AE ae Senin Sox = me ae Sae Steer seen iy see Se use. a Lh el ie he ed eee kad Ya Sy ee ss = Sane Cornell University Library OF THE Hew Work State College of Agriculture Kal a , veel ALLE... 584 Cornell University Libra “hima Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http :/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924000554166 PLANTS AND THEIR USES AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY BY FREDERICK LEROY SARGENT FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN AND ASSISTANT IN THE BOTANICAL MUSEUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS ford \ si \| ee eR a NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1913 Ag 4TH 2 Coprricut, 1913, BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY PRESS OF T. MOREY & SON QREENFIELD, MASS., U.S. A. PREFACE The main purpose of the book is to show some of the edu- cational possibilities offered by plants of every day use, and at the same time to guide beginners to such general ideas about plants as should form part of a liberal education. There are a number of plants that every one ought to know because of their intimate connection with human welfare. These plants represent all parts of the vegetable kingdom, they are the very ones about which most persons have the greatest desire to learn, and they are mainly the ones which were first studied by mankind. Help the be- ginner, therefore, to learn at the outset as much about these economic plants as he is ready for; then help him to classify them scientifically, and he will be. prepared to appreciate that wider view of the life of plants which inspires botany today. On this plan I have tried to write such a book as I believe would have been most useful to me when I was a beginner. Botany taught by the historical method, as this procedure may be called, not only appeals from the start to the strongest practical incentives, but profits by the student’s knowledge in many other departments, which knowledge it often en- riches. Thus pursued botany also offers an exceptionally fine opportunity for cultivating scientific habits of mind and methods of work. These are sure to economize energy in every intellectual undertaking. The scientific attitude and scientific ways of proceeding control modern progress, and in no better way can one catch the spirit of these than by the scientific study of plants. So closely similar are the needs of all who wish to make a good beginning that it becomes possible for a book like the present to serve many diverse classes of students. The 11 iv PREFACE scheme is so elastic that no two classes need follow it in pre- cisely the same way; but may vary the work within wide limits, emphasizing now this aspect, now that, hurrying over one part and dwelling upon another as circumstances shall determine. The text printed in small type may be omitted with younger classes, or with those requiring only a short course. The matter in larger type will then be found to proceed connectedly, and to be in no way harmed by the omissions made. If a still shorter course be desired the class may go through as many topics as there is time for, leaving the rest to be taken up if possible at some future time. What- ever ground has been gone over, if well studied, will then be so much to the good; and since the educationally more im- portant subjects have been treated in the earlier chapters, the student may feel that even a little is worth while. The figures used in this book are mostly copies from various well-known works as indicated by the authors’ names in parenthesis under the figures; the remainder are from original drawings by the writer. Permission has been very kindly granted by Dr. N. L. Britton and Judge Addison Brown to use the figures from their Illustrated Flora. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge most gratefully the helpful criticisms and suggestions received from teachers and other friends during the progress of the work. Especial thanks are due to Charles W. Swan, M. D., for suggestions regarding medicinal and poisonous plants; to Mr. Henry J. Williams, Mr. George W. Rolfe and Professor Ixenneth L. Mark for help on chemical matters; to Professor G. H. Parker for reading evolutionary parts; to Mr. A. B. Seymour for reading the chapters on cryptogams; and to the botanists of the Harvard Herbarium and University Museum for facilitating my work with books and specimens. Bebe Ss CaMBRIDGE, MAssACHUSETTS December, 1912 CONTENTS PAGE PRE RACH. vars Medien vey ant oar aa ann pa aad RES AO Aen Beat lil CHAPTER I THE STUDY OF PLANTS 1. Botanical questions. ..... Satdcn eerie see bike errs Rim ces Past aA 1 2. The beginnings of botany... 0.00660... 00cc00ceeecesaneee 1 3. Our dependence upon plants. Sa ace a arene er oY 1 4. Human needs and the needs of plants dt rer eS ey kee ERC 2 5. How plants are named................ ee etter teh eae 2 6. Early plant names... . . ie eee Sirona sseita Bulg sd 3 7. Binomial nomenclature. ... .. ee eer Eres hae LAG Soa ates 4 SB ODECIER Ta uiuat sam Aecweuman4 SHR BRO tants ano es a See Raa 4 9. Varieties. ... rear tn Aare ata: 5 na eaeeee ws 5 10. The genus......... Sita) oak ola Roms eh Bes a at rncen cP se ae a ay 6 11. The authority renee RR HS Shee Seek cn ancy Vac PAN kn As cies 7 12. Plant families and higher groups. Bree a oie ceaed UatneR Ine 4 13. The departments of botany. ....5 .....0000 0 cee cues 8 CHAPTER II CEREALS 14. What cereals are. . . ; ob ei Sere sa eens 11 15. Characteristics of cereals. . peewee weer ae ccediiati al 16. Importance of grains in ancient times........ oman ad footy Led: 17. Earliest use of grains. . . ae > iN Bepeen 20 AS Oa taster, kegel woes ahem s PC Seer at i sea pee LO Barle yen sites s eke as een Bt Bite Roy OAR OR, en), Cee rome Poa 203 RVOry caces eee : : Age : o 25 21. Maize........ Neves Ge aeSne cen teeta ae Ean ee. Be DD ARI CO teen’ 0s Patent HAGE Ute Ry A cat veda rahe tod eran At 25 23. Wheat F iii: : Se ents . Sieaes. 228 24. Buckwheat... . cadets 9 Ribs Nava na enone a og Ee 29 25. The value of cereals. Sa ee a ee ere eae En Re 30 26. Water in grains. ....... j page iEsaees 180 DT UNSW 5 5 Magee te ae ede Semon aiet ts ere 30 28. Nutrients... eee ee 31 29. Carbohydrates........ ; : 31 SO Proteldsisecé sie sccscem spine re: : ; : 33 Be US te pid acc eetene eee ER TTS AU tate ee ene Wee ey SO vi CONTENTS CHAPTER III VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS PAGE 32. Classes of food-plants....... AiiActet, Galles Seb plein ace, Sees. © OD SING Scte hes he ee RN or : AU or Es oe awa 35 DA MEU SCs sens eee ea ere Pie owed icles td iehaece io aati ees he ea 40 35. Earth-vegetables. . : Sy rene Rae name ee . 41 36. Herbage-vegetables....... ae TY oan td A ode olel eae tea 53 37. Fruit-vegetables..... . aon ee Dist: aah ahaa 85 BOs, PIU Sa vor wale « SHOR IEAR Re SUA em aelal aes wens .. 88 39. Miscellaneous food- produc tS... big Ben aries Gtr on ta . 91 40. Vegetable foods in general. . ; . teeaga eee 41. Food as fuel and building material. oe Eats Bate 114 42. Measures of energy........ SU Aa See Stes ceme aie 115 43. Energy of vegetable foods. A ASMA Wa 116 Aas RAMOS 2. cian cece Genie’ 2 ENT eee ey Ee bl 45. Food-plants in general. .. . De eee .-; 122 46. The primitive centres of agriculture.............. Sook: 122 47. Relation between culture-period and native home.......... 123 48. The multiplication of varieties. IE Se Ave: 126 49. How varieties arise...... ein 126 50. Artificial selection... ae ; eee 2 AQT CHAPTER IV FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS 51. Food-adjuncts. . ... ; ae : .. 128 52. Spices. «2s. : : : ae 128 53. Savory herbs... . . : : ee Peete ang! Gays 54. Savory seeds..... tine eR te: i 13t 55. Miscellaneous condiments. 3 ; 137 56. Essences. . . . RO OAL ee age HERO) 57. Non-alcoholic bever rages Shane ARGS Reh AIMS Sb So Oe 150 58. Alcoholic beverages and stimulants in ge neral....... 156 CHAPTER V MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS 59. Medicines and poisons. ................. 00000000 162 60s INGH=pOlsOnOUS CLUES Hy .3.5 ya rae octane akin ern eces Nia ele 163 61. Poisonous drugs...... . ‘ : vhs reenter ao Nae 176 62. Plants poisonous to eat... .... Baraat Scan : 192 63. Plants poisonous to handle.......................... 217 64. Poisonous plants in general... 2... . er eae eet Tere 219 CHAPTER VI INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 65. Uses of industrial plants. .. . 222 66. Fibers in general. . ; 999 _ CONTENTS Vu PAGE 67. Surface fibers................ Lee ae ree eee 225 68. Bast fibers... . . gaa eset Nt eA eee ete aerate 228 GO2NVinxed fibers a-s nok anaes cen naan eines hele S 231 720s -Pseudo-fbersey cicaia aan ccrnoeiaeian Saab ee a Bae eranene ore 239 CLSEWOOdy TIDerS rae cece uativateues tk Rabe oictaloten ey ey ener 240 2. Woodin. generale <6 ..c. es eee Bes GaN is ny eh son Bes 241 73. True woods..... orn pinartes Dears: Sess ahs seeke not OO TASS Psendo=WwOOdSihs i.e. Suresh a Mehig es ai tts ee ahaa cus abel el 5 272 15. OCOLr ks. Ahtnatss : aes ee oe ages Rist BUSeaeaA te BEEP 279 76. Elastic gums......... ARN hy oan Ae Mey rate ee 280 tls ROSINSS 354 20004 Ni Sekiya, eter Gy eae ose See ie 287 78. Coloring’matters...........5..2.:.. 290 79 Oilsvxice ss ce ae ; cufahies ssc 9ES On Ree Te Si ncshcvevors oe 295 BOS BUGl tr. bene aes ponte AL ana a Meda ren ree ere tee 297 81. Useful and harmful plants in general..................... 302 CHAPTER VII CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION 82. systematic: classiication® 5 2.22642 esata aleitataae We ees oes 305 83. Early attempts at classifying... ....................... . 806 $4: cArtiferal SyStemss we svenc loasieai rice deals soles 2 Metin ea ede 307 85. The Linnzan system............. Wis to aey cea gd es aU . 308 86. The natural system. ............... OA ie eno . 310 87. Technical description. ...... Le ie pepe e cee Sach rta a Lele 88. Early attempts at describing. .... .. 312 89. The Linnean reform in terminology. : : 313 90. Terminology and nomenclature.......................... 314 CHAPTER VIII THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT OT axe sien ber aust oe eerie EA SEA ants Se Stour 316 ee Ne SCEd ara soins, 2a ea ee roe eta 316 93. The seedling and its development... . 317 94. The flower and the fruit..... ae 319 95. Physiological division of labor....... ene Ia as patel 319 96. Organs and their functions. . . eee SU iar oes ie kate 321 97. Morphological differentiation.................:.......... 822 98. Morphological units................ aa eateta scone rr iciats pee 323 09; Members of the plant body. v3 42.cc00255 dne2o bane. dae ee 323 TOO HO mOlO SITES sees toa ctace eag ons oe te ya Fahey ans, chal Reese: weakens SSIs 326 CHAPTER IX THE CROWFOOT FAMILY 1012 General Teaturess 25 455 sees noel eee eae SS See 328 102. The vegetative organs comp BLEU": Guess eo Sree ews one oe = 330 vill 132. Ree eee WwWHwwwiww Oop w ant ). The Magnolia Family (Magnoliacce) . The Laurel Family (Laure acer)... .. s. The Crowfoot Order (Ranunculates or R: males) . The Poppy Family iP anes ce be eerie . The Mustard Family (Cruciferw)..... . The Poppy Order (Papaverales or Rhaadales) . The Rose Family (Rosacee)........ ; 3. The Pulse Family (Leguminosie). . . The Rose Order (Rosales). . 5. The Linden Family (Tiliacex). . . }. The Mallow Family (Malvaceie). . . The Mallow Order (Malvales)... . . The Parsley Family (Umbellifere)..... . The Parsley Order (Umbellales or Umbelliflore). .. . . The Buckwheat Family (Polygonacesw)..... ; . The Buckwheat Order ips acs ol ie . The Birch Family (Betulacew).... 2... . The Beech Family (Fagacew)........ . The Beech Order (Fagales) . 5. The Walnut Family (Juglandacee ) }. The Walnut Order Ar nema . The Willow Family (Salicacea). . . 3. The Willow Order (Salicales). . . . The Crowfoot Series (Archichlamy yde: ce). . The Heath Family (Ericacee). . . The Heath Order (Iricales)... . The Figwort Family (Scrophulariaces:).... . . The Mint Family (Labiate) . . The Phlox Order (Polemoniales or Tubiflora). ... . The Gourd Family (Cucurbitacex). . . The Bellflower Family (Campanulaces:). 0... . . The Sunflower Family (Composite)... . . The Bellflower Order (Campanulales)........ . The Bellflower Series (Metachlanydex 2. The Dicotyl Subclass (Dicotyledones) ........ : . The Grass Family (Graminew)....... : . The Grass Order (Graminales or Glumiflorie). . 5. The Palm Family (Palmace:). . . }. The Palm Order (Palmales or Principe oS) . The Arum aeaee (Aracer).. . . The Arum Order (Arales or Spathiflorie). . . CONTENTS 3. The reproductive system Sp ANSI aa LS re 343, . Plant formulas....... oa ae 352 5. The family chain....... een Agar ere . 3855 CHAPTER X VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The Morning- a Family (Conv olvulaces The Nightshade Family ( (Solanae (oc) aa The Rush Family (Juneacer)........ 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 172. 173. 174. r 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. CONTENTS CHAPTER XI KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION . . The problem of origins....... . ae is ae eee . The doctrine of special creation. ...........:....... . The doctrine of organic evolution. ... . Si rape . Acquired adaptations........... ee rene ae . Selected adaptations........ Hy ey Be Ae ete . Acquirement versus Selection. . : Sis Oo aaa . Sudden adaptations. ....... EN Nate Er . Evolution by choice........ OD eee eet Tr een ee . Evolution in general......... d Bee eae te CHAPTER XII LIFE-HISTORIES The Green Alge (Class Chlorophycex). . ieee The Brown Alge (Class Pheophyce) ... . eke a ae The Red Algze (Class Rhodophycex)....... ext neh tee The Seaweed Subdivision, Algee in general... . 2.0... The Fission Fungi (Class Schizomycetes) The Yeast Fungi (Class Saccharomycetes)..... . The Pin-mold Fungi (Class Zygomycetes). . The Water-mold Fungi (Class Oé6mycetes)..... 0.0... The Spore-sac Fungi (Class Ascomycetes). . F The Spore-base Fungi (Class Basidiomycetes)... .. .. The Mushroom Subdivision, Fungi in general. . The Spore-sac Lichens (Class Ascolichenes)...... . The Spore-base Lichens (Class Basidiolichenes). . . . The Lichen Subdivision, Lichens in general... .. The Thallophyte Division, Lobeworts (Thallophyta). . Speen. The Liverworts (Class Hepaticr).... ... The True Mosses (Class Musci)....... x CONTENTS 191. The Bryophyte Division, Mossworts (Bry one 192. The Ferns (Class Filicine:e) . 193. The Scouring-rushes (Class Equisetine: is 194. The Club-mosses (Class Lycopodinz) . 195. The Pteridophyte Division, Fernworts ( (Pteridophytw) 196. Cryptogams and Phenogams............. CHAPTER XIII THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE 197. The three kingdoms.................. 198. The Inorganic Realm. . . nop ‘ 199. The Organic Realm. . . wae 200. Plants in general................... dG Sinyab. eye oe ver cee rman rea reds epentisurn ry Sigers rs int aan PLANTS AND THEIR USES PLANTS AND THEIR USES CHAPTER I THE STUDY OF PLANTS 1. Botanical questions. When an unfamiliar plant at- tracts our attention usually the first questions we wish to ask are: What is it? What is it good for? or What does it do? Such questions have been asked from early times about plants in all parts of the world, and the classified knowledge which has been acquired in endeavoring to answer them has given us the science of botany. In beginning our study of the subject it will be profitable for us to consider in a general way what it really means to answer questions of this sort, so that we may appreciate something of their importance and what they involve. Each question, as we shall see, has led to numberless others until the science has so broadened as to embrace every reasonable inquiry that may be made regarding plants. 2. The beginnings of botany. Like most people to-day, the earliest botanical writers concerned themselves more with the uses of plants than with their forms and habits. Thus Pliny, the most learned of Roman writers on natural history, significantly remarks that there were, to be sure, other plants in the hedges, fields, and roadsides than those he had described, but they had no names and were of no use. It is surely only natural that the uses of plants should be what first arouses our interest in them. Every one can appreciate most readily the advantages of knowing all we can about things which contribute so greatly to our welfare. 3. Our dependence upon plants. Let us consider for a moment how much we depend upon the vegetable kingdom. Every one knows that in all we eat and drink, the nutritious, strength-giving part comes either from plants or animals. As the animals which yield us food depend in their turn either ui 2 THE STUDY OF PLANTS upon plants or upon plant-eating animals, it follows that if it were not for plants the whole animal kingdom, ourselves included, would soon starve. So too in the matter of clothing we depend partly upon the plants which yield cotton, flax, and similar materials, and partly upon those plant-fed ani- mals which give us silk, wool, and leather. Forests yield the chief materials for ships and other means of transportation, for houses, furniture, and innumerable utensils. The fuel which cooks our food, heats our dwellings, and drives the machinery of factories, ships, and locomotives, comes either from plants recently alive or from coal-plants which died long ages ago and were buried in the earth. In sickness, too, the drugs which allay our suffering and help to cure us, are almost entirely of vegetable origin. So whichever way we turn we find plants serving us in most important ways— feeding us, clothing us, sheltering us, warming us, working for us, and making us well—indeed, our dependence upon them is so constant that we seldom realize how intimately our lives are bound up with theirs. 4. Human needs and the needs of plants. We must not forget that plants as well as animals are living things growing from infancy to old age, needing food and protection, and bearing offspring. Their various parts may be useful to us, but primarily are of use to the plants themselves. The plant- food which we take for our use, the plant had accumulated for its own purposes. The thorns which make a hedge effect- ive against intruders, serve similarly as a defense to the shrub which bears them. Not only then as contributors to our welfare, but as sharers in the mysterious gift of life, should plants have a profound interest for mankind. How plants obtain their food, how they avoid injury, in what re- spects they are like animals, and how they differ from them— such questions soon press for an answer, and then it is seen that all plants, even the most humble, may have secrets of value to tell us. 5. How plants are named. Whenever many objects are to be studied and compared, it is necessary to have some convenient system of naming them and some method of expressing the various degrees of resemblance and difference EARLY PLANT NAMES 3 which may be found. The number of plants which botanists now have to deal with is estimated at about one hundred and seventy-five thousand. Only a small proportion of these plants have names in English, German, French, Italian, or other modern tongue; and even if they had, it would be an intolerable burden for students who need to consult the writings of foreign botanists to learn as many names for each plant as there are modern languages. Fortunately it has been agreed among botanists that each kind of plant shall have one botanical name, and only one, in all countries. This name is Latin or of Latin form for the reason that the earlier botanical writings were in that language; and as educated people of whatever nationality are supposed to have some acquaintance with Latin, nothing could be more convenient for botanical purposes. For popular use, however, popular names are required and will be used chiefly, there- fore, throughout the coarse print of the following pages. 6. Early plant names. The exact form of the name by which each kind of plant should be known was not decided until the middle of the eighteenth century. Then certain practical reforms were brought about mainly through the writings of the great naturalist Linnezus who is revered as the Father of Botany. Before this time many of the names which botanists used were exceedingly cumber- some. The difficulties under which students then labored are well illustrated by the following passage which occurs in a letter to Linnzus from his friend Dillenius: “Tn your last letter of all, I find a plant gathered in Charles Island, on the coast of Gothland, which you judge to be Polygonum erectum angustifolium, floribus candidis of Mentzelius and Caryophyl- lum sazatilis, foliis gramineis, umbellatis corymbis, C. Bauhin; nor do I object. But it is by no means Tournefort’s Lychnis alpina linifolia multiflora, perampla radice, whose flowers are more scat- tered and leaves broader in the middle, though narrower at the end.” The plant which this learned man had so much trouble in naming was afterwards called by Linnzeus simply Gypsophila fastigiata— the name now recognized by botanists. 1 Such, at least, is the botanical ideal. It is not always realized in practice. But mistakes and differences of opinion are surely to be ex- pected in the naming of such a vast number of objects. Yet after all the actual confusion produced is comparatively slight, while the ideal pursued has advanced the science wonderfully. 4 THE STUDY OF PLANTS 7. Binomial nomenclature. To each of the different kinds of plants and animals which were known in his time, Linnzeus gave a name like the one above, consisting of two parts. In doing this he made universal a principle very generally followed in the common names with which we are most familiar. Thus we speak of the White Mulberry, the Red Mulberry, and the Black Mulberry. Translated into Latin, these become the botanical names, Morus alba, Morus rubra, Morus nigra—the adjective part, as will be noticed, following the noun Morus according to the rule commonly observed in that language. So among the different kinds of oaks we have Quercus alba, Quercus rubra, and Quercus nigra; and to certain of the willows have been given the names Salix alba, Salix rubra, and Salix nigra. It will be seen that as the same component occurs repeatedly in the different names (just as in the names of persons there are many Smiths, Browns, and Robinsons and many Johns, Jameses, and Marys); so by adopting for plants the binomial or two-part system of naming, botanists are able to designate with perfect accuracy the many thousand kinds of plants, by means of a comparatively small number of words—a very much smaller number in fact than would be required if each kind had to have a name consisting of a single word. Thus, in the examples given it will be noticed that six words serve for naming nine different kinds of plants. Another great advantage of the binomial method is that the name alone may tell quite a good deal about the plant, for, as we have seen, those sorts which resemble each other closely have the first part of the name identical. From this the reader would know, for example, that Quercus aquatica must be some kind of oak, and Salix sericea, some sort of willow. 8. Species. Ordinarily, there is no danger of being mis- understood when we speak of such and such ‘sorts’ or “kinds”? of plants, in the way that people commonly do; but when we come to a careful study of plants we find among them such variety in the degrees of resemblance and differ- ence that the necessity arises for a more precise means of expressing ourselves. It thus becomes important to under- stand something of the distinctions which naturalists recog- nize between the different degrees of likeness among living things. When from a dozen seeds out of the same pod, say of a kidney-bean, we raise as many plants, there are twelve dis- tinct individuals no two of which are exactly alike in all particulars. Yet despite their individual differences, they re- VARIETIES 5 semble each other and the parent plant in a great many re- spects; and these peculiarities which they all have in common they share to an almost equal extent with innumerable other individuals. Taken together all these individuals which have this essential likeness form what is called a species. Thus, a species is a group of individuals regarded by experts as having about the same degree of resemblance as parent and offspring. It is, as we have seen, a familiar fact that among the off- spring of a single individual there are commonly various degrees of resemblance to the parent. The result is a more or less complete series of intermediate forms connecting the most dissimilar individuals one with another. Since among individuals known to be related closely such intermediate series commonly occur, botanists assume whenever connect- ing links of this sort are found between more or less dissimilar forms that the whole chain is so closely akin as to belong to one species. A striking instance of widely different forms connected closely by intermediate ones is afforded by the various sorts of cabbage and their kin (Figs. 63-70). These forms, including kale, cauliflower, kohlrabi, and Brussels sprouts, were doubtless derived, largely under man’s influ- ence, from the wild kale. Accordingly the name Brassica oleracea is applied not only to the wild plant but to all its cultivated descendants. There is no general English name applying to all the forms of this species. 9. Varieties. We have seen above that among the off- spring of a single plant there will be minor differences, and that among the individuals of a species the differences may be very considerable. If in the examination of a number of specimens belonging to one species, a botanist finds certain individuals possessing in common some peculiarity or set of peculiarities which distinguish them clearly from the rest, as, for example, cauliflowers in contrast with other plants of the species Brassica oleracea, he calls the individuals thus dis- tinguished a variety, and gives it aspecial name. The cauli- flower thus becomes Brassica oleracea variety botrytis. Or, to take an example from wild plants, there are found among the individual trees that comprise the species called Salix nigra 6 THE STUDY OF PLANTS certain ones of which the leaves instead of being curved merely at the tip, as in the majority of black willows, are “faleate” or curved throughout like a scythe blade. All the individuals having this peculiarity are accordingly re- garded as forming a distinct variety, and when we wish to speak particularly of these we use the name Salix nigra variety falcata. Cultivated varieties which are known, or supposed, to have arisen in comparatively recent times, and show only minor peculiarities, are commonly distinguished from varieties of wild plants and from certain very well-marked varieties in cultivation by being named in English, French, or some other modern language. Thus we speak of the ‘“‘Baldwin” and the “‘Spitzenburg”’ varieties of apple. As subordinate kinds or subvarieties of cauliflower we have similarly the “early snowball” and the ‘‘autumn giant.” The question as to whether a certain group of individuals should be ranked as a species or as a variety is one which is often difficult to decide, and different botanists sometimes reach different conclusions. In all cases, however, a variety is understood to be a group of individuals included within a species and consequently connected with the other members of the species by a series of intermediate forms. 10. The genus. In the same way that those individuals which possess some special set of peculiarities constitute a variety, and just as there may be several varieties in which the individuals are enough alike to form a species, so different species possessing in common certain features of a more general nature are grouped into a genus (plural genera). The name of the genus to which a given species belongs appears as the first component of the botanical name. In the examples already mentioned Gypsophila, Morus, Quercus, Salix, or Brassica is the generic part; fastigiata, alba, nigra, rubra, aquatica, or oleracea, 1 The beginner can hardly be expected to grasp more than vaguely the distinctions here presented between genus, species, and varicty; and the same may be true as well of certain other distinctions to be con- sidered presently. His conceptions are likely to grow more definite, however, as his acquaintance with plants increases, and his efforts to gain such wider acquaintance will be much facilitated by starting with some conception, vague though it be, of what botanists mean by the groups of different rank which they distinguish. PLANT FAMILIES AND HIGHER GROUPS 7 the specific part of the name. Both parts are required to form the name of the species. Alba, nigra, etc., by themselves are not names. 11. The authority. It has sometimes happened that different botanists have given different names to plants of the same species, and the same name to plants of different species. To avoid any un- certainty as to just what plant is meant it is customary in technical botanical writings to place after a specific name the name (usually abbreviated) of the person or persons who first gave to the plant the name adopted. For example, if we write Gypsophila fastigiata L., it is plain to a botanist that the species so called by Linnzeus is the one intended. Linneus in this case is called the authority for the name. In popular or elementary books, like the present, authorities are usually omitted for the reason that only plants well known to botanists are apt to be mentioned, and the authorities for these may readily be found in the more technical botanies in case of need. 12. Plant families and higher groups. On the same principle that similar species form a genus, similar genera are grouped into a family; and families which have certain fundamental points of similarity are associated to form still more inclusive divisions of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the oaks (Quercus), chestnuts (Castanea), beeches (Fagus), and other trees which agree in having their flowers in tassel- like clusters, and their nut-like fruits held in something corre- sponding to a beech-bur, make up the beech family or Fagacee. The poplars (Populus) and willows (Salix) which also have tassel-like flower-clusters but only small seeds bearing slender silky hairs, constitute the willow family or Salicacee. Lilies and similar plants compose the lily family Liliacee; palms, the palm family, Palmacee; pine-like plants, the pine family, Pinacee, and so on. Plants like cabbage and mustard with flowers of cross-like form belong to the mustard family Cru- cifere.* So closely similar to the Fagacee are the members of the birch family, Betulacee, that botanists find it convenient 1 It will be noticed that the botanical name of the families is formed usually by adding the termination ace to the main part of the name of a typical genus of the family. This termination corresponds to the English suffix aceous, meaning “having the qualities or characteristics of.” The name is thus of adjective form, the noun plante being under- stood. Hence the full name of the willow family would be Plante salicacee, meaning salicaceous (or willow-like) plants. In a few cases like Crucifere (from L. crux, crucis, a cross; fero, I bear) the name ex- presses a peculiarity of the whole family. 8 THE STUDY OF PLANTS to group the two families together into the beech order or Fagales. Similarly the Pinacee and another family resem- bling these cone-bearing plants form together the conifers, pine order, or Coniferales. All plants which agree with the Coniferales in having no cases to contain their ripening seeds are grouped to form the naked-seedworts or Class Gymnosperme,? while all the orders which develop their seeds in closed cases comprise the case- seedworts or Class Angiospernur.s Both together include all flowering and seed-producing plants, and so constitute the flowering plants, seed-plants, seedworts, or Division Spermatophyta,: which together with the various divisions of flowerless plants make up the vegetable kingdom or King- dom Vegetabilia. From what has been said it is evident that even if we do not know the name of a plant much of importance may be told about it if we know the family to which it belongs, and quite a little if we know only its order or class. Regarding any plant the question, What is it? calls for much the same sort of answer as when we wish to identify a soldier. As with the latter we need to know the army, corps, brigade, regiment, battalion, and company to enable us to place him with military precision, so with the former to know its divi- sion, class, order, family, genus, species, and variety tells botanically its place in the vegetable kingdom. In knowing the position of a plant, however, there is this additional ad- vantage that as resemblances and differences are expressed in the botanical groups to a much greater extent than in the military subdivisions we are just so much better informed regarding the true nature and peculiarities of the plant. 13. The departments of botany. The peculiarities con- sidered in classifying plants are chiefly such as concern the form, construction, and arrangement of parts. An under- standing of botanical classification means, therefore, a knowl- 1 The termination ales in later botanical usage indicates the rank of order, but until recently has been used indiscriminately for various ranks. > Gym/’no-sper’mie < Gr. gymnos, naked; sperma, seed. 3 An’ gi-o-sper’mie < Cr. angion, a case. 4 Sper’ma-toph’’y-ta << Gr. phylon, a plant. DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANY 9 edge of the structure of plants, just as an account of the different kinds of steam-engines (e. g., locomotives, including freight-engines, passenger-engines, switching-engines, etc.; stationary engines, including horizontal engines, pumping- engines, hoisting-engines, and so on) would be a description of the form and position of the different parts of their ma- chinery. Moreover, not until we know about the different parts of a plant, as of a machine, are we in position to under- stand well what each part is for, and how they all work to- gether. A knowledge of plant structure has thus a twofold importance. Similarly a knowledge of the materials which enter into the various parts of a plant, as of a machine, is necessary if we would understand its capabilities and use- fulness. So one question leads to another, the proper appreciation of one aspect of plants requiring also the study of other aspects. In this way have arisen the different departments of botany, each one representing a special point of view and all being necessary to a comprehensive understanding of the subject. To the various departments have been given special names of which the following are the most important for a beginner to remember :— Economic Botany views plants in their relation to man’s welfare. It is concerned with all the kinds which man uses for food, medicine, clothing, shelter, ornament, or for other purposes; and all which are harmful to him as weeds, poisons, or pests. The ways in which these plants are useful or harm- ful, and to what extent, to what peoples, for how long, and why—such questions as these it seeks to answer as far as possible. Chemical Botany is the study of the properties and quanti- ties of the various substances found in plants. Since the value of a useful plant often depends upon the presence of some special substance, such as sugar, the economic botanist has frequent occasion to learn about the chemistry of the plants with which he deals. Such knowledge is also necessary to an understanding of the life-processes of plants. Systematic Botany is concerned with the accurate descrip- 10 THE STUDY OF PLANTS tion, naming, and classification of plants. It investigates especially the resemblances and differences which . botanists depend upon in their systems of arrangement. Geographical Botany seeks to discover the native home of each plant, its migrations, if any, and the nature of its habitat, 7. ¢., the surroundings amid which it grows wild. Fossil Botany is the study of the remains of plants of former ages which have been preserved as fossils. Biological! Botany is the study of plants in regard to their ways of life as shown in the form and activities of their parts. Questions which relate simply to the form or structure of parts come within the subdepartment Vegetable Morphol- ogy 2 or Morphological Botany. Such as concern simply the activities of parts, or the life-processes going on within them, belong to Vegetable Physiology * or Physiological Botany. Finally, under Vegetable Ecology 4 or Ecological Botany come all questions as to how the different parts are adapted by their form and behavior to serve the welfare of the indi- vidual and the species, 7. e., the relation of plants to their homes. 1 Bi-o-log’-i-cal < Gr. bios, life; logos, logical account. 2 Mor-phol’o-gy < Gr. morphe, form. 3 Phys-i-ol’o-gy < Gr. physis, nature. 4 E-col’o-gy < Gr. oikos, household. Ecology considers the special ways in which plants solve the prob- lems of their domestic economy, such as their manner of obtaining food, protecting themselves, and providing for their offspring. Ecology, also spelt cecology, is a word recently come into use among botanists, to designate a branch of botany which has been developed almost entirely within the memory of those now living. It has been used in rather various senses but generally with the meaning given above at least implied. Sometimes especial emphasis is put upon the peculiar associa- tions or communities of plants that flourish in different kinds of homes, and upon the physical peculiarities of the homes themselves; but such matters are here referred in large part to geographical botany. CHAPTER II CEREALS 14. What cereals are. The ancient Romans, long before the Christian era, held each year at seed-time and harvest great festivals in honor of their goddess Ceres whom they worshiped as the giver of grain. In these celebrations offer- ings of wheat and barley, called cerealia munera or “gifts of Ceres,” held a most important part. Thus it was that the bread-producing grains came to be known as cerealia or cereals. We now include under this name not only wheat and barley but also rice, oats, rye, maize or Indian corn, and a few other grains of less importance, such as buckwheat. 15. Characteristics of cereals. The general appearance of the most important grain-plants is shown in Figs. 1 to 15. As will be seen, they all agree in having narrow grass-like leaves, and slender upright stems bearing numerous flowers in “ears” or ‘‘heads,” and finally, kernels enclosed by ‘‘ chaff” or “husks.’”’ In all but maize each separate kernel is covered completely by two or more of these chaffy envelopes, and even in maize some thin papery chaff may be seen attached to the cob at the base of each kernel. All the cereals are annuals; that is to say, each completes its span of life within a year. All of those mentioned, except buckwheat, are grasses which have been more or less changed from their wild state by ages of cultivation. Let us look more closely at the flowers of the oat. Although appearing rather unlike what we ordinarily call flowers, they have, as will be seen from Figs. 2 and 3, all the parts essential to a true flower. Indeed, because of their simplicity and perfection they afford a convenient standard with which to compare other flowers. In the center of the oat flower, as of flowers in general, is a pistil, in which may be distin- 11 12 CEREALS Fic. 1.—The oat (Avena sativa, Grass) Family, Graminew). Plant in flower, showing sev- eral leafy stalks growing from one root. Three of the stalks bear flower-clusters. About one-fifth natural size. (Bail- lon.) guished (1) a lower swollen part, the ovary, containing a small egg- shaped body, the ovule; (2) a pair of elongated middle parts, the styles, each connecting the ovary with (3) a free, terminal part, the stigma, which is here like a little plume. Around the pistil are three stamens very like what are commonly met with in other flowers. Each stamen consists of (1) a double sac, the anther, in which are produced innum- erable dust-like particles, the pollen, and (2) a threadlike part, the filament, on the upper end of which the anther 1s borne. When the anther is ripe it sheds its pollen, a particle of which com- ing to rest upon an oat stigma brings about the ripening of the ovule into a seed. As the ovule ripens, the ovary enlarges to keep pace with it, forming at last for the seed a firm protective cover- ing which together with the seed constitutes the grain. Mean- while the styles, stigmas, and stamens, having fulfilled their office, wither and fall off. The ripened ovary and its contents together with whatever parts ripen in connection with it (in this case two husks) constitute the fruit. since the purpose of the flower is to form seeds, and this is ac- complished by means of stamens and pistils, these are called the CHARACTERISTICS 13 essential organs of a flower. A flower which has both is said to be perfect; if either alone, imperfect; or if with neither, rudimentary. While the floral parts BE the oat are being formed they are protected by papery husks called bracts, a bract being or- Fic. 2.—Oat. A, Upper part of flower-cluster. B, a single spikelet in flower, with bracts spread somewhat apart. C, one of the outer bracts. D, an inner bract bearing an awn. J, pistil. G, lodicules. A and B about natural size, C, D, and J, enlarged. (Nees.) dinarily a small leaf-like organ belonging to a flower-cluster. A little cluster of grass-flowers together with their bracts, is called a spikelet. At the base of the inner bracts are the so-called lodicules which by swelling spread apart the bracts so as to expose the anthers and stigmas at the proper time for shedding or receiving the pollen. An awn is a bristle- like appendage such as make up the “beard” of many grasses. 14 CEREALS Fria. 3.—Oat. perennial about 60 em. tall; leaves shining; fowers white, resembling those of mustard in form but smaller. MISCELLANEOUS CONDIMENTS 145, Fic. 145, I.—Caper-bush (Capparis spinosa, Caper Family, Capparidacea). Flowering branch showing spines, leaves, flower-buds (which form the condiment), flower, and young fruit. (Baillon.)—A straggling shrub about 1 m. tall; leaves glossy; flowers white with violet stamens; fruit dry. Native home, Mediterranean Region, and India. Fic. 145, I1.—Caper-bush. Flower, cut vertically. The ovary is borne upon an elongated continuation of the flower-stalk. (Baillon.) 146 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS (0.06%) very similar to that of mustard if not identical with it. This oil is so powerful an irritant that it will raise blisters when applied to the skin. Capers are flower-buds of the caper-bush (Fig. 145), preserved in vinegar. They contain a peculias acid, and a volatile oil similar to that found in garlic. Under the head of miscellaneous condiments might also be included such sharp tasting vegetables as radish and onion which have already been considered. \ Fic. 145, T.—Caper-bush. Floral diagram. Pod. Seed, entire. Same cut vertically. (Baillon.) é 56. Essences are flavoring substances extracted from plants in various ways, often dissolved in water or aleohol, and always in liquid form. Peppermint obtained from the whole plant (Fig. 146), wintergreen from the leaves and fruit (Fig. 147), vanilla from the pods (Fig. 148 I), lemon from the rind of the fruit (Fig. 106), and rose from the petals (Fig. 148 IT, 148 II) are familiar examples. In peppermint, wintergreen, lemon, and rose the flavoring substance is a volatile oil. In vanilla it is a peculiar erystal- line substance called vanillin, which curiously enough oceurs ESSENCES 147 also in the sugar-beet root, and is manufactured artificially from oil of cloves and from pine wood. But these artificial products are inferior in flavor to the natural product extracted from the vanilla ‘bean.’ ~ ws \ Fic. 146, I.—Peppermint (Mentha piperita, Mint Family, Labiate). Flowering top. (Baillon.)—A perennial herb, growing 1 m. tall, aro- matic; leaves bearing numerous minute volatile oil glands; flowers pale purplish; nutlets seldom formed. The oil of wintergreen is likewise manufactured artificially, but in this case the artificial product is indistinguishable from the natural one. Unlike most oils this sinks in water, being indeed the heaviest known of volatile oils. It is a 148 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 146, 1.—Peppermint. Flowers, enlarged about five times, showing the two sizes often present. (Baillon.) Fig. 147.—Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens, Heath Family, Ericacew). Plant in flower and fruit, reduced. Corolla with attached stamens spread out. Pod, cut across. (Britton and Brown.)—An undershrub growing about 5-15 em. tall; leaves evergreen; flowers white; fruit bright red, consisting of the fleshy aromatic calyx enclosing a dry pod. Native home, North America. Fia. SENCES 149 148, I.—Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Orchid Family, Orchidacee.) Flowering branch, reduced in size, showing leaves and air-roots. A, lip of the flower, and along its back the ‘‘column”’ formed of style and stamens grown together. 8B, C, column, side view and front view, show- ing anthers (a) and rudimentary stamen (s). D, top of column, cut lengthwise through anthers. #, seed, much enlarged. (Berg and Schmidt.) A tall, climbing herb attaching itself to trees by means of air-roots; leaves thick; flowers yellow; fruit a pod ripening in two years, 16-30 cm. long, 7-10 mm. thick. Native home, Mexico. 150 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS powerfully acting substance possessing poisonous properties when used in more than very small amount. 57. Non-alcoholic beverages include those made from unfermented fruit juices, as, for example, lemonade; those made with syrups flavored with various essences, such as soda water mixtures; and those made by steeping the dried leaves of the tea-plant (Fig. 149), or boiling the prepared seeds of coffee (Fig. 150) or cacao (Fig. 115). The plants Fig. 148, I1.—French Rose (Rosa yallica, Rose Family, Rosacea). (Bail- lon.)—Shrub about 1.5 m. tall; leaves hairy beneath; flowers pink to crimson; fruit brick-red. Native home, Middle and Southern Europe, and Western Asia. This species crossed more or less with others is the principal source of ‘‘attar of roses.”” yielding fruit juices or flavoring matters used for beverages, have already a sufficiently described for our present pur- pose. Tea, coffee, and cacao agree in each containing a crystalline constituent which belongs to the class of substances known as alkaloids. That of tea has been ealled the/ne, of coffee caffeine, and of cacao theobromine. Theine and caffeine have been found by chemists to be identieal, and to differ but slightly from theobromine. Alkaloids differ chemically from oils and carbohydrates in containing nitrogen, and are distinguished from other FLAVORING PLANTS 151 Fic. 148, I1I.—Scotch Rose (Rosa spinosissima, Rose Family, Rosacee). A, flowering branch. 8B, floral diagram. C, flower, cut vertically. D, pistil, with ovary cut open to show the single ovule within. £, fruit entire. F, same, cut vertically, to show the nutlets enclosed by the fleshy urn-like expansion of the flower-stalk which bears the other floral parts around its rim. (Baillon.)—Shrub about 1 m. tall, very prickly; flowers pink, white, or yellowish; fruit black. Native home, Eurasia. Although this species is not used for making attar it is here included as showing the floral structure more clearly than the more highly cultivated French rose. 152. FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 149, I1.—Tea (Thea sinensis, Toa Family, Theacew). Flowering branch (Baillon.)—A shrub or tree growing 10 m. tall; leaves evergreen; flowers white, fragrant; fruit dry. Native home, China and India. Tra. 149, Il.—Tea. . : N 4 mA SA) in * gun-stocks. White walnut or butternut (Fig. 28) lacks the strength of the others but is nevertheless of considerable value for interior finish, cabinet work, and cooperage. 262 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Fira. 250, Magnolia, Bull Bay (Magnolia grandiflora, Magnolia Family. Magnoliacer). Flowering branch. Floral diagram. Fruit. (Baillon.) —Tree growing 24 m. tall; leaves evergreen; flowers white, fragrant; fruit rusty brown; seeds bright red, dangling on threads. Native home, North Carolina to Texas. TRUE WOODS 263 Cherry as found in the lumber market is almost entirely the wood of the wild black cherry (Fig. 247) although the wood of other species may sometimes be offered. Its fine texture and attractive color make it one of the most desirable of finishing lumbers. Plum (Figs. 95, 239), very similar to cherry, is used similarly but more rarely. Maple, especially sugar-maple (Fig. 248) has all the quali- ties necessary for flooring, paneling, and other interior finishing. It is highly valued also for the keels of vessels. As a material for furniture ‘‘curly” grained or “bird’s eye”’ varieties are in great demand. Its fine texture and uniform hardness adapt it also for shoe-lasts and other form blocks, for shoe-pegs, showbill type, parts of pianos and other musical instruments, and for use in carving and turnery. Tulip whitewood (Fig. 249) is used in enormous quantities for a great many purposes where fine texture, ease of working, and stiffness are required but not much strength. Interior finishing, furniture, carriage and wagon bodies, parts of implements and machinery, and many kinds of woodenware, boxes, and toys show the wide range of its usefulness. Magnolia (Fig. 250), has a wood so closely resembling that of the tulip whitewood as to be frequently used for similar purposes. Basswood, obtained from the linden tree (Figs. 251, 252), re- sembles the sap-wood of magnolia in appearance and proper- ties. On account of its lightness, uniform texture, and pale color it is used especially for the bottoms of drawers, for carv- ing and pyrography, and because of its stiffness serves well for trunks. Poplar (Fig. 253) obtained from various species, is a very soft, light wood of limited use in building and furniture making; but found to be suitable for sugar and flour barrels, cracker boxes, crates, and certain articles of woodenware. Birch (Figs. 240, 254) of various species is a wood resem- bling cherry in its properties, and when stained to imitate it, is often used in place of the more expensive material for interior finishing and furniture. It is used commonly also for spools, turned boxes, wooden shoes, shoe-lasts, shoe-pegs, wagon- hubs, ox-yokes, and many other carved or turned articles, 264 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Fic. 251.—Elm-leaved Linden (Tilia ulmifolia, Linden Family, Tiliacer). Flowering branch. Flower, enlarged. Same, cut vertically. (Bail- lon.)—Tree 30 m. or more tall; bark grayish; leaves whitish beneath; flowers cream-color; fruit brownish. Native home, Europe. 2.—Linden. Floral diagram. Fruit. Seed, entire. Same, cut vertically. (Baillon.) Vie, 253.—Poplar, American Aspen (Populus tremuloides, Willow Family, Salicacer). Leafy branch, 3. Leaf. Staminate flower-cluster. — Pistil- late flower-cluster. Pistillate flower. Seed. (Britton and Brown.) —Tree about 30m. tall; leaves with stalk flattened at right angles to the blade; flowers greenish; fruit dry. Native home, Northern North America, Fia. 1) or Or TRUE WOODS 254.—White Birch (Belula alba, Birch Family, Betulacew). 1, flowering branch. 2, fruiting branch. 3-6, staminate flowers. *6, stamen. 7, part of pistillate flower-cluster. 8, group of pistillate flowers, outer view. 9, same, inner view. 10, bracts. 11, 12, the same as ripened in the cone. 13, fruit. 14, winter twig. 15, a three-year-old twig, cut across. (Willkomm.)—Tree growing 24 m. tall; bark white; leaves and young twigs resinous; flowers yellowish; fruit brown. Native home, Eurasia. 266 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Mahogany (Fig. 255) is pre-eminently the joiner’s wood, being preferred to all others for cabinet making of all sorts, interior finish, and ornamental work in general. Pra. 255.—Mahogany (GSuwiretenia Mahogoni, Melia Family, Jfeliacea). A, flowering branch. B, flower, cut vertically, with calyx and corolla removed. €, staminate tube. 2D, pistil. HW, bud. F, fruit. G, central column of fruit with seed attached. H, seed. J, fruit-valwe, side view. (Harms.)—Tree 21 om. tall; leaves smooth, flowers greenish yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Tropieal America Orange-wood (Mig. 106) although attractive, is available only in such small quantitics that its use is mostly restricted Fia. 256. TRUE WOODS 267 American Sycamore or Buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis, Plane-tree Family, Platanacew). the difference is not always well marked. Soft pine (mainly white pine) is the principal wood used in common carpentry, and enormous quantities are consumed also in white cooper- age, cabinet work, toy-making, pattern-making, and _ ship- building; and for crates, boxes, ete. Hard pine is most ex- tensively used in heavy construction, especially for bridges and sumilar exposed work; and is unequaled for spars, masts, planks, ship-timbers, and heavy beams. It has especial advantages for flooring and exposed stairways on account of its durability. Larch (Fig. 259) is very like hard pine in appearance, qualities, and uses. For ship’s “knees”’ (7. e., angular braces giving stiffness to the frame) the lower part of the tree as it curves naturally when growing in swamps has great advan- tages. Owing to its durability the trunk is valued also for telegraph-poles and railway-ties. Spruce (ig. 260) resembles soft pine in appearance and qualities and is commonly put to the same uses. Being re- markably resonant it is preferred to all other woods for the sounding-boards of pianos, and the bodies of violins, guitars, and similar stringed instruments. Red cedar (Fig. 261) has just the lightness, softness, and even texture required for lead-pencils; and is used in very large quantities for that purpose, almost to the exclusion of other woods. It also finds a place in cabinet work and for cooperage; likewise for fence posts on account of its unusual durability in contact with soil. Redwood (ig. 262) closely resembles red cedar in appear- ance and qualities and has many of the same uses. [ts great durability makes it highly valued for shingles, and its large TRUE WOODS 971 dimensions and rich color give it especial advantages for certain purposes in cabinet work and interior finish. Hemlock (Fig. 263) is soft and stiff though brittle, com- monly cross-grained, coarse, and splintery. It is of value chiefly for rough carpentry, and railway-ties. Fic. 259.—European Larch (Larix decidua, Pine Family, Pinacec). 1, twig with long and short branches, and with a cone continuing as a branch at a. 2, twig with staminate and pistillate flowers. 3, staminate flower, j. 4-6, stamens. 7, 8, 9, scales from young cone. 10, ripe cone. 11-13, seed-bearing scales. 14, seeds, with and without wing. 15, short branch or ‘‘spur,”’ cut vertically. 16, leaf, entire, and cut across. (Willkomm.)—Tree growing 30 m. tall; bark dark grayish- brown; leaves bright green; staminate flowers yellow; pistillate flowers purplish; fruit brownish. Native home, Europe. 272 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 74. Pseudo-woods, as we have seen, may be defined as more or less wood-like materials which, however, show no trace of pith rays or annual rings. Under the name poreupine-wood the outer harder part of 10 Fig. 260.—Norway Spruce (Picea cxeclsa, Pine Family, Pinacee). 