foo sa socsa soe

a ]

New York
State College of Agriculture
At Cornell University
Ithaca, N. Y.

Library

Cornell University Libr

fo
mann

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924000683759

FARM HORTICULTURE

PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR

THOSE INTERESTED IN EITHER HOME
OR COMMERCIAL HORTICULTURE

BY EEO A
GEORGE W. HOOD, M.Sc.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

L

SECOND EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED

Mlustrated with 144 Engravings

LEA & FEBIGER
PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK

1921

302216

CopyRIGHT
LEA & FEBIGER
1921

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Tuat “Farm Horticulture” has met the need for which
it was created, is shown by the popularity which it has
enjoyed and which has exhausted the first edition in little
over a year from the date of original publication. It is
especially gratifying to the author that this demand has
come largely from agricultural high schools and colleges, as
it is an indication of the permanent worth of the book and
its establishment in the educational system of the country.
Such revision has been made as was necessary after so short
a lapse of time, and new material has been incorporated
wherever it seemed possible to add to the value of the work
or increase its utility. A few chapters did not treat their
respective subjects as fully as they merited and these chapters
have been lengthened so as to make them better serve their
purpose. Some rearrangement of the subject matter has
also been made so that it should conform more closely to the
usual method of teaching Horticulture. In some chapters
additional material has been included, where conditions
have changed and experience has demonstrated that the
subject was not discussed at sufficient length.

It has been the aim of the author in preparing this work to
bring together the most important facts dealing with the
general principles underlying Horticulture. The book is
primarily an elementary text, so arranged and developed
as to meet the needs of the student as well as those who are
practicing Horticulture. Many teachers of Elementary
Agriculture and Horticulture have found it suitable as a
text and it is hoped that the revised edition will better meet
their needs. It is thought that the average family inter-

iv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

ested in Horticulture can use it as a guide to grow their
plants successfully.

The object of the book is to give a brief discussion and to
supply information on some of the important subjects in
Horticulture. The field is large and only the most important
phases of the subject are considered, but it is thought that
some information relative to those practices which many
people desire and which cannot be found in any single text,
is well worth the effort put forth in this revised edition. In
view of the fact that the work treats the subject from the
standpoint of production of Horticultural products as well
as the improvement of the home, it has proved valuable to
those who are interested in the subject.

The author is indebted to the following, and takes this
opportunity to express his appreciation to Professors Mel-
ville T. Cook, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station;
A. L. Quaintance, U. $. Department of Agriculture; Donald
Reddick, Cornell University; H. C. Thompson, Cornell
University; F. H. Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station, and W. H. Wicks, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
for the figures for which they are credited in the text.

Acknowledgement is also due the R. M. Kellogg Co., of
Three Rivers, Michigan, the Bateman Manufacturing Co.,
and the International Harvester Company for furnishing
photographs and illustrations, for which due credit is given
under each figure.

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Professors
R. F. Howard, University of Nebraska and J. R. Cooper,
formerly of the University of Nebraska, for reading and
criticising the manuscript and for the many valuable sugges-
tions which they offered. He also wishes to thank all others
who contributed in any way to the work and to whom it is
hoped due credit has been given in every case.

Se ae | a

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PLANNING THE HomE GARDEN é : s 17
CHAPTER II.

Tue SEED AND 1Ts NEEDS : ‘ ‘ 38

CHAPTER III.

Hot-BeD AND CoLp FRAME ‘ ; . 55
CHAPTER IV.

CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE F 67
CHAPTER V.

PLANT PROPAGATION . : ; 79
CHAPTER VI.

BupDING AND GRAFTING : ‘ 95

CHAPTER VII.

Tur Pests or CuLtivaTED PLANTS ~ « T2

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII.

Spray MacHinrery AND SPRAY MATERIALS

CHAPTER IX.

Tue PRUNING OF PLANTS

CHAPTER xX.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

CHAPTER NI.

WIntrR PROTECTION OF PLANTS

CHAPTER NII.

Tue STRAWBERRY .

CHAPTER NIII.

Bush Fruits

CHAPTER XIV.

Tue BRAMBLES .

CHAPTER XV.

Tue GRAPE .

CHAPTER XVI.

Tue Pome Fruits .

129

147

173

182.

196

208

220

CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER XVII.

Tue Stone Fruits ..... . : . . . 267

CHAPTER XVIII.

Tue Citrus Fruits . . 2 i Pek 298

CHAPTER XIX.

BEAUTIFYING THE Home GrounpDs . 4. oa ces Se Sp TE

APPENDIX . . 1. 0. eee 882

FARM HORTICULTURE.

CHAPTER L.

PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN.

THERE are two distinct kinds of horticulture, amateur
and commercial. In amateur horticulture the primary
object is to supply the home table with vegetables and fruits
and to furnish ornamental flowers for the decoration and the
beautification of the home and grounds surrounding the
home. An ample supply in all divisions is essential. In
commercial horticulture, however, the object is much
different. For this field the grower selects one phase of
horticulture, and specializes in it, growing the specialty on a
large scale to supply the community in which he lives. In
the commercial field the assortment might be either large
or small and consist of only one vegetable, fruit or orna-
mental.

Horticulture for the home is exceedingly important, and
by its adoption one makes a good start for a successful and
happy life

Laying Out the Garden.—In order to succeed well with any
undertaking, one must first have a definite and a well-
formulated plan to follow. A plan is essential in the home
garden as well as in any other line of work, and a well-designed
plan that will be readily understood is indispensable. To draw
a garden plan the grower should first secure a piece of paper, -
which must of necessity vary in size and in shape, according
to the size of the garden, and the unit of measure which is
adopted. The plan should be drawn to a definite scale.

2

18 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

This scale is called the unit of measure. The unit of measure
furnishes the proper proportions and represents the exact
number of feet of ground the garden is to occupy and the
distance between the rows of plants. For example, the
drawing of the garden plan on the paper must necessarily
be smaller than the garden, and therefore we must have what
is known as the reducing unit, or scale. If the scale in which
one-fourth of an inch equals one foot is used, then one-fourth
of an inch on the paper will represent one foot on the ground.
If the garden is twenty by thirty feet, then to reduce it to
the scale in which one-fourth of an inch equals one foot the
size of the paper would have to be six by eight inches. If the
garden is one hundred by one hundred and fifty feet, the
paper must be twenty-five by thirty-eight inches. The sizes
indicated are the exact sizes the paper must be to draw
the garden, but in all plans a larger size should always be
secured to allow for an inch or two of margin. If the garden
space is large, one-eighth-inch scale can be used, which
means that for every one-eighth of an inch on the paper
there must be one foot on the ground. By making use of
the unit of measure the rows of vegetables and fruits can be
located in their proper places. In using the reducing scale
the grower must always remember that for each linear
foot in the garden, he must use one unit of measure, say one-
fourth inch or one-eighth inch on the paper.

Location of the Garden.—In selecting the site for the garden,
several important points should be considered: (1) The
garden should be located conveniently close to the kitchen,
and since it is considered as a part of the kitchen equipment,
it should necessarily be in close proximity to the objective
point. (2) The soil, when possible, should be a sandy loam,
but when this is out of the question and it is a heavy clay,
it should be improved by adding well-rotted manure, sand,
sifted cinders, etc. (3) A gentle slope to the south or south-
east should be selected when this is possible. A sunny
slope dries off and warms up earlier in the spring and makes
planting possible earlier than if the ground sloped to the
north. It is also more pleasant to work on a southern
exposure. A slope also gives the garden good air drainage,

-

SIZE OF THE GARDEN 19

because cold air is heavier than warm air and it settles to
the lower levels, therefore less danger is experienced from
frost. Avoid too steep a slope, one with a fall of about
four or five feet to the hundred is good. A gentle slope
provides good soil drainage, which is important, because
neither fruit nor vegetables can thrive with wet feet. Hor-
ticultural crops which are grown slowly on poorly drained
land often become very irregular and gnarled in shape and
poor in quality. Fruit trees are more liable to split under
the strain of wind and other agencies on a poor soil than on a
well-drained piece of land,and many gardens are a disappoint-
ment to the owner, chiefly because they are not well-drained.
(4) A good supply of water should be available for irrigation
when it is needed. An immense quantity of water is required
at certain seasons of the year and the value of irrigation
should not be overlooked. (5) Exposed locations should
be protected by wind-breaks. Every experienced fruit and
vegetable grower is familiar with the advantages of a wind-
break. They are especially valuable in the protection of the
cucurbits, such as the cucumber, the squash, etc., and the
small fruits, such as raspberries, strawberries and black-
berries. Windbreaks are of two kinds, natural and artificial.
A common practice is to construct an artificial wind-break,
such as a fence, which serves the purpose fairly well, although
natural wind-breaks, such as hedges of conifers, are more
attractive and more economical when once they are estab-
lished.

Size of the Garden.—The space a garden occupies is largely
determined by the number of individuals in the family. The
garden should be the minimum size that will produce a sufh-
cient supply of vegetables and fruits for home consumption.
The dimensions of the garden will also depend upon the indi-
vidual preference for the different kinds of vegetables and
fruits, the season of the year, the fertility of the soil, the
amount of land available, as well as the intensiveness of the
methods which are followed. The size will necessarily vary
with each family, and it should be determined in each case
by trial. Always plan to use the most intensive methods
of cultivation because this practice will make the garden

20 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

occupy the smallest possible space, as well as to reduce the
factor of labor.

Arrangement of the Plants.—In determining the position
of the vegetables and the fruits in the garden it is advisable
to have the small fruits, such as grapes, raspberries, black-
berries, dewberries, currants, gooseberries and strawberries,
placed along one side of the garden, usually in the order
named, with the grapes forming one border. The perennial
vegetables, such as the rhubarb and the asparagus, can usually
find a place between the gooseberries and the strawberries,
because the land they occupy is not plowed up each season.
It is an advantage to place the rows the same distance apart
when it is possible. The small, short-season crops, such as
lettuce, radishes and onions, should be grouped together,
thus enabling the gardener to soon clear that land, so that a
second crop can be planted. The long-season crops, such as
the tomatoes, cucurbits, corn etc., which occupy the ground
for a longer time, should be grouped in one place, thus avoid-
ing the mixing up of the early and the late crops. Suggestive
plans offered on the following pages will aid in simplifying
the arrangement and the location of the vegetables and the
fruits.

In recommending the amount of seed to plant in the garden,
as well as the distance apart the plants should stand, only
suggestive amounts of seeds and arbitrary distances can be
given, since local factors and different conditions alter cases.
It is assumed that a large share of the cultivation which
is given to the farm garden will be done with horse imple-
ments. ‘This, of course, necessitates a less intensive plan.
In the suburban garden the cultivation will be performed
with hand implements, such as the hand cultivators, etc.,
and the plants can be grown closer together and a more
intensive system of planting followed. The city garden
should be the most intensive of the three gardens. In the
city gardens practically all of the work is done by hand, with
such tools as the hand hoe, rake, trowel, etc. The plants
are all given more individual attention. Such plants as the
tomatoes are pruned and staked,, thus allowing a greater
number of plants to a given space.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANTS

21

TABLE I.—DISTANCE TO PLANT VEGETABLES.

Farm garden.

Suburban garden.

City garden.

. Distance . Di . Distance
Distance | between | Distance | Petwoon | Distance | Detween
Towa plants rows plants cows plants
inches. a COM inches. In Tow, | inches a TOs
inches. inches. * | inches.
Beans (string) 24 4-6 18 4-6 15 4-6
Beans (Lima) 30 6-8 24 6-8
Beets 24 3 18 3 15 3
Cabbage (early) 24 16 24 16 24 16
Cabbage(medium) 24 24 24 24
Cabbage (late) 30 24 30 24 24 24
Carrots 24 3 24 3 15 3
Cauliflower 30 24 30 24
Celery . 48 6 48 6
Chard . eee 24 6 18 6 15 6
Sweet corn (early) 30 24 30 24
Sweet corn (me-
dium) . .. 30 30
Sweet corn (late) 36 30 30 30
Cucumber 60 12 60 12
Egg plant . 30 24 24 24
Lettuce . 24 12 18 10 8 6
Melon (musk) 60 15 60 15
Melon (water) 60 24
Onion seed 18 5 18 5 12 4
Onion sets 18 3 18 3 12 3
Parsley 24 6 24 6 18 6
Peas 30 6 30 6
Peppers 30 24 30 24 24 24
Potatoes 30 12 30 12
Radishes 18 5 18 3 ig 3
Squash 60 24 60 24
Tomatoes 48 48 36 24 24 24

TABLE II.—DISTANCE TO SET PERENNIAL PLANTS AND

SMALL FRUITS.
Farm garden. Suburban garden. City garden.
. Distance stan Distance Distance Distance
etween | Petween | Petween | between | between | between
OWS), in row, TOWE) in row, inches in row,
inches. | inches. | i¢hes. | inches. | imches- | inches.
Asparagus 36 12 36 12 36 12
Blackberries 72 48
Currants 60 48 48 48 48 36
Gooseberries 60 48 48 48 48 36
Grapes 120 96 96 96
Horseradish 24 12 24 12
Raspberries 72 36 60 36
Rhubarb 36 24 24 24 24 24
Strawberries 36 12 36 12 24 12

22 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

x

TABLE III.—THE AMOUNT OF SEED TO PLANT IN THE

GARDEN.

Farm garden. ag City garden.
Beans (string) 1 quart 1 pint 3 pint
Beans (Lima) 1 pint 3 pint None
Beets ae 2 ounces 1 ounce 1 ounce
Cabbage (early) 1 packet 1 packet | 12 plants
Cabbage (medium) 1 packet 1 packet None
Cabbage (late) . 1 packet 1 packet | 12 plants
Carrots 1 ounce 1 packet 1 packet
Cauliflower 1 packet 1 packet None
Celery 1 ounce 1 packet None
Chard : 1 packet 1 packet 1 packet
Sweet corn (early) 1 pint 3 pint None
Sweet corn (medium) 1 pint None None
Sweet corn (late) 1 pint 4 pint None
Cucumber 1 ounce 1 ounce 1 packet
Egg plant, 1 packet | 12 plants 12 plants
Lettuce 1 ounce 1 packet 1 packet
Mustard . 1 packet 1 packet 1 packet
Muskmelon 1 ounce 1 packet None
Watermelon 1 ounce None None
Onion seed 2 ounces 1 ounce 1 packet
Onion sets 2 quarts 1 quart 1 pint
Parsley 1 packet 1 packet | 12 plants
Peas (early) 1 quart 1 pint None
Peas (medium) 1 quart 1 pint None
Peas (late) 1 quart 1 pint None
Peppers 1 packet | 24 plants 6 plants
Potatoes 1 bushel 3 bushel None
Radish . 3 ounces 1 ounce 1 ounce
Rhubarb 36 plants | 24 plants 6 plants
Spinach 1 ounce 1 ounce 1 packet
Squash (summer) 1 ounce 1 packet None
Squash (winter) 1 ounce 1 packet None
Sweet potatoes 250 plants None None
Tomatoes 200 plants | 50 plants 12 plants

TABLE IV.—THE NUMBER OF PERENNIAL PLANTS AND
SMALL FRUITS TO SET.

Farm garden. pec eae City garden.
Asparagus 100 plants 50 plants 25 plants
Blackberries 50“ a5
Currants 25 * 15 ™ Do! SG Pe
Grapes . 15“ oo
Gooseberries 20 =“ if | 6G. 4
Horseradish ot es 12
Raspberries oo 2
Rhubarb 25. #e 12 * 6 *
Strawberries 400 “ 200 100 *<

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS 23

Preparation of the Garden Soil—Soil preparation for the
garden depends upon the nature and the kind of soil with
which you have to deal. The heavy, stiff clay soils should
be plowed in the fall, because the action of the frost during
the winter will break up the soil into fine particles and render
it more suitable for planting. The fall plowing also adds more
moisture to the soil. The snow and rain which fall during
the winter and the early spring months lodge in the crevices
and rough furrows and gradually melt and soak into the
ground, thus saving a large amount of moisture which other-
wise would run off and be lost.

Fall plowing of light sandy soils is not so important. In
fact in windy sections of the country it is not advisable to
fall plow loose sandy ground, because a large part of the
surface soil will be blown away. However, in those sections
where winds do not exist fall plowing is recommended because
it reduces the spring work and many plants can be set
earlier. ;

In all cases where fall plowing is not practical early spring
plowing should be the rule. Sandy soils will bear plowing
much earlier than heavy, clay soils, because the loose soils dry
out faster than the stiff, compact types, as the clays.

Deep plowing should invariably be the rule. In fact, it is
a question whether it is possible to have too deep a seed-bed,
especially if good cultural methods are practised. A seed-
bed from 8 to 10 inches deep is satisfactory and should be
the aim of all growers of garden produce.

Manures and Fertilizers—The best fertilizer that can be
given to the garden is barnyard manure. This material
not only adds plant food but supplies much organic matter
and finally produces humus. When there is plenty of water
available, either natural or artificial, you cannot spread too
much manure on your garden. A longer time will be required
to decay and make available the plant food in all manures
that have large amounts of straw or litter present, and a
greater amount of water will be necessary to reduce them.

Barnyard manures should usually be spread on the garden
during the early fall and turned under as soon as the soil is
covered. The ground should be left rough and not harrowed

24 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

or raked. This practice prevents the water from running
off and aids in the breaking down of the manures which
makes them more available to the plants the following
season. When fall plowing is not practised the manure
should be spread out evenly on the ground during the autumn
or winter and then turned under as early in the spring as
the ground can be plowed.

Commercial fertilizers are valuable in certain sections of
the country either to use alone or in combination with barn-
yard manures. When commercial fertilizers are employed
alone some means of adding humus or organic matter to the
soil must be provided. Green manure crops, such as clover,
cow peas, soy beans, rye and several more are usually grown
andjthen plowed under to add the needed organic matter.
As a rule it requires some experience in handling commercial
fertilizers to receive the most good from their use. When the
use of commercial fertilizers is considered a very important
item to investigate is the relative cost of the materials.
During the past few years the ingredients which make up a
complete commercial fertilizer, namely, nitrogen, phosphate
and potash, have been very high and in many cases they
have been prohibitive. The nitrogen and potash are the
most expensive, although phosphates are relatively inexpen-
sive and in many cases phosphates can be used.

There can be no definite rule given as to the amount of
commercial fertilizer that should be applied. This varies
with each crop and every type of soil. The amount of water
available also determines the amount of fertilizer that can
be used. In most cases, however, it is usually safe to apply
from 1000 to 2000 pounds to the acre, providing plenty of
humus is present and good cultural methods are practised.

Succession, Companion and Rotation Planting.—T'o make
a garden yield the maximum quantity of vegetables it is
necessary to have the land occupied practically all of the
time during the growing season. This practice is made pos-
sible in vegetable planting because we have in this group
short, medium and long season plants as well as cool weather
and warm weather plants. It therefore becomes an easy
matter to select certain plants and so group and arrange

SUCCESSION, COMPANION AND ROTATION PLANTING 25

them so that we can make the ground grow some plants all
during the season. In order to accomplish this we practise
what is known as succession and companion planting.

By succession planting we mean that one crop follows
another on the same ground and in the same season, as, for
example, early lettuce or radishes followed by string beans.
The secret to successful succession planting then is to select
two or three crops so that the combined growing season of
all will be equal to the growing season of the year. This
usually includes the selection of some early cool weather
crop followed by some medium season warm weather
crop that will mature before frost. In this way we
grow two or more crops from the same ground and have
no waste space in the garden to become a weed patch or an

Z

36"

td
{—_ 8 4 d
4 i ts N
4 a a: ‘

iS

q g RS gy y
y q Rp Q

Fie. 1.—Several crops which illustrate companion planting.

eyesore. Great care must be exercised in selecting the proper
group of plants, so that they all have sufficient time to
mature their crop and still have no vacant space during the
growing season.

Companion planting differs from succession planting in
that two or more crops occupy the same ground at the
same time. ‘Thisis sometimes called double cropping. The
secret to this practice is close planting with plants that will
grow easily together, so that one kind is removed as it
matures and before it crowds the other plants. Three vege-
tables which illustrate this planting are radishes, lettuce
and cabbage. The principle on which this operates is the
selection of early short-season crops. which are planted
between the rows of medium or long season ones. The early
plants soon mature and are removed, and in no way interrupt

26 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

the growth of the other plants. Oftentimes certain plants
will grow as companion plants throughout the life of both,
as, for example, pole beans and pumpkins grown with sweet
corn. Theseplants adapt themselves to each other’s company
and will produce profitable crops in this way. A companion
crop, then, might be defined as a plant which associates with
another plant for a certain portion of its life.

Rotation of plants is more or less common and differs from
succession and companion planting in that two years are
required for its operation while only one season is necessary
for the other two systems. When we rotate a crop we mean
that we follow one crop with another different one the
following season.

Vegetables Grown for Their Roots.—The root crops include
some of our most important vegetables. These plants are
grown for their underground parts. In most cases it is the
developed root of the plant, although in the case of the Irish
potato it is the enlarged stem.

The conditions necessary for the growth of the root crops
are similar, and while there are special requirements for
certain ones a few general conditions are common to all.
In the first place, all root crops do the best when they are
grown on a light sandy soil. This is due to the fact that the
edible part, being a root, must enlarge sufficiently to produce
food. Since the soil offers resistance to the growth of an
enlarged root it is always advisable to select those soils
which offer the least resistance to the rapid expansion of the
underground part.

A deep, well-pulverized seed-bed is also necessary for all
underground crops. This allows the parts to enlarge with
the least resistance. In such plants as the parsnip, carrot
and salsify, that develop long roots, it is especially desirable
that the seed-bed be deep because knotty, crooked roots will
develop if the root strikes a hard pan that hinders its down-
ward growth. Another detrimental factor that is often found
on such plants where growth is restricted by heavy soils is
the development of many small fibrous roots over the surface
of the large root. This makes the product unsightly, of
inferior quality and reduces its value..

VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 27

Practically all of the root crops, with the possible exception
of the sweet potato, do the best in a cool moist climate.
Therefore, to grow the best root crops they should be either
planted in sections of the country that have these conditions
or during the seasons that have a suitable climate. As a
rule, then, these crops are grown as early spring or fall crops,
thus making use of the climate that best suits their develop-
ment.

Vegetables Grown for Their Foliage.—This class of vegetables
consists of such plants as the lettuce, spinach, cabbage,
brussels sprouts, kale and many more. The edible parts of
this class consists principally of the leaves and stems. The
requirements for this group are somewhat varied. A few
general conditions are common to all. The best quality is
invariably produced when these plants are grown rapidly
and liberally supplied with moisture. Plenty of water,
together with sufficient plant food, causes rapid development,
which produces brittle, crisp leaves. Slow growth and lack
of moisture make a tough, stringy product of poor quality.

The soil requirements are varied. As a rule the group
is more or less cosmopolitan, growing on either heavy or
light soils. The lighter soils produce earlier plants while
the heavier soils will usually grow larger amounts.

The uses of this group are many. Some plants are used
as salads, others for garnishing and afew as potherbs. Many
of them are eaten raw while a few are cooked. This class is
very important and serves a variety of purposes.

Vegetables Grown for Their Fruit and Seed.—The vegetables
included in this group are those grown for either their fruit
or their seed. A few of the most common ones are the bean,
pea, sweet corn, cucumber, melon, squash, egg-plant, tomato
and some others. This group includes some of our most
valuable food plants. The dried beans and peas are highly
nutritious and should be found in every garden. In addition
to the high food value found in this group, we also have some
of the most palatable and the finest flavored fruits. There is
perhaps nothing that can equal a fine sweet musk melon
or a juicy watermelon, while the sweet corn, tomato and
cucumber have no rival in their class.

28 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

The general requirements for the plants of this group must
necessarily vary greatly. With the exception of the pea,
which is a cool weather plant, all of the remaining members
of this group are warm weather plants and thrive best during
the warmer part of the growing season. The group also has
both short and long season plants. In fact, the tomato, egg-
plant and pepper must frequently be started in a hot-bed
in order to have them mature their crops, in some sections
of the country with a comparatively short growing season.
With the possible exception of the pea the remaining plants
of this group are all tender and must be planted after danger
of frost is past.

The soil should be well prepared and fertile. A sandy
loam will perhaps best serve the need of the greater number
in this group, although they are not averse to the heavy types
of soil. Plenty of plant food and humus should be provided
and the plants should be kept constantly growing. A check
in growth not only reduces the yield but materially injures
the quality of some of the finer flavored vegetables.

The uses of these vegetables are varied. In fact, they
constitute the vegetables that are found on our tables every
day in the year. Many of these, particularly the peas, beans,
corn and tomato, are staple canned goods and always in
demand. The beans and peas are both canned and sold ina
dry state, while the melons are used only in the fresh state
and occupy an important place as delicacies in their season.
As a class this group is exceedingly important and one that
we could not well do without.

Fig. 2 gives a suggestive plan for the arrangement of a
home garden 25 by 30 feet. This garden is designed for the
back end of a city lot, in which only one-half of the yard is
available for the growing of fresh vegetables. It is primarily
fora small family. This arrangement will permit the use of a
hand cultivator, which can be operated to good advantage.
In case the grower does not own an implement of this type,
the ordinary hand hoe will answer the purpose.

This plan only includes a few vegetables, but they will
meet with approval on anyone’s table, and at the same time
will give a sufficient variety so as not to become monoto-

VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 29

nous. The rows should run the long way of the garden, and
where it is possible the garden should be arranged so that
the rows will run north and south, although if this is impos-
sible no serious drawbacks will be experienced if the rows
run in the opposite directions.

la z
gs8Ge PLAN OF GARDEN
aes
Ena ne 25 by 30’
20150 Scale 1” =10'
1 14%) RADISHES f
5 1%'| LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE
. 1%' | ONIONS
4 1% | SPRING TURNIPS FOLLOWED BY LATE CAULIFLOWER
P 14’ BEETS :
‘ 1%4'| GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE
7 1%'| WAX BEANS
8 + CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE s
9 oe EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE BUSH BEANS
10 2' EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE BUSH BEANS
u 2! BUSH LIMA BEANS
2 ve BUSH LIMA BEANS
B 2' | TOMATOES
ri a SWEET PEPPERS EGG PLANT
30°

Fic. 2.—A city vegetable garden, 25 by 30 feet.

In certain sections of the country, where the rainfall will
permit, or where water for irrigation or sprinkling can be
supplied, lettuce and green beans can be followed by late
cabbage, the early peas can be followed by late bush beans,
turnips by cauliflower and cabbage by endive. This arrange-
ment makes a more intensive form of horticulture and keeps
the ground occupied all of the growing season.

Heavy applications of stable manure should be applied
every fall if the highest yields are to be expected.

30 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

Fig. 3 gives a tentative arrangement for a city vegetable
garden 25 by 40 feet. This garden is designed to be some-
what more permanent in nature, and to occupy the 25 feet

wz
gzloc,4) PLAN OF GARDEN
a
Sie 3 25' by 40’
ZO A Wy & Scale 1’=10'
ia LEAF LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY BEANS La
2 V HEAD LETTUCE
i ONION SETS FOLLOWED BY BEANS
P| i ONION SEED
hy ONION SEED
al a RADISHES FOLLOWED BY BEANS
7 14 EARLY BEETS FOLLOWED BY RADISHES
F 1%’ | CARROTS
ol 1% PARSNIPS
9
10 14 WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY FALL RADISHES
14 GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LEAF LETTUCE
u;—3
ie 11g" EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE
119! EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE
1 2 EARLY TOMATOES
15|_2 LATE TOMATOES S
16 Q' LATE TOMATOES
u 2' LATE CABBAGE
i
18 2 LATE CABBAGE
19 2! LATE CABBAGE
20 3’ RHUBARB
21 cM CURRANTS GOOSEBERRIES
2 3’ ASPARAGUS
28 3! ASPARAGUS

25"

Vic. 3.—A city vegetable garden, 25 by 40 feet.

on the lower end of a city lot that is 40 feet in width. The
first two rows include asparagus, the third, two plants of the

VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 31

gooseberry and two plants of the currant, and the fourth
rhubarb which can be protected in the winter and forced
in the spring by banking with manure or with straw. The
garden should be arranged so that the rows will run north
and south when possible, but this will be determined largely
by the way in which the lot faces.

In regions where the rainfall is sufficient, or where irriga-
tion is possible, lettuce, onions and radishes can be followed
by bush-beans; early beans and beets can be followed by late
radishes and lettuce; and early peas by late endive. Where
the tomatoes are staked the plants can be set two feet apart
each way; where they are not staked or pruned they must
be planted four feet apart each way.

Fig. 4 illustrates a city vegetable garden 30 by 60 feet.
This garden is planned for the back end of a city lot or for
one side of a lot that can be devoted to the growing of
economic plants. This plan is rather intensive and the selec-
tion of the vegetables differs from that of Fig. 3. Owing to
the spacing of the rows, all of the cultivation must be done
by hand tools, such as hand cultivators, hoes, rakes, etc.
This plan provides a greater variety of vegetables but less
in quantity, and it would serve only a small family.

The asparagus and rhubarb which border one side can
either be placed along the boundary of the lot or the border
of the walk. If the latter location is chosen it will serve to
screen the remainder of the garden from public view. Where
one row gives too large a quantity of one vegetable the
row can be divided and two vegetables of a similar growing
season can be planted. The spinach can be followed by
cucumbers which will occupy the ground vacated by the
lettuce, onions, turnips, etc. The early beets can be followed
by late cabbage, the early lettuce and radishes by late
celery, the beans by late cabbage and the early sweet corn
by turnips. The tomatoes should be staked and pruned,
for the best results, where such an intensive plan is followed.

Heavy application of stable manure and liberal watering
will be found to pay well.

Fig. 5 illustrates a home garden 45 by 50 feet. The selec-
tion of the different crops in this plan is designed to be

*J00) 09 Aq Og ‘Uopres o[qexeToa AYO W—'p ‘Ol

08

PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

(09 3
8T
S30LYWOL
{7
Su¥add3d SNV3d VAIT SYYMa
9T
N¥OO 133MS 3LVT
cr
SdINYNL Ad GAMO01104 NHOO L33MS A1HV3
Sa9OVvdavo 3LVI AS G3M07104 SNV49d ONIYLS ie
sv3d 3iv1 eI
AW3139 AB 93M017104 S3HSIOVY AY3139 Ad G3M01104 30NL1L371 a
govasvo 31v7 i BJ9vasve Alea 1
SNV39 DNINLS AG G3MO1104 SV3d Aldva OL
AdISTV9 z SdINSUVd 8
SLOuYVO Aa 1Suvd 1
339 NOINO 9
39vedvd 31V7 AB G3M01104 $1338 AIYVS g
ESEEP) auvLsnw SdINYNL AT8V2 7
§13S NOINO @
SY¥38WNIND AG GIMO1104 HOYNIdS
S3aHSiavu BoNLLa1 }
ayvanky SNOVYEVdSY us
2,1 apeag aM [OZ
,09 <q ,08 oZn|5e
Naquv9 AO NV1d ofa [ee
Zm}j~?

somewhat more permanent. The first three rows are devoted
to herbaceous perennials and woody plants that will occupy
the ground for more than one year. In selecting this plan it

32

VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 33

will be wise to so place the garden that the asparagus, goose-
berries and currants will occupy a position nearest the border,
so that they will not be disturbed for several years. This
plan provides for one portion of the garden to be somewhat
intensive and the other portion to be somewhat extensive.

wz
csloa
wolzue PLAN OF GARDEN
se aes ro , ,
Sulor 45 by 50
Zo0/2u= a ,
oa Sealel’=16
ros oot
4 3 ASPARAGUS
2 3 GOOSEBERRIES a CURRANTS
VS
,
a3 HERBS © HORSERADISH RHUBARB
LJ
4|_ 3" RADISHES 5
5 i LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY LATE CASBAGE
6 f RAODISHES
UY ONION SETS FOLLOWEO BY LATE CABBAGE
1 BEETS
i rr ONION SEEDS
10 14! PARSNIPS
ul 14! CARROTS
Y 1y4' EARLY CABBAGE
13 14 WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY CUCUMBERS
: 14! GREEN BEANS :
14! BUSH LIMA BEANS 8
‘ 2%'| EARLY SWEET CORN
a 2! LATE SWEET CORN INTERPLANTED WITH PUMPKIN
ia 214/ LATE SWEET CORN
rr 3! EARLY TOMATOES
a! LATE TOMATOES
20
MELON
10' WINTER SQUASH
SUMMER SQUASH
L nl s/ -

45 :

Fic. 5.—A city vegetable garden, 45 by 50 feet. ‘

It also includes many cucurbits, so arranged as to almost

completely cover the ground during the latter part of the

growing season. It is advisable to use the hand hoe and

rake for cultivating this garden. The winter squash, melons,

pumpkins and the summer squash can either be planted in

hills 5 feet apart or in rows with the individual plants stand-
3

34

PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

ing about one foot apart in the rows. The tomatoes can be
either staked or allowed to grow without staking. Liberal
application of stable manure and planty of water is advisable.

WZ
cc
Balgee) PLAN OF GARDEN
<< t A
ae 50' by 75
zo0|2ue u ,
oa Scale 1° = 20
1 1/7 LETTUCE FOLLOWED bY LATE CORN
2 RADISHES
3 ONION SETS FOLLOWED BY LATE CORN a
4 ONION 8EEO a
ONION SEED vik
5 ‘CARROTS -
=I PARSNIPS.
7 SALSIFY
A BEETS
10 GREEN BEANS ik
GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY SPINACH =
il WAX BEANS <
a iu WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY CELERY 1° ia
a
4 3 EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY CELERY o
fo)
6 EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY CELERY °
16 EARLY CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY PEAS
1 EARLY CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY PEAS
LATE CABBAGE
18 2
LATE CABBAGE “|. ©
19 xz
EARLY TOMATOES oa
20 e
mt LATE TOMATOES <
2 LATE TOMATOES
,
CUCUMBERS 6
23
MUSKMELONS
24 ao
EARLY CORN &
25 ea
%6 EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE ow =
va
21 3 EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE |
1’ — STRAWBERRIES
CURRANTS GOOSEBERRIES
28 2
,
50

Fic. 6.—A suburban home garden, 50 by 75 feet.

re

Fig. 6 illustrates a suburban home garden 50 by 75 feet.
This plan is designed to be cultivated by both horse and hand
However a certain amount of hoeing will be

implements.

found to be valuable. This plan introduces the cold frame

VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 35

in addition to the hot-bed. It is advisable to construct a
four-sash hot-bed and a four-sash cold frame. However,

wz
©2lou
mole ao PLAN OF GARDEN
pred
sulEE 100’ by 150’
zoja wu Scale 1'=32'
a7
L 2 GRAPES
2 6! CURRANTS GOOSEBERRIES
3 6! ASPARAGUS
4 3' ASPARAGUS
3° RHUBARB
5 7 ;
6 6! Horeeo]| COLD FRAME | STRAWBERRIES
a 3° EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE
8 gt EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY TURNIPS
9 3 EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY TURNIPS
10 3f LATE POTATOES
u oY LATE POTATOES
Lb oY LATE POTATOES
13 3 SWEET POTATOES
iu 3 SWEET POTATOES
1b 3" TOMATOES
16 3 TOMATOES
ii 3! TOMATOES
18 3! EARLY SWEET CORN
19 3 EARLY SWEET CORN INTERPLANTED WITH HUBBARD SQUASH
20 3 MED. EARLY SWEET CORN
1 fi LATE SWEET CORN
22 3! LATE SWEET CORN 2
3 3! LATE SWEET CORN ial
a4 3 EGG PLANT SWEET PEPPERS
25 id EARLY CABBAGE =e
38 7 EARLY CABBAGE
J MEOIUM EARLY CABBAGE
27 * MEDIUM EARLY CABBAGE
28 y EARLY CAULIFLOWER
29
6’ R
30 CUCUMBERS
3 6! MELONS
3 r ONIONS:
33 ’ ONIONS
BL a ONIONS
35. ONIONS
36 ad SALSIF"
37 : PARSNIPS
38 CARROTS
39 7 CARROTS
40 ; ORIED BEANS
41 1d ORIED BEANS
42 = LATE WAX BEANS
43 ig WAX BEANS
44 y MEDIUM EARLY GREEN BEANS
45 td ARLY GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LATE CAULIFLOWER
4G ARLY PEA
47 id ARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE
48 uy ARLY PEA:
49 i PINACH FOLLOWED 8Y LATE CABBAGE
BO bad INION SET!
51 # ONION SETS POLLOWEP BY LATE CABBAGE
52 7 RADISHES.
3 i HEAO LETTUCE Cy LOOSE LEAF LETT@CE
BL ie KOHLRABI
. y.
t 100’

Fic. 7.—A farm garden100 by 150 feet.

36 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN

the hotbed space can be made either larger or smaller accord-
ing to the conditions. In such an event the space devoted
to the asparagus can either be reduced or extended. In case
the cold frames are not desired the space can be devoted to
an outdoor seed-bed, which is of great value.

The celery must be bleached with either boards, tile or
paper placed around the plants, because the space is hardly
‘sufficient to bank the plants with earth. The late endive
can follow the potatoes where the growing season is sufh-
ciently long to permit it to mature.

The border row should include the currants and goose-
berries. The strawberries should be planted in rows 2 feet
apart and the plants 12 inches in the rows. The asparagus
and rhubarb plants should be set 2 feet apart in the rows
and the rows 3 feet apart.

Heavy applications of stable manure should be given to
the soil every year.

Fig. 7 illustrates a farm garden 100 by 150 feet. This
plan provides for the perennial vegetables and small fruits,
in addition to the annual vegetables. This garden requires
the use of both the horse and the hand cultivators. The
space allotment to the hot-bed and the cold frame can be
either reduced or extended to suit the needs of the individual.
The early potatoes can be followed by endive and turnips
and one row of the early sweet corn interplanted with
hubbard squash. The short season vegetables can be fol-
lowed with appropriate crops.

Heavy applications of barnyard manure will be found to
be of great value, and where it is possible fall plowing is
advisable.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. Define horticulture. What two kinds are practised?

. What is amateur and commercial horticulture?

Name three kinds of home vegetable gardens.

. What is the basis for this division?

Why is it necessary to first draw a plan of your garden?
What is meant by the unit of measure?

What is meant by a scale?

. What determines the scale which should be selected?

. Describe the method of laying out a garden on paper.

. Discuss the location of a garden.

SOBNARPRWNYH

iy

REVIEW QUESTIONS 37

11. What important points must be considered in the selection of the
garden site?

12. Why is a gentle southern slope preferable?

13. What is the proper degree of the slope? Why?

14. What is the value of a wind-break? How many kinds do we have?

15. What determines the size of a garden?

16. Draw a plan of a home garden for the city lot, the suburban lot and
the farm.

17. Upon what does the preparation of the garden soil depend?

18. What is gained by fall plowing? Can all soils be so treated? Discuss.

19. What is the best fertilizer for the garden? Why?

20. When and under what conditions should commercial fertilizers be
used?

21. Differentiate between succession and companion planting.

22. How does rotation differ from succession planting?

23. Name the most important root crops and tell what type of soil is
best suited to their growth.

24, Why can the foliage crops be grown on a greater variety of soils than
the root crops?

25. Name and discuss the requirements for the vegetables grown for
their fruits.

CHAPTER II.
THE SEED AND ITS NEEDS.

The Seed.—The seed is composed of three distinct parts:
(1) the embryo or vital center, (2) the protective coat, and
(3) the food materials. The seed is not a lifeless, inert
structure, as is thought by many, but, contrary to this belief,
it is definitely known that chemical changes are constantly
going on within the seed coat. The changes that are known
to take place are (1) water and carbonic acid gas are given
off, (2) a variation in the color of the seed, and (3) the food
materials are undergoing a gradual alteration.

Germination Germination is the process by which an
embryo develops into a complete plant. It might also be
defined as the sprouting of a seed. Germination is said to
be finished when the seedling begins an independent exist-
ence. There are two distinct stages in the process of germi-
nation: (1) that marked by the appearance of the rootlets,
and (2) the subsequent development of the embryo into a
self-sustaining plant. Since the nourishment for the voung
plant comes wholly from the seed during both stages, the
second stage in the process is quite as important as the first.

In addition to the internal changes which go on there are
three distinct external conditions requisite to germination:
(1) the proper amount of water, (2) free oxygen or air, and
(3) an increase in the temperature.

Water Necessary for Germination —The amount of water
required to start the germination of a seed is that quantity
which will give complete saturation. This varies with the
seed. The amount of water absorbed also varies greatly
in the different climates, but it seems to depend upon two
conditions: (1) the character of the stored food and (2) the
amount of water already present in the seed. Some seed,

GERMINATION 39

like the leguminous seed, absorb a great amount of water,
and not infrequently this amount is equal to the weight of
the seed itself, and in some of the clovers it amounts to
more than the weight of the seed.

A second requisite for good germination of a seed is the
proper amount of water in the soil. The soil should be wet
but not sticky. The seeds must be in intimate contact with
the soil at many points and the soil should be fine and com-
pactly firmed about the seed so the water in the soil can be
used. In addition to the proper amount of water in the soil
a warm temperature favors the absorption of water and
hastens the germination.

SSSSSS
—
Lyk

re Nae

wes

erey:

Ve
wD ioe

Fic. 8.—Longitudinal section of u double seed pot used to regulate the
amount of water for very small seeds.

Regulation of Water.—The calling of a dormant embryo
of a seed into life must take place gradually. The chief
difficulty lies in the fact that seed require widely varying
amounts of water, depending upon the species, the soil,
the season of the year, the age, the size and the state of
development. The structure of a seed itself often reveals
its requirements as to water. Seed with hard and thick coats
require more water than do those with thin, soft coverings.
Large and heavy seed are less liable to injury by too much
water than the small, weak ones. Fresh and vigorous seed
will endure more moisture than old ones, and to know the
requirements of any species, it is usually necessary to know

40 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

something of the conditions under which the plant producing
them grew to maturity.

Except in the case of soaking, water should not be applied
directly to seed but through some medium in which the
water can be carefully regulated. The usual media are soils,
plant fiber, earthenware and occasionally bricks or tile.

Seed should not be kept permanently wet,. because in
such an event oxygen cannot enter the soil, which, in turn,
causes the seed tissue to break down with the formation of
alcohol, and later oils and acids, and the seeds are ruined
by rotting. It is a safe rule to allow the seed-bed to become
quite dry before watering. When watering the whole mass
of earth should be completely saturated. It is rarely ever
advisable to give a light sprinkling to the surface. The
practice of repeatedly wetting the upper surface of the soil
is most detrimental. It causes a crust to form and brings
the tender roots to the surface, which are later injured by
drying out. A watering pot with a fine spray is the best
means of applying the water, because the hose usually packs
the soil, washes out the seed and makes it difficult to regulate
the quantity.

Oxygen Necessary for Germination.—Oxygen is quite as
important to the seed as is water. In the absence of oxygen
the food materials in the seed do not pass into solution and
do not become available for the young plant. Without
oxygen there can be no organic life, and this is as true of
plants at this stage as at any other. It has been found that
the movement of the protoplasm ceases at once in sprouting
seeds if a supply of oxygen is not present, even when the
conditions of moisture and temperature are favorable. In
the presence of moisture and the absence of oxygen, alcoholic
and other fermentations quickly take place.

In the sowing of seed the aération of the soil must be taken
into account, so there can be an interchange of gases, espe-
cially of oxygen and carbonic acid gas.

The main considerations in securing a supply of oxygen
for seed are: (1) Do not drive out all of the oxygen in the
crevices of the soil by heavy watering. .(2) Do not cover the
seed so deep that it will prevent the easy access of the air.

GERMINATION 41

The depth to which the seed should be planted depends
partly upon the porosity of the soil and partly upon the size
of the seed. (3) Prevent the caking of the soil, which is
usually caused either by repeated waterings or by allowing
the soil to dry out too quickly.

Temperature Necessary for Germination.—There is a wide
range of temperature at which the many kinds of seed
will germinate. The proper temperature depends primarily
upon the constitutional peculiarities of the seed. Somie seed
will germinate close to the freezing-point and often they may
be repeatedly frozen and thawed without this process causing
harmful results. Rye gives a fitting example. The seed
of this plant can be germinated on cakes of ice, and seemingly
experiences no great difficulty in growing. However, this
is an exceptional example, and many other seed, which
include by far the greater number of species, fail to germinate
unless the proper temperature is maintained.

There are three degrees of temperature recognized for the
germination of seed: (1) minimum; (2) optimum; and (3)
maximum. The minimum temperature is the lowest tem-
perature at which a seed will germinate. The maximum
is the highest temperature at which a seed will germinate.
The optimum is the medium temperature between the
minimum and the maximum. The optimum is the best
temperature at which to place a seed for proper germina-
tion. The optimum temperature is not a stationary tempera-
ture but it fluctuates up and down, due to the species,
the difference in vigor, the ripeness and the general condi-
tions of the seed in question.

There is no way of very accurately controlling the tempera-
ture out of doors. The depth of planting is the only practical
means of regulating the temperature to any degree, and this
only slightly. This also influences the degree of moisture
in the open ground as well as the temperature. However,
there is a direct influence upon the essential growth o1 the
plant determined by either deep or shallow planting. A
seed can be planted much deeper in a light soil than in heavy
clay soil. It can also be planted deeper late in the season
than early in the season. The seed must not be planted

42 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

on account of the temperature deeper than is necessary to
secure the proper amount of moisture.

Processes of Germination—The processes of germination
are divided into five distinct stages: (1) the seed mechanically
absorbs water which causes it to swell; (2) the absorption
of oxygen; (3) by the absorption of the water and the oxygen
the food materials are brought into solution. Some of the
food materials as sugars are soluble in the water, while others,
such as the oils and the starch must undergo a chemical
change before becoming soluble. The oils are thought to
pass through several changes, finally being transformed
into starch. All of the starches are then acted upon by
certain ferments which convert them into soluble carbohy-
drates. (4) The soluble food passes to the growing parts of
the plant. (5) The food is then employed in the unfolding
and the building up of the embryo. After the first two
steps the processes go on simultaneously.

The Internal Conditions Effecting Germination—IJn con-
sidering germination the internal conditions governing the
germination of seed must be emphasized. These are quite
as important as the external factors and are four in number:
(1) maturity, (2) soundness, (3) viability, and (4) germinative
energy.

The Maturity of a Seed.—The power of germination in a
seed is not one of the distinguishing characteristics of the
maturity of a seed because many seeds will germinate long
before their color, weight, size or shape indicates maturity.
Innumerable experiments, as well as many examples seen in
the common practice of gardening, have proved that the
viability of a seed is not coincident with the maturity but
precedes it. Maturity may be summed up by saying that
when plants are grown from seed that are immature the
following detrimental effects are seen in the plant: (1) there
is a loss of vigor shown by the smaller percentage of germina-
tion; (2) the weakness of the seedlings; (3) a greater number
of plants die before maturity; (4) the full vigor of the plant
is never recovered, although it may and usually does produce
an abundant harvest; (5) the reproductive parts of the plant
are increased in proportion to the vegetative parts.

LONGEVITY OF A SEED 43

Soundness of a Seed.—Seeds which are not sound have
their vitality weakened. The soundness of a seed is influenced
by: (1) Injury due to thrashing; (2) by the action of physical
or chemical agents; (3) by being imperfect or shrivelled; (4)
by being produced from plants that were stunted in their
growth either by fungi or insects. All of these phases are
harmful to the germination of a seed. It follows, then, from
facts well in hand, that seeds which are in any way injured
should be discarded, and that soundness should be one of the
requisites of a good seed. Unsound seed should be destroyed
because weakly and sickly plants will be produced.

Seed that are eaten or injured by certain insects, such as
the pea weevil or bean weevil, produce great loss annually.
Plants grown from seed injured in this way are retarded in
growth, with the result that weak plants are produced. The
amount of damage resulting to seed by the attacks of insects
is not always in proportion to the part injured. The pea
weevil sometimes destroys most of the stored food in the pea,
but if the pumule is untouched the pea will germinate. On
the other hand a slight injury to the pumule will destroy the
germinating power of the seed even though all of the food
material in uninjured.

