ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New YorkK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY GIFT FROM THE CLIVE M. McCAY LIBRARY OF NUTRITION AND GERONTOLOGY Cornell University Library QK 45.R47 1855 “WOM iii mann Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000606388 ullished. by Blackie & Son. Glasgow. HISTORY OF THE gs ABET KU aye VE BY Dom. WILLIAM RHIND. ILLUSTRATED BY SEVERAL HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD & STEEBL. BLACKIE & SON. OUEEN ST GCLASGOW SOUTH COLLEGE S* EDINBURGH & WARWICK SQUARE LONDON A HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM; THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS, WITH THEIR USES TO MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS, AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. By WILLIAM RHIND, LECTURER ON BOTANY, MARISCHAL COLLEGE, ABERDEEN. ILLUSTRATED BY SEVERAL HUNDRED FIGURES. LONDON: BLACKIE AND SON: PATERNOSTER ROW, AND GLASGOW AND EDINBURGH. MDCCCLXV, GLASGOW: W. G. BLACKIE AND CO., PRINTERS, VILLAFIELD, PREFACE. THERE is, perhaps, no department of science with which so many delightful associations are connected as the study of Botany. The gorgeous beauty and periodical verdure of trees and flowers, the economical utility and medicinal virtues of many plants, and their general application in the commonest arts of life, have attracted the admiration and secured the attention of mankind from the earliest ages; and still continue to be objects of the greatest importance. While it has been the purpose of the present volume to present to the general reader a comprehensive and popular description of all those Vegetables which claim an interest, either for their beauty, utility, or rarity, it has also’ been deemed of importance to give the physiological history and classification of Plants in such detail as may be of utility to the more systematic student of Botany. The First Part of the Work, therefore, consists of the physiology, geogra- phical distribution, and classification of Plants. The SECOND Part embraces a history of Plants used for food and clothing; in arts and manufactures; in medicine; and for ornamental purposes. The ConcLUDING PorTIoN treats of the practical culture of Plants, the pre- servation of specimens, and the drying of roots and seeds. In.a popular Work of this nature it was found impossible to proceed alto- gether on a strictly scientific plan; but so far as was practicable, the Natural method of arrangement has been adopted. Thus, in treating of individual plants, the great leading divisions of the vegetable kingdom have been followed; and in a considerable number of cases, the species have been grouped under their natural families, In general, however, the arrangement must be considered as made subservient to the grouping of vegetables according to their economical uses, as those employed for food, clothing, dyeing, medicine, and ornament. To remedy this irregularity, a chapter has been devoted to an account of the systems of classification, and notices of the Natural families of plants have been arranged and inserted under the respective divisions. A compendium of Fossil Botany has also been added, as forming an interesting addition to the existing genera of plants, iv PREFACE. The authors whose works have chiefly afforded the varied materials of this volume, are so generally referred to in the pages of the work, that it will be unnecessary to recapitulate them in this place, farther than to state, that to the French work of the younger Richard on Physiological Botany; to Sprengel, Mirbel, De Candolle, Dutrochet, Keith, Lindley, &c., frequent reference has been made. In the practical and ornamental departments, much assistance has also been obtained from Loudon’s highly useful works on Botany and Horticulture. WILLIAM RHIND. PREFATORY NOTE TO THIS EDITION. Iy this re-issue considerable improvement has been made on the wood engrav- ings interspersed throughout the text; and TWENTY-NINE new plates have been added to the original series. Seven of these illustrate groups of plants, including pines, palms, cacti, tree ferns, Australian trees and shrubs, and the characteristic features of a tropical forest. The remaining twenty-two are coloured after nature, and present faithful representations of plants important for their uses to man; comprising such as are most extensively used in medicine and the arts, and those from which food, spices, and clothing materials are obtained. The plants figured in the new plates, so far as not previously noticed in the body of the work, are described in an Appendix, in which the portion on Australian plants, contributed by a botanist long resident in these colonies, is new and of much interest. References will be found in the list of illustrations to the pages in which the various figures are described. GuLascow, 1855, CONTENTS. Ilistory of botanical science, . ‘ A The nature and uses of plants, : : The structure of plants, . é : : ° : The organs and functions of plants, . - . . . The roots of plants, ‘ ‘1 ‘ ‘ ri The stem, 4 : , ‘ % . Growth of the stem, - ! - : Of buds, ‘ The leaves, . ‘ ‘ 7 , : 7 The stipules, 2 ‘ . Nutrition of vegetables and aseent of the sap, . The organs of reproduction, and history of their discovery, Organs of fructification, : . Cryptogamic fructification, . ‘i ° Of fecundation, . ‘ , a‘ . The fruit and its envelopes, : . . . 3 5 Of the seed and germination, . . ° . . The food of vegetables, - 2 . . ° ° Of vegetable vitality, . . . . . Diseases of vegetables, ‘ . . : Vegetable products, . ‘ Geographical distribution of plants, ° . Systems of botanical classification, 3 Firsr Diviston or Pranrs—Including the alge, fuse lichens and femie: Srconp Drviston—Monocotyledonous plants, The graminer, wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, me the reins, &e. Sy The sugar-cane, bamboo, Indian cane, The family of palms, the cocoa-nut, date, banana, wax palm, &e. is The yam, arrow root, and alliaceous plants, - THIRD Drvistow—Dicotyledonous plants, the potato, cassava, &e. Umbellifere, including the carrot, parsnip, &ce. . The crucifere, including the turnip, mustard, cabbage, radish, eas Leguminous plants, the pea, bean, kidney-bean, vetch, lentil, fiaceres clover, Rosacee, the apple, pear, quince, plum, peach, cherry, strawberry, raspberry, The grape, mulberry, currant, gooseberry, barberry, blaeberry, ‘ ‘ The orange, lemon, lime, citron, shaddock, pomegranate, fig, olive, Tropical fruits, tamarind, melon-thistle, Indian fig, mango, bread-fruit, &c., . The melon, cucumber, gourds, love-apple, egg plant, The walnut, chestnut, hazelnut, acorn, cashew nut, Tea, coffee, cocoa, hops, tobacco, Plants used for clothing, cordage, &c., flax, feny: eotton, New Fealond flax, Timber trees, the oak, elm, ash, &c., R F Mahogany, lignumvite, teak, magnolia, tolip tree, &e. a : The conifere or pine tribe, the pine, fir, larch, cypress, yew, &c., The banyan tree, boabob, dragon’s blood, tallow tree, pitcher plant, Spice trees and plants, cinnamon, camphor clove, pepper, ginger, mint, rose- mary, &e. . : ne . . ° vi CHAP. XLVIT. XLVIII. XLIX. CONTENTS. Trees and plants used in dyeing, Brazil wood, logwood, indigo wood, madder, turmeric, . . Medicinal plants, Bekividn balks qnassia, oeirtian, centamny, &e. The aloe, scammony, jalap, poloeynith, ipecacuan, squill, Narcotic plants, opium, hemlock, henbane, belladonna, Gums, resins, and balsams, Garden flowers, bulbous roots, . The primrose, carnation, pansy, Ornamental shrubs, . : Natural families of dicotyledonous one, . Fossil plants, plants of the coal formation, of tertiary ‘strata, Practical culture of plants, soil, manure, pruning, ingrafting, Preservation of plants, seeds, and fruits, portable conservatory, Directions for preserving seeds, roots, bulbs, &c. : Appendix, ‘ ‘ . . c . Glossary of botanical evtae, : . é General Index, . 7 ‘ Ci vAGE 49-4 520 537 546 556 566 580 598 611 651 666 678 687 689 698 707 LIST OF ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL. PLATE I. EXHIBITS SECTIONS OF VARIOUS WOODS, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. Fre. PacE 1. Monocotyledonous stem, a portion of the trans- verse section of the sugar-cane, ‘ 2. Transverse section of a coniferous stem; the Scotch pine, u, pith or medulla; 6 b, medul- lary rays, proceeding from the pitb or centre, to the circumference; ¢ c, the annular layers or circles, 3. Section of Diectyledonats Heats the walk, a, medulla; b 6, medullary rays; ¢ c, annular circles ; a, alburnum; e, liber; f, epidermis, or outer bark, : . 4, Highly magnified view of hevaonad meshes of the pine, 5. Perpendicular seeltons of the tine, with the areola, 6. Section parallel to the meitillary rays, A . Transverse section of sugar-cane, highly mag- nified, . Fr . Transverse section ak the taahogany tree, . Do. of the oak, i y . . Do. of red sanders-wood, : 2 ¥ 24 25 ib. ib. ib. ib. I ib. ib. ib. ib. Oo @ PLATE II. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, WITH RE- GARD TO ALTITUDE. The mountain on the left represents one of the Andes in South America. 1. Tropical zone, or region of palms, ‘ - 170 2. Temperate zone, cerealia and timber trees, . ib. 3. Alpine zone, alpine plants and hardy trees, . ib. 4. Arctic zone, lichens and mosses, ib. 5. Snowy region, no vegetation, . . ib. The mountain on the right represents the British zones of climate. 1, Woody region, grain, grasses, and fruit trees, 171 2. Barren region, heaths and hardy trees, and shrubs, . + ab. 3. Mossy region, lichens, ieee aa snow-line, ib. PLATE IIL. FUNGI, OR MUSHROOM PLANTS. 1. Fly amanita.— A. muscaria, e 196 2. Common mushroom.—Ag. campestris, > 194 8. Round-headed morel.—_Morchella esculenta, 193 4. Small-headed morel.—M. hybrida, 196 5. Tall cylindrical agaric.—A. comatus, ib. 6. Variable wood agaric.— A. gilvus, ib. 7. Shaggy agaric.— A. floccosus, . % ib. 8, Spangled watery agaric.— Agaricus mtcncaan, ib. ND OR Op dO DONA OH . Warty false puff ball.— Scleroderma verruco- sum, . Large pladder-like peziza. =B: vethora, : . Alpine amanita.—A. nivalis, % . Red-stemmed boletus.—B. luridus, . Scaly hydrium.—Z. imbricatum, . . . Hairy earth tongue.—Geoflossum hirsutum, . Hispid polyporus.—P. hispidus, . Sulphur-coloured polyporus.—(P. Spheres, . Carmine peziza.—P. coecinea, . . . Scaly hydrium.—Hydrium imbricatum, . Pale crested agaric.—A. cristatus, “ . Mitral helvella,—H. mitra, . a s . Tuberous agaric.—A. tuberosus, . . . False puff ball.— Scleroderma cepa, . Large stemmed peziza.— Pez. macropus, . . Green and yellow agaric.—Ag. psittacinus, . . Crisped helvella.—H. leucophea,. is . Reticulated peziza.—P. reticulata, . . Yellow spathularia.—S, flavida, . PLATE IV. PALMS. . Plantain.—Musa paradisiaca, ‘ ’ . Cabbage palm.—Areca oleracea, . . Cocoa-nut palm.—Cocus nucifera, . Fan palm.—Chamerops humilis, . . Oily palm.—Ele@is guineensis, . . . Taliput palm.—C. umbraculifera, % , Date palm.— Phenix dactylifera, - PLATE V. ALG, OR MARINE PLANTS. . Fucus vesiculosus, A ° nodosus, . Fucus digitatus, Laminaria esculenta, ‘ 3 debilis, . . , . Himanthalia lorea, 7 ‘ . Halidrys siliquosa, 3 7 s . Lichinia corfinis, . a . Lichinia pygruga, . . . Sargassum, . . > . Halyseris polyvadivides: k ‘ . Halymenia ligulata, . . . Enteromorpha compressa, . Odonthalia dentata, . . Pylophera rubens, i . . Padina pavonia, . Desmarestia ligulata, . Dictyota, é a 3 F; . Dictyota dichotoma, . Fustellaria, . Chondrus crispus, . Paar vill LIST OF ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL. PLATE VI. Fie. 5. Araucaria in distance.—A. imbricata, CEREALIA, OR GRAIN PLANTS. 6. Victoria Regia. e Fic. Pace | 7. Aloe plant.—Aloe vabnirieia . # 1. Maize, or Indian corn.—Zea mays, . . 225 2. Fullear of do, . . 3 . ib. PLATE XII. 3. Rice.—Oryza sativa, . « 221 4, Fullear ofdo., . : 3 : ib. ORNAMENTAL PLANTS. 5. Millet.—Setaria italicu, . . 228] 1. Caoutchouc tree.—Siphonia elastica, 6. Egyptian wheat.— Triticum compositum, . 209! 2. Betel-nut palm.—Areea, . 7. Common wheat.—T. hybernum, . 208) 3. Mamme tree.—Mammea Anativonn: 8. Wax palm.—Ceroxylon andicola, . 263 | 4. Mahogany tree.—Swietinia mahogani, 9. — palm.—Corypha cerifera, . . 262| 5. Bread-fruit tree.—Artocarpus incisa, 10. Oily palm.—Eleis guineensis, ‘i - 263] 6. Passion flower.—Passiflora cerulea, 7. Castor-oil plant.—Ricinus communis, PLATE VII. 8, Adam’s needle.— Yucca gloriosa, 9, Cactii—Cactus opuntia, &e., . canes, &e. 10. American aloe.—Agave Americana, 1. Bamboo.—Bambusa arundinacea, . 239 2. Indian cane.—Calamus verus, . ‘ ib. 3. Dragon’s blood tree.—Dracena draco, . 479 4. Sugar-cane.—Saccharum officinarum, . 2 aa ais eee a ADDITIONAL PLATES, 6. Arrow root plant: —Maranta ‘anaiBeiscees, 264 NOT IN 7. Papyrus.—Cyperus papyrus, « 3 233 8. Lily of the Nile.—Nymphea lotus, : 270 FORMER EDITIONS. Y. Mangrove tree.—Rhizophora mangle, » 478 PLATE XIIL PLATE VIII. TREE FERNS. FRUIT TREES. 1. Alsophylla excelsa (young tree), e 1. Chestnut tree—J'agus castanea, 383 | 2. Dicksonia arborescens, . : 2. Walnut tree.—Juglans regia, 382 | 3. Cyathea elegans, ki é * 3. Lemon tree.— Citrus limonum, . 8638! 4. — arborea, 4. Orange tree.—C. aurantium, é 848 | 5. Hemitelia speciosa, # ‘ 5. Gourds.—Cucurbita, . ‘ 878 | 6. Drynaria coronans, ‘ Fi " 6. Cucumbers.—Cucumis sativa, ib. | 7. Platycerium grande, 7. Grapes.— Vitis vinifera, 339 | 8. Neotopteris, 9. Asplenium lucidum, PLATE IX. TIMBER TREES, PLATE XIV. lL. Oak.— Quercus robur, 421 CAGE 2. Ash.—Frazinus excelsior, 435 | 1. Opuntia Braziliensis, - j e 8. Elm.—Ulmus campestrus, . 432 | 2. Cereus senilis, 4. Beech.—Fagus sylvatica, 434 | 38. Opuntia cochinellifera, 5. Lime.— Tilia Europea, 441 | 4, Echinocactus stainesii, 6. Birch.—Betula alba, . 440] 5. Cereus cerulescens, 7 Weeping willow.—Salix Babylonica, 444| 6, Echinocactus visnaga, 7 Cereus hexagonus, PLATE X. 8. — Peruvianus.—V. rankinstith 9. — _— grandiflorus, CONIFER) OR PINESTRELS: 10. Opuntia cochinellifera, 1. Silver fir.—Abies picea, 469 | 11. Echinocactus oxygonus, 2. Scotch pine—Pinus sylvestris, 457/12. — myriostoma, 3. Larch.—Larix communis, 470|13. — helophorus, 4, Cedar.—Larizx cedrus, 471 | 14. Melocactus communis, $ “ 5. American spruce, 469 6. Weymouth pine, . 466 PLATE XV. J. Spruce fir.—Abies communis, . 469 FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. PLATE XI. 1. Cork oak.— Quercus suber, . : 2. Hemp palm.—Chamerops excelsa, BOABOB, BANYAN, &C. 3. Funereal cypress.— Cupressus funebris, 1, Camphor tree.—Laurus camphora, . 4841 4, Olive tree.—Olea Europea, < i 2, The Boabob tree.—Adansonia digitata, 478| 65. Apple tree.—Pyrus malus, . A 3. The Banyan tree.—Ficus indica, 477 | 6. Jaca tree.—Artocarpus integrifolia, 4, Chatta, or umbrella tree of India. Magnolia 7. The shaddock.—Citrus decumana, tripetala, . . ; é 478 | 8. Sago palm.—Cycas revolute, - ‘ LIST OF ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL. PLATE XVI. PALMS, PINES, &c. Fria PAGE 1, Sir J. Banks’ Araucaria.—Araucaria imbri- cata, . ‘ 476, 691 2. The Pandanas—Serew pine. _p. odoratissimus, 479 8. Date palm.— Phenix dactylifera, 253 4, Daum palm.—Hyphene thebaica, . « 258 5. Cacao tree.— Theobroma cacao, . 396 6. Papaw.—Carica papaya, . s . 879 7. Sago palm.—Cycas revoluta, 3 - 261, 691 PLATE XVIL. PINE TREES. 1. Douglas’ pine.— Abies Douglassi, 470 2. Sabines’ pine.—-Pinus Sabiniana, 691 8. Screw pine.—Pandanus odoratissimus, 479 4, Stone pine.—Pinus pinea, 464 5. Deodar.— Cedrus deodora, 691 6. Brazilian pine.—Pinus Clanbrasiliana, . 692 7. Coulter’s pine.— Pinus Coulteri, a 691 8. Cluster pine.—Pinus pinaster maritima, 464 PLATE XVIII. SOENE IN A BRAZILIAN FOREST. PLATE XLI. AUSTRALIAN TREES AND SHRUBS. 1. White gum tree.—Zucalyptus obliqua, . 604 2. Stringy bark tree.—Eucalyptus pulverulentus, 695 3. Wattle tree.—Acacia dealbata, . . ib. 4, Australian virgin bower. — Clematis Moss- mana, ‘ ib. 5. Grass tree. ee hastilis, i ib. 6. White everlasting flower.—Helichrysum ela- tum, . : ib. 7. Yellow everlasting fiaqien Heporasie brae- teatum, . ai x ib. 8. She-oak, _—Canausina pencil. ib. 9. Cabbage palm.—Corypha Australis, ib. 10. Captain Cook’s tea tree.—Lepiospermum sco- parium, 696 11. Bottle-brush stant eBantse danse, ib. 12. Dwarf native cherry —Ezocarpus humifusa, ib. 13. Great flowering Australian heath—Zpacris grandiflora, . ib. 14, Native rose of Aastiatia. =Boronta ardlata; 697 15. Australian fuschia.—Correa speciosa, 697 COLOURED PLATES. PLATE XIX. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Senna.—Cassia acutifolia, . F 540 Colocynth.— Cucumis colocynthis, ° 588 Jalap.—Exvyonium purga, . ° 539 Castor-oil.— Ricinis communis, « . 541 5% PLATE XX. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Pace Peruvian bark.—-Cinchona condaminea, . « 620 Opium poppy.—Papaver somniferum, “ 547 Scammony.—Convolvolus scammonia, . . 6539 Nux vomica.—Strychnos nux vomica, 7 554 PLATE XXI1. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Rhubarb.—Rheum palmatum, . . « 542 Aloe.—Aloe socotrina, 7 ‘ 587 Gentian.— Gentiana lutea, Z Z 524 Cajeput.— Melaleuca leucadendron, . 489 PLATE XXII. MEDICINAL PLANTS, Tpecacuan.—Cephelis ipecacuanha, . 544, 692 Squill— 625| — of Pterophyllum, . 665 Cherry, ; . % ‘ 96 | Fucus Vesiculosus(Sea-weed used Chestnut, y 883 | for kelp), . mi i 187 Chorda Filium, or Sea Catgut, 185 | Fumaria Hygrometrica, 7 Cinnamon Tree, . z 482! Fungi, stem of, ig Circulation of the Sap, 46 Citron, . 353 G Classification, Botanical, ‘ils. ’ trations of Linnzus’s ‘system Garlic, « 265 of, 100 figs., . 178-180;Gemmule, . 108 Clove Tree, j . » 485 Gentian Plant, é i 524 Cloud Berry, . ‘ . 837| Germination of Wheat, 108 ON WOOD. Page Ginger Plant, . 7 ; « 490 Ginseng Plant, §28 Glands, Cortical or Epidermic, 21 Glands, Lenticular, 65 figs., . 11 Glume, . 66 Grass, "Crested ‘Dos’ 's-tail, 231 — Meadow Fescue, . ib. — Meadow Fox-tail, . 230 — Smooth-stalked Meadow, 231 — Sweet-scented Vernal, 230 — Ray or Rye Grass, 232 Gum Arabic Tree, . “ 556 H Hellebore Pint 545 Hemlock, . 549 Hemp, 413 Hilum, or ‘Umbilicus, 101 Himanthalia Lorea, 185 Hop Plant, . i 398 Hypnum Cuspidate 198 I Iceland Moss, . 197 India Rubber Tree, 565 Indian Fig, . 364 Indigo Plant, e 499 Inflorescence, Catkin, 73 _ Corymb, 72 _ Panicle, ib. -- Spadix, . 73 — Spike, . 72 _ Umbel, ib. Whorl, 73 Tpecacuani Plant, . 544 J Jalap Plant, . 540 K Knotty Root, . . 15 L Laminaria, 187 Laurel, Big, ‘ A 451 Leaves, Acute, 39 — Compound, 40 Cordate, . 39 — Decompound, 2 figs., 40 — Doubly Compound, ib. — Emarginate, 39 — Hastate, . . e By — Laciniate, ib. — Lanceolate, ib. — Linear, ib. — Oboval, ib. —- Orbicular, ib. — Petiolate, 33 ‘Pinnatifid, 39 INDEX TO THE ENGRAVINGS Ml PAGE PAGE Leares, Retuse, . . 39 P Sagittal . ©. . ib.|Padina Pavonia, . 191 — Semiamplexicaul, 38) Palm, the Dwarf, . 163 — Sessile, - « «_ ib.|Palmate Root, . 16 — Simple, . . . 88, 39| Palmella Nivalis, teed Snow, . 187 — Supradecompound, 40] Pappus, 93 — Trilobate, 39| Papyrus, . ; 233 — Tripoliate, . ‘ ib. | Passion Flower, ‘ 7 601 Verticillate, ib. | Pea, A ‘ 4 - 97,310 Lemon Tree. . . « 853}/Peach,. . 329 Lepidodendron Acephala, 664] Peat-moss Plants, ‘ 198 _ Sternbergii Va- Pepper Plant, Black, . 483 riabilis, 657 —_ ong, F 489 Lepidophyllum, . ‘ ¥ 657 | Pecopteris Heterophyllum, . 663 Lepidostrobus, edits ib.| Peruvian Bark Tree, 521 = Ornatus, 658) Pimento, 486 _ Pinaster, ib.| Pine, Cone of, Long-leaved, 465 Limes, : 2 . 354] — Cone of, White, 466 Lime Tree, 441 | Pinus Carariensis, 664 Liquorice Plant, . 319} — Primeeva, . Sons ye ib Logwood Plant, 494| Pitcher Plant, . c « 482 Love Apple, ‘ 380) Plantain, ¥ ‘ 260 Lycopodites Williamsonis, 664] Plum, 333 Pods, . 96 Pomegranate, . 354 M Poppy, White, . , a Madder Plant, g0g|Potate, - +: ee Mahogany Tree, 448|_ — _ Sweet, . Ze Mammee, : 374| Prickles, . 45 Maple, Sugar, 438 Melon Thistle, ‘% - Q Mildewed Wheat, 2 gs., es 12 * Millet, Italian, 229 ee Tree, a — Panicled, x «ab, p eases - Mistletoe Plant, a . . 431 Monkey’s Bread, . ‘i 368 R Mouldiness, Vegetation of, Mag- Radicle, &., . 108 ee Rafilesia Arnoldii, gga a Apple Mould, >| Red Snow, bee BE 7 Blue, Do., ib. | Reindeer Moss, 159, 198 — Pear, Do., . ib. Rice, . 221 Mulberry Tree, 343] Roots, Bulbons, 2 figs, . . 15 —- Digitate, ib. N — Fibrous, 14 Neuropteris Acuminata, . 663) —_ Fibrous (complex), a — Gigantea, | = Banners ib —_ Loshii, . ib.| Tuberous 14 New Zealand Flax, 420) ~~ APs : : Vertical, 3 ae is ib. Nightshade, Deadly, 551 Rose so Apple 370 Nutmeg Tree, 487 Rye pple, ‘ 212 Nux Vomica, . 554| 19% : 8 0 Sap, Circulation of, 46 Oak, . 422| — Tubes, . “ 7 _ ag 428 | Sarsaparilla Plant, 535 — Liv 429|Scammony Plant, 689 Oats, Beanded or Long, : 218] Scotch Pine, 457 — White, « . . ib. | Scurvy Grass, 532 Olive Tree, . ‘ 3 « 858) Sea Catgut, 185 Orange Tree, . 5 . 348 | Senna Plant, é 540 Orchis, . 269 | Sensitive Plants, 2 figs, ey 604 Organs, Sexual, Arrangement of Sexual Organs, arrangement of the, . the, 67 = of a Flower, 5 Sigillaria Pachyderma,_ 660 figs., . 67, 68 | Silver Fir, 470 Osier, . . . fi 444 | Skirret, a : . 289 Ovary, . ‘ * ‘ . 70|Sloe, . ‘5 é é Pi 336 ON WOOD. PAOR Sphagnum Palustre, 198 Sphenopteris Affinis, 663 _— Dilatata, ib. Spines, ‘ i 45 Spongioles, or Ampullz, 16 Squill Plant, 545 Stapelia, Wart- flowered, 596 Stems, Internal Form of, 20 Stigmaria Ficoides, 661 Stomata, . 21 Strammonium Plant, 653 Strawberry, 95 Sugar-Cane, . . . 235 — Maple, “i a 2 438 Sycamore Tree, a 437 Sylique, or Pod, 2 figs., é 97 _ Tamarind Tree, . e . 363 >| Tea Plant, és 388 Teak Tree, . . 450 Tendrils, . 45 Tobacco Plant, 399 Tree Fern, . 200 Trigonocarpum Noggerathii, 664 Tuberous Root, 14 Tubipore, , 4 Tulip Tree, . ‘ 453 Turmeric Plant, . 518 U Ulodendron, P . 659 Umbel, . 285 Umbilicus, or Hilum, 101 Vv Valerian Plant, . 584 Valisneria Spiralis, . 61 Vanilla Plant, . 397 Venus Fly-trap, 128, 597 Vertical Roots, 3 figs, 4 . 14 Vessels, Beaded, 8 — Mixed, 9 — Punctuated, 8 — Slit, . ib. — Spiral, ib, Ww Wake Robin, . . 264 Walnut, 285 Wheat, "Egyptian, or “Many- spiked, a 206 _ Mildewed, 126 — One-seeded, 206 — Seeds of, 208 — Winter, . ib Willow, White, 44: Woad Plant, . 50 Y Yams, 26: Yew, 47: Z Zamia Ovata, . 66. Phd TM fy tk SCTIONS of me INTERNAL STRUCTURE o. WOODS. $ PEAT. EO=o o_o o— 7 oO __ © LOOCA® Saeal so ool] iH a ———_S es 8 © | Swe OSH] oo BiB CoGoCoommml| 9} LO) OOO MBB OMCISCORSIM = Loc ot © 0 o@ 6! | | 5660S _ S| Fig b Lg. hig + tag oy R Scott, Fig. 9. ~ L¥g. 10. hig 8. L1q.7. SLNV1d 40 NOILNGIYLSIOQ TVOIHd¥YoOsaS WITT PLATE I Blackie & Son Glasgow SWIVd “ SINVId SNONOGSTALODONOW r , 7 fay Z AT ALFTd Z THAIX LT aoBst]y TOS y APPEL YO1V BNIYVN 359604 A LL ETL LMIXNXNXD DT PLATE V/ 4 THE CEREALIA OR GRAIN PLANTS. Blackie & Son Glasgow PLATE Va CANES &e Blache & Son. Glasgow... PLATE Vit FRUIT: TREES. Pearse eT iBER TREES. PLATE X CONIFERA OR PINES. Blade & Son Glasgow BOABOB &¢ BANYAN. Blackie & Son Glaséow : ‘ o SSS : = PLANTS &e. EhaAMEW TAL el gow, Blaclae & Son.Glas PE. CREXWTL. s PLATE, XIM: TREE FERNS-~ BLACKIM & SON. GLASGOW, EDINBURGH & TONUON. CAGE] LVYTS & SON GLASBORT EDINBURG & aia PLATE, XV" FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. BLACKIE. & SON, GLASGOW EDINBURGH & LONDON.” E, XVI PLATE PALMS, PINES && XVIZ TRE ES, PANE SCENE INA BRAZILIAN FOREST. Blache & Son, Clasgow. Pte Ly ALK. ‘ MEDICINAL PLANTS. GODOCY NTE, SUNN A. uw Cciusiis COVES Cassia acelistolia ee Diy ae Joe: 25 , >| EAA, CASTOR OIL ui PLELTUS COMLTTUMULS « oY Livagenisn piltiya MEDICINAL PLANTS. PLATE ANN PERUVIAN BARK, i: OPIUM POPPY, Cinchonit Condaiintld. | = LUPUVEL SONI ETUIN. \ SCAMMONY, CoTWOoLilus SCUTUTMOTMA ly> ray © Fitch M& NUX VOMICA. S81 PHOS Pelle VOM«CAL SHOW RDINBURGH & LONDON BLACKIN & 50} PIATH, XXT. iF RHUBARB, Rheum palma ANU, OW ID Aloe Socata GRNTIAN. CAJIEPUT. Gentiana (uted Melalenca leucade midron MEDICINAL IPECACUAN Cephiaclis — 1pet euaniil SARSAPARILLA, Smilar sarsapari Li PLANTS. CU C0. PA COPMLLTCTC / (oxgouubtyl WMAP ULL IBA OLLANALLS eA CM ee ANING as te PRAT XX CINNAMON NUTMEG ( Data |: | mvristica moschati MR laurus cimmamomum ALLSPICE or PIMENTO.~ CLOVE carvophyvll ws aromalicus myt LIS Puente SPICK PLANTS PLATE. XXIV PEPPER piper nigrum. GINGER. het BLACK cingiber officmate. CAYENNE PEPPER Capsicum CUPUILLLL APL CAPER caparrs SpMnosa GUM PLAN TS. PLATE a GUM TRAGACANTIL, Astragalus lragacantha GU ARABIC AGACla seyal sk Delt = 1 GUM MAS'TIC GUM OLIBANUM, he, : , Boswellia servata Prsticwo lendiseus GUM PLANTS. PLATH XXVI HEIN TO) Gra tris »MNZAOLN, Hebraltendron gambogioules Slvr Benzo COUN SAR OP MIRCAIAS /sonandra odd CAOUTCHOUC Siphon elas fen GUW, WDINBURGH & | PLANTS COPPER copped Arabica CHOCOLATH. ThEOCT OMA CACAO USED AS FOOD. TA [Bea VALS PLAT HE RXVLL Ve PLANTS UskhD As hacty life ae pAcCK FRUIT UTOCUTPMS mibegrifoltel rooD. PLATE XNVUE BANANA Wilisit Sup leit BZ fT oi _P SS oad A AAS PADI SS Se Ss> PANDANU UO Ma SHIMUS PLANTS USED AS FOOD. TPO Lh BEAL AN, t MILLET Sorgum viulorare BUCKWHEAT Ree Ata ee) Fagopyrum exeulennin Collocasia —antipuerum PLANTS USED AS FOOD. PLATH, XXX AD As ‘3 A ll as @/ ey y | @ SO | Va MANIOCOR CASSAVA ARROWROOT lanipha Manshal Maranta arundmacea Y AM SWEET POTATO thascorvéa. alata Ipomdea — batatas W Lvutis PLANTS USED IN DYKING. OAD Lincloria MAD DEK tube fincloria ji / Wiki Lescdia Sl Defies iD huteola. ALAC TI cOlinles PLARE XXAT. fh PLANTS USED IN DYEING: PLALE, XXKI TS DO SATFLOWER Machura tnectoria x Carthamus linclorias = LOGwooD BRASILWOOD Hematorylon campechianiui Cesalpoua crista. PLANTS USED IN CLOTHING & CORDAGE, PILAUH. XNATLL ; coTTON —~(p \ , , Y Barhad \ ( axe PL AX Dy i ny f Aw \A * \ Gassypuuan Dare CNLSE 1 Sapte” : TECH Re RA ohne eo RY TR It & M P Canabis saliva NEW ZEALAND FLAX Phormuun tenax bal oe PLANTS USED IN CLOTHING & CORDAGE. PLATE, ANNI, at \ GOMUTT PALM : PIASS AVA PALM Arenga sacchiaruera ; U Attalea \ Nnarera Se one SUNN HEMP oe SS Sy : ’ COVCHOMUL CUYISIU ATTN Crotalaria junced ONCHOLUS CO VEGETABLE POISONS AAA VA OTITATIIN fit ATOM TH. CUCKOO PINT or WAKE ROBIN. FOOLS PARSLEY WHITE BRYONY GREATER or COMMON CELANDINE. By Aiirhad by Blackie & S01, Clas ~ ii DEADLY NIGHTSHADE ov DWALE. COMMON THORN APPLE. WOODY NIGHTSHADE or BITTER SWEET. VEGETABLE POISONS AAA VIL. ‘ONIUM MACULATUM COMMON HEMLOCK J ip i BLACK TLENBANE CAC le ars, fe LACTUCA VIROSA IT STRONG SCENTED or POISONOUS LETTUCE. AUTUMNAL MEADOW SAFFRON + ALAVIT ALPINE WHIGE CROW-FOOT FLY BLOWN MUSHROOM PURPLE FOX GLOVE BLACK HELLEBORE or CHRISTMAS ROSE FRUITS» ANDONUTS PLATE, NXNIX L. $Nat. Size 2 4Nat. Size, NUTS. Nat Size LMAMMEB. 2. PAPAW. 3. SOUR SOP 4. NEGHO PRACT 5. GRANADIEIAA 6. ZABUCAIO Me Aid ratsed/ FRUTT AND NUT. 7 BRAZIL NUT AND PROUD FRUITS AND NUTS JNb, ME A, (i 4 : < HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. CHAP, I. THE ILISTORY OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE. In a survey “of the Earth and Animated Nature,” one important part of creation comes to be considered—the Vegetable products which clothe and adorn the surface of the soil, and which form a link, and a most important one, between inorganic matter and the animated beings existing upon the globe. In order to enhance our ideas of the beauty and useful- ness of vegetables, we have only to picture to ourselves what would be the appearance of the face of nature without them. We would have the surface of the earth, it is true, portioned out into hill and valley, and intersected at con- venient distances by streams and rivers; but every thing would be bare, rugged, and unseemly, and nothing but a picture of desolate barrenness would appear. Even the soil which covers the sterile and flinty roeks, and which serves to fill up and smooth over the abrupt ravines and pre- cipices existing in these, would, in a great mea- sure, be wanting ; for one effect of vegetation is, by the successive decay of leaves and fibres, to accumulate the deep black loam so essential to the growth of fresh vegetation. The endless variety of objects in the vegetable kingdom, the beautiful forms, and the curious structure of plants, are no less interesting to the student of nature, than the history of animals, or of inor- ganized matter. Nor isthe study less important, as bearing upon the necessities, conveniences, and elegancies of life. The study of the vegetable kingdom has been called Botany, from a Greek word, Gorey, sig- nifying herb or grass; and it embraces, Ist, A knowledge of the various parts composing plants, and of their uses, their mode of growth and cul- ture, and their diffusion over the earth. 2d, An arrangement of plants into classes and families, according to certain prevailing resemblances, by which they are named and described, so that they may readily be known. 8d, The vari- ous uses of plants, as for food, medicine, arts and manufactures. The profusion with which the beneficent God of nature has clothed the earth with every variety of vegetable form, is truly wonderful! Every region of the globe swarms with multitudes of different kinds, beyond the power of the botanist to enumerate. The con- templation of these affords an ever-varying de- light to the senses, while the investigation of their habits and structures no less agreeably exercises the judgment. A tree is perhaps one of the most noble and beautiful objects in nature. The massive strength of the trunk, the graceful tortuosity of the branches, and the beautiful and variegated green of the leaves, are all so many sources of pleasure to the beholder. But when we think of the series of fibres and. tubes by which this tree for ages, perhaps, has drawn nourishment from the earth, and, by a process of assimilation, added circle after circle of woody matter round the original stem, till it has ac- quired its present enormous bulk ; when we re- flect on the curious mechanism of the leaves by which, like the lungs of an animal, they decom- pose the air of the atmosphere, selecting through the day what part of it is fit to enter into the composition of the tree, and giving out at night a differertt species of air; when we think of the sap passing up the small series of tubes during summer, and these tubes again remaining dor- mant and inactive throughout the long winter— these reflections awaken a train of ideas in the mind more lasting and more intense than even the first vivid impressions of simple beauty. The attention of the earliest races of mankind must have been directed to the vegetable king- domi; first of all, as furnishing important neces- saries of life, and afterwards as objects of luxury and ornament, and pleasing subjects of speculation. We find Noah represented as a hushandman, planting the vine and manufacturing its juice A 2 HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. into wine, then at a subsequent period the Ish- maelites trafficking in spicery, balm, and myrrh, which they carried down from Gilead to Egypt in the days of Joseph. There is every reason to suppose that Solomon, who in his writings seems to have been a warm admirer of plants and flowers, wrote a distinct treatise on vegeta- bles. Thus, in the book of Kings it is said, “He spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Le- banon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.” Of the nature of his treatise, however, we can now form no speculation. The silence of sacred history, therefore, leaves us in the dark with regard to the prosecution of botany as a science, and for this we must turn to the philosophical schools of ancient Greece. At first, among this intellectual people, it was the physiology of plants which was cultivated ; because, from the small number of plants which were then known, and which among the Greeks and Romans scarcely exceeded a thousand, it was not found necessary to think of classifying them. Besides, the views of the ancients with respect to natural bodies, were entirely confined to the explanation of phenomena, and to the employ- ment of the objects of their research in the arts. Hence in the writings of the Greek philosophers which have reached us on this subject, we find chiefly some physiological notions on the life and nourishment of plants, which they endeavoured to explain by analogies from the animal kingdom, with speculations respecting the rank which plants hold in the scale of natural bodies, and respecting their relations to animals. At the most flourishing period of the Greek republic, there were persons called Rhizotome, who de- voted themselves exclusively to the digging of roots and finding of herbs, for the advancement of the arts, particularly that of medicine. Some of those who, devoting themselves to the latter employment, were called Pharmacopole, seem even to have issued from the schools of the phil- osophers, and to have acquired for themselves a comprehensive knowledge of plants; whence, also, they were called Cultivators of Physics. But the greater number pursued their occupation as market criers, and observed a multitude of superstitious customs, on which account they are rather to be regarded as traders than as men who had been trained in a scientific manner. The first founder of the natural science of plants was undoubtedly Aristotle, who hence sometimes was surnamed the Pharmacopolist, as having employed himself collecting medicinal plants. Unfortunately, however, his genuine works on plants have perished ; a treatise on this subject, attributed to him, being a forgery of the middle ages. Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, also cultivated the science of botany after the system of his great master. But he seems to have un- dertaken few journies or travels, since he always appeals to the testimony of diggers of roots, the cutters of wood, and the inhabitants of the mountains. He wrote two works which have been preserved ; one on the nature and causes of vegetation, the other a history of plants. In these, we do not find either a very scientific ar- rangement, or precise description of the few species known to him; yet they possess no small merit, as being the production of a philosopher, who, almost without predecessors, endeavoured, for the first time, to employ the reasoning faculty upon the phenomena of the vegetable world. But he found none of his disciples worthy of being a successor to himself, and after his time the science declined and was very little culti- vated. When Greece was subdued by the Romans, the knowledge of the conquered so far passed over to the victors, that the latter, who always sought out only what was useful, cultivated the study of plants to as great an extent asit afforded advantages to thearts. In the works of the old Romans, Cato, Varro, and Columella, on rural af- fairs, as well as in the poetry of Virgil, we find a number of plants named which were cultivated in the fields and gardens. We have no reason to believe, however, that the study of plants was pursued with any degree of avidity among this people, as the Romans, like the early Greeks, were yet too much engaged in the tumult of war to have acquired any considerable relish for the study of natural history. And hence, the first direct evidence of the existence of any inquiry, that can be called strictly botanical, among the Romans, is that which is furnished in the works of Dioseorides and Pliny; names well known in the annals of botany, and illustrious as having long been regarded by the learned as the best and most infallible guides to the study of plants. Dioscorides lived in the first century of the Christian era. He wasa physician, and followed the Roman armies in their expeditions through the greatest part of the Roman empire. His work consists of a description of all those plants known to possess medicinal virtues, and was long looked up to as the source of all information on thissubject. Pliny the elder, who also flourished during the same era, and occupied a conspi- cuous station in the state, left behind him a great work on natural history. In that part of it devoted to the vegetable kingdom, the plants are arranged in alphabetical order, and the des- criptions of Theophrastus and Dioscorides are followed. Here and there some notices are added, aad plants are described which were unknown to his predecessors; and he himself has informed us, that, in his youth, he acquired his knowledge of plants in the garden of Antonius Castor, a son in law of King Dejotanus. Among the later Romans, the number of persons who cultivated the knowledge of nature, diminished in propor- OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE. 8 tion as the night of barbarism descended, and for a long time the remains even of Greek and Roman learning were entirely hid. The Ara- bians, indeed, after they had instituted schools of learning, infirmaries, and laboratories, applied themselves diligently to the study of medicinal plants ; but they drew their knowledge entirely from Dioscorides. The flourishing trade which this nation carried on for some centuries, from Madeira to China, made them acquainted with many remarkable oriental plants which had escaped the notice of the Greeks. There were also, in the western parts of the Arabian empire, some inquisitive students of nature, who endeavoured to correct and extend their knowledge by travel. About the beginning of the eleventh century, the Ara- bians became the teachers of the other nations of western Christendom, who now formed their schools of learning according to the Mahommedan pattern, and translated their books from the Arabians. In this manner, a slight knowledge of botany was slowly disseminated throughout the most enlightened parts of Europe. At the revival of learning in the fifteenth cen- tury, the botanical knowledge of the ancients began to be available in the language of the original treatises; and, in the following century, the Germans commenced original inquiries into the science, and first began to illustrate their treatises, by wood engravings of the different plants. The first work of this kind was written by Otto Brunfels, a native of Strasburgh. To this succeeded, about the middle of the sixteenth century, the work of Gesner, a professor of Zurich, in which the first attempts are made at a classification and systematic arrangement of plants, founded chiefly on the characters of their flowers. The taste for Botany, now excited, be- gan to spread throughout the chief states of Kurope. Kingsand noblesengaged in the study, and gardens were established for the cultivation of the most rare and useful productions of the soil, We are principally indebted to the esta- blishment of learned societies, in the seventeenth century, and to the invention of the microscope, for the first attempts at a more minute examina- tion of the structure of plants. In the Royal Society of London for the promotion of science, which was liberally supported by Charles II. several philosophers occupied themselves with the dissection and microscopical examination of plants. Of these, the most distinguished was Nehemiah Grew, secretary to the society. His discoveries are recorded in his elaborate work the Anatomy of Plants illustrated by numerous engravings. In this work we find the first no- tice of the twofold sex of plants, which doctrine he had learned from Thomas Millington, a pro- fessor in Oxford. Malpighi and Leuwenhoeck also distinguished themselves as investigators of the minute structure of plants; and, the same subject was ardently pursued by several members of the French Academy of Sciences, founded in 1665. The doctrine of the sex of plants, which had been obscurely hinted at by Grew, was ex- perimentally illustrated by Bobart, and fully es- tablished by Ray. But with thisincreasing knowledge of the nature of plants, and the rapid multiplication of known species, no method of arrangement had yet been adopted calculated for general use, and especially for the guidance of the practical student. In this crisis of botanical perplexity, when speci- mens were every day multiplying in the hands of collectors, and the science was in danger of relapsing again into an absolute chaos, a great and elevated genius arose, destined to restore order; who, surveying the immense mass of materials, with a sagacity and penetration un- paralleled in botanical research, and seizing, as if by intuition, the grand traits of character cal- culated to form the elements of a philosophical division, detected the clew by which he was to extricate himself from the intricacies of the labyrinth, and rear the superstructure of a new method. This great and illustrious naturalist was the celebrated Linneus. He was born at Roshult, in Sweden, in 1707, and performed in 17382 his memorable journey through Lapland. He afterwards travelled into Holland, became superintendent of the Clifford gardens, and pub- lished his System of Nature at Leyden in 1735, and the Genera Plantarum in 1737. In 1741, he was appointed a professor of the University of Upsal, and continued for many years the suc- cessful cultivator and illustrator of his favourite studies. He has the merit of having first regu- lated, and defined the artificial language of bo- tany. He fixed the laws of classification, and divided the vegetable kingdom into classes, families, and species; invented scientific, and common, or trivial names, and enriched the science by many thousand new and hitherto un- described plants. But, above all, he invented what is denominated the artificial mode of ar- rangement, by taking the parts of inflorescence, as the flower or corolla, and stamens, and pistils, or distinctive sexual organs, as the basis of his system. Since the death of Linnseus, the chief labours of botanists have been employed in per- fecting his system, in applying it to the lowest families of plants, in the more careful examina- tion of fruits and seeds ; and, in short, rendering it a convenient alphabet, by which the student of botany may be enabled to know and recog- nize the families and species of plants. A more philosophical view of the vegetable kingdom, based on the natura] affinities of plants, has also been sedulously pursued by Jussieu, Decan- dolle, and many other eminent botanists. 4 HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. CHAP. IL. YUE NATURE AND USES OF PLANTS. Vecrtapies differ from minerals in being organized bodies, possessed of a degree of life, and capable of taking into their system extran- eous matters, and converting these, by an assim- ilating process into new compounds, which mat- ters are thus rendered subservient to their growth and development. They thus increase their own bulk, and, moreover, throw off from their bodies germs which spring up into other vegetable bodies, the same as the parent plants. Vegeta- bles, also, are under the dominion of the laws of vitality, by which they retain the matters entering into their structure, in a state different from that in which inorganic bodies exist. The matter, too, which enters into the composition of vegetables, is essentially the same as that which forms the structure of animals; the chief ele- mentary ingredients being oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and azote; only, the proportions and combinations are somewhat different ; vegetables possessing more carbon and less azote than the generality of animals. In these respects, vegetable bodies closely resemble animals; in- deed, in the lower divisions of each, the resem- blance is so close, as to render it a somewhat difficult task to point out the distinctive differ- ences. We find no hesitation in drawing a line of distinction between the more perfect plants, and a quadruped, bird, or fish ; but, if we take some animals low in the scale of organization, and compare them with certain simple vegetables, we shall find the resemblance, both of structure and functions, very close indeed. Thus, the Lemna Gibba, or duck weed, a plant which is found floating on the surface of the water of ditches, and slow running streams, has an oval, cellular body a, with several porous roots 4, which, unlike most other vegetables, are unattached to the soil, but which float in water, and absorb moisture to constitute the juices of the plant. This moisture flows up into the cellular body, and hence, by the medium of pores on the cuticle, or skin, a quantity of air from the atmos- phere is absorbed, and thus converted into the proper nourishment of the plant. In the Cys. ticercus, c,a species of animal hydatid, which lives within the cavities of the bodies of other animals, there is a neck d, with a tubular mouth, by which the animal draws in the juices on which it feeds, to its stomach. The skin ot this animal is also porous, like the epidermis of the lemna, through which fluids, and perhaps air, are absorbed into its body, to conduce to its nourishment. In the tubipore e, consisting of a branched stem, with numerous cups, each containing a simple animal called a polype, there is a close resemblance to the arborescent form of most vegetables. Yet, though plants and animals thus resemble each other very closely, in many essential par- ticulars there are others in which they differ. Thus, in animals which have the power of loco- motion, there is a muscular system, a set of contractile fibres, whose tension or relaxation determines their movements; in vegetables, there is nothing of the kind. Animals have astomach, or receptacle, for the substances taken from with- out, in which these are digested before they are carried, by means of the lacteals, into the mass of their circulating fluids; but in vegetables, nutrition is carried on ina more simple man- ner, The substances absorbed are conveyed directly into all parts of the body, without un- dergoing any previous change, so that, in these, we find neither an intestinal canal, nor a stomach, because there is no proper solution or digestion. In animals there is more or less of a circulation of the fluids from a centre ; in vegetables the nutri- tious juicesare diffused through the plant without the agency of acentral heart, Plants derive their nourishment from inorganic matters, from air, water, and the various salts of the soil; animals derive their chief nutriment from matter that has been previously organized, either from vegetable substances, or the bodies of otheranimals that have enjoyed an organized existence. Animals have a nervous system and sensation; the meanest animal form shrinks from the touch of an oppos- ing object, and evidently exhibits the indications of pain and pleasure. Plants have no nervous system, neither are they capable of external im- pressions of sensation. Dutrochet, it is true, has pointed out minute granules in plants, which he assumes as analogous to the nervous granules of the lower animals, but this fact has not been yet sufficiently established. As plants perform vital functions so closely allied to the nutritious functions of animals, it is not altogether impro- bable but that some modification, or approach to nervous matter, may be found in their struc- ture. If this shall be hereafter established, it will not, however, do away with the proposition above, that plants have, in reality, no sensation analogous to that of animals. They haveacon- tractile power of their fibres, which acts on the THE NATURE AND USES OF PLANTS. 5 application of external stimulants, remarkably displayed in the sensitive plant, and in the turning of leaves and tendrils towards the light and air ; this, which has been termed irritability, is widely different from the true sensitive percep- tions of animals. But, though vegetables thus differ materially from animals, in having no sensation, nor any medium of communication with external things, they yet are possessed of the essential properties of life, Like animals, they are acted upon by the external agencies or stimuli of life, as heat, light, air, moisture, and electricity ; and the vital laws by which they are governed, place them in a totally different position from inorganic matter. In the tubes of vegetables, the sap ascends from the earth, contrary to the laws of gravity ; and the juices, and the whole material of the plant, as long as it is possessed of life, resist the com- mon chemical laws of decomposition: but, when- ever it is cut down, or deprived of life, these juices immediately run into fermentation, and again return to the elementary matters of which they were originally composed. Vegetables are destitute of voluntary motion. Some of them, however, execute a species of locomotion, or very simple change of place. The Lemna, or duck weed, floats in water, yet this is merely a passive motion. The roots of many of the family of the Orchis, have two fleshy tubercles placed side by side, at the base of the stem. One of these tubercles, after giving birth to the stem, whose germ it contained within it, withers, con- tracts, and ultimately perishes. But, in propor- tion as it disappears, a third grows out close to that part which still contains the rudiments of the stem, which is to appear in the following year, and replaces the former when it has van- ished. In this development of a new tubercle occurring each year, on one side of those which already exist, it will be seen that, when a new stem is produced, it is removed by a certain space from that which preceded it. The same thing happens, and nearly in the same manner, in regard to the meadow saffron, with the ex- ception that its bulbs tend continually to sink deeper and deeper in the earth. The number of vegetable forms on the surface of the globe is immense. At least 50,000 dis- tinct species have already become familiar to botanists, and as every new exploration of re- cently discovered regions is adding rapidly to the list, the probability is, that at least twice this number exists in nature. The past history of the earth, too, informs us that many vege- table forms, which once flourished in great lux- uriance and profusion, are now swept from the soil, and no longer exist, but in their fossil forms in the rocks and strata. As ig the case in the animal kingdom, we find that the tribes and families of vegetables vary exceedingly in their forms and sizes. Some are so minute as to be invisible to the naked eye, others rise to the height of 150 and 200 feet, and occupy an area of several square yards with their ramifying foliage. The lowest tribes of vegetables are not only minute, but very simple in their structure. The blue mould a, found in bread and other farinaceous articles of diet, when examined by the microscope, will be seen to consist of a number of upright stalks, surmounted by a spherical ball at the top. This mould is in fact a species of fungi, and the round heads contain innumerable small black seeds or sporules, which, when the plant has arrived at maturity, burst from their cover- ing, are scattered about, and floating through the atmosphere, are ready to fall upon other pieces of bread, and grow up into fresh fungi. If an apple is cut across, and allowed to remain in a damp situation for a few days, the surface will also be covered with a mould of a similar character. The fungi here have even more of the arborescent form, and approach somewhat to the mosses. Figure } represents the apple mould ; c,thepearmould. Thegray lichens whichsoabun- dantly encrust rocks and stones are also simple vegetables, produced froma small seed, which, fix- ing itself on the flinty rock, by means of a tough mucilaginous juice, becomes the centre from whence others radiate, till a large circular patch is produced. Mosses and ferns are vegetables some- what more complicated ; and hence we ascend to herbs and shrubs, the towering palm and the majestic oak of the forest. The use of vegetable products to man, and other higher animals, is obvious to every one. The paramount importance of the vegetable king- dom, as forming an essential link in the great system of nature, may be very shortly pointed out. Vegetables clothe the surface of the soil, af- fording protection to the smaller animals, mi- tigating the arid effects of the sun, and prevent- ing the disintegration of surface from the effects of the elements. They also preserve the purity of the atmosphere, absorbing the excess of car- bonie acid, generated by the respirations of ani- mals, and giving out, by the decomposition of water, a quantity of oxygen to make up for that consumed by the animal kingdom. Vege- 6 HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. table actions also have a considerable influence on atmospheric electricity, and on the humidity and dryness of the air. Vegetables so assimilate inorganic matters, as to convert them into the food of animals; every animal, either directly or indirectly, deriving its chief nourishment from vegetable products. No animal is found capable of sup- porting itself on air, water, or earthy matter alone. Fishes and birds prey upon minute flies and insects, which derive their nourishment from vegetable matters. Numerous quadrupeds derive their sole support from grasses, and many species of birds from grain and seeds. These become the prey of flesh-feeding animals, and afford them their sole means of subsistence ; and man, as well as some other animals, lives both on vege- table and animal matter. The vegetation of former ages, floated down by rivers, and accumulated in the earth’s strata, has been converted into coal, to supply the wants of man under a changed climate. Lastly, the decay of vegetation is continually forming fresh soil, by which fresh plants are reared, and newly found countries are rendered habitable. Thus, a seed of a minute lichen clings to a bare and barren rock; others spring from the parent, and accumulate round it; in process of time they decay, new ones succeed them, and thus a suffi- cient soil is formed for the seeds of larger and more perfect plants. CHAP III. THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. Puants are said to be organised bodies, because they have a structure quite different from that of inorganic substances ; a structure made up of cells, fibres, tubes, and membranes, which join together toform distinct parts and organs. Some have endeavoured to trace this structure to certain primitive forms, existing in the rudest beginnings of vegetables, as well as in all parts of perfect plants. When vegetable matter is examined by the aid of a microscope, we discover more or less of these forms. In the lowest organic bodies, both of the animal and vegetable kingdom, we find, by the aid of a powerful magnifier, a spher- ical structure intermixed with spicul2, or threads, in the fluids and solids composing their parts. The simplest plants, as well as the infusory animalcules, have this structure. Treviranus saw it in the spawn of frogs, and in the muscu- lar texture of the higher animals, in the marrow of frogs, and in the nerves of the garden snail. We find the same combination of round bodies and threads, or spiculi, in the sap of plants; hence some have supposed, that from these are evolved the peculiar primitive forms of the vegetable kingdom. The structural forms found in vege- tables may be reduced to three : the cellular, the tubular, and the spiral. The cellular tissue is com- posed of numerous cells con- tiguous to each other, of varied form, according to the resistance which they meet with, but generally assuming a six-sided structure, fig. a. Some have compared thiscell- ular tissue to the froth or light foam which is produced by blowing up a mixture of soap and water; others have likened it to the combs of the honey bee, which, indeed, afford a very good illustration of its general appearance. Sometimes it assumes the simple form of a number of spheres slightly adhering together, fig. d. It was at one time a generally supposed that the walls of two contiguous cells were common to both, till Malpighi conceived the idea that each cell was a distinct and perfect vesicle of itself, and which he termed wtricle. é This opinion has since been confirmed by Sprengel and numerous other ob- servers. The cells may be separated without tear: ing, which proves that each cell forms a kind of small vesicle which has distinct walls, and that where the two cells meet, the membrane which separates them is formed of two layers, which belong respectively to each of them. The investigations of Dutrochet and Amici confirm this opinion. This separation of the vesicles forming the cellular tissue, can be ef- fected either by simple boiling in water, or in nitric acid ; but the walls of the cells sometimes so intimately adhere to each other, that it is impossible to separate them. When we observe particularly the growth and successive forma- tion of the cellular tissue, it will be distinctly seen that it is made up of cells at first insulated, but which, in process of their developement, become at last more or less united. In this tissue, the microscope displays to us oval or spherical bodies, generally of a green colour, but yet exhibiting all possible shades, according to the position in which they are observed. It is these small bodies that give colour to the cel- lular tissue, for the sides of the cells themselves are colourless and diaphanous. Turpin has called these bodies globuline; within each of them may be seen a small vesicle, in which other small granules are successively formed, which, arriving at their full development, burst asunder their enveloping cases, Tach of these again be- comes a small vesicle, in which new granules are THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 7 developed ; and thus the cellular tissue, which forms the great mass of vegetable bodies, is pro- duced in every part of the plant. When the cells compos- 5 ing the tissue only meet with . the equable resistance occa- sioned by the presence of the adjacent cells, it is no unusual thing to find them assuming a nearly perfect hexagonal form, or that of the cells of the honey bee, fig. c. But according to pressure, e or the resistance they receive, they become more irregular, either elongated, rounded ser eomapresaesh Fig. d exhibits a magnified view of those cells placed contiguous to each other. The walls of the cavities are thin and transpar- ent; they all communicate with each other either by wide open- ings, or by pores or clefts in the thin walls. Somehave supposed that the cells communicate with “ each other at a point where the walls are interrupted, while athe have shown that the communication between the cells takes place only where the pores of their sides are invisible; thus rendering it probable, that it is by exudation that fluids pass from one cell to another. In the woody parts of trees, the cells are greatly lengthened, so as to form a species of small tubes which are parallel to each other; their walls are thick and opaque, and often become wholly obliterated. This elongated tissue exists in abundance in vegetables; it is much more common than the regular tissue, and is made up of small tubes which are contracted at different distances. Occasionally they taper towards the extremities. It sometimes happens that the cells of the elongated tissue touch one another only at their widest points, whenever intervals or erapty spaces are found between them. According to some, these cells contain no liquid, but are filled with air. The medul- lary rays, to be afterwards described, form another modification of the elongated tissue; in these the cells are very small, elongated, and placed horizontally, instead of vertically. The cellular tissue has very little consistence ; it is easily torn. In many vegetables, especially aquatic plants, there are interspersed around the tissue a number of large holes or lacuna, filled with air, which, according to some, are rents or holes in the fragile tissue, while others suppose them regularly formed spaces. Sometimes hairs of a peculiar nature have been found on their inner surface, in the form of tufts or pencils. It is possible to distinguish two species of lacuna; the one having for an orifice the cuticular pores which communicate with the external air, the others having no external communication. The latter exist particularly in plants which want the porous tubes. The use of the cellular tissue is simply to contain and prepare the sap. It is not destined to conduct upwards the unprepared sap, because in the bark and in the pith, both of which have a structure entirely cellular, the as- cent of the sap is not perceived. There are. however, what have been called sap vessels in the cellular texture; but these, originally, are nothing else but extended cells, which are often stretched to a considerable length. The vascular vessels, or sap tubes, are formed of layers of elementary cellular tissue, rolled up in such a way as to form canals or tubes, which are more or less elongated, and placed end on end, and whose partitions are often not to be seen. The walls of these tubes are sometimes pretty thick, slightly transparent, and perforated with a great number of openings, by means of which they diffase into the surrounding parts a portion of the air or sap which they contain. These vessels are not continuous from the root to the top of the plant, but they frequently join with each other, and at last are changed into areolar tissue. The different kinds of vessels are: simple tubes; the beaded or moniliform ; the porous vessels ; the slit vessels, or false spirals; the spiral vessels, and a combination of two or more of the above called mixed vessels. Simple tubes. The simple tubes vary in size, but they are the largest of all the vessels, fig. ¢. They are formed of a thin and entire membrane, without any percep- tible breach of continuity, and are found chiefly in the bark, although they are not confined to it, being met with both in the alburnum or newest formed wood, in the matured wood as well as in the fibres of herbaceous plants. They are particularly conspicuous in the stem and other parts of the different species of Ew- phorbia, and in all plants in general containing thick and resinous juices known by the name of the proper juices, to the ready passage of which their great width of diameter is well adapted. Sometimes they are distinguishable by their colour, which is that of the juices contained in them being white in the Zuphorbia, yellow in the Celandine, or scarlet in Piscidia erythrina. In the plant they are united in bundles, but are detachable from one another by means of being steeped for a few days in spirit of turpentine, when they become altogether colourless and transparent, because the resinous matter which they contained has been dissolved. They retain their cylindrical form even in their detached state, so that the membrane of which they are composed must be very strong. 8 HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Beaded vessels. The moni- liform, or beaded tubes, fig. a, are porous or punctuated, con- tracted at different distances, and crossed by partitions, which are perforated with holes like a sieve. These vessels are chiefly found at the junction of the root and stem, and of the stem and branches, Punctuated vessels. These, fig. be are continuous tubes, on which are a number of opaque points ; or, according to some, pores dis- persed in transverse lines; hence Mirbel has called them porous tubes. They are found in most abundance in the stems of woody plants, and particularly in wood that is firm and compact, as the oak ; but they do not, like the simple tubes, seem destined to convey any oily or resinous juices.