1, twig bearing staminate flowers. 2, twig bearing a pistillate flower. 3, ripe cone. 4-6, cone scales, bearing seeds. 7, seeds, with and without wing. &, stamen, two views. 9, leaf, entire and cut across. 10, seed- ling, with seed-shell still attached. 11, same, older. 12, a ‘‘ pineapple gall”? produeed by the spruce aphis (Chermes abietis). (Willkkomim )— Tree growing 45 m. tall; bark reddish brown; leaves dark green, glossy; flowers purple; fruit brown. Native home, Europe. Much planted. Fic. Fic. 261.—Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana, Pine Family, Pinacee). Fruiting branch, 3. Leafy tip. (Britton and Brown.)—Tree growing 30 m. tall; bark brownish, shreddy; leaves dull green; flowers yellowish; fruit light blue. Native home, North America. 262.—Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens, Pine Family, Pinaceew). Fruit- ing branch. (Nicholson.)—Tree growing over 100 m. tall; bark reddish brown; leaves mostly scale-like; flowers inconspicuous; fruit brownish. Native home, California. Fic. 263.—Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis, Pine Family, Pinacee). Leafy branch, 3. Staminate flower. Cone. Cone-scale. (Britton and Brown.)—Tree growing over 30 m. tall; bark flaky; leaves dark green above; flowers yellowish; fruit brownish. Native home, Eastern North America. 274 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS the coconut trunk (ig. 34) is imported for the use of cabinet makers in ornamental work and to some extent for canes. Canes of rather curious appearance are made sometimes also from the mid-rib of the gigantic leaves of the date-palm bia. 264.—Tree-cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. acephala, Mustard Family, Crucifera). Plant, v2. = (Vilmorin.)—Perennial herb growing 2 m. tall; leaves, etc., as in other forms of cabbage. Native home, Westera Europe. (Fig. 108). Another curious walking-stick is made from the stalk of an extraordinarily tall variety of cabbage (Wig. 264). The bamboo (Pig. 224) of which there are many species, has, as is well known, a very wide range of uses among which the most familiar to us are for canes and umbrella handles, fishing- INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 275 Fic. 265.—Bottle-gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris, Gourd Family, Cucurbitacee). Plant in fruit, 2:. Flower. (Vilmorin.)—Annual, climbing by tendrils to a length of 10 m. or more; hairy throughout; flowers white; fruit yellowish cr orange, very various in form, sometimes 2 m. long. Native home, Old World Tropics. microcarpa, Palm Family, Ivory (Phytelephas L ni; Palmacee). Plants, in flower, a staminate plant in front, and a pistil- (Karsten.)—Shrub with short stem sending up leaves Fic. 266, I.—Vegetable late one behind. 7-8 m. long; fruit dry. Native home, Tropical America. 276 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS rods, articles of furniture, and various ornaments. In tropical and eastern countries where bamboos flourish, the uses to which the light, strong stems are put would require pages to enumerate. The hard parts of certain fruits may be considered also as pseudo-woods, and are sometimes put to minor uses of importance. The hard inner shell of the coconut forms the stunt eS Vig. 266, 11.—Vegetable Ivory. A, pistillate flower-cluster in bud. Bb, staminate flower. C, stamen. D, pollen. £, pistillate flower, cut vertically, showing pistil accompanied by rudimentary stamens. F, fruit, cut across. G, seed. (arsten.) bowl of the familiar coconut dipper. The shells of various gourds (Fig. 265) play a most useful part as vessels for holding liquid or storing food, in the domestic economy of many regions. Tinally, may be mentioned the vegetable ivory (Wig. 266) which is a seed-food that takes the form of nearly pure cellulose. Large quantities of these seeds are imported and used in) place of very or bone for umbrella handles, PSEUDO-WOODS 277 knobs, buttons, balls, and various other small articles of turnery. For the most part, pscudo-woods, although sometimes Fia. 267.—Cork Oak (Quercus Suber, Beech Family, Fagaceew). A, fruiting branch. 8, twig with staminate flower-clusters. C, staminate flower. D, pistillate flower. (Redrawn after Schneider.)—Tree growing 15 m. tall; bark thick and spongy; leaves whitish, hairy beneath; flowers yellowish; fruit brownish. Native home, Southern Europe, and Northern Africa. locally important, are of comparatively small use and need not here be further discussed. 278 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Fie. 268.—Cork Oak. Wedge of trunk cut across to show wood, with strong pith-rays and annual rings, and the thick bark consisting of the outer “virgin cork" (light colored) and the inner ‘cork mother” (dark colored). (Figuier.) Pia. 269.—Haryvesting Cork. (liguier.) CORK 279 75. Cork is the light, waterproof, compressible yet elas- tic material forming the outer bark of the cork oak (Figs. 267- 269). Like true wood it is built up of annual layers formed by a cambium. It differs from wood in having the inner layers the younger, in being non-fibrous, and in containing about 70-80% of a mixture of waxy and tallow-like sub- stances which is known as suberin. Very many plants pro- duce cork in their outer parts, but only the cork oaks form masses sufficiently large to be of economic use. The imperviousness to water, the elasticity, and the firm- ness of cork, upon which its economic value mainly depends, render it in the first place useful to the tree as a protection for the tender inner bark where processes of vital importance are carried on. Since these processes cannot proceed without free access of air the thick cork layer is found to be pierced by numerous breathing channels extending radially to the surface. Besides these channels rifts naturally occur in the outer bark as it is stretched by the increasing bulk of the wood within, and by the new layers of bark. In the young tree the first few layers of cork are compara- tively thick while those formed later are only about 1-2 mm. in thickness and soon become so brittle and so badly cracked as to be unfit for finer uses. Such inferior cork, suitable only for fuel, packing, fish-net floats, rustic work in conserva- tories, and the like, is all the tree ever produces if left undis- turbed. But in cultivation when the trees are from fifteen to twenty years old all of this “virgin cork,” as it is called, is cut away, great care being taken not to injure the tender part within known as the ‘‘cork mother” because it includes the cambium. The effect of this operation upon the tree is in every way beneficial. Henceforth the cork produced is more abundant, softer, and more homogeneous; the breathing channels are farther apart; and the cracks become far less troublesome. For a century and a half or even longer, at intervals of eight to fifteen years, slabs of fine cork 5-20 cm. thick are peeled from the trunk in the manner illustrated (Fig. 269). The harvesting takes place in summer when the inner bark adheres most firmly to the wood. After being stripped from the tree the slabs of cork are scraped so as to 280 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS clean the outer surface, are then flattened under pressure with the aid of heat, and finally tied in bundles for shipment. By far the most important use of cork is for stoppers. It is estimated that the daily consumption amounts to twenty million. Cork stoppers are cut either by hand or by ma- chinery. Large flat corks have to be cut so that the channels pass from top to bottom. Such corks require, therefore, the use of some sealing material such as wax, to make them impervious. Smaller corks are cut so that the channels go from side to side and hence are air-tight without sealing. In the cutting, about half the material, or more, becomes waste chips. So valuable are the properties of cork, how- ever, that even in this form it may be utilized in important ways. Thus, pulverized and mixed with rubber or with boiled linseed-oil it forms when spread on canvas a floor cover- ing at once durable and sound-deadening. Coarsely ground cork serves well on account of its softness and clasticity as packing for fruit, especially grapes; and, when glued to paper forms a safe wrapping for bottles in transportation. The same remarkable properties make masses of cork most effective buffers for vessels. In the form of thin sheets it has long been used as a material for insoles and hat linings. The lightness of cork has especially recommended it for artificial limbs, handles, net floats, and life-preservers; while the uni- form texture and the case with which it may be shaped have made it valuable to model makers and even to turners and carvers. Although cork was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and there is record of its use by them for the soles of shoes and as stoppers for wine vessels, tt has been generally used only within the last few hundred vears. 76. Elastic gums, including india-rubber or caoutchouc ' and gutta-percha,’ are tough, more or less clastic and water- proof solids which separate as a curd from the milky juice of a number of tropical plants. Smal quantities of caoutchouc are present also in many ol our native plants having a milky juice, but the amount is ' Pronounced koo’chuk. “Ch pronounced as in church, ELASTIC GUMS 281 much too small to be of any economic significance. The use of this Juice to the plant is not altogether clear; but from the fact that it flows readily from a cut and after a little while hardens upon exposure to the air, the conclusion seems war- ranted that it serves in part at least as a ready means of Fig. 270.—Brazilian Rubber-tree (Hevea guyanensis, Spurge Family, Euphorbiacer). H;,NO,;) which is extracted by water from the leafy shoots, and, under the influence of an enzym which accompanies it, gives rise to a compound re- sembling glucose and to indigo blue (CyHyNsO:). A sub- stance which thus decomposes into a sugar and some other compound is known as a glucoside. Indigo blue is insoluble in water and can therefore be separated along with certain impurities by filtration. The pasty mass retained is dried in cakes to form the indigo of commerce. The msolubility of indigo blue in water presents a peculiar difficulty to its use as a dye, yet at the same time gives it a great advantage when once it is incorporated with a fiber. The difficulty is overcome by taking advantage of the fact that indigo blue may be readily changed (in various ways which increase the proportion of hydrogen) into a colorless substance called indigo white (CyHy2N202) which is soluble in dilute alkaline solutions and has the fortunate property of quickly changing back to indigo-blue on exposure to the air. The means com- monly employed by dyers to change the indigo-blue is to add indigo to vats containing lime-water in which bran or mo- lasses or some other substance is undergoing fermentation. When the indigo is all transformed and dissolved, a piece of white woolen or cotton soaked in the solution and then exposed to the air soon takes on a permanent blue color. A considerable number of plants have been found to con- tain indican, and several different species are cultivated in India and other warm countries for the manufacture of indigo. Of these plants the most important one is the dyer’s indigo shrub (Fig. 275) Logwood is iene: from a small Central American tree (Fig. 276). It is exported in the form of logs from whieh the sap-wood has been removed. The coloring matter which it yields, is, like indigo, not present in the living plant but is derived from a colorless glucoside called hematoxylin (C\,Hy,0,) which in turn readily oxidizes to form the deep violet-purple compound known as hwmalein (Cy H 204). It is interesting to observe that this transformation involves the loss of two atoms of hydrogen just as does the ehange of the white indigo into the blue. Unlike indigo, however, COLORING MATTERS 293 . 275.—Dyer's Indigo Shrub (Indigofera tinctoria, Pulse Family, Le- guminose). Flowering branch; a, flower, enlarged; 6, standard (upper- most petal), back view; c, wing (side petal), inner view; d, e, keel-petal, inner and outer views; f, flower with corolla removed; g, pistil. h, fruit, natural size; 7, seed; k, same, cut vertically. (Berg and Schmidt.)— Shrub growing 2 m. tall; leaves downy beneath; flowers reddish yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Southern Asia. 294 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS logwood of itself does not make a permanent dye. It requires the use of a mordant, that is to say, some substance such as a salt of iron which fixes the dye upon the fabric. Thus used it makes one of the best blacks for wool or cotton. In com- bination with iron, etc., it is used also widely in the manu- facture of writing inks. Lampblack is the finely divided carbon deposited from the smoke of rosin or oil burned with slight access of air in eV Fic. 276.—Logwood-tree (Hamatorylon campecheanum, Pulse Family, Leguminose). A, flowering branch. 8B, flower. (C, same, cut verti- cally. D, pod. (Taubert.)—Tree about S m. tall; leaves smooth; flowers yellow, fragrant; fruit dry. Native home, Tropical America. a special chamber. It is used extensively in the making of printing-ink, and forms the basis of india-ink and of various black pigments used in painting, leather-finishing, and the like. Lampblack is one of the most important of coloring matters. Tan-bark is obtained from many trees, including hem- lock (Fig. 263), oak (Fig. 243), willow (Fig. 228), chestnut (Fig. 24), larch (Hig. 259), and spruce (Fig. 260), which are rich in tannins. These substances, as already explained in sections 57 and 60, are astringents which are present in OILS 295 various parts of many plants, and agree in forming an ink- like product when combined with an iron salt. Though chemically more or less diverse they mostly resemble indican and hematoxylin in being glucosides, and are believed to be usually waste products of the plant producing them. A property of tannins which renders them especially valuable to the dyer is that they are readily absorbed in solution by cotton, linen, and silk, and will then precipitate various dyes within the fiber, thus serving as a mordant. But the chief property which gives industrial importance to plants rich in tannins is the power which these substances have of so combining with animal skins as to render them permanently pliable and resistent of decay. Hence it is that a hide soaked, under proper conditions, in an extract of tan-bark becomes leather. At the same time, the staining powers of the tannin and associated substances may be taken advantage of to impart a strong color to the product. 79. Oils, whether fixed or volatile, are very generally pres- ent throughout the vegetable kingdom; and, as we have already seen, they are often of much economic importance as food or flavoring, and in medicine. They are of scarcely less value in the industrial arts, immense quantities of dif- ferent vegetable oils being consumed in the manufacture of paints, printing-ink, varnishes, soaps, and perfumery, and as lubricants and illuminants. As vehicles for pigments fixed oils are selected which not only will hold the particles of coloring matter in perfect sus- pension, and so make it easy to spread them evenly over a surface, but which also will harden promptly when thus spread into a film exposed to the air. Oils which harden in this way are called drying oils although the change which takes place depends not upon the evaporation of a volatile solvent, as in the drying of certain varnishes, but upon the absorption of oxygen which changes the oil into a varnish-like substance. Linseed-oil, which is obtained by pressure from the séeds of flax (Fig. 217), is the one most widely used by painters. Its “drying” qualities are much improved by boiling. For use in printing-ink the oil is boiled until it is very thick. Other drying oils which are somewhat superior to linseed-oil are 296 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS poppy-oil, from the seeds of the opium poppy (Fig. 172), and nut-oil, from the kernels of the English walnut (Fig. 27). These being comparatively expensive are reserved for fine painting. Linseed-oil is invaluable also as a solvent for copal and other resins, with which it unites at a high temperature to form the highest class of varnishes. Entirely by itself it is used extensively to give an attractive ‘oil finish”? to wood- work. In certain varnishes the volatile oil or spirits of tur- pentine, known commonly to the trade as ‘“‘turps,” is the solvent used, and is likewise indispensable to painters as a means of thinning their colors. Any of the fixed oils combined with an alkali makes soap. When potash (or lye from wood ashes) is used soft soap is formed; hard soap being made with soda. Chemically the fixed oils are mixtures, in various proportions, of compounds called glycerides. A glyceride is so called because it consists of glycerin (the familiar sweetish substance soluble in water) combined with an acid. Linoleic, oleic, and palmatic acids are among the most important in vegetable oils. The gly- ceride of linoleic acid, called linolein, forms 80° of linseed- oil, and gives to this and to other drying oils their peculiar power of hardening by oxidation. Olein, the glyceride of oleic acid, is the main constituent of olive-oil. It is liquid at ordinary temperatures and becomes rancid by oxidation. Palmatic acid forms a glyceride, palmatin, which is not liquid at ordinary temperatures. It is the main solid constituent of coconut and other palm-oils. When any fixed oil is mixed with an alkali, the glycerides present are decomposed each into its peculiar acid and glycerin, and the acids unite with the alkali to form soap, leaving the glycerin free. Inferior grades of linseed orl and other cheap oils are used for soft-soap. Oil from the olive (Fig. 113) is usec extensively for castile, and other fine toilet soaps. Other hard soaps of various grades are made from “* cocoa-buller ”? (see section 39), and oils from coconué (Fig. 386), cotlon-seed (Pig. 215), peanut (Pig. 32), and almond (Hig. 31). To give an agreeable odor to soap a large variety of volatile oils are introduced during the process of preparing the product FUEL 297 for market. The oils of wintergreen (Fig. 147), marjoram (Fig. 137), coriander (Fig. 143), thyme (Fig. 134), caraway (Fig. 140), and many others are thus used to a greater or less extent. These same volatile oils enter also into the manufacture of perfumery; and for this purpose many other volatile oils are more or less in demand, as, for example, the oils of nutmeg (Fig. 129), allspice (Pig. 123), sassafras (Fig. 160), peppermint (Fig. 146), spearmint (Fig. 135), orange-peel and orange- flowers (Fig. 106), and the oil distilled from the wood of red cedar (Fig. 261). It is to the fragrant oil obtained from the bark of white birch (Wig. 254) that the characteristic odor of Russia leather is due. None but fixed oils can serve as lubricants; and of these, only the non-drying ones are suitable. The vegetable lubri- cants most extensively employed are (1) olive-orl, used for this purpose mostly in southern European countries where a sufficiently good quality may be obtained at a low price, (2) rape-oil from the seed of a variety of turnip grown widely in northern Europe and India, and (3) cotton-seed oil used largely in this country. As uluminants vegetable oils have not to-day the impor- tance they had before the introduction of petroleum lamp-oil and paraffin candles. Nevertheless, large quantities of vegetable illuminants are still consumed, especially in regions where mineral or animal oils are comparatively expensive. Almost all the fixed oils in common use for other purposes have served for burning, but the non-drying oils are pref- erable. Olive, peanut, and rape oils, which are all rich in olein, are among the best. Palmatin, as we have seen, is an important constituent of coconut-oil. This substance sepa- rated from the more fluid parts of the coconut-oil and other palm-oils affords an excellent material for candles. 80. Fuel, whether as a source of heat or of power, being indispensable to the carrying on of almost every industry, and being also a necessity for steam-transportation, for the heating of buildings, and for cooking, it is plain that civiliza- tion could not have developed as it has, nor could it possibly go on, without this source of heat. 298 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Anything which burns readily in the air will serve as fuel; and, indeed, various sorts of refuse are thus utilized: for ex- ample, wheat straw is made to run steam threshing-machines, and the crushed stalks of sugar-cane are used in the boiling of the juice. But, in general, wood, peat, and coal, and their products, charcoal, coke, and illuminating gas, are the fuels most extensively used. Wood is the most used of all fuels. All woods when per- fectly dry consist of nearly 99% of combustible material and about 1% of inorganic matter which remains as ash when the wood is burned. Air-dry wood contains about 25% of water, and in green wood it may be as much as 50%. This water reduces the fuel value not only as taking the place of combustible substances but also as using up the heat necessary for its evaporation. Hence the economy of well- seasoned fire-wood. The value of different fuels may be conveniently compared when stated in terms of the amount of water which a unit weight will evaporate. Thus, green wood is found to vield enough heat to convert about twice its weight of water at 100 C. into steam; air-dry wood about three and a half times; and perfectly dry wood over four times its own weight. So far as chemical composition is concerned soft woods should yield on burning about the same amount of heat as hard woods of equal dryness. In practice, how- ever, considerable differences are found, depending in part upon the ease with which complete combustion may take place, as shown by the amount of smoke, and in part upon compactness of structure, and so forth. Wood as being a flaming fuel is especially well adapted for heating surfaces of large extent, as in the boilers of steam-engines. The small amount and the soft crumbly nature of its ash give wood a further advantage over peat and coal. Peat consists of the more or less carbonized and compacted deposits of vegetable substances which accumulate in bogs and marshes, and, in the presence of water, slowly decompose. Peat-bogs form chiefly in northern countries. Near the sur- face they consist largely of moss like that shown in Fig. 227 with which, however, a number of other plants are found growing. In the deeper layers that have been buried for a 299 FUEL C9lmojog) —*yUOIF oY} TOM YUE WYBII 9y} uO rey (wryofrauns wnphydouaydy) syuvid ,, yvo[-oFpom ,, :(sazvplo,)) SULIOdSOULIAT PoAvo] aBIeT “¢ *(st4ajdorwvyzy) SuAo} Surquarpo ore asoy} I + (WoLpuUrpo)/)) SIBOS oBIL] Y}IA 9uo [BoLIpuT]AD B puT ‘(woL“puspobursig) yuns, o7e1}s01d [BPloUOd B *(viLDPIOIS') JOOID OM} ,‘SOSSOUL -qnp,, I9YIO “f “(voLpuspopidaT) ,,ssow-qnyio,, JuTIT WE *(snsown. PLULDID,)) ¢, YSN SuLINOos ,, JURIT VG *(uojhydoba yy) YUNAY ULoy ozeAjso1d wv sty} MOTAq !( Jajdouayd gy) Wie} Surqurrypo wv‘ (1 oY} O} /SJOOI-9ovIG YIM (sta7d 0097) U1oj-001} B‘T *O3v sIvak YNO‘OOO'OF Hoge ‘ATYSnor AOA ‘aq 0} poy { ,, POMog snorojruoqae,) oq} JO o[pprta oy} Surmnp dureas v UL SUIMOIS porvadde aavy 0} posoddns o. er) n n Be a Ay 5 i a 300 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS long period of time, the material is so transformed as to be like a soft, brown coal. In regions where wood is scarce peat is highly valued as a fuel. It is commonly more bulky than wood, and has from 5 to 15 times as much ash. Its heating power is about the same. Coal, like peat, consists of the decomposed and compacted remains of plants. It differs from peat principally in being harder and more completely reduced to carbon. But peat passes into coal by insensible gradations so that none but an arbitrary line can separate them. The coal with which we are most familiar may be regarded as a peat-like material of very great antiquity,—so ancient that the plants from which it was formed have heen extinct for many ages. Some idea of the appearance of certain of these coal plants may be gained from Figs. 277,278. In comparison with wood and peat as a fuel, coal has the advantage of possessing greater com- pactness and more power of heating. It will convert into steam about 7 to 9 times its own weight of water. The most objectionable features of coal are its large amount of troublesome ash, which often interferes with good combus- tion, and its offensive smoke, which is excessive from soft coal. Charcoal burns without flame or smoke, and has over twice the heating power of wood, or as much as the average coal. It is produced mostly by smothered combustion of billets of wood, commonly arranged in conical piles, and cov- ered with earth. When wood is subjected to dry distillation creosote, wood-alcohol, and other volatile compounds pass into the condenser, leaving charcoal in the retort. The charcoal produced at the highest temperature yields most heat when burned, and is therefore of most use in metallurgy ; that produced at as low a temperature as possible is the most inflammable and thus the most suitable for mixing with niter and sulphur to make gunpowder. Coke bears somewhat the same relation to coal that char- coal does to wood. Tt is similarly obtained by smothered combustion in covered piles, or by heating in special ovens or retorts. Like charcoal it is nearly pure carbon, and is used extensively in metallurgy and for other purposes where a FUEL 301 smokeless fuel is required. It was originally a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas. Now it is manu- factured expressly for metallurgical purposes, the ovens being so constructed that the inflammable gases driven off are made to serve largely as a source of heat in the process. Vic. 278.—Fossil remains of a giant club-moss (Lepidedendron sp., Scale- tree Family, Lepidodendracew). From the coal period. (Baillon.) Illuminating-gas is made by subjecting coal or wood to a high temperature in a retort, and collecting and purifying the gas given off. For obvious reasons coal-gas has proved to be a most convenient fuel especially adapted for household use in large cities. The study of fuels leads one to think not only of the forests 302 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS of to-day and of bog-plants that lived perhaps hundreds of years ago, but in imagination one is led back to strange forests which disappeared from the earth many thousands of years ago and became turned to stone. Therefore, if we ask ourselves, Whence comes this material that men burn to get heat and power? the answer is, From the bodies of plants, some of which lived ages before the coming of mankind. And if we further ask, Whence comes the energy which all these plants have stored in their bodies, and left for us to set free? students of nature tell us, From the sun. That is to say, plants with foliage are the sunbeam-traps of our planet, and except for their marvelous ability to lock the energy of sunshine into the material of food and fuel, the life of the world as we know it would be impossible. How plants are able thus to store up sunshine, and why they do it, are questions to be answered only by the study of their processes of life. 81. Useful and harmful plants in general. From our study of some of the more important groups of economic plants we have learned not only that the very existence of the human race depends upon the vegetable kingdom but also that the progress of humanity at every stage has been profoundly influenced by the properties of plants and by man’s knowledge of them. The needs of primitive man must have been met largely by wild plants. Through the cultiva- tion of plants, as we have seen, civilizations were developed in those regions where the most useful plants grew most abundantly. The desire for spices and similar luxuries led to the discovery of America. The vegetable products of the New World are now revolutionizing human life to the re- motest ends of the earth. Our brief study of vegetable foods, food-adjuncts, medi- cines, and raw products has shown that what we take from plants for our own use has often a similar use for the plants themselves, though sometimes the use is quite different; and in some cases, so far as we can see, the product is of no use whatever in the plant’s economy. In other cases it has been found that substances poisonous to us are also poisonous to the plants which produce them, just as the venom of cer- USEFUL AND HARMFUL PLANTS 303 tain animals may be fatal to themselves. Since, however, some of these plant poisons are among the most valuable of medicines, it is plain that no dividing line exists between harmful and useful plants. Judged in its relation to our welfare the same plant may be either useful or harmful according to what we do with it. Obviously, the more we know about their properties the less likely are we to suffer harm from plants, and the more likely are we to benefit by them. The student should understand clearly that in this book the aim is only to introduce beginners to the study of plants. Our purpose is merely to lay a good foundation for future studies which shall further advance general culture. There has been no intention of giving here a complete outline of economic botany. Accordingly, a great many plants of high economic importance have not been mentioned; and some of the chief uses of plants, and some of the most serious ways of their working harm, have been passed over with bare mention, or have been ignored. Thus, in regard to the food of domestic animals but little has been said of the fod- der raised for them, and nothing at all of pasture plants upon which some of the principal industries of the world depend. The many plants which afford bees the material for making honey and wax, and those which serve as food for silkworms or other insects of economic value have also been neglected. So also have we omitted reference to the plants which do great service in binding shifting sands that but for these sand-binders would devastate extensive areas: to those plants similarly used to prevent the washing away of soils; to trees set out as wind-breaks for protecting tender vegetation, as drainers of swamp land, or for shade and beauty; and to the innumerable flowers and foliage plants cultivated or collected for ornament. Likewise, among harmful plants neither weeds nor destructive parasites have been included. Not only has our study neglected these groups of plants which especially affect the welfare of mankind but it has been forced to leave out of account some most extensive in- fluences which vitally concern animals in general. For ex- 304 USEFUL AND HARMFUL PLANTS ample, there is the influence of forests upon water-supply, by which is meant their action as reservoirs feeding the streams gradually in spring, thereby avoiding floods, and at the same time keeping back plenty for the dry season. Then, too, there is the important action of plants in soil- making, and the purifying influence of vegetation upon air and water whereby they are made to serve better the needs of animal life. All these various relations of plants to the life of the world, and to our owne lives in particular, are as profitable and attractive matters of study as any that have claimed our attention; and the student will do well to learn all he can regarding them. It should be said, however, that many of these relations are best understood in the lght of vegetable biology. Moreover, the student’s pursuit of economic botany cannot well proceed much farther than we have here at- tempted to go, without his first acquiring such an elementary knowledge of systematic botany as the following chapters may help him to gain. CHAPTER VII CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION 82. Systematic classification. In Chapter I it was pointed out that the large number of plants which botanists have to study has made necessary some sort of classification or orderly arrangement into groups within groups. Plainly, one of the chief requirements of such an arrangement is that it shall bring nearest together those forms which are most alike, while it separates proportionately those which differ more or less from one another. Hence, in general, the most useful classification is that which indicates most truly the degrees of difference and resemblance by its manner of grouping the objects classified. To construct a classification of plants which shall meet this important condition as fully as possible has long been one of the chief tasks of the science of botany. Indeed, so important has the solution of this great problem seemed to botanists that until comparatively recent times it has en- gaged their attention almost exclusively. From their labors has at last resulted a classification which, although still incomplete in certain parts, is yet wonderfully adequate in its main features; and whether we consider the vastness of the undertaking or the success already attained, we must recognize it as one of the greatest achievements of the human mind. By its means to-day the student is enabled to gain a wider and deeper knowledge of the world of plants than was ever possible to the most learned botanist of former times. In the remaining chapters one of our chief aims will be to advance toward a general idea of modern systematic botany. Thus far in our study of useful plants, it has been most helpful to arrange them according to their uses; and it was sufficient for our purpose to mention merely incidentally 305 306 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION the family or other group to which botanists assigned each plant under consideration, leaving the resemblances and differences thus indicated to be realized more or less vaguely by the student. What was then vague we shall strive now to make more definite, and the student may be assured that very much of what he has been learning about economic plants will prove of service in the present study. 83. Early attempts at classifying. Perhaps the reader may ask why it is not sufficient for all purposes of study to classify plants according to their uses, somewhat as we have been do- ing. Such a method of classification was indeed employed by some of the earlier writers upon plants; and this was quite natural, since, as we have seen, they were concerned chiefly with plants in their relation to human welfare. But granting that every plant may be of some use (even though not yet discovered) we know that many are useful in more ways than one. Consequently, any classification according to uses would often have to include the same plant in several different groups. Moreover, the great majority of plants are not put to any special use, and affect our welfare only in the same general way as do the economic ones apart from their special uses. Hence, any attempt to classify all plants ac- cording to use would require us to have besides the economic groups, one general group that would include all plants; and in the subdivision of this group we should be face to face with the original problem. One of the earliest attempts to avoid this difficulty was a division into herbs, shrubs, and trees. This grouping accord- ing to size and general appearance was a step in the right direction, and for certain purposes is found to be a serviceable arrangement even to-day. Yet, aside from the objection that when applied to all known plants each group includes an enormous number of sorts, there is the further disadvan- tage that such a classification requires one to place in differ- ent groups plants which resemble one another more closely than they do any others of the group in which they are placed. Thus, for example, certain oaks which are nothing but shrubs would on that account be separated from all the other oaks which are trees; the same is true of willows and of many ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS 307 other genera that might be mentioned. Crude as this ar- rangement was, it afforded for many generations the best general classification of plants that anyone had to offer; and it was not until after the revival of learning in Europe, dur- ing the sixteenth century, that any important efforts were made to find a better way. 84. Artificial systems. An attempt was made to over- come the above objection regarding unnatural separation of sorts much alike, by calling the larger shrubs, trees, and the smaller ones, herbs, thus doing away altogether with the intermediate division. This, of course, lessened the difficulty in a way, but can hardly be said to have removed it. To make smaller groups, these two were again subdivided according to differences observed in this or that part. Thus, some writers made subdivisions according to the shape or arrangement of the leaves; others according to the form of the fruit or seeds; others still, according to peculiarities of some part of the flower; and so on, each writer basing his system upon characters taken from one or two parts. Many attempts of this sort were made during the next two centuries. Some of these systems were decided improvements over the earlier classification, but even the most elaborate of them had the same fundamental weakness already pointed out in the arrangement according to size. We know that plants which differ a good deal as regards a single part may be very much alike in all other respects, while plants much alike in a certain part may be otherwise very different from one another. For example, the fruits of the almond and the peach differ much in appearance when ripe, but otherwise an almond-tree and a peach-tree are almost exactly alike. On the other hand, the root of the beet and of the turnip are often of exactly the same shape, while the plants are strik- ingly different in all other respects. It is plain, therefore, that any arrangement of plants based upon a single character or very limited set of peculiarities, is bound to be unsatis- factory, because it cannot accomplish the chief purpose of a classification, namelv, to group nearest together the sorts that are most alike. In a word, these systems failed chiefly because they are artificial, and so not well calculated to ex- 308 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION press the resemblances and differences among plants as we find them in nature. On the whole, as we have said, these artificial systems served to advance botanical knowledge; although after a while the increasing number of them became a serious burden to all who studied plants. Any system, it was thought, if only used by all, would be much better than having to use so many. At last a practical way out of the increasing confusion was found by the clear-sighted Linnzeus who came to the rescue much as he had done in the matter of plant names. 85. The Linnean system. The great need for some system which would be used by botanists in general, could, of course, be met only by a classification that was more convenient than any of those already proposed. Linnzeus was the first to see clearly that the necessary convenience could not be expected in his day from any attempt at a natural arrange- ment, for the plants to be arranged were as yet very im- perfectly known. His predecessors had tried to produce a natural classification on an artificial basis, with results that were neither natural nor convenient. He aimed first of all at convenience, and to this end adopted a frankly artificial basis; yet in spite of this, as we shall see, his system proved to be more natural in many ways than any previously pro- posed. In the Linnean system, the old division into herbs and trees was entirely abandoned; all plants were divided into twenty-four “classes,” aecording to the presence, number, or form of certain essential parts (pistils) of the flower; and these classes were so grouped that all flowering plants were separated from those which have no true flowers. The latter constituted Class 24, Cryplogamia? or cryptogams, which includes all plants such as seaweeds, mushrooms, mosses, and ferns, that are either destitute of parts such as we find in flowers, or if anything corresponding to such parts are present they are hidden from our unaided sight. The other twenty-three classes include all plants in which floral parts essential to the formation of seed, are manifest,—such ' Crvp-to-ga/-mia < Cr. kyryplos, hidden. THE LINN/HAN SYSTEM 309 plants as are now often known as Phenogamia ' or phenogams. Fach class was again divided into several “orders”? mostly according to the number, ete., of the other essential organs (stamens) of the flower. Under these orders Linnzeus grouped all the genera and species of plants known in his day. The distinctions upon which Linnzeus depended were so easy to understand and remember, and afforded such a con- venient means of classifying any plant, that the system soon gained an immense popularity, especially in England, and led to a widespread study of plants. Moreover, in his time, explorations in various parts of the world were bringing to light a great many kinds of plants and animals, previously unknown; and as Linnweus had also published a convenient classification of animals, most of those new discoveries were sent to him to name and classify. On the foundations so broadly laid systematic botany progressed much more rapidly and better than ever before, and during more than half a century the system of Linneeus remained practically the only one in use. We have said that although deliberately artificial, the Linnean system was remarkably natural in many respects. This is shown in the separation of the eryptogamic from the phenogamic plants; also in the faet that the species of a genus were always kept together, and in the association of many of the genera into orders corresponding to certain of the families recognized to-day. To understand why this is, we must remember that plants which resemble each other in one particular have very gen- erally other points of resemblance as well; hence, almost any artificial svstem is bound to be natural to some extent, and to what extent will depend on how far the characters chosen imply other points of resemblance. The reason why the Linnzean system was so natural, was that its founder had the sagacity to choose his characters primarily from the essential parts of the flower; for likeness in these parts in- volves a great deal of similarity in other respects. Thus, the 1 Phe-no-ga’-mi-a (written also Phzenogamia and Phanerogamia) < Gr. phaino, to be manifest; gamos, marriage: because the floral organs essential to the production of seed are manifest. 310 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION possession of true flowers implies the formation of seeds, and this in turn generally involves an elaborateness of struc- ture in the plant as a whole far greater than is found in cryptogamic plants, which, as we know, lack true flowers and seeds; while among flowering plants it constantly hap- pens (as the reader has doubtlessly already noticed in such familiar examples as the apple, pear, and quince) that close resemblance in the form of the seed-producing parts of the flower goes with fundamental similarity in all other parts of the plant. With all these advantages it is no wonder that this re- markable system should have exerted the wide influence which it did; but after all it was too artificial to serve per- manently as a final solution of the great problem of sys- tematic botany. Thus, for example, the group with two stamens and one pistil includes such widely different plants as olive and sage, while sage is kept far removed from other mints because they have four stamens. No one realized more fully than Linneus that his system was at best but a make- shift, fit only to serve the temporary needs of the science until botanists should be more extensively and more thor- oughly acquainted with plants than would be possible for many years to come; and he regarded his work only as a stepping-stone to the final achievement of an adequate clas- sification. 86. The natural system. As a contribution to the nat- ural system which he firmly believed would be developed in course of time, Linnzeus published a series of sixty-seven groups of genera which he called ‘natural orders.’’ He con- fessed his inability to define these groups by giving characters which would apply to all the genera of an order, and at the same time serve to separate the orders one from another; and left it for future botanists to discover how far the groups he had suggested really express the fundamental resem- blances and differences found in nature. The fuller knowl- edge of later times has largely justified a good share of these groupings; not a few of Linnweus’ natural orders are substantially equivalent to families recognized to-day, and have a place in modern classification often under the THE NATURAL SYSTEM 311 same or similar names. As examples may be mentioned the Palme or palms, Gramina or grasses, Orchidee or or- chids, Composite or composites, Conifere or conifers, and Filices or ferns. During the life-time of Linnzeus, the only other important attempt at a natural classification was made by Bernard de Jussieu, of France, who was a correspondent of Linnzus, and was in charge of the royal botanic garden at Trianon. Here he grouped the plants as far as he could in natural orders, but he published nothing. In 1789, two years after the death of Linnzeus, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, nephew of Bernard, published a classification of genera under natural orders, one hundred in number. These were carefully de- fined by suitable characters, and thus constituted the first thoroughgoing attempt at a natural system. Not only were the genera grouped into well-defined orders, but the attempt was made to group the orders into higher and higher series, expressive of their degrees of likeness. On the foundation thus laid over a century ago the natural system now in general use has been slowly developing; the work of improvement is still going on, and more rapidly than ever before. Eventually the science of botany may boast of a systematic classification founded upon, and, in a way, expressing, a full knowledge of vegetable forms. Yet, as we shall hope to show in a future chapter, there are good reasons for believing that such an ideal classification will embody in very large part the distinctions at present recog- nized, or in other words, that the main features of a truly natural system are fairly well established. The next genera- tion of botanists will doubtless have the advantage of a far better classification, especially of cryptogams, than that in use to-day; but we may well believe that their classification will be essentially the same in general principle and in its main features as that now used. To develop the present system has been a gigantic task, beset with many difficulties; and before we can rightly understand the outcome of all this botanical labor, we must consider still further the diffi- culties overcome. Until we have mastered certain of these ourselves we are not fitted either to appreciate or to use to 312 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION best advantage the important results which botanists have achieved in systematic classification. 87. Technical description. One of the most serious difi- culties with which the earlier botanists had to contend was the problem of giving one another a clear idea of what each had seen. It is plain that so long as they failed in this, their discoveries were of little consequence. At first sight it may seem a simple matter enough to tell what one sees, and be- ginners often wonder why botanists use so many peculiar words in their descriptions. ‘What is the reason,” they ask, “that ordinary English is not sufficient for the purpose?” If the reader has ever attempted to use ‘ordinary English” in the way proposed, he will realize that it is far from easy to give a clear account of the peculiarities of a plant in that way. The result is much as when a landsman ignorant of nautical terms tries to describe the features of a vessel so that 1t may be recognized. Success may not be impossible, but such a method of going to work is at its best clumsy, roundabout, and misleading. It was largely because the early botanists had nothing better to use than the ordinary language of their day, that it often proved impossible for others to tell what the plants were that they had tried to describe. But little progress towards a satisfactory classification of plants could be expected as long as descriptions were so vague and incom- plete as to be largely unintelligible. Since an ideal botanical classification represents, as we have seen, the expression of all the resemblances and differ- ences among plants, its attainment must involve the use of words especially fitted to express unmistakably all the pe- culiarities that may be observed. Each part must have a special name, and the innumerable forms and features of each part must be indicated by simple words or phrases. Ordinary language has not been developed to serve any such botanical purposes any more than it has to serve similar nautical needs; hence, botaimists have been forced to make a language of their own consisting largely of technical terms. 88. Early attempts at describing. Before the time of Limneus, the attempt was made by many botanical writers to avoid the language difficulty by the use of pictures to LINNAZAN REFORM IN TERMINOLOGY © 313 show what they meant, much as we have done in the fore- going chapters. A good picture is certainly to be preferred to a description that is not understood; but a little thought will show that pictures, however good they may be, cannot solve the whole difficulty. We cannot make a picture of a species, but merely of a single individual; and our conception of a species must be our idea of the features which all its individuals have in common. A number of pictures of dif- ferent individuals might convey more of this idea, but even then peculiarities perceptible only by touch, taste, or smell could be indicated only by words. Moreover, even features that may be represented in a picture generally need the help of words to point out what especially calls for attention; and when species are compared and classified one arrives at important general ideas which cannot be pictorially expressed. Add to these shortcomings the greater labor and expense involved in publishing pictures, and it becomes evident that verbal means are needed. For centuries, as we know, all learned works were written in Latin; consequently, it was from this language that the botanical terms were primarily taken. These were often common words to which a meaning was attached differing from the ordinary one, more or less, in its application; or, sometimes new words had to be coined and this was fre- quently done by latinizing words or combinations of words taken from the Greek. As with the early attempts at forming systems of classi- fication, so in the development of a botanical terminology or technical vocabulary, different writers went about the matter in different ways; and such independence of action naturally led in this case also to a good deal of confusion. From this embarrassment of riches, which threatened to be a serious hindrance to further progress, Linnzus, again, found the best means of practical relief, Just as he did in the matter of classification and nomenclature. 89. The Linnzan reform in terminology. Being thoroughly familiar with the botanical writings of his predecessors, and endowed with a fine sense of fitness in language, Linn:eus was able to choose the best terms which had come into use, 314 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION define them in a convenient way, and add others so far as necessary. The publication of this carefully prepared vo- cabulary gave the necessary material for making botanical description henceforward an art, while in his systematic writings Linneus left examples of the art, well calculated to serve as models of excellence. In describing a plant his ideal was to state all that was necessary and nothing that was unnecessary to distinguish it from all other plants. Since the time of Linnzus, botanical terminology has been enriched and improved in various ways to meet the needs which have arisen with wider knowledge; but the art of describing plants still remains very largely what its first great master made it. Pictures are no longer deemed neces- sary to make up for vagueness of description; when it is possible to use them, their scientific value is much increased because what they lack may be supplied in words, and the significance of what is represented can be made plain. In- deed, to one familiar with the terms used, a complete bo- tanical description calls up so clear a mental picture of each part described, that a drawing sufficiently accurate for recog- nition might often be made even though no specimen of the plant had ever been seen. Surely this is a triumph such as ordinary language has never attained. 90. Terminology and nomenclature. Persons who have only a superficial acquaintance with botany are apt to think of it merely as a study of names, which hinder rather than help one in learning whatever botanists may know of general interest about plants. Doubtless the student of the fore- going chapters already feels that this is far from true; yet this false opinion conceals a truth which it will be worth while for us to consider. Special names and descriptive expressions of various sorts do occupy a prominent place in the scientifie study of plants, and these botanical technicalities doubtless present a more formidable appearance than the special terms of most other sciences. Yet, paradoxical as it may seem, the very fact: that botanists use these means of expressing themselves, makes it much easier for a beginner to arrive at an under- standing of what they have to say, and so to a knowledge of TERMINOLOGY AND NOMENCLATURE © 315 plants, than would otherwise be possible. The unusual fullness of their special vocabulary enables botanists to tell what they know in the fewest possible words and with least danger of being misunderstood. False ideas are the greatest hindrance to the pursuit of knowledge; and whatever will lessen the danger of these, especially to the beginner, is sure to save labor in the end. We have already seen (page 4) that the practice of hav- ing a double name for each species, instead of giving twice as much to remember as if the name of each sort were a single word, almost halves the burden upon one’s memory that one-word names would impose. The ease with which words are remembered depends, as we know, largely upon how frequently the word is encountered; hence, the student is helped not a little by the circumstance that a large majority of specific names are the very words from which the descrip- tive terms in common use have been derived. Further- more, these descriptive terms, as well as the names of the parts of plants and of genera and other groups, are in large part made up of a comparatively small number of Latin and Greek words, which once Jearned serve as helpful aids to the memory, and, indeed, often enable the student to tell at sight the meaning of a new botanical word. In our study of systematic botany we shall learn the more important descriptive terms as we need them in de- veloping a general idea of the natural classification of plants. The student will learn how to distinguish some of the more important families and higher groups, so that when he ex- amines a plant he can tell at least the sub-kingdom to which it belongs, usually also the class, sometimes the order, often the family, and in certain cases even the genus and species. At first we shall confine our study to those plants which produce flowers and seeds, leaving for later consideration the groups including ferns, mosses, lichens, mushrooms, and sea- weeds. CHAPTER VIII THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT 91. Flax asatype. De Candolle, one of the most learned of French botanists, was wont to say that he could teach all he knew of botany from a handful of plants. What he had in mind was doubtless the great truth that among the resemblances of plants to one another there are some of such fundamental importance that it becomes possible to discern amid the endless variety of forms a few plans of structure upon which all plants are built. His handful of specimens would have been so chosen that each might exhibit especially well the features common to many kinds, and thus serve at once as a convenient standard of comparison and as a means of teaching truths of very wide application. A form which in this way is representative or typical of any group, natural- ists call a type. Flax (Figs. 217 [, U1) will serve well as our type of phen- ogams or seed-plants because it possesses all the parts which they commonly show, and exhibits them in comparatively unmodified condition. Like all true flowering plants it pro- duces seeds. 