‘ Corps Mobile Detachments.” The

18 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

arrangement was not a success, for the reason that the
personnel was constantly subjected to change when Divisions
were moved from one Corps to another, so that it was finally
decided to replace this temporary scratch arrangement by a
properly organised unit of the nature of a Casualty Clearing
Station. The result was the incorporation in the veterinary
organisation of Veterinary Evacuating Stations, so called to
avoid confusion with their counterpart in medical organisation.
Veterinary Evacuating Stations.

These were formed by reducing Mobile Veterinary Sections
of divisions by. the number of privates originally added to them
for conducting duties ; also by reducing Veterinary Hospitals on
L. of C. The personnel consisted of one officer and 38 other
ranks. ‘

They were made Army Troops, and allotted,to Corps at the
rate of one per Corps. A limited amount of transport only was
allotted to them, as they were located in proximity to Corps
railhead and movement could be made by rail. They were
each provided with a motor horse ambulance—a_ practically
indispensable article of their organisation. These units proved
the final and complete link in the chain of evacution of Veteri-
nary Services in France, and indisputably earned their place in
the organisation of a great army in war. Mobile Veterinary
Sections of Divisions and Cavalry Brigades delivered their
casualties to them, and they in turn transported them to
Reception Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Communication.
Channels of Evacuation.

Evacuation from the Field to Lines of Communication is
usually carried out by rail or road. In the former case
arrangements are made for trucks on returning empty supply
trains, between Officers Commanding Mobile Veterinary
Sections or Veterinary Evacuating Stations, and the Railway
Transport Officer at Railhead. Latterly in France, and
particularly when the larger clearing units of Veterinary
Evacuating Stations were established, special sick horse trains
were arranged at the instance of railway transportation
authorities, and were found to be highly satisfactory, both
from the point of view of quicker arrival of the sick animals at

CONDITIONS OF SERVICE ON THE WESTERN FRONT.

EVACUATION OF SICK AND WOUNDED. 19

the Reception Veterinary Hospitals, L. of C., and from a relief
of congested traffic conditions inevitable during an offensive
period.

At times evacuation by road was the only means possible,
and it may be said to be the normal system of clearance in most
theatres of war, at least for those animals able to walk.

To conserve the small number of men of evacuating Veteri-
nary units, the expedient of a long rope was adopted, by means
of which twenty horses or mules could be transported by three
men. The animals were attached to the rope in pairs—one on
each side of the rope, a man guiding the leading pair, another
at the end of the rope and the third man in the middle. This
system of road transportation was greatly practised by both
Veterinary and Remount Services during the war.

The value of horse ambulances, either horse-drawn or motor-
drawn, for evacuation purposes, need not be further enlarged on.
They are indispensable factors. The Veterinary Service in the
B.E.F., France, had twenty-six motor horse ambulances, kindly
presented by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, and subscribed for by numerous well-wishers of animals
at home and in the colonies, at an approximate cost of £30,000.
They were designed to carry two animals, and unquestionably
they paid for themselves in a very short space of time in the
number of animals saved. Their use in war need not be
restricted to thé conveyance of sick or wounded horses, for
there are occasions when it may be necessary to get forward
quickly cows for the supply of fresh milk to medical units, or
even troops in the fighting line. The latter might particularly
apply to India. On one occasion in France a party of Royal
Army Veterinary Corps under an officer, and with three motor
horse ambulances, cleared a stud of brood mares and foals from
a district threatened by the enemy.

Another method of evacuation practised in Flanders was by
canal barges. The Veterinary Service there maintained a fleet
of five barges drawn by steam tugs. Each barge was fitted up
for thirty-two animals, and a very limited number of personnel
was required. Starting say at 10 a.m. from the Evacuating
Station they would arrive about 4 p.m. at the Reception
Veterinary Hospital, and the journey was performed under the

20 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

most comfortable and easy circumstances. Unfortunately the
enemy destroyed locks on their retreat, and barge work became.
limited in operation. Barges were also-used for transport of
sick animals between Havre and Rouen, and from these places
to Paris for disposal, railway transportation thereby being
relieved. -

In transporting sick and enfeebled animals, particularly by
train, which during hot seasons of the vear is very exhausting,
the greatest care must be exercised in watering and feeding en
route. A Non-Commissioned Officer accompanies each train or
road party, and one private per truck (latterly reduced to one
per two trucks) is detailed. ations for men and forage for
animals to cover the journey are drawn through the supply
officer at railhead. Even though there may be recognised
halting places for watering en route by rail, the varving circum-
stances of transit during war make their use uncertain, so that
watering arrangements must be self-contained and water
carried in the trucks or with the animals in some manner. In
France many water carriers were improvised, ie., empty
biscuit tins, petrol tins, etc., but the most satisfactory receptacles
were the cartridge cases of large calibre shells. By arrange-
ment with the Ordnance they were transported to the Base by
Veterinary Service and made use of as water receptacles for
sick animals en route. Very excellent rubber containers in
canvas cases and of approximately ten gallons capacity were:
also introduced by Ordnance Service and were held in charge:
of Veterinary Evactiating Units and Hospitals. In Standing
Camp for animals which could not walk to a watering place,
petrol tins on a pack saddle, or a Willesden canvas tank, capacity
110 gallons, accurately fitting a limbered General Service
Wagon and removable when the wagon was required for
usual purposes, was adopted by Mobile Veterinary Sections.

In the matter of equipment and medicines, Evacuating Units
are complete according to their mobilisation scale.

All animals evacuated must be accompanied by an Evacuation
Roll giving a serial number, a short description, the units to.
which they belonged, and the reason for which evacuated. The
object of this is not only to keep a check on the animals, and
thus avoid loss or theft, but as all are tested with mallein for

VETERINARY HOSPITALS. 21

glanders on arrival at the Reception Veterinary Hospital, any
reactors may be referred to the unit at the front and immediate
action there taken. It is the practice also to attach a special
descriptive label (white for medical cases, green for surgical, and
red for mange or other communicable disease) to the head
collar, the label being rolled up under the tongue of the buckle.

The designation of the Mobile Veterinary Section or Vety.
Evacuating Station and the serial number of the case is
stencilled on the quarters of the animal so that identification
_ becomes very easy, The stencils can be easily made from wire
in common use.

In conclusion of this Chapter, it is instructive to note that
between the 18th August 1914 and 23rd January 1919, over
half a million sick and wounded animals were collected and
passed through Mobile Veterinary Sections and Veterinary
Evacuating Stations in the B.E.F., France, a fact which is
sufficient justification for their inclusion in the establishment of
an army in the field. Between 2500 and 3500 animals per week
were admitted to hospital, the record number, so far as my
memory serves me, being 4512. And the organisation was so
simple that evacuation proceeded automatically.

CHAPTER VI.
VETERINARY HOSPITALS.
CONVALESCENT HORSE DEPOTS.

Veterinary Hospitals are Lines of Communication units,
Their location is guided by convenience of Railway, Supply
Transport, and Remount Services.

Usually, one is placed at the base or bases where main
Remount Depots are situated, as a considerable amount of
sickness is usual in remounts newly arrived, particnlarly from
overseas. Others are suitably placed at the Advanced Base, or
at centres conveniently accessible from particular sectors of the
fighting line. They are the main feature of the Veterinary
Service, and are specially designed, organised, and equipped for
skilled treatment and the comfort of the patient in every way.

22 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Veterinary Service has just reason to be proud of its hospitals
during the Great War in its various theatres, and of its achieve-
ments in treatment both medical and surgical. As may be
imagined the experience gained in surgery has been of
incalculable value to the veterinary profession as a whole. It
is quite impossible to describe adequately the efficiency to
which these units attained during the war. Results, and
particularly in surgical treatment, were astounding.

An idea of the magnitude of work done in Veterinary
Hospitals and Convalescent Horse Depots in France will be
gathered from the following summary covering the period from
18th August 1914 to 23rd January 1919 :—

Admitted 725,216
Cured aH ses ... 529,064
Died aa 28 w. 18,975

Destroyed (including animals destroyed
and sold for food). ass .. 127,741
Sold to agriculturists = .-. 29,524
Remaining under treatment .» 19,912
Total ... 725,216

In stating these figures it is at the same time necessary to
mention the following facts in connection with them. The
principle of the Veterinary Service was to get down from the
front as many animals as it was possible to save; in other words
to give every animal a chance. Many were hopeless from the
start, and others from an economic point of view were not worth
treatment. But they commanded a commercial value either
for purposes of food, or for by-products in the case of those
deemed by Vety. Officers to be unsuitable for food.

The number of destructions may seem high, but the foregoing
table will explain this, and it will be shown in a subsequent
chapter that the total receipts for disposal as food in Army areas
and in Veterinary Hospitals up to 3lst March 1919 amounted
to the large sum of £1,328,000, while the profit accruing from
by-products was £56,000. It will be realised also that with
over four years of war, the working efficiency of animals
individually became much impaired, and that a Category B in
animals resulted in like manner to that of men.

TENTED HOSPITAL IN FRANCE.

VETERINARY HOSPITALS. 23

The percentage of cures in veterinary hospitals up to the
second year of the war amounted to 84 per cent.; it then came
down to 82%, 80%, 78%, and gradually lower. The care of
animals improved as the War progressed, but the constant
strain of service weakened resistance and recuperative powers
of individual animals. Again, without specific mention or
experience, the difficulties of alarge army landing in a foreign
country, and without cover for animals, either healthy or sick,
can hardly be appreciated. During the first winter in France,
a truly dreadful one in point of rainy weather, excepting a
certain number of brick sheds, there was no available covered
accommodation for sick animals nor for newly landed remounts,
the remount heavy draughts suffering heavily from catarrhal
and respiratory sickness of an infectious nature. Conditions
and circumstances during the very early days of the war in
France were exceedingly hard on animals. Inefficiency during
the first winter, and about the time of the first battle of Ypres
stood at 15°8%. In later periods, though in winter it rose to
12%, it was brought down during the good weatner of summer
to as low as 74% at times. I propose, however, to deal with
inefficiency and disease under the Section which willl be
devoted to “‘ Wastage of animals in War.”

The Veterinary Hospital provision for the original Expedi-
sionary Force comprised six Veterinary Sections each consisting
of 2 Officers, 5 Staff Sergeants and Sergeants, 6 Corporals, 10
Dressers, 4 Artificers, 83 Horse keepers (Cavalry Reservists)
and 4 Batmen, the establishment of each Section being for the
treatment of 250 patients. These could be utilised singly as
Hospitals or grouped together, as circumstances necessitated.
The total provision was therefore for 1250 sick animals, which
for a Force of 53,000 animals represented approximately 24 per
cent., a totally inadequate provision (Note.—Hospital provision
in peace is 6 per cent.). Personnel had to be detailed from
reinforcements of combatant branches, and the evil of borrowing,
which exists in India at the present day, showed itself in the
early days of the war in France.

Reorganisation of Veterinary Services then became the order
of the day. Veterinary Hospitals on the basis of 1000 sick
animals were formed, complete with personnel on a self-
contained basis. . With the growth of the force these were at

24 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

first increased to 1250 and subsequently to 2,000 patients each.
From an economic point of view in conserving officer and man
power, the larger hospitals are commendable. It is cheaper to
add to an existing institution and establishment than to create:
new units, Military Works Services are simplified, and con-
veniences of railways, supply, and transport are the better met.
It was found that our Officers, Non-commissioned Officers and
men could handle a unit of 2000 sick animals just as easily as
a smaller unit, provided the interior economy and working
followed definite lines of decentralization of duties, which in
all hospitals was adopted to an efficient end.

The original unit of 250 patients has consistently been
preserved by Veterinary Service in its hospital organisation
and marks a sub-division of a large hospital, each sub-division
in personnel being a small complete unit in itself, capable of
being detached if necessary, singly or in groups, to meet
varying circumstances of forward movement, etc. The follow-
ing table will make this clear :—

No....... Veterinary Hospital (2000 Patients)
SUB-DIVISIONS.
DETAILS. H.Q. A BC DE F G H Total
Officer Commanding 1 1
Officers 1 A, a a) ale 9
Adjt. and Q.-mr. 1 1
Warrant Officer 1 1
Staff Sergeants 1 1Tiidiidiid 9
Sergeants 1 2B 2-2 BP 8 OB AT
Lance Sergeants 2 Lt kl 2 toh 1k 20
Corporals 1 $444 44 4 4 °33
Lance Corporals
(including Dressers) 2 33 3 3 3 3 38 8 86
Privates (Dressers) 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 69
Privates (Grooms, etc.) 14 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 430
Farr. Q.-m. Sergeant 1 1
Farr. Staff Sergeants |
and Sergeants 1 1 1 1 4
5. 5. Corporals 1 1 1 1 4
Shoeing Smiths a9 3 3 3.8 8 3
Saddler Corporal 1 1
Saddlers 4 4

VETERINARY HOSPITALS. 25

Provision of personnel and accommodation for Veterinary
Hospitals and Convalescent Horse Depots on L. of C. in the
B.H.F., France, was on the basis. of 10 per cent. sick of the
Force: 7 per cent. of this was Veterinary Hospital and 3
per cent. Convalescent Horse Depot. Two per cent. was the
normal amount of minor sickness maintained at the Front.
In November 1915 the L. of C. provision was cut down to
8 per cent., but so heavy were the casualties and so great the
congestion and overcrowding that a return to the 10 per cent.
‘basis was forced upon us. At one time as many as 45,000
sick animals had to be cared for on L. of C. and it will
readily be realised that the provision of accommodation for
this number placed no light tax both on the Military Works
and Veterinary Services. Accommodation for 39,600 sick
and convalescent animals was actually provided, and this
amount would never have been reached if Veterinary Service
had not accepted the principle of rendering assistance in
personnel to the Military Works Service in the construction
of their installations. The man-power situation absolutely
necessitated it, and there was the constantly burning desire
to get the sick under cover during inclement weather, which
seemed ever to prevail. It is necessary in this article to
dilate somewhat on stable construction, as the success of
treatment greatly depended on hygienic surroundings and
suitable facilities for work, and there are one or two items
that I would specially like to mention.

Lay-out Plan. This was in blocks of 250 standings on the
sub-divisional basis above mentioned, the lines of stabling being
double, with a partition between. The lines were thirty-six
feet apart, with an alley way of nine feet behind the animals,
the rest of the space being laid away to grass. Two stalls
could be converted into one loose box or enclosure if desired,
and at the end of each line was an expense forage store. Roads
between blocks were a first consideration, and it was necessary
to limit the movement of animals and transport, otherwise a
quagmire was the result. Each block had its own dressing
sheds, forge, water troughs, etc., so that they were separate
entities in view of any outbreak of contagious disease. Mangers
were of continuous iron sheeting and could be easily disinfected.

26 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Many of the hay racks were made from hay-band wire, in fact
this article was made use of for very numerous purposes.
Material of buildings. Some stables were of wood, and were
erected under contract. Others were of iron of standard
pattern obtained from England and could easily be screwed
together and erected by our own men. They could be taken
down and erected elsewhere if a forward move was necessary.
Horse tents. In the very early days of the war, when there
was little in the way of covered accommodation, I chanced to
find a circus owner stranded at Gournay-en-Bray, and obtained
permission to purchase his tents, including a large round
performance tent, four horse tents, which would accommodate
forty horses each, and an elephant tent. A chalk pit at the
Advanced Base comfortably held the large round tent. Its
numerous poles were shortened by three feet, its top was
lowered, and it remained in glorious function in its abode,
affording accommodation for 160 horses for nearly two years,
until Anno Domini tolled the knell of its demise. The horse
tents proved invaluable, and were the origin of a complete
tented hospital and several tented sub-divisions of other
hospitals. One hundred and two horse tents, each holding fifty
horses in a double row, were maintained by Veterinary Service
in France. They were easily erected, were stable in bad
weather if made to proper design, and animals did well in them.
They should form part of the mobilisation equipment of
Veterinary Hospitals and with ordinary care will last two years.
Stable floors. I was often asked the question whether I
would have “ pucca”’ standings or overhead cover. Any one
who had experience of the mud of France and Flanders would
have found no difficulty in replying, and would have plumped
for pucca standings every time. Solid standings and hygienic
surroundings are indispensable factors in institutions for the
treatment of sick and wounded, and particularly where con-
tagious ailments are concerned. Stable floors exercised the
attention of hospital commanders in France more than any
other item of hospital management. The material used
comprised bricks on edge, beech planking, stones, cobbles,
cement, and wooden blocks. Perhaps the best of all was pine
or beech trees sawn across in four-and-a-half-inch blocks, and

‘daHS MOIMG GALNMAANOD Y-—IVLIdSOP[ ANVNIMALAA

VETERINARY HOSPITALS. 27

set in tessellated form in chalk and cinders or sand. Such a
floor lasts indefinitely and is not slippery.

Water troughs. A great feature of Veterinary Hospitals and
Depots was water troughs. The earlier ones were wooden
with zinc lining, or canvas on wooden frame, but the latest and
cheapest were of reinforced concrete and were made by the
hospital personnel on the spot. Each line of stables had its
own water trough with water laid on, so that if any untoward
outbreak of contagious disease occurred, its spread was limited.

It is very difficult in a limited space to chronicle all that
appertains to a Veterinary Hospital, but before passing on to.
notice its legitimate function, there are a few things worthy of
mention.

The category of the personnel has been previously alluded to.
They were most comfortably hutted, and it would have been
impossible to have found any body of men even in peace more
blessed with comfort in their well-ordered barrack rooms, their
messes and dining halls. Their pleasures were not forgotten,
and there were Y.M.C.A. and Church Army Huts, and Force
Canteens for their off times. Gardening was the order of the
day when work was done, and to such a degree was this
encouraged that the majority of Veterinary Hospitals were
self-supporting in vegetables for the whole year.

The good order and well kept premises reflected on the
well-being and smartness of the men, and made for the more
successful working. Even the animals appreciated their cleanly
and it may be said beautiful surroundings. For them it was
intended to grow green crops and roots all the year round, and
sanction had been given for 100 acres of land per hospital for
the purpose, but the end of the war came before it could be
carried into effect.

Amongst other economies may be mentioned the extraction
of gas (carburetted hydrogen) from horse manure at one or
two hospitals, and the utilisation of it for cooking horse food,
It is a simple process, but requires a pit for proper production.

Straw bedding was not possible, It was much better to put
such a valuable article into the animals bellies than under their
feet. Each Veterinary Hospital and Convalescent Horse Depot
was equipped with power chaff-cutting and corn-crushing
machinery and there was nothing wasted.

28 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Veterinary Hospitals and their Functional Role.

It is quite impossible, and it would be outside the scope of this
work to describe in detail the methods pursued in treatment
and the technicalities attached thereto. It will be realised that
innumerable ailments in varying degrees were encountered
during the four-and-a-half years of hostilities; the more serious
of them, constituting grave wastage, will be dealt with in the
chapter under the heading of “ Wastage of Animals in War.”
It will, however, be instructive to outline the grouping of
hospitals for practical work, and to follow the course of animals
through them.

With operations of such magnitude and with the total large
number of casualties to be handled, it was found both from an
administrative and practical working point of view, that
Hospitals were best located in groups of two or three together,
each group (excepting essentially base hospitals) functioning for
particular sectors of the front line. Each group consisted of :—

Reception Hospital: Mange Hospital: General Hospital.

On arrival at the Reception Hospital patients were subjected
to the mallein test, were inspected, sorted and despatched, with
a minimum loss of time, to one of the adjacent hospitals accord-
ing to the nature of their maladies. If any cases were
considered hopeless or economically not worth treatment, they
were put aside for inspection of the Deputy Director of Vety.
Services, L. of C., and his orders taken as to their disposal for
purposes of food or otherwise.

Those animals requiring immediate surgical treatment were
subjected to operation at the Reception Hospital, and it was no
uncommon sight to see three animals in the operating theatre
under chloroform at the same time. At some Reception ’
Hospitals unloading arrangements were so complete that they
were provided with their special railway sidings. Reception
Hospitals also undertook treatment of medical and surgical
cases in the same manner as a General Hospital, in addition to
reception work.

Mange cases were transferred to Mange Hospitals as soon as

possible, where special treatment was applied; dipping baths
being part of their equipment.

VETERINARY HOSPITALS. 2a

Cases of debility which required only rest and feeding up
were despatched direct to Convalescent Horse Depots, one or
more of which was reasonably convenient to the various groups.

At the Reception Hospitals each animal was given a hospital
card on which was stated the date of its admittance, a brief
description, the unit to which it belonged, and its ailment.
The card accompanied the animal wherever it was transferred,
treatment was entered on it, and it was filed on discharge.
Some check was necessary on the length of time animals
remained under treatment, as obviously it was financially
unsound to maintain them in Hospital indefinitely. The above
mentioned cards were therefore carefully scrutinised, and
moreover a “Form at a Glance” showing numbers under
treatment by weeks was kept up.

Very few animals were permitted to reside in hospital beyond
three months. In.addition to those palpably worthless, which
were speedily disposed of, any animals resident six weeks and
over were shown to the D.D.V.S., L. of C., for consideration of'
further retention or for casting. They were again seen by him
periodically. Castings were fairly free, as chronically unsound
cases were of no use for front line work if patched up. Certain
horses, particularly of a good draught type, considered fit for
work on Lines of Communication, were branded on the foot.
with the letters V.B. signifying “ Veterinary Base.” There
were a good many of this category towards the end of the war,,
and it was possible to re-classify some of them for service at the
front. The transport of Veterinary Hospitals was either of this.
category, or of patients worked for a short time to get them fit
before discharge to Remount Depots. Unfortunately, as I will
allude to later’ on, so many fine valuable horses suffered from
disease of the eyes resulting in blindness, but they were equal
to useful work on L. of C. Whether it was a case of “ What.
the eye doesn’t see, the heart never grieves,”’ or whether it
was parallel to the feeding of ducks ina dark cellar, the
majority of blind horses became fat and maintained wonderful
condition. A pair of blind draught horses belonging to a
Veterinary Hospital took first prize at a Horse Show for the.
best horses of the Show.

30 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

On an average 3000 horses were discharged cured to the
Remount Services weekly, and a special point was made of-the
good order in which they were turned out. Stable management
is just as important in a Hospital as the actual treatment of
ailments, and I have no hesitation in saying that Veterinary
Hospitals excelled in their stable and line management. It is
little good being authorities on the subject if the example is not
shown. And it was no easy task during the wet and muddy
times of winter to clean and groom the majority of animals,
foul of skin and caked with mud as they arrived from the front.

The disposal of these animals wasted by war, their death at
times from absolute exhaustion, their destruction whether for
food or otherwise represents the saddest side to the Service
whose rightful mission is to cure not to kill; but we are
cheered by the fact that never in the history of war were
sick, wounded, and enfeebled animals, tended with more care
and sympathetic consideration in hardships which are insepar-
able from war. It is right for me here also to mention the
kind thought of persons far off from the scene of battle, who
contributed so liberally with their money to lessen the hard lot
of the creatures engaged in war. Through the agency of the
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, which
was duly accredited as a Voluntary Aid Society by the War
Office, the enormous sum of £100,000 was subscribed and
devoted to the provision of complete Veterinary Hospitals,
Horse Ambulances (both horse drawn and motor), and many
other appliances for the benefit of disabled animals in France.

Convalescent Horse Depots.

In veterinary organization these institutions are not alto-
gether for animals convalescing after a period of residence in a
hospital. They are essentially for animals run down and poor
in condition, and requiring an extended rest. Medical and
surgical cases requiring special treatment are not admitted,
The nature of the treatment in Convalescent Horse Depots is
therefore feeding and building up, and it is to the careful and
scientific side of dieting that attention has to be paid.

The working plant must include chaff-cutting and grain
crushing machinery and apparatus for boiling food. The

A RECEPTION HOSPITAL IN FRANCE.

CONVALESCENT HORSE DEPOTS. 31

articles of diet must be varied in kind and amount, and include
those known to produce the best results.

Rest is necessary for the worn-out and debilitated, and there-
fore in the construction of Convalescent Horse Depots provision
should be made both for stables during inclement weather or
when animals are brought up for grooming, and for paddocks
where they can roam at liberty. Furthermore, as so much of
the debility, exhaustion and poverty in animals in war is from
lack of drinking water in the areas of operations, Convalescent
Horse Depots must be bountifully supplied with good water for
animals to take their fill as they desire.

' The objective study of animal exhaustion and debility is real
business for the Veterinarian. Curious phases present them-
selves. Prostration for days, flickers of life, faintings, palpita-
tions, fits and other nervous symptoms are all to be observed,
then sudden return of vitality and rapid improvement. One
can realise the value of a grass field or an enclosure with soft
sand or earth to lie on, under such circumstances.

The operations on the Marne and the Aisne in the early days
of the War produced a large number of debilitated animals,
and as soon as the Military situation permitted, approximately
3000 horses were turned out to grass towards the end of Sept-
ember at Gournay-en-Bray between Dieppe and Paris in the
rich pasture lands there, the allotment being three horses to the
hectare (23 acres). In afortnight they were different creatures.
Convalescent Horse Depots were thus conceived, and Gournay
became from that time until the end of the war our principal
‘Convalescent Horse Depot. It functioned chiefly for Hospitals
on Southern line of Communication and the Armies based
thereon. 1180 hectares (2915 acres) of land were leased
annually at the average price of 23 francs per hectare monthly,
and animals were run out from the beginning of May to the
middle or end of November. The Depot was organized for
4000 animals in summer and 1200 in winter. It consisted of a
Headquarters and several Centres, each being provided with
stabling to which horses could be brought up from the various
pastures for grooming, shoeing, etc., prior to discharge to
Remount Depots. Three Veterinary Hospitals were in the
neighbourhood, to any of which the animals requiring hospital

32 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

treatment were sent. ‘The personnel for attendance was very
small comparatively with hospitals. Grazing had to be supple-
mented by a ration of grain and hay, in accordance with the
season, but there were enough pastures to allow of their being
rested for a while and the grass to grow after being eaten down.
The free life at pasture during summer was excellent for the
animals on the whole. It has, however, certain drawbacks.
With large mobs of horses and much dung (animals at grass
always produce a large amount of dung) flies are troublesome.
Animals huddle together to get away from these pests, they do
not feed during the heat of the day, preferring to congregate
under trees. Hard ground of summer is bad for the lame, and
as a rule heavy draught horses never do very well at grass.
Mules are much more concerned with what is going on in
various other pastures, and the kraal system is the best for them.
We attempted to keep horses on pasture at Gournay during
the winter in the same manner as was practised at Lathrop in
the U.S.A. with Remounts during the Boer War, but in spite
of the well-sheltered fields, the experiment was a hopeless
failure and had to be abandoned. The winter of 1914-15 was
extremely wet, and the mire was too severe for debilitated
horses. Moreover it was difficult to get the necessary food into
the sodden undrained pastures. Impoverished animals cannot
stand inclement weather: the only practical way of managing
them, during winter at least, is to bring them into cover.
, On the whole, therefore, the most satisfactory form of
Convalescent Horse Depot is an arrangement of corrals or
enclosures, and as there was no grass land available on the
Northern L. of C. in France, it was on this plan that the
Convalescent Horse Depots in that area was constructed. They
were organised on a basis of 1200 animals. One was laid out.
in the form of “ pawnbrokers balls,” each block or ball being
surrounded by an exercising track, and divided into enclosures
50 yards by 40 yards with an alley way down the centre for a
Decauville railway for carrying forage, removal of dung, etc.
The enclosures were for 50 horses or mules each, and each was
provided with a water trough. Stabling with pucca floors was
erected on two sides of the enclosures. Another Depot was
rectangular, with enclosures 100 yards by 50 yards, each for 100

CONVALESCENT HORSE DEPOTS. 33

horses, and with the same provision of covered standings, water-
troughs, Decauville railway, etc. Both were built on sand, the
dunes on the French coast line being excellent for the purpose-

The personnel and transport for a Convalescent Horse Depot
for 1200 animals consisted of :— |

Establishment.
Officers, R.A.V.C. 2 Lance Corporals 10
(0.C. of the rank of Major)
Quartermaster 1 Farrier Sergeant 1
Staff Sergeant 1 Shoeingsmith Corporals 2
Sergeants 4 Shoeingsmiths 8
Corporals 6 Privates 163

Transport. Tip-carts 5, Water-cart 1, Horse Ambulance 1,
General Service Wagons 2, Motor Lorry 1.

In the general working of these depots 400 animals were
under grooming, exercise and preparation for discharge to
Remount Service, the remainder being at liberty in the ¢orrals.
Endeavour was made to turn out 200 per week, but discharge
_ rarely reached that number and depended greatly on the state
of the animals on admission. The personnel was detailed in
accordance with this distribution, the grooming staff being
approximately at the rate of 1 man to 5 animals, and the corral
attendants at 1 to 12 animals.

On admission hind shoes (sometimes fore shoes also) were
removed, and animals were placed in the corrals by classes, viz.,
Heavy Draught, Light Draught, Riders, and Mules. Riders
and draught horses do not get on well together at liberty. At
feeding times the lighter, vivacious riding horses clear the
heavier and more lethargic animals away from the feeding
troughs. Then again, grouping in all classes has to be made
according to individual cases—whether they are delicate feeders.
or otherwise, and whether they are in poor or medium
condition. Inspection of teeth is necessary, indeed this resolved
itself into a routine procedure in Veterinary Hospitals and
Convalescent Horse Depots, as abnormalities of teeth were
found to be so very frequent and requiring remedy. One
Veterinary Hospital in France even had a dental room.

Ordinarily Convalescent Horse Depots are the rendez-vous of
the flotsam and jetsam of war; and castings of the chronically

34 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

inefficient, and the old and worn out, are very frequent. A
general weeding out has to be made. It is an interesting fact
that during the last two years of the war, 11 per cent. of
animals evacuated from the front for various ailments were
fifteen years old and over, and it was important in view of
disposal to keep a record of this situation.

It was also very necessary to keep a close watch over animals
at liberty, whether in pastures or in corrals, on account of
contagious disease, especially glanders and mange, owing to the
greater liability to outbreaks of this class of disease in debilitated
animals, and the danger of insidious spread when so much
individual attention is not admissible. In the dirty coats
during winter, lice and mange parasites find a fine shelter.

Sand is apt to get foul with constant use of corrals, and it was
necessary to rest the corrals, clean them out, and replenish with
fresh sand from the dunes. Droppings were gathered up in
osier baskets, and it was a noticeable feature of both Veterinary
Hospitals and Convalescent Horse Depots that no dung was to
be seen anywhere in the lines. A certain amount of sand colic
was encountered, chiefly amongst new hungry arrivals and in
those animals with capricious or depraved appetites common to
ill-conditioned animals, but this was counteracted by a plentiful
ration and water, an admixture of salt in their food, and feeding
systematically and regularly out of mangers and hay racks. A
certain number of leather muzzles were also in use. The
advantages of a comfortable bed of sand for the weak and
worn-out far outweighed the disadvantages of occasional cases
of sand colic. It was a wonderful sight on a sunny day to see
scores of them lying prone on the sand resting like dogs, and
one of the first acts on being let loose from stables in the early
morning—particularly the mules, was to roll in the sand.

As previously remarked, feeding was the essence of treatment.
Debility or poor conditioned animals must have chaffed food
and a good deal of it. The greater part of their hay and straw
ration was chaffed, and Depots were provided with machinery
that would chaff about two tons per hour. Grain was also
crushed. Bran and linseed cake were indispensable factors.
The sugary locust beans were also appreciated.

SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION. 35

A noticeable fact, which rather upsets one’s ideas of the
stereotyped army routine order of watering before feeding, is
that horses at liberty after partaking of food from their manger .
will troop off to the water trough and take a drink. It is
nature’s way. And the stableman, therefore, who places water
either in a bucket or otherwise beside his horse in the stall is
following a correct principle.

Fresh arrivals required no exercise beyond the quietness of
walking about their enclosures, but later on, exercise was a part
of the daily routine of treatment. Exercising tracks formed
part of the installations, and animals were led and driven round
in batches with a minimum of attendants. By this means
they improved much more quickly. They also were worked in
the Depot Transport for the same reason.

The system of identification and treatment cards was exactly
the same as in hospitals, and inspections for castings by the
D.D.V.S5. similarly carried out.

During the war a large number were passed through
Convalescent Horse Depots. Castings were naturally heavier
than in hospitals, but the depots proved themselves valuable and
successful parts of veterinary organisation, supplying a much
felt need to a class of case that tended to congest Veterinary
Hospitals. Moreover, they were run at a less cost per animal
than the latter units.

CHAPTER VII.

SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION OF
VETERINARY EQUIPMENT AND MEDICINES.

The Director of Veterinary Services with a Field Force is
responsible for the provision of all Veterinary Stores.
The organisation controlled by him for the supply and
distribution of the same, consists of :—
A Base Depot or Depots of Veterinary Stores
An Advanced Depot or Depots of Veterinary Stores
according to the size and distribution of the Force.

Ordinarily, the allotment which is most suitable is one Base
Depot per L. of C. and one Advanced Depot per Army.

Each has a recognised War Establishment.

36 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

Base Depots of Veterinary Stores.

A Base Depot or Depots of Veterinary Stores is held ready
in peace time, and despatched with an Expeditionary Force.
They are located at the Base, as the name indicates. The
amount of stores they maintain is calculated to last three
months. They function for all Veterinary Hospitals and units
on L. of C. and feed the Advanced Depots.

Replenishment is made either by indent on the Army
Veterinary Stores, Woolwich, or by local purchase, whichever
is cheaper. In India, Medical Store Depots take the place of
Army Veterinary Stores, and all replenishments are made
through them.

Proper ledger accounts are kept and are scrutinised by the
Director of Veterinary Services and Financial Adviser as may
be deemed necessary.

The establishment consists of one officer and six other ranks.
The officer may be a well proved warrant officer, R.A.V.C.,
promoted to temporary commissioned rank, the services of a.
Veterinary Officer thereby being saved.

Advanced Depots of Veterinary Stores.

These small units of one sergeant and three other ranks are
formed in the field, and their function is to supply field units.
Though their allotment may be at the rate of one per Army,
the actual number required and their distribution depends on
circumstances of railway arrangements.

Experience has shown that they are best located at Regulating
Stations, and the forward despatch of stores to units at the front.
carried out through the Military Forwarding Officers at these
places. In France, until this was done there was constant
trouble, and stores were frequently lost. Only three Advanced
Depots of Veterinary Stores were formed in the British
Expeditionary Force. One was subsequently withdrawn to a
Base Depot and converted into a repair unit, the: Base Depot.
functioning for both L. of C. and the Armies fed from that.
Base.

Supply and Distribution of Veterinary Equipment,
with Field Units.

This has already been alluded to, and little more remains to.
be said. All units mobilised with certain articles of Field

BACTERIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES. 37

Veterinary equipment as laid down in Mobilisation Store
Tables. In course of time this was found to exceed require-
ments and it was cut down. Moreover, Veterinary Wallets
and Officers’ Chests were made a personal charge instead of a
unit charge. The saving was very considerable. The policy
now followed is a minimum of equipment with field units
including Veterinary units, and the institution of Advanced
Depots convenient for replenishment of field equipment. and
necessaries as required. When animals are freely evacuated
and there is little regimental treatment, there is no necessity
for a large amount of Veterinary equipment and stores with
field units.

In India, the old idea of regimental treatment still exists to a
considerable extent. The provision of veterinary "equipment is
enormous, and entails a large amount of transport to carry it.
The scale has, however, recently been reduced and the home
system which has stood the test of a large war will be
introduced. A very large saving will be effected thereby.

CHAPTER VIII.
BACTERIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES.

