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ective devices

QUEEN’S
QUARTERLY

JULY, AUGUST, SEPTEMBER, 1909.

PAGE

1. THE POETRY OF SWINBURNE, c2ccesscxonssaneuaas I
Joun F. MAcponatp, Queen’s University.

2, FROM BAUDELAIRE’S LES FLEURS DU MAL...... 7

Translated by Lors SAUNDERS, Queen’s University.

3. FOR THE GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF CANADA.... 9

3a. P eee aed eo Ottawa. rue a ID
4. OUR INTER FIONAL BousibiRy faa oun ween eens 23

Justice J. J. Mactaren, Toronto.
& -SGIENTIPIC. (INOIES:. 6a ence setid were oe dcarnoremeseeias 28
The Accident of Temperature. A. L. C.

A Problem in Education. W. C. B.
Cellulose and Some of Its Uses. W. O. W.

6. “WHOATUS IN’ A. NAME ? oiscis oe co wdieie qnste gis ore ti dietaneararenmaacins 44
J. M. Lanos, Royal Military College.

J. EARLY ROMAN RELIGION cessccaccemseeseseaoores 58
P. G. C. CampseLt, Queen’s University.

8. ULTIMATE POL EEICS oc itiwicmasy ae aire meniniee creas 70

E. W. THomson, Ottawa.

C. Freperick Hamizton, Ottawa.

* * * Ottawa.

O. D. SKELTON, Queen’s University.

9. CURRENT EVENTS ...... Petes Meer eaeweeReNS 83

Higher Criticism and the People; Queen’s and the General
_ Assembly, W. G. Jorpan, Queen’s University.

PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHING COMMITTEE OF QUEEN’s QUARTERLY,
Queen’s University, Kinaston, Canapa.

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Entered according to Act of Parliament, in the year one thousand nine hundred and seven,
by the Publishing Committee of Queen’s Quarterly in the office of the
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"T HERE are few national institutions of more value and interest to the country than the

Royal Military College of Kingston. At the same time its object and the work it is
accomplishing are not sufhciently understood by the general public.

The College is a Government institution designed primarily for the purpose of giving
the highest technical instructions in all branches of military science to cadets and_ofti-
cers of Canadian Militia. In fact, it is intended to take the place in Canada of the Eng-
lish Woolwich and Sandhurst and the American West Point.

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Imperial army, lent for the purpose, and in addition there is a complete staff of professors

for the civil subjects which form such a large proportion of the College course. Medical
attendance is also provided.

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Jects that are essential to a high and general modern education.

_The course in mathematics is very complete and a thorough grounding is given in the
' subjects of Civil! Enginecring, Civil and Hydrographic Surveying, Physics, Chemistry, French
( and English.

q 5 The strict discipline maintained at the College is one of the most valuable features of
the system.

In addition, the constant practice of gymnastics, drills and outdoor exercises of all
kinds, ensures good health and fine physical condition.

Seven commissions in His Majesty's regular army are annually awarded as prizes to
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Three Commissions in the Permanent Force will be given annually, should vacancies
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year:

One in the Engineers and one in the Horse Artillery.

One in the Cavalry or Mounted Rifles and one in the Garrison Artillery.

Further, every three years a Commission in the Ordnance Corps will be given to the
graduating class. a

Three second class clerkships, or appointments with equivalent pay, will be offered
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Public Works, Railways and Canals, Inland Revenue, Agriculture and Interior.

The length of the course is three years, in three terms of nine and one-half months’
residence each.

The total cost of the three ycars’ course,including board, uniforms, instructional mate-
rial, and all extras, is from $750 to $800.

The annual competitive examination for admission to the College will take place at
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each year.

d Tor full particulars of this examination or for any other information, application should
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EPRI ERRW ERIN RWYIICR ICO?

} When writing Advertisers kindly mention Queen’s Quarterly.

C26 S26 UE RLY, CF RIE

G

Copyright Hollyer, Photograph.
ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE, 1861,

FROM THE PAINTING BY DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI,

Queen’s Quarterly.

Vol. XVII July, August, September. No. 1

THE POETRY OF SWINBURNE.

HE death of Algernon Charles Swinburne in April called forth
lengthy and eulogistic notices from papers of every shade of
opinion. He was referred to in the tone one uses of a classic as ‘ the
last great Victorian,’ ‘ the last great poet of the nineteenth century,’
‘the sole surviving giant of the race of Titans.’ In view of this gen-
eral recognition of his high rank as poet, a brief account of his life
and work is not untimely.

Swinburne was born in 1837 of wealthy and aristocratic family,
his mother a daughter of the Earl of Ashburnham, his father an
admiral in the British navy and son of a rich north country baronet.
After the usual education of the British aristocrat at Eton and Ox-
ford, he made a long tour of the continent. While he did not take
a degree from the university, he was considered a good scholar,
especially in the classical languages. As early as 1849 poems signed
A.C. S. had begun to appear in Fraser’s Magazine, and so competent
a judge as Mr. Edmund Gosse declares they are undoubtedly Swin-
burne’s. His first serious effort, however, was not made till 1860,
when he published his two plays, ‘Rosamund’ and ‘The Queen
Mother.’ They were practically unnoticed by the literary world.
In 1865 came ‘ Atalanta in Calydon’ and ‘ Chastelard,’ the first part
of the colossal trilogy on Mary Stuart. No young poet ever met
with more flattering recognition. The early reviews of Tennyson’s
work are cold and critical in comparison with the praise and wonder
that filled the English literary journals at the strange, new music of
the choruses in ‘ Atalanta.’ And indeed it is not surprising that such
a lyric as the chief Huntsman’s prayer should have delighted the
ears of England.

2 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

“When the hounds of Spring are on Winter’s traces,

The Mother of Months in meadow or plain :
Fills the shadows and windy places

With lisp of leaves and ripple of rain;

And the bright brown nightingale amorous

Is half assuaged for Itylus,

For the Thracian ships and the foreign faces,

The tongueless vigil and all the pain.”

The alliteration and luxuriant diction were but the defects of youth-
ful work and it was thought that the poet would learn to prune the
too numerous shoots of his fancy as Tennyson had his early style
of ‘ double-shotted’ adjectives. In 1866 the first series of ‘ Poems
and Ballads ’ was published under the title of ‘ Laus Veneris.’ It is
perhaps not too much to say that no volume of verse before or since
has caused such an uproar among the critics. The majority of them
declared that several of the poems, notably ‘ Laus Veneris,’ ‘ Anac-
toria, and ‘ Dolores,’ were positively indecent, not fit to be read by
any respectable person. Naturally enough the book ran through
seven editions within a year.

Mazzini is credited with turning Swinburne’s energies from the
praise of women’s love to what may be called the second period of
his poetic activity. The Italian patriot asked the young poet why he
did not sing the greater love—the love of liberty. Swinburne re-
sponded with a series of volumes devoted to the praise of liberty
and its leaders, Mazzini and Garibaldi. ‘ A Song of Italy,’ 1867, was
followed by the ‘Ode on the Proclamation of the French Republic,’
1870, and ‘ Songs before Sunrise,’ 1871. With the death of Mazzini
in 1872 this period of Swinburne’s work may be said to close, for the
‘Songs of Two Nations,’ 1875, is largely a reprint of poems pub-
lished before. Undoubtedly these revolutionary odes represent, not
inadequately, the widespread unrest in European political ideas about
the year 1870. For the modern reader, however,
intellectual passion for republicanism has little interest.
ing stanza of an ‘ Ode on the Insurrection in Canada’
istic of this group of poems:

“T laid my laurel leaf
At the white feet of Grief,
Seeing how, with covered f
With unreverted head
ba as one who mourns his’ dead
ay Freedom, couched bet t ci
A wearied lion without aa ue slings at ace
And bleeding from base wounds, and vexed with alien air
From the publication of ‘ Bothwell,’ in 1874, Swinburne’s chief
effort in poetry has been dramatic. In addition to the 400 pages of

their purely
The open-
is character-

ace and plumeless wings,

THE POETRY OF SWINBURNE. 3

Bothwell we find Mary Stuart, 1881, ‘Marino Faliero, 1885, and
‘Locrine,’ 1887. In all there are ten plays in the six thick volumes
of his collected poetry. Only one of them, Locrine, has ever been
put on the stage, and, as an eminent critic who was present on the
occasion has said, it was not so unsuccessful as one might have
expected. The plays are written to be read, not to be acted, and
show not the faintest trace of being influenced by the modern realist
school. Of course these last thirty years of the poet’s life were not
given solely to the drama. Indeed the volume of his lyrical poetry
written since 1874 is as great as the whole production of many of
our English poets. In addition to these hastily enumerated plays
and lyrics there is one long epic, Tristram of Lyonesse, a poem that
has many short passages of singular beauty but is woefully lacking
in interest as a story.

One hesitates to say anything that will seem discordant with
the general praise of the dead poet, especially since it was he who
said, ‘I have never been able to see what should attract men to the
profession of criticism but the noble pleasure of praising.’ And yet
one must point out that no poet has done more to divorce poetry
from life and from the respect of the ordinary man. This is due, I
think, to two causes, to Swinburne’s amazing detachment from the
ordinary interests of life and to his conception of what constitutes
great poetry.

His detachment from the ordinary interests of life is the result
of his temperament and circumstances, and still more of his associa-
tion with the pre-Raphaelite group, especially with Morris and Ros-
setti. Perhaps his early recognition and present reputation are also
to some extent the result of that association, for one has only to look
over old files of the ‘ Athenaeum’ to see how a small group of pre-
Raphaelites, forming what a cynic might call a Mutual Admiration
Society, Limited, practically controlled its literary judgments from
1865 on, and persistently praised each other’s work.

His theory of poetry was a natural outcome of this association
and of his own temperament. In his essay on Wordsworth and
Byron he holds “that the two primary and essential qualities of
poetry are imagination and harmony; that where these qualities are
wanting there can be no poetry, properly so called; and that where
these qualities are perceptible in the highest degree, there, even
though they should be unaccompanied and unsupported by any other
great quality whatever—even though the ethical or critical faculty

4 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

should be conspicuous by its absence—there and only there is the
best and highest poetry.” What is the result if we apply even this
limited canon to his own poetry? The sensuous imagery of the lines
quoted above from the ‘ Ode on the Insurrection in Canada,’ is a fair
specimen of his imagination just as the stanza from ‘ Atalanta’ is a
fine illustration of his music. That its melody is fresh and captivat-
ing no one can deny; whether the quality of harmony is present in
the highest degree anyone with an ear can decide for himself by
turning from it to read aloud the first twenty-five lines of ‘ Paradise
Lost.’ Listen to the passage:
‘if Sion hill

Delight thee more, and Siloa’s brook that flow’d

Fast by the oracle of God,’
and then to this other:

‘And chiefly thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer

Before all temples th’ upright heart and pure,
Instruct me, for thou know’st.’

A new stop in the organ has been pulled out and the deeper tone is
in exact accord with the more solemn thought. In Swinburne’s verse
the melody is generally independent of the thought and runs through
stanza after stanza with almost exactly the same effect, the only dif-
ference being that it is d’s and f’s and b’s instead of l’s and m’s and
r’s that are used for the ever present alliteration. Some of his
stanzaic forms, for instance the one he invented for the ‘ Eve of
Revolution,’ are used in poem after poem till there are several hun-
dred stanzas, each so exact a reproduction of the melody of every
-other that we get the impression of their being produced by a kind
of glorified gramophone. A single stanza or couplet is striking, even
astonishing, in its beauty of sound and imagety, for instance the
couplet,

‘And hushed the torrent-tongued ravines
With thunders of our tambourines,’
or,

‘With Death for helmsman and Despair for star,

And the white foam to cover the White Tsar.’
Yet each loses much when read in its context, just because it is only
one of many couplets equally brilliant and equally mechanical. It is
bare justice, however, to say that they are constructed by the most
scientific master of metre in the long roll of English poets.

Great poetry must have something more than harmony and
imagination, certainly much more than brilliant metrical effects and
sensuous imagery. As Arnold long ago pointed out, poetry is the

THE POETRY OF SWINBURNE. 5

most effective way of saying a thing. Fancy anyone trying to put
into prose all that is expressed in ‘ Break, Break, Break,’ or ‘ Tears,
Idle Tears! Now, in far too much of his work Swinburne is writ-
ing verse without having anything to say—there is no solid basis of
thought. Of course I am not arguing that a poem must have a
moral that can be twisted into a lesson, though it would be difficult
to write a poem that could escape the ingenuity of a certain type of
reader. I remember once hearing a Public School Inspector say at
a Teachers’ Association that Wordsworth’s ‘We Are Seven’ could
be very well used to teach children that they should keep graves
clean. Yet even the reader who cannot agree with my inspector de-
mands thought and feeling as well as melody in the poetry he reads.
So when he turns from ‘ Scots Wha Hae’ and Byron’s ‘Isles of
Greece,’ lyric poems which give perfect expression to noble thoughts
that are surcharged with emotion, when he turns from poems like
these to ‘A Song in Time of Order,’ or ‘ Tiresias,’ or ‘The Halt
before Rome,’ or ‘ The Song of Italy,’ I venture to think he will
disagree with Mr. James Douglas, who writes in the Athenaeum of
April 17th that these “and many another incendiary ode and sonnet
will be read when the French Revolution is a wraith of history and
United Italy a ghost of politics.” That seems extravagant of such
verse as:
“When the devil’s riddle is mastered
And the galley-bench creaks with a Pope,
We shall see Buonaparte the bastard
Kick heels with his throat in a rope.’

A large proportion, a very large proportion, of Swinburne’s
poetry has the love of man and woman for its subject. I have space
for only one poem, ‘ The Oblation,’ but it is pronounced by one of
the critics ‘the greatest love song in the language.’ ‘Here, if any-
where, we expect, besides imagination and harmony, at least emo-
tion:

‘Ask nothing more of me sweet:
All I can give you, I give.
Heart of my heart were it more,
More would be laid at your feet;
Love that should help you to live,
Song that should spur you to soar.

All things were nothing to give,
Once to have sense of you more,
Touch you and taste of you sweet,
Think you and breathe you, and live,
Swept of your wings as they soar,
Trodden by chance of your feet.

6 QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

I that have love and no more

Give you but love of you, swect,
He that hath more, Ict him give;
He that hath wings, let him soar;
Mine is the heart at your fect :
Here, that must love you to live.

The reader who cares to do so will find it interesting to com-
pare with this Shelley’s well-known lines, beginning, ‘ One word is
too often profaned.’ It is in a similar ecstatic strain. With the
music of ‘ Annie Laurie’ in my ears, I am not so sure that ‘ The
Oblation’ is our greatest love song. I confess it leaves me cold.
And perhaps the fatal objection to the great bulk of Swinburne’s
poetry is just that—it leaves you cold. You admire the exquisite
workmanship, but your feelings are not touched.

Yet within a certain limited range of subjects, Swinburne has
the power to move the heart. Perhaps the only point where he
touches the ordinary interests of life is in his memorial verses. The
short poem, ‘In Memory of Walter Savage Landor,’ is absolutely
sincere and, in my opinion, worth a whole volume of such elaborately
wrought verse as the much praised ‘ Ave atque Vale.’ But there are
very few of his numerous elegies that at all approach it in depth of
feeling. What we may call his sea poetry forms a much larger sec-
tion of work that is profoundly felt and wonderfully expressed.
Scattered throughout his poems are numberless references to the sea
and in them all is the note of sincerity, the true Norseman's love of
the ocean. We can almost feel ‘the salt sweet foam on our lips’ as
we push out

“Tn the teeth of the hard glad weather,
In the blown wet face of the Sea.’

It is in a third region still more remote from the ordinary in-
terests of men that Swinburne is greatest. In what we might call
the poetry of desolation, almost of despair, he is supreme. There is
nothing in the language to put beside such poems as ‘ The Garden
of Proserpine ’ and ‘ A Forsaken Garden.’ The strange, morbid feel-
ing for death and the sombre, haunting melody combine to produce
an effect of utter sadness almost beyond the reach of expression.

’

‘From too much love of living,
From hope and fear set free,
We thank with brief thanksgiving

Whatever gods may be,
That no life lives forever;
That dead men rise up never;
That even the weariest river
Winds somewhere safe to sea.’

THE POETRY OF SWINBURNE. 7

The following stanza from ‘A Forsaken Garden’ is an even better

example of what I mean:

‘ All are at one now, roses and lovers,
Not known of the cliffs and the fields and the sea.
Not a breath of the time that has been hovers
In the air now soft with a summer to be.
Not a breath shall there,sweeten the seasons hereafter
Of the flowers or the lovers that laugh now or weep,
When as they that are free now of weeping and laughter
We shall sleep.

Is there not something more than harmony and imagination in
these stanzas, and is not this the class of his poetry that has the best
chance of surviving? There is much of Swinburne’s poetry that we
cannot afford to lose. Hence his admirers should hasten the day
when it will be possible to get the best of his lyrics in such an edition
as one of the Golden Treasury Series. What his place in English
poetry will be, it is too early to decide. One need not be a prophet,
however, to predict that he will be a ‘ poet’s poet,’ perhaps even
more, a ‘ poetaster’s poet,’ a perfect treasure-house for the puzzled
rhymster of whom he will be at once the envy and the despair.

J. F. Macponacp.

FROM “LES FLEURS DU MAL.”

Once, only once, beloved and gentle lady,
Upon my arm you leaned your arm of snow,
And on my spirit’s background, dim and shady,
That memory flashes now.

The hour was late, and like a medal gleaming,
The full moon showed her face,

And the night’s splendour, over Paris streaming,
Filled every silent place.

Along the houses, in the doorways hiding,
Cats passed with stealthy tread

And listening ear, or followed slowly gliding,
Like ghosts of dear ones dead.

QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

Sudden, amid our frank and free relation,
Born of that limpid light,

From you, rich instrument, whose sole vibration
Was radiancy and delight,

From you, joyous as bugle-call resounding
Across the sparkling morn,

With sharp and faltering accent, strangely sounding,
Escaped one note forlorn.

Like some misshapen infant, dark, neglected,
Its kindred blush to own,

And long have hidden, by no eye detected,
In some dim cave unknown.

Your clashing note cried clear, poor, prisoned spirit,
That nothing in this world is sure, or fast,

And that man’s selfishness, though decked as merit,
Betrays itself at last.

That hard the lot to be a Queen of beauty,
And all is fruitless, like the treadmill toil

Of some paid dancer, fainting at her duty,
Still with her vacant smile.

That if one build on hearts, ill shall befal it —
That all things crash, and love and beauty flee;
Until Oblivion flings them in his wallet,
The spoil of Eternity.

Oft have I called to mind that night enchanted,
The silence and the languor over all;
And that wild confidence, thus harshly chanted
At the heart’s confessional.
—Charles Baudelaire.
Translated by Lois Saunders.

FOR THE GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF CANADA.

N the first book of Paradise Lost, where the poet, with all his
wealth of imagery, so graphically describes a great council of
war, he calls up one
“Whose delightful seat
Was fair Damascus, on the fertile banks
Of Abbana and Pharphar, lucid streams.”

The reference to these clear and limpid waters suggests a pair
of well-known rivers in the Northland of Ontario, one of which, at
least, is famous as providing the best trout fishing in the world, and
whose district has recently obtained an additional prominence in
having contributed to the Parliament of Cauada at the session just
closed a measure which has created the highest interest, not only in
the House but throughout the country, and particularly in the pro-
vince of Ontario.

At a point some forty or fifty miles to the westward of the twin
towns of Port Arthur and Fort William, the Pigeon River, an inter-
national stream. discharges the waters of Rainy Lake and of the
upper northwestern country into Lake Superior; and into the same
lake, but eastward from the twin towns about sixty miles or so, the
Nipigon River carries the clearer and colder waters of Lake Nipigon
and its tributaries.

The Pigeon and Nipigon Rivers are the “lucid streams” of the
electoral district of Thunder Bay and Rainy River, and, for the past
three years this district has continued to furnish the basis for a series
of most important debates in the Senate and Commons of Canada
touching the relation and attitude which the Federal power should
bear toward “ Provincial Rights.”

It is common knowledge that, when Confederation was proposed
and discussed among the provinces, Sir John Macdonald’s idea was
that there should be but one legislative authority in Canada, and he
inclined to the view that the union might be known among the
nations as “ The Kingdom of Canada.’ Lord Derby in the British
House, however, when the British North America Act was under
consideration there, settled upon “ Dominion of Canada” as more
in keeping, doubtless, with the idea of a federation, and, perhaps,
with some recognition or knowledge of the spirit of the previous

4

10 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY,

discussions at Charlottetown, Quebec, gnd elsewhere in Canada.

The conferences at Charlottetown and Quebec in the autumn of
1864, when the American Civil War was just over, were influenced
by the impression that the recent difficulties in the United States
arose over a weakness in its constitution whcreby the individual
states maintained a preponderance of power over the federal govern-
ment. Hence the Canadian Confederation was designed to work out
in the opposite direction, making the provincial legislatures subordi-
nate to Parliament, and reserving for the federal authority all powers
not expressly given to local governments.

And while, because of the apparently larger influence of such
men as Sir John Macdonald and Dr. Tupper, the Federal note was
accentuated, there was, nevertheless, the distinct compact that the
provinces and the integrity of their law-making power and control
should be fully respected and safe-guarded. When, therefore, the
Act was passed, and the constitution of Canada was born, a most
express distribution of legislative powers was to be found in The
British North America Act under sections 91, 92, and 93. With
section 93, dealing with the subject of Education, we are not here
concerned. Upon the stage of constitutional interpretation both in
and out of Parliament this section has already provided a very con-
siderable amount of entertainment, and its day is not yet over. Sec-
tions 91 and 92, over the meaning and application of which the
troublesome question of “ Provincial Rights” has everywhere
arisen, set forth the powers exclusively assigned to Parliament and
to the Provincial Legislatures respectively. Local Works and Un-
dertakings come under section 92 except

“Such works as although wholly situate within the province are be-
fore or after their execution declared by the Parliament of Canada
to be for the general advantage of Canada.”

A brief but interesting resume of some leading forms of the
“Provincial Rights’? question arising out of particular circum-
stances in the various provinces may be found in a speech of the
Honourable G. W. Ross in the Senate of Canada during the session
of 1907-1908, where he states that federation began in a “ storm of
provincial objections” to the encroachments of federal influence.
Nova Scotia was indignant because the federation scheme had not
been referred to that Province for ratification. New Brunswick
was early up in arms over the right to a separate school system there.
Manitoba lived through a rebellion in 1869-1870 because half-breed

THE GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF CANADA. It

tights were not respected, and the Northwest Territories had a simi-
lar rebellion in 1885. British Columbia threatened to secede because
the railway construction contract, if it may be so called, was violated.
Quebec was greatly disturbed in 1889 over the Jesuits’ Estates Bill.
Ontario has been aroused on various occasions, and the Boundary
Award, the Rivers and Streams Bill, the ownership of timber and
minerals on Crown lands, and several other questions of large im-
portance have been fought from court tc court and settled on final
appeals before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council where,
with some clearness and accuracy, and after the expenditure of an
enormous amount of money and energy, certain rules have been es-
tablished determining the extent of provincial jurisdiction and the
limits of federal control.

The general rule of law established by the Privy Council under
Section 92 dealing with the exclusive powers of the province has de-
termined that the British North America Act

“Conferred powers, not in any sense to be exercised by delegation
from, or as agents of, the Imperial Parliament, but authority as
plenary and ample—within the limits prescribed by Section 92—as
the Imperial Parliament in the plentitude of its powers possessed
and could bestow. Within these limits of subject and area, the
Local Legislature is supreme, and it has the same authority as the
Imperial Parliament, or the Parliament of the Dominion, would
have under like circumstances.”

History repeats itself in curious ways. The Fathers of the
American Constitution, following a period of war and strife, and,
thinking to avoid what seemed to them weaknesses in the English
Constitution, framed a measure that has signally failed in one im-
portant respect to produce the end they thought most desirable of
accomplishment; and, in much the same way, some of the Fathers
of the Canadian Constitution, who had contended for the idea of
provincial subordination, begotten also of a time when strife and
warfare seemed to have exposed the true inwardness of things, lived
to see that their experiment in nation founding produced results, in
some respects, exactly the opposite to what. they had expected to
attain.

The decided cases under the Britisl. North America Act estab-
lish two further propositions. The first is, that, where Parliament
enacts, for example, the Railway Act, such an act carries with it the
right to the enforcement of all necessary incidental powers appur-
tenant to the main measure, although the exercise of these powers
may operate as a direct interference with “ Property and Civil

QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

Rights,” a subject of legislative control belonging exclusively to the

provinces under the constitution. And the second proposition set-
tled by a recent Privy Council decision cumes to us in this way:

oh domain in which Provincial and Dominion legis-

lation sche Soa in which case neither legislation will be ultra

eee : 4 : ; h
vires if the field is clear, and that if the field is not clear and in suc
a domain the two legislations meet, then the Dominion legislation

must prevail.”

Such, generally, without going too tar afleld, are some of the
leading conclusions of the rule of law under our constitution. The
rule of law is a definite one. In its working out it comes from what
might be called a secondary process, because acts of legislatures
must first exist‘ before courts are called upon to interpret them.
When, however, the rule of law is fixed, it is an indication to the
future legislator as to the meaning of his proposed measures, and
may be invoked in debate as a warning against the creation of a pos-
sible conflict between two legislative realms. The rule of law does
not determine what ought to be the rule of policy, and the rule of
policy is a very unsettled one in Canada and perhaps in the nature
of things must so remain.

In the session of 1906-1907 the member for the electoral district
of Thunder Bay and Rainy River came down to Parliament as the
promoter of a bill to incorporate the Port Arthur Power and De-
velopment Company, dealing with various power rights on the
Pigeon, Nipigon, and other rivers, seeking to dispose of surplus
power to the United States, with a view toward reviving once more
the discontinued mines at Isle Royale in Lake Superior within
American territory, and asking that the works and undertakings of
the Company should be declared to be “ for the general advantage
of Canada” on the ground that the Pigeon River is an international
stream, and the Nipigon River is a navigable stream, over which
Dominion rights of navigation should prevail, making altogether
such a set of circumstances, it was argued, as would remove the
legislation necessarily beyond the provincial field.