—See section of oak, Plate 1, fig. f Slit vessels, or false spirals, fig. c. These are tubes with a number of slits in a transverse di- rection; they are very abundant e in the woody layers and fibres of most species of vegetable produc- tions, and serve, with the fore- going, as capillary tubes, through which the sap and juices of the plant flow. These tubes are appar- ently spiral on a slight inspection, but upon moreminute examination, are found to derive this appearance merely from their being cut trans- verscly by parallel tissues ; they cannot, conse- quently, be uncoiled like the truespiral tubes ; nor can they be separated into distinct rings, because the continuity of the membrane of which they are formed, and consequently the extremity of the fissure, which may always be discovered by a little attention, prevent that separation. They are somewhat similar to the porous tubes, for the fissures, like the pores, are furnished with a ring surrounding the top. But they are more generally found in the soft parts of woody plants than the porous tubes, and often also in the her- baceous plants. In ferns they are found in great abundance, and also in the soft parts of the vine. The Spiral vessels, fig.d. These are fine, trans- parent, and thread-like tubes, which are occa- sionally interspersed among the other vessels of the plant; but distinguishable from them by being twisted in a spiral form, either from right to left, or the reverse, somewhat in the manner of acork screw. They arefound in greatest plenty inherba- ceous plants, and particularly in aquatic species ; c 11. but they are also to be met with in woody plants, whether shrubs or trees. Tf the stalk of a plant of the lily tribe, or a tender shoot of elder, is taken, and partly cut across, and then gently broken or twisted asun- der, the spiral tubes may be seen even by the naked eye uncoiled some- what, but remaining still entire, even after all the other parts have given way; and if the inferior portion of the stalk is not very large, it may be kept suspended for some considerable time, merely by the strength of the tubes, which, though now almost entirely uncoiled by means of the weight they support, will, when they finally break, suddenly wind up at each extremity, and again resume their spiral form. Grew and Malpighi, who first discovered and described them, fancied they resembled in ap- pearance the trachea, or windpipe of animals ; and hence described them by this name, under which they are still very generally known. Du ° Hamel endeavoured to convey an idea of their form, by comparing it to that of a piece of rib- band rolled round a small cylinder, and then gently pulled off in the direction of its longi- tudinal axis. The figure of the ribband becomes thus loosely spiral. This is a very good illus- tration of the figure of the spiral tubes in their uncoiled state; but it does not represent them very correctly as they exist in the plant. But the best illustration of this kind is, perhaps, that of Dr Thomson. Take a small cylinder of wood, and wrap round it a piece of fine and slender wire, so as, that the successive rings may touch one another, and then pull out the cylin- der, The wire, as it now stands, will represent the spiral tubes as they exist in the plant; and if it is stretched by pulling out the two extremi- ties, it will represent them in their uncoiled state also. But although the spiral tubes are to be met with in almost all plants, they are not yet to be found in all the different organs of the plant ; or at least, there are organs in which they occur but rarely, or in very small numbers. They do not seem to occur often in the root, or at least they are not easily detected in it. Grew and Malpighi do indeed represent them as oc- curring often in the root, the former referring for examples to the roots of plants in general, and the latter to those of the asparagus, poplar, convolvulus, elm, and reed, all of which, says Mr Keith, I have examined with great care, without being able to discover any spiral tubes. Sprengel states, however, that these spiral vessels are always in the company of the sap vessels, being chiefly found between the bark and pith in common plants; but they appear later than the sap vessels, and are only discerned when the young plant begins to shoot. They are, he adds, THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 9 found in the root as well asin the stalk; they partly compose the nerves and veins of the leaves and vessels of the corolla, and are found in the stamens and pistils in the fruit, and also in the umbilicus of the seed. These spirals, at their extremities, terminate in the cellular tissue, ac- cording to Mirbel ; but according to Dutrochet, they end in a sort of cone, which is more or less acute. If the root of the common garden lettuce is cut partly across, and the remainder broken gently asunder, the spiral vessels will most gen- erally be discernible. They are not always simple, but are sometimes found with double, triple, or even with a great number of parallel spirals. They may be also found in the leaf stalk of the common artichoke, when young and fresh, in the fibres of which, they are not only re- markably large and distinct, but also remarkably beautiful, some of them exhibiting in their na-- tural position the appearance of spiral coats, investing interior fibres, rather than that of form- ing a distinct tube, and seeming, when uncoiled, to be themselves formed of a sort of net work membrane,consisting of three principal and longi- tudinal fibres. They are discernible also in the leaf as well as leaf stalk, though not quite so easily detected. If a leaf is taken and gently torn asunder in a transverse direction, there will be seen fragments of the spiral tubes projecting from the torn edges, and generally accompanying the nerves, In the calyx and corolla of the flower they do not exist so generally as in the leaf, on which account, some botanists have de- cided too hastily with regard to their non-ex- istence in these parts. The calyx of the scabiosa, and the corolla of the honeysuckle, will afford examples. In whatever part of the plant they are found to exist, they are always endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity. For though they be forcibly extended so as to undo the spires, they will again contract and resume their former figure, when the extending cause is with- drawn ; and if they are even stretched till they break, the fragments will again coil themselves up as before. Hedwig considered the spiral vessels composed of two parts: a straight and central tube full of air, and of a tube rolled spirally on the former, and fullof aqueous fluid. Others have considered them as formed of a very thin external tube, in which a small silvery layer is rolled spirally, in such a manner as to keep its parietes or walls asunder ; while again, some suppose that the spires of the vessel are held together by a very thin membrane, which is easily torn when the spiral thread is unrolled. From this it would follow, that the spirals form continuous tubes. According to Decandolle, the interior canal of the spiral vessel, in its natural state, is always found free from water. Itis true, that if a piece of wood is dipped in water, this fluid penetrates into the canal; and when we permit coloured fluids to flow into the cut branches of plants, these fluids become apparent in the sides of the spiral canals; but they are also seen still more distinctly, in the neighbouring bundles of sap vessels, and they penetrate in considerable quan- tity even into the cellular texture. We are not therefore, entitled from this entrance of coloured fluids, to conclude respecting the natural con- tents of those canals, because in general this penetration of coloured sap does not succeed in an uninjured root. In spiral canals which grow rapidly, the fibres are often torn in such a man- ner, that they fall together in the shape of rings. These ring-shaped vessels, as they have been called, are therefore an entirely accidental variety of the primitive form of the spiral vessels ; and this is the more evident, because we find the same vessel in one situation as a spiral canal, and in another as a ring-shaped vessel. This change, besides, shows incontestibly that the spiral vessels cannot conduct sap, since they are often nothing else but rings at a distance froin one another, As then the spiral vessels and all their varieties are uniformly found empty of fluids, as they show themselves only in the higher plants, and constantly appear wherever a strong shoot is cut off ; as they are always in the com- pany of the sap vessels, and as they maintain, by their constant diagonal direction, the middle situation between the perpendicular and hori- zontal ; we must from all these considerations conclude that they are the instruments of the higher vital activity of plants, and that they are the organs by which the sap tubes receive an internal excitement to the speedy propulsion of the sap. 3 is: Mixed vessels, fig. e, are those which <<) are composed of two or more of the foregoing varieties. Mirbel exempli- fies this combination in the common flowering rush, in which the porous, spiral, and false spiral tubes appear united into one. He seems, however, to be of opinion, that the appearance is to be regarded as being merely an indication of the commencement of e the process of union, of the contiguous rings of the spiral tubes, by which they are to be converted into a newform. Amici thinks that the false spirals never become true ones; and he besides remarks, that these two _ of vessels occupy different places. These various kinds of vessels thus united in considerable numbers, form bundles connected by cellular tissue ; they then form fibres pro- perly so called ; and these fibres, or bundles of tubes, constitute the frame work, and, as it were, the skeleton of est of the organs of 10 vegetables, While the soft portion, composed of cellular tissue, is called the parenchyma, con- stituting the pulp of fruits, interstices of leaves, &c. This term is used in opposition to fibre, every part which is not fibrous being composed of parenchyma. These two tissues, combined in various ways, make up the different organs of plants; the vascular tissues consisting, as we have secn, of, Ist, The sap vessels, or lymphatics, in which the sap is circulated. 2d, The simple vessels, containing the peculiar or proper juices of the plant. 38d, The air vessels, in which we never find any thing but elastic gases. But the different writers on vegetable physiology are far from agreeing on the class to which the dif- ferent species of vessels belong. Thus, many of the older, as well as the more recent writers in botany, are of opinion, as already stated, that the spiral vessels contain gaseous fluids alone, while Mirbel has denied the existence of air vessels at all, and maintains, that all the tubular vessels of vegetables are destined solely for the circulation of sap. Professor Amici, on the other hand, affirms positively, that he has ascer- tained by observation, that the spirals, the false spirals, the porous vessels, and in general all the tubular and cellular organs of vegetables which have visible holes or slits, never contain any thing but air, When the diameter of these tubes is large enough, this observation can easily be verified by cutting the tubes across, they are then observed to be always empty. If the di- vision be made under water, each of them is seen to present a small air bubble at its orifice. The openings or pores with which the porous vessels are perforated, are very frequently organ- ized like the pores of the epidermis or outer skin, that is, they present at their circumference a circular swelling, or border. This remark made by Mirbel, has been confirmed by Amici. From this resemblance the latter draws a conclusion which is favourable to his opinion, respecting the nature of the fluid contained in these vessels. In fact, the great pores of the epidermis never give passage to any other than elastic fluids. The air contained in the porous vessels does not communicate with the external air. Amici thinks it is produced in the interior of the vege- table tissue ; but its nature is not as yet perfectly known. In woody vegetables, where the air vessels ultimately disappear, their place is occu- pied by the medullary rays, which perform the same functions. These are, in fact, composed of small, tubes placed horizontally, or of porous cells elongated in a transverse direction, which seem to serve as a medium of communication between the inner parts of the vegetable and the outer. These tubesorcells nevercontain any thing but air. From the descriptions given then, it will be observed that there me two principal means of communication between the different HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. parts of the vegetable tissue. In the air cells, or tubes, the communication is preserved by means of pores or minute slits. These pores are altogether wanting in the cellular tissue, properly so called ; and in the vessels called sim- ple tubes or proper sap vessels. In that part of the vegetable tissue, the communication takes place either by a kind of imbibition, or by the intervening spaces which the globules that com- pose the layers of that tissue leave between them. Pores. These are small and minute openings of various shapes and dimensions, adapted for the absorption, transmission, or exhalation of fluids ; and have, by some, been classed under perceptible and imperceptible pores. The per- ceptible pores are either external or internal, and are the apertures described by Hedwig as dis- coverable in the net-work of the epidermis, or by Mirbel as perforating the membranes com- posing the cells and tubes, and forming a com- munication between them. The stomata or leaf pores, will be more particularly described when treating of the structure of leaves. They are found in considerable numbers in the softer par- enchematous structure of the leaf, and rarely or never on the stems or fibres: on the under side of the leaf of nymphea or water lily, or on the lettuce or common cabbage leaf, they may be distinctly seen. On them they are, however, discoverable on both surfaces of the leaf, exhib- iting an oval aperture more or less dilated, to- gether with communicating ducts. On the upper surface they are much fewer and smaller than on the under ; and in the leaves of trees, they are fewer and smaller on both surfaces, than in the leaves of herbs. They are generally oval; in the nymphea they are round and not readily detected, the epidermis of this plant being very difficult of detachment. The internal pores, or apertures, forming the medium of communica- tion between the different cells and tubes, have been already described. In some plants, they are but few and scattered, and in others, they are numerous and arranged in regular rows, which extend always in a transverse, never in a longitudinal direction, being destined, probably, for the lateral transmission of the sap. The imperceptible pores are not distinguishable even by a powerful microscope; but they are pre- sumed to exist by the evidence of experiment. In the fine pellicle of pulpy fruits, though exhibiting evidently traces of organization, no pores have as yet been discovered. But we must not on that account conclude that it is altogether without pores ; on the contrary, we must assume their existence, because it is very well known that the fruits in question both absorb and tran- spire moisture ; and if so, there must of neces- sity exist apertures for the passage of moisture. The diameter of such, however, must be extremely THE NATURE AND USES OF PLANTS. minute. If an apple, or other pulpy fruit, be placed under the receiver of an air pump, and the receiver exhausted, the air contained in the apple escapes only by the bursting of the epi- dermis ; hence it has been thought, that the pores are so very minute as to be impermeable even to air. But this conclusion is perhaps too hasty ; the epidermis of the apple may be permeable to air, though not in a state of sudden expan- sion. Gaps are empty spaces formed in the interior of the plant by means of a partial disruption of the membrane forming the tubes or utricles ; they are often placed regularly and symmetvi- cally. They would appear to be occasioned by the superabundance of the nutritious juices which their vessels are found sometimes to con- tain, without being ableto elaborate, and by which they are ultimately ruptured. They do not occur often, except in plants of a soft and loose texture, such as aquatics, though they are some- times to be met with in woody plants also. In their general aspect, they resemble longitudinal tubes interspersed throughout the cellular tissue or pulp, as may be seen in the stems of ferns; but in the mare’s tail, (equésetum) they assume a regularity of disposition, that seems to indicate something more than merely the accidental rup- ture of the vessels. One gap larger than the rest occupies the centre of the stem, around which a number of smaller gaps are placed in a circular row, which is again encircled with a second row of gaps larger than the last, and al- ternating with them, and forming in their ag- gregate assemblage a sort of symmetrical group. In the leaves of herbaceous plants the gaps are often interrupted by transverse diaphragms, formed of a portion of the cellular tissue which still remains entire, as may be seen in the trans- parent structure of the leaves of Typha, and many other plants. Transverse gaps are said to be observable also in the bark of some plants, though very rarely. Glands are peculiar organs which are observed on almost every part of a plant, and whose func- tion it is to separate from the general mass of the sap of the plant some particular fluid or substance. In their uses, and even structure, they have a near resemblance to the glands of animals. They appear to be formed of a very delicate cellular tissue, in which a great number of vessels are ramified. But thisname has been also given to vesicular bodies, which are often transparent and placed in the substance of organs, and are full of a volatile oil which has been pro- bably secreted in their terior. Their peculiar form and structure are very various ; and hence they have been distinguished into several species. Thus there are, Ist, Miliary glands. These are very small and superficial. They appear under the form of small round grains disposed 1] in regular series, or scattered without order on all parts of the plant which are exposed to the air, 2d, Vesicular glands. These are small reservoirs full of essential oil, and lodged in the herbaceous integument of vegetables. They are very distinct in the leaves of the myrtle and of the orange, and appear under the aspect of small transparent points when those leaves are placed between the eye and the light. 8d, Globular glands. These have a spherical form, and ad- here to the epidermis only by a point. They are observed particularly in the labiate. 4th, Utricular glands, or Ampulle. These are filled with a colourless fluid, as in the ice plant. 5th, Papillary glands. They form a species of paps or papille, something like the papille of the tongue. They occur in many of the labiate. Gth, Lenticular glands. Some of these are borne 13. upon stalks, others sessile, or attached to the plant without any appendage. Many tribes of vegetables, asthemallowsand legumin- ous plants, bear on their pellicles, or on the disk of their leaves, glands of very various forms. Figs. a bc, represent the forms of the e d simpler glands; d ¢ sessile glands. ITairs. These are small filaments of greater or less delicacy, found abundantly on vegetables, and which serve for the purpose of absorption and of exhalation. There are few plants destitute of these hairs ; but they are observed chiefly on those which grow on dry situations. In this case, they have been looked upon by some bo- tanists as serving to multiply and extend the absorbing surfaces of vegetables. Accordingly, they are not found on very succulent plants, such as the thick leaved or aquatic tribes. They appear also, to be in many cases the excretory ducts of many glands, and are thus frequently found inserted on a papillary gland. Thus, in the common stinging nettle, the hairs attached to the gland first pierce the skin, and then conduct the irritating fluid into the wound; for when this fluid is dried up, the prick of the hair no longer produces a painful sensation, Hairs have been divided into the glanduliferous, the excre- tory, and lymphatic. The first are either im- mediately applied to a gland, or surmounted by a small peculiar glandular body, as in the white fraxinella ; the second are placed on glands of which they appear to be the excretory ducts des- tined to pour out the secreted fluids, while the third are only a simple prolongation of a cortical pore. Their forms are various, as the simple- branched, awl-shaped, head-shaped: some are hollow and cropped at different places by hori- zontal partitions. Their disposition and existence 12 on plants is called pubescence, and will be more particularly alluded to afterwards. CHAP. IV. TILE ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. In the foregoing pages we have treated of the general structure of vegetables; we now proceed to consider the several parts, or organs, of which a plant is composed. A perfect plant consists of a root, stem, and branches ; leaves, blossoms, with the parts of fructification, seeds, and, lastly, fruit. The root, stem, and leaves, as conducing to the nutrition and growth of the plant, are called the conservative or nutritive organs. The flowers, with the parts of fructifi- cation, as contributing to the multiplication of the species, are termed the reproductive organs.* As there is a gradation, however, in the vegeta- ble kingdom, many plants have not all the organs now enumerated. Some have neither leaves nor stem, others are destitute of flowers, or even seeds, and propagate their kinds by a simple sporule, which partakes as much of the nature of a bud or incipient germ, as a regular seed. Before pro- ceeding to describe the organs in detail, we shall give a short, general view of the different parts of plants. The first, or most perfect division of plants, is called Phanerogamic, or those having con- spicuous blossoms. A plant of this class con- sists of, Ist, The root, or that part of the lower extremity of the plant which enters the earth, where it sends out filaments and fixes the plant in the soil, or, in a few aquatic plants, floats loose in the water. The use of the roots is to absorb the nutritive juices from the soil. 2d, The stem, which grows upwards into the atmos- phere, and sends out branches, to which the leaves are attached. The stem contains the cells and sap vessels already described ; it is covered with the bark, and gives strength and solidity to the plant. 38d, The leaves are those green mem- branous appendages attached to the branches of * Linneeus distributes the parts into root, herb, and fructification ; the herb comprehending the trunk, branches, and leaves. This is perhaps sufficiently cor- rect, considered as a division ; but is objectionable with regard to the use of one of the terms employed. For as the term herb was previously appropriated to the designation of a peculiar class, or division of plants, it ought not to have been employed to signify also a part of the plant itself. Another division is that by which the parts in question are distributed into per- manent, and temporary, or deciduous—the permanent parts being the root, stem, and branches, which con- tinue to exist as long as the plant vegetates, and the temporary parts being the leaves, flower, and fruit, which fall off and are renewed annually, at least in those that are themselves perennial. Keith's Botany. HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. the stem, or they grow out immediately from the root in those plants having no middle stem. Their office is to absorb the gases of the atmos- phere, which combine with the juices of the plant. 4th, The flowers or blossoms, containing the parts of fructification, to which are attached the fruit and receptacles of the seed. The flower consists of the calyx or cup attached to the flower stalk, on which is fixed the corolla or coloured portion of the flower, which may be either formed of one continuous piece, like a cup or bell, or of several pieces called petals. The parts of fruc- tification consist of the stamens or male organs, with the anthers, filled with podlen or fecundat- ing dust; and the pést7] or female organ, occu- pying the centre of the flower, and terminating in an ovary or receptacle for theseeds. 5th, The pericarp, of very variable form and consistence, is the ovary or seed bag fully developed, and contains the ovules, which are in process of time matured into seeds. 6th, The seeds contained in the pericarp, are attached to it by a filament, called the placenta. They have an external skin or covering, and a kernel; within thisis attached the embryo or germ of the future plant, and either one or two lobes or cotyledons, destined to afford the first nourishment to the germ. From the nature of the cotyledons, plants are divided into two great and distinctive classes : Monocotyledonous with one seed lobe, Dicotyle- donous with two seed lobes. Of the former class are grasses, palms, lilies; to the latter belong the oak, elm, pea, carrot, and numerous other families. The acotyledonous class, again, includes those plants which have no seed lobe, and either no fructifying organs, or very imper- fect ones. But even among the first or highest class of plants, all the organs are not uniformly present. Thus neither the plantain, nor the common prim- rose, have any stem or stalk; there are no leaves in the dodder. In monocotyledonous plants there is no corolla or flower blossom around the parts of fructification, but only a simple integ- ument; even this integument is in the willow awanting. Sometimes the blossom contains only one of the several organs, as in the hazel, where the stamens are found in one flower, and the pistils in the other, or both sexual organs disap- pear altogether, as in the viburnum, portencia, &c. Yet, in all these different exceptions, this ab- sence of organs is only accidental, and has no marked influence on the rest of the organization ; for it will be found that plants which want those organs, do not deviate essentially either in their external characters, or in their mode of vegetation. and reproduction from those which possess them, _The second great division of the vegetable kingdom is into cryptogamic or acotyledonous plants. Linneus gave them the name of crypto- THE ROOTS OF PLANTS. gamic because their sexual organs are concealed or invisible ; they include ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi, and alge; they are a numerous class, and comprehend nearly an eighth part of the 50,000 known vegetable productions. The following table will exhibit at one view the foregoing statements : Root. { se, oranches. {geen 28, Organs of Nutrition, gelyx, corolla, Stamen. Organs of Reproduction, pit. Ovary. Seed. Monocotyledonous—one seed Division I. Phanerogamic, lobe, as palms, grasses, or Flowering Plants, Dicotyledonous — ewe seed lobes, as oak, elm, bean, Division II. Cryptogamic, Acotyledonous — destitute of or Nonflowering, peed lobes, as mosses, ferns, CHAP. V THE ROOTS OF PLANTS. Tue root is that part of the plant which, forming its lower extremity, is almost always concealed in the earth, and which grows con- stantly in a direction opposite to that of the stem, that is, it descends perpendicularly, while the other ascends into the atmosphere. Another character of the root is, that it never turns green, at least in its tissue, when exposed to the action of air and light ; whereas all the other parts of vegetables acquire that colour when exposed. This definition is perhaps as comprehensive as any that can be given, whether with regard to the class of perfect or imperfect plants, though it is no doubt liable to many exceptions, if ap- plied to both. For even of plants denominated perfect, some are found to float on the surface of the water, having the roots immersed in it, but not fixed, as the demna or duck weed; and of plants of a still simpler structure, some have no root at all, or at least no visible part distinct from the rest, to which that appellation can be as- cribed, such as many of the conferve ; or they are apparently altogether root, as the truffle. There are also many “of the simpler plants which attach themselves to other vegetables, and to various substances from which they cannot be supposed to derive any sort of nourisliment whatever, owing either to the mode of their at- tachment, or to the character of the substances to which they attach themselves. Such are many of the mosses, lichens, and marine plants, found adhering to the outcr and indurated bark of aged trees, to dead or decayed stumps, to rotten pieces of wood, and frequently even to stones. These, therefore, are to be regarded as exceptions to the rule. Most aquatic plants, 13 such as the buck bean, water lily, hooded mil- foil, are possessed of two kinds of roots. The one, sunk in the earth, fix the plant to the soil; the other, usually proceeding from the base of the leaves, are free and floating in the midst of the water. The Clusia rosea, a shrub of South America, the Sempervivum arbor- eum, the Indian corn, the mangrove, and some species of figs, besides the roots which terminate them below, produce others from different points of their stem, which often descend from a consid- erable height and sink into the earth. These have received the name of adventitious roots ; and a remarkable fact respecting them is, that they do not begin to grow in diameter till their extremities have reached the soil, and drawn from thence the materials of their growth. We must not confound as roots certain subterraneous stems of vegetables which creep horizontally under the soil, as in the German Iris, Solomon’s Seal, &c. The direction of these alone in a horizontal, not perpendicular position, would be almost sufficient to distinguish them from the true roots if other characters did not mark them. Different parts of vegetables are capable of pro- ducing roots. Cut off a willow branch, or the branch of a poplar, plant it in the earth, and in the course of a short time its lower extremity will be covered with rootlets. The same will happen when both extremities are planted in the soil ; each of them will push forward roots, and thus become fixed in the earth. In grasses, particularly in Indian corn, the lower knots of the stem sometimes give out roots, which de- scend and sink into the earth. It is on this property of the stem, and even of the leaves of many vegetables, of producing new roots, that is founded the practice of propagating by slips and layers, a means of multiplication which is much employed in horticulture. There is great ana- logy of structure between the roots which a tree shoots into the earth, and the branches which it spreads out into the air. The principal dif- ference between these two organs, dependschiefly on the different mediums in which they are de- veloped. The roots of the gigantic Baobab tree of Africa, are said to extend one hundred feet in length. It has been said, that when a young tree is inverted so as to have its branches buried in the earth, and its roots in the air, the leaves are changed into roots and the roots into leaves. This, however, is incorrect ; the leaves are no more changed into roots than the roots into leaves. But when they are placed under the earth, the buds situated in the axilla of the leaves, instead of producing young branches, or leafy scions, are elongated, blanched, and become radical fibres, quhile the latent buds of the roots, which are destined annually to renew the tufts of radical fibres, being placed in the other medium are expanded into leaves. We have 14 also a striking example of this tendency of the latent buds of the root, to change into leafy branches when placed in the air, in those shoots which sprout up around trees, which have creep- ing roots, such as the acacia and poplar. The roots of certain trees, at different distances, pro- duce a species of cones, or excrescences of a loose, soft wood, quite naked, and standing above ground, which are called exostoses. The cypress of North America affords an example of this. The root iscommonly divided into three parts. The body or middle part, of various forms and consistences, sometimes more or less swelled, as in the turnip and carrots. The collar or life knot, an annular bulge at the point where the stem joins the root, and from which springs the bud of the annual stem, in perennial roots. The radical or minute branching fibres, which ter- minate the root. Raots, according to their dur- ation, are distinguished into biennial, perennial, and woody. Annual roots belong to those plants which, in the course of one year, come to their maturity and perish, such as wheat, cockspur, poppy, &c. Biennial roots are those of plants which require two years to come to maturity. During the first year, biennial plants usually produce nothing but leaves ; in the second year they perish, after having flourished and produced fruit, as the carrot. The perennial roots are those which belong to woody plants, and to those which, during an indefinite number of years, send forth herbaceous stems, which annually flourish and decay, while the root lives for several years, such as those of asparagus, asphodils, lu- cern. This division of vegetables, however, into annuals, biennials, and perennials, according to the duration of their roots, is liable to vary under the influence of divers circumstances. The climate, temperature, and situation of a country, and even cultivation, influence, in a singular de- gree, the duration of vegetables. It is no un- common thing to see annual plants vegetate for two years, and even more, if they are placed in a suitable soil and protected from the cold. Thus, the mignonette, which, in Europe, is only an annual plant, becomes perennial in the sandy deserts of Egypt. On the contrary, per- ennial, and even woody plants of Africa and America, become annuals when transplanted into northern climates. The marvel of Peru and cobeea, are perennial in Peru, and die annually in our gardens. The castor oil plant, which in Africa forms woody trees, is annual in our climate, yet it again resumes its woody character when placed in a proper exposure. In general, all perennial exotic plants, whose seeds can produce individuals that flower the first year in our climate, become annuals. This is the case with the castor oil plant, the cobcea, marvel of Peru, &e. Woody roots differ from perennial only in their more solid consistence, and in the per- HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. manency of the stems which they support, such as those of trees and shrubs. There are four principal divisions of roots: Ist, Vertical, or those which sink perpendicularly into the earth, 2d, Fibrous, or those branching out into fibres, 3d, Tuberous, having round or oval appendages. 4th, Bulhbous, having a bulb at the top. 1. Vertical roots are those which sink perpen- dicularly into the earth, as the carrot, ¢, turnip, 8, 14. and radish, They are either simple, as in this vegetable; or branched, as in the ash, a. ‘They belong exclusively to the class of Dicotyledonous vegetables. They are not true roots, however, but merely give off the fibrils, or proper roots. Ibe 2. The fibrous root d, consists of a great number of fibres, which are either simple and _ slender, or thick and ramified. The roots of a great proportion of the palms are of this kind, and such roots are found in the Monoco- tyledonous class only. 3. Tuberous roots are those which have at- tached to the true root, at different points, some- times at the upper part, sometimes in the middle or at the extremities, tubers or roundish bodies. 