Longevity of a Seed.—The length of time a seed is alive is
called longevity. The longevity of seed is a much-discussed
question, although one that can be easily settled, and a
question upon which there is much authentic data. The lon-
gevity of a seed depends for the most part upon the species,
but also differs widely in this respect. The climatic con-
ditions materially influence the longevity of a seed, and none
of the qualities of a seed, such as weight, color or size, seem
to be correlated in any way with the length of life of the
embryo of a seed. Poor method of harvesting; poor storage
facilities; mechanical injuries of various kinds, which affect
the food supply of the embryo, all tend to shorten the life
of the seed. Likewise immature seeds begin to fail earlier
and die before their natural time. Improper fertilization or
poorly formed and imperfect embryo give short-lived seed.
The position of the fruit on the plant sometimes exercises
an influence on the germinating power of the seed.

44 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

Germinative Energy of a Seed.—The germinative energy
or the speed of germination is that energy which is required
for the germination of a seed. The length of time this
energy is available varies from a few hours to several years,
depending upon the different species of plants. The reasons
for these variations in certain plants are not well understood,
although they are probably caused to some extent (1) by
the different degrees of ripeness of the seed, (2) by the nature
of the seed coat, and (3) by the different degrees of stability
of the food compounds. Possibly the embryo might be
influenced to a limited extent by heredity.

The shorter the period of germination the better, because
after the seed is once planted it is in constant danger of
destruction from various causes, as, for example, by insects
or predaceous animals.

The seed of different species of plants require different
germinative periods, but there is an abnormal condition
recognized by seedsmen, due to the hard condition of the
testa or seed coat of some seed, and because of this hardness
of the seed coat the absorption of water cannot take place.
These seeds are known as “hard seed” or hard-shelled seed,
and are common in legumes as well as in some other plants.
The power to germinate is present in these hard-coated seeds,
and their value is not impaired. This defect is caused for the
most part by the presence of abnormal quantities of silica,
lime and other ash ingredients in the seed coat, and are
substances which are not affected by soaking in water.
These defects can be remedied (1) by filing of the seed coat,
(2) by mixing the seed with sharp sand, (3) by revolving the
seed in a cylinder with corrugated edge, (4) by the cracking
or the breaking of the seed coat with a hammer, (5) by the
treatment of the seed with chemicals, such as weak acids.

Seed Testing.—In order to guard against failure, germi-
nation tests for all seed should be made every season. Seed
testing consists in the counting out of a definite number of
seed, of which the usual number is one hundred. The seed
must not be specially selected, but should represent a fair
sample of the lot.

The testing of seed is very important and its value cannot

SEED TESTERS 45

be overestimated from the standpoint of profits. In all inten-
sive agricultural and more particularly in horticultural work
the money made from a given crop is largely determined by
the time at which the crop reaches the market. In order to
secure the maximum yields from a given piece of land there
must be a full stand of plants and not one-half or two-thirds
of a stand. If the testing of the seeds is neglected and their
vitality happens to be low the stand of plants will be below
the normal number, consequently the yield will be reduced
to a point where no profits are made. Unless the seed is
tested the stand of plants cannot be ascertained until the
seed come up. If a poor stand at this late date is discovered,
and even if replanting is then resorted to, the time lost is so
great that the crop will come on the market at a time when
every grower is producing the same crop, and consequently
the price is so reduced that the crop is often unprofitable.
On the other hand, if the seed had been tested the grower
would have known what percentage of seed would germinate,
and he could plant accordingly. If a given sample tested
95 per cent. it would only be necessary to plant in the
normal way, with the result of a good stand of plants; but if
the sample only tested 50 per cent. then it would be either
necessary to plant twice as many seeds or purchase more seed
with greater vitality. The progressive grower always guards
against a possible loss. Consequently he germinates his seed
prior to the time for planting and he knows definitely how
many seed can be expected to grow and then plants accord-
ingly.

Seed Testers.—There are four kinds of seed testers. These
are more or less distinct, and some kinds can easily be made
by the grower.

The dinner-plate seed tester (Fig. 9) consists of two large-
sized dinner plates, the one turned over the other. Between
the plates are placed two or three blotters covered with
two pieces of canton flannel. The material is moistened
with water and the seed are placed between the blotters
and are set in a warm room until they germinate. It is
always well to change the blotters after each test, in order
to guard against infection by fungi, which sometimes cause
the seed to mould.

46 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

The germinating cup is a small earthen vessel, 3 inches in
diameter or 3 inches square and 13 inches deep. The cup is
covered with a lid of the same size and shape as the top of
cup, in which are a number of small holes. The cup is placed
in a shallow pan of water and kept at a temperature of about
75° or 80° F. Germinating cups must be thoroughly steril-
ized before the seeds are placed in them.

Fic. 9.—The dinner-plate seed tester.

The tile germinator is a large tile, 12 x 15 inches and 2
inches deep, in which have been molded pockets varying in
size from 1 inch to 8 inches in diameter. This tester is
placed in a shallow pan of water the same as the germinating
cups. Usually it is advisable to cover the top of the tester
with a pane of glass to prevent spores of fungi from falling
on the seeds and causing trouble.

The Geneva seed tester is a galvanized iron pan, 10 inches
wide, 14 inches long and 33 inches deep, with a ledge $ inch
wide along the sides. The seed are held in folds of cloth
suspended on rods which rest on this ledge. The water is
carried to the seed through capillarity. A pane of glass is

SOIL FOR THE SEED-BED 47

usually placed over the tester after the seed have been
arranged.

Seed-bed.—In the growing of plants a good seed-bed is
absolutely essential and is a very important adjunct to the
successful manipulation of the plants.

If the seed-bed is improperly prepared the subsequent
growth of the plants is often retarded. The soil, however,
is one of the most important parts of the seed-bed, and the
following points should be given considerable attention
before the selection is made: (1) The soil should be possessed
with the power of holding water; (2) the soil should be such
as to maintain the proper degree of heat; (3) the seed-bed
should be well drained; (4) the soil must never be allowed
to get too wet. If any of these factors are neglected
the efficiency of the seed bed is reduced. Attention should
be given to all of these points, with the view of making
them as near perfect as it is possible to do. The seed need
constant watching and careful attention. The soil, if possible,
should be kept a few degrees warmer than the air, and should
be uniform in moisture. Cold air should be avoided.

Soil for the Seed-bed.—The soil should be carefully selected
and an attempt made to bring it into the best possible shape.
Experienced growers know that the choice of soil depends
not so much upon the nutritive substances it contains but
upon its physical properties, its power of retaining water and
its porosity. In the sowing of seed we are not limited to
any special soil but may select practically any type having
good physical qualities. Experience has taught us that
seed of certain species will do better in some special soils.
A light sandy soil will probably make the best seed-bed for
all general purposes, since it has a large number of good
qualities. For some seed a muck or a peat soil is considered
excellent. Such a soil is very easily handled and is well
suited for seed of a great number of plants. By a little experi-
ence one can judge a good soil by its appearance. If the
soil is too heavy it can be made lighter by the addition of the
right proportion of some lighter soil, such as sand or by the
use of decaying organic matter found in well-rotted manure
or leaf mould. Sand in too large a quantity is not desirable,

48 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

because it contains neither life nor humus and tends to make
a dead soil. If, however, the soil is too light a clay or a heavy
loam may be added.

The physical properties of the soil should be such as not to
pack, and this can be easily determined by taking a small
portion in the hand and firmly squeezing it. If the soil
falls apart it has about the right amount of water; if it is
compact it is either too wet or too heavy for the planting of
seed and the best results will not be obtained. A small
amount of plant food is an advantage although not a necessity
at this stage of growth. The soil for the seed-bed should be
free from an excessive amount of moisture, the larve of
injurious insects, and as free as possible from foreign weed
seed.

Fia. 10.—A wooden marker to regulate the depth for planting seed.

The freezing of the soil will rid it of many of the injurious
animal organisms and at the same time will put it in a better
physical condition. Whenever it is possible it will be highly
advantageous to subject the soil to repeated freezings and
‘thawings before using it in the seed-boxes.

Depth of Planting. —Seed are covered with soil to secure
an intimate contact with the moist earth. Care should be
exercised in not excluding the air because that would be highly
injurious to the seed. The proper depth must always be
judged by the gardener and is determined largely by the size
of the seed and the nature of the soil. It is apparent, however,
that the small, delicate seed, whose powers of germination

TIME TO PLANT 49

are reduced in proportion to their size, should have very
little covering, because the tender plantlet will be unable
to push through the soil. In the large and vigorous seeds
this precaution need not be taken. However, it is never
beneficial to cover the seed deeper than is really necessary
to secure the requisite degree of moisture. Many small
seed are often sown upon the surface of the soil and covered
with a thin mulch, while some others need no covering except
a pane of glass to retain the proper amount of moisture. If
the seed are planted in the open the same precautions are
necessary.

Compacting of the Soil—The seed must be in intimate
contact with the soil particles in order to secure the proper
amount of moisture to germinate. If the soil is loose about

Fig. 11.—A firming board.

the seed they get but little moisture, which prevents their
maximum germination and the subsequent growth of the
plantlet. In nearly all cases the soil must be firmed over the
seed to give the best results. This is accomplished in many
field crops by the use of heavy rollers. In market gardening
the roller follows the seed drill and is usually a part of it.
When seed is sown in flats a firming board is usually employed
to compact the soil about the seed, or the soil may be pressed
down with the hands.

Time to Plant.—All plants require a definite period in order
to grow to maturity. The proper time then to sow the seed
would be such that the growing period would be long enough
to bring the crop to its full state of ripeness. The time at
which planting is to be done must be kept in mind, remember-
ing, however, that seed of certain plants that are sown too
early or too late, and which will encounter unfavorable heat
or moisture conditions, will not produce good plants, It is

4

50 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

impossible to set a definite date for the sowing of the seed,
since the season, the climate, the moisture and the location
vary so much that good judgment must be used in every
locality. The local vegetation should be used as an index in
determining the proper time of planting. As an example of
this the seed of hardy plants, such as the peas, the onions,
and the radishes, are usually sown when the peaches begin
to bloom, or as soon as the land can be worked in the spring.
Other crops which are not so hardy should be sown about a
week or ten days later. Warm, tender plants, as the tomato,
the egg plant, the pepper and many others, should not be
planted until all danger of frost has past. The time at which
the last frost occurs, of course, varies in all localities as well
as in different seasons. In the South the seed can be sown
earlier, while farther North, where the season is later, the seed
must necessarily be sown later. In the sowing of seed it is
always a good practice to sow a larger amount than is neces-
sary to secure a good stand, because this will ensure against
any loss from unavoidable causes. The extra cost in the sow-
ing of twice the amount of seed required is very small in com-
parison with the time and space lost when a poor stand results.

Sowing of Seed.—There are two methods by which seed
are sown: (1) broadcasting and (2) sowing in drills. Broad-
casting is the distribution of seed freely over the surface from
the open hand through the thumb and fingers. There are
also several kinds of hand seeders on the market, all of which

‘broadcast the seed. The most simple kind of hand seeder
and the one that is most often used for the seeding of grass
and other small seed is one with a rotating distribution. This
seeder consists of a star-shaped wheel, which is given a rapid
rotation by gearing from a crank. A bag is provided with
straps which may be carried from the shoulder and the
distributing device placed at the bottom. The seeder is
confined principally to small areas and often used in the
seeding of lawns.

Watering of the Seedlings.—Watering js seldom done prop-
erly by the amateur, and in many cases this is the cause of
failure. It is impossible to lay down definite rules which can
be followed, but a few suggestions might be offered which will

THINNING OF PLANTS 51

give some aid: Water only when the ground seems to need
it is an excellent rule. But this rule can only be followed
by one with some experience, because this is the only way the
need can be definitely known. Seed, as well as seedlings, are
often injured by too much watering. It is not well to apply
water too often, but rather to let the plant feel the need of
moisture by slightly wilting.

The best time to water is between sunset and sunrise, and
the seedlings should usually be watered in the early part of
the day before the sun appears. This is important, because
as a rule if the plants go through the night in a damp condition
they are more subject to the attack of diseases. A damp
atmosphere with a wet soil will be a combination that only
the hardiest seedlings can stand if long continued, and a
saturated condition of the air and soil, especially if accom-
panied by undue heat, surely invites the attack of the damp-
ing-off fungus. Single copious waterings are much better
than several scanty sprinklings. Frequent sprinklings cause
the surface to become crusted and hard, while the roots may
be suffering from thirst. Moreover, such watering brings the
tender roots to the surface, which is an undesirable condition.
As soon as the soil dries sufficiently after watering it should
be cultivated and a dust mulch maintained. This introduces
air and liberates plant food, which stimulates plant growth.
The appearance of mould on a seed-bed is a sure sign that the
soil is too wet. ‘Tall, spindling seedlings with light green
foliage indicates too much water and too high a temperature.
Watering must not be applied to the seedlings forcibly, since
it has a tendency to wash them out of the soil as well as
causing a crust to form, both of which are extremely detri-
mental to the production of good plants.

Thinning of Plants.—After planting seed of many crops
it is usually found that more have grown than can be allowed
to stand, and that the process of thinning will have to be
practised in order to reduce the number. Such thinning can
be made of great value if properly done, since it is a most
excellent means of practising plant selection. The poorest
and the weakest seedlings should always be pulled out and
discarded, and only those plants which have good vitality
should be retained and permitted to grow.

52 SEED AND ITS NEEDS

Thinning is not only done to give the plants more room to
expand and to grow, but also to provide them with sufficient
space from which to gather plant food. It should therefore
be done as soon as possible after the plants are up. ‘The early
elimination of the surplus plants prevents any loss of the
available food.

Thinning is accomplished in several ways according to the
crop: (1) By weeders or implements designed for the purpose
of cutting out the surplus plants, and (2) by hand. Hand
thinning is usually practised on such plants as the garden
beet or the onion.

Transplanting of Seedlings.—One of the principal reasons
for the transplanting of the seedling is to develop a good root
system. An ideal root system is one that has a great number
of short branches, bearing many small root hairs. Such a
root system provides a large area for the absorption of food
material in a comparatively small space. An expression for
this condition often used by gardeners is “ball of root,”
which means a well-developed and compact root system.
The formation of this ball takes place only after the seedling
has been transplanted several times. It is formed when the
larger roots are broken off, which causes them to branch and
to make a number of small fibrous roots. The root system
then is a network of fine root hairs, all of which take food
from the soil. Such a root system is easiest and is most readily
obtained by the root pruning which takes place during
transplantings. With many plants repeated transplantings
are an advantage. ‘The first transplanting is most important.
It consists in the pricking of the seedlings out of the seed
bed. Several precautions must be observed, of which the
most important one is the preparatory treatment of the seed-
lings before transplanting. A few days previous to the time
the plants are to be taken up, withhold the water supply
and ventilate the plants freely to harden the tissue of the
seedlings if they have been grown in a hot-bed or cold frame.
An hour or two previous to the transplanting of the seedlings
give them an abundance of water. In removing the plants
from the seed-bed avoid injury to the roots, and in resetting
them pack the soil firmly about the roots so that they will

REVIEW QUESTIONS 53

quickly take hold of the soil. Usually shading of the plants
for a day or so to prevent withering after transplanting is
important. The plants should be set in the soil nearly up
to the first leaf, which enables them to take root more deeply
and thus to be better able to withstand drought. In the trans-
planting of seedlings to the open, after they have attained
some size, account must be taken of the loss of a part of the
root system. The balance between the leaves and the roots
is now broken. It is apparent that in transplanting some
roots are always lost, which causes the leaf surface to be in
excess of that of the root system. For this reason it is always
advisable to reduce the leaf surface, so that it will be in pro-
portion to the root system, thus maintaining the equilibrium
or the balance of the plant as near as possible. From one-
fourth to one-half of the leaf surface is usually removed.
Where it is possible it is usually never advisable to trans-
plant seedlings immediately after a rain, because the ground
is then in a poor condition, and it cannot be satisfactorily
firmed about the roots of the plant. The baking of the soil
and the formation of a hard crust is the result when working
with a soil that is too wet. After transplanting the ground
should be thoroughly cultivated at the first opportunity. A
mulch of dry soil should be maintained over the surface. *

Sometimes plants are grown and transplanted into small
pots. Thumb pots, the smallest size, are selected for the
first transplanting and later the plants are gradually shifted
to larger sizes. The soil should be comparatively rich, the
aim being at this time to develop, as soon as possible, a
compact root system before transplanting in the field. Pots
are used in order that a severe check to the plant will be
avoided.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. What three parts compose a seed?

2. What is germination? What two stages mark the beginning of
germination?

3. Name three external requisites for germination.

4, What function has water on the germination of a seed?

5. What is gained by the soaking of a seed?

6. What results when seed are kept permanently wet?

7. Why is oxygen necessary for the germination of a seed?

SEED AND ITS]NEEDS

. Why must the soil be aérated for good plant growth?

. Give two ways in which oxygen can be secured for the seed.
. What three temperatures are recognized in the germination of seed?
. What are the five processes of germination?

. Name the internal conditions affecting germination.

. What is meant by maturity of a seed?

. Discuss two ways a seed may be unsound.

. Is germinative energy important to the seed?

. What are hard seeds? How is the defect remedied?

. What is seed testing and of what value is it to the grower?

. Describe four kinds of seed testers.

. What type of soil is preferred for the seed-bed?

. What determines the depth to which seed should be planted?
. Discuss the compacting of the soil about the seed.

. What determines the proper time to plant seeds?

. Why is it necessary to thin plants?

. What is a seed-bed, and why is it important to have it well prepared?
. What two methods are used in sowing of seed?

. Why does shade assist the seedling to start growth?

. Discuss the watering of seedlings.

. Discuss transplanting of seedlings.

CHAPTER IIL.
HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME.

Tue hot-bed and the cold frame is a very important and a
very necessary adjunct to the commercial as well as to the
home garden. Few people realize the importance of some
form of glass. It is not only important in connection with
the production of early plants but also valuable for the grow+
ing to maturity of lettuce and radishes, either early in the
spring or late in the fall. Glass is regarded as being prac-
tically indispensable for many garden operations. In certain
sections of the country it is a positive necessity, especially
where certain crops are grown, as, for example, the tomato
or the pepper.

In addition to the use of glass for the forcing of early
vegetables it is valuable for the winter protection of partially
hardy plants. The greatest economic use is probably in the
hastening of the growth of certain crops as well as extending
the growing period of others.

HOT-BEDS.

The advantages of hotbeds may be summed up briefly
under the following heads: (1) Crops can be matured and
harvested earlier, thus gaining the advantage of better
prices. (2) By starting plants under glass two or more crops
may be grown on the same land during a growing season.
(3) In sections of the country where the growing season is
short, such crops as tomatoes, melons and peppers can only
be successfully matured by starting the plants in the hotbed.
(4) Where the plants are large when they are set in the field,
there is less danger of loss by insects and diseases, as well as
less injury from weeds. (5) Because of the longer growing
season afforded some crops, larger yields are obtained.

56 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

Location.—In the selection of a location for a hot-bed several
factors should be considered. Since it is very important that
the seeds and the seedlings should not suffer from the lack of
water, it is necessary to place the frames in close proximity
to a good supply of available water. This cannot be over-
emphasized, because the failure of many crops to be profitable
is due to the lack of water during the early part of their
growth.

Hot-beds should be placed so as to be protected from severe
cold winds. Usually the cold winds are from the north or
the west, and care should be used to see that the frames
are protected on these sides. Windbreaks afford the most
common as well as the most economical protection, and where
it is possible natural wind-breaks, such as hills, trees or
wooded areas, should be utilized. When these natural
wind-breaks are not available a board fence, five or six feet
high, can be constructed, or a location might be selected back
of some outbuildings, such as granaries or buggy sheds.

Exposure.—It is conceded by all growers that the south
or southeast exposures are to be preferred over all others.
This aspect allows the frames to have the full benefit of the
sun’s rays at a time of the year when it is most needed. The
frames should run parallel with each other so as to facilitate
in the handling of the glass. Roads or alley-ways should
be constructed between the frames so as to be more con-
venient when composting the manure and when filling
the beds.

Hot-bed Pit.—Most of the hot-beds are heated by the fer-
mentation of manures, and for this reason a pit or a hole in
the ground is necessary. Good drainage in the pit is an
absolute essential, and where natural drainage is poor some
artificial means of removing any surplus water must be
provided. In many soils artificial drainage is unnecessary,
but occasionally some artificial means of drawing off the
surplus water is necessary. ‘Two ways of providing good
drainage is either by the use of 4-inch tile laid in the bottom
of the pit or by placing 6 inches of cinders or coarse gravel
in the bottom before the compost is thrown in the pit. Owing
to the uncertainty of the weather in the spring it is usually

HOT-BEDS 57

advisable to dig the pit in the fall before the ground is frozen
and fill it with leaves or with coarse manure.

The size of the pit will depend upon the size of the hot-bed,
and whether it is for home use or for commercial purposes.
In either case the size of the pit should be just a trifle larger
than the frame, so the frame will fit into it snugly.

The depth of the pit depends upon several factors: (1)
Latitude: The section of the country or the latitude deter-
mines the depth to a large degree, because the inside heat of
the frame is materially influenced by the external tem-
perature. (2) The time of the year: When crops are started
late in the season, as for example in March or April, less
heat and consequently less depth in the pit is required than
if the plants are started in February or earlier. (3) The kind
of a crop: Certain plants known as tender or warm-weather
plants, such as the tomato, pepper or egg-plant, require con-
siderably more heat than the more hardy plants, as the
cabbage or the lettuce. Therefore the pit must of necessity
be deeper, to supply the proper amount of heat to grow the
warm plants successfully. In the North the customary depth
varies from 15 to 36 inches. The depth gradually decreases
as one goes south, where it ranges from 6 to 12 inches. The
heating material which is used and the length of time the
hot-bed will be needed also influences its depth.

Hot-bed Frame.—Five materials are prominent in the con-
struction of the frame: (1) wood, (2) concrete, (3) stone,
(4) brick and (5) cement blocks. Concrete is without a
doubt the most durable as well as the neatest, although wood
is more generally used because of its cheapness. If wood is
used it is advisable to secure cedar, locust or cypress, since
these woods are the most durable and will withstand the
trying conditions under which the frame is placed. The
frame should be made to fit the pit. The length should be
determined by the needs of the grower. The usual width is
6 feet, because the standard size of the sash is 3 x 6 feet.
It is always more convenient to have the width of the
frame about one-half inch less than the length of the sash.
The upper side of the frame should be 6 to 8 inches higher
than the lower side so as to give the proper slope to the frame.

58 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

When the frame is made of wood, crossbars should be pro-
vided because they possess many advantages. The chief use
of the crossbars is to strengthen and to prevent the frames
from warping or twisting out of shape when they are in

I]
2
3) Space
Ori a
Z 2] 0 Soil
rol oy
onl
0 Mavrure
fis)
Pe] SO
1 ot
a ny
¢
ee |

Y/ JJ

Fic. 12.—A cross-section of a concrete hot-bed.

e

contact with the moist earth. The crossbar should be made
of a piece of wood 2x3 inches. It should be of the best
material. The crossbars should be placed with the greatest

«

Fia. 13.—Showing the method of constructing a concrete hot-bed. Note the
framework which is necessary.

care and precision, because if they are too close together the
sash will bind and cause great annoyance. The distance from
center to center of the crossbars should be one-half inch more
than the width of the sash to ensure ease in manipulation.

HOT-BEDS 59

Hot-bed Sash.—Two kinds of hot-bed sash can be pur-
chased, the single-glass and the double-glass sash. They
can also be made by any local firm. When the sash are
constructed locally, specify emphatically that only the
most durable wood should be used and cypress or cedar
is preferred. Sash differ greatly in length and in width,
but the standard size is 3 x 6 feet. Sash of other sizes
are inconvenient to handle and possess no advantages
over the standard. The usual thickness of the sash is
about 14 inches, but this varies, and usually ranges from
1% to 2 inches. The lighter sash are easier to handle, but
the heavier ones are more durable and sustain less breakage.

Fic. 14.—A good rack for hot-bed sash.

All sash should receive a priming coat of paint before
they are glazed. The cracks and the crevices should be
filled with paint in order to exclude all water, so that decay
will be lessened. Glass of the best quality should be pur-
chased. The lower grades of glass, as a rule, cause more
burning to the plants because of their many defects.

The glass is placed into the frames by either lapping or
by butting. Lapping is the most popular and the method
that is usually recommended, because there is less leakage

60 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

and less trouble with the panes slipping down. The glass
should be lapped about } inch and Jaid in putty. Each
pane of glass should be fastened by glazing points, and
putty pressed in the angles formed by the glass and the
sash bars. When the glass is butted the two edges of the
panes are simply brought together. The greatest draw-
back to this method is the fact that the glass is never per-
fectly square and the panes do not fit together tightly.
The cracks thus formed between the two panes permit
a great amount of leakage to occur which is very injurious
to the growing plants.

After the sash are glazed they should be given two or
three coats of good white-lead paint. This painting should
be repeated at least once a year throughout the life of the
sash. The painting materially increases the length of time
the sash can be used. When the sash are not in use they
should be stored in a dry place (Fig. 14).

A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED.

Fig. 15 represents a four-frame hot-bed and a convenient
size for the home garden. So important is some form of
glass to the garden that no vegetable garden is complete
without a two- or four-frame hot-bed. When only a small
city lot is available for a garden the hot-bed can be made
one-half this size.

The arrangement of the crops in the hot-bed can be deter-
mined by the individual, but Fig. 15 is designed to give
several suggestions which might help the novice or one not
very familiar with this form of gardening to fill up the
space to the best advantage.

In this plan two sash are given over to the growing of
lettuce and radishes and early beets, while one is used for
the production of the early plants which are to be set
in the garden. The fourth is used for the transplanting of
the seedlings, in order that large, stocky and healthy plants
will result. The first transplanting from the seed bed is
essential if good plants are desired, because it not only
increases the root system, but it helps the plants to with-

A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED

PLAN OF FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED.

Onion seed

Beet seed

Cabbage seed

{ Cauliflower seed

Celery seed

Egg plant seed

| Pepper seed

Parsley seed

| Endive seed

Lettuce seed

Cauliflower plants

Cabbage plants

Lettuce plants

Egg plant plants

Pepper plants

Parsley plants

Endive plants

Tomato plants

Tomato plants

Tomato plants

Lettuce
February 25 to March 10

Radishes and early beets
February 25 to March 10

Fie. 15

61

62 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

stand the more severe operation when they are set in the
garden.

If only a two-frame bed is made the space allotted to
each crop can be reduced. p

The double-glass sash are not to be generally recommended
for the following reasons: (1) they are too expensive; (2)
they are very heavy to handle; (3) they accumulate and
retain moisture between the two layers of glass, which
causes their rapid decay; and (4) they collect dirt and
moisture between the glasses, which decrease the amount of
light that can pass through the glass. However, it must
not be thought that the double glass does not possess some
good points. The advantages of the double-glass sash may
be briefly summed up as follows: (1) a growing tempera-
ture is reached earlier in the day; (2) the labor of managing
the frames is reduced; and (3) the plants are afforded more
thorough protection from cold. Although the double-glass
sash do possess certain advantages, the disadvantages seem
to overshadow the advantages, and they cannot be generally
recommended.

Composting the Manure—The usual material for heating
the hot-bed is horse manure. Sometimes forest leaves, spent
hops, and occasionally sheep and poultry manure are used,
but sheep and poultry manures are usually of more value
for other purposes.

The horse manure should consist of about one-third litter.
When the solid excrement is used entirely the fermentation
is usually too violent, and consequently of too short a dura-
tion. Straw is the best material for the litter, and manure
composed of shavings or sawdust should never be used.

The manure should be composted before it is placed in
the pit. The composting should begin about ten days prior
to the time the hot-beds are to be made. The manure should
first be piled up in compost heaps. A convenient size of
the compost pile is 4 or 5 feet wide and about as high, with
length enough to fill the frames. After the heating of the
compost has started and is well under way, say two or three
days after it is piled, the manure must be turned over,
thoroughly mixing the outside of the pile with the inside.

A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED 63

If any drying out of the compost has occurred by this
time the addition of a little water will improve the compost.
Two or three such handlings of the compost are necessary
to give it a uniform and an even fermentation. When the
fermentation is complete and uniform the compost is placed
in the pit.

Y i é ‘
Z% Dn PE a ‘Pome

Fic. 16.—Students filling a concrete hot-bed.

In filling the pit the manure should be distributed in
successive layers of 6 or 7 inches. Each layer must be firmly
packed down, particularly along the sides and in the corners.
When the firming along the sides is neglected there is
more settling of the compost along the sides than in the
center of the pit, which makes the surface uneven and causes
great damage to the young seedlings. The compost will
settle several inches, and when filling the pit due allow-
ance should be made for this setting. After the compost is
placed in the pit from 2 to 6 inches of soil should be spread
over the manure. If the plants are to be grown in flats 2
inches of soil will be sufficient, but if the seed is to be sown

64 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

directly in the beds from 4 to 6 inches of good garden loam

is necessary.

After the manure has been placed in the pit a secondary
fermentation will take place, and the heat will often rise

Le ia

Fia. 17.—A soil ther-
mometer.

as high as 100° to 110° F. At this time
it would be very detrimental to plant
either seeds or plants in the soil, and a
week or ten days should lapse after the
hotbed is made before any planting is
done. This secondary heating continues
for a longer or a shorter period, and
gradually falls until it reaches 65° to 75°
F., where it remains more or less con-
stant throughout the life of the hotbed.
By placing a soil thermometer in the bed
it is easy to determine the proper time to
plant, which will vary from a few days
to a couple of weeks, depending upon
the depth of the pit, the freshness of the

manure and several other factors.

COLD FRAME.

A cold frame is a bed covered with glass
where no heat is provided except the

.sun’s rays. All the conditions, such as

the location, the arrangement, the man-
agement, etc., that are recommended for
hot-beds apply with equal force to cold
frames. The cold frame, asa rule, is used
later in the season than the hot-bed. No
pit is required for the cold frame. It
simply consists of a wooden frame placed
on top of the soil. Occasionally manure
is piled around the sides of the frame to
offer a little protection. The cold frame

is usually employed for the “hardening off” of plants later
in the season, but on a small scale the hot-bed will serve

this purpose.

As a rule the cold frame requires more

REVIEW QUESTIONS 65

water, because the plants are grown later in the season,
when transpiration and evaporation are greater.

Le)
=

VU

Fie. 18.—A cross-section of a cold frame.

The cold frame has a few advantages over the hot-bed.
It is more cheaply constructed, it requires no heating mate-
rials and needs no excavation. However, the cold frame
cannot be used as early in the season as the hot-bed, and
it should only supplement the hot-bed and not replace it.

The frames may be movable or stationary. Portable
frames are not, as a rule, popular with the larger growers
and the stationary frames seem to give the best satisfaction.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. Why are hot-beds and cold frames important?

. Give four advantages of a hot-bed.

. Discuss the location of a hot-bed.

. What is the value of a wind-break for a hot-bed?

. What is the distinction between a natural and an artificial wind-break?
. What exposures are preferred for the hot-bed?

. Describe the hot-bed pit.

. What is the standard size of the hot-bed sash?

. Name the five materials of which the frame is made.

10. How much higher must the upper side of the frame be than the lower

DONDOFKWNHH

11. What is the value of crossbars?

12. What kinds of hot-bed sash are made?

13. Give the advantages and the disadvantages of each kind.

14. Discuss the two ways of placing glass in the frames.

15. Which method is the best?

16. Why is it important to have all frames well painted?

17. Name four advantages and three disadvantages of the double-glass

18. What is meant by a compost?
19. How should the manure be composted, and how long does it usually

66

20.
21.
22.
23.

go?

24,

HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME

What kind of manure should be used for the hot-bed?

What is the proper way of placing the composted manure in the pit?
Why is it important to have the manure firmly tramped down?
What is secondary fermentation and how high does the temperature

How long after the hot-bed has been made before the seeds can be

planted?

25.

What is the difference between a cold frame and a hot-bed?

CHAPTER IV.
CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE.

CuLtTivaTION is the process of either breaking up the
soil for the purpose of planting agricultural crops or stir-
ring it to accelerate plant growth. Cultivation for the
improvement: of the crop should be continued at frequent
intervals during the growing period of every crop. The
importance of cultivation cannot be overestimated and the
efficiency with which it is done depends upon the kind of
tools used, and how skilfully the operator uses them. Much
importance is laid upon the way in which cultivation is
done, because often the difference between profit and loss
is found in either good or bad cultivation. Good cultiva-
tion is one of the secrets of success in all kinds of agricul-
tural work, and it is even more important in crops that are
grown intensively, as are most of the horticultural crops.
Horticultural crops require a great amount of attention to
produce the maximum yield and the highest quality. Cul-
tivation goes a long way in bringing about these good results.

It is important that cultivation should be done at the
proper time, and much depends upon the character and the
thoroughness of the operations. There is always a proper
time to perform a piece of work and cultivation is no excep-
tion to this rule, and things worth doing at all are worth
doing well. Cultivation when properly done should make
the soil loose and friable, and all of the large lumps should
be broken up.

The failure to cultivate the garden at the proper time
often results in the weeds overrunning the plants, which
not only reduces the yield, but causes great labor and
unnecessary expense in hand hoeing and in weeding. When
the conditions of the soil are satisfactory for cultivation, it

68 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

should be attended to at once, because if it is delayed many
circumstances may arise to hinder the work.

Tillage is the most efficient means of assisting nature in
converting the plant food into forms that are available
to the plants. One of the most noticeable results of cultiva-
tion is the fineness of the soil particles which is accomplished
by the breaking up of the larger lumps. This pulverization
of the soil is very beneficial, because it makes it easier for
the roots of the plants to penetrate to a greater depth and
to feed over a larger area. The tender rootlets must push
their way in between the soil grains, because it is impossible
for them to penetrate hard lumps of soil, and where large
clods of earth are abundant the growth of the plants is
materially checked.

Objects of Cultivation—Some of the reasons for cultiva-
tion may be summed up briefly as follows: (1) Cultivation
reduces the soil particles to a fine state of division, which
modifies its physical make-up. This pulverization of the
soil particles is highly important in that plant growth
demands a soil that is fine because it usually will be able
to hold more water. (2) Cultivation helps to regulate the
water-holding capacity of the soil. This is brought about
by the greater number of soil particles which are found in
a given area. Since the amount of water that a soil can
hold is determined by the film of water that surrounds
each soil particle, it is evident that the greater the number
of soil particles that occupy a given space, the greater will
be the amount of water that it can hold. (3) Cultivation
modifies the soil temperature: When air is permitted to
permeate the soil, it carries with it heat and warmth to a
lower depth. The heat units entrapped in the soil causes
the temperature to be higher and the growth to be more
rapid. (4) Cultivation stimulates the increased production
of beneficial bacteria. (5) Cultivation aérates the soil. If
the soil particles are stirred around, and finely broken up,
there is bound to be a greater number of soil spaces, and
consequently there must be more air, since the space
between each soil particle is necessarily filled with air. (6)
Cultivation destroys weeds. (7) Cultivation prevents the

SHALLOW AND DEEP CULTIVATION 69

washing of the soil. By filling up the little gulleys and the
ditches, which are washed out during a rain, they are pre-
vented from increasing in size, and thus washing to an
appreciable extent is avoided. (8) Cultivation increases
the depth of the seed bed. (9) Cultivation offers a means of
adding green manures and humus to the soil. (10) Cul-
tivation liberates plant food. This is an excellent means of
freeing plant food, because the stirring of the soil particles,
brings together the different elements. Chemical action is
thus increased and the plant food is liberated, which was
previously held in combination, with the other elements that
were not available to the plant.

Shallow and Deep Cultivation —The depth to which a soil
can be plowed in order to give the best results must neces-
sarily vary with the condition and the type of soil. On a
clay soil or any soil of a heavy type, deep plowing, as a
rule, should be recommended, while on the sandy or sandy
loam types of soil, deep plowing is not usually advisable,
especially if the soil is plowed in the spring. It is con-
ceded that the longer a soil is cultivated, the deeper and
the more thoroughly it should be pulverized. The depth of
plowing is also regulated by the season, the location and
the time of plowing. Land that has been cropped for a
series of years should be plowed deeper than new land, but
this varies somewhat, according to the section of the coun-
try. It has also been found that deep plowing will give
better results if it is done in the fall. The depth of plowing
should fluctuate with different years, one year a little shal-
low, and the next year a little deeper, and so on. If one
depth is maintained continuously the pressure of the imple-
ments in time produces a hard bottom to the furrow, which
greatly interferes with plant growth. In regions of light
rainfall, deep plowing should only be done at intervals of
from four to five years. However, when the rainfall is
about the average for a good crop, deep plowing should
usually be the rule on heavy soils.

Shallow cultivation should be given, as the crops advance,
and a mulch of fine earth should be kept on the soil. Where
frequent cultivation is followed, the capillary tubes near the

70 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

surface of the soil are broken and the direct connection
of the water in the subsoil with that of the upper layer
is interrupted. Cultivating prevents the close contact of
the surface soil with that of the lower layers and destroys
the passageways for the water to escape into the air and
be lost. Whenever evaporation from a surface takes place,
there is a constant movement of the water upward from
the lower depths, and in order to conserve the supply of
water this capillary escape of moisture must be prevented.
This is easily accomplished by maintaining a layer of fine
earth on the soil. This means that shallow cultivation is
important in conserving and in holding the soil moisture.
The depth of the soil mulch must of necessity vary with
the nature of the soil. On a small scale, a garden rake
can be used and the pulverization is usually complete, but
on a large scale a disk or a harrow is commonly employed.
If a disk harrow is used the disks should be set at an angle.
The surface cultivation should be 2 or 3 inches in depth.
The finer the soil is on the surface, the better the moisture
is held. Shallow surface cultivation should be practised
in connection with any method of treating the land, whether
deep plowing, subsoiling or spading.

Water-holding Capacity of the Soil Influenced by Cultivation.
—Cultivation not only increases the amount of surface on
which the plant can feed, but it also enlarges the water
supply by giving the soil a greater capacity for holding it.

There are three forms of water found in a soil: (1) Bot-
tom water is that water which stands in the soil at a general
level and completely fills all of the spaces between the soil
particles. Bottom water is only available for the plants,
when it can be brought up to the higher levels by capil-
larity. If the general level of the water table is too high
plants cannot grow, and drainage must be provided. (2)
Capillary water, which is that water held in a thin film
around the particles of soil above the bottom water. The
height to which this water can be raised by capillary action
depends upon the size and the arrangement of the soil
particles as well as the type of soil. Ordinarily the capillary
action of the water is confined to a few feet. In close

CAPACITY OF SOIL INFLUENCED BY CULTIVATION 71

texture soils, as the clays, an increase in the air spaces
results in an increase of the capillary spaces, and conse-
quently an increase in the water-holding capacity. In
the coarse sandy soils an increase in the size of the air spaces
decreases the capillary spaces and consequently decreases
the water-holding capacity. (3) Hygroscopic water is that
water which is held mechanically in the soil and which is not
removed by air drying. This form of water cannot be used
by the plant.

All plants are dependent upon the capillary water for
their growth. The amount of capillary water which a
soil can hold depends upon the total surface area repre-
sented by the soil particles. It is therefore apparent that
the loosening of the ground and the breaking up of the
soil particles during cultivation makes it easier for the
rain to enter the soil. Likewise the larger surface presented
by the greater number of soil particles, increases the amount
of water that the soil will hold. The loose soil also tends
to prevent loss of the water by surface drainage.

The capillarity and consequently the moisture content of
the soil is materially influenced by the different methods
of cultivation, such as deep or shallow plowing, subsoiling,
rolling or disking. The treatment adapted to insure the
best water supply, must vary with the rainfall, the nature
of the soil, and the crop in question. In many sections
the rainfall is ample to produce a good crop, but it is dis-
tributed so unevenly that all of the water cannot be utilized
by the crop at the time it falls. A great amount of this
water is lost if it is not properly handled and stored in the
subsoil for the future use of the plants. By judicious and
systematic cultivation the greater percentage of this mois-
ture can be conserved and used for the growing of the
plants. Cultivating after a rain is most essential for the
proper conservation of the soil moisture. This cultivation
should be given as soon after the rain as the soil can be
worked. When evaporation is allowed to take place after
a rain, there is not only a loss of water which has just fallen,
but there is a loss in the upper layer of soil as well. In
addition to these losses there may also be a loss of the water

72 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

in the subsoil by translocation. The best means of pre-
venting the loss of water is by cultivating the ground with
implements that will break up the soil as soon as possible
after a rain has fallen. Such a cultivation at the proper
time will leave the surface in a fine condition and will check
the evaporation of water from the ground.

If the subsoil contains an ample amount of water, and
there is a minimum amount in the surface soil, a movement
of the subsoil water after a rain frequently occurs. This
movement is brought about by the capillarity of the soil,
and the surface tension of the film of water about each soil
particle becomes greater with the increase of the water in
the surface soil.

Fic. 19.—A general purpose plow. (International Harvester Company
of America.)

Spring Versus Fall Plowing.—Plowing is the process of
breaking up the soil and reducing it to a finer state of divi-
sion. Much depends upon this process. The difference
between loss and gain is sometimes found in the time a
soil is plowed. This difference is made possible because
the water-holding capacity of a soil is regulated largely by
the state of fineness to which it is reduced. It is a well-
recognized fact that crops cannot grow and develop with-
out the proper amount of water. This water is increased
if the plowing is done at the proper time and the water
content can largely be controlled in this manner.

Certain types of soil will admit of fall plowing and they
will be greatly improved both in their physical proper-
ties as well as in their water-holding capacity. Soils that

SPRING VERSUS FALL PLOWING 73

respond to this treatment are the heavier types, as the
clays. Fall plowing, if followed by surface cultivation,
conserves the water by checking the evaporation, and the
land is left in a better condition to retain the moisture.
When fall plowing is done it will be found to be generally
better to delay the surface cultivation until the following
spring, especially on heavy clay land. If clay land is left
ridged, when fall plowed, an irregular surface is exposed,
and the rain is held in the furrows and a better opportunity
is given for the water to sink into the subsoil.

Fic. 20.—The Osborne disk harrow. (International Harvester Company
of America.)

When the soil is not plowed until in the spring there is a
greater loss of water by evaporation during the winter and
early spring. Besides the loss of water by evaporation the
soil has not been able to store up as much water from the
rains and the snows during the winter, because it has been

74 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

packed down, and a large percentage of the water has been
lost by surface drainage. Again if spring plowing is prac-
tised the dry soil is turned under and the moist soil is exposed,
so that if a mulch is not immediately formed by cultiva-
tion a great deal of the moisture is lost by the exposure of
the soil to the sun and the dry winds.

Bacterial Action of the Soil Influenced by Cultivation.—In
all soils there are two bacterial processes continually going
on, namely, nitrification and denitrification. Nitrification
is the process by which the nitrates and the nitrites are
produced in the soil by minute living organisms. ‘These

Fic. 21.—The Osborne sulky spring-tooth harrow.

organisms are called bacteria and are very small, microscopic
plants. Nitrification results in the changing of the com-
plex organic nitrogen in. the soil into other forms that can
be used by the plants. In order that this process can be
carried on successfully by the nitrifying bacteria, six funda-
mental conditions are necessary: (1) Moisture, (2) oxygen,
(3) favorable temperature, (4) absence of sunlight, (5)
nitrifying bacteria, (6) some compound on which the bac-
teria can work. All of these conditions must be maintained.
Cultivation, particularly of the heavier types of soil, favor
nitrification by increasing the amount of air in the soil,

75

BACTERIAL ACTION OF THE SOIL

(‘Bolleury jo Auvduroy JojsoAlvy [euoTyeuseyUy)

‘MOLIVY Y}009-Bed oy,— Zz “OL

76 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

by making the soil warmer, and by aiding in hastening the
chemical processes.

Denitrification is the reverse of nitrification, and is the
result of the working of a class of bacteria that break down
the nitrates, setting free nitrogen, which passes off as a gas.
The condition necessary for this class of organisms to work
is the absence of air, and when frequent thorough cultiva-
tion is given and the soil is well aérated these bacteria
perish. So it follows that the best way of eradicating these
injurious bacteria is to maintain thorough and complete
cultivation. Besides destroying the denitrifying bacteria
more plant food is made available by increasing and by
stimulating the reproduction and the growth of the friendly
nitrifying organisms.

Fig. 23.—A single horse adjustable cultivator.

Implements for Cultivation—The implements for cultiva-
tion may briefly be summed up as follows: (1) The plows,
of which there are the walking plow, the sulky plow, the
gang plow, the disk plow, and the steam plow; (2) the
harrows, of which there are the smoothing harrow, the
spring-tooth harrow, the disk harrow, the cut away disk
harrow, the spading harrow, and the plow cut-disk harrow;

REVIEW QUESTIONS 77

(3) the rollers, of which there are the smooth iron roller,
the tubular roller, the clod crusher, the subsurface packer,
and the common planker; (4) the cultivators, which are
classified into the single- and the double-shovel cultivators,
the horse and the hand cultivators. In addition to the
above we can mention the garden spades, rakes, and hose.
All of these implements and tools are for the purpose of
putting the soil in the best possible condition as well as
maintaining the conditions necessary for plant growth.

Fic. 24.—An eight-shovel riding cultivator.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. What is cultivation?

. Is there any difference between cultivation and tillage?

. Why is cultivation important?

Is it important to cultivate at a given time?

What are the objects of cultivation?

. Discuss how cultivation aids in holding water in the soil.
How does cultivation increase the bacterial action in the soil?
. Discuss how cultivation liberates plant food.

. What is meant by deep and shallow cultivation?

WON A TR wWLE

78

10.

CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE

What is meant by bottom water, capillary water, and hygroscopic

water?

11.
12.
13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
18.

Which kind of water can be used by the plant?

When should you practise deep and shallow plowing?

Why is it necessary to vary the depth of plowing?

How can we check evaporation from the soil?

Discuss spring and fall plowing.

What is meant by bacterial action in the soil?

Name the two processes that go on in the soil that are due to bacteria.
Discuss the conditions necessary for nitrification.

CHAPTER V.
PLANT PROPAGATION.

PLANT propagation is the multiplication and reproduc-
tion of plants. There are two distinct kinds of reproduction,
namely, sexual and vegetative. (1) Sexual reproduction
is the multiplication of plants in which the male and the
female elements enter into the formation of a new and a
distinct individual as found in the seed. Most seed of
economic importance therefore are the result of asexual
union of the male and the female cell. (2) Vegetative or
asexual reproduction is the multiplication of plants in which
the sex elements play no part. It is simply the continuation
of the growth of the parent plant in a new location with
only the one parent concerned.

Vegetative reproduction is without doubt a most important
form of propagation. It is used in the perpetuation of many
plants, especially those in which the exact parental form is
desired. The different kinds of vegetative reproduction may
be enumerated as follows: (1) Hardwood cuttings, (2) soft-
wood cuttings, (3) leaf cuttings, (4) root cuttings, (5) layers,
(6) suckers, (7) stolons, (8) tubers, (9) budding and (10)
grafting. In addition several specialized forms are also
recognized.

Vegetative propagation can be divided into two great
classes: (1) Propagation by parts intact by which is meant
that the part of the plant which is selected for propagation
is not separated from the parent until the organs needed
to make it self-supporting are formed, as, for example, layers,
suckers and stolons; (2) propagation by parts detached,
by which is meant that the part of the plant which is intended
for propagation is cut from the parent at the beginning and

* is placed under favorable conditions, so that the formation of

80 PLANT PROPAGATION

the organs needed to make it self-supporting takes place.
Examples of propagation by parts detached are seen in all
cuttings, in budding and in grafting.

Bulbs.—Bulbs of all kinds are specialized buds. They are
composed of a short rudimentary axis closely encased in
thickened leaves or bulb scales. A bulb is also a more or
less permanent and a compact leaf bud, which is usually
found at the base of the stem. It is subterranean. Roots

Fic. 25.—Bulbs of the tulip, hyacinth and onion.

are always sent out from its base. The thickened bulb
scales are stored with food, which is used during the sub-
sequent growth of the plant. Bulbs usually occur in plants
that are subject to a long period of inactivity and a short
period of growth.