The Bill was introduced in the Senate, and, having been exten-
sively discussed in committee, was reported favorably. Some re-
quests for railway legislation, also seeking the statutory declaration
of “ general advantage,” may have stirred up the Senate more than
usual ; and, while the Port Arthur Company’s bill was going through
its stages, a most important resolution was presented to the upper

THE GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF CANADA. 13

house by Senator David, containing four propositions which are
worthy of attention and are as follows:

“1. The Senate will insist upon the application of Section 92 of

the British North America Act of 1867, in accordance with the spirit

and true intent of that section, to the end that the exclusive powers

of the Legislatures of the Provinces of Canada may be protected
and preserved

“2. The Senate will not consider the mere insertion in a bill of
a declaration that the work is for the general advantage of Canada,
to be, in itself, sufficient foundation for the exercise of the legisla-
tive authority of the Parliament of Canada.

“3. The Senate will not pass any bill containing a declaration
that a local work or undertaking is for the general advantage of
Canada, or for the advantage of two or more of the provinces, until
the truth of that declaration has been proved.

“4. The Senate will not consider the presence in a bill of clauses
relating to subjects within the legislative authority of the Parliament
of Canada, to be in itself sufficient reason for the enactment of
other clauses relating to subjects not within that authority.”

The two leading speeches in support of these resolutions were
made by Senator David and the Honourable G. W. Ross, and are
instructive and illuminating contributions to the discussion of this
difficult subject. The inferences to be drawn from the debate are
chiefly three. The first is that, to the Senate, was given the right by
the Fathers of Confederation to protect Provincial Rights, as it was
repeatedly stated in the debates at that time that the removal of that
body from direct connection with the turmoil of party strife and its
opportunity for more deliberate action than the House of Commons
could afford ought to put the upper house in a position to give the
protection desired. In the second place, for a great many years, and
chiefly since 1883, that the use of the statutory declaration com-
plained of had been extended in directions never anticipated when
the British North America Act was passed. And, thirdly, that the
clear and express compact of Confederation, providing for the integ-
rity of provincial autonomy, was being more and more endangered
in successive Parliaments. Not a member raised his voice against
the resolutions and on a vote being taken in a house of forty-nine
there was only one dissentient—Senator Sullivan of Kingston.

However, within a few days of its decision, the Senate passed the
bill incorporating the Port Arthur Power and Development Com-
pany. When the bill came down to the Commons, the interference
of other measures and the lateness of the session prevented its being
fully considered and it failed to become law.

In the next session, 1907-1908, the power rights on the Pigeon
and Nipigon Rivers were again presented for Parliamentary consid-

14 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

eration, the company this time figuring under the name of “ The
Ontario and Michigan Power Company.” Again the upper house
was first honored with a request to pass upon the bill. But whether
because the Senate, in its wisdom, endeavored to carry out the Teso-
lutions of the previous year, or whether for other reasons, which
need not here be entered into, the bill was defeated in committee, and
“the general advantage of Canada” lost another example of the
sort of violation which the spirit of the clause has so frequently
undergone.

The same session also witnessed some memorable contests over
two railway charters—those of the Niagara, St. Catharines and To-
ronto Railway Company and the Hamilton Radial Railway Com-
pany—both of them Ontario concerns. The battle raged in these
cases over the more or less direct interference with municipal rights.
But, by this time, members of Parliament, and the public generally,
had become alive to the value of the Federal Railway Commission,
with wide powers controlled by capable Commissioners whose policy
has been to be fair to the railways without neglecting in the least
the interests of the province, the municipality and the individual.
Since 1883, when, for the first time, certain railways were declared
to be works for the general advantage of Canada, so as to settle and
strengthen the charters of the leading trunk lines, various provincial
railways have come to Ottawa asking to be made Federal corpora-
tions. While there.was, therefore, much opposition to the Niagara
and the Hamilton Radial bills, yet the idea is obtaining in some quar-
ters that if some working plan could be devised so as to bring the
railway system of the country under the control of the Commission
we might be saved from many of the difficulties that beset our south-
ern neighbors, and, in the end, be enabled to deal much more fairly
by the railways.

Whatever may be said in favor of raising provincial railways
into the federal field, by having them declared to be for the general
advantage of Canada, it is not by any means clear that other cor-
porations should be so freely dealt with.

It might be here observed that, sometimes, unfortunately, party
passion, or unthinking prejudice, may tend to defeat the most
reasonable applications. In such a session as that of 1907-1908, in
the face of an approaching general election, when ammunition sea
incidentally being manufactured for every variety of spellbinder all
over Canada, the discussion over applicant corporations for the sta-
tutory declaration occasionally gave rise to extravagant attitudes and

THE GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF CANADA. 15

ridiculous attempts to defeat perfectly meritorious measures. For
instance, the government of Ontario intimated that, if Parliament
persisted in allowing the declaration in favor of undertakings appar-
ently otherwise provincial, it would set abou: repealing forthwith all
the powers previously given by Ontario to such Corporations. , And
so, in regard to a company in the same session, backed by a very
large investment of capital in southern British Columbia seeking
booming privileges on a navigable river, in the Dominion railway
belt, a certain section of the Senate became alarmed, and almost
stampeded, over the idea of interference with “ Provincial Rights,”
not, perhaps, in this case entirely oblivious of political considerations.
After the bill on its first presentation had been defeated in commit-
tee, and a debate in the Senate had arisen on the necessity for sending
it back for reconsideration, one Senator spent the most of an after-
noon discussing a point of order so as to defeat the sending back of
the bill; and, when it was reconsidered by committee favorably and
again reported to the House, he spent the larger part of another
afternoon trying to have the constitutionality of the measure referred
to the judges of the Supreme Court for an opinion, a very naive at-
tempt to give the bill the six months’ hoist, as the Supreme Court
had adjourned a month or so previously, and would not meet again
until October.

In the session just ended our old familiar friend—The Ontario
and Michigan Power Company—again came storming the federal
citadel, directing its engines of war against the bulwarks of the
House of Commons. The Nipigon Rivet was explored from its.
source to its mouth; the Pigeon River and its international aspects,
and the international qualities of the head waters and upper reaches
and tributaries of both streams, were powerfully described, and
members must have longed to get away and enjoy the cheering in-
fluences of those delightful waters, where yet, however, winter was
lingering in the lap of spring.

The old, old battle between the Province of Ontario and the Do-
minion of Canada was renewed in all its fierceness, and the debate is
of more than usual value because the horizon was cleared of election
clouds and the question was considered on its merits. A quiet and
independent consideration of the measure, as asked, would lead one
to think that the promoter could obtain much more than he even-
tually received even under the Ontario Companies’ Act, without re-
ference to any legislature.

16 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

There was a fierce discussion in committee over the see a
Ontario Government sent leading counsel to protest against : ee
visions. The Toronto Globe furiously attacked “Mr. Conmees 11
Bill,” and severely criticized the committee for ft Fes Baie
When the measure came up for consideration 1 the oo naka
committee’s report, the Minister of Justice seemed to thin a

i the company desired the right to
the face of the bill, and because ae eer peed ar

i untry, th
ee ae The member for Sault Ste.

the right to entertain the measure. — alt <
Marie protested against granting the liberty to export power in view

of the recently launched movement for the preservation and conser-
vation of our resources, and also because the Province of Outeits
had recently inaugurated a comprehensive power policy with which
this measure was a direct interference. Here the Premier came to
Dealing with the question of interference with the pro-

eporting in its favor.

the rescue. :
vincial policy, Sir Wilfrid said:

“T£ we pass this bill we interfere directly with this principle, and
under those circumstances, holding as I have held, all my life, to the
sacredness, if thc word is not too strong, of Provincial rights, while
we have the brute power to override those rights, it is a question
whether we should do so, and it is a question upon which I would
invite the serious consideration of my honorable friend who is pro-

moting this bill.”

It would be interesting to follow out the debate more fully did
time and space permit. Suffice it to say, that the bill to incorporate
the Ontario and Michigan Power Company eventually passed both
houses without any discussion in the Senate and became law, but
shorn of all its glories. The corporation must rest upon its own
intrinsic merits as a federal entity, for it has not been declared to be
a work for the general advantage of Canada.

As already stated, there can be no absolute rule of policy. Ex-
pediency in political life is a word with a large meaning. The pos-
sible circumstances of times and places cannot be controlled by any
settled rule once for all defined. But Canadians will still continue to
trust the good sense, forbearance, and consideration of their repre-
sentatives in Parliament to deal with the vexed question of Provin-
cial Rights in a broad, sane, and liberal spirit, recognizing that the
considerations which obtained at Confederation are after the lapse
of over forty years much more than memories and that some of the
great questions of Canada’s future can be approached and resolved
only in the free spirit of forbearance and compromise.

ANDREW Haybon.

SOME PROTECTIVE DEVICES AMONG PLANTS.

HE study of natural objects has the great advantage of exciting
not contempt, but rather the highest respect, and even a rever-
ential awe. This is particularly true of that fascinating but un-
fathomed mystery, protoplasm. Chemistry speaks with considerable
assurance in relation to the mineral kingdom, but its highly perfected
processes and instruments are unable to distinguish the protoplasm
of a statesman’s brain from that of a tadpole’s brain, or from that
which produces the bark of a tree. The entire living world in its
innumerable forms is but the varied expression of protoplasm. In
connection with this kind of matter alone is life known. The
variety is the response of an irritable substance to the conditions and
forces acting on it.

In the vegetable kingdom organization is far from reaching the
perfection shown in animals. Each branch of a tree is in many re-
spects the rival of every other branch, and is likely to benefit by the
destruction of the other branches. The same is true to a less extent
among the cells of any one set of organs. Evidently, however, the
cells of the roots cannot rival those of the leaves, because of differing
functions. Here we see the effect of organization, which in animals
has reached such a stage as to practically prevent the duplication of
parts having exactly the same function. There is in the animal body
such an absence of rivalry as to make an injury to any member the
cause of lack of efficiency to the whole body. The limitation in the
size of present day animals is probably due to the necessity for the
avoidance of duplicate and therefore rivalling parts. We may pos-
sibly attribute the remarkable success of insect life to such perfection
of organization that even the two processes of growth and develop-
ment have become in many orders quite distinct from each other, and
occupy different stages in the life history. In plants and in other
classes of animals these processes are rivals for the life energy re-
quired for their completion.

Sufficient has been said to indicate that we may expect more or
less effective adaptations where this sensitive material, protoplasm,
meets conditions which threaten its very existence. Such a condition
is lack of water in connection with plant life, and to this one factor
of environment we shall confine our attention in this article.

By drying plants and parts of plants at a temperature just above
the boiling point of water, we can readily prove that all parts of

18 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

able proportion of water in their

ay be as low as about ten a
ficn above ninety per cent.

living plants contain a very consider
tissues. In seeds this proportion m

cent., while in vegetables and fruits it is O ‘ts duties. First
The necessity for this water is clear when we note its : ;

protoplasm can be alive only when it contains some siren pia ee
among the dryest of living vegetable substances, but they normally
contain between ten and twenty per cent. of water, and this is an
indispensable condition of their continued life. While dry, the life
processes in seeds are very slight and difficult to detect, but the pres-
ence of additional water with a suitable temperature will result in
greatly increased activity, and the seedling as it develops demands
an increasingly great supply of water. Protoplasm that is growing
is semi-fluid, and its activity is directly dependent on the maintenance
of an adequate water supply. Another purpose served by water is
the transportation of food materials into and through the plant, as it
is quite certain that all the raw materials for plant food enter the
cells as solutions in water.

Admitting the necessity for water, we recognize that the prob-
lems confronting the plant are: first, the securing of an adequate
supply, and, second, the conservation of this supply.

Since water enters land plants by way of the roots alone, the
extension of the root system to tap large areas of soil is the ordinary
reply of root protoplasm to the stimulus of an insufficient quantity
of water. This extension takes the form of repeated branching as
well as of lengthening of root axes, and each branch and rootlet is
again increased in surface by the production of innumerable root
hairs. Thus the soil is thoroughly searched, and forced to yield
whatever water may adhere to its particles. In soil containing free
water which may be drained away, we find greatly restricted root
systems, and a very slight production of root hairs.

Turning to the problem of water conservation, we find the con-
ditions so various that they have stimulated a wide variety of ex-
pedients. Drouth may be periodic or continuous, excessive or shght.
Again the periods may vary in intensity and length, from an abso-
lutely rainless season of several months to the few intensely warm
hours of a summer day. It should be noted here that lack of water
within the plant may be due to either an insufficient income or to an
excessive outgo, or to both combined. The dryness of the atmo-
sphere on clear cold days, together with the fact that the soil water
is to a great extent locked up by frost, make our Canadian Winter a

,

SOME PROTECTIVE DEVICES OF PLANTS. 19

season of extreme drouth, for which perennial plants must prepare
as they do for the rainless season in tropical deserts.

To meet the danger of seasons which favor excessive loss of
water, we find that plants have acquired certain habits which are
eminently important in the way of protection. One of the most
noticeable of these is the deciduous habit of most perennials of tem-
perate and subarctic regions. By this we mean the periodic loss of
all delicate and permeable tissue. The leaf is the chief organ for
transpiration of water, and the epidermis of the leaf is not suffi-
ciently waterproof to withstand the drying effect of either a hot rain-
less season or one of very low temperature, in which most of the
atmospheric moisture is precipitated as crystals of ice. Plants whose
aerial parts survive these seasons withdraw their protoplasm from
the leaves, the process being usually accompanied by marked changes
in color. Then the leaf separates at a plane of cleavage already pre-
pared, both surfaces of this plane being healed, leaving a scar but
not a wound. The parts of the plant which remain exposed to the
atmosphere are mostly encased in a coating of cork, which is suffi-
ciently impervious to prevent undue loss of water. There are, how-
ever, such delicate structures as the growing points, which require
special protection. They are usually encased in several layers of
embryonic leaves, which in turn are covered by firm, dense structures
which we call bud scales, and these may be coated with a waterproof
varnish. The purpose of these protective arrangements is not to
prevent the entrance of water, but its exit.

Another seasonal habit is the retreat of many plants into sub-
terranean structures, such as storage roots and underground stems.
All parts left above ground perish, becoming dried straw, their living
contents having sought refuge beyond the reach of the drying at-
mosphere. Such plants as thus secure the friendly protection of
mother earth are known as geophilous plants, and are largely repre-
sented among those which first in spring give us blossoms and leaves
as an earnest of the coming season. For this early and rapid growth
they are indebted to the stores accumulated during the previous
growing season, and guarded in some subterranean safe deposit.

Perhaps the most remarkable preparation for an austere season
is that made by annual plants,—those which pass from seed to seed
in one season of growth. In these we have the plant dying com-
pletely on the approach of unfavorable conditions, leaving only its
seeds to carry on the species. The seeds are small, compact parcels,.
each made up of a little plant, a store of food, and a strong overcoat.

20 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

With this outfit they are confidently expected to prevent the family
from becoming extinct. We have marked evidences of their success,
in spite of the fact that man, in common with most of the other ani-
mals, takes advantage of their youth and helplessness to rob them of
their stores of starch, oil, or proteid matter. In this and other ways
the vast majority of seeds are destroyed, but usually sufficient of
them escape to carry on the species. The deciduous, the geophi-
lous, and the annual habits above described may be considered as
extreme cases of reduction of exposed surface, for a season during
which growth is impossible and destruction by drying quite certain.
The biennial habit is quite similar. Here two short growing seasons
are required for the plant to pass from seed to seed. During the
first of these a quantity of food is formed and stored in a protected
position, usually but not always underground. During the second
favorable season a flowering stem, bearing inconspicuous leaves but
plenty of flowers, is sent up at the expense of the foodstore. -At the
end of this season the plant dies just as annuals do, leaving only
seeds for the perpetuation of its kind.

There are many situations in which water is scanty during the
whole growing season, while the heat is so great as to make evapo-
ration a serious menace to the life of the plant. Under such circum-
stances we find the protoplasm protecting itself by various modifica-
tions of the methods above described. In general there is a reduc-
tion of the delicate tissues through which water may be lost. Plants
growing on dry plains and sand dunes show what we call a stunted
condition. A closer examination shows rather that the habit of the
plant is more compact than in favorable situations, and that the
leaves, while of less surface, have greater thickness and are of
firmer texture. This reduction of evaporating surface becomes more
marked as we study plants exposed to increasingly severe and con-
tinuous drouth, until the reduction of leaves culminates in cylindrical
and finally spherical plants with no leaves whatever. These are the
cacti of the deserts, having the greatest mass for the least surface,
and with the work usually performed by the leaves transferred to
the green stems.

From changes involving the whole aerial plant and relating to.
seasons in which growth or even the maintenance of life is almost
impossible, we now turn to the effect of temporary conditions which
would conduce to harmful evaporation. Here we shall fin
leaves modified tc a greater or less degree. To understan
fications we must first note the structure of foliage le

d ordinary
d the modi-
aves. Con-

SOME PROTECTIVE DEVICES OF PLANTS. 21

nected directly with the trunk or branch is a bundle of vessels and
fibres which spread apart and ramify in the leaf so as to give the
blades their various shapes. These ribs or veins,—they serve both
for support and conduction,—have spread over and between them a
thin mass of delicate structure called the mcsophyll, while enclosing
the whole is a thin transparent skin known as the epidermis. The
mesophyll is made up of those life units known as cells, each con-
taining living protoplasm and a green coloring matter, and bounded
by a thin soft transparent cell wall. This aggregate of cells can best
be compared to a large number of thin rubber sacs fitted and fas-
tened together to form a layer several times the thickness of one sac.
If an elastic membrane be imagined as enclosing the whole aggrega-
tion, and every sac as distended by air, it will be seen that the form
and firmness of the whole body will depend very largely on the dis-
tension of the units. The distension or turgidity of the leaf cells
depends on a sufficient supply of water. The water enters the plant
under the influence of a force known as diffusion, which is as in-
flexible as the force of gravitation. Hence the leaf cells, being
unable to control the inflow of water, must adapt themselves to per-
mit the escape of excess, and to conserve any quantity less than the
optimum. This is done in many ways. The most notable method is
by temporarily assuming a position of protection when exposed to
too great a loss of water. We call this change of position wilting,
usually implying merely a collapse due to loss of turgidity. It is,
however, much more than this, as we find that the position taken is
always one which defends the leaf from further injurious loss. To
permit the escape of superfluous moisture, the nearly waterproof
epidermis is pierced by innumerable minute openings on the lower
or shaded side of the leaf. These stomata are controlled by guard
cells which collapse and close the orifice when the loss of water is
too great. The change of position known as wilting assists this pro-
tective process by either rolling the leaf with the stomata inside as
is the custom among grasses, or closing the lower surfaces together
as in clovers, peas, and beans, or by the more common method of
drooping, so that the stin’s rays strike the leaf obliquely, and are re-
flected instead of being permitted to penetrate. The aspect of an
assemblage of plants during the excessive heat of a summer day
should therefore not be considered as indicating a condition of hope-
less collapse. Rather it represents well designed attitudes of defence,
which the individuals will quickly relinquish when the danger is past.

A different class of protective devices are the modifications in

22 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

anatomy found associated with auster e conic ifions fr om whl h es
1 h i T
: . is
t exposed epider mis 15 fr e-

treat is impossible. The upper or mos abs
quently thickened and hardened, and often a ray filter, seat. of
layers of cells containing water, ss formed between the exposed epi-

dermis and the mesophyll cells. The lower epidermis is also thick-
ened, and the stomata are embedded in pits which protect them from

changes of atmosphere, such as accompany strong winds.

very rapid
ae s of our ever-

These modifications are characteristic of the leave
greens, as well as of those plants growing on open plains. In addi-
tion we find that the cells most active in the absorption of light and
in utilizing its energy for the manufacture of food for the plant,
have developed in prismatic form, and present their ends only to the
surface of the leaf, that is, to the rays of the sun. Because of their
elongate shape these cells together are known as palisade tissue, and
this is found in all but the leaves of extreme shade plants. Where
illumination is intense and drying winds frequent we find all these
anatomical modifications combined, and in addition other structures
to prevent the frequent change of atmosphere in contact with the
leaf cells. Vegetable hairs are common, and these are particularly
noticeable on the lower or sensitive side of leaves. These trichomes
are often of unusual shapes, such as branched hairs or star-shaped
or umbrella-shaped scales, usually forming a felt of greater or less
density. Being empty of all but air they serve both to reflect the
sun’s rays and to hinder the escape of moist air. Our climate,—so
called temperate, but really reaching well into opposite extremes,—
gives us a flora which adapts itself to nearly optimum conditions in
summer, and to the extreme of drying cold in winter.

In general we see that the action of protoplasm in this connec-
tion is what may well be expected from a sensitive substance of
limited powers of motion. Each peculiarity may be considered an
attempt at living along the line of least resistance. Whenever pos-
sible it retreats on receiving a threatening stimulus, and rebuilds the
outposts when favorable conditions return. In the great majority of
cases this is more economical than to form defensive structures
capable of withstanding severe and prolonged attacks. When aus-
tere conditions are the rule,, however, and retreat means annihilation,
protoplasm becomes more tolerant of extreme conditions, and con-
structs defences behind which it can endure the unavoidable hard-

ships.
W. T. MacCreMent.

OUR INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY: AN
OBJECT LESSON.*

HE subject of International Arbitration brings vividly to my
mind one of the most agreeable reminiscences of my early life.
Shortly after leaving college and while still a law student, it was
my good fortune to be appointed British secretary to the Board of
International Arbitrators appointed to settle the claims of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company against the United States for the property
which the Company had owned in what is now the States of Oregon
and Washington, south of parallel 49°, which had been fixed upon
as the International boundary. The peaceful solution of what had
been for years a rankling and irritating controversy made at the time
a deep impression on my mind which still remains, and it was a rare
privilege thus early in life to come in close contact with some of the
prominent men of the continent—with the members of the British
Embassy in Washington and the Arbitrators, one a retired Federal
Judge and the other’a leading Canadian statesman. Of the others
engaged in the arbitration I will name only one, the Hon. Caleb
Cushing, who was the leading counsel for the United States and who
had been its Attorney-General and was perhaps the foremost lawyer
of this country after the death of Webster.

The subject assigned to me for this morning is “ Our Interna-
tional Boundary.” My acquaintance with a part of it began early.
My boyhood home was on the northern foothills of the Adirondack
Mountains, on the Lower Canada side of parallel 45°, which there
forms the International boundary. Our farm produce was sold and
our purchases made at one of the old time “line stores ”—built upon
the line, with one counter on the American side and the other on the
Canadian, the goods of each country, being kept carefully on its own
side. The iron post marking the boundary, to which we often hitched
our horses, stood directly opposite the front door. On the other side
of the road the farmer owned land on both sides of the line and it
was no uncommon sight to see him ploughing across the boundary
in a field partly in each country, or the cattle grazing quietly in such
a field. The farmers on both sides patronized the line stores, buying

*Address delivered at Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbi-
tration, 1909. :

24 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

i i sed b
goods indiscriminately from each counter without being harassed by

Custom House officers. They were nearly all free tra ee cen
tice at least, in those days on both sides of the line—living in ae
of Arcadian simplicity that hostile tariffs ended years poe es
was the peaceful condition of at jeast'a part-of the Tura! poundary
on the land. .

The immense bodies of fresh water which scparate the t
countries have for nearly a century presented a spectacle of a like
freedom from all warlike demonstration or display. In April, 1817,
without a formal treaty, or even a convention, by a simple inter-
change of short letters between the British Minister, Mr. Bagot, and
Mr. Rush, the American Acting-Secretary of State, which did not
require or receive the sanction of the Senate of the United States, it
was agreed that the naval force to be maintained on the Lakes form-
ing the boundary should be confined to the following :—On Lake
Ontario to one vessel not exceeding 100 tons and armed with an
18-Ib. cannon. On the Upper Lakes to two vessels not exceeding
the like burden and armed with like force; and on Lake Champlain
to one such vessel. It was a simple stipulation that might be ter-
minated by either country on six months’ notice. To their credit be
it said that the two countries not only kept strictly within the agreed
limit, but actually dispensed with war vessels entirely, and that this
pacific condition has continued for ninety years. May the day be
far distant when any contrary policy may obtain.

The first treaty defining the boundary between the two coun-
tries was that of Paris in 1782, by which the independence of the
13 States was acknowledged by England. Since then different por-
tions of it have from time to time been settled or defined by the fol-
lowing conventions or treaties, and by arbitrations under them, viz.:
The Treaty of London, 1794; Ghent, 1814; London, 1818 and 1827;
Washington, 1846 and 1871, and finally the Convention-Treaty of
Washington of 1903 underewhich the boundary between Alaska and
the Yukon Territory was settled by arbitration. —

So far as I am aware the above Treaty of London of 1794 was
the first treaty providing for the settlement of a vexed question by
international arbitration. It provided for two such Boards—one to
determine what was really the St. Croix river, which was by the
treaty of Paris to form in part the boundary between what is now
the State of Maine and the province of New Brunswick; the other
to settle the respective claims of the subjects or citizens of the two
countries against the government of the other. The negotiators of

e two

OUR INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY. 25

this treaty were Lord Grenville for Great Britain, and John Jay, the
first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, for the United States. To
these two men, I believe, belongs the distinguished honour of having
been the first to provide for such a mode of settlement, and of being
the fathers of International Arbitration, that in these days is obtain-
ing such world-wide acceptance.

The boundary line thus settled and defined is the longest be-
tween any two countries in the world. The peaceful condition of
the fresh water portion of it I have already mentioned. The land
portion is equally free from military display. Instead of being
flanked by frowning forts and batteries, as is so frequently the case
on the frontiers in European countries, one might almost travel from
end to end of it, throughout the whole length of the 5,000 miles,
without seeing a single soldier in uniform on either side of the line.
What an object lesson both on land and water for those nations at
present so heavily burdened, and one may say cursed, with mili-
tarism !

But what might have proved the greatest triumph of interna-
tional common sense is something regarding our International
boundary that is likely to be decided within the next few months.
Most of you are aware of what is known as the Waterways Treaty
agreed to between the Governments of the two countries in January
of the present year, and which would no doubt have been ratified
ere this had not a member of the United States Senate succeeded in
persuading that body to add a rider granting to his State an addi-
tional advantage without conceding any equivalent or compensation
to the other side.