16: (fig. 16,e). These tubercles or fleshy bodies, which are com- monly, though erroneously, called roots, are only masses of a starchy consistence and sub- stance, which nature hasthus stored up, to afford a supply of nutritious matter for the future germ. They are more or less numerous, as in the Jerusalem artichoke and potatoe. They are never found in annual plants; but belong ex- clusively to perennial. Sprengel considers these tubercles as a kind of subterranean buds, to which nature has confided the preservation of the rudiments of the stem. The only difference which the tubercles, thus considered, present, ig that the young stem, in place of being protected by numerous and close scales, is enveloped by a dense and fleshy body, which not only serves to protect it during winter, but supplies it in spring THE ROOTS OF PLANTS. with the first materials of its development and nutrition, They might equally be considered as short and fleshy subterraneous stems, and the eyes which spring from them might be viewed as buds. Or might we not rather regard them as subterraneous cotyledons, containing the germ of the future plant, and the nourishment neces- sary for its development. 4, Bulbous roots are either scaly 7, or coat~ ed g. The onion is of this kind of root, and is formed of a thin flat tubercle call- ed a disk, which, at its lower part, pro- duces a fibrous root, J 7 and on its upper supports a bulb, which isa bud of a particular kind, formed of a number of coats or concentric layers, one above the other. From the centre of the bulb, a short or her- baceous stem is produced, which dies down. Of this kind are also the lily, hyacinth, garlie, and other bulbous plants. Such are the principal forms which we find the roots of plants assume ; yet, of these forms there are many modifications and varieties, Here, as throughout her other works, Nature does not adhere servilely to artificial or system- atic divisions. She sometimes obliterates, by in- sensible gradations, those differences which we at first thought so complete and decided ; and many of these modifications are accomplished to accommodate the plant to the nature of the circumstances amid which it is placed. Thus, the radicles or fibrils of the roots are compara- tively larger, and more abundant, the looser the soil in which the vegetable lives. When the extremity of a root happens to meet a stream of water, it elongates, divides into capillary and branched fibrils, and constitutes what is called by gardeners a fox’s tail. This circumstance, which may be produced at any time, shows why aquatic plants generally have much larger roots than others. All the roots which cannot be re- ferred to any of the four divisions above enum- erated, retain the general name of roots; but a few particulars may be added regarding the var- iety of structure, as useful to practical botanists. The root is said to be fleshy, when besides being manifestly thicker than the base of the stem it is at the same time more succulent, as in the carrot, turnip, &c. On the contrary, it is said to be woody when its structure is more solid, approaching, in some degree, to the hardness of wood. Thisis the case in most woody vegeta- bles. Simple roots have a single tapering body entirely without divisions ; a branched root is one divided into more or less numerous rami- fications, always of the same nature as itself, 15 which is the case in most of our common trees, as the oak, elm, ash. The root is vertical when its direction is perpendicular to the earth’s centre, as the carrot, radish ; oblique, as in the iris ; ov horizontal, as inthe elm; not unfrequently these positions are assumed by the different radicles of one root. As to shape, roots are called fusiform when they are thick in the middle, and taper to both ends, as in the radish ; naziform, as in the common turnip, Spanish radish ; conical, with the form of a reversed | cone, as in the beet, parsnip, carrot ; rounded, as in the earth nut; testiculate, when it has one or two rounded egg-shaped tubercles, as in Jerusalem artichoke; in this root, one of the tubercles 1s firm, solid, and somewhat larger than the other; it is that which contains the rudiments of the stem which is to grow in the ensuing year; the other, on the contrary, being soft, wrinkled, and smaller, contained the germ of the stem which has been last developed, and on whose growth it expended the greater part of its amylaceous or starchy substance ; palmate, when the tu- bercles of the root are divided about the middle into lobes like fingers, as in the spotted orchis, 4. i k Digitate, when this division extends nearly to the base of the root, as in some of the others of the genus orchis ; &, creeping, as in mint and other fa- miliar plants; knotty, when the ramification of the root presents atintervals a kind of enlargement or knots, which impart somewhat the resemblance of a necklace, as in the drop wort, fig. 7. These knots, however, are not to be confounded with the true tubercles, which al- ways contain the rudi- mentsofanewstem. Gran- ulated,which presentamass of small tubercles contain- ing eyes, by which a new plant is produced, as in the saxifrage, sazi- Fraga granulata; fasciculate, when formed of numerous thick, simple, or branched radicles, as in asphodel and ranunculus ; articulated, or forming joints at regular distances, as in gratiola; contorted, when curved in different directions, as in bistort ; capillary, formed of a number of slender capillary tubes, as in wheat, barley, 8rasses 3 comose, when the filaments are branched 16 aud very close, asin the heaths. The internal structure of roots very closely resembles that of the stem, and shall be described along with that organ. According to the general laws of vegetable growth, plants of the same species are furnished with the same species of root, not producing at one time a woody or fibrous root, and at another abulbous root. Yet some exceptions to this rule occur. If part of the root of 2% a tree planted by a pond or river, is accidentally laid bare on the side next the water, or if in the regular course of its growth it protrudes beyond the bank, so as to be now par- tially immersed, the future de- velopment of the part is considerably affected ; for the root, which was formerly firm and woody, instead of augmenting in the regular way by the accession of new layers between the wood and bark, thus enlarging the mass, divides now at the extremity into many ramifications, or sends out a number of fibres from the surface, which become again subdivided into fibres still more minute, and gives to the whole an appear- ance’ something like a foxe’s tail,m. This may be seen in willows, growing beside ponds. On the other hand, the phlenm pratense, when growing in its natural moist soil, has a fibrous root; but when in a dry soil, where it is not unfrequently found, the root is bulbous. The roots of utricularia minor, exhibit curious appendages of small membranous bladders attached to their slender filaments, containing a transparent fluid and a bubble of air, by means of which the plant is kept floating in the water. If a slice of the beet root be examined when the plant is a year old, it will exhibit from five to eight concentric circles of tubes or sap vessels, imbedded at regular in- tervals in its pulp ; whereas other biennial roots form only one circle for each year, and are con- sequently furnished at no time with more than two. Themost singular circumstance regarding roots, however, is that they may be transformed into stems, by inverting the plant. Thus, if the stem of a young plum or cherry tree, or of a willow, is taken in autumn, and bent so as that one half of the top may be laid in the earth, one half of the root being at the same time taken carefully out, but sheltered at first from the cold, and then gradually exposed to it; and the remaining part of the top and root subjected to the same process in the following year, the branches of the top will become roots, and the ramifications of the root will become branches, protruding leaves, flowers, and fruit in their season. Use of roots. In the first place, as regards the plant itself, the use of the roots is to serve HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, as a means of attachment to it in the soil, and to draw from thence a portion of the juices necessary for its life and nourishment. The roots of many plants appear to perform only the first of these functions. This is chiefly re- markable in thick succulent plants, which ab- sorb from the air the substances necessary for their nutrition at all points of their surface; in this case, these roots serve simply to fix the plants tothe soil. The magnificent cactus Peruvianus, growing in the hot house of the museum of natural history at Paris, is of an extraordinary height, and sends out its large branches with extreme vigour, and often with amazing rapidity; yet its roots are contained in a box which barely holds four cubic feet of earth, which is never re- renewed or watered. Some other plants of thesame nature may besuspended bya thread to the ceiling, and they will grow without any earth at all, merely by absorbing their nourishment from the atmosphere. Neither are the roots of plants always in proportion to the strength or size of the trunks which they support. The tribe of palms and pines, whose trunks sometimes reach the height of a hundred feet and upwards, have very short roots, which do not extend far in the ground, and attach themselves but feebly to it. On the contrary, herbaceous plants, whose weak and slender stems die yearly, have sometimes roots of great length and size compared with the stem, as is the case in the liquorice shrub, lucern, and the common weed called rest-harrow. In general, however, roots extract from the earth the substances which contribute to the growth of the plant. All parts of the root, however, do not equally perform this office, which is accomplished chiefly, if not solely, by the ex- tremities of the small fibres. It has been found that their extremities are terminated by little spongy bodies, called ampulle or spongioles, with porous absorbing mouths. Dutrochet has min- utely described these spongioles, which may be seen by the aid of a microscope, attached as little bags or knobs, to the minute fibres of the roots, as seen at a @ in the wood cut. With a high magnifying power, hexagonal cells are visible, covered by a porous cuticle. The small bulb at the extremity of the root of the common duck weed, affords a good example of these spongioles. Whatever be their structure, Dutrochet thinks, ab- sorption is performed by those extremities alone; and the truth of this may be established by a simple experiment. It we take a radish or turnip, and immerse in water the small root by which the bulb is terminated, it will vegetate and shoot forth leaves. On the contrary, if it be so placed in the water that its lower extremity is not immersed, it gives no THE ROOTS OF PLANTS. sign of growth. ‘The roots of certain plants ap- pear to excrete a peculiar matter, which varies in the different species. Du Hamel mentions, that having caused some old elms to be rooted up, he found the earth about their roots of a darker and more unctuous colour than that around. This unctuous fatty matter was pro- duced by excretion from the roots. . To this matter, which varies, as we have said, in dif- ferent species of plants, the sympathies and antipathies which certain vegetables have for each other is no doubt to be attributed. For it is well known, that certain plants in a manner seek one another, and live constantly near each other. Such are called social plants; while, on the contrary, others seem hurt by these peculiar matters, and will not grow near. Hence, too, the well known fact, that certain vegetables will not thrive if successively planted in the same soil. It has been remarked, that roots have a marked tendency to grow in the direction of veins of good soil; and that they are often ex- tended considerably, in order to reach the places where the soil is richer, and more friable. They then grow with more vigour and rapidity. Du Hamel states, that wishing to protect a field of excellent soil from the roots of a row of elms which were extending in that direction, and wasting a part of it, he caused a deep trench to be sunk along the row of trees, which cut across all the roots that stretched into the field. But soon after, the new roots, on arriving at one of the sides of the ditch, curved downwards, follow- ing the slope until they arrived at its lower part, when they, proceeding horizontally under the ditch, rose again on the other side, following the opposite slope, and extended anew into the field. The roots of trees have not all the same facility of penetrating the hard subsoil. Du Hamel ob- served that a vine root had penetrated a very hard subsoil to a great depth, while an elm-root had been stopped by it, and had in a manner retraced its steps. We have already remarked that the root has a natural and invincible ten- dency to direct itself towards the centre of the earth. This tendency is especially observed in this part at the moment it begins to be developed from the seed. It is afterwards less apparent, although it always exists, especially in those roots which are simple, as in the top root of those which are branched, for it frequently does not exist in the lateral ramifications of the root. Whatever obstacles may be opposed to this na- tural tendency of the radicle, it possesses the power of surmounting them. Thus, if a ger- minating bean or pea be placed in such a manner that the seed lobes are situated in the earth, and the radicle in the air, the radicle is soon seen to bend towards the earth, and immerse itself in it. This phenomenon has given rise to much specula- tion, and has received various explanations, 17 Some suppose that the root has a tendency to descend, because the fluids which it contains are less elaborated, and consequently heavier than those of the stem. But this explanation is con- tradicted by facts. In certain exotic vegetables, such as elusiarosea, we see roots forming upon the stem at a great height, and descending per- pendicularly to penetrate into the ground. Now, in this case, the fluids contained in these aerial roots are of the same nature as those which cir- culate in the stem, and yet these roots, in place of rising like it, descend towards the earth. It is not, therefore, the difference of the weight of the fluids that gives them this tendency towards the centre of the earth. Others have imagined that they discovered the cause in the avidity of roots for moisture, which is more abundant in the earth than in the atmosphere. Du Hamel, with the view of ascertaining the truth of this explanation, made seeds germinate between two moist sponges, suspended in the air. The roots, in place of directing themselves towards either of the two sponges, which were well soaked with water, crept between them, and hung out be- low; thus tending towards the earth. It is not moisture, then, that attracts roots towards the earth’s centre, as is partly illustrated by another experiment. Dutrochet filled a box with earth, in the bottom of which several holes were bored. In these holes he placed French beans in a state of germination, and suspended the box in the open air, at a height of about twenty feet. In this manner, the seeds, being placed in the holes formed at the lower surface of the box, received from beneath the influence of the atmosphere and light, and the moist earth was placed above them. If the humid earth be the cause which determines the direction of the radicle in this case, it ought to be seen ascending into the earth which lies above it; and the stem, on the contrary, ought to descend into the atmosphere placed below it. This, however, did not happen; the radicles of the seeds descended into the atmos- phere, where they soon perished, while the plumules mounted upwards into the earth. Mr Knight, the celebrated botanist, wished further to ascertain, by experiment, whether this downward tendency could be destroyed by a rapid circular motion communicated to germin- ating seeds. He accordingly fixed some seeds of French beans in the nave of a wheel, kept con- tinually moving in a vertical plane by a stream of water, the wheel performing one hundred and fifty revolutions in a minute. The seeds, which were placed in some moss, kept constantly moistened, soon began to germinate. All the radicles were directed towards the circumference of the wheel, and all the gemmules towards its centre. By each of these directions, the gem- mules and radicles obeyed their natural and opposite tendencies. The same gentleman made te 18 a similar experiment with a wheel, moving horizontally, at the rate of one hundred and fifty revolutions in the minute. The results were similar, that is to say, all the radicles were directed towards the circumference, and the gem- mules towards the centre; but with an inclina- tion of ten degrees of the former towards the earth, and of the latter towards the atmosphere. These experiments were repeated by Dutrochet, and with the same results, except that in the second the inclination was not so considerable, and that the radicles and gemmules were nearly horizontal. From these experiments, many have concluded that the roots, in their descent, merely obey the common laws of gravity. Be- fore this conclusion could be made, however, the phenomena of the gemmules ascending into the air, contrary to the laws of gravity, ought to be also explained. “But,” says, Mr Keith, “if gravitation acts so very powerfully upon the radicle, why will it not condescend to exert its influence upon the gemmules also, which, if not so heavy as the radicle, are at least specifically heavier than atmospheric air; and why does it make an exception in favour of some radicles.” He then instances the case of the misletoe. This singular plant shoots out its radicle in whatever situation chance may place it. Thus, when the seed, which is envel- oped ina thick and viscid glue, adheres to the upper part of a branch, its radicle, which is a kind of hollow tubercle in the shape of a horn, is then perpendicular to the horizon. If, on the contrary, the seed be applied to the under sur- faces of the branch, the radicle will be directed towards the heavens; or if situated on the lateral surfaces, the radicle will be directed laterally. In short, in whatever situation the seed may he placed upon the branch, the radicle will always assume a direction perpendicular to its axis. Dutrochet tried numerous experiments on the germination of this seed, in order to ascertain the laws of determination of its radicle. This seed, which finds in the viscid substance that surrounds it, the first materials of its growth, germinates, and is developed, not only on wood, either living or dead, but also on stone, glass, or iron. Dutrochet caused it to germinate on a cannon ball. In all these cases, the radicle was invariably directed towards the centre of those bodies. The same experimenter fastened a ger- minating seed of misletoe to one end of a copper needle, moving on a pivot like that of a marin- er’s compass, a small bit of wax being placed at the opposite end, to serve as a counterpoise to the seed. Matters being thus arranged, he placed, in a lateral direction to the radicle, a pin of wood, so as to be at the distance of nearly half a line. The whole was covered with wu glass receiver, so as to guard against disturbance from external causes. After the lapse of five days, HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. the stem of the embryo was bent, and its radicle directed towards the small plate that was near it, without any change being produced in the position of the needle, notwithstanding its ex- treme mobility on the pivot. Two days after, the radicle was directed perpendicularly towards the plate with which it came in contact without producing the slightest derangement of the needle that bore the seed. The radicle of this seed exhibits another constant tendency, which is that of avoiding light. If the seeds are made to ger- minate in the inner side of the glass of a window, the radicles are all directed to the interior of the apartment in search of darkness, If a seed he stuck on the outside of the glass, the radicles closely adhere to it, impelled by its tendencies inwards to shun the light. These, and other facts, then, present unsurmountable objections to the theory of mere mechanical attraction. “If,” says Mr Keith, “I were to offer a conjecture in addition to the many that have been already formed, I should say that the invincible tendency of the radicle to fix itself in the earth, or other proper soil, and of the gemmule to ascend into the air, arises from a power inherent in the vegetable subject, analogous to what we call in- stinct (or, perhaps, he should have said the vital impulse) in the animal, infallibly directing it to the situation best suited to the acquisition of nutriment, and consequent developement of its parts. And upon this hypothesis, we include all varieties of plants whatever, parasitical as well as others. For let them attach themselves to whatever substance they will, to them it still affords a fit and proper soil.” Something more than mechanical attraction is evident also in the tendrils of climbing plants ; one species uniformly twisting to the right, while another as constantly twists to the left. The explanation of Dutrochet’s theory of the ascent of sap, to be given after- wards, will perhaps tend to throw some light on this curious subject. Economical uses of roots. Many roots are use- fully employed in domestic economy, as articles of food. Such are the well known roots of carrots, turnips, parsnips, These have been greatly increased in size by cultivation, so much s0 as scarcely to be known to be the same as the original species growing wild. From the tuber- cles of the orchis tribe, salop is manufactured ; sugar is got from beet root, of a quality little inferior to that obtained from the cane. Roots are more generally odorous than the stems of plants, which is owing to an essential oil. Thus, ginger, horse radish, valerian, spignel, and sweet cicely, are pungent and aromatic ; the root of white hellebore is bitter and nauseous. Other roots again are sweet, bland, and mucilaginous, as liquorice root, beet, carrot, &c. Some roots are used for dyeing, as madder, alkanet, turmeric ; other roots are medicinal, as rhubarb, ipecs- THE STEM. cuan, jalap. The peculiar properties of roots, however, shall be more fully described under the heads of the particular plants used for domestic and economical purposes. Certain plants which have the power of shooting out roots that ramify and extend to great distances, are used for the purpose of consolidating sandy and movable soils, Thus, in Holland, and around Bourdeaux, the carex arenaria is planted on the downs, and on the banks of canals, for the purpose of fixing and consolidating the soil; and the sallow thorn, and Spanish broom, are used in many other countries for similar purposes. CHAP. VI. THE STEM, As the root tends towards the earth, so the stem is that part of the plant which mounts into the atmosphere, and besides giving support, and the means of attachment, to leaves, blossoms and fruit, it contains also the vessels which convey the sap from the root a Some of the simpler plants have no stem, as the lichens; others have a soft herba- ceous mass, in which are combined stem, branches, and leaves, as the duck weed or lemna, already alluded to, the cactus, &c. In the fungi, the nature of the stem a 4, is simple, and composed of the same cellular membrane as the other parts of the plant. All the phanerogamous, or flowering vege- tables, have a proper stem, but this stem, in many species, is so small as to be occasionally over- looked ; of this kind are the primrose and hya- cinth, the leaves of these plants appearing as if they sprung directly from the summit of the root. In these last mentioned plants, and many others, there is a stem which shoots up, and bears the flowers and seed; this is called the scape, and is not to be confounded with the true stem. Sometimes this flower stalk springs from a part of the leaf of the plant, when it is called the radicle peduncle, as in the plantain. There are several kinds of stems, which we shall proceed to notice. The trunk is the central and supporting part of trees, as the oak, ash, fir. Its largest diameter is at the root, and it tapers gradually as it ascends, assuming somewhat cf a conical form. For a space below, it is single and naked, but as it approaches the top it divides and subdivides into numerous ramifications; on these branches, twigs, and ramuli, are situated the leaves, blos- 19 soms, fruits, seeds. The trunk is peculiar to dicotyledonous trees; internally, it is made up of successive circles of woody matter, disposed one inside the other in concentric layers, and increases in height and breadth by the addition of new layers, formed one outside the other like a succession of cones. The stipe is the stem of the monocotyledonous class of trees, such as the palms and yucce, anda few of the dicotyledonous, as the cycas and zamia. It is a cylinder of equal thickness from top to bottom, sometimes even swelling out in the middle or the top, with no branches, but crowned at the summit by a tuft of leaves and flowers. Its bark differs little in structure from the stem. It increases in height by the successive growths of the bud at the top, and in breadth by the multiplication of its filaments. Internally, its structure also differs from that of the dicotyle- donous trunks, The culm, or straw, is the supporting stem of the grains, grasses, reeds, and canes. It is a simple or single stem, rarely branched, most commonly hollow within; and having at inter- vals knots or compressed parts, which give it strength and solidity, and from which proceed alternate leaves. ; The stock or rhizoma, or stem root, as it hag been called, is found in a considerable number of plants. It is partly or entirely concealed under ground, is irregularly knotted, and sends off new stems from its anterior part, as the others decay. Of this kind, are the stems of the iris, scabiosa, anemone, and Solomon’s seal. See wood Cut. Besides, its nearly horizontal direction under ground, one of the principal characters of the stock, and by which it is distinguished from the root, is that it always, in some part of its extent, presents traces of the leaves of preced- ing years, or scales which take place of them, and that it increases by its base, or the part nearest the leaves which is the reverse of what takes places in the true root. The general name of stem is given to all those varieties which do not strictly come under any of the above descriptions; and it may be re- marked, that the number of vegetables that have a proper stem, is much greater than that of those with a stipe, or culm, or trunk. The practical Botanist distinguishes the varieties of the stem thus :-— Herbaceous, green, tender, and lasting for a single year; as borage, chickweed, camfrey, &c. All these rank under the name of herds. Semiligneous, half woody, hard, and continues above ground for several years, while the slender twigs and branches are removed annually; as common rue, garden thyme, sage. Woody (ligneous) stem, hard, solid, enduring for years; divided into two classes. Shrubs, which send out branches from the base or root, 20 and are destitute of buds; as the heaths. having trunk branches, buds. Solid, when the stem has no internal cavity; as most trees, the sugar cane. Fistulous, or hollow, with an internal canal, either continuous or divided by partition, at Trees, intervals; as in grains, grasses, bamboo cane, &c. . Pithy, or medullary, fitted with a large pith; as in the elder. Soft, when it is unable to support the erect position, and falls to the ground. Firm, flexible, brittle, succulent, are other terms which suffi- ciently explain themselves. In shape, the stem may be cylindrical, com- pressed, angled, knotty, jointed, geniculated, or bent at the joints in the form of the knee, climbing, when it coils round other stems. Sarmentaceous, when it ascends trees, or other bodies, by means of tendrils or other peculiar appendages. Simple, without ramifications, as in the fox- glove, white mullein. Branched, divided into branches and twigs. Dichotomous, dividing into two forked branches on bifurcations. TZrichotomous, into three. Vertical, stem growing erect. Prostrate, or procumbent, when it lies on the ground. Creeping, when it trails on the ground, taking root at certain joints. Tortuous, forming curves in different directions. Spiral, curving in a regular screw form. Leaf-bearing, having leaves ; leafless, the re- verse. Scaly, having leaves placed in the form of scales, The stem may be either smooth or dotted, hairy, glaucous or powdery, spinous or thorny, prickly, Internal form of stems. The structure of stems proceeding from a two lobed (or dicotyledonous) seed, differs considerably from those growing from a one lobed or monocotyledonous seed; hence, the two first great divisions of the vege- table kingdom already alluded to. We shall proceed first to describe the dicotyledonous stems. When we examine a piece of the trunk of a tree, such as the oak or elm, we find it com- posed of the following parts. In the centre is the pith or medulla, a; then the solid woody mass of the trunk, in successive circles, from the central pith outwards. The outer woody circle of newest formed wood or alburnum, b. Tmmedi- ately investing this, the liber or inner hark, ¢; between the inner bark, e, and the epidermis or outer skin, d, is a soft HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. green juicy matter, called the herbaceous en- velope and cortical layers, c. The epidermis, cuticle, or outer skin, is a part common to all organized beings both of the vegetable and animal kingdom. In vegetables it is a thin, nearly transparent layer, formed of a uniform tissue, which appears composed of cellules varying extremely in form, and present- ing numerous small openings or pores, which some authors consider as a kind of inhaling mouths. The epidermis envelopes all parts of the vegetable ; but it is more especially apparent on young stems, from which it may easily be separated with a little caution. It possesses only a certain degree of extensibility, and when stretched beyond this point, by the enlargement of the trunk, it tears and splits, as is observed in the oak and elm, or it is detached in flakes or plates, as in the birch and plane. When re- moved from a young stem, it isreproduced with- out difficulty. It is the part of the vegetable that resists decomposition longest, and putrefac- tion has no perceptible action upon it. The colour which it presents is not inherent in its nature, but is derived from the peculiar colouring of the tissue on which it is applied. Hence the green colour so prevalent in the leaf and tender shoot, which the transparent epidermis merely transmits, and the beautiful variety of lines displayed in flowers and fruits, And yet the colour is sometimes inherent, even in the epidermis itself, as may be seen by inspect- ing that of the lower part of the petals of the crocus, In the permanent parts of woody and per- ennial plants, the old epidermis often disengages itself spontaneously, as in the currant, birch, and plane tree ; in which it seems to be undergoing a continued waste and repair, and in such parts it is again regenerated, even though destroyed by accident. But in herbaceous plants, and in the leaf, flower, and fruit of other plants, it never disengages itself spontaneously, and is never again regenerated, if once destroyed. The nature and origin of the epidermis form two rather obscure subjects in vegetable anatomy. Some authors say, with Malpighi, that the epi- dermis is not a membrane distinct from the rest of the vegetable tissue. They consider it as formed by the outer wall of the subjacent cellules, belonging to the herbaceous tissue, hardened by the continued action of the air and light. Others, again, concur with Grew in con- sidering it as a perfectly distinct membrane, simply applied upon the subjacent cellular tissue. The microscopic observations of Pro- fessor Amici throw much light on this question, and seem to confirm the second of these opinions According to that naturalist, the epidermis {sa membrane entirely distinct from the cellular tissue upon which it is applied. And in this respect, it closely resembles the outer skin of THE STEM. 21 animals. When examined with the microscope, it is seen to be composed of a single layer of cellules, whose form varies exceedingly in differ- ent plants. It is this cellular structure that has led into error the authors who have thought the epidermis to be formed of the outer wall of the cellular tissue. But, were this the case, the cellules which constitute the epidermis would always have the same form as the subjacent tissue, which, however, they are found not to have. Thus, in the pink, the cellules of the epidermis have a four-sided form, while the im- mediately subjacent layer consists of a multitude of tubes perpendicular to the epidermis. The same occurs in