Bulbous plants are propagated most easily by means of
little bulbs, which are borne about the mother bulb. These
small bulbs are often called bulbels or offsets, and are usually

RHIZOMES 81

borne near the base of the parent bulb. In some of the lilies
the bulbels form at the top or crown of the parent bulb; in
other cases they form on the lower part of the flower stalk,
while in still others they are always borne beneath the scale
leaves of the parent. Bulbels vary greatly in their size and
number in the different species.

Corm.—A corm is a short, thick and fleshy stem which is
solid throughout. A vertical axis fills the center. The corm
is covered with a few thin, scaly
leaves. Corms are always sub-
terranean. In general shape and
appearance a corm resembles a
bulb. Common examples of a
corm are the gladiolus, the crocus,
the cyclamen, and the Indian
turnip. The corms of the differ-
ent species often behave quite
differently. The corms of the
gladiolus and the crocus are re-
produced annually upon the top
and at the sides of the parent.
As arule a new corm is produced
above the old one each year,
which commonly bears flowers
the following year.

Rhizomes.—Rhizomes are sub-
terranean stems bearing scale
leaves. They grow more or less
horizontally and the internodes
vary in length and in thickness; -
they bear roots at the nodes. ee a
Every species has a type of rhi- :
zome peculiar to itself. Familiar examples of rhizomes are
the slender root stocks of the mints and the thick, fleshy ones
of the canna and the iris. Rhizomes are easily distinguished
from roots by the leaf scales in the axils of which are borne
buds. In the majority of cases the buds of a rhizome are
exceedingly tenacious of life, making the plants bearing them
difficult to destroy and the propagation of the plant extremely

6

82 PLANT PROPAGATION

simple. Plants bearing rhizomes are propagated either
by separating naturally at the close of the growing season,
or hy being divided into as many parts as there are buds.
Each part of the rhizome bearing a bud will develop into a
new plant. The divided parts are treated in much the same
way as bulbs. However, a little experience is necessary in
their management if the best results are to be expected.

Tubers—A tuber is the localized thickening of a shoot.
It is usually subterranean and is rarely ever found above
ground. Tubers bear scale leaves which are analogous to
the leaves on ordinary stems. The scale leaves are small
and insignificant and sometimes are not recognized in
mature specimens. The scale leaves are always at some
distance from each other, and they never overlap. The
buds, which develop in the axils of the miniature scale
leaves, are called eyes. These are indicated on the tuber
by ridges or lines of protuberance. Generally, tubers are
extremely perishable organs, and they can only carry the
life of the plant from one season to the next. Plants bear-
ing tubers are easily transported long distances because of
the reduced and compact form.

Tubers reproduce themselves by offshoots. A fully
formed tuber becomes detached from the upper part of the
plant by the decay of the slender stem. This connection
of the tuber with the parent has previously supplied it with
food. After varying periods of rest a stem springs from the
eyes of the new tubers, and these in turn bear tubers similar
in structure to those of the parent.

Propagation by tubers is extremely simple. It consists
either in planting the whole tuber or a portion of it, each
part of which must contain an eye or a bud.

Procumbent Stems.—A procumbent stem is a stem that
either droops to the ground or trails over it. Usually the
habitat of this class of plants will be found to be such that
erect plants are unable to maintain themselves, and the
drooping habit is acquired in order that the plant is able
to live. A poor, sandy soil, a windy hillside, a rocky or
rough piece of ground is the habitat which is usually found
where the great majority of these plants are scen growing.

STOLON 83

In many cases the trailing stem serves the usual purpose
of supporting the leaves, but in others the procumbent
stem becomes a means of perpetuating and distributing the
species. These stems are usually characterized by the
buds at the nodes taking root and growing into new plants.
After the new plant is thoroughly established, the part join-
ing it to the parent gradually disappears and the new plant
becomes an independent unit. Procumbent stems differ
somewhat from the true upright stems, in that they are more
slender and usually bear little or no foliage. There are two
distinct types of procumbent stems, the runner and the
stolon.

Runner.—A runner js a prostrate stem with long mternodes
and destitute of foliage, which grows out from the parent
plant. It is sometimes spoken of as a slender bud bearing
procumbent stems. At varying intervals on the stem are
nodes from which root protuberances are formed when the
proper stimulus js given. At the tip of the runner, under
the stimulus of the damp soil, roots develop and a new
plant begins to grow. When the new plant is well estab-
lished, the connecting stem usually dies, and an independent
plant is the result. The strawberry plant furnishes a good
example of the runner.

In moist, sandy soils the young plants will usually take
root without artificial aid, but in hard, heavy soils the
runners must be kept in contact with the earth either by
pegging or by laying a weight of some kind on the runner.

Stolon.—A stolon is a procumbent stem which takes root
either at the tip or at the node of the stem, and grows into
a new and an independent plant. A stolon differs from a
runner in having a more procumbent and a less prostrate
stem. More foliage and shorter nodes also characterize
the stolon. Besides the brambles, many of the ornamental
plants may be multiplied by means of stolons. The black
raspberry is a good plant to illustrate propagation by the
use of the stolon. The young raspberry canes at first grow
erect, but later in their growth the ends of the growing
shoots bend toward the ground, finally touching it, where
root protuberances slowly develop and finally roots appear

84 PLANT PROPAGATION

and a new plant is produced. When the cane reaches the
ground the stimulus of the moist soil causes small protuber-
ances, the beginning of the roots, to form. As the contact
of the cane with the soil becomes closer, the roots develop
more rapidly and as they become stronger and better estab-
lished the tip of the cane is drawn closely to the ground.
The following spring and occasionally the same season a
leafy shoot appears from this tip and, nourished hy the root,
it rapidly grows into a new plant. Through decay and
subsequent division of the old stem the young plant becomes
detached and the new plant begins an independent existence.

\ | gy
\ \ Ng
\ Ih,

ey on)
wy { Gi
HEA. lyf”

Fic. 27.—Mound layering.

Layer.—A layer is a stem of a plant bent to the ground
and allowed to take root without being detached from the
parent plant. It is nothing more than an artificial stolon.
Occasionally the young shoots from the parent are hilled
up with soil about their base where they take root. A
layer differs from a stolon only in the implication that man
has taken a hand in the process of reproduction to aid nature
by either bending the branch to the ground or by hilling up

MOUND LAYERING 85

the soil around the young shoots. The chief advantage of
layering lies in the fact that the parent plant supplies water
and food for the young plants until they are able to sustain
themselves. It also has the advantage of being an extremely
simple operation and of being more certain than most of
the other methods of vegetative propagation. Layering is
practised chiefly on the hard-wood plants, because her-
baceous plants are usually more readily propagated from
cuttings. Theoretically nearly all of the woody plants can
be multiplied by layering, but in practice this process is
confined for the most part to vines or to those plants having
long, slender shoots. The chief reason for the selection of
this class of plants is because of the ease in bending. Bending
is more easily performed on such plants as the brambles,
the grapes and occasionally the currants. Nevertheless
many similar plants are often increased by layering, and
even the apple, the quince and the pear may be so propagated
if the proper medium is supplied to the layering wood. In
layering, the roots are not, as a rule, developed in proportion
to the stem and their place of development is not prede-
termined, but is fixed by some external agent or stimulant,
as for example the contact with moist soil. Warm, moist
soil will act as a stimulus in some species and will induce
the formation of roots, while in other species and by far the
greater number, root formation is greatly facilitated by the
wounding of the stem where the new plant is wanted. Such
wounding causes adventitious buds to form.

Mound Layering.—Occasionally the stems of plants cannot
be readily bent to the ground for layering. In such an
event a mound of earth is heaped about the plant, which
stimulates the formation of roots on the previously pre-
pared shoots, and this is called mound layering. Plants for
this purpose are usually first prepared by heading back in
the spring, with the result that a large number of young
shoots will be produced about the crown of the plant. The
following summer a mound of earth is placed about these
young shoots. Rooting will be facilitated if the shoots are
first injured in some way, as twisting, girdling or ring-
ing. Each shoot in the stool forms a root system near its

86 PLANT PROPAGATION

base, making in most cases a straight, strong and stalky
plant. Mound layering is best adapted to the low-branched
trees or shrubs that are stiff and erect and will not permit
bending, as, for example, the English gooseberries or the
quince.

Fic. 28.—Notching, tongueing and ringing.

Tip Layering.—Plants that have willow-like branches or
canes similar to those found on the raspberries are propa-
gated by tip layering. Tip layering is performed by bend-
ing the cane or branch of the plant down to the ground,
where it is held in contact with the moist earth by being
covered with several inches of soil. In a short time roots
will be formed at the tip of the cane and a new plant will
start to grow. When the young plant is well established
the cane is severed and it is removed to a new location.
Tip layering is so named because the plant is rooted at the
tip of the branch.

Trench Layering.—Trench layering is performed by digging
a shallow trench and laying the branch of the plant in the
bottom of the trench. The entire branch is covered with
earth except the tip. The tip is allowed to grow out of
the ground so as to draw the plant food through the portion
of the branch which is covered. The covered branch should
first be twisted or ringed so that it is sightly injured. This

ABRIAL LAYERING 87

injury will stimulate the plant to send out roots. In some
plants roots will form at each node, and in a short time
several young plants will be developed from this branch.
When the plants are well established, they are cut apart
and each one set in a new location.

Fig. 29.—Trench and serpentine layering.

Serpentine Layering.—The serpentine layer is similar to
that of the trench layer. It is usually practised on plants
which have long flexible branches, as the grape. The name
serpentine is taken from the way the branch is bent. Ser-
pentine layering is done by bending the branch in an undu-
lating manner and the roots form from every covered part.
As soon as the roots develop, the top begins to grow, and
when the plants are well established they are cut apart and
set in their new location.

Fic. 30.—Aérial layering of the oleander. Note the moss is held around
the branch by a divided flower pot.

Aérial Layering.—Aérial layering is propagation in which
no soil is used as a medium in which to root the plants. Aérial

88 PLANT PROPAGATION

layering is adapted to such plants as the India rubber plant
and the oleander. Perhaps the plant which is most often
propagated by this method is the rubber plant. To per-
form aérial layering the branch is first wounded by either
ringing or tongueing. When this operation is finished the
wounded part is covered up with damp phasgnum moss,
which is tied around the wounded part. Sometimes a divided
flower pot is placed around the branch and filled with moss.
The moss must be damp and never allowed to dry out. It
usually requires from six to eight weeks before sufficient
roots have developed to remove the plant from the parent.
When the roots have filled the moss the branch should be
cut from the parent below the phasgnum. Set the new plant
in a pot but do not remove the moss. Fill the pot with good
soil and set the plant in a shady place for a week or ten
days and keep the soil moist.

Time for Layering.—The spring, when the growth is the
most rapid, is considered the most favorable time for lay-
ering. The operation is much more successful in a moist
and a warm climate than in a dry or a cold one. Occa-
sionally it is advisable to make the layer late in the fall
so that the wound may callus over before spring, or that
bleeding which occurs in some species in the spring may be
obviated. Layering may easily be practised on many of
the plants grown about the home. The grape, the currant
or the gooseberry are easily propagated by layering, and for
the amateur it is a very satisfactory method. Lavering is
a good method of propagation because the young plant is
nourished by the parent until the roots are formed.

Cutting.—A cutting is a detached member of a plant which
is placed in the soil or some other medium to be rooted.
Cuttings are conveniently divided into four classes with
respect to the part of the plant from which they are made:
(1) Tuber cutting, (2) root cutting, (3) stem cutting, (4)
leaf cutting.

Tuber Cuttings—Tuber cuttings are made by divid-
ing the tubers into sections containing a bud or an eve.
The most common example is that of the potato. This
method of propagation is common in the planting of pota-

CUTTING 89

toes. Each tuber is cut into a number of pieces with each
portion containing one or more eyes. Several other plants

Fic. 31.—A tuber cutting.

Fic, 32.—A plant grown from a tuber cutting with the cutting still
attached.

90 PLANT PROPAGATION

are propagated hy this means. The essential requisite in
the tuber cutting is to have an eye in each piece.

Root Cuttings —Many plants can be multiplied with ease
by means of short cuttings of the root. This is particularly
true of all species that possess a natural tendency to sucker.
True root cuttings possess no buds, and the buds develop
after the cutting is made. The roots are cut into pieces,
varying from 1 to 3 inches in length and are planted in the
soil horizontally. Root cuttings thrive better if bottom
heat is given. Many of our fruit trees, such as the apple,
the pear, the cherry and the peach, can be easily grown by
root cuttings, as well as many brambles such as the black-
berries and the raspberries. However, it is never recom-
mended that the fruit trees be propagated by root cuttings,
except only where stocks are wanted for grafting or budding.
The horse-radish furnishes a familiar example of propagation
by root cuttings. This plant is thus propagated in a com-
mercial way and is practically the only means of securing a
stand.

Stem Cuttings—Stem cuttings are made from the stem
of a plant. They are divided into three general classes: (1)
Soft or green-wood cuttings; (2) semihard-wood cuttings;
(3) hard or mature wood cuttings. The classes gradually
shade into each other and no hard-and-fast line can be drawn
between them.

Green-wood Cuttings ——A green- or soft-wood cutting is
made from a plant which is in active growing state. Green-
wood cuttings are very popular because they strike root
quickly. Soft-wood cuttings can also be handled very
easily under glass in the winter, and more species can be
propagated by this cutting than by the hard-wood cutting.

A green-wood cutting is sometimes called a slip. The
term is usually restricted to designate those cuttings which
may be made by pulling or slipping off of a small shoot.
The term slip should be discarded since cutting is by far
the more proper to use. The term slip is also applied to the
multiplication of plants that are grown in the window gar-
den. All of the soft-wooded plants and many of the orna-
mental shrubs may be increased by green-wood cuttings.

CUTTING

Fic. 33.—Green-wood cuttings.

Fic. 34.—Division of a plant.

91

92 PLANT PROPAGATION

Hard-wood Cuttings —Hard-wood cuttings are made from
mature and dormant wood of the woody plants. Hard-
wood cuttings are taken either in the late fall or in the
winter. They differ from the soft-wood cuttings in having
no leaves and in bearing buds that are dormant. Hard-wood
cuttings should be taken from wood of the previous season’s
growth, and they should be shoots of medium size.

The length of a cutting depends somewhat upon the plant
as well as upon the length of the internodes. Usually it is
made 6 inches in length, but in some plants and under some
conditions the length may vary from 8 to 10 inches. In
the grape, where a three-eye cutting is used, it must of
necessity be from 7 to 10 inches in length. On the currant,
the gooseberry and many of the ornamentals, where the
internodes are short, it is advisable to make the cutting 6
inches in length. In taking the cutting it is considered wise
to make the cut on the proximal end just below a bud
because it is thought roots will start more readily when cut
at that point.

Storing and Handling of Hard-wood Cuttings —Cuttings
made from dormant wood must be gathered in the fall and
the winter and stored until spring to produce the best results.
They are usually packed in damp sand and stored in a cellar
that is cool and moist. Sufficient warmth should be present
in order-to permit the callousing of the ends and to encourage
root development but not heat enough so that the buds will
swell. Damp sawdust, clean sand or a loose loam furnish
the best mediums in which to store the cuttings. They can
also be buried in the open ground below the frost line.

-Hard-wood cuttings treated in this manner will develop
root protuberances before any top growth takes place.
When the cuttings are taken directly from the parent plant
and placed under conditions that favor leaf growth before
callousing has taken place the resulting plants will be inferior
to those which have been allowed to callous over. Just
why this should occur is not definitely known, except that
the callousing of the tissue in some way stimulates the forma-
tion of a good root system, which in turn gives a healthy
and robust plant.

CUTTING 93

Semi-wood Cuttings —Semihard-wood cuttings are made
from wood that is nearly mature. Common examples
are the roses and the hydrangeas. These cuttings are often
made in the late summer or the early fall when the buds
have become fully developed and the wood has partially
matured. Semihard-wood cuttings occupy a place midway
between the soft-wood and the hard-wood cuttings. They
are cut about the same length as the hard-wood cuttings,
and are not stored but are planted at once in the propaga-
tion bed. Bottom heat should be provided if the best
results are to be expected, especially if they are rooted in
the fall or the winter. Semihard-wood cuttings should not
be planted too deeply and from 13 to 2 inches is about the
proper depth. The length of the semihard-wood cuttings
varies, and ranges from 3 to 5 inches. One leaf is attached
to each cutting.

Methods of Handling Soft-vood Cuttings and Semthard-
wood Cuttings—The soft-wood and the semihard-wood cut-
tings are not handled in the same way as the hard-wood
cuttings. Since the tissue is soft and green and in a growing
state, it would be highly injurious to the cuttings if they
were stored in any way before being planted. Owing to the
nature of the wood from which they are made it is essential
for them to be planted directly in the propagating bed as
soon as they are made.

The propagation bed is of any convenient size. It some-
times consists of only a shallow pan or a saucer in which
some clean, sharp sand has been placed. This is sometimes
called the saucer method for the propagation of cuttings.
Flats of any standard size may be used as receptacles for
holding the sand. The best and the most efficient place to
construct a propagating bed is in a greenhouse. A given
amount of greenhouse bench space should be provided and
filled with clean, sharp sand free from organic matter. It
is important that no organic matter of any kind is in the
sand, since this often causes great injury to the cutting by
rotting.

The cuttings are placed in the sand of the propagating
box as soon as they are removed from the plant. When

94

PLANT PROPAGATION

the soft-wood cuttings are propagated about two-thirds of
the leaf surface is removed in order to reduce the transpira-

tion.

It requires from three to six weeks for the cuttings

to strike root and with some plants even a longer time is
necessary. Gentle bottom heat is valuable in assisting or
stimulating the cuttings to form roots. As soon as roots
have been formed, the cuttings are potted in small thumb
pots and shifted to larger sizes as the plants grow.

=
an

Bee
oR ww bo

_

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. What two kinds of reproduction occur in plants?

What is sexual reproduction; vegetative reproduction?
How does sexual reproduction differ from vegetative reproduction?
Name ten kinds of vegetative reproduction.

. What is a bulb?

. How are bulbs propagated?

. How does a corm differ from a bulb?

. What is a rhizome; a tuber?

. Differentiate between a rhizome and a procumbent stem.

. What is the difference between a runner, a stolon and a layer?

. What kind of plants are usually propagated by stolons and by layers?
. What is tip layering and give an example?

. Distinguish between a tuber cutting and a root cutting.

. Differentiate between a stem cutting and a leaf cutting.

. Discuss the storing of hard-wood cuttings.

16.

How do semihard-wood cuttings differ from soft-wood and hard-wood

cuttings?

17.

Why must soft-wood cuttings be handled differently from hard-

wood cuttings?

18.

Discuss the planting of soft-wood cuttings.

CHAPTER VI.
BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

BUDDING.

PRopaGaTion by budding consists in placing a bud of the
desired variety bearing little or no wood under the bark of
the stock, in such a way that the cambium layer of the bud
and the stock are in apposition. The bud is a branch bud
attached to a small piece of bark. The stock is the part
of the plant on which the bud is placed. The bark of the
stock is closed over the bud in some cases. In other cases
the bark is removed entirely, and the bud is tied firmly to
the stock. If the operation is successful the bud and the
stock will fuse together and in due time the bud will grow
and make a new plant.

Time to Bud.—The proper time to do budding varies
greatly with the locality as well as with the plant. It is
very important when budding to select a season of the year
when the plant is not growing too rapidly, in order that
strangulation of the bud will not take place. Strangulation
is caused when an abundance of sap is present in the plant
tissue and after the incision is made for the bud the wound
bleeds profusely. When the bud is placed in the incision on
the stock, the flowing out of the sap is so great that it prevents
the bud from uniting to the stock, and in many cases it is
washed out of place.

Budding is performed during the growing season, but at a
time when the plant is not too actively growing. Aim to
select a time when the growth is on its down path after its
zenith has been reached, and when the plant is beginning
to prepare itself for the winter. In some sections of the North
budding is usually performed during July, August, or early

96

September.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING

In some parts of the South, however, budding

is done i in June and is then known as June budding.

Fie. 35.—A
bud-stick, show-
ing the method
of cutting the
buds.

Cutting of the Bud.—The cutting of the
bud must be done with great precision. A
sharp, thin-bladed knife, of which there are
several styles on the market, is to be pre-
ferred. Select a budding knife made of the
best steel, and one that has a circular cut-
ting end. The curved end of the knife is
essential for making the incision in the stock.
In some budding knives the handle runs to
a thin scalpel at the end, and this part is
designated for the lifting of the bark on the
stock.

The bud is cut about an inch in length.
In the shield or the prong bud, the budder
can either cut up or down on the stock. The
cutting is determined by the inclination: of
the person doing the budding, although the
upward cut is preferable. In removing the
bud there is usually a small bit of wood
that is taken off with it, especially in shield
and prong budding. There is some differ-
ence of opinion as to whether or not this
wood is injurious to the subsequent growth
of the plant. Where there is a large amount
of wood left on the bud it should be removed,
but where only a thin piece exists it can
remain. The greatest disadvantage of hav-
ing a small piece of wood attached to the bud
is that the wood interposes a foreign body
between the two healing surfaces. In other
forms of budding no wood should be per-
mitted to remain on the bud. The edges of
all buds must be cut even and smooth and
not left ragged or broken.

Shield Bud.—Shield budding is perhaps
the most important kind of budding. It is
the form most often practised. It takes its
name from the shield-like shape of the por-

BUDDING 97

tion of bark bearing the bud. It is also called T budding
because of the T-shaped cut made in the stock for the
insertion of the bud. This method of budding is also called
eye budding by some propagators.

ee ° ° °

Fic. 36.—A good type of non-folding budding knife.

The bud is cut from the stock by either a downward or an
upward sloping cut. A sharp knife is necessary in removing

Fic. 37.—An excellent type of a folding budding knife.

the bud, and as little of the wood as possible should remain
attached to the bark. While it has never been proved that

Fic. 38.—Several views of the bud for shield budding, showing the
shield-like shape.

the wood is very injurious, it is apparent that an inert object

back of the bud would interpose a foreign substance and

would prevent the complete union of the bud with the stock.

After the bud has been removed it resembles a shield in shape
7

98 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

and in appearance. It should be from one to one and one-
half inches in length. ;

To practise shield budding a vertical cut is made about
one and one-half inches in length. On the stock at the point

Fic. 39.—Successive stages in Fic. 40.—Plate budding, showing the
shield budding. cut on the stock and the bud.

where the bud is to be inserted a second cut is made about
one-half inch in length, and placed near the top of the
vertical cut and usually at right angles to it. In certain
sections of the South the transverse cut is made at the
bottom of the vertical cut, which gives the appearance of

GRAFTING 99

an inverted JL; while in some other sections of the country
the cut is made at the top, which forms the letter T in
an upright position. There is little difference seen in the
subsequent results no matter what method is used, and it is
usually left to the individual as to which way the cut is made.

Plate Bud.—Dlate budding is not a very important com-
mercial form. It is occasionally used on some of the orna-
mentals and some other rare stocks. Plate budding takes
its name from the plate-like piece of bark that is cut and
allowed to hang down in the form of a hinge. Plate budding
is performed as follows:

A rectangular incision one-half to three-fourths of an inch
in width and one to one and one-fourth inches in length
is cut through the bark on the stock. Three sides of the
bark are cut, leaving the fourth intact. This method of
making the incision permits the bark to bend back on the
fourth side, forming a hinge. The bud is cut rectangular
in shape to fit the cut made on the stock. No wood should
be attached to the bark bearing the bud. The bark should
be cut in such a way that the bud will be closer to the upper
edge of the bark. The bud is then fitted to the stock and the
flap of bark on the stock is turned up over the bud and firmly
tied in place. The cord used for tying should pass around
the stock underneath the bud, so as not to interfere with
the subsequent growth of it. In this method of budding
the bark serves as a protection to the bud until it starts its
growth.

GRAFTING.

Grafting is the vegetative multiplication of plants. A cion
which is a twig with one or more buds is inserted into the
stock of a plant. The cion is usually placed into an incision
or a cleft in the stock, made for that purpose. Grafting
is divided into several different types. Each type is desig-
nated by the way in which the stock and the cion are joined.
It is also classified with reference to the position of the
union upon the plant.

Four general classes of grafting are usually made with
reference to the position of the cion on the stock: (1) Top

100 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

grafting, which is the grafting in the top or in the branches
of the tree. Under this head is usually included cleft and
bark grafting. (2) Stem grafting, which is the grafting in the
trunk or the main stem of the tree. Under this head is
included side grafting and sometimes bridge grafting. (8)
Crown grafting, which is the grafting performed at or near
the crown of the plant, just at the surface of the ground.
(4) Root grafting, which is the grafting done entirely upon
the roots, or in which the stock is a root. For the purpose
of description the best classification is that which considers
the ways of making the union. There are many modifica-
tions of each form of grafting and only the most important
types are discussed.

Purpose and Value of Grafting —Grafting as well as budding
is used to perpetuate and to propagate a known variety
of a plant which may be either a fruit or ornamental. It
is a vegetative means of plant multiplication in which a
plant of known quality is propagated in a commercial way.
It is of great value, because it enables the grower to multiply
and to increase a good variety, which might be lost if propa-
gation by seed was undertaken. Grafting is also of value
because the grower is sure just what his new plant is going
to be and he knows for a certainty that the new plant will
be like the parent plant.

Uses of Grafting —Grafting is used for several reasons, of
which some of the most important are: (1) To perpetuate a
known variety. This is the most important use of grafting.
(2) To increase the ease and the speed of multiplication of
plants. (3) To produce some radical change in the habit
and the nature of the two parts. Grafting will modify the
stature of a plant. It is the most common means of dwarfing
trees. The pear is dwarfed by grafting it upon the quince,
and the apple by grafting it on the dwarf paradise stock.
(4) Grafting may be used to adapt plants to adverse soils.
A common example is seen when the plum is grafted on the
peach so that the plum can be grown on a sandy soil, and
vice versa. (5) Grafting may be used to correct a poor habit
of growth, as, for example, the Canada Red apple which
has a straggling habit of growth, is grafted on some straight

GRAFTING 101

growing tree, as the Tolman Sweet. (6) Grafting is a means
of hastening fruitfulness. It has been demonstrated that
cions placed in old and mature trees will bear earlier than
if they are placed in young growing trees. (7) Grafting in
some cases will modify the color of the foliage, the fruit
and the flowers of certain plants. (8) Grafting increases the
size of certain fruits, as, for example, the fruit of a few
varieties of pears is larger when grafted on the quince than
when grown on the standard trees.

Cion.—A cion is a twig taken from a tree which is to be
used for grafting. The size is determined by the method
of grafting, and by the quantity ,of available grafting wood.
Cions vary in size from one bud to six or seven buds and in
some casesevenmore. The latest work on grafting, however,
would indicate that the number of buds should be either
three or four. Taking this number of buds as a basis, the
length of the cion would vary from three to five inches.

The cions can be collected any time in the fall after the
leaves have fallen, or in the spring. It is thought better,
however, either to cut them from the tree before they have
frozen, or to wait until they have thoroughly thawed out.
It is sometimes injurious to cut the cions from the trees while
they are frozen. In case the cions are not used for root
grafting, and have to be held over winter they must be care-
fully stored in a cellar. The best way to do this is to cut the
cions from the varieties selected, tie them in bundles, label
each bundle carefully and cover them with damp sand or
sawdust, then place them in a cool cellar. The temperature
must be low enough so the buds will not start into growth.
About 35° F. is a good temperature to maintain in storing
the cions. The cions should not be permitted to freeze or
to dry out while in storage.

The cions should always be cut from healthy mature trees.
Only the best twigs from the current season’s growth should
be selected. Wood that is two years old is occasionally used
but never recommended, where the best results are desired.
While the two-year-old wood will occasionally grow it will
never produce as good plants as the younger wood. Occa-

- sionally, well-matured water sprouts are used, but this kind

102 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

of wood is not recommended unless it is impossible to get
enough of the better wood. The growth at the tips of the
branches of a mature tree is by far the best cion wood, and
whenever it is possible wood of this kind should be chosen.

Stock.—The stock used in grafting is that part of the plant
into which the cion is placed. It varies in size and in age.
Sometimes the stock is a small root, other times it is a small
twig, occasionally it is a trunk of a tree, and sometimes
it is a branch one or two inches in diameter. Therefore
the size or the age of the stock is determined by the kind of
grafting. If the best results in grafting are expected, the
stock should be in good condition, so that growth will start
at the proper season.

Fic. 41.—The splice graft.

Splice Graft.—Splice grafting is the most simple kind of
grafting. As its name signifies, it is nothing more nor less
than the splicing together of two plants, both of which are
about the same size. One part is called the stock and the
other part is called the cion. To make this graft, the cion
and the stock are each cut diagonally across and the two cut
surfaces are placed in contact with each other. The diagonal
cut should be from one to one and one-half inches in length.
The two parts should be placed so that the cambium layer in
each piece is in contact at one or more points. The two pieces
are then tied together firmly with grafting cord, and occa-
sionally they are waxed over. Splice grafting is commonly
employed on such plants that have soft and tender wood
which will not split without injury to the parts.

Tongue Graft—The tongue graft is very similar to that of
the splice graft, and it might be regarded as a modification
of it. In the tongue graft a split is made in addition to the
diagonal cut of the splice graft. The split in the two parts
ensures them of being held more firmly together. This form
of grafting is also called whip grafting, and the expression

GRAFTING

103

of tongue and whip grafting is often heard. ‘Tongue grafting
is employed only upon small stocks, and in the majority of
cases a seedling root is the stock which is used for this kind

of grafting. The tongue or whip graft is
very important in the propagation of nurs-
ery stock, because it is easily made, and
usually a good percentage of the grafts
grow. This graft is used almost univer-
sally in root grafting. When selecting
the root for the stock, all knots or shoulders
should be avoided, because they will inter-
fere with the work.

To make the tongue or whip graft, select
stocks and cions which are of one size.
The same size for each part is not abso-
lutely necessary but very convenient. Cut
both the cion and the stock diagonally
across. The diagonal cut should be from
one and one-half to two inches in length.
One-half inch from the end on the diagonal
cut make a slit about one-half inch in length
on both the stock and the cion. Do not
split either the cion or the stock, because
that will leave a rough surface, and the two
parts will not fit together tightly. The
stock and the cion are now fastened together
by shoving the tongue of the cion into the
cleft of the stock. The two parts are held
together by tying them firmly with graft-
ing cord or with raffia. In nursery work
a method often employed is to firmly force
the two parts together without tying; and
pack them carefully in boxes. The grafts
should then be covered with sand. By
careful handling, the two parts will callous

Meet

Fig. 42. — A
piece-root whip
and tongue graft.

over and become united and a strong union will be made

before the time arrives to plant the grafts.

Root grafting is usually performed in the winter when
other work is scarce. After the grafts are made they are

104 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

stored away in a cool cellar, and usually covered with sand
until the following spring, when they are set out in the
nursery row. A temperature of about 35° to 40° F. is
required for storing the grafts. In tongue or whip grafting
the cion usually bears from three
to four buds. The number of
buds, however, is also determined
by the section of the country in
which the grafting is done. When
root grafting is performed in the
northern sections where winter
killing is apt to occur, sometimes
long cions taken from trees that
are acclimated to that region
are used. Cions eight or ten
inches long are used in these
regions because they can be
planted deep, and roots will
finally develop on the cion. In
such a case if the stock of the
graft is winter killed the plant
will still grow. The piece of
root on which the grafting is
done acts as a temporary sup-
port and aids the plant to get
started.

Saddle Graft—Saddle graft-
ing is usually employed upon
herbaceous plants or plants that

have thick fleshy tissue like the
ec en cacti. It is very convenient
the longitudinal section. for grafting small plants. In

making the saddle graft the cion
is split near the middle. The stock is then cut wedge-
shape by two draws of the knife, and the cion fitted over
the wedge and secured in some way. In the grafting of
cacti by this method it is the common practice to use one
of the spines to hold the two parts together. The union of
the two parts will soon take place. In woody plants the

GRAFTING 105

graft is tied in the same manner as the splice or the tongue
graft. Occasionally the joint is waxed over. The saddle
graft is employed principally when a terminal bud is used.

Fira. 44.—An excellent grafting chisel, showing the first position in the cleft
graft.

Cleft Graft.—Cleft grafting is preéminently the form of
grafting that is the most popular in the top working of trees.
It can be successfully used on limbs up to about two inches
in diameter, but it is not considered valuable for use on larger

Fic. 45.—The second position of the grafting chisel in the cleft graft.

limbs. When the cion is placed in larger limbs the pressure
of the two parts of the stock is so great that the cion is
crushed. To make a cleft graft the limb is selected and

106 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

sawed off squarely. It is then carefully split with a grafting
chisel. If no grafting chisel is available, fairly satisfactory
work can be done with a
wood chisel of the proper
size. In cutting the stock
select a place free from
knots, because a clean
straight cut will not result
if the chisel strikes a knot in
the wood.

The remaining portion of
the limb after the top is cut
off ws called the “stub.” The
stub is usually large enough

Fic. 46.—The cleft graft with the = Fia. 47.—The bark graft with the cions
cions in position. in position and the stub waxed.

to accommodate two cions. Occasionally under certain cir-
cumstances, four cions are placed in a stub, but this is the
exception rather than the rule.

The cions are cut wedge-shape at the base and are inserted

GRAFTING 107

into the cleft made in the stub. The cions bear from two
to four buds, but the number usually preferred by most
grafters is three. The cions are cut by two draws of the
knife, and one side should be slightly narrower than the
other. This double wedge aids in holding the cion more
securely in the stub. The narrow side of the cion should
face toward the center of the stock. To insert the cions
in the stub, first spread apart the two halves of the stub
by means of the wedge on the grafting chisel. In placing
the cions in the stock, the utmost care must be exercised to
see that the inner bark of the cion and the stock come in
contact with each other, so that the cambium layers of the
two parts are together. The matching of the cambium layer
of the cion and the stock is made more certain if the cions
are slanted outward at a slight angle. The cions should
be forced into the cleft to the first bud and sometimes deeper.
The wedge should be made from one to one and one-half
inches in length, and fit snugly into the cleft.

After the cions are placed in the stub and properly adjusted,
the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax. The
wax should extend over the stub for a quarter of an inch.
Fill the split along each side of the stub with wax in order
to prevent infection of any kind entering the stub. The
bark graft is similar to that of the cleft graft, except the
cions are placed between the bark and the wood. Bark
grafting is used on larger limbs than cleft grafting.

Bridge Graft.—The bridge graft is considered a form of
bark grafting. Bridge grafting is not used as much as its
value would warrant. The purpose of the bridge graft
differs somewhat from that of the other forms of grafting
already enumerated. The bridge graft has for its chief
purpose the preservation of a tree, rather than the propaga-
tion of it. The principal use of the bridge graft is to preserve
and to save trees which have been either girdled by rodents,
such as mice or rabbits, or to repair trees that have been
injured by cultivating implements. To use this graft the
injured portion of the tree must first be cleaned out. All
of the ragged edges must be made smooth. The bruised
parts must be cut back to the firm bark. In order to loosen

108 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

the bark so the cions can be inserted, a longitudinal slit
should be made both above and below the wounded area, at
the points where the cions are to be placed. The edge of
the bark should be slightly raised to give a point of entrance
for the end of the cion. The cions must be cut two inches
longer than the space to be bridged. Each end of the cion
is bevelled off on one side, and the bevelled face is placed

Fia. 48.—Bridge grafting of a wounded trunk.

against the wood of the limb. The cions are placed from one
and one-half to two inches apart. When the cions are in
place the whole surface should be covered with grafting
wax.

Top Working of a Tree——The cleft graft and the bark
graft are the two forms of grafting used in the top working
of large trees. The cleft graft is by far the most important
and it is principally used in working over old trees. It is

GRAFTING 109

preferable to graft the smaller limbs which are better suited
to cleft grafting than to bark grafting.

The top working of a tree is very important in many
instances. It enables the grower to change an inferior
sort to a good variety, after the tree has come into bearing.
Occasionally it is desirable to change a given variety after
the tree has become large. Top working the tree by cleft

Fic. 49.—An apple tree top worked by cleft grafting.

grafting is the only practical method. Sometimes varieties
are sterile and it becomes necessary to graft other fertile
varieties into these barren trees before any fruit will set.
Whenever top working is practised to any great extent,
jt is necessary to extend the operation over a period varying
from three to five years. A period of this length is necessary
because when a tree is severely headed back the balance
between the top and the root is broken, As a result of this

110 BUDDING AND GRAFTING

unbalanced condition a large number of water sprouts will
be formed. The excess number of water sprouts can be
prevented if a few limbs are grafted each year. This practice
enables the plant to maintain a better equilibrium and there-
fore furnishes better growing conditions for the grafts.

Grafting Waxes.—There are three distinct kinds of grafting
waxes: (1) Beeswax and resin waxes, (2) Pitch waxes, (3)
Alcoholic waxes. Within each kind of wax there are many
modifications, determined largely by the varying proportion
of the ingredients. The beeswax and resin wax is generally
used, because it is simple to make and is composed of mate-
rials that are easy to procure.

BEESWAX AND RESIN WAXES.

Formvta 1.

Resin > <2 4 pounds
Beeswax . , 2 “e
Rendered beef tallow ‘ 1 S

Place the ingredients in a granite or an iron kettle and melt
them until they are thoroughly incorporated. Remove the
kettle from the fire and allow the mass to cool slightly, after
which pour it directly into a vessel containing cold water.
As soon as the mass is cool enough to handle, remove it from
the water and work it with the hands until it assumes a
light brownish, or a creamish color. The wax should now
be made into balls of any convenient size and each ball
wrapped in oiled paper until it is used.

The hands are first greased with tallow when working the
grafting wax. The tallow prevents the sticking of the wax
to the hands.

Where a very hard wax is wanted, and especially in the
warmer sections of the country, a larger quantity of resin
should be added to the mixture.

PITCH WAXES.

Formvuta 2.

Resin 5 2 pounds
Burgundy pitch ‘ 1 a
Rendered beef tallow a
Red ochre af 1

REVIEW QUESTIONS 111

Place the resin and the white pitch into a granite or an
iron vessel and melt them. Melt the beef tallow in a separate
vessel and add it while hot to the other melted mass. Now
slowly stir the red ochre into the mixture. This can be
used either hot or cold.

ALCOHOLIC WAXES.

LEFORT’S LIQUID GRAFTING WAX.

Formvuya 3.

Resin P , Sate 1% 1 pound
Rendered beef tallow . 1 ounce
Alcohol .. ae a ae . 8 ounces

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. What is propagation by budding?

When is the proper time to perform budding?

. Discuss the cutting of the bud.

. Discuss the growth of the bud after it is inserted in the stalk.
. Differentiate between the shield and the plate bud.

. Tell why shield budding is the most important form o1 budding.
. Differentiate between grafting and budding.

. What is the purpose and the value of grafting?

. What is meant by the terms cion and stock?

10. Discuss the uses of grafting.

11. When is tongue grafting usually performed?

12. What is the difference between cleft and bark grafting?

13. Where is the bridge graft employed?

14. Discuss the top working of trees.

15. Give one formula for each kind of grafting wax.

OONDAPWle

CHAPTER VII.
THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

Tue great damage done to the crops grown both in the
home as well as in the commercial garden is caused by several
classes of pests. These pests, briefly stated, are: (1) insects,

(2) plant diseases, (3) physiological troubles, (4) predaceous
animals.

Fic. 50.—Southern cabbage worm, showing complete metamorphosis.
a, adult; b, egg mass; d, larva or worm; e, cocoon. (Chittenden, United
States Department of Agriculture.)

Few people realize the enormous loss due to these enemies,
chiefly because many growers are neither familiar with the
injury by the insects, nor do they see the small microscopic
parasitic plants which sap the vitality from the growing
host. The injury usually develops slowly, and when it is
discovered it is too late to remedy the damage. Many
people, who are close observers, know their plants are not
doing as well as they should, but they are not familiar enough
with the habits of the insects or appearance of the plant
diseases to correctly diagnose the trouble.

INSECTS 113

INSECTS.

The insects are divided into three groups: (1) the biting
or chewing insects, (2) the boring insects, (3) the sucking
insects.

In order to understand insect injury, the reader must first
know the various stages. of the life history through which
insects pass. The changes in the life of an insect are known
as metamorphosis. Complete and incomplete metamor-
phosis are recognized in the life of the different insects.

Fic. 51.—Showing the successive stages of the squash bug which is the
incomplete metamorphosis. (Folsom.)

Complete metamorphosis means that the insect passes
through four complete changes during its life. Beginning
with the adult, we arrange the stages in the life history
in the following order: (1) the egg stage, (2) the larva stage,
(3) the pupa stage, (4) the adult stage. The adult lays the
egg from which hatches the little worm or the larva. The
worm eats the plant upon which it is placed, continues to
grow larger and to consume more of the plant tissue until
it finally reaches its full growth. When this feeding period
is finished, the worm goes into a quiescent stage, and this
stage is called the pupa. During the pupa stage the insect
8

114 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

does no damage, but remains quiet while internal changes
are taking place, and an entire reorganization of its body
goes on. When the transformation period is complete the
insect emerges from the pupa case or the cocoon as a full-
grown insect, as, for example, a butterfly, a moth, or a
beetle. These forms are called the adults. By far the
greatest damage which is done by most of the insects is in
the larva or the worm stage, but a few adult insects do great
damage. It is because of this change in the form of an
insect that it becomes. imperative for the grower to know
the life history of an insect before adequate measures of
control can be used.

Incomplete metamorphosis is, as the term signifies, an
incomplete change in the development of an insect. The
adult form is reached without going through the four stages
necessary in complete metamorphosis. In incomplete meta-
morphosis the insect completes its life history without
radical changes in its form. The insect hatches from the egg
into a form resembling the adult, although considerably
smaller and without wings. It begins to feed at once on its
food plant and continues to feed for a longer or a shorter
period of time, going through several moults, in which it sheds
its skin when it gets too large for the old one. After passing
through several of these moults, the number being determined
by the species and the food supply, the nymph becomes an
adult. Such insects as the common grasshopper, the cock-
roaches, the bugs, and several more belong to this class.

The growth of insects with incomplete metamorphosis is
somewhat different from those with complete metamorphosis.
It is a known fact that the skin of an insect hardens, due to
the presence of a horny substance known as chitin. This
hardening usually occurs to a greater extent in the adults
than in the young. However, in all insects with incomplete
metamorphosis the skin soon becomes so firm that it cannot
stretch, and consequently this hardening prevents any
more growth from taking place. The result is that the skin
becomes too small, and it must be shed before the insect can
grow. As the old skin grows hard a new skin forms under it
and the old hardened skin splits and bursts open, permitting

INSECTS 115

the insect to crawl out, clothed in a new skin which stretches
for a short time. This new skin finally hardens again, and
the process must be repeated. After several such moults,
the insect reaches the adult stage and never passes through a
quiescent or a pupa stage, but always resembles the parent.

Control Measures for Insects.—Insecticides are used for the
control or the prevention of insect injury. An insecticide
may be defined as a chemical, either liquid or powder, that
is used for the killing or the repelling of insects. An insecti-
cide should be applied to the plant before any great amount
of damage is done.

Insecticides are divided into two classes, according to the
way in which they control the insect, and based upon the
manner in which the insect does its feeding upon the plant.
When the insect devours or eats up the plant it is called a
chewing or biting insect. It is apparent that if some poison
is deposited upon the plant where such insects are feeding,
it will kill the insect enemy. In such case the insect is
destroyed by the direct effect of the poison acting through
its digestive tract. The great majority of the insecticides
used for this purpose contain arsenic as the active poison,
and it is from this source that the name arsenical insecticide
has been derived, Paris green and arsenate of lead are the
most common arsenical poisons for the biting insects. Com-
mon examples of chewing insects are the cabbage worms,
the webworms, and all of the caterpillars.

Besides the eating or the chewing insects there is another
large class, known as the sucking insects, that is exceptionally
injurious to growing plants. These are the most injurious
to the woody plants. Sucking insects cannot be killed by
any arsenical spray, because they do not eat the plant
tissue, and consequently it is a waste of time and a needless
expense to apply arsenical sprays of any kind to the plant.
Sucking insects, instead of devouring any part of the plant,
insert their sharp mouth parts, which are constructed in the
form of a long, narrow, cylindrical tube, through the plant
tissue and suck out the plant juices. An insect that feeds
in such a manner cannot be killed by coating the surface of
the leaves or the stems with any stomach poison, because

116 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

it is impossible for the poison to reach the stomach of the
insect. Hence, in order to kill sucking insects, some material
that will either smother the insect by clogging up the spiracles
or the openings of the breathing system, or kill it by the
corrosive action on the body of the insect, must be used.
Insecticides of this class are called contact insecticides.
Kerosene emulsion, tobacco sprays, and lime sulphur are
the most common sprays for the sucking insects. Common
examples of sucking insects are the scale insects, the plant
lice, and many others.

Besides the biting and the sucking insects, a third class
of insects exists that must be controlled in still another way.
This group includes those insects that live in the tissue of the
plant, and hence cannot be reached by either the arsenical
or the contact insecticides. This class of insects includes
all forms of borers, which burrow into the plant and spend
their life within the plant tissue.

There are two methods for the control of the boring insects,
namely, by the use of repellents, which are chemicals used to
prevent the attack of the insect, and by the digging out by
hand of the insects after they have entered the plant. The
boring insects can be destroyed by first locating the burrows
which are usually detected by the exudation of gummy
material, covered by the chewings and the castings of the
insect. By the use of a sharp knife the bark can be cut away
and the larva killed. Another method is to probe in the
burrows with a piece of wire, thus killing the larva. Com-
mon examples of the boring insects are the peach tree borer
and the locust borer.

Repellents.—Repellents are chemicals with unpleasant
odors. These materials are placed either on the ground
around the plants or distributed over the plants themselves.
By the giving off of unpleasant odors they drive the insects
away and in this manner the plants are saved from destruc-
tion. Turpentine and carbolic acid are often used as repel-
lents. These materials are usually mixed with ashes or any
dry powder and either spread on the ground ardund the plant
or dusted over the leaves. Repellents are effective in con-
trolling the striped cucumber beetle and many other insects.

PLANT DISEASES 117

Poisoned Bait.—Poisoned bait is very effective against
certain kinds of insects, namely, the cutworms. Poisoned
bait is made by dipping freshly cut clover into a strong
mixture of Paris green and water or by making a stiff mash,
composed of 6 pounds of bran to which about 4 pound of
Paris green or white arsenic is added. Use only enough
water to hold the bran together. A small quantity of sugar
or molasses is added to make it sweet. The bait is then
placed in small piles which are scattered around the area to be
planted. The best results will be secured if the baiting is
done a few days before the time of planting.

PLANT DISEASES.

The diseases that affect the cultivated plants may be
arbitrarily divided into: fungous diseases, bacterial diseases,
and physiological troubles.

As we go more deeply into the nature of the changes which
take place in the plant which are brought about by disease,
it is necessary to distinguish between the different kinds.
A plant may be diseased as a whole, because all or practically
all of its tissue is in a diseased condition, such as occurs
when a fungous or a parasitic plant invades all parts of the
host. Again, a plant may die throughout, because some
organ which is essential to its life is seriously affected, as for
example when the roots rot, due to the presence of some
parasite which hinders the supply of plant food. In a large
number of cases we find the disease to be purely local and
never extending into the rest of the tissue beyond that which
is affected, and which only causes death to the affected part.

Symptoms of Disease.—Many amateurs and all experienced
growers know that certain symptoms are present in the sick
plant as well as in the sick animal. The symptoms in a sick
plant vary according to the kind of disease. Many symp-
toms are often present which indicate that the plant is not
in a healthy condition, and it should be attended to at once,
but further diagnosis is difficult.