This treaty provides, inter alia, that the navigation of all bound-
ary waters shall forever continue free and open for the commerce
of both countries; also that all obstructions or diversions of water
on either side shall be regulated by a permanent International Court
composed of six Commissioners, three named by each country, sub-
ject to certain equitable principles detailed in the treaty. Special
provision is made for the amount of water to be drawn off on either
side for power purposes and the generation of electricity at Sault
Ste. Marie at the outlet of Lake Superior, and at Niagara Falls,
while fully preserving the scenic beauty of that great wonder of
nature, the common heritage of our two countries. It is also pro-
vided that any other difficulty whatsoever along the common frontier

26 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

shall be referred to this Commission whenever the government of

either country shall so request. ;

With regard to the rider added in the Senate respecting the
division of the water at Sault Ste. Maric, at the instance of the
Senator from Michigan, I wish carefully to avoid expressing any
opinion or entering into controversy as to the merits or demerits of
the proposition, but the mere fact itself serves to call attention
prominently to the unsatisfactory provision of having to submit an
arrangement settled and agreed upon between the two governments,
no doubt largely on the principle of give and take, to the approval of
an elective body, where there is such a tremendous temptation to
attempt to gain local popularity by standing out for some one-sided
advantage. From the recent statement made in the Canadian House
of Commons by the Premier, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, it appears that
this attempted amendment has actually imperilled and may yet pos-
sibly wreck the whole scheme.

It has often been to me a cause of great surprise that the more
civilized nations, whose subjects or citizens have been so long accus-
tomed to settle their local differences through the Courts and by
arbitration, have been as a rule so tardy in learning to apply the
same principle in the settlement of their International difficulties.
As to these latter, many of them have continued to cling to the code
of ethics attributed by Wordsworth to Rob Roy:

“For why?—because the good old rule
Sufficeth them, the simple plan,
That they should take who have the power,

And they should keep who can.”
And this course has not been without its Christian apologists. I re-
member less than twenty years ago hearing the editor of one of the
leading religious journals on this continent declare with great em-
phasis, in an international gathering, that the principles of the
Sermon on the Mount had no application to national or international
affairs. Again, let us take another illustration from a narrower
field. How often do we find officers of great corporations ready to
practise and justify methods of business and policies for the cor-
porate benefit that they would scorn to use in their personal affairs
or for individual profit—men amiable and considerate in their private
relations who are tyrants and pirates in their corporate capacity.
We all know that the Dr. Jekylls and the Mt. Hydes really exist
outside the imagination and the pages of Stevenson. So also with
many public men respecting public matters. The fact is that, while

OUR INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY. 27

in a measure we have as individuals become civilized and christian-
ized, we still remain as nations and collectively largely barbarian
and heathen. We need to cultivate not only the individual con-
science but also the corporate and the national consciences as well.

In my opinion there is a great necessity for our getting back to
first principles. Nearly three thousand years ago the wise man de-
clared that “ Divers weights and divers measures are an abomina-
tion.” Such is an apt description of the divers standards generally
applied by us moderns in national, corporate and individual concerns.
We have been gradually adopting the Christian standard for the
latter, while largely retaining the pagan standard for the two former.
The principles advocated at these Conferences, and sought to be
applied at the Hague Conferences and by its tribunals, are based
upon the truth of the other statement also enunciated by the wise
man that “ Righteousness exalteth a nation but sin is a reproach to
any people.”

J. J. Macraren.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES.

THE ACCIDENT OF TEMPERATURE.

VERY text-book on elementary science announces the fact that
there are three distinct states of aggregation of matter, spoken
of more simply as states of matter. -Matter, they say, exists in three
distinct forms commonly called solid, liquid, and gas or vapor; and
on the molecular theory, these conditions are to be explained by dif-
ferent arrangement and speeds of the molecules which form them.
The points where the different states merge or change abruptly into
one another are known as the freezing, or melting points, an‘ the
boiling, evaporation or condensation points. The main factor in
determining the particular state in which a body shall occur 1s the
temperature and intimately related is the pressure which acts upon
the body. In fact the temperature and pressure are the great varia-
bles of the universe, determining as they do to large extent the
entire range of physical processes. In certain cases through limited
range of temperature and pressure the volume is the regulator of
the amount of each state in a mixture of two. The transition from
one state to another is always marked by many phenomena, ¢.g.,
when ice freezes there is an abrupt change in volume, a remarkable
evolution of heat, a decided change in the value of the specific heat
(it being reduced to one-half its former value), and its other pro-
perties being changed in some degree. The change of water into
steam is accompanied by even greater changes in volume and specific
heat and a much greater absorption of heat.

When we reflect that water boils normally at 100°C. and freezes
at O° C,, that the highest artificial temperature (the electric arc) is
4100°, while the lowest yet attained (liquid helium) is about —268°,
we see that the region in which water exists in liquid form is rela-
tively small. At very high temperatures water undoubtedly ceases
to exist as water, becoming dissociated into its constituent elements.
What is true of water is true of other substances. They have their
boiling and freezing points, and their properties change with the
temperature. At low enough temperature-all would be solid and at
high enough all would be gaseous; and somewhere between these
extremes most would be liquid, so that the universe as we know it is
an accident of temperature. Next to air, water is the most important
factor in the support of life, and while life is almost universally de-
stroyed at boiling temperature, it is possible many degrees below

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 29

freezing; cold alone will not destroy it. Animal life of the higher
types is unable to withstand for any length of time temperatures
much below 50°. The simpler forms of life, such as seeds, etc.,
seem to resist any low temperature yet applied to them. This fact
has led Lord Kelvin and others to suspect that life came to the earth
from distant bodies being brought through the intense cold of inter-
stellar space in meteorites or driven in very simple cell form by
radiation pressure. However this may be we must admit that the
great preponderance of life upon the earth has existed since the
temperature fell below the boiling point and will cease to exist when
the temperature falls very far below the freezing point. We live
then in a small part of the scale of a vast thermometer extending
from 273° below zero (absolute zero) to perhaps 7000° above zero,
the temperature of the sun. So if our earth has cooled down from
the upper limit or anywhere near it and is to finally reach the cold-
ness of interstellar space, life is an exceedingly fleeting thing.
Amongst all of the inconceivably large number of visible stars, to
say nothing of the ones not shining by their own light, and the dark
stars which we know to exist, it is unreasonable to suppose that the
earth is the only body amongst all these on which are the conditions
necessary for the support and development of some form of life.
Many must have had these, many have them now and no doubt many
have yet to reach the temperature where life may be possible. That
this life is like our own is not necessary; it may be, of course, that
development would proceed along very different lines, so that to
admit conditions on Mars favorable to the support of life is not at
all the same thing as to say that there are beings there eagerly wait-
ing for the scientists of this planet to arouse themselves and begin
interplanetary communication.

It was van der Waals who called attention to the similarity of
properties of different substances in enunciating the law of Corre-
sponding States, which is to the effect that all substances have iden-
tical properties so far as the relations amongst temperature, pressure,
and volume are concerned. All liquids if heated in an open vessel,
provided they do not undergo decomposition, boil at definite tem-
peratures which change with the pressure. If, however, a liquid be
heated in a closed vessel the evaporation increases the pressure, so
that the boiling point is raised, and increasing temperature increases
the evaporation and the pressure, so that the boiling point is never
reached. This continues until a certain temperature, depending on
the liquid, is reached, when the liquid changes into vapor without

30 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

+: 1 through the vessel. The
boiling, not only at the surface but all t g ue
temperature at which this occurs is known as the critical tempera-
ture. There is more or less doubt as to the nature of matter at the
critical temperature. Some have thought that the liquid stats came
to an end here; others that the liquid state persisted above this tem-
perature but could not be seen on account of being intimately mixed
with the vapor. The later theory is that the liquid and vapor mole-
cules are of different kinds, the liquid being perhaps congeries of
the vapor ones, and that a liquid always contains some of the vapor
molecules and the vapor some of the liquid molecules. As the tem-
perature is raised the proportions of the two become more alike until
at the critical point vapor and liquid contain the same amounts of
each, are precisely alike and mix thoroughly. This theory accounts
for many observed facts and will do for the present.

All liquids undergo the same changes with rise of temperature
and, except for the temperature at which visible liquid disappears
and the pressure at the time, there is no difference. Here is a unity
which has not been fully understood. Air has a critical temperature
just as water has, and if the proper temperature could be reached
solids, such as the metals, would show the same phenomenon. Some
of the more easily fusible solids have been investigated.

The critical point is an interesting one. Here, a slight increase
of pressure causes an enormous decrease in volume, the substance is
sometimes spoken of as being “ mushy”; surface tension vanishes
and the liquid will not rise in a small tube. It is indeed a critical
point.

Since changes of pressure affect the freezing point slightly, it
has been thought that there might be a lower critical point, a tem-
perature where the solid and liquid states would become identical,
but experimental evidence is against such a view, though the experi-
ments of Barus, Tammann and others show that for some substances
there is a temperature above which a solid ceases to exist and that
no pressure is sufficient to solidify the liquid. Below this tempera-
ture the liquid may be solidified by pressure, the pressure necessary
in many cases being thousands of atmospheres. The pressures in the
interior of the earth of course run up to enormous amounts, and it
is probable that many rocks at high temperature may be held in solid
form by the terrible pressure only to become liquid by a release in
pressure.

ake:

SCLENTIEIC NOLES, 31

A PROBLEM IN EDUCATION.

The educationalists who introduced elementary science into
the curricula of the secondary schools are commonly supposed to
have done so with a two-fold object. They probably wished the
pupils to have an opportunity of becoming familiar with the point
of view and with the method of science; and at the same time de-
sired them to obtain a knowledge of the principles that underlie the
phenomena more commonly met with in the average citizen’s life.
To this end the study of physics was selected, largely because it,
more perhaps than any other subject, takes for a basis that mass
of experience that every normal child brings with him into the class-
room; for as Mach’ points out: “ Everything which we observe in
nature imprints itself uncomprehended and unanalyzed in our per-
cepts and ideas. . . . In these accumulated experiences we pos-
sess a treasure-store which is ever close at hand and of which only
the smallest portion is embodied in clear articulate thought.” It is,
then, in this so-called “instinctive knowledge” that the science of
physics has its foundation; and it is on account of the fact that this
material is already available in the case of every pupil that the teach-
ing of physics forms the best possible means of conveying to be-
ginners the method of the scientific examination of nature.

The wisdom of attempting this work in the schools is seldom
strongly disputed. Recently, however, there has sprung up a very
general questioning as to the measure of success that has attended it.
This must not be taken to mean that any large portion of the educa-
tional community thinks that the study of physics has absolutely
failed of its purpose—especially as compared with the success at-
tained in some other parts of the curriculum—but the doubt is again
and again raised, “ Has the teaching of physics succeeded in any full
measure in giving the training that may fairly be expected from it?
and, if not, what is the cause of the failure?” This question, be it
noted, comes chiefly from the teachers themselves. It is the inten-
tion of the following paragraphs to give a short account of the pre-
sent state of this introspective movement.

In December, 1905, The Central Association of Science and
Mathematics Teachers, meeting at Chicago, took up this problem;
and about sixteen hundred copies of a four page leaflet, entitled “A

at

1Mach: Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung historisch-kritisch darge-
stellt. Translated under the title, “The Science of Mechanics.” The Open
Court Publishing Co., Chicago.

32 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

New Move Among Physics Teachers,” were sent to the principal
schools and colleges both in the United States and in Canada. An-
swers were invited to a number of questions framed in an attempt
to ascertain how far the physics teachers themselves were in agree-
ment as to the essentials of the subject. The particular question of
most general interest was ‘ What in your opinion is needed to make
physics more interesting, stimulating and instructive ; and more use-
ful as an educative factor?’ Replies were received from eighty
colleges, thirty normal schools and one hundred and sixty-five high
schools (only two being from Canada). These revealed a most re-
marable diversity of opinion, even as to the fundamental points that
ought to be treated in a first-year school course in physics, and the
answers to the question quoted above showed an equally wide di-
vergence. Fifty-five of those replying thought that physics should
be brought into closer relation with the daily life and experience of
the pupil. Twenty-five claim that too much material is forced into
the available time. Some say that more attention must be paid to
the quantitative relations involved; and about an equal number are
quite certain that unless all the mathematics is eliminated from the
first-year work there can be no hope for school physics. Thirty-three
hold that the most pressing need is that of better-prepared teachers,
and some of this last group lay the whole blame on “ inappreciative
school boards,” who not only engage cheap men but who insist on
overloading those they do take. The synopsis of the replies to this
one question covers two pages of small type. All of it is interesting
to the specialist, and most of it valuable, in that it directs attention
to points found unsatisfactory by others; but as may be judged from
the above given extracts, it affords little help in determining
what are the essential features of the problem. ‘It must then be
evident,’ comments the committee, “that we are not yet as well
agreed as we might be on this most important point. Perhaps the
whole thing may be summed up by saying that we teachers do not
comprehend two things as clearly as we should, namely, (1) we fail
to understand the nature and needs of the adolescent mind; and (2)
we comprehend even less of the nature of science and the real mean-
ing of her services to civilization.” This is certainly very severe
self-criticism but it is probably, in a large measure, true. The most
encouraging announcement of this second circular (June, 1906) is
that seven other Teachers’ Associations in the central and eastern
states had joined in the work, thus giving it a much broader basis.

A series of theses, based on the decisions of the French and

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 33

German pedagogical associations, were next discussed and several
important points settled. Thus it was agreed that a reduction of
subject matter should be made, to two-thirds of that usually given,
those topics having the greatest bearing on the pupil’s life to be re-
tained; and the problems least likely to occur to him spontaneously
to be omitted. Method of presentation should be of more import-
ance than amount of subject matter covered, and method of thought
than mastery of facts. No definition should be introduced until the
concepts with which it deals have been fully. developed in the pupil’s
mind, and the statement of physical laws should follow the same pro-
cedure. The nature of laws, as generalizations from experiment,
should be insisted on. The pupil should also be taught to distinguish
between the hypotheses and the experimental facts of science. These
as will be noted deal almost entirely with general methods in the pre-
sentation of the subject.

At this stage a change in organization took place. The twelve
sub-committees that up to this time had been co-operating in the
work now resolved to constitute themselves “A National Commis-
sion on the Teaching of Elementary Physics,” to be an independent
body composed of representatives from the large Teachers’ Associa-
tions, that should have no other business to distract them from this
special subject. The commission recognized at the outset that it was
confronted with two phases of the problem, namely, one dealing with
the administrative question involved in the defining of the physics
unit—that is, the time devoted to physics that would be accepted
from any school as an adequate first-year’s work; and, second, the
more general subject of the aim and present needs of secondary
school science. With regard to the administrative part, the commis-
sion resolved on a reduction of subject matter, as above noted, and
to ensure that the new course should include the essentials and yet
leave to the teacher the maximum freedom in the order and treat-
ment of the topics, the following plan was adopted: (1) A short
list is to be issued to include only those topics that all agree are
necessary to a first year course. (2) As this will be insufficient for
a full year’s work, a much larger but merely suggestive syllabus will
be formed from which teachers may select that additional work best
suited to their individual needs. And (3) it is advocated for the
purpose of examination that the papers be limited to the topics of
the shorter syllabus, and that for the remainder of the subject ex-
amining boards shall accept the certificate of the teacher both as to
ground covered and as to the standing of the candidate. The

B4. QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

broader part of the commission's work presents a much less man-
agcable subject, in the discussion of the specific aim or aims in the
teaching of physics, and in the determination of the direction in
which this is to advance. As a first step, it was decided to invite
discussion, not from teachers at large, as had been done with such
small progress in the case of the earlier circulars, but to request
some well-known educators and prominent physicists to contribute
to a symposium on the subject.

These letters are recently to hand. There is in them far more
unity of opinion than in the replies to the circulars, a fact arising
probably from the selection of the writers. The greatest prominence
is given to the unwarrantable degree in which college entrance re-
quirements seem to dominate the entire field of secondary school
physics. This trouble comes down from a time when those looking
forward to a university course constituted the majority of the high
school pupils, a condition that does not obtain to-day, for in the
meantime we have witnessed a complete change in the whole purpose
of secondary schools. Formerly they were chiefly preparatory to
farther study, but the wonderful growth of their popularity has
transformed them into finishing schools for the public. The spec-
tacle presented by the preparation of the comparatively few for col-
lege, actually preventing the development of one portion of the cur-
riculum along lines better suited to the large majority, is of itself
surprising, and when one adds to this the admission that a freer
treatment of the subject would benefit, not the majority only, but
the few as well, the situation needs explanation.

About fifteen years ago Professors Hall and Bergen proposed
the new well-known “ Harvard Experiments.’’ These were a set of
laboratory exercises designed for the use of pupils preparing for
college, and so well suited were they to the needs of that time that
they displaced the then-existing courses in most of the important
schools. They became so firmly established in the educational sys-
tem of the country as to give direction to the class work as well as
to that of the laboratory. To-day, owing to the new point of view
that has developed in the schools, this type of course is no longer
suitable, but the hold it has taken is so widespread that it needs the
influence of a national commission to displace it. President Butler
of Columbia University, in the first paragraph of his comment, lays
down the principle that “ College admission tests in physics should

1Note that this has reference to the high schools of the United States.
The present dominating influence in the Ontario schools is the “ Teachers’
examination.”

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 35

be made to depend on the secondary school teaching in that subject,
when properly organized and conducted, and not vice versa.”

Prominence is here given to this phase because it contains a
principle that many of us—especially the university graduates—are
too apt to forget. Then, too, an advance in the teaching method of
one decade producing an arrest in that of the next is in itself suff-
ciently remarkable, even if the subject were not a scientific one. Yet
we find that while Physics has been making a series of rapid and far-
reaching advances—the isolation of the electron, the discovery of
radio-activity, the experimental investigation of the electrical nature
of mass, the problems of the alchemist coming up again in the evolu-
tion and devolution of the elements—and while these and many other
developments have been given the widest publicity in the daily press
and have been followed eagerly by an interested people, that during
this very period the teaching of physics in the schools has been ef-
fectively held down by the influence of a series of experiments, ex-
cellent in themselves, but not suited to the needs of the time.

Nearly as general as the demand for the deposition of the pre-
sent system is the recommendation of a more historical treatment of
the subject, to deal not only with the epoch-making men, their diffi-
culties and their successes, but to give an outline of the steps by
which our chief standards of measurement have been selected. One
of the best of the recent elementary text-books has already—and
with good effect—introduced portraits and biographical sketches of
the “ makers of physics.” It might be remarked in passing that a
reading course in the historical development of the subject,—say a
book like Mach’s'—might with good effect be added to university
honour courses.

The contributors to the symposium also criticize that class of
teachers who view physics as a mere science of measurement—men
whose ideas of the relative importance of the various phenomena
seem to be largely determined by the opportunity they offer for exact
quantitative determination. It is worthy of note that among those
giving emphasis to this point is Professor A. A. Michelson, of
Chicago, whose name the world over is associated with the extreme
accuracy of modern physical measurement.

The need for adequately trained and well paid teachers is
voiced by several writers. They claim that the physics is too often
taken by one of the smallest salaried men on the staff, and one who

1See above.

36 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

is consequently loaded up with a lot of odds and ends of teaching
by those who do not understand that experimental demonstrations
and laboratory exercises require more time in preparation than does
corresponding work in other subjects. Experiments cannot be bul-
lied into working order, nor can the adjusting of experimental con-
ditions so as to exclude extraneous effects be made in the few min-
utes between classes. These require more time than those who have
not tried it are generally willing to admit, hence the cry that many
school boards and some principals need to be educated to a realiza-
tion of this fact. :

In regard to better training of teachers, Professor Chute (Ann
Arbor) remarks: “To bring these things about much care and
thoughtful study must be bestowed on the method of presentation,
the teacher must know his subject both theoretically and experi-
mentally, he must be able by simple illustrations successfully pre-
sented to make difficult conceptions clear, dry parts attractive, and
the whole subject a delight. Cutting out the mathematics will not
do it, for then the backbone is gone; omitting mechanics will not do
it, for then explanations of phenomena become largely impossible;
dropping the quantitative work will not do it, for then the pupil will
have no proper appreciation of the way in which science grows and
will think of it as merely a jumble of amusing phenomena. A live
and well informed teacher can make mathematics interesting, quan-
titative experiments entertaining, and the whole subject attractive
as well as instructive without resorting to Leyden jar methods to
command interested attention.” This is at once a strong plea for
better training and an effective answer to some of the proposals in
reply to the early circulars.

The criticism offered by Professor J. M. Baldwin (Johns Hop-
kins University) is much along the same line. He writes: “ The
object of the teaching of physics is the teaching of physics.” This
he explains is not meant as a mere tautology but is to imply that a
knowledge of his subject is of far more importance to a teacher than
a familiarity with its pedagogical philosophy; that any educational
results which may follow from a knowledge of physics will follow
in proportion as the pupil knows his physics; and that the teacher
generally obtains these results largely in proportion as he forgets
his philosophy and bends his efforts to the teaching of physics pure
and simple. This, in a sense, must be well taken, for the instructor
who forgets himself in his subject is always more or less of an en-
thusiast in close touch with it. The point of view of such a man is

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 37

contagious, and moreover is generally of value when caught. The
perspective will possibly be faulty, but this will straighten itself out
more readily than will the glow of life come to the dry bones of a
subject killed by the teaching of one not in sympathy with it. Lack
of sympathy, in most subjects, means lack of understanding. On
the other hand, Baldwin’s comment must not be taken too seriously
as removing the necessity for a careful review of the methods and
the efficiency of physics teaching.

The whole discussion—both in the circulars and in the sym-
posium—is full of interest and suggestion. The proportion of vague
and inapplicable theorizing is remarkably small, leaving one with the
vivid impression that the problem is in the hands of men who see
clearly and think carefully. It must not be forgotten that the work
of the commission bears directly on the school physics of the United
States. Their problems are not necessarily our problems. Yet even
apart from the general educational interest attaching to the working
out of principles, there is much that our teachers can learn from a
careful study of the papers issued by the commission.

In closing it might be well to note one difficulty that is felt here
in our Ontario system, and it is rather surprising to find no echo of it
in the sehools of the United States. In universities, mathematics and
physics are always taken together as cognate subjects, while the non-
mathematical sciences of chemistry, biology and botany’ form a group
by themselves. Thus in our “ school specialist ” courses the “ mathe-
matical specialist ” takes mathematics and physics, while the “ science
specialist’ has seldom the calculus necessary to follow the prelimi-
nary honour work in physics, even if he were required to take it.
Further, in those schools where physics is taught by university
graduates the “ mathematical specialist’ usually has his hands full
with the algebra, arithmetic and geometry, so the physics falls to the
“science specialist” whose knowledge of that subject is generally
limited to pass work. It is difficult to see how this situation is to be
overcome on account of the fundamental difference in the two
groups. Mathematically inclined students of science will naturally
follow the mathematics-physics course, and those possessed of the
idea that they “ cannot do mathematics ” will just as naturally enter
for specialist qualifications in chemistry, botany and biology. Ex-
perience seems to indicate that there are grave objections to putting
some of the simpler school mathematics into the hands of an assist-
ant, in order to allow the ‘“ mathematical specialist” to take charge
of the physics class. So relief from the school side of the problem

38 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

is not apparent. From the side of the university, the distinction be-
tween those students who think mathematically and those who do
not, seems effectively to prevent the placing of preliminary honour
physics on the “ science specialist course.” Queen’s has taken a first
step to meet this in providing for non-mathematical students an
“Experimental Honour Course” in Physics, consisting of lectures
on subjects that may be treated without the calculus, and of directed
reading and laboratory work. This provides a solution only for
those who elect to follow this particular option of the “ science spe-
cialist’” course. But there are three other options in which pass
physics is all that is required. The next step obviously is to place
experimental honour physics on the list of subjects compulsory for
all science specialists, allowing other classes—chiefly pass—to go
into the options in its place. This would rob the course as set forth
in the calendar of some of its breadth in pass classes, but it would
undoubtedly make for a marked increase in efficiency—general as
well as particular.

The matter requires attention from the authorities both of the
University and of the Education Department, for it obviously puts
high school physics at a great disadvantage, even apart from the

text-book difficulty.
W.C. B.

CELLULOSE AND SOME OF ITS USES.

The chief constituent of the organs of trees and all other
vegetable growths whatsoever is the substance known as cellulose,
from the fact that it constitutes the material of the cell walls. Per-
fectly pure cellulose, unmixed with any other substance, is never
met with in nature, but is always more or less firmly combined with
colouring matters, fats, gummy substances, etc. Cotton and paper
made from rags (especially Swedish filter paper) may be regarded
as fairly pure cellulose. Cellulose is distinguished by its high power
of resisting most chemical reagents, being insoluble in water, alcohol,
ether, fatty and volatile oils, and even in dilute acids and alkalis. It
is soluble in a very few substances, however, the best ones being an
ammoniacal copper oxide solution, and a hot concentrated solution of
zinc chloride. The exact action of these solvents is quite unknown,
however. Cellulose is classified along with sugar and starch as a
carbohydrate, although it differs from these substances to a very

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 39

great extent. Its molecular structure seems to be very complex, so
much so, in fact, that chemists have been able to learn very little
regarding it, excepting to determine its constituents, which are hy-
drogen, oxygen and carbon, and the proportions of these elements
present in the molecule. It may seem strange that so very little is
known about the structure and reactions of this, one of the com-
monest of substances. However, after one learns something of the
difficulties connected with cellulose research, he ceases to wonder
any more. A few facts in regard to the cellulose molecule have,
however, been hacked off here and there, and further, every fact
won from cellulose has been capable of industrial application.

The very fact that cellulose is a very inert substance, not easily
acted upon by chemical reagents, air, or moisture, leads to a number
of very large industries taking advantage of this. Among these, the
most important are those of the manufacture of paper, cotton and
linen fabrics, thread, twine and rope. First in importance comes
paper. The tremendous development in printing has created a de-
mand for paper which is enormous. It has been generally under-
stood that paper is made from rags. While this is true, there exists
not one-thousandth part of the rags that would be necessary to
supply the demand for paper. As a result other sources have to be
resorted to. The principal of these are esparto grass, straw and
wood. Of these wood has become by far the most important source
of supply, and the wood pulp forests of Canada have received much
attention from the world at large as a source of raw material for
paper.