In all theatres of war the necessity for Veterinary Bacterio-
logical Laboratories was soon apparent, and in course of time
these were duly established. Their function relates to
microscopical diagnosis, research, and the manufacture, if
necessary, of sera and vaccines for treatment.

This item of veterinary organisation in the field is yet in its
infancy, and with the gradual advancement of Veterinary
Science will be susceptible of great and better development.
Matters of chemical as well as bacteriological investigation
present themselves to Veterinary Service in the field, and
without self-contained means, the assistance of the Medical
Branch has to be solicited. Notable instances of this in France
were the poisoning of animals through sewage contamination of
village ponds, and poisoning by adulterated oil cakes used for
food.

38 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION.

To meet the situation, combined Bacteriological and Hygiene
Laboratories would be suitable for Veterinary Service.

In the B.E.F., France, a Base Bacteriological Laboratory
was located at Rouen. It was complete with all modern
apparatus, presented by the Royal Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals from their subscribed Fund, and performed
useful work. The same Society fitted out small laboratories
for diagnosis purposes with five Veterinary Hospitals on Lines
of Communication. A desire also was expressed to attach a
small Motor Laboratory to the Headquarters of each Army ;
and without question it was a step in the right direction. It is
an item of veterinary organization which should be considered
in future mobilisation.

PART II.
Wastage of Animals in War.

CHAPTER I.—GENERAL.

Some years previous to the late war, while engaged on an
article entited “‘ Horses of different Countries and their Supply
with relation to Military Service’’ read before the Royal
United Service Institution, London, I roughly endeavoured to
arrive at an estimate of the equine population of the world.
My calculations amounted at that time to close on 80,000,000.
The United States Department of Agriculture, in the very
valuable Reports of their Bureau of Animal Industry, computed

the number at 75,000,000.

By Continents, I estimated the number approximately as

follows :—
Europe 6 oe ... 40,000,000
Asia ate nee ... 11,000,000
Africa ies ... 1,250,000

Western U.S.A. Canada and Mexico 19,000,000
Hemisphere }

Australasia

Central and South America 6,000,000

(Australia and New Zealand chiefly) 2,000,000

79,250,000

Of the 40,000,000 in Europe there were in :—
Russia (European Russia) ... 22,096,000
Germany a ... 4,184,000
Austria Hungary ... .» 4,020,000
(Austria 1,711,000 : Hungary 2,309,000)

France oa ... 2,900,000
Italy as eee 742,000

Sweden sh ete 525,000

40 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

Norway oe re 151,000
Denmark a se 449,000
Holland vee aa 985,000
Belgium ae ae 241,000
Switzerland oe i 109,000
Portugal ac ar 220,000
Spain a ee 397,000
Greece OF 100,000
Turkey (in Borope) ta 300,000
Bulgaria vn sas 344,000
Servia ne vie 180,000
Rumania at 864,000
The United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Ireland ... 3,000,000

Taking the British Empire, my computation amounted to
approximately 8,000,000, distributed as follows :—

The United Kingdom .. 8,000,000
Australia a . 1,626,000
New Zealand eal fea 287,000
India ae .. 1,348,000
Canada . 1,500,000
South Africa Giucluding Natal) 250,000
Jamaica ake ie 47,000
Mauritius A te ie 12,000
Malta te ae 8,000
Newfoundland ao ses 6,000
Ceylon sins ae 4,000
Falklands oF as 3,000.

8,000,000

The above figures must be taken as approximate only. They
are also somewhat old, and subject to change by time, but I
deem it necessary to quote them to show roughly the resources
in animals of the various Powers which have participated in
the late World War, and to preface a discussion on Wastage,
which to a very considerable extent is dependent on Resources.

The Tables will also serve to illustrate the important fact
that the Allies during the late World War had the command of

«

-

GENERAL. 41

the majority of the useful animals of the World, and particularly
of those that were essential for the draught purposes of Artillery
and Transport, so greatly in demand. In a war of such long
duration and of such severity in respect to both human and
animal participators, the practical command of the most useful
war animals was a weapon in the hands of the Allies that went
a long way towards the downfall of the enemy.

Honour, therefore, to those noble creatures, who, under
circumstances indescribable in their awfulness at times, shared
their lot with human beings, who suffered with a dumb
obedience, and helped to “ win the war.”

No Nation or Army has probably had more experience of
animals in the Field than our own, and such experienced gained
in respect to the different classes of animals employed should
constitute us authorities in ways and means of avoiding wastage.
The reports of Army Veterinary Service in our numerous
campaigns in different countries and under varying circum-
stances form very absorbing reading. The achievements of
animals are on occasion wonderful, but alas there are pages of
unhappy disclosures where wastage was excessive to a degree,
reflecting on our system of management and business acumen.

Broadly speaking, there are two classes of wastage : Prevent-
able wastage, and wastage by Act of God, inseparable from
war. Though here I shall treat of both, it is to the former
that my thoughts are specially directed, and if any remarks of
mine will serve as a means to keep this class of wastage ever in
subjection, I shall not have written in vain.

To go into the subject without further preamble, I shall
divide my remarks under the following major headings :—

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE AND INEFFICIENCY.
CAUSES OF WASTAGE AND INEFFICIENCY.
WastAGE PECULIAR TO INDIA.

42 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

CHAPTER II.
PREVENTION OF WASTAGE AND INEFFICIENCY.

Causa sublata tollitur effectus (Remove the cause and the
effects will cease) is one of the first principles of Medical and
Veterinary Science. It goes in double harness with the old
hackneyed expression “ Prevention is better than cure.” Both
axioms are applicable to other spheres and circumstances than
Medical or Veterinary Science. It is very easy to theorize on
“preventable wastage,” but it is a difficult proposition in war
to draw the line between what is preventable and what is non-
preventable wastage. Moreover, complaints or criticisms are
quite valueless without proper remedies can be suggested.

With these points in view, it perhaps would appear more
correct to give an account of the causes of wastage before deal-
ing with their prevention: lest I should appear to be putting
the cart before the horse. But such causes, particularly in
respect to diseases, are so varied and numerous, and their recital
so much attended with statistical figures, that I have deemed it
better to leave them to a later stage of the work. Besides,
the policy of prevention, whenever it can be carried into effect,
is or should be a first consideration.

For the purpose of discussing prevention, it will be con-
venient to group remarks under the sub-headings here
mentioned :—

Study of Resources and Remounting.

A properly organised Army Veterinary Service.
Knowledge of Animal Management.

Nature of work to be performed.

Evacuations,

Study of Resources and Remounting,

The following round figures will convey a general idea of
the colossal work put on our Remount Service during the late
war, and the magnitude of the machinery that was necessary
for remounting operations. Being so far away from records,
and having only a limited number of statistical figures by me, I

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 43

have to fall back considerably on my memory, at least so far as
the British Expeditionary Force, France, with which I was
closely associated, is concerned :—

The pre-war strength of our Home Army in horses: was
approximately 23,000.

During the first twelve days of the war 165,000 horses were
impressed.

The strength in horses of the original Expeditionary Force,
which mobilized and went to France, was 53,000.

Between August, 1914, and the middle of 1918, roughly
450,000 horses were bought in the United Kingdom.

Over 700,000 animals were bought overseas in the United
States and Canada on British account for various theatres of
war. The United States Army itself when it mobilized required
a large number of animals. To say nothing of what its troops
in France possessed, it had at least 350,000 animals in training
in Depots in view of being sent to France.

At one period of the war in France, the British Expeditionary
Force possessed roughly 475,000 animals, of which 89,000 were
mules. The total wastage from death, destruction and missing
amounted to approximately 250,000 up to the end of December,
1919, and about 25,000 sold to agriculturists (prior to sales on
demobilzation). Roughly, therefore, during the four-and-a
half years, 750,000 animals took part in the war in France, in-
cluding British, Indian, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand
and Portuguese Troops.

In August, 1914, 193,319 horses were on the strength of the
French Army, while 799,661 were required. By November,
1917, 1,188,539 animals had been purchased in America and
Spain to supply wastage.

The Belgian Government, in addition to obtaining horses
through British Remount Depots, purchased in the Argentine,

Our demands for Mesopotamia and to a considerable extent
for Egypt were met from India and Australia, remount opera-
tions from this side approximating 43,000 horses and 500 mules.

East Africa was supplied from South Africa.

The drain therefore of suitable animals for war purposes by
the Allied Powers was stupendous, and it must be remiembered
that the demand chiefly related to animals of a draught type.

44 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

In the United States, for instance, our purchases were 20 light
draughts to one of other classes combined. The world’s supply
of suitable stock is not inexhaustible. How demands were met
is surprising; and rightly, our Remount Services at Home and
Abroad have reason to be proud of their achievements in the
difficult task that was put upon them. Shakespeare, through
the mouth of one of his characters, enjoins on us to put no trust
in a horse’s health, and when we consider the vast number of
animals that have been collected, purchased, moved by rail and
sea, distributed as reinforcements to replace casualties (readers
please think big and in hundreds of thousands), and their much
greater proneness to disease than any human race, the wonder
is that wastage has not been greater, and supply over so long
a period impossible—in other words, that absolute exhaustion of
resoures was not reached.

Very much less fortunate, and to her great regret as evidenced
in Ludendorff’s Memoirs, was our principal enemy, Germany.
Her resources were exhausted; captured documents and orders
revealed a burning desire to capture some of the beautiful
horses of the English for her Transport. She was not enriched
by animals of ours falling into her hands, which is a glorious
page in the history of our animals in the war. And the
imposing sight of the grand German Army in retreat with
mixed teams of oxen and horses was a crown to her débdcle.
The majority of German animals taken by us were evacuated
to our Lines of Communication and were sold for sausage meat.

Germany, though credited with over 4,000,000 horses in
normal times, of which nearly 3,000,000 were in Prussia, was
an importing country. She bought on an average 21,000
annually from Belgium, taking, it was said, the best of the
Ardennes horses. She was also credited with taking 16,000
annually from Denmark, many of them for light draught work.
Altogether her annual import returns showed a little over
100,000. The best material was almost entirely appropriated
to supply the demands of the military authorities, the remainder
being doubtful for military purposes.

Austria-Hungary was fairly well stocked with horses, but
Hungary was essentially a light horse country, and Austria
_proper never afforded much of a field for remount operations.

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 45

Rumania, Bulgaria and Servia were all importing countries
from Hungary, for Army purposes.

After the disrupture of Russia, Germany was able to arrange
a limited number of animals from the Ukraine, but, compared
with other countries Russian animals are small; Polish horses,
for instance, are chiefly of the riding type.

So that taking all in all, the resources of the Central Powers
were bad. The efficiency of an Army very greatly depends on
its horse supply, and Germany must have known, unless her
vision was so clouded with arrogance or distorted through
megalomania, that her feet were but clay. In a matter of
horses she never had a dog’s chance of successful issue in a
protracted war of unusual severity, even though the Schlieffen
policy of over-running Belgium and a portion of Northern
France in the early days was calculated to bring a certain
number of useful animals into her net.

Remounting in relation to Wastage. To know exactly where
to gofor supply, precisely the class of animal to buy, and to have
suitable experienced -purchasing officers are essential factors of
Remounting—if wastage and inefficiency are to be avoided.

We bought our experience very dearly during the war of
two years and seven months in South Africa. During that
war 518,794 horses and 150,781 mules and donkeys were
provided. 847,007 horses and 53,339 mules and donkeys were.
expended during the campaign, and 13,144 horses and 2816
mules and donkeys were lost on voyage. The total expenditure
on horses, mules and donkeys, exclusive of freight, amounted to
£15,339,142. A Court of Enquiry, appointed by order of the
Commander-in-Chief, was held in 1902 to enquire into the
administration and organisation of the Remount Department,
the purchase of animals during that war, their transport
overseas, and the causes of the enormous losses during the
campaign.

The salient facts of the findings of the Court and its Com-
mittees were briefly summarised as follows :—

(a) The normal duties of the Remount Department in peace

were confined to transactions with dealers in the United
Kingdom. To meet additional requirements of horses.

46 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

on mobilisation and to provide for wastage of a war,
reliance was placed in a system of registration amounting
to 14,000 animals. ;

{d) There was no system of obtaining and tabulating in
time of peace, information as to horse supplies of foreign
countries with a view to the contingency of a great expan-
sion in requirements.

(c) No steps were taken in view of the possibilities of a war
in South Africa to ascertain what animals could be
obtained from abroad until four months previous to the
actual outbreak of hostilities, when officers were sent to
certain countries to enquire as to the supply of mules.
Consequently when the conflict came and a great number
of animals had to be procured from various countries,
officers despatched for that purpose, for want of previous
information and system, were much at the mercy of
vendors both in a matter of price and quality of animals
purchased.

{d) The Director General of Remounts at that time could
do little with the organisation with which he was furnished
in time of peace. His functions were strictly limited and
his staff even more so. It was inevitable that a Depart-
ment with no provision for expansion, when called on
suddenly to extend its operations to a previously uncon-

. ceived degree, should fail through lack of system.

de) The evidence confirmed the view that the chief cause of
loss of horses was that they were brought from distant
countries, submitted to a long and deteriorating sea
voyage, when landed were sent into the field without time
for recuperation, and there put to hard and continuous
work on short rations.

(f) In the early part of the war there was great pressure for
horses but no well-thought-out system for the establishment
of Base and Advanced Remount Depots in which animals
could be held, exercised and prepared for issue.

{g) There was also ill-provision of Veterinary Institutions
to which sick and over-worked animals could be sent to
recover. In the beginning, by reason of the inability to

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 47

obtain fresh horses, those on charge of units were worked
to the limit of their physical endurance, and then were left
to die on the veldt.

Truly a very sad state of affairs, and absolutely out of all
keeping with the nature of a Britisher who loves his animals.

However, the Army at home learned its lesson, and in a
matter of Remount Intelligence, the War Office in its Remount
Department at the commencement of the late World War was
in full possession of the remount resources of every country, and
had its machinery ready for operation. Looking at the question
purely in the light of reduced wastage and inefficiency of
animals, and furthermore in constructive criticism towards that
end, I am inclined to think that the organisation of Remount
Service at home is still susceptible of improvement. India is
far ahead of it in that respect. If efficiency is to be maintained,
a Remount Service should be a self-contained Corps and with a
policy admitting of a continuity of service and experience, in the
same manner as other branches of the Army. The personnel
of Remount Depots pre-war was a mixture of civilians and
Army Service Corps soldiers; those in France, excepting the
Indian Remount Depot, were borne on the strength of Army
Service Corps so far as other ranks were concerned, while the
-officers were retired officers or others specially entertained. I
trust it will not be thought of me that I am actuated by any
carping spirit in making these remarks, but I am sure those
who have had the experience of the late war will readily agree
‘that for- real efficiency all Administrative Services should be
‘self-contained. .

With the great tendency in ‘freshly joined remounts to sick-
ness of a communicable nature, ¢.e. respiratory sickness
particularly, it is most necessary and important to exclude all
sickness from Remount Depots. It is an impossible situation,
for instance, to combine a Remount Depot and a Veterinary
Hospital in war whether under purchasing arrangements, or in
the field. It is inviting disaster, and placing a millstone round
the neck of Remounting that will drown it. Nothing should
be maintained in Remount Depots but animals fit to issue, or
reasonably so. Any unfit should be rigidly excluded, and
relegated to Veterinary Service whose function it is to handle
this category. Hence the Remount Service would be “Providers”

WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR. 48

and “Finishers,” and the Veterinary Service “ Menders.”” This
broad line of ‘policy—“ Fit” and “Unfit’—was laid down by
the Director of Remounts and myself, as Director of Veterinary
Services, from the very beginning of the campaign in France,
and was rigidly adhered to throughout. Obviously it was
correct ; and its success in avoiding wastage cannot be gainsaid.

The standard of efficiency and excellence in horses demanded
by Units and Formations at the front was very high, appearing
sometimes to be bordering on the ridiculous. If the article was
not prime, back it came to Lines of Communication with
dissertations on the subject of quality. I had great sympathy
with Remount Service in this matter, particularly as horses
after a long journey by train, or a dusty or rainy road journey,
do not as a rule look their best; and at the instance of the
Director of Remounts, I arranged with my representatives with
Formations not to report on remounts until they had been at
least three days with their units. The particularity was also
reflected by Remount Depots on Veterinary Hospitals, and the
output from the latter to Remount Service had to be issues de
luxe. It all sounds somewhat absurd when, as the war
progressed, there were category ‘““B” horses as well as men;
but when one seriously considers it, the procedure was correct..
We were able by all our means to keep down the total
inefficiency of our Force to 12 per cent. in winter, and about 7
per cent. in summer, only 2 per cent. inefficiency existing at.
the Front.

Horses, too, like ourselves, have their “days.” They look
fine creatures one day and awful brutes another. And & propos:
remount purchasing, I like to relate a story of a well-known
and experienced Remount Agent in Calcutta, who on walking
round the lines of his purchases one day, stopped at a loose box
containing a sorry looking object. ‘What horse is this?”
asked he. ‘One you bought from Mr. So-and-so a few days
ago,” was the reply. “You don’t mean to tell me that I bought.
such a horse” was his comment. Further on in the line was a
horse of noble presence, full of fire and indignity at rejection.
“By jove, there’s a beautiful horse,” said the Remount Agent.
“Yes, that is one of Mr. So-and-so’s which you rejected a few:
days ago,” was the answer.

A good many of us have been up against similar situations.

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 49

A properly organised Army Veterinary Service,

In an article published in the July issue of the Journal of the
United Service Institution, I described the constitution of Army
Veterinary Service in War, its function in relation to the
preservation of animal health, and the procedure appertaining
to it in its réle of treatment of ineffectives and the reduction of
wastage. It is therefore not necessary to refer to it again
except to say that it forms practically the most important item
in the matter now under review.

I may further say that approval has now been accorded to
the formation of a properly organised Army Veterinary Corps
in India which I am sanguine will not only render an efficient
account of itself in the course of time, but will contribute
greatly to its own cost by reducing loss and grading up
efficiency of our animals in India. It is a business proposition.

I intend also to deal later with an economic side to wastage
of animals, so will defer further mention on this heading.

Knowledge oi Animal Management.

Too much stress cannot be laid on this very essential factor
in the reduction of wastage. So important is it that I deem it
necessary to devote a special section to the subject, and to the
réle of Army Veterinary Service as an Instructional Agency.

It was extraordinary in France how our original Divisions
and Cavalry never lost the art and knowledge of management
of Army animals. This was intuitively handed down, like the
good tone of our “ Old Contemptibles” and as a part of their
esprit de corps. In speaking of Animal Management I do not
wish it to be inferred that I allude to Horsemanship or
Horsemastership in the sense of the fine art of riding, driving,
breaking in, and study of the latest creations that cover the
nether extremities of the faculty, but rather to the hygiene of
the animal that preserves his health and adds to his utility.
It is all a matter of instruction and it formsa part of the
curriculum of a soldier’s training in common with other items.
What knowledge begins, association fosters, and the end is the
love of comrades in arms, reciprocated and enduring.

I recall an incident—it is only one of many—of a visit to an
“Old Contemptible” battalion after three years of war of the

50° WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

severest. On asking if the battalion had any of the original
horses it possessed when I knew it in Ireland in 1910-13, the
officer, with the greater pleasure and pride, brought out the
original pair of wagon horses and the pair of machine gun cobs.
I had hit the happy theme in one act. Such is animal manage-
ment. Where are the Victory Medals?

Horse Shows. To the minds of a good many people, Horse
Shows in war would appear to savour of frivolity in the face of
a grave situation, but from an instructional point of view—as
object lessons, they are to be recommended. They also afford
pleasure and relaxation to the individual and a break from
trying circumstances. Most Divisions in the B.H.F., France,
had their Shows, and the prize winners took part in Corps and
Army Shows. Perhaps too much concentration on individual
horses or teams was displayed, and a most useful form would
relate to whole units. The interest which they created was,
nevertheless, all to the good of the animals.

However, there is another side to the picture, and one which
‘IT personally think is an equally good—perhaps a better object
lesson. This is to be seen in Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of
Communication, and is represented by the flotsam and jetsam of
war. If it is necessary to show all and sundry what animals
should be like by means of horse shows in war, it is all the
more expedient that those charged with the care of animals
should witness what they should not be like, and what wastage
really means. For this reason Classes of Animal Management
were held at Veterinary Hospitals on Lines-of Communication
for young officers and non-commissioned officers, and to these I
will refer under the heading of “ Army Veterinary Service as
an Instructional Agency.”

Watering and water discipline. There is probably nothing
that knocks animals out so rapidly as lack of water, or water so
‘impure that animals refuse it. It is essential that water
arrangements both for men and animals, and a proper water
discipline, should be specially instituted. I remember an Army
Commander in France taking me to a map in his room and
specially drawing my attention to a portion of country over
which a large offensive was to be made. It was the waterless

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE, . 51

area towards Bapaume. He remarked “ You are going to have
a bad time,” and his words proved true.

Water supply is a difficult and yet a very important
proposition where large bodies of troops are concentrated.
Picture the concentration of 150,000 to 190,000 animals in a
radius of a few miles, and the prospect of a successful advance
over a country removed from water in the summer season.
French village ponds in occupied areas were of no value. They
were the cause of sewage poisoning in some instances. So
particular were Corps in certain areas that the maps of
Brigadier-Generals’ Administration were marked with water
points and even water troughs for animals. But for these
wise provisions, in these areas our wastage would have been:
much heavier. Animals travelling by train, and especially sick
horses under evacuation, had their own self-contained watering
arrangements. Water parades, time schedules, and the
presence of an officer at watering parades are part of the
requisite care of animals in the field. It is a feature of animal
management in India, and in frontier expeditions of that
country, which requires putting on a better basis, and particu-
larly with regard to the camel. The remedy lies in the special
concentration of thought on the subject and a discountenance of
the “ Kuch purwa nahi” haphazard methods that are apt to
prevail.

Foods and.Feedings. It is said that an army fights on its
stomach. It is quite true. There is no physical endurance
without a liberal supply of food. Morale goes to pieces on an
empty stomach. Iam convinced that one of our best items of
propaganda was the display of comestibles and the prices at
which they could be obtained, in the Expeditionary Force
Canteens in France when the Germans pushed our troops back
in the Somme area in March 1918. It was an eye-opener to an
enemy who had been imbued with tales that Hngland was
being brought to her knees through their “ unrestricted,
submarine warfare.”

What is true of men is equally true of animals, the only
difference being that while the one can voice his complaints
and objections, the other must suffer in dumb obedience. All

52 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

the more reason therefore that the wants of the latter should
receive the utmost consideration.

No animal can perform hard work, and the severest of all
work which war necessitates, without the most particular
attention is paid to his food and feeding in all its details of
quantity, quality, periods and appliances. The records of
Debility and Exhaustion, which I will presently show, bring
home to us most forcibly the necessity that the most profound
care should be given to the provision of food for our animals.
and its administration to them. Though there are contributory
and concomitant causes of Exhaustion and Debility, such as
lack of or insufficiency of water, climatic influences, excessive
work or undue exertion, the chief factor is insufficiency of food.
Starvation is an ugly word to read in reports.

Food supply in war, and its transport, is a difficult proposition.
The pound of meat and pound of bread or biscuit for the man
is an easier matter than the ten or twelve pounds of grain and
ten pounds of forage for the horse; and these latter bulky
amounts are opposed to successful ventures of offensive warfare.
It is not always possible to tap the resources of a country or
area through which troops operate. There comes a time when
even that is exhausted, and everything has to be sent up from
the Base or from the Lines of Communication Depots. Long
Lines of Communication by road—such as we have experienced
in India, in Somaliland, in the Sudan—represent a tough
problem to the Military Authorities, much more so than in
countries well endowed with railways. Hence it is that animals.
may suffer by failure of supply.

War is always costly in food supply. The pre-war cost of a
daily horse ration in the Army was from 1/3 to 1/6. In the last
year of the war in France it was 5/2, and at the very end, if my
memory serves me right, it either reached or was likely to reach
7/- per ration. Substitution diets and equivalents had constantly
to be thought of and adopted. The foresight shewn, and the
manner in which the supply of foodstuffs to our animals was
effected during the late World’s War, was nothing short of
wonderful.

I mention the above to point the necessity for economy, which
has a great bearing on wastage of animal life—Waste not, want.

ON THE WESTERN FRONT.

ie

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 53

not! Economy is twofold. The first relating to Supply Services
in substitution diets, and the power to issue equivalents,
whenever circumstaces demand, as already alluded to; the
second relating more directly to the animal ‘itself. The latter
is where the Commanding Officer, the chief instrument of horse-
mastership and animal management in the prevention of
wastage, comes in. What avails supply if the ration does not
reach the animal’s stomach ? Therefore it is that the commonest
rules and routine procedure of stable management must be
observed. No excuse whatever can or should be accepted for
the want of provision of nose-bags, hay nets, and feeding cloths
—the plates, as it were, of creatures who cannot make expedients
‘for themselves. Wind has a habit of blowing hay out of the
reach of animals tied to a picket line; grain placed on the ground
in wet weather is trodden into the mud and wasted. There is
shocking waste of bhoosa in India. Consider the transport
necessary to get this article to animals on service. It is an
innutritious diet at its best, and I think the time has come
when by a combination of some other more nutritious
“roughage” (e.g. berseem, shaftal, lucerne, or other leguminous
fodder) with bhoosa in bale, a more suitable service ration
should be devised. I am certain it would be favourable to
animals, and represent economy in transport.

Time to eat is an element that has to be reckoned with on
service. This, or rather the lack of it, was one of the reasons
why our beautiful big heavy draught English horses, requiring
a bulky forage ration, went to pieces in France—as I will show
in subsequent pages. Military animals are not like dogs, that
can bolt their food with impunity. It takes horses five minutes
at least to eat a pound of grain and fifteen minutes to eat a
pound of hay. Bullocks and camels must have time to rumin-
ate: itis part of their alimentary and digestive procedure, and
as a rule they sit down to it.

Forage rations can at times be supplemented by grazing, and
advantage should always be taken where it is possible or when
time or season permits. A certain amount of grazing was
obtainable in the devastated areas in France. Chaffing of hay
and straw was resorted to as an economical procedure. The
forage rations of French Army horses included straw, that

54 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

uneaten going for bedding. The policy of the British Army
was to ensure by chaffing that straw went into the belly of the
animal, not under it. We also used a considerable amount of
linseed and other cakes—100 tons per month, and locust beans,
both articles chiefly for the sick and debilitated animals on
Lines of Communication. Human beings, and to. wit prisoners
working in Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Communication,
were quite partial to the sweet, sugary locust beans (pods)
whenever they were available.

Lastly I may mention the green crops that were grown for
animals in the vicinity of stationary units on Lines of
Communication in France. If the war had lasted another year,
the majority of Veterinary Hospitals would have been self-
supporting, by intensive cultivation, in green crops—rye, vetches,
Indian corn, etc., and roots—for more or less the whole year ;
arrangements having been made by some Hospitals to lease up
to as much as 100 acres for the purpose. . It was a good project
to meet the ravages of wastage in wav.

Clipping and Clothing. So much controversy has centred
round the subject of clipping in relation to wastage that I deem
it necessary to refer to it briefly. The controversy arose out of
the heavy losses occasioned during the Arras offensive of the
first fortnight of April 1917, the severity of the weather from
snow storms and cold being quite unprecedented for that time
of the year. In view of prevention of mange—that bugbear of
active service and scourge of winter—the policy of clipping had
been adopted and the Veterinary Service was greatly blamed
for its advocacy. In the storm of controversy it was lost sight
of, or was unknown to those who rose in condemnation, that
unfortunately a compulsory reduction of the grain ration for all
animals had been enforced for some time previously, and
continued even at the actual conflict of battle. If the hygiene
of the body in respect to cleanliness and freedom from mange
parasites could have been effected by strict attention to stable
duties there would have been no necessity for clipping, but
think of the mud of winter in Northern France, and the almost
impossible and heartbreaking task to keep animals clean that
are mired to the very neck! The official photographer in

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE, 55

France was specially asked to portray circumstances under
which animals laboured.

However, so far as clipping and prevention of mange in
relation to it is concerned, the policy adopted the following year
was to clip early—no clipping to be done after the middle of
November. Coats would then be grown sufficiently to afford
warmth before the real cold weather, and the happy hunting
grounds of mange parasites—dirty, long coats, would be laid
waste for a certain portion of the winter.

And it is interesting to relate that in the sub-world to which
I have referred there were battles, and it was left to Veterinary
Service either to keep the “ring” or destroy the battlefields. I
do not think we adopted the réle of neutrals. But there were
combats to the death between the Lice, clad in their chitinous
armour, and the Mange parasites, perfect in trench warfare and
subterranean passages. One year the tribe Haematopinus (lice)
with its more insinuating ally, Trichodectes, won the day, but
the following year the “Digger” (Sarcoptes), the expert chap,
carried all before him, but he succumbed to Calcium sulphide
and Gas.

Of course, clipped animals must be clothed; indeed in any
case clothing is necessary in winter season, alike to keep out
cold, wind, and wet. The string jhool, of several designs,
cannot be beaten; its cleansing and disinfection are matters of
importance where disease has to be prevented.

Acclimatisation. Acclimatisation of animals is a matter
which in war has not received in days gone by the attention
that it deserves, excepting perhaps in India. The experience
during the South African War, to which I have referred, wag
an object lesson to us in this respect. We have been apt to
look upon horses as machines and to forget compensating
balances. No one would dream of putting Australian horses
from a Southern zone immediately into a war on the Northern
frontier of India, under conditions of reverse season. They
must have a little time to get on their legs, and over little
sicknesses incidental to changed circumstances and surroundings.
The more lymphatic or lethargic the animal the more prone he
is to attack from disease.

56 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

In the purchase of heavy draught horses during the late war,
it was found that they invariably went sick after removal from
their accustomed habitat, and a regular system of temperature
taking was instituted which was extended to their arrival in a
theatre of war, and before issue to units. A policy of three
weeks residence in a Remount Depot in France was adopted for
all overseas animals before issue, and accommodation to admit
of this was arranged accordingly. The consequence was that
extremely little respiratory sickness existed at the front.

Remount Training Depots and Reserve Depots. The issue of
animals trained for the purpose required of them in war is a
most important factor in the limitation of wastage. It is not
sufficient to buy them as broken animals in an open market and
ship them straight to a theatre of war. Some organization
must exist where they can be proved and rendered suitable.
It would appear to me that India is well advanced in this
necessary procedure, and the Remount Training Depots provide
a more than useful purpose.

Nature of work to be performed.

As briefly indicated in the previous paragraph, animals
should start fit and trained for their particular job. It is up to
the Commanding Officer of their respective units to look after
their interests subsequently. He is their philosopher and guide.

A very bright feature of the late wai was the splendid manner
in which Infantry looked after their horses, and it is certainly a
matter deserving of the highest commendation and record in
the annals of our Infantry in war. Apart from that spirit of
faithfulness and bom camaraderie which battalions showed to
their animals, their success was a matter of organization, and
lay in the appointment of Battalion Transport Officer. J wish
that Artillery, in which Arm the heaviest work and greatest
wastage lay, could have been similarly provided. Even a
Brigade Transport Officer of Artillery, an appointment part of
Artillery organization, to watch the interests of horses in their
wagon lines while Artillery Officers were forward with their
guns, would have been much better than the ‘ horsemasters”’
and “ wagon line officers’? who were appointed, and who were
nobody’s children.

’

PREVENTION OF WASTAGE. 57

The greatest wastage in France was in the light draught
horses of Artillery. The work of getting ammunition up to
gun emplacements, over shell-pitted ground and through seas
of mud at dead of night, was of the severest possible description,
and the situation was complicated by lack of fit remounts of
that class to keep pace with wastage. Bad, rainy weather
always was succeeded by an aftermath of Debility evacuations,
in Artillery units particularly. The churned up mud of
Flanders, the shell holes filled with liquid mud every few steps,
into which animals under load dropped exhausted—probably
to drown, was a picture that required to be seen to be realised
to its full degree of awfulness.

The French Army used a large number of donkeys for carry-
ing ammunition. They were driven in lots of about twenty,
and they picked their way across country, skirting the edges of
the shell holes.

The war in France was not a Cavalry one, but when Cavalry
in force participated in Offensive, casualties—battle casualties

chiefly—were heavy. In one offensive the casualties for a week

amounted to 10 per cent. of strength, but there was 1000 per
cent. of gallantry that far outweighed the loss. It is war when
cavalry begins to move, and you may laugh at prevention. And
when behind the movement there are the pent-up feelings of
several months inactivity, “I reckon there’s going to be some
show.”

| Note. This is supposed to be a treatise on prevention of
wastage and inefficiency] .

I close the chapter with reference to Transport. In France
nothing could have exceeded the high state of efficiency of
animals generally in Army Service Corps units of Divisional
Trains, Reserve Parks, and Auxiliary Transport Companies.
They certainly were not exposed to the hard lot of Artillery
horses, but they were a real good class of well selected animals,
and the organization of the A.S.C. in personnel left nothing
remaining for their care. The wastage, excepting in some of
the reserve Parks in the early days of the war, was phenomen-
ally small, and a large number served through the whole period
of the war and returned to England at the end of that time.

38 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

The wastage in other wars, including some of the Expeditions
on the Indian Frontiers, chiefly relates to Transport, and
putting aside the dire contagious diseases which lay low so
many of the various breeds of animals employed on Transport
Service, itis a certain fact that defective system and inadequacy
of personnel to supervise animals has led to wastage that can
only be described as distressing. I shall refer to this more fully
in the chapter dealing with the causes of wastage.

Evacuations,

I believe in figures and percentages. They are necessary for
the control of wastage, and as a guide for calculating and
adjusting replacements. A General Officer Commanding a
Division, Corps, or Army, should always know by a simple
statement how his inefficiency stands week by week, and if
possible, he should be made acquainted with the inefficiency
of other Divisions, Corps or Armies, in comparison.

There is no point in maintaining inefficient animals at the
Front. They should be got rid of and replaced, fighting units
should be kept up to their fighting strength as much as possible.
This has now been thoroughly realized in the British Army, and
all Formations in the Field have organized Veterinary units to
effect removal; and conversely Remount Service has machinery
to effect replacement by fit animals.

By this means not only is efficiency maintained but wastage
is curtailed. Animals get a chance of recuperation and speedy
cure when such is feasible or economically sound. Their vitality
and utility are not hopelessly destroyed, and it is good business
both for the animai and for the State.

Organized and systematic evacuation plays a great rdle in
the prevention of wastage, and I am sanguine that, other things
being equal, through this procedure the dark pages of utter
waste of animal life and treasure will be closed for ever in the
history of our Armies. Other nations have taken copy of
methods inaugurated by our Armies in the Field, fully realizing
the advantages which such methods carry in their train. We
are proud of being pioneers.

CAUSES OF WASTAGE. 59

CHAPTER III.
CAUSES OF WASTAGE AND INEFFICIENCY.

War pre-supposes that casualties relate chiefly to the effect of
gunfire. This is not so with animals. Though, as I will
presently show, a considerable number of actual battle casual-
ties occurred in France, the majority of casualties were from
other causes. It is the same in all theatres of war. Incapacity,
the result of hard work and insufficiency of food, together with
a long list of diseases of a communicable or specific nature,
usually go to form the Veterinary wastage of war.

In my recital of them I shall have to quote a few statistics.
and some of them are sorry reading: but itis necessary to see
' the black cloud to appreciate the silver lining, and precept must
be pointed by example, whether good or bad, if progress towards
the goal of efficiency is to be achieved.

I will group remarks of this chapter under the following
headings :—

Debility and Exhaustion: Accidental Injuries :
Battle Casualties: Contagious and Specific Diseases:
reserving a special chapter for diseases that by reason of the
classes of animals employed are more or less peculiar to India.
Debility and Exhaustion.