Generally speaking, a common symptom in a physiological
trouble is the yellowing of the leaves accompanied by wilting

118 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

of the plant. This is usually attributed to the fact that the
transpiration of water from the leaves is greater than the
absorption by the roots. A similar condition is also noted
when insects, such as the cutworms or the wireworms are
eating the roots, thus
cutting off the supply
of food and water and
causing the plant to turn
yellow. The yellowing
of plants also results
from the presence of
gases, either in the atmos-
phere or in the soil.
‘This trouble is often
found in cities where
leaks occur in the gas
mains, and it does great
damage to shade trees
and to ornamental
shrubs. Where the root
and the crown of the
plant are injured from
gas it results in the
improper — physiological
process going on, which
in turn prevents the
transpiration of water
and the entire plant is
affected.

The turning brown of
little patchs on the leaf
with the dead portion

Fic. 52.—A diseased tomato plant. finally falling out, leav-

ing a small hole in the

leaf, is usually a clear symptom of fungous trouble. The brown
and the discolored areas on fruit, suchas the rots of the apple
or the peach, are the outward signs of a fungous disease.
The abnormal swelling of certain portions of some plants
are indications that they are affected with some organism.

PLANT DISEASES 119

Two well-defined examples of abnormal swellings are the
black knot on the plum or the cherry and the crown gall on
nursery stock. The sudden wilting of a plant is usually
indicative of a bacterial trouble, which attacks the plant
suddenly and cuts off the water supply by clogging up the
water-carrying ducts or canals. In addition to the symptoms
of unhealthy plants already mentioned several more exist
which can easily be detected where the plant is carefully
studied.

Fic. 53.—A diseased fruit.

Fungous Diseases.—These diseases are caused by small,
microscopic, parasitic plants living upon the tissue and
sapping the vitality from the host. Some fungous diseases
spread to all parts of the plants, such as the leaf spot of the
apple, while others are local and only affect a small portion,
as the black knot on the plum or the cherry. The greatest
damage to our cultivated plants may be attributed to the
fungous diseases, because they are more numerous and affect
the root, stem, leaves, and fruits. The potato scab and the
apple scab are good examples of fungous diseases.

Control Measures for Diseases.—There are various means
at our command for the control of many of the diseases that
affect our cultivated plants. It is apparent, however, that
different methods must be adopted for the different diseases
on the plants just the same as different remedies must be
used for the control of diseases in the human system.

120 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

ss

Spraying, dusting, and controlling the conditions under
which the plants are grown and removing the affected parts
are some of the methods employed to save our economic
plants from destruction from the various diseases that prey
upon them. It is evident that certain diseases as well as
certain insects cannot be controlled by spraying, and also
that several sprays are needed to control the different kinds
of diseases.

The fungous diseases can usually be controlled or at least
held in check by the application of fungicides to the plant.
The fungicide which is a chemical compound of some kind
is either placed in water and sprayed on the plant or dusted
on by some method.

The bacterial diseases cannot be controlled by the applica-
tion of any fungicide and the only means of control is to cut
away the affected part or destroy the entire plant.

The following troubles are a few that cannot be controlled
by spraying, but must be held in check by other means:
peach yellows, little peach, potato scab, melon wilt, pear
blight, apple-twig blight, and dry rot of the potato.

Bacterial Diseases.—Bacterial diseases are caused by the
action of small microscopic organisms commonly known as
bacteria. These are very small, usually one-celled plants
that live for the most part in the cell sap or in the juices
found in the plant tissue. From the nature of their attack
it is apparent that they are responsible for a disease that
from its nature is extremely difficult to control. Since the
bacteria are internal, either precautionary or very drastic
means must be devised to hold them in check.

Bacteria ordinarily are extremely simple in form, and are
usually confined to three types, namely spheres, cylindrical
rods of greater or less length, and spiral rods. In size they
are very minute, being by far the smallest living organisms
known, and demanding the highest power of the microscope
for their study.

Many bacteria have the power of motion, which is produced
by slender, motile hairs arising from their bodies. By moving
these little hairs back and forth the bacteria produce loco-
motion and change their position. These hairs are called

PLANT DISEASES 121

flagella. Bacteria are divided into three easily recognizable
divisions: (1) Coccus or spherical bacteria, (2) bacillus or
rod-shaped bacteria, (3) spirillum or spiral bacteria.
Multiplication of Bacteria.—The common method of repro-
duction of bacteria is by simple division. Although this
method is common to all bacteria, there are some forms
which frequently reproduce themselves by the formation of

Fic. 54.—Several forms of bacteria greatly enlarged. (After A. Fisher.)

reproductive bodies called spores. The spores are formed in
the body of the organism in the shape of small rounded
masses, and later the body bursts open and the spores are
set free. The spores are known as resting forms and their
function seems to be to enable the bacteria to exist through
unfavorable conditions. The spores have great vitality and
they can be subjected to high temperature and to long periods
of drought without suffering from such treatment.

122 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

The most important factor connected with the life of
bacteria is their exceptionally rapid power of multiplication.
The division of the bacteria which results in two plants
often takes place in less than half an hour, and in less than
half that time each division is again ready to reproduce.
The reproduction in this ratio results in an increase in
number which is almost inconceivable.

Bacteria are also divided into two kinds, with regard to
their needs for oxygen. Most bacteria demand oxygen to
enable them to grow, but there are some species, and these
are quite numerous, that can live without a supply of oxygen,
and in fact can only grow and multiply when in an atmosphere
devoid of oxygen.

Bacteria bear the same relation to temperature as do
other ordinary living organisms. If the temperature is high
the multiplication of the bacteria is more rapid, and as the
temperature approaches the freezing-point, the activity of
the bacteria ceases. The temperature at which the maximum
growth of bacteria occurs is quite variable and varies from
70° F. to about 95° F., while other forms will grow well at
still higher temperatures.

Environment and Soil Sanitation—The environment in
which a plant is grown regulates to a large degree the preva-
lence of certain diseases. The “damping off” of seedlings is
commonly due to poor environment. While it is known there
is a definite cause for the trouble in the form of a fungus,

_it is conceded that if the proper growing conditions are
maintained, the plants will not be attacked by this fungus.
It has been demonstrated conclusively that if good fresh
air is given, the proper temperature is maintained, and the
correct amount of water is given at the right time, the
seedlings will not be attacked by the fungi that cause this
trouble. An oversupply of water accompanied by excessive
heat affords ideal conditions for the growth of fungus troubles
which often attack the plant and cause serious injury. The
damping off of seedlings, while due primarily to a parasitic
growth at the crown of the plant, is brought about by unfa-
vorable conditions of growth of the parent plant and can
only be controlled by regulating the conditions under which

PH¥SIOLOGICAL TROUBLES 123

the plant is growing. The control for this trouble usually
means the cleaning out of all diseased plants, withholding
the water supply, and providing for better ventilation.

The cleaning up of the soil by steam sterilization or by the
treating of it with formalin is also effective in destroying
certain fungous diseases which are found in the soil. These
fungi oftentimes remain alive for a number of years and
attack the plants when they are planted.

It is always advisable, therefore, to have the soil clean
and free from fungi. The plants should be grown where they
will have plenty of sunshine and have a good circulation of
fresh air so that the damp air will be blown away and never
allowed to collect about the seedlings.

PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES.

Any serious disturbance in the life processes of the plant
which cannot be attributed to an organic factor, such as
insects, fungus or bacteria, is called a physiological trouble.
The peach yellows and the little peach are two common
examples of injury that are included under physiological
trouble. The most recent work on physiological troubles
seems to indicate that the plants are growing under unfavor-
able conditions, and that there is a lack of certain elements
in the soil which produces these troubles. In fact physio-
logical troubles are not well understood, although more
information is being gained every year and perhaps in the
near future more suggestions can be offered.

Control Measures of Physiological Troubles—No definite
remedial measures are at our disposal for the control of the
so-called physiological troubles. By that is meant that it is
of no avail to spray or to treat the plant with any solution
for the control of this class of troubles. A physiological
trouble, as the term implies, is some interference with the
natural process of the growth of the plant, and is thought
to be the result of insufficient iron or some other element
in the soil.

The only means of control, therefore, would be to supply the
material that is lacking, so the plant will develop normally.

124 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS.

Predaceous animals include all rodents, such as mice,
rabbits, woodchucks, and moles. The loss due to this class
of pests is confined principally to the younger trees and to
bushes, yet there are many herbaceous plants in the garden
like the cabbage, lettuce, etc., which are often attacked and
severely injured. The loss in the aggregate due to rodents
is considerable, when all plants are included. The amount
of injury would be far less than it is if the rubbish and the
grasses which serve as places of concealment were destroyed.
In the average home orchard and in the garden the danger
of rodent injury is greater than in a commercial plantation,
because the possible means of protection for the plants are
more generally disregarded.

Control Measures for Predaceous Animals.—The injury done
to plants by predaceous animals is due to the eating of the
plant tissue by certain destructive rodents, such as mice,
rabbits, or woodchucks. The control for such injury must
of necessity be one of prevention rather than one of destruc-
tion. The control of the predaceous animals is accomplished
by protecting the plant in such a way as to keep the animals
away from the plants.

There are various ways and means which are used for the
protection of our plants. The banking or mounding of soil
about the trunk of the trees is often used. The mounding
is not so very effective in itself, but when used in conjunction
with other mechanical devices aids materially in the protec-
tion of trees. Mice in particular rarely ever injure trees,
unless grass, manure or trash is found near their bases. For
mounding to be effective the grass must first be cleared away
from the base of the tree, and the soil thoroughly firmed
about the base of the trunk. A covering of cinders well
pressed into the soil should cap each mound. The mound
should be from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter at the
base and from five to six inches in height. The mound
should be allowed to remain throughout the vear, but it
must be repaired from time to time to insure its efficiency.

The most complete and the most ideal plant protector

INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 125

is a wire screen. ‘This protector is made of screen, the meshes
of which vary in size from one-eighth to one-half inch,

Fic. 55.—Tree protected by small Fic. 56.—A combination of
mesh poultry netting. (After Ballou, wire cloth and building paper
Ohio Agricultural Bulletin No. 208.) as a tree protector. (After

Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Bul-
letin No. 208.)

but the usual size is one-fourth inch. The wire screen
protector is more expensive than the earth mound, but
nevertheless it is considerably more effective against all

126 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

kinds of rodents which prey upon the stems of young trees.
The screen protector is light and open and presents the least
obstruction to strong winds, yet at the same time admits
the sun and the air. The wire screen neither affords any
dark nor obscure places for the concealment of any kind of
injurious insect pests.

The wire screen protectors vary in size, depending primarily
upon the size of the tree. A good size that seems to be
adapted to many trees is twelve by twenty-four inches.
This protector is really nothing more than a piece of gal-
vanized wire cloth with one-fourth-inch meshes. It is then
bent or rolled over a small, round piece of wood, shaping
it into a cylinder about two and one-half or three inches in
diameter. The cylinder is then placed about the stem of the
tree where its own tension will hold it in place. A protector
made from the ordinary one-inch mesh, galvanized chicken
wire is quite effective against rabbits, but this size of wire
will not protect the trees from mice. Spiral wire protectors
are sometimes made from a galvanized iron wire. The
spiral protectors are in the form of a spiral or a spring, and
while they are effective against rabbits they are not to be
recommended generally. Their chief drawback is the large
spaces between the wires, which permit the rodents either to
squeeze through entirely or to push their heads in far enough
to reach the base of the tree.

Probably one of the most effective plant protectors for all
purposes is found in the wood veneer protector. This style
is quite effective against all kinds of rodents. However,
they are close and tight, and exclude almost all the light, and
often various forms of insects harbor in the crevices and the
rough portion of the bark and may become troublesome.
The veneer protectors should be removed from the trees
during the summer and replaced before winter.

In addition to the wire protectors already mentioned, which
are classed as more or less commercial articles, there are
several home devices which may be used with varying degrees
of success. Cornstalks, for instance, are very effective
against rabbits and ground hogs, and at the same time have
the advantage of being very cheap. There is practically no

INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 127

cost to this material. The stalks should be selected as they
come from the field and all of the leaves stripped off. Square
the ends of the stalks by laying them on a board or a box and
using a large knife. Cut the stalks into pieces about two feet
in length. When the stalks are pre-
pared five or six of them are bound
firmly around the stem of the young
tree.

A combination of the cornstalk and
the wire-cloth protector is popular in
some sections. This combination
protector is made by an eight- or a
ten-inch wire-cloth cylinder about
the base of the cornstalk protector.
If the tree has previously been well
mounded up with soil, this combina-
tion protector completely baffles all
kinds of rodents and makes the trees
quite secure from their attacks.

Cylinders made from either the
common heavy wrapping paper or the
building paper make a very effective
and a secure protection for the trees.
The greatest drawback to this pro-
tector is its fragility and its short
length of life. Only the heaviest
wrapping paper should be used, and a
good grade of building paper is pre-
ferred. These wrappers are placed
on the trees—either in the form of a a a eer
cylinder or wrapped spirally around tor made by tying corn-
the stem to the desired height. When _ stalks around it. (After
the spiral method is adopted the pneu, ao
paper is cut into narrow strips. Two
points in favor of the spiral form are, that a crooked-bodied
tree can be more closely and more neatly covered, and
that it is more resistant to the strong winds.

Cultural Control Measures.—The control of all pests affect-
ing cultivated plants can be materially affected by cultural
practices. Certain classes of pests, particularly insects, can

|

128 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

be controlled easier than certain others, but relief can be
had from many pests by following good cultural methods.

Crop rotation is an important factor in controlling some
of our plant troubles. Rotation is beneficial in combating
those insects and diseases that remain in the soil over winter
and which are not killed by the cold weather. Besides insects
there are many diseases which are found in the soil and that
will grow on one class of plants but will not attack other
classes. These diseases therefore can be killed out by the
growing of a different crop on that land. For this class of
diseases it is never advisable to grow the same kind of a crop
on a piece of land any two years in succession. By rotating
the crops we not only control many insects and diseases but
we improve the general condition of the soil as well.

Fall plowing is valuable in destroying some insects. Many
insects pass part of their life history in the ground. These
insects make small burrows or homes in which they spend
the winter. If they are allowed to remain undisturbed they
will live through the cold weather, but if the soil is plowed
up in the fall and the insects exposed to the cold, a great
many of them are killed. This same treatment is valuable in
destroying the eggs of many other insects that lay them in
the ground. When the eggs are exposed to the winter
weather they are also killed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. Describe the four classes of pests that attack plants.
. Is the damage done to plants by these pests large or small?
. Into what three classes are the insects divided?
What is complete and incomplete metamorphosis?
. Give the four stages in complete metamorphosis.
. Give the three stages in incomplete metamorphosis.
How does an insect with incomplete metamorphosis grow?
. Name and describe the three divisions into which plant diseases are
divided.
9. Discuss some of the symptoms of a diseased plant.
10. Discuss bacterial and fungous diseases.
11. Name and describe the three classes of bacteria.
12. How do bacteria multiply?
13. Discuss the injury to plants due to predaceous animals,
14. Discuss physiological troubles of plants.
15. How can physiological troubles be controlled?
16. Discuss:the means of control for insects and diseases.
17. Describe several devices for the control of predaceous animals.
18. What is meant by cultural control measures for plant pests?

ONATRwDe

CHAPTER VIII.
SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS.

SPRAY MACHINERY.

THE most improved spray machinery is necessary for
efficient work. Without effective spraying there is seldom
any good that ever results from the practice. There is no
other operation in horticultural practices that calls for so
thorough work as does the application of spray materials to
all plants. It has been found that the most effective work
can be done with those machines which permit of high pres-
sure. This does not mean that the small hand sprayers are
not valuable, but where the orchard or garden is large enough
to warrant the purchase of a large machine better spraying
can be accomplished.

Kinds of Sprayers.—There are six distinct types of sprayers
on the market. Each type is made primarily for certain
kinds of spraying. The capacity of each one varies, and the
efficiency of the several types depends to a large extent upon
the size of the sprayer. The six types are: (1) the hand atom-
izer, (2) the bucket sprayer, (3) the automatic compressed-
air sprayer, (4) the barrel sprayer, (5) the twin-cylinder hand
sprayer, (6) the power sprayer, of which there are three sizes,
namely, the pony outfit, the medium-sized sprayer, and the
large sprayer.

Hand Atomizer—The hand atomizer is the most simple
kind of a sprayer. It consists of a small can or glass jar
attached to a tube into which fits a piston. The piston is
attached to a handle and by working it back and forth the
spray material is forced out on the plant. This sprayer is too
small to be of much value only on small plants.

Bucket Sprayer.—The bucket sprayer is the next larger size
and does better work.. This sprayer consists of a small

9

130 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

pump which usually has two small brass ball valves. The
pump cylinder and air chamber is usually made of brass.
This pump is capable of developing considerable pressure
and is valuable for spraying many kinds of plants. The
pump is separate and in order to spray it must be set into a
bucket containing the spray material. This is the chief
drawback to this sprayer, since it is awkward to carry around
in an open bucket filled with the spray mixture. A small
piece of hose and a spray nozzle is attached to this pump.

Fic. 58.—A good hand sprayer for small truck and bush fruits.
(The Deming Company.)

Automatic Sprayer—The automatic sprayer is a more
convenient form than the bucket sprayer. This sprayer can
be filled and then pumped up with air, and the entire atten-
tion of the operator can be devoted to spraying. The auto-
matic sprayer is very convenient and easy to carry. It is
particularly good for truck crops and small bush fruits.

The tank of this sprayer should be made of brass. This
is highly desirable, because if it is made of galvanized iron
it corrodes very rapidly when used for Bordeaux mixture.
The corroding action on the metal makes the life of the

SPRAY MACHINERY 131

sprayer very short. Where brass is used and the tank thor-
oughly made, these sprayers are very durable. This is an
ideal sprayer where a small amount of spraying is to be done.

Barrel Sprayer.—The barrel pump sprayer is of medium
capacity, and well suited for the small orchard. It has the
advantage of being comparatively cheap and of doing very
satisfactory work.

SF

INN A,

ne

Fic. 59.—A barrel sprayer, mounted on wheels. (Barnes Manufacturing
Company.)

There are two ways of mounting the pump in the barrel,
namely on the side of the barrel and on the end of the barrel.
The side mounting of the pump seems to have a slight
advantage over the end mounting in that the sprayer sets
low down and is not in the way of low branches. There is
also no danger of tipping the barrel over when mounted on
the side.

132 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

The barrel sprayer usually holds about fifty gallons. It
requires two men to operate it. The barrel is either mounted
on a sled or on wheels.

Twin-cylinder Hand Sprayer—The twin-cylinder hand
sprayer is decidedly the most satisfactory hand pump. By
the use of the two cylinders, a balance of power is obtained,
which ensures an even flow to the air chamber, which is not
obtainable with a single-cylinder pump.

Fic. 60.—Two-cylinder hand sprayer, mounted ona sled. This is an excel-
lent type for a small sprayer. (The Goulds Manufacturing Company.)

The working parts of this pump are usually made of brass.
The construction is strong, compact and convenient.

The pump is operated by a handle which is removable, and
can be used in either a vertical or a horizontal position.

The double-cylinder pump is a very efficient sprayer. It is
used for orchards of considerable size, and a much greater
pressure can usually be maintained with this sprayer than
with any other hand pump. It is remarkably easy to operate.
This pump is usually mounted on a wagon or a sled. The
vessel holding the spray material may be either a tank, or
a barrel, depending upon the size of the orchard and the
inclination of the owner.

SPRAY MACHINERY 138

Power Sprayers.—The power sprayers vary in size. They
range from a two-cylinder pump up to three-cylinder pumps
of considerable capacity. The size of the engine varies from
1 horse power to 4 horse power. The power sprayers are
more complicated and require more skill to operate than do
any of the hand pumps. In order to successfully operate a
power sprayer one must know something about gasoline
engines and understand the principles of pumps.

Fic. 61.—A small power sprayer, suitable for the home or the small com-
mercial orchard.

The power sprayers are the most efficient sprayers on
the market because they will permit greater pressure and a
finer distribution of the spray material. The pressure usually
carried in a power outfit varies from 150 to 250 pounds, and
the tanks range in size from 125 to 200 gallons.

The power sprayer is usually equipped with a tower which
permits a man to reach all parts of an ordinary-sized tree.
These sprayers are used in the commercial orchard or on the
large farm orchard. It requires three men to successfully
operate any of the power sprayers.

Spray Machine Parts.—In order to thoroughly understand
a spray machine, one must understand some of the parts

134 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

of which it is made. Some of the most important parts are
the cylinders, valves, valve seats, plungers, agitators, supply
tanks and nozzles.

Cylinders.—TVhe cvlinders should always be made of brass.
Sometimes brass tubing of heavy weight is threaded to fit
the cylinder heads. Some firms use brass tubing clamped
between the cylinder heads, while still others use a solid
cast-iron chamber with a brass liner. A cast-iron cylinder,
enamelled with porcelain has been used some, but the greatest
difficulty with this cylinder is the unevenness of the enamel,
and because of this defect it is not generally satisfactory.

Valves —There are four kinds of valves found in the spray
machine, namely, the ball, poppit, swing check, and steam
check. These valves are used in various places in the
machine and are used to control the flow of the liquid and to
regulate the pressure of the air. Valves are made of rubber,
steel or bronze and the bronze valve is the most durable for
all kinds of work.

There are many variations in the four kinds of valves, due
to minor changes in the construction of some part, but these
are too numerous to discuss in detail.

Valve Seat.—The valve seat is the place into which the
valve fits. The seats are built to receive the particular type
of valve which is used. Many of the valve seats are made of
iron, with a secondary seat of leather or rubber to prevent
back flow. Occasionally hard-rubber seats are used, but the
majority of pumps are equipped with removable brass valve
seats, which are the most durable and the most desirable.

Plunger.—The plunger or piston is that part which fits
into the cylinder and gives compression. Plungers are fitted
with various types of packing. Some of the most common
materials used for this purpose are cloth reinforced with
rubber, hemp, steam packing, and paraffin canvas. The most
desirable packing is one that will last for a considerable period
and does not require constant attention to keep it in shape.

Agitators.—An agitator is a device for stirring the material
in the tank during spraying. In a small tank or a barrel the
swinging paddles are fairly satisfactory, but in the power
sprayers the sliding agitator or propeller is preferable. The

SPRAY MACHINERY 135

sliding agitator simply moves back and forth along the bottom
of the tank, while the propeller whirls around in the liquid,
keeping it churned up all the time. The propeller agitators
are much more efficient than any other type because of their
_ higher speed, durability, simplicity, and small size.

Supply Tanks.—Supply tanks vary in shape and in size.
The most popular tank, however, is the round-bottom type.
This tank is easily kept tight by screwing up a few nuts on
the clamp rods. The principal trouble with all tanks is the
difficulty of keeping them water-tight, and when selecting one
see that there is an easy way of tightening it up so that it can
always be kept tight. A wooden tank is preferable to any
metal tank.

Fic. 62.—Different types of spray nozzles. 1, three-cluster Vermorel;
2, angle Cyclone; 3, Bordeaux; 4, Whirlpool; 5, Vapo.

Nozzles —The nozzles used for spraying vary greatly, and
several distinct kinds are in use. The nozzle is often the
source of considerable trouble, and great care should be used
in selecting a good type.

Some of the common types of nozzles are the Bordeaux,
Cyclone, Whirlpool, Vermorel, of which there is a one-, two-,
three-, and a four-cluster Vermorel, the Vapo and several
others. The different kinds are used for special purposes and
no one general-purpose nozzle is very satisfactory. The Vapo
nozzle is perhaps one of the most satisfactory types and it has
largely taken the place of the Vermorel. A small, single Vapo
nozzle has the capacity of a three-cluster Vermorel.

136 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

The chief function of a nozzle is to throw a very fine spray
and to distribute it uniformly in all directions. A nozzle
clogs up easily and needs cleaning frequently for good work.

Fie. 63.—Spray gun,
the latest and best tool
for the spraying of
plants. This is fast
replacing the common
spray rod.

Spray Rod.—The spray rod is used
to facilitate spraying and to aid in dis-
tributing the spray mixture where it is
wanted. It affords an easy means of
extending the spray. The spray rod is
often spoken of as an extension rod. It
is made of bamboo and varies in length
from 6 to 12 feet. Each rod is lined
either with aluminum, brass or iron, but
a seamless, aluminum tubing, which is
screw threaded into brass connections at
either end is preferable. ‘These connec-
tions sleeve over the end of the rod,
which make the joints very strong. The
use of aluminum tubing makes the rod
very light and easy to handle. The
bamboo extension rods are also fitted
with rubber drip guards which can be
moved up and down on the rod, and are
used to catch all of the moisture that
settles on the rod while spraying.

Spray Gun.—The spray gun, which
is the most recent development in this
line of equipment, promises to replace
entirely the spray rod. This gun not
only saves labor and money, but is effi-
cient and easy to handle. It can be

quickly adjusted to throw either a fine or a coarse spray a
short or a long distance.

SPRAY MATERIALS.

The necessity of spraying is no longer doubted. It has
been demonstrated and proved beyond further doubt that
unless spraying is done it is almost an impossibility to produce
first-class horticultural products. The only question that
remains is to determine what is the proper material with
which to spray the plants.

SPRAY MATERIALS 137

Spray materials are divided into two classes, namely, insect-
icides, which are chemicals used for the killing of insects, and
fungicides, which are chemicals used to prevent or destroy
plant diseases. The insecticides are divided into stomach
poisons and contact poisons, based upon the way in which
they kill the insect.

Insecticides and fungicides are used in two ways, either in
a dry state as a fine powder or dissolved in water and dis-
tributed as a fine spray. If the material is dusted on the
plants, it is distributed by the use of a dust gun which forces
the powder out by the aid of afan. Ifa spray is used, various
kinds of spraying machines are employed.

Sprays for the Plants and How to Prepare Them.—Povsons
for Biting Insects—There are a number of insecticides which
are used for biting insects. These poisons are taken into
the stomach of the insects and kill them through their action
on the digestive tract. ‘There are two classes of stomach
poisons, namely, organic poisons, which are usually vegetable
compounds, and inorganic compounds, which are of inorganic
materials. The vegetable poisons are poisonous to the
insects but not to the human system and therefore are safer
to use on some plants, as, for instance, cabbage, lettuce,
or currants. The poisonous property of these insecticides
is usually volatile, that is, when the material is exposed to
the air for a few days it loses its poisonous nature. Because
of this fact it must be strictly fresh when it is used, and it
must be kept air-tight, when it is stored, otherwise it is
worthless. The two most important insecticides which
belong to this class are the white hellebore and the pyrethrum.

The inorganic insecticides are poisonous to insects as
well as to animals, and greater care must be used in their
application to the plants. There are many poisons in this
class, but the base of all of them is usually some form of
arsenic. A few of the most common ones are arsenate of
lead, Paris green, and London purple.

These poisons are applied in both the dust form and the
spray form. The method which is selected depends upon
the plant and the insect which is being treated.

138 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

FORMULAS FOR THE STOMACH POISONS.

ARSENATE OF LEAD.

Paste Form.

Arsenate of lead ‘ ‘ . #4 2 to 5 pounds
Water... 4 a 50 gallons
Powder Form.

Arsenate oflead . . . 14 to 3 pounds
Water. 50 gallons

This poison is in many respects the most satisfactory of
any of the arsenical sprays. It is very adhesive and if
properly made will not burn the foliage to any extent. More
pounds of the paste form must be used to a given quantity
of water than the powder form because of the amount of
moisture present in the paste.

PARIS GREEN.

Paris green . . 4% to 1 pound
Stone lime 2 to 3 pounds
Water 50 gallons

The chief fault with the Paris green is its tendency to burn
the foliage. If it is not added to some fungicide, stone lime
should be added to the water in order to reduce the amount of
burning of the foliage. If Paris green is used in combination
with Bordeaux mixture the addition of lime is not necessary.
This insecticide is a very active poison.

WHITE HELLEBORE.

When Used as a Spray.

White hellebore . i tb wh: & ee 1 ounce
Water .. i> ge. tem, Ofer ate : 3 gallons
When Used as a Powder.

White hellebore jk é 1 ounce
Air-slaked lime, flour or sifted road dust ‘ ‘ 5 ounces
PYRETHRUM.

When Used as a Spray.

Pyrethrum. . ... . go Ke ag i 1 ounce
Water . ree Ke 2 gallons
When Used as a Powder.

Pyrethrum . oS oe LA, 2 1 ounce

Air-slaked lime, flour or sifted road dust Mey) ee oy 5 ounces

SPRAY MATERIALS 139

The white hellebore and the pyrethrum lose their poisonous
properties quickly when exposed to the air. These insecti-
cides are poisonous to insects but not to higher animals.
They are valuable to use on ripening fruit or just before the
harvesting of such crops as the lettuce or the cabbage. These
poisons must be strictly fresh or they are worthless.

Poisons for Sucking Insects—Sucking insects cannot be
controlled by the same poisons as biting insects, because
these insects do not eat the plant tissue. The mouth parts
of the sucking insects are so constructed that the insect can
insert them into the plant tissue and suck out the plant juices,
and therefore any stomach poison applied to the plant will
in no way affect the sucking insects. In order then to con-
trol this class of insect pests, we must spray the plant and
cover the insects with some material that will destroy them
by coming in contact with their bodies. A few common
contact insecticides are lime sulphur, nicotine sprays, various
mixtures of soap and kerosene and oil sprays.

FORMULAS FOR CONTACT POISONS.

LiMg-suLPHUR WASH.

Stonelime. . . . ‘ * 3 12 to 15 pounds
Flowers of sulphur z : 15 pounds
Water . 50 gallons

This formula is for the home-made wash. Slake the lime
in a small quantity of water. Gradually stir the sulphur
into this mixture. Dilute the mixture to 12 gallons and boil
for one hour or longer. Remove from the fire and add enough
water to make 50 gallons. Strain the wash through a fine-
mesh strainer. This spray must be used when the plants are
dormant, and it is either applied in the spring before the buds
open or in the fall after the leaves drop. The chief disad-
vantage of this home-made wash is the great quantity of
sediment which is hard to remove satisfactorily so that it
will not clog up the pump and nozzles.

COMMERCIAL LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION.

The commercial lime-sulphur is much easier to use because
it is free from sediment and requires no preparation other

140 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

than to dilute it with water. The commercial solutions are
thoroughly reliable. They are fairly well standardized now
and the standard liquid test is about 33 degrees on the
Baumé hydrometer, which is the density of the solution.
These solutions when used as insecticides must be diluted
and sprayed on the plants when they are in a dormant state.
When the solution tests 33 degrees Baumé, one gallon of
the mixture should be diluted with 7 or 8 gallons of water.
Solutions less dense should be diluted as follows:

TAPRLE OF DILUTIONS FOR THE DORMANT SPRAY.

Number of gallons of

water to 1 gallon

Reading of of the lime-sulphur

hydrometer, solution for dormant
degree Baumé. spray.

33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20

wie

wir tole

WWW PPP POND DIT
bolo PR lO

SOAP SOLUTIONS.

Satisfactory insecticides for soft-bodied insects can be
made from soap. Fish-oil soap is probably the best, although
common laundry soap is very good. The solution is made by
cutting up one pound of soap into small pieces and dissolving
it by boiling in 4 or 5 gallons of water. This is a good spray
for plant lice.

NICOTINE PRODUCTS.

The nicotine products are perhaps the most satisfactory
contact insecticides we have for the plant lice. The active
principle in these solutions is nicotine sulphate. Some com-
mercial products, namely, the Black Leaf 40 and the Nico-

_ SPRAY MATERIALS 141

fume, are very good. These materials are made from tobacco
and are in a very concentrated form. They are usually pre-
pared by diluting the stock solution with 800 to 1000 parts
of water. :

Tobacco decoction is also used to some extent as an
insecticide. This spray is made by boiling 1 pound of tobacco
stems in about a gallon of water for one hour. Strain out the
refuse material and add enough water to make two gallons.
The tobacco products are excellent for controlling the plant
lice, and they do no injury to the most tender plants.

KEROSENE EMULSION.

Laundry soap... . . co 4 pound
Kerosene 2 gallons
Water Se x 1 gallon

Kerosene emulsion is made by dissolving the soap by
boiling it in the full amount of water. Remove the mixture
from the fire and add the kerosene. Stir the mixture violently
for about fifteen minutes until it becomes a creamy mass that
will not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute
1 part of the emulsion with 8 to 10 parts of water for hard-
bodied insects, and 1 part with 12 to 20 parts of water for
soft-bodied insects.

CARBOLIC ACID EMULSION.

Hard soap. . .. . . i 1 pound
Crude carbolic acid 1 pint
Hot water 1 gallon

Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the carbolic
acid. Churn the mixture until it becomes creamy and does
not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute
1 part of the emulsion to 30 parts of water. This spray is
used against the different kinds of maggots, the cabbage
worms, and other soft-bodied insects.

Sprays for Plant Diseases—The spray mixtures for the
control of plant diseases differ from those used to kill insects.
The confusion which results over this question is oftentimes
detrimental to the growers.

142 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

BORDEAUX MIXTURE.

Copper sulphate 4 pounds
Stone lime 4 pounds
Water . . 50 gallons

This mixture is known as the standard Bordeaux. Other
strengths are made by using a less amount of the copper
sulphate and the stone lime. To make Bordeaux mixture
dissolve the copper sulphate in several gallons of water
and then add enough water to make 25 gallons. Slake the
stone lime in about five gallons of water, and add enough
water to it to make the 25 gallons. When these solutions
are made pour both of them together into a barrel, and the
spray material is finished.

Bordeaux mixture should not be made in metal vessels
because the copper acts upon the metal and soon destroys it.
Wooden vessels are best suited for making this material.
Bordeaux mixture should always be made fresh and sprayed
on the plant as soon as it is made. It loses much of its value
as a fungicide if it is allowed to stand very long before it is
used.

Bordeaux mixture is one of the best fungicides we have
and its place in horticulture is firmly established.

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE.

Stone lime. . 10 pounds
Flowers of sulphur 10 pounds
Water a 50 gallons

Place the lime in a barrel and pour on enough water to
start the slaking of the lime. Then add the sulphur after
sieving it to remove any lumps and stir the mixture thor-
oughly, finally, adding sufficient water to make a paste.
Constant stirring is necessary to prevent caking. After the
boiling produced by the slaking of the lime is over, the mix-
ture should be diluted to the 50 gallons and it is then ready
to use.

This fungicide is very satisfactory for use on the peach, the
American and Japanese plums, and upon some varieties of
cherries.

SPRAY MATERIALS 143

COMMERCIAL LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION.

The commercial lime-sulphur solution is a good fungicide
when diluted to the proper strength. In fact it is universally
used on many of our fruits and particularly the apple. This
fungicide, however, is not very satisfactory in controlling
the rots, but it is good for the apple scab, the flyspeck fungus
and some other diseases.

The dilution of this fungicide is based upon the density
of the solution, the same as it is for the insecticide, except
that the spray must be much weaker as a fungicide than as
an insecticide. The table gives the dilution based upon the
degrees Baumé of the commercial product.

TABLE OF DILUTIONS FOR SUMMER SPRAY.

Number of gallons of
water to 1 gallon

Reading of of the lime-sulphur
hydrometer, solution for summer.
degrees Baumé. spray of apples.

33 . 40

382 37

31, 36

30 34

29 33

28 31

27 29

26 28

25 26

24 . 24

23 23

22 é 21

21 : S &o2 & 20

| : Ste AS 8 : 19

Combination Insecticides and Fungicides.—There are insects
and diseases which attack certain crops about the same time.
Whenever such a condition is found, a combination of both
an insecticide and a fungicide can be sprayed on the plants
as one spray. By this practice the work of spraying is
greatly decreased.

The combinations vary, depending upon the plant and the
injury which is being done. A few of the combinations which
can be made are as follows:

144 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

COMBINATION OF SUMMER SPRAYS.

No. 1.
Commercial lime-sulphur diluted 1 gallon to 40 gallons of water
Arsenate oflead .. 2 or 3 pounds to 50 gallons
Nicotine sulphate. 1 part to 800 parts of the spray

This combination can be made and applied at the same
time, if the conditions warrant it. The lime-sulphur is used
to control such diseases as the scab of the apple, the arsenate
of lead controls the codling moth or other eating insects,
and the nicotine controls the plant lice if there are any
present. It is a common practice to use the lime sulphur
and arsenate of lead combination in almost all of the spraying,
but the nicotine sulphate should not be used unless there are
insects present that require its use.

No. 2.
Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50 formula
Arsenate of lead 2 pounds to 50 gallons
Nicotine sulphate 1 part to 800 parts of the spray

This combination is similar to the first one, except that the
Bordeaux mixture is substituted for the lime-sulphur solu-
tion. The Bordeaux mixture is preferable to the lime-sulphur
solution for certain diseases. The nicotine should not be
added unless there are insects present that require it.

No. 3.
Self-boiled lime-sulphur mix-
ture ‘ 10-10-50 formula
Arsenate of lead . 3 pounds to 50 gallons of the spray

This combination is very satisfactory for spraying some of
the American and Japanese varieties of plums.

Fumagation.—In addition to the common spray mixture
we recognize fumigation as a means of controlling diseases
and insects. Whenever fumigation is employed for the con-
trol of disease it is used in a special way. Formaldehyde
gas is the common fumigant used. The Maine formula for
formalin is:

Formalin. . in pate Le % oy eu) 2 3 pounds
Potassium permanganate e 3 + + » « » 28 ouress

SPRAY MATERIALS 145

This quantity is sufficient for the fumigation of 1000 cubic
feet of space. The fumigation is used to destroy diseases on
certain crops when they are placed in storage. The potato
and onion are two crops often treated in this way. When
fumigation is practised the crops are placed in crates and
piled up in rows in a tight room. The gas is generated by
pouring the formalin in a flat-bottomed dish and adding the
potassium permanganate the last thing before leaving the
room. The room should be closed tightly and allowed to
remain closed from twenty-four to forty-eight hours.

Seed Treatment.—The diseases of some of our crops are
found on the seed. In such crops, the treating of the seed
before planting it is very beneficial and greatly increases
the yield. The two common materials used for seed treat-
ment are formalin and corrosive sublimate.

The formalin is more generally used and is more adapted to
a larger number of seed. The black leg of the cabbage and
the smut of the onion are two common diseases which can be
partially controlled by treating the seed with this solution.

The scab of the potato is greatly reduced by soaking the
potato seed in a formalin solution made by placing 1 pint
of formalin in 30 gallons of water. The potato should remain
in this solution for about two hours.

Corrosive sublimate is also used for the treatment of potato
seed. The corrosive sublimate should be used at the rate of
2 ounces to 16 gallons of water and the potatoes allowed to
soak one and one-half hours.

The most recent work on seed treatment is a modification
of the cold method treatment. Recently the Iowa station has
modified this method by dipping the potatoes for two min-
utes in a hot formaldehyde solution and allowing them to
dry. They report the efficiency of this method has been
demonstrated in the laboratory and in the field. This is a
decided improvement over the old method, because a hot
solution is more active than a cold one and it has the advan-
tage of greater penetration and the ability to kill more
rapidly. It is more practical when a large quantity of seed
is treated, as it consumes very little time as compared with
.the cold method.

10

146. SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS

The strength recommended is 2 pints of 40 per cent.
fomaldehyde to 30 gallons of water, heated to a temperature
of 118° to 122° F. and dipped for two minutes. Remove the
potatoes, pile 6 to 8 inches deep and cover them with wet
sacks for an hour, then let them dry.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Name six different kinds of spray machines.
2. Why are the small hand sprayers not as effective as the power
machines?
3. How does the bucket sprayer differ from the automatic sprayer?
4. What advantage has the automatic sprayer over the bucket sprayer?
5. How does the barrel sprayer differ from the twin-cylinder hand
sprayer?
6. What three kinds of power sprayers are made and upon what is the
difference based?
7. Name the four kinds of valves found in a spray machine?
8. What material is best suited for making the valve seat?
9. Describe the most effective agitator.
10. What material is best suited for making a spray tank? Why?
11. Name and describe several kinds of spray nozzles?
12. Why are the nozzles so very important in spraying?
13. What is the spray rod, and what is its function?
14. Name two poisons for biting insects.
15. What is meant by a contact and a stomach insecticide?
16. Why should stone lime be added to Paris green when spraying?
17. When should white hellebore and pyrethrum be used in spraying?
18. Give the formula and tell how lime-sulphur wash is made?
19. On what kind of insects is kerosene emulsion used?
20. How does kerosene emulsion differ from carbolic acid emulsion?
21. Give the formula for Bordeaux mixture and tell how it is made.
22. What is the difference between commercial lime sulphur and self-
boiled lime sulphur?
23. What combinations of insecticides and fungicides are possible, and
why are they made?
24, What is meant by fumigation and what is controlled by it?
25. Tell how seed potatoes are treated and what is gained by this treat-
ment,

CHAPTER IX.
THE PRUNING OF PLANTS.

TuE pruning of plants is an important as well as an
interesting operation. It may be defined as the process of
cutting off excess or undesirable wood. ‘Small and large
branches, roots, or twigs are removed so that the remaining
parts are benefited. Pruning requires knowledge, experience
and judgment, and when properly performed, produces a
tree that is symmetrical in shape. Plants properly pruned
will bear excellent fruit, because the plant food is used in
fewer branches and therefore the plant can grow better fruit.

Plants of different kinds must be pruned differently.
Likewise young plants must be pruned in a different manner
than old and mature plants. Young trees one year old are
pruned differently than five-year-old or twenty-year-old
trees. Vines are pruned unlike the bush fruits, and the
brambles, such as blackberries and the raspberries, are pruned
differently than the peach or the pear tree. So then after
analyzing pruning in a brief way we are led to assume that
all plants must be pruned in a manner determined by the
plant, and also that the methods must be varied as the plant
grows older. The pruning of a plant might be roughly divided
into three groups: (1) pruning to save the life of a plant, (2)
pruning for profit, and (3) pruning for ornament.

Principles of Pruning—There are certain principles in
the pruning of any plant that are identical, because prun-
ing is simply an operation on the plant. It consists of
removing a certain amount or a part of the plant body. The
nature of animal life is to heal any cut or wound on its body,
and it is also the nature of a plant to heal any wound made
on it. However, a wound made by removing a limb ona
plant is different from the cutting off of a piece of the bark
on the trunk, which might be similar to an animal wound.
Consequently a few principles in removing a branch must be

148 PRUNING OF PLANTS

observed. All wounds on a plant are healed by the cell sap
carrying food to the wounded part. If this wounded part is
in the line of the sap movement the wound is readily healed,
but if the wound is not in line with this channel in which the
sap flows it will not be healed. Since the only way that the
sap is kept flowing in this channel is by the presence of leaves
on the trees, it is at once apparent that if a limb is cut off,
the leaves are removed and consequently the sap does not
pass out into any part of the stub that remains. When a
stub is allowed to remain no healing can take place and in
a short time disease will enter the tree and finally cause its
death.

The pruning of a plant disturbs the balance between the
top and the roots. It is a well known fact that the top and
the roots of a plant maintain an equilibrium and when a
part of the branches is cut off it breaks this balance. The
natural tendency then, is to have the plant develop enough
new branches to bring about this balance between the roots
and top. When pruning, then, it is necessary to take into
consideration this principle, and not prune too severely, so
that the balance of the tree is not so radically disturbed.
Constant and uniform pruning every year avoids any bad
effects from this source, but spasmodic and severe pruning
greatly interrupts the equilibrium of a plant.

Time to Prune.—The time for pruning varies over a con-
siderable period and with different plants, and we recog-
nize winter and summer pruning. With most horticulturists
pruning is done during the late winter and early spring
months. As a rule, pruning late in the spring, just before
growth begins, is the ideal time for most plants. Late
pruning of this kind serves to remove all winter-killed
branches with no chance of more to occur. It also has the
advantage of starting the healing process at once and the
wound is exposed for a much shorter time.

Summer pruning may be practiced to regulate the form of
a tree or induce growth in accordance with some specific
purpose. It also has a tendency to produce fruit buds by
checking exuberant growth and by encouraging short lateral
growths or short spur-like branches in the center of the tree.

PRUNING TOOLS 149

Protection of Wounds.—All wounded surfaces should be
covered with some protective material in order to prevent
diseases from gaining an entrance. No artificial material
will aid in healing of any wound, but it prevents water and
other foreign material from entering.

Small wounds not to exceed one-half to three-quarters of
an inch will usually heal over in one year and no covering is
necessary. Larger wounds, however, should be protected.
White lead paint, which is of the consistency of thick cream,
is perhaps the best material to use for wound dressing.
It is easily secured, it adheres well, it does not crack or
chip off, it is easily applied and does not interfere with the
healing process. Occasionally tar products and grafting
waxes are also used.

H DISSTON& SONS

Fic. 64.—Four good types of pruning saws.

Pruning Tools.—Special pruning tools are necessary if
good pruning is to be done. In selecting any tool, see

150 PRUNING OF PLANTS

that it is made of the best material and capable of keeping
a good cutting edge. Every cut must be made clean and
smooth, which can only be done by the best pruning tools.

The pruning saw, the pruning knife, and the pruning
shears are all necessary for the different kinds of pruning.
In selecting a pruning saw, get one that has the saw teeth
only on one edge. The two-edge pruning saw is of no value
and should be banished from the country. A small, narrow
saw resembling a compass saw, although somewhat longer and
slightly thicker, is perhaps the best type. These saws can be

Fic. 65.—Several types of pruning tools.

purchased at reliable up-to-date stores. Several types of
good pruning shears are found on the market, and the ones
shown in the illustration are excellent types to use. The
pruning knife, however, is indispensable for cutting smaller
limbs. This is perhaps the best, too, since a cleaner cut can
be made with it than any other pruning tool.

Cause for Pruning.—Under natural conditions many plants
grow very thickly and produce so many branches that they
very often crowd each other. The older the plant gets the
more the limbs crowd, until the plant reaches a point that
the branches become so numerous that much light and air

REMOVING LARGE BRANCHES 151

are shut out. In addition to this trouble the plant has so
many surplus branches that the root system is not sufficient
to continue the growth of so much wood, and at the same
time produce fruit. When pruning is practised, these surplus
branches are removed which allow the food material to go
into the production of fruit and flowers instead of wood.

The pruning of a tree or bush also aids in forming a uniform
and symmetrical plant. All of the irregular branches are
removed and the others shortened, so that the plant will be
uniform.

The thinning out of the branches aids in controlling insects
and diseases. Spraying is made much easier and larger crops
are produced.

The systematic pruning of plants, especially when grown
under artificial conditions, aids in withstanding wind storms,
and trees are not blown over as easily as when large, long
branches are allowed to remain.

Effects of Pruning.—The regular methods employed in the
pruning of a tree or shrub has a tendency to increase growth.
Weak plants can oftentimes be made to grow more rapidly
by severely pruning the top during the resting period. When
such plants are severely pruned all the strength of the roots
is used to grow a single upright, vigorous stalk. This acceler-
ation of growth is also seen in the rejuvenation of an old tree.
This is particularly true of the peach. By cutting off prac-
tically all of the old top of the tree, you cause the roots to
send out many vigorous shoots which in a short time makes
another head of all new wood. Occasionally other old trees
are treated in this manner, as the apple, elm and sometimes
the soft maple.

Pruning of certain plants also has a beneficial effect on the
production of fruit. The peach serves as a good example,
as in this case the plant bears its fruit upon the growth of the
previous year and the grower can reduce the crop in propor-
tion to the capacity of the tree. Pruning aids in combating
certain diseases, as, for example, the cankers and the blights.
The only control for these diseases is the removal of the dis-
eased part by pruning.

How to Remove Large Branches.—It often happens that in
order to obtain the best results in removing large limbs two

152 PRUNING OF PLANTS

cuts must be made. The branch should be sawed off about
a foot above the point of its origin in order to prevent the
splitting down and the tearing off of a large portion of bark.
To do this, first cut away a large portion of the branch, which
will aid in lessening the weight of the limb. Next make a
cut on the under side of the branch about half-way through
the limb and then finish the removal of the branch by sawing
it through from the top.

Fic. 66.—Method of cutting off alargelimb. Note thetwocuts. Dotted
line indicates where the last cut should be made after the limb has been
removed.

Pruning the Top of a Plant.—The pruning of the branches of
a plant is the only way of forming a good symmetrical top.
The forming of the head of a tree is by far the most important
operation in the growing of a plant. This is true not only of
the commercial orchard but of the home orchard or the orna-
mental garden. Shade trees also require some systematic
pruning, because their beauty largely depends upon the uni-
formity of their top both in their dormant as well as in their
green state.