many other vegetables; from which it may be concluded that the epidermis is a cellular membrane, entirely distinct from the subjacent tissue, upon which it is merely applied. The epidermis presents numerous small open- ings, named cortical pores, cortical glands, epi- dermic glands, and lastly, stomata. Several authors have denied their existence; but Amici, by the aid of the microscope, has seen them in a great number of vegetables, and has described and figured them with the greatest accuracy. They are a kind of small bags, situated in the substance of the epidermis, and opening exter- nally by a slit or elongated oval aperture, bor- dered with a kind of rim formed by particular cellules of the epidermis. This rim, or thick- ened margin, which is very seldom wanting, possesses the power of contracting or dilating the aperture according to circumstances. They are here represented as seen in the leaves, a 0. Thus, humidity or water 24 closes the pores, while drought, and the action of the solar rays, keep them open, and separate their mar- gins. The motions of dila- tation and contraction are not confined to the living plant alone, but also take place in detached fragments of the epidermis. These pores or little bags always correspond by their base to spaces filled with air only, and resulting from the arrangement of the cellules or tubes with respect to each other. These intercellular spaces almost always communicate with each other, and thus afford a means of communica- tion to the aériform fluids which exist in the interior of vegetables. Some parts, however, as the roots, the petioles which are not leafy, the petals in general, the epidermis of old stems, and that of fleshy fruits and seeds, appear to he desti- tute of stomata. Certain leaves have them only on one of their surfaces, while others have them on both. Various conjectures have been formea regard- ing the use of these curious pores, They can- not be destined for the absorption of moisture, for we have already seen that they correspond to internal spaces which are destitute of juices, that they are closed by water, and that light and drought cause them to open. Moreover, they are wanting in all roots, as well as in plants that live constantly under water. They do not therefore serve for the absorption of water. Nor are they intended for evaporation; for if we allow a plant which has been detached from its roots to die, although the pores close after some time, evaporation still continues, so long as any fluid remains in its interior. It has been ob- served, moreover, that the corollas and fruits, which are destitute of cortical pores, yet produce an abundant evaporation. M. Link supposed them to be excretory organs, but this cannot be the case, as they always correspond to empty spaces. The real office of the cortical pores seems to be to give passage to air. But it is not easy to determine with certainty whether they serve for inspiration more than expiration, or for both these functions alike. If we consider that at night, when the large pores of the epi- dermis are closed, leaves absorb carbonic acid gas dissolved in the dew, which undoubtedly penetrates into the cellules by passing through their membrane; and if we reflect, moreover, that these leaves decompose carbonic acid gas, when the pores are open, that is, during the day, we may suppose them to be solely destined for the exhalation of oxygen. This use becomes still more probable, when we add that the corollas which, according to Decandolle’s obser- vations, are destitute of pores, are equally desti- tute of the faculty of disengaging oxygen. The surface of the epidermis sometimes pre- sents certain organs named lenticular glands, or lenticelles, which appear under the form of small spots elongated in the longitudinal direction in young branches, and in the transverse direction in older branches. No traces of them have yet been discovered in the monocotyledonous or acotyledonous plants. They are also wanting in the herbaceous plants of the dicotyledonous class. They are very distinct on the epidermis of the birch, and especially on that of ewonymus verrucosus, where they are very prominent and close. From these lenticelles spring the roots which certain trees develope upon their stem, or those which form when a branch is immersed in the ground, as in the operation of propagating by layers. They may therefore, in some measure, be considered as root-buds. From the surface of the cuticle also spring the hairs of various kinds which are observed on many plants. The herbaceous envelope. Under the epider- mis is observed a layer of cellular tissue, con- necting the former with the cortical layers, and 22 named the herbaceous envelope. Its colour is generally green in young stems. It covers the trunk, the branches and their divisions, and fills up the spaces which exist between the ramifica- tions of the nerves of the leaves. To this, Du- trochet applies the name of the outer medulla, in opposition to that of inner medulla, which he gives to the pith. Its colour is not derived from the cellular tissue of which it is composed, but is owing to the small grains of globuline, situated in the walls of the cellules, and which Dutro- chet considers as nervous corpuscules. The herbaceous envelope, or outer medulla, frequently contains the proper juices of vege- tables, which are enclosed in particular canals or reservoirs. It is readily repaired on the stem of woody vegetables; but this phenomenon does not take place in annual plants. It appears to have an organization and uses similar to those of the pith contained in the medullary tube. When this herbaceous envelope acquires great thickness, and peculiar physical qualities, it constitutes the part known by the name of cork in the cork tree, (quercus suber) and some other plants. The herbaceous envelope is the seat of one of the most remarkable chemical phenomena which vegetable life presents: in its interior, and that by a cause which it is difficult to un- derstand, the decomposition of the carbonic acid absorbed from the air by the plant, is effected, the carbon remaining in the interior of the vege- table, while the oxygen that has been disengaged is thrown out. It is to be remarked, however, that this decomposition takes place only when the plant is exposed to the rays of the sun, whereas the carbonic acid is thrown out unde- composed when the vegetable is withdrawn from the influence of that luminary. This organ is partly renewed each year. It also performs a very important part in the process of vegetation. At the return of summer, it incites the sap to ascend towards the buds, and thus becomes one of the most powerful agents in producing their growth and development into leaves. The herbaceous envelope is very easily dis- covered on the young branches of a tree, it being the part exposed when the epidermis is removed. The cortical layers, or outer bark, do not al- ways exist, and are occasionally so slightly de- veloped, and so little distinct from the liber, that it becomes very difficult to recognise them. They are placed beneath the herbaceous envelope, and are applied upon the outermost layers of the liber, from which they can hardly be distin- guished. In no vegetable are they more appar- ent, or more remarkable for the singular disposi- tion of the tissue of which they are composed, than in the lace-tree, in which they form several layers above cach other, which, on being stretched out, bear a perfect resemblance to some kinds of linen, or represent lacework of pretty regular HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. texture. In most plants, however, it is difficult to distinguish this part from the liber. The liber, or énner bark, or true bark, as it is sometimes called, lies immediately in contact with the alburnum, or first circle of woody fibre. It is composed of a vascular network, the elon- gated meshes of which are filled with cellular tissue. It is seldom that it can be easily separ- ated into distinct lamin, or plates, which have been compared to the leaves of a book,* but this effect may almost always be obtained by mace- ration. The different lamine of which the liber is composed, and which have been successively formed, have thin layers of cellular tissue inter- posed between them. When the liber is macer- ated, this cellular tissue is destroyed, and allows the lamine to be separated. < Like all other parts of the bark, the liber is capable of being replaced when it has been removed. Before it can be reproduced, however, the part from which it has been detached must be guarded from the contact of air. This im- portant fact we owe to Du Hamel. That excellent naturalist, to whom vegetable physiology is in- debted for so many happy discoveries, removed a portion of bark from a vigorous tree in full vegetation. He secured the wound against the contact of air, and presently saw exuding from the surface of the woody body, and the edges of the bark, a viscid substance, which, spreading over the wound, acquired consistence, became green and cellular, and reproduced the portion of liber that had been removed. To this viscid substance, which exudes from the denuded parts to reproduce the liber, Grew, and after him Du Hamel, gave the name of cam- bium. Several authors are of opinion that the cambium is nothing else than the descending and elaborated sap. This opinion becomes the more probable, when we reflect that this viscid fluid performs exactly the same functions in the animal economy as those generally attributed to the descending sap, which is conveyed bv the same parts. ‘Whatever be the origin of the cambium, it performs a very important part in the growth of the stem. For, in all the theories that have been advanced with the view of explaining that phenomenon, its presence is indispensable, as we shall presently show, when we come to treat of the growth of dicotyledonous stems. Numerous experiments prove that the liber is absolutely necessary for vegetation. etamens, ere 2 fs only one Bri- 1 Monogyuia tish genus in this class. 8. OCTANDRIA. The British 1 Monogynia plants of this class have elas stamens, an Dade one, three, or 2 Trigynia four pistils. Some of the Ericas are much admired for their beauty, and the Daphne is an active alter- ative medicine. 9. ENNEANDRIA., Plants of nine stamens. This class contains on- vy one British in- igenous plant. 3 Tetragynia {: Hexagynia (1 Monogynia 10. DECANDRIA. The British 2, 7 lants in this class A J 2 Digynia have ten stamens, 2 s and one, tivo, a 3 Trigynia three, or five pistils. 4 Pentagynia - 1 Monogynia 1. DODECANDRIA. Plants from ele- ven to nineteen 2 Digynia stamens, and one, 4 two, three, or z : twelve pistils. 3 Trigynia TABLE OF CLASSIFICATION. we & dbs CER Weed ayia Ww) ae . Dodecagynir Se 12. ICOSANDRIA. This class con- sists of herma- phrodite plants, with twenty or more stamens fix- ed in the calyx, They produce our most esteem- ed fruits; and no poison- ous fruit has yet been found where the parts of the flower correspond with the characters of this class. 13. POLYANDRIA, The plants be- longing to this class are herma- phrodite, and ave twenty or more stamens fixed in the receptacle, The situation or insertion of the stamens constitutes the essential and characteristic distinc- tion between the twelfth and thirteenth classes. 14. DIDYNAMIA. This class con- sists of plants y with four sta- S35, mens, twolonger than the other two, and one pistil. The orders are formed upon the presence or absence of a covering to the seeds. The flowers in the first order are all ringent; in the second order they are most frequently person- ate, or resupinate. 15. TETRADYNAMIA. Plants of six stamens, four long and two short, and one pistil, | which turns into a two-valved pericarp, call- | eda Siliqua; some of these pericarps are long, and re- tain the name siliqua; others are short, round, or flat, and receive the name of silicle, and upon this distinction of their seed- pods the orders are form- ed. 16. MONADELPHIA. The plants in x this class have the Cm, filaments of their GS? stamens united in- < to one set. 17. DIADELPHIA. The plants in their stamensin ah two sets, of which the first ample; but there are five of the genera strictly Mo- nadelphous in the union other genera have one sta- men separate from the rest on the upper surface 18. POLYADELPHIA. The plants of this class are and their sta- mens are united into three or more sets. There is this class have genus is an excellent ex- of their stamens, and the of the pistil. hermaphrodite, but one British genus, 2 Siliquosa 1 Pentandria 2 Decandria 3 Polyandria 4 \: Polyandria 1 Monogynia 2 Pentagynia ee 3 Polygynia 1 Mouogynia 2 Pentagynia WG Sis 3 Polygynia 1 Gymnospermia fa 2 Angiosperipia y v7] 1 Siliculoss YP ay wS 1 Hexandrla 2 Octandria 3 Decandria 179 This class is composed of SSS flowers, consist- ing of many little florets When these are herma- phrodite, they have five anthers into a cylinder, round one pistil. Some of others ligulate, some her- maphrodite, some fernale, British genera are em- braced by Dr Smith in those where the little flo- retsareall hermaphrodite, where the florets in the disk are hermaphrodite, male, ex. mountain daisy ; the 3d. where the florets dite, and those in the cir- cumference neuter, ex. 19. SYNGENESIA. rompound within one common calyx. stamens united by their the florets are tubular, and others neuter. Our three orders; viz. Ist. ex. thistle; 2d. those and those in the ray, fe- in the disk are hermaphro- blue bottle. 20. GYANDRIA. The plants of this class beas flowers, with stamens gitus- ted on the style, or upon a_ receptacle stretched out in form of a style, which supports both stameus aud pistils. 21. MONCECIA. The Monceci- ous or one- QOD house plants, Xtc ye y 2 have their sta- Ns mens in one flower, and their pistils on a separate flower on J the same plant—the orders are from the number and connection uf the stamens. Besides a number of herb- aceous plants, some of the most beautiful and useful of our forest trees belong to this class, 22. DIGECIA. The Dicecious, a or _ two-house (\y plants, are male’ and female, the stamens are found in the flowers of one plant, and the pistils in the flowers of another—the orders are from the number and con- nection of the stamens. Some soft-wooded, quick rowing plants belong to this class, as the willow and the poplar. HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 1 Polygamia Aqualis ch 2 Polygamia Superfilua Na 3 Polygamia Frustranen AEA ) Monandria 2 Diandria 3 Hexandria (1 Monandria 2 Triandria 3 Tetrandria 4 Pentandria 5 Hexandria 6 Polyandria s Monadelplia (1 Diandria 2 Triandria 3 Tetrandia 4 Pentandria 5 Hexandria 6 Octandria 7 Enneandria 8 Monadelphia 23. POLYGAMIA. The plants of this class have hermaphrodite, ch Be and male or fe- male flowers, or both on the same plant. Dr Hull, in his British Flora, has arranged and described seven genera in this class. 24. CRYPTOGAMIA. The tO- ty, gameous plants ee are those vege- tables whose nC & arts of fructi- Feation are so minute that they are but imperfectly visible to the naked eye. Linnzus divided the plants of this class into 4 natural orders, viz.Filices, Musci, Alga, and Fungi. Ist Order. Fitices.— The Filices, or Ferns, in general push up only one stem, termed a_ frond, which, in the early stage of its growth, is ro! ed up in a spiral form. They bear their fructification in a spike, in a racemus, or on the under surface of the leaf. The Botrychi- um is an example of a spike, the Osmunda of a racemus, and the Polypo- dium bears its fructifica- tion on the under surface of the leaf. The fructifi- cation is arranged in lines or dots; and from their situation and direction, with the presence and manner of opening of a thin covering termed the Involucre, and from being with or without an elastic ring, the genera are form- ed and distinguished. 2d Order. Musci.—The mosses are a beautiful na- tural family of very mi- nute plants, whose female parts of fructification are covered by a calyptra, which adheres to the top of the theca, and in gene- ral opens transversely. The mouth of the theca is sometimes naked, and sometimes clothed with a single or double fringe, termed a periostoma. Its divisions are named teeth; and from their number, their being upright or re- flected,straight or twisted, triangular, spear, or bris- tle-shaped, blunt or acute, and whether their seeds are smooth or rough, an- gular or round, the genera are characterized. 3d Order. ALGa.—The plants in this order have their root, stem, and leaf, of one continuous similar iece of matter. They are ivided into those which grow on the land and those that grow in the water. Their generic cha- racters are taken from their parts of fructifica- tion when these are any Way evident, and from the general structure of the plant when these organs escape notice. 4th Order. Fune1.—The fungi consists of plants mostly of a spongy or cork-like texture. ‘they are generally of short du- ration, and bear their seeds in gills or tubes, or attached to fibrous or spongy substances. Their eneric characters are ken from the disposition of their seeds, or from their external figure or appearance. { 1 Monecia (1 Filices ) 2 Musd 3 Algw La Fungi SYSTEMS OF BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION. We have now stated the principles of the sexual system, and presented a sketch of its twenty-four classes and numerous orders, such as they were established by Linneus. In ex- amining this system, one is struck by its ex- treme simplicity, and the ease with which the name of a plant may be discovered by means of it. The classes, in fact, are, for the most part, precisely limited and defined, especially those which have the stamina in determinate number. Not only does this system contain all the plants already known, but it is also capable of com- prehending all that may yet be discovered. In consequence of its possessing these advantages, it was generally adopted at the period of its first publication. But it must be admitted, that it labours under more than one serious disadvantage. It is not always easy to determine the precise class to which a plant ought to be referred. Thus the rue (Ruta graveolens) has almost all its flowers furnished with eight stamina, there being only asingle flower in the centre of each of its groups that presents ten. The beginner, in this case, would experience some embarrassment, and might be induced to place the plant in question in the eighth class of the system, Octandria, although Linneus referred it to Decandria, as he considered the flower with ten stamens as the most perfect. Dodecandria, in like manner, is not very strictly characterized. It contains all the plants which have from twelve to twenty stamina; but the agrimony, which is referred to it, has often more than twenty. Certain labiate or personate which belong to Didynamia, have their four stamina of equal length, and the irregularity of the corolla is, in many cases, hardly perceptible. It is extremely difficult to determine with cer- tainty the orders to which many plants belong- ing to Syngenesia should be referred. Besides, the intermixture of male flowers, female flowers, and hermaphrodite flowers, throws several of them into Diacia and Polygamia. The sixth of these orders Polygamia Monogamia, contains plants which have no affinity to the composite, such as the genera Viola, Lobelia, Impatiens. Polygamia, the twenty-third class, is a con- fused mixture of plants, which almost all belong to some of the other classes. If we now examine the plants brought to- gether under each of these classes, we find that very frequently the natural affinities that have long been established are entirely disregarded. Thus one of the most natural families, the Graminew, is scattered through the classes Mon-~ andria, Diandria, Triandria, Hexandria, Mon- ecia, Diccia, and Polygamia. The labiate are partly placed in Diandria, partly in Didynamia. It is the same with many other families equally 18] natural. But as the classification proposed by Linneus is a system, that is, a methodical, but purely artificial arrangement, intended solely for facilitating the discovery of the name of a plant which one may be desirous of knowing, it would not be just to blame it for having thus separated plants which bear a great resemblance and affinity to each other. But the Linnean system is not the one which is to be studied when the object is to obtain a knowledge of the mutual relations of plants, although, of all the artificial systems, it is unquestionably that which enables one to find the name of a plant with most ease. TuE sysTEM oF Jussieu, or THE METHOD oF Narvurat Famitits, differs essentially in itscourse and characters from the systems of Tourneforte and Linneus, which we have already explained. In it the divisions are not founded upon the consideration of a single organ, but are derived from characters presented by all the parts of plants. Accordingly, the plants which are thus brought together are disposed in such a manner that they have a greater affinity to that which immediately precedes or follows them than to any other. This classification is therefore superior to those which preceded it, in so far as it presents general and philosophical ideas respecting the produc- tions of the vegetable kingdom. It does not consider objects separately, but collects and ar- ranges them into groups or families, according to the greatest number of common characters which they possess. We find that nature, in impressing upon the external form of certain plants a peculiar char- acter bearing relation to their internal organiza- tion, seems to have indicated to a certain extent, the affinities which exist among vegetable pro- ductions. In fact, there are many plants which bear so great a resemblance to each other in the structure and conformation of their parts, that this similarity has at all times been perceived, and these different plants have been considered as in some measure belonging to the same family. Thus the Graminee, Labiate, Crucifere, and Synantheree, have always been kept together whenever the characters of affinity and mutual resemblance have not been sacrificed to the prin- ciples of an artificial system. Accordingly, when botanists began to bring together plants into families, that is, into groups or series of genera, resembling each other in the greater number of characters, they had only to imitate nature, which had, as it were, created types of essentially natural families, as if to serve as models. Thus the leguminose, cruci- fere, graminee, umbellifere, labiate, &c., stood forth to the view as so many examples which were to be imitated. But as all plants have not, like those just 182 named, external characters so precise or so de- cided as at once to disclose their resemblance to certain others, recourse was had to analysis, and it became necessary to search in all their organs for modifications which might furnish char- acters, The characters have to be considered with reference to their value, their number, and their affinity. With respect to their value, it will easily be conceived that the characters derived from the most essential organs of plants must be less liable to variation, and more important than those derived from other organs. Now, those organs which conduce to reproduction, perform the most important part in vegetable life, and among them the embryo, which is in a manner the common end towards which all the organs of the plant direct themselves, is that which occupies the first rank in importance. The embryo, therefore, has supplied Jussieu with his primary divisions. The stamina and the pistil occupy the second rank, and afford more con- stant and more valuable characters than the floral envelopes. These characters are the more fixed and important, that they are derived, not from the number and structure of these organs, which are very subject to variation, but from their relative position, which is fixed. Thus, next to the embryo, the relative position of the sexual organs, or their insertion, affords the best characters for the arrangement of plants. Lastly, the stems, the leaves, and the roots, are all em-: ployed as accessory characters. With respect to their number, the characters are associated, grouped, and arranged; and, from the combination of simple characters, result general characters, which serve to unite a certain number of plants under a common denomina- tion. Some characters are mutually connected, and seem inseparable from each other. Those which are derived from the flower and fruit are chiefly of this kind. Thus for example, the inferior ovary always implies a monosepalous calyx and an epigynousinsertion. A monopetalous corolla almost always indicates that the stamina are in- serted upon it, and that they have a determinate number, From the value and importance which the different characters possess, it is easy to see that those least liable to vary ought to have been employed for the fundamental divisions of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the embryo has fur- nished the first three great divisions in plants. The stamina and the floral envelopes have after- wards been employed for subdividing the first three sections, which were established upon the embryo. Jussiew’s method is thus explained by Richard: The plants that occur scattered over the surface HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. of the globe constitute the individuals of the vegetable kingdom. When we examine them with attention, we soon perceive that in the general mass there are numerous individuals, which always present themselves to our view under the same appearance, possess the same ex- ternal and internal characters, and are always reproduced under the same form. To all these perfectly similar individuals, considered gene- rally and abstractly, the name of species is given. The species, then, is the aggregate of individuals which are always reproduced in the same man- ner. A seed produced by any given species al- ways gives rise to an individual perfectly similar to that from which it originated. The charac- ters on which the distinction of the different species from each other is founded, are generally derived from the organs of vegetation, that is, from the leaves, the stem, and the roots. The species which present some differences with re- spect to the colour of their flowers, the place in which they grow, and their relative height, con- stitute varieties, which are distinguished from species properly so called, by the circumstance of their not being, in the natural state, repro- duced from seeds with all their characters. Thus, for example, the lilac usually has the flowers of a delicate purple tint; but its flowers are some- times white, although none of the other charac- ters have been altered. The white lilac, then, is merely a variety of the purple lilac; for if seeds taken from the white-flowered lilac are sown, they give rise to individuals whose flowers are indifferently purple or white; which proves that varieties are not always preserved by means of seed. The genus consists of a greater or less number of species, united by common characters derived from the organs of fructification, but all distin- guished from each other by specific characters peculiar to each of them, and furnished by the organs of vegetation. Thus, the genus Anagallis has for its characters a rotate monopetalous co- rolla, five stamina, and a pyxidiwm for its fruit, that is, a globular capsule opening in a circular manner by a kind of lid. All the species of this genus must possess these different characters; but they are distinguished from each other by the form of their stem and leaves. The other genera are similarly constituted. If we bring together the genera in the same manner as the species; in other words, if we place near each other all those which have com- mon and similar characters, we form orders pro- perly so called, if regard is had only to a single character, such as the number of the stigmas, the form of the fruit, &¢.; and natural families or orders, if we include all the considerations that relate to the form, the structure, and the relative disposition of all the organs of the plants which we are arranging. SYSTEMS OF BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION. By a natural order or family of plants must therefore be meant a series or assemblage of genera, which all present the same characters in the organs of fructification. Thus the family of crucifere is characterized by a dicotyledonous embryo, a siliquose or sili- culose fruit, usually four petals opposed to each other in pairs, stamina in determinate number, &c, All the genera of that family must present the same characters, but only with some slight modifications, which do not alter the primitive type, but afford distinctive characters for the genera which collectively constitute the family in question. By following a course like this, botanists have brought together the various species of plants, so as to form them into groups or natural fami- lies. But as these families are numerous, it was necessary to distribute them into classes, in which regard should be had to the same resemblance and affinity. It is to this classification of the families that the name of Jussieuw’s Method, or the system of natural families, has been given. This system has been divided into fifteen classes. The primary divisions are derived from the characters which may be obtained from the presence or absence of the embryo; whence the embryonate and inembryonate plants. The embryonate plants are distinguished ac- cording to the number of their cotyledons: 1st, Into monocotyledonous; 2dly, Into dicotyledo- nous. All vegetables are arranged under these three primary divisions: acotyledones, monocoty- ledones, dicotyledones. The second consideration, or that by which the classes properly so called are established, is founded upon the relative insertion of the sta- mina, or of the staminiferous monopetalous co- rolla. Now, we have seen that there are three kinds of insertion: 1. The hypogynous insertion, or that in which the ovary being entirely free, the stamina or the staminiferous corolla are inserted close around its base. 2. The perigynous insertion, or that in which the ovary being free or parietal, the stamina or the staminiferous monopetalous corolla are in- serted into the calyx at a certain distance from the circumference of the base of the ovary. 3. The epigynous insertion, or that in which the ovary is always inferior, and in which the stamina or the staminiferous corolla are inserted upon the upper part of the ovary. These three kinds of insertion serve to estab- lish an equal number of classes. The acotyledones being destitute of embryos, and consequently of flowers and fruits, could not be brought under this division, but constitute the first class. The monocotyledones, possessing these three modes of insertion, have been divided into three 183 classes: 1. Monocotyledones, with hypogynous stamina; 2. Monocotyledones, with perigynous stamina; 8. Monocotyledones, with epigynous stamina. The acotyledones and monocotyledones, there- fore, form four classes, thus: Acotyledones, . . . ‘ Class I. stamina hypogynous, Class II. Monocotyledones, < stamina perigynous, Class ITT. stamina epigynous, Class IV. The dicotyledones being much more numer- ous than the acotyledones and monocotyledones together, it was necessary to increase the num- ber of their divisions. Here the insertion, al- though still attended to, becomes,a secondary character. Thus it has been observed, that these plants are destitute of a corolla or are apetalous, or that they have a staminiferous monopetalous corolla, or that their corolla is polypetalous. These distinctions have given rise to the three first divisions that have been established among the dicotyledones, namely: 1, Apetalous dicotyledones. 2. Monopetalous dicotyledones. 