The history of every campaign unfortunately teems with the
impoverished and exhausted condition to which animals are at
times reduced. Much of it is inseparable from the hard work,
exposure and other issues of war, but it is a regrettable fact
that a ‘good deal of it is avoidable, and it represents an
accompaniment of war that is discreditable, and is open on
occasion to storms of criticism as acts of cruelty. Poverty and
its accompanying exhaustion is the hall-mark or evidence of
indifferent supervision and care of animals, or a bad system in
respect to their management. It is always in inverse ratio to
the standard of animal management attained. There is no
getting away from this fact, and until this result is realised to
the full, this class of wastage will always figure very largely in

60 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

the annals of our Army. To keep it down, an educative policy
in practical animal management is absolutely indispensable both
in peace and war; moreover, history points to the necessity for
the enforcement of stern disciplinary measures when neglect is
apparent.

To go back into now ancient days, a perusal of the old Kabul
papers is of absorbing interest, revealing dark pages in the
history of animals that are happily past in modern times. In
those days systems were watertight, and the right hand was in
ignorance of what the left hand did. Transport arrangements
were a thing apart from the rest of the Army, and the
establishment of Veterinary Hospitals was left to the initiative
of a limited number of British Veterinary Surgeons, who for
extra duty performed with the Transport Department received
the sum of Rs. 75 per month as against a Transport Officer
Rs. 200 per month.

The animals of Transport were partly Government owned,
partly hired, and judging from the report of the Inspecting
Veterinary Officer, the whole system of organisation and
conduct of affairs must have been quite unique. In his tour
inspection Report he alludes to evident want of inspection,
whereby hired animals were sent from Kohat up the line by
hundreds with no arrangements for the supply of food, that
being left entirely to the owners; farther on at Thal where he
wished to establish a Veterinary Hospital he found utter
confusion, so much so that he could not make a proper
inspection of the animals, which in most instances were not
even tied up in lines. There were but few animals even in fair
condition, and sore backs were counted by the hundred, the
sores being smeared over with mud, cow-dung, etc. At Ali
Khel he found debilitated Foot -and - Mouth - Disease - affected
slaughter cattle being sold by public auction to the inhabitants
of surrounding villages. At Togh where a depot for camels had
been formed, though the officer in charge was using every
endeavour by grazing, feeding on grain, and placing animals
under shelter, his camels, already debilitated, were carried off
by pulmonary and dysenteric disease to the extent of 40 per
cent. Government and 33 per cent. hired in 58 days. He
describes an inspection of 5754 baggage animals comprising

“INONY AHL OL STIAHS ,, DNIMOVd ,

CAUSES OF WASTAGE. 61

mules, ponies, donkeys, camels and oxen, and found that 2326
or 40 per cent. were physically unfit for the work required of
them, the majority being either under four years, or too old,
pointing to the necessity for exercise of more care in selection.
He characterises the camel as an utter failure on two campaigns,
but speaks well of the mule, alluding specially to his marvellous
digestive powers.

I am sorry to allude to that Report, but it shows what bad
organisation and arrangements lead to. The records of
subsequent frontier compaigns in India, excepting in the matter
of contagious and specific disease, are much pleasanter reading,
and the grading up of an organised system is gradually
producing good results. Much, however, still remains to be
done in matters of supervision and rational care. I quite
disagree with the Inspecting Veterinary Officer of the Kurram
and Kyber of 1879-80 with regard to the camel being an utter
failure. With enlightened ideas of his management and better
control of his diseases, both of which are now in progress, he is
going to prove a most useful member of our Indian Transport.
Under a system of stall-feeding he has merited great praise
during the recent Waziristan Expedition. Why should any
animal on service be expected to forage for itself? Surely it is
adding insult to injury. The basis of camel feeding in India up
to recently was grazing, with stall feeding in lieu. The policy
has been reversed, and thousands of camels will be saved by the
reversion. I will have more to say on the camel later.

In Wazaristan during the recent expedition our inefficiency
stood at :—

Horses and ponies per cent. 7°5 Camels 11:0

Mules 2°6 Bullocks 24

But for the unfortunate Mange which is so prevalent in
camels in India, and another disease, by name Jhooling, the
camel inefficiency would have been less; but conditions are
being gradually improved.

Considerable loss from debility has been experienced in
camels in Eastern Persia, and inefficiency ran at 25 per cent.
Apart from hard work and long distances, without question a
deficient food supply and defective management were the real
reasons for the loss.

62 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

Of all the sad pages in the history of camels employed by our
Armies, nothing can surpass that of the Desert Column in the
Nile Expedition of 1884-85. Between the 30th December 1884
and 25th March 1885, 2.e., in barely three months, this column
lost 1850 in the Bayuda Desert and 448 at Korti out of a total
of 4050 camels, or 56°7 per cent. Though some were killed in
action, the chief cause of mortality was forced and long-
continued marching with insufficiency of food and water. The
first column averaged 30 miles per day, the second column 25
miles per day. Between Gakdal and Gubat, a journey of six
days, the allowance of grain amounted to under two pounds per
camel daily, and no water could be given during that period.
Grazing was not possible. On the return journey the animals
had to subsist on only a few loads of green dhourra stalks and
what grass could be collected. A good many of the camels were
only four years old, and a curious statement of the covering
report of the Principal Veterinary Officer to the Forces, War
Office, is to the effect that purchasing officers (Egyptians) knew
so little of this class of animal that some of them were not able
to distinguish the sex, to say nothing]of their age, or to judge
fitness for the work required. A Brigade Order was published
previous to the march that camels should only be watered every
third day, to accustom them to the privations of the march, and
that they should have their fill before starting. This was not
judicious treatment, especially when it was known that the
animals would have little else than dry food for the journey.
Camels are not salamanders, and they require as much water
as any other ruminant to maintain health and strength. The
Veterinary Officer accompanying the column describes one
instance of camels being 40 hours under load; one company
had one man to every six or seven camels and these were
Egyptian soldiers taken out of boats which had just come up
the river. Truly a most lamentable state of bad organisation
and arrangement, such as it is hoped will never see the light
of day again.

On the other hand, and at the same time, was the most
wonderful performance of the 19th Hussars (155 strong)
mounted on Syrian ponies; an example of the most efficient
care of animals almost on record. With an average daily

CAUSES OF WASTAGE. 63

ration of 5 to 6 lb. of grain and two gallons of water, for
10 days they marched 31 miles daily. At the first advance
on Matammeh they marched to the Nile without having
received a drop of water for 55 hours, and only 1 Ib. of grain.
During their halt at Gubat from 20th January to 14th
February, they were fed on 10 Ib. dhourra stalk daily, and
on their return journey to Korti the first 75 miles of the
journey was performed on 4 lb. grain and three gallons of
water. The horses were allowed to graze on every possible
occasion on the grass of the Bayuda Desert, but it was very
dry and they ate little. Out of the 155 animals 19 died or
were destroyed for debility or exhaustion, five from other
causes, and 20 were killed in action between the 8th January
and 8th March.

The wastage in the South African War has already been
alluded to, and by far the greatest amount was due to Debility
and Exhaustion, the war being very considerably one of move-
ment and trekking. It simply swallowed up animals; and
replacements, being so unfit, never had much of a chance from
the outset. North American animals, though good, were the
‘victims of operations in a country of reverse seasons: Argentines
were grass fed animals in their own countries, and missing
their beautiful alfalta and being unaccustomed to grain and
to feeding out of nose-bags, quickly went to pieces: Hungarian
horses were, and are at their best, “flatcatchers’’ and also are
grass fed in their own country: Russian cobs for mounted
infantry purposes, at least those from the Urals, being a tough
lot, weathered the storm: the London bus horse, full of good
hard English keep, rendered a good account of himself: but
the native of the country was the hardiest of all. Truly it was
the survival of the fittest. I call to mind a reconnaissance of
Plumer’s Force, when, mounted on South African ponies, 70
miles were covered in 26 hours and not a single animal dropped
out, and this during the season of “‘Horse-sickness.” Also, after
over a year of hard campaigning, 30 per cent. of the original
ponies of his Rhodesia Regiment were handed back to the
Remount Department when the regiment was broken up. It
is an example of the fitness of animals that are required for the
chard usages of a war of movement.

64 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

To chronicle in detail the wastage under this heading which
has existed in our numerous campaigns, and the causes which
have led up to it, in itself would fill a book. There is admittedly
a large proportion of Debility in active warfare which nothing
can prevent. Animals as well as ourselves have their nervous
systems, and there are delicately constituted animals which no
horse-master can keep in condition, and which from necessity
find their way into the ranks of the best horsed army in the ©
world. Moreover, there are times when the military situation
absolutely prohibits the bestowal of that due amount of attention
in watering, feeding, and general care, which is so essential to
the well being of the animal.

Let us now see what happened in the greatest of all wars, at
least in the Western Theatre in France, where long forced
marches were of rare occurrence, but where battle in all its fury,
exposure, terrific toil, and at times reduced ration existed.

The Somme Offensive of 1916 left us by the December of that
year with 16,074 Debility (poor condition) animals under treat-
ment in Veterinary Hospitals and Convalescent Horse Depots.
[Note. Our policy, as previously explained, was early evacua-
tion as far as the situation admitted, and Convalescent Horse
Depots are essentially for the recuperation of animals in
impoverished condition.] Of this number 3,386 were riding
horses, 9,211 were light draught horses, 2,825 were heavy
draught horses, 248 were cobs and 404 were mules. The.
strength of the Force was then 354,217 horses and 62,914
mules, the percentage Debility (poor condition) therefore being
4:54 per cent. for horses and 64 for mules. The figures
illustrate finely the wonderful resistant power of the mule, and _
he was equally good at recuperation. At the same time it is.
evident that when the working ration is reduced, the small
animal will continue effective when the larger animal fails.
The light draught mule 14°3 to 15-2 received the same ration as.
a light draught horse. The cob was conspicuous by his absence.
from Veterinary Institutions at all times.

In 1917, during the first fortnight of February apsenaus
were at a standstill, and though the weather was cold the
wastage from Debility was low, only 1,678 cases for the two.

WINTER IN FRANCE.

CAUSES OF WASTAGE. 65

weeks being admitted. From the 15th February to the 31st
March the weather increased in severity, there was more move-
ment of troops and a corresponding increase in the cases of
Debility, 3,639 being recorded for the last two weeks of
February, and 9,427 for the month of March. During April
and particularly during the first two weeks (including Easter
week) the bitterest weather conditions prevailed. Unfortu-
nately too, an enforced reduction of ration had for some
time previously existed, and with 195,000 animals engaged in
the very arduous offensive operations in front of Arras at that
time, the toll of Debility and Exhaustion rose to an wun-
precedented degree. 20,319 were admitted during the month,

With the advent of better weather, diminution of work, and
an augmented ration, the admission during May and June
dropped to 8032 and 1253 respectively.

This represented the period of our most serious loss from
Exhaustion and Debility. Conditions of service at the front
and the strain to which animals were subjected were practically
indescribable, and not the least of our enemies was the
appalling weather which prevailed during that Easter time, as
if the God of all Hosts rose up in rebellion against the very
name of War perpetrated by Man.

We found also at that time, on making post-mortem
examinations of animals dying from debilitating and exhausting
conditions, that Gastro-enteritis was common, a severe gastric
ulceration sometimes existed, similar in a marked degree to
the mouth lesions of Contagious Vesicular Stomatitis which
appeared amongst our animals in the early days of 1917, the
intensity of which was increased rather than diminished by the
severe cold of the winter and spring. In one month alone we
had 2596 cases of this disease under treatment in isolation in
Veterinary Hospitals. Its gravity lies in its extreme con-
tagiousness, and the loss that occurs in the condition of animals
from their ‘inability to feed. It was only through the greatest
vigilance on the part of Veterinary Officers, with isolation of
cases, and separate watering arrangements by means of water
buckets and improvised small watering troughs made from
mens’ ground sheets, that the Front could be kept clear; and
there is no doubt that this very ugly disease played a consider-
able part in the wastage of the spring of 1917 from Debility.

66 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

Age in relation to wastage. The rule of the Army used to be
that only horses between six and twelve years were to be sent
on service, and fifteen years and over was the age for casting.
As the late war progressed, extending into over four years,
animals naturally exceeded the accepted useful ages, but it is
a point to be noted that animals of advanced years stood the
campaign wonderfully well, and the maximum age limit of
twelve years can certainly be expunged in favour of an open
question. Some of the old trained horses of Cavalry have a
remarkable record, and have stamped themselves as real tough
warriors. Record was kept of the ages of all horses evacuated,
and it was found that this ran about 11°5 per cent., gradually
coming down in 1918 to under 10 per cent., for animals
fifteen years and over.

Battle Casualties.

In campaigns previous to the late war, excepting perhaps in
Cavalry charges, the casualties in animals from actual gunfire
was in small ratio to other causes of wastage. I therefore pass
them by, and come immediately to modern times, and a
consideration entirely of the wastage in the principal theatre
of the recent Great War.

During the first two years of the campaign in France, battle
casualties were extraordinarily low. This was largely attri-
butable to the stationary nature of the warfare, and the lesser
power of Artillery and other elements of destruction.

With the advent of offensive operations of the summer of
1916, the enormous increase of Artillery, and the development
of bombs and gas, casualties correspondingly increased, and
loss became heavy.

By the careful selection of horse lines and splitting up
animals into small groups, Unit Commanders were able to
minimise the effect of hostile fire very considerably.

Aerial bombs were responsible for a large proportion of the
battle casualties, and their effect was combated with a con-
siderable measure of success by the erection of mud walls,
five feet high, round horse lines and stables, and by anti-bomb
traverses within stables. A bomb in its action bursts low, and
many broken legs and abdominal injuries were saved by anti-
bomb walls and traverses.

BATTLE CASUALTIES. 67

&

The following table of killed and wounded, giving periods
and operations, will aptly show what a struggle between Great
Powers under modern circumstances of war really means :—

Gas. Gunshot: Total.
Bombs.
1916: 1st July to 31st Dec.
Embracing the battles of

the Somme and Ancre 33 352 3941 6063 10389
1917: Jan. Feb. and March

Not marked by severe fighting 771 1260 2031
1917: April

Operations in front of Arras 2070 2555 4625

1917: 1st May to 27th Oct.
’ Messines and operations in

Belgium 68 1188 10590 25258 34054
1917-18 : 28th Oct. to 16th March
Operations at Cambrai 6 33 4096 8869 13004

1918: 17th March to 14th July

Period of great hostile offensive 78 451 14122 13154 27805
1918 : 15th July to 11th Nov.

Period of great Britsh offensive 26 246 22500 23251 46023

Totals 211 2220 58090 77410 137931

An accurate account was kept of bomb casualties as against
gunshot, and it formed a'very good guide as to German aerial
activity and strength, and to our aerial supremacy. From
records of casualties the zenith of German aerial power would
appear to have been reached in August and September 1917
when bomb casualties in animals amounted to about 400 per
week, and though the enemy left the Front considerably alone
and gave the back areas a dusting in May 1918, the casualties
were week by week on the wane, and in October 1918 before
the Armistice they only amounted to about sixteen per week.
It was a singular fact that with the exception of one instance,
when the crow was hit instead of the pigeon, Veterinary

Hospitals on Lines of Communication received no damage
from enemy bombs.

68 , WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

The introduction of gas warfare was met by the provision of
horse respirators, but such provision was more costly than the
loss sustained. It. is more important for the men to adjust
their own respirators than those of the horses, and by the time
the latter is effected damage [may be done to the animals.
Animals are more resistant to gas than men, but in any case
the best policy is to clear out of the gas area. Respirators are
of course of no value against the mustard gas. Avoidance of
pools of water (blistering of lips from drinking) and of
traversing land on which it was noticed (blistering of heels
and legs) were precautions taken.

Accidental Injuries,

Under this heading are included wounds other than gunshot.
Kicks, contusions, fractures, sprains, rope-galls, saddle-galls,
harness-galls, and lameness from various causes. Treated as
a class they are very largely preventable, and their limitation
is in direct relation to the knowledge and attention displayed
by Unit Commanders and others to whom animals are
entrusted. It is very satisfactory to record that during no
period of the war in France did this class of wastage present
any serious proportion—with the exception perhaps of the
inefficiency resulting from “ picked up nail” to which I will
specifically allude—and I think the small amount of preventable
injury there met with reflects very creditably on the general
animal management of the Army. Certainly the simple
knowledge which has been gained in our various schools and
classes has borné good fruit.

Sore back. In days gone by, the inefficiency on campaign
from sore backs, both in Cavalry and in Transport, was
dreadful. With the exception of contagious disease, it formed
the chief item of wastage and inefficiency. The history of the
majority of frontier expeditions in India reeks of sore back
in Transport. In the Egyptian Campaign of 1882, out of a
total of 1982 horses, though there was comparatively little
marching, there were 517 cases of sore back of which 21 had
to be destroyed. In two months one British Cavalry Regiment
had 76 sore backs, and in another there were 89 in one month.
Reports of sore back in camels during the Nile Expedition of

WITHIN RANGE—‘‘ PACKING” SHELLS.

ACCIDENTAL INJURIES. 69

1884-85 were very pitiable. There was 8 per cent. of
inefficiency from this cause on assembly at Assouan—a very
bad start, and the subsequent tale is one of saddles literally
sitting into animals’ backs, bones exposed, maggots, saddles
not removed for days—a dreadful picture of wastage.

In the Somaliland Field Force of 1903-4 the sore backs
from the native substitute for a saddle, ‘“Herio” (a series of
mats) was appalling.

Even in present times there is a considerable amount of
sore-back in mule and pony Pack Transport and in Camel
Corps on Field Service in India.

Whenever there is intelligent supervision there will be a
minimum of injury. It is the duty of Commanding Officers
to inspect the backs of their animals daily as a routine, the
cause of any little rub being defined. The panel of the saddle
is the book to read, and every gall has a definite cause which,
with the exercise of intelligence, can be remedied. But it yet
remains for a suitable palan or camel saddle to be devised.
The camel is living in anticipation of some fertile sympathetic
brain producing the necessary blessing.

Perhaps no greater factor in the reduction of saddle and
harness galls exists than the small War Office publication
“Animal Management.” All the seats of galling are explicitly
shown in the chapter relating to saddles and sore backs, and
it will repay study.

Rope-gall. I particularly mention this injury in view of
systems of picketing animals. Invariably injury is to the hind
heels, and it is caused by the animal getting entangled in the
slack of the head-rope attached to picket line. The injury
was most infrequent in France because the picket rope was
stretched between wagons or attached to posts. In other
words, the picket rope was breast high, the slack of the rope
avoided, and fear of entanglement and gall minimised. There
was no necessity for hind shackling under this method, and
as a rule animals learn to stand quietly.

In India, the common system of picketing, except in
Artillery, is a ground rope to which animals are attached by
their head ropes, and to keep them straight hind shackles are

70 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

necessitated. The weight of transport of these shackles, and
particularly the iron chains in the aggregate is enormous, and
represents an addition to loads either on the animal or in
carts which could easily be abolished. Even in peace, in
stables in India the system of Agari-pichari continues; it
could stand modification with advantage.

Lameness. The amount of lameness from sprains, bone
diseases—such as spavin, ringbone, and arthritis, during the
war in France and Belgium was extraordinarily small. The
Army was maintained as sound as possible; any unserviceable
animals were either cast and sold to agriculturists or for food,
or were utilised for the slower and less arduous work on Lines
of Communication. The latter category was designated V.B.
(Veterinary Base).

Mules as a rule are wonderfully sound, and it is surprising
how well they do without shoes. A Mountain Artillery
Commander would scoff at the very idea of his mules being
shod. Unshod they have sure foot-hold. The pack and
draught mules of Transport Corps work unshod, with splendid
results. Even ponies can do, at least, without hind shoes.
But it all depends on weather. In wet weather there is
greater maceration of horn, and so in France the draught
mules were shod.

On the frontier in Waziristan, from work along the stony
river beds, camels have suffered considerably from sore feet,
and various protective expedients have been tried. Camels
parked on stony ground also suffer from bruises and wounds
of the chest pad, and unless care is exercised in the selection
of camping grounds a good deal of inefficiency and loss is
occasioned thereby, for such cases are difficult to cure.

Picked-up Nail. A curious form of inefficiency which bulked
very largely in the returns of the B.E.F., France, was what
was termed “ Picked-up-nail,” and all sorts of expedients, amus-
ing and otherwise, were adopted for its prevention. Nails appear
to have a peculiar attraction for horses feet, and the nuisance
was not confined to nails, for an occasional live cartridge would
be found. There was no record of any bird’s nests such as
rumour attached to the tails of certain horses purchased during

DIETETIC DISEASES. 71

the Zulu War. However, joking apart, from the winter of
1915-16 the occurrence amounted to 400 per week, in spite of
Routine Orders—which are apt to go in one ear and out at the
other; beautiful attractive red boxes with the word “Nails”
painted in pearly white, stuck up on the walls of villages;
posting bills of photographs of nails with witty remarks vying
with the attractive boxes on the walls, and “Nail Hunts” by
units in the vicinity of the Camps, which afforded great amuse-
ment after the manner of football. Competitions in “ hunts”
would appear to have been started in one sector of the line; one
unit was credited with 12 lb. of nails in one hour, but whether
the finals were ever played off, history does not relate. I fancy
they were deferred by the Armistice to the next War. But the
nail went on. His name was legion. It was the business of
the man attending the “Cooker” marching along the road and
using packing cases as fuel, to see that the stew was appetising.
It was another man’s job to look after the nails that dropped
into the fire-box or on the road. The same with the builder of
huts or stables. The seriousness of the matter lay in the large
number of “ Quittor” cases for operation in Veterinary Hospitals.

I will close remarks under this chapter by a brief reference
to :—

Dietetic Diseases. Apart from the loss resulting from Debil-
ity, with reduced rations as a contributary cause, wastage from
digestive disorders was comparatively slight in the Army in
France. On one occasion there was serious poisoning from an
admixture of Castor beans amongst the oats, the vessel carrying
oats in bulk having, without doubt, previously carried castor
beans as part cargo, and in the hurry of requirement not having
been properly cleaned out.

There was also occasional poisoning from feeding on certain
Linseed cakes, from the development of prussic acid, but this
can be, and was, avoided by boiling the cake.

Sand Colic amongst units located on the dunes along the
coast of Belgium was very prevalent, and expedients to prevent
animals from eating sand had to be adopted. It wasa long time
before animals got over the effects of sand, and it was a notice-
able factor of Debility. An alkaline sands appeals to animals,

72 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

and particularly when appetites are depraved or sharpened by

want. It was no uncommon sight to see animals eat sand as if

it was a bran mash, Sand Colic and its prevention formed the

subject of special instructions, and in the matter of expedient

for prevention I think there was little left to the imagination.

Space will not admit of a description of the many devices.
Contagious and Specific Diseases.

Of all the causes of wastage the contagious element of disease
is by far the most serious and important. Communicable
diseases in animals are so numerous and varied in their character
that they demand of Veterinary Service the utmost vigilance
and the most profound skill it can command through its officers
in prevention, control and suppression. An exact knowledge is
required of all contagious Diseases, and the life history of their
causal agents scientifically put into operation the means of
combat. It is par excellence the Veterinary Officers’ War. The
study of Contagious Disease is an absorbing and fascinating one,
and with full knowledge of cause and effect the modus operandi
of control becomes easy to the expert. In War the badness of
things always asserts itself, the hand of control is by force of
circumstances slackened, and the vast movements of men and
animals conduce to the spread of evil elements. There are also
new “bolshevics” of disease that spring up as specifics in our
midst, of obscure origin, that bother us intensely at the moment,
and then disappear as mysteriously as they came. It is a funny
World! The World’s a stage in more ways than one, and we
are actors. When contagious disease “takes the floor” we have
to be pretty quick actors and to know our parts.

Glanders and Farcy.—Enter ; The old Napoleon that scourged
Armies—killed by a Staff College graduate, Mallein, that has
the prescient faculty of nipping operations in the bud and diag-
nosing the situation before danger arises!

Through the agency of Mallein we now have no trouble with
this disease. The latest method of Testing for the detection of
Glanders in its latent form is by the injection of special Mallein
into the lower eyelid. A reaction indicating disease is easily
detected, no temperature taking is necessary, and animals can
perform their work while under the test—a very important

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 73

matter on Active Service. Our policy is to test all animals on
admission to Veterinary Hospitals and Remount Depots, and in
the event of reactions to refer back to the unit to which the
reactor belonged for test to the unit. Reactors, though showing
no outward signs of disease, are destroyed.

In the autumn of 1915 the frequent reactions encountered in
animals evacuated from the front in France indicated a certain
menace, and it was decided to test the whole Force. This was
done during the winter, about 300,000 animals being subjected
to the test. The disease was cleared out, and even though we
were again threatened on the arrival of the Portuguese Ex-
peditionary Force in the spring of 1917, and by a few cases
on the return of a Division from Italy, we had no more trouble,
The total numbers of animals affected were 85 in 1917 and 36 in
1918. Thus has an old enemy been defeated.

Epizootic Lymphangitis. (A name as long as its period of
incubation, but may be lovingly referred to as “ Epizoo.”)

Considerable loss and inefficiency have been caused in cer-
tain Countries and Expeditionary Forces through this serious
affection. Its seriousness lies not in its mortality, but in its
infectivity and its long incubation of 24 to over 4 months. It
was introduced into the French Army during the late war by
their Algerian Troops, and they had many cases. Their policy
was to treat those with a commercial value. Our policy was
eradication by destruction—a cheap policy in the long run, and
moreover we had to consider the very important matter of its
exclusion from the British Islands on the return of our Force.
It is satisfactory to record that not a single case has been
introduced into the United Kingdom

Though beset by it in France we escaped until 14th Septem-
ber 1917, when our first case occurred. Altogether we had 202
cases ; they were mostly sporadic, and only in one instance did
it assume anything like grave proportions—in a Regiment of
Household Cavalry in which 80 cases occurred. The Regiment
was drawn out of the line for isolation until it was successfully
eradicated. Its eradication was due not only to destruction of
the affected, but to the use of a special pro forma report which
covered enquiry as to source and action taken.

74 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

Another similar disease, and affecting the legs of animals
chiefly, was what we termed Ulcerative Cellulitis, or as termed
by the French, Ulceratvie Lymphangitis of Nocard.

This is a mud-borne disease, and it gave both the French
Veterinary Service and ourselves a lot of trouble. Treatment
was by specially prepared vaccines, or by antiseptic applications:
but the disease is most intractable, liable to burst out again,
and hope of success lay only in the milder cases evacuated early.
Of these we calculated to cure 50 per cent. but 25 per cent. of
apparent cures recurred. The French affirmed that 15 per cent.
were curable. The disease is a very ugly one; it affected some
of our best draught horses and necessitated a considerable
number of destructions.

I have previously alluded to the churned up mud of
Flanders. Picture hygiene in a comparatively small area in
Northern France holding say 450,000 animals for nearly four
years, each animal excreting say 32 lb. of dung and 10 gallons
of urine daily. The soiling of the ground and liability to
infective mud-borne diseases can be readily realised, and our
difficulties appreciated. The wonder is that loss was not
heavier from this class of disease.

' Another disease which gave us great concern in France
and also undoubtedly one of insanitation, was :—

Specific or periodic Ophthalmia.. The ailment made its
appearance in France in March 1917, and by the end of the
campaign its victims ran into thousands. By February 1918
incidence, including recurrency, ran up to 1:4 per cent. of
strength, and then it somewhat abated.

The disease is not new, in fact it is the old “ Moon
Blindness” of the coaching days. It occurs also in dealers’
stables, Remount Depots, and commercial stables sporadically
in ordinary times; but it is left to war, in which large
numbers of animals are employed, to disclose real intensity.

A more or less similar condition was experienced during
the South African War, and I think under any protracted
war the same result will follow.

The disease is an iritis, recurrent, and ends in blindness
either from “Cataract” or disorganisation of the eye. It is

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 75

not contagious in the ordinary acceptance of the term, 7¢.,
directly from animal to animal, but it is microbial, and its
menace lies in our ignorance of the life history of the causal
agent, and in its incurability. A young officer of the R.A.V.C.
has separated an organism from the optic nerve, and inocu-
lations of cultures have produced the disease. Moreover,
growth of the organism on broth emits the most pungent
stable smell, which makes me think that investigation is on
the right track. It is to be hoped that correct issue will
follow investigation because, as I have previously explained,
before a contagious or specific disease can be successfully
tackled and suppressed, the strategy and tactics of the
enemy in all his subtlety and insidiousness must be fully
known. We are at a disadvantage when this is not so.

It is an interesting fact in regard to this disease that
animals on becoming stone blind grow fat. Perhaps it is a
case of “what the eye never sees, the heart never grieves,”’
or it may be a physiological process of the same nature as
the fattening of ducks in a dark cellar. Certainly some of
our best horses in France were blind, and at a Horse Show
on Lines of Communication a pair of blind horses was
awarded first prize as the best wagon team. Blind horses
could be employed in certain units in forward areas, but as
a rule they were afraid of gunfire. The sadness of it was
that so many otherwise splendid young horses were victims.

fespiratory Disease and Sea Voyages. The purchase of
Remounts, particularly young horses, and their transportation
by land and sea inevitably leads to outbreaks of disease of a
respiratory nature—Strangles in the young, Catarrhal Fevers
and Pneumonias of the Influenzal type in all. And unless the
utmost care is taken in selection, in separation of sick, and
in the movement only of those that are fit and well, loss
will be heavy. Horses are delicate creatures in a matter of
Influenza or Catarrhal Fevers. They die very readily.

In the United States of America—a country of stock yards,
the liability to “ Stockyard fever ” which is a respiratory
disease of an influenzal nature, is very great. Over 70 per
cent. of animals purchased were reputed to have contracted
Catarrhal Fever in varying degree, and though I have no

«
76 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

figures to guide me, the loss, no doubt, was heavy. The
only way to handle a situation of this kind is to get animals
into proper hygienic reception depots as soon as possible
after purchase, and to hold them there quietly for some
time prior to shipment from embarkation depots, to ensure
that they are over their sickness or free from it before
undertaking a sea voyage. Any sickness of this nature on
board ship is serious.

I have had considerable experience in this particular duty
and I know no more difficult matter.

In France in the winter of 1914-15 sickness and loss amongst
the class of heavy remounts was severe. The weather was
extremely wet, covered accommodation was difficult to find,
and depots took a considerable time to build. Fever, Catarrh
and Pneumonia prevailed. Later on, as conditions improved
and accommodation was ample, and after a policy of holding
animals in Remount Depots for as near three weeks as possible
was instituted, wastage from respiratory sickness became
negligible. Temperatures were taken on arrival from overseas,
and if fever was indicated, animals were immediately transferred
to Veterinary Service. Respiratory Diseases at the Front
during the last two years of the war were practically nil, or at
all events were very infrequent. The suppression of these
maladies showed that the system of inspection and control by
Veterinary Service in Remount Depots was efficient, both in
the United Kingdom and in France.

Mange. I leave to the last our hardy annual, our bosom
friend and self-constituted ally. There never was a War with-
out him and never will be. He is permitted often to go about
an Army in a familiar “ Old chap” sort of style, and he even
has the assurance to present himself at Armistice, and parti-
cipate in celebrations of victory even though he may be downed
in defeat. He is covered with Orders (Routine Orders) and
bears the scars and wound stripes of many campaigns and
conflicts. Unlike other Commanders in the Field, his best
operations are conducted in the Winter, the dirtier the condi-
tions the better; and his leave season is in the Summer. The
rise and fall of his fortunes in France can be best and most
readily appreciated from a scrutiny of the accompanying charts.

MANGE. A DIPPING BATH IN FRANCE.

77

VETERINARY SERVICE, B.E.F.

Mange Chart (a),

(Horses and Mules combined).

Solid line—Percentage of cases each week

Dotted line i

from Oct. 1916, to Sept., 1917.
e » Oct., 1917, to July, 1918.

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—

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 79

In the first twelve months of the war in France Mange was
almost entirely excluded, but as the Army increased and super-
vision became more difficult outbreaks were more frequent. It
will be seen from the charts that incidence went up in the
winter to 3°8 per cent., which was the highest experienced, and
down during the summer, with the casting of coats, to 1 per
cent. The chart of 1918 is interesting in showing the relative
incidence between horses and mules, the highest occurrence in
the latter being 1°6 per cent. in winter and down to ‘4 per cent.
in Summer; thus mules were at least three times less prone to
Mange than horses. These percentages included all cases,
serious and slight, and all were sent down to Lines of Commu-
nication for treatment. The amount represented in the aggre-
gate a considerable number of animals out of action, but
considering the difficult circumstances, and looking at incidence
from a-percentage point of view, total inefficiency from this
cause cannot be rated high in an animal parasitic disease, and
in a war where so many animals are congregated together.
Mange and Debility are usually associated, and though the
former may be cured, the latter delays issue. Animals are out
of action from one to two months. Our treatment was by
immersion every few days in warm Calcium sulphide solution in
large Dipping Baths, and proper grooming. Corps had their
dipping baths for prevention.

I regret to say that Mange (Sarcoptic) is very prevalent
amongst camels in India, and on Frontier Expeditions it
occasions considerable wastage and loss of efficiency. The
association of Debility and Mange in intensified in this animal.
So large is the amount in Civil districts that purchasing officers
have experienced a difficulty in purchasing clean animals, and
those with slight Mange have had to be accepted. The only
course is to erect Dips at centres in Civil Districts and dip
animals in the same manner as sheep. Camel Dips have been
in use during the recent Waziristan Expedition with great
success ; and with periodical dipping, camels slightly or not too
badly affected have been able to carry on their work. Dips are
now being erected even in Eastern Persia.

The total occurrence of Mange in camels employed by
Government for the year ending 3lst March, 1920, numbered

80 WASTAGE PECULIAR TO INDIA.

9910 cases, so that it is most necessary that measures of control
should be more exact.

In the Somali Field Force of 1903-04 there were 3137 cases
of Mange and skin disease in camels from July, 1903, to March,
1904, out of a strength of 9466 camels and mortality was severe.
A Mange Bath was used with great success, Perchloride of
Mercury solution was used.

In the Kurram Field Force, during the winter from Nov-
ember, 1879, to March, 1880, nearly every camel employed
suffered from Mange. It spread with great rapidity, but dis-
appeared in the spring.

In the Tirah Expeditionary Force of 1897-98, from 1st Oct.,
1897, to 6th April, 1898, with a force of 74,000 animals, there
were 4819 cases of Mange, 1501 being in ponies and 1901 in
camels. The strength in camels was 12,257 and ponies 16,046.
There were only 617 cases in mules out of strength of 15,328
and 409 cases in donkeys out of a strength of 13,854. Again
we see the relative immunity of the mule and donkey as
compared to horse kind. The records of Frontier Expeditions
all show high incidence in Winter and little in Summer.

CHAPTER IV
WASTAGE PECULIAR TO INDIA.

In order that I may remark more particularly on certain
grave contagious diseases prevalent in India and their bearing
on the Army, I have deemed it necessary to group them under
one heading. The dire diseases to which I refer are Rinderpest
and Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Cattle, Surra in Camels, and
Anthrax in various animals.

The history of these diseases and the dead loss sustained not
only in the Army but in Civil Communities has been and still is
appalling, and the machinery of control is most inadequate and
imperfect in operation. One would have thought that with the
mass of contagious animal disease of all kinds in India, worse
by far than any other country that I am acquainted with, one of
the first considerations would have been a properly constituted

A CASE OF MANGE—BEFORE TREATMENT.