In the manufacture of paper from wood the first process con-
sists in converting the wood into wood pulp. Wood pulp is of
two kinds, mechanical and chemical, depending upon the particular
method of treatment. Mechanical pulp is made by simply grinding
up the logs after they have had their bark removed and have been
cut into suitable lengths. This ground or pulpy material is then col-
lected and subjected to pressure to get rid of the excess of moisture,
and is then ready to be shipped to the paper mill. Chemical pulp is
made by a distinctly different process. The logs are cut into chips
by a special chipping machine. These chips are then placed in tall
cylindrical steel vessels lined with special acid-resisting brick, and
then a chemical liquid is run in, after which steam is forced in and
the contents boiled for eight or ten hours. This treatment succeeds
in dissolving practically all the hard and resinous substances away
from the cellulose, leaving a fairly pure form of cellulose, in dis-

40 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

tinction to the crude ground logs composing the mechanically laeeg
pared pulp. The chemical liquid used in making chemical pulp iS
usually either a mixture of sulphurous acid and bisulphite of lime,
or a solution of caustic soda. The treatment with these liquids con-
stitutes the sulphite and soda processes respectively. For the manu-
facture of the cheaper grades of paper, including newspapers, a
mixture of mechanical and chemical pulps is used. The proportion
in the mixture varies greatly according to the quality of the paper,
sixty-five to seventy-five per cent. of mechanical pulp being an
average amount for newspapers. For the finer grades of paper
either sulphite pulp or the cellulose from rags is used, the latter mak-
ing somewhat the better paper, since the cellulose from wood is
‘liable to decay in time, while that from rags is practically not af-
fected by the conditions causing decay.

In addition to the cellulose industries taking advantage of its
inertness toward deteriorating agents, we have also a large number
based on the chemical activity of cellulose, for it proves to be a
very active substance chemically toward certain reagents. Strong
caustic soda solution acts upon cellulose to produce an effect known
as “ mercerisation,” after the inventor of the process, Mercer. When
cotton is immersed in this solution in the cold it shrinks and becomes
silky in appearance, and assumes great activity toward dye stuffs.
This industry has assumed large proportions, producing the well-
known silky, lustrous “ mercerised ”’ fabrics.

A large number of commercial products are obtained by the
action of nitric acid upon cellulose. Perhaps the most important of
these is gun cotton, which is used as a high explosive for blasting,
for torpedoes and military mines and bombs. When mixed with
another explosive it forms the basis of “ blasting gelatine,” “ smoke-
less powders,” etc. In the manufacture of gun cotton the cellulose
of cotton waste is used for the most part. This cotton waste is
sorted over at first to remove the larger part of the common impuri-
ties; then it is shredded by a suitable machine, after which it is
washed, dried at an elevated temperature, cooled, and “ nitrated.”
The nitrating process consists in dipping the cotton into a mixture
of strong nitric and sulphuric acids in the proportion of one to three.
During this process the cellulose molecule takes up nitric acid radi-
cles to form the hexa-nitrate, and liberates water which is taken up
by the sulphuric acid. This “nitrated” cotton is now put into cen-
trifugal machines and freed from the greater part of the adhering

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 41

acids, after which it is again shredded, boiled to remove dangerous
impurities, subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove excess of
water, and moulded into suitable forms for shipping and use. Until
about sixty years ago the only explosive known for all purposes was
gunpowder. With the discovery of guncotton and nitroglycerine,
gunpowder was gradually replaced by them for blasting purposes.
In their early days the two explosives were used singly, guncotton as
guncotton, nitroglycerine—first of all alone, and then as dynamite.
Later on the two were combined as “ blasting gelatine,” and explo-
sives of a similar nature, but it was quite forty years after their dis-
covery before eitiier became of practical use for propulsive purposes.
At the present time, smokeless powders made from the violent gun-
cotton, or of guncotton combined with the still more violent nitro-
glycerine, have almost entirely superseded the old-time gunpowder.
Modern explosives are characterized by very greatly increased power,
giving enormously greater range to projectiles fired from both rifles
and artillery, thus altering entirely the condition of both land and
naval warfare.

Besides the hexa-nitrate of cellulose, or guncotton, lower ni-
trates may be formed by using more dilute acids, and altering the
conditions somewhat. These lower nitrates differ from the hexa-
nitrate in being less explosive, although highly combustible, and are
soluble in various liquids, including alcohol and ether, in which gun-
cotton is insoluble. When these lower nitrates are dissolved in a
mixture of ether and alcohol we have the useful substance “ collo-
dion,” which, when applied to a wound, leaves, upon evaporation of
the ether and alcohol, a film of these lower nitrates, usually called
“collodion wool” or “cotton.” “ Celloidin” wool is the purest
form of collodion wool and is neither inflammable nor explosive. It
burns, however.-if brought into contact with a naked flame. It is
used for photographic purposes almost exclusively.

Celluloid is an intimate mechanical mixture of pyroxyline (gun-
cotton or collodion cotton) with camphor, formed by adding the
pyroxyline to melted camphor, or by strongly compressing the two
substances together, or by dissolving the constituents in an appro-
priate solvent, e.g., alcohol or ether, and evaporating to dryness. A
combination of the two latter methods, i.e., partial solution, with
pressure, is now usually adopted. The pyroxyline employed is
generally the tetra- and penta-nitrated cellulose, the hexa-nitrate
(guncotton) being but seldom used on account of its explosive pro-

42 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

perties. Camphor possesses the peculiar property of depriving col-
lodion cotton and guncotton of their combustible and explosive
qualities. Celluloid is insoluble in water, and on this account 1s suit-
able for making domestic articles such as knife handles. Celluloid
can be rolled, polished, pressed, cut and hammered, and can also be
kneaded at a temperature of 145°C., so that occasionally it may take
the place of metals, stone, wood and wax. There are very few in-
dustries, in fact, in which this substance does not find employment
in some form or other.

When cellulose is dissolved in a hot concentrated solution of
zinc chloride, we get a thick syrup which may be forced through
narrow orifices into alcohol, which precipitates the cellulose from its
solution in fine threads which may be carbonized, and used for fila-
ments for incandescent lights. Again, a solution of cellulose in am-
moniacal copper oxide is used for “surfacing” paper or cotton
fabrics, rendering them waterproof, and resistant to mildew and
insects. Such products are called ‘‘ Willesden ” goods, and are much
used for coverings of express wagons and busses.

Within a comparatively short space of time an entirely new in-
dustry has arisen, that of the manufacture of artificial fibrous mate-
rials from cellulose, destined to provide the textile industry with a
new material, artificial silk, already largely used. Various methods
for making artificial silk are employed. One favorite method con-
sists, briefly, in causing a solution of collodion cotton in a mixture of
alcohol and ether to be forced, while hot, through capillary tubes,
whence it issues into a cooling vessel in fine threads which harden
at once. These threads are still explosive and of course unsuitable
for wearing apparel. They must undergo a de-nitrating process
which is accomplished by treating them with suitable reducing
agents. By again treating them with ammonium phosphate they are
rendered practically incombustible, thus giving us an article almost
identical in chemical composition with the original cotton from which
it was produced, but differing widely from it in appearance, since it
now has the appearance of natural silk and possesses a lustre equal
to, if not greater than, the natural article. Another method is the
“viscose ’’ process by which wood pulp is caused to react with caus-
tic soda and carbon disulphide, forming a substance popularly called
“viscose,” soluble in water to a viscous liquid which may be spun
into thread and cloth. This cloth, strange to relate, rapidly decom-
poses into caustic soda, carbon disulphide and cellulose again, thus.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 43

leaving us with the cellulose we started with, but a cellulose pos-
sessing practically all the properties of natural silk.

At present artificial silk is manufactured for the most part in
France. A recent article states that in that country the daily pro-
duction amounts to 44,000 pounds, which is exported chiefly to Ger-
many, the United States and Japan. The cost of production is about
one dollar per pound by the viscose process. This artificial silk is
used for lining scarfs and skirts, for mixed cottons, upholstery, in
taffetas, and even in umbrella covers. Its use is rapidly growing,
and it will not be surprising if it supplants the natural article in the
near future.

The foregoing brief description of a few of the industries de-
pending upon cellulose as the raw material, and which have tre-
mendous commercial importance, will show that these industries
have been developed upon a very slender knowledge of the raw mate-
rial. 1t should also show plainly that cellulose offers a rich field for
research, for if such large industries can be built up upon such a
meagre knowledge of the material worked with, what might not be
accomplished in industrial lines were we to know cellulose as we
know the majority of common substances ?

W. O. W.

WHAT’S IN A NAME?

OCAL names, whether they belong to cities, provinces, villages,

rivers, mountains or head-lands, are never mere arbitrary

sounds, but records of the past, always inviting and rewarding a
careful historical interpretation.

The original import of ancient names has often faded away, but,
whenever the primeval meaning may be sifted out, and recovered,
we generally gain a symbol that proves itself full-fraught with in-
struction; for the name of a district or of a. town may speak to us
of emigrations, immigrations, the commingling of races by war and
-conquest, or through the processes of commerce and discovery, thus
‘noting events which written history has failed to commemorate.

Local names and names of people might often be adduced as
evidence of the common origin and close brotherhood of men whom
ignorance and petty interests would have at daggers drawn.

Lastly, names of places stand as the noble ruins of a once living
language, in a very remote and dark age.

Topographic words are more secure than other elements of a
pecple’s speech from the modifying influences of grammatical in-
flexion, because they share, so to speak, in the permanency of nature.
Their special peril arises only from attempts at accommodating their
forms to the requirements of popular etymological speculation.

Indeed, it seems that invading hosts may trample down, burn or
extirpate whatever grows upon a soil; they may slay the people—
high born and low born—but if one poor outcast be forgotten to till
the land anew, to bear witness that a brook, a hill, a hamlet ever
existed there, to which those of his race gave a name, whatever else
he may forget, even his mother’s tongue, the name of his home shall
never disappear.

Ancient local names have for the most part a descriptive import;
they tell us something of the physical features of the land. Thus
many a mountain has been designated by that natural phenomenon, «
the snowy covering of its lofty summit:—Ben Nevis, Mont Blanc,
Sierra Nevada, Snafell, Sneekoppe, Weisshorn, etc. Not.only do
these appellations give aid to the philologist when the aspect of the
country has remained the same, but where the face of nature has
undergone changes, they become evidence of physical mutations, as

WHAT’S IN A NAME? 45

valuable to the geologist or the antiquarian as fossils, hatchets or
potteries.

Furthermore, local names not unfrequently throw valuable light
on the ethnological composition of a people. For instance, when
we learn that the highest summit in the Isle of Man is called Sna-
fell, we recognise at once the descriptive character of the name, but,
when we discover that the name Snafell is a true Norse word, that
it serves moreover for the name of a mountain in Norway, and of
another in Iceland, we find ourselves in presence of the historical
fact that the Isle of Man was, for centuries, a dependency of the
Scandinavian crown, having been conquered and colonized by the
Norwegian Vikings, who also peopled Iceland.

In truth, many nations have left no other records of their share
in the making up of a race outside the hills, the valleys, the rivers,
the villages they named, and where they sojourned. The Celtic, the
Tberic, the Teutonic, the Scandinavian and the Sclavonian races
have thus, and for the most part thus only, made known to us their
migrations, their conquests and their defeats, their civilization, the
state of agriculture, the progress of the arts of construction, and
even their religious beliefs. But one will readily understand how
hard a task it must be to decipher Old-World names, mostly derived
from obscure or unknown languages which have suffered more or
less from the phonetic changes of perhaps twenty centuries, when
in the New World, where civilization and nomenclature are both
modern, we meet with such a puzzling and interesting problem as
the derivation of Canada. *

Many names upon our maps supply us with traces of the history
of nations that have left no other memorials, written annals or monu-

*Three versions have been given of the origin of the name, none of which
is satisfactory, to say the least. The first is that early Spanish navigators ex-
claimed on landing upon the then unpromising shores of this country: “ Aca
Nada”=Nothing here—hence the name Canada. An objection to this etymo-
logy is that the Spanish “ Aca” is not ‘here,’ but rather ‘ hither,’ while ‘aqui’
means here or hereabouts. Moreover, as no Spaniard settled there and then,
unless written down at the time, the expression would hardly have been pre-
served, and the appellation being neither descriptive nor historical, we may
dismiss it as thoroughly childish.

The second etymology suggested is from the Indian words ‘Kan’=
mouth, and ‘ada’=a country. Of course this appellation might have fitted
the great expanse of water which is the door to the inland settlements, the
St. Lawrence, and have been extended to the whole country.

The third etymology, the one commonly accepted, would be derived from
another Indian word: ‘Kannatha’=a collection of huts. No doubt the last
two derivations could be defended by a few likely arguments, but they lack
the authority of written tradition which is claimed for a fourth version.

46 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

ments, whose language is dying or is dead, whose blood is becoming
undistinguishably mingled with that of other races. The knowledge
of the history and the migrations of such tribes must therefore be
recovered from the study of the names of places which they once
inhabited, from the names of the hills which they fortified, of the
rivers by which they dwelt, of the land they tilled and claimed as
their own against intruders, of the distant mountains upon which
they gazed. It is from such a study of local names applied to
France and England that we wish to retrace a genealogy of their
people from other races, but mainly the Celtic, Teutonic and Scan-
dinavian stocks, although we may briefly refer to the highlanders
of France.

It has been remarked that, among the mountains, the botanist
and the ethnologist meet with analogous phenomena. The lowland
flora of the glacial epoch has retreated to the Alps and the Pyrenees.
In like manner, we find that the hills contain the ethnological sur-
vivors of the plains. Mountain fastnesses have always formed a
providential refuge for conquered tribes. The narrow valleys which
penetrate into the great chains are well adapted to preserve for a
time the isolation of unrelated tribes of refugees, to hinder the inter-
mixture of race, and thus preserve from extermination or absorption
those who should afterwards, at the right time, blend gradually with
the conquerors of the plains, and supplement their moral and intel-
lectual deficiencies. In the Pyrenees we find the descendants of the
Euskarians or Basques, who have been driven from the lowlands of
France and Spain, and number to-day one million souls. An inspec-
tion of the map of France will show that the Cevennes and the
Alps together with the former province of Aquitaine retain a greater
number of Iberic names than the adjacent districts, the hills having
long served as a barrier to protect from the better armed Romans,
Franks or Normans that dark-eyed, dark-haired, short-statured race
still prevalent there, as in South Wales, the West of Ireland, South-
ern Brittany and in the region around Bordeaux.

The name Canada is very like Spanish, indeed, if pronounced with the mid-
dle syllable accented, and anyone familiar with old Spanish maps and early
Spanish map-making will find it a more reasonable supposition, that ‘Tierra
Canada=land canyoned or gullied, or ‘ Tierra de la Canada’=land of the
valley or gorge, was noted on the map of an early historic Spanish voyage
from the West Indies up the Atlantic coast and into the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. Such original and authoritative maps were properly held to be of
great value, and, when copied for subsequent navigators, the notes made
upon them became part of the new maps, and thus the nomenclature was
perpetuated.

WHAT'S IN A NAME? 47

Te
THE ANGLO-SAXONS.

The fundamental principle to be borne in mind when studying
local names is that in no case are ancient words arbitrary sounds.
They are always ancient words or fragments of words, generally
conforming to the physical features of the spot. In this article we
will almost entirely confine our attention to that class of words.

England is preeminently the land of hedges and inclosures. On
the continent Normandy alone is an exception to the almost total
absence of hedgerows. Now the suffixes which occur most fre-
quently in Anglo-Saxon names denote an inclosure of some kind,
something hedged, walled in or protected—ton, ham, worth, barrow,
stoke, stow, fold, garth, park, hay, burgh, bury, brough. If we take
these suffixes as test-words, we are at once enabled to discriminate
the Anglo-Saxon settlements.

Ton is the most common termination of English local names,
and although it is a true Teutonic word, it only occurs twice or three
times in Germany, but on the coast of France it is as common as in
England, and is not unfrequent in Sweden. The primary meaning
of the suffix fon is to be sought in the Gothic tains, in the old Norse
teinn, and the Latin tinetwi, brushwood used for hedging. Hence a
tun or ton was a place surrounded by a hedge, or rudely fortified by
a palisade. Originally it merely meant a single croft, homestead or
farm, and it is but later that the ton having become the nucleus of a
village grew into a town: Ourton, the village on the bank; Morton,
the village on the marsh; Skelton, the seat of the Viking Scyld or
Skeld.

The Anglo-Saxon vard,* and the Norse equivalent, garth, con-
tain nearly the same idea as ton. Both denote some place guarded
or girded around, and come from yerde, a switch or rod; therefore
jardin and garden were plots surrounded by a fence made of young
shoots. Stoke and stow were places stockaded, surrounded with
stocks or piles. A similar inclosure is denoted by the suffix fold—in
Anglo-Saxon falod, which was a stall or place constructed of felled
trees, for the protection of cattle or sheep. Worth denotes a place
warded, or protected, probably an inclosed homestead for the churls.
Haign or hay, in French haie, is a hedge or a place surrounded by a
hedge.

*A yard=a stick of a certain length.

48 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

Related to the Anglo-Saxon verb Beorgan, and the German
bergen, to shelter or hide, are the suffixes: bury, borough, burgh,
brough, and barrow. Sometimes these words denote the funeral
mound which gave shelter to the remains of the dead, but more fre-
quently they mean the embanked inclosure which afforded refuge to
the living. From their position on the crests of hills, they came to
mean “a hill-fortress.” Ham is also very frequent, meaning that
which hems in, an inclosure, the most holy of all, the home, the one
secret (geheim) and sacred place.

Another most important element in Anglo-Saxon names is the
syllable ig; used sometimes as a suffix and sometimes in the middle
of aname. It points out a clan in the same way as Mac in Scotland
and O’ in Ireland. The Saxon immigration was, doubtless, an im-
migration of clans (cluin = children in Gaelic). The head of the
family built or bought a ship, and embarked in it with his children,
his freedmen, and his neighbours, and established a family colony
on any shore to which the winds might carry him. Quite different
was the colonization by soldiers of fortune from Scandinavian
shores. It was individualistic. The termination ing therefore de-
notes the children or subjects of a chief whose name has thus been
saved from oblivion.

England is not the only country which was conquered and
colonized by the Anglo-Saxon race. In the old French provinces of
Picardy and Artois there is a well defined district, lying between
Calais, Boulogne, and St. Omer, and fronting the English coast, in
which the name of almost every village and hamlet is of the pure
Anglo-Saxon type with its counterpart in England. Thus we have
in the French district and on the English side of the Channel,
amongst many others the following towns:

In France. In England.
Wath emniier isin be yeah econ Warham.
RATEK OES Sais cists iinateetayy Radcot.

1S WAS barges tel re oteeear nas - Wast

ERG BRT vad eats oat vs sero aedtaca dubs Freton
Cohen, Cuhem, Cuhen.......... Cougham.
FLONGbE GUC s cass anceese wake eck e is Holbeck.
Ham, Hame, Hames........... Ham.
Werwi¢ks. casio ce cacklnacenea pen Warwick.
MAPPCPAaTDeov.nt wake cena ceed Applegarth,

SARC ave ves sveaeereueecahues Sandgate.

WHAT’S IN A NAME? 49

GUA alesse icc ica thao aug oe Windle.
INShOiiie gratis aver eae na leita Inghem.
OVE aanaeurs eekesiaut wees Eye
Wimille..... ieisa icin: aioe see arses Windmill.
Grisendale esc dscaatokneans tees Grisdale.

Other familiar English forms as Graywick, Bruquedal, Mar-
becq, Longfosse, Dalle, Vendal, Salperwick, Fordebecques, Staple,
Crehem, Pihem, Dohem, Roqueton, Hazelbrouck, Roebeck, and the
river Slack, are to be met with everywhere. Twenty-two of the
names have the characteristic suffix, ton, and upwards of one hun-
dred end in ham, hem, or fhien. There are also more than one hun-
dred patronimics ending in ing. A comparison of these patronymics
with those found in England proves, beyond a doubt, that the colo-
nization of this part of France must have been effected by men bear-
ing the clan-names which belonged to the Teutonic families which
settled on the opposite coast. More than eighty per cent. of these
French patronymics are also found in England. Thus we have:

In France. In England. :
AICNGHNUT you s wavbaeieoaeeauins Allington.

Bazinhais ess aceds sceseb ee vac Bassingham.
Balingheni....0ss.sea0daiedaaatenees Ballingham.

Berlngheniiot siete kimi Birlingham.

COlmcthita tarsi cies tse chos Collington.

Maninghém ia. csewa se eawn dies Manningham.

Todincthiin. sc. cics¢ise seers Toddington.

Velinghen:cic34 cant ta deeds Wellingham.

Further to the southwest we have Douvres in the Saxon shore
near Bayeux, which reminds us of Dover, and within a short dis-
tance the people formerly known as the Parisii. Now P, according
to Grimm’s law, is interchangeable in Latin with F, so that we are
thus led to identify the Parisii with the Frisii or Frisians. A third
settlement of Saxons took place in the neighbourhood of Caen, and
extended as far as the islands at the mouth of the Loire, where the

population still retains the distinctive outward marks of Saxon
blood.

By the aid of the departmental maps of France we can still trace
the sharply defined boundaries of the Saxon and Danish districts.
Thus it would be seen that in the Eure and Seine Inférieure depart-
ments, where the Danish names are thickly clustered, hardly a single

5° QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

Saxon name is to be found, while in Calvados and La Manche, where
the Danish names are comparatively scarce, their place is occupied
by names of the Saxon type. The Northmen seem to have respected
the right of ownership of their kinsmen, the Saxons, and to have
dispossessed only the Celtic tribes who dwelt to the east and north-
west of the Saxon colony. Around Boulogne we find the names of
Sassetot (Saxon’s field; tot or toft, Norse, related to turf, an in-
closure), Hermanville, Etreham, Ouistreham (Westerham), Ham-
bye, Le Ham, Cottun (Cow’s yard), Heuland (highland), Plume-
tot (Bloomfield or Flowerfield), Caen, anciently written Cathem and
Catheim. There are also about thirty Saxon patronymics, with the
same families on the opposite coast of Hants, Dorset, Devon, and
Cornwall. Thus we have the following families located in both
France and England:
France. England.

Berrings, at Berigny and Berrington.

Bellings, at Bellengreville and Bellinger.

Callings, at Caligny and Callington.

Hardings, at Hardinvast and Hardenhuish.

Sulings at Soulangy and Sullington, etc.

In fact it would be easy to prove only by means of the local
names that certain parts of modern France are as thoroughly Teu-
tonic in blood as any portion of England.

On the northeastern side and even as far as Arras, Beauvais,
Amiens and Langres we have a race of German descent again, whose
ancestors were introduced in Gaul to defend the frontier by the
Roman rulers. Thousands of Frisians and others were transported
into that neighbourhood by the Emperor Julian. Charlemagne
brought in also a vast multitude of Saxons, including women and
children, at one time, and after another conquest every third man of
the conquered people. But by far the greater number of the German
names in France record, no doubt, the settlements of the Frank and
Burgundian conquerors themselves, who founded, judging their
colonization by means of the patronymic names, no fewer than 1,100
villages in France. It is worthy of note here that the German set-
tlers took possession of the fertile valleys of the great rivers, leaving
the barren uplands almost wholly undisturbed. The west and south
of modern France were unaffected by the Teutonic invasion. Of
these 1,100 patronymic German village-names in France, about one-
fourth are also to be found in England.

WHAT’S IN A NAME? 51

Il.
THE NORTHMEN.

Before we proceed to attempt the solution of the problems con-
nected with the settlements of the Northmen in the British Isles and
France, it will be necessary to exhibit the tools with which the his-
torical lock is to be picked. We must analyse and classify some of
the characteristic names which the Northmen have left upon the
map. The most valuable and important of these test-words is byr
or by. This word originally meant an abode, or a single farm, and
hence it afterwards came to denote a village. A by-law is a local
law enacted by the township. In Normandy we find it in the form
beuf ; buf, bue(with only two By, Hambye and Colomby), Tournebu,
Bu sur Rouvres. In England this suffix is usually contracted into by.
Thus we have in England Grimsby, the home of Grim; Rugby, the
red soil; Whitby, the white cliffs; Derby, Ashby, etc. Besides byr,
by or beuf, the Northmen have handed down to us the words—
thorpe, throp or trop, ville or villiers, toft, beck or bec, force or foss,
fleur, gardr, bosc, fell, dale, ford, wick or vic, naze or nez, holm, 0 or
ey, hangr, holt.

There are scores and scores of names ending in by in Jutland
and Sleswic, and not half a dozen throughout the whole of Germany ;
in France, on the other hand, such names as Quillebeuf, Paimbceuf,
Marbeuf are extremely common. Thorpe, throp, or trop is an ag-
gregation of men or houses, a village. That termination is rather
scarce in France, where it is replaced by the ending ville, as Tancar-
ville (Tancred’s abode), or Haconville (Haakon’s home). This
suffix is not the Romance word villa, but is identical with the Ger-
man weiler = an abode, a single house. Sometimes it assumes the
form villiers, e.g., Hardivilliers, Bouchevilliers. In England it is
found in the form well or will, e.g., Bradwell; in Germany Breitwil.

The word toft, which in Normandy takes the form fot, signi-
fies a homestead, and is an indication of permanent colonization.
The word beck or bec, denoting a brook, and the suffix force or foss,
a waterfall, are seen in Caudebec = cold brook, and Longuefosse =
the Grand Falls. The word fell (pronounced fiell in Norway) is
a hill, or a place where the ground is on the fall; a field is where the
trees have been felled. The Norse word, dale, is the equivalent of
the German Thal =a valley. The Anglo-Saxon form is dell. The
word ford is derived from faran = to go, to be found in both Saxon
and Norse names. The fords of the Anglo-Saxon husbandmen are

°
52 QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

passages across rivers for men or cattle; the fords of the Scandina-
Vian sea-revers are passages for ships up arms of the sea. Wick is
a station for ships, if by the coast, and a village, if inland, but as the
station was a creek for a ship, wick generally denotes a bay: Sand-
wich = sand bay. The Vikings were the creek or bay-men. Another
word which denotes the presence of the sea-rovers in the same way
as wc is ness, Nase, Or nes, Meaning a nose or promontory. Grinez,
near Calais =the grey Cape; Totness =the house on the Cape.
Holm means an island in a lake or a river = Stockholm, Robe-
homme. An island in the sea is denoted by the suffix oe, a, ey, ay, or
ea, although a and ea often stand for names of rivers.