92. The seed may be compared roughly to an egg. Much as in a hen’s egg, for example, we have the shell covering a mass of food material provided for the chick or germ which hes within it, so im the sced (Fig. 279A) we find a protective seed-coat (c) enclosing secd-food (f) and a germ or embryo} (e). Much of the food provided for the flax embryo is already stored within the little plant itself; what remains to be ab- sorbed has been likened to the white of egg and is called the albumen ® of the seed. The embryo within the seed is found 1Em'bry-o < Gr. embryon, germ. 2 Al-bu’men < L. albus, white. B16 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT 317 upon careful examination to be already a miniature plant, for it has a stem (s) bearing at its lower end the beginning of a root (r) which becomes apparent when the seed sprouts; while at the upper end of the stem are borne a pair of fleshy leaves (1) which after sprouting turn green, and between them a tiny bud (b) which is destined to grow into the stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit of the mature plant. Each of these parts of the embryo has been given a special name. The little stem which bears all the other parts is the caulicle.t Each of the first leaves is a cotyledon.2. The bud at the top of the caulicle is known as the plumule,’ while the rudimen- tary root at the lower end is called the radicle. 93. The seedling and its development. When the seed germinates, the radicle is the first part to appear (Fig. 279B). Soon it grows into a root (Fig. 279C) covered with hairs through which absorption of soil-water takes place. Mean- while the cotyledons have been feeding upon the albumen to get material for their growth and for the elongation of the eaulicle and root; and when finally this reserve food is ex- hausted, the empty seed-coat is cast off, the cotyledons become green and expand in the sunlight (Fig. 279D), and the plumule develops into a leafy shoot (Fig. 279E). As the root pene- trates downwards into the soil it sends forth branches in various directions (Fig. 2171). At the same time the leafy shoot grows upward developing stem and leaves by the con- tinual unfolding of a bud at its tip which began as the plumule (Fig. 279F). The place at which a leaf joins the stem is called a node,’ and the length of stem between two nodes, an tnternode.® 1 Caul’i-cle < L. cauliculus, diminutive of caulis, stalk e_ yb NV f eg ¥ if 2 Tig. 279.—Flax Germination. A, seed, cut vertically to show the seed- cout (c), seed-food (f), embryo (e), with its seed-leaves (1), seed-bud (b), seed-stem (s) and seed-root (r). B, seed beginning to sprout; the seed- PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION OF LABOR 319 After a while new buds appear on the sides of the stem at points Just above the nodes (Fig. 280), that is to say, in the axil' or upper angle between leaf and stem; and these buds as they expand become lateral branches, which in turn may branch similarly. Finally, some of these buds, instead of producing more foliage, develop flowers (Fig. 2171). 94. The flower and the fruit. In the center of the flower (Fig. 21711) we find a pistil? containing ovules * within an ovary * from the top of which grow five styles 5 each terminat- ing in a stigma.6 Around the pistil are five stamens,’ each producing pollen’ within an anther ® borne on a slender filament..° Enveloping the stamens are five petals 4 and five sepals.12 Pollen falling upon the stigmas, brings about the development of the ovules into seeds while the ovary ripens into a fruit. Pistils and stamens thus being essential to the production of seed are called the essential organs of the flower, while the petals and sepals, more or less enveloping them, are called the floral envelops or pertanth. 95. Physiological division of labor. [Even such a cursory examination as we have made of our typical plant is sufficient 1 Ax’-il < L. axilla, arm-pit. 2 Pis’-til < L. pistillum, a pestle, such as apothecaries use for pound- ing drugs in a mortar, pistils often resembling pestles more or less in form. 3’ O/-vule < L. ovulum, diminutive of ovum, an egg. 4 Ov’-ar-y < L. ova, plural of ovum; ary, repository. 5 Style < Gr. stylos, a pillar. 6 Stig’ma < Gr. stigma, a spot. 7Sta’men < Gr. stamon, a thread. 8 Pol’len < L. pollen, fine dust. 9 An’ther < Gr. anthein, to blossom. 10 Fil’a-ment < L. filum, thread. 1 Pet’al < Gr. petalos, outspread. 12 Sep’al < L. separ, separate, different. 13 Per’i-anth < Gr. peri, around; anthos, flower. stem (caulicle) has just pushed through the seed-coat and is pushing the seed-root (radicle) into the ground. C, later stage in which the radicle has elongated and produced root-hairs, while the caulicle has pushed up the seed. D, still later stage in which the caulicle has become further elongated and arched and the seed-leaves or cotyledons are growing out of the seed. E, plantlet showing pair of cotyledons ex- panded and ready to act like leaves; also three pairs of primary leaves and a stem developed from the seed-bud or plumule. F, plantlet still older, showing, in addition, secondary leaves, formed one at a joint. (Original.) 320 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT to show not a little variety and complexity in the different parts which compose it, and one is aware that much more complexity of structure would appear upon further study. But why the plant should have such a complex structure may not be at first so obvious. We are helped to an under- standing of the matter, however, by remembering that wherever there is much variety of work to be performed, it is an advantage to have the labor divided among different sets of workers, each fitted for their special share and codperat- Fig. 280.—Flax Bud cut vertically and much enlarged to show the develop- ment of the leaves from protrusions arising at the side of the dome- like stem-tip which cousists of formative material. (Original.) ing with the rest. This principle is shown clearly in the com- munity to which we belong, where the labor of meeting the needs of the people as a whole is divided among farmers, miners, manufacturers, merchants, soldiers, teachers, and many other classes, while in each class the worl is divided and subdivided again and again. The degree of specialization and codperation found in such advanced communities as our own chiefly distinguishes them, as we know, from such less advanced communities as the Indian tribes which preceded us upon the American continent; and we say that this was ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 321 largely because their conditions of life were simpler and so their needs less than ours. Similarly we should find the higher plants, such as flax, contrasted most significantly with such lower forms as Irish moss in the extent to which they exhibit a differentiation of parts and mutual helpfulness throughout; and we should find a similar reason to hold good. Accordingly, we may not inaptly compare the roots, the stem and its branches, the leaves, and the parts of the flowers and fruit of our plant to the various classes of workers which we find in a civilized community, since the work of the whole is similarly divided among the parts and all labor for the common good. It is such an idea as this that naturalists have in mind when they speak of the phystological division of labor observable in a plant or an animal. 96. Organs and their functions. In either a plant or an animal any part having a special office to perform is called an organ,! the special office being known as its function. Thus the root of our flax-plant is an organ the chief function of which is to absorb mineral substances from the soil. The function of the stem is mainly to support its leaves, flowers, and fruit advantageously; while the general function of its floral organs is to insure the production of good seed; and the function of its fruit is to bring about their dispersal. We often find the same function performed by different organs which are curiously unlike in other respects, as for example the function of support as performed by the tendrils of the pea (Fig. 37), the climbing roots of the poison-ivy (Fig. 210), and the grappling prickles of the rattan (Figs. 2231, II). Organs which agree in function are said to be ana- logues * of one another, or to be analogous. According to their main functions the parts of our typical plant may be classified conveniently as organs of nutrition (e. g., the root, foliage, leaves, and cotyledons); of support (the stem and its branches); of protection (the bark); of reproduction (the 1Or’gan < Gr. organon, an instrument or tool. Since animals and plants are made up of organs they are called organisms, and the mate- rials which are present in them alone are called organic, to distinguish them from inorganic or mineral substances. 2Fune’tion < L. functio, performance. 3 An’-a-logue < Gr. ana, according to, logos, relation. 322 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT flower); and of dissemination (the fruit). The first three of these groups, since they have to do primarily with the individual life of the plant, form what is called the vegetative system, while the others being concerned only with propaga- tion and the care of offspring constitute the reproductive system. 97. Morphological differentiation. From what has been said of the life history of flax it is plain that the differentiation of its parts progresses as the plant grows older. We saw that the parts of the embryo within the seed are all much alike, as are also the young foliage leaves and floral organs within the bud; but as the plant matures and its needs become more varied the parts come to have different functions to perform and take on the various forms which fit them for their special kinds of work. Thus, the mature flax differs from the same plant in its infancy much as do the higher plants from the lower. But in spite of the progressive differ- entiation shown by a growing plant we feel that even its more highly specialized organs correspond somehow in a fundamental way with certain of the earlier or less specialized ones. Petals, for example, although widely different from cotyledons in function, are yet in some ways so much like them and like ordinary foliage leaves that cotyledons are often called ‘‘seed-leaves”’ while petals are familiarly known as “leaves of the flower.” So, too, in comparing the parts of different plants we often find a fundamental likeness along with marked differences in function. Thus, the climbing roots of the ivy before mentioned are essentially the same in important particulars as the absorbing roots of flax. Not only among plants but also among animals it is true that analogous organs may show important differences, and similarly that organs which are not analogous may be essen- tially alike as holding corresponding places in the funda- mental plan of structure. A man’s arm viewed as an organ for grasping is plainly the analogue of an elephant’s trunk, and an opossum’s tail; while viewed as a member of the body it corresponds to the fore leg of a horse, the flipper of a whale, and the wing of an eagle. Considerations of this MEMBERS OF THE PLANT BODY 323 nature lead us to inquire; What is the fundamental plan of structure exhibited by our typical plant? and What may we rightly regard as the members of such a plant-body? 98. Morphological units. We have seen that the embryo flax is a miniature plant already possessing a stem-part, rudimentary leaves, and the beginning of a root. These parts we recognize as representing the main divisions of the plant, at least before it flowers, for we know that for many weeks as the plantlet grows it simply produces more root, more stem, and more leaves. If we examine minutely one of the leaf-buds (Fig. 280) we find it to contain a series of young leaves which are smaller and smaller as we approach the tip of the stem until finally they appear as mere lobes. Thus we see that a leafy shoot begins as a tiny dome- shaped mass of growing material, which as it elongates, be- comes differentiated into (1) lateral lobes, which grow into leaves, and (2) a central or axial part constituting the stem which bears them. Soon in the axils of the young leaves appear growing points like the cone at the tip, and each of these becomes a bud which may develop into a leafy branch. Since corresponding parts arise at regular intervals, the whole shoot, especially as it grows older, takes the form of a series of segments or equivalent divisions each consisting of a leaf-part borne by.a stem-section from which a bud or rudimentary branch may also develop. The embryo, we remember, had just these parts, and in addition bore a root. Often, such a shoot-segment cut from a plant and placed under favorable conditions for growth will send out a root, and develop other segments much as an embryo does; and, commonly, a cutting which consists of a single leaf attached to a bit of stem, is the least part of a flowering plant that can be made to grow independently. Hence such a seg- ment consisting of an internode and its node, together with the leaf or leaves it bears, has been regarded as constituting, in a way, a unit of plant structure. 99. Members of the plant body. A plant like flax is some- times thought of as a colony of segments or in other words as a community of closely connected individuals each con- sisting of a stem-part and leaf-part, and capable of producing 324 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT aroot, and so leading an independent existence. On this view each segment would correspond to an individual animal and its leaf-part and stem-part would be likened to the members of the animal bocly, such as the trunk and the limbs. With- out accepting this extreme view of what constitutes an individual plant—a view not in accord with what we have learned about the development of the shoot—it may still be convenient to regard the bodies of the higher plants as built up of segments, much as zodlogists regard the bodies of many segmented animals like earth-worms and lobsters as consisting of a series of roughly comparable units; and, similarly, just as the limb of an animal viewed as one of the main clivisions of the body or of a segment is called a member, so the main divisions of a plant-segment—the stem, the leaf, and the root—viewed not as organs but merely as parts differing in origin and position, may be conveniently dis- tinguished as members of the plant body. But the question at once arises, supposing it to be admitted that the vegetating plant may be roughly likened to a many- storied building, each story being a segment, and the whole supported on a root foundation, can we yet find correspond- ing units of structure in the flower? If the flower is com- posed of segments it is evident that the different members must be more or less disguised. As regards the floral envel- opes we have already seen that their leaf-like nature is so thinly disguised that they are commonly recognized as “leaves of the flower.”” Indeed, we have only to suppose the internodes of the stem-parts to have remained as short as they were in the bud, while the leaf-parts expanded, to see that so far as origin and relative position are concerned, the floral envelopes are essentially like a leaf-rosette. But the stamens and the pistil present greater difficulties. Still, | I when we come to compare other flowers with those of the flax, we shall find much evidence going to show that even stamens and pistils correspond in large part to leaves. One sort of evidence—not indeed conclusive, but yet significant— is the occurrence now and then of monstrous flowers in which actual green leaves occupy the place of the stamens and pistil, much as if the organs had determined to throw off all dis- MEMBERS OF THE PLANT BODY 325 guise and exhibit their true nature.!. The proof of a theory is in the using; for the present it will be enough for us to have gotten a preliminary idea of what the segment theory means when applied to our typical plant. Other questions, closely connected with the foregoing one, are, What members may a segment have? and, How may. these be distinguished under all their disguises? The flax embryo, as we have seen, represents a segment reduced to about its simplest terms. We here recognize an axial member bearing lateral members,—the stem-part and the leaf-part,— one implying the other. When the root-part appears we have another member which is also axial, but differs from the stem in being without leaves. As the root elongates there appear near its tip numerous hair-like projections which differ essentially from leaves in being merely superficial outgrowths not continuous with the innermost parts as is the case with leaves. Superficial appendages of this sort often occur in other plants on the stem and leaves as well as on the root. Such more or less hair-like outgrowths are best regarded as parts of members rather than as members. In the essential organs of the flower we meet with a difficulty regarding the real nature of the pollen-sacs and ovules or egg-sacs as we may call them. In the flax they both might be taken to be parts of the peculiar leaves which we regard as forming the stamens and pistil. But there are other plants, as we shall see, in which an ovule appears on the very tip of the stem or axis, while in some cases pollen-sacs seem to grow directly from the stem. We can then hardly call such organs parts of a leaf. On this account and for other reasons 1 The theory of floral structure which likens a flower to a leaf-rosette originated with the poet Goethe to whom it was suggested by seeing a green rose such as occasionally appears in gardens. This theory has proved to be a helpful means of understanding the relation of the various parts of plants to the fundamental plan of structure; but as it tells only part of the truth it has been somewhat misleading, and it requires to be modified considerably from its original form to be in accord with more recent views of vegetable morphology. As developed above, however, it is believed that the theory will be found to avoid the un- warranted assumptions which have brought into it discredit, and to_re- tain the features which have made it useful, while at the same time such modifications are made as will render it a valuable means of con- veying modern views. 326 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT which will appear later, we are led to regard both pollen-sacs and egg-sacs as distinct members of the plant body. We thus come to the conclusion that our typical plant viewed morphologically is made up of members of the nature of stem, leaf, root, pollen-sac, and egg-sac; and that the whole body may be furthermore regarded as consisting of a chain of segments, each segment having at least a stem-part and a leaf-part and sometimes also other members. A root-member may be defined in a general way as typically a descending axis; a stem-member as an ascending leafy axis; and a leaf-member as a lateral, transversely flattened out- growth from a stem. Since stems and leaves imply one an- other, it is convenient to speak of them together as forming a shoot. Thus in our flax embryo the caulicle, cotyledons, and plumule constitute the shoot as distinguished from the root-part. A sac-member, such as a pollen-sac or an egg-sac, is really, as we shall see later, a spore-case essentially like that of Lycopodium (Fig. 166,2). Pollen grains are spores; and each egg-sac contains one or more comparatively large spores within which an embryo arises. Thus a sac-member is known by what it produces. As to how these different members may be further distinguished we shall learn more fully when we come to compare other plants with our type. 100. Homologies. We have already seen that the terms analogy, analogue, and analogous, afford us a means of ex- pressing physiological equivalence or similarity in function. To express morphological correspondence or similarity in origin and position naturalists use the companion terms homology,! homologue, homologous. Members of the same sort are said to be homologues of one another; any form of leaf-member, for instance, being homologous with any other form. Cotyledons and petals are homologues, because both are leaf-members, and they would accordingly be spoken of as homologous parts, homologous organs, or homologous members. The principal parts of our typical plant and their homologies as here understood are indicated in the accom- panying diagram (Fig. 281). The tracing of homologies forms the basis of morphology, ' To-mol’o-gy Corm < Gr. kormos, « pollarded tree-trunk. *Pet@i-ole << LL. petiolus, a little foot, diminutive of pes, pedis, a foot. THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS COMPARED | 337 sort of sheath. The framework of the leaf when it reaches the blade divides into a number of main branches, or ribs. These radiate from the top of the petiole and may divide again into secondary branches, or veins, which finally are connected so as to form an irregular net-work by minute branches called veiniets. When a leaf has ribs radiating thus, like the bones in the palm of one’s hand, it is said to be pal- mately ribbed, and when the veinlets form an irregular net- Fic. 291.—Erect Silky Clematis (Clematis ochroleuca, Crowfoot Family, Ranunculacee). Flowering branches. Fruit. (Britton and Brown.)— Perennial herb, somewhat woody, 30-60 cm. tall; leaves silky-hairy beneath; flowers yellowish; fruit yellowish brown. Native home, Eastern United States. work, it is netted-veined. The ribs and veins are also called nerves and their arrangement the nervation of a leaf, the ar- rangement of the veinlets being called the venation. On comparing with the leaves of the marsh-marigold those of the ditch crowfoot we find the same general plan of struc- ture but with the difference that the leaf base is narrower, and the blade is divided into branches corresponding to the ribs. The branches of the upper leaves are so narrow as to THE CROWFOOT FAMILY suggest a resemblance to the toes of a bird, which has given rise to the name ‘“‘crowfoot.”’ In the tall crowfoot the branch- Tig. 292.—Pasque-flower (Anemone Pulsatilla, Crowfoot Family, Ranuncu- lacew). Plant in flower and fruit. (Baillon.)—Perennial herb about 20-30 em. tall; leaves hairy; flowers blue or purplish; fruit hoary. Native home, Europe; cultivated in gardens. ing of the blade is carried still further and follows the veins. A similar branching is shown in the leaves of monkshood and many other members of the family. THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS COMPARED 339 All the leaves so far considered agree in having the blade of a single piece however much it may be branched or sub- divided. That is to say, the green pulp of the blade, al- though it may be but little developed between the ribs, is still continuous. Such are called simple leaves. When the green pulp is discontinuous between the ribs, as in the leaves of the Christmas rose, the blade becomes divided into second- ary blades or leaflets, each of which may be borne on a little Fia. 293.—Meadow Rue (Thalictrum flavum, Crowfoot Family, Ranuncu- lacew). A, flower-cluster. B, flower, enlarged. C, same, cut vertically. D, floral diagram. E, pistils. F, fruit, entire, and cut vertically. G, seed. (LeMaout and Decaisne.)—Perennial herb about 1 m. tall; flowers yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Eurasia. stalk of its own, called a petiolule.1| Such leaves are classed as divided or compound. If, as in this example, the leaflets or their petiolules spring directly from the main petiole the leaf is distinguished as once-compound; when, as in baneberries, the branching of the blade is carried a stage farther and the leaflets or their petiolules arise from branches of the petiole, the leaf becomes twice-compound; or the subdivision may be carried still farther, as in columbines. A leaf more than once compounded is termed decompound. Since in 1 Pet’-i-o-lule < L. petiolulus, diminutive of petiolus, petiole. 340 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY all these cases the branching of the blade follows the palmate plan the leaves are conveniently described as palmately divided, or palmately once-, twice-, or decompound. The leaves of the Christmas rose and some other members of the family are peculiar in having the lateral divisions not quite sepa- rated, thus making them in a way intermediate between SQ) @ XO 4 Fic. 294.—Bracts and petals of peony connected by intermediate forms. Parts marked G are green; Y, yellow; and R, red. (Original.) Fic. 295.—Stamens and staminodes of peony showing intermediate forms. Parts marked R are red; and those marked Y are yellow. (Original.) simple and compound palmate leaves. Such leaves are dis- tinguished as pedate. The palmate type of leaf prevails throughout the crowfoot family, the only departures from the rule being a few such cases as the narrow leaves of mouse-tail in which the frame- work is unbranched or obscure, and a few cases in which a midrib or continuation of the petiole gives off lateral branches as in the leaves of the pasque-flower and clematis 'Ped’ate. << L. pedatus, having a foot. THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS COMPARED © 341 (ig. 291). The relation of the very narrow mouse-tail leaf to one of the marsh-marigold type may be understood by supposing the nerves to be reduced to a single rib. A leaf in which the framework consists of only one or two ribs, may be termed costate.!. The simple leaf of the silky clematis may he likened to a less narrowed marsh-marigold leaf in which, however, the ribs are reduced to one midrib from which veins are given off on either side. Or, better, we may Fig. 296.—Staminodes. A, Anemone Pulsatilla. B, Ranunculus acris, view from above. C, same, cut vertically; the shaded area (5) indicating the surface secreting nectar. D, Nigella damescena, view from above. EH, same, cut vertically; secreting surfaces (S) shown as before. All variously enlarged. (Redrawn from Prantl.) Fie. 297.—Ovary of an anemony, opened to show the two pairs of rudi- mentary ovules above the single normal one, enlarged. (Baillon.) view it as an elongated leaf in which the framework was at first divided palmately into three branches, the middle one of which again divided similarly, and this method of branch- ing continued during the elongation of the blade. However we may view the nervation, such a leaf in which a single midrib, or direct continuation of the petiole, gives off several or many lateral branches, is distinguished as pinnately nerved. The leaves of the pasque-flower are described as pinnately compound or pinnate.2. The leaflets of the Christmas rose are pinnately nerved, the leaf as a whole being palmate or pedate. 1 Cos’-tate < L. costa, a rib. 2 Pin’-nate < L. pinna, a feather, because the veins arise from the midrib as do the barbs of a feather from its shaft. 342 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY Most of the crowfoot family are like marsh-marigolds in having their leaves petiolate. In some cases there is no petiole. The leaf is then described as sessile,! a term applied to any stalkless organ of a kind which is commonly stalked. As regards their arrangement the leaves of marsh-mari- golds are like almost all the others of the family in being alternate, 7. e., one at each node. In clematises there appear two leaves at a node—such are called opposite—while in anemonies there are often more than two forming a ring, encircling the stem. Such a ring is termed a whorl or verticil,? and the leaves are said to be whorled or verticillate. When leaves are opposite they are of course virtually in whorls of two. Leaves forming a rosette may approach closely the verticillate arrangement, and it becomes a fair question whether verticils may not be after all merely rosette-like clusters in which the internodes have developed scarcely at all. This view is favored by the fact that internodes of perceptible length do sometimes separate the leaves of such verticils as those of anemony. Furthermore, in clematises the leaves before they expand often show one of a pair dis- tinctly shorter (and therefore presumably younger) than the other, just as if they were really alternate but with only one of every two successive internodes developed. Although we may admit that the alternate arrangement passes readily into the verticillate even on the same plant, it is of course necessary in practical description to distinguish the types. Students are sometimes puzzled as to how they may dis- tinguish between a leafy shoot and a compound leaf, or be- tween simple leaves and leaflets. They will be helped by remembering that a stem branch arises normally from the axil of a leaf-member, and is an axis bearing leaves in the axils of which buds may develop. Conversely leaf-members normally subtend,? 7. e., stand just below, a bud or shoot, and are lateral members radially disposed about an axis and flattened, at least, when young, transversely with reference 'Ses’-sile < L. sessilis, sitting. * Ver’-ti-cil < L. verticillus, the whirl or whorl of a spindle, which is a disk-like piece of wood or metal encircling it; hence, in botany a ring of parts similar to one another encircling an axis. ’Sub-tend’ < L. sub, under; tendere, stretch. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 343 to it. Traces of this flattening may be observed commonly even in the petiole on the upper or inner surface, especially near the base. These tests applied to the foliage of colum- bines, for example, will show why it must be considered as made up of branched leaves—decompound leaves with many leaflets—rather than a branched stem bearing many simple leaves. The stem and leaves of the marsh-marigold, as of marsh- loving plants in general, are quite smooth and unprovided with any hairy or other protective covering. Plants or parts in this condition are described as glabrous... When covered with soft, downy hair they are said to be pubescent.2. Many ranunculaceous plants, especially those growing in dry, sunny places (as for example the pasque-flower, the tall crowfoot, and the bulbous crowfoot) are pubescent, particularly when young. 103. The reproductive system. Turning now to the flowers of the marsh-marigold it will be noticed that they grow either at the tip of the main axis or on stalks which arise from the axils of upper leaves. On the side of the flower-stalks, or subtending them, may be sessile leaves or more or less scale-like leaf-members. Such leaves subtending a flower or a flower-cluster are called bracts,* or when borne upon a flower-stalk they are termed bractlets. The stalk of a flower or flower-cluster is distinguished as its peduncle.‘ We speak of a blossom or flower-cluster as an inflorescence.’ Thus we say that the inflorescence of the marsh-marigold consists of a terminal flower, and a few axillary ones, with bracts and sometimes bractlets. It should be noted that the terminal flower opens before the lateral ones, thus putting an end to further elongation of the main axis. Such an in- florescence is therefore called determinate. It is also de- scribed as cymose because the form of cluster which typically results from the determinate mode of growth is called a 1QGla’-brous < L. glaber, without hair. 2 Pu-bes’-cent. < L. puber, downy. 3 Bract < L. bractea, a thin plate. 4 Pe-dun’-cle < L. pedunculus, diminutive of pes, pedis, foot. 5 In-flor-es’-cence < L. in, in; florescere, begin to blossom, 344 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY cyme.! The inflorescence of the marsh-marigold is a simple cyme. A well-developed cyme is found in certain species of clematis. Here, as shown in Fig. 290, the axes repeatedly branch, making the cyme compound. In compound inflores- cences the ultimate flower-stalks are called pedicels.2. A whorl or cluster of bracts is an ¢nvolucre;* while the term involucel 4 is applied to a whorl of bractlets. Thus the wood-anemony has an involucre of three leaf-like bracts situated far below the solitary flower. These are called bracts because in related species bracts similarly placed subtend peduncles, although as must be obvious the distinction between bracts and bract- lets in such cases is rather arbitrary. Fennel-flower has an involucel of a few large bractlets very near the blossom. Most of the crowfoot family have simple, cymose inflores- cences, usually of only a few flowers as in crowfoots, colum- bines, and the Christmas rose. Often, even in the genera mentioned, the flowers may be solitary, and this is usually if not always the case in mouse-tails, anemonies, fennel-flowers, and peonies. In contrast with these determinate inflorescences in which the terminal, upper, or inner flowers are the older, are in- florescences of the indeterminate type shown in baneberries and monkshoods. Here the upper flowers are the younger, and the main axis or rachis® may elongate indefinitely, developing new flowers as it grows. When, as in the ex- amples given, the main axis is longer than the peduncles, the cluster is termed a raceme.’ So typical is this of the indeterminate form of inflorescence that the term botryose ? of similar implication is given to it as being in significant contrast with cymose. From the above it appears that in describing and naming inflorescences botanists have regard either to the manner in 'Cyme < Gr. kyma, a young sprout, because the younger flowers arise like sprouts from below. (Pronounced siem.) > Ped’-i-cel << L. pedicellus, diminutive of pediculus, dim. of pes, pedis, foot. *In'-vo-lu-cre << L. ¢nvolucrnm, < involvere, enwrap. ‘In-vol’-u-cel < 1. tnvolucellum, a little wrapper. »Ra’-chis < Gr. rhachis, backbone. ° Ra-ceme’ < L. racemus, a bunch of grapes. ? Bot/-ry-ose << Gr. botrys, a bunch of grapes. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 345 which the branches arise and the relative position of the oldest flowers, or else to the general form as modified by more obvious features, like the relative lengths of the internodes. It is desirable to keep these two points of view distinct. Viewed as to their system of branching, simple inflores- cences, such as most of those we have been studying, are either of the cymose or the botryose type. Under the head of cymose inflorescences we should include a solitary flower which terminates a leafy axis, as in the wood-anemony; while a solitary flower, which, like that of the mouse-tail, springs from the axil of a foliage leaf would more logically be called botryose. When the branches of an inflorescence branch again it becomes compound, as in our example of clematis, (Fig. 290) which has a compound cyme, or cyme of cymes. As to general form we may here distinguish: (1) racemose inflorescences or racemes, like those of monkshood and baneberry, which are simple and have pedicels all shorter than the rachis, thus giving an elongated cluster; (2) paniew- late } inflorescences or panicles, which are more or less elon- gated and compound, as in Fig. 293; and (3) corymbose * in- florescences or corymbs (Fig. 290) which have the outer pedicels or branches about as long as the rachis, and those nearer the center progressively shorter so that the cluster as a whole is broad and more or less flat-topped. Corymbs often become racemose as they grow older, and compound corymbs, paniculate. _Some botanists would restrict the terms raceme, panicle, and corymb to indeterminate in- florescences; but in practice these names are applied indis- criminately also to inflorescences of the determinate type which have assumed the forms above defined. Thus we may speak of a racemose, paniculate, or corymbose cyme. In a flower of marsh-marigold we recognize many organs similar to those already observed in the flax but with some important differences. Thus in the center of the flower we find a cluster of pistils each with a single stigma, style, and ovulary cavity instead of a single pistil with several styles and stigmas and a single ovary with several cavities. Such 1 Pan-ic’-u-late < L. panicula, a tuft. 2 Cor-ymb’-ose < L. corymbus, a cluster of flowers. 346 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY simple pistils as those of the marsh-marigold are called carpels' . and are regarded as representing each a single egg-sac leaf just as a stamen is a single pollen-sac leaf. Taken together the carpels form the gynecium? of the flower, while the stamens collectively form the andracium.’ Near the hase of each carpel is a gland that secretes drops of a sweet fluid, called nectar + which attracts insects, and from which they make honey. In each ovary of the marsh-marigold, as will be noticed, there are several ovules attached to that part of the wall lying nearest the center of the flower along a line running from top to bottom—such a line as would be made by the edges of a folded leaf where they came together. Thus the carpel of a marsh-marigold may be likened to a leaf bearing ovules along its edges and these joined so as to form an ovary. That part of an ovary wall which bears the ovules is called the placenta; * and when as in this case it extends along the front side of the ovary (that toward the center of the flower) the placenta is said to be ventral.6 The oppo- site side or back of the carpellary leaf, commonly marked by a ridge representing the midrib, is distinguished as the dorsal? aspect. The ovules of marsh-marigolds are essentially like those of flax and of all the crowfoot family. We may distinguish in each ovule a little stalk, the funzele,* which continues as ¢ ridge, the raphe,® along the side of the main part or body of the ovule. At the small end is a minute opening, the micro- pyle.” An ovule which is bent so that the micropyle comes next to the funicle, or point of attachment, is termed anat- ropous."! — 'Car’-pel < Gr. karpos, fruit, as being essentially the fruit produc- ing part. * Gy-nee’-ci-um << Gr. gyne, female; oikos, house. % An-dree’-ci-um << Gr. andros, male. 4 Nee’-tar < Gr. neklar, the drink of the gods. » Pla-cen’-ta < L. a little cake, from its cake-like form in certain cases. 6 Ven'tral < L. renter, belly. 7 Dor’sal < L. dorswm, back. *Pu-ni-cle << L. fundeudus, diminutive of funis, a cord. "Ra’phe < Cr. rhaphe, a seam. " Mi-ero-pyle < Gr. micros, small; pyle, gate. '! A-nat’-ro-pous < Gr. ana, back; (repein, turn. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 347 Gyneecia essentially like those of marsh-marigold are found in Christmas roses, columbines, peonies, and monks- hoods (Figs. 178, 282, 287, 284). In anemonies (Fig. 297), each carpel contains at first the rudiments of several ovules, but only one (the lowest) develops, the rest remaining mere rudiments.. Many genera, as for example, crowfoots, mouse- tails, meadow rues, and clematises (Figs. 285, 290, 293) have only a single ovule in each carpel from the first. In afew cases it happens, as in fennel-flowers (Fig. 286) and certain species nearly related to the Christmas rose, that the carpels are more or less united with one another at the base, thus form- ing a compound pistil comparable to that of flax. As a result of this union of the carpels there is formed a single compound placenta which being at the center of the ovary is termed axile. It is obvious that a compound pistil, say of five carpels, requires less material than an equal number of separate carpels of the same size, just as it takes less bricks to build a chimney with five flues than it does to make for each flue a separate chimney. Almost all of the crowfoot family have simple pistils, 7. e., consisting of but one carpel. The number of simple pistils may be many, as in crowfoots, mouse-tails, and anemonies; several or few, as in Christmas rose, colum- bines, peonies, and monkshoods; or only one, as in bane- berries. When both stamens and pistils are present (as in nearly all of the crowfoot family) the flower is said to be perfect; it is imperfect when either set of essential organs is absent or rudi- mentary. Flowers having stamens alone are called staminate; those with pistils alone, pistillate. In certain species of clematis both perfect and imperfect flowers occur; such plants are termed polygamous.+ Andreecia consisting of an indefinite number of stamens like those of marsh-marigold occur in the wood-anemony, peonies, and certain species of clematis (Figs. 194, 282, 291). Among cultivated peonies we often find flowers which have be- come ‘‘double”’ as the gardeners say. In these the outer sta- 1 Perfect flowers are symbolized in botany by the sign 8, staminate by <’, and pistillate by @. The expression 8 % 2 would thus stand for polygamous. 348 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY mens are replaced by more or less petal-like leaf-members which, however, differ considerably in shape from the petals, and show clearly their closer homology with filaments by nu- merous intermediate forms (Figs. 294, 295). What here takes place as an abnormality throws light upon the homology of certain curious and puzzling organs often called ‘“nectar- leaves”? which take the place of the outer stamens in many flowers of the crowfoot family. In some anemonies—as in the wood-anemony—the outer stamens have anthers, while in other species like the pasque-flower the outer filaments are destitute of anthers but instead have swollen tips which secrete nectar (Figs. 194, 296 A). Antherless stamens are called staminodes.! The nectar-leaves are most probably of this nature. The Christmas rose has tubular staminodes; the mouse-tail, staminodes somewhat club-shaped and bent; crowfoots have them broadly expanded and __ petal-like; fennel-flowers, more or less petal-like with a peculiar pouch; while in columbines there is an outer set of colored staminodes forming trumpet-like spurs which secrete nectar copiously, and next to the carpels two inner scts of five each which produce no nectar and are very thin and colorless (Figs. 284D, 28511, 296B-E). It is not unusual for botanists to speak of the petal-like nectar-leaves of this family as petals, but this is not in accord with the modern view of their homology. Most of the crowfoot family are like marsh-marigolds in having no corolla. In peonies are found unmistakable petals. These show that they belong to the perianth, not only by having a much wider base than the stamens, but also by the occurrence of transitional forms connecting them with sepals, as illustrated in Fig. 294. The series as there shown connects also sepals, bractlets, and bracts. Anemonies and fennel- flowers, as we have seen, have involucres or involucels which are sometimes so close to the flower as to be easily mistaken for calyx, and which indeed differ from calyces only in being separated from the floral whorls by a more or less developed internode. The case is especially deceptive when the sepals are petaloid, 7. e., brightly colored like petals, and the in- volucre is close to the flower. Flowers without a corolla are 1 Stam/-in-ode < L. stamen, staminis, stamen; Gr. etdos, a form. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 349 said to be apetalous.!. When as in peonies the flowers have calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, they are described as complete. Many of the crowfoot family have the calyx petaloid, as in marsh-marigolds, anemonies, clematises, Christmas roses, fennel-flowers, baneberries, columbines, and monkshoods. In mouse-tails each of the sepals develops near the base a tubular pouch or spur (Fig. 285). Most commonly, the sepals, at least in the bud, overlap at the edges in such a way that some are wholly inside and some wholly outside, as shown in Figs. 282, 284. The sepals are then said to be imbricate,? and the same term applies to petals or similar organs thus overlapping. When the parts touch at the edges without overlapping, as for example the sepals of clematis (Fig. 290) they are valvate.*. The arrange- ment of floral parts in the bud is called their estivation; + of leaves, their vernation.® Almost all the flowers of the family have the parts of each whorl alike; that is, the carpels of a flower are repetitions of one another, likewise the stamens, the petals, and the sepals when present. Such flowers are called regular. A few of the family have zrregular flowers, as for example the monkshood (Fig. 178) so called from the peculiar cowl-like form of one of the sepals which is larger than the others and partially enwraps them. The hood covers also a pair of staminodal nectaries. The stamens with anthers and the gyncecium are regular. The stem part of the flower is called the torus * or receptacle. It represents the continuation of the flower-stalk or peduncle upon which the floral leaves grow. It is customary to speak of the way in which an organ is attached to its support as its insertion, or to say that the organ is inserted upon what- ever bears it. Thus we say that the andreecium and calyx 1 A-pet/al-ous < Gr. a, without, petalon, petal. ; 2 Im’-bri-cate < L. imbricatus, overlapping like roof-tiles. 3 Val’-vate < L. valve, folding doors. 4 Ws!-ti-va-tion < L. estivus, of the summer. 5 Ver’-na-tion < L. vernus, of the spring. 6 To/-rus < L. torus, a swelling, as being the swollen end of the floral axis. 350 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY of marsh-marigold are inserted upon the torus below the ovaries, or that their insertion is hypogynous.1 This implies that the gyncecium is inserted wholly above the other organs of the flower, or, in a word, that the ovaries are superior. Superior ovaries are found in nearly all of the crowfoot family. The torus is usually either convex (Fig. 290), conical (Fig. 293), or much elongated (Fig. 285). Peonies, on the contrary (Fig. 282), have the torus slightly concave so that it forms a shallow cup at the bottom of which the pistils are inserted, while around its rim are borne the stamens, petals, and sepals. Such insertion of the andrcecium and floral envelopes makes them perigynous? and the ovaries half- inferior. Wholly inferior ovaries occur as we shall see in other families but not in this. Throughout the family the floral organs are free, that is to say each set is inserted on the torus independently and develops unconnected with other sects. Furthermore, with few exceptions, the organs of each set are distinct, that is, unconnected with one another. The chief exceptions are in certain species related to the Christmas rose and in fennel- flowers where, as we have seen, the carpels have grown up joined together or are somewhat coalescent* as botanists say when the parts united are of the same sort. Another feature exhibited in general by the flowers of this family is the alternation of the parts, by which we mean that the members of one whorl or rosette stand in front of the spaces between the members of the next whorl or rosette, when of the same number. This is well shown in the floral diagrams, Figs. 178, 282, 284, 286, 287, 288, 290, 293. At first sight, this may not seem to be true of the stamens and stami- nodes of columbines and monkshoods but the alternation will be apparent when it is remembered that the parts are in whorls of five. The fruit of a flowering plant is understood to include the seeds and whatever parts ripen with them. The ripened ' THy-pog’y-nous < Gr. hypo, beneath; gyne, pistil. * Pe-rig’-y-nous < Gr. peri, around. * Co-al-es’-cent << co, together; alescere, to grow up. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 351 ovary is the pericarp! which may be dry as in marsh-marigold and nearly all the other genera, or may be fleshy as in bane- berries. When the pericarp opens to release the seeds it is said to be dehiscent,? and the manner of opening, its dehis- cence. The pericarp of marsh-marigold dehisces by a vertical slit, or suture * along the ventral or inner side, 7. ¢., the side toward the axis of the flower. A dry fruit consisting of one carpel dehiscing by the ventral or by the dorsal suture alone is called a follicle.: For other examples see Figs. 282, 287. A dry pericarp consisting of two or more carpels is termed a capsule.» The fruit of fennel-flowers (Fig. 286) is a capsule in which each carpel dehisces by a short ventral suture near the top. A further peculiarity of the pericarp of the species illustrated is that except where the carpels are united, the wall separates into an outside and an inside layer, leaving a considerable empty space between. Pericarps which do not open are said to be indehiscent. A small, dry, indehiscent fruit, like that of crowfoots, anemonies, and mouse-tails is termed an achene.6 A fruit like that of baneberries in which the whole pericarp is fleshy, is a berry. In a seed, as we have seen (page 316), there is an outer pro- tective layer, the seed-coat, enclosing the embryo and the seed-food or albumen. In marsh-marigold (Fig. 185) the seed-coat is of unequal thickness, the embryo minute and situated near one end of a comparatively large amount of albumen. Seeds essentially similar are found in the other members of the family. In every part of the marsh-marigold, as we have seen (page 208), there is a colorless juice which is of sharp taste and poisonous properties if eaten fresh and raw. Such an acrid, watery juice containing a more or less poisonous, usually volatile, principle, is generally present throughout the family. Crowfoots, anemonies, and monkshoods, will be remem- 1 Per’-i-carp < Gr. peri, around; karpos, fruit. 2 De-his’-cent < L. dehiscere, yawn. 3Su’-ture < L. sutura, a seam. 4 Fol’-li-cle < folliculus, dim. of follis, a wind bag. 5 Cap’-sule < L. capsula, dim. of capsa, a box. 6 A-chene’ < Gr. a, not; chainein, yawn. 352 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY bered as affording other examples already discussed in Chapter V. 104. Plant formulas. We may be helped in summing up what we have learned from our various examples if we express their most significant structural characteristics by means of symbols arranged in a sort of tabular view as on page 353. At the beginning of the formulas there given, the signs @, 2, P , +5 ,> are used respectively for annuals, perennial herbs, woody plants, small shrubs, and vines, as already explained (p. 333). A comma indi- cates an alternative, and-is to be read ‘“‘or.”” Thus in the formula of Pzonia we have 2,-5, reading ‘‘perennial herbs or low shrubs.” These signs since they apply to the plants as a whole come first in the formula. The letters which follow stand for various parts: L for leaves; L, leaflets; I, inflorescence; i, secondary inflorescence; B, bracts; b, bractlets; 8, sepals; P, petals; FA, stamens (filaments with anthers) ; F, staminodes (filaments without anthers) ; CE, carpels (carpellary leaves with ovules, 7. ¢., egg-sac members); E, ovules well developed; e, rudimentary ovules; T, torus; C’, carpels ripened into pericarps; £7, seeds; G, embryo (germ); V, albumen (nutriment). When the leaves are alternate, as in all the genera except Clematis, this is expressed by Li/; which signifies that there is a single leaf at each internode. In the exception noted L2/s means that the leaves are opposite, 7. e., two at a node. Palmate nervation is shown by the asterisk *, ternate by the dagger sign +, and pinnate by the double dagger t, which, as will be noticed, suggest by their form the arrangement of nerves they each represent. That a leaf is com- pound is implied by the presence of leaflets indicated by the small L. In the formulas of Anemone and Clematis this shows that the leaves are but once-compound, while in the Ponia formula L!-* means that the leaves are once to thrice-compound, while L?* in the Aquilegia and Actzea formulas stands for decompound. When the inflorescence is of the indeterminate type an inverted comma follows the I as in the Aconitum and Acteea formulas; and when of the determinate type, as in the other examples, an inverted period is used. A solitary terminal flower, as in P:eonia and Nigella, is indicated by I'l. Where, as in Caltha, Anemone, and Clematis, additional flowers may appear forming a cymose cluster, [1 + is used. When the plant has only solitary axillary flowers like Myo- surus the expression becomes I'l. A cymose corymh, as of Aquilegia, is represented by I’’/; while a raceme of the botryose type, as in Aconitum and Actiea, has I’, the short and the long oblique lines standing respectively for short and long pedicels. The presence of a small i, as in the formula of Clematis, implies a compound cluster. In this case it is shown to be of paniculate form because of the relatively short pedicels. Where the type and form of inflorescence varies as in Ranunculus, their special signs may be omitted. The Peonias 4, L'/y? wb big | is Ss’ 56+ PP’ 5+ | PAo CEh5+ ES To Ci <6 Ho G-N a Se rere Caltha 2, L My es b!/, 0 T1+8 Ss’ 4+ FAo CH5+ ES TA | Ci< 6 Ho G-N Helleborus 9 L'/,*,L bis | Pipe 5 Res || \ FA CE5+,) ES Ta | = Cl25%) Hao GN Anemone? L1/,*?,u B,b/2,3 —— SS ee T1+8 8’44+ F0-2 | FAo CEo Ei e44+ Ta Nigdia, @ LAME bike a see) Oe | is 5 wet See aeapeecise' (aoa FAo CE5+,) E& Ta eer 7 aay Ci< 5+ Bo G-N Clematis 4,b A L2/,t 4,1 — : T14+,i 8,879 S$’4+F0-« | eee ee : FA®,0 CEe,0 Ei e24 Ta. Aquilegia 2 Lite Cj< BL GSN | I’/8 S75 FS Se FA®F5X5 CE5 E& Ta ae nr, Ci< 6 Bo G-N Ranunculus © L/;* | A lit+s S’5+ F5+ eee | ; FAo CE® Ei Ta Aconitum 2 Lay ae ne an Ti! 8 Sg” $ n Goa | FAo CE3-5 nS Ta ine Mee Ci<8-5 Eo GN Myosurus @ = L4/; = Ils S’5+ F5= ‘ ee EAS Che Br “Ts ie aes. —] Actea 4, t wr is sh : I’g $8’3-5 F4+ _ FA CE 1 qo TA Gi Ho G-N 354 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY signs 8, o, and 2 have already been explained on page 347. As used inthe Clematis formula they will be understood as meaning that the inflorescence may consist entirely of perfect flowers (as in the other genera) or may be polygamous. The presence of bracts more or less like foliage leaves may gener- ally be taken for granted, and so need not usually be expressed in a formula. Bractlets are more often absent, but it seldom matters much for our purpose whether they are present or not, and they rarely need to be taken into account. When either of these organs present noteworthy peculiarities they may be recorded as in the formulas of Paonia, Caltha, Nigella, and Anemone, following the method for leaves as regards their arrangement, except that in case of involucres only a denominator i is us sed because there is but one whorl. Thus in the formula for Caltha b1!