AFTER TREATMENT.

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 81

Contagious Diseases Animals’ Act to suit the necessities of the
country, but such is not the case, and animal life continues to
be wasted. It is not for me to criticise policy, but I am all out
to assist in the grading up of animal efficiency and in the re-
duction of wanton, unnecessary animal wastage and suffering.
It is a duty that is put upon me. I am, however, now pleased
to say that a simple Diseases of Animals’ Act, India, with
Orders in respect to the various Contagious Diseases is to be
considered. The very fact of such an Act and Orders being in
existence in the land of “ Hukm” in itself will be productive of
great good, and its application can easily be made adaptable to
the circumstances and the needs of the country, generally and
locally, and to the susceptibilities and customs of the inhabi-
tants.

It is quite certain that no Commander in the Field using
Bullock Transport—Government or Hired—can get very far
without being faced with outbreaks of Rinderpest and Foot-and-
Mouth Disease in these animals. It is our experience on all
Frontier Expeditions, examples of which I will presently give.
The bullock is much more suited to the quiet life of cantonment
work in peace, where he can rest from his easy labour under a
tree in the heat of the day, and combine rumination with nice
thoughts of his Valhalla, than to the hardships of a campaign
which, unless care is exercised as to his locale of duty, would
be a perfect hell to him. Southern bullocks, e.g., the Mysore
breeds, and Sindhi, coming to Northern climes, are much more
susceptible to Rinderpest and Foot-and-Mouth Disease, and
they are attacked in more virulent form.

In slaughter cattle, goats, and sheep, it is also quite impossible
to avoid outbreaks of these two diseases unless there is a better
system of organised Veterinary control of inspection, purchase
and movement, and even then the situation is difficult. Judging
from losses from disease and from exhaustion and inanition
entailed by marching meat on hoof, it would be more economi-
cal in the long run to adopt a cold storage policy. And in
connection with the supply of meat on hoof I may relate a
circumstance that occurred in France. Most of the sheep for
consumption by Indian Troops were purchased in Algeria, were
landed in Marseilles and held in various Communes in Vacluse

82 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

and Bouche du Rhone before being sent by train to the troops
inthe North of France. Sheep Pox (French Clavelée) is enzootic
in Algeria, and French law necessitates clavelisation or inocu-
lation against the disease on importation, The hand of control
as I have previously explained is apt to be relaxed during war,
some loophole exists (e.g. introduction of Rabies into England
in 1918) and disease escapes. Sheep pox broke out amongst
the sheep held in Vacluse for Indian Troops, and Officers
R.A.V.C. in conjunction with French Communal Veterinary
Officers were called in to clavelise the whole of the herd of
10,000 sheep. I mention this as an instance of the danger of
moving slaughter stock on hoof, and I must say that, in the
face of such danger, the French Ministry of Agriculture were
extraordinarily good in raising no objection to the procedure,
and in its kind consideration of our Indian Troops.

Rinderpest. India is the home of rinderpest. The country
is full of this disease, and thousands of cattle are lost annually
from it. It was introduced into England in 1863, and cost
that country millions of pounds. It also spread through the
whole of Africa from North to South some twenty-five years
ago, and occasioned very heavy mortality. Though the virus
or organism is so small that it is ultra-visible to the highest
power of a microscope, and can pass through the closest
grained porcelain filter, still we know that it perishes outside
the animal’s body in from forty-eight hours to four days; and
this factor greatly assists us in control. Moreover, a serum
confers 4n immunity to cover the purposes of an outbreak
and a further dual inoculation with such serum and virulent
blood will confer a permanent immunity. So that I am
sanguine by the latter method we can render all animals in
military employ durably immune, and reduce our trouble and
loss. This is now in operation in the Army. It cannot be
carried into practice in Civil Districts, as it is really conferring
the disease, though in mild form.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease. The disease is very common in
cattle all over the World, and constantly crops up in India. It
is extremely contagious and unfortunately one attack confers
immunity only for about five months. No one has yet

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

demonstrated the causal organism ;
it is fragile to ordinary methods of disinfection.

means of inoculation against the disease.

83

it also is ultra-visible, but

There are no

Examples of Rinderpest and Foot-and-Mouth Disease on

Active Service :-—

Expedition.
Chitral Relief Force,

Ist April to 31st Aug.

1895.

Tirah Expedition Oct.

Ist, 1897 to April 6th,
1898.

Tibet Mission, 1904.
N.W.F. F., 1919.

From May 1919 to
September 1919.

Waziristan, 1919-20.
From June 1919 to
May 1920.

Rinderpest.
1803 cases, 1297 deaths
and destructions out of
6363 animals. Was also
amongst country cattle.

982 cases. 524 deaths, 43
destructions out of 13727
animals.

Very prevalent.
Approximately 400 cases.

Average strength of
bullocks, 3676. A con-
siderable number of

deaths. amongst slaughter
cattle.

650 cases. 430 deaths.
Average strength, 9700
bullocks.

Foot-&-Mouth Disease.
3675 cases, 151 deaths
95 destructions. Average
time under treatment 10
to 14 days.

1878 cases. 45 deaths,
3 destructions, out of
13727 animals.

Great number of cases.

778 cases. Average
strength in bullocks,
3676.

2430 cases in two out-
breaks, one in June 1919
and the other in Feby.
1920. Average strength
in bullocks, 9700.

Out of 3000 yaks (3 Corps) only 70 remained ; the rest had died from
Anthrax (385 cases) Rinderpest, Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Pleuro-
pneumonia Contagiosa, Debility, from too low altitudes, and “ Missing.”

Anthrax. Gyass Farms and clean supply of forage have
tolled the knell of Anthrax in India. Outbreaks in the Army
are now very infrequent. We have had during the past year
a few isolated cases amongst camels in the North West
Frontier. In comparison with this the record of the Kuram
Force of 1879-80 is of great interest. During the months of
July, August and September, 1880, 1400 camels died from this
disease at Kuram and Shalozan, 217 on the road euece
Kuram and Thal, and 61 at Thal.

The Yaks of the Tibet Mission lost 385 from the disease

84 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

The seriousness of the disease, apart from mortality, is that
the land on which animals have died and blood has been spilt,
remains infective for many years, and if grazed on, say after
rain, a recrudescence of the disease is apt to occur.

Surra. (The word signifies “rotten” in the vernacular).

Until within recent years we had no records of the incidence
of, and mortality from this disease in the Army; and Civil
reports and returns throw absolutely no light on the subject.
In Frontier Expeditions a large number of camels were hired
and were replaced by contractors if they died, and the closing
of their account by compensation was of much more importance
to the owners than any fine definition of the maladies by which
they were spirited away. I should say that a good deal of the
Debility and Exhaustion of camels in former days was really
Surra, and in all probability this:disease is at the root of a
considerable amount of the Debility (poor condition), pneu-
monia, skin and other diseases encountered in these animals
at the present day. The causal agent, a protozoon living in
the blood and destroying it, was only discovered in 1880 (by
an English Army Veterinary Surgeon, who was the first man
to demonstrate Trypanosomes) and the disease in essence is a
pernicious anszemia—a wasting away, and death. Affected
equines die in from one to two months; camels, in which it
is usually chronic, may live to three years and over. The
factors concerned in the spread of the disease are diseased
animals, constituting reservoirs of the infective agent, blood-
sucking or biting flies as inoculators, and susceptible animals
into which the inoculators’ transfer the infective agent
mechanically. It is a very simple process so far as we know,.
and these factors very materially guide us in control of the
disease. The disease so far as our present researches go is
incurable—at least in the practical domain of treatment. So
serious has the Surra situation become in recent years that:
a Standing Surra Committee has been appointed at the
instance of and under the direct guidance of the Civil and
Military Administrations, and their efforts bid more than fair
to achieve very happy results, which will not only preserve the
camel—which is the principal animal concerned, from deci-

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 85

mation, but incidentally will save a large amount of loss to
the State. Personally, I am very sanguine as to the successful
issue of measures which have been instituted, and under them
I am very optimistic as to the future of the camel of India.
If there is co-operation between the Civil and Military
Authorities in the closing of the fountains of the disease as
circumstances of disease dictate, if ways and means of
destruction or avoidance of the prime factor or inoculator can
be adopted, and better care be taken of the susceptible creature,
there can be no fear of any other issue than success.

For generations the camel has been shrouded in mystery—
a mystery “Ship of the Desert,” and his management
surrounded with the grossest ignorance and empiricism which
in certain localities still does not rise beyond the level of
smelling or tasting his urine when he is sick, and covering his
sores with filthy dung. Poor creature of Dirt, no other wonder
he is “rotten”! Yet he is a domesticated animal required
for work, and as such he must be treated if he is to take a
permanent place as an Army animal for the hard work of
Frontier warfare. And it is the duty of enlightened people to
remove him fom a lot that threatens his very existence. It
grieves me very much to quote statistics of wastage from
Surra during the past few years, but they will serve to show
the urgent necessity for action on the one hand, and the
remarkable result of altered policy in respect to the manage-
ment and feeding of camels on the other.

In the year 1917-18 (ending 31st March) there were 9262
cases of Surra amongst animals in Military employ, of which
4181 died or were destroyed; 89 were horses and ponies, 26
were mules, 2 were buffaloes, and the rest camels. The total
number of camels employed was 16,189. -

In the year ending 31st March 1919 there were 2106 cases
of Surra admitted, 2143 deaths and destructions, including a
few remaining from the previous year, of which 44 were horses
and ponies, 13 mules, and the remainder camels. The total
strength of camels was 18,743.

In last year, ending 3lst March 1920, there were 984
admissions for Surra, of which 971 were camels, with 550
deaths and destructions, of which 537 were camels. 29,097

86 WASTAGE OF ANIMALS IN WAR.

camels were employed. Practically during the whole of last
year the camels were on Active Service; they were stall-fed,
and ‘treated like other Service animals. They were not
exposed to biting flies in grazing rukhs, and excepting a few
that were transferred to a Surra Corps, which worked in
isolation a long distance from other Corps, diagnosed cases of
Surra were destroyed. It is a remarkable drop in mortality,
and it speaks volumes for stall-feeding of camels and attention
to stable management, and with the general policy pursued
this year it is hoped that losses may be still further reduced.

During the fly or Surra season, camel units are charged with
the duty of collecting biting flies (Tabanide), their larvae and
egg-clusters, from shrubs and blades of grass in the vicinity of
their animals’ drinking water. But what can be practised in
Government Camel Corps is difficult to carry out in Silladar
and Grantee camels when not embodied for military service,
and therein lies the difficulty. However, by a combination of
Civil and Military effort difficulties are not insurmountable, and
if Surra is scheduled under an Act and Order there is reason to
suppose that it will be successfully collared.

PART III.

Army Veterinary Service
as an Instructional Agency.

CHAPTER I—GENERAL.

In the late War, when officers and men were rapidly got
together to serve their Country, the lack of knowledge of
animals displayed was remarkable. It was really not surprising
when one considered that the majority of men were drawn
from business and trade pursuits in which horses formed no
part. Take, for instance, a Division, the Infantry of which
consisted of seamen, and the Artillery composed of men drawn
for the most part from mines. One can hardly imagine a
more unfavourable combination of elements for the care and
management of animals, and one can picture the disadvantage
under which such a Formation laboured at the outset, and
the results which followed in the train of inexperience and
want of knowledge. Yet long before the end of the time
there were no proverbial flies on that Division in the general
management of its animals.

It is only one example of many, and it goes to show that in
matters of animal management, instruction is just as necessary
as in other military duties if a high or satisfactory standard of
efficiency is to be maintained, and dead loss avoided. In the
section which I have written entitled “ Wastage of Animals in
War” there is abundant evidence of wastage that could have
been avoided with more perfect knowledge of animals, their
temperament, their capacity for work and the general factors
which go towards the preservation of their health.

88 INSTRUCTIONAL WORK BY A.V.S.

The avoidance of wastage is. one of the business propositions
of the Army, and a knowledge of business has under all
circumstances to be acquired.

In the Regular Divisions and Cavalry of our pre-war Army,
the knowledge and art of Animal Management was of a high
order. It had been duly taught as a part of a routine system
in units and at schools. The fine touch was never lost during
the war, and the leaven that leaventh the lump remained to
continue the process.

Looking at the question, however, from the individual point
of view, it is necessary that arrangements should exist both in
peace and war whereby both Officers, and Non-commissioned
Officers can conveniently have the principles of Animal
Management, and the physiological laws which govern health
and avoid sickness, taught and explained to them both by
precept and by example.

It is all a matter of hygiene, and rightly it should come
under that heading, for there is the Hygiene of the body in
its various aspects of form and function as well as the Hygiene
of the stable.

Precept is founded on a knowledge of Veterinary Anatomy
and Physiology, therefore it is that Veterinary Service is
charged with the duty of instruction with regard to the
preservation of health of animals, and advice respecting the
prevention of disease and inefficiency in its various forms.
‘This does not affect the responsibility of Unit Commanders
towards their animals: but it is the combination of responsi-.
bility and the assistance derived from expert sources that
makes for health and efficiency.

I am of opinion that Animal Management or Animal
Hygiene (1 dislike that the term Horse-mastership should
come within the purview of Military Training of the General
Staff Branch of the Army) and the curricula of Instructional]
Schools and Classes should be included in their training
arrangements. The inclusion adds very little to General Staff
duties, and the interest would be an incentive towards efficiency.

Administrative arrangements would not of course be interfered
with.

GENERAL. 89

During the war in France, with the constant influx of new
officers and men as reinforcements in replacement of casualties,
it was soon found that the new material required tuition in
respect to the care and management of horses. In addition to
instruction which was imparted by classes within their
Formations as best possible—a difficult and not altogether a
convenient or satisfactory proceeding—classes of instruction
were held at the large Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of
Communication, where examples of wastage existed in
abundance, and lessons of mismanagement could be fitly
illustrated. The Classes were only of ten days’ duration each,
and the A.B.C. of Animal Management only was attempted,
as it was deemed expedient to train as many Officers and
Non-commissioned Officers as possible in the shortest possible
time. Up to May 1918, 850 young Officers and 4500 Non-
commissioned Officers were trained. The Classes were
limited to young Officers and Non-commissioned Officers, the
older and more experienced being debarred, General Head-
‘quarters arranged for the extension of the Officers’ and Non-
Commissioned Officers Messes to meet the situation, and the
break from the conditions at the Front was as much appreciated
as the utility of the Classes.

The majority of the pupils clamoured for an extended course,
as they said they could not grasp everything in ten days, and
that just when they got interested in the subject they were
required to return to their units. A proposal was then put
forward for a three weeks course and fixed “ Schools of Animal
Management ” with whole-time Instructional Staffs, but the
man-power situation would not admit of it, and the original
system had to continue until the termination of the campaign.
However, it is very interesting to relate that after the Armistice
the classes were re-constructed into Classes of Agriculture and
Animal Husbandry, under the direction of the General Staff,
as part of their big Education Scheme, and they became very
popular for officers and men who desired to take up farming.
The desire on the part of men for instruction was so keen on
the conclusion of hostilities that in another direction—in Meat
Inspection—Veterinary Service was asked if it could arrange
classes, and for one class there were about five hundred

90 INSTRUCTIONAL WORK BY A.V.S.

applications. I mention these incidents to show the value
which officers and men themselves attached to instruction, the
after-Armistice classes being entirely voluntary.

Let us see now how it can be applied as a practical proposi-
tion in the Army, and for easy discussion I shall arrange
remarks under three headings, such remarks being held to
relate specially to India :—

INSTRUCTION DURING PEACE.

INSTRUCTION DURING WAR.

INSTRUCTION IN VIEW OF MEN TAKING THEIR
DISCHARGE FROM THE ARMY.

CHAPTER II.

INSTRUCTION DURING PEACH.

In India there are two properly constituted Army Veterinary
Schools, one in the South, at Poona, and the other in the North
at Ambala. Each is affiliated to a large Station Veterinary
Hospital, and has therefore every facility for teaching and
demonstration. The Principals of the Schools are specially
selected by reason of their ability to teach, their experience of
India, and their knowledge of Hindustani. Classes used to be
of six weeks and two months duration, but to permit of more
pupils being instructed, the period has been reduced to three
weeks. The schedule of instruction is entirely directed towards
Animal Management and the prevention of inefficiency, with a
little instruction in methods of first aid. Dissertations on
particular diseases and treatment of a more advanced degree,
which in days gone by used to form a considerable portion of
the curriculum, have been curtailed. War has shown that in-
effectives are best handed over to a Special Service for treat-
ment, and that the role of units is one of minimising inefficiency
by knowledge and expedient rather than treatment of ineffect-
ives, for which they have no time on active service, even if
the procedure was correct.

Thus the aim and object of these classes is prevention of
disease, wastage, and inefficiency ; and to effect this more surely

¥

INSTRUCTION DURING PEACE. 91

and perfectly, the young Officers and Non-Commissioned
Officers—the more responsible personnel of units as it were,
are selected for instruction, so that on return to their units
they may intelligently apply the principles which they have
learned, and in turn instruct those under them. There are
separate classes for British Officers, Indian Officers, British
Warrant Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers, and Indian
Warrant Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers, and no
branch of the Service is missed out.

Another item of advantage in these classes would be for the
teacher to take his class on occasion to the several units in the
station, and with the permission and assistance of Unit
Commanders to see how horses are teamed up, how harness
and saddlery is fitted and kept, and how loads are adjusted.
The more varied the experience, the better is initiative
suggested. It was wonderful during the late war what useful
expedients for the comfort and well-being of animals were
adopted by personnel of units, all the outcome of experience,
teaching, and intelligent interest taken.

A very important réle therefore is played by our Army
Veterinary Schools, and the training on essential lines should
be carefully watched, anything unnecessary or redundant being
excluded.

Army Veterinary Schools are also for the training of Army
Veterinary Corps personnel specially in attendance on sick,
dressing wounds, etc.

In our Equitation Schools a syllabus of Animal Management
can always be included in the general curriculum, and if there
is not a Veterinary Instructor, an Officer of the Veterinary
Service can always be detailed from the station to carry out the
duty. The establishment of the Cavalry School at Sangor
includes a Veterinary Instructor, who is specially selected. In
addition to matters of ‘Animal Management, animal conforma-
tion and mechanism in relation to training of horses is a con-
siderable item of importance now in all Cavalry Schools. I
need not add that it entails a knowledge of anatomy.

Furthermore, it is always up to the Administrative Veterinary
Officers of Divisions to arrange lectures and demonstrations
within the Division as may be desired: or as circumstances

92 INSTRUCTIONAL WORK BY A.V.S.

present themselves. For instance, on the occasion of inspection
of units very often a few useful hints or lessons may be imparted,
particularly perhaps with regard to dieting in relation to season
or work, care of feet and shoeing, and any other matter which
the inspection suggests. In point of fact, the value of a
Veterinary inspection of a unit is not altogether one of report
on efficiency or otherwise to a superior officer, but it is the
watching of any item that can be improved or remedied, con-
ducing thereby to the health and efficiency of the animals
concerned. I call to mind the many pleasant days and hours
spent with Commanding Officers in the old times of my
inspecting career in India, when we used to have a regular sort
of indaba on animals; getting rid of the effete, and discussing
ways and means of bettering a situation; arrangements
probably having been made specially some time before. The
principle of assistance and advisory counsel can always be made
to fall in with the formality of inspection, and in its varied
aspects it fits the Administrative Officer of Veterinary Service
almost more perfectly than any other Administrative Service
or Department. It is, at all events, an item of instructional
agency on which great store can be laid.

CHAPTER III.

INSTRUCTION DURING WAR.

‘The difficulty of this is very readily apparent. First, mobil-
isation upsets all teaching in schools, as all ranks are required
to take their places in their units, and a good many of our units
in India, particularly perhaps in transport units, are not too
well endowed with the necessary responsible personnel for
supervision and care of animals in the: manifold duties in the
Field. Schools, too, for the same reason are apt to close down.

However, so far as Army Veterinary Schools are concerned,
as these institutions are contiguous to Army Veterinary Corps
Depots, which will certainly be required to function in war as
well as in peace, it would be quite simple from a working point
of view to continue the Schools—in fact they will be required

INSTRUCTION DURING WAR. 93

to function during war for the training of A.V.C. personnel of
the Depots. So that it would be quite feasible at the same
time to undertake instruction in Animal Management for
Officers and other Rank reinforcements of units as may be
desired, even if courses of only ten days were all that could
be afforded. It would be a more suitable and convenient pro-
ceeding than collecting Officers and other Ranks in the Field
at selected centres. During the late Expeditions on the
Frontier the latter was adopted by General Officers Command-
ing Divisions, Cavalry Brigades and Divisional Areas whenever
possible and when other duties did not interfere; but when
establishments are short it is not altogether a practical proposi-
tion. However, a few ten days’ classes in the Field were
* arranged, Mobile Veterinary Sections, Field Veterinary
Hospitals, and Transport units were used as demonstration
units, the A.D.V.S.and A.D.S. and T. of Formations gave
lectures and demonstrations on a simple syllabus published in
Army Routine Orders.

In any case, one has to be guided by opportunity and neces-
sity while on Field Service. The situation can always be
watched, and action taken accordingly. Ways and means may
suitably present themselves, and so far as the Front is concerned
we may leave it at that.

CHAPTER IV.

INSTRUCTION IN VIEW OF
MEN TAKING THEIR DISCHARGE.

The Army has accepted the view that its responsibility to the
soldier is ‘not altogether confined to his training and use asa
fighting man. The Great War has shown that it has another
and greater responsibility—that the best years of the soldier’s
life shouid not be idly wasted, as it were, but that in view of his
return to civil life he should be prepared for some trade or call-
ing which will render him economically efficient and a good
citizen of his country. A policy of General Educational Train-
ing has therefore been introduced into the Army, and without

94 INSTRUCTIONAL WORK BY A.V.S.

question, it is not only a step in the right direction, but it has
come to stay, and it will bear good healthy fruit.

I know of no better direction in which this policy can be
considered in India, nor where greater necessity for instruction
and enlightenment exists, than in Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry. I have grouped the two together, as obviously they
are co-related, and I have used the term Animal Husbandry
advisedly, as it covers everything that appertains to the breed-
ing, raising and care of stock.

The majority of our Indian soldiers are drawn from the
Zemindar class. If, therefore, we can by some simple process
give them the benefit of our experience and of progressive
ideas with regard to agriculture and the management of stock,
we are not only enriching the individual, but helping the
country to an incalculable degree. I should like to speak with
no uncertain tone in this matter, and as one who is brought
face to face with the necessity that something should be done
to improve the lot, and reduce the suffering and loss of animals
in India. In the section “ Wastage of Animals in War” I
showed, as briefly as I could, the serious amount of loss
resulting in the Army from dire contagious animal diseases.
This is nothing to what occurs in Civil Communities in India,
upon which the Army is dependent for its Transport and
Food supply.

In the Civil Veterinary Statistical Returns for year 1917-18,
3175 Equines, 249,010 Bovines and 22,375 other animals are
shown as having died from Contagious Disease alone. In the
year 1918-19, 933 Equines, 228,414 Bovines and 12,858 others
are similarly shown, and Reports at the same time make it
quite certain that owing to the weakness of the cadre of the
Civil Veterinary Department, and the inadequacy of the
machinery necessary for complete control, full mortality is
not recorded.

Anyone who visits the Imperial City of Delhi and sees the
miserable tonga and gharry ponies, requiring the lakri and
chabuk to accelerate their movements, cannot but be struck at
the backwardness of the country in respect to its animals.
India has made very rapid strides in Agriculture during the
past ten years, but the Animal Husbandry side of Agriculture

IN VIEW OF MEN TAKING DISCHARGE. 95

has not kept pace with the growth of crops. Newspapers teem
with reports and literature regarding wheat and cotton, but not
a single word ever appears about stock. In my opinion it is
really a very sad situation, and the danger of it is that there
may come a day when the country wakes up to the fact that
through heavy mortality, and perhaps indifference to true
interest, there is a grave shortage of animals necessary for the
life of the country.

The Army through its Educational policy can be made a
very powerful factor for good in the situation described. By
a combination of Civil Veterinary and Agricultural Depart-
ments and the Veterinary Service of the Army, it ought not
to be difficult to draw out some plan of campaign whereby men,
before taking their discharge and returning to civil life in rural
districts, could receive a little up-to-date instruction in animal
husbandry, dairying, farm economies, etc. The awakening of
an intelligent interest is most desirable in the first instance,
Progress will follow in its train. The General Staff of the
Army in India has already the matter in hand, as will be seen
from extracts of a Circular letter to all Commands, dated 31st
March 1920, which I now quote :—

“The Army for the purpose of Education cannot be seoacdea
as a watertight compartment, and the Government of India has
invited the co-operation of Local Governments and Admini-
strations with local military authorities in furthering the
development of educational training; Officers Commanding
should therefore have no hesitation in seeking the advice and
assistance of members of Civil and Educational Services; such
advice and assistance will be of the greatest value, and of a
nature unobtainable from any other source.”

“The proposals under consideration contemplate therefore
the provision of facilities, either within or without units, for
instruction in rural economy, i.e., general agriculture, horti-
culture, dairying, animal husbandry, Veterinary Science, farm
economics—including forms of co-operation as applied to
agriculture—agricultural engineering, elementary mensuration
and land surveying, land tenures, etc., and where desired, for
instruction in cottage and village industries.”

96 INSTRUCTIONAL WORK BY A.V.S.

It is to be hoped in the interest of stock that such measures
can be introduced soon. The Army with its Veterinary Service
on a self-contained basis, complete with its own trained
personnel, and with its Veterinary Hospitals properly organised
and conducted, will have every facility for carrying out its
desired programme in conjunction with the Civil Authorities.

CHAPTER V.

INSTRUCTION IN SHOEING
AND SCHOOLS OF FARRIERY.

Almost from time immemorial, the advisory council in
respect to shoeing of animals of the Army, the supervision of
training of Farriers and Shoeing-smiths, and questions regard-
ing the fixing of the various patterns of shoes, have been vested
in and referred to the Veterinary Service of the Army,
Regimental Veterinary subordinate assistance has from distant
ages been carried out by the Farriery Establishment. The
great majority of lameness is referable to the foot, and often
the remedy is special shoeing. The interests of the Farriery
Establishments of units and all that appertains to their duties
have been carefully watched and assisted by Army Veterinary
Service.

Training is essentially regimental, and so far as British units
are concerned this system was very pointedly ordered by Army
Council Instruction about two years ago, Schools of Farriery
which were organised during the war being closed down. A
regimental system of training may be quite satisfactory in
peace time, but it falls to the ground in war, and recourse must
then be taken to teaching in Schools or Depots. A different
system in peace and war is not judicious, and a change at a
critical time is hardly good business. Personally I am of
opinion that all training of shoeing-smiths should be conducted
in properly organised Schools of Farriery. It would suit Indian
requirements much better than a watertight regimental system,
which is difficult in the case of small units and in those of
Administrative Services and Departments. Moreover, by

4

SHOEING AND FARRIERY. 97

means of Schools requirements for war, including expansions
for war, would be more satisfactorily met. Great difficulty
was experienced during the late Frontier Expeditions in
obtaining shoeing-smiths, not only for new units raised but
for replacement of casualties. Divisional Schools of Farriery
have been organised to meet more particularly the needs of
small units other than British mounted units, in which the
regimental system continues. They are however only tentative
arrangements, and are pending the consideration, at some
future date, of the formation of more complete self-contained
Command Schools of Farriery. I am also inclined to think
that advantage and economy might accrue from the creation of
a Corps of Farriers, or a Farriers’ Branch of a general Corps of
‘Artificers, the personnel to be attached to units as required,
and with arrangements to meet expansion for war by means
of reserves. There are lots of good practical men who are not
only capable of instructing, but knowing the requirements of
the Army perfectly, are capable of administration. A body
of men like our well-proved Army Farriers usually with long
service to their credit, is well worthy of consideration and
advancement, and I can vouch for the output of their labours
being of an efficient and economic order.

PART IV.

The Merits and Demerits of the

various Breeds of Animals used in War.

CHAPTER I—GENERAL. *

Wastage of animals in war, and experience gained with
animals during the conduct of campaigns, very naturally and
appropriately leads to questions of the comparative value of
the different breeds and classes for military service. Military
efficiency is aided by enquiry and report, and production on
the right lines for military requirements is stimulated.

So unusual were the transactions and expenditure in animals
during the late war, and so profound were the lessons in
endurance, utility, and suitability for particular purposes to
be derived, that the Army Council, on the conclusion of
hostilities, called for a special Report from the British Expedi-
tionary Force, France, for the information of the Ministry of
Agriculture, as to the merits or otherwise of the various classes
of horses that had been employed by that Force, and particu-
larly with regard to the heavy breeds of horses. The Field
Marshall Commanding-in-Chief, whose knowledge of animals
leaves little to be desired, and whose constant solicitude for
their care and well-being during the war was so marked,
expressly commanded that a report should be furnished, and
the present article, in so far as it relates to common interest,
embodies a certain amount of the information then supplied.

Added to this, it is proposed to discuss the merits and
demerits of animals employed by the Army in India in its
Frontier warfare.

GENERAL. 99

In a previous section, I endeavoured to show that wastage of
animals in war—at least the preventable item of it, was
governed or influenced by certain factors which may be
summarised as follows :—

Remounting, and ability to place animals in spheres of
service best adapted to them.

A knowledge of animal management with particular
reference to food and feeding, water and watering, and
bodily hygiene.

Acclimatisation. ;

Nature of work to be performed, and fitness for the same.

Contagious and Specific Disease.

The same factors come into operation when the merits or
demerits of animals in war are reviewed. The greatest of all
factors is perhaps the mind of man; for the merits and demerits
of animals, inherent or otherwise, are ultimately bound up in
the ability and thoughtfulness of individuals who are consti-
tuted their masters, philosophers, and guides.

Wastage, expressed in actual figures, is not always a true
criterion of animal efficiency, but from our experience generally
it is possible to formulate a reasonably good idea of the utility
or otherwise of the various classes which have been drawn
from different countries and localities to participate in war.

Speaking generally, the close of the Great War presents to
our minds exactly the same opinion that, was expressed during
and at the end of the Boer War—that the small animal, of
whatever class or type, is the best adapted for war. The reason
is obvious. The bigger and taller the animal, the greater the
ration required; the greater and bulkier the ration, the longer
the time required to consume it. Difficulties of supply,
amounting at times to shortage, and curtailment of the time
necessary for consumption, are inevitable circumstances of
war, and especially during particular offensive periods. Debility
(poor condition) becomes the chief item of Wastage, and this
condition may be spelt with four letters, viz, FOOD. The
tall, big, leggy animals of any class, as a rule, form the majority
of Debility cases. It was a noteworthy feature in France that
the small pack animal or cob used for various purposes was

100 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

conspicuous by his absence from Veterinary Hospitals. The
wastage in Light Draught Mules as compared to Light
Draught Horses on an equal ration was infinitely less, in fact
the small amount of Debility (poor condition) in mules was
remarkable.

Size therefore plays a very important role in the general
utility and success of the Army animal where so much depends
on ration, and for the various arms of military service the
following maximum heights are recommended :—

Hands.

1. Officers’ chargers :—
General Officers 16:0

Cavalry chargers

R.H.A. chargers} 153

R.F.A. chargers

Infantry chargers

Other Services i 14:2
chargers to 151

according to class of pony,
cob, or small well-bred horse.

2. Cavalry Troop Horses 15°2
3. Other Riders 15:1
4. Pack Horses 15:0
5. R.H.A. (Light Draught) Horses :-—

Lead 16:0

Centre 15:3

‘Wheelers 15°2
6. R.F.A (Light Draught) Horses :—

Lead 15°3

Centre 15:3

Wheelers 15°2
7. Heavy Draught Horses 16-1
8. Light Draught Mules 15°2
9. Pack Mules 14:3

Ordnance Mules, India (Mountain
Battery) are from 13-2 to 14°1, and
stout.

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 101

In estimating the heights quoted above, it is intended that
they should be viewed as a guide only. Considerations of
proportionate make and shape, and robustness of constitution,
are primarily implied, and it goes without saying that these are
necessary factors in the suitability of an Army horse of
whatever class.

CHAPTER II.
HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES.

In remarking on the merits and demerits of the different
breeds of Heavy Draught horses employed during the war,
it is necessary to bear in mind that these animals have a
greater value in civil life (commerce and agriculture) than
for military use, and therefore it is wrong to judge them
entirely from a military standpoint. They are also so
surrounded with pride of country, competition of production,
fancy, fashion, preference, prejudice even to controversy, and
ill-luck during the war, that comparative consideration is not
altogether an easy one. Moreover, in France the latter
difficulty was increased by the fact that so many animals
were of crossed breeds, or so untrue to type, or so altered in
form by the vicissitudes of campaign, that a differentiation of
breed was in a large measure impossible. However, their
value as a whole was highly appreciated by competent
impartial judges in France, for on demobilisation and sale of
surplus animals demand was so great that very high prices
were realised. I call to mind one sale of fifty-two Heavy
Draught Horses where the average price realised was
Frs. 3,166, two English Shire Horses brought Frs. 5,150
and Frs. 5,000 respectively, though American Percheron
cross-strains— notably Percheron and Clydesdale crosses —
ran them pretty close. I may mention also that representatives
of Land Reconstruction sent by the French Ministry of
Agriculture to interview me and to show me types of mares
which they desired to purchase for agriculturists in devastated
areas, chose as the best type a big Shire, a tolerably good
specimen of that breed.

102 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

Shire Horses.

Without question the Shire Horse as bred in England is
| the finest Heavy Draught Horse in the world. His merit is
his size and strength, and if bred to proper type he is perfect

in form. He commands a commercial value unequalled by any
other Draught animal, and it is this commercial advantage which
will ever commend his production to the agriculturist and
breeder, and secure for him the premier place in England. It
pays the ordinary farmer to breed him, to use him first for
farm work, for which he is most suitable, and when nearing
maturity to sell him to Railway Companies, Milling and
Lumber Companies, etc., for heavy haulage work. With legs
and feet specially formed and adapted to get a good purchase
on the ground, and with his muscular power and weight so
perfectly distributed and balanced, the heavy haulage loads
which he is capable of moving are astounding. I do not
think he has his equal in this respect.

' I remember on one occasion at a well-known railhead in
Northern France necessity arose to place some trucks for
unloading. A Mobile Veterinary unit near by chanced to
have a big Shire whose appearance indicated an association
with British railways, and his services were enlisted for
movement of the trucks. The old familiar way in which he
turned to them, the quiet steady pull, and the stop at the word
of command were most entertaining. He was back to his old
job, and his mé¢ier having been discovered, he was in constant
request, and performed very useful work at that railhead.

All animals are creatures of environment. The climate and
, environment of England suits the Shire Horse, and his breed is
| therefore well established in that country. In other words he is
good because he is born in England, just as the Clydesdale is
best in his home in Scotland, and the Percheron excellent in
France. But in the breeding of any of these classes outside their
own particular habitat, say in a foreign country, the result is not
altogether satisfactory. Type is lost, nondescripts are apt to
be produced, and financially there is no gain. On this account
it is extremely doubtful if the Percheron as a pure breed will
ever make much headway in England, to which country he has
recently been introduced by interested communities. Also

HEAVY DRAUGHT ‘HORSES. 103

the English farmer is too conservative to change his views ; he
would prefer to stick to the animals he is accustomed to and
knows, than resort to an alien, however good.