SUMMER PRUNING 153

When the top of a plant is pruned, it requires judgment and
experience. If a tree is the plant which is to be pruned, the
most important consideration is the location of the branches
along the trunk, which is to form the framework of the tree.
It makes little difference what kind of a tree you are pruning
at this early stage, the principal consideration should be the
even and equal distribution of the side branches along the
trunk. There should be no crotches allowed to remain, and
the branches should be distributed uniformly, so that the
tree will be well balanced.

In most trees it is desirable to have the main structural
branches of the tree composed of from three to five limbs of
about equal size. A tree should never be allowed to divide
into two limbs which again subdivide because a tree of this
type is more likely to split.

Tf a bush or a bramble is to be pruned, the proper way
is to remove a certain number of the canes. These canes
should be cut off close to the surface of the ground. The
remainder can be headed back if necessary.

Pruning the Roots of a Plant.—The pruning of the roots
of any plant is necessary whenever transplanting is done.
Root pruning is imperative in order to remove any broken
or mutilated roots. All of the irregular roots should be
shortened or entirely removed. If any roots are killed the
dead portions should be cut away until the living part is
reached. The pruning should be done with a sharp knife.
A slanting cut should be made and in such a way that the
cut surface will be on the underside of the root. When the
tree is placed in position the cut surfaces should come in
contact with the soil either at the sides or the bottom of the
hole.

Summer Pruning.—The pruning of certain plants in the
summer is important from several standpoints. This is
particularly true of young trees. The energy of a young
plant should be directed toward the development of a stout
trunk and framework. If an exceptionally good tree is to be
formed, careful attention should be given to the pinching off
of the undesirable branches, while they are small,{and before
they have used up very much of the plant food, which should

154 PRUNING OF PLANTS

go to other parts of the tree. During the early growth these
branches are easily removed and can usually be brushed off
very satisfactorily with the hands.

Summer pruning is not only of value to the small trees but
is practised to some extent on the larger trees. Under some
conditions a tree will refuse to set fruit buds, and throw all
its energy into the production of wood. A tree of this kind, if
properly handled, can be made to produce fruit by summer
pruning. To secure the desired results the pruning should
usually be done before the season of growth ends, because
earlier pruning starts new growth while late pruning gives
no results. In summer pruning a part of the surplus wood is
cut out and other branches headed back. This check in the
growth of the plant at this time has a tendency to make
fruit buds form. The benefit derived from summer pruning
depends upon the ability of the pruner to regulate the pruning
in such a way as to bring about early maturity.

Winter Pruning.—The pruning of plants during the dormant
period is usually spoken of as winter pruning. The dormant
season is the time the majority of pruning is done, par-
ticularly of all of the woody plants. The winter is a good time
to perform this operation for several reasons: The branches
are not covered with leaves and are easier to remove. The
framework of the tree is visible and the undesirable parts
can easily be seen. In addition to these facts the tree is ina
period of rest and the removal of a limb, by pruning, is no
injury to the plant. Certain plants, like the grapes and maple
trees, bleed profusely if not pruned while they are dormant.

The Pruning of Young Trees.—The pruning of a young
tree differs greatly from that of a mature tree. The object
in the pruning of young trees is to shape their form and to
develop a uniform and a symmetrical top.

Young trees are always more vigorous growers than old
ones. Greater annual growth is always made, and because
of this rapid accumulation of wood it becomes necessary to
shorten some of the branches and to entirely remove others,
in order to prepare a good framework for the tree. Young
trees are usually pruned more heavily than old trees. Pruning
of a young tree should be done every year for at least five

PRUNING OF BEARING TREES 155

or six years after the tree is planted. In some trees pruning
will be necessary for a longer time.

The Pruning of Bearing Trees.—As soon as a young tree
has passed its formative period, when the general shape
is developed, a modified pruning is necessary. This period
is reached when the tree is
from five to ten years old.
It is now beginning to ap-
proach the bearing time.
Pruning at this time can
be done in the summer
and must be modified with

J

Fic. 67.—The proper distribu- Fig. 68.—Heading back of a one-
tion of the main branches on a year-old tree.
young tree.

the idea of trying to induce fruitfulness. No definite time
can be set, but it is recommended that pruning be done
at the time the terminal buds are forming on the ends of
the shoots. At this time the terminal shoots may be cut
back to a point where it is desired to force out new lateral
branches. The results from such treatment are sometimes

156 PRUNING OF PLANTS

immediate, and again they are not seen for two or three
years.

As the tree grows older, and the terminal growth threatens
to become excessively long, it should be cut back, and the
tree thinned out. This pruning is usually done some time in
June, although it should usually be distributed over two
periods in order to avoid excessive pruning at one time.

Fic. 69.—The proper way to cut. off Fic. 70.—A large wound en-
a large limb. Note how the wounds urcly healed over.
are healing.

The Pruning of Old Trees.—The object in pruning an old
tree is merely to keep the branches thinned out, to remove any
water sprouts that may occur and to take out all limbs that
are interfering with each other. If the tree has been system-
atically pruned during its early growth very little pruning will

PRUNING OF OLD TREES 157

be necessary as the tree gets older. Occasionally large limbs
must be cut off for various causes. When this operation is
made necessary, care must be taken to make clean, smooth
cuts. The wounded part should be covered with some

Fic. 71.—An injured tree repaired with cement.

material like white lead paint to protect the open cut. Occa-
sionally grafting wax is used, but this material is expensive
and not very satisfactory. Other materials have often been
recommended, but the safest course to follow is to apply those

158

PRUNING OF PLANTS

materials which are known to be safe and efficient. The
wound dressing should be applied carefully and the careless
daubing of the surrounding bark should be avoided.

When pruning old trees the operator should be furnished
with good tools, and particularly good pruning saws. These
tools must be sharp so that clean, smooth surfaces are made.

eel ell sell alll ell andl apelin ioe

we
oo

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. Define pruning.

. Name three causes for pruning.

. Why do plants require pruning?

. Tell how a wound on a plant is healed.

What is meant by balance or equilibrium of a plant?
How are these influenced by pruning?

. Discuss the proper time for the pruning of plants.

. What is meant by summer and winter pruning?

. What materials are best suited for protecting a wound?

. Why are special pruning tools advisable?

. What defects are found in a double-edge pruning saw?

. What is the proper way to remove a large limb?

. Distinguish between the pruning of a young and an old tree.
. Discuss the pruning of a bearing tree.

. What causes give rise to the necessity of pruning?

. Discuss the effects of pruning.

. Discuss top pruning of a plant.

. Give the differences in the pruning of the branches and the roots of a
plant.

. What benefit is derived from summer pruning?

. How does winter pruning differ from summer pruning?

CHAPTER X.
HARVESTING AND MARKETING.

THE grower is the producer. He is the man who furnishes
produce, and this is true with fruits and vegetables as well as
all agricultural crops. Most growers are honest, but they are
poor business men, and their lack of knowledge concerning
business ways often cause many failures. The producer
should realize that it is not only necessary to grow the
produce well, but it is equally as important to harvest it
properly. If the produce is well harvested and properly
packed there is a market for it. There is always a demand for
fancy or first-class products, but poor and second-class goods
are usually a loss to the producer.

Harvesting Produce.—All produce, whether vegetables or
fruit, must be carefully harvested. It is essential to gather it
at the proper time. The time for picking produce necessarily
varies, and it is determined chiefly as to whether it is for local
or for distant consumption.

All produce that is harvested should be made presentable.
Such crops as the potatoes, radishes, turnips and a few
others should be washed before they are sold. Some crops
should also be graded in order to make a uniform package.

Many of the horticultural crops should be harvested at
a definite time. This is particularly true of such crops as
the strawberries, blackberries, tomatoes, melons, sweet corn
and many others. If these crops of a perishable nature are
allowed to remain too long on the plant they become inferior
in quality, and in many cases they are a total loss. Crops
of this kind should be harvested as soon as they are ripe and
they should never be allowed to become over-ripe, because
an over-ripe product is as worthless as a green product.

Harvesting Period.—The period during which all crops
should be harvested varies with the crop. Certain crops, as

160 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

for example the potato, late cabbage, apples, peaches and
many others, can be harvested at one time and as soon as the
crop is matured. Other crops like the melon, peppers,
cucumbers, summer squash and several more can be harvested
over a longer period of time. Prompt picking of the indi-
vidual specimens of the latter class is important. In a few
crops like the sweet corn, peas and green beans the harvesting
period is short but it extends over several days and two or
three pickings are usually necessary in order to gather the
entire crop. Such fruits as the blackberties, raspberries and
strawberries often require many pickings before the crop is
harvested, while other plants like the radishes, beets and
carrots must be picked at different times to insure good
quality.

The market to a large degree regulates the time at which
some crops are harvested. If the price is high, it often pays
to harvest a few crops before they are matured, as, for
example, the potato. The increase in the price more than
offsets the loss in the yield. This early harvesting of the crop
is often done in the case of the early cabbage, the lettuce and
the spinach. When the price is high and the crop is harvested
before it is matured it should not be removed from the plant
until the time arrives to sell it. Some immatured crops, as,
for example, the potato will only keep for a short time after
they are removed from the plant. Premature harvesting
of a few crops is very profitable, but judgment should be
exercised when this practice is followed.

Care of Produce between Harvesting and Marketing.—All
produce which is perishable must be carried to a cool place
as soon as it is picked from the plant. Exposure to the sun
should be avoided. When the produce remains in the field
for a short time after it is gathered and before it is packed it
should be shaded or covered up. The exposure of produce to
winds is very detrimental and causes it to wilt and to dry
out. Exposure of any kind injures the quality and reduces
the price. All vegetables and fruits contain a large percent-
age of water, which gives the crispness and freshness to them.
The amount of water present usually determines the value
of the produce. Therefore any means which can be used to

KINDS OF PACKAGES 161

hold this water in the fruit or the vegetable will not only
improve its quality but will increase the price which it will
bring when it is placed upon the market.

Certain crops must be washed and graded before they are
packed. Whenever washing is necessary, handle the produce
carefully and do not scratch or tear the skin. Any injury to
the skin gives an opportunity for mould and bacteria to get
into the injured part and the product will rot. The marring
of the skin in any way also detracts from the looks of the
package. Some crops like the radishes and the carrots must
not only be washed but they must be graded and tied in
bunches before they are sent to the market. The harvesting,
grading, washing and packing should be done without delay
and as soon as the crop is taken from either the plant or the
soil.

Grading Produce.—All of our fruits and vegetables should be
graded. The chief reason for grading is the poor impression
a mixed lot of produce gives to the buyer. A few large apples
or potatoes in a barrel do not add to the value of the pack-
age but only emphasize the lack of uniformity of the lot. In
grading pick out all of the large specimens as well as the small
ones and make the carrier contain produce of one size. This
method of grading makes the package uniform, attracts the
eye and pleases the buyer. It is not always the large speci-
mens that bring the best price, but rather the uniform
appearance of the package that is of the greatest value.

Kinds of Packages——The style of package varies greatly
and is determined by the product to be packed. Fruit is
usually packed in either boxes or barrels. The size of the
boxes vary, but they usually hold approximately one bushel
of fruit. Box apples are generally fancy fruit. In the
eastern fruit-growing sections the barrel is the usual package
for apples while in the western regions the box is the most
popular. The barrel holds about three bushels and is very
convenient for storage and for shipment.

Vegetables are packed in many different styles of vessels
and many high-class products are placed in special baskets
or cartons. A few crops as, for example, the cabbage is
marketed in ventilated barrels, which are made by cutting

11

162 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

out a part of several staves of the barrel so that air can
circulate through the produce. Sometimes cabbage is packed
in crates made of slats, which will hold about one hundred
heads.

Celery is shipped in small flat boxes. These boxes are
called celery crates and vary slightly in size, depending
upon the locality.

Fic. 72.— A good type of celery crate, well packed.

Tomatoes are packed in baskets, which fit into special
crates. When the tomatoes are packed in crates they are
usually intended for long-distant shipment. For local trade,
however, the half-bushel split market basket is the most
popular.

Potatoes are usually marketed in gunny sacks, but some-
times they are delivered to the local trade in bushel baskets.

This variation in packages is due largely to the locality
in which the product is grown and also as to whether it is
a short- or a long-distance shipment. Occasionally special
markets will demand a certain kind of a carrier, and the
grower must then use that kind of a package,

PACKING FOR LOCAL AND DISTANT MARKET 163

It makes very little difference as to the kind of a package
the grower markets his produce in if each container is filled

Fic. 73.—The onion shipped Fic. 74.—Showing the bulge on an
in a loose woven sack. orange box which is necessary for good
packing.

with a uniform product of the best quality. However,
standardization of packages is fast becoming important.
Preparing Produce for Local and Distant Market.—The time
at which fruit and vegetables are picked is determined largely
by the market. If the produce is sold in a local market it is

Fic. 75.—Radishes and spinach packed in the Delaware basket.

not harvested as soon as when it is sold in a distant market.
It is always preferable to allow the produce to ripen upon

164 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

the plant, because the quality is greatly improved. Produce
can only be allowed to ripen upon the plant when a local
market is used. In such cases the product is gathered one
afternoon and sold early the next morning. By this method
all produce is fresh and of good quality.

Fic. 76.—Celery cabbage wrapped separately and packed in uniform
crates.

The condition is very different if we are shipping to a dis-
tant market. Ripe fruits or vegetables soon rot. The tissue
is soft and the produce will not stand handling. Juices from
one fruit often leak out and ruin an entire crate. Therefore

Fia. 77.—Cauliflower packed in a ventilated crate.

great care must be exercised in selecting and in harvesting
produce for distant shipment. In almost every case the
produce must of necessity be picked when it is partially
matured and still green. This lack of maturity makes the

QUALITY OF THE PACKAGE 165

quality inferior, but it is the only way in which some products
can be shipped. If the fruits are green, they are hard and
firm and will stand transit. During shipment or shortly
afterward, the produce will ripen, and will be ready for sale
upon arriving at their destination, provided they have been
properly selected at the time of harvesting. The tomato,
melon and peach are some crops that are always picked
green if they are to be shipped to a distant market.

Packing for Local and for Distant Market.—The packing of
produce for a local trade differs from the packing for a long-
distance shipment. The products for home trade can often-
times be marketed in a great variety of vessels. Grading is
perhaps more important for the local trade than is the kind
of a package and too often the proper grading of an article is
overlooked for home consumption. Usually the home trade
consumes the produce at once and no means of shipment is
necessary. The produce can be delivered to the consumer in
any vessel that is convenient as, for example, market baskets,
bushel baskets, barrels and boxes.

When long-distance shipments are made the kind of a pack-
age becomes a very important problem. The grower must
realize that he is dealing with men in a different section, and
that his produce must arrive at its destination in good condi-
tion. The packages must be uniform and not of varying sizes
and shapes or there would be no means of ascertaining the
value of his shipment. Each package must contain a definite
quantity. The quality of the package must be uniform. In
some cases each fruit must be wrapped separately as, for
example, the tomato and the melon. Some crops like the
celery must be tied up in bunches of a definite size. Lettuce
is often packed in chopped ice, so that it will not wilt but will
arrive at its destination in good condition. Strawberries
are packed in special boxes which resemble large ice-boxes.
A number of crates are placed in one of these large boxes and
ice is packed in several compartments so that the berries
will be cold and remain firm.

Quality of the Package.—Inferior or mixed packages should
never be made. A thing worth doing is worth doing well and
attempted deception in a package is bound to react upon the

166 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

grower. Label your packages so that every buyer knows
what he is purchasing. The quality ef the package should
be plainly stated. The package should be labelled fancy
No. 1 or No. 2, so that the buyer is not deceived. Alwavys
make the package uniform in contents, no matter what the
grade might be.

People in general have recognized that quality and not
quantity in produce is what they want. Often a small Jot of
well selected and fancy produce will sell for more than a
wagon load of rubbish.

The home-grown product will oftentimes bring more than
that shipped from regions where the crop is grown in great
acreages. Occasionally the prices of the home-grown product
is often several times that of the shipped product. This
great difference in price is due largely to the quality, but the
public is willing to pay for it. I have one case in mind with
the tomato. A grower has consistently received considerably
more for his home-grown fruit than was paid for the shipped
product. This increase in price was due to the superior
quality. There are numerous other cases, which could be
mentioned to prove the value of quality.

Standardized Grades and Packs.—A standard grade and
pack is fast coming into practice. In fact it must ultimately
be adopted if the best markets are to be considered. A
standard grade is essential and imperative if we are to arrive
at a definite price for a given product. Where all sizes,
shapes and grades of products exist, the buyer has no guide
on which to base his price, and, as a result, there is a great
range in prices. With a standard to go by, the value of a
product is easily established, which will be uniform over the
country.

The standard adopted will vary with the product. The
bushel box containing so many apples is now practically
standard and if we buy a box of apples in New York or in
San Francisco we know just how many and what grade we
are getting. This is also true of the oranges and the lemons.
It is not true, however, of many of the other horticultural
crops. For instance, the celery crate might contain two dozen
bunches or ten dozen bunches, yet both are spoken of as a

STANDARDIZED GRADES AND PACKS 167

crate of celery with no means of ascertaining what quantity
is represented. The same is true of some other crops that
are sold by the bushel. The weight of this measure varies
in the different states and in Nebraska the standard weight
of a bushel of onions is 57 pounds while in Iowa the standard
weight is only 52 pounds or a difference of 5 pounds. Now
suppose a buyer in Chicago purchases onions from both states
by the bushel, he immediately meets with difficulty. Because
of this varying condition over the country, some means of
establishing a definite unit is necessary. The tendency,
however, is to select the pound as a unit and in many places
the buyers are insisting on quotations by the hundred which
is a definite unit and will be uniform in all states. This unit
is also more satisfactory to the purchaser, because where
products are purchased by the pound there is no chance for
the vendor to “stack the measure,” as is often done when
buying by the measure.

In addition to the standard pack or unit we should also
establish standard grades of certain products. This practice
is common with the apples and oranges, the fruit being
graded into sizes. A standard grade is also attempted in the
case of the potato, but it is not so easily accomplished. The
United States Department of Agriculture recommends two
standard grades for potatoes as follows: United States
Grade No. 1 consists of sound potatoes of similar varietal
characteristics which are perfectly free from dirt or other
foreign matter, frost injury, sunburn, second growth, cuts,
scab, blight, dry rot, and damage caused by disease, insects
or mechanical means. The minimum diameter of the potatoes
of the round varieties shall be one and seven-eighths inches
and of potatoes of the long varieties one and three-quarter
inches. In order to allow for variations incident to com-
mercial grading and handling, 5 per cent. by weight of any
lot may be under the prescribed size and in addition 3 per
cent. by weight may be below the remaining requirement of
this grade. United States Grade No. 2 consists of potatoes
of similar varietal characteristics, which are practically free
from frost injury or decay, and which are free from serious
damage caused by dirt or other foreign matter, sunburn,

168 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

second growth, cuts, scab, blight, dry rot or other diseases,
insects or mechanical means. The minimum diameter shall
be one and one-half inches. In order to allow for variations
‘Incident to commercial grading and handling, 5 per cent. by
weight of any lot may be under the prescribed size and in
addition, 5 per cent. by weight may be below the remaining
requirements of this grade.

The establishing of definite grades for each product is not
far distant and will not only be a decided advantage to the
buyer but a great help to the producer.

Packing Supplies.—The packing supplies are not numerous.
A few of the most important are crates, wrapping paper,
printed labels, cushions and packing tables. As the standardi-
zation of products becomes more general, proper packing
supplies will be greatly developed and perhaps the number
enlarged to conform to the set standard.

All supplies should be purchased in advance of the harvest-
ing time, because when you delay, much grief and disappoint-
ment is bound to come. In buying, purchase liberally in
order to have plenty of material so that you do not run out
in the middle of your harvest. As soon as the supplies arrive,
check them over, and measure all of the material to see that
it conforms to the standard pack. Do not accept second
class material or any substitute from the specification that
will break the standard pack.

The boxes or crates should be nailed together before
harvesting time begins, or at least as many as you can store
conveniently. See that all crates are nailed securely in order
to avoid breakage and consequently damage to the product
and loss to the grower.

A good supply of packing paper is necessary. This is
more important in the packing of certain products such as
apples, oranges, peaches, tomatoes and a few more than with
some other products, and the nature of the crop grown will
determine the necessity of this material. Be sure to have
the paper cut the proper size because it is more convenient
~and saves time and labor. The paper used to wrap the
product should be of a rather soft texture, with one side
somewhat smooth. For the wrapping of certain products

MARKETING AGENCIES 169

the most progressive growers have their names and some
monograph printed on each wrapper. This lends dignity
to the pack and establishes and advertises the brand.

Every crate or box that leaves the grower should be
labelled. The label should be attractive but not gaudy.
Subdued colors that harmonize are to be preferred. The
label should display some scene in the growing of the crop
or something to call attention to the attractiveness and
value of the product. In addition it should plainly state
the quality and quantity included in the pack and by whom
it was grown. A trade mark should be established and
registered.

Marketing Agencies.—There are five distinct marketing
agencies, namely the broker, jobber, commission man,
retailer and selling associations. These overlap occasionally
although they are distinct in purpose. The direct method of
selling from producer to consumer is gaining in importance
and having its effect on the market, but the middle man, so
called, will always fill a place in large transactions and is
a force to be considered. Each has a special function in
business and each is necessary.

The Broker —The broker is a medium of communication
between the buyer and the seller. Sometimes the grower
will sell his goods through a broker in some distant town
which makes the broker virtually the agent for the grower.
Oftentimes a broker is an agent for many growers in all
parts of the country and handles many different products.
A broker also sells direct to the retailer but more especially
to the jobber or to the commission man.

The Commission Man.—A common way of selling produce
is for the grower to consign a shipment of products to a man
who disposes of it on a certain percentage or commission.
Such a man is called a commission man. Some commission
men are honest and some are not and as a class they have
come into general disfavor. The fault, however, is not always
with the commission man but many times the growers are
at fault. The growers often ship their produce in poor shape
and it arrives at the market in a deplorable condition and the
commission man is given the credit for the low price received

170 HARVESTING AND MARKETING

for it. Nevertheless the commission men have done a great
deal to develop the produce industry and we will probably
never be able to dispense with them. The grower should
assure himself of the honesty and integrity of the commission
man before dealing with him.

The Jobber.—A jobber is a man that usually purchases
produce from the commission man. Such men usually have
a special trade such as hotels, clubs and some retail stores
which they supply with their commodities. The jobber also
buys direct from the grower and might also buy from the
broker. His function is chiefly to buy in rather large quanti-
ties and parcel the produce out to smaller buyers or retailers.

The Retailer —The retailer is the man that sells direct to
the consumer. He depends upon getting his supply from the
commission man, the jobber, and in many cases direct from
the grower. Seasonable products are oftentimes purchased
from the grower, but during off seasons and out of season
products must be purchased from other agencies. Asa rule
the retailer must look to the jobber or commission man to
keep him supplied uniformly throughout the year with all
commodities. This serves then to emphasize the impor-
tance of the jobber and commission man in maintaining a
steady supply of products the vear round. Oftentimes a
grower will ship direct to the retailer, but in such cases the
grower should pack his product especially for the retailer
and aim to establish a name for his products.

Selling Associations.—The selling association is the most
recent development in the manner of disposing of products.
The principle of an association of this kind is through the
union of a number of growers of a certain crop. It is devel-
oped chiefly to help the grower realize a fair profit by doing
away with some of the middlemen.

Selling associations are greatly developed along the Pacific
coast and were perhaps perfected to the greatest degree in
that region because of the long distance to ship and the
need of codperation among the growers. At the present
time this form of selling is gaining in popularity and many
associations are being formed in all parts of the country.

The most effective way of handling an association is to

TRANSPORTATION 171

combine a number of small associations into a large organi-
zation where each small association has a representative. A
larger association has the advantage of greater sales, it can
furnish valuable information to the grower at less expense,
it is in constant touch with all the markets and it prevents
over-supply in one market and a shortage in another. The
distribution is also very efficient and the field is covered more
evenly at a minimum of expense.

In the purchase of supplies it has an advantage. When
spray materials and machinery are purchased in large
quantities and in carloads they can be purchased at a lower
price, which is impossible where individual growers attempt
to buy only for their own needs.

Transportation.— Produce is shipped in two ways, either by
express or by fast freight in refrigeration cars. If the distance
is short, express is perhaps the better; but when long dis-
tances are covered it becomes necessary to ship by fast
freight and to have the produce packed in ice-cooled cars.
Long-distance shipments require carload lots.

These cars are practically large ice-boxes. The produce is
cooled, if possible, before it is placed in the cars, but this
cooling is not always necessary. After the produce is loaded
and packed the cars are iced and tightly closed up. By
handling the produce in this manner it arrives in excellent
condition, and oftentimes fruits and vegetables are shipped
thousands of miles, arriving on the market in a fresh state.

Perhaps no greater impetus has been given to horticulture
than the invention of the iced or the refrigerator car. Before
this means of transportation came into use, long-distance
shipments of perishable produce were impossible. Only
short hauls could be made, and many times the express rate
was so high that the shipping of produce was prohibitive.
Improved transportation has opened up great areas for the
production of fruit and vegetables. Before refrigeration cars
came into general use this area was only cheap farm lands.
Fast freight with iced cars has made it possible to have
fresh fruit and vegetables on all markets the entire year, and
at prices which are not prohibitive for the general public.

172

1.
2.
3.
4,

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Why is it important to harvest all produce carefully?

Why does the harvesting period vary? Give several examples.
What factors tend to cause the harvesting period to change?

What care is necessary to preserve the highest quality in produce

after it is gathered?

5.
6.
duce?
7.

Discuss the value of grading produce.
Why is it necessary to have a variety of packages for shipping pro-

Why must produce for the home market be handled differently from

that for a distant market?

8.

Discuss the packing of produce for the local and for the distant

market.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

How does the quality of the package increase its value?
What is meant by standardization of grades and packs?
Why is a standard pack essential?

Name and discuss a few packing supplies.

What are marketing agencies?

How does a broker differ from a commission man?
What is the chief objection to a commission man?
What is meant by a middle man?

What is the function of a jobber?

How does a jobber differ from a broker?

What is a retailer?

On what principles do selling associations operate?
Discuss the two ways of shipping produce.

CHAPTER XI.
WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS.

TuE winter care of plants is important. The death of a
large number of our favorite flowers and shrubs is due to neg-
lect. A plant, like an animal, needs protection even though
it is partially hardy. Oftentimes abnormal seasons will kill
many of our plants, if no protection is given to them. A
strong wind will not only break down the plants but will
cause the branches and the twigs to dry out to such a degree
that the plant cannot recover in the spring. A sudden burst
of warm weather during the winter months is very destructive
to many kinds of vegetation. These warm spells often cause
the buds to start growth, which are later killed by more cold
weather. If the plants are properly cared for and protected
in some manner this injury is prevented. Alternate freezing
and thawing is injurious to plant life and it should be pre-
vented whenever it is possible. All of our plants should be
held in a dormant state during the cold weather and the
closer we maintain this condition the greater success we will
have in the wintering of our plants.

Fall Preparation of a Plant.—There are only a few people
who realize that the winter protection of a plant should
begin during the late summer. In order to have the plant
ripen up its wood, preparatory to going into the winter, the
water supply must be reduced. When a plant is allowed to
grow rapidly until late in the season, the plant tissue is filled
with new cells, the cells are gorged with water, and much of
the tissue is soft and green. A plant entering the winter in
such a condition is sure to be injured and sometimes die.

The chief object then, in the fall preparation of a plant, is to
check the growth, or at least to retard it to such a degree
that the plant tissue will harden and the wood will ripen.
The leaves should fall naturally and the leaf scars be perfectly
formed,

174 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS

There are several ways of making the plant ripen up its
wood. The principal method is to check its growth in the
late summer by the lack of water. The supply of water is
reduced by either stopping the cultivation of the soil, or by
planting some quick growing crop. The late growing plants
will rob the soil of its moisture and thereby take it away from
the plant you intend to winter over. In orchards the trees
are ripened by planting a cover crop, such as rye or clover,
late in the summer. This cover crop is allowed to grow the
remainder of the season. These quick growing crops rapidly
exhaust the soil of its moisture and permit the greenwood
of the trees to ripen up before going into winter.

Winter Killing of a Plant.—Some of the horticultural plants
are often killed by exposure to the cold weather. Such a
condition is called winter killing. In some cases only a part
of a plant is winter-killed, while in others the entire plant is
killed. Winter killing of plants is not due to any disease or
any insect, but it is due only to exposure. Authorities
differ as to what is the direct cause of winter killing. It is
thought, however, by many horticulturists that the death
of the plant is caused by the loss of water from the branches
of unprotected plants together with severe weather. Trans-
piration, as well as evaporation of the water im a woody
plant, takes place in the winter as well as in the summer. If
this loss of water becomes excessive, due to an abnormal
winter, many plants are killed. Strong winds or prolonged
warm weather during the dormant season is sure to cause
much winter killing, unless the plant is protected in some
way. Winter killing is also caused when the plants are not
properly hardened before going into the winter.

Perhaps there is no better way of preventing winter killing
than to protect a plant from extreme exposure. The plant
can be protected from exposure either by building wind
breaks, or by covering the individual plants with material
of various kinds such as rye straw, burlap and manure.

The Winter Care of Herbaceous Plants.—Plants whose tops
die down on the approach of cold weather while their roots
remain alive in the soil over winter are called hardy herbace-
ous plants. Such plants as the peony, rhubarb and asparagus

WINTER CARE OF WOODY PLANTS 175

are examples of the hardy herbaceous plants. These plants
need special care if the roots are going to remain alive and
produce the greatest yields the following spring.

The roots of such plants are comparatively shallow. The
depth varies from six inches to possibly a foot. This depth is
not below the frost line and consequently the roots are
frozen. Since the roots of such plants are large and fleshy
it is very important to keep these parts frozen when once they
are in that condition. The alternate freezing and thawing of
such parts is injurious to the plants and reduces their vitality.
The freezing itself is not injurious but the roots must not be
allowed to thaw out until spring.

The chief way of preventing the alternate freezing and
thawing of the roots is to cover the soil over the roots with
fresh horse manure that has plenty of litter in it. The
manure should consist largely of straw with a small percentage
of the solid matter. It should be placed over the roots after
the ground has frozen slightly and should cover the soil to a
depth of from 8 to 10 inches. The manure in addition to
serving as a protection for the roots adds plant food to the
soil which increases the growth of the plant the following
spring.

The Winter Care of Woody Plants.—Woody plants include
all those plants whose tops do not die down during the
winter. Our common trees and shrubs are good examples.
Many of the woody plants are able to withstand the cold
weather under natural conditions. Occasionally when culti-
vation is prolonged too late in the season, many plants are
injured and sometimes killed. Occasionally some tender
trees as, for example, the peach must be protected in certain
regions to prevent them from being frozen back. Likewise
many bushes and brambles must be given some protection
in exposed locations.

The branches of the brambles and the low growing bushes.
are called canes. The canes as a rule have a soft substance
in their center called pith. The pith in such canes prevents
them from being solid and in some cases seems to render the
plants less hardy. Common examples of plants with a pithy
center are the raspberries, blackberries and roses.

176 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS

Winter protection for plants of this kind is often necessary.
Sometimes the plantation is shielded by a board fence or a
natural wind break of trees. In other cases strawy manure

Fic. 78.—Protecting a small bush by a straw mulch.

is piled up through the canes and covered over the ground.
Many times each plant is given a protection of its own.
This latter method is used frequently on the roses.

Fig. 79.—Baby rambler roses entirely covered with straw for the winter.

The rose having several forms offers a good example for
discussion. The canes of upright growing bushes should first
be firmly tied together with a cord. Some fibrous material,

WINTER CARE OF WOODY PLANTS 177

preferably long rye straw, is secured and is packed about the
canes and tied firmly around the bush. Occasionally a strip

Fic. 80.—Climbing roses which have been taken from their supports and
heavily mulched with straw for the winter.

of burlap or a gunny sack is tied over the straw as an addi-
tional protection to the plant. Other types of roses like

Fic. 81.—A good way to protect tender trees.

the climbing varieties are often taken down from their sup-
ports and laid on the ground. After they are placed in an
12

178 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS

orderly manner on the ground they are covered up with straw
to a depth of two or three feet. This treatment keeps the
plant in a dormant state until late in the season and prevents
alternate freezing and thawing of the roots and the branches.
If the rose bushes are small and planted in beds all of the
plants in the bed can be covered up with straw. The straw
should be placed over the plants rather loosely and not
packed firmly: around them except along the edges of the bed.

Mulching the Soil—The mulching of the ground is a
great benefit to all plants. Not all plants need the mulch
as a protection, but many are greatly benefited in growth
by having this treatment. Plants like the rhubarb and the
asparagus, while not requiring a mulch, profit from it. These
plants usually require no mulch as a protection but the
growth the following spring is more rapid and the plants
are of better quality if the ground is mulched with manure
during the winter. The plant food which is found in the
manure gradually washes out and is deposited in the soil.
The water soaking through the manure gives an available
supply of plant food early in the spring for the new growth.
The mulching of the soil also prevents the freezing of the
ground to such a great depth, and this often is an advantage
to the plant. When a soil is covered with a mulch it helps
to hold the snow and the rain and stores up more moisture
in the ground. Likewise it prevents the loss of water by
retarding the evaporation from the surface.

Several materials are used for mulches. Straw, leaves,
coarse manure, prairie grass and hay are among the chief
materials selected for this purpose. The horse manure,
including the litter, is the best, and it should be used when-
ever it is possible to secure it.

The methods of placing the mulching material around the
plants differ slighthy. Where the plant is small and stands
alone the mulch is piled around the plant for a distance
of 2 or 3 feet. The depth of the mulch varies and is deter-
mined by the nature of the material. If leaves are used
for mulching they can be placed 2 or 3 feet deep. Usually
some means of holding the leaves in place and in preventing
them from blowing away will be necessary. The depth to

SPRING TREATMENT OF MULCHED PLANTS 179

which manure is placed around the plants depends upon its
composition. When two-thirds of the manure is litter, a
greater amount can be piled around the plant, than when it
consists largely of solid matter. A conservative amount of
the ordinary horse manure to mulch the ground around a
plant is about 1 foot. The mulch should not be piled against
the plant but it should begin about 3 or 4 inches away from
it. When the mulching material is piled up against the plant
it often induces mice to harbor near it and these rodents
sometimes eat the bark and cause the death of the plant.

The beds of herbaceous perennial plants should be mulched
every fall. Plants like the peonies, rhubarb, asparagus,
strawberries and many others respond wonderfully to such
treatment. Herbaceous perennial plants are usually set in
beds and placed rather closely together. Because of this
method of growing, it is better to cover the entire bed with
the mulch. Fresh horse manure which is composed largely
of straw is the best kind of a mulch. The mulch should be
spread on the ground before severe cold weather arrives.
From 6 to 8 inches of the mulch is the proper amount to use.
The material should be distributed uniformly over the bed.

Spring Treatment of Mulched Plants.—The spring treat-
ment of plants which have been mulched, differs according to
the plant. The mulch around woody plants such as small
ornamental trees and bushes, like the roses, should not be
removed. By the time spring arrives the mulch will have
settled down and will hardly be noticeable. Two methods
of treatment are employed in such cases. If the plants are
not too small the mulch is usually left undisturbed and more
added each year as the old material rots and gradually
disappears by becoming a part of the soil. If the plants are
larger and the mulch has been extended to the limit of the
drip of the branches, it is usually spaded under and incor-
porated with the soil to make more plant food.

For herbaceous plants a somewhat different treatment is
required. In such plants as the strawberries, rhubarb,
asparagus and peonies the mulch is gently raked from the
crown of the plants early in the spring, just as the new growth
is starting. The material used for the mulch should not be

180 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS

removed from the bed, but should be allowed to remain
between the rows, and either spaded under or permitted to
decay of its own accord on the bed.

Winter Care of Bulbs and Roots.—The bulbs and the fleshy-
rooted plants require a treatment similar to that of the
herbaceous plants. The bulb and the fleshy root is a vege-
tative part of a plant in a dormant state. A large amount of
water is present in both, as well as plenty of plant food for
the future use of the growing plant. The secret for their
preservation is to prevent them from losing this stored up
water, and drying up.

The fleshy roots of some plants and many of the bulbs are
hardy and will not be killed by freezing. For this class of
plants greater success will be attained, if they are planted
out in the open ground during August and September and
allowed to remain out of doors. The depth to which the
bulbs and the fleshy-rooted plants should be set varies, and
ranges from 4 to 8 inches for the common ones. When
freezing weather arrives the beds should be mulched with
coarse horse manure. The manure should be removed as
soon as the plants begin to grow in the spring.

The treatment of the fleshy-rooted plants that are not
hardy is more exact and is attended with less success. Plants
like the canna which have thick, fleshy roots are also filled
with water. Such roots will die if they are frozen. It is
necessary therefore to dig them up and to store them over
winter. These roots must not only be kept in the proper
conditions by preventing the loss of water but they must also
be stored in a cool place so that no growth will take place.
To succeed in the storing of such roots the storage place must
not be too damp or the roots will decay, yet it must have
sufficient moisture to prevent them from drying out. The
varying and the irregular conditions found in the ordinary
houses makes it an extremely precarious place to successfully
store fleshy-rooted plants. Perhaps the most ideal place for
the storage of such plants would be in a cellar that is built
underground which could be held at a temperature of about
35° F. With this temperature and with good ventilation
the moisture conditions will usually be ideal.

WINTER CARE OF BULBS AND ROOTS 181

When storing these plants first try to secure the best
storage facilities. Then dig up the roots after the tops have
been killed by frost, leaving some soil attached to them.
The roots should be placed side by side on shelves built in the
storage house. If the proper conditions are maintained the
roots will come out of storage in the spring in excellent shape.

Where only a few roots are kept over winter usually fair
results can be had by collecting the roots and packing them
in sand in one corner of the cellar. They should be kept as
cool as possible and if they are found to be drying out during
the winter the sand should be sprinkled with water.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. What is winter killing of plants? How is it caused?
2. How does fall preparation of plants prevent winter killing?
3. Why is winter protection of some plants necessary?
4. How does the winter care of the herbaceous plants differ from that
of the woody plants?
5. Why is alternate freezing and thawing of the ground injurious to
roots?
6. What part of a plant is called the cane?
7. In what two ways are plants protected from wind?
8. Describe the method of wrapping woody plants.
9. What is meant by mulching?
10. What materials are used for mulching?
11. What determines the depth of the mulch?
12. How does the mulching of herbaceous plants differ from that of woody
plants?
18. Describe the spring treatment of mulched plants.
14. How does the winter care of bulbs differ from that of fleshy-rooted
plants?
15. Describe the method of storing fleshy roots over winter.

CHAPTER XII.
THE STRAWBERRY.

Tue strawberry is one of our best native fruits. It was
found growing wild on our mountains and in our valleys by
the earliest settlers. The native sorts have been improved
both by American as well as by European growers. Many of
our first good varieties are said to have been sent to America
from Europe, where they were first developed from our native
plants.

Propagation.—The strawberry is propagated by runners.
The runner is an off-shoot from the parent plant. This off-
shoot soon takes root as its tip and in a short time a new plant
is developed. When the young plant is large enough the
connection between it and the mother plant is cut and the
young plant is set ina new location. If the young plant is not
removed from the parent, the runner will perish as soon as
the new plant is large enough to nourish itself.

The strawberry should not be propagated from seed unless
new varieties are wanted. The great variation in plants
grown from seeds is not desirable for a bearing patch, because
the grower is sure to get many types of fruit, which will
ripen at different times and be generally inferior in every
respect. When a good variety does appear from seed it
should be planted separately and propagated by runners.

Renewal of the Bed.—The strawberry bed is rarely ever
profitable after three years and it should then be renewed.
The renewal of the bed should begin soon after the picking
season is over. The old plants should be cut off, allowed to
dry, raked up with any remaining mulch which is on the bed
and all burned. If the refuse material is raked to the center
of the rows and piled in small wind rows and burned on a
windy day, very little, if any damage will be done to the

SOIL 183

plants. The old plants in the center of the rows should now
either be plowed out or spaded under, leaving the young
plants to make the new bed for the next year. This method
of renewal can be employed once and sometimes twice on the
same piece of ground. However, better results will be had if
the young plants are taken from: the old patch and set out in
another location for the new bed. The old bed can then be
plowed up and planted to some other crop.

Soil.—The strawberry has a wide adaptation to soils. It
will grow well on most any type. A sandy loam with a porous
subsoil which insures good drainage is perhaps the best type
to select when it is available.

The soil for the strawberry should be well supplied with
organic matter which is in a well decomposed state. New
-lands which have been recently cleared of timber produce
large and profitable crops of strawberries. Such lands abound
in leaf mould and are rich in organic matter and in humus.

The varieties differ considerably in their soil requirement.
Some are well adapted to soils in certain localities, while
other varieties in the same section are failures and decidedly
unprofitable. Certain other varieties are very cosmopolitan
with regard to the soil and enjoy a wide popularity. These
varieties have given good satisfaction in many localities,
therefore they should usually be selected by the amateur.

A thorough preparation of the soil before planting saves
much future disappomtment. The grower should not be
satisfied with the cultivation which is given to ordinary farm
crops because additional preparation is always profitable.
The soil should be pulverized and reduced to a fine state of
division if the strawberry is to succeed. In preparing the
land plow moderately deep, say about 8 inches. If the land
is.in grass fall plowing is desirable. A cultivated crop such as
corn should be planted the first year to msure good culti-
vation of the soil. This procedure will help eradicate the
white grub which is often present in sod land and which is
very destructive to the strawberry plant.

The soil should be retentive of moisture but not wet.
Where excess water is present drainage is necessary. The
berries draw heavily upon the soil water in the maturing of

184 THE STRAWBERRY

the crop and plenty of moisture in the soil at ripening time
is highly advantageous for success in the growing of the
strawberry. Many times artificial watering is very profit-
able during the ripening period.

Planting.—The strawberry can be planted either in the
spring or in the fall. Spring planting is usually more desir-
able because the ground can be prepared in the fall and is
then ready for setting the plants out early. The latter part
of March or the first of April is the most preferable time to
reset the plants. The exact date must necessarily vary in the
different sections. When the plants are set in the spring
they have the advantage of a full season’s growth and become
more thoroughly mature. In some sections the planting is
done later in the season, just after the berries have been
harvested. This method is satisfactory if the soil is well
prepared. The young plants are usually taken from the old
patch and transplanted to their new location. However, it is
usually necessary to water and to shade the plants at this
time of the year unless the weather is cool and plenty of
moisture is available.

The plants must not be set too deeply. The crowns should
not be covered up, although the plant should be set as deep
as it is possible without injuring the crowns. The plants
are set with either a dibble, a trowel, or a spade. The roots
should be spread out slightly and the soil pressed firmly
about them. The watering of the plants after setting them
out will be of great value.

System of Planting.—There are four systems of planting in
common use: The hill system, the single hedge row system,
the double hedge row system and the matted row system.

Hill System.—The hill system is the growing of the plants
singly in rows. Each plant is allowed to grow independently
and no runners are permitted to form. In this method the
entire strength of the plant is given over to the production of
fruit, and the plants produce excellent large berries. This
way of planting is very profitable when the grower is catering
to a fancy market.

The distance apart the plants are set depends upon whether
hand or horse cultivation is practised. Where hand culti-

SYSTEM OF PLANTING 185

vation is followed the plants are set 12 to 16 inches apart in
the rows and the rows 18 to 24 inches apart. If horse culti-
vation is used the rows must be 80 inches apart and the plants
12 to 14 inches apart in the rows.

(After
(After R. M. Kellogg.)

R. M. Kellogg.)

In this system all of the runners are pinched off.

set to make a continuous row of plants.

Fic. 82.—The hill system.
Fic. 83.—Single hedge system. This system is formed by permitting enough runners to

Single Hedge Row System —The single hedge row system
differs from the hill system in that the runners are permitted
to grow sufficiently to fill up the space between the original
plants. Asarule each mother plant is allowed to produce two

186 THE STRAWBERRY

runners, one on each side of the parent plant. If more
runners appear they are removed. The plants in the rows
should be set from 18 to 20 inches apart, and the rows from
30 to 36 inches apart.

Double Hedge Row System —In the double hedge row
system the mother plant is allowed to develop from four to
six plants around her. Should more runners appear they are
removed. The grower should see that the plants are evenly
distributed over the ground. The original plants should be
set from 18 to 24 inches in the rows and the rows should be at
least 36 inches apart.

Fic. 84.—Matted row system. The plants are allowed to grow unmolested
until they completely cover the ground. (After R. M. Kellogg.)

Matted Row System.—This system of planting is widely
used. When the plants are grown by this method they
require less labor and usually produce larger vields. When
growing the plants by this svstem, all of the runners are
allowed to develop and to form a dense mat of plants. Many
growers permit the runners to set plants until the row is
from 18 to 24 inches wide, but this always produces many
small, inferior berries.

Cultivation.—The value of cultivation is not fully realized
by many growers. The strawberry plants should be culti-
vated frequently and thoroughly from the time the berries are
picked until frost. Newly set patches must be well culti-
vated the first year if a good crop is to be expected the next

MULCHING 187

year. The ordinary cultivating tools are used. The weeds
should be kept down and the runners cut off as they appear
when they are out of place.

The first season is the most critical time in the growth of
the strawberry. Tillage is very important in bringing the
plants through this crisis. The cultivation is valuable in
keeping a dust mulch on the soil and in preventing the loss
of water by evaporation.

Fic. 85.—A pot-grown strawberry plant.

Mulching.—In most of the northern states and in many of
the southern sections the strawberries should be mulched.
The best mulching materials are strawy manure with very
little solid matter, clean straw or hay free from weed seeds.
Occasionally other mulching materials such as leaves, pine
needles, marsh hay or cotton-seed hulls are used. The
mulch should be applied after the ground is frozen. If it is

188 THE STRAWBERRY

put on too early the plants often start into growth too soon.
Considering all materials, the clean straw is perhaps the best
for mulching.

Vic. 87.—A well-graded crate of strawberries packed in square pint boxes.
(After Thompson, United States Department of Agriculture.) ty

Harvesting.—he time of picking the strawberry depends
upon the distance they are to be shipped. When they are
grown for home consumption or for the local market they

HARVESTING 189

should not be picked until they are thoroughly ripe, but not
soft. If they are grown for a distant market they should be

Fic. 88.—Crate of strawberries in octagon quart boxes. (After Thompson,
United States Department of Agriculture.)

Fic. 89.—A six-basket carrier used for picking strawberries. (After W. H.
Wicks, Arkansas Bulletin No. 122.)

picked when they are about three-fourths ripe. The berries
should not be picked before they are colored and they should
have a short stem attached to them.

190 THE STRAWBERRY

The berrics should be picked carefully and they should
never be bruised or crushed in any way.

Packing.—Strawberries should be carefully graded and
sorted before they are packed. Each package should be

(After Thompson, United States Department of Agriculture.)

crate.

90.—Well-graded strawberries in American quart boxes, packed in a ventilated

Fig,

uniform and contain berries of one size. Occasionally the
fruit is graded in the field, but the most satisfactory method
is to have all of the berries graded and packed in a packing
shed, and by experienced packers. .
The berries should be placed in the shade when they are

VARIETIES

picked. As soon as the fruit is placed
in crates they should be sent directly
to the refrigerator, because the heat
quickly injures the fruit.

The strawberry is marketed in
many styles of boxes and crates.
They vary in size and in shape. The
capacity of the boxes ranges from
scant pints to full quarts, but there
is a growing tendency to a standard
full size quart box. The American
type of box is most generally used.