/1,0 would read ‘‘bractlets alternate or none’’; for Nigella b/s,0 means “with five bractlets forming an involucre, or none”’; while for Anemone B, b/2,3 means “having bracts or bractlets two or three in a whorl.” The imbricate ewstivation of sepals or petals is indicated by two apostrophes, following the § or P, as in the formula of Peonia; the valvate, by an inverted comma opposed to an apostrophe, as in Clematis. For each floral organ the number or numerical sign following a letter tells how many of the parts represented are present. The plus sign, +, means ‘‘or more,” so that 5+ would be read “‘five or more.” The ‘‘plus or minus”’ sign, +, is to be read ‘‘more or less.” The algebraic symbol of infinity, ©, stands here for “many” “an indefinite number.’”’ As a companion sign,c¢ may be used to mean few. When the absence of an organ needs to be noted a zero, 0, is used. A dash between numerical signs means ‘‘to’’; thus, 3-5 would be read ‘‘three to five’; 0-© “none to many.’ Simply a dash after a numerical sign means ‘‘or less’’; thus 5- would be read “‘five or less.”” When the numerical signs are in such fractional form as $ or 3 (Aconitum formula) it shows that the flower is irregular so far as the organs so represented are concerned; otherwise, the flower is understood to be regular. If the numerator be an odd number it indicates that a single member of the set, more or less unlike the others, is uppermost, as for example, the hooded sepal of Aconitum: an even number, instead, shows that a pair of similar parts is uppermost, as is the case with the staminodes in the same flower. Unless otherwise indicated the floral organs are understood to be free and distinct. Partial coalescence of parts, as in the carpels of Nigella, is indicated by placing after their numerical sign a small parenthesis: thus, for the example cited CE 5 +) would be read ‘“‘carpels five, more or less, partially coalescent below.” There being no indication to the contrary it is also to be under- stood that the floral organs regularly alternate, and that the anthers THE FAMILY CHAIN 395 dehisce by longitudinal slits. The expression T > means that the torus is convex and implies that the perianth and andrcecium are hypogynous. When as in Peonia they are perigynous this is indi- cated by T v which represents the torus as concave. The form of the ovules is shown by a mark placed over their numerical sign, a circumflex accent-mark meaning that the ovule is anatropous. Their ventral position is understood in simple pistils, while in compound pistils like that of Nigella, the single parenthesis after the number of carpels implies that the ovules are on an axile placenta. When the pericarp becomes fleshy as in Acta this is indicated by an exclamation mark after the C. When the pericarp is dry, as in Caltha, there is instead an inverted exclamation mark. Inde- hiscence is indicated by the sign <. When the pericarp dehisces along a ventral suture as in Caltha, etc., the sign < is employed. In all the formulas the expression G-N implies that the embryo is uncoiled within albumen. The scheme of plant. formulas which is here proposed and which will be further elaborated in the following pages, is an extension and modification of the floral formulas used by many botanists. As a sort of botanical shorthand of wide application it is believed that the student will find it not only labor-saving but helpful in grasping plant relationships. After a little use, what seemed strange will have become familiar and a glance will discover important characters that might easily escape notice in comparing equally full verbal descriptions. 105. The family chain. Having learned the signification of these symbols we are now in position to use the formulas as a ready means of comparing the main structural features of our representa- tive genera to see how they are linked together. Take, for instance, Caltha and Peonia. If we conceive of a marsh-marigold having a concave torus, a perianth differentiated into calyx and corolla, and pinnately compound leaves, such a plant would be classed as a peony. By these same features, however, it might be distinguished from all the other genera. Therefore, although closely linked with Caltha, Pzonia is placed on a line apart in the tabular view. Helleborus differs from Caltha chiefly in having the carpels some- times coalesced and in possessing staminodes. In these respects it is a link connecting Caltha with Nigella which has the carpels always coalescent, and differs from Helleborus only in having pinnate instead of palmate leaves, some of which may be so near the flower as to constitute an involucre, and in consisting of annual rather than perennial herbs. Aquilegia, with its carpels distinct, is more like Caltha, but differs from both Caltha and Nigella in having the carpels always five, staminodes in two inner sets of five and one outer set of the same number, and in having the leaves ternately decompound. 356 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY A monkshood is like a columbine except for irregularity of sepals and staminodes, absence of inner staminodes, indeterminate inflorescence, simplicity of leaves, and sometimes fewer carpels. All the above genera agree in having numerous ovules, all of which may become seeds, contained in several or many carpels which become dry and dehiscent in fruit. In Actwa the carpels are reduced to one, which becomes fleshy and indehiscent in fruit; the staminodes may be fewer, both they and the sepals are regular; and the leaves are ternately decompound: otherwise the genus resembles Aconitum. Passing now to Anemone we find its most striking differences from Caltha and the other genera already described to be the im- perfect development of several of the ovules in each carpel, the ripening of only one ovule, the indehiscence of the fruit, and the possession of an involucre of two or three bracts. In these respects it forms a link between our type genus and Clematis where the rudimentary ovules are commonly fewer, and all the leaves (like the bracts in some species of Anemone) are opposite. A still further divergence in Clematis appears in the occasional imperfection of the flowers, the valvate wstivation of the sepals, the ternate or pinnate nervation of the leaves, and the climbing habit and woody stem sometimes developed. In Ranunculus we find a still further reduction of the ovules; an invariable presence of both essential organs and staminodes; imbricate zstivation of the sepals: alternate, palmate, simple leaves; and sometimes annual duration: thus being in some respects more nearly like Caltha, while in others it is more divergent. Vinally, an extreme of divergence by reduction or simplification is reached in the mouse-tails which may be regarded as annual crow- foots with only about five stamens, staminodes, and sepals, bractless, solitary flowers, and leaves with unbranched or obscure nervation. It may seem a long way from such plants to peonies; but, as we see, there are intermediate links binding them pretty closely together. As the student examines other members of the same family he will find that they may be readily interposed as links in the same chain with those already studied. Indeed, the transitions will appear less abrupt than between the few examples to which we have confined ourselves. His experience will be much like that of a botanist ee forms newly discovered. He compares them with the forms already known and links them with those which they most nearly resemble. Thus link by link are family chains forged in botanical systems. As in the present, case, the chain may branch, and it might be questioned whether it would not be better to regard the branches as separate families. That depends upon how close the linkage appears to be, and as to that the judgment of experts may differ. [In any event the definition of any family properly follows the attempt at natural grouping, and may require revision with advancing knowledge or change of view. Such changes in THE FAMILY CHAIN 357 classification the history of the science illustrates; yet progress is in the direction of stability, and certain chains, having held from the first, bid fair to endure. The integrity of the Ranunculacex, for example, seems assured in spite of the wide divergence of its extreme forms and in spite of the difficulty of defining its limits. We have now to define the family as best we can. The generic formulas will help us to a formula for the family and this in turn will lead us to our definition. Taking the prevailing characteristics of each part as typical for the family, and neglecting the less sig- nificant exceptions to the general rule, we may express a generalized view of the salient features as shown in the formula of Ranunculacewe on pages 404, 405. The only invariable features here expressed are the anatropous ovule and the uncoiled embryo surrounded by albumen, and these as we shall see are common to a number of other families. But, as we shall also see in comparing the Ranunculacez with other groups, it lacks features which they possess. Taking into account all the facts we have learned, the crowfoot family may be described as consisting of herbaceous or rarely woody plants, never trees, without milky juice, oil or other secretions in special reservoirs, but with a mostly colorless and odorless sap which is generally acrid, and in some cases renders the plant poisonous to eat or to touch; leaves mostly palmately branched, or at least palmately ribbed; flowers mostly regular and perfect with the parts free and distinct (with rare exceptions); sepals commonly five, generally petaloid; petals rarely present, often replaced by more or less petaloid staminodal nectaries of widely differing forms; stamens generally numerous; anthers de- hiscing by slits; pistils almost always simple, numerous, few, or rarely solitary; ovules anatropous, many, few or solitary, sometimes rudimentary; fruit follicular, capsular, achenial, or rarely fleshy; the seeds with hard albumen sur- rounding a minute uncoiled embryo. Or, if we disregard all that is untypical, it may be said that whenever we find an herb with the juice colorless and scentless, the flowers having all their parts distinct and free, sepals about five, and essential organs numerous, we may be tolerably sure that our plant is one of the crowfoot family, although some departure from these characteristics would not necessarily exclude it from the group. CHAPTER X VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 106. The magnolia family (Magnoliacez) is a compara- tively small group well represented by magnolias (Mag- nolia, page 262), the tulip-tree (Liriodendron, page 261), and star-anise (Illicium, page 143). At first sight there might seem to be small resemblance between these and crowfoot- like plants; but let us see upon what points of difference we can exclude them from the crowfoot family. The seeds are essentially the same as those of the crowfoot family in having a small uncoiled embryo in copious albumen. The fruit of star-anise consists of follicles, much like those of the marsh-marigold, though with only one seed in each; while the carpels of the tulip-tree ripen into achenes differing from those of anemonies mainly in having wing-like out- growths. Such winged fruits are termed samaras.! The mag- nolia fruit consists of a cone-like aggregation of follicles differing from those of star-anise in dehiscing by a dorsal suture, and in producing one or two seeds which have a fleshy outer layer of bright color, and which dangle on slender threads when ripe. Neither the andreecium nor the perianth present any new features. Nor do we find anything essen- tially different in regard to the inflorescence or the leaves except that in the tulip-tree and magnolia there are leaflet- like appendages at the base of the petiole. These stipules,? as they are called, serve as organs of protection for the unex- panded leaves. In these plants they soon fall off, and so do not appear in the figures. Well-developed stipules are shown 1Sa-ma’ra < L. samara, the winged fruit of the elm. *Stip’ule < L. stipula, stubble, diminutive of stipes, stalk, the stipules in their relation to the petiole being likened to the short stubble standing at the base of a stalk of grain. 358 THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY 309 in figures 159,2 and 271. Somewhat similar expansions serv- ing for protection occur at the base of marsh-marigold leaves; but these, although suggesting stipules, are not regarded as sufficiently developed to deserve the name. The leaves of star-anise, as of the crowfoot family, are exstipulate,! that is, without stipules. Finally, asregards their habit,? or general ap- pearance, the tulip-tree is, as itsname implies, a tree, while the species of magnolia and star-anise are either trees or shrubs. The result of our examination thus far is to show that star-anise in several particulars forms a good link connecting the tulip-tree with members of the crowfoot family, and we have not yet found a single feature which will serve to dis- tinguish all of the magnolia family from all of the crowfoot family. This resemblance will appear still more plainly if we express in formulas the facts observable in our examples. Let us indicate the presence of stipules by an inverted dagger sign, 1; a wing on the pericarp by an inverted interrogation mark, ¢; and dorsal dehiscence by >. We may then write our formulas of Magnolia, Illicium, and Liriodendron * as shown on pages 404, 405. If we added to these examples other magnoliaceous genera we should of course introduce some new variations of structure, but these would afford us no better family characters. A formula typical of the family would still be the same as that given below the three genera mentioned. Comparing our magnoliaceous formulas with the ranunculaceous ones we find that while prevailing features differ—so much so indeed as to make it desirable to group the plants in separate fam- ilies—the departures from the type in one family often match those of the other. There is, however, a general difference, not shown in the figures, which serves to separate the two groups. All mem- bers of the magnolia family have in the leaf-pulp, floral leaves, pith, and other soft parts, minute reservoirs of volatile oil, which are entirely lacking in the crowfoot family. These little reservoirs may be seen readily with a hand lens by viewing 1Ex-stip’u-late < L. ex, without; stipula, stipule. 2 Habit < L. habitus, appearance. 3The plant formulas referred to in this and succeeding sections, together with the ranunculaceous formulas already given, are grouped on pages 404-427 to facilitate their being compared with one another. 360 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS a leaf, petal, or slice of pith against the light, when they ap- pear as translucent, scattered dots. This oil it is which renders the flowers of the family fragrant, and gives its flavor to the fruit of star-anise. Searcely a trace of such odors are to be found in the crowfoot family. We may therefore define the magnolia family as woody plants having fragrant, solitary, regular flowers, more or less like those of the crowfoot family, but with minute reservoirs of volatile oil in varrvous parts. 107. The laurel family (Lauracez) consists also of woody plants with oil reservoirs similar to those of the magnolia family. This aromatic oil gives to sassafras (Sassafras officinale, page 168) and to cinnamon and camphor (Cinna- momum, pages 135, 178), as we have seen, their chief economic value. Between these and our examples of the magnolia and crowfoot families may also be found many other similarities, either in habit, form of leaves, or floral structure. The morphology of the gyneecium in the laurel family is somewhat doubtful. Apparently there is only a single carpel, much as in the baneberry, but in sassafras the three-lobed stigma may be evidence of three carpels which coalesce so completely as to form a one-celled, one-styled pisfil. A further peculiarity of sassafras is that the flowers are all imperfect and that the two kinds are always on distinct plants. The term diecious ' is applied to this condition. A striking feature found throughout the family is the dehiscence of the anthers by uplifted valves. This is indicated in the formulas by FA~. Another general peculiarity is that the concave torus often becomes fleshy and cup-like in fruit—a condition indicated by T-T!. The sign © meaning “or otherwise”? when there are noteworthy exceptions, is also introduced inthe formulas of this family, and ? is used to indicate doubt. See pages 406, 407 for formulas of Sassafras and Cinnamomum and, derived from them (neglecting exceptions) a typical formula for the family. Woody plants with minute reservoirs of oil, and regular flowers more or less like those of the crowfoot family but having the perianth and andracium mostly perigynous and the anthers ' Di-ce’ci-ous < Gr. dis, two; ofkos, houschold; symbolized by o: @. THE POPPY FAMILY 361 always dehiscing by uplifted valves, constitute the chief mem- bers of the family. : 108. The crowfoot order (Ranunculales or Ranales). A comparison of the three families we have been studying shows them to be closely linked together, much as are the genera within each family. By such linkage there is formed a natural chain of families including these and several others resembling them in important respects. Such a group of families is termed, as we have seen (page 8), an order. That which clusters about the crowfoot family takes significantly the name of the crowfoot order. The prevailing characters of Ranunculales are expressed in the formula of the order given on pages 406, 407. Neglecting the more variable or exceptional features we may say that the plants of this order, though differing widely in habit, foliage, and inflorescence, are characterized by having usually cymose inflorescences of mostly perfect, regular, and hypogynous flowers with well-developed perianth often in whorls of three, stamens and carpels usually numerous, and all parts commonly distinct and free. 109. The poppy family (Papaveracez) is represented sufficiently well for our purpose by the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum, pages 182,183). Like all the other species of its genus, it contains instead of volatile oil a milky juice from which, as we have seen, opium is obtained. Many other genera of the family contain a similar juice which in some cases is bright yellow, and in others red. Sometimes the juice 1s watery. The main structural features of Papaver appear in its formula on pages 406, 407. The only new features calling for special notice concern the gyncecium which, unlike any in the crowfoot order (ex- cept possibly in the laurel family), consists of several carpels so united as to form a compound pistil with a one-celled ovary. That is to say, the carpellary leaves as they grow have the right edge of one coalescent with the left edge of its neighbor. The united edges of neighboring carpels thus form placentze which lie along the outer wall of the compound 362 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS ovary. Such placente are termed parietal.1| The capsule in poppies opens peculiarly by little pores like windows under the eaves of the overhanging stigma-ring. Such opening by pores, is called poricidal 2 dehiscence. With but slight modifications, not calling for special comment, the formula of Papaver becomes typical of the family as shown on pages 406, 407. The family may generally be recognized as being mostly herbs, commonly having a milky or colored juice, and hypogy- nous flowers with the floral envelopes most often in whorls of two, the stamens usually numerous, the pistil always compound, one-celled and with parietal placente, and the seeds albuminous with the embryo sometimes curved but neither coiled nor bent. 110. The mustard family (Cruciferz) agrees closely with the poppy family in general form and floral structure, as may be seen by comparing our figures of cabbages, turnips, mustards, and rape (Brassica, pages 54, 66-70), watercress and horseradish (Nasturtium, pages 70, 71, 144), and radish (Raphanus, page 55). The main family differences are in the bracts and bractlets, the number of stamens, and peculiarities of the gynoecium. While the members of the poppy family have bracts and often bractlets of the usual sort (which therefore do not call for special notice), the members of the mustard family are almost unique in having no bracts within the inflorescence. Hence they are described as ebracteate.* In a flower of the mustard family there are two outer and shorter stamens, alternating with two inner pairs of longer ones. Botanists regard these inner pairs as representing each a single stamen branched or divided into two. The fact that a whorl is thus divided into sets is expressed in our formulas by the sign of division, +, connecting the number in the whorl with the number of sets. The carpels of the mustard family are normally only two, ? Pa-ri’e-tal < L. parictalis, belonging to a wall < paries, a wall; indicated by the symbol () placed after the number of the carpels. ? Por-i-ci’dal < L. porus, pore; cadire, to cut; indicated by the sign® placed after that of the pericarp. 3 E-brac’te-ate < L. e, without; braclea, bract. Bo. THE ROSE FAMILY 363 as in certain of the poppy family, but the ovary instead of being one-celled is divided into two compartments by a partition extending between the parietal placentae. When ripe the carpels mostly separate from the placente and from this partition. Such a fruit is called a silique.1 The ovules differ from any we have seen among the plants of the crow- foot order in lacking a raphe and being curved to a somewhat kidney-like form. When thus curved, ovules are described as campylotropous.? The seeds are almost always exalbuminous and have the embryo commonly bent in various ways—a peculiarity expressed in the formulas by GA. Note how closely similar are the formulas of Brassica, Nasturtium, Raphanus, and Crucifere given on pages 406, 407. As a definition of the family we have thus:— Mustard family: mostly herbs without milky or colored juice or oul reservoirs, often of sharp taste though pleasant flavor; ebracteate inflorescence; usually hypogynous flowers with all the parts in whorls of two (with the apparent exception of the four inner and longer stamens), the ovary divided into two cells by a partition joining the parietal placentae; the fruit almost always a silique with exalbuminous seeds having the embryo variously bent. 111. The poppy order (Papaverales or Rhceadales) com- prises a few families well represented by the poppy and the mustard families and agreeing in having mostly racemose inflorescences of complete, hypogynous, regular or irregular flowers with the sepals, petals, and stamens all distinct and free, and a compound pistil with parietal placente. It is the union of the carpels by their edges which mainly dis- tinguishes this from the crowfoot order. For comparison we have a typical formula of the order on pages 408, 409. 112. The rose family (Rosacez) as illustrated by the almond (Fig. 31, page 42), apple (Figs. 91 I, II, pages 86, 87), pear (Fig. 92, page 87), quince (Figs. 93 I, II, page 88), 1 Gi-lique’ < L. siliqua, a pod; Cj*. 2 Cam-py-lot’ro-pous < Gr. kampylos, curved; trope, a turn. E @. 4 364 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS peach (Fig. 94, page 89), plum (Fig. 95, page 90), cherry (Fig. 96, page 90), raspberry (Fig. 97, page 91), straw- berry (Figs. 98 I-III, page 92), and roses (Figs. 148 II, III, 298, pages 150, 151, 378), 1s seen to possess many features of floral structure resembling more nearly those of the crowfoot family than of any other family we have studied. Note in the formulas of Rosa, Fragaria, Rubus, Prunus, Cydonia, and Pyrus, given on pages 408, 409, that the floral envelopes are mostly in fives, while the essential organs are commonly numerous, and that all are free and distinet, except sometimes the carpels, which then, unlike poppy carpels, have axile placente. An unusual form of calyx is found in strawberries (Fra- garia). Here the sepals have stipules which coalesce in pairs so as to form what looks like a calyx upon a calyx, and is termed therefore an epicalyx.' The only other features not before encountered belong to the torus and the fruit. Throughout the family the torus is concave or cup-like, and it is mostly free as in peonies and our examples of the laurel family. In roses (Rosa) it completely envelopes the carpels, and be- comes fleshy and bright colored while the pericarps ripen into hard nutlets,2 the whole forming a so-called “‘hip.’’? The strawberry fruit consists mainly of the upper part of the torus,’ much swollen and bearing numerous achenes. Rasp- berries have the upper part of the torus comparatively dry, and in fruit the pericarps finally separate from it. As these ripen, an outer layer becomes fleshy while an inner layer hardens like an olive stone. A fruit in which the pericarp is thus differentiated is called a ‘‘stone-fruit’”’ or drupe. In raspberries and thimbleberries the little drupes coalesce sufficiently to form a thimble-lhke mass after they separate from the torus. Un blackberries, on the contrary, the little drupes remain attached to the part of the torus which bears 1h"pi-ca/lyx < L. epi, upon. 8 | 2 The hardening of the pericarp is expressed in the formulas by two inverted exclamation marks. * A small éto represent part of the torus is used in the formulas instead of the large capital. ‘Drupe < L. drupa, a ripe olive. Cjj! THE PULSE FAMILY 365 them, or in other words, the pericarps adhere ' to the torus, as botanists say of the union of dissimilar parts. Such adhesion is represented in the Rubus formula by a bracket: placed after the pericarp signs. The bracket is separated by a comma from the preceding signs to show that in this genus the pericarps are sometimes free. Similarly the expression ¢j,/, means that the upper part of the torus may be either dry or fleshy in fruit, while C7j! means that each pericarp is hard within and fleshy with- out, v. €., drupaceous. Each flower of plums, peaches, almonds, and cherries (Prunus) produces but a single drupe, and this has commonly but one seed within the “stone”; though occasionally as in “philopena” almonds both of the ovules develop. It should be noted that neither the ‘‘stone”’ of a peach, plum, or cherry nor the “shell” of an almond is part of a seed, but is the hardened inner layer of the pericarp, enclosing a seed or seeds. The torus of quince (Cydonia) and of apples and pears (Pyrus), envelops the gyncecium, is adherent to the com- pound ovary, and both ripen together into the kind of fruit called a pome ? in which the seeds are enclosed in a “core” consisting of dry, more or less parchment-like pericarps, surrounded by the fleshy torus. An adherent torus envelop- ing the ovary is said to be epigynous,* a term likewise applied to the stamens, or the floral envelopes which it bears; and, indeed, to the flower itself having such a torus. The ovaries of epigynous flowers are termed inferior. A typical formula for the family is shown on pages 408, 409. The family includes plants of various habit; without milky, colored, or acrid juice, and lacking reservoirs of volatile oil; but having often fragrant flowers more or less like those of the crowfoot family, but perigynous or epigynous; mostly stipulate leaves, and frequently luscious fruit. 113. The pulse family (Leguminosz). Examples: pea- nut (Fig. 33, page 45), pea (Figs. 37, 38, page 48), beans 1 Ad-here’ < L. ad, to; herere, stick. | : 2 Pome < L. pomum, an apple or similar fruit. PE Gy 3 Ep-ig’y-nous < Gr. epi, upon; gyne, pistil. TL] 366 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS (Figs. 39, 40, pages 49-51), gum arabic tree (Fig. 156, page 164), tragacanth shrub (Fig. 157, page 165), licorice (Fig. 162, page 169), locust (Fig. 182, page 197), courbdril- tree and Zanzibar copal-tree (Fig. 273, page 289), indigo shrub (Fig. 275, page 293), and logwood-tree (Fig. 276, page 294). See on pages 408-411 the formulas given for Acacia, Heematoxy- lon, Hymen:ea, Trachylobium, Pisum, Phaseolus, Robinia, Indigo- fera, Glycyrrhiza, Astragalus, Arachis, and Leguminose. In their floral structure many acacias, like the gum arabic tree, approximate closely to certain members of the rose family, notably in the numerous stamens, and regular calyx and corolla. In some species the filaments are more or less coalescent. Stamens thus united are said to be monadel- phous.! The logwood-tree (Hematoxylon), the courbaril- tree (Hymenza) and the Zanzibar copal-tree (Trachylobium) present irregular corollas, with the peculiarity that the uppermost petal is at first enfolded by the side ones, and these in turn by the lower pair. A large majority of the family, represented by peas (Pisum), beans (Phaseolus), and the other examples referred to, have what is called a papil- ionaceous ? corolla. This consists of five petals: one com- paratively large called the standard, which is above the others and enfolds them in the bud; two side ones called the wings; and two lower ones grown together to form what is called the keel. A curious condition of the andraecium commonly found with the papilionaceous corolla is that there is one uppermost stamen free from the other nine which are more or less coalescent. Such an androecium is termed diadelphous.* Another peculiarity usually accompanying the papilionaceous corolla is the irregularity and coalescence of the sepals to form a calyx described as gamosepalous 4 and bilabiate,® that 'Mon’a-del’phous < Gr. monos, one; adelphos, a brother; meaning in one brotherhood; indicated by the small parenthesis. * Pa-pil’’i-on-a’ccous < L. papilio, a butterfly—from the resem- blance. This is expressed in the formula by P’’s!3). * Di'’a-del’phous < Gr. dis, two; FA). 4Gam"o-sep’al-ous < Gr. gamos, union; S). > Bi-la’bi-ate < L. bis, two; labium, lip; S*). THE LINDEN FAMILY 367 is to say, consisting of sepals more or less united, so as to form an upper and a lower lip. The most distinctive peculiarity of the family is its typical fruit, called a legume.: This consists of a single carpel which becomes dry and normally splits into two valves by dorsal and ventral sutures. Asin the mustard family we found that the radish has an indehiscent pod of two carpels which is essentially a silique in structure, so here in certain genera we find pods of one carpel, essentially legumes, but without the usual mode of dehiscence. Peanuts, for example, though indehiscent, are plainly like pea-pods in most important re- spects, and both may well be called legumes. A still stranger modification of legume is the fruit of Hematoxylon which dehisces into two valves but along lines midway between the ventral and the dorsal sutures, as indicated by Cj <>. The great majority of our wild or cultivated members of the pulse family may be recognized by their having mostly papilionaceous, or at least irregular corollas, and a single carpel which forms a legume, while in other respects these plants are similar to those of the rose family. 114. The rose order (Rosales) includes several families which agree for the most part with the rose and the pulse family in bearing botryose inflorescences of usually complete’ periqynous flowers, regular or irregular, having petals at least partly distinct, and pistils with a ventral or axile placenta. These features are indicated in the formula of Rosales on pages 410, 411. 115. The linden family (Tiliacee#.) Examples: jute (Figs. 218 I, II, page 232), and linden (Figs. 251, 252, page 264). See the formulas of Corchorus, Tilia, and Tiliacez on pages 410, 411. The bracts of lindens (Tilia) and the andrecium and fruit of the family present the chief peculiarities which call for present notice. The bracts of jute (Corchorus) present 1 Leg’ume < L. legumen, beans, etc., or that which may be gathered by hand without cutting < legere, gather. Its sign is Cj >. 368 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS no special peculiarities. In lindens, however, the lowermost bract of the flower-cluster is large, forming a sort of involucre, and adheres for a considerable distance to the peduncle. Jute flowers, which have the stamens in two whorls of five each, thus conforming to the numerical plan of the other floral organs, afford the simplest condition. In other species the stamens appear to be indefinite in number, but close examination would show them to be grouped into five clus- ters opposite the five petals. Each cluster is taken to repre- sent the branches of a single one of the inner whorl of stamens, in much the same way that a pair of long stamens in the mustard family represent, as we have seen (section 110), a single branched stamen. The fact that the stamen-groups are opposite the petals (hence regarded as being of the inner stamen whorl) is expressed by placing the sign || between P and FA. Stamens in five clusters are said to be pentadelphous.: The stamens of the linden are always pentadelphous, and sometimes each cluster includes a staminode to which the anther-bearing filaments are coalescent. Throughout the family two pollen-sacs are borne by each filament which, however, divides more or less at the tip into a short stalk for each sac. The fruit of jute is a capsule dehiscing by dorsal sutures into valves attached to the radial partitions. Such dehiscence is called loculiecdal.2 In lindens only one of the five carpels ripens, and commonly only one of the seeds which it contains. The pericarp becomes somewhat drupaceous so that the product of each flower resembles a small round almond. But a cluster of these nut-like fruitlets is formed by each in- florescence, and this cluster, borne on a common peduncle to which the bract still adheres, separates at maturity as a whole from the tree. The dry bract serves excellently as a 1 Pen’’-ta-del’phous < Gr. pente, five. FA o + 5. ? Loe’u-li-ei“dal << L. loculus, a compartment; cedere, cut, because it is as if each compartment were cut into, so that in eross-section each division has a form something like the sign {— which is used to distin- guish this (ype of capsule in the formula of Corchorus. THE MALLOW FAMILY 369 sail to carry the fruit-cluster before the wind over smooth ground or a crust of snow. The family comprises mostly woody plants having mucilag- inous juices; and often fragrant flowers with petals imbricate and distinct; stamens numerous, pentadelphous, and free; anthers with two pollen-sacs; and styles coalesced throughout. 116. The mallow family (Malvacez). Examples: cotton (Figs. 214-216, pages 225-227) and marshmallow (Fig. 158, page 166). See pages 410,411 for formulas of Gossypium, Althea, and Malvacee. Several new features are presented in this family. An involucel is commonly present close to the flower, recalling the epicalyx of strawberries, but here we have bractlets in place of stipules. The sestivation of the corolla is such that one edge of each petal overlaps its neighbor, while the other edge is in turn overlapped by the next in order. Afstivation of this type is termed convolute.| The andrcecium appears to consist of a number of stamens borne upon a long tube enclosing the styles. This tube shows at the top, more or less distinctly, five projections which give evidence that the andreecium consists really of but five stamens coalesced by their filaments to form the tube, and branched above into the numerous stalks bearing pollen-sacs. Curiously enough each branch bears only a single pollen-sac and is thus equiva- lent to but half of an ordinary anther. The expression FA o+5)] would read “stamens numerous, divided into five groups, monadelphous, and adhering to the petals.” As a result of this adhesion the petals, although distinct, fall off in connection with the stamen-tube (as the fruit ripens) much as if they were coalescent. The fruit of marshmallow (Althea) represents a type very common in the family. Although indehiscent, the basal part of the several carpels, as they ripen, separate into as many nutlets, each containing a single seed. The fruit thus returns to a condition very like that of a cluster of anemone 1Con’vo-lute < L. con, together; volvere, roll. P*‘‘ is the sign. 370 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS achenes. Or-thot’ro-pous < Gr. orthos, straight. Symbolized by a straight line over the numerical sign, 121. THE BIRCH FAMILY 373 leaves, and stamens distinct and alternate, and the ovary with but one cavity and one ovule. The formula of Polygonales is given on pages 412, 413. 122. The birch family (Betulacee). Examples: filbert (Fig. 23, page 36) and birch (Fig. 254, page 265). See pages 412-415 for formulas of Betula, Corylus, and Betula- cen. We meet in this family with the singular form of inflores- cence sometimes called ‘“‘pussies,”’ or catkins, and known botanically as aments.. An amentaceous inflorescence is typically an elongated, often dangling, cluster of imperfect flowers which are in the axils of scale-like bracts. It is a special form of spicate? inflorescence, spike? being the general term for a racemose cluster of sessile or nearly sessile flowers. If the internodes of a spike fail to elongate the flowers become crowded into a head or capitate * inflorescence. In the axil of each scale of a birch catkin we find three flowers (Fig. 254) closely crowded together and so forming the simplest sort of head. These heads of staminate flowers are borne along the sides of a slender hanging rachis, so that the whole compound cluster forms a typical ament. The pistillate heads occur on a stiffer rachis which commonly grows erect, and might therefore properly be called a spike although on account of its scale-like bracts botanists often speak of this inflorescence as a pistillate ament. In the pistillate inflores- cence of hazels (Corylus) the little heads (here two-flowered) are so few and crowded as to form a compound head of heads. In the hazels the staminate flowers are solitary in the axils of the scales, thus forming simple aments; while the pistillate flowers are grouped in heads of two, and each flower is sur- rounded by an involucel formed of its special bract and its 1Am/ent < L. amentum, a thong or shoestring. Ij. 2 Spi’cate, spike < L. spica, an ear of corn. I: 3 Cap’i-tate < L. capitatus, having a head < caput, head. I’. 4 All these facts are expressed in the formulas by using an inverted exclamation point as the symbol of an amentaceous inflorescence, an inverted colon for spicate, and two inverted periods for capitate clusters. That the bractlets are adherent to the bracts by their lower parts is shown by the small bracket, 3, 374 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS two coalescent and adherent bractlets. Plants with both staminate and pistillate inflorescences borne upon the same individual plant are termed monecious.? The united bracts and bractlets of birches (Betula) ripen into dry scales forming a cone-like cluster of fruits made up of little samaras. In hazels the involucre becomes much enlarged in fruit, and each surrounds a much hardened peri- carp which because of its hardness and indehiscence is called a nut.® The family comprises woody plants without oil reservoirs but with resinous warts or hairs on the younger parts; simple, stipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminate amentaceous, the pistillate in spikes or heads with coalescent bracts and bractlets, and the pistils of two carpels with axile placente. 123. The beech family (Fagacee). eon chest- nut (Figs. 24-26, pages 37, 38), oaks (Figs. 242, 243, 267, pages 257, 258, 277), and beech (Fig. 257, page 268). See pages 414, 415 for the formulas of Fagus, Castanea, Quercus, and Fagacez. The inflorescences of this family resemble those of the preceding family in being moncecious and in part amenta- ceous. It is in the bracts and the way they are borne that we find the most significant differences—differences which become more striking as the fruit matures. Indeed, bot- anists have here met with a morphological problem of more than ordinary difficulty in the preliminary question: What are the homologues of bracts which ripen with a beechnut, a chestnut-bur, or an acorn? In the staminate inflorescences of beech (I’agus) and chest- nut (Castanea) the bracts are obvious enough and are sufh- ciently like those of the birch family to require no special !Mo-nee’cious < Gr. monos, one; otkos, household. This is indi- cated by o-9. If the staminate inflorescence differs in form from the pistillate the nature of each is shown by placing the inflorescence signs in corresponding order, 7. e., beginning with the staminate. Thus lit would read “staminate inflorescence amentaccous, the pistillate spicate, both compounded of heads.’’ 2 In the formula this extra hardness of the pericarp is indicated by two inverted exclamation points. THE BEECH FAMILY 375 comment; while the staminate flowers of Quercus are ebrac- teate. The pistillate flowers of beech are two in a head (Fig. 257) which is enclosed in a little cup or cwpule + as it is called, bearing scales or spines on its outer surface. This cup eventually encloses completely the ripening nuts, and when mature splits into four partial valves to set them free. The cupule of chestnuts encloses three flowers, ripens into the spiny bur, and splits sometimes into four valves, and sometimes irregularly. Only one flower is in the scaly cupule of oaks (Quercus), and the single nut which constitutes the acorn is so little covered by the cupule as to make splitting of the cupule unnecessary. Evidently the projections of the beech cup, the spines of the chestnut-bur and scales of an acorn-saucer are homolo- gous, as is also the main part of the cupule of each. But where are the bracts? Do the four divisions of the ripened beech cup and chestnut-bur correspond to so many bracts which in the acorn-saucer remain coalesced? In that case the various outgrowths from the cupule would be regarded as mere projections like the spines on a leaf. This view is held by many botanists. Others maintain that the projections, spines, and scales are the free tips of bracts which have coal- esced by their bases to form the body of the cupule. On this view the cupule would be an involucre of many instead of but four bracts. A third view regards the main body of the cupule as stem, that is to say, as a cup-like development of the secondary peduncle, bearing numerous bracts. Thus regarded, the acorn scales, the beech-nut projections, and the branched spines of the chestnut-bur, are homologized with bracts which are entirely distinct and free from the concave inflorescence-stalk. This last theory seems to be the one most easily reconciled with the facts as they appear in other members of the family as well as in those we have studied.? 1Cu’pule < L. cupula, diminutive of cupa, cup. 2 This is the view adopted in our formulas. 7 does duty for the axial part of the ultimate inflorescences; jj ~ following shows that it becomes woody and cancave like a perigynous torus; while < 4 shows that it dehisces into four valves; or < that it is indehiscent; and B/ ~ that it bears numerous dry bracts. The other parts of the formulas should be readily understood from what has preceded. 376 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The family consists of woody plants without oil reservoirs or resinous excretions; but with simple, stipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminate mostly amentaceous, the pistillate more or less enclosed in a cupule, which bears dis- tinct, scaly, or spiny bracts; and the pistils of three or more carpels with axile placente. 124. The beech order (Fagales) comprises only the birch and the beech families. These agree in having monecious inflorescences with the staminate flowers mostly in aments, and the pistillate in spikes or heads; the flowers hypogynous or epigynous; the perianth leaves and stamens distinct and alternate; and the ovary with axile placenta, and more or less completely divided into two or more cavities, all bul one of which becomes obliterated in the fruit. See pages 414, £15 for the formula of Fagales. 125. The walnut family (Juglandacez). Examples: wal- nut (Fig. 27, page 39), butternut (Fig. 28, page 40), pecan (Fig. 29, page 40), hickory (Fig. 30, page 41), and black walnut (Fig. 246, page 260). Formulas of Juglans, Carya, and Juglandacee are given on pages 414, 415. In general appearance the inflorescences of the walnut family resemble those of the beech and the birch families, but there is a curious adherence between the bracts, bractlets, and perianth leaves, unlike anything we have seen. Those which belong to each flower are all more or less united to form what at first sight might be mistaken for perianth alone. The fruit is mostly a drupaceous nut recalling the almond, but with the tough fleshy part dehiscing into four valves and differing also in having the epigynous torus as a component part. The walnut family may be distinguished as consisting of trees with scented, pinnately compound, exstipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminale amentaceous, the pis- tillate in heads; each pistil of tivo carpels; and the fruit a de- hiscent drupe with a nut-like stone. 126. The walnut order (Juglandales), contains only the THE CROWFOOT SERIES 377 family from which it derives its name. It is distinguished from the other orders with monecious inflorescences, staminate aments and prstillate heads, by having the perianth leaves or the epigynous torus adherent to the bractlets and bract of each, and the ovary with but one cavity and one ovule. The formula of Juglandales is given on pages 414, 415. 127. The willow family (Salicacez). Examples: willow (Figs. 228 I, II, pages 243, 244) and poplar (Fig. 253, page 264). Formulas of Populus, Salix, and Salicacew are given on pages 414, 415. Much simpler flowers are here shown than any previously mentioned, although scarcely any new features are pre- sented. The torus while cup-like in the poplars, is represented in the willows by one or two glandular projections which secrete nectar. It is plain that ‘a cup divided, or failing to develope, at one or two places would be reduced to such flat projections. A peculiarity of the fruit of both genera is that its two carpels dehisce along their dorsal sutures exposing the small hairy seeds to the wind. This family which contains only the two genera mentioned, is composed of woody plants without oil reservoirs, but some- times with aromatic resinous secretions; the leaves simple and stipulate; the inflorescences amentaceous and diecious; the pistil of two carpels with parietal placente; and the fruit a capsule with numerous tufted seeds. 128. The willow order (Salicales) contains only the above family. Diecious aments of flowers without perianth but with numerous ovules, perigynous (?) torus, and free bracts, distin- guish this from the other orders. The formula of Salicales is given on pages 416, 417. 129. The crowfoot series (Archichlamydeze). A general view of all the orders which we have thus far studied shows them to agree (with but rare exceptions) in having no coales- cence among the petals. All the leaf-parts of any flower are at first similarly distinct as they arise in the bud. Some- 378 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS times petals do not appear at all, but when they do it is as distinct projections from the torus, comparable to the first rudiments of foliage leaves as they form near the tip of a developing shoot. The same is true of sepals, stamens, and carpels, as illustrated in Figs. 298, 299 I. If, however, a gam- osepalous calyx, a monadelphous andrcecium, or a compound pistil is to be produced, it happens sooner or later that those Fig. 298.—Flower of Rose (Rosa alpina, Rose Family, Rosacew) in early stages, cut vertically and enlarged. A, the sepals (k) are well de- veloped, but the petals (c) and the stamens (a) are just appearing as minute knobs. 8B, sepals, petals, and stamens further advanced; and the pistils (g) just appearing as knobs on the dome of the stem-tip. C, later stage. JD, still later stage in which the parts are still developing in the bud. (Payer.) parts of the ring which connect the original projections begin to grow and the distinct parts are carried up on the rim or the tip of a tube or united mass of organs. Flowers which as they develop retain the original distinet- ness of their petals, or which develop none at all, are termed archichlamydeous.' Such flowers, we have seen, characterize the crowfoot series which includes all the orders we have studied and a number of others resembling them in the pe- culiarity noted. 130. The heath family (Ericacez). Examples: wintergreen _ | Ar’ chi-chla-myd’e-ous < Gr. arehi, first; ehlamys, mantle; imply- ing that the corolla, likened to a mantle, retains its original condition. VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 379 (Fig. 147, page 148), mountain laurel (Fig. 189, page 202), and sheep laurel (Fig. 190, page 202). Formulas of Gaultheria, Kalmia, and Ericacee are given on pages 416, 417. A corolla with the petals coalesced, as in the examples here given, is termed gamopetalous,! a corolla with distinct petals being choripetalous.? When anthers open by pores the dehiscence is said to be poricidal as in the case of capsules which open similarly. It will be noticed that the capsule of mountain laurel (Kalmia) dehisces by splitting through the partitions. Such dehiscence is distinguished as septicidal.* The fruit of wintergreen (Gaultheria) is peculiar in having a loculicidal capsule enveloped in a fleshy enlargement of the calyx and torus. The typical members of the family are woody plants, often aromatic; having simple, eastipulate leaves; and perfect, gamo- petalous flowers, with poricidal stamens, and a compound pistil, superior or inferior ovary and axile placente; the fruit being capsular, or berry-like. 131. The heath order (Ericales) includes several families associated with the above through having mostly regular and perfect, usually gamopetalous flowers, four to ten stamens nearly or quite free, the anthers mostly poricidal, and the ovary compound, with axile placente. The formula for Ericales is given on pages 416, 417. 132. The morning-glory family (Convolvulacez) is well exemplified by the sweet potato (Figs. 56, 57, pages 58, 59). Formulas of Ipomoea and Convolvulacez are given on pages 416, 417. The new features to be noted here are the exstivation of 1 Gam’o-pet’al-ous < Gr. gamos, union; petalon, flower-leaf. P). 2 Cho’ri-pet’al-ous < Gr. choris, separate. } 3 Sep’ti-ci’dal < L. septum, partition; cedire, cut. Indicated by the sign /. 380 Fia. - ing the corolla-tube (¢c) with VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 299, I—Flower of Oxeye (Heliopsis scabra, Sunflower Family, Composite). Gr. pappos, grandfather, applied to the thistledown in allusion to white hair. STCj. 2 Met’-a-chla-myd"’-e-ous < Gr. meta, beyond. 3 Di’’cot-y-led’on-ous < Gr. dis, two; kotyledon, sced-leaf. THE GRASS FAMILY 387 are called exogenous + or outside-growing, because new wood when formed is added on the outside of an older ring. 143. The grass family (Graminz). Examples: oat (Fig. 1- 4, pages 12-14), rice (Figs. 5, 6, pages 16, 17), rye (Fig. 7, page 18), wheat (Figs. 8, 9, pages 19, 20), barleys (Figs. 10-12, pages 21, 22), maize (Figs. 13-15, pages 238, 24), sugar-cane (Fig. 114, page 106), broom-corn (Fig. 222, page 236), and bamboo (Fig. 224, page 239). Formulas of Zea, Saccharinum, Andropogon, Oryza, .Avena, Secale, Triticum, Hordeum, Bambusa, and Gramineze are shown on pages 420-423. The grasses introduce us to a new sub-class, characterized partly, as we shall see, by having the leaf-veins running in a regular, more or less parallel system. Leaves with such a framework are said to be parallel-veined. Grass leaves always have the veins running lengthwise from base to tip. Other noteworthy features of grass leaves are that the base is wrapped about the stem so as to form a sheath the edges of which overlap as shown in Fig. 13; and the blades extend from only two sides of the stem, thus coming into two vertical ranks. Most grass stems are round and hollow like straws. Rarely, as in the stalk of maize, there is a solid cylinder of pith, through which run scattered bundles of firmer, more or less woody material, not forming true rings, but often so crowded toward the surface as to constitute a somewhat bark-like zone. From an erroneous idea that these scattered bundles originated near the center of the stem and were forced out- ward by new growth, all stems with scattered bundles were early described as ‘“‘inside-growing”’ or endogenous >—a term still used conveniently, however, by way of contrast for stems of seed-plants of the non-exogenous type. The bracts and bractlets of grasses in general are com- paratively thin and stiff, like the husks or chaff of grain, and have received the special name of glumes.* 1 Ex-og’en-ous < Gr. ezo, outside; genes, producing. 2 En-dog’en-ous < Gr. endos, within. 3Glume < L. gluma, husk of corn. In our formulas the glumaceous character is denoted by the inverted exclamation mark as in Bj. 388 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The grain-like fruit of typical grasses resembles an achene in being the product of a simple pistil with one ovule and in being dry and indehiscent. It differs mainly in having the seed-coat adherent to the pericarp. A fruit of this kind is distinguished as a caryopsis. As shown in Fig. 9 the embryo is placed at one side of the albumen. On the side toward the seed-food is a some- what shield-shaped organ, termed the scutellum,? through which the germ absorbs its nutriment when sprouting. Mor- phologically the scutellum is regarded by most botanists as the cotyledon of the embryo, enlarged and otherwise modified for its peculiar function. Unlike the embryo of dicotyledon- ous plants, the embryo of a grass, as of all the sub-class of seed-plants now to be studied, has but one cotyledon and is hence described as monocotyledonous.* Grasses may be easily recognized as mostly herbs with hollow, cylindrical stems; parallel-veined, two-ranked sheathing leaves; flowers enclosed by glumaceous bracts; and fruit a caryop- sls. 144. The grass order (Graminales or Glumiflore) com- prises grass-like plants with ghumaceous bracts, a one-celled superior ovary, and a solitary ovule. The formula of Graminales is given on pages 422, 423. 145. The palm family (Palmacez). Examples: coconut (Figs. 34-36, pages 46, 47), date (Figs. 108, 109, pages 100, 101), sago palms (Figs. 116 I-III, pages 109, 110), rat- tans (Iigs. 223 I, II, pages 237, 238), and vegetable ivory (Figs. 266 I, II, pages 275, 276). The formulas of Phanix, Cocos, Calamus, Metroxylon, Phytele- phas, and Palmacex on pages 422, 423. Although in our examples the leaves are all pinnate and compound, many members of the family have simple palmate leaves, as for instance those from which the familiar palm- leaf fans are made. 'Car’’y-op'sis < Gr. karyon, nut; opsis, resemblance. Its mor- phology is indicated in a formula by [CH] < G/N. 2 Seu-tel’lum < L. a little shield. 3 Mo’’no-cot/’y-led’on-ous < Gr. monos, one. THE ARUM ORDER 389 The flowers of palms are borne on a fleshy rachis which is more or less branched and subtended by one or more large, thick bracts. Such a fleshy spike whether simple or branched is called a spadiz,' and the large bract subtending it a spathe.? Palms may be distinguished as woody plants, usually with columnar trunks; large, plume-like or fan-shaped leaves; flowers on a mostly branched spadix formed within a spathe. 