The massive size of the Shire is his drawback as a war horse.
He is too big. He requires a large ration, and all horses which
have to perform heavy haulage must have bulky food in the
form of hay and straw, which from force of military circum-
stances it is not always possible to supply, or to find opportunity
to consume. Major-General Sir Frederick Smith, in his book
“ Veterinary Hygiene,” very aptly hits the nail on the head in
the following remarks :-—

“The length of time it takes a horse to consume its daily
diet is a question which seldom strikes anyone to enquire into,
yet it is of utmost importance, especially for horses employed
in commerce and military life. It takes a horse from five to
ten minutes to eat one pound of corn, and fifteen to twenty
minutes to eat one pound of hay. We shall not be far from
the truth in saying that they require from five to six hours
out of every twenty-four for feeding, that is to say, one quarter
of the day must be expended in taking in nourishment for
the repair of the machine. We see here the wisdom of the
carter and cabman who puts on the nosebag at every
opportunity.”

Alas for the opportunity often on Field Service! And it
sums up the chief demerit of the Shire horse, or indeed any
heavy draught horse in war.

Another drawback to the Shire, and in like degree to the
Clydesdales, but not to the same extent in the crossed
Percherons—at least in those purchased overseas and sent to
France—is that they ill stand movement by rail or sea from
their original abode and surroundings. Their temperature
goes up, they refuse their food, they begin to cough, and they
are laid open to attacks of respiratory trouble. Very often
movement from one stable to another is sufficient to bring
this about. We had no luck with our heavy horses until we
adopted a thorough system of taking temperatures—first at
the place of purchase before movement to a Remount Depot,
subsequently at Remount Depots before shipment to France,
and again on disembarkation. They, above all other animals,

104 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

necessitated residence in Remount Depots in France before
being drafted to units in the Field, endeavour being made to
hold them up to three weeks. Their temperatures were
carefully taken before entrainment—an absolutely necessary
proceeding.

In the early days of the War, the mortality amongst our
beautiful Shires from respiratory disease was very heavy.
Circumstances of rapid collection, change of surroundings,
change of diet, and exposure all militated against them, and
they became prey to Pneumonia of the Influenzal type. Once
over initial sickness, and “ acclimatised,” they rendered a
good account of themselves where suitably placed. It has to
be remembered that the serious forms of respiratory sickness
in horses are referable to infection, and there is no doubt that
the lethargic heavy horse is not only a readier prey to disease
of this nature, but more easily succumbs than his lighter
confreres.

The heavy feathering on the legs of the Shire horse—and in
like instance of the Clydesdale—proved a distinct disadvantage
for service at the Front in France. Nature, without question,
intended this covering as a protection to the heels and lower
parts of the legs from wet and from injury, whether from
ploughing in the furrow or from treads, but however much
an advantage in the stiff clay lands of England, it was quite
incompatible with the liquid mud of Northern France, churned
up by countless animals and fouled at times to an intense degree
by dung and urine. It was not possible to adequately cléan
such heavily coated legs—with the result that they were prone
to “ grease,” cracked heels, and other affections of the skin of
the legs. To remove the hair only produced or intensified a
Seborrhoea. Votaries of fashion in their attention to the pro-
duction of “feather,” fine or otherwise, never dreamt of liquid
filthy mud, sometimes knee and hock deep.

However, at Base Ports, for Dock duty, and service on Lines
of Communication generally, or under circumstances more or
less approximating peace conditions, that is to say, for slow
work on the top of the ground, with opportunity for getting a
sufficiency of bulk in ration and plenty of time to eat it, and

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 105

under favourable housing, the heavy Shire did well. With the
‘absence of these conditions, more or less, he is not so suitable
in forward areas, and at times of supreme effort when extra
care is lacking, he becomes a candidate for evacuation and the
Veterinary Hospital.

The smaller Shire on the other hand gave a good account of
himself at the Front, most certainly in Royal Army Service
Corps units, and even in units of Heavy Artillery, provided he
was of the right sturdy type, and seasoned.

I have written more about the Shire than perhaps occasion
requires, but having been brought up with him as it were, I may
be excused in justly singing his praises. I close with remem-
brance of a little mare, the grand-daughter of a pure-bred Shire
mare (a prize winner at Agricultural Shows) by two thorough-
bred crosses (the last being by “The Mate,” winner of the Two
Thousand Guineas) who was a good little hunter, a great stayer,
and who took a gallant part in the Relief of Kimberly, suffering
death at the hands of the enemy.

Clydesdale Horse.

From an active service point of view, the same demerits of
proneness to Respiratory Disease on movement from an accus-
tomed habitat, heavy feathering of the legs, and liability to
“grease” and other diseases of the skin of the legs, exist in the
Clydesdale as in the Shire; but he has the merit of being smaller
and more active, and it was shown in France that provided
he was of a short-legged, stout, sturdy build, his record, even in
the Forward Areas, was generally satisfactory. It is of course
entirely.a matter of suitable placing.

In no breed, however, does type appear to be so variable,
Many indifferent animals were sent the British Expeditionary
Force, France. A large number were long-legged, flat sided,
and light in the middle—absolutely useless animals for the
heavy draught purposes of War. It was difficult to recognise
many of them as Clydesdales. Indeed it was quite evident that
if it is desired to maintain a place of supreme excellence, this
very useful breed of horse requires considerable grading up in
its breeding.

106 : ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

The Clydesdale strain found much favour with the Australian
Corps in France, and the remarks of the Administrative Veter-
inary Officer of that Corps are worth recording :—

“There is little doubt in my mind and in all I have spoken to
in this Corps that the best breed for military work in the heavy
class is the low, clean-legged Clydesdale. Most of our horses
from Australia were of this type, and they have been very much
admired by good judges of horse-flesh. They are smaller, more
active, and yet have always been able to do as much work as
the heavier Shire type, added to which they have obviously
suffered less from the skin troubles of the legs, such as “ grease,”
cellulitis, and necrotic dermatitis. Their smaller size allowed
them to do better on the ration, and proved them to be more
economical in feeding.”

He further added with regard to Clydesdales and breeding :—

“For an Artillery animal, again, the Clydesdale Mare
crossed with a thorough-bred stallion, gives as near the ideal as

_we have been able to breed in Australia, and the gunner type
most favoured by the Indian Army. Breeding with cross-bred
stock is not found a success, as animals throw back to unknown
ancestors and we get reversions to undesirable types. The
method I am advising has been proved by many animals used
in this War whose breeders and their methods I am familiar
with.”

The Assistant Director of Veterinary Services of the Canadian
Corps, who also had charge of all Remount arrangements of the
Corps, while remarking adversely on the Shire during the War
—giving the usual objections in respect to “feather,” anda
brittleness of feet, reported of the Clydesdale as follows :—

' “The old-fashioned, short-legged, round-barrelled type has
proved very satisfactory. Those that are leggy, and light of
barrel have proved to be of little use.”

I have quoted Colonial and Dominion views specially, pre-
suming such to be perhaps more unbiassed than purely Home
opinion.

Since my return to India on a third tour of Service I have
visited nearly every Remount Depot, and Iam very much struck
with the excellent Medium and Heavy Draught Horses received
from Australia, and held under training primarily for Mesopo-

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 107

tamia, I am all the more surprised because I never realised that
animals of this class were procurable in numbers in Australia,
and especially from Queensland, whence I noticed from their
brands many of them came. Another surprise after coming
fresh from the disposal of animals on demobilization in France,
is the price at which these animals have been purchased and
‘landed in India, viz. £45 and £50. If such animals had been
offered for sale in France at the close of the War they would
have realized anything from £100 to £200. A pair of medium
heavy draught horses which I recently saw in the Horse Trans-
port Company in Waziristan certainly would have realized £250
each horse. The majority of them are Clydesdales, and it is
quite easy to pick out pure strains. At the sight of them I was
instantly reminded of the remarks of the Australian Corps in
France quoted above, and one could readily appreciate the
Australian preference for the Clydesdale strain in draught
horses. With such good material at reasonable cost, the thought
naturally occurs to one’s mind as to whether they could not be
put to more general use in India for transport purposes both in
Peace and War, and their production in Australia fostered.
The small wheeled transport in common use in India, though
suitable generally, absorbs a large number of carts, animals
and men, and the employment of larger wagons (e.g. General
Service), stronger animals, and fewer drivers, carries a sug-
gestion of economy—at all events for certain purposes or
under certain circumstances. No doubt the policy of utilising
the resources of India for Army purposes is a correct one to
follow, but it is necessary to remember that conditions which
chiefly govern the growth of young stock are either deficient or
absent in that country, and for Artillery and other forms of
heavier draught, recourse elsewhere must be adopted. Australia,
for instance, is a country, par excellence, of good grass and
suitable climate, where stout and robust horses are raised, and
it is a very happy circumstance that India has a call on the
resources of that country to supply deficiences. There is now
not a single type or class of horse for Military purpose, from the
light Indian Cavalry to the heavy Artillery Draught, which
cannot be procured in Australia. Furthermore, questions of
supply of suitable animals are rendered easy by reason of the

108 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

fact that there are resident in that country regular exporters of
animals to India who not only know Army standards perfectly,
but who are tutors towards suitable production in their own
country. It only remains to remember that Australian horses, .
coming from a Southern Zone with reverse seasons, require in
India a period of acclimatisation, and this is more necessary in
the lethargic heavier types than in the light horses for Cavalry.

Suffolk Punch.

The number of this Class of Heavy Draught Horse employed
during the War in France was relatively very small, and experi-
ence of them was limited. In consequence, opinion was varied
amounting to diverseness, some officers reporting extremely well
on them, and others condemning them as unsuitable for Army
work by reason of their being “top-heavy,” and therefore
subject to lameness in the feet when called on to perform hard
road work. They certainly had two outstanding merits for
Service on the Continent—an ability to maintain a round stout
condition, amounting to fatness, on a shorter ration than other
Heavy Draught types; and their clean legs in muddy circum-
stances—two assets which commended them highly in the eyes
of Commanding Officers in the Field. The evidence which I
gathered from Veterinary Hospitals pointed to weakness of the
feet as the chief demerit of this breed of heavy horse. The
remarks of one Veterinary Hospital Commander who was not
only a very knowledgeable Civil Practitioner, but who had had
considerable experience both with units in the Field and in
Veterinary Hospitals, are worth quoting :—

“The Suffolk Punch suffered from foot trouble owing to more
or less standing on feet and joints defective in shape and make.
This animal kept condition well, but as at home, is unsuitable
for hard road work.”

On the other hand an officer whose powers of observation and
opinion I rate highly, and who had a considerable pre-war
experience in the purchase of draught remounts, reported on the
Suffolk Punch as follows :—

“Is a very useful horse but inclined to be a little over-topped.
I have had four or five of this breed during the War, and my

opinion has entirely changed. I used to think they were soft

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 109

and over-topped. I now think very highly of the breed. Those
that I know were not soft, nor over-feathered, and worked
splendidly—far better than any other horse we had. The huge
body, heavy neck and head were made full use of by the animal
while in draught. Instead of starting the load entirely by push-
ing with the hind legs, these animals used their weight by
leaning into the collar and throwing the weight forward. Con-
stitutionally they appear to be very strong, and survived the
conditions at the Front, but in most cases that I can recall, the
Suffolk Punches were great pets in the Units and were very
carefully looked after by their drivers.”’

There is a good deal of truth in the last paragraph of this
officer’s report. Care is all important for the success of any breed
of horse in War, and the docility and the good condition always
maintained by the Suffolk are sure to find for him a place of
favour. Personally, from my small experience of the Suffolk
Punch, provided he is not over 16°1 in height—all above that
height being rigidly excluded as unsuitable and undesirable—I
consider him a very good and desirable War Horse. He is
hardy, active, and even-tempered. If he is small, there will be
no foot trouble.

The Third and Fourth Armies in France reported well on
them: in fact these Armies classed Suffolk Punches before
Shires and Clydesdales for Military purposes.

American Heavy Draught Horses.

Though not so weighty and powerful as our best English
Heavy Draughts, the’ American Percheron or Crossed Percheron
on the whole gave great satisfaction and was universally liked
during the War in France. He teams well, is active, has a
good constitution, is a good doer, and has good sound legs and
feet. The absence of hair on the legs was a great asset in
comparison to our English Heavies under the muddy circum-
stances of winter in the Forward Areas. He is best described
as a Medium Heavy, and as such he is quite big enough for the
Heavy Draught purposes of War. As a draught animal I do
not consider him in any way superior to our English Shire or
Clydesdale, or to the smaller of these breeds of which he may
be considered a parallel; but there is no doubt that in War he

110 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

can be more generally placed, and can stand hardships better
than our Heavy Breeds. Whether or not his relatively satis-
factory service in France was due in part to a return to the
country of his ancestors can only be surmised. He certainly
stood the climate very well. He shipped to the country on the
whole well, and suffered less from serious respiratory sickness
on landing than the Heavy Shires and Clydesdales. At the
same time it must be remembered, as I have previously remark-
ed, that respiratory sickness is referable to infection, and in all
classes of animals incidence of this form of disease was very
greatly reduced by the rigid taking of temperatures on landing
and previous to drafting to units. Moreover, the heavy mortality .
experienced amongst Shires and Clydesdales was during the
first winter of the War, when they were practically without
shelter of any kind and subjected to incessant rain—a very
different state of affairs to the ample and good accommodation
provided by such times as American shipments of Heavy
animals commenced.

An idea of utility may be gathered from the records of one
Veterinary Hospital in France, at which out of 120 heavy
draught horses cast and sold in two years, 116 were British
(the Officer Commanding was unable to differentiate Clydesdale
from Shire) and four only were American.

In another Veterinary Hospital, a Committee of Officers,
Royal Army Veterinary Corps, drew attention to the fact that
a fairly large percentage of Heavy Draught American Horses
had Sidebones, but expressed the opinion that this defect could
soon be bred out by careful selection of Sires; in like manner
to its exclusion in our English breeds following a more
particular classification of the defect as an unsoundness.

A very interesting account of the Percheron horse and the
extent to which he has found favour in both North and South.
America as compared to our English breeds, may be obtained
from Dechambre’s Traité De Zootechnie, Vol. Les Equides,
published by Messrs. Asselin and Houzeau, Place de L’Ecole
de Médecine, Paris (a book really worth purchasing ; giving a
description of all breeds of horses, the administration of Haras,
and Remounting of the French Army), and a few remarks will
not be out of place in these pages. Of course, it is necessary to

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 111

add that from an agricultural point of view, the land both in
North and South America, does not require the heavy type of
farm horse which the stiff clay land of England necessitates as
a rule. Nevertheless the Percheron is a grand sire for a cross,
and he is probably the most prepotent of all Sires.

The first Percheron sent from France to the United States
was in the year 1851. Up to 1872 purchases were exceptional.
In that year mares as well as stallions were exported. Between
the years 1880 and 1890, 1,000 to 1,200 stallions and from 100
to 120 mares annually were sent. Exportations slackened off
until 1900 when they were resumed fairly actively. At the
same time the importation of Shires and Clydesdales into
America would appear to have decreased. In the year 1903
the American Percheron Stud Book registered 37,000 animals,
while the Clydesdales numbered 10,000 and Shires 7,400.

The introduction of Percherons into the Argentine has also
been recent. Seven Stallions were imported in 1900, 256 in
1906, and 180 in 1907. 177 animals comprising 75 Stallions
and 102 Mares were imported in 1908. In comparison with
the latter during the same year (1908) 73 Clydesdales (54
Stallions and 19 Mares), 53 Shires, and 47 Boulonnais were
imported. The Stud Book Registers of the Argentine in 1909
as quoted by Mons. Lesage, of the Veterinary Institute, Buenos
Aires, gives the following list of Mares :—

Percheron Mares 1878 Suffolk Punch Mares 169

Clydesdale 1729 Anglo-Norman 294
Shire 1100 Hunter 45
Hackney 414 Belge 30
Yorkshire 210 Polo pony 10

Total 5879

The Percherons purchased by the Argentine are not so
massive as those exported to the United States, and purchasers
of the latter country have a preference for black colour instead
of the “gris pommelé” which is the primitive colour of the
Percheron. :

Another very useful French heavy draught horse, a few of
which found their way into our Army by requisition in the
early days of the War, is the Boulonnais, and as his home (Pas

112 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

de Calais) was in our midst during our operations in Northern
France, he became very well known to us and was much
appreciated by good judges of horses. His colour is chiefly.
grey, not the usual colour for an Army horse; (Note-—There is
no reason why this colour should now be debarred) but he is a
good, compact, sturdy, stout-hearted animal, with a great
record for draught, and is an ideal farm horse.

The heavy Belge (Brabanconne) with his massive crest,
which we used to see a good deal of in England at one time, is
too big as a war horse, but he is an economic factor in Belgium,
and his breed entered into some of the crossed American horses
used by us during the War.

The Ardennes horse is very good, and is a favourite for
Artillery purposes and medium heavy draught.

In any community of animals, however, whatever the breed,
there is always a variation in size, and the smaller horses of
heavy draught strains, if other good points are equal, can and
should be selected. For general draught purposes in
Formations and units at the Front, the most satisfactory of all
animals was the heavy light-draught Welsh cart horse. Strong,
active and hardy, he is hard to beat for all-round draught
purposes, and if the question of breeding specially for the Army
ever arises, this type should be kept in view and followed. The.
draught animals purchased in Wales previous to the War for
the Royal Army Service Corps were patterns of excellence, and
they did remarkably well. We could have done with more of
them.

CHAPTER III.
LIGHT DRAUGHT HORSES.

According to Army specifications and requirements, a light.
draught horse is one which should be capable of drawing a
weight of 1200 lb. for approximately twenty miles per day,
walk about three miles an hour, and trot at an average of six
miles. This is of course a simple guide to show the degree of
power expected, and to indicate a necessary activity in this class.

LIGHT DRAUGHT HORSES. 113

of animal. It is based more or less on the comparatively easy
times of peace, and work on level roads. War, however, upsets
all fine calculations, and it is the ability to weather the varying
vicissitudes of campaign, and to maintain energy under trying
conditions and adverse circumstances that form the chief
desiderata of a draught horse.

In this connection a study of the carefully thought out
Tables of Transport with details of vehicles and weights to be
carried, given in our Field Service Pocket Book, is most
instructive.

The heaviest wastage and the greatest demand during the
late War related to light draught horses, and twenty of this
class were purchased to one of all the other classes put together.
It is really marvellous how the supply of suitable animals was
maintained, because in recent years the production of this type
of animal has been influenced by the substitution of mechanical
means for trams, "busses, and for many commercial and trade
pursuits. Take for instance the London General Omnibus
Company in 1908 with a stud of 18,000 horses, the Road Car
Company 5,000, Tillings 7,000, and the thousands upon
thousands of tram horses in all parts of the world, each animal
probably requiring renewal every four or five years. All are
now conspicuous by their absence, and it is a regrettable
absence of animals, hard, inured to work, and specially suited
thereby for draught purposes of war. It does not pay to breed
them, at least in many countries, for they are not altogether an
agricultural type of horse. We very soon touched bed-rock in
this class of horse in the United Kingdom, and purchase
elsewhere was resorted to.

In speaking of British horses it is necessary to point out that
horses are more commonly classed by categories of Service than
by Races. For instance we speak of Saddle horses and draught
horses, and furthermore they are grouped into race horses,
hunters, hacks, carriage horses, van horses, bus horses, coach
horses, farm horses, and so on. It is only in respect to Heavy
breed, Thoroughbreds, Hackneys, Cleveland Bays, Yorkshire
Coach horses, or whenever Stud books are maintained, that
allusion is made to particular breeds or races. We differ con,
siderably in this respect from other countries, as for instance-

114 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

the Bretons, Norfolk-Bretons, Anglo-Normands, Petit Percher-
ons, Ardennais, and Anglo-Arabians of France.

The horses comprising the light draught of the United
Kingdom are of so mixed a product in breeding that it is best
to classify them under the generic term of light draught.
Obviously, where crossing ranges from through-bred to heavy
draught the result is varied, and in selection for different
purposes “type”? more than breed or race is followed. In our
Army at Home we have type L.D.1. for Artillery, with the
sub-classifications of leaders, centres and wheelers, the latter
being sturdier and stouter than the two former ; and L.D. 2. for
Transport.

Unquestionably, the pre-war “Gunner” type of draught
horse, whether bred in England or Ireland, proved the best
light draught horse which took part in the War. The sturdy,
blocky horses with stout round quarters, which our Remount
Service at Home were accustomed to buy before the War,
have always been famous, and are quite typical of our Artillery.
They have no demerits, and cannot be beaten in any country
or army in the world.

They are, however, run very close by the Australian horses
of our Horse and Field Artillery in India, in fact there are
many impartial judges in our Royal Artillery who would give.
the palm to the Australian horse, particularly in the Horse
Artillery class, which is proverbially excellent in quality and
substance. I can call to mind a good many Horse Artillery
Leaders of Australian origin who would have given a good
account of themselves over a steeplechase course, and who
would have proved gold mines if they had not joined the Army.

I have already alluded to the serviceable character of
Australian horses with the Australian Corps in France. Others
served in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Expeditionary
Forces, and their good record is undoubted. Australia is
particularly good in this class of horse, and I am certain that a
very strong reason for this is the annual steady demand which
India can give for its Army. A satisfactory feature also of
Australian horses is that they are essentially of English
extraction, Clydesdales and Thorough-bred strains chiefly
enter into their composition. The only drawback, as I have

LIGHT DRAUGHT HORSES. 115

previously explained, is that for service ina Northern zone with
reverse seasons to their own, they require a certain amount of
acclimatisation. Shipments direct from Australia to France
were tried in the early days of the War, but as will be readily
realised the long sea journey in addition to service in a country
of reverse season militated against the success of an immediate
issue. Under such circumstances the best course is to hold
them in India for acclimatisation. I need not say that this is
fully known and appreciated.

India is not in a position to breed horses of a light draught
type suitable for Artillery purposes, Its climate is hot and
enervating, and it lacks the green grass of pastures essential for
the growth of young stock. An attempt was made some years
ago, by the introduction of Norfolk Trotters to increase the size
and substance of animals which, with Arab crossing, might
produce remounts suitable for Artillery purposes ; but the result
was a failure. Much controversy on the subject ensued, but
the crux of the matter lay in the unsuitability of the country to
raise anything but light Cavalry horses, and those of pony class.
Yet in a good grass country like Australia, Norfolk Trotter
crosses with Thoroughbreds have produced very good Artillery
horses of the Horse Artillery class, and chargers. The
progenitor of the Turanville Stud, New South Wales (brand
d.R., Mr. Thomas Cook) was a splendid Norfolk Trotter, by
name “ Flying Shales.” His successor was “ Warwick Shales”
out of a Thoroughbred mare by “ Warwick.” Their stock put
to Thoroughbred stallions of good strains have produced
numbers of remounts for our Horse Artillery in India. The
Anglo-Normands and Postier Bretons of the French Artillery
are of mixed Norfolk Trotter blood. The merit and suitability
of any particular breed therefore greatly depends on the country
of production, and it is equally true of all animals, whether
draught or saddle.

The original Canadian Divisions brought over to France some
very useful horses of Canadian extraction, and they did well.
They were mixed strains of English, Continental and American
horses. Canada maintains its Clydesdale and Shire Horse
Societies, as in England, but with the growth of the country in
recent years, particularly in the West, Canada imported from

116 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

her Southern neighbour for agricultural purposes. However,
the ground-work of Canadian horses is our best English stock.
Many of the London General and other Omnibus Companies,
and general utility horses shipped from England to South
Africa during the South African War, which were universally
well reported on for their endurance, were Canadian horses;
and Canada has always shown a desire for custom in the supply
of our home Army. The prairies of the West are excellent for
the production of good stock for Army purposes, both draught
and saddle. Our Remount Purchase system abroad at the
beginning of the late War was based on Canada, Reception
Depots at approved centres being arranged, Ports for embar-
kation earmarked, and Purchasing Depots or Centres contiguous
to the Canadian Pacific Railway forming part of the general
scheme. A rather remarkable and interesting fact, showing
how easily horse-breeding is influenced by circumstances was
that in the early eighties, when bicycles of the pneumatic type
took so strong a hold on people’s minds, it was strongly
considered that the days of horses, at least those of pleasure and
of a riding class, were numbered, and in the practical Western
World down went the production. I may at the same time
mention that Mr. Dunlop, the inventor and originator of the
pneumatic tyre which bears his name, and whose photograph is
to be seen so prominently in advertisements, is a Veterinary
Surgeon, and one whose delight in discussion on horse politics
is not in any way diminished by the importance of his discovery,
or by his retirement from the active domain of his profession.
* Wastage in the light draught classes of horses during the late
War was, however, chiefly met by importations direct from the
United States of America, where the greatest field of purchase
lay. This was particularly so at least when the United States
herself entered into the conflict. No other country in the world
is so richly endowed in horses, and in this class of horse
especially. Her resources are remarkable, and the aid which
she could afford to the Allied Powers in the command of the
most useful animals of the world was a prominent factor in the
downfall of the enemy.
Into the composition of the eighteen millions horses with
which the United States of America is credited, and taking them

LIGHT DRAUGHT HORSES. 117

as a whole, there enters by crossment, re-crossment and by
special selection, nearly every known breed or species of
European horse, including the original Spanish stock implanted
in the South in the seventeenth century, the English well-bred
importations of Kentucky, horses from the Netherlands to New
Amsterdam originally, Canadians of French origin in early times,
Clydesdales, Shires, Suffolk Punches, English Thorough-breds,
Hackneys, Bretons, Belgians, Oldenburghs, and more recently
and in considerable numbers the Percherons. Certain breeds
have been specialised, notably the “ Standard Bred ” trotter,
the progenitor of which was an English Thoroughbred
“ Messenger,” though the more immediate pater familias was
a horse named “ Rysdyk’s Hambletonian ” foaled in 1849 and
reputed to be the father of 1300 foals. As other countries, the
United States maintains its Horse Breeding Associations with
their Stud Books, as for instance, The American Clydesdale
Association at Chicago, the American Percheron Society, the
American Saddle Horse Beeeder Association, and others. I
mention the above to show as briefly as I can what the
generality of American horses are like, for as replacement of
casualties they came very prominently into the War, both the
British and French Governments having purchased large
numbers.

Provided our British ideas as to type of light draught horses
suitable for Artillery and other Army draught purposes are
strictly adhered to, that is to say, if animals are compact, with
good stout backs and quarters, the American horse will show as
good a record in war as any other. He has already proved his
merit as a general utility horse in peace time. , His shoulder is
as arule very good. And in a matter of backs and quarters in
purchasing, perhaps I may be permitted by way of divergence
to relate two little circumstances of an instructive nature. An
old Artillery friend with whom I was associated for two years
in the purchase of Australian Remounts in Calcutta, never once
omitted to stand up to the horse’s shoulder and look over his
back as to breadth and stoutness. It was his strong point in
purchase. The horses of one particular shipper invariably had
stout round quarters. His animals could be picked out quite
easily without referring to his distinctive brand. The shipper

118 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

was born and brought up amongst horses in England, and stout
quarters were for ever duly impressed on his retina.

However, it was our experience in France that a large
number of American-bred horses were leggy and long in the
back, and this category is opposed to the severe conditions of
war, particularly under circumstances of wet and mud. It is
forcibly brought home to us by a visit to a war Veterinary
Hospital. Where light draught horses have to be used at times
for pack purposes, with oscillating loads, the necessity for
compactness, for stout backs and quarters, is even more
important. Of course in a great war where demand is so great,
it is very often a case of getting what you can, or purchasing as
near specifications as supply or resources permit; but even
“ border-liners ” fail in the offing. Moreover, adding to demerit
are the factors of more or less sudden transplantation for hard
work into a foreign country, and the partially trained and soft
condition of animals rapidly got together to meet wastage. It
is really piling wastage on wastage, but difficult or well nigh
impossible to avoid in a great war such as we have lately
experienced.

Argentine horses, so far as British Expeditionary Forces were
concerned, came little into prominence as draught horses during
the War. Purchases, however, were made by the French and
Belgian Governments. For the most part they are of the riding
type, and I shall remark on them more fully under that heading.
Speaking generally of Argentine horses, they may be divided
into two classes—the Crillio or native-bred, height from 13
hands to 14°3 and by far the most numerous (approximately
4,000,000 out of a total horse population of 4,500,000), and the
Mestizo or cross-bred. The Mestizo is the result of the foreign
stallion on Crillio mares, and the main reason for the intro-
duction of foreign blood was the desire for horses suitable for
carriage work. When I visited the country in 1908 the haut
monde of Buenos Aires rejoiced in their turn-outs, and a first
class horse was worth as much there as in Europe. Imported
stock included English thorough-breds, hunters, hackneys,
Anglo-Normans, Arabs, Morgans from the United States,
Trakehnens, Oldenburgs, Hanoverians, Orloffs, Percherons,
Clydesdales, Shires, Cleveland Bays and Suffolk Punches. The

LIGHT DRAUGHT HORSES. 119

foregoing will give an idea of the composition of Argentine
horses, and it will further show that from a suitable Artillery
draught point of view the field of supply is somewhat limited.
I remember the difficulty experienced by the British Remount
Commission purchasing for South Africa in 1908 in obtaining
suitable horses for Artillery. One hundred and twenty were at
last selected, and they were fairly good specimens, showing
Clydesdale, Cleveland Bay, and Percheron strains.

A great drawback to the Argentine horse as a war animal,
and particularly for the more or less immediate purposes of war,
is that he is “ grass fed.’ As a rule he knows little about grain,
his chief diet being the beautiful alfalfa which grows so
profusely in the Argentine, either under cultivation as a hay
crop, or forming a considerable part of the herbage of pastures-
He misses the latter greatly when taken to other countries, and
his introduction to manger foods, and particularly the use of a
nose-bag, is often a gradual process of coaxing. One can quite
understand softness and a falling away in condition under such
circumstances—which really sums up our experience of the
Argentine horse generally in war.

Though the present section is intended to deal only with
animals employed by our own Armies, I may be excused brief
mention of some of the races and types of light draught horses
of our Allies in France. The Petit Percheron, or Postier
Percheron, the French Tramway horse of former days, is a
hardy, sturdy animal, and I should like to see a few selected
teams of this strain in the hands of our Artillery Horse-masters,
Iam confident they would give great satisfaction for strength
and endurance.

The Postier Breton, with his touch of Norfolk blood, is a
great favourite in French Artillery.

The Ardennes horse also has a great reputation as an Artillery
horse, not only in France, but in Belgium, Germany, and even
in Russia. He isa hard, stout, short little animal, perhaps to
our English idea somewhat ‘“ jumped-up,” to use a horsey
phrase, and in some districts one appears to see in him a trace
of Arab blood, which I understand was introduced in 1810 by
Napoleon.

120 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

Cuaprer IV.—HACKNEYS.

The British Expeditionary Force was specially asked to
include in its report an account of the merits or otherwise of
animals showing Hackney blood. In no race of English breed
is prejudice so strongly shown, and such prejudice is chiefly in
relation to his utility as a riding horse. He is essentially a
light roadster, a horse of fashion and pleasure for light carriage
work, where his high stepping action and prowess at the trot,
which form his chief characteristic, can be displayed to the best
advantage. As pure blood, war is not his métier, unless it bears
relation to an officers’ mess cart or other light draught duty, or
the credit of the country is required to be upheld at a Horse
Show. It was generally reported from the Front in France
that animals of Hackney blood had no special merit as military
animals, the chief fault being lack of stamina. Comparatively
few pure-bred hackneys or animals showing much hackney
blood passed through Veterinary Hospitals in the British
Expeditionary Force, France, which was an indication that
relatively few animals of this class (7.e. pure or predominance
of hackney blood) participated in the War. It was further
stated that though there were individual instances of horses of
predominant hackney blood which proved useful riding horses
for ordinary work, they would fail in fast work.

All the same, as I have several times remarked, Hackney or.
Norfolk Trotter blood enters to a considerable extent into the
composition of the light draught horses of various countries,
with marked success; and I think therefore his chief merit lies
in his suitability for cross-mating in the production of horses
adaptable for light draught purposes, whether for general utility
or for the Army. A good many of our small cart-horses have a
dash of hackney blood, and the activity, stoutness, and hardiness
of these have been greatly commended.

RIDING HORSES. 121

CHAPTER V.

RIDING HORSES.

“‘ Nevertheless it is generally agreed that the horse, not the
cavalryman, did dominate war during many centuries, for it was
the use made of the horse, with a rider, that often lent decisive
power. It may surely be claimed, therefore, that it was the
horse, not the ‘moral threat’ that proved the most powerful
weapon of Cavalry, even as recently as the campaign of 1918 in
Palestine.”

I am exceedingly glad to read the above from the able pen of
Major-General W. D. Bird, ¢.B., C.M.G. D.8.0., in his article
“Years versus Ideas” published in the Cavalry Journal of July,
1920, a propos a question of Tanks in replacement of Cavalry.

The days of Cavalry in our Army are no more numbered by
the threat of Tanks than they were affected by introduction of
bicycles or the use of aeroplanes. One War is no criterion of
the next—or another. It is nature, or flesh and blood, that
forms the prime factor of War ; all else are appliances whereby
it can be most successfully waged. Man is the element, the
animal is his co-efficient, and armament is his determinator. It
is certain that War will never be conducted without animals,
both from the essential and the economic aspects of it. It is the
same now as it was 2500 vears ago, and there is little reason to
suppose that the future will disclose any material change
excepting in armaments, and until, through the latter, War is
made altogether impossible. We will therefore continue to
discuss our co-efficient—or our business partner in War.

It is extraordinary how meagre history of war is in respect to
the part played by animals. Historians are more concerned
with tactical problems and the lessons to be derived therefrom
than to the actual pawns that.are used in the game. For
instance, I have searched through many books to extract
information with regard to draught horses in War, but with
very poor success. The achievements of Cavalry are more fully
recorded, but mention is in general terms only as a rule, and
insufficient to point to special merit or otherwise of the animals
concerned.

122 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

Our Field Service Regulations and systems now, however,
include War Diaries and the submission of Departmental and
Technical Reports and Returns, and it is possible therefrom to
collate a reasonably accurate account of the doings of all animals,
of mortality and inefficiency experienced, and to draw conclu-
sions therefrom. One’s own personal experience also must
necessarily be brought to account.

Nothing has ever equalled our Irish horses for Cavalry work.
They are a class by themselves, and we are fortunate in having
so favourable a country as Ireland for the production of light
horses. It is to be hoped that the industry of light horse
breeding in Ireland will be encouraged in every way. It is really
an advantage that purchasers from other countries and armies
go there for horses. It encourages production, and it shows the.
esteem in which Irish bred horses are held.

Cavalry, and particularly in respect to the arme blanche,
unfortunately did not take so prominent a part in France as in
previous wars, or as in Palestine; but the merit of our Cavalry
horses cannot be gainsaid. They leave nothing to be desired.
It was extraordinary how well those advanced in years, and
even old, stood the campaign, and the old rule of excluding
animals over twelve years of age for war has been exploded-
The limit of age is determined by the animal’s physical ability,
and it is sufficient for the animal to show it. For riding
purposes, and particularly for fast Cavalry work, the Thorough-.
bred Sire is essential—whatever the foundation stock is; and
where Debility and Exhaustion are the chief cause of inefficiency
and wastage, it goes without saying that the stout, compact,
robust animal with good back and loin is the type required.
Wastage in Cavalry during the War in France was much less
from lameness than from Debility and poor condition associated
with the adverse circumstances obtaining.