The octagon box is objectionable’

because of its shape and the raised
bottom. The boxes are packed in
crates of varying sizes and range from
24 to 32 quarts. In some sections a
larger crate is sometimes used, but
it js not so very satisfactory.
Varieties —There has been a re-
markable development in strawberries
since the first variety gained prom
nence. There are a great many
varieties that can be grown with suc-
cess in all localities, and the grower
should collect evidence on the be-
havior of different kinds in his region
before determining upon any special
variety. Some sorts will grow well
on one class of soil while others will
be a failure on that same soil, and
only local experience can determine
the best variety for a given section.
The grower must also remember
that the strawberry is divided into
two classes based upon the kind of

‘

191

Fic. 91.—Pistillate or female and staminate or male flowers of the strawberry
plant. (Cruickshank, Ohio State University.)

192 THE STRAWBERRY

flowers that it produces One class of plants is known as the
pistillate or imperfect varieties while the other class is the
staminate or the perfect type. The imperfect varieties have
flowers with only pistils and will not produce fruit unless
fertilized with other varieties that have stamens, while the
perfect varieties have stamens as well as pistils, and are
capable of producing fruit alone. Unless the male and the
female parts are both present there can be no fruit. In
selecting a variety it is necessary either to select a variety
that has perfect flowers or to alternate the rows of plants
that have imperfect flowers with those that have the perfect
flowers. Where the rows are alternated the varieties must
both bloom at the same time in order to have the fruit set.
The amateur should usually confine his selection to the perfect
flowered varieties. Usually two or three varieties are better
to grow than only one, even if all of them are perfect flowered
sorts.

The following list of varieties comprises a few of the most
cosmopolitan sorts: Early Varieties—August Luther, Ex-
celsior, Crescent and Warfield. Medium Early Varieties—
Dunlap, Glen Mary and Bubach. Late Varieties—Gandy,
Sample, and Brandywine.

DISEASES OF THE STRAWBERRY.

The strawberry is notably free from disease. It is rarely
ever necessary to spray the plants, provided the proper
cultural methods are followed. There are, however, several
diseases which might become troublesome.

Leaf Spot.—The leaf spot is the most commonly known
disease of the strawberry. This disease makes its appearance
in the form of small, discolored spots on the leaves. These
spots appear most abundantly at the flowering period. The
spots are first reddish or purplish, but as they grow older
the centers become a whitish color and the death of the
tissue is the result. The spots are scattered irregularly over
the leaves, and when they are abundant several may join
together to make one large spot.

Certain varieties are more or less free from this disease,

INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY 193

while others are very susceptible to it. The best means of
control is to select disease resistant varieties so far as pos-
sible. Only the most healthy plants should be set and all
spotted leaves should be pinched off. A thorough spraying
with Bordeaux mixture may be given before the flowers
open. If the disease becomes quite serious some relief may
be had by mowing off the leaves and burning over the bed,
which should be done just after the fruiting season.

Mildew.—The mildew of the strawberry is similar to that
on any other plant. The disease covers the berries and the
leaves with a whitish growth of webby material. It usually
causes the leaves to curl up and die. Spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture or dusting the plants with flowers of sulphur
will usually control the mildew.

INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY.

Since the strawberry plants are grown for two or three
years on the same land, are low growing, and set closely in
rows, the control of the insects is based more particularly
upon rotation of the crops, clean culture, fall plowing and
similar practices rather than on spraying. The one crop
method of producing strawberries greatly simplifies the
insect problem. There are a number of insects that feed
upon the different parts of the strawberry plant, but many of
them never become serious and little attention is ever paid
to them.

Strawberry Leaf Roller—The leaf roller is perhaps the most
serious insect pest. It is a small greenish-brown caterpillar
which folds two halves of the leaf together and feeds within
the enclosed leaf. When the insects are abundant the foliage
is destroyed, the fruit fails to mature and the plant is greatly
weakened.

The leaf roller can usually be controlled by spraying the
plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50
gallons of water. The application of the insecticide must be
timely and applied within a week after the first appearance
of the moths or just before the young caterpillars begin to
fold the leaves,

13

194 THE STRAWBERRY

Strawberry Weevil.—In many parts of the country the
weevil when abundant destroys from 50 to 60 per cent. of
the crop each year. The insect is intermittent in its attack
and will be numerous for several years then suddenly disap-
pear and will cause no more trouble for some time, finally
reappearing again.

The adult insects hibernate over winter under rubbish
near the strawberry bed. In the spring they appear and after
feeding for a short time lay their eggs in the unopened flower
buds. In about a week the little grubs hatch and begin at
once to eat the buds thus destroying them entirely. When
the insects are numerous they often feed upon the foliage.

The best means of control for this insect is by practising
clean culture.

In addition to the insects mentioned there are several
more, but they rarely ever become troublesome.

Nematodes.—Nematodes are small hair-like worms found
in the soil. They are about 7's to 75 of an inchlong. They
are sometimes called eelworms and gall-worms. Nematodes
produce knot-like enlargements on the roots at the points of
infestation. They occur rather widely in soils where the
climate is so mild throughout the year that the ground
rarely freezes more than a very few inches deep.

Strawberry plants are very susceptible to this parasite,
and heavy losses occur in certain localities.

The symptoms of infestation are seen when the foliage
assumes an unhealthy appearance, and may wilt in hot
weather, finally dying. In less severe cases the plants refuse
to bear and soon become of no value.

The only remedy is to free the soil of this parasite. In
cold sections, fall plowing, that will expose them to severe
freezing is effective. In other sections they must be starved
out by planting crops that are either immune or highly
resistant to them. A few crops used for this purpose are,
corn, oats, rye, millet, wheat, peanuts and several varieties
of cowpeas. It usually requires from two to'three years to
rid a soil of this pest.

INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY 195

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE STRAWBERRY.

Number of spray. Time to spray. Spray Materials.
First . When growth begins 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.
Second After picking of fruit 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.

Also cut and burn all
leaves on some windy
day before spraying.

At the first appearance of the leaf roller spray with 2
pounds arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. This spray
should be repeated every week if necessary until the fruit is
about half-grown.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Where were the first good varieties of strawberries developed? Why?
2. Why should the strawberry be propagated by runners instead of seed?
3. Why is an old strawkerry bed unprofitable? What is meant by
renewal?
4. Is the soil for the strawkerry important? What determines the best
type of soil to select?
5. When is the best time to plant the strawberry? Why?
6. What regulates the depth to which a plant can be set?
7. Name the four systems of planting the strawberry.
8. What is the difference between the single and the double hedge row
system; the hill and the matted row system?
9. What system is the most economical? Why?
10. When should the cultivation of the strawberry begin?
11. What is the value of mulching a strawberry bed and when should the
mulch be placed on the plants?
12. What determines the selection of varieties of strawberries?
13. Is the strawberry seriously affected with insects and diseases?
14. How does the leaf spot differ from the mildew? What is the remedy
for each?
15. What is one of the best means for controlling the insects affecting
the strawberry?
16. Give the spray outline for the strawberry.

CHAPTER XIII.
BUSH FRUITS.

Tue currant and the gooseberry are the two most impor-
tant bush fruits. The gooseberry is not so well known as
the currant, but it deserves more attention from the Ameri-
can grower. In England the reverse is true and the goose-
berry is very widely planted, and many varieties with very
large fruit have been developed. The currant and the
gooseberry are called bush fruits because the plants are
low growing and are inclined to be bushy. The bush fruits
should find a place in every garden because of their relia-
bility. They rarely ever fail and are consistent bearers.
These fruits are highly prized by many people for the mak-
ing of jellies and jams. The bush fruits take up much less
space in proportion to the amount of fruit produced than
almost any other fruit. They are easily grown, are compact
in habit and can be set in places too small for tree fruits.
The currant and the gooseberry make a fitting border
around the garden. They can be planted so as to screen
some objectionable fence and at the same time produce an
abundance of fresh fruit. The currant and the gooseberry
are the hardiest of our common fruits, and they are very
easy to protect in an unfavorable climate. They are of
easy culture.

Currant.—There are two common types of the currant,
namely, the red and the black fruited sorts. These types
are based upon the growth of the plant and the color of the
fruit.

The red currant is supposed to have its origin in northern
Europe and in the northern part of America. The origin of
this plant is accountable for its hardiness. This species has
both red and white colored fruits. The red fruited varieties
are the most popular, although the white currants are grown
in some sections.

PROPAGATION 197

The black currant commonly grown in the garden has
its origin in northern Europe. The fruit as well as the plant
of this species has a peculiar odor which is objectionable to
some people. The demand for the fruit of the black cur-
rant is not as great as that of the red, but in some markets
it is prized highly and brings a good price.

Gooseberry.—The gooseberry is closely related to the cur-
rant. It is very hardy and very productive. There are
two classes of gooseberries under cultivation, namely, the
American and the European types. The color of the culti-
vated sorts ranges from a pale green to a deep red when
the fruit is ripe.

The cultivated American gooseberry has been developed
from one of our native species. Besides the cultivated
sorts there are several wild varieties. The fruit of the
wild sort is used in communities where the plant is found
growing. The greatest objection to the fruit of the wild
plants is the large number of sharp prickles found on it.

The cultivated European gooseberries have their origin
in Europe. These gooseberries are not grown to any extent
in America, because the plants are very susceptible to the
mildew. The gooseberry, however, is a more popular fruit
in Europe than it is in America, and many of the English
gooseberries are very large, some specimens weighing from
3 to 5 ounces.

Propagation—The bush fruits are propagated by hard-
wood cuttings, by layers and by division of the plant.
While the plants can be reproduced from seed this practice
is never recommended, because the plants that are grown
from seed are never true to name or to type. If a new
variety is wanted, however, seed must be planted, but this
is a very uncertain undertaking, especially for the amateur.

The currant is more generally propagated by hard-wood
cuttings. The cuttings are taken from wood of the previous
summer’s growth and cut into pieces about 8 inches in length.
The cut should be smooth and just below a bud. The
end of the new growth should be removed because it is
usually too immature to produce good cuttings. The cut-
tings should be made in the fall, usually during the latter part

198 BUSH FRUITS

of September and in October. A convenient number should
be tied in a bunch and placed in damp sand in a cool cellar
to callous over. The cuttings can be stored in the open
ground if the ground in which they are stored does not freeze.
The cuttings are not always taken in the fall. Occasionally
they are cut in the spring and planted at once in the nursery
row, but this practice usually does not produce as good
plants as the stored and calloused cuttings do.

The gooseberry is not propagated as easily from hard-
wood cuttings as the currant. The varieties, however,
which have small, slender wood can scarcely be propagated
by stem cuttings. For this reason the gooseberry is usually
propagated by layering. Layering is.normally performed
during the month of June. If the branches are covered with
soil at this time, usually each twig will be found to be rooted
by autumn. The rooted twigs should be taken up early in
the spring, cut apart and planted out in the nursery row.
After they are set in the nursery they are handled in the
same manner as the hard-wood cuttings.

For the home garden where several additional plants are
wanted, the parent plant can oftentimes be taken up in the
fall and separated into two or more parts and each piece
set in a new location.

Soil—The currant and the gooseberry will grow in almost
any soil. The soil should have a good depth and be supplied
with plant food. A well-drained, sandy loam with plenty
of humus will give excellent results. A clay loam that is
properly handled will also grow good currants and excellent
gooseberries. The bush fruits do their best on high lands
and are almost worthless on low land. A northern slope is
preferred because it is cool and the bush ‘fruits thrive under
cool conditions. The currants and the gooseberries do
well when they are planted on the north side of a building
or between the rows in an orchard, because they are par-
tially shaded. In the crowded city and in the suburban
garden these fruits usually do better than almost any other
fruit, especially if the bushes are properly pruned and well
thinned out. The gooseberries do the best on a fairly
stiff clay while the currants seem to prefer the lighter soil

PLANTING 199

for their best development. In certain regions where the
soil gets very hot and dry during the summer, it is often
advisable to mulch the ground with coarse litter or straw in
order to keep the temperature down and to hold the moisture
in the soil.

The bush fruits are heavy feeders and they should be
supplied with a large amount of plant food. The plant
food can be furnished by either cultivating the soil or by
mulching it heavily with good horse manure. The mulch
in addition to adding plant food serves to keep the weeds
down.

Cultivation —In the majority of fruit gardens, cultivation
is preferable. However, in certain sections particularly in
the middle west the bush fruits seem to thrive best without
cultivation, and with a mulch. The tillage when practical
should be shallow because the currant and the gooseberry
are shallow-rooted plants. The plants when grown under a
mulch do. comparatively well without tillage, and the bush
fruits can be grown along the borders of the garden and in
other out-of-the-way places. However, more satisfactory
results are usually obtained if a certain amount of tillage is
given each year. It should be stopped soon enough so the
plant can mature its wood before winter. Without a doubt
some cover crop such as crimson clover would be valuable,
especially on a commercial plantation, if cultivation is prac-
tised. The cover crop, if it is adopted, should be planted
about the same time as recommended for the other fruits,
namely, the latter part of July or the first part of August.

Planting —The bush fruits may be planted in the fall or
in the spring. In many sections, except the extreme north,
fall planting is preferable. Where the weather conditions
are favorable and the soil is well prepared there seems to
be little difference between fall and spring planting. Good
results have been secured with both methods where the con-
ditions were suitable. The advocates of fall planting claim
that since the growth of these plants starts early in the
spring, there is more of a check to the growth of a plant if
it is set in the spring than if it is transplanted in the fall.
This assumption is very sound in many instances, because

200 BUSH FRUITS

the wood ripens up early in the autumn, therefore fall plant-
ing is preferred by most growers.

The distance to plant the bush fruit is determined by
the method of cultivation. In most cases the plants are
set 4 feet apart in the rows and the rows 6 feet apart. These
distances permit of horse cultivation and during the first
few years the plants can be cultivated in both directions.
As the plants grow larger they are cultivated only in one
direction. When the plants are set in the fruit garden
and where only a few are grown, they can be planted closer
together. The usual distance under these conditious is
4 feet apart each way.

The plants éan be either one or two years old when they
are set in their permanent places, but the two-year-old plants
are usually preferred. The plants that are propagated by
cuttings or by layers give the most satisfactory results for
a permanent patch.

Pruning.—The currant and the gooseberry require similar
methods of pruning. They are much alike in their habits
of growth and the pruning of each plant is much the same.
Pruning should be done during the dormant period.

When starting the young plant the first year it should
be pruned to a single whip containing six or seven good buds.
The second year select five or six good branches to form
the framework of the bush. Prune any irregular branches
back to make a uniform top.

When the plant comes into bearing, Jess pruning is neces-
sary, but a certain amount should be given regularly every
year. The wood that is two or three years old produces the
greatest quantity and the most superior fruit. The older
branches produce fruit, but the quantity is less and the
quality is inferior. The aim, then, of the pruner should be
to remove all branches over three years of age, and to thin
out the bush in order to admit the sunlight and to permit
good circulation of air. Head in all those branches that
make a long or an irregular growth.

Harvesting.—The bush fruits usually give a good harvest.
A strong, healthy currant plant should yield from three to
six pounds of high-grade fruit, and many plants greatly

HARVESTING 201

Fia. 92.—Gooseberry before pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bulletin
No. 149.)

Fic. 93.—Gooseberry after pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bulletin
No. 149.)

202 BUSH FRUITS

exceed this yield. The currants should be picked when
they are dry. They can hang on the vines for several weeks
after they are ripe and improve in quality all of the time.
They should be picked by pinching or cutting off the clusters.
The berries should not be pulled from the bunches.

The gooseberry usually outyields the currant. The fruit
of the gooseberries like the currants can remain on the
bushes after it is ripe and improve in quality.

The greatest disadvantage to the harvesting of the goose-
berry is the thorns. However, the thorns can largely be
avoided if the branches are lifted up with one hand and the
berries picked from the under side with the other hand.
The thornless varieties have not as yet proved to be of any
great value.

The currants and the gooseberries are long-lived. They
will bear fruit for many years, but it is better to set out
new plants every eight or ten years. As the bushes get
older the fruit becomes smaller and gets poorer in quality.
The plants are propagated so easily and they cost so little
that it is doubtful whether it is ever profitable to attempt
to rejuvenate a neglected patch. The plants come into
bearing very early and will perhaps bear fruit as soon if
not sooner than rejuvenated plants and the quality will
be superior.

Varieties—There are only a few well-defined American
varieties of the bush fruits but there are many European
types. The lack of interest, until very recently, in the com-
mercial cultivation of these fruits, probably accounts for the
scarcity of the varieties as compared with some of our other
fruits. In Europe the bush fruits are cultivated extensively
and there are many good varieties.

The most popular varieties of the red currants are the
Cherry, Fray, Perfection, Versaillaise and the Victoria. In
certain regions other varieties are grown, but they are not
so widely planted. The Wilder is one of the newer varieties
and is gaining in popularity each year.

The white varieties of currants should be more generally
planted, especially in the home garden. They are consid-
ered equally good in quality and they are prolific bearers.

DISEASES OF THE BUSH FRUITS 203

The White Grape and the White Imperial are the most
common varieties.

The black European currants are not grown to any extent
in this country. The disagreeable odor of the plant and the
peculiar flavor of the fruit are objectionable to many people.
This currant has some advantages and a few plants should
be grown. The Black Naples is the most widely planted
variety.

The important American varieties of gooseberries are even
less in number than the currants. The Downing, the Pearl,
and the Houghton are perhaps the most popular of the
American sorts. These varieties are thrifty growers, very
productive and are comparatively free from disease. They
are excellent for cooking and for making jelly, but they
are not equal in quality to the English varieties for eating
out of the hand. The English varieties have been devel-
oped to a much greater degree than the American types.
There are over one thousand well-developed English sorts
of which some are suited to the American gardens. Of the
English types the Columbus, Chataqua, Industry and the
Triumph are best suited to the American garden. The
English types are usually less vigorous and less productive
than the native varieties.

DISEASES OF THE BUSH FRUITS.

The diseases and the insects affecting the bush fruits
are similar, and many that are found on the one plant are
also common on the other.

Leaf Spot.—The leaf spot is a disease that affects the
leaves, and jt is found on both the currant and the goose-
berry. It is easily recognized because of the large well-
defined spots, with pale centers, which are surrounded by
a brownish border. Spraying with the standard 44-50
Bordeaux mixture is effective in controlling this disease.
The spraying should begin just as the buds are opening, and
repeated at intervals of two weeks until four or five sprays
have been given.

204 BUSH FRUITS

Anthracnose.—The anthracnose attacks all parts of the
currant and the gooseberry. The anthracnose only becomes
serious at certain times, but cases are reported where great
damage has resulted from this trouble. The first symptom
of this disease is the appearance of small dark brown spots
on the leaves. These spots later change to yellow and the
leaves fall off. Upon the canes, the stems, and the fruit,
the disease appears as small sunken spots. Spraying with
the standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture will control this
disease. The first spraying should be given just as the buds
begin to swell in the spring. After the first spray succes-
sive sprayings should be given every two weeks until four or
five have been applied.

Powdery Mildew.—The powdery mildew is found growing
on both the currant and the gooseberry. This disease
appears on all parts of the plant. The affected parts look
as though they had been sprinkled with flour or some other
white material. The powdery mildew, like all other mildews,
is a superficial fungus, and upon close examination small
white threads matted in a dense mass over the affected parts
will be found. If the disease is allowed to progress with-
out any restraint, the berries become deformed, irregular
and of poor quality. They often crack open and later rot.
The damage caused by this disease is considerable, and it
retards the cultivation of these fruits in many sections.
According to the work done at the Geneva Experiment
Station the spraying with potassium sulphide at the rate of
1 ounce to 2 gallons of water is effective in reducing the
loss due to this disease. The spraying should begin just as
the buds are opening and continued at intervals of two weeks
until seven or eight sprays have been given.

INSECTS OF THE BUSH FRUITS.

Currant Worms.—The worms that are found eating the
foliage of the currants and the gooseberries include several
species. The native species as well as the imported worms
are found preying upon these plants. The injury due to
these insects is somewhat distinct for the various species,

INSECTS OF THE BUSH FRUITS 205

although all of them eat the leaves and cause considerable
damage. The adults of some of the so-called currant worms
are moths and some are flies, but in all cases it is the larvee
of the species attacking the plant that eat the foliage. The
habits and the life histories of the various currant worms
differ, but in general all of them can be controlled by the
same methods.

If the plants are sprayed with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead
to 50 gallons of water, these insects can be easily killed. If
arsenate of lead is not available, 3 pound of Paris green to
50 gallons of water is effective in destroying the worms.
The spraying should begin as soon as the insects are seen.
Usually one spraying is sufficient, although in some cases
additional sprayings are necessary. If the insects attack the
plants late in the season, when the fruit is reaching maturity,
spray them with fresh hellebore or fresh pyrethrum at the
rate of 4 ounces to 2 gallons of water. Dusting the plants
with the dry material diluted, 1 pound of the poison to 5

pounds of air-slaked lime or flour, is also good. Where the
pyrethram or the hellebore is used, there is no danger from
poisoning by the eating of the fruit.

Aphis.—The aphis is known as the plant louse. It is
frequently found on the currant, and occasionally on the
gooseberry. It is yellowish green in color and is usually
found on the under side of the leaves. The plant lice usually
become abundant during the latter part of the spring, and
they often cover the entire under surface of the leaves,
causing them to curl up. The younger leaves near the tips
of the branch are the ones which are most often attacked.

The spraying with kerosene emulsion or with Black Leaf
40 will control this insect. The spraying to be effective
roust be done with great care and the spray material must
come in contact with every insect. This is often difficult,
since the insects are in the curled leaves, and hard to reach.
The spray must necessarily be directed upward so as to reach
the under side of the leaves.

Fruit Worms.—The currant and the gooseberry are subject
to attack by certain insects that bore into their fruit. Ordi-
narily these insects are not serious, but occasionally the

206 BUSH FRUITS

entire crop is damaged by them. The gooseberry fruit
worm is perhaps the most serious and is the larva of a small
grayish moth. The female lays her eggs on the fruit and,
after hatching, the larve enter the fruit and feed on the pulp.
Occasionally one worm will enter several berries and join
all of them by a web. In the small home garden hand
picking is perhaps as effective a remedy as can be suggested.
This is not practical on a large scale, and some other method
still remains to be worked out.

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE CURRANTS AND THE

GOOSBERRIES.

Number

of spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.

First Before buds swell in spring Commercial lime sulphur di-
luted 1 gallon to 8 gallons
of water.

Second Just as leaves are expanding Commercial lime sulphur, 1
gallon to 35 gallons of water
or 4-4-50 Bordeaux plus 2
pounds arsenate of lead to
50 gallons of spray.

Third When fruit is one-fourth grown Same as second.

Fourth Near ripening season if worms Fresh hellebore or pyrethrum,

; are troublesome on the fruit 4 ounces to 2 gallons of

water, or dusted on at the
rate of 1 pound to 5 pounds
of flour or air-slaked lime.

If the aphis or plant louse appears, spray the plants with
Black Leaf 40 at the rate of 1 part to 500 parts of water.
Any wilted foliage should be cut out and destroyed because
this usually indicaies the borer.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Name the bush fruits and tell why they are so called.

2. Differentiate between the several kinds of currants.

3. How does the currant differ from the gooseberry?

4. Discuss the propagation of the bush fruits.

5. Why is it more desirable to propagate the bush fruits by cuttings
instead of by seed?

6. Why should the gooseberry be propagated by layering instead of by
cuttings?

7. What soil is preferable for the currant and the gooseberry?

REVIEW QUESTIONS 207

. When is it profitable to cultivate and to mulch the bush fruits?

. Why is cultivation to be preferred over mulching?

. What are the proper distances to plant the bush fruits?

. What determines the distance the plants are set?

. Discuss the harvesting of the bush fruits.

. Why should the plantation be renewed every ten to twelve years?
. Discuss the varieties and name the most important ones.

. Discuss the insects and the plant diseases that attack the plants.
. Give the spray outline for the bush fruits.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE BRAMBLES.

Tue brambles include the blackberry, the dewberry, the
red raspberry, the black raspberry and the loganberry.
The blackberry and the raspberry are the most important
brambles, and these are found growing in many sections of
the country. They are both commercially profitable over a
large area. The dewberry is more limited in its growth
than either the blackberry or the raspberry. It is grown
in many places, however, but it does not rank very high
as a commercial fruit. The loganberry is a new bramble.
It has come into prominence very recently. The area over
which it can be grown is somewhat limited. The logan-
berry reaches its highest development in the northwestern
part of the United States. It is a very important fruit in
Washington and Oregon and it is shipped to many parts
of the country from that region.

The brambles are special favorites of most growers because
they give quick returns. They are easily grown and the
yields are usually large. Some one of the brambles should
find a place in either the small suburban home garden or
the farm garden. Where the garden is large enough, a few
plants of each bramble should be grown.

In many sections of the country the brambles, and espe-
cially the blackberry, raspberry and dewberry, grow wild.
These wild sorts are good but they are usually inferior to
the cultivated varieties. Whenever brambles are desired
for the garden it is always well to select those cultivated
varieties that have proved to be profitable. It is rarely
ever satisfactory to collect the wild sorts for the garden.
The fully ripened fruit of the cultivated sorts is much
superior in quality to that of the wild sorts. The habit of
growth of the cultivated plants surpasses the wild varieties

RASPBERRY 209

and there is always a loss when the wild plants are grown
in place of some of the cultivated and the named varieties.

Blackberry and Dewberry.—The fruit of the blackberry
and the dewberry are similar, but the growth of the plants
is different. The dewberry is not as important as the black-
berry. It claims admission into the garden principally
because it ripens its fruit earlier, and this lengthens the
blackberry season. Another advantage claimed for the dew-
berry is that it is a trailing plant and it can be more easily
mulched and protected in severe climates. The dewberry
is sometimes spoken of as the trailing blackberry.

The cultivation of the blackberry began about 1850
and it has gradually spread to many regions since that date.
The general culture of the blackberry has probably been
delayed because of the many wild forms which are abundant
in nearly every section of the country. The superiority
of the cultivated varieties with regard to the size and the
quality of the berries has greatly increased the commercial
plantings. As the public becomes better educated to the
value of the cultivated varieties of blackberries the industry
is bound to increase more rapidly.

Raspberry.—There are three kinds of raspberries. This
division is based on the color of the fruit, and we have the
red raspberry, the black raspberry, and the yellow or light-
colored raspberry. The red raspberry and the black rasp-
berry are the types which are most often grown. The
yellow raspberry is cultivated only to a limited extent and
more as a novelty than as a staple variety.

The origin of the raspberry is somewhat uncertain. ede
seems to be, however, some varieties of European and some
of American origin.

The red raspberry group includes not only the native
red raspberry but the European red varieties as well. This
group also embraces an intermediate plant that bears a
purple fruit and is frequently spoken of as purple-cane
raspberry. The yellow-fruited raspberry is also included
in the red group. The red raspberry has a more slender
and a more open habit of growth than the black raspberry.

The canes are often stiff and bear stiff prickles. The red
14

210 THE BRAMBLES

Fic. 94.—Black raspberry before pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bull.
No. 149.)

Vic. 95.—Black raspberry after pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bull.
: No. 149.)

PROPAGATION 211

raspberry is somewhat more hardy than the black rasp-
berry and it can be grown considerably farther north.

The black raspberry is distinct from the red raspberry
both in its habit of growth and in its fruit. The habit
of growth of the plant as well as the quality of the fruit
are such that it has gained an important place as a com-
mercial product. The black raspberry industry can be more
profitably and more successfully pursued in regions remote
from large commercial centers, because the fruit can be
evaporated and sold in a dry state. The red raspberry,
however, cannot be handled in this way and must be sold
in a fresh-state. This limits the production of the red rasp-
berry group to regions where large centers of population
exist, such as around cities.

Loganberry.—The loganberry is a hybrid between the red
antwerp raspberry and a native blackberry of California,
produced by Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, California.
It is a plant well adapted to the northwestern States of
Washington and Oregon as well as parts of California. It
is not grown to any extent in other regions. The logan-
berry is remarkable for its productiveness, hardiness and
freedom from insects and diseases. The fruit is very large,
often reaching 13 inches in length. It is shaped much like
the blackberry and is of a dull crimson-red color. The
plant is a rank, coarse grower and produces long viny canes.
The loganberry has a flavor intermediate between that of
the blackberry and the raspberry. It ships well if picked
before it is too ripe. It is prized by many people for canning,
preserving and jelly making.

Propagation—The brambles are propagated by suckers,
root cuttings and tip layering. Each method of propaga-
tion is satisfactory, but the growth of some of the different
varieties makes one method better than some others. There
is a great tendency for some of the brambles to throw up
young plants from their roots. These young plants are
called suckers. The suckers are cut from the parent plant
with a part of the root to which it is attached and set in
a new place. In a short time the new plant will soon make
a fine, large specimen. When the propagating material is

212 THE BRAMBLES

searce, new plants can be produced by cutting the roots
into pieces about 3 inches long. These small pieces of
roots are called root cuttings. Each root cutting should be
planted 3 or 4 inches deep. The root from which the cut-
ting is made should be from } to 3 of an inch in diameter.
Certain of the brambles can be propagated by layering.
The dewberry and some of the blackberry-dewberry hybrid
as well as the raspberries will root readily at the tip of the
canes. This method of propagation is called tip layering.
Tip layering is performed by either allowing the cane to
bend down and touch the ground naturally or to fasten it
down by some artificial means. When the tip of the cane
comes in contact with the soil it soon takes root and in a
short time a new plant is developed.

Soil—The brambles thrive on nearly any type of soil
provided suitable moisture conditions prevail. A sandy or
clay loam is perhaps the most preferable when it can be
secured, The brambles yield the largest returns when they
are grown upon a, moderately deep, rich soil with plenty of
available plant food.

The soil for the brambles should be well prepared the
season previous to the setting of the plants. Some culti-
vated crop, such as potatoes, beans or cow peas, should be
planted on the soil the previous vear, so that the ground
will be well cultivated. This procedure will ensure the
thorough rotting of any sod or organic matter and will help
to destroy any cut worms or other injurious insects which
often cause great damage to the young plants. The soil
should be plowed to a depth of 8 to 10 inches when the
brambles are planted. After plowing the ground it should
be thoroughly harrowed and worked down until the soil of
the plant bed is fine and uniform. The subsoil should be
such as to give ample drainage. The brambles cannot
thrive with their roots growing in a cold, damp subsoil.

Fertilizer.—The brambles respond differently to the use of
fertilizers. Barnyard manure applied in limited quantities
is perhaps the best fertilizer for the brambles in general.
The manure not only adds plant food and humus but it
also improves the physical condition of the soil.

PLANTING 213

According to some work done at the New Jersey Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, the barynard manure is not as
profitable as the complete commercial fertilizer for the
red raspberries. There might be considerable variation in
different sections in regard to the value of commercial
fertilizers. In all probability a combination of both the
barnyard manure and a complete commercial fertilizer will
give more uniform results over a greater range of territory.
For the home garden the barnyard manure should be used,
especially by the amateur. Occasionally there is some
danger attending the use of the commercial fertilizer and
unless the grower is thoroughly familiar with the handling
of the product some damage might result to the plants.

Planting. —The brambles are usually planted in the spring.
A larger number of the plants will grow if they are set as
early as the land can be properly prepared. When early
spring planting is impossible the plants can be set in the
fall especially in those regions where there is no danger from
drying winds during the winter.

The plants should be set a little deeper than they for-
merly stood in the nursery row. IH the crowns project
above the ground the canes are easily broken off. The top
should be cut back to 6 or 8 inches in length as soon as the
planting is finished.

The distance to plant the brambles depends upon the
purpose of the crop. If the soil is fertile and the crop is for
commercial purposes they must be set farther apart. than if
the plants are grown in the garden for home consumption.

The brambles are usually set 3 feet apart in the rows, and
the rows 6 to § feet apart for commercial planting in the
Eastern States. In other regions where the plants grow
very large, as they frequently do on the Pacific coast, they
should be set 4 or 5 feet apart in the rows and the rows not
any closer than 8 feet. In the home garden where only a
few plants of each bramble are grown, and where hand labor
and greater attention is given to them, the plants can be
set closer together. Under such conditions the rows should
never be less than 4 feet apart nor the plants less than
2 feet apart in the rows. The character of the soil and the

214 THE BRAMBLES

space available will determine the distance in most cases
especially in the home garden.

Systems of Training —The systems of training vary with
the conditions in the different sections of the country. In
some regions the canes are topped, that is, the tips of the

ai a WY i
MW AW.

Fig. 96.—A common form of trellis for canes of the upright types of brambles.

=

branches are pinched off with the fingers when they have
reached a height of 23 or 3 feet. All canes do not reach
the desired height at the same time, and the patch must be
pruned several times. The pinching off of the tip causes
the canes to branch and they are better able to stand erect

A

Sa

Fic. 97.—A form of trellis for canes of the trailing types of brambles.

under heavy crops of berries. In some cases when pinch-
ing off is practised the canes will stand erect without sup-
ports. If supports are needed wires can be stretched along
rows of posts close to the brambles. A trellis of this kind
‘is made by setting posts at intervals of from 15 to 25 feet.

PRUNING 215

A wire is stretched along the posts about 24 feet above the
ground and the canes are tied to the wire. A modification.
of this trellis is made by nailing a cross-piece, 18 inches
long, to the post near the top. Two wires are then stretched
along the posts and fastened to the cross-bars. The brambles
are now allowed to grow between the wires, which forms a
support on either side of them.

Brambles of the upright growing type, as some of the black-
berries, are supported by tying the canes to a trellis made
by stretching two or three wires along several posts set at
intervals of from 15 to 20 feet. The trailing types of bram-
bles are sometimes allowed to run along the wires of the
trellis similar to that of the grapevine. Either two or three
wires can be fastened to the posts. The number of wires is
determined by the type of the bramble. If the brambles
are planted in hills, which is occasionally done, posts can
be set at each plant and the canes fastened to the post.

Pruning.—The blackberries and the raspberries are suffi-
ciently alike to make the pruning of each practically the same.

Both the blackberry and the raspberry have a great
tendency to sucker. These suckers not only grow about
the parent plant but also between the rows. A certain
percentage of all these suckers should be removed as soon
as they appear, and especially those which grow between
the rows.

As soon as the berries are picked, the old canes which
have just borne the fruit, should be cut off close to the
ground and burned. This practice allows the young canes
more room in which to develop and at the same time destroys
any diseases or insects that are present.

In some sections the plants are topped, that is, the tip
of the canes are pinched off with the fingers when the canes
have reached a height of 23 or 3 feet. This pinching back
of the canes causes them to branch and they are better able
to support their fruit without breaking over.

The canes should be thinned out in the row, so that
only four or five are grown in one clump. ‘This practice
is conducive to good healthy plants and also produces the
best quality of fruit.

216 THE BRAMBLES

-Winter Protection—The brambles require some winter
protection in the northern and central western States which
are subject to cold drying winds. Although some of the
brambles, particularly the blackberries, can withstand very
cold weather, some protection is usually advisable. The
plants are first taken from their trellis or support and laid
on the ground. It is then a relatively easy matter to cover
up the canes with soil. If the soil is not sufficient to thor-
oughly protect the plants, hay, straw or coarse manure can
be added later in the winter. As soon as the cold weather
is over the materials are removed and the plants fastened
to the’ supports. The strawy material which has been
removed will form a mulch for the ground during the growing
season and. in this way will serve two purposes. A mulch
is of great value in retarding the evaporation of water from
the soil. It also has the advantage of keeping the weed
down and, to a limited extent, of preventing a rank growth
of suckers. Where the plants are mulched the material
should not be removed from the canes until all danger of
severe weather is past.

Harvesting.—The fruit of the brambles is usually hand-
picked. This method of harvesting is necessary because
of the soft nature of the fruit. The keeping qualities of
the fruit of any variety depends largely upon the care
exercised in the picking and the handling. If the berries are
bruised or injured in any way the fruit is quickly destroyed
by moulds.

The time for picking the fruit depends upon the season of
maturity and the variety. Some varieties may be picked
soon after the berries turn black, while others color up
before they are ripe. The berries should not be picked
until they. become sweet, but should still be firm enough to
market well.

The fruit of the brambles is marketed in either pint or quart
boxes, like that of the strawberry, Perhaps the shallow
pint boxes are preferable to the quarts because the weight
of the berries is sometimes sufficient to mash the lower
ones. The boxes are packed in crates which vary in size
from 16 to 24 boxes to the crate.

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES 217

The fruit should be kept in a shady place in the field, and
taken to the refrigerator as soon as possible after it is picked.

Varieties.—The brambles vary so in their ability to with-
stand cold that they are usually divided into three groups,
the hardy, the half-hardy and the tender sorts. The hardy
varieties should be selected for planting in the northern
regions where severe weather prevails. In such districts the
plants should be mulched to prevent them from winter killing.
The halt-hardy varieties grow and succeed in the middle
states or in a region farther south than where the northern
varieties are grown. The tender varieties have originated
for the most part in the southwest, and are peculiarly adapted
to the semi-arid conditions that prevail in those sections.
These varieties are somewhat drought resistant and mature
their fruits before the season becomes too warm.

The Pacific coast region grows a large number of varie-
ties. Some of these are common in the east and some are
adapted to other sections of the United States. There are
many brambles grown in the Pacific coast region that are
not adapted to any other section of the country. This is
possible because of the wide variation in the climate as well
as in the rainfall.

There can be no authentic list of varieties that will succeed
in all regions. The grower must first decide whether his
local conditions will permit the growing of the tender, half-
hardy or hardy types. It is not profitable to select varieties
which are not perfectly hardy. An inquiry among the grow-
ers in his immediate vicinity as to the best variety to select
is recommended. The grower should as far as possible
select those varieties which are best suited to his particular
section.

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES.

There are several diseases and insects found on both the
blackberry and the raspberry. However, by the use of
the proper preventives these troubles can be held in check
and good yields obtained.

Leaf Spot.—The leaf spot is a disease found upon the leaves
of the blackberry and the raspberry. The disease appears

218 THE BRAMBLES

as small spots on the leaves. The central region of the
spots is white while the border is of a reddish color. This
disease is exceedingly common and widespread. No treat-
ment has yet been demonstrated to be of sufficient value to
be recommended. It is not often very serious.

Anthracnose.—The anthracnose is a very serious disease
of both the blackberry and the raspberry. It has caused
great loss in several states. The disease attacks chiefly
the young canes, but is also found upon the leaves. The
disease appears as small purplish spots which later become
grayish white in the centers. As the spots increase in size,
they coalesce, making irregular blotches varying from 4 to
4 inch in length. The affected leaves refuse to grow and
finally dry up and fall off. The anthracnose is not very
destructive if rotation of crops is practised. In addition to
rotation, the infected canes should be cut out and burned.
Spraying with standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture will aid
in preventing the spread of the disease.

Cane Blight.—The cane blight is sometimes very injurious
in certain regions. The injury occurs to the fruiting canes,
the foliage of which wilts and dies. This disease often
enters the canes through slits made in pruning. The disease
is largely distributed through nursery stock and by work-
men. ‘The cane blight should be prevented as much as
possible by planting only healthy plants and all diseased
canes should be immediately burned. It is never advisable
to replant on ground that has been previously infected.

INSECTS OF THE BRAMBLES.

Raspberry-cane Borer.—The raspberry-cane borer some-
times becomes troublesome. The adult insect is a beetle
about 4 inch in length. It has a slender body which is black
in color except the prothorax, which is yellow. Occasion-
ally two or three black spots are found on the wings. The
beetles appear in the early summer and the females girdle
the young tip in two places, causing it to wither and die.
Between the two girdled portions the female deposits her
eggs, which soon hatch and the larve burrow downward.

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE BRAMBLES 219

By fall they have reached the root, where they remain over
winter. This insect is held in control by cutting off the
tip of the canes below the girdled point and burning them.
Spraying is not effective against this kind of insect.

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE BRAMBLES.

When the new canes are 8 to 10 inches high begin spray-
ing with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture and repeat at intervals
of every two or three weeks throughout the growing season.
If worms or slugs appear and destroy the foliage by eating it,
add 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of spray.
After the fruiting season has passed, thoroughly inspect the
canes, cut out and burn all those which are irregular in
growth, weak or infected with galls, tree cricket eggs or
stem borers.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Name the plants that are included under the brambles.
2. Tell the difference between the blackberry and the dewberry.
3. What is the origin of the raspberry? How is the raspberry group
* divided?
4. What is the difference between the red raspberry and the black
raspberry?
5. Why is the black raspberry grown over a greater area than the red
raspberry? z
6. Give the origin of the loganberry? Where is.its native home?
7. Discuss the three ways in which the brambles are propagated.
8. Which method of propagation is most commonly employed?
9. Discuss the preparation of the soil for the brambles.
10. What advantage has barnyard manure over commercial fertilizer?
11. What is the most desirable way to fertilize the brambles in the home
garden? Why?
12. Discuss the planting of the brambles.
13. What determines the distance the plants are set?
14. Why are the brambles set closer together in the home garden than in
the commercial plantation?
15. Discuss the several ways of training the brambles.
16. Discuss a good way to protect brambles during cold weather.
17. Why is it necessary to give the brambles winter protection?
18. What is the determining factor in selecting a variety of one of the
brambles?
19. Name and describe the important diseases and insects.
20. Give the spray outline for the brambles.

CHAPTER XV.
THE GRAPE.

America has about twenty species of native wild grapes.
A few of this number have been fully tested under cultivation.
There is practically no part of North America without some
native species. In many sections these wild species are
important fruits and are the parents of our commercial
varieties.

The two great classes of grapes grown .in this country
are the American species or the labrusca grapes, of which
the Concord, the Delaware and the Niagara are common
examples, and the European or vinifera varieties, such as the
Malaga, Tokay and Thompson Seedless, which are confined
to the warmer Pacific coast region. The grapes grown east
of the Rocky Mountains are practically all improved native -
species, but west of the mountains along the Pacific coast the
European species are the grapes which are largely grown.

The grape is of very easy culture and brings almost certain
reward for the care and the attention which is given to it.

Propagation.—The grape is propagated by seed, hard-wood
cuttings, layering and in some regions by grafting. Grafting
is most often done in California, where the European varieties
are worked on the American roots, in order to avoid the loss
due to an insect known as the phylloxera.

The grapes propagated by seed are used either as stocks on
which to graft known sorts or to obtain new varieties. The
seed should be sown, as soon as it is gathered, in rich soil,
to a depth of 4 inch, and protected by a mulch during
the winter. Where the seed is grown in a haphazard way
there is very little chance of ever producing fruit of any value.
The intelligent hybridizing or the crossing of two staple
varieties of known worth is a much better way of securing
new varieties of value.

PROPAGATION 221

The propagation by hard-wood cuttings is the most prac-
tical and the most widely used method. The hard-wood
cuttings of the grape are made in several ways, namely, as
one-eye, two-eye, three-eye, heel and mallet cuttings. The
two- and the three-eye cuttings are most often employed.

Fic. 98.—Two- and three-eye rooted cuttings of the grape.

The one-eye cutting is only used when the cutting wood is
scarce and a large number of cuttings are made. The heel
and the mallet*cuttings are only used in special cases. A few
varieties will grow better when a small piece of the parent
branch is attached, as in the heel and the mallet cutting.

222 THE GRAPE

The length of the straight stem hard-wood cutting varies
according to the variety and the amount of available cutting
wood. When it is possible the cutting should be about
8 inches long. Shorter cuttings should only be used when
absolutely necessary.

The cuttings should be handled as described in the chapter
on the Propagation of Plants.

Fic. 99.—Rooted heel cuttings of the grape.

The grapes of all varieties are easily propagated by layering.
This method of propagation is neither adapted to the rapid
multiplication of the plant nor is it very well suited to the
commercial propagation of the grape. It is, however, an
excellent means for increasing the grape forghome use where
only a few well-developed and strong plants_are needed.

SOIL 223

There are several methods of layering commonly employed:
The serpentine and the trench layer are perhaps the most
practical. Layering is especially valuable for the amateur,
because very little knowledge of the growth of a plant is
necessary to have good success with layering. The essential
step in layering is to break or twist the cane at several points
and then cover it up with soil to a depth of several inches.
If serpentine layering is the method selected the cane is
covered at several places, leaving a corresponding space not
covered. Several plants will grow from this parent cane and
the young plants can be removed when they have a well-
developed root system.

Soil—The grape does the best if grown on a good sandy
loam. A clay loam is also satisfactory in many cases if it is
well drained. The soil should be fertile but not excessively
rich. It should be loose and easily worked. The presence
of lime in a soil seems to be beneficial.

The subsoil should be open and somewhat loose in texture.
The character of the subsoil is important. The roots are
easily injured by excessive heat and draught as well as by
standing water, and if the texture of the subsoil is such that
the roots cannot penetrate it the vine will usually suffer.
This is particularly true if the subsoil is comparatively close
to the surface.

The soils underlaid with a hard pan or those which are
inclined to wash badly, as well as poorly drained ones,
should always be avoided when selecting a location for the
grape.

The soil should be thoroughly prepared by plowing and
harrowing it before planting the grape. - Where conditions
warrant it the soil will be greatly improved by incorporating
well-rotted manure with it before planting the vines.

The soil with reference to the general location is impor-
tant. The situation for the grape should be one which js
protected from cold winds. A warm sunny exposure with a
free circulation of air is very desirable. A southern slope
generally offers the best location. Other slopes and level
land are used extensively for growing the grape, but the fruit
is usually a little longer in ripening. Excellent fruit is often

224 THE GRAPE

grown on northern slopes if they have the modifying influ-
ences of some large body of water.

Planting —The most economical way of planting the grape
is to furrow out the land one way and mark it the other. The
vines are then set at the intersection of the furrow and the
mark. For home planting a hole large enough to receive the
roots without crowding them can be made with the ordinary
spade or any other digging implement.

When planting the vines it is always well to select a cloudy
day and to have the soil in a damp condition but not wet.
The vines suffer less from exposure when they are planted
under these conditions. The tops of the vines should be cut
off so that only three or four buds remain before they are
planted. The roots should be cut back to a uniform length,
say about 10 to 12 inches. On light soils it is very important
to have the plants set deep, and on such soils 12 to 15 inches
is not too deep. The fertile top soil should be worked about
the roots, but the plants should not be covered more than 2
or 3 inches deeper than they stood in the nursery row at the
time of planting. Gradually add the remainder of the soil
until the plants are at the required depth.

It is not advisable to plant deep on heavy soils and 6 to 8
inches is about the right depth.

The distance apart the plants should be set depends some-
what upon the vigor of the plant and the variety which is
selected. The method of training and pruning as well as the
soil also regulates the distance. The strong growing varieties
are sometimes set 10 feet apart each way, but occasionally
some growers will set the plants 7 to 8 feet in the rows and the
rows 8 to 10 feet apart. The stronger growing varieties, like
the Niagara and the Concord, will have to be set at a greater
distance than a weaker growing variety like the Delaware.

Only strong one-year-old vines produced from layers or
from cuttings should be planted. Two-year-old vines often-
times do not grow well, while older vines are of very little
value.

It is more economical and in every way more profitable to
pay a good price for the best vines than to use inferior ones
which cost nothing.

PRUNING 225

The vines of each variety should be planted together and
as soon as the planting is completed a record should be made
which will show the location of all the vines of each variety.

Cultivation.—The cultivation of the grape should begin
soon after the vines are planted. The tillage should be
shallow enough so as not to strike the roots. The vineyards
should be kept free from weeds. During the first two years
some hoed crop can be grown between the rows which will be
a benefit to the plants by shading them. After a year or two
the vines will need all of the room. The narrow strips left
along the rows should be cleaned out with the hoe. A one-
horse cultivator will usually be the most economical for
cultivating between the rows.

The cultivation should stop when the fruit begins to weigh
down the vines. As soon as the crop has been harvested, the
cultivator should be run down the middle of the rows and the
ground sown to some cover crop. Crimson clover or cow
peas seem to serve this purpose well, although rye, buck-
wheat and hairy vetch are sometimes used.

Pruning.—The pruning and the training of the grape to a
definite system usually go together. It is necessary to follow
a uniform method of pruning in order to train the vine to a
certain system. It requires judgment as well as knowledge
of the vine. When the vines are in a vigorous condition the
pruning and the training becomes almost optional with the
grower, although there is no doubt that certain varieties of
grapes do the best when trained to a certain system.

In pruning the grape the relationship of the wood to
fruit bearing should be thoroughly understood. The pruner
must keep in mind that the fruit of any year is borne near the
base of shoots of the same year, which spring either from the
canes of the preceding year or from older wood.