3. Polypetalous dicotyledones. The insertion has been employed as a second- ary character for subdividing these three sections into classes. ‘Thus the apetale form three classes, in which the insertion is epigynous, perigynous, and hypogynous. The monopetale, of which the corolla always bears the stamina, in like manner form three classes, according as their staminiferous corolla is hypogynous, perigynous, or epigynous. The last, or epigynous class of the monopetale, has been further subdivided, according as the stamina are free or connected by their anthers, which carries the number of classes in the monopetalous corollas to four, namely : Class I. stamina hypogynous, Monopetalee, = perigynous, Class II. a : anthers united, Class III. stamina epig: ynous } Class IV. anthers free. These four classes, together with the three classes of the apetalous dicotyledones, and the four classes of the monocotyledones and acotyle- dones, form eleven. The polypetale have, in like manner, been di- vided into three classes, according to their mode of insertion, which is epigynous, perigynous, or hypogynous. Lastly, in the fifteenth or last class, are placed all the dicotyledonous plants, whose flowers are essentially unisexual, and separated upon distinct, individuals. They have been named irregular diclinous plants. Such are the fifteen classes which M. Jussieu established in the vegetable kingdom, for the purpose of methodically arranging the different 184 families of plants, which he had previously formed. Each of these classes contains a greater or less number of natural families, all connected by the common character which constitutes the class. The number of these families is not definitively settled, and indeed cannot be so, as new discoy- cries, and more accurate observations, by making known new objects, or demonstrating the differ- ences which exist between plants previously as- sociated and confounded, continually augment the number of families. When M. de Jussieu published his Genera Plantarum, in 1789, he described 100 families. We have now upwards of 160, and the number is still capable of being increased. We have thus exhibited a view of the three great systems of botanical arrangement, and in such detail as will enable the student of bo- tany to perceive the relative merits of each. Undoubtedly the Linnean system is best suited for a catalogue or dictionary, by which the spe- cies and families of plants may be recognised and classified; and for this purpose the system of Linneus must be familiar to the botanist, and will ever hold its ground as an admirable con- trivance to facilitate his progress. In the follow- ing pages, however, which are intended to con- vey to the general reader a popular view of the vegetable kingdom, more especially the practical and economical history of plants, the natural method or system of Jussieu will be adhered to, in so far as he has portioned out the vegetable kingdom into three great divisions, commencing with plants of the simplest structure, especially as regards their fructification, and ascending to those of a more complicated nature. But al- though we adopt this arrangement so far, we shall deviate in some measure in the subdivisions, and not follow exactly the order of the families instituted by Jussieu; on the contrary, we shall rather arrange the plants of each division as they furnish food, clothing, or other conveniences, to man, keeping as close, however, to the arrange- ment of natural families of plants as is consistent with our plan. CHAP. XXIV. FIRST DIVISION OF PLANTS, INCLUDING THE ALG, FUNGI, LICHENS, MOSSES, AND TERNS, Tue First Diviston of the vegetable kingdom, including the acotyledones, or those plants desti- tute of a seed lobe, corresponds to the class eryp- togamia of Linneus. It contains all those plants which are destitute of true organs of generation, and which are reproduced by means of small sporules, in their structure and development HiSTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. more resembling the bulbs of some of the true flowering plants than that of ordinary seeds, Lin- neus called those plants cryptogamia, because he imagined their fecundation to be effected by means of organs which were concealed or little known. De Candolle, remarking that only one vegetable structure entered into their composi- tion, names them cellular plants, in opposition to the term vascular, which he gives to flowering plants. The plants of this division have a simpler struc- ture than that of the phanerogamous or flowering plants. Many of them have not the distinction of root, stem, branches, and leaves, but consist simply of one mass of a uniform shape and tex- ture throughout. The division contains the families of algw, or sea weeds, fungi, or mush- rooms, lichens, mosses, and ferns. Atcx. Little interest, comparatively, has been taken in the alge, because they have been found less conducive, either as articles of use or beauty, to the convenience of man. They are not, how- ever, without their admirers; nor is the investi- gation of their form and structure devoid of that interest which all the works of nature are cal- culated to excite. We find, says Dr Greville, the vegetation of the ocean no less conspicuous for beauty and variety of form than splendour of colour, admirably fitted for the place it is de- signed to occupy, and of direct utility to man- kind. Viewing these tribes in the most careless way, as a system of subaqueous vegetation, or even in a merely picturesque light, we see the depths of ocean shadowed with submarine groves, often of vast extent, intermixed with meadows as it were of the most lively hues, while the trunks of the larger species, like the giant trees of the tropics, are loaded with innumerable mi- nute kinds as fine as silk, and delicate as the most transparent membrane. Nor must we for- get that while thousands and tens of thousands of quadrupeds, birds, and insects, depend upon the vegetation immediately surrounding us for their very existence, a countless host of creatures derive protection and nourishment from the plants of the deep, appropriated to their use by that merciful Power in whom they live, move, and have their being, whose goodness is over all his works. Some of the alge, placed, on account of the simplicity of their structure, at the bot- tom of the scale, are so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, except by the appearance they give to other species on which they happen to be parasitic in prodigious numbers. From these microscopic forms, alge are found of all sizes on our shores, up to thirty or forty feet in length, an extent to which a common sea weed, like a rope or cord (chorda filum) not unfrequently attains. This plant resembles an enormous piece of catgut, and is in fact known by the name of sea catgut in Orkney, while in Shetland it goes FIRST DIVISION OF PLANTS. by the name of Lucky Minny’s lines, and in Eng- land of sea dace, see cut, fig.a. Lightfoot mentions a. Sea Catgut, chorda filum; b. Himanthalia Lorea. that the fronds, skinned when half dry and twisted, acquire so considerable a degree of strength and toughness, that the highlanders sometimes use them for fishing lines. In Scalpa bay, near Kirkwall in Orkney, says Dr Neill, we have sailed through meadows of it in a pinnace not without some difficulty, where the water was between three and four fathoms deep, and where of course the waving weeds must at least have been from twenty to thirty feet long. The various species of sea tangle, as laminaria digi- tata and bulbosa, are more robust, the former having a stalk as thick and as long as a stout walking stick, and a large flat many-cleft frond at the summit. It is a social species, grows erect in the water, and reminds the spectator of a palm-like tropical forest. The Z. bulbosa has sometimes so large a head that a single plant is as much as aman can carry. It isin the south- ern hemisphere, however, that we must look for the most wonderful examples of marine vegeta- tion. The lessonia fuscescens, described by Borey de St Vincent, is twenty-five or thirty feet high, and has a trunk often as thick as a man’s thigh, which divides into numerous branches, each terminated by a lanceolated frond. The laminaria buccinalis of the Cape of Good Hope is much larger than our common tangle, and is furnished with a hollow stem, which the natives convert into a kind of horn, whence it has acquired the name of trumpet weed. The Fucus giganteus of Solander, or kelp, as it grows on the shores of Terra del Fuego, is thus de- scribed by Mr Darwin: “This plant grows on every rock from low water to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the channel. I believe, during the voyages of the Adventurer 185 and Beagle, not one rock near the surface wag discovered which was not buoyed up by this floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels navigating near this stormy land is evident, and it certainly has saved many a one from being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than to see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers of the western ocean, which no.mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, can long resist. The stem is round, shining, and smooth, and seldom has a diameter of so much as aninch. A few taken together are sufficiently strong to support the weight of the large loose stones to which, in the inland channels, they grow attached ; and some of these stones are so heavy, that when drawn to the sur- face they can scarcely be lifted into a boat by one person.” Captain Cook, in his second voy- age, says, that at Kirguelen land some of this weed is of a most enormous length, though the stem is not much thicker than a man’s thumb. I have mentioned that on some of the shoals upon which it grows we did not strike ground with a line of twenty-four fathoms. The depth of water, therefore, must have been greater; and as this weed does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but makes a very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, lam well war- ranted to say, that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms and upwards. Certainly, at the Falkland islands, and about Terra del Fuego, extensive beds frequently spring up from ten and fifteen fathom water. I do not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so great a length as 360 feet, as thus stated by Captain Cook. Its geographical range is very considerable. It is found from the extreme southern islets, near Cape Horn, as far north on the eastern coast as latitude 43°, and on the western it was tolerably abundant, but far from luxuriant at Chiloe in latitude 42°; thus having a range of 15° of lati- tude. The number of living creatures of all or- ders whose existence intimately depends on the kelp is wonderful. I can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical re- gions. Yet if the latter should be destroyed in any country, I do not believe nearly so many species of animals would perish as under similar circumstances would happen with the kelp. In- dependent of the numerous zoophytes, amidst the leaves of this plant many species of fish live which no where else would find food or shelter. With their destruction the many cormorants, divers, and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, would redouble his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to exist. 2a 186 The Jongest, perhaps of all known alge, though at the same time comparatively slender, are the macrocystes. This appears to be the sea weed reported by navigators to be from 500 to 1500 feet in length. The leaves are long and narrow, and at the base of each is placed a vesicle filled with air, without which it would be impossible for the plant to support its enormous length in the water, the stem being not thicker than the finger, and the upper branches as slender as pack thread. All those alge destined to resist the force and agitation of stormy seas, have roots pe- culiarly adapted to take the firmest hold of the rocks, which they grapple by means of tough and thick fibres. Other species of shorter dura- tion, or presenting less surface to be acted on by the waves, are generally fixed by asimple shield- like base or disk. Man, who has been humorously defined to be a cooking animal, not content with the tribute of fish rendered to him by the ocean, converts many of her vegetable productions into articles of diet. The dulse of the Scotch (rhodomenia palmata), dillesh of the Irish, and saccharine fucus of the Icelanders, is consumed in consider- able quantities throughout the maritime coun- tries of the north of Europe, and in the Grecian Archipelago. Another species, nearly similar, the iridea edulis, is still occasionally used both in Scotland and England. The thin purple and green membranous slake, or laver (porphyra la- ciniata_), is stewed, and brought to our tables as aluxury. The pepper dulse (laurentia pinna- téfida_), distinguished for its pungent taste, and the young stalks of the sea tangle, were of old often eaten in Scotland; and even yet, though rarely, the old cry, “ Buy dulse and tangle,” may be heard in the streets of Edinburgh. When stripped of the thin part, the beautiful tangle, called in Scotland badderlocks (alaria esculenta), forms a part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland and Scotland, Iceland, Den- mark, and the Faroe islands. The Lrish moss, as it is erroneously called, the chondrus crispus, very common on the Scottish and Irish coast, may, by boiling, be converted into a tenacious glue, or, boiled with milk and sugar, and al- lowed to cool, it forms a light and nutritious blane-mange. To go farther from home, we find the large sea tangle, laminaria potatorum, of Australia fur- nishing the aborigines with a proportion of their instruments, vessels, and food, while other spe- cies of the same family constitute an equally im- portant resource to the poor on the west coast of South America. In Asia several species of gele- dium ave made use of to render more palatable the hot and biting condiments of the East. Some undetermined species of this family also furnish the materials of which the celebrated edible swal- lows’ nests are composed. It is remarked by HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Lamouroux, that three species of swallows con- struct edible nests, two of which build at a dis- tance from the sea coast, and use the sea weed only as a cement for other matters. The nests of the third are consequently most esteemed, and they sell for nearly their weight in gold. Gra- celaria achenoides is highly valued for food in Ceylon and other parts of the coast, and bears a great resemblance to gracelarta compressa, a spe- cies recently discovered on the British coast, and which seems to be little inferior to it. It is not to man alone that these marine vege- tables have furnished luxuries or resources in times of scarcity. Several species are greedily sought after by cattle, especially in the north of Europe. One species, rhodomenia palnata, is so great a favourite with sheep and goats, that Bishop Gunner named it fucus ovinus. In some of the Scottish islands horses, cattle, and sheep, feed principally on bladder fucus during the winter months; and in Gcthland it is commonly given to pigs: other common species constitute a part of the fodder upon which the cattle are supported in Norway. The alge are also of service in medicine. The Corsican moss, as it is frequently called, is a na- tive of the Mediterranean, and was at one time esteemed asa vermifuge. The most important medical use, however, derived from sea weeds, is their affording iodine, which may be obtained either from the plants directly, or after they have been converted into kelp. French kelp, according to Sir H. Davy, yields more iodine than British; and from some recent experiments made at the Cape of Good Hope, laminaria buccinalis is found to contain more than any European alge. Iodine is known to bea power- ful remedy in glandular swellings of a scrofu- lous nature, as also in cases of gottre, or swelling of the glands of the neck. The burnt sponge formerly administered in similar cases, most probably owed its efficacy to the iodine it con- tained; and it is also a very curious fact, that the stems of a sea weed are sold in the shops and chewed by the inhabitants of South America wherever goitre is prevalent, for the purpose of cure. This remedy is termed by them polo coto, literally goitre stick. The alge are also of essential service in the arts, and probably farther experience will daily render them more so. A Chinese sea weed, the fucus tenax, is extensively used by that people as a glue and varnish. Though a small plant, the quantity annually imported at Canton from the provinces of Fokien and Tchekiang is stated hy Mr Turner to be about 27,000 Ibs. It is sold at Canton for 6d. or 8d. per lb.; and is used for all those purposes for which we apply glue and gum Arabic. The Chinese employ it chiefly in the manufacture of lanthrons, to strengthen or varnish the paper; and sometime to thicken or FIRST DIVISION OF PLANTS. give a gloss to gauze or silk. It seems probable also that this is the principal ingredient in the celebrated gummy matter called chin-chou, or hai-tsai, in China and Japan. Windows made merely of slips of bamboo crossed diagonally, have frequently thin lozen-shaped interstices, wholly filled with this transparent gluten. But it isin the manufacture of kelp, for the use of the glass maker and soap boiler, that the alge take their place among the most useful vegeta- bles. Almost all the common sea weeds may be used for the manufacture of this substance; but the most valued for this purpose are the fuci, generally known under the name of blad- der kelp. The fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and serratus. a Fuca vesiculosus; 4. Laminaria. The different kinds of sea tangle are the Jam- inaria digitata, and bulbosa, himanthalia lorea, and chorda filum, The manufacture of kelp is an exceedingly simple process. The sea weed is cut from the rocks, and allowed to dry partially by spreading it on the beach. It is then taken to a simple kiln formed by a hole dug a few feet in the sand, and surrounded with rude stones, and ig- nited; as the dry sea weed gradually consumes, more is added, until ‘the bottom of the kiln is filled with the ashes or kelp, which is a dark brown fursed-like substance of a half glassy as- pect, consisting of soda mixed with many im- purities. This manufacture was introduced into Scotland and its islands nearly half a century after it had been established in France and England. The first cargo exported from Orkney was in the year 1722. The employment, how- ever, being new to the inhabitants, the country people opposed it with the utmost vehemence. Their forefathers had never thought of making kelp, and it would appear that they themselves had no wish to render their posterity wiser in this matter. So unanimous and violent was the resistance, that officers of justice were found necessary to protect the individuals employed in the work; and several trials were the conse- quence of those outrages. It was gravely pleaded in a court of law, on the part of the defendants, that the suffocating smoke that issued from the 187 kelp kilns would sicken or kill every species of fish on the coast, or drive them into the ocean far beyond the reach of the fishermen; blast the corn and grass on their farms; introduce diseases of various kinds; and smite with barrenness their sheep, horses, and cattle, and even their own families,—a striking instance of the gross preju- dice, indolence, and superstition of the simple people of Orkney in those days. The influen- tial individuals who had commenced the manu- facture, succeeded at last in establishing it; and the benefits which accrued to the community soon wrought a change in the public feeling. The value of estates possessing a sea coast well stocked with sea weed, rose so much in value, that where the plants did not grow naturally, attempts were made, and not without success, to cultivate them by covering the sandy bays with large stones. By this method a crop of sea weed has been obtained in about three years, the sea appearing to abound every where with the necessary seeds. During the years 1790 to 1800, the annual quantity sometimes made was 3000 tons; and as the price was then from £9 to £10 per ton, the manufacture brought into the place nearly £30,000 Sterling in one season. During the eighty years subsequent to its intro- duction, the total value amounted to £595,000 .| Sterling. Thus in the space of eighty years the proprietors of those islands, whose land rent did not exceed £8000 a year, had, together with their tenants and servants, received in addition to their incomes the enormous sum of more than half a million. In the Hebrides also, kelp is extensively manufactured. “The inhabitants of Canna,” says Dr E, D, Clarkein 1797, “like those of the neighbouring islands, are chiefly occupied in the manufacture of kelp; cattle and kelp constitute, in fact, the chief objects of commerce with them. The first toast usually given on all festive occa- sions is ahigh price to kelp and cattle. In this every islander is interested, and it is always drank with evident symptoms of sincerity. The discovery of manufacturing kelp has affected a great change among the people, whether for their advantage or not, is a question not yet decided. I was informed in Canna that, if kelps keep its present price, Macdonald of Clanronald will make £6,000 Sterling, and Lord Macdonald no less than £10,000.” During the course of the late war kelp rose to £18, £20, and even £22 per ton, in consequence of the interruption to the impor- tation of barilla, and the profits upon it dur- ing that period were enormous. The price has subsequently fallen by degrees to £5 per ton, and the sale has latterly been heavy even at that rate. This was to be attributed at first to the superior qualities of the Spanish Jardl/a, for the purposes of glass making and soap boiling; but more recently to the almost entire removal of {88 the duty on muriate of soda or common salt. The rock salt of Cheshire, which now bears an insignificant price, is submitted to a chemical process, by means of which the soda is separated from the muriatic acid; and this is found to answer so completely as a substitute for kelp, that the great glass manufacturers of Newcastle are sup- plied with soda thus prepared. So pernicious, however, are the fumes of the muriatic acid gas which issue from the soda works, that vegetation is destroyed to a considerable distance; and the proprietors have been compelled to purchase the ground in the immediate neighbourhood. The number of people that find occupation in the manufacture of kelp is so great, that a per- manent interruption to the trade would be a serious evil. In the Orkney islands alone, the number of hands employed a few years ago amounted to probably 20,000; for all the rural population is more or less employed in the busi- ness during the kelp season. Such being the case, it is gratifying to find that the Highland society have instituted inquiries regarding the qualities of kelpas a manure. It has long been known that common sea ware is extremely val- uable for that purpose; and if the success which has attended the experiments already made with kelp, be confirmed by additional observation, the manufacture may still be regarded as an im- portant article of domestic commerce. It appears from communications made to the highland society, that the past success has been such as to induce Lord Dundas to take a cargo of fifty tons of kelp to Yorkshire, for the sole purpose of agricultural experiments. It has been tried as a top dressing, and singly, or in combination with other manures, on corn, pas- ture, potatoes, turnips, &c., and in most instances with decided good effect. The committee ap- pointed to collect the result of the experiments, are inclined to think that, for raising green crops it would be better to compost it with other sub- stances; that with good earth or moss, and a little vegetable or animal manure, a few tons of kelp would enable a farmer to extend his farm dung over at least four times the usual quantity of land. A very curious circumstance is mentioned by Mr M‘Intosh, who tried the effects of kelp manure on potatoes, at Crossbasket near Glas- gow. . In the names of apples there is the same corruption, as Runnet for Retnette. The names of fruits in all countries occasionally present some Janghable anomalies, such as the “ Bon-Chrétion Ture,’ one of the finest of the French pears. The Chines», who are said to carry the culti- vation of fruit to much greater perfection than the European gardeners, are stated by Marco Polo to have pears, white in the inside, melting, and with a fragrant smell, of the enormous weight of ten pounds cach. The wood of the pear is much firmer than that of the apple, and it is much less liable to be attacked by insects, or to decay. In some of the old orchards, where the apple trees have wholly disappeared, the pears are in full vigour, and bear abundantly. This is remarkably the case at the old Abbey garden at Lindores, on the south bank of the Tay, in the county of Fife: disease could have nothing to do with the death of the apple trees there, as the soil is one of tho very best for apples in the kingdom, Icing fine strong black loam to a great depth. Yet there are many old apple trees in the kingdom. At lforton, in| Buckinghamshire, where Milton spent some of his earlicr years, there is an apple tree still growing, of which the oldest people re- member to have heard it said that the poet was accustomed to sit under it. And upon the low leads of the church at Rumsey, in Iampshire, there is an apple tree still bearing fruit, which is said to be two hundred years old. The fruit catalogue of the Uortieultural So- ciety contains above six hundred varieties of the pear; and it is there observed, that “the newly introduced Flemish kinds, are cf much more importance than the greater part of the sorts which have been hitherto cultivated in Great Britain, and when brought into use will give quite a new feature to the dessert.” Good pears are a luscious fruit. They are characterised by a saccharine aromatic juice, a soft and pearly liquid pulp melting in the mouth, as in the leurrés or butter pear; or a firm and crisp consistence, as in the winter bergamots. Kitchen pears should be of a large size, with the flesh firm, neither brittle nor melting, and rather austere than sweet, as the wardens. Pears for the manufacture of perry, may be cither large or small, but the more austere the taste the better will be the liquor. The wild pear produces an excellent perry. THE QUINCE, The best sorts of pear where the space is lim- ited, or for the cottage garden, are: The jargon- elle, Marie Louise, beurre de capiaumont, beurre diel, glout morgeau, easter Leurré, and beurré rance. With the exception of the jargonelle, all these sorts are hardy enough without a wall; but when this can be obtained, the best fruit will be produced. The propagation of the pear may be accom- plished by seeds, by layerg, or suckers, but not easily by cuttings: the most approved way is raising seedlings, or grafting and budding. The same principles of selection of seed, and crossing by means of the pollen of different sorts, are applicable to the pear as to the apple. Seedling pears, however, do not so soon bear as apples. At Brussels, according to Neill, scedling pears bear fruit in four or five years; whereas in Bri- tain they seldom bear before the seventh or eighth year, The fruit of the first year of bearing is Always inferior to that of the second or third years. Ifa pear or an apple possesses a white and heavy pulp, with juice of rather pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in size and flavour. New varieties of pears, and indeed of all fruits, are more likely to be obtained from the seeds of new than of old sorts. In grafting the pear, the most common stocks are the common pear and wilding; but as the apple is dwarfed, and brought more early into a bearing state by grafting on the paraden or creeper, so is the pear by grafting on the quince or white-thorn. The pear will also succeed very well on the white beam, medlar, service, or apple; but the wilding and quince are in most general use. On the thorn, pears come very early into bearing, continue prolific, and, in respect of soil, will thrive well on a strong clay. its Varieties, 435—its general Usefulness,—436— Thickness of the Tree, ib—Flowering Ash, ib—White Ash, ib.— Black Ash, 437—Red Ash, ib. —Blue ‘Ash, ib. 1— Carolinian Ash, . A ay Ashes, 154 Asia, Products of, 165, 166 Asparagineze, 202 Asparagus, 304—Cultiyation of, 305 444 Aster ophyllites, : 653, 661 Asters, 589—Varieties, 589 Astragalus Tragacantha and Verus, f 557, 558 Atmosphere, its Effect on Flowers, e 74 Atriplices, 613 Attar, or Oil of Roses, 537 ‘Aurantiaceze, 347, 633 Auricula, 581—When intro- duced into England, ib.—Vast varicty, ib.—Tests of Quality. Propagation, Seeds of, Metho ad of Culture, . 582, 583 Avena Sativa (Oats), » 218 Azalea, 606—Indica, 389 Badderlochs, a sea-tangle, 186, sa Bag, Baking, Process of Baking Wheat-flour, 211, Be Balanophores, Balm, 165, 493, B28 Balsam, 149, 166, 590—its varie- ties, how cultivated, 590 Balsam of Gilead, 560, 561 of Judaicum, 561—of Mecca, ib.—of Tolu, 150, 563 —of Copaiva, 564—of Peru, 150, 564—Poplar, 444 Balsaminez, 629 Banana, 260 Fruit preserved, rae 169—Deseription of the Bany an Tree, 166, 477—its im- 4 mense magnitude, 78 Baobab Tree, Roots of, 13 Barbadoes Cotton, 408 Barbarea Preecon, . 300 _ Vulgaris, 300 Barbary, manner of entertain- ment in, : 247 Barberry, 346 Bark of Lime 442 Barley, Arm of, 98—Observa- tions on, 125— Geographical distribution of, 161, Spring Barley, ib. Winter or Square Barley, called also Bear or Bigg, 2]5—Long-ear- ed Barley, ib.—Produce of Barley, 216—chiefly used in this country for Brewing and Distilling, ib.—Process of Malting Barley, 217 Barringtonice, 643 Base, 70 Basil, 493 Beaded Vessels. their ‘structure, 8 Bean, 313—where cultivated, ib.—Cultivation of, 314— Kidney, 314 Bear or Bigg, (Winter or square Barley,) 215 Be earberry or Arbutus, 530 Bechira, 653 Beech, a native of. Britain, 161, 433—its Structure and Varie- ty, 433—Purple Beech, Com- mon Beech, White Beech, Red Beech, 434—Renring of the Beech, Beech Nuts, their Oil, : ‘ z 435 Beet, 80]—Nutritive qualitics of, ib—White Bect, ib— Sugar manufactured from, 302—History of, 302 Bell Flower, 587—its Varietics and Cultivation, ‘ Belladona, 55] Page | 168 INDEX. Benzoin or Benjamin T ees 149, Berberidez, . Berberis Vulgaris, Berberry, f Bergmann, . Berlin Academy’ 3 Prize Ques- tion, Somat Cedar Wood, iS} Berries French or Avi gnon ,used as a dye, Bertholletia Execlsn, Beta Cicla, Betula, Betulines, Biennial Roots, Big Laurel, 45)—remarkable for majesty of form, Bigg or Bear, sine or ee ‘ 2 Barley,) Bignoniaceze Bilberry, : 161, Birch, 410—Common Birch, Canoe Birch, Black Birch, ib. Weeping Birch, Alder, 441— other Varieties, Birth Wort, Snake Root, "536— the Long- ’Rooted Birth Wort, Bizarre Carnation, Tulip, Black Ash, Poplar, Blaeberry, Blastus, ri Bligh, Lieutenant, commanded the Bounty, Blight, 128—kinds of, Blighia Sapida, pie, Flower, Bloom, Blossoms, Blue Ash, ¥ Cardinal Flower, Mould on Bread, &e., structure, Boabob, Boards, Bogs, é Bohea, Bombacee, Bombyx Ceevaleocephalus, Bonnet, Bonnet and Haller, Boraginee, Borassus Sechellensis, Borecole, F Boring the Trunks of Trees, Botany, Derivation of the Name, 1—its Several Divisions, ib.— History of Botanical Science, ib.—Solomon’s ‘Treatise on Vegetables, 2—Writings of the Greeks, ib.—the Grecian Rhizotome devoted them- selves to Medical Botany, ib.— its 309, ; rao 627 346 60) 112 also the Pharmacopole, ib.— * Aristotle First Founder of Bo- tanical Science, ib.—Romans direct attention to Botany, ib. a number of Plants named by Virgil, ib.—Dioscorides and Pliny, ib.—Arabians studied Medicinal Plants, 3—Europe received its first inewtedea from them, ib.— Germans cul- tivate the Science,ib.— — Gesner attempts a Classification of Plants, ib. —Botanical Science extended by the Microscope, ib.—Grew’s Anatomy of Plants, ib.—Various Obser- vers, ib.—Kay establishes the Page Sexes of Plants, ib —Linnaus introduces Order into the Sci- ence, ib.—it is extended by Jussieu, Decandolle, and others, ib.—Systems of Bota- nical Classification, F 171 Botany, Fossil, » Bae _— Resin, ‘ 148 Bothredendron Punctatum, 659 Bounty, the, fitted out, 372— the Voyage of, 372, 373—Mu- tiny on Board, 373 Box, 455—Uses to which appli . Bol 545 : - Jil Sone es . 653 Bradley, 85 Bramble, 337—Localities of, 337 - Arctic, ib. _ Dark Crimson, | ib. Branched Stem, 20 Branches, their Manner of In- crease and Peculiarities, 25, 26 Brassica Oleracea Capitata, 295 —Rubra, ib.—Sabauda, ib. 296—Sabellica, ib. —Botry tis, ib. 298—Rapa, 292, 299 Brazilletto, 498 Brazilwood, 497 Bread. Account of the differ- ent kinds of Bread used in England in ancient and mo- dern times, og, Bread Fruit’ Tree, 170, 371— Productiveness of, 373Tim- ber of, ib History of, Brewing. Account of the Pro- cess of Malting and Brewing Barley, 217, 218 Britain, Vegetation of, 170, 71 Pa Oak, Common, 421—its - 422 Brocglt. ‘o96, 298—Varieties of, 208 Bromeli, 365—Various specics, 306 — Pinguin, ib. — Karata, ib. -— Ananas, : ib, Bromeliacez, . 202 Brown, a 86 Brumiacez, 640 Brussels Sprouts, 296 Brydone’s Description of the Etna Chestnut, 384 Bubonion, Gum of the Galba- Huy. 4 565 Buck Bean, or Water ‘ Trefoil, 525 Bucklandia, ie 654 Buckthorn, 540 Bu ck-wheat, 319—Cultivation of, 3820—Used for Various Purposes, 320 Buds, their Nature and Varie- ties, 36—at certain times called Lyes,ib.—cither Naked or Sealy, ib.—Buds variously named, ib.—-Turio, or Subter- ranean Bud, ib.—Bulb, ib.— its Tubercle, ib.—Coated or Tunicated Bulbs, 37—Simple or Multiple, ib.—Bulbils, ib. —Uses of Buds and Bulbs, 37 Bugloss or Alkanet, 513 Bulb, 36—its Tubercle, ib.— Coated or Tunicated, 37— Simple or Multiple, ib. - Uses of, . 37 Bulbils, their Variety, . ib, Bulbous Roots, ‘ 15 Bulbous rooted Iris, « 576 Bunium bubocastanum, 285 Burchel the Tray ie Ancedote of, ‘ 330 Burseracer, —, ‘ Page | Bi 630 Bybloemen Tulip, Byttneriacez, . . Cabbage, 295—Varieties of, ib. When introduced, 296—Used in“ kale brose,’ ib. ’—How pro- papated, 297—White Cab- age, 295—Red penbeae: 295 Cabbage Cow, . 