A propos of the purchase of Irish horses for Cavalry and
riding purposes, I should like to refer to the old cry that the
foreigners were taking the best mares out of the country, and
which from my experience of remount purchasing in that
country I, personally, considered very much of a bogey cry. It
may not be generally known that 75 per cent. of Cavalry troop
horses are mares. Why? Because, apart from the fact that

RIDING HORSES. 123

Equine population comprises more females than males, the
small animal of any species is usually the female, and in the case
of purchase of troopers for Cavalry or for riding animals where
specifications of height and price are relatively low, mares form
_the bulk purchased. The geldings, which are usually the bigger
animals, are sold as hunters and chargers, at a much greater
price, and if a catalogue of the Royal Dublin Horse Show is
scrutinized it will be found that the majority of the exhibits in
the hunter classes are geldings, the créme de la crime of
production. It is also interesting to relate that the majority of
hansom-cab animals in London and other towns in days gone
by were mares, the reason being that they were smaller and
cheaper than geldings, they were quicker and safer on their
legs in rounding corners, and moreover they could be trained
to hansom-cab work six weeks earlier than geldings.

A very simple classification of riding horses adopted by our
Remount Service at Home is R1 for Cavalry and R 2 for other
riding purposes. Conditions of service or work being so dis-
similar in these two classifications, obviously the animal which
may be suitable in the latter would not always meet the
necessary desiderata of the former. Ability to carry weight
and to maintain power and energy under such weight over a
more or less prolonged period is the essential factor of a Cavalry
Trooper. The weight which an ordinary Cavalry Troop horse
must carry is at least 18 stones, comprising the rider (say
average weight 10st. 10lb.) saddlery, arms, accoutrements,
ammunition, clothing, necessaries, rations and water. To:
meet requirements a certain degree of height is necessary, and
above all, stoutness, robustness and fitness are indispensable,
especially when the country to be traversed is heavy with mud
and mire. There are very few of our best hunters that have
the merit of carrying 15 stones. The average height of our
British Cavalry Troop horses is about 15°1. Personally, I think
that height, except in special instances, should not exceed 15°2—
for the reason that adequacy of ration plays so great a part in
War.

The history of Cavalry in War from very early times, when
it formed the chief arm, and certainly the most popular one, the
many changes ‘of its function and employment as necessitated

124 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

by armament, and the great influence which Cavalry and
Mounted Men-at-Arms has had on the breeding of horses in the
United Kingdom and the Continent of Europe generally, is
most interesting; and were it not too long a subject, and perhaps
beyond the scope of the present work, it would have been
instructive to recount the achievements or failures of animals
which, as Major-General Bird says, lent such decisive power in
battle.

In speaking of the merits or otherwise of the Cavalry horse
one must not forget the man. Courage and endurance in the
one must find like attributes in the other, and if success is to be
achieved the man must be a good horseman and a good rider,
in other words, they must be one machine or implement of war
suitably combined for offensive, which is the real function of
Cavalry. The success of Cavalry of ancient days—of Alexander
the Great, of Hannibal, of Cromwell, of Gustavus Adolphus, of
Frederick the Great, Marlborough, Napoleon, and right down
to the present day has been in a large measure due to this
factor of combination, and so it will be as long as Cavalry exists.
Hence it is that our Army authorities attach so much import-
ance to our Equitation Schools and the regimental training of
man and horse together.

Note as against this the most unsuitable combination of man
and horse in the Feudal times, where both were so heavily
encased in armour that they could not move out of a walk;
where the knight, though trained from his youth up in the
use of arms and most proficient in them, was yet often so
indifferent a horseman and so heavy with armour that he had
to be tied to his mount. “ Monstrelet writing in 1416 remarks
on the astonishment which certain Italians created amongst
French men-at-arms because they could actually turn their
horses at a gallop.” (History of the Army, by Honourable J,
Fortescue). And by the same token King Edward III, The
Black Prince, and King Henry V, consistently won their
battles at Crecy, Poictiers, Agincourt, by splitting this unwieldy
combination, ordaining that their men-at-arms should fight on
foot as opposed to the French men-at arms who sat on their
horses—to suffer discomforture by the terror and unmanageable
ness of their mounts caused by showers of arrows from the

RIDING HORSES. 125

English archers. Certainly in those early days the mounts were
not very well adapted to carry such heavy weights and to achieve
success as Cavalry. Spanish horses were the favourites for
speed, endurance, and courage; and Edward III got all his
remounts from Spain. Each knight had three horses, his first
charger being a stallion, the other two being either geldings or
mares, the smallest being a palfrey which he rode until the
danger point, when he was equipped by his squire and mounted
his first charger.

The story of battles in which Knights and men-at-arms took
part is not complete without an allusion to the blind yet
exceedingly brave King John of Bohemia at the battle of Crecy
He asked to be led forward into the fray, and his knights, not.
wishing to lose him, fastened the reins of the horses together,
putting him at their head. They fought so valiantly and advanced
so far that they were all killed, and were found next morning
on the ground with their horses still tied together. A glorious
ending to man and beast.

The extreme dearth of good horses was one of the
complications of the collapse of the old Feudal Service (Henry
VII time) and it was left to King Henry VIII, by enactments
very carefully and rigidly enforced, to lay the foundation of our
horse-breeding in England.

Category R 2 horses, as previously mentioned, includes riding
animals not required to do the fast work of Cavalry. They are
less in height, may include cobs and ponies, and are allotted to
riding purposes of Field Companies, Infantry chargers, and
Ancillary Services. Their work being lighter, as a rule there
are no complaints in respect to them, and provided they are
suitable for the riders concerned, and that intelligent sympa-
thetic care is bestowed on them, they show a very good record
of service. Speaking generally, R 2 had little experience of
Veterinary Hospitals in France. They were somewhat like the
men of Mobile Veterinary Sections, inasmuch as they had no
use for back areas. Cobs were positively conspicuous by their
absence in Veterinary Hospitals.

I have briefly alluded to Hackneys as riders. They were
not appreciated as such for fast work, but for ordinary, quiet.

¢

126 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

riding purposes they, and their fellows with predominant
hackney blood, were quite satisfactory.

The thorough-bred, or racehorse, if I may so term him, is not,
as a rule, a military horse, but price permitting, there are places
even for him on necessity, such as light charger duty.

Australian Riding Horses.

For a number of years India has depended considerably on
Australia and New Zealand not only for British and Indian
Cavalry but for its animals of pleasure, chargers, hacks, polo
ponies, etc. They have very few demerits as military animals
when carefuily selected as to standard specification. There is
plenty of trash in Australia, as in other countries—for which
probably so much five-furlong sprint racing is to a great extent
responsible—but when India has the call on importers who
know Army requirements perfectly, there ought to be few
“ynisfits” where Indian Remounting is concerned. The ground-
work, as I have previously remarked, is English stock, and the
country is remarkably adapted to the raising of animals of good
substance and strength. At one time nearly all British Cavalry
Regiments in India were mounted on Australian horses (the
term “Waler” was a common expression) and they were
classed as medium Cavalry. Now-a-days British Cavalry is
mounted largely on country-breds by English thorough-bred,
Australian, and Arab sires on country stock. The majovity of
Indian Cavalry Regiments under the Silladar System, and
particularly if they are garrisoned within reasonable distance
from Calcutta, Madras, or Bombay, where Australian horses are
landed and rail charges thereby moderate, have for many years
purchased small, somewhat inferior, and cheap Australian
horses in preference to country-breds. These animals rejoice in
the name of “ Bounders” which perhaps sufficiently explains
their quality, and the cost price up to recent years was Rs. 350
as against the better class horse for British Cavalry at
approximately Rs. 800, and as against the Silladar Indian
country-bred at Rs. 250. These so-called “ Bounders,” many of
which are excellent small animals, are much appreciated by
Silladar Cavalry units, not only for their ability to bring a little
grist to the mill of the Chunda Fund by an occasional sale of a

RIDING HORSES. 127

made pair to the Commissioner or other notability, but for their
generally satisfactory service as light troop-horses and their
superiority over the country-bred of Rs. 250 value. Their war
record on the frontiers of India, with the Indian Cavalry Corps
in France and in Palestine, clearly proves their merit and
usefulness for Indian Cavalry men, who are not as heavy as the
British soldier, though the sowar went up in weight consider-
ably in France. Their value as trained troop-horses was also
appreciated by the Indian Cavalry Corps in France, who
specially asked that arrangements might be made whereby
units could get their own horses back after treatment in
Veterinary Hospitals, which could easily be effected by
Remount Service, as the animals were branded with the
regimental designation.

Australian horses are all branded, and it. is comparatively
easy to tell the part of the Commonwealth from which they
come. The largest number of military horses that I see in
India at present hail from Queensland. Importers also have
their own brands, placed under the saddle, and the merits or
otherwise of the importer’s purchases can therefore be duly
observed.

New Zealand horses are much more like English horses in
appearance than Australians, and they are unbranded.

It was unfortunate and regrettable that the Australian horses
sent to South Africa during the Boer War of 1899-02 were
adversely reported on. The reason was that shipments were
not typical of what Australia could produce as their real or most
suitable war horse. Most of the animals required during that
war were for Mounted Infantry purposes. Small horses of the
cobby. type were asked for. Such animals did not exist, at least
not to any appreciable extent. There were “ brumbies,”
“ bounders,’ and small, weedy thorough-breds—the result of
breeding for speed in five-furlong racing, a veritable curse in
the horse-breeding of any country. One can quite understand
the disappointment in Australian shipments of this class, and
the bad report which followed. Moreover, during that War
the wastage was so severe that importations were practically
sent straight up the line, and never had a chance of showing
any merit. :

128 ; ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

However, the account is now squared. The Australian riding
horse at war in the various theatres during the past six years,
whether in France, in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, East
Africa, or on the Frontiers of India, has not only travelled
farther than any other animal, but he has held his own against
all comers. The best of them are superb ; the second raters
have acquitted themselves with distinction.

Argentine Riding Horses.

Under the heading of Light draught-horses, I mentioned
that the majority of horses in the Argentine were riding horses
In the main there are Crillio, or native-bred, height from 13:3
to 14'3, suitable only for Mounted Infantry and Light Cavalry.
Others are crossed Crillio mares with European Stallions and
are larger, but these are limited in number. The Crillio, small
horse or pony, (a gelding—the mares not being used) is a
wonderful animal in hisown country. He will canter along for
80 miles ina day with comparative ease, carrying a huge saddle
or recado weighing over 601b. weight; and he turns out to be
a remarkably good polo pony. Yet no name was bad enough
for him in South Africa during the Boer War, in fact his
purchase was absolutely stopped. In common with others he
shared the fate of being drafted into work immediately after
landing. He, above all other animals, requires time to acquire
military ways. He is a very home-sick animal, sadly misses
his friends of his tropilla, grieves and sulks for days, and in the
process of breaking-in he often has had the stuffing knocked out.
of him. He is grass-fed in his own country, and one cannot
expect anything but disaster to overtake an animal so fed when
invited to eat grain—which he has not been accustomed to, and
out of a nosebag the like of which he has never before seen.
The iron enters into his soul, his soft spirit is broken, and he
gives up the ghost. Such is hardly his fault, but at the same
time his appearance, with his blazed face and his white legs, is
indicative of a softness of constitution which is not in keeping
with the requirements of a war animal.

The Hungarian, also a grass-fed animal, failed in like manner
in South Africa. Moreover, Hungarian peasants do not ride,
their animals as a rule being yoked together as a pair in a light
four-wheeled vehicle.

RIDING HORSES. 129

Arabs.

I have no great liking for Arabs for Cavalry, at least for
British Cavalry in India. I am always reminded of the
occasion of casting about thirty of them for sprained tendons
and ligaments, at an annual veterinary inspection of the 15th
Hussars at Muttra, in 1907. They were mostly young animals.
The men were too heavy for them in training. It was rather
a surprise to.me, for Arabs, though really ponies, are virtually
miniature horses, stunted by reason of the country of their
birth ; but their beautiful make and shape are altogether in
favour of carrying weight. And it is no uncommon sight to see
Arab polo ponies moving like clock-work under heavy owners
on the polo field. But as long as the Arab horse up to 14-2
commands the very high price as a racing animal, or even a
lesser price as a polo pony, he will not bulk very largely as a
military troop horse. His endurance, particularly in arid
regions, is phenomenal, and his propotency as a sire remarkable.
Old history of war is full of his achievements, and he left more
than “foot-prints in the sands” wherever his incursions and
excursions took him. I specially use the masculine gender in
his description because Arab mares are not permitted to leave
the country of their origin; and “ himself” for the most part
has to be “altered” in a little matter on joining His Majesty’s
Forces, which makes him more amenable to discipline and
altogether a better soldier.

Included in this breed is the Syrian horse or pony, which
has performed such marvellous work in Cavalry in Egypt in
days gone by. He has a wonderful constitution and is admir-
ably adapted to warfare in Eastern climes. An example of
endurance under trying conditions of paucity of rations and
lack of water is recorded in the annals of the Nile Expedition
of 1884-1885, for the Relief of Khartoum, in which Arab
stallions, average height 14 hands, average age 8 to 9 years,
purchased by the Egyptian Government in Syria and Lower
Egypt for Egyptian Cavalry and delivered over to the 19th
Hussars, performed one of the most remarkable feats possible
to relate.

The following is a brief history of their achievement. In
June 1884 they were taken by barges from Cairo to Assouan,

130 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

where they remained for three months. In September they
were marched 210 miles to Wady Halfa and 350 of them were
handed over to the 19th Hussars. This regiment then marched
by squadrons to Korti, 360 miles, at an average daily march of
16 miles, the daily ration being 6lb grain and 101b dhourra
stalk. They arrived in good marching condition. They stayed
at Korti from 20th December to 7th January, 1885, received
8 Ib. green dhourra stalk instead of dry stalk, and they
improved during the halt. 155 were then detailed for the
Desert Column moving via Gakdul Wells to Matammeh. On
30th December 40 horses proceeded to Gakdul, 100 miles,
accomplishing the distance in 63 hours. They rested there 15
hours, and did the return journey of 100 miles, again in 63
hours. Six of them accomplished the return journey in 46
hours, and the last 50 miles in 734 hours. There were no
casualties. The 155 horses, including the 40 above mentioned,
then proceeded on the 8th January across the Bayuda Desert
with General Sir Herbert Stewart’s Column, and up to the
20th January, exclusive of one day’s halt at Gakdul, their
career was one of 31 miles per day, with an average of 5 to 6 lb
of grain and 2 gallons of water daily. They were allowed to
graze on every possible occasion, but the grass of the Bayuda
Desert is very dry and they ate little. At times they got
mouldy biscuits, unfit for issue to the men. When the first
advance on Matammeh was made they marched to the Nile
without having received a drop of water for 55 hours, and only
one pound of grain. Some 15 or 20 horses received no water
for 70 hours. From the 20th January to 14th February they
halted at Gubat, receiving no grain, but a ration of 10 lb dry
dhourra stalk or 12 lb of green bean stalk daily. Two days
before their return journey they received 6 lb grain daily.
The first 75 miles of the return journey were performed on
4 lb grain and 3 gallons of water, after which water was stated
to be plentiful, and 8 Ib grain daily ration was supplied.
During the period 8th January to 8th March, on which date
they returned to Korti, the casualties were 20 killed in action,
19 died or destroyed from Debility and exhaustion, and 5 died
or destroyed from other causes. The weight carried was
reduced to a minimum, but averaged about 14 stones.

RIDING HORSES. 131

American Riding Horse.

During the South African War, 107,511 horses were
purchased in the United States by the British Government.
They were mostly small—from 14-2 to 15-1, and the majority
were for Mounted Infantry purposes, though larger ones for
Cavalry were at first selected. I am not acquainted with the
number purchased for Cavalry during the late War, but I
imagine that it cannot have reached a high figure, as require-
ments for Cavalry were comparatively few and could be met
more or less from Home sources; and moreover, American
riding horses do not altogether fill the eye of our Cavalry
purchasers. The Irish and English standard of Cavalry trooper
is a difficult one to compete with. To our minds the American
saddle horse is more of the light harness type, and one can
understand this with the amount of standard-bred trotter blood
in the country, and the preference in country districts to drive
in a buggy rather than to ride. All the same, the small horses
purchased by the British Government during the South
African War, many of which were range horses from Wyoming,
Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and from Texas, were good hardy
animals, suitable for the purpose required, and they were well
reported on in South Africa. The standard of our purchases, I
may say, did not quite meet the approval of General Carter,
then Adjutant General of the U.S. Army, a great lover and
judge of horses, who used to pay occasional visits to our
Remount Commission. They were not his idea of saddle
horses, but what was really passing through his mind was the
better and more expensive type, suitable for Cavalry and Special
Riding, two categories purchased by the American Government
for Army purposes. Under the American Saddle Horse
Breeders Association great endeavours are made to maintain an
American saddle horse as atype. The progenitor of this strain
was a thorough-bred stallion named “Denmark” foaled in 1839,

.and brought to Kentucky. During the Civil War, stock of this
‘Kentucky strain performed most wonderful marches. Starting
his first raid on 4th July 1862 from Knoxville, and returning
to Livingston on the 28th July, Major-General J. H. Morgan
with his Cavalry covered 1000 miles, capturing seventeen towns
and destroying all the Government Stores. In July 1868, in

132 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

his Ohio raid he marched from Summansville, Indiana, to
Williamsburg, east of Cincinnati, 94 miles in 35 hours. General
J. E. B. Stuart, another brilliant Southern Cavalry Com-
mander, with 1800 Cavalry and 4 pieces of Horse Artillery,
made a rapid sweeping reconnaisance round the Northern
Army, covering a distance of some 90 miles from Chambers-
berg to Leesburgh in 386 hours. Forrest’s expeditions,
Grierson’s operations in Mississippi, Wilson’s invasions, and
Sheridan’s turning movements and pursuits, are all reminiscent
of the wonderful prowess of American horses of Cavalry of
those days. Whether the present day American horses with
their greater admixture of trotting blood can achieve such
results it is difficult to say.

Indian Country-breds.

On the abolition of the old Stud Department, horse-breeding
operations were commenced in India, and they continue to be
controlled by the Remount Department of the Indian Army.
The primary object of these operations was the production of
horses of sufficient size and substance to meet the requirements of
the Army in India, not only in Cavalry but in Artillery, and to
render that Army independent of foreign markets. Such object
has not been fulfilled in respect to Artillery for reasons
previously explained, but operations have progressed with
regard to the production of horses suitable for Cavalry, and in
the grading up light horses and ponies of the country generally.
English and Australian thorough-breds, and Arabs are imported
or purchased in India for service in the horse-breeding circles
of the Punjab, United Provinces, and Baluchistan, and the
Government has a call on the young stock produced, purchases
of young stock at about 18 months being made and sent to
young stock depots for care, suitable feeding, etc., until such
time as they of sufficient age to be issuedas remounts. The
Government undertakes also to raise and improve the best
Indian strains of original pure Indian stock—Marwari and
Kathiawar breeds, for service and distribution in provincial
districts. A limited number of Arabs also are raised for the
same purpose. Race meetings, with valuable ‘prizes for
country-breds, are held at various stations, and tend to give a

RIDING HORSES. 133

fillip to production on good lines, and towards more valuable
animals.

The Indian-bred horses which went to France with the
Indian Cavalry Divisions consisted of (a) those belonging to
Silladar regiments and Imperial Service Troops, and (6) those
belonging to British Cavalry units, the latter being the best of
their kind. The specifications in height of Indian Cavalry
horses are 14-2 to 15-1, and of British Cavalry 14-3 to 15-2.

A large number of the horses of the Indian (Silladar) Cavalry
and Imperial Service Troops were weedy, undersized animals,
unsuitable for Cavalry service in France. Many were also
unsound—never got beyond Marseilles, and had to be cast.
Under a Silladar system one cannot expect a very high-class
trooper, but for light Indian Cavalry and service in his own
country and in the East, the Indian country-bred justifies his
comparative small cost.

With the greater outlay in respect to the mounting of British
Cavalry units one naturally looks for something superlative, and
it is questionable whether the necessary degree of excellence
and suitability has been attained—at least to an extent justified
by the outlay. Though the 17th Lancers reported highly on
their animals in France, speaking generally as a class, and
including both British and Indian Cavalry, I am distinctly of
opinion that the Indian country-bred is not up to sufficient
weight for service in a European country where heavy going is
the rule. So many are weedy, leggy, and split-up, and
moreover are excitable. A considerable number were evacuated
for Debility, and showed a low standard of recuperative power.
One Veterinary Hospital reported that the Indian country-bred
was defective in his feet, and that in this class a high percentage
of Navicular Disease existed.

However, as the Indian Cavalry Divisions left France for
Service in Palestine, and Indian Cavalry Brigades took part in
the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, where horses had a
more favourable scope for real Cavalry service, it is to those
theatres that report as to the merits of the Indian country-breds,
and particularly of those better clase of animals on the strength
of British Cavalry units, should prove most valuable. I have
no special information to form an opinion, but the glorious

134 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

achievements of the Cavalry arm in Palestine would certainly
indicate that they had proved their merit and value up to the
hilt. For instance, the 10th Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Indian
Cavalry Division in Palestine accomplished a distance of 70
miles from Selmeh orange groves to Beisan in 35 hours,
including halts and delays. The horses of despatch riders, of
patrols and of many officers covered even 80 miles on that
oceasion. The total casualties evacuated to the Mobile
Veterinary Section at the end of the period was only 15, and
this after a month in the Jordan Valley and night marches
aggregating 65 miles to the point of concentration. It is a
performance which leaves no doubt as to the merit and fitness
of,animals.

It is very imporrant, in view of horse-breeding operations in
India, that a more precise account of the better class of
country-breds on the strength of British Cavalry regiments in
war should be furnished, and a relative comparison drawn
between them and those imported from Australia. No doubt
in course of time this willbe done. Itis not definitely known
how many actually participated in War, but the following table
shows the number present with British units immediately prior
to departure overseas :—

Austra- Country- Arab

Regiment. Operations. _ lian. bred.
1st Dragoon Guards France 157 392
7th a i 585
6th Tanistalline ‘nes: ie 478 53
7th Hussars Mespot. 486 155
8th 3 France 12 20 482
13th ,, a 201 357
14th ,, Mespot. 373 171
17th Lancers France 220 332
Total 2462 1480 482

Since my return to India I have seen a good many Infantry
officers’ country-bred chargers, 14-1 to 14-3, both at the Front
in Frontier Expeditions, and amongst those proceeding overseas

to Mesopotamia as remounts, and without question they are of
real merit.

see

Po

SHOWING CONDITION OF PACK TRANSPORT MULES WITH THE
WAZIRISTAN FIELD FORCE. THE LOAD IS 160 LB OF GRAIN.

MULES. 135

CHAPTER VI—MULES.

In animal kind, the hero of the late World’s War—as in all
other Wars in which he has participated, that paragon of
excellence, the mule, finds the premier place. He stands out
prominently as a first class war animal, and under all circum-
stances, in all climates or situations, whether amongst the mud
of France, in the deserts of Egypt, on the plains of India, or
on the hill-tops of the Himalayas, in burning heat or icy snow,
his achievements have been marvellous. He is as indispensable
to War as a Commander of the Forces, and no history of War
is complete without him. Any demerits he may possess are
attributable to a psychology peculiarly his own, but his merits
are double distilled, and little more remains to be said on that
account. ;

There are, however, so many different breeds, types, and sizes
of mules, and the military uses to which they are put are so
varied, that it is necessary to dilate on them severally.

Specifications as to height and substance vary according to
the theatre of war and for the purpose required, but under
British requirements the- following standards were commonly
adopted during the war :—

Heavy Draught Mules. Up to 16-2 or even 16-3.

Weight about 1300 lb.

Light Draught Mules. 15-0 to 15-3. __,, » 1100lb.

Pack Transport. 14-1 to 15-0.

Indian specifications are somewhat different to these, and are
roughly as follows :—

Light Draught Mules. Same as light draught horses.

Ordnance Mules (Mountain Artillery). 18-2 to 14-1.

Equipment Mules. 18-0 to 14-0.

Transport, draught and pack. 12-1 to 13-8.

American Mules.

Of all countries in the world, none can surpass the United
States of America for the production of mules, nor compete
with it in genera] resources. The mule population of the States
amounts to nearly 3,000,000, and the fountain never seems to

136 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

run dry. During the South African War, the British Govern-
ment purchased 80,524, and though I have no actual figures to
guide me, I should say purchases during the late War amounted
to considerably over a quarter of a million. The strength
of mules in the British Expeditionary Force, France, alone
mounted to roughly 90,000.

All sorts and sizes of mules are bred in the United States,
from the small miner 12-3 or 18-0 to the magnificent sugar mule
16-2 and over. It pays better to breed a mule than a horse, and
the market is for mining, lumber trade, and the cotton and
sugar industries of the South. The real home of the American
mule, and especially the large mule, is Missouri, though hghter
mules are raised in Texas. If the magic names of Lathrop,
Missouri and Kansas City are whispered into the long ear of an
American mule he will immediateiy start a conversation about
his old home, blue grass, Indian cort shucks and stover, his fine
big mother, his French and Spanish ancestry on his father’s
side, and he will air his views on stock-yards and “niggers”
generally. The American mule is wonderfully docile, and to
my mind quite the most handsome creature of the genus
Equidae, and loveable withal. His power is best appreciated |
by standing close up to him: at a distance he may look mean.

As a rider, a mule is of little value, a supreme will and an
iron mouth, as a rule, prove the drawback.

Mr. Malcolm Moncrieffe of Wyoming, through whom we
purchased a large number of horses during the Boer War, used
to hunt a St. Louis mule in England. He was not equal to
taking a line of his own but he followed a lead all right. Mr.
Moncrieffe’s only objection was that he never could talk to his
friends, as the aristocratic hunter was wont to turn up his nose
and snort at the plebeian and curious hybrid. The foreman of
a depot in the United States speaking, of a 14 hands mule,
“ Jack,” which I sometimes rode, said to me on one occasion :
“That mule will give you a fall some day. I have never known
a mule that did not give a man a fall sometime.” “Jack” put
me into a barbed wire fence most perfectly. He could round
up stock, and gallop like smoke in the company of horses,
but by himself he lapsed into mulish ways. Vain as a peacock,
with his tail trimmed in the American fashion, a white polo

MULES. 137

lock on his mane—which he knew he possessed, full of spirits,
and with affection like that of a dog, crying his heart out in the
corner of a corral when the time came for his shipment to
South Africa, summed up the nature of that handsome little
fellow—and of mules in general. Their happy nature goes a
long way towards their success. They have a habit of worming
their way into the hearts of our soldiers, and very soon friendly
relations are established that work for the common good. Their
endurance, their comparative freedom from sickness, their
pluck and stout heartedness when properly treated, their ability
to perform work under adverse circumstances and when
short commons are necessitated, are their usual attributes ; and
their employment in war is a great economic factor. These
remarks stand for all mules, whether American or otherwise.
_ The majority of American mules employed in the various
Theatres of War were for light draught purposes, supplying
the place of light draught horses in Ammunition Columns, etc.,
of Formations, and receiving the same rations as light draught
horses. To the latter factor the superiority of the mule over the
light draught horse is greatly ascribed. If well fed, he thrives
on work, and in times of idleness he will quickly get fat. As an
instance of ability to stand the vicissitudes of campaign I will
quote again the Somme operations in 1916. This offensive
period resulted in 16,074 Debility (poor condition) cases evacua-
ted to Veterinary Hospitals on Lines of Communications, of
which total only 404 were mules. The percentage of inefficiency
was 4:42 for horses and ‘61 for mules; horses suffered there-
fore seven times more than mules. During the winter seasons
they gave us far less trouble than horses (1 to 3, about) from skin
disease, and Respiratory disease was practically nil. These are
very strong arguments in favour of the mule. I call to mind
the limbered General Service Wagon mules of the 17th Lancers
going through the streets of Abbeville on a snowy day. They
were pictures of health, and the bloom of their coats shone in
spite of the snow. It is only one instance of many, ‘and it
made one feel proud to belong to our Army.

The pack mules of Infantry and Signals, smaller in height,
were also very good. Cavalry, for their Machine guns, by reason
of more rapid movement, have pack horses.

138 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

Mountain Artillery of India.

The mules of Mountain Artillery in India, both British and
Indian Batteries, deserve special mention. They seldom ail
anything, and of all units in the Indian Army they give the
least trouble to Veterinary Service both in peace and war.
They are of a superior class, sturdy and stout, 13-2 to 14-1, with
good straight backs—an essential feature of a pack mule. They
are household words in a matter of condition and fitness, and
they have the further merit of being unshod, for the reason that
they are all the more able to get better foot-hold in ascending the
mountains. They are a Cosmopolitan assembly, with numbers
hailing from the United States, Argentine, China, Cyprus, and
the Punjab with American ancestry. I remember the first ship-
ment of North American mules (brand G.H.) purchased at
Lathrop, Missouri, by Major Gough in 1902 from Messrs.
Guyton and Harrington. They were perfection in mule kind.
Mr. Guyton expressly desired Major Gough to select the very
best he could find, to let the Indian Government, as he said, see
what the United States and his firm could produce. I daresay
some of these original G.H. mules are still in existence. They
were very highly appreciated.

Indian Transport Mules.

Indian Transport is Pack and Draught, the mules ranging up
to 138-3; the pack load is 160 lb and the draught a load of 10
maunds or 800 lb. for a pair of mules in an A.T. Cart. Mules
are either Argentine, Chinese, or Country-bred. The record of
the Transport mule of India in War is now remarkably good,
inefficiency in recent Frontier expeditions being usually about
2°6 per cent. or 3 per cent.—a much improved state of affairs
from campaigns of former days in which sore-backs abounded.

Perhaps the most trying circumstances under which Indian
Transport animals have laboured during Indian expeditions was
the Tibet mission of 1904, and the merit of the mules which
took part is well illustrated in the Veterinary Report of that.
Mission. The Senior Veterinary Officer of the Mission remark-
ed as follows :—

“T cannot speak too highly of the Mule Corps engaged in
Tibet. They did rough work daily over snow, ice, etc., and in
all sorts of weather, including frost to the extent of 57 degrees.

‘AONOY ATA NVLSIMIZVA ‘IVYIOY
‘(STANVD) IVLIdSOH AUVNINALGA AISIY LZ ‘ON

MULES. 139

There is apparently no hardship that this animal cannot endure
when well looked after. I should like to mention the excellent
work done by the Argentine mules of the 13th Transport Corps,
and their condition under hard work. To my mind, if such
hardy, capable animals can be procured for transport purposes,
the sooner we seek them in Argentine districts the better.
Our mules passed through snow, ice and rain, and though
crossing mountains close on 17,000 ft. very few were lost from
heart failure.”
- “All the mules on the advance were unshod, and as long as
their feet were kept trimmed all went well: there were few
cases of lameness.”

Mules in recent frontier expeditions also have not been shod.

It will be noted that the small Argentine mule is very
favourably mentioned in the above report. It is a very far cry
from South America to the high plateaux of Tibet, and the
merit of the animal is therefore the greater. The Chinese
mule, though not so handsome as the Argentine, is a very
strong, stout, hardy mule, with a reputation that is hard to beat.
A considerable number were captured and purchased by the
China Expeditionary Force in 1900-01 and did so well, particu-
larby in draught in the “ Pekin Carts,” that China has been
greatly drawn on by the Indian Government for small mules

ever since. The country has also some very fine larger mules,
15 hands and over, which are used for riding, and by the

wealthy Chinese for their Pekin carts. The Indian country-
bred, under good feeding and care, has also done his part well
im many theatres of War.

The little Abyssinian mule, a game fellow, went through the
Somaliland Expedition of 1904 in pack work with flying colours.

The South African mule, as a draught animal, finds great
favour in his own country, and a shipment of 250 to India, for
Mountain Artillery, in 1892, was most satisfactory.

Equipment Mules.

The equipment mules of Battalions, Pioneers, and those of
Sappers and Miners are of the same strains previously
mentioned. They are slightly bigger and better than Transport,
and their record is. all that could be desired.

Long may we have mules to help us to fight our battles.

140 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

CuarteR VII—DONKEYS.

I have a sneaking regard for donkeys in warfare. The
French Armies used a considerable number of them for packing
up ammunition to their troops in the Line during the late War.
They were driven across country in mobs of about twenty, and
were able to pick their way round the shell holes.

If properly looked after, they are remarkably free from disease
and give Veterinary Service very little concern. The appor-
tioned load according to Transport Tables is 1; maunds (1201b).
It is rather an inconvenient amount, as so many of the items for
Transport are arranged or packed by maund weights. A better
pack-weight would be two maunds—one maund each side, and
only donkeys that are equal to that weight should be employed.

In the Tirah Expedition of 1897-98 there were 8297
Government donkeys and 5557 hired donkeys employed. The
weight carried was 2 maunds. They maintained their condition
remarkably well, and the hired animals were even better than
those of Government. In the Chitral Expedition of 1895 many
were employed, and they were well able to negotiate a two
maund load on the level, but somewhat failed in scrambling
over rocks under that load. It is all a matter of a suitable
saddle and proper adjustment of loads, which for small animals
should not be of a bulky nature. Moreover, work in short
stages, especially in hilly countries, gives the best results.
During my frequent visits to the Frontiers recently, I have
noticed lots of very good donkeys that Iam sure are equal to a
two maund load if properly fed and driven along quietly. One
man to twenty donkeys would be economical transport, and it
goes without saying that they would require constant inspection
to ensure that their backs were free from injury, and that a
suitable ration should be assured to them. For road making
and mending, carrying stones and earth, they fill a most useful
position.

The Tibetan donkey, used during the Mission, was reported
on as a wonderful animal for his size, and a load of two maunds
was an easy task. On the other hand the Somali donkey,
which is a sturdy animal with a good back, was apparently

PONIES. 141

equal to only one maund in most cases when employed during
the operations in that country in 1903. A large number was
employed during the Nile Expedition of 1884-85. They were
mostly hired, and had no disease.

The record of donkeys in the Kohat-Kurram Force of 1879-80
was bad, for the reason that so many of the animals were very
young, or old and unfit; there was no sort of proper selection.

Very large numbers of donkeys are used for transport.
purposes in Persia. In South West Persia alone there are
probably 200,000. The Persian donkey is small, but strong
and enduring, and he is equal to a load of 1380 to 200lb. The
practice of Local Transport Companies is to shoe them with a
broad webbed shoe for work over the rocky road from Bandar
Abbas into the interior.

Afghanistan also is well endowed with an exceptionally hardy
donkey, something of the same nature as our frontier animals.

CHAPTER VIII—PONIKES.

The knight of old, when on march route, bestrode his palfrey
for his greater comfort; the present day officer is permitted to
include his polo pony as a charger for practically the same
reason. Officers of Services and Departments, not required to
do fast work, are supplied with small horses and ponies as their
chargers; and the riding animals of units of Transport and
Mountain Artillery in India are ponies ranging from 13-3 to
14-2. They are universally satisfactory in war for the reasons.
that they require a lesser ration than horses ; they are, as a rule,
easier and more comfortoble to ride, especially for the inex-

‘ perienced ; and if the equilibrium of the rider suffers by default,
mother earth is somewhat nearer. Individual ponies as riders
have been made great use of during the late War with marked
success. They were used considerably for Mounted Infantry
purposes during the War in South Africa, and without question
certain classes of them performed very satisfactory work. The
Cape Colony and Free State pony for instance, native to the
country, was quite able to keep on his legs and cover long

142 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

distances. Plumer’s Rhodesia Regiment, in March 1900,
accomplished a distance of 70 miles in 26 hours and not a single
man or animal dropped out. On the 22nd January 1879 a
strong body of mounted volunteers under Lieut.-Colonel
Redvers H. Buller, of the Bechuanaland Field Force, between
lam. and 11 p.m., that is in 22 hours, covered a distance of
70 miles over rough hilly country, the average height of the
animals being 14-2 to 14-8. The small Basuto pony in those
regions is renowned for his stamina.