146. The palm order (Palmales or Principes) includes only the family of palms, which from their majestic appearance and high importance were well called by Linnzeus the Princes of the Vegetable Kingdom. From other orders the woody trunks, large and often compound leaves, mostly branched spadiz, conspicuous spathe, and the superior ovary with one or more cells, and one or more ovules, will generally afford sufficient marks of distinction. See formula of Palmales on pages 422, 423,. 147. The arum family (Aracez) is exemplified by Acorus (Fig. 167, page 174.) See formulas of Acorus and Aracee on pages 422, 423. Although the members of this large family differ very much in general appearance and in many details of structure, our common sweet flag represents quite well their essential fea- tures. Asin the palms, there is a spadix, although it is always simple; and there is a spathe which, unlike that of the sweet flag, is generally highly colored. In our example, moreover, the spadix, while appearing as if lateral, is in reality terminal, having been pushed to one side by the peculiar elongated spathe which appears to continue the stem. The family may be defined as consisting of mostly perennial herbs, sometimes aromatic, often wl-smelling or acrid; with leaves of varied form, often netted-veined; and flowers in a sim- ple spadix, subtended by a more or less petaloid spathe. 148. The arum order (Arales or Spathiflore) comprises 18pa’dix < Gr-spadiz, a palm-branch. 2Spathe < Gr. spathe, a broad flat blade or spatula. The exclama- tion marks used in the formulas after I and B indicate, as usual, the fleshy character, and the oblique line after B, its involucral nature. 390 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS but one other family besides the above. Both are made up of herbs with leaves of varied fori, sometimes rudimentary or absent; regular flowers in an unbranched spadix, with one or more spathes; and the superior ovary having one or more cells and one or more ovules. See formula of Arales on pages 422, 428. 149. The rush family (Juncacee) is typified by the com- monrush. (Fig. 221, page 234.) See formulas of Juncus and Juncacee on pages 422, 423. At first sight the rushes appear somewhat similar to grasses, and indeed certain botanists have regarded them as belonging to the same order. The resemblance comes chiefly from the grass-like leaves of many species and the glumaceous charac- ter of the perianth.t| The family may be defined as herbs with regular flowers having a glumaceous perianth, either six or three stamens, and a superior, compound ovary. 150. The lily family (Liliacee). Examples: onion (Figs. 60, 61, pages 63, 64), asparagus (Fig. 62, pages 64, 65), Indian poke (Fig. 186, page 199), and lily-of-the-valley (Fig. 193, page 204). Formulas of Allium, Asparagus, Convallaria, Veratrum, and Liliaceze are given on pages 424, 424. One of the largest and most important, the lily family is generally easy of recognition as being composed mostly of herbs with regular flowers having a petaloid perianth, six stamens and @ superior, compound ovary. 161. The iris family (Iridacez) is represented by saffron (Fig. 168 II, page 176). See formulas of Crocus and Tridacexw on pages 424, 425. The Iridaceze are herbs having flowers like those of the lily family but with only three stamens, and an inferior ovary. 152. The lily order (Liliales or Liliiflore) comprises several families which are like the lily family in being mosily herbs with leaves of varied form; inflorescence never spadiceous ' Indicated in the formulas by the inverted exclamation mark. THE CASE-SEED CLASS 391 though sometimes spathaceous; flowers mostly regular; the ovary compound, superior or inferior; and seeds of moderate number and mostly medium size. See formula of Liliales on pages 424, 425. 153. The orchid family (Orchidacez). Examples: vanilla (Fig. 1481, page 149) and lady’s-slippers (Figs. 212, 213, page 220). See formulas of Cypripedium, Vanilla, and Orchidacee on pages 424, 425, Although in the flowers of this family we can recognize the fundamental type of structure exhibited by the lily-like families, it is here modified by many curious and elaborate complications. .An orchid might be described as a lily with irregular perianth, one or two stamens inserted upon the style, the other four or five being suppressed or represented by staminodes, and with an inferior ovary so twisted as to bring the flower upside down. A flower thus turned is said to be resupinate.. However obscure the morphology of special parts may sometimes appear, orchids may usually be recognized as perennial herbs, with irregular, resupinate, epigynous flowers, having a petalord perianth, one or two stamens adhering to the style, and a capsular fruit with exalbuminous seeds. 154. The orchid order (Orchidales or Microspermz) con- tains but one other family. This agrees with the orchids in comprising herbs similar to the epigynous families of the lily order but forming innumerable seeds of exceedingly small size. See the formula of Orchidales on pages 424, 425. 155. The monocotyl subclass (Monocotyledones) is made up of seed-plants having a monocotyledonous embryo, en- dogenous stem, and mostly parallel-veined leaves. Together with the dicotyl subclass they constitute 156. The case-seed class (Angiosperme) which includes all the flowering plants forming their seeds in a case or ovary 1 Re-su’pi-nate < L. re, back; supinare, bend. The twist is indi- cated in a formula by ® placed after T. 392 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS consisting of one or more carpels—or in other words—all that have an angiospermous ' gynoecium. Nearly all seed-plants belong to this class. 157. The pine family (Pinacez). Examples: juniper (Fig. 154, page 158), pine (Fig. 258, page 269), larch (Fig. 259, page 271), spruce (Fig. 260, page 272), red cedar (Fig. 261, page 273), redwood (Fig. 262, page 273), and hemlock (Fig. 263, page 273). See formulas of Pinus, Larix, Picea, Tsuga, Sequoia, Juniperus, and Pinacex on pages 424-427. A considerable variety of opinion obtains among botanists regarding the morphology of the floral parts of the pine family. According to one view the catkin-like clusters, or at least the seed-producing ones, are aments of very simple flowers; while according to the other view what appears to be a catkin or spike is a cluster of stamens or of carpels, and thus represents a many-stamened or many-carpelled flower. Without discussing the relative merits of these rival inter- pretations, we may provisionally adopt the latter as being the simpler view and as best serving our present purpose.? The carpels differ from those of the case-seed class (Angio- spermie) in being flattened structures; hence the ovules are exposed, or at least are not enclosed in an ovary. The gyne- cium is therefore called “naked-seeded”’ or gymnospermous.3 In fruit the gyneecium and elongated torus form a cone with more or less woody scales and axis; or, as in the junipers (Juniperus), these parts may become fleshy and consolidated into a berry-like fruit. The great majority of the pine family are easily recognized as more or less resinous, mostly evergreen trees, producing cones. 158. The yew family (Taxacez) is exemplified by the yew (Fig. 204, page 213). See formulas of Taxus and Taxacew on pages 426, 427. Simplification of floral parts here reaches an extreme. In ! An’ gi-o-sperm’ous < Gr. aggion, a vessel; sperma, seed. ° In the formulas Tj indicates that the torus is here regarded as anal- ogous to an ament rachis. * Gym"no-sperm’ous < Gr. gymnos, naked; sperma, seed. THE SEED-PLANT DIVISION 393 the yew (Taxus) not only is the perianth lacking and the andreecium reduced to a few stamens, but the gyncecium is only a solitary ovule borne directly upon the torus and with- out a carpel. This ovule ripens usually into a hard seed which is surrounded by a fleshy envelope formed by the upgrowth of a ring which at first encircles the base. Such an accessory seed-covering growing from below is called an aril.t. In other members of the family the staminate flowers are more cone-like, and there are a few with much reduced carpels each bearing a single ovule which may ripen into a drupaceous seed. The family consists of mostly evergreen, woody plants, with comparatively little resin or none at all; having cones much reduced, or else the ovules solitary and without carpels; and the seed arillate or drupaceous. 159. The pine order (Coniferales or Conifer) comprises only the two families given above. They are distinguished as woody plants, with branched stem; unbranched, usually narrow, leaves; and imperfect flowers which have no perianth, but are often catkin-like, and commonly produce cones. See formula of Coniferales on pages 426, 427. 160. The naked-seed class (Gymnosperme), embraces only a few orders besides the pine order, with only one or two families in each. They all agree in being seed-plants with gymnospermous gyncecium, and are for the most part destitute of perianth. 161. The seed-plant division (Spermatophyta) is coexten- sive with that branch of the Vegetable Kingdom commonly known as Phanerogamia, phenogams, or flowering plants, because characterized by the production of flowers contain- ing at least either pollen-sacs or ovules. Since the produc- tion of seed is the function of these parts, and since no other plants produce true seeds containing an embryo, it is equally appropriate to speak of them as seed-plants, seedworts, or spermatophytes. The system of classification (although not always the sequence of groups) adopted in the foregoing pages is sub- tAril<. L. arillus, a dried grape (for no obvious reason). 394 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS stantially that of Engler and Prantl whose great work on the natural families of plants is now most generally followed, at least, with regard to phenogams. In this classification there are recognized among seed-plants about fifty orders and two hundred and eighty families. The eighteen orders, thirty-two families, and about a hundred genera of seed-plants included in this chapter are represented by formulas on pages 404-427 in order that the student may readily compare the more important structural characters of one group with those of another, and so gain a better grasp of the abstract ideas underlying a natural classification. Taken in connection with the accounts of the various groups given in the sections referred to by number before each formula, and with reference to the figures indicated in each section, the formulas will afford a most profitable means of reviewing the many details already studied, and will re- veal some of their wider relations. 162. The vegetable kingdom (Vegetabilia) which includes all plants is regarded most conveniently as consisting of four main divisions assumed to be equal in rank.! The highest division, that of seedworts or spermatophytes, includes most of the forms we have been studying. These agree not only in producing seeds but also in having true roots, stems, and mostly green leaves, all traversed by more or less woody strands, known as fibrovascular bundles, which form a framework or skeleton, and conduct nutrient juices to every part. True roots, stems, and green leaves, all provided with fibrovascular bundles, occur also in such plants as the male- fern (Aspidium, page 179) and the club-moss (Lycopodium, page 174); but these plants propagate by spores developed in minute spore-cases, and never produce seeds. Plants thus characterized form the pteridophyte or fernwort division. (Pteridophyta). Next to these come such plants as peat moss (Sphagnum, page 242) which propagate by spores similar to those of fern- worts but contained in more or less urn-like cases commonly much larger than fernwort spore-cases, and usually borne on This view differs somewhat from that of Engler and Prantl, but best suits our purpose as being the one most widely adopted at the present day. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM 395 conspicuous stalks; but these plants have no true roots, stems, or leaves with fibrovascular bundles, although often possessing very simply constructed parts resembling small roots, stems, and leaves. Humble green plants of this descrip- tion make up the bryophyte or mosswort division (Bryo- phyta). Finally come such comparatively simple forms as the so- called Iceland moss (Cetraria, page 169), the field mushroom (Agaricus, page 113), and the carrageen (Chondrus, page 112) which, although commonly propagating by spores that are sometimes in cases, have the cases either stalkless or other- wise plainly different from those of mossworts. True roots, stems, leaves, and fibrovascular bundles are never present, although the plant-body may be so lobed as to resemble somewhat that of higher plants. Hence these lowly organized plants form what is known as the thallophyte or lobewort division (Thallophyta). Our three examples of the lobewort division each represent one of its three subdivisions. These may usually be dis- tinguished by their different modes of life. The Iceland moss is an air-plant merely resting upon barren soil without having any means of drawing much nutriment from it, and is con- sequently dependent upon what it can get from the air. This mode of life is made possible by the somewhat spongy nature of the plant-body in which are embedded minute containers of chlorophyll that may become apparent upon wetting. Plants like this so-called “moss” which thrive in barren places such as the surface of rocks, bark, dead wood, and sandy soil are of the lichen subdivision (Lichenes). The field mushroom differs from all lichens in being entirely destitute of chlorophyll because it feeds directly upon animal or vege- table manure in the soil. Lobeworts which can thus dispense with chlorophyll by feeding upon animals or plants or their decaying remains are of the mushroom or: fungus subdivision (Fungi). Aquatic lobeworts, whether of fresh or salt water, which like carrageen contain chlorophyll (sometimes more or less obscured by red, brown, or blue coloring matters) form the seaweed or alga subdivision (Alge). The following synopses show in tabular view the divisions 1 q O VARIOUS PLANT 396 *‘(VLAHAOLVNUGdG) SLUOMGAAY ‘SENVIG DNINAMOTY ‘SWVDONGHY ‘NOISIAI(] ALAHAOLVIWaady :[[Aqd -O1OTYO OYRIAL JO PIM {spaos Sutronposid suws1o0 Y}IAr Jsvof 4B LO ‘suaMoy ond} WIAA *(VLAHA -OdIUALG) SLUIOMNUAT ‘SHVDOLEAUD UVIAOSV A ‘NOISIAIG ALAHAOATUALY :[[Ayd -OLOTYD YAK SATA {S[IXB TOT} UL IO SoAveT oY} UOdN oUtOg sosvo a}NUTIUT LO [PLUS ut poonpoaid sorods Aq Agerqyo Surjesvdoid yng ‘spoos 10 StoMOY oONI} LOY }lO FNOUITAL ‘(VIAHdOAUG) SLYOMSSOT ‘NOISIAI(] ALAHAOAUG !Y[CIS Jopuoys v uodn oulog AyPENsn st pur ‘sys Aq to pry v Aq suodo [orp osvo oYT[-WaAN [PRUs v UL ATSour svods Supnpord puv ‘TAydoropyo TILA, ‘(SUNAHOVT) NOISTAIGGOAG NAHOVT :joM Woy | ydooxa yuomrdde you fAqdosoyyo !yueuTaynU Joy ae oy} uodn Aporys Surpusdep ynq ‘oly at} pus [los uodIeg Yreq ‘syoor OF payor} ye SULATT | “(IDNO J) NOISTATAGOG BUABep Tay} UO 10 sjuR[d JO speutuv uo Sutary } :(VLAHdOTIVH],) SLUOM -a0'T ‘NOISIAIQ ALAHAOT (HDTV) -IVAL ‘eS Jopusjs v uo NOISIAIGGOG GaaMVvag :jueuIsId ped IO ‘UMOIG osvd oYl-Wan [Tews v UL JOU ‘antq Aq poYsvur ssoT 10 alow oq AvUT YOTyA sorods otf} TAYdoroytpo YAN JL [Aqdosopyo Bururezuoo {1ayVA FCS IO YSodJ ULBULATT | SP[AYdoro;Yo yNoy}LEa IO YITAL WOGDNIY ATAVLEDAA AHL dO SISdONAQ TYUANGAL) 2 ‘SINVIG UVTOQOS¥ A PYLOMOUICIF IvPNoseaoiqy wv puv ‘soAve, puB ‘suIo4s ‘s}ooI ond} UUM ISNVDOLIAUD UVIAT -TAD :SIXv oYl[-UWleys v Suoype popMordo sotutjeuIos suotsuvd -Xo IYI][-JCo] JO Soqoy, FILM 10 {S}00d SUI[QUIOSAISSo] IO a10UL SYJMOISINOG YA Uso nq ‘yIOMOTIVIF IvpMOsvAoCIqY v Buryoey puv ‘saavo[ JO ‘ulo}s ‘sj001 ond} NOY APod-jUL[g Apoq-juv[q 397 ai i ROUP 1 X VARIOUS PLANT G (Maovp2yrtQ) “y Pryr4O (waonL9QUsurz) “wy 4aburs) (M20vsn Fy) ‘ye DubuDg “LE potas eee eg J AO T “VF LAV[NSa1It “B ) : (S9TVPIYIIO) *O PIGoIO :snourwunq]exa “ps S9]VUINIE;IIS) ‘C BuBUEg SE :ployeyod ‘ssa] 10 G “By (waovpw]) “WY Sly FT By) + (SOTBILTT) ruownqs — | (warvpyjhsvwy) “Yy sypiivwyp “Et oe ¢ eae) a isnouAside "yp ‘Oo ANT Auioy JO (wa0v027T) “a ALT “ZT “rg ‘ey Spropeged ‘ds iployeyod Aysop (maov0uUN) “Ye YSNY “TT “-"g10 g “By tsnovovunys ‘ds f :snouAZodAy “gy } you ‘9 10 E “By YILA “ps | +: propeyed ‘ur ‘ds fsnoovvueiquieul “q (DIIdUIIMWO,)D) “yf Mensapidgy “OL *:paytiedos soes-uayjod tssa] 10 g "vy | °°: (SeTeplwAy) “OQ SsBIg) pasa isnosotpeds you (wo0v29WoLgG) “y ajddvawd ‘6 “oss *:payuindes you sovs-uayjod +9 ‘vy | -Moyjax :uouNG]e Ayvew YA ‘ps ‘asoUlooTI “UL “T (MavdLy) “ wnNIP “Ss “ i(sayery) QO WNIV:9-[ “Vy :shosvovqioy as | sores stg ro Aysapg ‘Arp ‘ds (w220UpDq) “Yo upDd “2 i (SayemMyed) "O Weg ‘9 ‘WB !Apoom “4s | ‘snooovyyeds *q ‘snosoipeds “Tt (waov19d iJ) “yp eOpag °9 “SUPVOYS Pasofo YFLM "| !1vpNSuLIy = ‘pros “ys | °°: (SaTBUTUTVID) ‘OC ssBID ‘9 ‘UI ‘ds (Mawwosy) “WY ssviy °C rsqpvoys yqyds YQLM ‘[ /poueyzeg 10 punos ‘Mopjoy “w “ys f ‘snovovuUIN]s *q ‘aye[noTued JO 97eoIds “wT (meourg) “yf autg “pocii Sete Gah Mods ROME Sede “-sganoq 41o souod ul ‘AUOG JO Ap !poe]vevUOo “ps :s9U0d BULUTIOY ‘99 "OD pO :(SaTBIajIUO0D) *Q auld (Maovrvy) “Yq nat °*S “-rpue Adjnd yy 10 snosoednip ‘pasodxo “ps ‘auou JO Maj ‘ad | 97878009 “UO ‘a[duts ‘| | poyouraq “48 (Masaabsurey) Oya) NZ PE see ste nies iesaee iret at eats ata :(SaTBOZAUID) *O OBYUID :poasou-uvy ‘o]duris "| /paqyouraq “4s (waovpvohi,)) *"Y PDIADQ “1 2 (soTBpeohD) ‘CE pesky :punoduoy Ajayvuuld ‘Ww *| ‘paqouviqun ‘ur 4s (HACAWVIHOVEATY ) SLOOIG UAHOIL ) ‘Salugdg UTMOTATIAG 362 “Xo ‘poywun +— -d| (@TALOOIC) SLOOIC ‘SSVIOGAg TALOOICL (#WUAdSOIONY) (@ Ad ANVTHOIBOUYV) SLOOIC :% SUOPa]A4Oo ¢8,¢ 10 8, fF Ul “WE syed “f SWUAdSOIONY YVAMO'T ‘SAIUAG LOOAMOUD ‘yoUTSIp IO ‘Q ‘d SLOOONOJY | SSVIOGAG TALOOONOJY : | Opa] A}Oo ‘8,¢ Ul “UF sued “Y : poulea-ja][eied “UL “| ‘snoueZopuea ‘wi “4s | (@ TALOOONOJY) (#NWUAMSONNWAD) SNUAMSONNAY ‘SSVID dagas-dayvN /pouloaA-Jou “UT *] ‘snouasOxe "WI “4s8 [| ‘SSVID Gaas-asv—) :AO Pasojo B ul pouadi ‘ps “++! 00-% suope]A}Oo !*AO paso[d B UI pousdl jou "ps “ATTIC SIOPAO “O !poyroga-*qaa ‘oytsoddo ‘ddo ‘azvus8q]8 “-q]B $07 ‘— isso] 1¢ 910UT ‘= {a1OUI 10 ‘4+ ‘:AUBUI IO [RIoAVS ‘M + ATRyTOS *T :oUOU “Q + (A[tuIBy JO equINU Aq PaMoOT]OJ) UT sotUTJaUIOS ydeo -xo ‘xo !A]Jsour ‘Ur ‘spaes “ps $yINay ‘Ay :SN107 ‘*} SAIVAO ‘AO Sso[NAO GFLAL sjodivo ‘90 ‘s1ayyUT “B ‘sapouIMITyS ‘y !s1oyJUT GTA s}UOUT -BI Jo ‘suoweys “ey /yzUeLed ‘ds ‘sejod ‘d sjedes “s ‘[e1og JO sIomog “BY ssyovig “q :voUoDsoIOBUl “1 :saAvo] “| /Ue4s "48 :sUOTyVIADIQqY BLUOMGAAG AO SAITINVY AAYGNOW ANC AO SIBdONIG SLOOONOJY :SWUTdISONWAY) :BLYUOMAAIS Q - Oo Ee Oo = VARIOUS PLA 398 (maovpiivddv,)) *“y 49dv) (Dlefions,)) “Ye PLOISN FL (waovs0avd vq) ‘yf fiddog (MagviNvT) “Ye Panny (wmaovoysTiyy) “yp Gawyn ny (Pa DYyJUDIIPDD) “yf Qnays-hssaqno.gy (waovoubvyy) “ye vyoubvpy (maovUsad sua Fy) “ye paasuoe Py (maonpri9aqiag) “Yq hasaquvg (DIIDjNOURUDY) “wy poofmods,) (woovmyduefi N) “yp APY-49IV Af (waonpfiydohsvy) “Y Yui (MIIDIDIN}LOT) “wy AUVISINT (MaIvIIvIIINYT) “Y Psamnayod (DIIDJUVLDULP) “yf Ysuv.vU (waovipodouay,)) ‘Y Joofasooy (waodu fj0d) ‘gq pDaynyong (MarvYyJUDLOT) “YW 90}22I81V (M09D0204,)) “A AON (Daov.L0 JI.) “A Aa«sgqurygy (mo0DW7])) “A Vag (waIvbD) “wf YI29T (M29D)NPI) “A YLT (waonpuvjon ys’) “y MUIDAL (maov1uh TY) “qf fissoqhvg (Wa0092}D8') “A M0772 AL (wavpi9diq) ‘yi 4addag “FP “St :paT[ao-T “Ao qasu9] jenbo qnoqe JO ‘w-F “BJ i (saTe | rye *pal]9~% ra ips -Jaavded) ‘AO {Suo] F pue yogs Z “UI “Vy J ssnouTMINa][exo “ps | ‘oC Addog Saat year es 1G ‘UW § ‘WeuNG]e Aylo yy “ps J !poyun ‘+ % ‘90 :9 d ‘payran ‘8 fSOATBA YAN *B {@ Jo sj1oyaM pio ¢ UT ‘vy Pics ; snoyd | =jpeuoun "ey fsnovwaip ‘Bg | :sjop 2 (SaTe] speaorfoy “4 } “qourystp -]10 -nounu oyeDuoyo “yf ‘Vy Sjoojiod “gf [e. ee | -eY) O pic me te ty AD BOATCA | Waeinxar tf { }00J qnoyytA “e todnip =e ‘ay | ssjyop | ‘+d -AsoI : PA YUAL UL “e !Aqaq v ‘ay } 110 !qouny | 3 tee mula * ISOA]BA yno -sIp ‘8 ee a yg xe qnogyis *e eae w 10 AIp ‘Ij hee J: wo “Ul Uy | -soa109 hy [ot sera ‘snous a A atl Hy] pedeys-ppoigs suneog yytas fee ayenbe | ‘%-][ ‘a0 } -Bod :g0UQSIp ‘8 paw ‘O MOTRBIT * -ul Sutgedo ‘Z sovs-dojjod {oo ‘ur ‘By J sdnois G10 [07 pus} WLM souLA Apooas :Aqroq vay (soyeummeyqy) ISOUTA ‘Oo Woy Hong Jo ‘sqnays ‘soad} {up 10 snodsoednap “a UIpudose "UI :pod Aroq vo] ‘| srepnsout Yy (say -epuldes) ‘Oo Ip | Aiiaq-deog tdn opsd -vdnap: ‘Ay SU9odTIOAd “tH | -OLOTUL | oo Obs : -10p oudey ‘ay tsnonploep ‘| } tavpnsor ‘pg Sulsuvy UL yg ttt ; Beergetan 1g ‘90 i (soye : 0 a oOqny YP TTA ur -lues99) “9g : a “| | spuvy# ursor ‘oO WNIT “Cg “spun ihe) wy M poyOp ‘| } JO [IO [PEM -BIID “eS oltjuoe ‘ayd fda op Ad -us “| : posupuoddy ‘d :xpoom gol} -OLOTUL rortqua ‘oyduais *] TARO ‘yeaqUOA 2978] 010}- ey AIO} aydes rqmo rsnooo -o1008 10 paqo] Ajoyeuyed * -eqaoy NOY PTA { { {4 “Suny ‘wu “oss rguIMHo] ‘ay Ssnoyd -poprip ‘OT ‘ey ‘snoosnuoyided a ‘GR ees Roee sawn rsholwaip -Hop B YOU “aj {JOUTYSTP ‘oo “VF SaepNFo1 “Be } 10 yooysod “Gg ig][Bq UL “poor “ay oyos99 “ype “] 8001} {snoloauoul “ff ‘Xpooa ap 42 ail 1 yurjd = Apoos Gpat sess pddo *] qqta 1% syuuld spoom Jo ‘y]t "| Wp Squat “s mRyy Joma ‘00 “CF ee ae Be “crsqaoy (S@TBTOTA) *O “*rsnodosjoqyio “a top “uy sanpNnsoqt “Y {SYLOIIS JO SJOP-[TO GLA \ g ISpuLps-[lo yoy WA “yyw UE T /'Q JO A;}Q] Tounq|s JOTOTA = [BJotl UsdI5IVA9 “ML “| -wd ‘o ‘ul ‘9 tsnouAdzodaAq ‘§ a) “ddo ‘uw UAMOT BLOOTC panurjuos 401 ROUPS 1 I VARIOUS PLANT G (mprsodwo)) "yo sanoyfung “OOT (Mao0]nuvdwn)) “yf 4ano0if19g 66 (Waovp1ganon,)) “Ye pinoy (maovyofiudd)) “wy apyonsfhauo yy (waov1gny) ‘aA Lappvy (Maodurbdju)T) “wy UuaDjUDp_g (MaonjnQuusT) “YW jLons9ppo)_g (moopuoubig) “yo pruoubrg (MaovrsvjNydosIG) “yp JONO WT (Masdunjoy) “yi apoys youn (vpV1QvVT) “ye Nay (Ma rdUIqsa 4) “ye DUIQLI 4 (waonuiboiog) *y abviog (MaID]NApOAUO,)) “WY fi40)0-Bur ULO FY (waovpvidapysV) “Ye pranypa Ay (waovuhv0d y) “yy auvqbog (aovuDI}UI!)) “yo UDIUI! (Maon1uvdb007T) “yy DvUuvboT (@990910) “4 22270 (asD}0d DG!) “yf vjJLpod Dy ° (Maov)nW14q) “wy asosurtg * (waov2147) “yi YyyDa “86 ae hare ie 1OPBIONJOAUL PUB 97B}1d8O “Tt : (SoTBjnuedues) ‘CO JaMOP[IIW :snoouAzuAs rd}VION[OAUT puv 9}uzIdvo you Jo QoUTISIP “BF ‘s[upua} Noy nana Sialee ROD Aimar aRSnIeUt sient a eal Moret mE ae (sopeytqano oa ‘O pinoy :odod v ‘wi ‘ij teuted Ul poytan ="vj tsflupue} yyIM ‘ur | :pazran ‘url's “pop doy DUlUayovy]q Jou ‘oayByndysxo : (sorerqny) :snout “poup usayA Zurueyouyq ‘uw ‘ayBpndr ‘OC Joppeyy :yOUNSIp ‘T -3ida “g BE Miata esate Aaa conde cask treat ay - : (sayeur3yUeTg) ‘O UlejuBd ‘fp ‘By puw ‘dss !4[8 ‘gidants toquords ‘ut :Arodud ‘d :O[Ixu @zUI. d :pajjoo-[ “AO torenbe ‘ur HIRpNBo1 3B Ls @eyuooR]d ( "ps ofIxe syeuy oo Sul (Saye jUusov]d | -Saiie} | -WIO0J ‘90 ‘68 -luour “+ rpaqo-F ‘Ao ) spss Z “xo -3]0q) -[ dur ‘ren ze) Sea :poqo] you -Ao | -urz0j ‘ad | -Boqt | Xo TRG CERES GULP EON ag De ia eeu [88 | :pojrun jou Ssyopinu fF BSuraoy pu pogo|-F ° “xo Ajaqold baa “7 ISOLA ‘UI “1R] -w109 | Say UL sjayyNU Fura0F; 10U paqoy you “ao | -nser “g ‘Z ‘Ur ‘ad | \ “*fAxBA ua]jod | | :umeq4} JoUTSIP 8a] Aqs | qa :Ajopaod ualjod :Ayprur des | “ye ‘payran so]Aqys } tpayun seuss :(seyeu | pu royendysxa -BI}U95)) ‘TaMay ‘| !payfec-T “Ao | 10 sess reqeyndiys 1AroyeMm dus Autul I | :Ara Auvul | !poyqac-z% "Ao le UI}sIP SBuOd}s BE RY Ayjaed 10 -ded 8B isa eae oe sqniys 10 8901} "WI 1 Io Fad +Z By } yourystp 'Z | you ‘d } ‘duo ‘ey *89qO]-B][0109 AUBUL sv “Cy : (SeTeUaqy) ‘GQ AUOGA :Apoom :010UI dee, aan erind unis Uy higehtb ce eral S aaeas OCR TE oe TORT “eqns qo ‘Saw sv aorKy 10 -dvo vB cay :] o[Ays : (SayeMUMIg) *O asoIMIg :snoaoeqiay } ‘way} ‘ddo puv “duo ‘vy | :6, ‘xo ‘snous sarod Aq Suruodo ‘ur ‘ev : (saywog) °O Tea :AuvUw se oory 10 “d qT “4]8 ‘vary ‘UT “By -Bod4q ‘Bp BLOOIGQ uaHOIQ 402 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS and subdivisions of the vegetable kingdom, together with one hundred of the more important families of seedworts, and the orders and higher groups to which they belong. The characters given to distinguish them must be understood as being merely those which prevail throughout the group to which they refer, and not as being without possible excep- tions besides those noted. The numbers in parenthesis refer to pages where further information regarding the families, or illustrated examples of them, may be found. These synopses show the place in a modern classification of every plant we have studied in the foregoing chapters. Familiarity with the distinctions given, obtained by practical use of the synopses, should enable students to tell at sight, for a large majority of the plants they may see growing wild or in culti- vation, the family to which each belongs. The student who has learned to know what is typical of the comparatively few orders and families which we have been examining, will be able to tell at sight the family or order in which, or near which, to classify more than half of the flowering plants he is likely to meet; provided, of course, he has observed carefully their structural features. This knowledge, and the acquaintance he has already gained with the most important descriptive terms, will facilitate his use of systematic works in which these and other families are described in more detail. However far he pursues this line of studv—as fascinating as it is exhaustless—the student will continually encounter plants which must be viewed as intermediate links connecting different groups, or as exceptions which make definite limi- tations practically impossible. These connecting links and exceptional cases seem to defy classification in any consistent: arrangement, and have caused endless trouble to botanists in their attempts to construct a natural system. But at the same time it has happened that as botanists have come to study the significance of these exceptions they have found them revealing some very deep truths which have led to more and more satisfactory svstems of classification. It behooves us therefore to examine the main beliefs which have been held in regard to the meaning of these connecting VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 403 links between species, genera, families, and wider groups. As will be observed, the very word “family” implies an idea of kinship. Here, indeed, is a key which if it fits, may unlock for us secrets of great importance. To try this key is the purpose of the chapters which follow. 404 © a, ta Tei L* T1+8bi,0 Sv 4+ Liat lil+8b,4 S’5 Lita T1eb/56 8” 5 LY jtu2t+ I’/s 8” 5 Lia" ae: 9” 3 EA sine es 8”3-5 LY/,*i,n LTl+8B,b/.3 84 T14+,i'8,879@ S’44 Lt i* Il+¢8 S’5 + Ly I'lg 8” 5+ L/jtul3 Lisbit 875 Ts FORMULAS OF 1 Caltha(101-105) FAo Helleborus F5+ FAo Nigella F5+ FA Aquilegia P5 FAoF5x5 Aconitum F,2y FAo Acta F4+ FAo Anemone FO-xFA © Clematis FQ-0o FAx,0 Ranunculus F5+ FA Myosurus F5+ FAS+ Peeonia P”’5+ FA RANUNCULACE.E S’5+ PQ-a FO-o FAm SEED-PLANTS marsh-marigold CE5+ Le Ta Cj) <2 <> 409 EL @ E1 GG El G- E1,2 G- Ho EQ @ Ha+G-,N B2+ G@ E1 GA Bao @ EX G- Ho GA Bo GA Ho GA How GA 410 liga @-5 ) O,P Oi & bs 0 O,k O O,P ©) 2 O LY/ity L LYytyn LY, ty Ly tL L'/, ty L'/, 4, LY/it4 Ly *y L}/,*, L'/1*, LY, tut LY ptr 1 Lijit as: 83) Pats I‘ 8 8”) Ps I'g

TA] tile Bio TCii< BEECH ORDER CE38+, Ei+ Ta, walnut CE2() Et fee TCLS hickory CE 2, @) Eq TA yy] TCUTL << WALNUT FAMILY CE2Q0 Er Tan] TCIN < WALNUT ORDER CE2() Ei Ta, poplar CE2() ES Ty Ci> willow CE2() ES Toutay Ci> WILLOW FAMILY CE2(Q ES&S Tora. Gis L1 1 E1 El El 415 G- ln Ob FORMULAS OF Ia: I 8 I-38 I 8 ‘pt Be P* p? SALICALES (128) SPO FA 2+ Kalmia (130) P9) FA° 10 Gaultheria Pp’ 5) FA° 10] ERICACE.E P” 5) FA° 10-,] ERICALES (131) Pp’ 5} FA° 4-10,] Ipomeea (132) ‘v5) FAS] CONVOLVULACE-E v 5) FA 5] Nicotiana (133) PEED) FA 5] Datura v5) FA 5] Atropa v5) FA 5] Capsicum Ov By FA 5] Solanum ¥ 5) PA°5| SOLANACEE P’vs, PASI Digitalis (134) Pee) FA 3] ScROPHULARIACE.E ps3) PA $=] SEED-PLANTS WILLOW ORDER CE2() ES Ate Amcrican laurels : CE5) ES LA CiZ Eo wintergreen CE 5) Ha ges STICi L Ho HEATH FAMILY CE 5-) Dae eee] Co Ea HEATH ORDER CEo-2) ES EPs oe sweet potato, ete. CE 2-4) E3 lhe ci> E2 MORNING-GLORY FAMILY CE 2-5) E3+ a Gis Ea+ tobacco CE 2) ES ele ci+ Eo jimson-weed CE 2) Es aD Cif Eo belladonna CE 2) Ea sie Cl< Eo red pepper CE 2) ES id bes Cl< Eo white potato, etc. CE 2) ES Abe Cle Eo NIGHTSHADE FAMILY CE 2) ES te Cci+,/ Eo foxglove CE 2) Ee A CiZ Eo FIGWORT FAMILY CE 2) ES ie CiZ,L Ex 417 G-N G-N 418 al O,h O,b O FORMULAS OF Iwo 8 Lo 8 55), §) BP” 3) 73) pr") 978) P”2) ars) Pegs 8” 8) §”3) pr) Mentha (135) FA 2] Thymus FA3] Origanum FA 3] Satureia FA 2] Salvia LABIATE PA3] POLEMONIALES (136) 5: P?:5;) 8” 5 Pep 875 RUsS S’5 P”’'5 S75 P”’ 5) Bp” 5) P’5) g'4 0 Pg, 5), 3) P 5), 2) FA 2-5] Cucurbita (137) FAv 2)2)),F3 Cucumis FAY 2)2)1, F3 Citrullus FAY2)2)1,F3 Lagenaria FAY 2)2)1,F3 Luffa FAY 2)2)1,F3 CucURBITACE.® FAY2)2)1, F3 Campanula (138) FA5 Lobelia FA 5)) mint CE 2+-9 E thyme CE2+2 E> marjoram CE 2+2 E3 savory CK 2+2 3 sage CE2+2) E3 MINT FAMILY CE2+2 E3 PHLOX ORDER CE 5-2) Esé- squash, ete. CE3 () E% cucumber, ete. CE3 () Es watermelon CE3() Ed bottle gourd CE3() KS sponge cucumber CE3() ES GOURD FAMILY CE3 () E@ bellflower CE 3-5) ES Indian tobacco, ete. CE 2) Be SEED-PLANTS Th TU] TCli< TCli< TCH < TCli< EGE TCli< LCT? BOP Ae El 419 420 @) @ Lyi LY, FORMULAS OF CAMPANULACE® Iw 8 8°5,2) P’5,) 5) FAS5,) Helianthus (139) I s§ Blob S8’2+ P’5),5) FAS] Lactuca li‘ g Bla S*+o P'S) FA 5)] Artemesia Ii‘ e 9 Bia 8O P’5),5) FADS) COMPOSITE Tit 8 0 B/a 4+,b8"5+ « +P"5),5) 0 FAS] CAMPANULALES (140) Teae6 Se P5,5),5),3) FAS,),),] Zea (143) T'i‘: 9- 4Bbi SPO FA3 Saccharum I‘i‘: 8 Bbi SPO FA3 Andropogon l'i‘: 8 oBbi SPO FA 1-3 Oryza Ti‘: 8 Bbi SPO FAG Avena T‘i‘: g 6 Bbi SPO FA3 Secale Ta = Bhi SPO FA38 Triticum I‘i‘* 8 8 Bbi SPO FA 3 Hordeum T'i‘: 8,8 Bbi SPO FA8 Bambusa I'i‘: 8 9 9 Bbi SPO PA 6+ BELLFLOWER FAMILY CE2+) Ea sunflower, etc. CE2() hii lettuce CE () Ei wormwood CE 2() ii SUNFLOWER FAMILY CE 2() Ei SEED-PLANTS TU] TCi Tol PCI wel TSCI < Riel TCi< ES] STCIi< BELLFLOWER ORDER CE 2-5), () maize CE1 Ei sugar-cane CE1 Ei broom-corn, etc. CE1 Ei rice CE1 Ei oat CEI Ei rye CE1 Bi wheat CE1 Ei barley CE1 Ei bamboo CE1 Ei Tol TA [(CEi< 422 Li), Li), th L)/,,* th FORMULAS OF Ti‘: 8 ~ Bbi ToBi lit 7: 9B 8"3 [veo By S*s Ili? 3-9 B!/8"3 Ili a9 sBIY/S8’31 I! a: 9Bi/a 8’3 I!,i: eQ@B!/ 83 I!B!/ 873 I! 8 B!/ I! 8 ~ B!/ I! B!/ Ig I-83 SPO GRAMINE.B FA32 GRAMINALES (144) SPO P23 Bea P”’3 P” 3,) P” 5-10 P’ 3+ FA 3+ Phoenix (145) FA3x3 Cocos FA 3x3 Calamus FA 3x 3] Metroxylon FA 3x 3] Phytelephas FA PALMACE. FA3x3 PALMALES (146) P73 SP" 3x3 SP’ 3x 3.0 SP? 3X30 FA 3x3 Acorus (147) FA3x3 ARACEE FA38X 30 ARALES (148) FA 38X30 Juncus (149) FA 3X 3,3 JUNCACE.E FA 3x 3,3 SEED-PLANTS GRASS FAMILY CE1 Ei es [CEi< GRASS ORDER CE1,2-3() Ei Ta date CE3 Ei Ta Cil< coconut : CE 3 () Ei Ta Ciil< rattan CE3) Ei TA Clii< sago CE3() Ei, 3 TA Chi< vegetable ivory CE5=) Ei bees CI< XK PALM FAMILY CE3+,),0 Et TA Clao< PALM ORDER CE3,),Q Ei+ Ta sweet-flag CE 3) Ex TA Cl< ARUM FAMILY CE3+) ENS TA Cre ARUM ORDER CE3=) Eo Ta rush CE 3),() Ed ae Cin: RUSH FAMILY Cia “wa. TIA rai E1 Ll E83 E3 EX EBi+ Ea+ 423 G/N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N 424 FORMULAS OF Allium (150) o lh I/ 8 Bi/. +) SP”3x3,) FA6] Asparagus ok Ly, I/¢ SP” 3x 3,) FA 6] Convallaria 2 Ii/, I's SP” 3x3) FA 6] Veratrum oN Li/, Vis eee pP35<3) PAG LILIACE. ob LY, I‘g SP” 3x 3,) LA 6] Crocus (151) A LY); Is SP” 3x3) FA 3] Tripach.& an Li/; Is SP” 3x3) FA 3] LILIALES (152) Ie, B/ DEA esc.) FA 3-4, ] Cyprepedium (153) 2 Ly, Ig ep ox ai Ts RAS Vanilla an Ly, Vs SP” ix3 FAYXf! ORCHIDACE.B a Ly I'g SP”?X4,ft FA$xtt, FAS ORCHIDALES (154) I SP”3x3,2x} FAG-1 Pinus (157) Io-@ SPO FA © tn 1- on Larix L! Li) L3- 2 SPO PA © ln 5 L/, Iy-9 SPO PFA © SEED-PLANTS 425 onion, ete. CE3) Ei+ Ta Gids La G-N asparagus CE 3) EZ TA Crs Lx G-N lily-of-the-valley CE 3) LZ A Gre La G-N Indian poke CE 3) LE (ue Oh LX G-N LILY FAMILY CE 3} Eg dS Ci, ! LX G-N saffron, ete. CE 3) ES hee suOra Koo G-N IRIS PAMILY CE3) ES RSI PCI Hoo G-N LILY ORDER CE 3) Hee lady’s-slipper CE3 () | ES TU] (OHNE Bo G- vanilla CE3()] Le TCO TCL. Lo G- ORCHID FAMILY CH3 ©) ] E as Le] D) TC fal Eo G- ORCHID ORDER CE3),0,]) ES TU],9 pine CE « 3 Ti TICii Bé2 G-N larch CE x 2 Ti TiCii ig 2 G-N spruce CE 3 Ti TiCii Hg 2 G-N 426 FORMULAS OF Iv SP 0 Tsuga FA Sequoia FA& Juniperus FA PINACE.E FA Taxus (158) FAa TAXAcEE FAc& CONIFERALES (159) FA o- hemlock CE E2 redwood CEa& E5 + juniper CEa E4,2 PINE FAMILY CE a E2 = yew CoO Er YEW FAMILY C0-2 EI PINE ORDER CE o- E2 = SEED-PLANTS Ti TiCii TiCii TC! TiCii,! Lg 2 Bigs E1,2 E2+ Hit! jt CHAPTER XI KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION 163. The problem of origins. Winship among living things implies a common origin. We know that kin always resemble one another more or less closely, and this likeness we attribute to their inheriting similar features from the same ancestor. Two individuals which differ from each other no more than do offspring of the same parents, we re- gard as belonging to the same species; and because of such likeness among the members of a species we feel sure of their having descended from an original ancestor or ancestors which had essentially the same characteristics. No one doubts that all the kidney-bean plants in the world are the descendants of a plant or plants having the charac- teristic features of a kidney-bean; but, as we have seen, there are numerous varieties of this species which differ strikingly from one another, often more widely than do many species of the same genus. Why then may not all the species of beans be descended from amore remote ancestor, and so be as truly akin as the members of one species? And if the species of this genus are thus related why not also, though in less degree, the genera of the pulse family, the families of the rose order, the orders of the case-seed class, the classes of the seedwort branch, the branches of the vegetable kingdom, and, indeed, all groups of plants and animals according to their several degrees of resemblance? Why may it not be true that a natural system of classification expresses kinship? To some readers it may appear profitless to pursue in- quiries so remote, and they naturally ask, How can we know or why should we care about the origin of living things? Our answer must be that while of course we cannot know about this absolutely, we may be more or less sure that our conclu- 428 DOCTRINE OF SPECIAL CREATION 429 sions are right, and in so far as we really desire to understand the world about us with a view to living in it as best we may, we cannot help wishing to have our beliefs regarding origins harmonize with what we do know. So far as they are in accord with facts, such beliefs help us to put our facts in order so that we may use them to best advantage in living and thinking. Our supreme test of the value and truth of any such belief is the extent to which it enables us to fit fact with fact, and leads us to new facts of importance. Our method must be to apply this test to those beliefs which have been most widely held about the origin of living things. We may be sure that every such belief expresses important truths because of the many facts it must explain in order to be widely accepted. It is, of course, our business to seek truths of importance wherever they may be found, and to adopt the most promising belief until a plainly more truthful view is presented. 164. The doctrine of special creation. Linnwus embodied the belief of his own age and of former times in the famous saying, “We reckon so many species as there were distinct forms created in the beginning.” This belief assumes that in somewhat the same way as men have fashioned artificial objects for various uses, so superior beings or one Supreme Being of transcendent wisdom and power, created in the beginning originals of all the different kinds of plants and animals, fitting each to occupy its proper place, and endowing each with the power of perpetuating its like in progeny. In other words, all the living representatives of each species are regarded as the descendants of a first original or pair which was specially created by God, as a distinct and entirely new production, in the most suitable part of the earth, when the world was young; from which place and since which time the species has been distributed over the area that it now occupies. Furthermore, the peculiarities which characterize its living representatives are held to be the same that were impressed in the beginning upon the original progenitors of the species. The view above outlined is known as the doctrine of fixity of species, or special creation, or as creationism. Since it 430 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION proved to be satisfactory to the best thinkers of many ages, including many eminent naturalists, it must have afforded a reasonable explanation of numerous facts, and we may be sure therefore that it contains important truth. A species does seem to be fixed in the sense of having nat- ural limits beyond which unlikeness among its members cannot go. Thus even breeders of domesticated varieties find that they cannot induce more than a certain amount of modification in any one direction. For example, careful experiment has shown that if seeds from a wild carrot be planted in rich soil, and then seeds from the offspring with largest root be similarly planted and tended, and the same process of selection and planting be continued for several generations, there will finally be obtained as large rooted plants as any in cultivation. But sooner or later a size 1s reached beyond which the root does not increase; and if the most highly cultivated carrot-plants scatter their seed over neglected ground, as too often happens, the plants which are thus allowed to “run wild,” as the saying is, soon become indistinguishable from the wild carrots which are pernicious weeds. Another common experience of breeders is their inability to obtain fertile offspring by mating individuals of different species. It is true that pollen from a white oak may cause the ovules of a post-oak to develop into seeds which may grow into trees perceptibly different from either parent; and such hybrids are occasionally met with in nature. But when carefully observed it is usually found to be true either that hybrids are incapable of bearing offspring, or that such off- spring as they have are apt to belong unmistakably to one or the other of the parent species. Many of the so-called hybrids of horticulturists are merely crosses between varieties of the same species and their fertility does not affect the above rule. Here, then, seems to be another definite limit circumscribing a species as if some law of fixity had been imposed upon it from the beginning. Many naturalists have maintained that in case of doubt as to whether two forms are true species or merely varicties, the power to produce perfectly fertile offspring may be used as a final test. Species thus viewed DOCTRINE OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION — 431 become definite units of classification, which although some- times difficult to separate in practice are in theory none the less absolute. Those who have studied plants and animals most closely have always marveled at the ways in which each kind fits its natural environment, that is to say all the conditions under which it naturally lives. Thus among plants the absorption of food materials and the making of food, its storage for future use and its protection from harm, require not only a perfect working together of parts within the organism, but a nice adjustment of all to the surroundings. The structural features and habits of behavior which enable any organism to meet the usual requirements of its life are spoken of as adaptations to its environment. Creationism views the wonderful adaptations of plants and animals as manifestations of the Creator’s wisdom in so forming the progenitor of each species that its descendants shall all fit well into the places they are to occupy. It recog- nizes kinship only among the individuals of a species. The resemblance among species of the same genus, or among the subdivisions of higher groups in a natural system, it regards as indicating merely similarities of plan which the Creator was pleased to follow, much as an architect uses similar features more or less varied in different parts of a design. 165. The doctrine of organic evolution expresses a some- what different view, which, however, is not so fundamen- tally opposed to creationism as might appear from the violent controversies waged between creationists and evolutionists during the nineteenth century. Evolutionists have repeatedly confessed their faith in God as the Author of the universe. Nor, as we shall see, do they deny that the descendants of a given organism may continue essentially unchanged for an indefinite period. As to adaptations, evolutionists have re- vealed a wealth of marvelously perfect examples greater than the creationists ever dreamed of. What then was the need of a new doctrine of origins? One reason for dissatisfaction with the old view was that the more thoroughly plants and animals were studied, the less did species appear to have such definite limits as the crea- 432 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION tionists supposed to exist. Naturalists of eminence frequently differ widely as to the number of species into which the forms of a given genus should be divided. It often happens that one botanist recognizes several times as many species as another admits in the same genus. For example, one says there are but thirty species of rose, while another makes the number three hundred. Then too, the test of fertility in the offspring proved in practice to be disappointing. It was found that certain forms which no one had ever doubted to be distinct species did sometimes produce fertile hybrids; while, on the other hand, undoubted varieties hybridized imperfectly. Therefore, it was urged, if no one can tell which forms have come from one original ancestor and which from another, what is the use of supposing, as the creationists do, that resemblance between species means something entirely different from resemblance between varieties? Another weak point in creationism was its underlying idea that the plants and animals of to-day are of the same forms which have lived upon the earth from the earliest times. Geologists in their study of the earth’s crust found fossil re- mains of many species differing often greatly from any now living. As a rule the more ancient the forms, the less they are like those of modern times. That is to say, fossils show that old forms have continually given place to new ones dur- ing the course of geologic ages. Furthermore, contrary to the original supposition of creationism, that conditions upon the earth’s surface have remained substantially the same since the appearance of life, the rocks show that extreme changes of climate have taken place. For example, scored ledges, transported boulders, and other evidences of glacial action prove that during the last geological period, the region from Pennyslvania northward was buried under a vast sheet of ice much as Greenland is to-day, while long before that time the coal plants of Pennsylvania flourished in a climate of subtropical warmth. To these geological facts creationists adjusted their belief by supposing that the older species were destroyed when they were no longer suited to a changed environment, and that new creations adapted to the new conditions then took their place. Thus instead DOCTRINE OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION 433 of one beginning there were many. But if creation be con- ceived of as a frequently recurring process, why limit the frequency? Why not admit that creation is going on con- tinually and that each birth may be a new beginning? Such a continuous creation of new forms fitted to new conditions is precisely what evolutionsts suppose to have taken place. When a creationist comes to believe that the Creator is continually making new forms out of old ones, so that by the accumulation of small changes through many generations great differences result, his theory of creation has already evolved into the doctrine of organic evolution. Modern botanists adopt the evolutionary point of view. The word evolution + means primarily an unrolling or un- folding. A bud evolves as it expands into a flower. The oak evolves from the acorn germ. In this process of unfold- ing its possibilities the organism passes through successive stages each differing slightly from the one which went before, and from the one which follows; but showing extreme differ- ences between the earliest and the latest stages. The evolu- tion of a snecies is conceived of by analogy to be a similar unfolding of possibilities through a series of generations, in the course of which new features arise, are inherited, and become more and more pronounced as slight changes con- tinue to appear in parts which had already been slightly changed. Fundamental resemblances between any two in- dividuals or types are thus accounted for on the supposition that they have inherited from a common ancestor the feat- “ures they have in common, while the differences they exhibit are regarded as representing the sum of those small individual differences which have continually arisen and been trans- mitted along their diverging lines of descent. Hence, broadly speaking, the degree of likeness becomes a measure of the closeness of kinship. On this view it follows that a truly natural system of classifying organisms is an arrangement expressing degrees of kinship as inferred from all the resemblances and differ- ences that can be observed. If we knew enough about all 1 By-o-lu’tion < L. evolutus pp. of evolvere, unroll, unfold coramunicating with the internal air-spaces of the cortex. ach opening is guarded by two special cells which might be likened to lips. It is by means of these breathing pores that the interior tissues are acrated. Whereas in the sporophyte of Sphagnum we have a very simple sporangium from which there is differentiated a small foot and the merest hint of a short connecting stem; in Fu- naria we find a long slender stalk, homologous with the foot, bearing a capsule made up of the sporangium partly inclosed by an urn-like mass of tissue which we may call the shoot. Funaria represents about as high development of the sporophyte as moss plants have ever attained. 191. The bryophyte division, mossworts (Bryophyta) comprises only the two classes liverworts (Hepatic) and true mosses (Musci) which in general are often called moss- worts. Mossworts show us possibly how green earth-plants first stood upright. The occasion for their vertical development may have arisen when certain flat alge more or less like Coleochete, became stranded and had to form spore-cases as best they could before the mud completely dried. If some of them were able to make a small globular capsule this might be fed entirely by the thallus, but being immersed within it could not ordinarily scatter the spores very far. Their descendants perhaps give us Riccia. Others we may suppose, hit upon the plan of elongating the capsule upward, giving it some chlorophyll to utilize the sunshine, and thus enable it to make more spores and scatter them farther—all with much less dependence upon the slender resources of the little nurse. The result would be a liverwort of the Anthoecros type which solves the problem of up- lifting its spores in the simplest way. Various more or less com- 1 Pros-en’chy-ma < Gr. pros, before; en, in; cheo, pour. * Par-en’chy-ma < Gr. para, beside. A term applied by the earlier anatomnists to the raain tissue of such organs as the lings which they supposed was formed of material poured in beside the vessels and nerves that had been “ poured in” before. § [ep-i-der’mis < Gr. ep?, upon, ¢. e., outer; derma, skin. 4 Cor’tex < L. corler, rind or bark. °Sto’ma < Gr. stoma, a mouth. BRYOPHYTE DIVISION, MOSSWORTS 5381 plicated expedients were adopted by plants akin, and the outcome 18 seen in such liverworts as Marchantia where small capsules are made to hang from the branches of vertical thallus-lobes, or in mosses like Sphagnum where a similar though ercet capsule is borne on an even more elaborately developed vertical branch of the nurse- plant, which may live for many years. The most complicated ways of securing elevation are found in the mosses typified by Funaria, where both the nurse-plant and the spore-plant develop vertically as far as they can—the latter, as it were, standing upon the shoulders of the former—and by photosynthesis making food for the spores. But the utmost height attained by these methods is only a few inches; the foundation is weak. Growth which has to be accom- plished during a short season of moisture or by improving brief periods of wet weather, must naturally for the most part be limited to rather soft tissue and smali organs. Mosses often grow crowded together like Sphagnum and thereby give mutual support and store a supply of water fer use in common; but although axes of considerable height may be buiit in this way, the offspring is not much benefited, for the crowded tops of the axes form virtually a new surface above which is the only height effective for scattering the spores. It is plain that effectiveness is not always favored by complexity. The view suggested above that mossworts have evolved directly from alge akin to Coleochte, although regarded as probable by many botanists, receives no support from the study of fossil plants; and is by no means the only view consistent with what is known of the plants of to-day. Thus, it is quite possible that our mossworts may be the more or less simplified descendants of larger plants widely different from any we know, which themselves were de- scended from seaweeds very unlike Colechete and of which we have now no trace. Nota few facts point to this conclusion; but the truth is we are much ata loss as to what to believe regarding the origin of mossworts, and the question seems likely to remain long a puzzle. Meanwhile, the hypothesis of direct algal origin may help us to imagine something of the nature of the problems which had to be faced by the earliest land-plants, whatever these plants may have been; and may suggest, at least by analogy, something of the means that may have proved most effective. When we remember that Bryophytes have had to depend almost entirely upon superficial moisture it is not a little remarkable how much they have been able to accomplish for the welfare of their offspring. In spite of serious difficulties attending the use on land of reproductive arrangements adapted to aquatic life, these little plants very commonly achieve the benefits of cross-fertilization, and of a considerable period of nursing for their young. All this is made possible by the formation of archegonia which not only pro- tect. the protoplast of the egg, but by further development shield the young spore-plant all through its time of special tenderness. 532 LIFE-HISTORIES Finally, in a considerable varicty of ways means are provided for scattering the spores as far as possible and under the most favorable conditions for giving the new plants a good fair start. Bryophyta are distinguished by having archegonia on lobed or pseudo- leafy gametophytes which bear sporophytes lacking true roots, stems, and leaves. Vic. 357.—Adder-tongue, A, and grape-fern, B (Ophioglossum vulgatum and Botrychium Lunaria, Adder-tongue Family, Ophioglossacec). Sporophytes showing roots (w), stem (sé), leaf-stalk (bs), point (2) at which leaves branch to form a foliage-blade (6b) and a spore-bearing division (f).. Two-thirds natural size. (Sachs.) but widely distributed in mostly open ground. Not very common 192. The ferns (Class Filicine). Our most primitive ferns are represented by adder-tongues (Ophioglossum) and grape-ferns (Botrychium, Fig. 357). Unfortunately their life-histories are not yet fully known owing to peculiar difficulties in tracing the germination of the spores. The gametophyte is subterranean (Mig. 358) and at least when mature it is saprophytic. Exeept for its lack of chlorophyll it is not a little like the gametophyte of Riecia. The gametophyte of THE FERNS 533 certain ferns closely related to the above more nearly resembles that of Anthoceros, and is holophytic, as we may suppose to have been the case with the original fern-ancestor. When we compare the sporophytes of an adder-tongue and a horned liverwort, how- ever, so many striking differences appear, that it may at first seem hopeless to think of homologizing the parts. Indeed, we have in ferns true leaves, stems, and roots, no trace of which appear in any liverwort. But we have sporangia in both, and in the growing zone of Anthoceros we have a cylindrical meristematic organ suggesting possibilities of much further differentiation. If the sporangium of s Fic. 358.—Grape-fern. A, gametophyte (prothallus) cut vertically to show the antheridia (an), the archegonia (ac), and the pseudo-roots (w), 50 B, lower part of a young sporophyte dug up in September, cut vertically to show the stem (st) and leaves (b, b’, b”), #9. _(Hofmeister.) Fic. 359.—Adder-tongue. Upper part of spore-bearing division of leaf (§), cut vertically to show the tip (s), the spore-cavities (sp), the places (r) where a slit is formed to free the spores, and the woody strands or fibro- vascular bundles (g) which strengthen and conduct sap. (Sachs.) Anthoceros were enlarged and instead of elaters produced sterile tissue between groups of spores forming two rows on either side of the columella, the resulting organ would be a flat spike of sporangia like that of Ophioglossum (Fig. 359). What may have happened is that in very ancient times, before the age when coal plants flour- ished, a liverwort something like an Anthoceros did evolve a root from the lower end of its growing zone, which made possible an expansion of the green tissue above, while this in turn helped to bring about the formation of two rows of globular sporangia making a flat cluster as already described. Such an expanded member 534 LIFE-HISTORIES bearing sporangia would be a spore-sac-leaf, while the cylindrical elongating zone from which it arose would now be a true stem. Here would be about as simple a fern as we can imagine; but it would have all the essential features, and it is not inconceivable that higher forms might have been evolved from it. Suppose, for instance, that the sac-leaf member forked into two branches, and let one of them be expanded so as to secure as much sunlight as possible and be devoted exclusively to oe while the other branch instead of doing much food-making was narrower and developed as many spores as possible from food that the expanded branch furnished. Suppose further that the stem lived on from year to year, sending new roots into the earth and new leaves into the air, then our plant would have become like an adder-tongue fern. The striking differences between liverworts and ferns of any kind have so impressed not a few botanists as to have made them doubt the likelihood of ferns having originated in the manner above suggested; and this doubt has gained strength from the fact that the most ancient fossil ferns are of highly complex organization, being often tree-like in form, and so even less like liverworts than the presumably degenerate ferns with which we are most familiar to-day. Moreover, if modern liverworts are also to be regarded as degenerate plants—a view, as we have seen, for which there is some evidence—the gap which separates them from ferns is even wider. It may well be true that ferns evolved directly from sea- weeds in which a clearly marked alternation of generations had developed as in certain rather highly organized red alge living to-day. On this supposition, however, we are still left with the difficulty of imagining the stages through which a seaweed could pass in fitting itself for life on land as a tree. Here fossils eannot help us, for we have none at all intermediate between seaweeds and ferns. Since, however, there are undoubted fundamental re- semblances between a Coleochsete, an Anthoceros, and an Ophio- glossum, these may offer at least a possible cluc as to how the great changes in question may have taken place. Grape-ferns would be readily derivable from adder-tongues by further branching of the two leaf branches, which in the fertile or sporangial segment might result in each sporangium being borne on a little stalk or branchlet of its own. We may well imagine that wonderful possibilities of development lay before such a type as this as soon as it established itself on the edges of swamps or on land where food and moisture abounded. It could then afford to delay the production of spores until it had built a thick, tall stem, by means of leaves made larger and larger year after vear and devoted entirely to making food so that a surplus might be stored in the stem. Vinally, a very large number of sporangia might be produced upon much-branched spore-sac-leaves; and these, held high in the air, could seatter their spores most effectively. THE FERNS 53 We know that during the coal age many tree-ferns like the Pecopteris shown in Fig. 277 (page 299), apparently near of kin to the adder-tongues, produced stout trunks bearing a crown of ample leaves nearly twenty meters above the ground. Fic. 360.