297 Cabbage Palm, . 262 Cabbage tree Worms, ib. Cabomber, . 202 Cacao, 396--Cacao Seeds used for Money, 397—Cacao cakes, method of preparing, 397 Cactus family, 168, 363—Cochi- nellifera, 365—Flagelliformis, 364—Grandiflorus, ib.—Melo- cactus, 363—the Night- flowering, 364—Opuntia, ib. 115—Peruvianus, Roots of, 16 —Repandus, 364—Triangu- laris,ib—Tuna, -. 365 Caducous Leaves, 38 Cesalpinus, an early Botanist, 172 Caffea Arabica, 92 Cajeput Tree, . 489 Calamites, 655, 660—Mungeotii, 661 Caleeolaria, 593—its be F how treated, 7 93 Calendar of Flora, 126 Calycereze, 623 Calyx, 12, 66 Cambium, 23 Camellia, 602 2—Varieties, meth- od of raising, 602, 604 4—Ja- ponica, 602—Sasanqua, 389 Camomile, Common, 526— Spanish Camomile, or Pelli- tory, : . « 526 Campanulacere, 3 622 Camphor, . 127, 150, 170 Camphor Tree, $ 484 Cam-wood, . . - 498 Canary Birds, 673 Cane, Indian, account of the, 239 Canella,, W hite; a 529 Cannophyllites, 654 Canoe Birch, 440 Canterbury Bells, 588 Canticle, 04 Caoutchoue, 150, 170, 505—Fur- nished by various trees, 536 — When introduced into En- rope, ib.—How obtained and Prepared, ib.—Qualities and Uses, é « 806 Caper Plant, | 491 Capillary Roots, é BS 15 Capparride, : 636 Caprifoliacez, ‘ » 625 Capsicum Plant, 490 Capsule z 95 Caraway, 291 Caraway Plant, | 489 Carbon, Effects of, 121—Car- bonie Acid on Plants, 122— Carbon, Hassinfratz on, ib.— Carbonic Acid, Thomson on, ib.—Carbonic Acid Gas, 113 Carbonie Oxide, % » 116 Cardamon Plant, 489 Cardinal Flower, « - 587 Cardiocarpum, . ‘i 656 Carex, » ‘ 88 Carica Papaya, 379 Carium Carui, 291 Carl, 280 Carmine Peziza, i Fungus, 196 Carnation, 583—indigenous to Britain, its Varieties, most esteemed flowers, Tests of Quality, 683, 584—Varions INDEX. Page Colours, Propagation, and Method of Culture, 584, 585 Carnauba Palm, : - 262 Carob Tree, ‘i 5 386 Carolinian Ash, 437 Carpinus, 652 Carpolithes, 656 Carrot, 285—Called Staphylinos by the Greeks, 286—Intro- duced into England by the Flemings, ib.—The Leaves of, used as an ornament for ladies’ head-dresses, ib.— Varietics of, ib.—Soil for, ib. —Best Mode of Cultivating, 286, 287—Preservation _ of, during winter, 267—Seed to Procure, ib—Attacked by Grubs, &c., ib.—Used in Cookery, ib. 2 Nutritive qua- lities of, ib.— Used as a Medi- cine for Horses, ib.—Opinions respecting its Nutritive Pro- perties, 288—Sugar attempted to be made from, 288 Caryophyllee, ‘i - 638 Caryota Uren, $ 241,249 Cashew, . ‘ s 387 Cassava, 283 Cassia, or Bastard Cinnamon, C P a an assia, Purging, . 5 Gases, 310,646 Castaneae, 652 319 Castanos Un Australe, GHatOE 648 — Castor Oil Plan 54] Gia extract, 140—Catechu, 531 Catkin, 73 Caulifiow et, 596, 398—brought from Cyprus, 298—supplied from England to the conti- nent, ib.—method of preserv- ing, . Cauline Leaf, 39 Caulinites, 654 Caulopteris, ve Cayanne Pepper, Cedar of Lebanon, 83, 165, in, fre 167 Ceuar, Ked, . Cedrelez, 634 Celastrinez, 6417 Celery, 290 Cellular Tissue, 6, 7—its varie- ties, 6— Malpigh?’ 's opinion of, 6— confirmed by Sprengel, é —investigated by Dutrochet and Amici, 6 — Medullary rays, 7—the Lacunsz, 7—use of the Cellular sidan 7 Celtidee, . 648 Centaury, 525 Central System of Stems, - 80 Ceratonia Siliqua, 886 Cerealia,orCorn Plants,descrip- tion of the, 203—different countries where cultivated, 204, 208 Cereus, Creeping, , 168 Ceroxylon Andicola, 263 Chalaza, Internal, 102 Chalcedonia, 576 Chamelauciex, 643 Chameerops Humilis, .- 259 Champadak, fi 371 Chara, F 656 Characex, . . 201 Charcoal, » 162 Chemical Action of Leaves, 41 Chenopodium, Bonus Henricus, 303 Cherimoyer, . 375 Cherry, 165, 334— Localities of, ib.—History of, ib. —Liquors 709 Page manufactured from, 335— Varieties of, A 335 Cherry, Chinese, «ib. Cherry, Bird, ib. Chervil, 291 Chestnut Plant, 87, 14 383 —where native of, 383—de- scribed by Brydone, 384— Chestnut Trees in England, ib.—Durability of, compared with Oak, ib., 385—Mode of Propagatin A . -« 385 Chestnut Bem a 319 — Oak, 429 —, Sp anish, 164,165 Chick Pea 315—used By tra- vellers, 315 Chicory, 308 China, Products of, 166 China Aster, 58S China Grass, 420 Chinese Chrysanthemum, 588 — Date-Plum, . » 371 — Hemp, . . 420 Chive, ©. . . 267 Chlenacee, 631 Chocolate, . 396 Chrysanthemum, 166, 588—its varieties and ‘their Cultiva- tion, . 88,599 Chrysobalaner, * 828,645 Chrysophyllum Cainito, . 375 Cicer Arietinum, , . 315 — Frictum, ‘ ib. Cichoraces, . j « 623 Cichorium Intybus, 308 Cider, 323—Manufactory of, 825 Cinnamomum, - 652 Cinnamon, "V0 Cinnamon Tree, 482—Bastard Cinna- mon, . ‘ 7 483 Cisteze, . . 637 Citric Acid, 349 Citron Family, 347, : 353—Citrus, how propagated, 354 — Acida, 353—Aurantium, 348 —Limonum, 353—Mcdiea, 353 Citysus, . 318 Clary, 493 Claspers, a 45 Classification, Systems of Bo- tanical, =. 17) Clathropteris, i 655 Clathraria, 654 Clematis Vitalba, Stem of, 30 Clematis, 601—Different Spe- cies, how raised, . 601 Climate, Continental, Z Cloud-Berry, 837—an Article of Commerce in Sweden and Norway, 338—Noticed by Dr Clarke, 338—Dr Clarke oe of Fever by, 338 Clover, 318—Best Kinds,” 318 Cloves, 2 170 — Oi of, F 485 Clove Tree, : - 484-486 Clustered Campanula, 588 Coals, the Residuum of Ancient Vegetation, Coal Strata, 659—Newcastle Coal, . . . 661 Coccus, é # 95 Cochineal Fig, 365 Cochlearia Krictevle, “300— Officinalis, yer Comb, 590—How man- Cocoa Saat, 170—Tree, 240—the King’s, 241—Maldive, ib.— Sea, ib.—Double, ib.—at Lucknow,242—Habitation,ib. Localitics of, ib—Trees Tax- 5901 710 Page ed, 243—Reticulated Cloth, 244—Buds, ib.—Fronds or Leaves, ib.—Leaves employed as Thatch, ib.—Leaves used for preserving fish, ib.— Leaves employed to show marks of respect, ib—Used to write upon, ib.—Baskets for catching fish made from them, 245—Houses made of, ib.—Used for Oars, ib. —Harps made of, ib. —Flower and Fruit, ib —Arrack made from, ib,—Names of, 243—-Uses of, ib.-—Root, ib.—Wood, ib.— Maldive, Medicinal virtues i in, 242—Sold at high prices, ib. Cups made of, ib—Injured by insects,ib —Flower, sweet juice extracted from, 246— Husk of, 250—Oil, 251—Du- ties on, ’252—Double Cocoa Nut Palms, 253—Articles manufactured from, 252-253 Cocoa Plum, 328 Coses, 054 Coffea Arabica, - 393—_Occiden- talis, Coffee’ Tree, 166, 170, "393— where Native, 394—Intro- duced into Europe by the Dutch, ib.—Sale of Coffee prohibited in Syria, ib.—Cof- tee-houses in Turkey ordered to be shut, ib.—Coffee- houses when established in Paris and London, 395—mode of culti- vating Coffee, 395, 396—Cof- aes Sanne of, ib.—Qualities of, 2 396 Coir, * 1 250 — Cordage, ‘ » ib. Coix, he 88 Colehicacez, 202 Colchicum, or Meadow Saffron, 546 Colebrookdale Ironstone, 662 Coleoptile, 105 Coleorhiza, 31, 103 Colocynth, fi 538 Colouring Matter, 140 Columella, the, 92 Combretaceee, 643 Commelinee, 202 Conse Roots, 15 Compound Leaves, 39 Comptonia, 652 Cone of Long- Leaved Sk 465 Confervites, F 656 Conical Roots, 15 Conifere, 45: 5—-Families of, 4: 36, 650, 658—Leaves Fascicled, ib,—-Leaves Solitary, ib— Leaves Similar, ib. 664 Connaracesze, 647 Consumption, 5 133 Contorted Roots, P . 15 Contortion, . J32 Convallarites, : » 654 Convolvulacex, 619 Copal, 148 Copaiva Tree, 147, 563—itsstrac- ture, its balsamic j juices, how ebtained, 564—ita es 5 and uses, G£ Cardiocarpum Acutum, 658 Cork, 15i—Tree, 164—Oak, 428 Corn; Geographical distribution of, 161 Comel Cherry, a 447 Coroila, “12, 66 Cortical Pores, 21—Glands, ib. —Layers, 20, 22—System of Stems, és r INDEX. Pa Corylus Avellena, 385—Ameri- cana, 886—Columna, Corymb, é Corymbifera, Corypha Cerifera, Costard-monger, Costmary or Alecost, Cotton, 168—Plant, 405—its va- rieties, early history of its cul- tivation and use, ib.—grows in Upper Egypt, 406—culti- vated at present in the Le- vant, ib.—and in various other countries, ib.— Bengal a great cotton market, 407—importa- tion of raw cotton from East Indies,ib.—cultivated in Italy, ib.—Cotton Trade, ib.—Cot- ton Plant, Herbaceous, 408— Cotton, Barbadoes, Indian, Tree, ib.—Vine-leaved, Hairy, Spotted-barked, Silk, 409— Cotton Plant, general descrip- tion of its culture and -pre- paration, ib. 412—consump- tion of the article, Cotyledonary Body, Cotyledons, Epigeal, Hypogeal, - ib. Cowslip, 581—indigenous to Britain, the Double Cowslip, et Craigleith quarries, . Crambe Maritima, 399 Cranberry, 161—Red, 347— American, 367—culture of, 347 Crassulaceee, 640 Crecy, ‘Anecdote of battle of, 473 Creeping Stem, 20 Cress, localities of, 300—culti- vation of, ib. —Winter ca 300 Cretan Cistus, 560 Criobotrya Japonica, 328 Croeus, 574—whence its name derived, peculiarities of this flower, its culture, ib.—Saffron Crocus used as a dye, and formerly as a medicine, Crops, Rotation, . Croton, 542—Cascarilla Croton, ib.—Oil, . . Crowberry, Crown Imperial Fritillary, Cruciferss, 292—localities of, ib. —useful qualities of, ib. Cryptogamic Plants, 12—Fruc- tification, 74—Ferns, exten- sive observations regarding, ib. et seq.—Mosses, 76—an- cient opinions and modern discoveries relating to them, ib. 77—description of the flowers of Mosses, ib.—fertile flowers, _ ib. — Cryptogamus flowers destitute of sexual organs, 78, 79—Hepaticee, their reproduction, ib. Alger, their fructification, ib. —Lichens, ib.—propage of, ib.—-fuci, ib.—Fungi, repro- duction of, 80 Cucumber, 378— Receipts for the use of, by Dr. Si 378—Tree, : 452 Cucumis Melo, . . 376 — Sativa : 378 Cucurbita, 378—Pepo, ib. —Ci- trullus, 379—Aurantia, ib.— Melopepo, ib.—Suceada, 379 Cucurbitacee, 76,641 Cud-bear, (Lichen ‘Tartareus,) 198 Culm or Straw, its nature and structure, 19 Culmites, 654 Page Cultivation, Improvement of, 343 Cup, of the Nepenthes Distilla- toria, # 45 Cupressineze, ‘650, 653 Cupulifere, . . 650 Curdistan, Products of, 165 Currants of Commerce, what they are, 341, sili tial 344 : au ie : 344 Curry, A 250 Custard Apple, ; 375 Cuticle, 20—its Structure, 20 Cycadez, ; 651,665 Cycadesdex, ‘i 653 Cycadites, 3 « 653 Cycas Circinalis, . 247,261 Cyclamen, . ‘ . 690 Cyclopteris, 655 Cydenia Chinensis, 328 Cyme, A 72 Cynara Scolymus, 305 Cynarocephale, 623 Cynips, 381 Cyperaceze, 202 Cypress, 475 Cysticercus, an Animal Hydat- ed, 4—its Structure, Cytinex, ‘ z « 6ll Dahlia, 168—whence named, its Varieties, &c. 579, 580 Daisy, . « 589 Dandelion, 556 Darkness, effects of, 123 Dates, an article of foo’, 955 —Various Uses, 255-257 Date Palm, 253,—Manner of impregnating, 054, 255,— where found, 957--an_ em- blem of majesty, 258 Date Plum, Chinese, 371 Daucus Carota, 285 Daum Palm, 258 vee Sea Fruit, fables concern- ing, 381 Decandolle advances Botanical Knowledge, 3 Decay, Natural, 133 Dianther, . P - 639 Dichotomous Stem, 20 Dicotyledonous Plants 12, 103, 271—Divisions of, 27 —Fami- lies of, 2 . VW Didynamia, ‘ ‘ 87 Digger, the, . » 678 Digitalis, ‘ 554 Digitate Roots, : » 15 Dill, ‘ 291 Dilleniaces, 626 Dimocarpus Lichti, 370 Diecia Female, # % 85 Dioscoreee, 202—Dioscorea Ala- ta, 263—Satiy a, 263 Dioscorides, his Work on “Medi- cal Botany, ‘ 2 Diosmeze, 628 Diospyrus Kaki, | 371 Dipsacee, 2 624 Discs, 664 Disk of aT. eat, 38—Epigynous, 89_—Hypogencus,b. oR nous, . 89 Dissemination, 97 Diurmal Flowers, ‘ 73 Dodoneeaceze, s . 634 Dogwood, 447 Dombeyacer, 630 Double Rocket, 588—how Cul- tivated, a 588 Douglas Pine, 4 470 Dragon’s Blood Tree, 147, 479 Dropsy, . "130 Droscra, or Sun Dew, jar Page Droseracer, . - 637 rupaces, 645 Drupe, ‘ . 96 Du Hamel, . . 11 Dulse, asea-weed, . 186 Duration of Flowers, 74 Durion, - 869 Durio Zibethinus, ib. Dutch Elm, . - 432 Dwarf Palm, 259 Dyeing, Trees and Plants u used in, 494 Dyer’s ony 619-—Oak, 430— Weed, ‘ - 514 Earths in Plants, 118—Lampa- dius on, ib.—Ruckert on, ib. Combination of, | 19—Absorp- tion of, ib. —Effects of, ib.— Produce of f . 119, 154 Earth Nut, ‘ ‘ 285 Ebenacee, 2 621 Echinostachys, 654 Egg Plant, . 380 Egg, Vegetable, Gaertner om, 83 Egypt, Products of, 166 Eleagnes, x % 612 Eleocarpee, 631 Elder, Healing properties of, 346 — Berry, A ib. Elecampang, or Inula, » 533 Electricity, 127 Elementary ingredients of Vege- tables, ‘ 4 Elemi, . 147, 561 Elm, a. ‘native of Britain, 161, 482 —Wych Elm, 432— Smooth Elm, ib —Dutch Elm, ib.— American Elm, ib.—Propaga- tion of the Elm—its size—a Tree most easily penne: 433 Elesis Guinansis, . 263 Embryo, its four Parts, 103 Embryo, or Endosperm, ib. Endive, 166, 308—Wild, 308 Endogenites, 654 Endorhizous, 103 Endosperm, use of, 107—Carti- laginous, 103—Coriaceous, ib. —Dry, ib.—Farinaceous, ib. —Fleshy, ib.—Horny, ib.— Oleaginous, ib.—Thin, 103 Engrafting, theoty of, 32 Epacridee, . # 622 Epidermic Glands, 21 Epidermis, 20—its ‘Structure, ib. —Various opinions regarding it, ib.—Amicis’s microscopic observations, a , 21 Epigenists, theory of, . 84 Epipodium, 89 Episperm, 101—Single, 102— Use of, ] Equiseta, or Mare’s Tail, 200, 655 Ericinez, . . - 622 Ervum, . 315 Eryngium Maritimum, 291 Erythroxyles, 634 Etiolation, . 132 Etna, Mount, Chestnut T. ree, 884 Eugenia Jambos, 370—Malac- censis, 370 Euonymus Europeus, 92 Lati- folius, ib.—Verrucosus, ib.— Lenticular glands of, 21 Euphorbiacez, 647—-Euphor- bia, Simple tubes of, 7—Eu- phorbium, 149 Europe receives the knowledge of Botany from the Arabians, 3—Products of, i 160-164 Evergreen Oak, 428 Rverrrecd 43, 44 Preitability of vegel ables, 122 INDEX. Page Exerction, i 53 Exorhizous, - 103 Exostoses, 14 Expiration, its nature explained and illustrated, . 53 Extract, . 140 Fagus Castanea, 383 Fairy Rings, description of, 193 Fall of the Leaves, 5 44 Farina, or Starch, . 138 Favularia Tesselata, 662 Fecundation, $1—Mechanism of, ib. —Fecundation of Plants, ib-—of Vegetables,ib.—recent theories on, 86—Phenomena of, 87—Influence of, 88—Ar- tificial Fecundation, ‘ 88 Felicites, é * 655 Fennel, . 291 Fenugreek, 534 Ferns, 5—their Fructifications, 74—South American, 169— Description of Ferns, 500, 663 —six Figures of, : 663 Fibrine, 140 Fibrous Roots, 14 Ficoider, 639 Ficus Carica, “ 355 Field Book, . 679 Fig, 164, 165, 355—Caprifica- tion of the, 355, 356—History of the, 386— Various Cere- monies in which it was used, ib.—Locality of, ib. —Fig Tree brought to England in 1525, 357—Cultivated in various parts of England, ib.—Fig Tree, Pocock, ib.—Propaga- tion of, 358—Indian, 364— Manner of Cultivating, 365 Filament, 67, 68 Filbert, 162, 385—Etymology of the name, 385—Impregnation of Filberts, 386 Fir, Wood of, 25—Firs, 469— Norway Spruce Fir, ib.—Sil- ver Fir, ib—Douglas Pine, 470— Lambert Hine 470 Fish, 672 Fistulous Stem, ‘ 20 Flabellaria, . . 654 Flacourtianes, . 4 637 Flake Carnation, . 583 Flax, cultivation of, 402—the steeping of, 403-—water-ret- ting for, 403, ’404.—preparation of, 404—heckling and bleach- ing, 405—Berthollet’s experi- ments, ib.—produce of flax, quantity of seed, ib. en Zealand flax, 42] Fleshy root, 15 Flora in Keeling islands, 100 Flora’s Timepiece, 124 Floral Calendar, . 609, 611 — Leaf, : c . 39 Flower Buds, Observations on, 83 Flowering Ash, . 436 Flowers, 2— Geographical Dis- tribution of, 164, 165—Her- maphrodite Flowers, 8l— Moneecious Flowers, . 87 Fly-trap, Motions of its Leaves, 42 Forcing Houses known to the Romans, . 376 Forests, Russian, * 160 Forests of Pines on fire, 469 Fossil Plants forming coal, 656 Fossil Preservation, 662 Foxglove, 554 Fragariacee, 6418 Frankeniacee, 635 “11 Page Frankincense, . . 165 Franklinia, . ‘ 453 ays Common, . os ; Fruetifontion; 12 Organs of, 65 —Calyx, 66—Glume, ib.— Corolla, ib.—Stamen, 67— Anther, 67, 68—Pollen, 67, 68 Filament, ib. — Particular Observations regarding the Pollen, 69, 70—Pistil, 70— Base and summit, ib. —Ovary. 5 its Cells and Ovules or seeds, ib.—Style, 71—Stigma, ib— its Varieties, ib. 72—Inflore- scence, ib.—Spiked, ib.— Thyrsus, ib.—Paniculate, ib. Corymbose, ib.—Cymose, ib. Umbellate, ib —_Whorled, 73 —Spadix, ‘tb. —Catkin, ib.— Amentaceous, ib. — Seasons of Flowers, ib.—Diurnal and Nocturnal Flowers, ib.—Sen- sibility of Flowers to changes of Atmosphere, 74—Dura- tion of Flowers, ib.—Necta- ries, ib.—the Term ill defin- ed, ib.—Cryptogamie Fructi- fication, ib.—Progress of, Fruit and Envelopes, 89— “Con- nection of Fruit and Flower, ib.—Size of Fruit, 90—Con- sistence of, ib.— —Covering of, ib. —Surface of, ib.—Colour of, ib, Numberof, ib. —Compound,ib. —Constituent Parts of, ib.— Epicarp of, ib.— Endoearp of, 91—Complete Partitions, ib.— Incomplete Partitions, ib. — True Partitions, ib.—-False Partitions, ib—Pappus of, 93—Names of, 94—Uses of Fruits and Seeds, 100—Peri- carps of Fruits, ib. --Compo- 89 sition of, 101—Seed part of, ib.— —Geographical istribu- tion of, 162, 165 Fuchsia, 168, "593— whence name derived, its beauty, 593—Varieties, ‘how raised, 594 Fuci, their reproduetion, i 80 Fucoides, 656 Fucus Giganteus, 185 Fucus Tenax, a Chinese sea- weed, used as a oe and var- nish, 186 Full-Beard 385 Fumariacee, . 635 Fungi, Reproduction. of, 80, 81 —Bulliard’s opinion of, ib— Gaertner’s opinion of, ib.— their general characteristics, Mode of growth, &c., 191, 196 Fusiform Roots, - 15 Fustic, 168,516 Galbanum, 148—its gum, qua- lities and uses, 565 Gallipoli, 361—Caverns at for storing olive oil, 361—advan- tages of peace to, 362 Gamboge, ” 149, aa Gangrane, . 13] Gaps in Plants, ll—their_na- ture, ib.—transverse Gaps, _ ih, Garcinia, . . 3 369 Garden Cress, 299 Garden F Flowers, 566, et seq. i their delicacy of texture and odour, ib.—their cultivation, ib. 567—instructions repard- ing, ib.—Hyacinth, ib.—Tu- lip, 570—-Ranunculus, 572 712 Psge Garden Flowers,—- Anemone, 573 — Pasque Flower, 574—Crocus ib.— Narcissus, 575—TIris, ib.— Fritillary, 576— Lily, ib.— Amarillis, 577—Hemanthus, 578—Blood Flower, ib.—Tu- berose, ib.—Pexony, ib.— Dahlia, 579-—Primrose, 580— Polyanthus, ib.—Cowslip, 581 Oxlip, ib—Auricula, ib.— Carnation, 583—Pink, 585— Violet, _586—Pansy, _ib.— Heart’s-Ease, 5856—Lobelias, 587—Cardinal Flower, ib.— Bell Flower, ib.—Canterbury Bells, 588—Clustered Campza- nula, ib.— Double Rocket, ib. —Chrysanthemum,ib—Mary- gold, 589—Daisy, ib.—Asters, ib.—China Aster, ib.— Lupine, ib.—Stock Gilly Flower, ib. —Wall Flower, 590 — Bal- sam, ib.—Cock’s-Comb, ib, Cyclamen, ib.—Vervain, Mi- gnonette, 591—Follyhock, 592 Wood Roof, ib.—H ydrangea, ib.— Geranium, 594—Adam’s Needle, 595—Gloriosa, ib.— Stapelias, 596 — Marvel of Peru, ib.—Venus Fly Trap, ib—Water Lily, 597—Lotus, ib. — Rose, _ 598 — Passion Flower, 601—Honeysuckle, Gardening, Chinese, 666—Per- sian, 667 — Roman, ib.—in Prussia, 668—in Russia, ib.— in Poland, ib.—in Spain, ib. —of the Cape of Good Hope, 669—in New South Wales, ib.—in Britain, ib.—of Towns, ib.—Gardening, its objects, Gardens, hanging, of Babylon, 666—Gardens of Italy, 667— of the Netherlands, ib. — of France, ib.—floating, of Mexi- co, 668 floating, % mics Garlic, Gases, essential, Gean, Gemmule, Gentian, 524 Purple Gentian, Gentianex, a Georgiana, (see Dahlia,) Geraniacee, Geranium, 594—name, varie- ties, cultivation, 594, Germans cultivate Botany, 3 illustrate their works with al r Girdling Trees, Gladiolus, Glands of plants, 11—Milliary, Vesicular, Globular, Utrieu- lar, ib. See. Lenticu- lar, Sessile, Glasswort, Gleditchia, Gleichen, Gleichnie, . Globular Glands, Globulariz, Gloriosa, 595—management of, Glossopteris, . Glume, . : . 669 669 265 113 335 104 525 620 579 629 595 3 106 616 595 655 66 INDEX; Gluten, Glycyriza Glabra, Good King Harry, Goodenovier, Gooseberry ,344—Curvant, black, jelly made from, ib.—various names of, ib.— where best cultivated, 345—age and size of bush sometimes attained, ib.—varieties of Gooseberry, ib—manner of propagation, 346—attacked by the sand fly, ib.—preventative against the flies, Gourds, . Grafting, 33—by “approach, ib, —by scions, ib.—Cleft Graft- ing, 34—Crown Grafting, 33— Wimble, on peg Grafting, 34—Side Grafting, ib.—Graft- ing by buds, ib.—of_ herba- ceous parts of vegetable, ib. 675— Whip or Tongue Grafting, 676 — Grafting — in cleft, ib —Crown Grafting,677 —Side Grafting, ib —Clay Grafting, ib. ae by gems, Graminez, f ” 100, Granulated roots, Granules, Link on, 86—Sperma- tic Granules, Grape Vine, 339—early cultiva- tion, 340— Grapes imported into London, &c., 341—Wine made from in England, ib.— varieties of Grapes, ' Grasses. Account of various kinds of, 230—Meadow fox- tail Grass, ib.—Sweet-scent- ed vernal Grass, 231 — Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass, ib. — Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, ib.—Crested Dog’s-tail Grass, ib.—Mead- ow fescue Grass, ib.—Kay or Rye Grass, ib. Water Mead- ow Grass, 232—Dwarf Mead- ow Grass, ib.—Creeping bent Grass or Fiorin Grass, Great Bulbous rooted Iris, Great Maple, ‘ Greeks, their notions and writ- ings concerning vegetables, Green Resin, Grenadillas, F Grew’s Anatomy of Plants, Grias Cauliflora, P Grugru,_. . é Guava, 367—White Guava, ib. ‘ Red Guava, p Guiae, 147, Gum, ’137...Fossil Gum, 3 Gum Resins, 356 348 342 67 535 665 148 Gum Arabic, 137, 165—Tree, 556...method of procuring the Gum, 557 Gum Cherry Tree, 137 Gum Olibanum, AUT Gum Senegal, 557 Gum ‘Tragacanth, 137, 558 Gundira, 241 Guttifere, 632 Gunpowder Tea, 393 Gypsum, . . 674 Hair, 672—Hairs of Vegetables, 1l—thceir structure, &e, 1] Hairy Cotton, i 409 Hakel Nut, 385 Hamamelidee, 640 Haricots, 315 Hassenfratz, 112 Page Haubois, 33 Hawthorn, F ‘ 447 Hazel, Soil for, » 886 Heart’s- -CASse, 586 Heat, 105—Degrees of, "125-- Influence of, ib.—on plants, ib.—on energy, 126—on fruits, ib.—on functions, 127 Heath, Geographical distribu- tion of, —16]—Ornamental Heaths, 598—usefulness of Heaths, their soil, cultiva- tion, and propagation, 606—608 Hederaceze, 625 Hedysarum Gyrans, singular motions of its leaves, 2 Hesperidee, 347 Heliotrope, Fi 124, 168 Hellebore. White Hellebore, 545—Black Hellebore, 546— Feetid Hellebore, Hemlock, 549— Water Hemlock, ib.—Hemlock Water- drop- wort, . ib. 550 Hemodoraceze, 202 Hemp, Cultivation of, 402, 403, —Hemp and Flax’ impart a poisonous quality to water, 403—deseription of the plant, 413—its cultivation, 414, et seq.—indigenous to Europe, 414—its uses in various coun- tries, ib—cultivated in king- dom’ of Naples, 415—forms a prominent article of Russian commerce, ib.—its cultivation encouraged in Canada, ib.— exports, 416—gathering and preparation of the plant, ib. et seq—Hemp admitted at anominal duty, 419—Indian 546 Hemp, 420— Chinese Hemp, 420 Henbane, 550 Henna or Egyptian Privet, 520 Hepatic, intermediate plants between lichens and mosses, reproduction of, 79, 80, 198, 681 Herbaceous Cotton Plant, 408 ae cultivated and prepar- ‘ ib Hertueeous Envelope, 20—its structure, 2) Herbaceous Stem, 19 Hermanniez, F Hermaphrodites, impregnation of, 87 Herrings, ‘ 67: Hibiscus Syriacus, ‘ 8 Hickory, BBE Hilum or Umbilicus, 91—its appearance, &c. Hippocraticez, 63: Hoemanthus, 378—Multiflorus, how treated, 5 37 Holly, 454—Common Holly, 45: Hollyhock, 59% Homalinez, 64: Honey Dew, 131 made from ‘Lime flowers, 4 Suckle, 602 — various kinds, how cultivated, Hop Plant, 398—varieties of, ib. —soil for, ib.—method of cul- tivation, "ib. —gathering and drying of, ib—Hop crop, 399 —duration of Hop meme Hop Trefoil, . Horizontal Root, : 1 Horn, 67 Hornbeam, American a 43 Horologium Flore, 2, 61 Horse Chestnut, 442—well adapted for ornament, 44 Page Horticultural Society, » 669 Hot Beds, : . 674 Huber, 110 Humboldt, 109 Hume, his argument for the in- fancy of the world from the transplantation of fruit trees, oat Humulus Lapulus, 398 Hyacinth, 567—a native of the Levant, whence its name de- rived, when introduced into Europe, its varieties, 567, 568 —its value, criterions of qua- lity, how propagated, and di- rections for its culture, 568, 569—diseases of this flower, ib.—Hyacinths, a beautiful ornament in glasses, and how managed, 570 Hgiansen 166, ‘592 emithod of cultivating, . 592, 593 Hydrocharidezx:, 203 Hydrogen Gas on Plants, 115 Hygrobiex, 642 Hypericinez, 632 Hypoxylez, a group of fungi, 192 Hyson, . 393 Hyssop, 527 Iceland Moss, a Lichen ae as food, 197 Illiciex, 627 Impregnation ‘of Flowers, 59, et seq.—Artificial Impregna- tion, 86—Impregnation by insects, : 88 Incision necessary to the health of trees, . 35 Indian Corn, (American, 2 Va riety of maize, account of its cultivation and uses, 225—228 Indian Cotton, . 408 Indian Cress or Nasturtium, 491 Indian Hemp, 420—its cultiva- tion and uses, 420 Indian Rubber Tree , description of, (see Caoutchoue,) 565 Indigo, 170—different species of the Indigo Plant, 498—culti- vation of the plant,and manu- facture of Indigo, 499, 506 Inflorescence, 72—Spiked, Thyr- ae Paniculate, Corymbose, Cymose, Umbellate, ib.— Whorled, Spadix, Catkin, Amentaceous, 73—Seasons of flowers, ib.—diurnal and noc- turnal flowers, ib.—sensibility of flowers to change of at- mosphere, 74—duration of flowers, * * i 74 Ingenhoutz, : ‘ 115 Inner Medula, ‘ 22, 23 Inoculation, 28 Insertion, Epigynous, 89__Hy- pogynous, ib.—Perigynous, ib. Insertions of the Pith, Inula or Elecampane, . 533 Iodine obtained from sea- ee ae Ipecacuan, . Tridez, 302 Iris, 575—its varieties, method of cultivation, 575, 576 Irrigation, admirable system of, practised in Italy, 163 Tron Wood, 435—its extreme hardness, 435 Irritability ‘of Leaves, 41—Cases of Irritability, x 128 Island Climate, ‘ 159 Italian Maple, 440 — Oak, 427 Isa, 166 INDEX. Page Jaca, : . 371 Jack, ib. J agery, 248—J agery Cem ent, 249 Jala 539 J alappa Mitabilis, : - 83 Jamlee, ‘ 370 Japan Lily, . 7 . 87 Japonica, 604 Jarrow Colliery, 661 Jasmines 617 Jasmine, 600—its v varieties, 600 J or uae Manikot, 283—species 2 Jerusalem Artichoke, 283 Jewish Culture, 666 Juea, how eaten, 371 Juglandes, 647 Juglans, 652—species of, ‘666— Alba, 383—Oinerea, ib.—Ni- gra, ib.—Regia, 382 Jujube, ‘ . 371 Julus, “ 287 Jumrosade, 370 Junceze, 202 Junci, or Rushes, account of va- rious kinds of, 234 Juniper, F . 476 Juniperites, 653 Jussieu extends the Science of Botany, 3—his system of Bo- tanical Classification, 173, 181 —184—adopted with modifi- cations in the arrangement of the present work, 181 Jute, 420—its mets » 420 Juvia, ‘ 387 Kale or Colewort, 297 Kalmia, a 82 Kauri Pines, height of, 34, 35 Kelp, extensive beds of, on the shores of Terra del Fuego, 185 —obtained from sea-weeds, 187—account of its manufac- ture, ib.—used in i agrinultiires 188 Kerkedan, 316 Kermes Oak, ‘ 428 Kernel, 101—composition of, 102 Kidney-bean, 108, ‘166, 4 Knight, . Knotty Roots, 5 Fi te Kebreuter, : - 84 ee ane 2 : . 147 abiate, 491, 618 Laburnum, 446 Lac, 148 Lactuea Sativa, 07—Virosa, 307 Lambert Pine, 470 Lambert’s Vervain, 591 Laminarie, 190—Bucinalis, 185 —Bulbosa, ib. a aie pi —Esculenta, 191 Lancewood, 447 Lanseh, 370 Larch, 470— Black Larch, 47] Lathyrus, ie Odoratus, ib. —Sativu 317 Laurel, 164, 336, ” 453—Portu- guese Laurel, 336 Laurestinus, 7 604 Laurinez, 613 Laurus Persea, 374 Lavender, 493 Lavoisier, . .» 109 Layers, propagating by, 82 Leafless stem, 20 Leaves of Plants, ‘12, 37—their nature and structure, ib. 38— sessile 38—petiole, ib.—disk, ib.—upper surface and lower surface, ib.—nerves, ib.—mid- rib, ib.—venules, ib.—articu- 713 Page lated ib.—caducous, ib.— semi-amplexicaul, ib,—am- plexicaul, ib.—sheathing, 39 —neck, ib.—seminal leaves, ib. —radical, ib.—cauline, ib. floral, ib _—verticillate, ib.— frond, ib.—tripartite and qua- dripartite, ib.—oboval, acute, hastate, sagittal, pinnatifid, laciniate, retuse, emarginate, cordate, tripoliate, lanceolate, linear, orbicular, trilobate, ib. —entire, dentate, serrate, ‘dou bly serrate, spinous ciliated, ib. —eompound Leaves, ib. —de- compound and doubly com-- pound, ib.—supra decom- ound, ib.—constitution of weaves, 40—Stomata, ib.— Leaves named aérial roots, ib. —transpiration, ib.—absorp- tion of Leaves, 40, 41—chem- ical action of Leaves, 41—irri- tability of Leaves, ib, —sleep of Plants, 42—Hedysarum Gyrans, motion of its Leaves, ib. —Fly- -trap, motion of its Leaves, ib.—observations re- garding the motions of Leaves, 43-—fall of the Leaves, 43, 44 —Evergreens, ib.—size of Leaves, 44—various uses to man, ib.—primordial Leaves, 104—seminal Leaves, 0+ Lebanon, Cedar of, 35, in, at Lecythides, Leek, 7 5 363 Legume, ¥ : 96 Leguminose:, 31 0, 646 Lemna Gibba, or Duck-weed, 4, § Lemon, its cultivation in Eu- rope, ]64—a native of India, 353—introduced into Enrope by the Caliphs, 355 Lentibulariz, = » 615 Lenticular Glands, F 21 Lentil, « olf Lentisk, its cultivation, 562 Lepidodendron, 656—Elegans, 658—Obovatum, ib.—Selagi- noides, ib.—Sternbergii, 657 Lepidophyllum, : 656, 659 Lepidostrobus,_ . i ib. Lepidum Sativum, 299 Leptospermez, 643 Lessonia Fuscescens, 185 Lettuce, 307, 548—narcotie ex- tract from, Leuwenhoeck examines minute Plants, . Liber, or Bark, * 90; 22 Lichens, 5—their reproduction, and propage of, 80—descrip- tion of, . - 196-198, 681 Light, on motion, 123—on leaves, ib.—on plants, ib.— on blossoms, ¥ - 124 Lignum ey 167 Lilac, ~ 602 Lilacer, 617 Lily, 576—derivation of the name, varieties, how propa- gated, 3 3 76, 577 Lily, Egyptian water, . 270 Lime, (in Botany), 118, 353, 441 —wood valuab le, bark an article of commerce, honey made from its flowers, 442— American Lime, Lime, (in Chemistry), 673— phosphate of, 674—existence of, 073—hy crate of, ae action of, 4x 442 14 71k Lime, advantages of, ba Lime, ib.—carbonate i jie tree, ‘small- leaved, grows wild in Britain, . Linaceze, 629 Linen Fabrics, their origin, 401 Linneeus publishes his botanical works, and introduces order into the science, 3—his system of botanical classification, 173, 175-180—its imperfec- tions, . 181 Lint, 41—description of, “when introduced into Britain, 401 Lintseed Cake, 672 Liquorice, 319 Litchi, 370 Live Oak, 429 Loaseee, 642 Lobeliaceze, 623 Lobelias, 587 —varieties, how raised, 587 Loblolly Bay, 452 Locust Tree of Scripture, 386, 446 Logwood, ‘ « 166 Logwood Tree, . « 494-197 Lombardy Poplar, 444—exuda- tion iis celebrated by Ovid, Lonchopteris, 655 Longan, 370 Long-leaved Pine, 465—Cone of, 465 Longiflora, 83 Lonicerez, 625 Loquat, 328 Loranthez, 625 Lotus, 166 where found, 597 Love Apple, 380 Lucern, 318 Lumbering Pines, | 467, et seq. Lupine, 316, 589—varieties of, 589 Lupinus, 316 Lycoperdacez, a pr oup of funpi, 191 Lycopodites, 655— Williamsonis, 663 Lycopodiums, intermediate Plants between mosses and ferns, . # Lymphatics, Lysimachiz, 10 615 Macrocystes, the longest of known sea-weeds, 186 Madder, 508—cultivation of the Plant, 509—manufacture of Madder, and its uses, 510, 511 Magnesia, 19, 155, 674 Magnolia, 451—Small Magnolia, 452—Magnolia Grandiflora, 167 Magnoliacee, - 627 Mahogany, 168—Birch, 441— Tree, 448—its varieties, 448, 449—first discovery of its value, 448 Maize, or Indian Corn, ” 170, 225 Malay Apple, 370 Mallow Family, 170 Malpighi investigates minute vegetable structures, , 86 Malpighiacee, 633 Malt, account of the process of malting Barley, 17 Malt Dust, ‘ ‘ 672 Malte Brun, description of Melons, . : . 377 Malus Medica, 353 Malvacee, —. 629 Mammee, 374—Americana, tb. —Sapota, 875—Vegetable, 107 Mandrake, . 552 Mangifera’ Indica, 368 Mango, 368—where found, ib. --Varieties of, 368 INDEX. Poze Mangrove, 478 Manures, eifects of, 120—pro- ortions of, ib. —necessity of, 21—yicld ‘carbon, 121, 670— kinds of, 671—Animal, 672— for hot- beds, Maple, a native of Britain, 161 —its varieties, 437— Great Maple, or Syeamore, ib.— Common Maple, ib—Norway Maple, 438—Sugar Maple, 167, 438—Red Higwera Maple, 439—Striped Ga: Maple, 440—Italian Maple, 440 Maranta Arundinacea, . 26-4 Maratties, 5 200 Marcgraviaceze, 632 Marjoram, 493—Winter Marjo- ram, ib.—Sweet. Seale co ib.—Pot Marjoram, Marvel of Peru, 82, 596—its sin- ae properties, elon Mayol, 589 Mastic, 117—its nature, the use made of it by the women of Scio, &c., 562—how obtained, 562 Matulla, : 241 Mauritia Palm, 261 May Wort, ‘ 527 Mecca, Balsam of, . 561 Medicago Arborea, 318—Fal- cata, aia os: ib.— Sativa, . 318 Medicinal Plants, | 520 Medick Tree, 318 Medlar, 162, 328 Medullary prolongations of the Pith, 24 Medullary Rays, 24—Tube, 23 Meliaceze, 634 Melilot, 2 if . 318 Melilotus, ib. Melon, 376—account of, by Nie- buhr, 377—Liquor from, ib.— varieties of, ib.—Cantaloupe, ib.—African Melon, ib.—Sa- lonica Melon, ib.— Portugal Melon, ib.—Thistle eb 363—locality of, 364 Melon, Water, 376, 379 Menispermez, é 628 Mercury, English, 303 Mespilus Germanica, 328 Mezereon, 531 Microscope extends “Botanical knowledge, 3 Micropyle, . 102 Midrib of a leaf, 38 Mignonette, 591 — deseription of, its varieties, how cultivat- ed, ‘ 591, 592 Milastomacem, : - Git Mildew. 130 Millet, a ealioa: 228" Millet pan- nic’ led, 229 Yellow-seeded Millet, x * . 280 Millfoil, or Yarrow, 556 Milliary Glands, their structure, 11 Milton quoted, F ee Mimosa, 166, 310, 646 Mimulus, stigma of, . 82 Mint, 492—Peppermint, ib.— Spearmint, ib.—Pennyroyal mint, 492 Misletce, 431—description of, how used by the Druids, ib. —formerly esteemed in medi- cine, . * é 432 Mixed Vessels, their structure, and opinions ies ding, Moisture, 158 Monimie, 648 Page 368 555 Monkey’s Bread, Monkshood or Wolf” 8 ‘Bane, Monocotyledonous Plants, 12, 103, 201—stems, 24—their pe- culiarity, vite a fungus, deseription of he, ‘ Morland, BL Morus Niera, 343 Mosses, 5—their fructification, 76, 77—description of, 398, 681 Mountain Ash, 445—description ; of and culture, 445, 446 Moxa, 527 Mucediner, a group of fungi, 192 Mucilage, 1 Mulberry, 164, 165, 343—early cultivated in Europe, ib.