A number of Khirgiz ponies from Asiatic Russia found their
way to the South African War, and the history of the journey
of these hardy, short legged, straight backed, broad quartered
small animals (seldom over 14 hands) is most interesting. Six
or eight days were occupied in journeying by road from their
place of origin to Orenburg, where they were entrained to a
station on the River Volga (either Samara or Saratov), then
placed in open boats and floated down the Volga for four to
seven days to T'zaritzan, thence by rail to Fiume; and of all the
Russian cobs they presented themselves for purchase in the
best condition. They had come 3000 miles and travelled for
one month to join His Majesty’s Forces, and for subsequent
shipment from the Port of Fiume to South Africa.

Indian Transport Ponies.

In addition to the riding ponies above-mentioned, the Indian
Army maintains a number of pack and draught ponies, organ-
ised, as in the case of mules, into Corps. The height of these
animals is from 13-0 to 13-3.

India is essentially a country of ponies and small animals,
and though there is a considerable number of indifferent speci-
mens, the resources of the country must be made use of to the
best advantage.

For pack purposes the Indian pony is not an unmixed bless-
ing, and his history in War is far from satisfactory. He has
not the stamina of the mule, is more subject to debility, and is
much more prone to sore back. He is better placed in draught,
and when suitably selected and properly looked after, he proves
satisfactory in this sphere. A few extracts from the Veterinary
Reports of Expeditionary Forces will make this clear.

PONIES. 143

Konat-Kurram, 1879-80. “The animals were not on the
whole satisfactory. Every description of pony was sent to the
Force, from the diminutive grass cutter’s tattu, flat sided,
narrow chested, rubbing his hocks together, to the big ragged,
sharp spined, high withered ekka pony. They had not the same
digestive powers as mules—required more attention in the
preparation of their grain and selection of fodder, and their
different shaped backs demanded greater care in the fitting of
pack saddles. Compact, round barrelled animals kept their
condition and did well, a number of small ones from the
Bombay Presidency performed excellent service.”

Currrat RELIEF Force, 1895. “ Ponies did not do well,
excepting those of Jeypore State Transport. They were used
as draught from Nowshera to Durgai, and were sent as pack
over the Malakand. They failed as pack over the rough and
difficult roads.”

Tira EXPEDITIONARY ForcE 1897-98. “There were 10707
Government ponies employed, and report states that they were
not as satisfactory or efficient as they might have been, two
reasons being that they were physically unfitted for army pack
animals, also that they fell away after purchase. Hired ponies
did better, the reason being that owners looked after them well,
Of the Jeypor and Gwalior Transport Trains, report again states
that “no ponies could have done better or worked harder than
did the ponies of these two trains.” They were properly
organized, their equipment was perfect, .and they worked both
as pack and draught.

The Kashmir ponies with their own Sunka equipment also
did good work, and 400 of them were eventually purchased by
‘Government.

They were accustomed to Hill work and it is therefore unfair
to compare them with Plains ponies.

TipEt Mission 1904. “ Four Hkka trains were organised,
the ponies being drawn from various parts of India. They
were a very mixed lot, and suffered severely from excessive
cold, many died, and it was only by building high turf walls
that mortality was reduced.

144 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

The Tibet and Kashmir Pony Corps were put to great trials
in long marches with minimum quantities of food (3 1b grain
per day) and extremely severe weather, and a large number
died (592 died and 211 destroyed) in the two Corps. It was
reported that no careful selection could have been made in
these Corps. :

The Tibet pony proper, as obtained in Central Tibet, was
most useful, and the First Mounted Infantry, commanded by
Captain Ottley, was almost entirely composed of these animals.
Between 12-2 and 13-3 hands, big of bone for their size, not by
any means handsome, and with an enormous coat of hair, they
carried their 14 stones day after day over ali sorts of ground
in splendid style.”

SOMALILAND FIELD Force 1903-04.

Somali pony An extraordinarily sound little animal, capable
of travelling great distances on little food and

' no water.
Arab Adapts itself quickly to the requirements of

the country.
South African )
English fiom equally hardy, though they suffer more

Argentine from want of water that the Somali or Arab.
Russian

ee | Quite unable to stand hard trekking in Somali-
Abyssinian ) land.
CuinA Expepitionary. Force, 1900-01. ‘“ The Mongolian

pony is a hard, sturdy, short-legged animal, from 12-0 to 13-3.
A fair number was bought or captured by the Force. They
were found to be much more suitable for draught than pack,
their conformation ill-adapted to our pack equipment, and
sore-backs resulted. They were also found difficult to keep in
condition, and were reported as badly-mouthed, sulky, ill-
tempered, and difficult to manage except by Chinese, who are
used to them. The mares are much used for the breeding of
mules, which, as I have previously remarked, are a much better
and more suitable product for military purposes.

PONIES. 145

REcENt ExpEDITIONS, NORTH-WESTERN FRONTIER FORCE,
Waziristan, ETC. The records of recent expeditions show a
marked improvement, not only in the quality of the Indian
country ponies employed, but in their work generally. Even
then they have not shown the same degree of efficiency as mules.
The draught pony corps of N.W. Frontier Force up the Khyber
fell off in condition during the extreme heat of June and July
1919, and their feet were somewhat neglected in shoeing. Mules
have a distinct advantage in their ability to perform work
unshod. Excepting perhaps in wet weather, when maceration
of the horn is more likely, many country-bred ponies also could
go without shoes—at least hind shoes. One unit in Waziristan
did so quite successfully. The draught ponies of the Force in
Waziristan, during a less exhausting season, performed very
satisfactory work and were in very good order. The most cases
of sore-backs were in Pack Pony Corps, this class of ailment
being much less in mules.

There is no doubt that it is much more difficult to maintain
the utility of pony corps than mule corps, and serviceability of
the former therefore resolves itself into more careful animal
management, including those most necessary items, adequacy
of ration and a proper water discipline, which are so apt to be
at fault in war. When these are in force, and suitable ponies
selected for the purposes required, there is no reason to suppose
that pony transport will be otherwise than efficient. Indian
country-bred ponies are more suitable for draught, but the
necessity for pack in the frontier regions must always be borne
in mind, and animals suitable for the dual purpose selected.

146 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

CHAPTER IX.—BULLOCKS.

Bullocks are unsatisfactory war animals. They are of no use
for the transport of fighting formations, and their only place is
for transport service on Lines of Communications. In India
their great drawback—and it is a very serious one, is their
proneness to the dire contagious diseases which are extant in
that country. It has been the experience of all campaigns in
India that within a very short time after mobilization either
Rinderpest or Foot-and-Mouth Disease, or both together, pre-
sent themselves, crippling all useful service and creating untold
inconvenience. There is no escape from these two diseases.
They are, like the poor, always with us. I have fully remarked
on them in @ previous section, “‘ Wastage of Animals in War,”
and further reference is unnecessary. One feels sorry for the
old “ Bile of India,” but where reliability is concerned, it must
be ruled out. The transport bullock of the present day, both
Siege Train and Army Transport, is not of the same excellent
standard that existed when I first made his acquaintance 30
years ago. In ten years I see a vast difference—and it is only
to be expected when the production of stock in India, and
particularly of good stock, is pushed into the back-ground by
the more profitable and increasingly valuable crops of cereals
and cotton.

Were it not for his serious contagious diseases and the
difficulty of controlling their spread under circumstances of
movement, I should advance him in the scale of military utility;
for a pair of good bullocks are surprisingly equal to the haulage
of heavy loads, considerably more than the allotted army load
of 10 to 12 maunds (800 to 960 lb) provided the pace is slow, the
stages are short, diet is sufficient (it usually is for Bullocks) and
rest permits the act of rumination. He is certainly a willing
slave, and he is not very much impressed with fine ideas about
harsh treatment. His resistance to disease is considerably
influenced by breed and locality. For instance, Southern India
animals, e.g. the Mysore, are more readily attacked by Rinder-
pest, and contract the disease in more virulent form than

BULLOCK TRANSPORT IN WAZIRISTAN FIELD FORCE.

SHOWING GOOD CONDITION OF CAMELS UNDER “STALL FEEDING,”
IN WAZIRISTAN FIELD FORCE.

BULLOCKS. 147

Northern Bullocks of the United Provinces and Punjab, whence
the majority of our Army Bullocks are drawn.

In days gone by, heavy artillery batteries employed Bullocks
of the Siege Train Class for the Wagons, and from an animal
management point they were perfect.

Putting aside the matter of contagious ailments, which consti-
tute the most serious obstacle for the successtul employment of
bullocks in war,.and probably let one down at the very moment
when there should be no hitch in proceedings, I have gone
carefully into all the records and Veterinary reports of the
various Expeditions on the Frontier, and there is, after all,
something to be said in their favour. I take little notice of the
Kohat-Kurram Force of 1879-80, as the bullocks on that
occasion, which were considerable, would appear to have
included a large proportion of physically unfit animals of a
type unsuitable for pack work, and moreover one cannot blame
animals from suffering terribly from sore-backs when no proper
equipment was at first in use. It is inviting disaster to sling
loads by ropes over a pad and folded jhool without a soonka.

The Inspecting Veterinary Officer of the Chitral Relief Force,
in spite of 1290 having died from Rinderpest out of 6363 hired
pack Bullocks, and 3675 cases of Foot-and-Mouth Disease,
could still say ‘Notwithstanding all, by dint of unceasing
inspections, withdrawals, and isolations, the bullock pack
transport Rept on moving, and did some of the best work on
the campaign.”

With 4413 Government, and 9314 Hired Ballocks, and with
one outbreak of Rinderpest and two outbreaks of Foot-and-
Mouth Disease, the Inspecting Veterinary Officer of the Tirah
Expeditionary Force reported that “ There were no faults to be

found with the bullocks . . . . On the whole they were a
good lot.” They were only used for wheeled transport; no
pack.

Again, on the Tibet Mission, after the stamping out of
Rinderpest and Foot-and-Mouth Disease. “The Bullock Cart
Train, the first and second Bullock Pack Corps did excellent
work between Gilliguri, Guntak and Lingtam for the greater
part of the expedition, but long days and heavy roads told in

148 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

the long run, and many were returned to India, while others,
unsuitable for cantonments, were sold.”

During the recent Frontier Expeditions Bullock Corps were
severely hit by these two diseases, and by occasional heat
exhaustion, chiefly at the outset; but subsequent proceedings
were satisfactory and the animals maintained a good condition.
It is anticipated that Rinderpest will be excluded from military
bullocks in future by a process of inoculation rendering them
durably or permanently immune before they go on Service, but
we shall have to rely on the old methods of isolation against
Foot-and-Mouth Disease, as even previous attacks convey only
a short lived immunity.

Bullock Transport was greatly in vogue in the South African
War, spans of 12 and 16 bullocks in heavy wagons being the
method of employment. It was quite satisfactory for slow
moving troops, but here again a contagious disease was
encountered — Pleuro-pneumonia Contagiosa, against which
inoculation was practised with success.

In closing this section I should like to remark on the great
boon which has been conferred on the Indian Army in War on
the Frontiers by the establishment of Dairies, the majority of
the animals being buffaloes. There is great merit in the
procedure, and it is just as easy to get these animals up near
the front as it is meat on hoof. Our troops in Fraece also
owned occasional cows, and Motor Horse Ambulances belonging
to Veterinary Service offered no objections to their transport.
from place to place, in fact there was no reason why the
procedure should not have been made more general, particularly
for the benefit of Casualty Clearing Stations.

YAKS. 149

CHAPTER X—YAKS.

The Tibet Mission of 1904 had three Yak Corps of approxi-
mately one thousand Yaks each, and only 70 survived. Anthrax.
Rinderpest, Pleuro-pneumonia, Foot-and-Mouth Disease,
Debility consequent on work in too low an altitude, and bolting
into the jungle, disposed of the remaindsr. A pure Yak (one-
third of them only were pure bred, the rest being Zooms, or
half-breds) cannot live in low regions. Tibetans seldom ask
them to go below 8000 feet. They were down to 2300 feet at
times, and under such circumstances a pure yak will pant, and .
lie down every few yards, and rapid emaciation ensues.

Yaks are useless as transport animals. They can only travel
from six to eight miles per day, require two days a week rest,
and an enormous amount of grazing. Two maunds is all that
a yak can carry, and if pushed beyond his pace he lies down
and sulks. His habits are distinctly lazy, but when compelled
to go he is sure of foot, and can negotiate the roughest cliffs.
possible.

CHAPTER XI—CAMELS.

Cyrus the Great of Persia (559 B.C.) had great ideas of
Tactics. At the battle of Thymbra, fearing the superiority of
the Cavalry of Croesus, which had a reputation for the skilful
use of the long lance and for the adroitness with which they
managed their horses, he mounted his Cavalrymen on his
baggage camels, and placed them in the first line. The horses
of the Lydian Cavalry were so alarmed at the appearance and
smell of the camels that they recoiled in confusion, and although
the Lydians dismounted and engaged the Infantry of Croesus,
they were defeated.

The above is certainly a unique utilisation of the camel, and
it is distinctly worthy of special record in the merits of that
animal.

The uses to which camels are put in the Army relate chiefly
to riding, and pack transport. On certain occasions they have

150 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

been applied to Artillery draught, and in certain districts, as in
Karachi and Western India, it is no uncommon sight to see
them yoked to low wheeled carts, performing carrying duty.
Napoleon employed them for mounted infantry purposes in
Egypt and Palestine, Napier in India, and we ourselves in
Egypt, with marked success in properly organised Corps for
mounted infantry purposes. In Persia, in early times, they
were used for light Artillery (Zemboureks) a small gun being
mounted on a wooden saddle.

Riding camels are quite distinct animals, differing from
baggage camels as race horses do from other breeds of horses.
There are certain breeds that are specially suitable for riding
purposes—the Bikanir and Rajputana, famous all over India for
their swiftness, the Hejeen of Arabia (Oman), and the Bishareen
of the Soudan.

The paces of riding camels are the amble and trot, the former
being 4 to 44 miles an hour, and the latter 7 to 8 miles an
hour. The gallop is seldom required, and is very unpleasant.
Instances are quoted of long distances covered, such as 100
miles in 24 hours. Fortune mentions an Arabian camel having
accomplished 225 miles in 28 hours, and General Chesney
crossed from Basra to Damascus, a distance of 9584 miles, in
19 days, a daily rate of 50 miles. The capability of a body of
riding camels, each with a man and his kit, weighing in all
400 Ib, nevertheless must not be considered to exceed 25 miles
a day, with a halt once a week.

The real importance of camels from a military standpoint is,
however, as baggage or pack transport animals, and it is in this
respect that my remarks will specially apply. Questions of
structural peculiarities, constitution, idiosyncrasy, management,
disease, are common to all breeds and classes.

There is no more useful animal in existence than the baggage
camel, and for military purposes under certain circumstances.
he is absolutely indispensable. His merits are that he can, as
as an individual, carry heavier loads than other transport
animals, perform work under circumstances or situations
unsuitable for other forms of transport, and his cost on purchase
and for maintenance, on their face values, is reasonable. His
temperament is peculiar at times, due in a great measure to

<A,

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SRSSSSSS

CAMEL UNDER LOAD OF 480 LB (6 MAUNDs).

CAMELS. — 151

the fact that he is a male living in a community of males and
permitting his passions to dominate him, particularly during
the Musth season. Were he made neuter, he would be just as
useful for military service, as has been proved, and even dachis
would be able to enjoy his society without any display of
unseemingly behaviour. The more one is acquainted with him,
the more his merits appeal to one; and I know no animal that
repays the kindness and considerate care bestowed on him by
his attendants and supervisors as he does. It is just this
attention which makes all the difference to him as a serviceable
animal. Were I a young man at the beginning of my career in
the Army, there is nothing I would like better than to have the
command of one or more Camel Corps, to prove the utility of
camels to the highest degree by rational treatment, and to
remove them from that Slough of Despond into which the
History of Wars clearly shows they have been plunged. It is,
I think, in many cases idle to talk about demerits of this animal.
Personally I do not altogether acknowledge them, as inefficiency
is not in the main inherent in the animal itself, but in point of
fact is the outcome of ignorance of animal function, injudicious
management, and circumstances inseparable from the conduct
of war.

Reading’ history of animals in war, one stands appalled at the
dead wastage of camels; and if my remarks are strong, they are
only made so in the hope that the slate may be washed clean,
and that our future figures entered thereon may show better
reading. In my previous section entitled “ Wastage of Animals
in War,” I showed the enormous losses in camels that had been
experienced in various campaigns, and it is perhaps unnecessary
to refer to them again. At the same time it is important to
show that the virtues possessed by camels have been played
with, and that a misunderstanding of their nature and capacity
for work as animal machines lies to a very great extent at the
root of their shortcomings.

It is very commonly supposed that a Camel is possessed of
phenomenal endurance, to fit in with which he is specially
endowed with a series of water cisterns in his stomach, and a
hump as a food store. In other words he carries his rations in

152 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

(not on) his person—is an expense store in himself, and proof
against privation. The idea has been dwelt on by many writers
to a fanciful extent. He is presumed to have the courage of a
stoic, yet without intelligence, and he drops down dead.
_ Was there ever any greater fallacy? The capacity of the so-
called cisterns is a quart on the right side of the stomach and
about a gallon on the left side. The contents are a mixture of
food, water, and mucus. The hump consists largely of adipose
tissue, and though its size and firmness are indications of health,
and it will waste with privation, it is no more of a larder than
the fat on one’s own body. Apart from disease, to which I will
presently refer, the stoic dies from exhaustion induced by
privation of food and water; and it is the intelligence of the
human being who is constituted his mentor that is at fault—
not the camel’s. Until this is realized, grave loss of camels will
result. No human, animal, or mechanical engine can perform
work without fuel and water. It is avery elementary proposi-
tion, and it is responsible for a large amount of the demerits
ascribed to camel kind, notably disease, death without apparent
cause, heat apoplexy or exhaustion, inability to stand climatic
changes, etc.

The Afghan War of 1878-80 cost us close on 60,000 camels
(including desertions) and the causes of such heavy wastage
were commonly ascribed to the.following :—

(i) “Scarcity and indifference of food.”

(ii) “The great strain thrown on the animals at the com-
mencement of the campaign.”

(iii) “The employment of a large number of camels only
accustomed to the plains of India.”
(iv) “The severe weather of the winter and early spring.”

(v) “The necessity of employing the animals during a season
of the year when at ordinary times they suffer peren-
nially and are uniformly given rest.”

(vi) “The uselessness and ignorance of the men sent as
attendants on Government camels.”

I wish specially to draw attention to the factors of Food and
Man, and particularly to the Food, which was not only scarce

CAMELS. 153

but indifferent in quantity. In the old Kabul papers I find the
following scale laid down :—

Camels on command 3 seers Barley ) 10 seers Bhoosa or

» Incantonments 14 ,, 5 equivalent in cost of
» on fatigue duty 2 ,, . any other fodder.
» at graze 1 , 5 No Bhoosa

The amount of Barley (a very inferior grain to the Gram of
India for working ruminants) cannot be considered excessive.
I find no reference in any report to Bhoosa, but considerable
stress is laid on the inability to obtain grazing, and what
grazing existed was not of a kind the animals were accustomed
to. Grazing has always been the basis of Camel feeding
in every Camel country, and the estimated time per day to
obtain a sufficiency of aliment is six hours. What possible
grazing is procurable at all seasons of the year amongst the
rocks and mountains of the North-West Frontiers? And what
time can be devoted to grazing, even if the military situation
permits of it, is difficult to imagine. It is quite an impracticable
idea on Service. The wretched animal has to fall back on his
grain ration, administered by men tired out with marching, and
he is lucky if he gets a portion of his scheduled amount. It is
a picture that is applicable to any theatre of War.

The Report above mentioned goes on to say :—

“Tt is a well known fact that no amount of grain will serve
to sustain Camels that do not get their necessary amount of
grazing. For military reasons it was deemed desirable that the
troops should push to the Front in November 1878 without
halting. The marches were long and the roads indifferent. The
baggage animals often came in at 5 a.m. having marched from
8 o'clock the previous morning and again were on the move by
10 a.m., so that the animals had time neither for grazing nor
resting.”

It is an old story, carrying profound lessons. Experience is
often dearly bought, and the lessons should therefore be the
more appreciated.

Thank goodness we have broken away from many old ideas
of darkness and empiricism in regard to the management under
war conditions of this indispensable animal of transport. There
still, however, remains a lot to be done to put him on a better

154 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

plane of health, efficiency, and merit generally. Officers and
men ‘know him now more intimately, and the personal factor of
man makes for his greater usefulness. Stall-feeding in practic-
ally the same manner as in other military animals has done
wonders in the reduction of the disease Surra, as well as adding
to his increased power for work. We have progressed very
considerably in recent times, as the records of sickness and
inefficiency, and more especially the condition and appearance
of our service camels, distinctly and surprisingly show. Un-
fortunately, with work up the river beds in Waziristan during
the past hot weather there has been an increase of Surra over
the past year, from the prevalence of biting flies. Deaths from
heat exhaustion, cases of night blindness, and a considerable
number of sore-feet from traversing river beds too, have sent
up inefficiency. Camels’ feet were never intended for water ;
and in normal times it is the wise custom to refrain from work
in the middle of the day; indeed owners of camels do not, as a
rule, work them from the middle of May to Ist October. If
operations are to continue in these regions in future years it.
would seem that the Camel would have to be equipped with
goloshes on his feet, goggles on his eyes, and a Dolly Varden
hat on the top of his head. Having a supercilious demeanour
at any time, he would look a real gem so attired, and he would
prove a fortune for the “ Movies.”

The carrying power of a camel depends on the breed, the
climate in which he is employed, and the distance to be tra~
versed. The usual load of an Indian Camel is 5 maunds or
400 lb. e.g. five bales of Bhoosa—two on each side and one on
the top. An equal number on each side and none on the top,
say three bales of bhoosa on each side, or a total of 4801b, is a
much better balanced load, and the removal of any article from
the top has saved many hump-galls. Moreover, ability to carry
extra work on occasion is a direct return for the good food and
attention which have been bestowed on the animal, In Algeria,
Morocco, Tunis and Tripoli the load is from 800 to 4001b, in
Egypt from 350 to 5501b, in Syria, Asia Minor, Persia and
Tartary 550 to 6001b. Civilian Camels engaged on local duty
at present in the Waziristan Force at Dera Ismail Khan are

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‘dad UAAIN AHL ONOTV SI HOVUL AVON AHL ‘AONOA ATAIY NVISIMIZV A
NI WYOAMAd OL AAVH STAWVD HOIHM UAAGNN SAONVISWNOYID DNIMOHS MAA

CAMELS. 155

carrying from 700 to 1200 lb, twelve bales of Bhoosa (960 Ib)
being a common load.

With regard to the merits of different breeds of Camels;
during the Afghan War of 1878-80 the plains camels were
preferable for service on the hotter or Indian side, but were
reported on as useless for the higher, colder regions. Of the
plains ‘camels those of Bikanir were superior to the Punjab, and
the latter better than the Sind. Of the Punjab camels the best
were obtained from Rawalpindi.

The Salt Range Camels with Corps at present in Waziristan
are in excellent order. A consignment of beautiful Persian
camels obtained last year nearly all died during the heat of
summer in Waziristan.

In the Nile Expedition of 1884-85, the Delta camel of Egypt,
a large, heavy, powerful animal, used for carrying loads on the
cultivated lands of the Delta, was at first thought unsuitable for
the Desert, but events proved him to be most satisfactory, and
he withstood the desert marching nearly, if not equally as well
as other breeds. A Battery of Artillery with Delta camels
marched the whole way from Cairo to Matammeh across the
Bayuda Desert.

Crossed Delta and Desert are useful animals. The Bishareen
is a desert bred animal, small, and essentially a riding camel.

The Kabbabish camel of the Bayuda Desert is larger and
stronger thah the Bishareen. He was principally hired when
our own transport broke down during the Nile Expedition. As
he subsists on grazing entirely, time (which can ill be afforded)
is necessary to admit of a grazing system to be carried out.

A big, soft camel with an exceptionally large hump is found
in the Dongola District. He is almost impossible to fit with a
Government saddle. :

The Arabian camel sent from Aden to the Nile Expedition
was well adapted for riding and baggage purposes, and proved

equally as good, if not better than any employed.

‘The remarks of the Veterinary Inspector, Lines of Com-
munication, of the Somaliland Field Force in 1904, are well
worth quoting, as the country is essentially one for the
employment of Camel Transport. He says :—

“A more cosmopolitan array of camels, both riding and
burden, has probably never been seen in any campaign.”

156 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

“ Riding camels were Bikanirs, Arabs, and a few Egyptian.”

“Burden camels were Indian, Baluchi, Arab, Somali and
Abyssinian.”

“ All did good work if they were good specimens of their kind
to start with, but the Bikanirs carried more and outlasted the
other riding camels with great ease, so long as they got water
and food fairly regularly.”

“Of the burden camels the Indian and Somali bore the heat
and burden of the day, and outmarched and outlived the Arabs
and Abyssinians. Where it is possible to water and feed them,
the Indian camel. will outlast the Somali also, but when the
pinch comes, and they have to go on little food and no water
for days and days, the Somali camel will pull through and save
the situation, though it never will be any use afterwards.”

“Some camels did extraordinary marches without water,
Somali as much as eighteen days, and Indians nine days, but
they never recovered. A camel if once allowed to get below par
recovers very, very slowly.”

“A great deal of nonsense was talked about the best way to
prepare animals for trekking in Somaliland, some people
insisting that it was fatal to give ponies and Somali camels any
grain, as it only created an artificial appetite and thirst which
could not be satisfied on the march, and therefore the animals
would die, though those previously grass-fed only would do the
work and live. This is quite a mistake. The ordinary rules
for getting animals fit hold good in Somaliland, with the
exception that it is undoubtedly sound, owing to the exigencies
of the country, to teach animals to drink much and seldom
rather than little and often.”

“That Somali camels do very well.on a regular ration of
grain, dry grass, and water was proved by the camels in the
carts. Hach camel got 61b of grain and 15 lb of grass daily,
and water every third day. They did steady work and kept,
and some even improved, in condition.”

I have specially quoted the above remarks as they not only
show merit of animals. but an intelligent handling of them.

I close this chapter with a strong wish that the few remarks
I could crowd into a short article will induce officers and men
to take a special interest in our Army camels, their selection,

ELEPHANTS. 157

their suitability for Army Service, their care, reduction of
inefficiency by enlightened management, and last, but not least,
the scientific elucidation of the peculiar diseases to which camel
kind is heir, and which are imperfectly understood.

And may good luck always attend him in peace and war.

CHAPTER XIJI—ELEPHANTS.

From very early times elephants have taken part in war.
They were not only used to stampede Cavalry and to trample
down Infantry, but they were fighting machines, protected by
armour, with steel blades fastened to their tusks, and saddled
with towers or howdahs containing several men from which
missiles of various kinds could be thrown. On occasion the
elephants of rival forces would have a duel « la mort, the rest.
of the forces halting to contemplate the contest.

Perhaps the first appearance of elephants in historical battle
was at the Battle of Arbela in 831 B.C., when Darius
Codomannus marshalled fifteen elephants in his fighting line.
against Alexander the Great. No mention is made of the part
they played on that occasion, but from that time onward their
importance was considerable.

In 326 B.C. when Alexander the Great reached the River:
Jhelum (Hydaspes) he was opposed by King Porus. In the
battle which ensued in the immediate neighbourhood of
Chillianwala, King Porus, trusting to the terror inspired by his
elephants, disposed them to the number of 200 in the front
line, a hundred paces apart, his infantry being behind and his.
cavalry and chariots being on the flanks. Seeing the elephants,
Alexander decided not to make a frontal attack, but relying on
his superiority in cavalry he made his main attack against the
left flank of Porus, one Brigade working to the rear. The
result of this was that the Indian Cavalry were driven to shelter
behind the elephants. The Macedonian phalanx then advanced,
and as elephants crashed through it the situation was for a
while serious. The Indian troops were, however, gradually
hemmed in, the elephants as the battle progressed became.

y

158 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.

unmanageable from their wounds and attacked friend and foe
indiscriminately. At last they refused to charge any longer.
The Indian troops were defeated with heavy losses, and King
Porus, who fought most bravely from a huge elephant until the
very end, sought refuge in flight—to be captured shortly after.
I have alluded to this battle specially, as it is perhaps the most
glorious encounter in which elephants participated. They were
certainly not relished by Alexander’s troops, for in the
complaints by the latter of war weariness and that they had
gone far enough, they stated that towards the East there were
‘still more powerful monarchs than Porus whose war elephants
and armies were stronger and more numerous than his.

At the battle of Ipsus in Asia Minor in 301 B.C. Seleucus,
a great soldier and one of Alexander’s Generals, was said to
have used his elephants (480 in number) with great effect
against Demetrius, He obtained the elephants and large
sums of money from Chandragupta of Indian fame in exchange
for territory and the matrimonial alliance of his daughter.

The elephants of Antiochus Soter, a successor of Seleucus, in
280 B.C., caused a mad stampede amongst the Cavalry of the
‘Gauls (said to have numbered 40,000) who had overrun
Northern Asia Minor and settled in Phrygia. Antiochus
celebrated the victory by a trophy bearing the figure of an
elephant. In all probability they were Chandragupta’s
elephants. I mention this as of interest to India, elephants
being long-lived animals. They are remounts at 40 and 50
years, and perform useful work up to 80 and 100 years.

Later on, at the Battle of Raphia.in Palestine, in 217 B.C.,
there was an encounter between Indian elephants of Antiochus
the Great and African elephants of Ptolemy of Egypt in which
the Indian elephants prevailed, although the battle was lost to
Antiochus.

The Macedonians at the siege of Megalopolis attacked with
elephants, but the defenders strewed the ground with long
spikes concealed under loose earth, and the huge animals
maddened with pain, broke back, killing their own troops.

In the First Punic War the Carthaginian Army used
-elephants before Palermo. The Romans struck terror into
them by means of flaming arrows and fireworks. They were

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(STANVD) IVLIdSOH AUVNINSLAA GISIY 9Z ‘ON AO NOILYOd V AO MAIA

+

Ald ie z

ELEPHANTS. 159

put to flight, trampled down their own infantry, and the
Romans taking the offensive gained a victory.

The Carthaginians were fond of elephants for War purposes.

The great Hannibal took 200 to Spain, and afterwards 37 of
them crossed the Alps with him into Italy 19 B.C.) They
were ferried across the River Rhone on rafts specially con-
structed. What with exposure and attack from the Roman
Legions in the Battle of Trebia, only one remained. Hannibal
obtained 40 remounts, but only seven remained to take part in
his final overthrow on Italian soil.

At the Battle of Zama in Africa four years after, his elephants
(80) were defeated by the Romans. Romans, as a rule, dislikéd
encounter with elephants, but on this occasion a fine example of
personal combat was set by the Roman Commander Scipio
which ended in the destruction of nearly all the elephants.

The Parthians being essentially an Army of light Cavalry
had no use for elephants: while under the Sasanian Dynasty
of Persia the Corps of Elephants was the most important of
the main Arms of Service.

In 1899 when Timur invaded India, he engaged the Army of
Mahmud Nassir-ud-din at Ferozabad near Delhi. The Army
of the latter included elephants armed to the teeth. Timur
gained a victory by driving a herd of buffaloes with burning
faggots attached to their horns amongst the elephants, causing
them to stampede, with a resulting discomfiture and defeat of
the Indian Troops.

At the siege of Arcot in 1752 Chanda Sahib had war elephants
with iron plates on their heads, which were trained to butt
against the gates and break them down. When fired on they
turned tail, and created disaster amongst their own troops.

The foregoing will show that elephants have little merit as
fighting machines, and that they even constitute a danger to
the side to which they belong.

The last appearance of elephants in battle was in the Afghan
War of 1878-80, and they finally disappeared as Field Transport
after the Chin-Lushai Operations in 1890. In Afghanistan they
were employed in Heavy Batteries, each gun being drawn by
two elephants, the total number on the establishment of a
Heavy Battery being six. They performed great service at the

- 160 ANIMALS USED IN WAR.’

Battle of Peiwar Kotal (2nd December 1878) packing four
Horse Artillery guns up the steep ascent of the Kotal during
the night, leading to the surprise of the enemy. Their immense
strength, their silent movements, and aptitude for climbing over
rough ground were of especial value for this purpose.

The drawback to elephants in Heavy Artillery is that they
are very gun shy, and it was for this reason, and the difficulty
of providing them with their enormous rations, that they lost
their place as War animals. A big animal of this kind is also
a fine mark for the enemy, and when one is knocked out or
rendered ineffective it is relatively a serious loss of animal
power to its unit. :

Elephants in heavy batteries continued for some fifteen years
after the Afghan War, and I recall those of a Battery, and their
stable (still in existence) at Jansi, of which I had charge nearly
thirty years ago. I remember, too, the old joke against thé
Veterinary Officer—that when his elephant patient required an
enema, application had to be made for the local fire-engine.

As transport in the Chin-Lushai Expedition, the 70 animals
employed proved most valuable, and performed very excellent
work.

The only association the Army of India now has with the
elephant is the scale of diet still permitted to be retained in
Army Transport Tables. Ste transit gloria mundi.

PART V.

Economy to be Effected in the Disposal of
Animals Wasted by War.

*‘And there was taken up of fragments that remained to them
twelve baskets.” (S¢. Zuke LX. 17.)

‘‘and they did all eat and were filled: and they took up of the
broken meaz that was left seven baskets full.” (S/. Afatthew
AT. 37-)

CHAPTER ,I—GENERAL.

When a War costs from £5,000,000 to £6,000,000 per day, is
continued for months and years, and income tax.is subjected to
continual rise, our thoughts are naturally driven to measures of
economy.

War in all its aspects must necessarily mean extehsive
provision of material, and such provision must bear a consider-
able margin over demand and ordinary expenditure, to admit of
unusual or unforeseen wastage.

On the other hand, a plethora of any thing may lead to
wanton waste.

In any case, whether expenditure in war material is ordinary
or extraordinary, there are fragments which remain’ to be
picked up and turned to credit account. In previous sections I
have remarked on business propositions of the Army, and
Economy, well directed, is certainly one of them. It is
remarkable, and I think greatly to the credit of our Armies in
the various theatres of the late Great War, what astounding
results have been achieved by SauvacE, under an organisation

162 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

which was simple during the progress of the War, and which
at the end was most efficient in the methods of clearing up.
Salvage, both during the War and after the conclusion of
hostilities, represented one of the biggest Firms of Commercial
Exploitation that has ever existed, for all Services, units, and
men belonged to it, and it was headed by a controller. ‘‘ What
have you salved to-day?” asked the tail board of the motor
wagon, and so forcibly and expertly was Salvage and Economy
brought home to one and all, that “Baskets,” manifold in
design and degree of capacity, were filled to overflowing. I am
sure that the Firm has every reason to be proud of its
turn-over, and of its gross and nett profits.

One of the items of Salvage, and one of very considerable
dimensions on demobilisation, related to the disposal of animals,
and it is to that portion of disposal which is specially referable
to the Wastage or unfitness of animals occasioned by the hard
usages of war that I wish to devote the present section.

I regret exceedingly, and I am sure it is a matter of pain to
many of those who have the interests of animals at heart, that
those creatures who in dumb obedience shared the dangers and
hardships of campaign with human beings should suffer the
indignity of classification under Salvage; still it must be
remembered that they are also creatures of mart—to be bought
and sold, and they represent a considerable factor in a country’s
commercial enterprise. It may be taken, however, that their
inclusion in Salvage only related to Returns. Their actual
disposal was a thing of itself, very carefully considered—and
quite rightly so, and I am in a position to affirm that humane
thought and fellow-feeling reigned supreme in their disposal,
even though the best economic considerations were necessary.