—Tree-Ferns and Herbaceous Ferns. (Baillon.) At the present day tree-ferns such as the one shown in Fig. 360 abound in moist, warm regions, although the ferns most common in northern lands are more like the smaller ones shown in the same illustration. Thus it would appear . that a certain amount of degeneration has attended the adaptation of ferns to the more stringent conditions of cold 536 LIFE-HISTORIES a Fig. 361.—Male-fern (see also Fig. 170). a, b, germination of spores show- 60 ing formation of young gametophytes (prothallia), %. (Luerssen.) Fig. 362.—Male-fern. A, prothallus, lower side, showing archegonia (ar), antheridia (an), and pseudo-roots (rh), {. B, same, after production of young sporophyte, showing first leaf ()) and first root (w). (Schenck.) or dry climates. One of our best developed northern ferns is the Aspidium already studied (Fig. 170, page 179). As shown in Figs. 361, 362, the spore in germinating produces first a row of cells, the terminal one of which soon divides in such a way as to produce a flat, heart-shaped thallus, which is rich in chlorophyll and sends out from the under side of the older part a number of pseudo-roots. By means of these the rear end is firmly attached to the earth while the lobed end slightly ascends. Finally on the lower surface appear archegonia near the tip, and male gametangia toward the base. The latter and their motile gametes are of the form shown in Fig. 363. The gametes, it will be noticed, are somewhat more highly developed than any found among the Bryophyta. That is to say, the spiral is larger and the flagella are more numerous. The archegonia, which are like the one shown in Fig. 364, differ but little from the others already studied. After fertilization the egg-cell divides into four (Fig. 365, 4). The upper- most of these, by its further growth and division produces the foot (f) the function of which is to act temporarily as an haustorium for the embryo-sporophyte, and to push it out of the gametophyte and on to the earth. One of the lateral cells develops into the first root (w) while the opposite one becomes the growing point of the stem, and THE FERNS 537 the lowest cell gives rise to the first leaf. A later stage in the de- velopment of these parts is shown in Fig. 365, B. Covering the growing tip of the root, somewhat as a thimble covers a finger tip, 1s a protective organ termed the root- -cap. Such a thimble- like cover- ing continually renewed by the meristem which it protects is char- acteristic of true roots. Root-hairs for absorption are soon devel- oped. The leaf (Figs. 365, B, 362, B) soon differentiates into petiole and blade, and curves so as to dr: ag the tender leaf-tip up out of the ground. An extreme curving of this nature performed by every Fic. 363.—Fern Antheridium (Pteris sp., Polypody Family, Polypodiacee), sso, (Luerssen.) Fic. 364. —Fern Archegonium (Osmunda sp., Royal-fern Family, Osmunda- cee). A, first stage viewed from above, *%. 8B, same, cut vertically to show the central cell (c) from which the eee is formed, and the cells (h) which give rise to the neck, 44%. C—-E, older stages, showing canal cells (he, bc). F, neck with mouth closed. G, same, top view. H, same, mouth open. J, same as # but with egg-cell (e) ready for fertilization. (Luerssen.) branch of the developing leaves gives us the familiar crozier-like vernation characteristic of ferns. In the axis of the stem soon ap- pears a central cylinder of prosenchyma which developing also in the root and the leaf serves as a channel for conducting solutions absorbed by the root to the green food-making parts of the leaf, and likewise dissolved nutrients from the leaves to the stem and the root where they may be used in growth or stored as a reserve. As the stem grows larger, and leaves and roots become more numer- ous, its central cylinder becomes a hollow cylindrical net-work of broad flat meshes (Fig. 366), giving off slender branches to the 538 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 365.—Fern Embryo (Pleris sp.). A, embryo removed from archegon- ium and cut vertically to show the first dividing wall (I, I) and the walls at right angles to this (II, II) whereby the tvalived egg-cell was divided into quadrants of which one (f) by further cell-division and growth becomes the foot, another (s) the stem, another (b) the first leaf, and another (w) the root. £8, embryo still further Res but still attached to the prothallus (pr), cut vertically to show the foot (/) embedded in the archegonium (aw), the root (w) with its tip protected by a root-cap, the stem (s) and the incurved leaf (b). Magnified. (Hofmeister.) leaves and roots. When a leaf falls off it leaves a sear upon which one may see clearly traces of these slender branches which went into the petiole. In the trunk of a tree-fern (lig. 367) the prosenchyma is par- ticularly well-developed and shows plainly a differentiation of tissues which is characteristic of all plants higher than bryophytes. Sach strand is here found to contain thick-walled woody fibers (FB) and larger cells (VS) called vessels which have thin walls variously strengthened by ridges. These vessels correspond to the ‘‘pores”’ found in the wood of oak and other trees we have already studied. Such strands are called fibrovascular? bundles, and the plants cr parts containing them are said to be vascular. The ultimate branches of the framework of a leaf are often nothing but single vessels. Be- sides the woody and the vascular tissues, which serve mainly for conducting fluids, ferns and higher plants often develop strands or layers of hardened, thick-walled cells whose funetion is mainly to give strength or afford protection. Such tissue is termed. scleren- chyma? im general, or sclerotic parenchyma or prosenchyma in particular. An outer layer of the cortex as at (/’L) often becomes sclerotic and thus contributes much additional strength to a co- lumnar organ. The parenchyma of a fern-stem serves very largely for the storage of reserve food in the form of stareh. T'rom the epidermis of various parts may arise hair-like or scale-like out- erowths which serve mainly to protect organs that are very young or especially need to be covered. Whereas in multicellular plants 'Ti/bro-vas’cu-lar << L. fibra, a fiber; vasculum, a small vessel, ? Scler-en’chy-ma < Gr. skleros, hard, THE FE RNS 539 Fic. 366.—Fern Stems (Aspidium spp.). A, underground stem (rhizome) of A. Piliz-mas with rind removed to show the net-work of fibrovascular bundles. B, one mesh of this net-work enlarged to show the branches which enter a leaf to form its framework. C, cross-section of a rhizome (A. corieceum) slightly enlarged to show the cylindrical fibrovascular system formed of two main strands, the upper (0) smaller than the lower (n), and the finer branches of these which enter the leaves. D, the fibrovascular cylinder of the same, removed and laid out flat after splitting the lower strand (uw, uw) in halves, leaving the upper strand (0) in the middle unbroken, as also the finer strands (b, b, b, b) which enter leaves and roots, and the larger strands (x, z, x, x, x) which enter branches of the stem. (Sachs, Mettenius.) of simpler structure it was sufficient to distinguish merely different tissues, in the higher plants the differentiation has progressed so far that fisswe systems must be recognized. Thus we have a tegu- mentary system consisting of the epidermis and its outgrowths, a vascular system comprising the vascular bundles, and a fundamental system consisting mainly of parenchyma and including meristem, the green cells accessible to light, and the pith-like internal parts in which food is stored. The stem of an Aspidium (Fig. 170) as of nearly all our native ferns, remains mostly underground as a more or less horizontal rhizome. A considerable amount of starch stored over the winter in the fundamental tissues of this perennial organ, accounts for the rapid unfolding of the leaves in spring. Some of the leaves are entirely vegetative; other leaves bear numerous minute sporangia in clusters upon the back, each cluster being covered by a shield- like out-growth (Figs. 170, 3-5). A peculiar part of the sporangium is a ring of thickened cells running along the back (6c), which when 540 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 367.—Tree-Fern. Section of trunk. A wedge cut from the same, magnified to show the pith (P), a fibrovascular bundle (V F V) with its sclerenchyma (F B) and vessels (V 3S), and the rind (F L) and epidermis (/). (Baillon.) Fic. 368.—Fern Brood-bud (Aspidium Filix-mas) on base of leaf-stalk, t. (Luerssen.) THE FERNS 541 Fic. 369.—Scouring-rush (Equisetum arvense, Scouring-rush Family, Equisetacee). 1, spore-bearing shoot with erect branches ending in cone-like clusters (a) of sporophylls or sporangia-bearing leaves. 2, vege- tative shoot, with underground stem bearing tubers,(a) gorged with food. 3, a sporophyll with sporangia, enlarged. 4, same, showing sporangia split open after discharging the spores. 6, 6, 7, spores with “elaters’’ wrapping closely, or more or less spread. (Wossidlo.)— Common in moist places. ripe suddenly straightens, so as to rupture the thin wall in front and eject the spores. Sporangia of this type although differing in many ways from those of the adder-tongue and its kin, are doubtless homologous with them, for students of ferns find a very complete series of intermediate forms connecting the extremes. Vegetative 542 LIFE-HISTORIES reproduction is sometimes accomplished in ferns by the formation on various parts of buds which fall to the ground and take root (see Fig. 368). Filicine in general agree with the ferns described in being arche- goniate, vascular plants, forming true roots and stems, and having alternate leaves upon which are borne sporangia that discharge their spores without elaters. The number of species is reckoned at about 3,000. 193. The scouring-rushes (Class Equisetinz) are repre- sented in modern times only by comparatively small plants of the genus Equisetum (Fig. 369)—about 25 species which, however, are closely related to numerous gigantic rush-like coal plants, typified by the genus Calamites (Fig. 277, 2). In Equisetum cross-fertilization is accomplished by having male and female gametophytes which, as shown in Figs. 370, 371, differ considerably from one another, the female being much the larger and suggesting somewhat by its pseudo-leaves the nurse-plant of a moss. The sporophyte differs remarkably from that of any fern in the comparatively great development of the stem. This 1s hollow except at the nodes, and performs nearly all the work of photosyn- thesis. The roots do not differ essentially from those of ferns, but the foliage leaves are reduced to toothed sheaths serving chiefly to protect the tender regions of the stem. The fibro- vascular bundles of the stem are arranged in a ring, and in some forms (mostly extinct) a cambium like that of higher plants is developed which gives rise to successive rings of tissue. Such additional material by which increase in thick- ness is accomplished takes the name of secondary tissue, to distinguish it from the primary tissue formed by the primary meristem. The epidermis is often so filled with silica or flint, as to render the plants useful for scouring metal, and this accounts for the popular name. Certain subterranean branches of the rhizoma (a, Fig. 369) may have their funda- mental tissue gorged with reserve food, and thus form tubers which feed new growth in spring, and may sometimes serve as a means of vegetative reproduction. Among the vertical branches there is often a differentiation into the purely vegetative and the purely reproductive. The latter terminate THE SCOURING-RUSHES 543 Fic. 370.—Scouring-rush. A, male gametophyte or prothallus (23°) show- ing antheridia (a, a). B-E, spermatozoids of various ages, much more highly magnified. (Hofmeister, Schacht.) Fra. 371.—Scouring-rush. Female gametophyte or prothallus (38) showing archegonia (a, a, a) and pseudo-roots (h). (Hofmeister.) in a cone-like aggregation of whorled sac-leaves. Each of these has a stalk ending in a shield-shaped expansion, six- sided from pressure. Behind each angle of the shield is a large sporangium dehiscing by a longitudinal slit (3, 4). The spores are peculiar in having four slender arms which close tightly about the spore when moist, and spread apart in drying, thus serving to eject the spores. They are there- fore called elaters (4, 6, 7). The massive, much-lobed gametophyte bearing gametangia above, and the comparatively large sessile sporangia of the scouring- rushes, indicate a closer kinship with the adder-tongues than with the true ferns, and suggest that the Equisetine may have evolved from Hepaticee somewhat more moss-like perhaps than Anthoceros. They may be characterized as plants similar to ferns except in having 544 LIFE-HISTORIES relatively much greater stem-devclopment, and in having the leaf- members whorled, the sac-leaves in cones, and the spores with elaters. 194. The club-mosses (Class Lycopodine) are well typi- fied by Lycopodium (Fig. 166) which is popularly regarded as a kind of “moss” because of the general resemblance of the leaves and stems, in form and proportionate develop- ment, to the pseudo-leaves and pseudo-stems of many true mosses. Fie. 372.—Club-moss (Lycopodium sp., sec Fig. 166.) A, gametophyte (88), showing archegonia (ar) and antheridia (an). B, old gametophyte (p) nursing a young sporophyte, 32. C, antheridium (22) almost ready to discharge its spermatazoids. D, archegonium, cut vertically to show the egg-cells (0), the upper canal-cells dissolved into mucilage (he), and the lower canal-cell (be), #98 (Treub.) The gametophyte (lig. 372) is bisexual and massive, as in the adder-tongues, and mostly saprophytic; and the embryo resembles that of a fern in having but a single cotyledon. Its development is essentially lke that of the next type to be described. The stem often forks but shows no secondary thickening. The leaves are unbranched, and in some species are all much alike, while in other cases the sac-leaves are smaller than the foliage leaves, are crowded into cones, and serve chiefly as protective scales for the sporangia. Tach saec-leaf bears but a single spore-case on its upper surface near the base. There are no elaters. THE CLUB-MOSSES 545 fre. 373.—Mountain Selaginella (Selaginella helvetaci, Selaginella Family, Sclaginellacee). A, sporophyte, }. 8B, young sporophyte growing from macrospore. (Bischoff.)—Native home, Eurasian mountains. Fie. 374.—Mountain Selaginella. Part of cone, showing a macrosporan- gium (a) containing three macrospores, and a microsporangium (b) discharging numerous microspores, 42. (Schenck.) Another large group is Selaginella (Fig. 373) the sporo- phytes of which often resemble those of the club-mosses so closely that they were at first included in the same genus, and many forms in cultivation are still called by florists, lycopodiums. A most significant though inconspicuous difference is that Selaginella has two kinds of spores—minute ones, called microspores, which are very numerous in anther- like sacs termed microsporangia (b, Fig. 374); and macro- spores 2 (a) which are so large that four fill a macrosporangium. Both kinds of sporangia are borne singly on the stem just above or in the axils of upper leaves, in the same branch or cone. : 1 Mi’cro-spore < Gr. mikros, small. 2 Mac’ro-spore < Gr. makros, large. 546 LIFE-HISTORIES OOS SACS ©) Fic. 375.—Selaginellas. Germination of microspores. A-—E, different views of the spore showing the prothallus-cell (p), cells of the antheridium- wall (w), and the cell producing spermatozoids (s), ®1°. In £ the cell- walls have dissolved previous to discharging the spermatozoids. F, spermatozoids, 782. (Belajeff.) The spores begin to germinate while still within the sporangium. The contents of each microspore divides into several cells (Fig. 375, A-D) one of which (p) represents the vegetative part of a male gametophyte, the others constituting a male gametangium, in the center of which is formed a cluster of elongated gametes closely resembling the male gametes of a liverwort. After leaving the sporangium the microspores liberate their motile gametes by rup- ture of the wall. The large cell which constitutes the macrospore is rich in reserve food and begins to germinate by dividing into a number of small cells within the wall. Soon the macrospores are set free from the sporangium, and continue to germinate by forming a few archegonia on the upper side, which eventually protrudes from the ruptured spore-wall shown in Tig. 376. After fertilization, the ege-cell divides into an upper and a lower half, the lower half grow- ing into an embryo, while the upper half develops into a peculiar organ called the suspensor (et). This by its elongation pushes the embryo, foot foremost, into the mass of vegetative cells upon which it feeds. The root and the shoot of the young embryo (Fig. 377) finally protrude from the macrospore, the foot (/) still remaining within as an organ of absorption in contact with the food supply. There are two cotyledons, which, containing chlorophyll, soon begin to make food for the plantlet, and aided by the developing leaves of the plumule, finally render the young plant self-supporting. From the upper side of cach cotyledon (and often on later leaves) a flat THE CLUB-MOSSES 547 emb, cmb, Fic. 376.—Martin’s Selaginella (Selaginella Martensti, Selaginella F amily, Selaginellacee). Germination of macrospore (%#), cut vertically, showing the female gametophyte protruding from the eee spore- wall (spm) and exposing an unfertilized archegonium (ar), but still enclosing two embryos (emb!, emb?) which have been pushed down into the nutritive prothallus (pr) by their suspensors (et, el). (Pfeffer.)— Native home, Mexico; much cultivated. Fig. 377.—Martin’s Selaginella. Embryo (419), cut vertically to show its suspensor (et), root (w), leaves (bl, 61), ligules (lig, lig), and tip of stem (st). (Pfeffer.) projection (lig) termed a ligule,! arises, which, by secreting mucilage, serves to keep the tender terminal organs from drying. The formation of macrospores that begin to germinate while still within the sporangium, marks a most important advance in the eare of offspring; for by this means not only are the chances of cross- fertilization increased, but the embryo is afforded more protection, and the young plantlet can be provided with a larger quantity of promptly available food while preparing for independent life. Just one step further is needed as we shall see, to attain the high develop- ment of parental care achieved by seed-plants. A similar differen- tiation of the spores and sporangia into male and female is found also in certain types of Filicine, and in extinct Equisetine. As with scouring-rushes and ferns, so with the club-moss class, the modern species but feebly represent their kin of the coal age. These include giant lycopods such as Lepido- dendron (Fig. 278, page 301) and Sigillaria (Fig. 277, page 299) with much-branched trunks ten meters or more in height and often a meter in thickness, bearing cones as large as those. of a pine tree, and forming extensive forests. 1Lig’ule < L. ligula, a little tongue. 548 LIF E-HISTORIES The Lycopodine, which comprise in a very few genera about 600 species, occupy an intermediate place between Filicine and Equise- tine in the relative size of their leaves and in their arrangement which may be either alternate or whorled; but, while having the sac-leaves or sacs often in terminal cones, the sporangia are always solitary and never on the under side of a leaf; and there are no elaters. 195. The pteridophyte division, fernworts (Pteridophyta) is made up of the three classes above named. Ferns being especially typical of them all, the plants of this division are conveniently designated as fernworts. While, as we have seen, mossworts were perhaps the first green plants out of water to succeed in standing upright, it is among fernworts that we first find vertical growth producing lofty trunks. Spores formed near the top of such a trunk are plainly given an immense advantage since they may be dispersed over an extensive area. This highly beneficial provision for the welfare of offspring was made possible by the development of roots able to absorb subterranean moisture, and of leaves that could utilize it in con- nection with the air and sunlight. A protective function with reference to the sporangia or to tender parts of the stem was easily assumed by these lateral appendages, and in some cases became their chief or only office, as happened with the sheathing whorls of Equisetum or the cone-scales of Selaginella. Various differentia- tions of the stem-parts, gave rise to more or less branched ascending axes, either independent or climbing, or to more or less horizontal, often subterranean stems in which the capacity for storing food was often especially developed, and from which vertical branches or vertical leaves arose during seasons favorable for growth. For the bearing of spore-sacs either leaf-parts or stem-parts were available; and sometimes the one, sometimes the other was used. Nurse- plants were depended upon to foster the embryo and prepare it for independent, vigorous life; and the nurse itself was so well provided with reserve food that it could afford to dispense with food-making organs of its own to a considerable extent. It is thus perhaps of evolutionary significance that the gametophyte of fernworts is commonly much simpler in form and of less vegetative importance in the life-history of the plant than is the case in mossworts. An extreme of specialization in the reproductive function of the game- tophyte is found in those fernworts which have male and female spores, the latter having in general such a large amount of reserve food that the nurse-plant does not necd to make any for itself and scarcely protrudes beyond the spore, while the former having no embryo to nurse reduces its vegetative part to a single cell. Sueh gamectophytes are virtually hysterophytic, and it is interesting to observe that types which do not produce macrospores but are THE PTERIDOPHYTE DIVISION 549 closely akin to those which do, have more or less hysterophytic nurse-plants. In endeavoring to trace the evolution of fernworts we con- tinually encounter the question as to whether a given type or organ of relatively simple form is best regarded as primi- tive or degenerate. The evidence available is often conflict- ing and has led different botanists to very diverse conclu- sions regarding the kinship and evolution of the different groups. Another stumbling block has been the difficulty of distinguishing between the resemblances that arise from similar adaptation to the same environment though in different lines of descent, and those resemblances which are due to inheritance even under different environments. It is now generally admitted, however, that the fernworts of the coal period attained much higher development than any which have survived, and that several important features, such as the development of macrospores, have evolved in- dependently in each of the three classes. We have thus good reason to suppose that the progressive evolution of the Pteridophyta was mainly accomplished in geological ages long past, that this progress took place along the three main lines represented by our modern ferns, scouring-rushes, and lycopods, and that these fernworts of to-day are the more or less degenerate descendants of giant plants like those preserved in coal. When we take the adder-tongue fern as possibly represent- ing the sort of plant which first evolved from a liverwort like Anthoceros, we must accordingly make allowance for considerable modification of detail due to special adaptations in the course of ages and to more or less degeneration. We cannot say much more than that our supposed ancestor of the ferns presumably had rows of large sporangia along the edges of the blade-like expansion of a growing axis which put forth, below, cylindrical projections for absorbing water. From such an ancestor, ferns, scouring-rushes, and club- mosses may perhaps be supposed to have evolved, one or another according as the stem-parts or leaf-parts reached greater or less, or about equal development, and the spore- sacs were multiplied or reduced in number and diminished 550 LIFE-HISTORIES or increased in size or otherwise modified to provide for the welfare of offspring. But however well these plants might suceeed in utilizing under- ground moisture they could never take fullest advantage of the opportunities offered for life upon the land so long as they were dependent upon surface water to secure fertilization; and every fernwort still retains traces of its aquatic ancestry in the male gametes which must swim to accomplish their purpose. Thus fern- worts like mossworts are truly land-plants only during part of their life, although the former have attaimed a prodigious development upon land. Pteridophyta agree with Bryophyta in having archegonia, but are distinguished among cryptogams by developing true roots, stems, and leaves, in which a vascular system ts developed. 196. Cryptogams and phenogams. The highest develop- ment of plant life is associated with the production of seeds, which afford the best possible provision for the welfare of offspring. There is abundant evidence to show that the earliest seed-plants differed but little from certain fernworts that had developed ma- crosporangia containing single macrospores. The first step toward converting such a macrosporangium into a seed might easily be taken if the macrospores remained attached to the plant until the archegonia were exposed, while the microspores, set free, were car- ried by wind to the attached gametophyte there to germinate and effect fertilization. The final step would come, when, after fertiliza- tion of an egg-cell thus doubly protected by nurse-plant and spore- sac, the nurse-plant itself should be further protected by continued growth of the surrounding parts and should be fed by the parent while it was in turn feeding the embryo. An embryo thus fed through a connection maintained with the parent plant, and pro- tected by a sporangium wall which finally becomes detached from the parent for dispersal, is a seed; the macrosporangium with its inclosed macrospore and female gametophyte is an ovule; the micro- sporangia are anthers; and the microspores, pollen grains. When such highly differentiated spore-saes are borne upon leaves we have sac-leaves which we call cither carpels or slamens. Pines and other gymnospermous plants (Figs. 258, 259, 260, 263) as we have seen, bear ament-like clusters of stamens or carpels each cluster forming what we may regard as a separate flower. A Selaginella which had certain cones producing microspores exclu- sively would thus be homologous with a staminate flower of Pinus, while an exclusively macrosporie cone would correspond to a pis- tillate ower. The morphology of the stamens and their parts in CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 551 Fic. 378.--Norway Spruce. Ovule cut vertically and enlarged to show the embryo-sac (e) filled by the prothallus or e ndosperm and two archegonia (a), each with its neck (c) and swollen part (0) which contains an egg- cell with a nucleus (n); the nucellus (nc) surrounded by the integuments (7); pollen-grains (p) from which come pollen-tubes (1) extending to the archegonia; and a part of the seed-wing (s). (Strasburger.) Pinus and related genera will doubtless be sufficiently clear without further explanation, but the carpels and ovules call for more de- tailed examination. Each carpel, as we have seen, bears two ovules on its upper side near the base (Fig. 258, 8). When cut in half vertically such an ovule exhibits the parts shown in Fig. 378. A single macrospore organically connected with the sur rounding tissue constitutes what is termed the embryo-sac (e). The rest of the ovule represents the macrosporangium, which is divided into a central part, the nucellus | (nc) in which the embryo-sac is embedded, and an outer layer, called the integument (7), which covers the nucellus except at the micropyle. Microspores, 7. e., pollen grains, intrusted to the wind, are carried to the pistillate flowers. Caught by a 1Nu-cel/lus < L. nucella, a little nut. 552 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 379.—Norway Spruce. Fertilization of egg-cell. A, ripe egg-cell with nucleus (on) and lower neck-cell (cl), 72. 8, same, later, the tip of a pollen-tube (p) having entered the ege- cell and discharged into it the male nucleus (sz) which approaches the female nucleus (on). C, same, later, the two nuclei having become fused into one, which soon divides into four nuclei that move to the lower end of the egg-cell. D, lower end of the egg-cell showing two of the four nuclei which have moved into it. #, same after division of the four nuclei into eight. F, same after further division has produced four tiers of nuclei, all but the uppermost four being enclosed in cell-walls. G, same, after the middle tier of cells has elongated to form a suspensor w hich has pushed the lower tiers of cell into the prothallus (or endosperm) where they give rise, by repeated cell-division, to an embryo which is fed by the endo- sperm. The nutritious materials left over in the endosperm when the ovule has become a sced constitutes the seed-food which supports the young plantlet during germination. (Strasburger.) spreading carpel, they come finally to the micropyle where the integument is often prolonged in such a way as to lead them directly to the tip of the nucellus. Here they germinate by forming a few cells, some of which, remaining within the spore, represent the vege- tative part of the male gametophyte; while others, the male gametes, form a hypha-like tube which penetrates the ‘soft tissue of the nucellus and feeds upon it like a fungus. Meanwhile the macrospore CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 593 Fic. 380.—Norway Spruce. Growth of embryo. A, early stage, 19¢. B, later stage, #2. C, half-ripe embryo, showing below the protrusions from which the cotyledons are formed, #2. D, same, cut vertically. E, same, end view, showing the eight rudimentary cotyledons surround- ing the stem-tip. /, embryo, fully formed (?), cut vertically to show the seed-leaves or cotyledons (c), the seed-stem (h), the beginning of the root (pl), root-cap (cp), fibrovascular cylinder of root (cl), pith of stem (m), and rudimentary fibrovascular strands (op) surrounding it. (Strasburger.) 554 LIFE-HISTORIES (or embryo-sac) has been developing some very simple archegonia (a), consisting only of a large egg-cell (0), and one or more very small cells (c) representing the neck. See also Fig. 379, A. Presently the tip of a pollen-tube bearing the male nucleus reaches the egg- cell and discharges its nucleus into the female protoplast (Fig. 379 B). The male and the female nucleus fuse into one (C) and move to the opposite end of the egg-cell, there to form a group of small cells from which one or more embryos arise, but only one develops, in each seed. As in Selaginella, certain cells form a suspensor which pushes the developing embryo into the storage tissue of the game- tophyte. But in the pine and spruce this vegetative part of the nurse-plant, because of its long connection with the parent, is able to draw into itself a continued supply of nutritive material. Part of this nourishes the embryo till it develops root, stem, and leaves, while a surplus is stored around it as seed-food for the use of the plantlet when it has left the parent, and is ready to germinate (Figs. 379, 380). Not only is abundant food thus supplied to and for the embryo, but the sporangium wall’ (nucellus and integument) and the sac-leaf (cone-scale or carpel) are so well nourished after fertilization has taken place, that they grow enormously and be- come much hardened as organs of protection. The ripened ovule thus becomes a seed, and finally, as already described, separates from the parent and is aided in its aerial voyage to a home for life, by a wing derived from the carpel. The young sporophyte has simply to grow after the manner of its kind to become a tree and produce gametophytes which shall codperate in the formation of highly favored offspring. In view of the many resemblances between Pinaceew and Lycopodiacez it has been thought that plants closely related to the club-moss trees of the coal-period may have been the ancestors of both of these cone bearing groups. It should be said, however, that the remains of extinct gymnosperms represented by Cordaites (Fig. 277, 5) contemporaneous with Lepidodendron, show resemblances to the ancient ferns which indicate that the ancestor of the conifers was more fern-like than might appear merely from a comparison of modern types. Cycas (Fig. 381) shows even closer affinity with ferns, as for in- stance, in the ample branched foliage-leaves which unroll as they develop, and the numerous sporangia borne upon a sac-leaf. In general the life-history is similar to that of Pinus, pollen spores being carried by the wind to a little chamber at the tip of a naked ovule to fertilize an egg-cell; but in this case the microspore upon germinating produces in the pollen-tube two motile gametes pro- CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 555 ie ee Fic. 381.—Japanese Cycad (Cycas revoluta, Cycad Family, Cycadacee). 1, seed-bearing plant. 2, macrosporangial leaf or carpel showing the naked ovules (macrosporangia) near its base. 3, microsporangial leaf, or stamen, showing the numerous microsporangia (anthers) on its lower face. (Wossidlo.)—Tree growing about 3 m. tall; fruit densely hairy. Native home, Japan; commonly cultivated as ‘‘sago-palm.”’ vided with numerous swimming-hairs. One of these fertilizes the ege-cell. After fertilization®a seed is formed, an abundance of extra food being stored about the single embryo. The sporophyte as it develops becomes, as we have seen, singularly like a tree-fern and at the same time so closely resembles a Metroxylon as to be called by florists a ‘‘sago-palm.”” While we must of course regard this outward resemblance as more or less superficial, it gains significance from the presence of much deeper resemblances which have led botanists to regard the Cycad-type as a connecting link between the fern and the angiosperm. As already shown, the main difference between a gymnosperm and an angiosperm is that the latter incases its macrosporangia in carpellary leaves. Fertilization is accomplished, however, as before by means of a pollen-tube, which, starting from the stigma, has simply a longer road to travel before its tip reaches the egg-cell. Moisture to enable the microspore to germinate is afforded by a stigma, while food for the tubular cell is supplied by the tissues along its route. The parts concerned in angiospermic fertilization are shown in Fig. 382. When germinating, the pollen-cell produces two nuclei, one of which represents the vegetative part of the male 556 LIFE-HISTORIES Fia. Fia. 382.—Chmbing Buckwheat (Polygogum Convolvulus, Buckwheat Family, Polygonacee). Pistil (48) due fertilization, cut vertically to show stalk-like base (fs) of ovary; stalk of ovule (fu); end of stalk (cha); the nucellus (nu), the micropyle, or opening to the nuccllus (77); the inner integument (72); the outer integument (/e); the embryo-sac (e); nucleus of the embryo-sac (ek); the egg-apparatus (c7) consisting of three cells, the lower one being the egg-cell and the two others com- panion cells which are thought to represent rudimentary archegonia; prothallial cells (an); style (g); stigma (7); pollen grains (p); and pollen-tubes (ps). A pollen grain falling upon the stigma produces a tube which grows down through the style, enters the micropyle, and penetrates to the egg-cell; here it discharges its (male) nucleus which fuses with the nucleus of the egg-cell and from this union an embryo arises. (Strasburger.)—The plant is an annual vine resembling buck- wheat but with greenish flowers; native to Europe but a common weed in America. 383.—Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Development of the embryo. A—D, successive stages, much magnified, showing the suspensor (et), lower end of embryo (/), cotyle- dons (c), and the stem-tip (p) from which the plumule arises. (Han- stein.) —The plant is annual, about 50 em. tall, with small white flowers and dry fruit; native of Europe; common as a weed in America. CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 557 gametophyte, while the other is the essential part of a gamete. Here then is a gametophyte reduced to the simplest terms. The female gametophyte formed within the embryo-sac consists of a few cells forming two groups which lie at opposite ends of the macrospore. Those at the micropylar end (e7) include an egg-cell which is thus advantageously situated for fertilization by the pollen-tube entering the micropyle. The growth of the embryo from the fertilized egg- cell involves, as shown in Fig. 383, the formation of a suspensor (ef) which pushes the developing germ well into the mass of food. In this example the embryo comes to fill the sporangium completely while still attached to the parent, thus forming an exalbuminous seed, in which radicle, caulicle, and cotyledons are well developed. While it is not altogether clear how closed ovaries evolved from open carpels, the change may well have taken place as a result of the peculiar inrolling of the young leaf-lobes which primitive gymnosperms are supposed to have inherited from ferns. If ovules should form on such lobes while still inrolled, and the lobes should coalesce, the carpel would be angiospermic. However it happened, many highly important consequences of this advance are apparent. Most obvious is the greater protection of the offspring during the period of their dependence. There is also an enormous gain in possibilities for securing an advantageous cross. Thus a moist, projecting stigma becomes a target more likely to be hit by wind-carried pollen grains and more likely to insure their prompt germination, than the micropyle of a naked ovule. Expansion or branching of the stigma, such as we find to be characteristic of wind-pollinated angiosperms, shows how well this new organ lends itself to increasing the chances of pollination and at the same time favors economy in the amount of pollen produced. See Figs. 2-15, 27, 36,74 B, C, 109 C, D, 124 B, 153, 159, 165 IJ, 171 IT, 243, 248, 254, 256 B, 257, 267 D, etc. A still further advance in these directions came when insects and other animals were attracted to the flowers, and their services thus secured as carriers of pollen. The attractive odors, bright colors, and alluring sweets, together with the marvelous arrangements of the various floral organs, present modifications of endless variety and offer one of the most fascinating fields in the whole range of botanical study. See Figs. 22, 39 IT, 48, 57, 59 77, 80, 91-100, 106, 133, 139, 145, 148, 156, 163, 164, 168 IJ, 172, 178, 187, 188, 189, 192, 217, 251, 275, 276, 282-293, 299, ete. This elaborate modification of stem-parts and leaf-parts codperat- ing with pollen-sacs and ovules to form what we call a flower brings with it the further possibility of utilizing these accessory organs, LIFE-HISTORIES 558 WAS sou SOTDOIHJdO -SIOHLNV eo; 31 -MHDOSIOD X VWYAD -OWldS SNDD09 ¥ (yeUIsUG) *S9rNyoONIAS SUTATT TP} TAL oIndu10d 0} SUTVUTOI [ISSO JO YOR] TOF UILz109 -un of0UL pue o1o0ur oq YSsNUT suOIsnpuov INO SULOF [B1}so0uv oy} puorscy yor ouly oY} vol} oO} Ad} OM SY ‘OST jo SULLOF ysolfiva oY} OF Youq uo os puv “(Aup-07 JO susoy AV oyTUN AIOA SSo]}QNOpP o1oM SoATOSMMItY} Soy} YHNOYY]B) SULoF Uo -pour O} OST|e Ost OARD Yous S1OJSsooUB JOULLI ud popusavsep oTOM sulrodsoisue pues speoAo oy} Jo S10}So0UB UuOUWULOD aso} Fey} puv (stuzodsoisue 10 spBoAd BULATT JoY}to UWOTy qyuoatoyip Atos) spBoso ULepout JO S10}So9UB JIUI} ‘9 WO} poafoas sutgodsomsur ulopour yey} Bopt oy} ssordxo 0} SWIB FI ‘Xre1jU0D oY} UQ “SULATT MOT WIOF Auv oO} TepUIS Aesop S{OJSoouv 9}OUIOL ULOIF popudsosop SEY THIS SurAy] Auv yyy Ayduut pow Soop poysosans oto MOLA OY yeyy poyou oq pmmoys WY, AUoBOyUO Aq Auosopsyd jo worepnydwovet,, JO AIOOY} OY Furpesysny[E snyy ‘oul TVPWOZOY OVS ou} A[ACaU UT OUD OF SB OS ‘}YSTOY oles Ot} qnoqe ye poovyd o1v yUeAdopAopP Jo go8eys BUIPUOdSodL09 SodAY JUSAOFIP OY} ut *poonpoid ]}2 [BYTUL 1e[TUaIs uoyAt ayo[duros st pue ‘][99 o[BUIs GB YPLM AOTOC suisoq apA0 YoRg = “Lop1o yeanyeu oy} Ur YySnoryy possed oq TAs apAo-oftT Yova Jo SoBVJS OATSSedINS ay} ‘SPUTOU-MOLIV OY} Aq poyeoIpur suOTPOIIIP OY} UL SouTT poyOp 94} BUIMOT[OF A SUIvISTIP Io} UT “FL oAoqu poureu dnois otf} Jo o[duiexe yeorday & Jo AIOYSTY-IftT OU} SUTUINO urv«seIp B ST YouBsg Yovo MOP “4yBi oy} preaoy aouTystp Aq oINyou.Tys JO Ayrxo|du109 SUISTo1oUT -ostq oY} 9AOGe o0UBYSTpP Aq uUMOYS ST oult} jo JoplQ “SUTAT] MOU SoATYepUISOIdII SAVY FRY} sjyurd oat UTad O1OUL JO SOT OUvIg uleur asoy} Osye yo ood VARI org peecenas : ullodsoisue oy} jo ouTy [ety vuB OY} 4OF spueys 9AOqe OUT] sutyouvsq ‘KAvOY Ip], ‘B[V wWoIF sosvzs snOWeA YSNoIY} squv/d Sumeaoy Jo UOTyNJoAs posoddus of} SuyperysN| IL SsuBIgeIg—'PSg ‘PLL 559 560 LIFE-HISTORIES or certain parts of them, to further protect the embryo and pro- vide for its surer and wider dispersal. Hence arise protective shells (Figs. 23-36) and various aids to dissemination, including wing-like or plume-like appendages (Figs. 55, 59, 76, 159, 197, 215, 248, etc.), for catching the wind; elastic springs for propelling the seeds to a distance (Figs. 164, 165), and succulent parts (igs. 88-110) which being attractive food, lead animals to swallow indigestible sceds and transport them often to enormous distances. Thus, it is in plants which form seeds within a case that we find the most perfect provision for the welfare of offspring; and it is doubtless because of this provision that angiosperms are the dominating plants of to-day. In concluding our survey of vegetable evolution it may help us to a just perspective if we briefly review the main steps which the ancestors of angiosperms appear to have taken in their long upward journey. The accompanying diagrams (Fig. 384) will serve to recall the chief facts and conclusions already presented regarding the phylogeny of these highest plants, and also the ontogeny of modern types representing the supposed links in the series. In accordance with the “law of recapitulation” (see page 435) we find that the younger the stages the more they are alike, and that imma- ture stages of the higher types correspond to mature stages of lower types, the youngest stage of each being a single cell like the supposed ancestor of all. This reproduces simply by fission, a process which is retained by all higher forms as growth by cell-division resulting in cell-rows, cell-plates, or cell-masses variously differentiated into tissues and ultimately, tissue-systems. Vegetative reproduction occurs also in these higher forms through the occasional separation of cells or cell-groups capable of independent life. Sexual reproduc- tion appears with the fusion of two protoplasts to form one which afterward increases by division. In the aquatic forms the fusing protoplasts soon became motile and this motility is long retained in the male by their descendants while adapting themselves to a terrestrial life, and disappears finally when this is fully attained. The single protoplast resulting from the fusion of two gives a second unicellular beginning and thus the life-history of an individual becomes divided into a sexual and a non-sexual stage or generation. When the female protoplast remains attached to a plant in the sexual stage until after fertilization there results an egg-cell which becomes a non-sexual embryo if the connection be maintained so that the sexual generation may nurse the non-sexual. This new beginning, nursed by the more primitive stage, affords, it would seem, a good opportunity for the transition from life in water to life on land. Then, too, the nursing, when not excessive, both permits and encourages the highest development of the non-sexual genera- tion. Tinally, it nurses the nurse, and thus through ample provision for both nurse and nursling produces a seed well cared for in every way. This is the greatest achievement of the vegetable kingdom. CHAPTER XIII THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE 197. The three kingdoms. It has long been the general opinion that all natural objects fall readily into three main groups or kingdoms—the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal. Over a century ago the characteristics of each kingdom as understood at the time, were given by Linnzus in his famous aphorism: “Minerals grow; plants grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel.’ This threefold division is still recognized as convenient, and the distinctions given are admitted as valid to a considerable extent; but that a mineral grows in essentially the same way as a plant, and that a plant lacks any quality that is found in all animals, would not generally be admitted by the naturalists of to-day. In order to understand modern views regarding the plant’s place in Nature we need to consider what is meant by grow- ing, living, and feeling. By ‘“‘growth” Linnzeus seems to have meant merely increase in size. Yet is not the enlargement of a seaweed or a fish essentially different from the so-called growth of a salt crystal in concentrated brine? The crystal gets larger simply by additions upon the outside, while the living body increases in size by the incorporation within itself of substances de- rived from without. Moreover, the crystal as it enlarges remains substantially the same throughout, and all the parts behave alike. In a growing body on the contrary there is a progressive differentiation of parts and functions. Hence we cannot say that a mineral grows in the same sense that an organism grows. But does not Linnzus express the differences above in- 1 Lapides crescunt; vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt; animalia crescunt, vivunt et sentrunt. : 561 562 THID PLANT'S PLACE IN NATURE sisted upon by saying that organisms are alive? Doubtless he meant to do so; yet what did he mean by life without any trace of feeling? What sort of feeling can a sponge or a jelly- fish have that we must deny to a climbing-plant, or to a swimming-plant that moves toward the light? Our only evidence that the animal feels is that it responds by move- ments to certain stimuli. When we watch plants carefully we find that they also respond to similar stimuli. Thus we are left without any distinction between plants and animals; and since what ‘feeling’ stands for in animals is found in plants as well, it would seem that this same “feeling” might be what best distinguishes living from lifeless bodies, and so underlies the various manifestations of life. According to a view which we must examine more at length it is because of their purposeful activities that animals and plants are called living, and because of their coordinated parts, organic. All other bodies are then appropriately termed lifeless or inorganic. This modern view of Nature implies a revised classification which may be conveniently presented in the following tabular form. : {Inorganic Realm or Mineral Kingdom. Nae : , { Vegetable Kingdom. ( Organic Realm; , . = | Animal Kingdom. 198. The inorganic realm, it must be admitted, presents many points of fundamental similarity with the organic. Thus volume, mass, resistance, form, and all such physical properties are common to both realms. Furthermore, all the chemical elements found in animals or plants occur also in minerals, and often in the same combinations. Indeed many of the so-called ‘organic compounds” once supposed to be formed only within living bodies are now made in chemical laboratories by purely artificial means. Oil of wintergreen, indigo, and madder-red are examples we have already had occasion to notice. Many others might be added, including certain sugars. It has been urged that some day it may be possible to manufacture protoplasm artificially, and so break down the distinction now made THE INORGANIC REALM 563 between living and lifeless things. Certain naturalists go so far as to insist that even to-day no fundamental difference can be found that will absolutely distinguish all organisms from all minerals. They say that life consists merely of the activities of protoplasm, that these are determined solely by the combined properties of the several chemical elements of which protoplasm is composed, and that already it is possible to match every one of the fundamental properties of protoplasm by an artificial process. For example, if a crystal of copper sulphate be thrown into a solution of potassium ferrocyanide there is formed at once, by precipitation around the crystal, a membrane resembling a cell-wall, which presents every appearance of growing as a consequence of pressure from within and fresh precipitation wherever the two solutions come in contact. The artificial cell thus produced may attain considerable size and branch in various ways. Another striking experiment consists in putting a few grams of mercury into a flat-bottomed dish containing a 10% solution of nitric acid in water, and then placing a crystal of bichromate of potash on the bottom about an inch away from the mercury. As the potash salt dissolves it becomes surrounded by a reddish cloud which finally reaches the mercury. Then suddenly the mercury becomes agitated, moves toward the crystal, and envelopes it, very much as certain of the lower animals seize and swallow their prey. Finally, an experiment held to be of profound significance as showing in a mineral substance the very essence of growth and reproduction attended by anabolic and catabolic reac- tions, consists in adding to a certian quantity of acetic acid, chemic- ally equivalent amounts, successively, of phosphorous pentachlo- ride, zinc ethyl, and oxygen. As a result there is formed double the original amount of acetic acid plus several substances which cor- respond to the by-products of organic metabolism.’ Here, then, we have what is regarded as the life-history of a molecule, which, so long as it is fed, grows and reproduces as if by fission and excretes much as a bacterium would do. 1 For the benefit of students familiar with organic chemistry the transformations above referred to may be expressed by the following equations copied from Les Problémes de la Vie, by 1. Giglio-Tos. Part I, 1900, pp. 20, 21. Acetic acid Phosphorus Acetyl Phosphorus Hydrochloric (2 molecules) pentachloride chloride oxychloride acid CH, CH, | PCL =f + PCl,0 + HCl COOH COCI1 : COOH COC1 | + PCl = | + PCI,0 + HCl CH, CH, 564 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE What is the utmost that may be inferred from such experiments? Have lifeless things really been made to act as if they were alive? It is plain that all we have here are simply imitations of isolated vital processes, and not such a coordination of activities as character- izes a living being. Living protoplasm does not merely feed, or grow, or reproduce, or respond to stimuli: it does all these things at once, and more; and its activities are so coordinated as to accomplish definite ends. Nothing which can do all that protoplasm does has ever been manufactured. Supposing it were possible, however, to effect a combination of elements which would imitate all the physical and chemical activities of protoplasm, and all at once; what would that mean? We could be sure that such artificial protoplasts would always do the same thing under the same condi- tions, and that corresponding parts would always act exactly alike. Acetyl chloride Zinc ethyl Methylethylketone Zine chloride CH; | CH; | CH; CH, CO | | COCcl CH; CH; ee ine = + Zn Cls COCl CHs CHs | | CH; CH; CH | CH; Methylethylketone Oxygen Acetic acid co CHa | CH. COOH | + 30 = re CH, | CH; COOH oe CH; | CH COOH | te 30 = CO CHs | | CHs COOH Thus for every (wo molecules of acetic acid four are finally produced. THE INORGANIC REALM 565 But this is precisely what seems not to happen with living proto- plasts. No two living things are ever expected to act in the same way in all respects. Furthermore, the theory of evolution as we have seen, assumes that the halves of a cell divided by fission have individual differences such as we should have no reason to expect in the artificial protoplasts of a single batch. We may well believe that something quite essential to life will always elude the efforts of any man to create a living thing. Nothing that has been done gives any assurance of the possibility of realizing such a dream. It used to be supposed that the transformation of a lifeless into a living thing might be scientifically demonstrated to occur in the appearance of bacteria in a putrescible substance. The supposed transformation was called spontaneous generation, a term also ap- plied to an older notion widely held that many of the lower forms of life arose spontaneously from dead matter, as maggots in cheese or pond-scum on a stagnant pool. What gave rise to the belief that bacteria were spontaneously generated was that sometimes after a broth had been boiled in a flask and all air excluded, bacteria did appear within a few days. Investigation showed, however, that in these cases spores were present which were able to resist an amount of heat fatal to the plants in their actively dividing condition; and one had only to repeat the boiling till all the plants were killed in order to obtain a broth which could be kept indef- initely. Science was thus left without any proof of spontaneous generation, and it must now be said that so far as we know every organism has had a living parent or parents. The aphorism “ All life comes from former life ”’ still remains undisproved. Those who doubt that there is any essential difference be- tween living and lifeless things may still urge in favor of their view that certain plants are to all appearance practically lifeless during their so-called resting period; and if that be true we have a lifeless thing coming to life simply as a con- sequence of a change in temperature. So also, many simple organisms when frozen lose all trace of life except that they live as before, when they are thawed out. They may be submitted to a temperature of 250° below zero centigrade for any length of time and will resume their activities when warm. Or, they may be dried so as to show no more sign of life than so much inorganic dust, and then be revived by moisture. Thus when there is too much or too little heat, or not enough water present to permit signs of life, an or- ganism may be as inactive as a crystal and indistinguishable from a lifeless thing except in so far as under favorable condi- 566 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE tions it again becomes active. We should remember, how- ever, that even granting in such cases the appearance of life in a body which before was lifeless, it was a reappearance; and this previous life again confronts us with the original problem. We still must ask, Is there not some profound difference between a body in which life reappears and one in which life never has appeared? To this question the doubter may reply: “Let us go back then to the first of living things. Evolutionists suppose this to have come from something that had never been alive before. Does not the change here assumed imply that the inorganic realm merges so gradually into the organic that some organisms differ no more from some minerals than one organism or one mineral does from another?” Not at all. It does not follow just because one thing is transformed into another that the new may not be profoundly different from the old. An evolutionist, therefore, is free to believe that when the first living creature appeared upon the earth, a form of existence essentially different from any that had been here before, came into the world. We may suppose that as the earth was cooling from its molten state there were formed according to chemical and physical laws acting under conditions not since repeated, aggregations of com- pounds like those now found only in the organic realm; and that as soon as the temperature became favorable these aggregations became alive, exhibiting the activities of a living thing much as a revived creature would do. In saying this, however, we have admitted only that life may have appeared as soon as the conditions required for its manifes- tation were present. We have not implied that life is a product of the chemical and physical properties of matter, however necessary certain material conditions are to the manifestation of life in an organism. It may be freely ad- mitted that chemically and physically considered certain lifeless bodies are indistinguishable from certain living ones; that indeed one and the same body may pass from one condi- tion to the other without change of properties, and that when alive all the activities of its parts are describable in chemical and physical terms. All this would necessarily THE INORGANIC REALM 567 be true if the life principle were an immaterial something which could find expression in an organism only through material bodies presenting favorable properties under favor- able conditions; and if life be not inherent in matter we should expect that all attempts to find any difference between the matter with which life is associated and that which is lifeless, would fail, as they have done. It may be urged against the supposition of life having entered into lifeless compounds as a controlling force in the beginning that this virtually concedes the possibility of lifeless bodies becoming alive, and merely substitutes a wholly mysterious idea for a chemical con- ception of the process. It is conceded that an evolutionist who as- sumes a first living thing to have been produced in some way can hardly escape supposing this living thing to have become alive; but neither does he escape facing a mystery whether he tries to think about it in chemical terms or not. Scientific thinkers try to avoid unnecessary assumptions. Why then should we assume that there ever was a first living thing? There can be no more need of so doing than of trying to imagine a time when the universe began to exist. Parts of the universe may always have been alive. Yet granting this possibility, it may be argued that since no life could have existed upon the earth when it was a molten sphere we have still to account for the presence of life upon it to-day. The answer of modern as- tronomers to the question as to how our earth came to be inhabited is afforded by the theory of panspermia.! This theory supposes that innumerable living spores are traveling through the celestial spaces impelled by the radiation pressure of light. It has been found by experiment that minute particles allowed to fall in a vacuum are driven from their downward course by a beam of light; and it has been calculated that spherical spores 0.00016 mm. in diameter— such as we have good reason for believing to exist although too small to be seen through ordinary microscopes—would be moved readily by the pressure of sunlight if they should once pass out of our atmos- phere. Air currents would carry such bodies to a height of about 60 miles where, if electrified by a radiating auroral discharge they would be carried beyond our atmosphere and beyond the effective pull of gravity. The light pressure could then propel them to the orbit of Mars in about twenty days, and beyond our solar system in little more than a year. Thousands of years might be required for them to reach other solar systems; but meanwhile the extreme cold, dryness, and other conditions prevailing in space would be favorable to their remaining alive and resting indefinitely. Within a solar system particles of dust are being attracted towards the sun. If a traveling spore should meet one of these dust particles it might be 1 Pan-sper’ mi-a < Gr. pan, universal; sperma, seed or living germ. 568 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE carried into the atmosphere of a planet, and without harm come to rest upon its surface there to germinate if the conditions proved to be favorable. It would thus appear that we have abundant scientific warrant for supposing that the first living things upon our earth were resting spores which came through vast spaces from some other planet; and that our simplest forms of life are being distributed sim- ilarly throughout the universe, just as similar living germs have been carried from planet to planet during endless ages for which it would be idle to seek a beginning. Life having always existed does not need to be accounted for in terms of physics and chemistry.t If not in physical or chemical terms, how then can we define that which distinguishes all living from all lifeless things? Some naturalists have seemed to think that this question could best be answered by trying to interpret the more complex manifestations of life in the higher organisms through a study of the simpler manifestations of the lower forms: but this means trying to explain the life of which we know most by that of which we know least. A method just the reverse is surely more promising. When I ask myself what it is that makes me alive, my answer is: Not any par- ticular arrangement or movement of material particles of a certain sort, but rather an immaterial something which to some extent can control the arrangements and movements of such particles in accordance with purposes peculiarly my own. My body is alive only so long as it affords opportunity for the exercise of my will. It is my power of choice that makes me alive. What I choose gives me my character. My life and my individuality come from my power to choose and the way I use it. If you should ask me how I suppose an immaterial existence can exert an influence upon what is material, I must answer that I have no more idea than I have how mind ean affect mind or matter affect matter. The real nature of either is doubtless very imperfectly expressed by any scientific defini- tionsof them that were ever offered; but I do not need to know the ultimate truth about them in order to feel justified in be- lieving that. somehow in every living creature the free will of something mental gets expressed through something material, ‘Por a fuller account of the theory of panspermia the student may profitably consult Worlds in the Making by Svante Arrhenius, 1908, from which the calculations given above have been taken. THE ORGANIC REALM 569 whatever mind or matter may be and however they may inter- act. If Iam right in my belief, then it follows that this power of choice which we have already seen reason to regard as the fundamental factor in organic evolution, is indeed the very essence of life. On this view an organism is recognized as alive when it shows signs of control from within, manifested by activities regarded as purposeful, and in so far peculiar to itself as to defy exact foretelling. It has been well said that no arguments can ever force a person to believe that even he himself has a free will; for, if it were true that he had a free will he must always be free to choose the other alternative. The reader will understand, therefore, in what follows that as a believer in free will I wish merely to show some of the consequences of this belief to anyone who is dis- posed to share it with me. Those who agree with me will feel free to believe in the workings of will throughout the universe. They will conceive of the difference between a lifeless and a living thing as simply this: the lifeless thing must do whatever it does, while the living thing may do this or that. From this it follows that to us and to all other living things belongs in various measure a power of preference.1 The range of this power in us though limited by a Power beyond ourselves increases according as it is used. And shall we not say that the Power which limits while it permits the exercise of our separate wills is reflected in what we call the inorganic realm? 199. The organic realm. A typical living organism may be conceived of as a self-building boat formed of materials taken from the inorganic stream in which it floats, but con- trolled by an indwelling, immaterial power capable of steer- 1Jf the reader has studied philosophy he is doubtless aware that certain thinkers who concede a power of choice to all living things refuse to limit this power to the organic realm, but hold that a certain measure of conscious freedom is permitted to every particle of matter. They favor this view as enabling them to unify their conception of the universe, and at the same time to recognize the immanence of God throughout. The unification which is gained, however, by saying that all things are alive, deprives Life of any special meaning. For if nothing is really lifeless, being alive means no more than simply existing. What- ever truth there may be in saying that all Nature is somehow alive seems to me to be implied in the view outlined above. 570 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE ing as it chooses. The materials of such a living boat as we have imagined would be continually dissolving into the stream; while, at the same time, fresh inorganic material, admitted by the indwelling power, would be building the structure anew. So long as these materials formed part of the boat or showed signs of having once belonged to its organized structure, we should call them organic; and we should apply the same term to any compounds possessing the same properties. So long as the materials were arranged in a way to permit the indwelling chooser to act through them directly, they would constitute living substance. Until thus controlled they would be simply lifeless substances; after they had passed from this control they would be dead. Be- fore they had been organized and after they had ceased to bear the marks of organization we should call them inorganic. The materials of which these wonderful boats are made consist chiefly, as we have seen, of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. It is perhaps significant that each of the four is preeminent for certain properties which are in marked contrast with what characterizes one or more of the others. Carbon, in a sense, is the most solid of all known substances. It requires the highest tempera- ture to melt it, and in its diamond condition exceeds all other materials in hardness. It is remarkable for the dif- ferent ways it can combine, and as entering into more com- pounds than all the other elements taken together. Hydro- gen, on the other hand, is of all common elements the most fluid. It requires the utmost cold to freeze it and remains gaseous under the highest pressure. It is remarkable for the ease with which it may be made to pass from one com- pound to another. Oxygen, also a gas at ordinary tempera- tures, is pre¢éminent for the stability of its compounds, and for the activity it shows in combining; while nitrogen, simi- larly gaseous, is in marked contrast as being most difficult to combine and most unstable in combination. We have here, then, three of the most fluid of substances, gaseous at all life-temperatures, combined with the most solid sub- stance known; and among the four we find the readiest com- biner, and the most inert; the easiest to displace, and the THE ORGANIC REALM 571 most firmly grappling; the stablest, and the most unstable, of all common elements. From the interplay of such oppo- sites extraordinary resultants should appear. If localized wills are to gain progressive expression through masses of matter we should expect that the materials used would have both mobility and fixity. That is to say, we should look for a constant flow of particles, and at the same time relative permanence in the arrangements into which they temporarily enter; for only thus could change be added to change. Furthermore, if such a will were to be free to oppose outside influences as well as to yield to them promptly, the material through which it responded should have unusual stability associated with an instability resembling that of explosive compounds. Accordingly, since the properties of a compound result from the properties of its constituent elements more or less modified by mutual influence, it may not be altogether fanciful to suppose that the solidity of carbon, the fluidity of hydrogen, the stability of oxygen, and the instability of nitrogen may be especially significant as properties which in combination largely account for the almost paradoxical properties of living substance which is characterized by permanence with constant change, and sen- sitiveness with resistance; and having withal such an exceed- ing delicacy of balance that an infinitesimal force is suffi- cient to release energy in one direction rather than another. Of course a complete explanation of the chemico-physical properties of this living substance, if ever attainable, must be vastly more complex than might appear from the vague suggestions given above as to possible connections between a few important facts. The purpose of these hints is merely to indicate how increasing knowledge of matter may help us to understand the conditions under which life is possible, and so be of profit in our dealings with the world in which we live. It seems only reasonable to assume that the prop- erties inherent in the materials of which all living bodies are composed should make possible and largely determine the activities they all exhibit. Whatever may be the explanation of the fundamental properties of protoplasm, they are indeed, marvelous to 572 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE contemplate. Our simile of the living boats would need to be much elaborated before it could well portray the bewilder- ing complexities of action and interaction which go on within the simplest organisms. We said that the materials of each organic craft were being continually lost and continually replaced. But we must remember that often more is added than is lost; then the organism grows. It should be said also that so long as inner impulses control the arrangement of the fresh material, and thus partly determine the character of the growing structure, the arrangements formed usually show progressive fixity, each arrangement determining some- what the arrangements which follow and rendering them less susceptible of change. Hence, old age with its decreasing mobility and final death is an incidental result of the pro- gressive fixity which makes structure and habit possible. Yet under certain conditions, as we have seen, protoplasm passes into a fixed condition, to all appearance like that of death, but from which it may revive with youth renewed. A similar renewal of mobility distinguishes reproduction from mere growth, and offsets death in the economy of na- ture. Our living boats, then, grow old, and may die; or, they may become inactive and afterward resume activity with youthful vigor. When they have grown large enough they form out of themselves new boats, similarly invigorated and similarly relieved from the hamperings of old habits or fixed arrangements ;—but not entirely, for each is built upon much the same lines as its parent, and in its own building can only modify the design. Yet what wonders may result from an ever so slight power of modification bearing the slightest im- press of achoice! This part may be modified in one way, that in another: and morphological differentiation with physio- logical division of labor may ensue. What one brief life can- not accomplish, another may; individuality, heredity, adap- tation, organic evolution—all are here implied. Such are the powers and potentialities of a mass of living jelly. Our imagined boats each built and captained by a choos- ing power are meant to represent living things in general. All plants and all animals, as we have seen, differ from all minerals in having differentiated organs adapted to the needs THE ORGANIC REALM 573 imposed by the conditions under which they live; and in detaching certain portions of their substance, such as seeds or eggs, capable of developing from infancy to old age by taking in as food suitable materials, transforming them, then building them into their bodies, and finally after utilization, eliminating them as waste products. Such being the charac- teristics of all living things we should hardly expect any well- marked peculiarities by which all animals can be distin- guished from all plants. In fact there is not a single point of difference available for separating sharply the animal from the vegetable kingdom. The Linnean criterion of feeling we have already found to fail when applied to primitive types. So also the popular criterion of motion or locomotion must be rejected by anyone acquainted with the lower forms of life, which include not only motile plants but fixed animals; and we have only to remember the absence of chlorophyll from many plants to realize that even this highly charac- teristic vegetable substance does not afford an adequate mark of distinction between the two kingdoms. Not a few organisms behave like plants at one stage, and like animals at another. A considerable number of these vegeto-animal organisms have been claimed alike by botanists and zodl- ogists. The uncertainty in classifying such forms has led to the suggestion that a third organic kingdom, intermediate between the animal and the vegetable, be recognized to include all the kinds in dispute. This suggestion has not met with much favor among naturalists, for instead of lessen- ing the practical difficulties of the case it would really double them by giving us two uncertain boundary lines instead of one. Our best way surely is to meet the difficulty by trying to define as strictly as possible what may be conveniently meant by animal and plant, remembering that whatever definition we frame is sure to be arbitrary. We know that the great majority of plants organize in- organic material, while the great majority of animals, if not all, have no such power and so must depend upon plants for their food. The raw materials which plants build up into food have only to be absorbed in solution from the water, soil, or air in which they live. The elaborated food of animals, 574 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE on the other hand, is generally solid and so requires to be dis- solved in a digestive cavity within the body before absorp- tion is possible. Plants which can make their own food from materials always at hand have no such need for traveling about in search of food as most animals have; and while food-seeking calls for the special sensitiveness which Linnzus termed feeling, food-making involves only such manifesta- tions of irritability as might easily escape his notice. A typical plant is thus a sedentary food-maker, a typical animal being a roving eater. It is only when plants lose more or less their power of making food, and animals their power of locomotion that doubt arises as to their kingdom, and then the question has to be decided not so much by rules and definitions, as by evidences of their kinship to un- doubted examples of vegetable or animal life. A Bacterium, for example, is classed as a plant because of re- semblances to a Nostoc which outweigh its animal-like motility and dependence upon organic food. If a Bacterium should develop a digestive cavity for the reception of its food we Bion say it had become an animal. The most fundamental difference between plants and animals appears thus to lie in the ways they prefer to get their food—the vegetable way being to make the best of what comes to it, the animal choosing rather to capture what plants have made. Returning to our simile of the boats it might be said that the vegetable craft choose to anchor in a stream of materials which they organize into food, while the animal craft navigate the stream and repair their losses entirely from other vessels. A modern revision of the aph- orism of Linnzeus, still, however, confessedly inaccurate, might read:—minerals crystallize; plants organize or re- organize materials which they absorb; animals reorganize food which they have swallowed. 200. Plants in general. The foregoing reflections upon the way natural objects are related to one another are in- tended especially to emphasize the pivotal place which plants hold in the economy of nature. It is now believed that the wide and rich possibilities of earthly life could not have been gained or maintained without plants. Plants were PLANTS IN GENERAL 575 presumably the first things to manifest individualized powers of choice upon our planet; and plants have so chosen that animals have been born and enabled to realize the highest opportunities of life. Hence, because some plants have chosen as they did, we are now able to choose as we do. One of the earliest results of plant choice was doubtless the fixed mode of life; and with this we may connect the building of a protective cellulose covering and framework readily permeable by fluid raw-food materials. The firmness of this framework, combined with its power of conducting fluids, permitted eventually the building, even upon land, of enormous structures hundreds of feet in height. Fixity, together with their powers of absorption, have thus enabled plants to attain in some cases the longest life and the greatest size of any organisms. Preferring to be home-keepers rather than hunters their more tranquil lives have given neither opportunity nor occasion for such specializations of sensitive- ness as are involved in the rapid and highly complex re- sponses of animals. Hence it is that their modes of life appear so different from ours although but modified mani- festations of the same fundamental, vital power. It is just because of the contrasts between vegetable and human life that plants are able to serve our needs in so many ways. They feed us because they have retained the power of food-making which our line of life has lost. They shelter us because they have learned how to form in wood a con- structive material better than any we or our ancestors could ever make. They clothe us because the cellulose fibers of their bodies make a better covering than the hairs our bodies have retained. They warm us and work for us because they can store’up sunshine, as we cannot. They help to make us well partly because their waste-products are so different from ours. They excite our admiration by doing to perfec- tion so many things we cannot do at all. They harm us only when we have not learned to know them and to behave toward them as we should. There are thus abundant reasons why mankind should study the economic properties of plants as fully as possible. We may be sure there will always be much to learn regarding the relations of plants to human 576 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE welfare, and that all we shall learn about this or any other aspect of their lives may serve to enrich our own. Thus, an inexhaustible interest as well as an increasing command over the resources of our world is the reward of our endeavor. An even deeper interest than belongs to any idea of use or harm is also sure to be aroused by watching the behavior of these our fellow-creatures that are so different from us in almost every way. For, again, these very differences give them an endless fascination as objects of study; and, finally, it is just these differences which enable us to distinguish the incidental from the essential powers of life. In these or- ganisms we see individualized wills expressed under condi- tions as different as possible from those which permit the action of our own power of choice. We cannot hope to fathom the mysteries to which the humblest plant may lead us; we can only say with the poet Tennyson— “Flower in the crannied wall. I pluck you out of the crannies, Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, Little flower—but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is.” INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Abnormalities, 436 Absinthe, 159 Absorbent cotton, 228 Acacia Senegal, Gum Arabic Tree Accommodation versus competi- tion, 454 Acer Saccharum, Sugar-maple Aceracee, Maple Family Acetic Acid, 156 Achene, 351, 386 Aconite, 182, 189, 190 Aconitine, 190 Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood Acorn, morphology, 375 Acorus Calamus, Sweet-flag Acquired adaptations, 441, 443; characters, 443, 445 Acquirement, permitted by nat- ural selection, 450; versus selec- tion, 452 Aecrid juice, 357 Acta spicata, Baneberry Adaptation, 428, 572 Adaptations, 431; acquired, 441, 443; characteristic, 442; in- dividual, 442; origin of, 442; selected, 446; sudden, 457, 459 Adder-tongue, 532, 533, 558 Adder-tongue Family: adder- tongue, 532, 533, 558; grape- fern, 532, 633. Adhere, 365 Adhesion of organs, 365 Aération, 530 Aistivation, 349; convolute, 369; imbricate, 349, 354; open, 371; plicate, 381; plicate-convolute, 381; valvate, 349, 354 Agaricacee, Gill-mushroom Fam- ily Agaricus campestris, Field Mush- room Agriculture, primitive centers, 122, 123 Air-cushions, 284 Air-plant, 508 Albumen, 316, 351, 352 Albuminous seeds, 355 Alcohol, 156 Alcoholic beverages, 156 Alcoholic fermentation, 495 Alga Subdivision, 395, 396 Alge, Seaweed Subdivision Alge, as gonidia, 509; in general, 491; of hot springs, 475 Algo-fungal air-plants, 509 Alkaloids, 150, 177, 181 Allium Cepa, Onion Allspice, 128, 130, 177; oil, 130, 297 Almond, 35, 42, 120, 124, 167, 363; kernel, 114; oil, 296; philopena, 365 Alpine Rose, 378 Alternate, floral organs, 350, 354; leaves, 342, 352 Alternation, of floral organs, 350; of generations, 485, 512 Althea officinalis, Marshmallow Amadou, 239, 241 Amanita muscaria, Fly-amanita phalloides, Death-cup Amarantacew, Amaranth Family Amaranth Family, 378 Amaryllidacee, Amaryllis Family Amaryllis Family, 397 Amber, 288 Amentaceous inflorescence, 373 Aments, 373 American, aspen, 264; food-plants, 124; elm, 259; laurels, 416, 417; sycamore, 267, 268; wood- anemony, 205 Ammonia, 33 577 578 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Anabolism, 84 Anabolism imitated, 563 Anacardiacce, Sumac Family Analogous organs, 321, 326 Analogues, 321, 322, 326 Analogy, 326 Ananas sativas, Pineapple Anatropous ovules, 346, 355 Ancestral forms vague, 441 Ancient food-plants, 124 Andreecium (see also stamens), 346, 347 Andropogon halepensis, Johnson Grass Sorghum, Broom-corn Anemone quinquefolia, American Wood-anemony nemerosa, Wood-anemony Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower Anemony, 328-356, 341, 404, 405 Angiosperma, (Case-seed Class), 8 Angiospermous gynoecium, 392 Angiosperms, 397; as dominating plants, 560; evolution of, 538 Aniline dyes, 290 Animal, fibers, 22 562 Animals and plants defined, 573, 574 Animals evolved from plants, 466 Anise, 137, 142, 170, 370, 412, 413 Annual herbs, 333; rings, 253 Annuals, 352 Annulus, 529 Anther, 12, 14, 319, 550 Antheridia, 515, 516, 517, 527, 537 Antheridia-carriers, 516 Antheridiophores, 516 Anthers dehiscing by longitudinal slits, 354, 855; by uplifted valves, 360; poricidal, 379; syngenesious, 384 Anthoceros lavis, Horned-liverwort Anthocerotacee, Horned-liverwort Family Antiseptics, 177 Apetalous flowers, 349 Aphorism of Linneus, 561; re- vised, 574 Apium graveolens, Celery Apocynacee, Dogbane Family Apothecium, 605 3; kingdom, 561, Appendages for dissemination, 560 Apple, 86, 87, 88, 121, 124, 363, 408, 409; pulp, 114; wood, 269 Aquatie ancestry of fernworts, 550 Aquifoliacee, Holly Family Aquilegia vulgaris, Columbine Arabin, 163, 164 Arabinose, 164 Aracee, Arum Family Arachis hypogea, Peanut Arales, Arum Order Araliacee, Ginseng Family Archegonia-carriers, 518 Archegonia, rudimentary, 556 Archegoniophores, 518 Archegonium, 514, 528, 537, 551 Archichlamydee, Crowfoot Series Archichlamydeous flower, 378 Aril, 213, 393 Arrhenius, Svante, 568 Arrow-poison, 189 Artemisia Absinthium, Wormwood Artichoke, Jerusalem, 43, 61, 62, 120, 125, 385, 420, 421 Articles of "dress, 284 Artificial, cell, 563; feeding, 563; lightning, 168; limbs, 245; 280: selection, 446, 447, 455; silk, 224, 228; systems, 307 Arum Family, 389, 397, 422, 423: sweet-flag, 174 Arum Order, 389, 397, 422, 423 Asafetida, 170, 172, 173, 175, 287, 370, 412, 413 Ascolichenes, Spore-sac Lichens Ascomycetes, Spore-sac Fungi Ascospore, 501 Ascus, 501 Ash, in coal, 300; in foods, 114; in grains, 30; in peat, 300; in wood, 298, 300 Ash, splints, 241; wood, 562, 259 Asparagus, 55, 64, 124, 390, 424, 425 Asparagus officinalis, Asparagus Aspen, American, 264 Aspidium Filix-mas, Male-fern Astragalus gummifer, Tragacanth Shrub Astringents, 154, 166 white, 259; 65, 114, 120, INDEX 579 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Atavism, 436 Atropa Belladonna, Belladonna Atropine, 182, 186 Attar of roses, 150 Authority, 7 Avena sativa, Oats Awn, 13 Awnings, 223 Ax handles, 286 Axil, 319 Axile placenta, 355 Bacillus subtilis, Hay Bacillus Bacteria, 492, 511 Bacteriacee, Rod-germ Family Bacterium, 574 Bacterium aceti, Vinegar Ferment acidi lactict, Milk-souring Bac- terilum Bagging, 230, 232 Balls, 245, 277 Bamboo, 232, 235, 239, 274, 291, 387, 420, 421 Bambusa vulgaris, Bamboo Banana, 88, 98, 99, 121, pulp, 114 Banana Family, 397: banana, 98, 99; Manila hemp plant, 233 Banana Order, 597 Baneberry, 328-356, 334, 335, 404, 405 Barberry Family, 398 Bark, 252; origin, 254 Barley, 11, 15, 25, 120, 124, 126, 156, 235, 387, 420, 421; com- mon, 21; kernel, 114; range, 26; six-rowed, 22; two-rowed, 22 Barrels, 263 Base-ball bats, 245 124; Basidiolichenes, Spore-base — Li- chens Basidiomycetes, Spore-base Fungi Basidium, 502, 503 Basketry, 223, 235 Baskets, 241 Basswood, 263 Bast fibers, 224, 228 Bats, 245 Bayberry Family, 398 Bayberry Order, 398 Bay, Bull, 262 Bean, 40, 270, 365, 408, 409; kid- ney, 49; Lima, 51 Beard-lichen Family: beard-lichen, 507, 508 Beard, of grasses, 13 Bee plants, 303 Beech, 414, 415; European, 268; wood, 257, 268 Beech Family, 374, 398, 414, 415; chestnut, 37; cork oak, 277, 278; English oak, 258; Euro- pean beech, 268; red oak, 257 Beech Order, 376, 398, 414, 415 Beer, 156, 495 Beet, 43, 52, 53, 120, 124 Beet-sugar, 102 Beggar sores, 217 Beginnings, many, 433 Belladonna, 186, 187, 208, 382, 416, 417 Bellflower, 384, 418, 419; creeping, 381 Bellflower Family, 384, 401, 420, 421: creeping bellflower, 381; Indian tobacco, 201 Bellflower Order, 386, 401, 420, 421 Bellflower Series, 386, 397 Belts, 223 Bent embryo, 363 Berberidacee, Barberry Family Berry, 351 Berry-like fruit, 392 Bertholletia excelsa, Brazil-nut Beta vulgaris, Beet Betula alba, White Birch Betulacee, Birch Family Beverage plants, 128 Biennial, 52, 333 Bignoniacee, Bignonia Family Bignonia Family, 401 Bilabiate calyx, 366 Billiard cues, 245 Binomial nomenclature, 4 Binders’ boards, 224 Biological botany, 10 Birch, 373, 412, 413; oil of, 297; white, 265; wood, 257, 263 Birch Family, 373, 398, 414, 415; filbert, 36; white birch, 265 Bird’s eye maple, 263 Bisexual thallus, 514 580 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Bitter Cassava, 104, 110, 111, 121, 124 Bittersweet, 209, 212 Black, dye, 294; mustard, 133, 134; nightshade, 208, 212: pep- per, 128, 131, 136, 177; pepper oil, 130; pigments, 294; walnut, 2 60, 376 Bladderwort. F: amily, 401 Bladder-wracks, +87, 488, 489 Blade, 336, 537 Blanc-mange, Trish moss, 107 Blossom, 343 Blue Alew, 470, 492, 508 Bluebell type of flowers, 435 Boats, portable, 284 Body of ovule, 346 Bone substitute, 276 Boot-soles, 287 Borage Family, 401 Boraginacee, Borage Family Borecole, Garden Ixale Botanical pictures, 312; tions, 1 Botany, as a study of names, 314; beginnings, 1; departments of, $; science of, 1; systematic, 314, 315 Botrychium Lunaria, Grape-fern Botryose inflorescence, 344, 345, 352 Bottle-gourd, 275, 383, 418, 419 Bowling-alleys, 245 Boxes, 243, 263, 268, 270 Brace root, 23, 299 Bract, 13, 343, 352, 354 Bractlet, 348, 352, 354 Braiding, 223 Branch, 428 Brandy, 159 Brassica campestris, Turnip nigra, Black Mustard oleracea, var. acephala, Garden Kale and Tree-cabbage oleracea, var. Botrytis, flower oleracea, var. capilata, Common Cabbage ques- Cauli- oleracea, var. gemmifera, Brus- sels Sprouts oleracea, var. gongylodes, Iwohl- rabi oleracea, var. sabauda, Savoy Cabbage oleracea, var. sylvestris, Wild Kale Brazilian Rubber-tree, 281 Brazil-nut, 35, 44, 120, 125, 282; kernel, 114; shells, 282 Brazil-nut Family, 400 Bread raising, 495 Breathing- pe 519, 529 Breeding, 430 Bridges, 270 Bromeliacee, Pineapple Family Brood-body, 514, 521 Brood-bud, 640, 542 Brood-cup, 521 Broom-corn, 232, 235, 236, 387, 420, 421 Brooms, 223, 235 Brown Alex, Brushes, 223; aisle 235 Brussels sprouts, 55, 69 Bryophyta, Bryophyte Division Bryophyte Division, 530 Bryophytes, 395, 396 Buckthorn Family, 399 Buckthorn Order, 399 Buckwheat, 11, 29, 120, 125, 126, 372, 412, 413; climbing, 556; kernel, 114 Buckwheat Family, 3 72, 398, 412, 413: buckwheat, 29; climbing buckwheat, 556; garden rhu- barb, 104; medicinal rhubarb, 170 Buckwheat Order, 372, 398, 412, 413 Budding, reproduction by, 495 Buds, 319, 320; reproduction by, 640, 542 Buffers, 280 Building, 222, 263 Buildings, 242 Bulb, 43; solid, 336 Bull Bay, 262 Burlap, 223, 230 Burr of chestnut, 38, 375 Butter bacteria, 494 Buttercup, 216, 443; at the sea- shore, 462; evolution of aquatie form, 467; pigmy, 444 Buttercups, 217, 328-356 INDEX 581 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Butternut, 35, 40, 120, 125, 376; wood, 261 Button-molds, 244 Buttons, 277 Buttonwood, 267, 268 Cabbage, 55, 120, 124, 274, 406, 407; common, 69; leaves, 114 Cabbages, ete., 362 Cabinet woods, 266, 268, 274 Cabinet work, 259, 261, 266, 270 Cables, 223, 235 Cacao, 103, 107, 108, 121, 150 Cacao-butter, 167 Cactus Family, 400 Cactus Order, 400 Caffeine, 150, 153, 154 Calamites ramosus, Giant Scour- ing Rush Calamus, 170 Calamus spp., Rattans Calisaya-tree, 188 Calking, 223 Calories in foods, 114 Calory, 116 Caltha palustris, Marsh-marigold Calycanthacee, Strawberry-shrub Family Calyptra, 515, 520, 526, 528, 529 Calyx, 29; bilabiate, 366; gam- osepalous, 366 Cambium, 252, 254, 542 Campanula rapunculoides, Creep- ing Bellflower Campanulacee, Bellflower Family Campanulales, Bellflower Order Camphor, 177, 228, 360 Camphors, 177 Campylotropous ovule, 363 Canal-cells, 544 Candles, 288 Canes, 245, 268, 274 Cane seats, 235 Cane-sugar, 101, 102 Cannabis sativa, Indian Hemp Canning, 157 Canoes, paper, 224 Cantaloup, Muskmelon Canvas, 230 Caoutchoue, 280, 281 Caper-bush, 145, 146 124, Caper Family, 398: caper-bush, 145, 146 Capers, 137 Caper Spurge, 216, 217 Capitate inflorescence, 373 Capparidacee, Caper Family Capparis spinosa, Caper-bush Cap of mushroom, 502 Caprifoliacee, Honeysuckle Fam- ily Caps, 239 Capsella — Bursa-pastoris, herd’s Purse Capsicum annuum, Red Pepper Capsule, 351, 515; enveloped loculicidal, 379; loculicidal, 368; marginicidally septifragal, 382; poricidal, 362; septicidal, 379; septifragal, 382 Caraway, 137, 142, 170, 297, 370, 410, 411 Carbohydrates, 31, 74, 114, 115 Carbon, 570 Carbonaceous foods, 115 Carbon dioxid, 68 Carbon filaments, 228 Carbonic acid gas, 68 Carboniferous period, 299 Cardamoms, 137, 141, 170 Cardol, 218 Carpel, 346, 352, 550, 551 Carpellary leaves, 352, 555 Carpentry, 242, 256, 271 Carpets, 230 Carpospore, 490 Carrageen, 105, 112, 121, 125, 163, 165, 395, 487, 491 Carrageen Family: carrageen, 112, 491 Carriages, 259, 260, 263 Carrot, 43, 55, 56, 57, 120, 124, 219, 370, 412, 418; wild, 430 Cars, 256, 259 Carum Carui, Caraway Carving, 242, 257, 263, 269, 280 Car-wheels, paper, 224 Carya alba, Hickory, Shagbark Carya oliveformis, Pecan Caryophyllacee, Pink Family Caryopsis, 388 Case-seed Class, 8, 391, 397 Case-seedworts, Case-seed Class Shep- 582 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Casks, 243 Cassava, Bitter, 104, 110, 111, 124 Castanea sativa, Chestnut Castile soap, 296 Castor-oil, 167 Castor-oil plant, 172, 173, 213 Catabolism, 85; imitated, 563 Catkins, 373 Caulicle, 317, 318, 319, 557 Cauliflower, 55, 70 Cedar, Red, 273, 392; oil of, 297; wood, 270 Celery, 55, 75, 114, 121, 124, 137, 370, 412, 413 Cell, 473, 560; artificial, 563 Cell-contents, 473 Cell-division, 510 Cell-masses, 560 Cell-multiplication, 511 Cell-plates, 560 Cell-rows, 560 Cells, mostly minute, 511; of large size, 510 Cellular cryptogams, 396 Celluloid, 224, 228 Cellulose, 32, 276, 472; products, 223, 224 Cellulose covering, protective and permeable, 575 Cell-wall, 473 Cement for leather, 287 Cements, 288 Central cylinder, 528 Cerealia munera, 11 Cereals, 11-34 (see also Grains); the principal, 15; value of, 30 Ceres, 11 Cetraria islandica, Iceland Moss Chaff, 11 Chain, family, 355 Chairs, 223 Chair seats, 241 Characteristic adaptations, 442 Characters, acquired, 443 Charcoal, 298, 300 Chart, Food, 114 Checkerberry, 203 Checkers, 245 Cheese bacteria, 494 Chemical botany, 9; of foods, 114 rapidity of, composition Chemico-physical properties of living protoplasm, 571 Chenopodiacew, Goosefoot Family Chenopodiales, Goosefoot Order Chermes abielis, Spruce Aphis Cherry, 88, 90, 121, 209, 364, 408, 409; poisoning by leaves, 203; poisoning by stones, 205; wild black, 260; wood, 263 Chessmen, 245 Chestnut, 35, 37, 38, 120, 124, 294, 374, 414, 415; kernel, 114; wood, 257 Chests, 260 Chili Pepper, 132 China-tree Family, 399 Chip, 241 Chlorophycew, Green Algie Chlorophyll, 67, 74, 471, 476, 485, 487, 573 Chocolate, 102, 154 Choice, in plants and animals, 463; power of, 568; the pivotal factor in evolution, "469 Chondrus crispus, Carrageen Choosing the better way, 468, 469 Choripetalous corolla, 379 Holly, 212; Rose, 330, 328-355, 404, 405 Chromatophore, 476 Chroécoccacea, Tint-ball Family Chroécoccus turgidus, Tint-ball Alga Cicuta maculata, Water Hem- lock Cinchona Calisaya, Calisaya-tree Cincinnobolus, 500 Cinnamomum Camphora, camphor Tree zeylanicum, Cinnamon Cinnamon, 128, 135, 177, 360, 406, 407 Cistacew, Rock-rose Family Citrullus, vulgaris, Watermelon Citrus Aurantium, Orange medica, var. Limonuwm, Lemon Class, 8, 428 Laurel- ration, 305; by size, 306; by uses, 306; early attempts, 306; expressing kinship, 433 Cleanliness, 494 INDEX 583 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Clematis, 404, 405; erect. silky, 337, 328-356; evolution of, 444, 445, 449, 457; mountain, 3365, Seer; vine-bower, 336, 328- 35 Clematis alpina, Mountain Clem- atis Vitalba, Vine-bower Clematis Climbing Buckwheat, 556 Climbing-ferns, 299 Climbing habit, evolution of, 455 Close-fertilization, 512 Clothes-pins, 259 Cloves, 128, 129, 177 Cloves, oil of, 129, 130 Club-moss, 167, 174, 326, 394, 544 Club-mosses, 544; giant, 299, 301 Club-moss Family, 554: club- moss, 174 Coal, 298, 300, 549; age, 547 Coalescence of floral organs, 354 Coalescent floral organs, 350 Coal plants, 299, 432 Coal-tar, 290 Coca, 182, 185, 186, 187 Coca Family, 399: coca, 185, 187 Cocoa, 102 Cocoa-butter, 296 Cocoanut, see Coconut Coconut, 35, 46, 47, 120, 124, 296, 388, 422, 423; dipper, 276; ker- nel, 114; oil, 296, 297; palm, 46, 47, 235, 274 Cocos nucifera, Coconut Coffea arabica, Coffee Coffee, 150, 153, 154, 155; aroma, 154 Coffee-sacks, 230 Cogs, 245 Cohesion figures, 129, 130 Coir, 232, 235 Coke, 298, 300 . Coleochatacee, Sheath-alga Family Coleochate soluta, Free-branching Sheath-alga Collodion, 224, 228 Colonies, 510 Colophony, 288 Coloring matters, 222, 290 Colors of flowers, 557 Columbine, 328-332, 333, 334- 356, 404, 405 Columbus, Christopher, 283 Columella, 519, 529 Column, 149 Combs, 284 Commelinacee, Spiderwort Family Common, cabbage, 69; cherry 121, 124; currant, 94; fiel mushroom, 107; pea, 126 Companion-cells, 556 Compass plant, 73 Complete flower, 42, 349 Composite, Composites Composites, 311 Compound cyme, 344; flower, 385; inflorescence, 345, 352; leaf compared with leafy shoot, 342; leaves, 339, 352; pistil, 347 Concave torus, 355 Conceptacle, 487 Condiments, 128; miscellaneous, 137 Conduction, 528 Cone-like fruit, 374 Cone of scouring-rushes, 543 Cones, 547 Cone-scales, 548 Conflicts destroy or test, 468 Conifere, Conifers and Pine Order Conrferales, Pine Order Conifers, 311; evolution of, 554 Conium maculatum, Poison Hem- lock Conjugating-cells, 497 Conjugation, 478 Connecting links, 402, 440, 449, 456 Consumption, 494 Contrast of vegetable with human life, 575 Convallaria majalis, Lily-of-the- valley Convex torus, 355 Convolute estivation, 369 reer Morning-glory Fam- ily Cooking, 297 Cooperage, 2438, 258, 259, 260, 261, 268, 270 Co-operative provision for off- spring, 511 Copal, 288, 290, 296 Copal-tree, Zanzibar, 366, 408, 409 584 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Copper sulphate for killing alge, 476 Cora pavonia, Mushroom-lichen Corchorus capsularis, Podded Jute olitorius, Pot-herb Jute Cordage, 223, 230, 232, 235 Cord-moss, 522, 526, 627, 528, 529 Cord-moss 526-529 Cords, 223 Cordattes, 299, 554 Core of pome, 365 Coriander, 137, 148, 144, 370 412, 413; oil of, 297 Coriandrum sativum, Coriander Cork, 222, 279; mother, 278, 279; oak, 277, 278 Corm, 336 Cornacee, Dogwood Family Corn, Indian (see Maize) Corolla, 48; choripetalous, 379; gamopetalous, 379; labiate, 383; papilionaceous, 366; — strap- shaped, 385 Corolla, parts of, keel, 366; stand- ard, 366; wings, 366 Correlated characters, 451 Cortex, 530, 538 Corylus Avellana, Filbert Corymb, 345 Corymbose inflorescence, 345, 352 Cosmarium Botrys, Grape Des- mid Costate, 341 Cotton, 224, 225, 226, 227, 369, 410, 411; absorbe nt, 228; bag- ging, 230; batting, 228 Cotton- seed oil, 100, 296, 297 Cotyledon, 46, 48, 317, 318, 319, 546, 557 Courb: aril-tree, 289, 290, 366, 408, 409 Coverings, waterproof, 284 Crassulacece, Orpine Family Crates, 243, 263, 270 Creation, special, 429 Creationism, 429 Creator as architect, 431 Creeping Bellflower, 381 Cremocarp, 371 Creosote, 300 Family: cord-moss, Cricket-bats, 245 Crocus sativus, Saffron Crocus Croquet-mallets, ete., 245 Cross-fertilization, 512, 557 Cross-partitions in hyphe, 499 Crowfoot, 217, 328-356, 404, 405; white water, 467 Crowfoot Family, 328, 330, 35s, 360, 398, 404, 405: ‘paneberry, 334 335: Christmas rose, 330, 331; columbine, 333, 334; ditch crowfoot, 216; erect silky clem- atis, 337; marsh-marigold, 198; monkshood, 191; mouse-tail, 330, 331, 332; mountain clem- atis, 335; pasque-flower, 338; peony, 329; pigmy buttercup, 444; seaside crowfoot, 463; tall buttercup, 216; vine-bower clematis, 336; white water crow- foot, 467; wood-anemony, 205 Crowfoot Order, 361, 398, 406, 407 Crowfoot Series, : 377, 386, 397 Crowfoot type of Hoyer 435 Crown-tuber, 43 ier-like vernation, 537 re, Mustard Family Crude rubber, 283 Crutches, 245 Cryptogamia, Cryptogams Cryptogams, 308; cellular, 396; vascular, 396 Cryptogams and Phenogams, 550 Crystalwort Pamily: crystalworts, 613, 515 Crystalworts, 613, 515 Cucumber, 82, 83, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419% fruit, 114; sponge, 383 Cucumis Melo, Muskmelon sativus, Cucumber Cucurbita martma, Hubbard Squash and Turban Squash moschala, Winter Crook-neclk squash Pepo, Pumpkin, Squash, Summer Crook-neck Squash, and Scallop Squash Crucurbilales, Gourd Order Cueurbitacea, Gourd Family Culture-period and native, home, 123, 125; of food-plants, 120 Cupule, 375 Long White INDEX 585 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Curly maple, 263 Currant, 88, 94, 121, 125 Cyamophycee, Blue Alge Cycad, 558; Japanese, 555 Cycadacea, Cyead Family Cycadales, Cycad Order Cycad Family: 397; eycad, 555 Cycad Order, 397 Cycads, 554; evolution of, 558 Cycas revoluta, Japanese Cycad Cycles of life, 470 Cydonia vulgaris, Quince Cyme, 344 Cymose inflorescence, 345, 352 Cyperacee, Sedge Family Cypripedium — hirsutum, Ladies’ Slipper parviflorum, Yellow Ladies’ Slip- per Cytoplasm, 473 Japanese 343, 344 Showy Daily ration, 117, 118 Dandelions, 442, 443 Daphne, 205, 209 Daphne Mezereum, Daphne Darwin, Charles, 446 Darwinism, 446, 453, 456, 457; objections to, 452 Date, 88, 100, 101, 114, 121, 124 388, 422, 423 Date-palm, 274 Datura Stramonium, Jimson-weed Daucus Carota, Carrot Dead substances, 570 Death, 572 Death-cup, 214, 215 De Candolle, Augustin Pyrame, 316 Decay, 494, 504 Decompound leaves, 339, 352 Decoration, 223 Definite variations, 448 Degeneration, 468, 512; in ferns, 535 Dehiscence of anthers, 354; by longitudinal slits, 355; by pores, 379; by uplifted valves, 360 Dehiscence of fruits, 351; dorsal, 359; loculicidal, 368; margin- icidally septifragal, 382; pori- cidal, 362; septicidal, 379; septi- fragal, 382; ventral, 351 Dentists’ absorbent, 239 Departments of botany, 8 Description, early attempts, 312; Linnean ideal, 314; in ‘“‘ordi- nary English,” 312; technical, oie Desert plants, 454 Desmidiacea, Desmid Family Desmid Family: grape desmid, 477 Desmids, 476 Determinate inflorescence, 343, 352 Devil’s Aprons, 485 Diadelphous stamens, 366 Diastase, 32 Dicots, 397 Dicotyledonous embryo, 386 Dicotyl Subclass, 397 Dietary standards, 117 Diet, mixed, 118; well-balanced, 118 Difference between animals and plants, 573 Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove Dicecious inflorescence, 360 Dippers, 276 Diseases due to fungi, 504 Disk, 61 Dispersal of seeds, 560; of spores, 511, 532 Dissemination, 560; organs of, 322 Distillation, 128 Distilled beverages, 159 Distinct floral organs, Ditch Crowfoot, 216, 3 Divided leaves, 339 Diving-dresses, 284 Division, 8 Division of labor, 321 Divisions of vegetable kingdom, 394, 396 Dogbane Family, 401; oleander, 206, 207 Dogwood Family, 400 Domesticated varieties, 430 Domestication, 446 Domestic utensils, 243 Door-mats, 235 Dorsal dehiscence of pericarp, 359; placenta, 346 Double flowers, 347 50, 354 28-356 586 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Drawing-paper, 224 Drawers, 263, 268 Drugs, 163; poisonous, 176 Drupaceous, fruit, 365; nut, 376 Drupe, 364 Dry, cooperage, 243; fruits, 351; pericarp, 351, 355 Drying oils, 295 Duck, 230 Dugout canoe, 247 Dust-spore, 496, 498, 505, 511 Dust-spore-case, 496 Dyeing, 222 Dyers’ Indigo Shrub, 292, 293 Dyestuffs, 290 Early attempts at classifying, 306; at describing, 312 Ear of grain, 11 Earth-vegetables, 35, 41 Ebenales, Ebony Order Ebony Order, 491 Ebracteate inflorescence, 362 Ecological botany, 10 Economic, botany, 9, 304; impor- tance of fungi, 504; properties of plants, 575 Economics of co-operation, 468 Egg-apparatus, 556 Ege-cell, 514, 521, 5561, 552, 556, 557, 560 Egg-plant, 85, 121, 124, 382 Egg sac members, 352 Egg-sacs, 325, 326 Egg-spore Algw, Evolution of, 558 Elastic, bands, 284; gums, 222, 280, 287; springs for dissemina- tion, 560; webbing, 253 Elater, 517, 520, 526, 641, 543 “lider, 196, 197, 202, 208 Electric apparatus, 288 Llettaria cardamomum, moms Elm, 259; American, 259; bark, 163; English, 166; wood, 256, 259 Elm Family: 398; American elm, 259; English elm, 167 Elm-leaved Linden, 264 Embryo, 29, 48, 316, 317, 318, 351, 352, 514, 553, 556; bent, 365; curved, 362; dicotyledonous, Carda- 386; monocotyledonous, uncoiled, 355; of fern, 538 Embryo, parts of; cotyledon, 46, 48; plumule, 48; radicle, 48; scutellum, 388; seed-bud, 48; seed-leaf, 46, 48; seed-root, 48 Embryos, 547 Embryo-sac, 551, 556 Endogenous stems, 387 Endosperm, 561 Endospore, 478 Energy, in food, 114; measures of, 115; of vegetable foods, 116 Engler and Prantl’s classification, 394 English, elm, 165, 167; oak, 258; walnut, 261, 296 Environment, 431 Enzyme, 32, 494 Epidermis, 254, 530, 538, 540, 542 Epicalyx, 364 Epigynous flower, 365 Epiphyte, 508 Ee Scouring-rush T'am- uy Hquisetine, Scouring-rushes Hquisetum arvense, Scouring-rush Erasers, 284 Erect Silky Clematis, 328-336, 337, 338-356 Ericacea, Heath Family Ericales, Heath Order Erysibe communis, Powdery-mil- dew Lrythroxylacew, Coca Family Erythroxylon Coca, Coca Essence of life, 568, 569 Essences, 128, 146 Essential organs of flower, 13, 43, 319 Ethers, 159 Euphorbiacee, Spurge Family BLuphorbia Lathyris, Caper Spurge marginata, Snow-on-the-moun- tain European, beech, 268; grape, 88, 93, 121, 124; larch, 271; rasp- berry, 91 Evening-primrose, 457 Evening-primrose Family, 400 Evolution, 433; by choice, 461, 164; in general, 464; of clematis, 388; INDEX 587 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 444, 445, 449, 452, 457; of crow- foot family, "43 7, 438; of fern- worts, 548, 549° of ’fowering plants, 559, 560; of human so- ciety, 468; of mankind, 468, 469; of mossworts, 531; of ovaries, 557; of plants, 560; of scour- ing-rushes, 543; of seed- -plants, 668, 559, 560; ‘of thallophytes, 510; of the universe, 464; of vegetable kingdom, 466 Exalbuminous seed, 363, 557 Excelsior, 241 Exogenous stems, 387 Exospore, 478 Exstipulate leaf, 359 Extinct, branches, 449; types, 467 Extinction, 467, 468 FEye-spot, 482 Fabrics, 223 Factors of change, 468 Fagacee, Beech Family Fagales, Beech Order Fagopyrum — esculentum, wheat Fagus sylvatica, European Beech Fallen Stars, 473, 474 Family, 7, 403; chain, 355; tree, 436, 437 Famine, effect of, 463 Fans, palm-leaf, 388 Farm implements, 256 Fat, 34; in foods, 114 Fats, 74, 114, 115 Feeding, imitation of, 563 Feeling, 573; in plants and ani- mals, 562 Fence rails, 258 Fences, 245, 260 Fennel-flower, 328-332, 333-341, 342-356, 404, 405 Fermentation, 156, 494 Fermented beverages, 156 Fern prothallium, 536 Ferns, 308, 311, 532; climbing, 299: evolution of, 558; fossil, 534; herbaceous, 535 Fernworts, 394, 396, 548 Fertility of hybrids a test of spe- cies, 430 Fertilization, 484, 552; Buck- in angio- sperms, 555, 556; sperms, 551-555 Ferula assa-felida, Asafetida Plant Fiber-plants, 224 Fibers, 222, 224; animal, mincral, and vegetable, 2 223 Fibrils, 250 Fibrovascular bundles, 394, 533, 538, 539, 540 Ficus carica, Fig elastica, India Rubber-tree Field Mushroom, 113, 121, 125, 395, 501, 502, 503 Fig, 88, 102, 121, 124 Figwort Family, 382, 401, 417: foxglove, 204 Filament, 12, 14, 319 Filbert, 35, 36, 120, 124, 373; ker- nel, 114 Filices, Ferns Filicine, Ferns Filling, 223 Finishing lumbers, 263 Fireworks, 168 First of living things, 466, 566, 567 Fission, 473, 560 Fission-alge, 558 Fission fungi, 492; descendants of fission-algee, 495 Fishing-rods, 274 Fish-lines, 223 Fixed mode of life in plants, 575 Fixed oil, 34; of black mustard, 134; of white mustard, 134 Fixed oils, 128, 166, 295 Fixity, in animals, 573; of species, 429, 430 Flagellum, 482 Flavoring plants, 128 Flax, 224, 229, 231, 345, 435; as a type, 316; bud, 319, 320; ger- mination, 317, 318; plant, 229, 230, 231, 334 Flax Family, 399: flax, 229, 231 Flaxseed, 163, 164, 295, 318 Fleshy, fruits, 351; pericarp, 351, 355; torus, 364 Flint in epidermis, 542 Floats, 279, 280 Floor covering, 280 Flooring, 263, 270 in gymno- 416, 588 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Floral envelops, 319 Floral organs, adhesion of, 365; arrangements for pollination, 557 Floral organs, alternate, 350, 354; coalescent, 350; distinct, 350, 354; epigynous, 365; free, 350, 354; hypogynous, 350; inser- tion of, 349; opposite, 368; par- tially coalescent, 354; perigy- nous, 350 Florets, 389 Flower, 319, 557 Flower-cluster, 343 Flower in the crannied wall, 576 Flower, parts of: andreecium, 346; anther, 12, 14; calyx, 29; car- pel, 346; corolla, 43; epicalyx, 364; essential organs, 13, 43; filament, 12, 14; funicle, 346; gynecium, 346; kecl, 48; mi- cropyle, 346; nectar, 29; nectar- gland, 29; nectar-leaves, 348; ovary, 12, 14, 345; ovule, 12, 14, 346; pappus, 386; perianth, 43; petal, 42, 348; pistil, 11, 14, 345; placenta, 346; raphe, 346; receptacle, 349, 385; sepal, 29; silk, 24; stamen, 12, 14; stami- nodes, 348; standard, 48; stigma, 12, 14, 345; style, 12, 14, 345; torus, 349, 350; wings, 48 Vlowering plants, 393, 396, 397; evolution of, 559 Tlowers, attractions of, 557 Flowers, apetalous, 349; archichla- mydeous, 378; axillary, 345; clustered, 352; complete, 42, 349; compound, 385; double, 347; epigynous, 365; imperfect, 13, 347; irregular, 349, 354; metachlamydeous, 386; neutral, 371; perfect, 13, 347, 353; pis- tillate, 347; polygamous, 347; regular, 354; resupinate, 391; rudimentary, 13, 14; solitary, 345; solitary axillary, 352; soli- tary terminal, 352; staminate, 347 Fluctuating variations, 448, 455 Flux, 288 Fly-amanita, 215, 217 Fly-poison, 217 Fodder, 303 Foliage, as a sunbeam-trap, 302; main work of, 85 Foliage-plants, 303 Follicle, 351 Fomes fomentarius, Amadou Food, 128; as fuel and building ma- terial, 114; chart, 114; favorite combinations, 119 Food-adjuncts, 128, 159, 302 Food-making, 74 Food-plants, 122; classes of, 35; native home and culture period, 120, 121 Food-products, miscellaneous, 91 Foods, 302; vegetable, 113; vege- table versus animal, 119 Foot of sporophyte, 517, 538 Footstalk, 336 Forests, effect on water-supply, 304 Form blocks, 263 Formative material, 254, 320 Formulas, plant, 352; of seed- plants, 404-427 Fossil, botany, 10; club-moss, 301; ferns, 534; scale-tree, 301 Fossils, 432 Fountain pens, 284 Foxglove, 204, 208, 382, 416, 417 Fox-grape, 125 Fragaria spp., Strawberry Fraxinus americana, White Ash Free-branching Sheath-alga, 483 Free floral organs, 350, 354 Free will, 568, 569 French Rose, 150 Iruit, 12, 319, 350; cone-like, 374; dehiscent, 351; drupaceous, 365; dry, 351; fleshy, 351; indehis- cent, 351 Fruit-body, 500, 501, 502 Fruit, parts of: aril, 218, 393; burr, 38; chaff, 11; grain, 12; husk, 11, 12; kernel, 11; peri- carp, 351; pit, 89; seed, 350; stone, 89, 364; suture, 351 Fruits, 35, SS: achene, 351, 386; berry, 351; berry-like, 392; eap- sule, 351; caryopsis, 388; cremo- carp, 371; cupule, 375; drupa- INDEX 589 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. ceous nut, 376; drupe, 364; fleshy torus, 364; follicle, 351; hip, 364; legume, 367; nut, 374; nutlet, 364; pepo, 384; pome, 365; samara, 35S; schizocarp, 370; silique, 363; stone-fruit, 364 Fruit-vegetables, 35, 85 Fucacea, Wrack Family Fucus vesiculosus, Bladder-wrack Fuels, 222, 279, 297 Fuel value of foods, 114 Funariacee, Cord-moss Family Funaria hygrometrica, Cord-moss Function, 321 Fundamental system, 539 Fungal diseases, 504 Fungi, 589 (see also Mushroom Subdivision) Fungi, in general, 503; parasitic upon parasitic fungi, 501 