With the exception of a few nautical terms, the Scandinavians
who settled in France have left hardly any memorials of their speech
in our French dictionaries. The conquerors married native women,
and a kindly Providence willed it so that after they were civilized
by their wives, their sons should only learn the language spoken by
the mothers. The map of Normandy, however, supplies abundant
traces of the Scandinavian conquest in the village names: Grimon-
ville (Grim), Borneville (Beodrn), Herouville (Harold), Tourville
(Thor), Godarville (Guddar), Hacqueville (Haakon). The Norse
gardr occurs at Fisigard, Auppegard, and Epegard—names which
we may compare with Fishguard and Applegarth in England. Toft
or tot, already referred to, is found in names such as these :—Yve-
tot = Ivo’s toft; Lilletot = little toft; Routot = red toft; Crique-
tot = crooked toft; Berquetot = birch toft; Hautot = high toft,
etc., more than one hundred of them. As toft is a Danish rather than
a Norwegian suffix, it might be assumed that the conquerors of
Normandy were Danes rather than Norwegians.

Le Torp and Clitourps give us the word thorpe. The name of
the river Dieppe, which was afterwards given to the town built be-
side it, means deep water or the deep river. From the Danish
bac = brook, we have, as already mentioned: Caudebec = the cold
brook; Briquebec = the birch-fringed brook; Birkbeck in England;
Houlbec = the brook in the hollow; Foulbec = the muddy brook;
Clarbec = clear brook. The suffix fleur, which we find in Honfleur,
Barfleur, Vittefleur, and Fiquefleur, etc., denotes a small river (fliot
flood): Vittefleur = the white river; Fiquefleur = the river in the
bay. The Danish 6 or ey = an island, is seen in Eu, Cantaleu, Al-
derney, Jersey, Guernesey. The word hangr = a sepulchral mound,
shows in Cape de la Hogue, Cape Hoc, Cape Hode, La Hague. Fa-
laise is a castle-crowned rock (fells). Les Dalles, Crodale, Danestal,

WHAT'S IN 4 NAME? 53

Dieppedal, Darnetal, etc., remind us of all the dales in England.
Shaw =a shady place; Bosc =a wood or bushy place; Holt =a
wood, appear in Escoville, Escoves, Verbosc, Bonnebosc, Grimbosq,
Terhoulde, Ménéhoulde. Hastingues, a river-island near Bayonne,
probably takes its name from the renowned Viking Hastings, and
the Ile de Biere in the Loire was no doubt so called from the huts
which the Danes erected upon it for the accommodation of their
prisoners.

IIT.
THE CELTS.

Europe has been peopled by successive immigrations from the
East. Five or six great waves of population have rolled in, each in
its turn urging the flood which had preceded it further and further
toward the West.

The mighty Celtic flood can be distinctly traced in its progress
across Europe, till at length it was driven forward into the far west-
ern extremities of the continent. The Celts were divided into two
great branches. Both branches spoke languages of the same stock,
but distinguished by dialectic differences as great as those which di-
vide English from German. To the first branch belong the Erse of
Ireland, the Gaelic of the Scotch and the Manx; to the second, or
Cymric, the Welsh of Wales and the Brezonec of Brittany, which is
still spoken by a million and a half or two million of Frenchmen.

The river-names, more particularly the names of important
rivers, are everywhere the memorials of the earliest races. They
survive where all other names have changed. Towns may be de-
stroyed, the sites of human habitation may be removed, but the
ancient river-names are handed down from race to race. Teutonic,
Romance villages stand on the banks of streams which still retain
their ancient Celtic appellations. Throughout the whole of England
there is hardly a single river-name which is not Celtic, and the same
may be said of France, with the exception of the Basque region.
There is, in fact, hardly a single Celtic noun meaning stream, cur-
rent, brook, channel, water or flood, or adjective meaning rough,
gentle, smooth, white, black, yellow, crooked, broad, swift, muddy,
clear, and the like, which does not enter largely into the river-names
of Europe.

The usual Welsh word for a river is afon or avon. In little

54 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

Brittany we find the Aff, two streams called Aven ; two Avons flow-
ing into the Loire, and two more in the Seine, while nearly every
other river contains a fragment of the word.

Another word, diffused nearly as widely as afon, is the Welsh
dwr—=water ; in Brezonec dour—in Irish dobhar (doar) ; Greek véup.
We have the root in the Dordogne, the Eure, the Adour, the Dur-
ance, the Durbion, the Dourdon, the Douron, etc.

The Gaelic and Erse word for water is uisge,* while in Welsh
there are several related words pronounced in nearly the same way,
meaning current. This root, subject to various phonetic mutations,
is found in France under some guise: the Isle, the Isac, the Oust,
the Esque, the Asse, the Isére, the Aése, the Oise, the Aisne. From
the closely related Welsh word gwy or wy—=water, we may derive
in England the Garway=rough water; the Conway=chief water,
etc., and in France the Gy, the Guisave, the Guil, the Guiers, at the
foot of the Alps.

The root Rhe or Rhin is connected with the Gaelic rea, rapid;
with the Welsh rhe=swift, the Greek ‘pew, and the English run and
rain.} From this root we have: the Rhine, the Rhone, and scores
of rivers in every country of Europe.

Finally the root don, dun, dob, dn=river or water, can be traced
in Danube, the Don, Dnieper, Durdon, Don in Brittany, the Madon,
the Loudon, the Doubs, etc.

It thus appears that the names of almost all the large rivers of
Europe, as well as those of a very great number of the smaller
streams, contain one or other of the five chief Celtic words for
water or river. We may remark that rivers sometimes contain two
or three roots nearly synonymous, for instance, the Dan-as-ter. The
accretion may be due to the juxtapposition of roots from different
languages, as in the case of the Durbeck, the Durbach, the Durdan
in England, Germany and France, respectively. The same process
of formation may be traced in the names of mountains, valleys,
bridges, islands, bays, as well as rivers. Penhill, Val de Nant, La
Puente de Alcantara, Sandwick Bay, Cape Griznez, etc., are so
many examples of redundance.

We must briefly consider again the adjectival class of river-

*Whisky is, we understand, a corruption of that word, meaning: yellow
water.

+The raindeer is the running deer.

WHAT'S IN A NAME? 55

roots. Garw=rough, gives the names: Gave, Garonne, Gers, Giron,
Guer, in France. All=white, furnishes the rivers Allen, Elwin;
Allwen (Al don, white afon) ; in France the Aulne, the Ellée, the
Aisne; dhu, black, we trace in Douglas; llevn, smooth, or linn, still,
in Lincoln (deep pool) ; tam, spreading, quiet, in Thames; arv, vio-
lent, in Arve, Erve, Arveyron, Ariége; cam, crooked, in Camlez
(crooked dale), and clith, strong, in Clyde, Clisson, and Clitumnus.

It is indeed a curious fact that a unique river-name is hardly
to be found, and as they nearly all exhibit a Celtic origin, we are
enabled thus to prove the wide diffusion of the Celtic race.

For antiquity and immutability, the names of mountains and
hills come next in value to the names of rivers. The modern Welsh
or Brezonec names for the head, the brow, and the back, are pen,
bryn, and cefn (keven). We find these words in a large number
of mountain-names. They are found in Chevin ridge; Les Cevennes
and the Chien; in the Brandon, Brenner, Brandenburg, La Penne,
Penmarch, Penard, Hennebont = Tete de Pont; Geneva = the head
of the river; and the name of the Gallic chief Brennus,* etc.

The position of ancient Celtic strongholds is frequently indi-
cated by the root dun; Spanish duna; English down, French dune;
Welsh dinas. Hill-fortresses existed on the bold isolated crags of
Yverdun, at Thun, Autun, Lugdunum (lake fort), Lyons, Laon
(Laudunum, the capital of the Merovingian kings) ; Melun (Melo-
dunum or meall dun=hill-fort); Verdun (fir-dun) or man’s fort.
No country in the world seems to have had so many Celtic hill-
fortresses as France.

Rhos (rus in Latin, of rush, the characteristic moorland plant) =
a moor, together with ros, a Gaelic word for headland or prominent
rock, is of common occurrence—Rossberg, Rosa, Kinross, Montrose,
Rostrenen (Brittany), Rosporden, Roz-Landrieux. Craig, a rock, so
common in Welsh names, is the name given to the barren boulder-
covered region between Arles and Marseilles: La Crau; Crach
(Britt). Tor, a projecting rock, is found in Mount Taurus, Tyrol,
Thorigné, Torcé, etc. Ard, high, great, forms part of hundreds of
names. In combination with den, a wooden valley, it gives us the
name of the forest of Arden in England, Les Ardennes and Bor-

* That Brennus sacked and burnt Rome in 391 B.C. and only consented
to leave Italy on the paying of a ransom of a thousand pounds of gold. As
it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune complained of some unfairness.
Brennus thereupon threw his heavy sword into the scale; and when asked
the meaning of the act, replied that it meant “ Vae victis”—the weakest must
go to the wall.

56 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

dennes*==deep-wooded valley, in France. Auvergne and Arverne
are the high country in central France.

The word cw, in Brittany Combe, is very frequently used to
denote a cup-shaped depression in the hills: Compton, Cumberland,
Bellecombe. Lizweh, loch, lough=lake, morass, or hollow, constitute
the first syllable of Lugdunum (Lyons), Leyden, Laach, Lutéce, the
ancient name of Paris. A prefix tre, a place or dwelling, clearly
Cymric, occurs in more than thirty names outside of little Brittany,
where it is reckoned by the hundred and thousand: Tréguiers,
Troyes; and as often in Cornwall and Wales, in Italy Trevi, Treviso,
and Trieste, etc. Ty or Ky and Ker, a cottage, a village, is the com-
mon prefix of Brezonec parishes: Quiberon, Kergallo; Ty Doué
Baris: House of the God of Paris, etc., so that, reversing the old
rhyme, we might say:

By Tre, Ker, and Pen,
You may know the Breton men.

Llan, Lan, an enclosure, and hence, in later times, the sacred
inclosure of the Druids, is also a useful Cymric test-word. It occurs
one hundred and thirty times at least in Wales and Cornwall, and
in the Cymric part of Scotland. In Brittany it is one of the most
common prefixes. The original meaning of “Ilan” was probably
not an inclosure but a level plain, such as the Landes, the vast sandy
flats near Bayonne, or the Llanos, the sea-like plains of South Amer-
ica—English Jawn and land. In a mountainous country, such level
spots would be the first to be inclosed, and it is easy to perceive the
process by which the transition of meaning might be effected. The
root, in its primary meaning, appears in the name of Milan, which
stands in the midst of the finest plain in Europe: Lanmeur, the settle-
ment by the marsh; Llangattock, the church of St. Cadoc. The Celtic
word man,a district, is probably to be sought in Maine, Mans, Mantes,
Le Mans, Mayenne, La Manche. Nant, a valley, is a common root
in the Cymric districts: Nantua (Burgundy), Nancy (Lorraine),
Nantes in Brittany, Nangy, and a great many parishes, villages, and
passes in Savoy. Gwent, Vent, Van, an open tilled country, gave
the names of La Vendée, Vannes, and Venetia (Venise), the vast
plain at the mouth of the Po.

The roots hitherto considered are distinctively Cymric rather
than Gaelic or Erse, but one is decisively Erse, namely: Magh, a
plain or field—Welsh maes, English math, and to mow; Latin, meto,

* A biography of Mr. R. L. Borden claims a Norman descent fo
Leader of the Canadian Opposition; his name, however, is purely Celtic. ie

WHAT'S IN A NAME? 57

which is found in Maynooth, Armagh, Magdeburg, and in French
names distorted by Latin writers as Rotomagus=Rouen, Noio-
magus—=Nemours; but such names are only to be met with in East-
ern France. These tribes must have burst into Western Europe,
the Cymry from the region of the Alps and the Gadhelic branch
from the valleys of the Rhine and the Moselle. It would be after
their plundering of Rome that they broke in upon Greece, crossed
the Bosphorus and settled in Asia Minor, to which they gave the
name of Galatia, where they long retained their Celtic speech, and
the ethical peculiarities of their (our) Celtic blood. (Vide St. Paul’s
Epistle).

The accumulative evidence furnished by these Celtic names has
been exhibited in a very imperfect manner, but enough has probably
been adduced to show conclusively that large portions of Italy,
Spain, France, Switzerland, and Germany, were at some period in-
habited by the race which now retains its speech and its nationality
only in a few of the western corners of Europe—Ireland, the Scotch
Highlands, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany.

One conclusion that strikes us in running over the place names
of Western Europe is that the simple-minded children of semi-
barbarous times have unconsciously conformed to the natural laws
which regulate the bestowal of names, and adorned our maps with
a terminology that for beauty, poetry and directness, no academy
of modern savants could approach. What a contrast is presented by
the New World, settled, not by savages, but by civilized men, where
a large proportion of the names are unfortunately thoroughly bar-
barous in character! We find the map of the United States and even
(though in a lesser degree) that of Canada, thickly bespattered with
an incongruous medley of names, for the most part utterly inappro-
priate, and fulfilling very insufficiently the chief purposes which
names are intended to fulfil. What poverty of the inventive faculty
is evinced by such unmeaning names as Cairo, Troy, Rome, Paris,
Athens!

A regeneration ought to be effected in this country in the prac-
tice of name-giving. Names, whether they be Indian, English or
French, ought to be at once harmonious, distinctive, characteristic,
and in entire consonance with the genius and the composition of the
nation. In short, if this article could induce some of our modern
godfathers to revert, in naming our new settlements, to the antique
method of their ancestors of the stone age, we would consider our
pains amply rewarded. J. M. Lanos.

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION.

HERE seems to be an ever increasing interest taken in the
“juventus mundi,” in the rude germs which have developed
to-day into such complex organisms. The ancient was accustomed
to look back to the past as better than the present, to refer the com-
plete expression of his ideals to a golden age which would never
come again. We moderns, however, go with magnifying glass and
dissecting knife to the past, attempting to discover how our fore-
bears lived and thought, and ever present in our researches is the
question, how do these things throw light on ourselves; to what
extent can we trace a continuity of process between the past and the
present?

In no region of knowledge has this interest been more marked
than in the study of religious belief. Such a historical study starts
with the very crude ideas of the savage about those elements in the
world around him which he cannot understand and to which—with
the religious consciousness in its very rudest germ—he ascribes
supernatural powers. Following this course of inquiry through the
ages, we discover the vast complexity of modern religion, whether
we take its ritual and ceremonial, its belief about the Deity, its doc-
trines or, in general, the religious consciousness.

Any attempt, then, to study religion in one of its early forms,
possesses attractions of various kinds. In the first place we meet
with religion near its beginnings, retaining much of its simplicity of
conception and ritual, enabling us to see how primitive man put his
first religious instincts into conscious practice, what form his feeling
of something higher than himself naturally took. Secondly, we can
attempt from a study of the conditions of his early history to show
how those very conditions were instrumental in forming a religious
belief of a particular kind, how, in other words, at this stage of re-
ligious development religion was not essentially a relation between
the creature and the Creator quite undisturbed by the needs of the
material world, but was conditioned by his physical wants and his
surroundings. Thirdly, religion has passed through stages of nar-
rower limitations before it has reached that of universality, of ap-
peal to men irrespective of colour and nationality; it had first to be
tribal and at a higher stage national; in fact religion even in its

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 59

Christian form still possesses strongly marked national features in
the various Christian countries, if we look not at the indwelling spirit
of Christianity, but at its formal side as a Church. In the particular
case under discussion this national relation is very marked, for to
a very large extent this religion bears the impress of the national
character, especially where we look most for it, in its ritual and the
conception of the nature of the gods. In the last place, I may sug-
gest that in the case of the religion of the Romans there is the added
historic interest that naturally attaches to the question of what were
the beliefs of the great Empire builders of old, of the practical, or-
ganising, unimaginative, sober and law-abiding Roman. The inten-
tion of this paper is to discuss the religion of the Romans, not
throughout its history, but in its earlier form, its essentially Roman
form, wherein it connects so closely with the Roman character, that
is, as soon as the Roman community emerges into the light of his-
tory.

This means that we must at the outset clear our minds of many
erroneous ideas, strip away from the religion much that in later ages
was added to it from external un-Roman sources. We are not look-
ing at the religious beliefs and practices current in the time of
Cicero; nor must we start from a vague conception that the Roman
and Greek Deities were much the same, and the religion of the two
nations in many ways identical; the only way in which they resemble
is that the two races come from a common stock, and passed through
a similar stage of religious development, though at different epochs.

We may for the sake of clearness distinguish four stages in the
history of Roman religion:

1. The national (or better, tribal) religion developed
along its own independent lines.

2. The period of the influence from the North of
Etruscan beliefs, leaving a permanent and gloomy mark on
Roman belief.

3. The influence from Magna Graecia of Greek reli-
gion, accompanied by the gradual, unreflecting identification
of the gods of the two races by the Roman himself.

4. The gradual acceptance of the various Egyptian and
Oriental Deities and beliefs—marking the breakdown of the
old creed, its failure to satisfy the spiritual needs of a na-
tion become more reflective and at the same time more
cosmopolitan.

60 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

It is almost entirely with this first stage that this paper is con-
cerned—with what the Romans loved to term “the religion of
Numa.”* This early stage—the first, we may call it, if we are
speaking of Roman Religion, though in historical days we find traces
of a still more primitive form of religion in the shape of Magic,
Stone and Tree Worship—has a very characteristic list of divinities
who claimed the worship of the primitive Roman. It may appear
tedious to attempt an enumeration of these gods and to mention the
sphere of their influence, but without this any generalisations on
Roman worship would lose half their meaning.

To start with those that are less known, there was the god
Rubigo. One of the commonest pests that the Latin farmer had to
deal with was the red mildew on the corn. Obviously some evil
spirit produced this, who had to be propitiated. Hence in the earliest
calendar of festivals we find a festival of Rubigo, the spirit of the
mildew, celebrated on April 25th; the ritual was the sacrifice of a
red dog and of a sheep by the Flamen, and the exposition of their
entrails on the altar of the divinity, some five miles outside of Rome.

There was many another, closely connected with Rubigo. There
was Semonia, who had a general charge of the seed sown; Seja, who
protected the corn before it sprouted; Segetia, who was the god of
the standing crop; Nodotus, who protected the growth of the corn
until the knots had developed. Saturn, in later times the god of agri-
culture and civilisation in general, and identified with Chronos of the
Greek mythology, was originally the god of sowing, as we see from
the derivation of the word: “ab satu est dictus Saturnus,” says
Varro, with greater accuracy than was the wont of ancient philolo-
gists. This festival, best known of all to us as in many ways the
origin of our own Christmas festivities, the Saturnalia, celebrated
on December 17th, commemorated the sowing of next year’s crop.

Another rustic Deity is Silvanus, the spirit of the woodland, of
those forests that the earliest Roman had to fell before he could
commence even the rudest agriculture. The strange thing about him
is that he never properly became domesticated; he would never be
induced to come and live in a temple; he loved his freedom too well,
and kept to the woods and the thickets. Yet for all this he consented
(on proper entreaty) to make himself useful to the settler; he was

Tutor finium, arvorum pecorisque deus.
(Hor. Epod. II, 22).

* Cic. Rep. 2, 14, 26, cp. 5, 2, 3.

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 61

Silvano fama est veteres sacrasse Pelasgos,

Arvorum pecorisque deo, lucumque diemque

Qui primi fines aliquando habuere Latinos. *
(Verg. Aen. VIII, 600).

and up to the latest days of the Roman Empire and in the remotest
provinces we find him retaining this primitive attribute; whenever a
forest was cleared, he was first invoked to aid or earlier in history
not to thwart man’s efforts; and part of the rite consisted in “ lus-
tratio,” a purifying of the land from the various wild and hostile
spirits whose natural abode was in the forest about to be cleared.

To give an account of some more of the divinities or powers of
whom the Romans stood in awe and whom he propitiated, with
whom we may almost say he made bargains, we may take those
whose names are known to all. Foremost stands Jupiter, who later,
as we find him in Vergil, was chief among the gods, ruler of Olym-
pus, and identified with the Greek Zeus, but who in the earliest
form in which we meet him is sky god, concerned to a certain ex-
tent with the crops, especially grapes, and so with his wine festivals
in the early calendar.

Juno at first has, to the Roman, no connection with Jupiter. She
stands for womanhood, possibly in connection with her being the
moon goddess; she is the guardian of women, as opposed to men,
and especially in connection with childbirth and marriage. So much
was this the case that in common life women used to speak of their
personal Juno, a kind of individual power protecting each woman
and with her death passing out of existence too somewhat in the same
way as we speak of a “ guardian angel.”

Probably the most unchanged worship in the whole of Roman
religion was that of Vesta, goddess of the “ blazing hearth,” whose
sacred fire was kept forever burning by the vestal virgins, chosen
from the noblest daughters of Rome; but even she is not one but
many, for each household had its own Vesta, just as the State had
its Vesta in the Forum. Here we see very clearly the connection
between the deity and the condition of early life of the nation; in
the primitive community the King’s hearth is of great practical
utility, for there was kept perpetually burning the fire from which
the individual householder might draw ; hence it was the duty of the
King’s daughters to care for it and to keep the flame perpetually
alight.

*Legend tells that the Pelasgi of old who first occupied the land of
Latium, dedicated a grove and a day of festival to Silvanus, god of wood-
land and of cattle.

62 QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

Still more striking is the case of Mars. To classical students he
stands for the god of War, most Roman of all Roman deities, father
of Romulus, giving his name to the first of the Roman months, and
at the same time the counterpart of the Greek Ares. Yet in the
earliest religion this was not his characteristic: he was originally
connected with the growth of vegetation. As Mr. Warde Fowler
has put it, he represents the consciousness “of some great numen
(or divinity) at work in the spring time, quickening vegetation and
calling into life the powers of reproduction in man and the animals.”
So in the invocation we find given by Cato: “Father Mars, I pray
and beseech thee that thou mayest be gracious and favorable to me,
to my home and to my household, for which cause I have ordained
that the offering of pig, sheep, and ox be carried round my fields, my
land and my farm: that thou mayest avert, ward off and keep afar
all disease, visible and invisible, all barrenness, waste, misfortune
and bad weather; that thou mayest suffer our crops, our corn, our
vines and bushes to grow and come to prosperity; that thou mayest
preserve the shepherds and the flocks in safety, and grant health and
strength to me, to my home and to my household.”

Though slightly out of place here, it may be interesting to hint
at the process by which this agricultural divinity was gradually in
the historical evolution of the Roman state connected with war. As
we see him addressed in the prayer I have quoted, he is the god “ par
excellence”? of the farmer. But when this agricultural community
grew into a state, coming into collision with neighboring Latin states,
it was only natural that the deity who concerned himself with the
interests of the farmer should also take upon himself the protection
of the farmer turned soldier for the protection of his lands. Later
on when the Roman was an empire builder and less of a farmer, it
was the warlike attributes of the god that were most prominent,
though the agricultural attributes never disappeared, particularly in
the countryside.

Before going on to enumerate some of the other divinities of
early Rome, it may be well to call attention to two points that emerge
from a consideration of those already mentioned. In the first place
the slightest knowledge of Greek religion will show how incorrect
it is to do as the Romans themselves did later, that is, to identify the
divinities of the two nations. The Greeks, at least in the period we
know them and particularly at the time we are now speaking of, had,
for instance, no parallel to the number of divinities presiding over
the various stages of the growth of the corn; nor when we look at

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 63

what we usually term the greater gods, the “di consentes,” do we
find closer connection than what we would naturally expect from
the fact that both nations assigned divinities to the more important
functions of life. That the way in which the Roman and the Greek
regarded them was very different, I hope to show further on.

The second point that strikes us is, that these gods that I have
mentioned, and many another, such as Ceres, Priapus, god of gar-
dens, and Faunus and Pales are preeminently the gods of a rustic,
agricultural community that is occupied, not so much with the earlier
stage of the grazing of cattle, but with the more settled and advanced
labour of tilling the ground. This fact comes still more strongly
when we look at the old Calendar of Festivals, which is chiefly taken
up with agricultural celebrations; they fall into three groups: those
of Spring, expressive of fear and hopes for the growing crops and
herds ; those of Summer, the festivals of fulfilment, especially of har-
vest” (for we are in the south of Europe where harvest comes
early), and lastly those of Winter, the festivals of sowing and puri-
fication.”

I close this list with a most interesting and, at first sight, be-
wildering group of divinities, which were grouped around the early
years of the young Roman. When the child is weaned, there is one
to teach him to eat, another, Potina, to show him how to drink,
Cunina to keep him quiet in his cradle, Locutius to help him in his
first efforts to speak, others to guard his first attempts to walk; in
fact, forty-three gods of childhood have been counted. (Varro).
To us, as to the early Christian Fathers, ‘“ this crowd of small deities
condemned to menial services” may seem somewhat ridiculous, but
they are most valuable to the student, as they show very clearly the

‘way in which the early Roman created his divinities, and at what
stage of religious development we find them. Taking, then, the
divinities of this early community as a whole, we are now able to
attempt to analyze their character, i.e., define their theology. The
fact of supreme importance to note is that they are not gods. The
very word the early Roman used for them is a witness to this: they
are numina-powers. They are not personal, they have no individu-
ality. As Ovid says: “ Think not Vesta to be ought else but living
flame ’—Fasti VI. Hence they stand in strong contrast to the an-
thropomophic deities of the Greeks. We find a number of facts
about early Roman religion that connect closely with the abstract
nature of these multitudinous spirits. For many years there were
no temples of the gods in the city: for how could these impersonal

64 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

!
abstractions dwell in a particular place? The erection of temples
only comes through the later influence of the Etrucsans, yet not for
all. Silvanus could never be induced to live in a temple. Still less
could there be the anthropomorphic representation of them in the
shape of statues. Even when later through contact with the Greek
religion of South Italy we do find statues, yet the most Roman of
religious conceptions, Vesta, remains unchanged, so that Ovid says,
Fasti VI, 257,

Esse diu stultus Vestae simulacra putavi:
Mox didici curvo nulla subesse tholo.