In war, where ineffective animals are sent to Field Veterinary
units for evacuation to Veterinary Hospitals and Convalescent
Horse Depots, it will be readily understood that the bulk of
animals which are of no further use for military purposes, or
the success of whose treatment is only problematical or
economically unsound, will be found in these Institutions.
Veterinary Service, therefore, becomes the chief medium
through which the account, or military career, of an animal is.
closed and disposal effected.

GENERAL. 163

It will also be realised that the longer the war the greater
the wear and tear, and the greater the number of unserviceable
animals for casting and disposal.

All animals wasted by war must be accounted for, not only
in respect to numbers, but as to money realised in their
disposal, and although this to the uninitiated may sound an
impossible or hopeless undertaking, with proper and efficient
organisation it becomes a comparatively simple routine process.
This, at all events, was so in the British Expeditionary Force,
France; and as disposal in that Force reached a magnitude
which probably will never again be experienced, and as
exceptional facilities existed, the procedure there followed may
be taken as an example not only of the manner in which
disposal is effected, but as to the profits, and the economy
which can be made applicable to it.

In describing the process I shall endeavour, as faithfully as
I can, to depict the history of animals after their being con-
sidered ‘“ unfit for further military service,” which is the official
phrase, and will group my remarks under the several headings,

CASTING.

DisposaL: (i) For work in civil pursuits, e.g. Agriculture,

7 (ii) For food. (iii) For By-products.

ACCOUNTING AND AMOUNTS REALISED.

Disposal ON DEMOBILIZATION.

I only ask that readers will not mark down Veterinary Service
and myself as butchers, instead of'a community of experts
whose mission it is to cure and not to kill. I can safely say
that the act of destruction is distasteful to the Veterinary Officer,
but some one of his Corps must do the deed, and the responsi-
bility for the execution of it in a proper and humane manner
devolves on the Veterinary Officer.

164 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

Cuapter II—CASTING.

Apart from animals which are incurably injured or diseased
and which are destroyed as necessary under the orders of the
Director of Veterinary Services or his representatives in For-
mations, the first step in the disposal of animals wasted by
War is that they are cast by competent authority as unfit for
further military service. No casting, or at least final casting,
was done at the front; the princicple being that only effective
animals were maintained with fighting formations, the ineffec-
tives being evacuated to Lines of Communication. It was,
however, left to the Administrative Officers of Formations to
recommend the casting of certain animals—from their more
intimate knowledge of them, and this was indicated on the
Evacuation Rolls for action.

The Casting Authority was, therefore, the Inspector-General
of Communications, or the General Officer Commanding Lines
of Communications, as he was subsequently termed. Acting
under this Authority, the decision of casting was carried out by
the Director of Remounts for what are designated Remount cases
i.e. animals too old for further service or those subject to vice,
and by the Director of Veterinary Services or his Deputies on
Lines of Communications for those suffering from infirmity or
disease. All animals submitted for casting were duly entered
on Casting rolls, which were signed by the Director or his
Deputy concerned. Furthermore, they were shown on the
Forage and Animal Monthly Return of the Hospital or Depot,
and struck off charge when disposed of, so that check was
accurate. It was not practicable during active warfare for
units of fighting formations, i.e. above railhead, to maintain a
Forage and Animal Account. The check on casualties—deaths,
destructions, missing, and evacuations, is quite enough to
impose on fighting units, and casting and disposal are much
better carried out farther back, where better facilities and a
better market can be arranged.

CASTING. 165

It will be readily imagined that the wastage of War chiefly
relates to veterinary disability, and only those, who have seen it
in concrete form, can have any conception of what it means. I
endeavoured to illustrate it in my previous paper on “ Wastage
of Animals in War.” Arrangements therefore, for disposal in
its varied forms were taken up by Veterinary Service, quite -
automatically as it were, and as the Force increased, and War
became more intense and prolonged, a Disposal of Animals
Branch of the Veterinary Directorate was instituted to meet
the necessity for the co-ordination of the various channels of
disposal, the framing of contracts for the sale of animals for
purposes of food, the installation of machinery for the abstraction
of by-products, and for the due accounting of the same. The
misfits, the vice cases, and the ancients from Remount Service
were transferred to this organization for disposal. The latter
were comparatively few, for a Remount Service in War has no
place for anything but efficient animals. Veterinary Service
in France was fortunate in securing the services of a young
officer for charge of the Disposal Section who not only was an
expert in the necessary machinery for By-products, but a
Chartered Accountant as well.

166 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

Cuaprer III.
DISPOSAL FOR WORK.

There was very little disposal at first in France except of
animals died and destroyed. It was not until the beginning of
November 1914 that definite casting rules were published in
Routine Orders. The Indian Mounted Troops on proceeding
up-country left some very inferior animals at Marseilles. Many
were unsuitable from a Remount point of view, and infirm.
They were cast and sold; the worst were destroyed. I do not
think it could have happened under a system other than
Silladar. But inthe early days of rapid mobilisation our Home
Force was not altogether free from its Methuselahs and infants.
I rather fancy that in some instances father had dropped out of
the ranks and his place taken by a member of his family of
questionably discreet years, or vice versa. It is wonderful how
such things arrange themselves when the desire for combat or
otherwise (particularly the otherwise) is concerned, and even
more wonderful is the adroitness with which these warriors
find out Veterinary Hospitals and the reputed comfort thereof.

On the publication of Casting Rules, sales were held at the
Base, Advanced Base, and at Paris. After a while these were
Stopped by order of the Army Council in deference to public
opinion at Home, and instructions were issued that all cast
animals were to be destroyed. From an economic point of
view this made little difference, as it was possible to obtain
almost as good an average price for purposes of food as for
work. But the destruction of really useful life has very little
to commend it, indeed it is sheer waste ; and moreover, in spite
of all argument which can be brought forward to the contrary,
sentimental or otherwise, an animal, useful still in certain
spheres, has just as much right to live as the man or woman
who advocates or clamours for his destruction to remove him
from any danger of cruelty.

The French Ministry of Agriculture was much perturbed at
the order for destruction of horses, as they depended on us to

DISPOSAL FOR FOOD. 167

help them out in their replacements in districts of horses
requisitioned for military purposes. Subsequent events showed
how necessary this was, and how correct the view of the French
Ministers of War and Agriculture. So great was the drain on
their own resources in France that by November 1917 not
only had 1,188,539 animals been bought in America and Spain
to supply wastage (Journal of Royal United Service Institution,
May 1919), but for rehabilitation at the end of hostilities they
took as many animals as we could dispose of, and could have
taken many more,

However, on the representation of the French Government
the order for destruction was rescinded in favour of sale of
suitable animals to agriculturists and breeders at the rate of not
more than two animals per person, the bona fides of each person
being certified by Mayors of Communes. This continued until
the cessation of hostilities when, of course, very serviceable and
good animals were put on the market under the measures of
demobilisation.

The average price of cast horses and mules taken together
sold to Farmers and Breeders during hostilities worked out at
about £22 per head. A statement of the turn-over will be given
later on in the section.

CHAPTER IV.
DISPOSAL FOR FOOD.

Excepting for dogs and cats, the flesh of horses in England
was not used as food previous to the War. On the Continent
it is different. In France, Belgium, and Germany it is quite
commonly eaten, both in the form of sausages and as prime
cuts. The law demands that it should be sold as horse flesh,
and the shops are all distinctively designated, e.g., Boucherie
Chevaline. In Paris there is a special and well ordered
Abattoir Hippophagique, with cubicles for slaughter and
dressing of the carcases and stabling for about three hundred
animals. This abattoir was our principal centre for the

168 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

disposal of animals for purposes of food. The President of the
Institution was our chief contractor and he was also the
President of the Chevaline Industrie de Paris. Animals were
sent by truck-loads from the various Veterinary Hospitals and
Convalescent Horse Depots, accompanied by personnel of the
R.A.V.C. They were met at the different Railway Stations of
Paris by the Contractor’s men and taken to the Abattoir under
the supervision of a Non-Commissioned Officer of the R.A.V.C.
They were weighed at the Abattoir, and were sold live weight
at 1 Franc per kilo. for thin animals (Class B) and Tr. 1°50 per
kilo. for those in good condition (Class A). Thin animals were
used for sausages, the stouter ones for joints. Transactions
were all cash, and the money was paid into the local Treasury
Office. Regular Contracts were drawn out, and deposits were
lodged by the Contractors in the Office of the Command Pay-
master. So extensive did the transactions become as the War
progressed—the number of animals running up to 600 and over
per week, that for the personal safety of the young officer
detailed to collect the money, payment was permitted to be
made by cheque. A small Detachment of Royal Army Veter-
inary Corps, consisting of an Officer, a Sergeant, and a Corporal
as accountant clerk, was maintained in Paris to watch our
interests and those of the animals. The adaptability of the
British Officer to business pursuits was well illustrated in the
young officer, who was an Oxford Graduate and a Professor of
French in a Colonial University previous to the War. What
he did not know about this particular line of business, both
wholesale and retail, after several years experience, was not
worth knowing.

The average weight of a Class A (good condition) animal was
about 450 kilos. so that the proceeds would be 450 x Fr. 1°50 =
Fr. 675. The Class B animal (Debility and poor condition)
weighed about 300 or 350 kilos. so that at Fr.1 per kilo. the
sum of Fr. 300 to Fr. 350 would be realized. Contractors were
wholesale dealers and supplied retail shops. All carcases were
passed by Municipal Meat Inspectors, and in the selection or
submission of animals for purposes of food, Officers of the
R.A.V.C. concerned were strictly charged that no animals were
to be submitted but what were perfectly suitable, and in this

DISPOSAL FOR FOOD. . 169

respect they acted in the rdle of Meat Inspectors themselves.
Any animals that did not come up to the desired standard were
disposed of for by-products.

Perhaps it will be interesting to readers, and illustrative of
the greater use which is made of horse flesh on the Continent
than in the British Isles, if I enumerate the trade terms and
prices which ruled in Paris in the Spring of 1918. Briefly
these were as follows :—

Wholesale. Retail.

Filet (4 to 5 kilos. only) per kilo. Fr. 3°50 Fr. 7:00
Tranches (principal cuts,

about 90 kilos.) Fs 2°60 4°50
Gros Bout (brisket) 7A 2°60 3:00
Jambes 55 1:60 1:60
Nerveux (low legs) 53 2:00 2°40
Abats (Tongue, Heart, Liver) _,, 1:00 2°40

Cervelle (Brain) sd 1:25 —
Collier (20 kilos.) 43 2:00 2°40
Basse Viande (Scrap) 50 kilos. _,, 2°00 2°40
Saucisson (ordinaire, fresh) 55 2°00 3°40
3 (Sec) A 4:00 6°00
Rognures (Cats’ meat) rs 50 “60

28,384 animals were sent to the Paris Abattoir for purposes
of food during the War up to the Armistice, and the average
price realised was £12 16 0: atter the Armistice up to the
31st March 1919, 8664 were sent, and as they were a better
class, on demobilisation, the average price was £18 10 0.

In addition to the Paris custom, a large number were
disposed of to local vendors at towns in which Veterinary
Hospitals were situated — Havre, Rouen, Forges-les-Eaux,
Abbeville, Boulogne, Calais, and St. Omer, 16,578 were thus
sold previous to the Armistice at an average price of close on
£14, while after the Armistice, up to the 3lst March 1919,
20,679 were similarly disposed of at an average price of a little
over £20. The latter included animals classed for destruction
on demobilisation, and disposed of in areas occupied by our
Armies, a great boon to the population and refugees returning
to those areas. It also included the cast horses of the Army of

170 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

the Rhine; as animals were not permitted to be sold in that
region excepting for food.

In every case the same procedure of destruction in the
presence of a Veterinary Officer, the guarantee of suitability
for food, and the accounting was followed.

The Disposal of Animals’ Branch also maintained Butchery
Detachments at the Abattoirs of Abbeville and Boulogne, and
dressed carcases for Paris or local consumption and for delivery
to the Army Service Corps for Coloured Labour Companies and
Prisoners of War. These two small detachments previous to
the Armistice dressed 4536 carcases, and 3903 afterwards,
roughly at a turn-over of £20 per carcase. For a very long
time, even though it represented a reduction of the import of
foodstuffs, our Home Government would not consent to the
issue of horse-beef as a ration to Prisoners of War, but to the
evident appreciation of the prisoners, who were quite well
aware of its good sound clean quality, issue was eventually
permitted, and about 240 animals per week were dressed by our
Butchery Detachments for this purpose. Our own men were
also partial to certain delicacies, and several formal requests for
liver, heart, tongue, etc., having been received, General
Headquarters ruled that such might be issued as a free extra if
demanded. Imagine liver and bacon, stuffed heart, boiled or
pickled tongue, and brain fritters for breakfast !

The total amount realised in France, Belgium, and the
Rhine Provinces in the disposal of animals for food up to the
end of March 1919 reached the colossal sum of £1,318,323.

DISPOSAL FOR BY-PRODUCTS. 171

CHAPTER V.
DISPOSAL FOR BY-PRODUCTS.

In the first few months of the War a certain amount of
difficulty was experienced in the disposal of dead animals.
Horse slaughterers, owing to mobilisation or requisition of their
horses, were difficult to procure, and either a charge for
removal was demanded or no payment for the carcase could be
obtained. Later on, fifteen francs per carcase was obtainable,
the Contractor creating a dump and a powerful smell at the
same time. At a still later period, when casualties were very
heavy, the veterinary personnel of Hospitals and in Army areas,
whenever possible, undertook the flaying of carcases, the hides
being salted and the remains buried in pits. There are now
some very valuable animal pits in France the contents of
which will represent considerable wealth to the owner in
manure specially suitable for vineyards.

At last, however, perfection was reached in the matter of
disposal both from a hygienic and economic point of view.
Machinery was obtained for the rendering down of carcases,
and the average yield per carcase so treated amounted to
about £4 0 0:—

Hide £1 0 O
Flesh (dried) 19 8
Fat 1 5 O
Bones and hoofs 5 0
Hair 9

£4 0 0

Seven installations were arranged on Lines of Communi-
cations, each with a personnel of fourteen men and capable of
dealing with thirty carcases daily if necessary or as the
situation demanded. These installations were termed “ Horse
Carcase Economisers” and were numbered serially as self-
contained units. Four functioned at high pressure, and in
view of final disposal on demobilisation it was thought that

172 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

certain of them would have to be duplicated, but the demand
for animals for repatriation and for purposes of food reduced
the necessity for further ‘‘ Economiser” arrangements.

The necessary plant consisted of :—

Skinning platforms (concrete).

Boiling Tanks (2) galvanised iron, 500-1000 gallons,
for bones, entrails, etc.

Boiler for Steam.

Small petrol engine for driving machinery.

“T.W.E.L.” dryer, steam pressure, for desiccating flesh.

Turbine Fat Extractor (750 revolutions per minute).

Revolving meat cutter.

Bone crusher.

Skin Curing room (cemented floors).

Store room for desiccated flesh, oil drums, etc.

Office.

Extras, i.e., Decauville line and trucks to manure dump.

The total cost of an installation was from £1000 to £1200,
but the special machinery—the Dryers, Turbine Fat Extractors,
Meat Cutters, and Bone Crushers, were presented by_the Royal
Society for the prevention of Cruelty to Animals at a cost of
£500 each set. .

There was no difficulty in getting expert skinners, and
Prisoners of War assisted.

Arrangements were made to screen off the skinning platforms
as much as possible from the chamber in which animals were
destroyed, or where working teams of horses visited.

Hides, after being cured, were bundled and sent to England,
Between September 1916 and March 1919, 36,877 hides were
despatched.

Careases would yield from 3 to 5 gallons of oil. It realized
18 francs per gallon in Paris for soap manufacture.

An average carcase would yield one hundred-weight of desic-
cated flesh, and it was sold in London for £31 per ton for pig
and poultry food, or for dog biscuits. It keeps perfectly good
and fresh for a long time, and there is no unpleasant smell.

Bones, after boiling, were crushed and de-greased in the
Turbine Extractor and shipped to London, realizing there from
£7 to £15 per ton.

DISPOSAL FOR BY-PRODUCTS. 173

Hoofs were sold to a Paris Contractor at Fr. 32 per 100 kilos.

Hair was taken over by the Railway Operating Division, for
piston packing.

Blood was desiccated, and at the Abattoir at Boulogne a
certain amount was taken over by the Royal Air Force for the
manufacture of “ Stickit”’ for Aeroplane wings.

By special arrangement, the Inspector Q.M.G. Services
(Messing and Economies) used the Turbine Fat Extractors for
the Extraction of Beef and Mutton fat from the swill of units.
wherever an Economiser was installed. His profits from Fats.
must have been enormous; the dried product of the swill was.
mixed with the desiccated flesh.

13,670 carcases were handled by the Horse Carcase Econo-
misers up to 3lst March 1919, and the gross takings amounted
to £55050. Profits would have been greater if Economisers.
could have been installed earlier, but it will be realized that the.
very essential munitions of War take a much more prominent.
place in the priority of import. However, when duly installed
they produced excellent results, and they were certainly very.
hygienic, and quite free from the putrid or unpleasant smell
which may attend a wet process of disposal.

It was not practicable ‘to adopt Horse Carcase Hconomisers.
in Army Areas to deal with animals died and killed. The
utmost that could be done was to flay the died and destroyed
and send the hides to Line of Communication for curing. The.
hides of wounded animals were of little value, hardly repaying
the trouble or cost of flaying.

No serious Contagious Disease cases were included even in
this method of disposal.

174 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

CHAPTER VI.

ACCOUNTING, AND AMOUNTS REALIZED.

All animals cast and sold to Agriculturists, or cast and disposed
of for purposes of Food, were struck off charge on voucher, the
casting roll in triplicate being used and accompanying the
animals for this purpose. The proceeds of sale having been
filled in against each animal and an endorsement of receipt of
the money entered by the Field Cashier, the rolls were returned
to the unit concerned, whether Remount or Veterinary unit.
One voucher was used to support the monthly Forage and
Animal Account which was submitted to the Financial Adviser
for scrutiny and check, the second copy was retained by the
unit for record, and the third was sent to the Director of Veter-
inary Services at General Headquarters, to enable him to make
out his financial statement for inclusion in the Controller of
Salvage General Return, and for audit.

Those animals died and destroyed as unfit for food and sent
to Horse Carcase Economisers were struck off on ordinary
voucher bearing receipt from the Officer in charge of the latter,
a copy of such voucher again supporting the Monthly Forage
and Animal Account submitted to the Financial Adviser.

The adjustment of the accounts for the sale of various articles
of By-products was carried out in the Disposal of Animals
Branch of Veterinary Directorate, in consultation with the
Controller of Salvage. The Government at Home having
control of all hides, notification of receipt and a somewhat
complicated trade classification only was received, and an
arbitrary value was fixed by us for purposes of account. Other
articles were cash transactions under contract, excepting hair,
which was a paper adjustment with the Railway Operating
Department based on the market value.

ACCOUNTING, AND AMOUNTS REALISED. 175

TABLE A,

Detail. Number of Approximate
animals. am’t realised.
Sold by auction to
Farmers and Breeders 7,775 £168,868

Sold to Paris Horse Butchers 28,384 364,438
Sold to Local Horse Butchers 16,578 231,621
Dealt with by Butchery Detach-

ments and sold as dressed carcases 3,552 44,106

Dealt with by Butchery Detach-

ments and issued to Labour Com-

panies or Prisoners of War 984 21,100
Dealt with in Horse Carcase Econo-

miser Plants for conversion into
By-products 7,061 28,244

Total 64,334 £ 858,377

TABLE B.

Detail. Number of Approximate
animals. am’t realised
Sold by auction to
: Farmers and Breeders 112,132 £8,778,907
Sold to Paris Horse Butchers 8,664 160,474
Sold to Local Horse Butchers 20,679 414,919
Dealt with by Butchery Detach-
ments and sold as dressed carcases. — =
Dealt with by Butchery Detach-
ments and issued to Labour Com-
panies or Prisoners of War 3,903 76,665
Dealt with in Horse Carcase Econo-
miser Plants for conversion into
By-products 6,699 26,796

Total 152,077 £4,457,761

176 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

The foregoing tables show the working of the Disposal of
Animals Branch in two periods, Table A from its inception up
to the cessation of hostilities, November 11th, 1919; and Table

B during the period of Armistice and on demobilisation up to
the 3lst March, 1919. During the period covered by Table A

the establishment of the Headquarters of the Disposal of
Animals Branch consisted of one Officer, one Sergeant, and one
Worker, W.A.A.C. During the second period, covered by Table
B, when the work of check and accounting of animals sold in
Army Areas on demobilisation was very heavy, the establish-
ment was increased to two Officers and six other ranks, of
which two were W.A.A.C. It cannot be said to be a very
extravagant establishment in view of the amount of money
involved.

CHAPTER VII.
DISPOSAL ON DEMOBILISATION.

I will close this section with a brief reference to the system
pursued in the disposal of animals on demobilisation, and with
a few statements, marked Appendices I, II and III, which will
show the rate at which this was effected, and the proceeds of
those disposed of in France and Belgium. The figures do not
include the animals of the Canadian Corps who undertook the
sale of their own, nor of the Portuguese Force who took the
majority of their animals back to Portugal. No live animals
were sold in Germany.

The principle followed was that all animals, whether with
Formations, in Veterinary Hospitals and Convalescent Horse
Depots, or in Remount Depots, were first examined by Boards.
of Veterinary Officers and classified by them into the following
categories according to age, soundness or disability :-—

A. Between 5 and 8 years and practically sound.

B Between 8 and 12 years and practically sound.

C. Over 12 years or unsound.

D Only fit for destruction for Food and By-products.

DISPOSAL ON DEMOBILISATION. 177

A, B, C, were re-classified by Remount Service into :—

X. For Post Bellum Army and Army of the Rhine—
Y. For repatriation to England for sale. [the Best.
Z. For sale on the Continent, including mules.

From a given date, fixed at Ist January, 1919, stock was
taken of all animals on the strength of units. Forage and
Animal Accounts were adopted by units in Army areas as well
as those on Lines of Communication, so that check on disposal
could be maintained. In transfers for purposes of sale or
repatriation the peace Army Form 0.1640, a very useful Form,
and modified to suit the occasion, was used.

Category “ D” (Destruction), animals were got rid of as soon
as possible, and Veterinary Hospitals and Convalescent Horse "
Depots cleared with all speed, to hold animals demobilised.

By the first week in February it happened that men were
being demobilised at a greater proportionate rate than animals,
and a sale in bulk of 50,000 to Belgium having proved a failure
through slowness of take over, it was decided that Armies
should arrange sales in their respective areas, using the Mobile
Veterinary Sections of Divisions and Veterinary Evacuating
Stations of Corps as Disposal and Accounting units, the
Remount Service supplying the animals from their “Z”
Category by local arrangements. The usual sales by Veterinary
Service on Lines of Communication were extended considerably
and again fed with “Z” Category animals from Remount
Service, who at the same time progressed with the repatriation
of their “Y” Category horses to England up to approximately
62,000. So rapid was the disposal by sale that it was necessary
to cry a halt at the beginning of April lest it was over-done.
The machinery of disposal had got into such good working
order, and demand for horses had become so great, that there
would have been no difficulty in disposing of many more
thousands at fairly good prices. “Heavy draughts’ were keenly
sought after, and prices from £100 up to nearly £200 were
given in some instances. Sales by private treaty, and selection
by Municipalities and Farmers’ Associations were also arranged
through Prefects, and these were appreciated as intending

178 ANIMALS WASTED BY WAR.

purchasers—could have a good look at the animals beforehand
and make their selections. The prices were arranged by a
Committee of Officers. Every animal and its price was
entered on the usual Casting Roll, and submitted through the
Disposal of Animals Branch for audit. In a few weeks the
whole of the accounts were passed by the Financial Adviser
and the War Office, a most satisfactory ending to a no light
undertaking.

The simple statements shown as appendices will be found
interesting reading.

DISPOSAL ON DEMOBILISATION. 179

APPENDIX I.

British EXPEDITIONARY FoRcE, FRANCE.

Disposal of Animals during February to July, 1919.

ae and
troy’d Di 1. Add
bie Strength. acludiag Meee Remount _ petal
ending. Econo- Horse Sales. disposal.
misers.* Sale. Butchers
Feb.
6 326286 606 4177 2486 —_ 7269
13 312925 612 6238 2132 — 8982
20 292824 619 12963 2654 914 17150

27 260061 550 =16791
Mar.

6 222917 457 20450
13° 193260 371 19896
20 160935 308 17049
27 135228 256 13680

April

3 116678 205 7062
10 47813 81 587
17 39833 111 1159
24. 31866 47 4757

May

Al 26665 38 1758

8 28432 31 1353
15 27079 21 2061
22 25790 22 1037
29 23389 24 2308

June

5 24088 21 1094
12 22553 27 923
19 24703 15 102
26 23063 21 4

July ;

3 22866 8 485
10 21915 15 —
17 20169 20 957
24 19933 19 —
31 20004 12 210

Total Disposal

3125 550 =21016
—54417
3185 1762 25854
2990 2224 25481
2889 1797 = 22043
2244 1585 = 17765
—91143
1248 1706 = =10221
721 1337 2726
771 1258 3299
503 884 6191
— 22437
265 847 2908
189 952 2525
_ 2221
164 899 3122
108 599 3039
—13815
159 542 1816
76 395 1421
117 390 624
98 400 523

— 4884
95 397 985
82 594 691
64 596 1637
72 359 450
60 594 876
— 4639

190835.

* Horse Carcase Economisers, z.e., Installations for reduction of
carcases to By-products of skin, fat, desiccated flesh, hoofs, etc.

SUMMARY OF COMPLETED SALES.

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‘SUHANVIY ANV FONVEY ‘HOIAUHG AUVNIVALAA AWUY

‘TIT XIGNaaay

PART VI.

Extracts from Official Despatches.

I.—BRITISH ARMIES IN FRANCE.

By General Sir Dovenas Halc, G.c.B., K.C.LE., K.C.V.0;,
Commander-in-Chief, British Forces in France, dated 19th
May, 1916.

“19. The large increases made to our Forces have necessi-
tated a great expansion in the resources of our Lines of Com-
munication, and I have been greatly struck by the forethought
shown by the Administrative Services in anticipating the
requirements of the Armies in the Field and in the provision
made to satisfy these requirements.”

“Hconomy has attended the good methods employed, and
the greatest credit is due to all concerned for the results
obtained.”

By General Sir Dovuctas Halic, G.c.B., G.C.V.0., K.C.LE.,

Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France, dated 23rd
December, 1916.

“The Army Commanders have brought to my notice the
excellent work done by their Staff Officers and Technical
Advisers, as well as by the various Commanders and their
Staffs serving under them, and I have already submitted the

names of the various officers and others recommended by
them.”

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES., 183

“T desire also to record my obligation to my own Staff at
General Headquarters and on Lines of Communication, and to
the various Technical Advisers attached thereto, for. their
loyal and untiring assistance.”

By Field Marshal Sir Doucnas Hate, G.c.b., G.C.V.0., K.C.LE.,
Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France, dated 31st
May 1917.

“‘T desire also to repeat the well-merited tribute paid in my
last Despatch to the different Administrative. Services and
Departments.. The work entailed by the double task of
meeting the requirements of our winter operations and
preparing for our next offensive was very heavy, demanding
unremitting labour and the closest attention to detail.”

By Field Marshal Sir Doveuas Halc, K.T., G.C.B., G.C.V.0.,
K.C.1.E., Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France,
dated 25th December, 1917.

“The work of the Army Veterinary Corps and of the Mobile
Veterinary Sections has been ably carried out, and has con-
tributed largely to the general efficiency of the Army.”

“In the heavy and responsible work which they have so
admirably performed, the Army Commanders have been most
loyally supported and assisted by their Staff Officers and
Technical Advisers, as well as by the Commanders and Staffs
of the units serving under them... . as well as the other
Officers of my Staff, and Technical Advisers at General
Headquarters and on Lines of Communication, have given me
the greatest and most valuable assistance. I am glad once
more to place on record the debt that I owe to them.”

184 EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES.

By Field Marshal Sir Dovuenuas Haile, K.T., G.C.B., G.C.V.0.,
K.C.1.E., Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France,
dated 20th July, 1918.

(The Great German Offensive).

“The enormous amount of additional work thrown upon
the different branches of my Staff and upon the Administrative
Services and Departments by such fighting as that of March
and April can readily be imagined. The evacuation of great
masses of stores, hospitals . . . . called for the highest powers
of organisation, the most constant forethought and supervision,
and the most devoted labour. That all this work was carried
out so smoothly and successfully under circumstances of
extraordinary difficulty . . . . reflects the highest credit on

all concerned.”
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“T wish to thank the heads of the various Branches of the
Staff and of Departments and Services for the essential share
that they and their subordinates have taken in preventing the
realisation of the enemy’s plans.”’

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES. 185

By Field Marshal Sir Doucuas Haic, K.T., G.C.B., G.C.V.0.,
K.C.LE., Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France,
dated 21st December, 1918.

(The Advance to Victory).

“To all other Administrative Services and Departments, I
desire to express the thanks of the fighting forces for the loyal
and efficient manner in which they have carried out their
essential tasks. During a period of great strain and incessant
work they have contributed in their various spheres to the
smooth working of the Army machine and are entitled to the
full share in the victory of our Arms.”

By Field Marshal Sir Doveuas Hale, K.T., G.C.B., G.C.V.O.,
K.C.LE., Commander-in-Chief, British Armies in France,
dated 21st March, 1919.

(Final Despatch.)
“The Veterinary Directorate reduced losses and prevented
the spread of disease.”

186 EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES.

II—MESOPOTAMIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

By Lieut.-General Sir StanLEY MAUvUDE, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.0.,
Commander-in-Chief, Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force,
dated 10th April, 1917.

“ Sickness and battle casualties have placed a strain upon
the resources of the Veterinary Department which has been
met by wise anticipation and considerable efficiency.”

By Lieut.-General Sir StantEy MAUDE, K.C.B., C.M.G., D,S.0.,
late Commander-in-Chief, Mesopotamian Expeditionary
Force, dated 15th October, 1917.

“Similarly the valuable services rendered to this Army by
the Directors and the Administrative Services and Departments
were previously dealt with by me in detail. In their case
there has been no partial respite from their labours such as has
been enjoyed by fighting troops, for their work at the front, on
the Lines of Communication, and at the Base has continued at
the highest pressure. Reorganisation, development of our
resources, and preparation for the future have needed careful
thought and unrelaxed efforts on the part of all, and the
progress made in these directions has been very gratifying.
More than a passing word of recognition is therefore due to
these individuals, who, in spite of the intense heat during the
summer months, have continued to work so assiduously in the
interests of the Army,”

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES. 187

By Lieut.-General Sir W. R. MarsHAuL, K.C.B., K.C.S.I.
Commander-in-Chief, Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force,
dated 15th April, 1918.

“ Owing to the increased area over which this Force operates,
to the amount of animal diseases existing in the territories
conquered, and to the constant danger of the animals of the
Force being infected, it has been found necessary to increase
the Veterinary Administrative Staff, and to form extra
Veterinary Hospitals. The results are most gratifying, and
reflect great credit on this Department.”

By Lieut.-General Sir W. R. MarsHanu, K.C.B., K.C.S.L,
Commander-in-Chief, Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force,
dated 1st October, 1918.

“T have been throughout most ably and loyally served by my
subordinate Commanders, Staff and Technical Advisers, and
take this opportunity of recording my most sincere thanks for
all their good work.”

188 EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES.

III.—BRITISH SALONIKA FORCE.

By Lieut.-General G. F. MILNE, C.B., D.S.0., Commander-in-
Chief, British Salonika Force, dated 1st October, 1917.

“Tt is satisfactory to record that the wastage amongst the
animals of the Force, in spite of the heavy strain during the
winter, has been exceptionally low. The supply of all material
to the troops necessitates the use of both wheeled and pack
transport, while the tracks branching outward from the main
routes, although in dry weather providing a good running
surface, are, in the majority of cases, deep in mud after
prolonged snow or rain. The calls on horse flesh have hence
been severe, and it speaks well for the Army Veterinary
Services that the mortality and loss through wastage has been
kept to such a low figure.” :

By General Sir GEorGE F. MILNE, K.C.B., D.S.0., Commander-
in-Chief, British Salonika Force, dated 1st December, 1918

‘““No very great strain has been placed on either the Royal
Army Veterinary Corps, or the Remount Department, which
have both proved equal to all demands made on them. The
present uniformly good condition of the animals in the Force
is largely due to the efforts of these two Services to improve
and simplify animal management.”

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES. 189

IV.—EGYPTIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

By General Sir ARCHIBALD Murray, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., late
General Officer Commanding, Egyptian Expeditionary Force,
dated 28th June, 1917.

“The same local conditions above referred to have rendered
the Force more than usually dependent on animal transport,
while operations have involved the use of important mounted
forces. The Remount and Veterinary Services have conse-
quently held a vital place in the organisation, and they have
carried out their respective tasks to my complete satisfaction.”

By General Sir E. E. H. ALLENBY, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Commander-
in-Chief, Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Third Despatch,
dated 18th September, 1918.

“The fighting troops have been loyally assisted by the
Administrative Services and Departments who have carried a
heavy burden on their shoulders, both in front and behind
railhead.”’

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES. 190

V.—EXPEDITIONARY FORCES IN INDIA.

By His Excellency General Sir CHARLES CARMICHAEL Monro,
G.C.B., G.C.S.1., G.c.M.G., Commander-in-Chief in India. On
Operations during the Third Afghan War from May to
August, 1919, dated 1st November, 1919.

“13, The requirements of Veterinary Service necessitated
the formation of three Camel Veterinary Hospitals for 500
‘camels each, a Camel Convalescent Depot, and a Horse
Convalescent Depot for 1000 animals each as well as additional
Field and Mobile Veterinary Sections and Base Depots of
Veterinary Stores. The creation of these units imposed a
severe tax on available sources of recruitment and some
difficulty was experienced in obtaining personnel of the right
stamp. But on the whole the existing organisation stood the
test well. The mortality among animals was never excessive,
amounting to a weekly average of ‘2 per cent. in the case of
horses and ponies, ‘04 per cent. in the case of mules, 3 per
cent. in the case of bullocks, and °3 per cent. in the case of
‘camels, as compared with ‘2, ‘06, 1°6 and ‘1 per cent. respectively
‘during the period May to September 1918, in Mesopotamia.
The evacuation of sick animals was on the whole well carried
out, but there was a tendency to maintain too many ineffective
animals with units; this fault was corrected in course of time.
‘Considerable inefficiency was caused by the incidence of foot-
-and-mouth disease and rinderpest in bullocks.

“88, As already stated I have had every reason to be
satisfied with the work of the Veterinary, Remounts, Ordnance,
Supply and Transport Services.”

EXTRACTS FROM OFFICIAL DESPATCHES. 191

Waziristan Operations, 1919-20.

By His Excellency General Sir CHARLES CARMICHAEL Monro,
G.C.B., G.C.S.1., G.C.M.G., Commander-in-Chief in India, dated
1st August, 1920.

“The work of the Veterinary Service was ably carried out.
By foresight and close attention to detail, Directors and Officers
of the Corps eliminated all possibility of a breakdown of the
Transport Service from disease. Many of the Animal
Transport Corps were without experienced Officers, and the
Veterinary Service made up the deficiency by advice and
constant inspection.”

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