Since each shoot bears from two to three clusters of fruit,
only two or three buds should be left on the cane of the
previous year’s growth. Usually two or more canes are
selected on one or two of the main stems. Good pruning,
then, means removing all wood except canes sufficient to
furnish the shoots necessary for the desired number of clusters.

The time for the pruning of the grapes varies somewhat

15

226 THE GRAPE

with the growers and the localities, but it usually extends
from the dropping of the leaves in the fall to a time just
before the swelling of the buds in the spring.

Systems of Training.—The training and the pruning of the
grape are closely allied. In discussing training it is necessary
to use certain terms characteristic of the grape and a brief
definition of these terms should logically find a place here.
The terms commonly used are (1) shoot, which is a green or
immature growth less than one year old; (2) cane, which is a
matured shoot; (3) arm, which is an old cane three or more
years old; (4) branch, which is a division of an arm; (5) stem,
which is the part that supports the entire vine.

+ L =
— + = ff - ==

Fic. 100.—Single-stem Kniffen system of training the grape.

In the training of a vine a support is necessary. This
support is called an arbor or a trellis. The best trellis is one
-that permits the vine to grow without crowding and also
holds it in such a position so that all parts can be easily
reached when spraying and gathering the fruit. The trellis
should not be too expensive. There are many different
styles of support and each has its advantages as well as its
disadvantages. The support adopted will depend upon the
variety of grape which is grown and also whether it is for
commercial or home planting.

Stakes——The cheapest and the most simple method of
training the grape is by setting a stake at each vine and
tying it to the stake. This method affords an opportunity
for cultivating the soil in both directions and is preferred by

SYSTEMS OF TRAINING 227

some growers. The weaker growing varieties are usually
trained by this method. The stakes should be 2 or 3 inches
square or 2 or 3 inches in diameter and at least 5 or 6 feet in
length. The most durable wood should be used. Occasion-
ally when the vines are trained to stakes it is necessary to
use two of them for the stronger growing varieties.

Trellises —A good trellis can be made by the use of several
good posts and some wire. The posts should be of the most
durable wood and about 7 or 8 feet in length; 2 or 3 feet
of the post should be set in the ground, leaving the trellis
about 5 feet in height. The posts at the ends of the rows
should be heavier than those in the center, because the
greatest strain comes on the end posts. The posts should
alternate between the vines and not set directly in front of
any one. They should be set twice the distance between the
vines. After the posts are set, galvanized iron wire should
be stretched along the row and the wire should be securely
fastened to each post with a staple. Galvanized iron wire no
smaller than No. 12 should be used. Three wires are usually
much better than two. The lower wire should be about 15
to 20 inches above the ground. The other wires should be
spaced about 12 to 14 inches apart.

When the wires are fastened to the side of the posts it is
called a vertical trellis. Several methods of training the
grape may be used on the vertical trellis. The two most
common systems are the horizontal arm and the fan system.
When the fan system is adopted it is much the same as that
practised when the vines are trained on stakes. This method
is virtually a renewal system because the vine is practically
renewed each year. Two or three shoots are grown near the
ground each year, and these are tied to wires, the ends being
cut off when the young canes are 4 or 5 feet long.

The canes are then trained to the wires inafan shape. The
side canes on the branches are shortened to spurs of two or
three buds. Only three or four of the side canes should be
allowed to grow on the branches. All of the other canes
should be removed. ,

The arm system of training consists in allowing a single
stem to grow to the desired height. The end of the stem is

228 THE GRAPE

then cut off and the two upper canes are trained hori-
zontally along one of the wires and forms the arms. All
other canes should be removed so soon as they start growth.

There are two ways of fastening the arms to the supports:
Some growers prefer to cut the stem short and train the arm
to the first wire. The future branches can then grow up and
be fastened to the upper wires. Some other growers prefer
to have the stem long so it will reach the top wire and the
future branches will hang down. Either system can be
used according to the choice of the grower.

so
i—__~<2__}
—<— oF
(| l
= —
|
ae
qe
pe ad
SSF

_ SSS
Fie. 101.—Upright renewal system of training the grape.

The Overhead System—The overhead system is only
adapted for small areas of grapes around the home. It is
nothing more than the common grape arbor. In many
sections it is fast disappearing and is being replaced by the
other methods of training. However, there are certain places
where the grape can be satisfactorily trained by this method.
The overhead system is supported by a trellis made by
placing posts in the ground § to 10 feet apart. The posts are
usually 8 or 9 feet long and set in the ground 2 or 3 feet. The
posts are set in two rows and each post opposite the other.
A 2 x 41s then nailed across the top of two posts. When this
frame is completed strips 1 x 2 inches are nailed along the
sides and over the top of the frame. These strips should
be at least 2 feet apart.

Harvesting and Packing. —The grape should not be picked
until it is fully ripe for use in the home or for making wine.

VARIETIES 229

There are many varieties which become highly colored some
time before they are fully matured, but they are not ripe.
If the grape is picked as soon as it colors up the fruit will be
sour and inferior in quality. When the grape is ripe and in
the best condition to pick the stem will begin to shrivel
slightly or will soften a little so that it can be easily bent.

The grape should never be gathered when the vines are
wet with dew or rain. The stems should always be cut and
the bunch should never be pulled or broken off. The bunches
should be laid either in shallow trays or in baskets when they
are carried to the packing house. The packing of grapes will
be made much easier if the grapes are allowed to lie for a
couple of hours until the stems become slightly wilted. The
bunches should be placed in the baskets with their stems
down. Each bunch should be packed firmly in the carrier
or the fruit will move about and be greatly injured before it
reaches the market.

A package should never contain more than one variety of
grapes. Neither should mixed nor inferior fruit be included
in any pack, because it reduces the value of the good fruit.

The grape ripens during the latter part of the summer
when it is still warm. Therefore grapes cannot be kept for
any length of time unless they are immediately placed in
cold storage. Even under the best conditions the grape
can only be held for a limited time. It is usually better to
dispose of the crop when it is harvested than it is to attempt
to hold it.

Varieties.—The selection of varieties is a most difficult
undertaking. Their behavior and requirements are varied
according to the soil and the climate, so that it would be folly
to offer a list for any given section. There are, however,
several varieties that do well over a considerably large area
and might be listed for the aid of some. The Concord,
Worden and the Moore, which are dark grapes, and the
Niagara, which is a white grape, succeed in many parts of
the North.

The Delaware is perhaps the finest quality grape, but it
must be given special care, and some skill is necessary in
growing it. It usually takes an experienced grower to suc-

230 THE GRAPE

ceed with this variety, although the amateur sometimes has
good success with it.

The Catawba is one of the oldest and the best known of
our native varieties. It is a late grape and does not succeed
over so great a range of territory as the other varieties
enumerated. A few other varieties worth mentioning are
the Brighton, Diamond and Woodruff.

DISEASES OF THE GRAPE.

The grape is subject to several diseases and insects. In
some sections these maladies become so troublesome that
grapes are not often grown. Luckily, if proper spraying is
done many of these troubles can be controlled.

Black Rot.—The black rot is probably the most serious
trouble to the grape-growing industry. This disease is of
American origin and well distributed over the grape-growing
regions of the United States. The black rot not only attacks
the fruit, but it is found on the leaves, stems and young canes.
The berries are the most seriously affected, although the dis-
ease, as a rule, first appears on the leaves as circular, sharply
defined, brown spots. The berries are usually attacked when
they are about one-third grown. The disease appears as
small purplish-brown spots on the fruit which gradually spread
over the whole surface of the berry. The affected fruit
becomes dark in color in a short time and later shrinks up,
but in most cases hangs on the stem for some time after it
is attacked. The berries rarely ever shell off.

The general experience of growers with the common varie-
ties of the dark colored grapes would indicate that all of
them are susceptible to this disease. Some of the light
colored varieties seem to be practically immune. There is,
however, a great difference in resistance of the different
varieties, which is probably determined by their environ-
mental condition. The Scuppernong variety seems to be the
least affected by this disease and is considered practically
immune.

Clean culture and thorough spraying will control this
disease to a large degree. The 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture is

DISEASES OF THE GRAPE 231

the most effective, and the first application should be given
about the time the young shoots are a foot long. The spray
ing should be continued throughout the summer at intervals
of two or three weeks until five or six sprayings have been
given. The number of sprayings that will be required will

Fic. 102.—Black rot of the Niagara grape. (After Reddick, Cornell Bulletin
No. 293.)

depend largely upon the weather conditions. In regions
where the rain fall is abundant more spraying will be
necessary.

Powdery Mildew.—The powdery mildew is also a native
of the United States. It is widely disseminated and now

232 THE GRAPE

covers all of Europe. It is also known in every part of the
United States. This disease attacks all parts of the plant,
first appearing as white circular spots upon both the upper
and the lower surfaces of the young leaves. These spots
gradually enlarge and may finally cover the entire ‘surface
of the leaf. The affected leaves are retarded in growth and
the blossoms which are attacked fail to set fruit. The
aftected fruit ceases to grow and either falls off or fails to
ripen.

The powdery mildew is strictly superficial and it is easily
rubbed off of the affected parts with the hand. Damp, rainy
weather favors its development, while dry windy weather
has a tendency to check it. The American varieties of grapes
are less susceptible to the powdery mildew than the European
sorts.

There are two methods of controlling the mildew, namely,
dusting and spraying. In regions where the wind is light, the
dusting with flowers of sulphur on every part of the plant is
effective. Several applications of sulphur should be given.
The first application should be applied at the time the
blossoms begin to open. If signs of the mildew are observed
later, additional applications should be made at once.
Spraying with a 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture is effective. If
the vines have been sprayed for the black rot this spray will
be effective in controlling the mildew.

Downy Mildew.—The downy mildew somewhat resembles
the powdery mildew. It is widely distributed on both the
cultivated and the wild species of grapes. All parts of the
plant are affected, namely, the young shoots, the leaves and
the fruit. The inquiry is somewhat similar to that of the
powdery mildew. The same methods of control as recom-
mended for the powdery mildew are effective in controlling
the downy mildew, but perhaps Bordeaux mixture should
be given the preference.

INSECTS OF THE GRAPE.

Grape Phylloxera.—The grape phylloxera is an insect native
to the United States, and at times has severely threatened

INSECTS OF THE GRAPE 233

the grape industry in the Pacific coast regions. This insect
is a small plant louse, and its life history is very complicated,
involving four different forms of aphids. The four forms
may be briefly enumerated as (1) the root form, (2) the leaf
gall form, (3) the winged form and (4) the sexual form. The
root form is the most destructive, and the gall form is also
very injurious.

The principal means of control lies in the selection of resist-
ant vines. Since the most destructive form of this insect is
found on the roots, which are protected in such a way that no
spray can be used, it becomes necessary to employ some other
means of control. Carbon bisulphide, which is a volatile
liquid, heavier than air, has been extensively used. This
material is the most effective on light soils but does not lend
itself to very successful use on heavy clay soils. It is also
relatively expensive. Carbon bisulphide may be applied at
any time other than during the blooming and the ripening
season. ‘Two applications usually give the best results. To
apply the material pour one-half of an ounce into a hole
about 1 foot in depth and not closer than 1 foot from the vine.

If water is available for irrigation it offers one of the best
means of control for this insect, which is done by flooding
the ground to a depth of about 6 inches and allowing the
water to remain on the soil for about ten days. The best
results are obtained by applying the water as soon as the
vines cease active growth in the fall.

Flea Beetle.—The flea beetle is a little insect which often
becomes serious on the grape. It is a bluish-green beetle, and
the chief damage it does is to eat the buds about the time they
begin to swell in the spring. If the beetles are very abundant
they often destroy all of the buds, which greatly retard the
leafing out and in severe cases of infestation sometimes kill
the vine. The larve of the insect hatch from the eggs about
the time the leaves are expanding and at once attack them,
eating out irregular holes.

Where systematic spraying with arsenate of lead is prac-
tised very little damage results from the flea beetle.

Grape Leaf Hopper.—The leaf hopper is often very injurious
in many sections where grapes are grown. These insects

234 THE GRAPE

feed upon the under side of the leaves, and they often become
very abundant. Their injury causes small white spots to
appear on the leaves. These spots are made by the insect
sucking out the chlorophyll from the plant. As the amount
of injury increases, the leaves turn yellow and the fruit is
reduced in size and in quality. The adult insect is about
% inch in length. The wings are marked with red and
yellow. The nymphes are a light yellowish green in color.
They feed in the same way as the adults. The insects come
in the early spring and feed on whatever foliage is available
until the grape leaves appear.

Various devices and methods of control are in vogue.
Owing to the jumping habit of the insect several patent
arrangements have been introduced. The use of sticky fly
paper is also effective. A device made by stretching cloth
on wooden frames against which the hoppers strike is some-
times used. The cloth is painted with a sticky material
made by mixing 1 quart of melted resin with 1 pint of castor
oil, and as the insects strike the cloth covered with this
material they stick fast and are killed. Spraying the vines
with 1 pound of whale oil soap to 10 gallons of water is also
used. A 10 per cent. kerosene emulsion is effective and often
employed. Several applications of an insecticide are usually
necessary. If the vineyard is thoroughly cleaned up every
year many of the hibernating insects are killed and therefore
less damage results.

Grape Berry Moth.—The grape berry moth is a small moth
with a wing expanse of about 4 inch. Wormy grapes are
largely due to the larve of this moth. The injury done
by the first and the second brood is somewhat different.
The first generation larvee web the cluster of grapes together
either before the blossoms open or soon after the grapes set.
The later brood, however, bores into the green fruit, causing
purplish spots to mark the entrance of the insect. It is
obvious that if the first brood is large greater damage will
be done, since each worm practically destroys a bunch of
grapes, while the later brood destroys only the berry.

Spraying with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to
50 gallons of water is effective in destroying this insect.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 235

Where the vines are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture the lead
can be added to it and both sprayed on at the same time.

A little soap sticker added to the solution will cause it to
adhere better to the berries. The first spraying should be
given just before the blossoms open, the second just as the
grapes finish blooming and the third during the early part
of July. Picking and destroying all of the infested berries
will aid materially in combating this insect.

Grape Curculio.—The injury of the grape curculio closely
resembles that of the grape berry moth. The grape curculio
also causes wormy grapes, but the damage is somewhat
different from that of grape berry moth. The adults are small
weevils which pass the winter in or near the vineyards.
They usually hibernate under trash or rubbish, and appear
in the spring about the time the grapes bloom. The insects
feed on the foliage until the grapes are about one-fourth
grown. The adult then cuts a very characteristic crescent-
shaped hole in the grape, under the flap of which the egg is
laid. The larve soon hatch and bore into the pulp, where it
feeds until it reaches maturity.

Spraying the vines with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2
pounds to 50 gallons of water while the grapes are small will
kill many of the adults. If this procedure is followed out
very little damage will result from this insect.

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE GRAPE.

No. of

spray. Time of spray. Spray materials.

First When shoots are 8 to 10 inches 4-4-50 Bordeaux.

long

Second Just before blooming 4-4-50 Bordeaux plus 2
pounds arsenate of lead to
50 gallons of the spray.

Third Just after blossoms fall Same as second.

Fourth Two weeks after third 4-4-50 Bordeaux.

Tf additional sprayings are necessary use Bordeaux mixture.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Name the two classes of grapes, and give the sections of the country
where each is grown..,
2. Discuss the propagation of the grape.

236 THE GRAPE

3. What determines the length of a grape cutting?
4. In your opinion which is the most important method of propagating
the grape?) Why?
5. Why is the nature of the subsoil important in grape culture?
6. What kind of a soil does the grape prefer?
7. Is there any relation between the soil and the general location of a
vineyard?
8. Discuss the most economical way of planting the grape.
9. What determines the distance apart the grape must be planted?
10. When should the cultivation of the grape begin? Why?
11. What is meant by training of the grape?
12. Differentiate between staking and trellising.
13. Which method is the most economical? Why?
14. What advantage has the stake over the other systems of training?
15. Describe the making of a trellis.
16. Where is the overhead system of value and why is it not commercially
profitable? ;
17. Why is it unprofitable to pick grapes before they are fully'ripe?
18. When is the proper time to pick grapes? Why?
19. Why is it unprofitable to store grapes?
20. What determines the proper selection of varieties?
21. Name and describe the black rot of the grape. How is it controlled?
22. What is the difference between powdery mildew and downy mildew?
23. Why is the grape phylloxera so destructive?
24. How does the injury from the grape-berry moth differ from that of
the curculio?
25. Give the spray outline for the grape.

CHAPTER XVL.
THE POME FRUITS.

THE apple, pear and quince are classed as pome or poma-
ceous fruits. The flesh in the pome fruits consists of the
thickened calyx tube, which becomes consolidated with the
ovary or core and the edible part of the pome is the developed
calyx.

APPLE.

The apple is divided into several groups according to the
several well-defined characters of the different varieties.
Each group is usually named after the most important apple
in that group, as, for example, the Ben Davis group includes
the Ben Davis, the Gano and the Black Ben Davis as well
as several more varieties of that type. Other groups are
the Fameuse group, the Duchess of Oldenburg group, etc.,
and each includes a number of varieties which are similar
to each other.

Propagation.—The apple is commonly. propagated by
budding, by root grafting and by crown grafting. The root
grafting and the budding are the most common methods of
propagation. The root grafting is performed upon seed-
ling roots during the winter. The grafted roots are then
tied in bundles of convenient size and are stored in sand and
placed in a cool cellar. When spring arrives and the soil can
be plowed the grafts are placed in the nursery row about 1
foot apart in the rows and the rows about 3 feet apart. The
tongue and whip graft is the method commonly employed
in doing the root grafting.

The budding of the apple is becoming the most popular
form of propagation during recent years. This form of
propagation is employed upon the one-year-old seedling
plants in the nursery row. The budding is performed during
the late summer, usually in July, August and September.

238 THE POME FRUITS

The shield bud is commonly used, and it is inserted into
the stock from 2 to 4 inches above the ground. After the
bud begins to grow the old top of the tree is cut off and the
budded variety is allowed to grow and to produce the new
tree.

Soil—The apple does the best on a deep open clay loam.
The soil should be well drained, either naturally or artificially.
However, the apple is very cosmopolitan and can be grown
successfully on almost any soil if it is well provided with
available plant food. The soil for the apple should, how-
ever, be retentive of moisture and be rich in plant food,
because it is impossible to raise good fruit on poor soil.
Sufficient moisture can generally be secured by mulching the
ground with either manure or straw if water is the limiting
factor. Occasionally, the newer soils in some regions are
too rich in plant food, and such soils sometimes cause the
apple to grow too rank and it does not set fruit.

The subsoil should not be too near the surface, especially
if it is very hard and retentive of moisture. A subsoil of
this nature prevents good drainage and restricts the growth
of the roots. Where such a subsoil exists, and the trees
must be planted in such a location, it is well to break up the
hard pan by exploding a medium charge of dynamite in
each hole. This procedure will loosen up the soil so that
the roots can penetrate it to a greater depth. It also pro-
vides better drainage.

Planting —The soil for planting the apple should be well
‘prepared. The preparation should be equal to that which
is required for corn. The work of planting the trees will
be greatly facilitated if the land is furrowed out both ways
with a large plow and the trees set at the intersections. In
the setting of a tree the hole should be made large enough
to take in all of the roots without the crowding of any of them.
The roots should be spread out evenly on the bottom of the
hole. The fine top soil should be carefully worked among
them so as not to leave any air spaces between or under
the roots. The soil should be pressed firmly about the
roots, and if it is in the proper condition for planting it
cannot be firmed too much.

APPLE 239

The time of planting the trees varies with the locality.
In the north, spring planting should always be done, because
if the trees are set in the fall they are especially liable to
winter injury, and in some cases are killed. In the north
it usually becomes necessary to dig the trees from the
nursery row, and either heel them in by digging a hole in a
well-drained place and covering up the trees, both root and
branch with soil, or by packing them in a cool, moist cellar.
The covering up of the trees with soil is called heeling in.
Only specially constructed cellars are adapted to the storing
of the trees over winter, and heeling them in out of doors
will usually give better results.

In other more favorable localities, as, for example, in the
central and the southern sections, where there is very little
danger that the trees will be injured in the nursery row, they
are taken directly from the nursery and set out in their per-
manent location in the spring. Where the trees are heeled
in for the winter they should be set out just as soon in the
spring as the ground can be prepared and the danger of
severe freezing is past.

Spring planting seems to be preferable in most of the
fruit-growing sections, principally because the tree soon
starts into growth after it is planted. This early growth of
the tree after it is set in the orchard is a decided advantage
to it. The timely establishment of a tree in the soil prevents
it from being exposed to the unfavorable elements of the
weather and the chances are greater for its success.

The fall planting of trees is practised in some fruit-grow-
ing regions. This method can be followed in those sections
in which the winters do not get too severe and where there is
plenty of moisture in the soil at planting time. In regions
where the weather is severe the trees are sometimes laid
on the ground and covered with some kind of a mulch.
This procedure is expensive, it makes considerable addi-
tional labor, and it is not generally recommended. Fall
planting has one advantage where it can be practised, in
that the work can be done at a time of the year when general
farm work is not so pressing. Usually more individual
attention is given to the trees if they are planted in the fall.

240 THE POME FRUITS

The depth to which a tree should be planted depends upon
the kind of a tree, the nature of the soil and the locality.
In the most favorable locations a tree should be set about
4 inches deeper than it grew in the nursery row. In very
dry and very light soils a tree can be set perhaps as deep as
10 inches. On slopes of hills a tree must be set at least
5 or 6 inches deeper than it stood in the nursery because of
the slope of the land. However, where a good site with fer-
tile rich soil is selected, deep planting is not very desirable,
and usually 4 inches deeper than the tree grew in the nursery
row is preferable.

Distance Apart to Plant—The distance the apple should
be planted depends upon the variety, the climate and the
soil. In localities where the conditions are favorable for
growing the apple it should be set farther apart than where
the conditions are unfavorable. Likewise the wide spread-
ing varieties should be set farther apart than the compact,
upright growing kinds. The short-lived classes can be set
closer than the longer-lived varieties. In the favorable
apple-growing regions of the east the distance varies from
30 to 40 feet apart, while in some of the Pacific coast regions
where the apple does not grow so large the trees are set
from 25 to 30 feet apart.

System of Planting —There are several methods of planting
trees, but the three most common systems are the square,
the quincunx and the hexagonal. The lay of the land and
the size of the orchard determine somewhat the system
which is adopted. It is always important to have the rows
run straight both ways, since the orchard looks better and
it can be cared for more easily. In the laying out of an
orchard the first thing is to establish a base line which should
be determined by a surveyor when it is possible. All work
should proceed from this base line.

The square system is most often used chiefly from lack of
knowledge of the others. It consists in planting trees at each
corner of a square. This system does not require so many
trees to the acre; it has the advantage of being easily laid
out, it permits easy cultivation and it allows for systematic
thinning should the trees hecome crowded later in life.

APPLE 241

The quincunx system allows the planting of many more
trees to the acre than the square system. This system
is like the square with the addition of a tree in the center
of each square. This plan introduces the use of fillers and
provides for a well-laid-out orchard when the fillers are
removed.

ah

Fic. 103.—Square system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees 30 by
30 feet apart gives 49 trees to the acre.

The hexagonal system uses about 15 per cent. more trees
than the square system. In this system each tree stands in
the center of a hexagon formed by six trees, all equal dis-
tance from each other. It has the advantage of distrib-
uting the trees more evenly over the ground than any other
system, but the cultivation of the trees is more difficult.
‘This method does not provide any logical way of thinning
out of any trees later in the life of the orchard.

Cultivation Young trees should be well cultivated during
the early part of the growing season, but this operation
should be stopped during the late summer or early fall so
the trees will ripen up their wood before winter.

16

242 THE POME FRUITS

Fic. 104.—Quincunx system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees
30 by 30 feet apart gives 85 trees to the acre.

Fic. 105.—Hexagonal system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees
30 by 30 feet apart gives 55 trees to the acre.

APPLE 243

Occasionally some crop like the potato, squash, cabbage
or tomato can be planted between the trees, which not
only produces an income from the land but at the same
time necessitates good and thorough cultivation of the ground.
The practice of intercropping is not always recommended.
Sometimes the orchard is badly neglected, unless intercrop-
ping is practised, and it is better for the trees to have a culti-
vated crop growing between them than to have the soil filled
with weeds.

After the trees begin to bear it is sometimes advisable
to seed the land down with clover, which should be plowed
under every two or three years and the soil cultivated the
year the sod is turned under. Occasionally the orchard is
seeded down with blue grass. Under some conditions this
practice is permissible, as, for example, on steep slopes. In
sodded orchards the trees should be heavily mulched by
placing straw or manure 1 foot or more deep around them
to the limit of the drip of the branches. Occasionally such
orchards become sod-bound and must be cultivated.

Mulching.—The advantage of a mulch around a tree is not
generally appreciated. A mulch will check evaporation
and will prevent the running off of the water. It permits
the water to soak into the soil and helps to equalize the soil
moisture throughout the growing season. In dry locations
it is of the greatest assistance and its use makes success pos-
sible with many varieties of apples. A mulch is especially
desirable on hilly land where cultivation is impossible. It
is likewise valuable to mulch trees on sandy soil and on
southern exposures. If the trees are set in sod and culti-
vation is impossible a mulch is always desirable.

The mulch not only regulates the moisture supply of the
soil but it is of great value because it continuously adds
plant food to the growing tree. The plant food is supplied
by the gradual decay of the mulching material. When the
conditions warrant it a tree will do the best if the mulching:
material is spaded under and incorporated with the soil.

Pruning.—The apple bears its fruit on short branches
called spurs. The removal of wood bearing these spurs
naturally reduces the yield of fruit. Pruning, therefore,

244 THE POME FRUITS,

offers a means for thinning the fruit, and a profitable way of
securing good quality.

The apple should be headed low and the lower limbs should
be started 18 to 24 inches from the ground. This is done
by pruning the growing tree heavily and topping it a1 the
point where the head is to be formed. When a number of
branches start, remove all of them except three or four of
the largest to form the framework of the trees, since this is
an ideal number. These should be distributed along the
trunk of the tree and not come from one point. Never
allow two branches to form a fork in a tree. The branches
forming the framework of the tree should be cut back to
about one foot in length the first year and all other branches
entirely removed. Continue to cut back all branches each
year until a uniform and symmetrical head is formed.

As the tree grows older and after bearing begins, less
pruning is needed and thinning out of the surplus wood is
usually sufficient. If systematic pruning has been done
during the early stages no severe pruning will be needed
after the tree is mature. ;

Harvesting —The apple should be harvested carefully.
Too early picking sacrifices both color and quality, while too
late picking results in loss of keeping qualities and sometimes
a loss from wind. The best time, then, for picking the apple
is when it is well grown and fully colored, but still hard and
firm. This condition is known as the hard ripe stage. The
seeds are colored brown and the stem of the fruit separates
readily from the spur.

The apple should be picked carefully and the fruit should
not be pinched in picking. The fruit should never be
removed from the tree by a straight pull as this tends to
either pull the stem out or break off the fruit spur. It
should be carefully picked and handled and never thrown
carelessly into the picking vessel or from one receptacle
to another. The bruising of the flesh or injuring of the skin
should be avoided.

The fruit should be placed in the shade of a tree as soon
as it is picked and sent to the packing house in a short time.

APPLE 245

Packing.—The apple is either packed in the bushel box
or the barrel. The apple box is used the most extensively
in the northwestern fruit-growing districts, although the
eastern regions are using the box to a limited extent. The
barrel is the most popular vessel in the central west and
in the eastern fruit-growing regions. The apple barrel
holds about three bushels. The distance to the market
regulates to a certain degree the vessel which is used. As
a rule the box is used where only very fancy fruit is packed,
and higher prices must be obtained for it, because of the
extra cost in packing and shipping.

Fie. 106.—Apples weil packed in different styles. (Wilkinson.)

Every package should be clean, uniform in size and color,
true to the grade throughout and have sufficient compres-
sion to avoid looseness in transit. Each package should be
properly labelled, which should contain the varietal name
and the name and address of either the individual or the
company packing the fruit.

The fruit should be carefully graded, both as to uniformity
and color. All poorly colored or off-type apples should be
discarded from the good pack. Any bruised fruit or apples
which have their stems pulled out should not be included,

246 THE POME FRUITS

because they will not keep and only aid in destroying the
value of the pack. ,

As soon as the apples are packed, they should be precooled
and stored in a cold-storage plant. For home use a cool
cellar is often satisfactory.. However, in any event the
apples must not be exposed to heat and sun, because this
causes them to ripen up quickly and deteriorate in a short
time.

Varieties —There are a great number of varieties of apples.
Each region is adapted to the growing of certain well-defined
groups of apples. The varieties that are found to be the
most profitable by experienced growers are usually the
popular sorts in the various districts. There is no way of
knowing exactly what variety will do the best in any one
locality, and therefore the variety should be selected accord-
ing to the experience of some progressive grower in each region.

The selection of varieties will depend upon whether they
are for home or for commercial use. If they are wanted for
the home a larger number of varieties can be selected, cover-
ing a longer ripening period. If the varieties are for com-
mercial planting, it is always advisable to select only four or
five good standard sorts. The selection of only a few varie-
ties for commercial planting is necessary, because the grower
wants to have his crop ripen up at the same time and also to
have a sufficient quantity of one kind to be profitable. All
buyers of fruit demand a quantity of a few varieties and
consequently they will not buy a few bushels of a number of
varieties.

Some varieties are very cosmopolitan and can be adjusted
to many different regions, while other varieties are adapted
only to limited areas and they cannot be grown out of these
well-defined places. The Ben Davis, Baldwin, Duchess of
Oldenburg and several others can be grown over a great area,
while the Yellow Newton and some other varieties can only
be grown in certain regions.

Some of the most profitable varieties are the Baldwin,
Ben Davis, Gano, Winesap, Greening, Grimes, Jonathan,
Missouri Pippin, Spy, Duchess of Oldenburg, Tolman Sweet,
Wealthy and a few others.

DISEASES OF THE APPLE 247

DISEASES OF THE APPLE.

The apple is subject to attack by several insects as well as
several diseases, and these troubles cause great loss yearly.
However, most of them can easily be controlled if the proper
treatment is given.

The most common disease which is found in almost every
apple-growing district is the so-called rot. There are three
kinds of rot, namely, the black rot, the brown rot and the
bitter rot.

Black Rot.—The black rot not only affects the fruit, but
it also produces cankers on the branches and the limbs of
the tree. The cankers serve as a continual source of infec-
tion to the fruit. They also weaken the tree and finally
cause its death. This fungous disease is first detected by a
small brownish spot on the fruit, which spreads rapidly,
when favorable conditions exist, until the whole fruit is
involved. This rot attacks the fruit on the trees as well as
in storage.

Brown Rot.—The brown rot is sometimes known as fruit
mould or ripe rot, and it is found not only on the apple, but
it is abundant on the peach and the plum. This disease
spreads very rapidly in damp, muggy weather and it is very
disastrous. The disease first appears as a small, dark brown
spot. This spot increases in extent until the whole fruit is
affected. This fungus not only causes considerable damage
to the fruit on the tree, but it also affects the fruit in ship-
ment and on the market. The spores or fruiting bodies
sometimes lodge on the fruit, where they germinate and grow
during transit and the crop reaches the market in a poor
condition.

Bitter Rot.—The bitter rot is so named because the affected
tissue has a bitter taste. The bitterness varies from an
exceedingly bitter quality to that which can scarcely be
identified. It is also called dry rot. This disease is easily
recognized by characteristic black, circular and sharply
margined spots, varying in size from } inch or more in
diameter. The spots become somewhat depressed by the

248 THE POME FRUITS

shrinkage of the affected tissue, and finally become leathery
or corky in texture.

The rots canall be effectively controlled by the use of 4-4-50
Bordeaux mixture, applied to the plant at intervals varying
with the season and the weather. In sections where the fruit
is severely attacked by the rots, spraying will have to be done
more often, especially in seasons of considerable rainfall.
If the first spray has been with Bordeaux mixture, one or two
additional sprayings given during the latter part of July
and the early part of August will be effective in controlling
the rots; The number of sprays must be determined by
the individual and the section of the country in which he is
located.

Apple Scab.—The scab is one of the worst foes of the apple,
and it is quite generally distributed over the country, in the
sections where apples and pears are grown. The loss due
to this disease is not easily estimated. The fungus is more
or less superficial, and unless the fruit is badly infected it
sometimes reaches the market, but is sold at greatly reduced
prices. This disease is commonly found on the fruit and the
leaves, but it also attacks the leaf stalks, the flowers and the
smaller twigs. The spots are usually more abundant on
the lower surface of the leaves. The disease appears as small,
irregular, almost circular spots on the fruit, giving the
characteristic familiar scabby appearance. In extreme cases
of infestation the fruit becomes puckered up and takes on all
kinds of abnormal and irregular shapes. There are probably
no varieties of apples or pears which are entirely free from
the scab.

Bordeaux mixture or lime sulphur solution are both
effective in controlling this disease. The strength of Bor-
deaux mixture which should be used is determined by the
susceptibility of the variety to the spray injury. The
strength varies from a 2-4-50 to a 5-5-50 mixture. If a
variety is very susceptible to Bordeaux mixture, use lime
sulphur, diluted 1 gallon of the concentrated commercial
lime sulphur solution to 35 gallons of water.

Fly Speck or Sooty Blotch—The fly speck or sooty blotch
is found on the apple in many sections. At first it was

DISEASES OF THE APPLE 249

thought the fly speck and sooty blotch were two separate
and distinct diseases, but further study has revealed the
fact that the fly speck and the sooty blotch are stages of
the same fungus. This disease is occasionally found on the
pear. Fly speck disease is quite superficial, and it appears as
a number of small black specks, quite regular in outline.
Each individual spot is about the size of a small pin head,
and in the earlier stage it is still much smaller. A mass of
the fungus gives the fruit the appearance of being covered

I'ia. 107.—The apple blotch.

with soot. So far as injuring the fruit is concerned none
occurs, but the discolored fruit is hard to sell, and conse-
quently reduces the profits. Spraying for the scab will be
effective in controlling the fly speck.

Fire Blight—The fire blight is one of the most serious
diseases of the apple. It also is very injurious to the pear.
It is a contagious disease of bacterial origin. The fire
blight is caused by very small organisms called bacteria.
They are rod-shaped and motile. They multiply by simply
dividing and they increase very rapidly. Immense num-

250 THE POME FRUITS

bers of bacteria are produced in a remarkably short time
and they soon completely fill the infected parts. The bac-
teria live almost entirely in the sappy portion of the bark.

The blight does not attack the fruit, but confines its
ravages to the limbs and the trunk of the tree. The disease
is first visible on the tips of the younger twigs, which become
dried up and later turn black. It spreads rapidly and
often wipes out entire orchards in a short time, when it is
not fought vigorously.:

The disease is called fire blight because of the character-
istic appearance of the foliage. It is also known as twig blight
because it is usually first detected on the younger twigs.
The disease gains entrance in various wavs, as for example,
through wounds left from pruning, and through insects
visiting blooms during pollination. However, any abra-
sion or wound on the bark of a tree gives a point of vantage
for the entrance of the bacteria. There is only one known
method of control for this trouble, and that is to cut out
all cankers on the limbs and destroy them by burning. All
infested twigs should be cut off and destroyed as soon as they
appear. When the infected wood is removed see that the
pruning tools are thoroughly sterilized by dippling them in
a solution of corrosive sublimate after each cut. Spraying
is of no avail in controlling the fire blight.

INSECTS OF THE APPLE.

Codling Moth.—The larve of this insect cause’ wormy
apples and it is one of the worst foes of the plant. The
adult is a small, pale gray moth with brownish spots near
the end of the forewings. Surrounding these spots on the
wings is an irregular golden band. The larva of the moth
is the common apple worm, which is found feeding in the
core of the apple. It is pinkish in color and lives in the
apple about twenty days, eating the fruit and growing to a
length of about 3 of an inch. When the larva is full grown it
crawls out and seeks a place in which to spin its cocoon.

The moth passes the winter in the larval stage in a small

INSECTS OF THE APPLE 251

silken cocoon, cither under pieces of bark or in some other
convenient place which affords protection, in or near apple
trees. These larve change to pupa and the moths emerge
in the spring. Soon after the emergence of the moth, egg
laying begins.

In order to control the codling moth the life history must
be known. The growers, in the different sections, must
know the time the moths begin to lay their eggs so that
adequate and effective control methods can be used. After
the worm is once inside of the apple it is proof against any
remedy. The poison must necessarily be applied to the fruit
before the larva enters it, if it is to be of any value.

Fic. 108.—Codling moth, natural size. (Slingerland.)

There are two and in some sections a partial third brood
of the codling moth, and remedial measures must be used
against every brood.

Since the larve eat the fruit, it is necessary to use some
stomach poison. The poison almost universally employed
against this insect is the arsenate of lead. Three sprays are
usually necessary. The first one should be given just as the
petals are falling, the second one about two weeks after the
first and the third later in the summer, the time ranging
from July 1 to August 10, depending upon the locality. The

252 THE POME FRUITS

strength of the poisoned solution is 2 pounds of arsenate of
lead to 50 gallons of water.

San José Scale.—The San José scale is a destructive insect
in several of the fruit-growing sections. It is found on many
of the economic plants as well as on many of the ornamentals.
The apple seems to be its preference as a food plant, but
it is found on the pear, quince, gooseberry and osage orange,
as well as on other plants. The ease with which it is dis-
tributed on nursery stock and its great power of reproduc-

Fic. 109.—San José scale and scab on the fruit of the apple.

tion make its extermination in any locality practically
impossible. Probably no other scale insect has ever been as
injurious to plants as the San José. The San José scale
attacks all parts of the plant. Its presence can usually be
detected by the reddish discolorations on the back of leaves
and on the skin of fruits.

The insect is orange yellow in color and is covered with
a grayish waxy secretion called the scale. The female
lives under this covering and gives birth to living young

INSECTS OF THE APPLE 253

instead of laying eggs. Owing to the great rapidity with
which the scale multiplies very thorough treatment is
imperative. At the close of a growing season, all stages of
the scale can be found on an infested tree. The mortality
of the older and the younger scales is always great and the
half-grown insects are the individuals that usually survive
the winter in the best shape and carry on the reproduction
the following year.

Fig. 110.—San José scale on the apple. (From Illinois Circular,
No. 180.)

The San José scale has a number of natural enemies, but
owing to its great ability to reproduce so rapidly it does
great damage in spite of its natural parasites.

Each grower should become familiar with the appearance

254 THE POME FRUITS

of the San José scale, and should learn to detect its presence
so that remedial measures can be adopted. The lime sul-
phur wash is the best-known remedy, and perhaps the most
effective, although kerosene emulsion as well as several
other oil sprays will kill the insect. The best time to spray
for the San José is in the spring, just before the buds swell.
Commercial lime sulphur diluted 1 gallon to 8 or 10 gallons
of water is the proper strength of the spray. Every part
of the tree should be thoroughly coated with the spray
material. If the infestation is very bad, spraying in the
fall will aid materially in reducing the damage done by
the insect.

Canker Worm.—The canker worm has for a long time been
an enemy of the apple, as well as many of the shade trees.
The canker worms are among the most common of the
loopers, or measuring worms, and they are the larve of two
nearly related species of moths, very similar in both habits
and appearance. They defoliate the trees early in the spring.

The two canker worms are known as the fall canker worm
and the spring canker worm. These insects are so named
because of the time at which the eggs are laid. The spring
worm lays its eggs in the spring, and the fall worm lays its
eggs in the fall.

The worms do considerable damage in sections where they
occur and they seem to be very widely distributed. In fact,
the worms have been reported as being found in all sections
of the United States, except along the Atlantic coast, south
of New Jersey. These worms are reported to be somewhat
injurious in the Mississippi Valley.

The adult of both the spring and the fall canker worm is
a moth. Ths females of both are wingless, while the males
of both are winged. The larve of both species are quite
similar and vary from { to 1 inch in length. They are dark,
greenish-olive or black in color with white stripes along the
sides.

The canker worms can be controlled by spraying with 2
pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water, just before
the blossoms open and by repeating the same spray just

INSECTS OF THE APPLE 255

after the petals have fallen. If spraying is not advisable,
the females may be prevented from crawling up the trees,
by circling the trunks with a band of sticky substance, such
as tanglefoot or some other material.

Tent Caterpillar—The tent caterpillar is common in
almost every garden, and it is found in many commercial
orchards. It is detected by the webs of the insect adorning
the apple as well as the cherry and other fruit trees. This
insect takes its name from these webs which are made at
the intersection of the limbs. At first the webs are quite
small, but they gradually increase in size as the larve grow,
and in time form a shelter for the insects resembling a tenc.

The adult insect is a moth, reddish brown in color and
having two parallel white bands extending obliquely across
the forewings. Soon after the mating of the sexes, the
females lay about two hundred eggs in an egg mass, which
is covered with a light brown, frothy glue. The little
caterpillars hatch just as the leaf buds are expanding in the
spring. The worms from a single egg mass codperate in
spinning the tent, which furnishes them shelter at night
and during cold weather. When the caterpillar attains its
growth it wanders off, where it spins a cocoon, and about
three weeks later the adult moth emerges. This insect would,
in all probability, be more injurious than it is, if it were not
for the numerous parasites which attack it, thus reducing
its numbers.

One of the best means of control is to cut out and destroy
the webs or tents as soon as they are detected. If a cold,
damp day is selected, practically all of the caterpillars will
be in the nest and they can easily be burned or sprayed with
pure kerosene. Spraying with arsenate of lead, the same
as for the codling moth, is also effective in killing the worms.

In general the above insects include all that are of any
consequence, especially the most common forms. There are,
however, several other Jess important ones, but in general
all of them can be controlled by spraying.

256 THE POME FRUITS

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE APPLE.

No. of

spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.

First Just before the buds swell in Commercial lime sulphur di-

the spring luted 1 to 8.

Second Just as buds show pink Commercial lime sulphur di-
luted 1 to 35 plus 2 pounds
arsenate of lead to 50 gal-
lons of spray.

Third Just as petals are falling Same as second spray.

Fourth Three weeks after third spray Same as second spray.

Fifth About July 15 to August 1 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture

plus 2 pounds arsenate of
lead to 50 gallons of water,
or commercial lime sul-
phur 1 gallon to 35 gallons
of water plus 2 pounds
arsenate of lead to 50
gallons of spray.

PEAR.

The pear has been commercially important for many
years. It has been grown in this country since the time
of the earliest settlers and within recent years large plantings
have been made over the Eastern and Central States as
well as in the northern regions. The pear has reached great
importance in California and a large acreage is planted in
that region.

The pear has been developed from the wild pear of Europe
and Asia. In its native state the fruit is hard and inferior,
but under cultivation it has become edible and delicious.

Propagation. The pear is propagated in the same way
as the apple, that is, root grafted in the winter, budded in
the summer or crown grafted in the field. In some regions
the pear is dwarfed and this is accomplished by grafting the
pear on quince roots. This method of propagating the pear
causes the tree to grow smaller and produces the dwarf pear.
The dwarf trees have no particular advantage over the
standard ones. However, the fruit can usually be harvested
with greater ease on the smaller tree and a greater number
of trees can be planted to an acre. Dwarf pear trees usually
fruit when quite young, sometimes when they are only three
years old. The dwarf tree must be pruned systematically

PEAR 257

every year, in order to keep it in a compact form and to
prevent it from becoming too straggly. They usually require
more severe pruning than the standard trees.

Soil—The pear requires a rich, well-drained soil. It,
however, thrives on a variety of soils, but it does the best
on a rather porous clay subsoil. Usually the pear can be
grown with a considerable degree of success in almost any
soil in which the apple thrives. The pear is usually short-
lived on a loose soil of open texture.

Cultivation—The cultivation of the soil is sometimes
dangerous in the growing of the pear. It has been learned
that fire blight is especially troublesome when the tree
makes too rapid a growth and it is the practice of many
growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too much new
wood from being formed. However, the pear orchard
must not be allowed to become too firmly sod-bound, so
that the trees cannot make a reasonable growth. In case
the trees do become sod-bound, it is advisable to plow
the orchard and to cultivate it during the early part of the
season and again seed it down to grass. Nitrogenous cover
crops should usually be avoided and the most attention
given to the use of potash and of phosphoric acid fertilizers.

Planting.—The planting of the pear is very similar to that
of the apple. The chief point of difference between the
two fruits is the distance apart the trees are set. The
pear, as a rule, is a more upright growing tree than the
apple and the trees can be planted closer together. The
standard pears are generally planted 15 by 30 feet, that is
the rows are 30 feet apart and the trees 15 feet apart in the
rows. The trees when they are planted this distance are
allowed to grow until they interfere with each other, and
then each alternate tree in the row is cut out. In other
sections the trees are planted 20 feet apart each way and
this method is satisfactory where the proper varieties are
selected. The dwarf trees are planted 10 by 10 feet apart,
but usually 15 by 15 feet is a better distance. The greater
distance provides more room for driving through the grounds,
for spraying and for gathering the fruit. In selecting the
trees for planting see that they are young, thrifty and free

17

258 THE POME FRUITS

from disease. A one-year-old tree from the bud or a two-
year-old root grafted tree is preferable.

The systems for planting a pear orchard are the same as
those for the apple, and the only point of difference is the
distance the individual trees are set.

The time of planting the pear varies, but in sections
south of the forty-first parallel of latitude fall planting is
probably the best, but in the territory north of this line
spring planting is recommended.

Pruning.—The pear resembles the apple in many ways
in the growth of the tree. What has been said of the apple
applies equally well to the pear.

A low-headed pear tree is as desirable as a low-headed
apple. The number of branches which make up the frame-
work is usually five or six, because the peac tree rarely ever
attains the size of the apple tree. The branches which form
the framework should be distributed along the trunk of the
tree, and never be allowed to form a fork.

The young pear tree should be pruned back similar to
that of the apple. Each main branch should be cut off so
that it will be from 10 to 12 inches long. The operation of
shortening the branches should continue each year until the
tree comes into bearing after which time very little pruning
1s necessary.

Mature and bearing trees shculd be thinned out from
time to time and all water sprouts removed as soon as they
are formed.

Harvesting.—The harvesting of the pear is somewhat
similar to that of the apple. The pear is usually picked
before it is entirely ripe and allowed to ripen off of the
tree. This early picking is made necessary where the pear is
shipped away and also because the pear soon deteriorates
after it ripens. As a rule, the proper time to pick is when
the first pears begin to turn a light yellow, although some
varieties are picked when no sign of color is apparent. The
fruit should be picked carefully with the stem attached.

Marketing.—The pear is packed and marketed in several
styles of vessels. Asa rule, the barrel is largely used although
frequently the bushel, peck and sometimes the half-peck

DISEASES OF THE PEAR 259

baskets are used. In some sections the bushel box, similar
to that of the apple is used. In certain regions each pear is
wrapped separately in soft tissue paper. The pear is gener-
ally packed for the market directly from the tree. The
market demands a pear of medium size, and one of an
attractive appearance.

Varieties—The selection of varieties varies with the
section and the use of the fruit. The pears have a wide
range in their season of ripening, so that if the proper atten-
tion is given to the selection of varieties the grower may
have fruit for his table or for the market from midsummer
until early March. Many varieties are tender skinned and
unfit for a commercial purpose but are highly prized for the
home.

A few varieties recommended for planting may be enu-
merated as follows: Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Bosc, Winter
Nelis, Sheldon, Anjou, Kieffer and Lawrence for commercial
planting, while the Bloodgood, Brandywine, Flemish Beauty,
White Doyenne, Seckel and Angouleme should be added to
the first list for use in the home orchard.

DISEASES OF THE PEAR.

The pear, like many other fruits, has several diseases and
insects which are only found on this plant. In addition to
these special forms there are many more which are common
to the apple and some of the other fruits.