Ignis inextinctus templo celatur in illo;
Effigiem nullam Vesta nec ignis habent. =

Cf. Varro, who says in the true spirit of Roman religion that ‘“ those
who introduced representations took away fear and brought in false-
hood.”

Similarly the very Greek belief in oracles has no counterpart in
early Rome; the Sibylline books came from Magna Graecia much
later. There being no personal gods, it was obviously impossible for
men to consult them or to receive advice and prophecy from them:
we have not as yet reached so advanced a stage in the conception of
the relation between man and the deities, nor indeed of the deities
themselves.

A last point that flows from the impersonality of these divini-
ties is, that of true Roman J/ythology there was none, until the
fashion was set by the rich stores of myths of the imaginative
Greeks. Since they are not conceived of as distinct personalities.
they have no lineage, no father or mother, no relationship between
them, no connection and no subordination. Jupiter, the sky god, for
instance, has no jurisdiction over the fire god. Saturnus, the god of
sowing, can lay no command on the various divinities I mentioned
as guarding the growth of corn in its various stages.

It is clear, then, that the identification of the Greek and Roman
gods is a great mistake. It is, of course, true that in course of time
all these features were added, adopted from the Greeks, but they
were never properly assimilated or used together: the old religion of
Numa was early arrested in its growth and survived for many a
century, accompanied by many a new element borrowed from else-
where, but it is never very difficult to disentangle the old form from

* Once I thought in my folly that there were statues of Vesta; but I have
learnt that none of these repose ‘neath her rounded dome. Fire that never
dieth is hid within that shrine. Nor Vesta nor fire hath any figure.

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 65

the later accretions which are in most cases inspired by a very dif-
ferent view of the gods. One must, however, add, to guard against
any misconception, that the primitive deities of Greece were in many
ways identical with those of Rome, belonging as both did to the same
stage of religious development, a stage that I shall at once describe,
but the important point to be emphasized is that both nations de-
veloped from this same stage along their own lines, and also within
this stage formed different conceptions.

These “numina”’ belong to that stage of early religious belief
known to-day as Animism. In this paper I am not concerned with
the question as to how this form of belief was evolved: that belongs
to the Metaphysic of Religion; it is sufficient here to briefly indicate
its character. By Animism, then, is meant that stage in which primi-
tive man worships spirits, and earliest of all the great elements of
Nature, the sun, the rain, the winds, on which his subsistence and
his comfort so materially depend; later on, the worship extends to
minor objects, the oak and the waterfall, the spring and the grove,
and even further to other than natural objects. These various spirits,
ever increasing in number, form what we may call a vague and some-
what indistinguishable crowd; as opposed to the later stage of wor-
shipping gods with a name and more or less of a personality, the
spirits are invoked often without any name, only by those who have
need of them, and by these only when the occasion requires and are
worshipped chiefly, if not entirely, from a motive of fear. This in-
vocation is only occasional, because the existence of the spirit only
lasts during the continuance of that over which he presides. Satur-
nus has his festival at the time of the sowing of the seed and is not
invoked at any other time of the year.

But while we call Animism a stage in religion, it is very obvious
that within these limits there can be a number of lesser stages of
gradual development. I have assumed that this spirit worship begins
with the greater powers of nature and then took in also the smaller
and lesser ones. Some authorities hold the converse; but whichever
came first, it is obviously a later stage when man believes that there
is a spirit to be invoked in connection with his own personal needs,
to be prevented by propitiation from harming himself and his flocks,
or later his crops and his household effects, and later still watching
over his welfare and thus abandoning the negative attitude of not
harming him. Therefore we may ask to what stage of Animism does
this early religion of Rome belong; is this form the earliest in which
we can find the Roman, after his severance from the rest of the Ar-

66 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

yan stock? These questions are not easy to answer. Our chief dif-
ficulty is that we cannot to-day get with any precision at this religion
at any given period; what I have loosely called early Roman religion
represents the general stage of Animism held in common with the
rest of the Aryan stock with traces of all the minor stages of de-
velopment and spread over a long period. It is clear that the Romans
must have passed through the pastoral stage and therefore at one
time given great prominence to the spirits connected with hunting
and herding, and of these divinities we find some traces existing at
the period I am attempting to discuss. But at the time at which we
can first catch a glimpse of the Roman, and for centuries afterwards,
he is essentially an agriculturalist, worshipping especially those
spirits connected with the soil and therefore tending to neglect those
that he used to worship in his pastoral state.

On the whole, then, this early religion, as far as we find clear
traces of it, is that of the latest form of Animism, that belonging to
an agricultural state of society, and I am therefore tempted, par-
ticularly on historical grounds, to regard this latter stage as the time
when Roman religion develops along its own lines.

But we do find traces of early forms of worship, to be assigned
to the time when Greek and Roman were one. We find survivals
of magic, as when we find puppets of straw thrown into the Tiber
as arain charm. So we find sacred trees—the fig tree in the Campus
Martius and the “ ficus Ruminalis ”; and, in the case of animals, the
wolf and woodpecker sacred to Mars, probably remnants of Totem-
ism, though in all these cases the later Roman invented’ aetiological
legends, representing, for instance, “ficus Ruminalis,” as the tree
under which Romulus and Remus were suckled by the wolf.

There is a further most interesting question. Given this general
stage of animism through which all religions have passed, what are
the peculiarities of development due to the Romans themselves? To
what extent did the character of the nation have a modifying inflence
on their view of their divinities? The question is easier when we
apply it to the relation between men and their gods and still easier
when asked of the Roman ritual and ceremonial, but I think that
one may venture to assert that the peculiar development by the Ro-
mans themselves in their conception of the spirits shows itself in
three ways, which I shall do no more than hint at.

(1) The vast emphasis placed on those spirits who are con-
nected with agriculture in its every form, from the clearing of the
primaeval forest to the gathering in of the harvest and its safe stor-

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 67

ing in the granary. This does not mean that other nations did not
have their agricultural deities, but that the Roman development of
those spirits was one that took place after the Latin stock became
separate, and further that these divinities were more numerous and
plaved a more important part in the worship of the early Roman
than was the case with any other race, and finally that they con-
tinued to be worshipped long atter a stage of civilisation was
reached, at which in the case of other nations they passed out of
existence or were merged into larger conceptions.

(2) The very abstract way in which they formed these deities.
In the case of the worship of the nature powers. whether greater or
lesser, there is not much abstraction in arriving at the conception:
the sun spirit and the sun are the same to the earliest savage, thougn
later the sun is conceived of as being the dwelling place of the sun
spirit, the running water of the river-god. A later stage. when other
spirits appear, shows. no doubt, more of this abstraction, but the
Roman went far bevond others in his tendency to form abstractions
not only of all the particular acts that he himself performed. but of
all the stages in the various processes of Nature. It is not. as in the
case of the Greeks, that he personified an abstract quality, but he
formed a vague abstraction of certain very definite acts, such as we
do not find in the case of other races.

(3) Closely connected with the last named characteristic of
these abstractions: they are almost entirely functional, associated.
as we would expect from the Roman character. with the practical
life, with each phase of natural development, with each state or sill
more, action of the life of man; essentially practical deities. whose
malevolence could do him material harm, and whose co-operation
meant prosperity. So Janus in earlier times is the spirit of the
opening and closing door, hence facing both ways. who protects the
household at its threshold by preventing enemies coming in, and so
in accordance with that further tendency toward abstraction that 1
have just mentioned becomes the god of beginnings. I would there-
fore emphasize the practical, material side of Roman worship. The
Roman did not rise to the conception of a god of the gods making
for righteousness. He ignores the ideal elements of life.

A further point in which the Roman seems to have if not in-
novated. yet to have carried out the conception more thoroughly and
more logically is, that he conceived of the gods. spite of their im-
personality. to be the parties to a contract for the advantage of both

68 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

sides. Of this, however, I shall speak more at length when dealing
with the worship.

Before leaving this part of my subject, I cannot resist mention-
ing the hypothesis that has been put forward as regards these func-
tional divinities of the Romans. It is that they really represent an
advanced stage of religion, akin to Monotheism. Most of the names
are epithets and adjectives, and in all probability there was originally
a noun belonging to them; really they were all epithets of one great
deity, or, as some are masculine and some feminine, of a great male
and a great female deity. The noun fell out of use, but was still
present to the mind of the Roman, and thus his regiment of divine
names are not really designations of different persons but titles of
the same person, supposed to be present alike in all these numberless
manifestations. Thus the god who helped the child to speak was,
when addressed in full, “ Divus Pater Vaticanus.” And a parallel is
found in the Christian religion in the manifold epithets of the Deity.

Such a hypothesis, backed by the authority of Gaston Boissier
amongst others, is diametrically opposed to the view of these divini-
ties that I have been presenting, and I think could not be held by a
student of the earliest forms of religion. I will do no more than sug-
gest reasons for refusing to accept it.

(1) In the first place it asserts that suddenly in the process of
evolving a higher conception of the unity of the Deity, we find at
Rome a decadence, a step backward, a loss of the more embracing
conception, a change from comparative simplicity to vague com-
plexity and confusion. Historically no such change can be found in
the case of any other nation, nor in any other stage of religious de-
velopment. Logically the loss of a higher category, and the adoption
of an infinitely higher one, is not one that we can find in the evolu-
tion of thought.

(2) In the second place we can find no reason to account for
the change, even granting it to be possible. The only explanation
put forward is that, while the epithet remained prominent, the name
of the god gradually was forgotten and finally the fact that there was
an all-supreme god in all these manifestations grew vaguer. Forget-
fulness may be a characteristic of the individual in mundane matters,
but not so in matters spiritual and least of all in a primitive religion,
and one of the most marked characteristics of Roman religion, as I
hope to show shortly, is its long memory, its minute observance of
old forms, remaining unchanged for centuries, so that the Roman is
the last man to suspect of having forgotten his former approach to

EARLY ROMAN RELIGION. 69

Monotheism, even if we had some grounds to offer for this forget-
fulness, and of these there are none; nor any practical utility in such
abbreviation.

(3) Such a hypothesis leaves a most tremendous historical gap
between that stage of animism which is pastoral and which seems to
be the religion of the common Aryan stock and this advanced stage,
Monotheism. We may say that we lose sight of the Latin with the
scattering of that stock, wherever its original home, and wherever
the breaking up took place, and we are asked to believe that when
we next meet with those Latins they have in the interval, in the
course of their wanderings and under the rudest circumstances, even
before they rise to any settled mode of life, risen to a conception that
the Greeks in their most advanced stage never reached; and then
when we next meet with them, they have relapsed into Polytheism.

Lastly, it seems to me that the attractiveness of such a theory
lies in the fact that it is an inversion of a truth.

In this idea of a number of manifestations of power each inde-
pendent and separate, and none possessing any marked personality,
we can see from a later standpoint how the further idea is at least
latent, of these manifestations being those of one great power, how
from these particulars it is natural for man, in his attempt to explain
and co-ordinate, to arrive at the conception of a Unity underlying
and explaining the abstract particular he has started with. But as a
matter of fact the historical Roman never did this; the development
of his religion was arrested long before he could achieve this; and
when his ideas did change, it was not in the process of his own de-
velopment, but through the acceptance of Greek ideas.

P. G. C. CAMPBELL.

(To be continued).

ULTIMATE POLITICS.

HE three letters which are here printed were not written in their
original form for publication. Mr. E. W. Thomson was good
enough to send me a copy of his book, “ When Lincoln Died,” and
accompanied the gift with the letter which, with some revision for
the press, appears first in the series. I replied, and showed the cor-
respondence to a professional soldier of high rank, who has had
special opportunities of learning the point of view of the authorities
who are charged with responsibility for Imperial defence in its
widest aspects. In returning the letters this officer added the brief
note which is printed third in order. Later the idea of publishing
these letters was broached and all three agreed that they should
appear in the Queen’s Quarterly; the soldier, however, held that he

should remain anonymous.

C. FrepericK HAMILTON.

Ottawa, May 20, 1909.
My Dear HAMILTON,—

With this I send you a copy of my book of verse, ‘ When Lin-
coln Died, &c.”, of which a Canadian edition will appear in the fall
as “The Many-mansioned House.” You will see that it consists
largely of pieces somewhat political in bearing. Collectively these
disclose a variety of pan-Anglican sentiments—some peculiarly
Canadian, some British or “ Imperialistic,’ some “ American.” Such
is my innocence, or lack of imagination, that I did not conceive this
inclusiveness could offend any reasonable being, until some not un-
friendly Canadian critics had chidden it. They intimate a certain
displeasure that a Canadian should discourse sympathetically of
“Yankee” persons or views. But that was precisely what I hoped
to be applauded for! As I want you to read the book with full
understanding of its main purpose, let me explain this.

Just as “Peter Ottawa” is an attempt to reconcile various Cana-
dian sentiments that are often imagined to be inconsistent, so the
whole book, insofar as political, is an attempt to reconcile various
English sentiments which are frequently supposed to exclude one
another. I use “English” here in the pan-Anglican sense, as de-
noting all English-speaking folk. Cannot one love Abraham Lin-

ULTIMATE POLITICS. 71

coln?—that great man of English blood and name—cannot one ad-
mire and laud the so-English-named Grant, Lee, Sherman, and their
valorous brethren in arms, in race, and in language ?—without
coming under any just suspicion of insincerity in avowed devotion
to Canadian nationalism and British Union? I hesitated a little at
the term “ British Union,” since it happens that, to my way of think-
ing, pan-Anglicanism or English-speaking union is not only a greater
. idea than British Union, but that the latter may be best promoted in
accordance with the former.

At risk of wearying you I will discourse a bit on this theme. It
seems to me that a formal union of the British English-speaking
countries, a union newly binding the Dominions to or with the United
Kingdom, is impracticable; that the advocates of such new union
propose political retrogression for not only “the overseas Dominions”
but for the United Kingdom; and that such a novel “ Empire” is
undesirable. It is undesirable partly because such novel, formal Brit-
ish Union would newly, and almost expressly, exclude the essentially
English Republic, whose inclusion, however informally or tacitly,
seems to me necessary to the ultimate success and safety of the
English-speaking peoples. I share the belief that a sufficient and
most formidable pan-Anglican Union, such as Cecil Rhodes dreamed
of, can and will arrive by so simple a process as British decentraliza-
tion and the more or less deliberate cultivation of goodwill all round
between language-brethren. This view seems to me continually more
agreeable to our brethren of the Republic. I do not allege this at
random, but as one who has long been on the lookout, daily, for
“signs” pro and con.

If the King’s subjects continue to proceed according to the |
unique English genius for decentralization (which implies mutual
confidence, and which therefore promotes such confidence), then
the King’s geographically separated Dominions must each become
truly independent of the venerable Mother of Parliaments, while
continuing in fraternal relation with the United Kingdoms and with
one another, by reason of the Crown’s common supremacy. The
King’s realms would thus be in peace-league but not in war-league.
The defence of each, according to its situation in the world, would
be the business and duty of each, respectively. Collectively the
realms would thus become ever and more armed and more formid-
able. Their tendency to become a war-league on sufficient occasion
would be increasingly strong, by reason‘of their fraternity. At the
same time each would be independently and newly able to cultivate

72 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

fraternal relations with the essentially English Republic. That they
would do so—Great Britain newly, Australia newly, Canada newly—
seems to me as plain as anything in the imagined future can be. The
Republic, finding itself newly and fraternally looked to by each of
the British English countries, would be essentially in the pan-Angli-
can Union.

On the other hand, if we monarchial English (and I am as con-
vinced as you can be of the merits of the British sort of monarchy),
take a centralizationist turn backward, we shall be clamped together
(temporarily) in a very clumsy political machine, one vastly more
clumsy than we have now evolved, and one unsuitable for dealing
with the Republic. The imagined centralized empire would be em-
barrassed, in all manner of dealing with foreign powers, not by the
dominance of the single-hearted London Government—one very
complaisant to the separate, individual wishes and interests of “ the
overseas Dominions ”—but by the dominance of a distracted govern-
ment, one bound to try to represent each and every constituent, one
most unlikely to be enabled to represent any of them satisfactorily.
Fancy Canada having a “say” and vote on Australia’s obvious de-
sire to be on fraternal terms with the United States! Or Australia
in a position to “buck” against some proposed Canadian arrange-
ment with Washington! Canada is now badly “out” with New-
foundland—why? Because Canada meddled injuriously against
Newfoundland’s proper liberty to make special trade and fishery
arrangements with the United States. Similarly all the countries of
any federated British Union might fall out.

The federated machine could not work. If it did not speedily
break down by deadlock or paralysis, its effect would probably be to
bring us all into loggerheads with other powers, and especially into
quarrel with the Republic. For the “central truth” of the pan-
Anglican situation is that the British English communities, including
the United Kingdom, simply have to, and in fact do now, look indi-
vidually to the American-English community, the Republic, for
countenance, friendship, backing, profit, alliance. They should get
freedom to bargain and deal separately with the Republic, even as
they are now almost absolutely free to bargain and deal separately
with the United Kingdom and with one another. They can never
well deal collectively with the Republic because their individual in-
terests are widely diverse.

In short, the Republic is a leading English country. This comes
not only because the bulk of the Englishry of the world are already

ULTIMATE POLITICS. 73

in the Republic, but because the preponderance of the Republic can-
not but increase. Its people must number three hundred millions
before your grandchildren cease from participating in the English
duty of running the world. Which means that pan-Anglican leader-
ship must more plainly come to the Republic, where the bulk of the
people, power, and wealth will be. To promote unfriendliness to-
ward the United States would surely be very unwise in the people
of the other English regions. For them to fight the Republic would
destroy the fair prospect of a pan-Anglican Union ruling the world
to peace and industry. It is best to look facts in the face; to ac-
knowledge the huge value of friendliness all round between English-
speakers; to cultivate that sentiment deliberately, both by the arts of
advance and restraint. Is not that a sound Imperialism? I am not
here arguing the case, nor endeavouring to stir you up to confutation
of my dream. I am but stating its nature.

Well, back to where we started. My small book is largely a
political document. It amounts to a deliberate attempt to signalize
actual sympathy with sentiments often regarded as inconsistent, viz.,
Canadian, British, and “ American ” sentiments, all these being sen-
timents of the Englishry of the world. The design, in brief, was to
evince that catholicity of feeling in a pleasing way, with hope to
induce some readers to share it.

A certain responsiveness has been disclosed in the Republic.
There my critics have written very sympathetically of the Imperialist
“ Many-mansioned House,” of the ultra-Canadian ‘ Peter Ottawa,”
of the pan-Anglican “ Parliament of the Ages.” Possibly these
things were taken the more kindly by Americans because preceded
in the book by the Lincoln and Civil War pieces. Just so I designed.
In England Mr. Quiller-Couch and other critics have taken the
“ American” poems sympathetically. It is only in our dear native
Canada that my humble attempt to be a bit of a reconciler has been
publicly greeted with some mild reproof, and privately with some
less mild. I am told that a Canadian hasn’t any right to be cele-
brating Canada and the Empire in the same book with .\braham Lin-
coln and the Civil War!

In effect the few Canadian objectors seem to be saying, “ Recon-
ciliation be hanged! Away with it! We won't, shan’t, can’t be
reconciled to the United States!” “Why not?” one enquires. “Be-
cause we're so loyal. Because we must be true to the Throne and
the Old Country.” As if there were essential war between the Mon-
archy and the Republic! In fact there is essential friendship. Should

74 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

it not be fostered, furthered? To foment jealousy and hate is surely
not only ungenerous but dangerous. Is it not also essentially disloyal
to the Old Country? We know that, by the very nature of things,
our Motherland can not have one sincere and powerful friend in
Europe or Asia. Shall she not have one in America? Is it loyal to
flout the mighty Republic of our kin and language? It would seem
that some Canadians exult in trying to blot out the fair prospect of
pan-Anglican Union. That way loom madness and destruction,

How wise has been the governing mind of England since 1865!
How conciliatory to the English Republic! If all Canadians were as
wise we could induce in the United States a perfect friendliness to
Canada. Indeed, such a sentiment largely exists already in the Re-
public, thanks partly to England’s wisdom, and partly to the fact that
little influence is exercised over Canadian Governments by the can-
tankerous, small minority that desires to promote animosity between
the branches of the English on this continent.

Well, this is surely an inordinately lengthy screed on the text
that one small Canadian book displeases a few Canadians by alleged
Americanism, while pleasing Americans by Canadianism and British-
ism. The latter fact accords with what I know, from much mingling
with our republican neighbors, to be true, viz., that the greatness,
efficiency, power, wealth, and national security of the United States
give that English folk a generosity, magnanimity, breadth of vision,
goodwill to mankind (a truly pan-Anglican and imperial feeling),
which are quite lacking in the few Canadians who inveterately detest
the Republic.

Yours cordially,
E. W. THomson.
HU,
‘ ¥ Ottawa, June 2nd, 1909.
Dear Mr. THOMSON :-—

* * * While in matters of immediate policy and politics
we differ, I am in sympathy with the ultimate aims which you show
forth.

With your conception of an ultimate union of some sort of the
English-speaking world I am, of course, in full sympathy. But I do
not wish to keep my eyes fixed so incessantly on the goal as to be-
come oblivious to the dangers of the road by which I must reach that
goal, and with regard to the policy of the immediate future I am by
no means in agreement with you,

ULTIMATE POLITICS. 75

The key to English-speaking union must be the independence of
Canada—by independence I mean independence within the Empire,
and of the United States. Conversely, the great danger in the way
of the ultimate ideal is the unprecedented, enormous, overweening,
and (in the Miltonic sense) Satanic pride of the United States. Ab-
sorption of Canada by the United States would confirm and
if possible increase that pride, and probably renew the older tendency
of the United States to live within this continent, to care nothing for
the outside world, and to omit to take that part in the world’s business
which the British Empire has done and is doing, on the whole with
advantage to humanity. Our independence, our growth as a second
great power on the North American continent (with its standing re-
minder that they are not the only great people even on their own
hemisphere), our continued and increasing participation in world-
politics as a part of the Empire, seem to me to furnish that factor
which will bring the American Republic into association with Britain
and the rest of the English-speaking world. And apart from the
sensations which they will feel as they see the northern fringe which
they hitherto have disregarded growing into a civilization and a
polity in some respects superior to their own, there is this further
consideration, that the more they deal in world-politics the more will
it be driven home to the Americans that the Empire is their best
friend and probably their only friend.

The essence of our independence is the continued cultivation of
that stubborn loyalty which is bound to be aggressive in some of its
manifestations. It is above all necessary to stand by our own indi-
viduality, to uphold our own institutions, to keep unimpaired our
heritage of national spirit. There is no danger that our cultivation
of our individual national life as opposed to American ideals will
lead to war; should it do so, I say deliberately that such a war,
waged to preserve our precious national identity, would benefit us.
Who can doubt that the tradition of unflinching, stubborn loyalty
which has been bequeathed to us by 1812 is a heritage so precious
as far to overshadow the suffering and loss of the time? In saying
this I do not wish to be understood as desiring war ; having seen it,
I have a lively sense of its gravity. I simply do not anticipate it.
Nor do I regard it as the worst of all evils. It simply is one of
several evils, and like other trials may give us compensations.

You dread Imperial organization as furnishing an obstacle to
the larger union. I cannot agree. Fifty years ago a thinker with
your ideals probably would have viewed Britain's and Canada’s

76 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

adherence to monarchy as an insuperable objection to close relations
with the United States. Development on both sides of the boundary
line, more especially on the American, has transcended that old-
fashioned objection. So may your dread of one particular type of
organization be transcended. Apart from that there are two con-
siderations whose value impresses me:

1. The Empire must organize to survive; and it is above all
necessary to survive.

2. Our connection with the Empire, our association with the
widest sweeps of world-politics which it will bring us, is our coun-
tervailing advantage to set against the bulk and wealth of the United
States. Deprive us of that, insist on perpetuating our present
maimed and imperfect citizenship, and we shall be at a standing
disadvantage in dealing with the Republic. It is our special duty to
make ourselves as strong and as good as they are; only in equality
can there be union; and for us the road to full citizenship is through
Imperial organization.

By Imperial organization I do not mean immediate formal union
such as is hoped for by Imperial Federationists. The phase imme-
diately in front of us is that of national development, and it will
probably outlast our time. When we have done with it I should ex-
pect some movement towards the closer linking of the Five Free
Nations to be in order. Also, as soon as possible there must be a
substantial increase of the armed strength of the Empire, probably
by national rather than by Imperial machinery.

One other remark. In part of your letter you turn aside from
the thesis ‘‘ Would Imperial Union be desirable?” to a discussion of
that other thesis, “-Would Imperial Union be practicable?”” I shall
not follow you in that; so far I have seen no satisfactory plan of
Imperial federation proposed; nor, what is far more important,
have I seen any plan devised for bringing any plan what-
ever to pass. I am content to work along the plan of na-
tional development, of organizing fresh centres of strength,
in Lord Milner’s phrase. But I must observe that your arguments
as to the impracticability of Imperial Union have this pe-
culiarity—that every one of them would have applied with equal
force to a certain project of union which a man named Alexander
Hamilton was busy advocating just before the year 1787. I have a
strong suspicion that they were duly advanced then. The physical
obstacles to American federation in 1787 were greater than the phy-
sical obstacles in the way of Imperial federation to-day. And at

ULTIMATE POLITICS. vi

present the race prejudices of California may get Massachusetts into
trouble with Japan; while a few Gloucester fishermen have suc-
ceeded in keeping the rest of the United States from eating cheap
fish of a Friday. And again, it is a historical fact that the States of
the American Union once fell out; upon that you are in a position to

offer first hand evidence. ; ;
We are on common ground with regard to no small portion o

our ultimate hopes; and less on common ground with regard to im-
mediate methods. I am all for Canadian independence of the United
States. I am all for going our own way. for developing in strength,
for showing the Americans and everybody else who may be inter-
ested that we have a type, an individuality, a way of looking at
things and of doing things, all of our own. IT am all for drawing
closer to the Mother Country. whose part in world-politics 1s so
splendid and so noble, whose public morals are purer than those of
this continent, whose standard of civilization is higher, whose influ-
ence must prove beneficial in almost every particular. I am for
national Canadian development, pushed forward with all the rapidity
possible; I also am for Imperial organization, pushed forward with
all the rapidity possible; I refuse to see any discrepancy between
these two objects. I deliberately wish to cultivate closer relations
with the United Kingdom and the rest of the Empire, and I de-
liberately wish on the whole to leave the United States alone. For
one thing, it is necessary to strive against their overpowering bulk ;
to cite a smaller reason, independence will be a surer passport to
their friendly consideration than complaisance. But I do not advo-
cate rudeness; so far from it entering my head to complain of you
for treating of Lincoln and the American struggle for unity, I like
those poems; with you I deplore any attempt to upset the policy
which Great Britain is pursuing. Nor do I advocate a continuance
of our present policy of ignoring American affairs and preening our-
selves upon our supposed moral superiority. American history and
development should be our constant study. We should save our-
selves at least half of the mistakes from which they have suffered ;
and moreover they now are something like twenty years ahead of
us in public morality, in civic righteousness, in political virtue; our
Pharisaic complacency is one of the things which I wish to upset.
But while we shotild emulate their progress in desirable things we
must keep the flag flying. We must study them, we must profit by
them, and we must leave them to themselves. As for pan-Anglican
Union, I am content to allow a future generation to work at it; my

78 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

bit of work is to do my little best to promote national development
and Imperial organisation. By forwarding those two things I shall
best help on the larger * union of hearts.”