Fungus Subdivision, 395, 396 Funicle, 346 Furniture, 243, 257, 259, 263, 276 w Gamboge, 290, 291 Gamboge Family, 400 Gamboge-tree, Siamese, 290, 291 Gametangium, 484 Gamete, 478, 512 Gametophyte, 485, 514, 515 Gamopetalous corolla, 379 Gamosepalous calyx, 366 Gaps, 449; limiting groups, 440 Garcinia Hanburyi, Siamese gam- boge-tree Garden, currant, 125; kale, 55, 68; rhubarb, 91, 104, 121 Garments, paper, 224; waterproof, 284 Gas, illuminating, 298 jaultheria procumbens, green Gelatinous, substances, 163; ma- terial, 472 Genus, 6, 428 Gentianacee, Gentian Family Gentianales, Gentian Order Gentian Family, 401 Gentian Order, 401 Geographical botany, 10 Geraniacee, Geranium Family Winter- Geraniales, Geranium Order Geranium Family, 399 Geranium Order, 399 Germ, 316, 352 Germs carried from plant to plant, 568 Germination of flax, 317, 318 Giant, club-mosses or lycopods, 299, 301, 547; scouring rush, 299 Gigartinacee, Carrageen Family Giglio-Tos, If., 563 Gill-mushroom Family: death-cup, 215; field mushroom, 113; fly- amanita, 215 Gills of mushroom, 502, 503 Gin, 159 Gin, cotton, 228 Ginger, 128, 134, 136, 170; oil, 130 Ginger Family, 397: cardamoms, 141; ginger, 136 Ginkgoacee, Ginkgo Family Ginkgo Family, 397 Ginkgo Order, 397 Ginkgoales, Ginkgo Order Ginseng Family, 400 Girths, 223 Glabrous, 343 Gliadin, 33, 34 Glucose, 31, 102 Glucosides, 292 : Glumaceous perianth, 390 Glumes, 387 Glumiflore, Grass Order Gluten, 33 Glutin, 33 Glycerides, 296 Glycerin, 296 Glycyrrhiza globra, Licorice God, immanence of, 569 Goethe’s theory of flowers, 325 Golf, balls, 287; clubs, 245 Gonidium, 507 Goodyear, Charles, 283 Goosefoot Family: beet, 52, 53; spinach, 71, 72 Goosefoot Order, 398 Gossypium barbadense, Sea-island Cotton; herbaceum, Upland Cot- ton Gourd, 121, 275, 276 Gourd Family, 383, 398, 418, 419: bottle-gourd, 401, 275; 590 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. cucumber, 82, 83; hubbard squash, 81; long white squash, 79; muskmelon, 95; pumpkin, 76, 77, 78; scallop squash, 80; summer crook-neck squash, 79; turban squash, 81; vegetable sponge, 240; watermelon, 96; winter crook-neck squash, 81, 82 Gourd Order, 401 Grains (see also Cereals) 11, 12; earliest use, 20; in ancient times, 17 Gramina, Grasses Graminales, Grass Order Graminee, Grass Family Grape, European, 88, 121, 124; northern fox, 88, 93, 125; pulp, 114; sugar, 31 Grape Desmid, 477, 479 Grape Family, 399: grapes, 93 Grape-fern, 532, 533 Grapes, 88, 93, 121, 157 Grasses, 11, 311 Grass Family, 387, 397, 422, 423: bamboo, 239; barley, common, 21; barley, six-rowed, 22; Barley, two-rowed, 22; broom-corn, 236; maize, 23, 24; oat, 12, 13, 14; rice, 16, 17; rye, 18; sugar- cane, 106; wheat, 19, 20 Grass Order, 388, 397, 422, 423 Gravitation and evolution, 441 Greek origin of terms, 313 Green Alge, 476, 508 Growing-points, 254 Growth, 561, 572; a slow behavior, 442 Guitars, 245, 270 Gum, 32, 287 Gum arabic, 163, 164 Gum Arabic Tree, 163, 163, 366, 408, 409 Gum-resins, 287 Gum tragacanth, 164 Guncotton, 224, 228 Gunny bagging, 223 Gunpowder, 300 Gun-stocks, 261, 245 Gutta-percha, 280, 285 Ciymnospernue, Naked-sced Class Gymnospermous gynoecium, 392 Gymnosperms, 397, 550 Gyneecium, 346; angiospermous, 392; gymnospermous, 392; naked-seeded, 392 Habit of plant, 359 Habits, 572 . Heematein, 292 Hematoxylin, 292 Heematoxylon campecheanum, Log- wood-tree Hair-like outgrowths, 538 Half-inferior ovary, 350 Hamamelidacee, Witch-hazel Fam- ily Hamamelis virginica, Witch-hazel Hames, 244 Hammocks, 223 Hampers, 223 Handles, 245, 280, 284 Hard, pine, 270; rubber, 284; soap, 296 Harmful plants, 302 Harness, 244, 259, 260 Hashish, 181 Hat linings, 280 Hats, 223, 238; chip, 241; straw, 235 Haustorium, 499 Hay Bacillus, 492 Hazel, 373, 412, 413 Hazelnut, 36 Head, 373; of grain, 11 Heart-wood, 246 Heath Family, 378, 401, 416, 417: mountain laurel, 202; sheep laurel, 202; wintergreen, 148 Heath Order, 379, 401, 416, 417 Heating, 297 Helianthus tuberosus, Artichoke Heliopsis scabra, Oxeye Helleborus niger, Christmas Rose Helminthocladiacee, Thread-weed Family Hemlock, 273, 294, 392, 426, 427; poison, 194, 195, 209, 370; water, 193, 370; wood, 271 Hemp, 224, 230 Hemp, Indian, 193 Hemp, Manila, 232, 233 Hepatice, Liverworts Jerusalem INDEX 591 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Hepatics, 513 Herb, 330 Herbaceous, 333 Herbaceous Ferns, 535 Herbage-vegetables, 35, 53 Herbs, 306 Heredity, 572 Heterocyst, 474 Hevea guyanensis, Rubber-tree Hickory, 376, 414, 415; nut, 35, 120, 125; shagbark, 41; splints, 241; wood, 260 Higher dicots, 397, 401 Hip, 364 Hippocastanacee, Horse-chestnut Family Brazilian Hockey-sticks, 245 Holly, 212 Holly Family, 399: Christmas holly, 212 Holophyte, 495 Homologies, 326, 327 Homologous parts, 326 Homologues, 326, 327 Homology, 326 Honey, 303 Honeysuckle Family, 401: elder 197 Hoops, 259 Hops, 156, 157, 170 Hordeum sativum, var. distichon, Barley, Two-rowed; var. hexras- tichon, Barley, Six-rowed; var. vulgare, Barley, Common Hormogonia, 475, 510 Horned-liverwort, 517, 522, 523 558 Horned-liverwort Family: horned- liverwort, 522, 523, 558 Horn substitute, 284 Horsechestnut Family, 399 Horseradish, 137, 141, 144, 177, 362 Horticultural hybrids, 430 Hose, 284 Host, 211, 494 Hot springs 475 House-furnishing, 223 Hubbard Squash, 81 Hubs, 259, 263 containing alge, Human life contrasted with plant life, 575 Human welfare dependent upon a knowledge of plants, 575 Humulus Lupulus, Hops Husk, 11, 235 Hybrids, 430 Hydrocarbon, 284; oxidized, 285, 287 Hydrogen, 570 Hymenaa Courbaril, Courbaril- tree Hymenium, 503 Hypha, 496 Hypogenous floral organs, 350, 355 Hysterophyte, 495 Ice age, 482 Iceland Moss, 163, 165, 169, 395, 504, 505, 506, 507 Ignorance hot to be argued from, 453 Ilex Aquifolium, Christmas Holly Illicium anisatum, Star Anise Illuminating gas, 298, 301 Illuminants, 295, 297 Imbricate estivation, 349, 354 Imitation of feeding, 563; of vital processes, 564 Immanence of God, 569 Imperfect flowers, 13, 347 Implements, 245, "259, 260, 263 Incandescent lamp filaments, 228 Indehiscent fruits, 351 Indeterminate inflorescence, 344, 352 India ink, 294 Indian, corn (see Maize); hemp, 180, 181; poke, 199, 390, 424, 425: tobacco, 201, 202, 384, 418, 419 India-rubber, 283 India-rubber tree, 282 Indican, 292 Indigestible seeds for dissemina- tion, 560 Indigo, 290, 291, 562; white, 292 Indigofera tinctoria, Dyer’s Indigo Shrub Indigo Shrub, Dyer’s, 292, 293, 366, 408, 409 blue, 292; 592 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Individual adaptations, 442; dif- ferences, 565 Individuality, 572 Induced variations, 448 Indusium, 179 Industrial implements, 245; plants, DI Inferior ovary, 350, 365, 380 Infertile hybrids, 430 Inflorescence, 343, 352; amenta- ceous, 373; botryose, 344, 345, 352; capitate, 373; compound, 344, 345, 352; corymbose, 345, 352; ecymose, 348, 345, 352; determinate, 343, 352; diceci- ous, 360; cbracteate, 362; in- determinate, 344, 352; monce- cious, 3874; paniculate, 345, 302% polygamous, 354; race- mose, 345, 352; simple, 352; spicate, 373 Inflorescence, parts of: awn, 13; beard, 13; bract, 13, 354; bract- let, 354; chaff, 11; disk, 61; glume, 387; husk, 11; involucel, 344; involucre, 61, 344, 354; lodicule, 13; rachis, 14, 344; re- ceptacle, 61; spathe, 388; spike- let, 13 Inflorescences, ament, 373; catkin, 3135 cyme, 344; ear of grain, 11; head, 373; head of grain, 11; panicle, 345; raceme, 344; spa- dix, 388; spike, 373; umbel, 370; umbellule, 370 Inheritance of acquired charac- ters, 446; of acquirements, 443 Ink, 290; India, 294; printing, 294, 295; writing, 294 Inorganic, realm, 562; substances, 321, 570 Insect-pollination, 557 Insects attracted by sweets, 557 Insertion, 349 Insoles, 280 Insulating material, 287 Insulators, 284 Integuments of ovule, 561, 556 Intensity of the struggle for ex- istence, 453 Interior finish, 257, 259, 261, 263, 268, 270 Internode, 317, 318 Interval cell-division, 495 Involueel, 344 involucre: 61, 344, 354 Tpomea Batatas, Sweet Potato Tridacew, Iris Family Iris Family, 390, 397, saffron crocus, 176 Trish moss, 105, 112, 163, 165, 491 Jron and steel versus W ood, 248 Irregular flowers, 349, 354 Ivory, Vegetable, 275, 276, 388 Ivy, Poison, 218, 219 424, 425; Jambosa Caryophyllus, Clove Japanese Cycad, 555 Jerusalem Artichoke, 48, 61, 62, 120, 125, 385, 420, 421 Jimson-weed, 199, 200, 382, 416, 417 Johnson Grass, 236 Joinery, 242, 260, 266 Juglandacea, Walnut Family Juglanaales, Walnut Order Juglans cinerea, Butternut nigra, Black Walnut regia, Walnut Juice, acrid, 357; poisonous, 357 Juncus effusus, Rush Juniper, 158, 159, 392, 426, 427 Juniperus communis, Juniper virginiana, Red Cedar Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, 311, 328; Bernard de, 311 Jute, 224, 230, 232, 367, 410, 411 208, 210, milky, 361: Kale, 55, 120; garden, 68; wild, 66, 67 Kaleidoscope analogy, 461 Kalmia latifolia, Mountain Laurel Keel, 48, 366 Keels, 263 Kelps, 485 Kidney Bean, 49, 50, 85, 114, 124 Wilogrammeter, 116 Kingdom, 8, 428 Kingdoms, The Three, 561 Iking of dyestuffs, 291 Kinship, 403, 428 < Knitting, 223 120. INDEX 593 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Knobs, 269, 277 KXohlrabi, 55, 69 Labiate, Mint Family Labiate, corolla, 383 Lace, 223, 230 Lacquer, 291 Lactuca sativa, Lettuce scariola, Wild Lettuce Ladies’ slippers, 218, 219, 220, 391, 424, 425 Lagenaria vulgaris, Bottle-gourd Lamarckism, 445, 453, 456, 457 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 445 Laminariacee, Sea-tangle Family Laminaria spp., Sea-tangles Lampblack, 290, 294 Larch, 294, 392, 424, 425; Euro- pean, 271; wood, 270 Larix decidua, European Larch Latin terms, 313 Lauracee, Laurel Family Laurel Camphor, 177, 228 Laurel-camphor Tree, 178 Laurel Family, 360, 398, 406, 407: cinnamon, 135; Jaurel-camphor tree, 178; sassafras, 168 Laurel, American, 416, 417; moun- tain, 203, 379; sheep, 202, 379 Laurels, 208 Laurinol, 177 Law of recapitulation, 4 435, 560 Lead-pencils, 270 Leaf, 324, 336, 538 Leaf- buds, 323 Leaflets, 339, 342, 352 Leaf-member, 326, 327, 348 Leaf-part, 323, 325 Leaf, parts of, ligule, 16; rain- guard, 16; ocrea, 372; stipule, 358 Leaf-stalk, 336 Leafy shoot compared with com- pound leaf, 342 Leather, 295 Leather-finishing, 294 Leaves, 352, 533; alternate, 342, 352; carpellary, 352; compound, 342, 352; decompound, 3523 ex- stipulate, 359; ocreate, 372; of the flower, 324; opposite, 342, 352; palmate, 352; parallel- veined, 387; pinnate, 352; pri- mary, 318, 319; rosette, 542; secondary, 318, 319; ‘ simple, 342; stipulate, ternate, 352; verticillate, whorled, 342 Legume, 367 Leguminosae, Pulse Family Lemon, 88, 97, 121, 124, 146, 170 Lemonade, 150 Lentibulacee, Bladderwort Family Lepidodendracee, Scale-tree Fam- ily Lepidodendron (see Club-mosses, and 547, 554 Lettuce, 55, 72, 73, 74, 121, 124, 385, 420, 421; leaves, 114; wild, 73 Lichen, 165 Lichenes, Lichen Subdivision Lichenin, 165 Lichens, 504 Lichens as Nature’s pioneers, 506 Lichen-starch, 165 Lichen Subdivision, 395, 396, 508 Licorice, 163, 166, 169, 366, 410, 411 Lid of capsule, 526 Life, always existed, 568; essence of, 568, 569; test of, 568, 569 Life-cycles, 559 Life-histories, 470 Life-history of a molecule, 563 Lifeless substances, 570 Lifeless things versus living things, 569 Life-preservers, 280, 284 Lignin, 247 Ligule, 16, 547 Likeness a measure of kinship, 433 Liliacee, Lily Family Liliales, Lily Order Liliiflore, Lily Order Lily Family, 390, 397, 424, 425: asparagus, 64, 65; Indian poke, 199; lily-of-the-valley, 204; on- ion, 63, 64 ‘Lily-of-the-valley, 424, 425 Lily Order, 390, 397, 424, 425 Lima bean, 61, 120, 124 vey also Giant Seale-tree), 204, 208, 390, 594 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Lime in grains, 31 Linacee, Flax Family Linden, 2638, 367, 410, 411 Linden, 362, 367, 410, 411; elm- leaved, 204 Linden Family, 367, 399, 410, 411: elm-leaved linden, 264; jutes, 232 Linen, 230 Linnean, reform in terminology, 313; Society, 446; system, 308 Linneus, 3, 308, 311, 312, 313; aphorism of, 561; revised, 574 Linoleic acid, 296 Linolein, 296 Linseed-oil, 280, 295, 296 Linum usitatissimum, Flax Liqueurs, 159 Liquors, 159 Liriodendron Whitewood Liverworts, 513, 530; evolution of, Tulipifera, Tulip Living beings, 562 Living substance, 570 Living versus lifeless things, 563 Lobelia inflata, Indian Tobacco Lobewort Division, 395, 396 Lobeworts, 509, 510 Locomotion of desmids, 478 Loculicidal dehiscence of capsule, 368 Locust, 196, 197, 208, 366, 408, 409; wood, 259; yellow, 259 Lodicule, 13 Loganiacee, Logania Family Logania Family: nux vomica, 189, 190 Logwood, 290, 292 Logwood-tree, 294, 366, 408, 409 Long life of plants, 575 Long White Squash, 79 Loranthacew, Mistletoe Family Lower dicots, 397, 398, 399, 400 Lubricants, 295, 297 Luffa egyptiaca, Vegetable Sponge Lycopodiacee, Claub-moss Tamily Lycopodina, Club-mosses Lycopodium, 167 Lycopodium sp., Club-moss Lycopods, Giant, 547 Macaroni, 33 Mace, 128, 134 Machinery, 257, 260, 263 Machines, 245, 259 Macrosporangium, 645 Macrospore, 545, 547 Madder Family, 401: calisaya-tree, 188; coffee, 153, 154, 155 Madder Order, 401 Madder-red, 562 Magnesia in grains, 31 Magnolia, 358, 262, 406, 407; wood, 263 Magnoliacee, Magnolia Family Magnolia Family, 358, 398, 406, 407: magnolia, 262; star anisc, 143; tulip whitewood, 261 Magnolia grandiflora, Magnolia Mahogany, 266 Maize, 11, 15, 23, 24, 25, 28, 120, 122, 126, 159, 232, 235; ‘387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 28 Malaria, 188 Male-fern, 179, 180, 394, 536, 539, 540 Male protoplasts, motile, 560 Mallet-heads, 269 Mallow Family, 369, 399, 410, 411: marshmallow, 166; sea-island ‘ cotton, 227; upland cotton, 225 Mallow Order, 376, 399, 410, 411 Malt, 156; liquors, 156; sugar, 32 Malting, 32 Maltose, 32 Malvacear, Mallow Family Malvales, Mallow Order Manihot utilissima, Bitter Cassava Manila, 224, 232; hemp, 232; paper, 252 Manila Hemp Plant, 233 Maple, 261; stem, 254; sugar, 101; wood, 263 Maple Family, 399: sugar-maple, 261 Marchantia polymorpha, Umbrella Liverwort Marginicidally septifragal dehis- cence, 382 Mariopteris, Climbing Ferns Marjoram, 418, 419; oil of, 297; sweet, 137, 140, 383 Market baskets, 241 INDEX 595 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Marshmallow, 163, 164, 166, 369, 410, 411 Marsh-marigold, 198, 199, 208, 328-356, 404, 405, 558 Mastery through choosing the better way, 468 Masts, 270 Matches, 245 Mats, 232, 235, 239 Matting, 223, 235; straw, 235 Mattress filling, 235 Meadow Rue, 339, 328-356 Mechanical causes in evolution, 453 Mechanical equivalent of heat, 116 Medicinal plants, 162, 163; plas- ters, 288; rhubarb, 170 Medicines, 162 Mediterranean food-plants, 124 Megaphyton, Tree-ferns Meliacee, Melia Family Melia Family: mahogany, 266 Members, 323, 324, 326; of flower- ing plant, 327 Menispermacee, Moonseed Family Mentha piperita, Peppermint; spicata, Spearmint Menthol, 178 Meristem, 487 Meristematic tissue, 487 Metabolism, 84 Metachlamydee, Bellflower Series Metachlamydeous flowers, 356 Metallurgy, 300 Metal polishing, 542 Metroxylon leve, Smooth Palm Metroxylon Rumphit, Prickly Sago Palm Mezereum Family, 400: daphne, 205 Microbes, 494 Micro-organisms, 494 Micropyle, 346, 552, 556 Microsperme, Orchid Order Microsporangium, 545 Microspore, 545, 546 Migrations, 468 Mildews, 499 Milk-souring Bacterium, 493 Milkweed Family, 401 Sago Milky juice, 361 Mineral fibers, 223; kingdom, 561, 562; substances, 321 Mineral matter in grains, 31 Mine timbering, 245 Mint, 418, 419 Mint Family, 383, 401, 418, 419: peppermint, 147, 148; sage, 138; spearmint, 139; summer savory, 139; sweet marjoram, 140; thyme, 139 Miscellaneous condiments, 137; food-plants, 35; food-products, 91 Misconceptions of evolution, 439, 440 Mistletoe, 210, 211, 212 Mistletoe Family, 398: mistletoe, 210, 211 Mixed diet, 118 Mixed fibers, 225, 231 Models, 280 Modern food-plants, 124 Molasses, 101 Molded ornaments, 287 Monadelphous stamens, 366 Monkshood, 189, 191, 196, 208, 328-356, 404, 405 Monocots, 377 Monocotyledones, Monocotyl Sub- class Monocotyledonous, 388 Monocotyl Subclass, 391, 397 Moneecious, 374 Montgomerie, Dr. W., 286 Moonseed Family, 398 Moracee, Mulberry Family Mordant, 294, 295- Morning-glory Family, 379, 401, 416, 417: sweet potato, 58, 59 Morphine, 182 Morphological, botany, 10; differ- entiation, 322, 572; units, 323 Moss, 395, 519, 544; Iceland, 395; Trish, 105; Peat, 394 Mosses, 308 Mosswort Division, 395, 396 Mossworts, 530 Mother of vinegar, 155 Motile gametes in cycads, 554; protoplasts, 560 Motion in plants, 573 596 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Mountain, clematis, 335, 328-356; laurel, 202, 379; selaginella, 545 Mouse-tail, 330, 331, 332, 328- 340, 356, 404, 405 Mucilaginous material, 485; sub- stances, 163 Mucoracee, Pin-mold Family Mucor Mucedo, Pin-mold Mulberry Family, 378: fig, 102; hops, 157; Indian hemp, 180, 181; India rubber-tree, 282 Musacee, Banana Family Musa sapientum, Banana; textilis, 233, Manila Hemp Plant Musci, True Mosses Mushroom, 125; field, 107, 113, 395 Mushroom Division, 503 Mushroom Subdivision, 395, 396 Mushroom-lichen, 508, 509 Mushroom-lichen Family: mush- room-lichen, 509 Mushrooms, 111, 308, 501; poi- sonous, 213 Musical instruments, 245, 263 Muskmelon, 88, 95, 121, 124, 283 Must, 155 Mustard, 128, 133, 177; oil of, 133; volatile oil of, 173 Mustard Family, 362, 398, 406, 407: black mustard, 133; Brus- sels sprouts, 69; cauliflower, 70; common cabbage, 69; garden kale, 68; horseradish, 144; kohl- rabi, 69; radish, 55; Savoy cab- bage, 69; shepherd’s purse, 556; tree-cabbage, 274; watercress, 70, 71; white mustard, 133; wild kale, 66, 67 Mustards, 362 Mutant, 458 Mutation, 458 Mutationism, 458 Mutations like special creations, 460 Mutual help, 469; support, 531 Mycelium, 497, 496 Myosurus minimus, Mouse-tail Myricacee, Bayberry amily Mvyricales, Bayberry Order Muyristica fragrans, Nutmeg Muristicacew, Nutmeg Family Myrtaceew, Myrtle Family Myrtales, Myrtle Order Myrtle Family, 400: allspice, 130; Brazil-nut, 44; clove, 129 Myrtle Order, 400 Mystery of life, 567 Naked-seed class, 393, 397 Naked-seeded gynaecium, 392 Natural objects not diagrammatic, 327 Natural orders, 310, 311 Names of plants, early, 3 Napkins, paper, 224 Nasturtium Armoracia, radish officinale, Watercress Native home and culture-period, 123 Native homes of food-plants, 120, 121 Natural, classification, 308; selec- tion, 447, 460; system, 310, 311, 328, 433 Nature, 562 Nebula hypothesis, 464, 465 Neck of archegonium, 521, 528, 561 Nectar, 29, 346; in flowers, 557 Nectar-gland, 29 Nectar-leaves, 348 Nemalion multifidum, weed Neo-Darwinism, 448, 449 Neo-Lamarckism, 445, 449 Nerium Oleander, Oleander Nervation, 337 Net floats, 280 Nets, 223 Netted-veined, 337 Netting, 223 Nettle Family, 398 Nettle Order, 398 Neutral flower, 371 Nicotiana rustica, bacco Tobacum, Virginia Tobaceo Nicotine, 184 Nigella spp., Fennel-flowers Nightshade, black, 208 Nightshade l'amily, 382, 401, 416, 417: belladonna, 187; bitter Horse- Thread- Turkish To- INDEX 597 All numbers refer to pages, heavy tyye indicating illustrations. sweet, 209; black nightshade, 208; ege plant, 85; jimson-weed, 200; red pepper, 131, 132; to- baccos, 184; tomato, 83, 84; white potato, 59, 60 Nine-pins, 245 Nitrocellulose, 228 Nitrogen, 570; need of, 115 Nitrogenous food, 114 Node, 23, 317, 318 Nomenclature, 314; binomial, 4 Non-aleoholic beverages, 150 Non-motile spores, 490 Non-nitrogenous foods, 115 Non-nutrients, 31 Non-sexual, generation; 560; re- production, 480, 483, 512; spores, 511 Northern Fox-grape, 88, 93, 125 Norway Spruce, 272, 551, 552, 553 Nostoc, 522, 574 Nostoc spp., Fallen Stars Nucellus, 651, 556 Nucleus, 473 Nurse-plants, 512, 548, 560 Nursing by mosswort gameto- phyte, 531 Nut, 374; drupaceous, 376 Nutlets, 364 Nutmeg, 128, 134, 177; oil of, 130, 297 Nutmeg Family, 398: nutmeg, 134 Nut-oils, 101, 296 Nutrients, 31 Nutrition, organs of, 321 Nuts, 35 Nux vomica, 188, 189, 190 Nymphecee, Water-lily Family. Oak, 294, 414, 415; cork, 277, 278; English, 258; red, 257 Oaks, 374 Oak wood, 256 Oakum, 231 Oars, 259 Oats, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 120, 124, 126, 235, 387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 27 Ocrea, 372 Ocreate stipules, 372 Odors of flowers, 557 cology, 10 : (nothera spp., evening Primrose @notheracee, Evening Primrose Family Offensive odors caused by blue algee, 475 Offspring, of two parents, 512; well-endowed, 510 Oil finish, 296 Oil, of almond, 167; of cacao, 167; of cloves, 129, 130; of mustard, 173; of nutmeg, 130; of saffron, 175; of turpentine, 288, 296; of wintergreen, 147 Oil reservoirs, 360 Oil-cloth, 230 Oils, 222, 295; drying, 295; fixed, 34, 128; non-drying, 297; vola- tile, 128 Ointments, 288 Old age, 571 Oleacee, Olive Family Olea europea, Olive Oleander, 206, 207, 209 Oleic acid, 296 Olein, 296 Oleoresins, 287 Olive, 100, 105, 124, 167, 296; oil, 101, 167, 296, 297; wood, 269 Olive Family, 401: olive, 105; white ash, 259 Once-compound, 339 Onion, 43, 63, 64, 120, 124, 146, 390, 424, 425; bulb, 114 Ontogeny, 435, 560 Oomycetes, Nater-mold Fungi Oédspore, 484 Open exstivation, 371 Ophioglossum vulgatum, tongue Opium, 182 Opium Poppy, 182, 183, 296, 361 Opposite, floral organs, 368; leaves, 342, 352 Opuntiales, Cactus Order Orange, 88, 97, 121, 124; pulp, 114; wood, 266 Orange-flower oil, 297 Orange-peel oil, 297 Orchidaceae, Orchid Family Orchidales, Orchid Order Orchidee, Orchids Orchid Family, 391, 397, 424, 425: Adder- 598 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. showy ladies’ slipper, 220; yel- low ladies’ slipper, 220; vanilla, 149 Orchid Order, 391, 397, 424, 425 Orchids, 218, 219, 311 Order, 8, 428 Orderly progress, 469 Orders, Linnean, 309; natural, 310, 311 Ordinary English in describing, 312 Organic, compounds, 562; evolu- tion, 431, 572; materials, 570; realm, 562, 569; substances, 321 Organisms, 321, 562; as self-build- ing boats, 569 Organs, 321; adhesion of, 365; analogous, 321 Oriental food-plants, 124 Origanum Majorana, Sweet Mar- jorum Origin, of adaptations, 442; of life, 566; of life in the sea, 491; of species, 441 Origins, the problem of, 428 Ornamental, flowers, 303; woods, 268, 269 Ornaments, 268, 276 Orpine Family, 399 Orthotropous ovule, 372 Oryza sativa, Rice Osiers, 241 Osmunda, 537 Osmundacee, Royal-fern Family Ovaries, inferior, 350, 365, 380; half-inferior, 350; superior, 350 Ovary, 12, 14, 319, 345, 556 Overproduction of offspring, 447 Overshoes, 283 Overstimulation, 159, 160 Ovulary cavity, 345; divided by partition, 363 Ovule, 12, 14, 319, 325, 352, 550, 661; parts of, 346 Ovules, anatropous, campylotropous, tropous, 372 Oxalidacew, Oxalis Family Oxalis Family, 399 Oxeye, 380, 435 Oxidized hydrocarbons, 285, 287 Oxygen, 570; in grains, 31 355; ortho- 346, 363; Packing, 223, 235, 279, 280 Packing material, 239 Peonia officinalis, Peony Pails, 245; paper, 224 Painting, 222, 296 Paints, 295 Palaquium Gutta, Taban-tree Palmacee, Palm Family Palma, Palms Palmales, Palm Order Palm, oils, 296, 297, 389, 397, 422, 423; sago, 388; seeds, 282; stem, 255 Palm Family, 388, 397, 422, 423: coconut, 46, 47; date, 100, 101; rattans, 237, 238; sago palms, 109, 110; vegetable ivory, 275, 276 Palm Order, 389, 397, Palmatic acid, 296 Palmatin, 296, 297 Palmate nervation, 340, 352 Palmately compound, 340; di- vided, 340; ribbed, 337 Palm-leaf fans, 388 Palms, 311, 389 Paneling, 263 Paniculate inflorescence, 345, 352 Panspermia, 567 Papaveracew, Poppy Family Papaverales, Poppy Order Papaver somniferum, Opium Poppy Paper, 223, 224, 228, 230, 235, 241; boxes, 224; canoes, 224; car- wheels, 224; making of, 222; manila, 232; napkins, 224; pails, 224 Papier-maché, 224 Papilionaceous corolla, 366 Pappus, 386 Parallel-veined leaves, 387 Paraphyses, 487, 503 Parasite, 303, 494 Parasitic fungi, 504 Parchment, vegetable, 230 Parenchyma, 530 Parietal placenta, 362 Parmeliacea, Shield-lichen Family Parsley, 137, 140, 370, 410, 411 Parsley Family, 370, 400, 412, 413: anise, 142; asafetida plant, 175; caraway, 142; carrot, 55, 66, 57; 22, 423 INDEX 599 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. celery, 75; coriander, 143, 144; parsley, 140; parsnip, 57; poison hemlock, 194, 195; water hem- lock, 193 Parsley Order, 371, 400, 412, 413 Parsnip, 43, 57, 120, 124, 219, 370, 412, 413; root, 114 Partition in ovary, 363 Parts of a seed-plant, 316 Pasque-flower, 338, 341, 328-356 Pasteboard, 235 : Pastinaca sativa, Parsnip Pasture plants, 303 Patterns, 270 Pea, 40, 48, 120, 124, 365, 408, 409 Peace and progress, 468 Peach, 88, 89, 121, 124, 364 Peanut, 35, 45, 120, 124, 365, 410, 411; kernel, 114; oil, 100, 296, 297 Pear, 87, 88, 121, 124, 363 Peat, 298; ash, 300; bogs, 298; moss, 239, 242, 298, 394, 522, 623, 524, 525 Peat-moss Family: peat-moss, 242, 523-525 Pecan, 35, 40, 376; nut, 120, 125 Pecopteris, 535 Pecopteris, Tree-ferns Pedate, 340 Pedicel, 344 Peduncle, 348 : Pentadelphous stamens, 368 Peony, 329, 328-356, 404, 405 Pepo, 384 Pepper, black, 128, 131; red, 128, 131, 132, 382, 416, 417 Pepper Family, 398: black pepper, 131 Peppermint, 146, 147, 148, 177, 383; camphor, 178; oil, 297 Pepper Order, 398 Perennial, 58, 331, 332; herbs, 352 Perfect flowers, 13, 347, 354 Perforated cells, 524 Perfumery, 295, 297 Perianth, 48, 319; 390; petaloid, 390 ; Pericarp, 351, 352, dehiscing dor- sally, 359; dry, 355; fleshy, 355; winged, 359 Permanent tissue, 487 glumaceous, Perigynous floral organs, 350, 355 Peristome, 527, 529 Persistence, 466, 468 Petal, 42, 319, 348, 352 Petaloid perianth, 390; sepals, 348 Petiole, 336, 537 Petiolule, 339 Petroselinum hortense, Parsley Phanerogamia, Phenogams Phenogamia, Phenogams Phaophycea, Brown Alge Phaseolus lunatus, Lima Bean vulgaris, Kidney Bean Phenogamia, Phenogams Phenogams, 309, 393, 396, 397 Phenogams and cryptogams, 550 Philopena almonds, 365 Phlox Order, 383, 401, 418, 419 Phenix dactylifera, Date Phosphorus in grains, 31 Photographer’s trays, 284 Photosynthesis, 85 Phycocyanin, 471 Phycoerythrin, 487 Phycophein, 485 Phylogeny, 435, 560 Physical basis of life, 471 Physiological botany, 10; division of labor, 319, 321, 572 Phytelephas microcarpa, Vegetable Ivory Phytolacca decandra, Pokeweed Pianos, 245, 263 . Picea excelsa, Norway spruce Pictures, botanical, 312 Pie-plant, 91 Pigments, 290, 291 Pigmy Buttercup, 444 Piling, 245, 257 Pimento officinalis, Allspice Pimento walks, 130 Pimpenella Anisum, Anise Pina, 234 Pinacee, Pine Family Pine, 241, 253, 392, 424, 425; Scotch, 269; wood, 250, 261, 270 Pine Family, 392, 397, 426, 427, 554: European larch, 271; hem- lock, 273; juniper, 158; Norway spruce, 272; red cedar, 273; red- wood, 273; Scotch pine, 269 600 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Pine grove illustrating mutual ac- commodation, 453, 454 Pine Order, 393, 397, 426, 427 Pines, 550 Pineapple, 88, 103, 121, 124, 233; fiber, 232; gall, 272 Pineapple-cloth, 234 Pineapple Family, 397: pineapple, 103; southern moss, 234 Pin-mold, 495, 496, 497 Pin-mold Family: pin-mold, 496, 497 Pin-mold Fungi, 495 Pink Family, 398 Pinnate, 341; nervation, 352 Pinnately, compound, 341; nerved, B41 Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Pine Piperacew, Pepper Family Piperales, Pepper Order Piper nigrum, Black Pepper Piping, 287 Pistil, 11, 14, 308, 319, 345; com- pound, 347; simple, 347 Pistillate flowers, 347 Pistil, parts of, ovary, 345; ovule, 346; placenta, 346; stigma, 345; style, 345 Pisum sativum, Pith, 250, 254 Pith-rays, 250, 253, 254 Pivotal place of plants in economy of nature, 574 Placenta, 346; axile, 355; dorsal, 346; parietal, 362; ventral, 346 Plaiting, 223, 235 Planetesimal hypothesis, 465 Plane-tree, 267, 268 Plane-tree Family, 399: American sycamore, 267 Planks, 270 Plantaginacea, Plantain Family Plantaginales, Plantain Order Plantain Family, 401 Plantain Order, 401 Plant, formulas, 352; groups, 358; names, early, 3 Plant life and human life, 575 Plants, annual, [1; biennial, 52; compass, 73; dicecious, 360; habit of, 359; monecious, 374; ocreate, 372; perennial, 68; Pea shrub, 36; polygamous, 347; 343; pubes- tree, 36; glabrous, cent, 343 Plants and animals defined, 573, 574 Plants, how named, 2; in general, 574; our dependence upon, 1; needs of, 2 Plant’s place in Nature, 561 Plants poisonous, to eat, 192; to handle, 217 Plant segment, 324 Platanacee, Plane-tree Family Platanus occidentalis, American Sycamore Pleurococcacee, Wall-stain Algae Pleuroccus vulgaris, Wall-stain Alga Plicate westivation, 381 Plicate-convolute wstivation, 381 Plum, 88, 90, 121, 124, 364; wood, 357, 263 Plumule, 48, 317, 318, 319, 546, 556 Podded Jute, 232 Poison, Dogwood, see Poison- sumac; Hemlock, 194, 195, 209, 370, 410, 411 Poison-ivy, 217, 218, 219 Poison-oak, see Poison-ivy Poisonous bark, 196; drugs, 176; flowers, 205, 208; fruits and seeds, 209; herbage, 199; honey 205, 207, 208; mushrooms, 111; 218; juice, 357; plants, 112, 162, 163, 192, 219; substances, 302; underground parts, 192; volatile oils, 177 Poisons, 162; as by-products, 192 Poison-sumac, 217, 220 Poke, Indian, 390, 424, 425 Pokeweed, 195, 196, 208, 209 Pokeweed Family, 398: pokeweed, 195, 196 Polemoniales, Phlox Order Poles, 245, 270 Pollen, 12, 14, 319; 651, 556 Pollen-saes, alee 326 Pollen-tube, 551, 555, Pollination, 557 Polygamous flowers, 347, 354 grain, 550, 556 INDEX 601 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Polygonacee, Buckwheat Family Polygonales, Buckwheat Order Polygonum Convolvulus, Climbing Buckwheat Polypodiacee, Polypody Family Polypody Family: male-fern, 179; pteris, 537 Polyporacee, Pore-mushroom Family Pome, 365 Pond-scum, 478, 479, 480, 499, 558 Pond-scum Family: pond-scum, 479, 480 Poplar, 241, 263, 264, 377, 414, 415; wood, 263 Poppy, 208, 406, 407 Poppy Family, 361, 398, 406, 407: opium poppy, 182, 183 Poppy-oil, 296 Poppy, Opium, see Opium Poppy Poppy Order, 363, 398, 408, 409 Populus tremuloides, Poplar Porcupine-wood, 272 Pore-mushroom Family: amadou, 241 Pores of wood, 252, 538 Poricidal dehiscence, 362; of an- thers, 379 Portable boats, 284 Portulacacee, Portulaca Family Posts, 258, 270 Potash in grains, 31 Potassium, 74 Potato berries, poisonous, 210 Potato, sweet, 438, 58, 59, 379, 416, 417; white, 43, 59, 60, 210, 382, 416, 417 Potentialities of protoplasm, 572 Pot-herb Jute, 232 Pot-herbs, 55 Powdery mildew, 499, 500 Powdery-mildew Family: powdery mildew, 500 Preference, power of, 569 Prehistoric food-plants, 124 Prickly Sago Palm, 109, 110 Primary leaves, 318, 319; tissue, 542 Primitive centers of agriculture, 122, 123 Primitive man, 302 Primitive versus degenerate forms, 549 Primrose Family, 401 Primrose Order, 401 Primulacee, Primrose Family Primulales, Primrose Order Princes of the Vegetable Kingdom, 389 Principes, Palm Order Printing-ink, 294, 295 Printing-paper, 224 Progress and peace, 468; in evolu- tion, 466; made in spite of com- petition, 468 Progressive fixity of growing struc- tures, 571 Prolific multiplication, 512 Prosenchyma, 530 Protection, organs of, 321, 538 Proteid, 33, 74, 114, 115, 471 Protein in foods, 114 (sce also Pro- teid) Prothallial cells, 556 Prothallus, 533, 536, 551 Prothallus-cell, 546 Protonema, 523, 526 Protoplasm, 471; arfificial, fundamental properties of, potentialities of, 572 Protoplast, 473 Protoplasts, artificial, 564; fusion of, 560 Prunus Amygdalus, Almond Cerasus, Sour Cherry domestica, Plum Persica, Peach serotina, Wild Black Cherry Prussic acid in cherry leaves, 204; in cherry stones, 205 Pseudo-fibers, 225, 239 Pseudopodium, 525 Pseudo-root, 481, 521, 536 Pseudo-shoot, 481 Pseudo-woods, 256, 272 Pteridophyta, Pteridophyte Divi- sion Pteridophyte Division, 548 Pteridophytes, 394, 396 Pteris, 537 Pubescent, 343 Pulse, 35, 40 Pulse Family, 365, 398, 399, 410, 562; 571; 602 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 411: courbaril-tree, 289; dyer’s indigo-shrub, 293; gum arabic tree, 164; kidney bean, 49, 50; Lima bean, 51; locust, 197; logwood-tree, 294; pea, 48; peanut, 45; tragacanth shrub, 165; Zanzibar copal-tree, 289 Pumpkin, 76, 77, 78, 85, 114, 121, 124, 383 Purifiers of air and water, 304 Pussies, 373 Putrefaction, 493 Pyrenoid, 476 Pyrography, 263 Pyrus communis, Pear Malus, Apple Quarter-sawed timber, 250, 257, 268 Quercus pedunculata, English Oak rubra, Red Oak Suber, Cork Oak Quince, 88, 121, 124, 363, 408, 409; seed, 163, 164 Quinine, 182, 186 Raceme, 344, 345 Racemose inflorescence, 345, 352 Rachis of inflorescence, 14, 344 Radicle, 48, 317, 318, 319, 557 Radish, 43, 55, 120, 124, 146, 362, 406, 407 Railway ties, 257, 258, 270 Rain-guard, 16 Ranales, Crowfoot Order Rancid oil, 296 Ranunculacee, Crowfoot Family Ranunculacee, family tree, 437 Ranunculales, Crowfoot. Order Ranunculus acris, Tall Buttercup aquatilis, White Water Crow- foot Cymbalaria, Seaside Crowfoot pygmeus, Pigmy Buttercup sceleratus, Ditch Crowfoot Rape, 362 Rape-oil, 297 Raphanus sativus, Radish Raphe, 346 Rapid multiplication of cells, 511 Raspberry, 88, 91, 121, 125, 364, dOS&, 409 Rations, 115, 117 Rattan, 232, 235, 237, 238, 388, 422, 423 Raw products, 302 Ray-floret, 380 Reappearance of life, 566 Recapitulation, law of, 435, 560 Recapitulation or phylogeny by ontogeny, 559 Recent food-plants, 125 Receptacle, 61, 349, 385 Recreational appliances, 245 Red, alge, 487; cedar, 273, 392; cedar oil, 297; cedar wood, 270; oak, 257; pepper, 128, 131, 132, 136, 382, 416, 417 Redwood, 270, 273, 392, 426, 427 Reed, 235 Refuse in foods, 114 Regular flowers, 349, 359 Reproduction, 572; by budding, 495; by fission, 476; organs of, 321; sexual, 480; vegetative, 510 Reproductive system, 322, 343 Reservoirs of volatile oil, 359 Resin, 288 Resin-ducts, 252, 253 Resinous electricity, 288 Resins, 177, 178, 222, 285, 287 Resting spores, 475, 568 Resupinate flower, 391 Retting flax, 230 Reversion, 436 Rhamnacee, Buckthorn Family Rhamnales, Buckthorn Order Rheum officinale, Medicinal Rhu- barb Rhaponticum, Garden Rhubarb Rhizome, 336, 539 Rhodophycew, Red Alga Rhedales, Poppy Order Rhubarb, 125, 412, 413, 372; gar- den, 91, 104, 121; medicinal, 166, 170 Rhus Toxicodendron, Poison-ivy Vernix, Poison-sumac Ribes rubrum, Common Currant Ribs, 337 Riceia spp., Crystalworts Riceracew, Crystalworts Rice, 11, 15, 16, 17, 25, 120, 122, INDEX 60 w All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 124, 126, 235, 387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 28 Ricinus communis, Plant Rigging, 235 Rind, 485, 540 Road materials, 244 Robinia Pseudacacia, Locust Rock-rose Family, 400 Rod-germ Family: hay bacillus, Castor-oil 492; milk-souring bacterium, 493; vinegar ferment, 155 Root, 323, 324, 533, 538 Root-cap, 537, 538 Root-hairs, 317, 318, 319 Root-member, 326, 327 Roots, brace, 23 Rootstock, 336 Root-tuber, 43 Ropes, 223, 230 Rosa alpina, Alpine Rose gallica, French Rose spinosissima, Scotch Rose Rosaceew, Rose Family Rosales, Rose Order Rose, 146, 408, 409, 432, 435; al- pine, 378; French, 150; Scotch, 151 Rose Family, 363, 399, 408, 409: almond, 42; alpine rose, 378; apple, 86, 87; peach, 89; pear, 87; plum, 90; quince, 88; rasp- berry, 91; roses, 150, 151; sour cherry, 90; strawberry, 92; wild black cherry, 260 Rose Order, 367, 399, 410, 411 Roses, 364; an ‘‘unpruned”’ group, 440 Rosette, 342 Rosin, 288, 294 Royal-fern Family: osmunda, 537 Rubber, 280; balls, 284, crude, 283 Rubber-tree, Brazilian, 281; India, 282 Rubber tubing, 284; type, 284 Rubbery materials, 287 Rubiacee, Madder Family Rubiales, Madder Order Rubus ideus, European Rasp- berry strigosus, Wild Red Raspberry Rudimentary flowers, 13, 14; or- gans, 436; ovules, 352 Rue Family, 399: lemon, 97; orange, 97 Rue, Meadow, 339, 328-356 Rules for telling a toadstool, 214 Rum, 159 Runners, 92 Rush, 232, 234, 235, 390, 422, 423 Rush Family, 390, 397, 422, 423: rush, 234 Russia leather, 297 Rustic work, 279 Rutacee, Rue Family Rye, 11, 15, 18, 25, 27, 114, 120, 124, 126, 159, 235, 387, 420, 421 Saccharomyces cerevisia, Yeast, Saccharomycetacea, Yeast Family Saccharomycetes, Yeast Fungi Saccharum officinarum, Sugar-cane Sac-leaves, 550 Sae-member, 326, 327 Saddles, 244 Saffron, 170, 175, 176, 390, 424, 425 Saffron Crocus, 175, 176 Sage, 137, 138, 170, 383, 418, 419 Sago, 104, 125, 422, 423 “Sago-palm,” 555 Sago palm, prickly, 109, 110; smooth, 109; spineless, 104 Sago-palms, 121, 388 Sail-cloth, 230, 232 Sails, 223 Salads, 55 Salicacee, Willow Family Salicales, Willow Order Salix sp., Willow Salvia officinalis, Sage Samara, 358 Sambucus canadensis, Elder Sandalwood Order, 398 Sand-binders, 303 Santalales, Sandalwood Order Sapindales, Soap-berry Order Sapodilla Family, 401: taban-tree, 286 Sapotacee, Sapodilla Family Saprolegniacee, Water-mold Fam- ily Saprolegnia Thureti, Water-mold 604 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Saprophyte, 493 Sap-wood, 246 Sassafras, 165, 168, 360, 406, 407; oil of, 297; pith, 163; wood, 260 Sassafras officinale, Sassafras Satureia horlensis, Summer Savory Savory, 418, 419; herbs, 128, 137; seeds, 128, 137; summer, 137, 383 Savoy cabbage, 69 Saxrifragacer, Saxifrage Family Saxifrage Tamily, 399: currant, 94 Scale-like outgrowths, 538 Scale-tree, 299, 301 Scale-tree Family: scale-tree, 299, 301 Scallop Squash, 80 Schizocarp, 370 Schizomyceles, Fission Fungi Scitaminales, Banana Order Sclerenchyma, 538, 540 Sclerotic tissues, 538 Scotch Pine, 269; rose, 151 Scouring-rush, 641, 542, giant, 299 Scouring-rush Family: scouring- rush, 541, 543 Screens, 223 Scrophulariacea, Figwort Family Scutellum, 388 Sea Island Cotton, 225, 226, 227 Sealing-wax, 288 Seaside Buttercup, evolution of, 462 Seaside Crowfoot, 463 Sea-tangle I'amily: 486, 488 Sea-tangles, 485, 486, 488 Seaweed Division, 491 Seaweed Subdivision, 395, 396 Seaweeds, 308 Secale cereale, Rye Secondary, — inflorescence, leaves, 318, 319; tissue, 542 Sedge Family, 397 Seed, 350, 351, 550; albuminous, 355; exalbuminous, 363, 557; of flax, 317, 318 Seed-bud, 48, 317, 318 Seed-coat, 316, 317, 318 Seed-food, 29, 316, 317, 318 543; sea-tangles, 352; Seed-leaves, 46, 48, 317, 318 Seedling, development, 317; of flax, 318, 319 Seed-oils, 101 Seed-plant Division, 393, 396, 397 Seed-plants, 393, 396, 397 Seed-root, 48, 317, 318 Seeds, 352; make best provision for offspring, 550; parts of, 29, 49, 316, 352; the greatest achievement of the vegetable kingdom, 560 Seed-stem, 317, 318 Seed-wing, 551 Seedwort Division, 394, 396 Seedworts, 393, 394, 396, 397 Selaginella, 550 Selaginellacee, Selaginella Family Selaginella Family: selaginellas, 545-547 Selaginella spp., Selaginellas Selaginellas, 545-547 Selected adaptations, 446, 452 Selection, artificial, 127, 446, 447; natural, 447, 448; subordinate role of, 460 Self-control inherent in every or- ganism, 464 Self-movement, 461 Sepal, 29, 319, 352 Septicidal dehiscence of capsule, 379 Septic organisms, 177 Sequoia sempervirens, Redwood Service versus competition, 468 Sessile, 342 Sewing-thread, 223 Sexual, generation, 560; reproduc- tion, 480 Sexuality lost in certain fungi, 501 Shade trees, 303 Shagbark Hickory, 41 Sheath, 337 Sheath-algee, 482, 483, 484, 514, 658; compared with spore-sac fungi, 501 Sheath-alga = Family: cushion sheath-alga, 484; free-branching sheath-alga, 483 Sheep Laurel, 202, 379 Shelf fungus, 239 Shell substitute, 284 INDEX 605 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Shepherd’s Purse, 556 Shield-lichen Family: moss, 169 Shingles, 270 Shipbuilding, 256, 270 Ships, 259 Ships’ knees, 270 Shoe-lasts, 263 Shoemaker’s wax, 288 Shoe-pegs, 245, 263 Shoe-soles, 287 Shoes, 282; wooden, 263 Shoot, 323 Shoot-segment, 323 Shoots, kinds of: runners, 92; spur, 271 Showbill type, 263 Showy Ladies’ Slipper, 220 Shrub, 36, 306, 333 Siamese Gamboge-tree, 290, 291 Sigillaria, 547 Sigillaria, Giant Club-mosses Silica in epidermis, 542; in grains, 31 Silique, 363 Silk, artificial, 224, 228; of maize, 2 107, Iceland Silk-cotton Family: cocoa, 108; Sterculia Family, 399 Silkworm food, 303 Simple inflorescence, 352; leaves, 339, 342; pistil, 347 Sinapis alba, White Mustard Sinker, 211 Size of plants, enormous, 575 Skiffs, 260 Slippery Elm, 165 Smokeless fuel, 300, 301; powder, 224 Smooth Sago Palm, 109 Snow-on-the-mountain, 203, 207, 217 Snuff, 185 Soap, yellow, 288 Soap-berry Order, 399 Soaps, 288, 295, 296 Socrates, poisoning of, 194 Soda in grains, 31 Soda water mixtures, 150 Soft pine, 270; soap, 296 Soil bacteria, 494 Soil-binders, 303 Soil-building by lichens, 506 Soil-makers, 304 Solanaceae, Nightshade Family Solanum — Dulcamara, Bitter- sweet Lycopersicum, Tomato Melongena, Egg Plant nigrum, Black Nightshade tuberosum, White Potato Solar system, 464 Soldering flux, 288 Soles, 280 Solid bulb, 336 Solitary flowers, 345, 352 Solvents, 296 Soredium, 506, 508 Sorghums, 236 Sorus, 179 Sounding-boards, 270 Sour Cherry, 90 Southern Moss, 232, 234 Souvenirs, 268 Spadix, 388 Spars, 243, 270 Spathe, 388 Spathiflore, Arum Order Speaking tubes, 287 Spearmint, 137, 139, 170, 177, 338; oil, 297 Special creation, 429 Species, 4, 428; as units of, classi- fication, 431; destruction of 432; fixity of, 429, 430; limits of, 431; origin of, 441 Spermagone, 505 Spermatophyta, 8 Spermatophyta, Seed-plant Divi- sion Spermatophytes, 393, 394, 396, 397 Spermatozoid, 515, 617, 527 Sphagnacee, Peat-moss Family Sphagnum spp. Peat Moss Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Wedge-leaf Sphenopteris, Climbing-ferns Spicate inflorescence, 373 Spices, 128, 302; danger of, 130, 133; history of, 137 Spiderwort Family, 397 Spike, 373 Spikelet, 13 606 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Spinach, 55, 71, 72, 120, 124; leaves, 114 Spinacia oleracea, Spinach Spindles, 245 Spineless 8: 3ago-palm, 104 Spinning, 222 Spirits of turpentine, 288, 296 Spirituous liquors, 159 Spirogyra sp., Pond-seum Spitting, danger from, 494 Splint, 241 Splints, surgical, 245 Sponge Cucumber, 238 419 Spontaneous generation, 565; va- riations, 449 Spools, 245, 263 Sporangium, 484, 541 Spore, 167 Spore-base, Fungi, 501; Lichens, 508 Spore-case, 529 Spore-layer, 529 Spores, 511 Spore-sac Fungi, 499, 504 Spore-sac-leaf, 534 , 383, 418, Spore- -sacs, 550 Sporophyll, 541 Sporophyte, 485 Spring wood, 2 Spruce, 241, 292, 651, 552, 553; aphis, way, 272; wood, 270 Spunk, 239 Spur, 271 Spurge Family, 399: bitter cas- sava, 110, 111; Brazilian rubber- tree, 281; caper spurge, 216; castor-oil plant, 172, 173; snow- on-the-mountain, 203 Sputum, danger from, 494 Squash, 85, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419; hubbard, 81; long white, 79; scallop, 80; summer crook- neck, 79 Staff, 232 Stamens, 12, 14, 309, 319, 352, 550; diadelphous, 366; mona- delphous, 366; pentadelphous, 368; syngenesious, 3884 Staminate flowers, 347 514, 515 , 253 294, 424, 425, 272; Nor- Staminodes, 340, 341, Standard, 48, 366 Star Anise, 137, 143, 358, 406, 407 Starch, 31; conversion into sugar, 348, 352 Gy Staves, 259 Stem, 324, 538; of fern, 540 Stem- ‘member, 326, 327 Stem-part, « a 325 Stems, 387, 533 Stem-tip, 320, 556 Stem-tuber, 43 Sterculiacee, Silk-cotton Familv Sterculia Family, 399 Stiffening, 223, 232 Stigma, 12, 14, 319, 345, 555, enlargement. of, 557 Stimulants, 156, 160, 161 Stimulating beverages, 161 Stimulation, 159 Stimuli, response to, 562 Stipulate leaf, 358, 359 Stipule, 358, 359 Stipules, ocreate, 372 Stirrups, 244 Stomata, 529, 530 Stone-fruit, 364 Stone of drupes, 365 Stoppers, 280 Storage of food-materials, 485, 538 Strap-shaped corolla, 379, 380, 381, 385 556; Straw, 232, 235; hats, 223; mat- ting, 235 Strawberry, S88, 92, 121, , 364, 408, 409 Strawberry-shrub Family, 398 String-beans, 85 Structure, 572 Struggle for existence, 447, 454 Struggles for supremacy often destroy what is best, 468 Strychnine, 182, 18S Strychnos Nux-vomica, ica Stuffing for saddles, 238 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., 456 Style, 12, 14, 319, 345 Suberin, 279 Subtend, 342 Suce valent parts for disseming ution, 560 Nux Vom- INDEX 607 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Sudden adaptations, variations, 456 Sugar, 32, 101 Sugar-beet, 101 Sugar-cane, 101, 106, 121, 387, 420, 421; stalks, 298 Sugar-maple, 101, 261, 263 Sugars, 562 Sulphur in grains, 31 Sumac Family: poison-ivy, 218; _ poison-sumac, 220 Summer, crook-neck squash, 79; savory, 137, 139, 383; wood, 251, 553 Sunflower, 420, 421 Sunflower Family, 385, 401, 420, 421: dandelion, 443; Jerusalem artichoke, 61, 62; lettuce, 72, 73, 74; oxeye, 380; wormwood, 160 Superior ovary, 350 Support, organs of, 321 Surface fibers, 224, 225 Surgeon’s plaster, 284 Surgical appliances, 245, 284, 287; instruments, 284 Survival of the fittest, 447, 448 Suspensor, 497, 546, 647, 552, 556, 557 Suture, 351 Swamp-drainers, 303 Swarm-spore, 482, 511 Swarm-spore alge, evolution of, 558 Sweating of cocoa, 103 Sweet, corn, sugar in, 32; flag, 170, 174, 389, 422, 423; marjoram, 137, 140, 383; potato, 43, 58, 59, 120, 124, 379, 416, 417; potato root, 114 Swietenia Mahogoni, Mahogany Sword hilts, 286 Sycamore, American, 267, 268; wood, 268 Symbiont, 508 Symbiosis, 508 Syngenesious anthers, 384 Synopsis of Seedworts, 397 Syringodendron, Giant, mosses System, Linnean, 308; natural, 310, 311, 328 457, 459; 124, Club- Systematic, botany, 9, 304, 305, _ 314, 315; classification, 305 Systems, artificial, 307 Taban-tree, 285, 286 Table mats, 239 Tall Buttercup or Crowfoot, 216, 241, 328-356 Tan-bark, 290, 294 Tanks, 243 Tanning, 222, 295 Tannins, 154, 166, 222, 294 Tape, 223 Tape-worms, 180 Tapioca, 104 Taraxicum officinale, Dandelion Taxacee, Yew Family Taxus baccata, Yew Tea, 150, 152; aroma, 154 Tea Family, 400: tea, 152 Tea-tasters, 154 Technical, description, 312; terms, 312 Tegumentary system, 539 Telegraph-poles, 270 Telephones, 284 Temperatures required by life, 466 Terminal flower, 343 Terminology, 314; Linnean, re- form in, 313 Terms, technical, 312 Ternate nervation, 352 Tennis-rackets, 245 Test of life, 568, 569 Thalictrum flavum, Meadow Rue Thallophyta, Thallophyte Division Thallophyte Division, 509 Thallophytes, 395, 396 Thallus, 481 Thatch, 223, 235 Theacee, Tea Family Thea Sinensis, Tea Theine, 150 Theobroma Cocoa, Cocoa Theobromine, 150, 154, 181 Third organic kingdom, 573 Thread, 223 Thread-weed, 488, 490 Thread-weed Family: weed, 490 Thyme, 137, 139, 177, 383, 418, 419; oil of, 297 thread- 608 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Thymelecee, Mezereum Family Thymus vulgaris, Thyme Tilia ulmifolia, Vlm-leaved Lin- den Tiliacee, Linden Family Tillandsia usneoides, Moss Timber, 257; pins, 260 Tinning, 157 Tint-ball Alga, 471, 558 Tint-ball Family: tint-ball alga, 471 Tires, 284 Tissue, 486, 560; systems, 539, 560 Tissues, meristematic, 487; per- manent, 487 Toadstools, 111, 213 Tobacco, 182, 184, 208, 382, 416, 417; Indian, 201, 384, 418, 419 Toilet soaps, 296 Tomato, 83, 84, 85, 121, 124, 382; fruit, 114 Tool-handles, 259, 260, 269 Toothpicks, 245, 268 Torches, 282 Torus, 349, 350, 352; concave, 355; convex, 355; epigynous, 365; fleshy, 364; hollow, 380 Toys, 245, 259, 263, 270, 284 Trachylobium Hornemannianum, Zanzibar Copal-tree Tragacanth, 163 Tragacanth Shrub, 164, 165, 366, 410, 411 Tragacanthin, 164 Traveling gametes, 512 Tree, 36; of life, 484 Tree-cabbage, 274 Tree-ferns, 299, 535, 538, 540 Treenails, 259 Trees, 306, 333 Trestlework, 245 Trianon botanic garden, 311 Triticum sativum, Wheat True, gums, 287; mosses, 519, 530; woods. 256 Trunk of fern, 540 Trunks, 263 Truth, supreme test of, 429 Tsuga canadensis, Hemlock Tuberculosis bacterium, 494 Tuber, 45, 641, 542 Southern Tubiflore, Phlox Order Tubs, 243 Tubular floret, 380 Tulip-tree, 261, 358, 406, 407 Tulip Whitewood, 261, 263 Turban Squash, 81 Turkish Tobacco, 184 Turnery, 242, 257, 259, 263, 268, 269, 277, 280 Turnip, 43, 54, 120, 124, 362; root, 114 Turpentine, 287, 288, 296 Turps, 296 Twice-compound, 339 ‘Twine, 223, 230 Type, plants, 316; rubber, 284: wooden, 263 Ulmacea, Elm Family Ulmus americana, American Elm campestris, English Elm Ulodendron, Giant Club-mosses Ulothrix zonata, Wool-weed Ulotrichacew, Wool-weed Family Umbel, 370 Umbellales, Parsley Order Umbellifere, Parsley Family Umbelliflore, Parsley Order Umbellule, 370 Umbrella handles, 245, 274, 276 Umbrella liverwort, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521 Uncoiled embryo, 355 Universality of life, 569 Upholstery stuffing, 235 Upland Cotton, 225, 226 Upright posture of land-plants 530 Urlicacer, Nettle Family Urticales, Nettle Order Useful bacteria, 494; plants, 302 Useless organs, 436 Usnea barbata, Beard-lichen Usneacee, Beard-lichen Family Valvate wstivation, 349, 354 Vanilla, 146, 149, 391, 424, 425 Vanilla planifolia, Vanilla Vanillin, 146 Variation, 448, 449; under domes- tication, 456 Varieties, 5, 428; cultivated, 6; do- INDEX 609 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. mesticated, 430; multiplication of, 126; origin of, 126 Various plant groups, 358 Varnishes, 288, 290, 294, 296 Vascular cryptogams, 396; parts, 538; plants, 396; system, 539 Vegelabilia, Vegetable Kingdom Vegetable, ecology, 10; fibers, 223; foods, 113; ivory, 275, 276; 388, 422, 423; morphology, 10; parchment, 230; physiology, 10; sponge, 232, 238, 240; versus animal foods, 119; wool, 228 Vegetable Kingdom, 8, 394, 396, 561, 562; culminating in seed- plants, 560; evolution of, 466 Vegetative, cone, 323; organs of crowfoot family, 330; repro- duction, 510, 560; system, 322 Vegeto-animal organisms, 573 Vehicles, 244; for pigments, 295 Veins, 337 Veinlets, 337 Venation, 337 Ventral placenta, 346; suture, 351 Veratrum vivide, Indian Poke Verbenacee, Verbena Family Verbena Family, 401 Vernation, 349; crozier-like, 537 Vertical hypha, 496, 497 Verticil, 342 Vessels, 243, 538, 540; in wood, 252 Vestiges, 436 Vestigial characters, 452 Vine, 333 Vine-bower Clematis, 336, 328-356 Vinegar ferment, 155 Violacee, Violet Family Violales, Violet Order Violet Family, 400 Violet Order, 400 Violins, 245, 270 Virgin cork, 278, 279 Virginia Tobacco, 184 Viscum album, Mistletoe Vitacee, Grape Family Vital processes, imitations of, 563, Vitis spp., Grapes Volatile oil reservoirs, 359, 360 Volatile oils, 128, 159, 160, 170, 177, 295, 296, 297; poisonous, 177 Volition in plants and animals, 464 Vries, Hugo de, 457 Vulcanization, 284 Wagons, 256, 259, 260, 263 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 446 Walnut, 35, 39, 120, 124, 376, 414, 415; black, 260; English, 296; kernel, 114; white, 261; wood, 256, 260 Walnut Family, 376, 398: black walnut, 260; butternut, 40; hickory, 41; pecan, 40; walnut, 39 Walnut Order, 376, 398, 414, 415 Wall-stain Alga, 476, 477, 504 Wall-stain Family: wall-stain alga, 477 Waste products, 573 Water, Hemlock, 193, 370, 412, 413; in foods, 114; in grains, 30 Water-bottles, 284 Water-craft, 243 Watercress, 55, 70, 71, 362, 406, 407 Water-lily Family, 398 Watermelon, 88, 96, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419; pulp, 114 Water-mold, 498 Water-mold Family: water-mold, 498 Water-mold Fungi, 499 Waterproof, coverings, 284; gar- ments, 283, 284; material, 287 Water-supply, effect of forests on, 304 Water-vessels, 282 Wax, 303 Wax-beans, 85 Weapons, 245 Weaving, 222, 223 Webbing, 223, 230 Wedge-leaf, 299 Weeds, 303 Wearing apparel, 223 Well-endowed offspring, 510 Wet cooperage, 243, 257 Wheat, 11, 15, 19, 20, 28, 120, 122, 124, 126, 159, 235, 387, 610 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 420, 421; gum, 31; kernel, 114; range, 26; straw, 298 Whisk brushes, 235 Whisks, 223 . Whisky, 159 White, ash, 259; birch, 265; birch oil, 297; cooperage, 243, 270; mustard, 133; oak wood, 256; pine, 241, 270; pine wood, 250, 251; potato, 438, 59, 60, 120, 124, 210, 382, 416, 417; potato tuber, 114; walnut, 261; water crowfoot, 467 Whitewood, 263; Tulip, 261 Whorl, 342 Whorled leaves, 342 Wicks, 228; wickerwork, 223, 235, 241 Wild, black cherry, 203, 260, 263; carrot, 430; cotton, 227; kale, 66, 67; Icttuce, 73; red rasp- berry, 91 Will, 568; in plants, 462 Willow, 241, 248, 244, 294, 377, 414, 475 Willow Family, 377, 398, 414, 415: poplar, 264; willow, 243, 244 Willow Order, 377, 398, 416, 417 Wind-balls, 283 Wind-breaks, 303 Wind-carried pollen, 557 Wind-flower, 328-356 Wind-pollination, 557 Wine, 156, 157, 243, 495 Winged pericarp, 359 Wings, 48, 366 Winter Crook-neck Squash, 81, 82 Wintergreen, 146, 148, 177, 203, 297, 378, 379, 416, 417; oil of, 562 Witch-hazel, 166, 171 Witch-hazel Family: witch-hazel, 171 Wood, 241, 298; ash, 298; origin, 254; pulp, 241; structure, 249 Wood-alcohol, 300 Wood-anemony, 205, 209, 328- 356 Wood-anemony, American American Wood-anemony) Wooden shoes, 263 Woodenware, 263 Woods, 222; true, 256 Wood-working trades, 242 Woody, fibers, 225, 240, 538; plants, 333, 352 Wool, vegetable, 228 Wool-weed, 480, 481, 558 Wool-weed Family: wool-weed, 481 World-making an evolution, 464 Wormwood, 159, 160, 385, 420, 421 Wrack Family: 488, 489 Wrapping for bottles, 280 Writing-inks, 294 Writing-paper, 224 (see bladder-wrack, Xyridales, Yellow-eyed Grass Or- der Yarn, 223 Yeast, 155 Yeast Family: yeast, 155 Yeast Fungi, 495 Yellow Ladies’ Slipper, 220; Y. Locust, 259 Yellow-eyed Grass Order, 397 Yew, 213, 213, 392, 393, 426, 427 Yew Family, 392, 397, 426, 427: yew, 213 Yokes, 244, 263 Yoke-spore alge, evolution of, 558 Zanzibar Copal-tree, 289, 290, 366 Zea Mays, Maize Zingiber officinale, Ginger Zygomycetes, Pin-mold Fungi Zygospore, 478, 497, 511 Zygote, 482, 512 THE METRIC SYSTEM. Units. THE MOST COMMONLY USED DIVISIONS AND MULTIPLES, Centimeler (cm), 1/100 meter; AL/meter (mm), Tue METER, for 1 {E000 As Alicron (1), 1/1000 millimeter. The CAND: a ho eerols the unit in micrometry. : 4 Atlometer, 10oO meters; used in measuring roads and other long distances. Ti Ce ioe ( Milligram (mg), 1/1000 gram. : ; Wai i + Atlogram, Ooo grams, used for ordinary masses, like et eae groceries, ctc. Tue Liter, for § Cubic Centimeter (cc), 1/1000 liter. This is more CAPACITY.... / common than the correct form, Milliliter. Divisions of the wets are indicated by Latin prefixes: dec’, 1/10; cent?, 1/100; mull, 1/1000. Multiples are designated by Greek prefixes: deka, 10 times; hecto, 100 times; 47Zo, 1000 times; myvr/a, 10,000 times. TABLE OF METRIC AND ENGLISH MEASURES. METER = 100 centimeters, 1000 millimeters, 1,000,000 microns, 39.3704 inches. Millimeter (mm) = 1000 microns, 1/10 millimeter, 1/1000 meter, 1/25 inch, approximately. MICRON (/z) (unit of measure in micrometry)=1/1600 mm, 1/1000000 me- ter (0.000039 inch), 1/25000 inch, approximately. Inch (in.) = 25.399772 mm (25.4 mm, approx.). LITER = 1000 milliliters or 1000 cubic centimeters, I quart (approx.). Cubic centimeter (cc or cctm) = 1/1000 liter. Fluid ounce (8 fluidrachms) = 29.578 cc (30 cc, approx.). GRAM == 15.432 grains. Kilogram (kilo) = 2.204 avoirdupois pounds (2} pounds, approx.). Ounce Avoirdupois (4374 grains) = 28.349 grams ( (30 grams, Ounce Troy or Apothecaries’ (480 grains) = 31.103 grams) approx. ). j TEMPERATURE. To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit: (C. x 2) +32 =F. For example, to find the equivalent of 10° Centigrade, C, = 10°, (10° x $) 4+ 32 = 50° F. To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (F.— 32°) x § = C. Forexample,to reduce 50 Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = 50°, and (5§0°— 32°) x § = 10°C.; or — 40° Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = — 40°, (— 4o°— 32°) = — 72°, whence — 72° x § = — 40°C. —trom “The Microscope” (by S. H. Gage) by permission. MEASURES OF TEMPERATURE Centigrade Centigrade Fahrenheit Fahrenheit | | +212 +16 +60.8 194 15 59 176 14 57.2 158 13 55.4 MO 12 53.6 122 |] 11 51.8 120.2 | 10 50 118.4 | 9 48.2 116.6 || 8 46.4 114.8 7 44.6 113 6 42.8 111.2) 5 41 109.4 | 4 39.2 107.6 | 3 37.4 105.8 | 2 35.6 104 +1 +33.8 102.2 | 0 +32 100.4 | —1 +30.2 98.6 >| 2 28.4 96.8 3 26.6 95 4 24.8 93.2 | 5 23 91.4 | 6 21.2 89.6 | 7 19.4 87.8 | S| 17.6 86 9 15.8 84.2 | 10 14 82.4 | ll 12.2 80.6 | 12 10.4 78.8) 13 8.6 77 14 | 6.8 75.2 | 15 | 5 73.4 | 16 3.2 71.6 17 1.4 69.8 | 18 —04 68° 19 | 2.2 66.2 I 20 | 4 64.4 30. | 22 62.6 —40 —40 1" ITTTT 15 Ab TTIT]TTT ITT] a a 12 TTT eee ty | 8 CENTIMETERS IT] ug MT ES 6 } 5 TITTY TTTTP TTT TTTT PITT] TTT PTT TTT TTT TTT Palla gneve Sees ee