— Trees in England, ib.—man- ner of propagating, 344 Musa Paradisiaca, 260—Sapi- entum, . 260 Musacee, 203 Muscites, é é 656 Mushrooms, a group of fung1, 191—deseription of the edible mushroom, 194—Mushroom Spawn, 194 Musocarpum, 654 Mustard, 299 Myoporinec, 618 Myriceze, 649 Myristicec, 13 Myroxylon Perniferum, its bal- ene qualities and uses of the latter, Myrrh, 149, 165 Myrsineze, 621 Myrtacez, 643 Myrtee, ib. Myrtle,’ 600—its varieties and culture, 600 Neggerathia, 654 Nagadex, 201 N apiform Roots, 15 Narcissece, » 202 Narcissus, 375—traditions con- nected with the name, ib.— varieties, tests of quality, how propagated, directions for cul- ture, : . . 575 Nareotie Plants, 546—Narcotic principle, Nasturtium or Indian Cress, 168, 491—Officinale, Neck of Leaf, F 39 Necturies, the term ill defined, 74 Nectarine, 20) Needham, 84 Negro Peach, 368. Nematus Ribesii, 346 Nepenthes distillatoria, cup of, its singular structure, Nerves of Leaves, 38 Nettle, 419—its structure, cloth manufactured from the fibres, 420 Neuropteris, 655 New Forest, the acorns of the Oaks feed vast herds of swine, 422 New Zealand Flax, 420—de- scription of, ib.—Mr Salis- pury’s ee on its eul- tivation, ‘i Nicaragua Wood, . 498 Nicotiana Paniculata, 84—Rus- tica, ib,—Tobacum, 399 Nightshade, Deadly, 351—Gar- den Nightshade, 052—Woody Nightshade, 552 Nilsonia, 654 sao en, experiments with, 115 effects of on Plants, z Page Nocturnal Flowers, 73 Nopalex, : 2 641 Norfolk Island Pine, 476 Norway Maple, r 438 — Spruce Fir, 469 Nucifera Thebaica, + 258 Nutrition of Vegetables, 45— how nutriment is conveyed to the plant, 46—Hales’ experi- ments, ib. 47—course of the sap, ib.—Amici’s experi- ments, 48—Observations and experiments of others, 48 et seq. Nutmeg, 92, 170—Nutmeg Tree, 487 Nutshell, ¥ % 96 Nux Medica, Nux Vomica, : Nymphea, 652—Lotus Nympheacese Oak, Wood of, 25—Oak,a native of Britain, 161—held sacred by some nations, 42]—three kinds indigenous to Britain, ib.—common British Oak, ib. its wood, 422—acorns used as food, ib.—swine fed upon them by the Saxons, ib— New Foyrest filled with swine, ib.—importance of the Oak, 423—extract from writer in Quarterly Review regarding the species, ib.—celebrated Oaks, ib. 424—raising of Oaks, transplanting of, 425, 426, 427 —Turkey Oak, 427—Italian Oak, ib.—Velonian Oak, ib.— Evergreen Oak, 428—Kermes Oak, ib.—Cork Oak, ib,— White Oak, 429—Red Oak, ib.—Chestnut Oak, ib.—Live Oak, ib.— Willow Oak, 430— Dyers’ Oak, ib.—Misletoe 431 Oak Leaves, ‘ P Outer Medulla, 22—produces to to cork, : 3 ‘ Oats and Plants, seeds of, 98— Oats, 218—different varieties of, ib.—the potatoe oat, ib.— uses of, ib.—the wild oat, Oblique Root, ‘ é Ochnacez, : Odontopteris, P Officinal Croton, P Oils, 144—Almond, ib,—Behen, 145—Drying, ib.—Olive, 144 —Rapeseed, 145—Volatile, ib. Oil of Beech, . Oil of Turpentine, its applica- tion to medical purposes, Oil-bearing Camellia, 602 Olacinez, . . 631 Olea Europea, . : 558 Olea Fragrans, 362, 389, 393 Oleum de Citrangula, 349—Ole- um de Citrangulorum Semi- nibus, ‘ s 349 Olibanum, ~ ow =f Olive, bounds of its cultivation, 163, 164—use of its oil, 164, 358,359—a native of Syria, 359 —localities of, ib.—time for gathering it, ib.—in ancient times held in great estima- tion, ib.—curious account of its introduction into Morocco, 360—manner of planting Olive in Morocco, ib.—varieties of Olive—Olive trade, ib.—Olive groves, ib.—time in which Olive flourishes, 361—Olive Oil, the great depot for, 361 —brought to the magazine in 219 15 655 513 145 435 563 628 |. INDEA. Page skins, ib.—shipping of, 362— price of, ib.—Olives never ga- thered, ‘i Onagrarie, * . Onion, 265—history of, 266— varieties of, ib.—method of improving, ib.— Onion, Welsh, 267—Onion ground or pota- toe, ib_—Onion Tree, - 267 Operculariex, 624 Ophioglossesx, é . 200 Opium, 547—Turkey Opium, 548—East India Opium, 548 Opobalsamum, . . 147 Opononax, or Rough Parsnip, 149, 564—its juice, how ob- tained, and for what use, Orange, its cultivation in Eu- rope, 164—Tree, 166—Fami- ly, 347—when introduced into England, 348—Preservation of Orange Trees, ib, 349—culti- vation in Devonshire, 349— Crusaders’ idea of the Orange, ib.—fable concerning, ib— history of the, ib.—varieties of the, 350—Bitter Orange, ib. — localities, 349—351 — Beauty of the Orange Tree, 35]1—Tuscany not fitted for growing Oranges, ib.—Tem- perature, &c., most conducive to its perfection, ib.—Soil of Malta unfavourable to, ib,— Orange of the islands, 352— Oranges gathered in a green state, ib.—Orange Trees cul- tivated in England and Scot- land, . . Orange Lily, Orchideee, c 5 Orchis Tribe, 87, 269—Orchis Mascula, 7 n Organs of Plants, 12—roots, ib. —1]6—stem, ib.--19--branches, 25, 26—leaves, 37—39—repro- ductive organs, 55 et seq.— fructification, 7 , Organs of Reproduction, history of their discovery, 55—com- pared with those of animals, ib,—sexual organs, 56—on the sexuality of vegetables, 56, 57, 58—established by Linneeus, ib.—impregnation of flowers, 59, 60—peculiarity in the plant, valisneria spiralis, 61— experiments on the fecunda- tion of female flowers, 62— objections to the sexual sys- tem, é 3 63 et seq. Orkney, manufacture of kelp i 187, 188 aths, 598 616 362 642 565 65 in. . . Ornamental Shrubs and H Orobanchee, i: * Orobus, 316—Luteus, ib.—Tu- berosus, 7 ‘ 316 Orris Root, Florentine, 534 Osier, . : 444 Osmundarcee, ‘ 200 Otaheite Hog Plum, 374 Otopteris, 655 Ovarist, Theory of the, ; 83 Ovary, enlargement of, 88—its cells and ovules or seeds 88 Oxalidez, c ‘ 629 Oxlip, 581—singularity of, 581 Oxydes Metallic, 4 155 Oxygen, operation of, 109—ef- fects of, 114—on germination, ib.—on vegetation, ib.—on flower and fruit, ib,—on plants, ‘ 114 716 @ Oxymuriatic Acid Gas, 127 Paat, 420—its uses, 420 Pachypteris, z » 655 Padina Pavonia, 191 Paleoxyris, 654 Pallinee, ij . 634 Palmacites, 654 Palme, or Palms, ‘ 202 Palmate Roots, . » 15 Palms, 163—various species of, 170, 202—family of, 240, 664 —Palmyra Palm, . 259 Pandanocarpum, é - 654 Pandanus, 479—grecn-spined, 479 Panicle, . ‘ . 72 Pansy, 586 Papaw, 379 Papaveracese, 635 Paper, 679 Papilionaces, Papillary Glands, . . Pappus, simple hairs of, 93— feathery hairs of, ib.—Pappus Sessile, Pi ‘ : Papyrus, 166—an aquatic plant, 32—deseription of the, Paronychies, r 639 Parsley, 290—varieties of, Parsnip, 288—varieties of, ib.— soil requisite for, 1b.—used as potatoes, P . Partitions, Longitudinal, 92— Transverse, ib.— False, Parynchema, 7 3 10 Pasque Flower, r . 574 Passiflora, 375—Edulis, 376— . Quadrangularis, ib.—Lauri- flora, ib. —Incamata, ib. — Passiflorese, e ‘ 642 Passion-Flower, 168, 60] — whence the name, variety of species, how reared, 601, 602 Pastinaea Sativa, 288 Pea, Experiments on the, 85— Analysis of the, 94—Com- mon Pea, 31l—when intro- duced into this country, ib. —varieties of, 312—cultiva- tion of, ib.—Sweet Pea, 317 effect of gas on Peas, . 113 Peach, 165—mentioned by Co- lumella, 329—when introduc- ed into England, ib.—varie- ties of, ib.—localities of, ib.— how cultivated in the United States, ib—much cultivated in France, 330—general diffu- sion of, ib.—manner of pro- pagating, ib.—difference be- tween it and the Almond, curious circumstance regard- ing, 831—flat Peach of China, ib.—the negro Peach, 368— edible Peach, . i Pear, 162, 325—ancient history of the Pear-Tree, 326, names of the, ib,—cultivated in China, ib.—wood of the Pear- Tree, ib.—varieties of Pears, ib.—327—propagation of, 327 —Grafting of, ib.—pruning of, 327 Pear, Alligator, 374 Pear, Prickly, or Indian fig, 168 Peat, 161—Peat-Moss, account of, and of the formation of Peat, 198, 199—Peat earth 672 Pecopteris, ‘: . 655 Pediculares, ‘ « €6 Pelargoniums, see Geranium, 594 Pennyroyal Mint, » 492 Pentandria, 87 Pepo Macrocarpus, 86 716 Pepper, 170— Pimento, or Jamaica Pepper Tree, 486— Black Pepper Plant, 488— Long Pepper Plant, 489— Guinea Pepper Plant, 490— Cherry Pepper, ib.—Bell Pep- per, 491—Cayanne i 491 Peppermint, 492 Percival, Dr... x 113 Perennial Roots, 14 Pericarp, 12—Pericarp and seed, 90—limits of, 91—cavity of, ib.—cells of, ib.—Multilo- cular,92—Axillus of,ib.—base of, ib.— summit of, ib.—axis of, ib.—dehiscence of,ib.—-ruptile, ib.—holes of, ib.—teeth of, 93 —valves of,ib.—bivalve, ib.— . trivalve, ib.—quadrivalve, ib. | —quinquevalve, ib. — multi- valve, ib.—wings of, ib.— Richard’s views, 94— form and structure, . 95 Perry, . , 327 Persian Fritillary, . : 576 Persian Iris, ‘ 575 Perspiration, Perceptible, 58, 54 Peruvian Bark, different’ spe- cies of, 520—Common, or Of- ficinal’ Bark, ib—Pale Bark, 522—yellow Bark, ib.—red Barks — « . 4 522 Petiole of a leaf, . 38 Phanerogamic Plants, their structure, 12 Pharmacopole, Greek eultiva- tors of Botanical science, 2 Phaseolites, 652 Phaseolus, 314—vulgaris, ib.— multiflorus, ib.—caracalla, 315 Phoenicites, 654 Phenix dactylitera, 253—fer- inifera, ‘ 257 Phyllites, 654 Phyllotheca, F 4 653 Pia, . 285 Picotee Carnation, 583 Pilcherds, 672 Pimento, or Jamaica Pepper- Tree, 486 Pines, wood of, 24—Pine Tribe, 455 — varieties of Pine, Pine forests of England, 456, 457—Wild, or Scotch Pine, 457—red Pine, 465—ycllow Pine, ib.—long-leaved Pine, ib.—piteh Pine, white Pinc, 466—Pine trade, 467, et seq. Pine forests on fire, 469 Pine Apple, 170, 365—where a native of, 365—large specimen of, 366—large size of in China, &e, . - 866 Pine, *Weymouth, 167 Piney Tree, 481—vegetable tal- low produced from it, . 48) Pinites, . 653 Pink, 585— qualities of a fine flower, ib.—propagation and cultivation, F 585, 586 Pinus, 653—Pinus Canariensis ° 664 Piping, « r . 678 Pippins, A 822 Pisum Sativum, 31] Pistacia Nut, ’387—Officinalis, 387 —Terabinthus, 888 Pistil, 12. 70—base, summit, ovary, style, stigma, Pisum, 31]—Americanum, 313° Maritimum, ; . 818 Pitch Pine, é 466 Pitcher Plant, 481 Pith, 93 INDEX. Page Pithy Stem, ' ‘ 20 Pittosporee, 628 Placenta, or Trophosperm, 12, 91 Plantagine, ‘i 6] Plantain, or Banana, 170, 260 Plants, Grew’s ‘Anatomy of, 3, 83—Leuwenhoeck’s observa- tions, 3—Ray establishes the sexes of plants, ib.—nature and uses of plants, 4—where- in they differ from animals, ib—plants of mouldiness, 5 —structure of plants, 6— vessels of plants, 9, 10—pores, stomata, gaps, glands, 10,1] ,— organs and functions of plants, 12---roots, stems, leaves, flowers, 12—roots of, 13— their structure and varieties, 13, ld—sleep of, 42—Herma- phrodism in, af—temale or- gans of, 82—aquatic flower buds, ib.—Brongniart on, 86— hot-house Plants, 88—feeun- dity of Plants, 98,—effects of heat on, 105,—water, on ib.— light on, 106—air on, ib.—di- cotyledonous, 108 — mono- cotyledonous, ib. — ingredi- ents of Plants, 111—fed by gases, 1]3—atmosphere on, ib.—absorption of, 114—ex- periments on, 115—flower- ing time, 125—irritability of, 127—Plants generate Heat, ib.—distribution of, 156—ori- gin of, ib.—extension of, ib.— dispersion of, ib.—arctie cir- ele Plants, 158 — Swedish Plants, ib.— Norway, ib.— Lapland Plants, ib.—Plants used for clothing, &c. 401— fossil Plants, 651—practical culture of Plants, 666—ashes of, 673—drying and presery- ing of, 678—choice speci- mens of, 679—packing of, 681 —jars for, 4 . 681 Pleurogynum r s 89 Pliny advances Botanical science, . 2 Plum, 333—var ieties of, ib. — manner of pr opagating, 334— wild Plums, alo ac, 375 Plumbagine, é 615 Poacites, 3 é Podocarpus, . 653 Podogynum, 7 . 89 265 Peony, 578——whence its name, its varieties, propagation ie cultivation, . +5 879 Pohak, ‘ . 3 2 : i Poisonous Trees, ‘ Poitiers, anecdote of battle of, ra Polemoniacez, Pollen, 12, 67—70, 8: Sia son’s opinion of, 63— grains of, 86—conveyed by b ees, Polyanthus, 580—its tests, and how propagated and culti- vated, : a 518 Polygala vulgaris, ‘ » 3 Polygalez, 7 635 Polygonee, 6] 3 Polygonum Fagopyrum, 319—Tartari- eum, ‘ » 820 Poly podiacere, : 200 Pomacee, * . . 645 Pome, 95 Pomegranate, 164, 354——when introduced into this country, ib.—historieal notices of, 855 Page —an omament in arehitcc- ture, &c., ‘ - Sb Pontederiaces, . 202 Poplar, 443—its species, tremb- ling Poplar, or Aspen, Lom- bardy Poplar, timber of, ib. Balsam Poplar, 444 Poppy, ee cultivation of the, . » 547 Populus, 652 Pores of Vegetables, 10—Hed- wig and Mirbel’s observa- tions, ib.—some or minute, . . Portulacer, . * - 639 Potass 154 Potatoe, 14, 168—history of, 271, &e. —localities of, 271, 272’_when introduced into England, 272—story of the, ib.—general introduction of, promoted by the Royal Soci- ety, 273—how noticed by various authors, 273, 274— anecdote of the, 274—intro- duction of into Ireland and Scotland, ib.— introduced into Scotland by whom, 275--cul- tivation of in the Continent, 276—do. in India, ib.—varie- ties of the, 277—best soils for the, ib.—Scotch Highlands favourable for the, 278—pro- pagation of the,ib.—managing sets, ib.—setting whole, 279 —sprouts, ib.—disease in the Potatoe, 280, 281—Chemical composition of the, 282— sweet, ib.—introduced into this country by whom, 283 Potentilla Anserina, » 200 Press, ‘ ‘ 679 Prickles, o 45 Prickly Pear, 363. Priestly, Dr., 113, 115 Primrose, ‘ 680 Primulacee, - 615 Privet, 600—its varicties, their uses, 601 Propagations by Cuttings, 617 Prostrate Stem, . . 20 Proteacee, 612 Providence, the “vessel fitted out, 373—reaches Oe , ib.—voyageof, . 74 Pruning, 675 Prunus, 332—gum yielded by, 335— ? Armeniaca, 332—Arium, 335—Domestica, 333—Cera- sus, 334—Lauro-cerasus, 336 —Lusitania, ib—Padus, 335 —Pseudo-cerasus, ib ee nosa, 336 Psidium, 367 _ Cattley anum, ib.—Pomiferum, ib.—Pyri it ferum, : . 367 Pterophyllum, . 653 Puff-balls, a species of fungi, 196 Pulses, 310 Punctuated essels, their struc- ture, p . Punica Granatum, a 354 Purple Beech, ‘ » 434 Pyramidal Bell Flower, 587 Pyrus Communis, 325—Cydonia, 327—Domestica, 328—Malus, 321 Quadripartite leaf, 3g Quassia, 523—Simaruba or Winged-leaved Quassia, 524 Queen Mary’s Yew at Crook- stone, : $ . 4% Quercitron Oak Bark, . 51( Page Quickbeam, 445 Quince, 162, 327—introduced to Europe ‘from Crete, 327— much cultivated in France, ib.—varieties of, 328—how used, 328 Quinine, 3 142 Quinquina Extract, » 140 Radical Leaf, 39 Radicle Pedunele, 19 Radicular, 103 Radish, 166, 300—Horse Radish, 300 Rafflesia Arnoldii, 170, 596 Raisins imported ‘into England, 341—method of drying, 34] Raki, 245, 271 Ranunculacez, a 626 Ranunculus, 572—when ‘intro- duced into Britain, qualities of aperfect flower, how pro- pagated, suitable “soil, ib— general directions for its cul- ture, . : 573 Ranunenlus Aquatilis, 82 Rape, 299—Rape Cake, 672 Raphanus Sativus, . . 300 Raphe, 102 Raspberry, 336—flavour of, fleet- ing, ib. mode of propagating, ib.—soil for, 337—American Raspberry, 337 Ray establishes the sexes "of Plants, . E 3 Red Ash, 437 — Bay, 454 — Beech, . 434 _ Flowering Maple, 439 — Oak, 7 . 429 — Pine, 465 — Saunders Wood, 508 Reindeer Moss, 198 Reproduction, organs of, 55 Resedaceze, 637 Resemblance of Animals and Vegetables, Resins, 146—Resin and Tur; pen- tine procured from Pines, 563 Restiacer, 202 Rheum, 363—Hybridum, "309— pn ee seers, 3 um, Rivicoria; 19_its structure, Rhizotome amongst the Greeks aevote themselves to Medical Botany, Rhododendron, 60 5—varieties, PRCDREs Hes; and cultiva- 605, 606 plabarh, 166, 308—Hybrid Rhubarb, 309—Monk Rhu- barb, ib.—different species of the plant, 542—Chinese and Turkey Rhubarb, Rhus Typhina, medullary layers of, 32 Ries, B44 —Nigra, ib. —Rubra, Bad Ribes 641 Rice, 168, 170, 221—its eultiva- tion in ‘Italy, 162—one of the chief productions of Egypt, 221—method of cultivating and manufacturing it, 221, 223, 224—introduction into ‘America, 221, 222—Common Rice, 222 Mountain Rice, ib. — Clammy Rice, the Chinese method of ean Rice, . Rocambole, On . . . Romans directed their atten- tion to Botany, 543 23— INDEX Page Roots of Plants, 12-14—fibrous, potatoe, tuberous, 14—bul- bous, fleshy, simple, oblique, 15—horizontal, »furciform, na- piform, conical, ib.—rounded, testiculate, palmate, digitate, ib .—knotty, granulated, arti- culated, contorted, capillary, comose, ib.—character and variety of roots, their uses, and observations and experi- ments on their nature and structure, 16-18—difference between Roots and Stems, 25 — Roots of Dicotyledo- nous trees, ib.—Root trans- ortation, 157 — Rosacex, 320 — medicinal properties of, 321 —various extracts from, Rosacer, 320, Rose, 164, 598—uses of the, in medicine, 536, 537—its varie- ties, how propagated, how new varieties may be pro- duced, 598, 599—to produce beautiful flowers, ib. — dis- eases of the flower, 600—all roses not odorous, Rose Apple, Rose Tulip, Rosex, Rough Parsnip, Rounded Roots, Rowan Tree, Royal Bay, Royal Society advanced the science of Botany, Rubiacee, Rubus, 336—Articus, 337——cha- 321 644 memonis, ib.—Corylifolius, ib. Paina 336 PoRpeSEn: talis, 337 Rue, 627 Rumex Acetosa, 309—Scutatus, 310 Rushes, account of several kinds of, g i 234 Rutacez, 628 Ruteb. 256 Rye, its cultivation and use, 212 —poisonous quality of horned 9 or diseased Rye, Sacred Beau, 597—how esti- mated, 597—how propagated, 598 Safflower, the, 5{1—cultivation of the Plant, ib—its uses as a dye, 512 Saffron, Meadow, or Colchicum, 546 Saffron Crocus, » 875 Sagapenum, 149 age, 492 Sago, 170, 261—manafactory of, 241, ct Sago Palm, ‘ " ‘ Sagus Farinifera, 36 Saint- ag 317—-advantage of a4 sowin Salep, 266-—method of manufac- turing, ib.—nourishment i eas: Salicance, Salicinex, Salix, Salt fatal to most vegetables, 270 6 165—Common, 674—solution sal of, -« 4 . : Salts, Du Hamel and Keith on, 117—found in eae, ib— utility of, Salvator Rosa, Samara, . Page Sambucus Nigra, 346 Samphire, : 404 Samydex, 645 Sandarac, 147 Sanguisorbex, 645 Santalacee, 612 Sap Vessels, 10—ascent of Sa 45—course of, 47—Amici’s experiments and observations, 48—Grew’s and those of others, 48, et seq.—Dutro- chet’s experiments, 49, 50, 51 —Transpiration in the ‘leaves, 51—Hales’ experiments, 52— results of these and other ex- periments, 53—Expiration, its nature explained and illus- trated, ib.—Excretion, ib.— perceptible perspiration, 53, 54—from the Lombardy Pop- lar, 54—descending Sap, its nature and peculiarities, ib.— general remarks, 55, 152 Sapan-wood, . « 498 Sapindacer, . 634 Sapotee, 621 Sappodilla Plum, 375 Sarcocarp, or Mesocarp, 91 Sarmentaceous Brey is 20 Sarsaparilla, 535 Sasiopetalee, 630 Sassafras, 535 Sauerkraut, 297-—preparation of, EA Saugur island, Saururee, . . 8 302 Saussure, ‘i » 109,115 Savin, Common, . 47 Savoy, 295 Saw-wort, Common, 519 Saxifragez, x 639 Scallop budding, 677 Scaly Stem, 20 Scammony, . a * 149, 539 Scandix’ Cerefolium, 291 Scape, 7 19 Schizopteris, c 655 Scorzonera, 306—medical pro- perties of, ib. es 306 Scotch Fir,’ 457 Scotch Pine, ib. Scrophularie, . 616 Scrophularine, 3 ib. Scurvy Grass, 3 300, 532 Sea on Climate, ‘ 159 Sea-catgut, . 184, 185 Sea Holly, 291 Sea Kale, 205 Sea Pea, 313 Sea-tangle, 185—uscd for food, 186, 190, 191 Sea-weed, or ” Ale, 184-ac- count of those used as food, in medicine, and the arts, 186—the different localities of, “ - 189,672 Seeds, podosperm of, 92—Seed and pericarp, distinetion, 93 —conveyauce of Seeds, 98— dispersion, 99—deposition, ib. fituess, ib.—Seeds on streams, rivers, Bes, ib.—form of Seeds, 10i—compressed Seeds, ib,— depressed, ib.—erect, ib.— reversed, ib.—base, ib.—oil of, ib. —nutriments of, ib.— character of, ib,—formation of, ib—oxygen on, 108— changes of, ib.—experiments on, 109—Seed transportation, 157—sowiug of, 675 Selaginites, ‘ 650 Semiamplexicaul Leaves, Be Semiligneous Stem, . 1g 718 Beminal Leaves, Principles, Scnebier, Senna, 540—the common blad- der Senna, 541 Sensibility of flowers to change of atmosphere, Sensitive Plant, 127—different species, extreme sensibility, cause of, how to rear the Plant, ‘ ‘ 604, 605 Sessile Glands, 1 Sexual System, 56, et! seq. —ob- jections to, 63, et seq. Shaddock, a ‘native of China, 34 Shallot, Fi . 268 Sheathing of Leaves, “39 Shrubs and Heaths, ornamental Rose, 598—Myrtle, 600—Jas- mine, ib.—Privet, ib.—Ber- berry, 601—Clematis, or Vir- gin’s Bower, ib. — Passion Flower, ib. —Honeysuckle, or Woodbine, 602—Lilac, ib.— Camellia, 603—J aponica, 604 —Laurestinus, ib.—Sensitive Plant, ib.—Rhododendron, 605—Heaths, r 606 Bickler, a German naturalist, labours of, 331 Bigilaria, 656, 65 ;9—Alternans, 660—Catenulata, ib —Ocu- lata, ib. oo ib.— Reniformis, 660 Siliacez, 202 Silica, 119 BSilique, or Pod, 96 Silk Cotton Tree, 409—where cultivated, varieties, 409 Silver Weed, 290 Simaruba, or w anges leaved Quassia, » bet Simaruber, 628 Simple Roots, 15 — Stem, ‘ ‘ 20 Sinapis Alba, 299—Nigra, 299 Sitaria Italica, (Italian Millct,) 228 Sium Sisarum, 289 Sium nodiflorum, 300 Size of Trees, 34 Skirret, 289-_change of taste for, 289 Sleep of Plants, 42 Slipper Worts, 593 ai propagating by, 33 Slit Vessels, or False Spirals ts structure, 8 ; 336 Smail Magnolia, 452 Smilacites, 654 Smith, 86 Smith, Sir J, E, 128 Smooth Elm, 432 Smut, ‘ 130 Snail Flower, 315 Snake’s Head, 575 Snake Root, Birth Wort, 536 Snakewood, . 479 Soda, 154 Soft Stem, 20 Soil formed by the continual decay of vegetables, 6, 158, 670—composition of, me water on Soils, 120—Siliea on, ib.—sand on, ib.—analysis of, ib. — draining, ib. —exhans- tion, ib,—repose on, 121—re- storation of, ib. — primary Soils, 670— artificial, ib.— parts of, ib. —qualities of, ib. —fertility of, ib. —absorption of, 670 Solanes, 617 INDEX. Page Solanum Tuberosum, 27]—Bel- ladonna, 271—ulcamara, ib. Hyosciamus, ib.—Lycopersi- eum, 380—Melongena, 380, 381—thiopicum, 380—So- domeum, 381—fables concern- ing, ib. ” accounts of, by Henry Teonge and Pocock, 381 Solid Stem, 20 Solomon, his treatise on vege- tables, 2 ee Soot, O74 Sorghum Vulgare, (pannicled millet,) 229 Sorrel, 309 Sour Sop, 375 Southern Wood, ‘ 526 Sowing Time, Heathen, 126 Sparmannia Africana, 82 Spallanzani, 83 Spartium Junceum, ib. Spadix, 73 Spearmint, 492 Spines, 45 Sphenopteris, 655 Sphenophyllum, 653 Spheeria nidula, ‘ 314 Bbice ‘Trees and Plants, 482 Spike, 72 Spinach, 303—localities of—ib. varieties of, ib.—wild Spin- ach, ib. —New Zealand a aa ach, 304 Spinacia oleracea, 303 Spireacee, 645 Spiral stem, 20 Spiral Vessels, ‘their structure, 8—-Grew and Malpighi’s opi- nions regarding them, ib.— Du Hamel’s idea of their form, ib.— Dr Thomson’, illus- tration, ib.—other opinions, ib, 9—Spiral Vessels of gar- den lettuce, 9— Artichoke, &e., ib. — Decandolle’s opi- nion, . 9 Splendid Cardinal Flow os 587 Spondiacer, 647 Spondias cytherea, é ord Spongiolcs, 16—as seen by the microscope, 16 Spotted- Barked Cotton, 409 Spregnel, 87 Spruces, 469—White, ‘Black, i 4 469 Squash, 379 Squill, jd4 Stable Dung, 674 Stamens, }2—Anther, Pollen, Filament, 67-66 Stapelias, 396—its cultivation, 56 Star Apple 375 Stem, 12, }9—of fungi, 19—of flowering vegetables, ib.—her- baceous, semiligneous, woody, solid, 20—fistulous, pithy, soft, sarmentaceous, simple, branched, ib.—dichotomous, trichotomous, vertical, pros- trate, creeping, tortuous, ib. —spiral, leaf-bearing, leafless, scaly, ib.—internal form of stems, ib—liber, epidermis, cuticle, ib, 22—outer and in- ner medulla, ib. 23—cam- bium, 22—wood medullary tube, pith, 23 — medullary rays, 24{—monocotyledonous stems, ib.—variety of woods, ib. 25—roots and stems, their difference, ib.—growth of the stem, 26-35—its different de- velopments, 26—growth in Page height, 29— stem of mono- cotyledonous trees, 30—cen- tral system of stems, ib.— engi system, ib, — inci- 7 sion, boring, girdlin by Skerrplaceae” ss 630 Sternbergia, 654 Stigma, 71, 72—utricles of the, 86 Stigmaria, 652—ficoides, 61 Stipe, its structure and charac- ter, i 19 Stipules, their structure, 44— their varieties, ib. 45—con- nate,axillar, foliaceous, mem- branous, or spinescent, ib.— their uses, ib.—tendrils, their structure and variety, ib.— claspers, and suckers, ib.— spines and prickles, ib.—their nature and peculiarities, ib.— cup of the nepenthes distilla- toria, its singular structure, 45 St John’s Bread, 386 — _ Wort, 513 Stock, ]9—its structure, 19 Stock Gilly Flower, 589—nu- merous species nee eulti- vated, 589, 590 Stomata, ‘ 10, 21 Storax, or Sty rax Tree, 150, 559 Strammonium, or Thorn Apple, 553 Strawberry, 338—historical no- tices of, ib.—varieties of 339— Alpine, ib.—manner of, culti- vation, ib.—soil requisite for, « . 389 Strawberry Pear, 364 Tre i 606 Striped Barked "isola: 440 Strobile, or Cone, 97 Strychnina, 142 Style, 71 Stylidies, . 623 Styracee, 621 Styrax, 150, 559 Succory, 308 Suckers, . 45 Suffocation, ‘ 132 Superfetation examples of, 85 Suri, 246 — Suri pots, 247 — manufacture of Suri, . 248 Sugar, 137 — account of the manufacture of, 238, 239— Sugar of the ancients, 249 Sugar cane, 24, 170—description of, 235—History of its culti- vation, and the manufacture of sugar, Sugar Maple, é Sumach, 519—Samach, Vene- tian, : Sumachinez, Summit, Sun- Flower, 168, Sunn, 420—Sce Indian ah Sutures Longitudinal, Sweet-Flag, — Violet, Swayne, Rev. G. plantation” ae filberts, Sycamore, « native: of ay Sychee Tea, Synantheresx, Synorhizous, . Tabernemontana, ‘Tacambae, . Tacia pinnatifida, Teenioptcris, Taliera palm, . 35. 239 428 es Gi 3 437 392 624 103 oo 14] 28 6544 25! Page T: aliput, . ‘ 259 Tallow, vegetable, produced from the piney tree, - 481 Tallow Bina, 3 477 - — 480 Tuitictad, $68—prepatations of Tamarinds, r 363 Tamarindus Indica, ¥ ib, T ‘amariscinee, : 644 ‘Tanner’s Bark, ‘ 672, 674 Tannin, ‘ 141 Tansy, 494 Tapioca, 285 Ht ‘ar, distillation of, 466 Taro, 264 Taxinese, 650 Taxites, . 653 Tea Tree, 166, 388—species of controversy ‘regarding, 389— where native, ib.—Tea pe- koe, ib.—Tea Teaves wlien gathered, ib—manner of pre- paring the leaves, 390—names of Tea, ib.—kinds of Tea, ib. —green Tea, ib.—Tea as used by the Chinese, ib.—when introduced into Europe, 391 —experiments of Dr Smith upon, ib.—Tea tracts, ib.—lo- calities of, ib.—mode of manu- facturing’ black Tea, 392— mode of manufacturing green Tea, 392—gathering of Tea, 393—cultivation of, in Assam, ib.—method of planting, 393 Teak Tree, ‘ » 450 Temperature, lay Tendrils, their structure and variety, . . : 4h Terebinthacese, 646 Terustreemiacee, 631 Terra del Fuego, extensive beds of the kelp plant at, 185 Testiculate Roots, . 465 Tetragonia a ial 304 Thea, 388 Theobroma cacao, 396 Theophrastus cultivates the science of Botany, 553 Thorn Apple, or Strammonium, 553 Thuytes, . 653 Thuja, é i . ib. Thyme, 492 Thymelez, . 612 Thyrsus, ie Ticks, 314 Tiger Lily, 577 Tiliaccee, 631 Timber Trees, 421 Tipula pennicornis, 88 Tissue of plants, cellular, 6 T= - vascular, ib., i0—Areolar, 7 Tobacco, 168—species of, 899— qualities of, 400—number of works written against the use of, ib.—the use of forbidden by various parties, ib.—whcre cultivated, ib.— manner of cultivating, ib.—manufacture of, ib.—use and abuse of, 401 Toddy, 246—derivation of, ib. Toddy drawer, ib. —manner of operating, x 246 Toddy Tope, é 243 To-kien, , . 889 Tolu, Balsam. of, 563—Tree which yields it, its qualities Q and uses ‘ ‘ 63 Tormentil, ss 530 Torypha Galiera, ‘ 259 Tournefort, the first successful classifier of plants, 172—ac- count of his system, 174, 175 INDEX, Page Tragacanth or Goat’s Horn, 537 Transpiration, 40—in the leaves of plants, 4 Transplanting, ‘ Tree, its wondrous a Re 1— stem, 12-19—leaves, 12-37 et seq. ~‘monocotyledonoustrees, 12—dicotyledonous, ib.—aco- tyledonous, ib.—baobob-tree, 13—trunk, 19, 20—stems, in- ternal form of, 20—wood, 23 —pith, ib. —medullary rays, 24—wood of various trees, &c. 24,'25—branches, 25—central system, cortical system, 30— grafting, 33—size of trees, 34 —the araucaria, ib. —Kauri pines, cedars of Lebanon, 35 —ineision, boring, girdling, ib.—ascent of sap, 45—trans- piration, and expiration, 51-53 —Trees of north and east, 160 —Timber Trees, 421—Trees shelter the soil, 433 Cotton Tree, 408—Medick aaa Trefoil, 8318—hop, Tremandree, Trembling Poplar, Trichotomous siLer Trifolium, . Trigonocarpum, Tripartite Leaf, Tripe de Roche, a species of li- chen, ] Tropeoler, True Service, ne a fungus, description of 675 ‘inmnl; 19—its structure, ib.— peculiar to dicotyledonous trees, 19 Tubercle, 36—simple, multiple, compound, 37 Tuberose, 578—when introduc- ed into England, how culti- vated, 578 Tuberous Roots, 14 Tubes, Simple, 7—their struc- ture, Tucuma or Grugra, 242—es- teemed a delicacy, 7 242 Tulip, Stigma of, 82—when brought into Europe, extra- vagant value affixed to cer- tain kinds, its varieties, the beau ideal of this flower, 570 —cultivation of the Tulip, 571, 572 Tulip Tree, 167, 453—its great. beauty and majestic 5 ae ance, 53 Turio or Subterranean Bud, 36 Turkey Oak, 427 Turk’s Cap, 363 Turk’s Cap Lily, 577 Turmeric, 518 Turnip, 292—known to the Ro- mans, 293—Roman method of cultivation supposed superior to that practised in modern times, ib.—cultivated in vari- ous countries, 293, 294—how used, 295—French. Turnip, 294 Turpentine, its varieties ue how obtained, Turpentine Tree, 388, 33 Typha, é Typhinee, apn Uimus, 652 Ulodendron, pe mbel, F ‘ Umbelliferse, 24, 285, 625...poi- 719 Page sonous, 285—poisonous qua- lity misaiate a culliva- tion, 285 Umbilicus. 10] Umbrella Tree, . 478 United States, veyetation of the, 167 Uredinee, a group of fungi, 192 Uredo faba, 314 Urine, 672 Urticeee, 82, 648 Uruq, ‘ «245 Utricular Glands, i ll Vaccinz, 622 Vaccinium Myrtillas, . 346 Valerian, 534 Valerianese 624 Valerians, Pappus ‘of, 93 Valisneria spiralis, peculiarity in the plant, 61 Valves, opening of, 93 Van Helmont, i Vanilla, 397—Aromatica, 897 Vascular Vessels or Tissues, 7— what they include, Vasculum or Botanical Box, 678 Vegetables, their importance and variety, 1—Solomon’s Treatise concerning them, ib. —knowledge of, amongst the Grecians, 2—Malpighi’s exa- minations of minute vegeta- bles, 3—wherein vegetables differ from minerals, 4—their vitality, ib.—matter of vege- tables and animals essentially the same, ib.—resemblance between animals and vegeta- bles, ib.—variety of vegeta- bles, 5—some only found in a fossil state, ib.—variety of size, ib. —mouldiness, ib.—uses of vegetable products to man, ib.—purify the atmosphere, ib.—convert inorganic matter into animal food, 6—coals, the remnant of ancient vegetation, ib.—soil formed by continual decay of vegetables, ib.—em- bryo of vegetables, 84—food of, 1l0—fed by water, 111— Vegetable extract experi- ments, 1]6—principles, 142— juice, 153--decomposition,155 —distribution, 158—marrow, 379—specimens, &e. 678 Velonian Oak, 427 Venetian Sumach, 517 Venules, 38 Venus Iy-trap, 127, 596—its singular structure, 597 Verbenaceze, f 618 Vertical Roots, 14 — Stem, 20 Verticillate Leaf, 39 Vervain, j . 91 Vesicular Glands, 11 Vessels, vascular, 7—bearded, 8 —punctuated, ib.—slit ves- sels, ib.—spiral, 8, 9—mixed, 9—sap vessels, 10—lympha- tics, ib.—air vessels, 10 Wis Bitter, 316—the chick- ‘a i view "Paba, 313—sylvatica, 314 eracca, ib.—sativa, 314 Vine, geographical limits of its cultivation, 162, 339—now cultivated does not belong to Europe, 340—by whom intro- duced into England, ib.—long lived, ib, localities of, 841 720 INDEX, Pag Page Page Vine, soil for the, 342—Vine at Water Trefoil or Buck eae 525 ; Winter Cherry, 88 Hampton Court, 343—Vine Wateana: 675 | Woad, 506—cultivation of the at Valentines, a 343 145 plant and manufacture of Vine-leaved Cotton, 409 Weather Glass, Poor Man’ 3, 124 woad, » 608 Vineyards, description of, 342 | Weeping Birch, a . 441 | Wolf’s Bane or t Monkshood, ” B55 Violariez, : 638 | Weeping Willow, 444 | Wood, 23—its varieties, 3 23 Violet, 586—its varieties and Weld or Dyer’s Weed, ‘BM Wood, 23—of the sugar cane, of their cultivation, 6, 587 cultivation of the plant, ib.— pines, 24—of oak, fir, 25 Virgil, a number of plants nam- its uses as a dye, 515 | Wood Ashes, 672, 674 ed by } him, . Wheat, germination of, 108— Woodbine, ‘ 602 Virgin’s Bower, - 601 geographical distribution of, Woodroof, 592 Viridis, 389 208—winter Wheat, ib. Woody Roots, 14 Vitality, vegetable, 122“ theo- —spring Wheat, ib. —Egyp- — Stem, 19 ries of, ib. nee of, 23 tian or many-spiked Wheat, — Fibre, 15k Vitis Vinifera, . 339 209—spelt Wheat, ib.—one- Wormwood, 527 Viviparous Plants, 37 seeded Wheat, ib.—produce Wort, the name applied to malt Volkmannia, 656 of Wheat, 210~—modes of cul- liquors before iermeutation, 217 Voltiza, 653 tivating Wheat, ib.—process Wych E 432 of baking wheat flour, 211 Wake Robin, 264 | White Ash, ‘ . 436 mies . 628 Wall Flower, 590 _- Bay, 452 Wallichiez, 631 — Beech, 434 | Yam, 263—winged, 263 Walnut, 162, 165, 382—locali- — Cedar, 475 | Yarrow or Millfoil, 556 ties of, ib._when introduced — Lily, 566 | Yeast, . 672 into England, ib—used in — Oak, 429 | Yellow Nuphar, 597 cooking by the Spaniards, ib. — Pine, 466 — Pine, 465 —used by the Gypsies, ib.— — Poplar, 444 — _ Willow, 444 manner of propagating, ib.— Willow ib. | Yew Tree, 473—its name de- ced Pa 383—Penn- Ww hortleberry, 16] rived, various uses, 473 sylvai 383 | Willow, 444 numerous varie Ward’ 8 Portable Conservatory, 682 ties, a native of Europe, cul- Zamia, 653 Water, 105 tivation of, and its uses, 444, Zea Mayz, (Maize 0 or Indian _ Cress, F 299 445—used in manufacture of Corn,) F 224 — Lily, 597...its varieties, 597 charcoal, Zeugophyllites, 654 — Melon, 6, 879 Willow, Weeping, 166 | Zizyphus Jujuba, 371 — Ranunculus, 573 — uses 430 | Zosterites, 654 to which applied, 573 Winter, Effects al, 126 | Zygophylier, 628 GLASGOW : W. G, BLACKIE AND CO., PRINTERS, VILLAFIPLD.