One word more. You speak of being “ truly independent of the
venerable Mother of Parliaments,’ and of being “in peace-league
but not in war-league.”” With the first I agree. I am a subject of
King Edward, not of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. But
as for the second, he who is the enemy of my King is my enemy;
and I cannot conceive of Britain assailed and Canada remaining
neutral. The Ross rifles would go off of themselves!

Ever yours sincerely,
C. FREDERICK HAMILTON.

IIL,
Ortawa, 4th June, 1909.
My Dear HamiLton :-—

Thank you for having allowed me to read this most interesting
correspondence.

I, too, like to think that Cecil Rhodes’ dream will one day be
realized; and I agree with you that its realization will not be pre-
vented, but promoted, by an antecedent organization, union, call it
what you like, of British nations.

And why should national development and the closer linking
of the Five Free Nations be regarded as separate and successive
phases? Why should they not proceed concurrently? Why post-
pone the closer linking?

Without it the eldest of the Five Free Nations will sink to the
position of Belgium; the second will wed a neighbouring Republic;
the third and fourth will turn yellow; and the youngest will fall to
Germany.

Not a pleasant prospect.

IV.
Kineston, June 29, 1909,
My Dear Hamitton :—

Worrying about our national destiny seems with most Cana-
dians to have taken the place of worrying about our individual
salvation. The correspondence you enclose in your letter of yester-
day raises the problem of that ultimate destiny in unusually clear-cut

ULTIMATE POLITIES, 79

fashion. It is true, as we are often reminded, that it is the way
of our race to work out their constitutional development one step at
a time, as concrete issues demand, but it is also obvious that it is
of some importance in which direction we are facing when that one
step is taken, on what far star our gaze is fixed. I shall be glad to
add an editorial last word, as you suggest.

Both Mr. Thomson’s letter and yours seem to me most con-
vincing on their negative side. Mr. Thomson makes a strong case
against any centralized pan-Britannic organization, and you succeed
in showing that a pan-Anglican union, at this present stage, at least,
is even more chimerical, and that it will come the quicker the less
we show ourselves eager for it. Perhaps I draw that conclusion
because I want to draw it, looking at the matter from the standpoint
of those to whom Canada is first if not last, who find their patriotism
spreading thin when it is attempted to cover Tasmania and Bechu-
analand with it, and becoming almost indistinguishable from cos-
mopolitanism when Texas and Georgia are also fenced in from the
lesser breeds, the Not-Ourselves that make for Unrighteousness. I
am no more eager to see our national individuality swamped in pan-
Anglicanism than in pan-Britannicism. My ideal is national develop-
ment, in self-respecting friendship with the United States, and in
defensive alliance with the others of the Five Free Nations.

Yet your warning against narrow parochial self-absorption and
self-content is a very necessary one. More and more with growth
in strength and growth in our international commerce we will have
to take our place in the world’s councils. And we have many a
lesson to learn from England and from the United States, particu-
larly in our problems of government. In fact, we stand so badly in
need of instruction in common honesty that the Montreal Star, in
its recent be-knighted Dreadnought campaign, finds in our inability
to build and manage a Canadian navy without graft an argument
for handing over the money to Britain to spend. I think you will
agree with me that that is not the way we must learn our lessons.
Britain has a lesson to teach us and every other nation stumbling
up out of sordid politics: the lesson that a nation may work out its
own political salvation and rise from Walpole depths to Gladstone
heights. It is not that way division of labor within the Empire
lies—Britain furnishing the honesty and Canada the cash; if I read
the temper of Canada right, we are not going to hire Britain to be
honest for us any more than we are going to hire her to fight for us.

80 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

We can find ideals to help us in Britain and in the United
States even if we do not send P.B. delegates to London or P.A.
delegates to Washington. We can strive to secure the personal
honesty that marks British politics while avoiding its class-graft;
we can learn even more from the attempt of our neighbors to shake
off their incubus of corruption, because their problems and their
stage of advance are more nearly ours. Here I think lies Mr.
Thomson’s greatest service to his country, in his attempt these
twenty years, culminating in his Many-mansioned House, to make
us understand that we are heirs to the memory of Lincoln, just as
the men of Massachusetts may share with Britain and with us Milton
and Cromwell. You agree, fully and frankly, that in the efforts of
to-day the United States has much to teach us; but you differ in
your “ We'll take your lesson and be hanged to you”’ attitude.

You advocate Imperial organization, following or concurrent
with our national development, and find hope of its practicability in
the analogy of the task of uniting the American colonies a century
and more ago: “the physical obstacles to American federation in
1787 were greater than the physical obstacles in the way of Imperial
federation to-day.” True, the British Empire has shrunk, thanks to
cables and steamships, but it has not yet become contiguous and the
rest of the world has shrunk with it; we are ten times nearer Mel-
bourne than of old, but we are also ten times nearer Paris and nearer
San Francisco; relatively, the Empire is as scattered as ever, and a
straight line between Toronto and Cape Town still runs through
New York. When after-dinner orators talk of the Empire as one,
I sometimes feel I should like to set them a simple examination on
elementary Imperialism something as follows, whereon I hazard I
might score a scratch pass, having the privilege of picking the ques-
tions:

1. Name six statesmen in Australia—politicians will do.

2. In what state is Brisbane?

3. Who is the premier of Natal?

4. What is the present status of New Zealand’s experiment in
compulsory arbitration?

Or, to come to topics nearer the great heart of the people,

5. What slang is current in Johannesburg to-day?
6. _What are the particulars of the murder or divorce trial
which is filling the Sydney newspapers?

And even after we get that inter-imperial cable service which is an
absolute necessity I doubt if, for lack of the background knowledge
that comes only through personal travel and contact and newspaper

ULTIMATE POLITICS. 81

reading, the driblets of cable items will greatly remedy our (assumed)
ignorance.

But I need not dwell on the point. You agree that thus far no
practicable scheme of Imperial Federation has been broached and
no practicable method of bringing it about; and “ imperial organiza-
tion,” so far as I can guess, must mean Imperial Federation or some
Pollock or Chamberlain plan of the same thing by some other name,
Imperial Councils or what not, destined by their astute planners to
grow unbeknownst “by a process of gradual development
into a new government with large powers of taxation and legislation
over countries separated by thousands of miles of sea,’ as Mr.
Chamberlain once put it.

For the present, at least, you reject any formal plan of centrali-
zation. Yet you seem ready to subscribe to a centralization which
makes Imperial Federation by comparison seem the essence of
autonomy. You take exception to Mr. Thomson’s vision of peace-
league but not necessarily war-league between the free nations of
the Empire, bound together only by a common King, and maintain
that Canada could not remain neutral were Britain assailed. I grant
that were Britain assailed, in a death-grapple with Germany, for ex-
ample, Canada would strain every nerve in aid. But don’t you
calmly assume that in all the wars in which Britain is engaged she
is “assailed” rather than “assailing”? A recollection of the pro-
cess by which the British Empire has expanded from 120,000 square
miles to 12,000,000,might suggest that she has had at least her share of
attacking and of benevolent assimilation. There are real difficulties
in any plan of Canadian neutrality while Britain is at war, I admit,
but they are not so serious as the problems presented by the proposal
to accept all Britain’s wars as ours. We would doubtless send our
fleet to help Britain defend New Zealand from that Chinese invasion
which your soldier friend anticipates in his masterpiece of pessimism,
but would we send it to help in another Opium War, to help force
again on China the curse from which she is attempting to free her-
self? Would our British Columbia regiments join the troops of
Britain’s ally, Japan, in the contingency of an attack on Oregon?
But delenda est Germania. Yes, but yesterday it ran delenda est
Gallia. Ten years ago, in Fashoda days, the very panic-mongers
who are now crying out that a struggle with Germany is inevitable
were demonstrating that France, for centuries Britain’s foe, must
be her foe for ever. The kaleidoscope of shifting alliances may
bring Britain and France face to face again. Would any respon-

ee)
ta

QUEEN'S QUARTERLY.

sible Canadian statesman risk a civil war in Canada by taking part
in the struggle in the English Channel?

* The enemies of my King must be mine.” I begin to suspect a
Jacobite strain in your ancestry. or how else explain this rusty ideal
of personal loyalty as the arbiter of our policy. befitting a seventeenth
century Cavalier. thus reviving in a twentieth century newspaper
man? The King. God bless him, has nothing to do with the case. I
do not mean to underrate the importance of the sovereign’s function
as the chief surviving symbol of imperial unity, nor the great ser-
vices he has performed for Britain by putting his personal pop.tiarity
and his royal tact at the disposal of British cabinets in their attempt
to find friends and allies in Europe. The homely virtues of Victoria
and the tact and sportsmanship of Edward have put off indefinitely
that funeral of monarchy which our republican friends used to pro-
phesy. But why use the King as a stalking-horse for the real makers
of British policy? When you declare that the King’s enemies are
yours, don’t vou mean that the Harmsworth-Pearson Gramaphone
Press enemies are yours? I for one decline, even though Canadian
editors as well as Ross rifles should go off at hali-cock, to be stam-
peded into meekly accepting whatever policy may seem good to the
organs of reaction in Britain to advance, in the attempt to block the
progress oI social reform. If we are to be governed from London. let
us be governed by an Imperial Federation parliament in which at
least we will be represented, not by King Northcliffe.

Sincerely yours,
O. D. SKELTON.
A POSTSCRIPT.
Pointe Fortune, Qte., July 1, 1909.
My Dear SKELTON,—

* * * The discussion is one of far forecasts, very “academic.” This
may cause some misunderstanding, against which I wish to guard myself.
The possibility of misunderstanding is evidenced by Mr. Hamilton's declara-
tion for “independence within the Empire—and of the United States. In this
I am entirely at one with Mr. Hamilton, save that I rather favour the term
“ Independence under the Crown.” for which cause I have been writing for
some thirty years, at every fair opportunity. In fact, Mr. John Ewart's plan
for Canadian independence is precisely that which I favour. If any other im-
pression were taken from Mr. Hamilton’s phrasing—i.e., were any reader 19
suppose me averse from independence of both British Parliament and U. S.
Congress—then I should be, as it were, the kid seethed in its mother’s milk.

Were Canada not liable to be drawn into war without the voted consent
of her majority, and her own Parliament, then I should think her independ-
ence achieved, her situation politically sound and most desirable, her geogra-
phic situation one enabling her to full her blessed destiny—that of most
importantly aiding the fraternal union of the Englishry of the world.

Really we three agree very closely as to what should be done first. and it

has never been the way of our race to quarrel much over visions. What is is,
what will be will be. Yours sincerely, E. W. T.

CURRENT EVENTS.

HIGHER CRITICISM AND THE PEOPLE.

This has been a subject of special interest in Ontario during the
last few months owing to sensational incidents such as Dr. Carman’s
arraignment of the Rev. G. Jackson, the attack against the English
Bible class of University College, Toronto, and Professor J. Orr’s
appeal to the people against the extravagances of criticism. To dis-
cuss all the material involved in this controversy would require a
volume rather than a brief note, but just as we go to press the de-
cision of the authorities at McMaster University in regard to the
last charge of heresy is announced, and it seems possible to sum up
quietly some of the results of this recent and local phase of a great
movement. We are often told that the phrase “higher criticism ”’ is
an unfortunate one, as it is liable in both of its parts to popular mis-
apprehension. That may be the case, but the only remedy for that
is a little more intelligence and care in the use of it. For about one
hundred and fifty years it has been in use among Biblical students
and it has become a technical term that cannot be dispensed with in
this department. We could mention many other technical phrases
well suited to the study or class-room which suffer under similar
disadvantages when bandied about in popular controversy. The
literary and historical criticism which seeks to set a book in its proper
framework and solve its real problems is certainly higher than the
criticism that limits itself to the narrower task of settling the text.
Both forms of study are legitimate and fruitful and only the most
ignorant can fall into the mistake of thinking that one who uses the
methods of the higher criticism by that fact claims to be a superior
person or shows himself to be a sceptic. A very loose popular ap-
plication of the phrase is to denounce as “ higher criticism” a par-
ticular set of opinions about the Bible with which the speaker happens
to disagree and which in many cases he does not understand. When
a preacher supplies “ hot stuff” for the newspaper by declaring that
the higher critics are “ liars and infidels,” he shows that he is sadly
lacking in knowledge and charity and places himself outside of the
pale of reasonable discussion. By the form of his words he de-
nounces every man who tries to form an intelligent view of the Bible,
while he thinks that he is merely denouncing those who differ from
him.

84 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

The critical movement has been going on for centuries but the
result of these varied labours has received a fuller application during
the last fifty years so that the text-books and lectures dealing with
the study of the Bible have been completely changed. For example,
let any one compare the “ Student's Old Testament History,” 1878,
with the recent histories by Cornill, Wellhausen and Kent. In the
former case we find only a slight rearrangement or skilful para-
phrase of the Biblical material; in the latter the sources are carefully
estimated and an attempt made to trace the real development in
thought and life. In a movement of this kind, consisting of contri-
butions from the leading scholars of the world, the progress is slow
but steady. Personal preferences and sectional extravagances are
eliminated and agreement is reached along certain broad lines; then
the results are defined more clearly or qualified more carefully. A
public controversy in any locality, Toronto or elsewhere; a heresy
trial, great or small, has little effect upon these general movements.
It is a great impersonal movement unaffected by temporary fancies
and uncontrolled by any particular church. This does not mean that
our local controversies are unimportant; they may have considerable
effect upon ourselves, upon our church life as well as upon our
personal tempers. On the whole, then, we think that the situation,
as seen now when the dust of controversy has subsided a little, fur-
nishes some causes for thankfulness. The action’ of all those con-
cerned has tended to vindicate a true Christian liberty without placing
the stamp of approval upon merely private speculations. The tem-
per of our daily journals in dealing with the subject has been ad-
mirable, representing as they do the general intelligence of the
community; they have recognized that churches which reverence the
past cannot hastily accept new opinions, but they have at the same
time pointed out that the love of truth and the right of untrammelled
investigation is an essential thing which the churches must preserve.
The public refuses to be thrown into a panic even when stories are
told at meetings of the “ Bible League” which are meant to make
one’s flesh creep and which the authors tell us ought to spoil one’s
sleep for many nights. Popular indifference to these subjects may
have something to do with this apathy, but there is also a recognition
of the fact that so many honest, faithful Christian men hold the so-
called “new views,” and thus it is scarcely possible to believe that
the perfect truth is possessed by the rigid defenders of the old.

As to the question of Bible teaching in Toronto University, a
full discussion would be out of place here. The present writer may

CURRENT EVENTS. 85

say, on his own responsibility, that it seems desirable that young
men, non-theological students, should be able to obtain in our univer-
sities some knowledge of that ancient Hebrew literature to which
we owe so much; that when the class in which such knowledge may
be gained is optional no section of the community has any substantial
grievance. As a matter of fact, the objections are made not so much
against the class itself as against the character of the teaching, and
such objections would lie against the attendance of young people at
a class in Biology or Geology as they are objections against the
modern scientific method. It may be said that it is all very well for
a “modernist ” to talk in that fashion, but personally I disown the
title, it is as misleading as most other labels of the kind; no
“modern” view is of any use unless it has absorbed the best that is
available from the past.

In conclusion, our Methodist and Baptist friends are to be con-
gratulated on the strength and dignity of their final deliverances on
this subject. It is not that their authority can be quoted for any
particular opinion, but that they have reaffirmed and vindicated the
spirit of freedom for which their churches were noted in their
earliest days. Especially has it been recognised that in the class-
rooms where young men are prepared for the ministry, the teacher
is expected to grapple earnestly with the difficulties of the situation
and make the students feel that what the church really desires is
the truth in each particular case and not the buttressing up of pre-
conceived opinions. This is not likely to lead to recklessness but
rather to a keener sense of responsibility on the part of teachers
and students. On the whole, then, we may believe that the discus-
sion has done some good. It has shown that it is useless to appeal
to popular audiences without some clear positive statement. To
attempt to frighten people by retailing the most extreme speculations
and the most questionable conjectures does not yield any satisfac-
tory result. The time has perhaps come when an attempt should
be made to present in popular form some of the latest results of
scholarship, and some of our ministers have done good work as
teachers of the Bible and have created a new living interest in the
sacred literature. The supreme test to which all our theories must
submit is their power to explain the facts of the case, to bring back
to us the real life of the past in a way that shall help to inspire and

purify the present.
W. G. J.

86 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

QUEEN'S AND THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY.

At the request of the editor of the Quarterly, I undertook be-
fore I left Kingston to send back a report of the discussion con-
cerning the relationship of Queen’s to the Presbyterian Church. The
pressure of business during the actual sitting of the Assembly does,
not leave much time for this kind of work, and to attempt it in the
brief intervals between the stages of my journey is not very satis-
factory, so that I repented of the promise so easily made; however,
when a promise is once given the task, small or great, must somehow
be accomplished. I shall try then to furnish the outline of the de-
bate in a spirit of fairness and with whatever skill in the line of re-
porting that I may possess.

In the first place it may be said that Queen’s men ought to ap-
preciate the kindness of the Assembly in setting apart for our use
two of.its earliest sessions, on the afternoon of Thursday and the
morning of Friday, June 3rd and 4th. The subject was thus brought
before the supreme court at a favourable time, when its members
were fresh and energetic, able and willing to give an attentive and
patient hearing to the arguments on both sides. The atmosphere
was on the whole clear and cool; the speakers were well received and
their strong points appreciated on one side or the other. Remarks
were heard afterwards that the debate had been kept on a high level.

We may borrow an introductory note from the Hamilton Even-
ing Times. These quotations may serve the twofold purpose of re-
cording the facts and giving a specimen of the kind of treatment that
the local press gave to the Assembly’s important debates:

If the Assembly is to go its full Marathon distance, and without
doubt that is the course, the pace already set is an unusually “ hot
one.” To dash off the first afternoon, with the Queen's men leading,
as was witnessed in the debate on the proposed changed relations to
the church, looks as if the Hamilton Assembly is to make history.

Principal Gordon looks better and seems a little more certain of
his ground than when, in Winnipeg a year ago, he saw the enemy, not
a foreign one, but within the “gates of Queen’s.” This University
with its splendid history has fought its way to victory. It has never
been afraid of a struggle, yet unhappily the old text has meaning, “A.
man’s foes are they of his own household.” It seems to be that from
the fountain of rare loyalty to one another, there have sprung up two
opposite streams of policy, which have wrestled at the fountain head
for mastery and, failing, shifts the whirlpool where the friend and
stranger alike stand by in sorrow. No one is at liberty to charge the
other with having destroyed the harmony of the University or not
being a friend of Queen’s. It may be mistaken judgment, but not
treachery. The whole thing is unfortunate; the pity is the problem
is not one where the slate might be wiped off and start de novo.

Principal Gordon made out_a case for a judge, but both Dr. R.
Campbell, and especially Mr. G. M. Macdonnell, captured the ma-
jority of the jury. As a pleader it would be hard to find the equal of

CURRENT EVENTS. 87

‘

Queen's Principal, cither in Parliament or in civil law. He is clear
as sunlight, his logic is smooth as an unrufted river, and not a note
escapes his lips that is harsh. He makes his points and goes out to
face those ready to be thrust against him, usually to either divest
their force or remove the edge. His voice drops like :-n=y in sweet-
ness. but deepens and swells with unrivalled power. :

Of course we all knew that there were several “ chiels ” among
us taking notes. but the following notes are from the particular chiel
who represented the Hamilton Herald:

I “sure allow”~ that whatever the home-returning men of this
assembly relate of its proceedings. they will not fail to speak of the
brilliant speech of G. M. Macdonnell, K.C.. of Kingston, on the
Queen's question of separation irom the church. Mr. Macdonnell
has the appearance of an ascetic. Thin, grizzled, deep-eyed, heavy-
browed, restless and nervous. he holds you by the sense of pent-up
fire and force. His voice is a sharp challenge to your attention. and
his reascring and logic. along with his array of facts, make him a
fearsome opponent. Hi: Highland blood gets warm as he talks, and

it melts the covers of his satire and scorn, <0 that these flow in suffi-
cient streams to make him one of the most “kittle” men to waken
up.

P * * * * * *

“Pringle of the Yukon,” now of Sydney. N.S.. earned long ago
the attentive interest of the assembly. He is a mighty man on the
story of the trail in the new land of the uttermost northwest of Can-
ada. This morning he was heard on the Queen’s quarrel (ior it is
nearly that now), and for a piece of well-reasoned, well-put speech
it is hard to beat. He was nox talking to a sympathetic audience, for
he is a separatist. He was badgered more than once. He kept his
head, however, and got his ideas out in good order and with arousing
effecz. Not that he was applauded. He had to go without a cheer,
but he went on and stuck thorns in the think tank of many who had
been asleep with assurance that all is well with Queen's as he is now.

= * * * * x

An odd side-step movement was executed by Professor W. G.
Jordan Thursday aiternoon during his able speech on the Queen's
constitution changes. He began his argument standing beside the
moderator’s small table. Presently he edged behind this table and
looked at his audience as we iancy he looks at his students. As the
table is close to the moderator’s chair, the professor had a neat task
to perform, and we are haunted by the suspicion that the head of the
house got his toes treated a wee bit. It looked to an impartial ob-
server as if Professor Jordan was going to “ say things” and wanted
to have the reassurance that is born of “good backing in a mix-up.”
This, however, was an erroneous conjecture, as the professor is al-
ways able and willing to fend for himsel’.

On this note I may perhaps be allowed to say that if I did really
tread upon the toes of our respected moderator. I take this oppor-
tunity of tendering a sincere apology. The “chiel’s” idea of the
way in which the moderator displayed his zeal for order and cour-
tesy may be given here and then we proceed to the real business :

Sometimes the moderator displays a humor so pawky and so per-
tinent that he might be taken for a Caithness man. Of course he is
not Caithness, and his Irish arteries rebel against the thought of it.
To-day there was an instance oi this when he prepared the Queen’s
case discussion by saying that if anyone had new light the court

88 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

would be glad to get it, but they had small need for old light. It
was a remark proper and a propos, and the house applauded. The
moderator has his own sort of humor and it is good, but when the
door slams and the members chat in impolite chorus here and there
in the house it is not a genial humor that suffuses his face. Nor can
he be at all blamed, for he has a boisterous crowd to handle.

* * * * * k

The present reporter must, however, express his conviction that
some of the remarks just quoted appear to reflect the feeling of last
year rather than the temper of the present time.

The Principal presented the request of the Trustees in an able
speech that lasted just one hour; it was a clear statement of the his-
tory of Queen’s relation to the church, the present situation and the
nature of the changes now required in the charter, with reasons for
the same. It would be impossible to give an adequate report of this
speech in our brief sketch. It was given in a restrained manner,
there was no attempt to make “ points” against real or imaginary
opponents; the aim was to carry the whole house the one step of
granting the reasonable request of the Trustees for a commission
to deal with the case. The resolution presented was as follows:

“The trustees of Queen’s University, having expressed their
deliberate judgment that further changes in the constitution are
necessary for the welfare of the university, the Assembly resolve to
appoint a commission to confer and co-operate with the trustees re-
garding the changes suggested, to consider all the interests involved,
and to report their judgment on the whole question to the next
General Assembly.”

The speech in support of it gave the history of the relations of
Queen’s to the church, sketched the modifications made at various
times, such as the creation of the Council and the permission to elect
Trustees from other denominations, with a view to showing that the
present movement is the outcome and completion of all that has gone
before. The speaker proceeded to show that a few years ago when
the whole university question was likely to be reopened the Trustees
were seeking to place themselves in such a position that the claims of
Queen’s would receive fair consideration, when the movement was
arrested by the action of the Vancouver Assembly. One important
point was that Principal Gordon refused to admit that all the re-
sponsibility for the working of the endowment movement was to be
placed upon the leaders cf the present movement: the action of the
Assembly in sanctioning other similar movements must be considered
as tending in the same direction. In fact, under the circumstances
it is difficult to believe that the church seriously desires to retain

CURRENT EVENTS. 89

Queen's as an arts college under the control of the church and re-
lying upon the church for maintenance; ‘we are faced with the al-
ternative that either the church must assume the responsibility for
the maintenance in a way she has never done before, or accede to the
request of the Trustees, who are responsible for the financial condi-
tion, and who know the students. and desire a modification which
would enable them, as they believe, to handle the financial situation
more completely.’ The three changes required, liberty in regard to
the election of the Principal, removal from the charter of the demand
for a majority of Presbyterian Trustees, and the change of corpora-
tion, were briefly outlined in their nature and effects. The conclu-
sion of this strong speech may be given in the words of the Globe:

“ There had grown up within the church what might be re-
garded as a real corporation of benefactors, men who had justified
their claim to the name. Would it be harmful, he asked, if the cor-
poration were made to consist of friends and benefactors of the uni-
versity and graduates? What would this mean? It would mean
giving the university a larger degree of self-government, and the
church would admit that every extension of self-government that
had been granted had been wisely exercised. The university had
moved along the lines cherished as its ideal. Further, it would mean
an increase of revenue. They could not hope to receive aid from
the Government of the Province in their present condition, and yet
there were many who recognized that the work of Queen’s was such
as to justify any Government in granting aid from the Provincial
treasury. Still further, it would secure, in some degree at least, the
unifying of the university. It would not mean any weakening of the
control that the church exercised over the theological faculty and
over the training of young men for the ministry. It would not mean
anything deserving of being called separation from the church. It
would be a readjustment of the relations between the church and the
university in such a way that the vital and spiritual connection would
still be fully maintained. The life of Canada to-day was freer and
showed more self-government than at any time in the past, and yet
with the removal of restrictions by the mother country Canada had
never before been so loyally attached to the mother country or the
mother country so proud of Canada. He believed the same would
be the result if a larger measure of freedom and self-government
were given to Queen’s by the church, if she were allowed to develop
a little more fully than hitherto along lines by which the attachment
of the university to the church would continue, not by formal or

fete) QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

local restrictions, but in such a way that all that was vital and
spiritual would be truly conserved.”

This resolution was seconded by Mr. E. Brown, of Portage la
Prairie, who in a brief, effective speech stated that when appointed
a member of the committee last year he was opposed to this move-
ment, but the evidence placed before them then had convinced him
and he was now quite prepared to support the request of the Trus-
tees, and as Principal Gordon was content to have the question re-
ferred to a commission, it seemed to him that such a reasonable re-
quest ought to be granted.

For a few minutes it looked as if that would be done quickly
and quietly, but Dr. R. Campbell opened the debate with a strong
speech in opposition. He conceded that it might be advisable to open
the Principalship of Queen’s University to all and sundry, but the
question was, should they sever the connection between the church
and the university? What, he asked, had been the results of secular
universities in the United States? Their influence upon the training
of candidates for the ministry had been so adverse that only four or
five per cent. of the candidates received in theological seminaries came
from these universities. “Are we prepared to give up what we have?
The time has come when this church should assert more strongly its
right to a larger control of universities than it has now. I am ready
to go into that commission, but with the understanding that the door
is shut, where the Assembly nailed it last year in Winnipeg. I shall
not reopen the question of the changes in the charter as proposed.”

The next speaker was the Rev. Dr. Armstrong, of Ottawa. His
entrance into the arena, the impression he created, and the contribu-
tion that he made may be given in the words of the Hamilton Times:

From the body of the church a thunderous voice was heard, and
every eye turned to Dr. Armstrong, who claimed simply to have a
question to ask. But he had to take the rostrum. For blunt state-
ment and severe scrutiny this Ottawa father and ex-moderator has a
record of his own. His question, whether, since the presbyteries
were asked to consider the attitude of the Assembly in retaining
Queen’s, it would not be a wise thing to hand this resolution down
to them for their judgment. Having been presented, he said very
briefly what his views were. ‘The church may be very glad some
day that we have this university; at any rate I do not think that we
should bow down before any Carnegie-god.”

The Rev. J. Hodges, of Oshawa, graduate of Queen’s, followed
and opposed the resolution; he contended that this movement was

CURRENT EVENTS. gi

contrary to the spirit that animated students in his day. His specific
contribution to the debate was that a leading member of the church
had said to him: “Cut the connection between the church and
Queen’s, and in five years you will have no theological faculty.”

The Rev. John Hay briefly supported the resolution, contending
that nothing would be lost by submitting the matter to a commission,
while much might be gained.

Professor W. G. Jordan supported the Principal’s contention
that the movement was on the real line of evolution and was the in-
evitable outcome of all the past changes. He protested against the
introduction of Mr. Carnegie’s name, as the matter of pensions was
only a small part of a comprehensive case. But as it had been forced
into the discussion he must confess that, while having no personal
knowledge of Mr. Carnegie, he considered that such ideals as peace,
heroism and education, to which that gentleman had devoted
so much wealth, were essentially Christian. He then stated that
the fears expressed as to the destruction of Queen’s Theological
Faculty by the progress of the present movement seemed to him
to be groundless. The proposal to remit the matter to the Presby-
teries of the three central synods he regarded as unreasonable. The
three central synods were an artificial group that had no standing
in the charter. If the charter was to be taken literally the whole
church was the corporation and the constituency. The attempt to
limit Queen’s to the three synods showed that the phrase, the Pres-
byterian Church was the corporation, could not be taken absolutely.
As to Dr. Campbell’s statement that the supporters of this move-
ment contradicted themselves, saying that Queen’s was free and
also that she was hampered, he pointed out that the contradiction
was in the actual circumstances, because the life of the university
had outgrown the terms of the charter. The changes proposed were
in the dead parchment rather than in the real life. If it was proved
that the interests of a thousand students demanded reorganization
within the university, he did not think that the Theological College
with its thirty students could stand in the way.

Mr. Drysdale, of Montreal, thought that Mr. Carnegie had a
very good theology, viz., that of doing justice and loving mercy. He
declared that the tendency was to nationalize all progressive educa-
tional institutions. He characterized the statement of Rev. Dr.
Campbell, that the corporation of the university extended from ocean
to ocean, as bunkum. Members of the church had no real control of
Queen’s University.

92 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

Mr. J. K. Macdonald, of Toronto, said that he thought there
were difficulties facing the university and the Assembly should co-
operate in seeking to remove them. He would be glad if the uni-
versity could be retained, but the interests of the university should
receive the first consideration.

Mr. G. M. Macdonnell, K.C., to quote the Globe report, re-
garded the proposed changes as the first step towards the separation
of Queen’s University from the church. He denied that the senate
and trustees were a unit in favor of the changes, and maintained
that the attitude of the Church towards the university was clearly
defined in 1903. “ They call this evolution,” he exclaimed, “ this
proposal to cut off the university from the source of her past
strength. What is nationalization?” asked Mr. Macdonnell. “ Will
anybody tell us?”

A commissioner—Making a united Canada.

“ We are to make a united Canada,” replied Mr. Macdonnell, “ by
cutting us off from the things we have loved for the past sixty
years.” The charter had been described as a dead parchment, but
the charter declared that the university was founded “ for instruc-
tion in the Christian religion and in arts.” (Loud applause.)
“ Evolution,” said Mr. Macdonnell, with a sweep of his hand—“ you
cannot say, ‘Come now, brethren, let us evolute.’” (Loud laugh-
ter.) He did not think the Assembly ought to unload the responsi-
bility of determining the destiny of Queen’s University upon any
commission. But if they were to appoint a commission, that com-
mission should have instructions, and they ought to reaffirm the posi-
tion of the church, made clear at Vancouver, that Queen’s Univer-
sity must stay with the church.

He would not object to the Principalship being opened up nor
would he insist upon an overwhelming majority of Presbyterians on
the Board of Trustees, but he would not be content to have a cor-
poration composed of graduates.and benefactors. If the university
were nationalized the benefactors would disappear, and as for the
graduates, their power would be limited, and the control of the uni-
versity would be left in the hands of a Board of Trustees. Some
Toronto graduates had written to him, “ Hold arts and theology.”
The church must hold what it had held for sixty-eight years. They
could build up other faculties and group them as they pleased, but
let them stand by arts and theology. He proposed the following
amendment:

“The Assembly, while reaffirming the resolutions of 1904 and

CURRENT EVENTS. 93

1908, as requested by the trustees, appoint a commission to consider
in co-operation with them whether it would be advisable to limit the
relation now subsisting between the church and the university to the
“departments of arts and theology, and to provide that the other de-
partments now or hereafter existing may be otherwise constituted,
stich commission to report to the next Assembly.”
The following extract from the Hamilton Times will show that
Mr. Macdonnell created a powerful impression on the minds of the’
reporters and of his hearers. He certainly threw his whole weight
into the opposition to the Principal’s resolution, and some phrases
used by the present reporter were made the subject of effective
satire. Of course, I think that even arguments of that nature can
be answered, but the present statement is not the place for it:

Mr. G. M. Macdonnell, K.C., of Kingston, had passed a restless
hour. He had a humble seat in the synagogue among a few tired
commissioners, due to the heat of the day and the long journeys to
the Assembly. But this nervous organism, as strange and rich a
piece of nature as one will see in a ‘“day’s march,” was not asleep.
It is said that great occasions are rather his delight. To see him
quiet in his seat therc is a strong resemblance to the late Principal
Caven, but he is not often at rest. He is a “fighter,” and had grace
not won him for the good fight of the Christian, he would have been
“terrible.” On the platform he only really begins to speak when
some sharp wit is foolish enough to heckle him. Then look out; the
challenge goes like a flash, his intense soul springs to the line, and a
bonnier knight seldom gave more gallant battle. “They call it de-
velopment or evolution—both bad terms. I shall use another, en-
vironment. Even this does not suit my friend Dr. Sedgwick, and I
shall use a fourth, “spiritual atmosphere.” Did this charter not have
something to do in making the spiritual atmosphere of Queen’s? See
our arts and science and medicine, under a charter which says such
and such shall be members of the Presbyterian Church. Was there
no spiritual atmosphere? And has a dead parchment created this?”

For several minutes the whole house gave round after round of

, applause. The speaker was too serious to notice that he had “made
a great hit,” but twisted and side-stepped to carry on the fight.

“And to throw all this away for a united Canada! The things
we have loved for sixty years to go with a wave of the hand because
some gentlemen say, Come now, brethren, we must evolute!”

President Forrest, of Dalhousie University, in an energetic
speech supported the resolution. He maintained that Presbyterians
had always been opposed to denominationalism in education. He
made some interesting statements regarding his own university,
showing that Dalhousie had remained in full sympathy with the
Presbyterian Church while free from direct church control.

Professor Perry, of Winnipeg, defended his phrase, “a united
Canada,” against Mr. Macdonnell’s attack, maintaining that denomi-
national universities meant a divided Canada.

When Professor Dyde rose to second the amendment the hour

94 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

of adjournment had come, so he had to defer his speech until Friday
morning. Ina forceful speech, which I present in the Preshyterian’s
report, he seconded Mr. Macdonnell’s amendment, the mover having
agreed to eliminate the specific suggestion that the church should re-
tain simply the Arts and Theological departments. The amendment
thus consisted simply in the words, * whilst reaffirming its resolutions
of 1904 and 1908.” In supporting the amendment, Professor Dyde
referred first to the suggestion that the new departure was both a
natural development for (Jucen’s and a return to the ground taken
by Principal Grant. Le said that Principal Grant did not regard
separation as the natural development of Queen’s; he viewed it with
pain but accepted it as a practical solution of the financial difficulty
in order to obtain Government aid. Only under grim necessity
would Principal Grant have consented to the separation of Arts and
Theology. At that time it was understood that the Assembly dis-
claimed responsibility for the support of the university. But the
Assembly changed its attitude at Vancouver. The church has de-
clared its sympathy. Continuing, Professor ])yde pointed out that
the Provincial Government is now supporting the School of Mines,
the Faculty of Education, and, to some extent, the Faculty of Medi-
cine. There is no danger of these becoming a burden on the church,
and by their support the Arts department is assisted. It is not cor-
rect to say that the church must sever the connection or take‘the
responsibility for the support of a modern university. The constitu-
tional tie with the church should not be severed. The vital connec-
tion is there, and if that is severed, the spiritual connection will
gradually die out. As to the endowment, Professor Dyde said that
he found it difficult to speak temperately about the position in which
the endowment fund had been placed by the present agitation. The
workers for the fund believe that the endowment can be raised,
though it has been unfortunately arrested. Queen's will not be less
national in the truest sense if the Presbyterian tie is retained.

Dr. Dyde was followed by Dr. J. Pringle, a Queen’s graduate,
who is well known throughout the land on account of his mission-
ary work in the Yukon. He delivered what may be called a breezy
speech on the other side. He spoke as a Queen’s man who matricu-
lated as far back as 1871. He differed from Messrs. Macdonnell and
Dyde in that he maintained that the resolution before the house did
not necessarily involve separation. At the same time he believed in
the nationalization of (ueen’s University; for consistent Presby-
terians there is no real stopping place short of this. How can we

CURRENT EVENTS: 95
Saved voice against separate schools if we declare that the second
university in the Province ¢f Ontario must be kept under direct
church control? Dr. Dyde makes his statements clear enough, but
he does not seem to see in what direction they should lead him. He
could a or follow Dr. Dyde in this matter as the resolution displayed
a spirit of distrust in relation to the Senate and Trustees. He dealt
with the relation of the School of Mining to the University and said
that the help now received would enable the aid now given it by the
province to be regulated in a more straightiorward manner.

The Rev. J. Rollins, of London. described the movement to cut
the denominational tie between Queen’s and the church as a move-
ment not towards nationalization, but towards provincialization. He
pointed out that the Western University made some claims which the
Ontario Government did not seem to be in a hurry to recognise.

Principal Patrick. of Winnipeg. now came on the scene and
showed his statesmanship in the way in which he kept himself to the
actual res“iution before the house. This speaker was quite prepared
to vote tor a resolution which would have committed the Assembly
7> the principle of removing “ the denominational restrictions.” and
he believed that such a motion could have been carried, but he con-
fined himseli :o a loval support of the resolution presented by the
Principal, as the impertant point was to have any motion adopted by
the Assembly carried by as large a majority as possible. On the
ground that. ‘if we love Queen's and desire to promote its interests
the mere deliberate our action the better, and the motion makes for
deliberation,” the motion hands over the subject untrammeled to the
commission. The Assembly kas not heard the specific statement of
the Senzie and the Trustees and. as Dr. Pringle said, the amendment
shows distrust of these bodies and also distrust of the commission.
The amendment also gives an interpretation of the action of previous
Assemblies which he was not prepared to accept. The Trustees
would be quite justified in refusing to accept and confer with a com-
mission sent to it in such a crippled condition.

Dr. Patrick could “ debate it he wished to do so, that is. if
debating means a clever twisting of an opponent's argument so that
he cannot recognise it: but in this case he simply made a quiet state-
ment that was perfectly clear and dignified.

The time had now come. about noon on Friday. for the Prin-
cipal to sum up the discussion. This he did with brevity, strength
and dignity. He gracefully accepted Dr. Dyde’s compliments. but
would have been glad if the professor had omitted the phrase. in

96 QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

speaking of the endowment movement, that he had been wounded
in the back in the house of his friends, a charge he had not expected «
from such a quarter. By maintenance he had simply referred to
the maintenance of the Arts department. Some thought that the
Assembly might here and now commit itself to the principle of main-
tenance of Arts. Even this, however, seemed to be a responsibility
that the church was not prepared to undertake. He cited the cases
of Princeton and Dalhousie as those of universities that had con-
tinued to maintain a living connection with the churches to which
they owed their origin, without any legal bond. Hence he could not
agree with Professor Dyde that the constitutional is the vital bond.

The brief reply was closed with an effective rejoinder to one of
Dr. Dyde’s points. The Principal in his opening speech referred to
the relation between Canada and the motherland, and showed that
real loyalty had increased in proportion as the strict legal ties were
released. To this Professor Dyde replied that the Principal ought
to have taken his illustration from the case of the United States; the
present demand for separation had its analogy there rather than in
the Canadian relations to the empire. The Principal was in the for-
tunate position of having the right of reply, and he turned the argu-
ment very deftly by declaring that if in the time of strain between
Britain and her American colonies British statesmen in charge of
affairs had shown more wise conciliation, we might to-day have had
closer union between the United States and Britain exerting its in-
fluence towards peace and the higher life of humanity.

Under the influence of this happy illustration we went to the
vote, and the amendment was defeated by 143 votes to 65, and im-
mediately thereafter the original resolution was carried nem con by
179 votes. Thus the matter is remitted to a commission which con-
sists of the following members:

The Very Rev. Dr. Lyle, Moderator, Hamilton; Rev. Dr.
John MacMillan, Halifax; Rev. Dr. T. C. Jack, North Sydney ; Rev.
Dr. Barclay, Montreal; Rev. A. T. Love, Quebec; Rev. Dr. Ephraim
Scott, Montreal; Rev. Dr. Ramsay, Ottawa; Rev. J. H. Turnbull,
Ottawa; Rev. C. H. Daly, Almonte; Rev. J. D. Boyd, Kingston;
Rev. James Binnie, Tweed; Rev. D. W. Best, Beaverton: Rev.
James Wallace, Lindsay; Rev. Dr. D. McTavish, Toronto; Rev. D.
Strachan, Toronto; Rev. Dr. McLeod, Barrie; Rev. J. J. Wright,
Elk Lake; Rev. Dr. W. Farquharson, Durham; Rev. Dr. James
Ross, London; Rev. J. Edmison, Kincardine; Rev. Dr. Charles W.
Gordon, Winnipeg; Rev. Dr. J. A. Carmichael, Winnipeg; Rev.

CURRENT EVENTS. 97

John Millar, Nanaimo; Lieut.-Governor Fraser, Halifax: Geo. S
Campbell, Halifax; Alexander McFee, Montreal; David clan
Ottawa ; George Henderson, Ottawa ; John M. Gill, Bipeievilie:
WF. Nickle, M.P.P., Kingston; Samuel Russell, Belleville; Ric
ard Lees, M.A, Peterborough; Hamilton Cassells, ee ee
Governor Gibson, Toronto: Hon. G. W. Ross, Toronto ; Font W.A
Charlton, Toronto; Judge Morrison, Owen Sound ; Lieut.-Col. Ae.
Crae, Guelph; Lieut.-Col. Logie, Hamilton; John Penman, Paris;

William Chisholm, M.A., Kincardine, and Edward Brown, Portage
la Prairie.

Some imperfections in the report will doubtless arise from the
fact that it had to be written hurriedly under distracting circum-
stances. Quotations from various journals I have inserted delib-
erately so as to show in a partial manner the impression made on
the press. I have tried to make the report fair though I have not
attempted to hide my own views, which have been formed after
careful deliberation, and which I am prepared to defend. Trusting
that any future discussion may be kept at the same high level as
that shown in Hamilton .\ssembly, I close with an appropriate quo-
tation from the Toronto Horld:

It is unlikely that a careful report by a competent commission,
after «a full consideration of all the circumstances involved, will be
set aside by the General Assembly of the Preshyterian Church next
year. The reselution to refer the status of Queen’s University to a
cominission must, therefore, be regarded as a wise and practical one.
It removes many vexed issucs from an arena which, even though dis-
tinguished, as few are, for its modcration and calm sense, is not
adapted for the cxamination and discussion of such detail as the
university problem involves.

There will be no question of the trust and confidence reposed in
the commission, nor of the faithfulness with which it will observe
the responsibility laid upon it.

Great things depend upon the universities of Canada, and among
them Queen’s stands in a place of special eminence, inspired as it is
with the ideals of an historic church, whose standards of upright
dealing, high-minded and magnanimous thinking, and spiritual sta-
bility, have happily tinctured Canadian character.

The union of such characteristics with the high types of scholar-
ship associated with the traditions of Queen’s is something of na-
tional importance, and the preservation of these ideals evidently
underlics the intentions of those responsible for the movement for
expansion.

Those who hold the nationality of Canada dear will rejoice at
the existence of so strong and effective a factor in the national life
as that evidenced by the determined and progressive scholarship cul-
tivated by Grant and now fostered by Gordon.

W. G. JoRDAN,
London, Ont,

QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

) Queen's Quarterly

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QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

The Longest
Double Track
in the World
Under One

Management

The Only Double Track Railway
...Between...
MONTREAL, TORONTO, CHICAG
PRINCIPAL CANADIAN CITIBS. us

Modern and Luxurious Trains. Finest Roadbed
Cafe-Parlor and Library Cars on Day Trains.
Unexcelled Equipment. Beautiful Scenery.
Pullman Sleeping Cars_on Night Trains.
Attentive and Polite Employees.
4 Express Trains between Montreal and To-
ronto,

“THE INTERNATIONAL LIMITED”

Canada’s fastest and finest train. Leaves
Montreal every day at 9.00 a.m. Running
through Cornwall, Brockville, Kingston, Belle-
ville, Toronto, Hamilton, London and Detroit,
arriving at Chicago 7.42 a.m. following day.
Direct connection for Niagara Falls and Buf-
falo. Elegant Cafe-Parlor and Library Car on
this train serving meals ‘‘a la carte,’’ Montreal

to Detroit.
Montreal to Chicago.

Trunk Railway

Through Pullman Sleeping Car

General Passenger and Ticket Agent, Grand
eo tem, Montreal.

G. T. BELL,

ae eS ers
WE OFFER

SECURITIES

MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE MOST

CONSERVATIVE
INVESTORS

DOMINION
SECURITIES

CORPORATION LIMITED
26KING STEAST TORONTO

60 YEARS’
EXPERIENCE

Trave Marks
DESIGNS
CopyriGHTs &c.
ne sending asketch and description may
aden coeertalie our opinion free whether an
invention is probably patentable. Communica-
tions strictly confidential. HANDBOOK on Patents
sent free. Oldest agency for securing patents.
Patents taken through Munn & Co. receive

special notice, without charge, inthe

Scientific American,

A handsomely illustrated weekly. Largest cir-
culation of ae acientitic journal. Terms, $3 a
year; four months, $L Sold by all newsdealers

MUNN & Co,26*8roaday, New York

Branch Office, 625 F St., Washiagton, D.C.

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OQUEEN’S OUARTERLY.

ESTABLISHED 1864

The Merchants’ Bank
OF CANADA

Capital Paid-up - $6,000,000

Rest and Surplus Profits 4,034,256

Head Ofice - MONTREAL

BOARD OF DIRECTORS:

President, Sir H. Montagu Allan.
Vice-President, Jonathan Hodgson, Esq.
DIRECTORS:

Alex. Barnet, Esq., Thos. Long, Esq., Chas.
R. Hosmer, Esq., C. F. Smith, Esq., Pingh A.
Allan, Esq., C. M. Hays, Esq., Bryce J.
Allan, Esq.

E. F. Hebden, General Manager.
T. E. Merrett, Supt. of Branches and Chief

Inspector.

BRANCHES IN ONTARIO:
Acton Glencoe Ottawa
Alvinston Georgetown Owen Sound
Athens Hamilton Parkdale
Belleville Hanover Perth
Berlin Hespeler Prescott
Pothwell Ingersoll Preston
Brampton Kincardine Renfrew
Chatham Kingston St. George
Chesley Lancaster Stratford
Creemore Lansdowne St. Thomas
Chatsworth Leamington Tara
Delta Little Current Thamesville
Eganville London Tilbury
vlgin Lucan Toronto
Elora Markdale Walkerton
Finch Meaford Watford
Formosa Mildmay Westport
Fort William Mitchell Wheatley
Galt Napanee Windsor
Gananoque Oakville West Lorne
Gore Bay Orillia Yarker
Sub-agencies: Granton (sub-ag’y to Lucan).

Williamston ‘ to Lansdowne

BRANCHES IN QUEBEC:

Beauharnois, Lachine, Mile End, Montreal,
do. St. Catherine St. Branch, do. East End
Branch, do. St. Lawrence St. Branch, Quebec,
Shawville, Sherbrooke, St. Jerome, St. Johns,
St. Sauveur (de Quebec).

BRANCHES IN MANITOBA AND NORTH
WEST TERRITORIES

Alix, Arcola, Brandon, Calgary, Camrose,
Carberry, Carnduff, Carstairs, Daysland, Ed-
monton, Forget, Fort Saskatchewan, Gris-
wold, Gladstone, Lacombe, Leduc, Maple
Creek, Medicine Hat, Macgregor, Morris,
Neepawa sub-agency, Arden), Napinka, Oak
Lake (sub-agency, Griswold), Olds, Portage
La Prairie, Red Deer, Russell, Sedgwick,
Souris, Shoal Lake, Vancouver, Vegreville,
Wetaskiwin, Whitewood, Wheatley, Winnipeg.

In United States—New York Agency, 63
and 65 Wall Street, W. M. Ramsay, Agent.

Bankers in Great Britain—London, Glas-
gow, Edinburgh and other points—The Royal
Bank of Scotland.

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
OF ONTARIO.

Age Requirements for
Professional ‘Training.

“Tn pursuance of its policy of im-
proving the qualifications of the teach-
ers, the Department of Education will
hereafter exact a higher standard of
answering at the examinations for en-
trance into the Faculties of Education
and into the Normal and Model
Schools. The age for admission into
the Faculties of Education and the
Normal Schools will also be raised one
year in each case. Beginning with the
session 1909-1910, each candidate for a
teacher’s certificate shall be at least
eighteen before entering a Normal
School and at least nineteen before
entering either of the Faculties of Edu-
cation.”

In accordance with this an-
nouncement, an applicant for ad-
mission to a Faculty of Education
must be nineteen years of age on
or before September first; for ad-
mission to a Normal School, eigh-
teen years of age on or before
September first; and for admission
to a Model School, eighteen years
of age on or before December
thirty-first.

It must be understood that no
deviation from the foregoing rule
will be allowed in any case.

School Principals and Inspectors
are requested to give due publicity
to the provisions.

Examination Papers of the Education De-
partment of Ontario can be ordered from The
Carswell Company, 30 Adelaide Street East,

Toronto.

QUEEN’S QUARTERLY.

The Degree of B.A. and M.D. or of B.Sc.

tology, Pathology and Bacteriolo;
whole time to the work

DR. J. C. CONNELL, Dean.

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF MEDICINE |

The Fifty-fifth Session will open on September 30th, 1908,
The University Examinations in Medicine begin April Sth, 1909,

The course extends over four sessions and leads to the Degrees of M.D. and C.M.
and M.D. can be obtained in six years.
Practical and Clinical instruction is given in the Ki

General Hospital, L’Hotel
Dieu, and Rockwood Asylum for the Insane. .
Exceptional advantages are afforded for the study of Practical Anatomy in new class
rooms specially adapted for the purpose.

The laboratories are well equipped for instruction in Physiology, Pharmacology, His-
The Professors in these departments devote their
The Calendar can be had on application.

DR A. R. B. WILLIAMSON, Secretary.

Symons é Ine Queen's University Text Books
: ; Complete stock on hand °

Correspondence solicited

W, LIMBURY SYMONS wa. naz. | R. UGLOW & COMPANY, Publishers,

15 Toronto St. Toronto. Kingston, Ont,

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Underwood

The Underwood is the Canadian
typewriter— more generally used
than all others combined. We have
offices in Toronto, Hamilton, Lon-
don, Montreal, Halifax, St. John,
Winnipeg, and Edmonton, and
branches in the other cities.

In every city in the Dominion
we are ready to give you the best
service in everything pertaining to
typewriter needs.

United Typewriter Company

Head Office—TORONTO

KINGSTON — J. R. C. DOBBS & CO.

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