Pear Blight.—The: pear blight has been known in this
country for more than a century. The blight is perhaps
the most serious disease of the pear. It is also found oa
the apple, where it becomes very dangerous on certain
varieties. The blight is more commonly seen during the
early part of the growing season. It usually appears in the
form of a twig blight throughout the blooming period.
The blight may continue to extend down the twig until the
branch is entirely killed by its progress. However, under
favorable conditions for the growth of the host plant, the
blight may never extend more than a few inches from the
tip of the branch.

260 THE POME FRUITS

The pear blight is the result of the work of bacteria. The
bacillus multiplies very rapidly under favorable conditions.
The nectar in the flowers offers a very good medium on
which to develop. From this source it is usually carried

Fig. 111.—Tire blight of the pear on the twig. (After Whetzel and Stewart,
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station.)

from one plant to another by insects visiting the different
flowers.

The control of the blight is only accomplished by svstem-
atic and careful pruning. It may even be eradicated by

INSECTS OF THE PEAR 261

diligent work. The essential step consists in cutting out
the blight in places where it may winter over. Where the
blight is thoroughly pruned out during the fall and winter
there would probably be no opportunity for infection the
following season if care is exercised in preventing it from
being carried in from other regions. When pruning, the
knife should be disinfected after every cut by immersing it in
a solution of bichloride of mercury. This serves to prevent
the spread of the disease. Spraying is of no value.

Pear Scab.—The scab found on the pear is closely related
to that of the apple and quite generally referred to as a
distinct species. The parts affected are the same as those
on the apple. However, the scab on the pear seems to be
more destructive and causes the fruit to crack open when
it is very abundant.

Some varieties of pears are less susceptible to the attack
of this disease, and the Bartlett, Kieffer and Le Conte seem
to be the least affected.

The same remedies recommended for the control of the
scab on the apple are used for the pear.

In addition to the diseases mentioned there are several
more which are common to the pear, and are also found:on
the apple. These are discussed under the apple and can be
controlled by the same methods as recommended for the

apple.
INSECTS OF THE PEAR.

Many of the insects found on the pear are also common
on the apple. Only those insects which particularly affect
the pear are discussed. The most injurious insects to the pear
are the codling moth, the San José scale, the pear psylla and
the pear thrips. The codling moth and the San José scale
are discussed under the apple.

Pear Psylla.—The pear psylla is imported from Europe,
and it is generally distributed over the country. It varies in
abundance from year to year in different localities. Badly
infested trees take on a sickly appearance early in the season,
the leaves turn a brownish color, dry up and fall off early
in the summer. The fruit falls prematurely.

262 THE POME FRUITS

The adult insect resembles a small cicada, and is about
za inch in length, dark reddish brown in color with a band
of black across the abdomen... The psylla is a sucking insect
and takes its food by sucking the juices out of the plant.
The insects usually collect around the base of the leaf and
the fruit stems until these places become crowded, when
they can be found feeding on the under side of the leaves.

The control of this insect is made much easier if the
orchard is kept clean and free from trash and rubbish. Dur-
ing the fall the rough bark should be scraped from the trunk
and larger branches to render them less attractive places
as winter quarters.

Many of these insects crawl out from their hiding places
during warm days in the late fall and early spring and are
very sluggish in their movement. At such times large num-
bers of the insects can be killed by spraying them with Black
Leaf 40 at the rate of 1 pint to 100 gallons of water to which
3 or 4 pounds of soap is added. The insecticide should be
applied on days when there is no danger of the liquid freez-
ing. Kerosene emulsion diluted with 10 parts of water or
1 pound of whale oil soap dissolved in 4 to 6 gallons of
water is also used effectively against this insect.

Pear Thrips.—The thrips have become very serious in
certain pear-growing regions. They seem to be widely
distributed, being found in California, in New York and
also in England.

The thrips are very small insects, measuring only about
zy inch in length. The adults are dark brown and emerge
from the ground about the time the fruit buds are bursting.

The injury done by these insects is very similar to that
done by the psylla. They are found attacking the same
parts of the plant and feeding in the same manner. This
insect is also found on the peach, apricot and plum, but the
pear suffers the greatest injury.

The pear thrips may be satisfactorily controlled by proper
methods of cultivation and spraying. The ground should
be plowed to a depth of 8 to 10 inches during the fall and in
some cases harrowed and again cross-plowed. Two sprayings
with Black Leaf 40 should be given in the spring. The

INSECTS OF THE PEAR 263

first spray should be supplied just as the buds begin to open
and the second just after the petals fall. Black Leaf 40

Fic. 112.—The pear showing injury to the blossom clusters due to the work of
the thrips. (After Parrott, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.)

at the rate of 1 pint to 100 gallons of water to which has
been added 5 pounds of soap is the proper spray material.

264 THE POME FRUITS

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE PEAR.

No. of
spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.
First Just before the buds swell in Commercial lime sulphur di-
spring luted 1 to 8.
Second Just as the buds show pink Commercial lime sulphur di-
luted 1 to 35 plus 2 pounds
of arsenate of lead to 50
gallons of the spray.
Third Just as petals are falling Same as second spray.
Fourth Three weeks after the third Same as second spray.
spray
Fifth About July 15 to August 1 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus

2 pounds arsenate of lead
to 50 gallons of spray or
commercial lime sulphur 1
gallon to 35 gallons of water
plus 2 pounds arsenate of
lead to 50 gallons of spray.

QUINCE.

The quince is the least importance of the pome fruits.
It is a native of Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is valued
chiefly for the making of jellies and preserves. The tree
is small and irregular in growth and varies from 10 to 15
feet in height.

Propagation.—The quince is very easily propagated either
by layering or by cuttings. Layering is nerformed by bend-
ing the young shoots down in the spring and burying them
so that a few of the terminal buds are exposed above the
ground. By autumn the branch will be rooted and can be
removed from the parent tree and set into a new location.
The quince is also extensively propagated by hard-wood cut-
tings, both for raising stocks as well as producing trees for
fruiting.

Soil—The soil for the quince should be deep and rich.
One that will raise good corn and potatoes is well suited for
the quince. A clay loam is to be preferred ove: a sandy
loam. Good drainage is essential and a porous subsoil
is desirable. An application of manure to the soil in the
spring has been found to be beneficial.

Cultivation.—The ground should be well cultivated during
the growing season. If the cultivation of the soil is neglected,

QUINCE 265

the trees will sometimes be dwarfed, stunted and entirely
unproductive. The cultivation should stop about the middle
of the summer so the tree will ripen up its wood. This is
very important because the quince is attacked by fire
blight, and when the tree is allowed to grow too long in the
fall it has the tendency to encourage this disease.

Pruning.—Very little pruning is required. The aim
should be to keep off the suckers which start from the reots
and trunk of the tree. In the pruning of a young tree it
can either be trained to one stem or trimmed so the plant
will resemble a bush. In the latter case three or four main
branches are allowed to grow. Where the plant is pruned to
one stem and forms a little tree instead of a bush usually
better and cleaner fruit will be produced.

Varieties —There are only a very few commercial varieties
of quinces, and these are generally known and widely dis-
tributed. The Orange, Champion, Rea and Meech seem to
be the most popular, and are the varieties that are usually
grown.

Insects and Diseases——The quince is attacked by prac-
tically the same insects and diseases that are found on the
apple and the pear. Thereare no troubles which are
specifically attached to only the quince as there are in the
case of the pear. The quince, however, seems to be par-
ticularly susceptible to the attack of the pear blight and
leaf rust.

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE QUINCE.

ea Time to spray. Spray materials.

First Before buds swell in the spring Commercial lime sulphur 1 to
8.

Second Just as the buds begin to swell 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.

Third Two weeks after the second 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus

spray 2 pounds arsenate of lead
to 50 gallons if curculio is
present.

Fourth Just as the blossoms are falling Commercial lime sulphur di-
luted 1 to 35, plus 2 pounds
arsenate of lead.

Fifth About three weeks after the Same as fourth spray.

fourth

266 THE POME FRUITS

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. What is meant by pomaceous fruits?
2. Discuss the two principal ways of propagating the apple. Which one
is the most important?
3. What is the most congenial soil for the apple? Why?
4. How does the planting of the apple differ from that of the pear?
5. Illustrate by drawing the three systems of planting an orchard.
6. Which system of planting requires the least number of trees? The
greatest number?
7. Why is cultivation of the apple orchard important?
8. Discuss the important points to be considered in pruning the apple.
9. How does spring planting compare with fall planting?
10. What determines the distance in planting the apple?
11. How does cultivation compare with mulching?
12. Discuss the rots of the pome fruits and give the methods of treating

13. How do the apple scab and the sooty blotch differ from the rots?

14. What kind of a disease is the fire blight and how can it be controlled?

15. Discuss the codling moth and the San José scale and give the methods
of control.

16. On what fruits is the San José scale injurious?

17. Discuss the difference between the tent caterpillar and the canker
worm.

18. Does the propagation of the pear differ from that of the apple?

19. Discuss the soil and the cultivation of the pear.

20. How does the planting of the pear differ from that of the apple?

21. Discuss the pruning of the pear.

22. Name three varieties of the apple and pear that are good for the home
garden, and three for the commercial orchard.

23. Is the pear scab the same as the apple scab? Discuss.

24. Describe the pear psylla and tell how it is controlled.

25. Discuss the pear thrips and tell how they injure the plant.

26. Give the spray outline for the pear.

27. Discuss the cultivation of the quince.

28. Give the spray outline for the quince.

CHAPTER XNVIL

THE STONE FRUITS.

Tue stone fruits include the cherries, peaches and plums.
They are called stone fruits because of the hard stony seed
found in the flesh. In general, each fruit has similac require-
ments, although there are specific differences which are
characteristic to each one. Practically all of the stone
fruits are very perishable and cannot be kept for any length
of time. They are affected by the same insects and diseases.

CHERRY.

The cultivated cherry has probably been produced from
the two European species, Prunus avium, the ancestor of the
sweet cherries, and Prunus cerasus, the ancestor of the sour
cherries.

The sweet cherry trees are characterized by a tall erect
growth, by reddish-brown glossy bark which has a tendency
to peel in rings. The flowers usually appear with the leaves
and are generally born in clusters on lateral spurs. The fruit
is either red, yellow or black and either spherical, heart-
shaped or pointed. The flesh is either soft or firm. The sweet
cherries are divided into three groups, namely, the Hearts,
the Bigarreaus and the Dukes.

The sour cherry trees are characterized by a low headed
and a spreading form of a tree. The flowers are born in
clusters from lateral buds, which appear in advance of the
leaves. The fruit is round, red, soft and sour. The sour
cherries are divided into two groups—the Amarellas and the
Morellos.

Propagation.—The cherry is usually propagated by budding.
The budding should be done in the nursery row when the

268 STONE FRUITS

trees are yearlings. The stock on which the cherries are
budded is very important. The sour cherries are budded
mainly upon Mahaleb stock, but sometimes they are worked
on the Mazzard stock. The sweet varieties are almost
universally budded upon the Mazzard stock.

Fic. 113.—Sweet cherry tree, two years old. (Gould, United States
' Department of Agriculture.) ‘

Where cherries are grown on a large scale it seems to be
advisable to select the buds for propagation purposes from
bearing trees that have proved their worth. It is a known
fact that certain trees bear uniformly every year while others
bear sparingly and some scarcely at all. When the buds are
taken from non-bearing trees the propagator never knows
whether the new tree is going to be of any value, while if
the buds are selected from a bearing tree with good fruit
the chances seem to be greater for success in producing a good
bearing tree.

CHERRY 269

Soil—The cherry can be grown on a variety of soils. It
probably reaches its highest development on a light, dry,
sandy loam or a light clay loam. The sour cherries require
plenty of moisture in the soil, but the sweet cherries will
grow very successfully on soil too dry for other fruits. The
soil should be rich in mineral plant food, but it should not
have too much nitrogenous matter in it. A rich, stiff, clay

Fic. 114.—A sour cherry tree, three years old. (Gould, United States
Department of Agriculture.)

soil, with plenty of nitrogen in it, produces a tree that is
rarely ever productive and is usually short-lived, while a
poorly drained soil produces practically a worthless tree.
The cherry is a heavy feeder and it should be encouraged in
growth while young, but too much wood growth should be
discouraged in the old and bearing trees.

The subsoil for the cherry shculd be porous and well-
drained. It should be neither a hard clay nor a dry gravel.

270 STONE FRUITS

Planting. —Many conditions enter into the planting of the
cherry which determines the distance of the trees. The soil,
the climate and the rainfall are the most influential factors
in deciding this point. The habit of growth of the tree also
regulates the distance. The sweet cherry, which is a vigorous
grower, should be planted from 30 to 40 feet apart, while the
sour cherry, which is not such a vigorous grower, can be set
from 20 to 25 feet apart. On a rich soil more room should
be provided for each tree than on a poor sandy soil.

The cherry should always be planted alone and never used
as a filler in an orchard, and neither should fillers of any
other tree be used in a cherry orchard.

The soil should be thoroughly prepared before any planting
is started. The surface should be level and all large lumps
and stones should be removed from the land. Any system
which suits the tastes of the grower can be used in setting
the trees.

Either spring or fall planting can be practised. When
spring opens early and the winters are mild, with plenty of
moisture until late in the season, fall planting may be prac-
tised to an advantage. When there is danger of very cold
winter weather, early spring planting is the best for the
cherry.

The cherry should be set in a hole large enough to receive
the roots without crowding them. It should be planted
deep enough so the tree will be 2 or 3 inches deeper than it
formerly stood in the nursery row. All broken and injured
roots should be pruned off, cutting them in such a manner
that the cut surface will rest on the bottom of the hole. The
hole should be filled about one-half full with top soil and
pressed firmly about the roots and the remainder of the soil
should be thrown in and all tramped down well. When the
planting is finished throw several shovelfuls of loose soil
over the top of the ground. The loose soil prevents the loss
of water and keeps it from baking and from cracking.

Cultivation —The cultivation of the soil is essential for the
greatest success in cherry culture. The most intensive cul-
tivation should be given to the young trees from the time
they are planted until they are four or five years old. Clean

CHERRY 271

culture and good cultivation is probably better for the bearing
orchard than is either the grass or the mulch system.

The cultivation of the bearing orchard should start in the
spring just as soon as the soil is ready to work. The soil
should first be plowed or disked and pulverized by harrowing
it until it is firm and smooth. When the soil is prepared in
good shape, it should then be harrowed or surface cultivated
every two weeks and after every rain until about the middle
of July or the first of August. A cover crop should be sown
about this time to check the growth of the trees and to ripen
up the wood for winter.

The cover crops used for the cherry vary in different
sections and for different purposes. If the trees are making a
poor and an unsatisfactory growth the cover crops should be
a leguminous crop such as Canada peas, crimson clover or
hairy vetch. If the growth of the trees is good and plenty of
wood is being made then the cover crop should be fall rye
or winter wheat. The following spring the cover crop should
be plowed under.

Pruning.—The first and the most important pruning of the
cherry should be done at the beginning of the second year’s
growth. The lateral branches should be cut close and the
top headed back to about 3 feet from the ground. This pro-
cedure will establish a well-balanced, low-headed tree.

Beginning with the third yeae select from three to five of
the best branches for the framework of the tree and remove
all of the other branches. The most central branch should
be maintained as the leader and should be pruned so that it is
5 or 6 inches longer than the other branches. The remaining
branches which make up the framework of the tree should
be cut back to 5 or 6 inches in length. The scaffold branches
should be selected with relation to each other and should be
well distributed.

The fourth and fifth years the pruning should be directed to
thinning out of the surplus branches and to establishing a
systematical tree. As the tree grows older very little prun-
ing is necessary. Usually after the cherry begins to bear, it
requires no pruning.

272 STONE FRUITS

Harvesting. —The method by which cherries are picked is
determined to a limited extent by the way in which they are
going to be used. If they are for immediate use in the home
they can be picked either with or without the stems. If the
truit is for long distant shipment the stems must be attached
to the fruit. If the stems are pulled off the juice will ooze out.
In some cherry-growing regions the stems are clipped with
small shears.

The time of picking the fruit is determined by the distance
of the market and the variety of cherry. For distant ship-
ment the light-colored sorts should be picked as soon as they
begin to color, and the dark-colored varieties long before they
are dark and juicy. For local consumption the fruit can
remain on the tree until it is ripe enough to pick without
being too soft. The fruit should be handled carefully so that
the skin is not broken or injured, because this gives an
entrance to fungi, which will cause the fruit to rot. The
cherry should never be poured from one vessel to another,
because this bruises and injures the flesh.

Packing.—The fruit should be packed as soon as it is
picked. If it is to be shipped any great distance it should
be precooled at once and shipped in refrigerator cars.

The cherry is packed in several different styles of pack-
ages, which are characteristic of the different sections. The
16-quart crate is perhaps used more than any other style,
although in some sections the 24- and the 32-quart crates
are used.

A small basket holding from 6 to 8 pounds is used in places,
while sweet cherries are often packed in a 10-pound flat box.

Varieties—There is a comparatively large list of varieties
of the cherry, both of the sweet and the sour. Some varieties
are valued for home use while others are better suited for
commercial planting. The varieties of cherries have not
been developed for any definite geographical regions. Many
varieties have been described, but only a few of them are
profitable.

Among the sweet cherries probably the firm fleshed ced
and black Bigarreaus are the most profitable. The light-
colored Bigarreaus and the Hearts are more susceptible to

DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 273

the fruit rot and the light varieties show bruises and finger
marks when placed on the market. Among the sour cherries
the Montmorency, the English Morello and the Early Rich-
mond have been the best money makers. The Windsor,
Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Governor Wood and Nepolean
are among the best of the sweet cherries.

DISEASES OF THE CHERRY.

The cherry has several diseases and insects that are serious.
Most all of the troubles can be controlled by a correct
diagnosis of the injury and the proper treatment. Few people
realize that all of the so-called rots on the fruits and vegetables
are diseases, and in many cases these can be prevented by
timely treatment. The rot of the cherry, peach, plum,
apple and pear is caused by the presence of a parasitic
fungus which destroys the tissue of the fruit.

Brown Rot.—The brown rot is a disease that attacks all of
the stone fruits, namely, the cherry, peach, plum and apricot.
It is widespread and very destcuctive to the fruit. The
brown rot first appears as a small dark brown spot. This
. spot increases in size until the whole fruit is infected. While
it primarily affects the fruit, it is also known to attack the
flowers and the branches, following years of unusual out-
breaks of the disease. The decayed fruit either falls to the
ground or hangs on the tree, and it is a continual source of
infection. This disease nct only causes great damage in the
orchard, but it also affects the fruit in shipment and on the
market.

In order to effectively control the brown rot, preventive
measures must begin in the late winter or early spring. All
of the mummied fruits on the tree should be destroyed and
a general cleaning up given around. the tree. The spraying
of the trees with a 6-6-50 Bordeaux mixture when they are
dormant will aid in killing many spores on the branches.
After the trees come out in leaf a weaker solution of Bordeaux
mixture sometimes helps to keep the disease in check.

Black Knot.—The black knot is a very striking as well as
a most common disease of the cherry and the plum. This

18

274 STONE FRUITS

disease is very unsightly. It consists of wart-like bodies
which cover a considerable area on the twigs and the limbs.
It is confined entirely to the woody parts and is usually
found on one side of the branch. As the infected part
increases in size the bark is broken and the fungus is seen.
These knots will have reached full size by early summer.
Since the knots are points of infection, and the fungus is local
in its habit, it is evident that by the pruning out of the knots
the disease can be eradicated. In fact only a few knots are
present when the infection begins, and by carefully watching
the tree and cutting off and destroying the knots as soon
as they appear, little trouble will be experienced with this
disease.

Shot-hole Disease.—The name of this disease is significant
referring to the appearance of the leaf, which resembles one
that has been shot full of holes with ashotgun. This disease
occurs on the cherry and the plum and occasionally on the
other stone fruits. Small infected areas appear on the leaves
and as the disease advances these diseased spots gradually
die, shrink in size and fall out, leaving a small hole in the leaf.
A number of these diseased areas occasionally coalesce and
make a larger hole. This disease can be held in check by
destroying all leaves, which is best done by cultivating the
soil and turning the leaves under. If the trees are sprayed
with the standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture early in the
spring while they are dormant it will aid considerably. Suc-
cessive sprays should follow, with a dilute alkaline Bordeaux
mixture, although on some plants the use of Bordeaux may
be accompanied by some injury to the foliage.

INSECTS OF THE CHERRY.

Plant Louse.—The plant louse often becomes troublesome,
and especially on the sweet cherries, which are more liable
to injury by the louse than the sour varieties. The damage
to this plant by the plant lice is similar to that of any other
plant. These insects are always abundant on the under
side of the leaves, and this irritation causes them to curl

PEACH 275

under. Spraying with Black Leaf 40, diluted 1 part to 500
parts of water, or with kerosene emulsion is recommended.

Slug.—The slug is the larvee of a small black fly. It is
about one-fifth of an inch in length. The slug attacks both
the cherry and the pear. In reality it is the pear slug which
often feeds on the cherry. The adults appear in the spring
and lay their eggs in a little slit made for that purpose on the
under side of the leaf. The egg hatches into a little worm
which soon becomes covered with a brownish, sticky, slimy
material. The body of the slug is swollen in front and tapers
behind, resembling a tadpole. The larve feed upon the upper
surface of the leaves, eating only the upper layer and leaving
the skeleton of veins and the lower epidermis to turn brown
and die. Badly infested trees lose all of their leaves by mid-
summer. The fruit becomes stunted and fails to mature,
and the vitality of the tree is greatly weakened. In severe
infestations the trees appear to have been swept by fire.

When only a few trees are attacked by the slugs, the insects
may be destroyed by one or two applications of freshly
slaked lime dusted on the leaves. On larger tracts arsenate
of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water should
be used.

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE CHERRY.
No. of

spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.

First Before buds open in spring Commercial lime sulphur, 1
part to 8 parts of water.

Second Just before blossoms open 2-2-50 Bordeaux mixture.

Third Just after blossoms fall 2-2-50 Bordeaux plus 2
pounds arsenate of lead to
50 gallons of spray.

Fourth Two weeks after the third Same as third.

If the black plant lice are present spray with Black Leaf 40,
1 part to 500 parts of water. If slugs appear after the fruit
is harvested spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2
pounds to 50 gallons of water.

PEACH.

The peach seems to be unknown in the wild state except
where circumstances seem to support the opinion that it has

276 STONE FRUITS

escaped from cultivation at an earlier date. In parts of Asia
and Persia apparently wild trees have been observed. Persia
has for some time been regarded as the source from which
this fruit came, but it appeared in Greece soon after the
beginning of the Christian era. There is some question of
doubt in the minds of many as to whether Persia is the
original home of the peach or whether it came first from China.
De Condolle is of the opinion that China is the original home
of the peach and not Persia, as is generally thought.

The first records of the peach in this country seem to date
back to 1565, when the Spaniards are said to have planted
peach pits at St. Augustine, Florida. There is very little
doubt but that the earliest settlers in this country brought
pits and cuttings of the fruit they were familiar with in their
home countries and that the peach was among these plants
imported.

Propagation.—The peach is propagated exclusively by
budding. The seeds or pits are collected and generally
planted in the fall in rows from 3 to 4 feet apart where the
seedlings are to be grown. In some sections where the
weather is very cold the pits are stratified and the kernels
planted in the spring. Jn dry climates it is important that
the pits are not permitted to dry out.

When the seedlings have reached the proper size they are
budded. Usually the seedlings are large enough for budding
by midsummer and the budding is done largely in July,
August and early September. The shield bud is the form
most often employed and the bud is inserted 2 or 3 inches
above the surface of the ground. As soon as the bud grows
fast to the stock it is a common practice to break over the
tops of the seedling stocks by cutting them nearly off just
above the point where the bud is inserted. The top can
either be removed later in the fall or allowed to remain
attached until the following spring. In some cases the top is
cut off in the spring without being previously broken over.

A limited amount of budding is sometimes done in June.
This is known as June budding, and is only possible in the
southern sections, where the plant has the advantage of a
longer growing season. Trees that are June budded are
ready for planting the following fall.

PEACH 277

Soil—The opinion is current that the peach should be
planted on a sandy soil or some type of the lighter soils.
While excellent peaches are often grown on this ts’pe of soil it
does not necessarily follow that the peach cannot be success-
fully grown on heavier types of soil. The peach will do well
on a wide range of soils, including even some of the moder-
ately heavy clay loams. To say that any particular type of
soil could be most profitable for the peach is impossible.
Profitable crops are grown upon the lightest sands and the
heaviest clays, and each soil produces a characteristic type
and quality of fruit.

The soil which is selected should be well-drained whatever
the type is. The peach will not thrive on poorly drained
soils. The soils that are hard and impervious to water must
be avoided. They should be moderately fertile. A soil rich
in nitrogen is not so desirable because it produces too much
foliage, but it should not Jack plant food in such quantities
as to stunt the growth of the tree. The soils in which alkali
occurs should be avoided because they never grow good
peaches.

Site ——The site of a peach orchard is equally as important
as the soil. The peach is very tender and great care must
be exercised in order to keep it from being frozen. As a
general proposition a site that is elevated considerably above
the surrounding country or that is adjacent to a large body
of water is preferable for a peach orchard. Cold air always
settles to the lower places, and for that reason it is often colder
at the lower elevations than it is at the higher points in the
same locality. A large body of water also influences the
climate to a great extent. It prevents the warming up of the
atmosphere in the immediate vicinity of the water and thus
holds back the vegetation until the danger of frost is past
and also delays the frost in the fall in a similar manner.
The influence of the water is probably only felt for several
miles, although the elevation has a great deal to do with the
extent of the influence of the water.

Pianting.—The ideal preparation of the soil for the peach
tree consists in deep plowing and the thorough pulverization.
Equally as good a preparation should be given to the land
as if corn were to be planted.

278 STONE FRUITS

Preliminary to the digging of the holes for the trees the
grower should plow one or two furrows as deep as the plow will
run along the line which marks each row. This practice
greatly reduces the amount of digging that must be done.
The holes should be broad enough to admit the roots without
crowding. The trees should be planted 2 or 3 inches deeper
than they stood in the nursery row.

In preparing a tree for planting all of the injured and
mutilated roots should be cut off. The long, slender and
irregular roots should be shortened to the proper length to
make the root system uniform.

Unless the tree is exceptionally large all of the branches
should be removed, leaving only a single unbranched stem.
The stem should be cut back to the desired height to form
the head of the tree. The height ranges from 18 to 30 inches,
according to the taste of the grower.

As a rule, only thrifty, well-grown, one-year-old trees
should be planted. Each tree should be free from injurious
insect pests as well as fungous diseases.

A well-grown tree does not always mean the largest tree
in the nursery, but, on the other hand, the medium-sized trees
are probably fully as desirable as the larger ones. A tree that
has a well-developed root system should always be selected.

The exact time for the planting of the peach cannot readily
be given. In general, in the northern section, where the
winters are severe, spring planting is preferred. The planting
should begin as soon as the ground can be worked. In the
middle and the southern latitude, where the winters are mild
and where the fall season is favorable for the working of the
ground, fall planting is generally successful and is preferred
by many growers. It is desirable, however, to have fall
planted trees reéstablish some root action in their new loca-
tion before the winter begins.

The distance apart the peach is planted is regulated by
the topography of the land, the fertility of the soil and the
varietal characteristics of the tree. The most common
distances are 18 x 18 feet, 18 x 20 feet and 20x 20 feet.
Occasionally trees are set 25 x 25 feet apart, and this distance
probably does not allow any more space than the trees need.

PEACH 279

The peach is usually planted by the square system, but other
systems are equally as good.

Cultivation.—Clean culture is the common practice in
nearly all of the peach-growing sections. In fact, good
cultivation is essential to the continued success of the peach.

The peach orchard should be cultivated throughout the
entire season, beginning with the first year the trees are
planted. The conditions surrounding the trees should
determine what the nature of the tillage should be. If the
soil is hard and the cover crop heavy it will be necessary to
turn the soil with a plow and follow it with a harrow or such
other implement as best suits the individual case. If the soil
is light, plowing can sometimes be omitted and some other
type of cultivation used to thoroughly pulverize the soil
to the desired depth. The soil should be worked with some
kind of a tillage implement often enough to keep it loose and
friable. A dust mulch 3 or 4 inches deep is valuable in holding
the moisture. If a crust forms on the surface it should be
immediately broken up. The soil should be worked after
every rain.

The tillage operations should continue until the last of
July or the first of August. By that time the growth will be
made and the fruit buds formed for the next year’s crop.
The seed for cover or green manure crops should be sown at
this time, which should be turned under the following spring.

Pruning.—The peach is a stronger and a more rapid grower
than almost any of the other fruits. The young trees are
reduced to a single stem or whip and the head is formed from
the shoots that grow upon this whip the first year. The peach
responds readily to good treatment and gives much pleasure
to the pruner.

The object of the pruner in pruning the peach should be to
cut out enough wood to force a good strong growth each year,
to remove surplus fruiting wood and to give the tree the
desired shape. The peach bears its fruit buds in the axis
of the leaves and the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood. In
removing the new growth some branches should be taken out
while the remainder should be cut back to remove some of
the fruit buds which they carry. It is difficult to say just how

280

STONE FRUITS

Fic. 115.—Peach tree before pruning. (After Eustace, Michigan
Agriculture College.)

Fig. 116.—Peach tree after pruning. (After Eustace, Michigan
Agriculture College.)

.

PEACH 281

much wood should be removed or how much of the remainder
should be cut back. Some authorities claim about three-fifths
of the wood is the proper amount to remove. The heavier
pruning should be done early in the spring, while the light
pruning should be done earlier, probably after danger of frost
is past. The fruit should be kept as near the ground as
possible, which can be regulated to a great degree by pruning.
The fruiting wood can usually be forced to develop closer to
the ground if the top is cut back. As the trees grow older the
dehorning of the plant is often profitable. In dehorning the
tree the entire top is cut off, leaving only stubs remaining.
The stubs will throw out many branches which will form a
new top. A few of the branches should be pruned out. This
practice lengthens the life of the tree.

Harvesting. —The time of harvesting the peach is deter-
mined by the distance to the market and the variety. The
tender skinned varieties will have to be picked sooner than the
tough skinned sorts. In most cases the peach is picked while
the one side of the fruit still shows a little green, particularly
if it is to be shipped any distance. For home consumption
the fruit should remain on the tree until it is ripe but still
firm, so that the halves will not mash when they are cooked.
Many varieties are very delicate and must be picked at a
certain stage or there will be a loss from overripeness.
Experience is the best guide for determining the proper
picking time.

The careful handling of the fruit is necessary in order to
avoid bruising. The fruit should be placed in the shade until
it is hauled to the packing shed. A specially constructed
wagon should be provided in order not to jar and bruise
the fruit.

There are several styles of packages. The different pack-
ages are usually characteristic of the peach-growing regions.
The bushel basket, the half-bushel basket, the Georgia
carrier and the six-basket crate are the most common types.
The Georgia carrier and the six-basket crate are extensively
used by some growers, but the bushel basket is perhaps the
most widely employed. The ease of handling the bushel
basket is no doubt the reason for its general use.

282 STONE FRUITS

The fruit should be graded as to uniformity in color and
size for every package. The grower should endeavor to make
an honest as well as an attractive pack, and the fruit should
be of. good quality throughout the package.

Varieties.—There are many varieties of peaches, and these
are usually based on regional differences. The adaptability
of varieties to different regions calls for some consideration,
but it is usually a factor that is less pronounced than it is
with many other fruits. The following varieties are among
the most important and the most widely planted: Elberta,
Carman, Early Crawford, Late Crawford, Salway, Lemon,
Cling, Champion, Mountain Rose and Old Mixon Free.
There are many other varieties listed and suited to various
regions of the country, but they are not so widely distributed.

DISEASES OF THE PEACH.

The peach is subject to the attack of several diseases and
insects. This plant has more specific diseases and insects
which are characteristic only of very closely related plants
than almost any other fruit. Many of these troubles are con-
fined particularly to the peach.

Peach Yellows.—The peach yellows is perhaps the most
serious disease that attacks the peach. It is also found on the
almond, the apricot and the nectarine.

There can be no specific cause assigned to the yellows, but
the symptoms of the disease are easily recognized by the
premature ripening of the fruit, which is highly colored, and
the spotted and premature unfolding of the winter buds. The
opening of the leaf buds occurs as early as July and as late
as November. This symptom is very common on diseased
trees during August, September and October. The fruit will
ripen from one to six weeks in advance of its normal season
and will be deficient in quality.

The yellows is a contagious disease and it spreads from
one tree to another. The disease is supposed to be of bacterial
origin, but this point is still a disputed question.

The peach yellows must be controlled by preventive
measures. Spray materials are not effective in holding this

DISEASES OF THE PEACH 283

disease in check. All trees that show symptoms of the
yellows should be cut out and burned. The diseased tree
should never be dragged through the orchard because this
practice will infect more trees, but should be cut down and
burned where it stood.

Little Peach.—The disease of little peach is also of obscure
origin. The direct cause of this trouble is unknown, but it is
thought to be similar to that of the peach yellows. The
symptoms of little peach are similar to those of the yellows,
except the fruit always remains small, drys up finally and
becomes worthless. The same methods for the control of the
peach yellows must be used for the control of the little peach.

Fic. 117.—Peaches entirely destroyed by brown rot. (After Scott and
Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture.)

Brown Rot.—The brown rot of the peach is a fungous
disease that attacks the flowers, the twigs and the fruit.
It is the most destructive to the fruit and becomes most
abundant as the fruit approaches maturity. If the weather
conditions are favorable for the spread of this disease often

284 STONE FRUITS

from one-half to three-fourths of the crop is ruined in a few
days.

The disease first appears as small brown spots on the
fruit, which rapidly enlarge, involving the entire fruit in a

Fria. 118.—Peach leaf curl. (After Wallace and Whetzel, Cornell University.)

few days. It has been proven that the plum curculio is very
instrumental in the spreading of this disease. The brown rot
can be controlled by spraying with self-boiled lime sulphur.

INSECTS OF THE PEACH 285

Eradicating the curculio by adding arsenate of lead to the
spray mixture is also recommended.

Peach Leaf Curl.—The peach leaf curl is a peculiar disease
that causes the leaves to curl up in all kinds of shapes. It
is caused by a fungous growth. This disease appears peri-
odically and perhaps the weather conditions control its
appearance to a certain extent. Damp, cold springs favor
its development and the disease is usually worse during such
years.

The loss due to the peach leaf curl is hard to estimate, but
authorities are agreed that it reaches into the millions of
dollars each year.

The peach leaf curl can be largely controlled by the appli-
cation of some fungicide, preferably Bordeaux mixture, during
the late winter or early spring just prior to the opening of the
buds. The application of the fungicide must be thorough,
so that all spores are killed as they are produced or as growth
starts.

In addition to the above-mentioned diseases there are
several less important ones which are found on the peach, but
which are controlled by carefully following out the spraying
program.

INSECTS OF THE PEACH.

The peach is subject to the attack of several insects, some
of which require special means of control.

Peach Tree Borer.—The peach tree borer is found in every
locality where peaches are grown. It is a native insect. The
loss due to this insect is millions of dollars every year.

The adult of the borer is a moth, the male and the female
differing widely in color. The male has four transparent
wings with a metallic color, while the female has front wings
which are opaque while the back wings are opaque only over
about one-half of their area, the remaining half being trans-
parent.

The damage to the peach is done by the larva of this insect.
The insect passes the winter in the larval state in the trunk
of the tree. Some of the smaller worms pass the winter
in a small cocoon protected by a mass of gum on the bark,

286 STONE FRUITS

’ usually the larvee confine their work to the trunk or the roots
of the tree, a short distance below the surface of the soil, but
occasionally they are found 5 or 6 inches under the ground.
When the larvee are full grown they leave their burrows and
spin a cocoon, coming out as adult insects in three or four
weeks.

Fria. 119.—Canker on the limb of the peach.

The only sure method for the control of this insect is to dig
the larvee out of their burrows with a sharp knife or some
similar instrument. A wire can often be used to kill the
insects in their buriows. The burrows of the borers are
usually indicated by conspicuous masses of gum together
with the casting and chewings of the insect. After the

PLUM 287

borers are dug out, which should be done some time in June,
a small mound of earth should be pulled up around the trunk
to a height of S to 10 inches.

Many washes and disinfectants have been used from time
to time, but all of these have to be handled with some care,
and they are not very satisfactory.

Peach Louse.—The peach louse sometimes becomes serious.
The usual methods of control for all of the plant lice are
-effective against this species. The spraying of the trees
with nicotine products will give the most satisfactory results.

San José Scale.—The San José scale often becomes trouble-
some when the peach is grown near the apple or the pear.
The same remedies recommended under the apple for the
control of the San José scale should be used for the peach.

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE PEACH.

No. of
spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.
First Before the buds swell early in 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.
the spring
Second Just after blooming when the 4-450 Bordeaux mixture plus
fruit is bursting the shucks arsenate of lead 2 pounds
to 50 gallons.
Third Two or three weeks after the Self-boiled lime sulphur; arse-
second spray nate of lead 2 pounds to
50 gallons of water (impor-
tant.)
Fourth About one month before the Self-boiled lime sulphur.

fruit ripens

The trees should be examined carefully every spring and
fall for the borer, which should be dug out whenever it is
found. Where the yellows or the little peach is present
destroy the tree as soon as the disease is discovered.

PLUM.

The plum is a very old fruit. The native species have been
found growing in this country for many years. As early as
1524 foreign explorers of America tell of plums which were
found growing wild in this country in the vicinity of New
York. A little later, in 1539, another explorer describes the
plum growing abundantly in the region of Florida. From

288 STONE FRUITS

these old accounts, it would seem that the native plum has
been known for many years, and some of our best varieties
of today are improvements of some of the wild sorts.

Most of our cultivated plums are derived from several
species of wild plums. The European plums were developed
from Prunus domestica, Prunus insititia and Prunus cera-
sifera, the Japanese plums from Prunus triflora and the
American plums from Prunus americana, Prunus nigra and
Prunus hortulana, while the Chinese species, Prunus simonii,
has given us at least one variety.

The European plums have reached a higher state of
development than either the American or the Japanese
sorts. This is probably due to the fact that the European
varieties have been under cultivation longer and have been
more systematically improved.

The plums are divided into several groups. The groups are
distinct in characteristics while the varieties in each group
are similar to each other. The most common varieties are
the Damson, the Yellow Egg, the Diamond, the Bradshaw
and the Lombard.

Propagation.—The plum is either propagated by budding
or by root grafting. Budding is more generally practised and

.is more successful. The work is done at the close of the

active growing season, which is either in August or early in
September. The stocks for the propagation of the plum
differ in various sections. In the east and the south the
Myrobalan and the Marianna plums are usually employed
as stocks. The peach is sometimes used also. In other
regions the native seedlings are the best stocks because of
their hardiness and their adaptability to the locality.

The seed should be sown in the spring, and if they are given
good care and attention the seedlings will usually be large
enough for budding by the following August.

There is some discussion as to whether budding or grafting
is preferable, although in practice the greatest success has
been obtained by budding. The shield bud is the form always
employed. Some propagators use the whip graft, and while
the plum can be increased by this method there are many
failures, and it is thought that budding is far superior to that
of root grafting.

PLUM 289

Some species of plums, and particularly the Marianna, grow
very easily from hard-wood cuttings. Many cuttings from
these species are made every year and are used for stocks on
which to bud the named varieties.

Soil—The plum will succeed on any kind of soil. Next
to the apple, perhaps, the European plum can be profitably
grown on a greater range of soils than almost any other fruit.
When we consider the American and the Japanese varieties
it becomes an easy matter to select a plum that can be
grown practically everywhere.

The domestic plums generally do the best on a rather
heavy clay loam. If this class of soil is well drained and com-
paratively warm it is also an ideal soil for the European
varieties.

The Japanese varieties prefer a lighter soil than the
European sorts. A light sandy loam that is warm and
friable is best suited to the Japanese varieties. In fact, they
will do comparatively well on a soil that is largely sand.

The Americana and the Miner groups require about the
same kind of soil. A rich heavy loam is preferred. A small
amount of sand is not injurious and does not interfere with
their growth if the climate is favorable.

The Wild Goose types and their close relatives have a dis-
taste for cold, heavy, clay soils. A rich sandy loam is pref-
erable, although they do well on a great variety of the looser
types of soil.

Planting —The selection of a good tree should receive the
first attention in planting. A two-year-old plum tree is
planted in most cases, although there are certain southern
sections where one-year-old Japanese trees are large enough
to plant. All trees should be of good quality and healthy
and budded on the stock which best suits your individual
requirements.

The distance apart for planting the plum varies according
to the variety, the soil and the locality. Where the ground
is rich the trees must be set farther apart than where the soil
is poor. Some of the smaller upright growing varieties can
be set 15 x 18 feet while other more vigorous growing sort
should be planted 18x 20 feet apart, and occasionally
20 x 25 feet is not too much space for the trees.

19

290 STONE FRUITS

The time of planting is regulated by the location and in a
general way agrees with that of the cherry. There seems to
be no advantage in spring planting over fall planting if the
climatic conditions are favorable for fall planting. If the
soil is well-prepared and the trees are well-ripened they
may be set in the fall with good success. If the trees are not
in a well-ripened and mature condition, spring planting is
preferred. In selecting and planting the different varieties
they should be mixed with reference to cross-pollination.
Many varieties are sterile or partially sterile, and if they are
planted in a solid block with no other fertile varieties they
will never set fruit. This is a very important phase of the
industry, and it should be thoroughly understood before
planting the plum.

Cultivation —The plums grow and thrive better when the
trees are cultivated. The same conditions suggested for the
apple apply with equal force to the plum. The orchard should
be plowed in the spring. The soil should be cultivated at
frequent intervals throughout the spring and the summer
until the middle of July or the first of August, when culti-
vation should stop. The orchard should then be sown with
some cover crop. The cover crop will use up the surplus
moisture and the plant food which will check the growth of
the trees and they will i:ipen their wood before cold weather
arrives and will pass the winter in good shape.

The cover crops which are selected depend upon the soil,
the locality and the condition of the trees. If the soil is
sandy and the orchard located in the southern part of the
country, crimson clover, cow peas or soy beans are perhaps
the best. If the soil is of the heavier types and the orchard
located in the north, rye, buckwheat, peas or mammoth clover
is preferred. On sandy soils in the north hairy vetch is
excellent. The seed of all cover crops should be sown thickly
so that a good stand will be obtained. A common mistake is
to have the cover crop too thin and little good is derived from
its use.

Thinning. — Thinning is important with many fruits, but
perhaps more so with the plum than with any other. Many
of the American and the Japanese plums have a great

PLUM 291

tendency to overbear. Sometimes varieties of these plums
will set three or four times as many fruits as the tree can
mature, and they will often do this year after year. This
overbearing tends to weaken the trees and many are killed
by it.

The fruit should be thinned immediately after the June
drop. Thinning is usually done by hand, and although it
seems a rather expensive task it will repay the grower.
Good judgment must be used in thinning and the number of
fruits allowed to remain will usually vary with every grower.
The distance between the plums will depend upon several
factors, but a conservative distance is from 3 to 5 inches
between each fruit on the limb.

Pruning.—The plum trees vary widely in their habit of
growth and their fruit bearing. Owing to this great varia-
tion no well-defined system of pruning will suit all types.
Many plums resemble the apricot in their fruit-bearing
habits, but still many more are like the cherry and still
others show more of an inclination to bear only branch buds
on the new wood.

The plum is subject to sun scald on its trunk and therefore
should be headed low. The young trees of all types will
need some cutting back and thinning out to develop a good
tree.

Some trees will require pruning to spread them. As the
trees become older and more mature very little if any pruning
will be necessary. Occasionally some thinning out of water
sprouts or the removal of a branch which is rubbing will be
necessary, but usually no severe pruning will be needed.

Harvesting —The plums are perhaps less liable to injury
from handling than either the peach or the cherry. As a rule
the skin of the plum is tough enough to withstand con-
siderable handling without serious injury. The plum, how-
ever, should not be bruised or the skin broken, because. this
will cause the fruit to decay.

Some varieties of plums color up long before they are ripe,
and it requires a little experience to determine the exact time
for harvesting. The plum, however, should not be picked
until it is almost ripe, although it should not remain on the
tree so long that it will be injured in handling or shipping.

292 STONE FRUITS

The fruit is usually picked with the stem attached. The
plums are often very uniform in size, although occasionally
they require some grading. The grading is more often
necessary with the larger sorts than it is with the smaller
varieties. The large prune types are sometimes marketed in
boxes similar to those of the cherry, while the smaller varieties
are usually sold in half bushel baskets, and occasionally in
grape baskets. The size of the plum determines to a large
extent the type of package in which it is marketed. In some
cases the plums are sorted and graded and are then packed
in the four-basket crate.

Varieties—The selection of the proper varieties is pri-
marily a local question. The planter will do well to consult
some successful grower in his local community.

Many varieties of native plums have originated mainly
in the Mississippi valley and in some of the southern regions.
Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota and Texas have produced
by far the greatest number of good varieties, largely from
native stock.

To select a list which will fit all sections of the country
would be impossible, but the following varieties have a some-
what wider range than many others: Damson, Burbank,
De Sota, Hawkeye, Lombard, Diamond, Abundance and
Wild Goose. Many local varieties are good, and in regions
where these do well they should be selected.

DISEASES OF THE PLUM.

The plum is affected by practically the same diseases as the
cherry. The brown rot sometimes known as the ripe rot of
the plum, is perhaps the most destructive (see description
under Cherry). The black knot of the plum is the same as
found on the cherry. The shot-hole fungus which attacks the
cherry is likewise found on the plum. These diseases are
controlled in the same manner as on the cherry.

Gummosis.—This trouble seems to be more prevalent on
the plum than upon the other stone fruits, although it is
found upon the cherry and the peach as well as upon the
plum.

DISEASES OF THE PLUM 293

The symptoms of gummosis is the accumulation of a
gummy exudation on the trunk and the branches of the tree.
The gum at first is light colored and soft, but later turns
a dark yellowish color and becomes hard. This gummy
material accumulates in large quantities at certain points,
particularly in crotches and places where a limb has been
split. Small patches are usually found scattered over the
trees at many points.

Fig. 120.—Black knot of the plum. (New Jersey Agriculture Experiment
Station.)

The cause of this trouble is due to a number of things and
in reality is only an attempt by nature to protect a wound on
the plant. Borers, insect injuries, splits or any injury to the
tree will often cause the plum to exude this gummy material.
Usually no great injury results from its presence, and the best
way to get rid of it is to remove the primary cause, whatever
that may be.

294 STONE FRUITS

Scab.—The scab on the plum is a disease somewhat similar
to that found on the apple. The scab of the plum is also
found on the peach and the apricot. The disease is char-
acterized by numerous small, circular, dark-colored spots,
usually found on one side of the fruit, but sometimes it
covers the entire fruit. The twigs and the leaves are also
affected. Bordeaux mixture is usually able to hold this
disease in check.

INSECTS OF THE PLUM.

The plum is attacked by several insects, some of which
are particularly destructive to it alone like the plum curculio,
while others are more or less destructive to all stone fruits.
The San José scale and the fruit Lecanium scale are some-
times particularly troublesome.

Curculio— The plum curculio is the worst insect enemy
of the plum. The curculio is primarily an enemy of the stone
fruits, but also attacks the apple, the pear and the quince.
It is by far the most destructive insect with which the grower
of the stone fruits has to contend. In some regions it often
destroys the entire crop in an unprotected orchard.

The curculio is a small snout beetle about one-fifth of an
inch in length, mottled with black, gray and brown. The
beetles attack the fruit as soon as it is set. Two kinds of
punctures are made—those for the reception of the egg and
those for feeding.

The feeding punctures are only small holes, which are
about one-eighth of an inch deep. The egg-laying punc-
tures are much different. A small hole is made in the fruit
with the snout and the egg is laid in this hole. After the
egg has been deposited the female cuts a crescent-shaped
slit under the egg, to protect it from injury while the plum
is growing. This way of depositing the egg allows it to
develop in a flap of flesh. The egg laying continues over a
long period and sometimes it lasts throughout the entire
season. However, in most cases the greater number of eggs
are laid the first month after the females come out of their
winter quarters.

The first step in the control of this insect is to clean up

INSECTS OF THE PLUM 295

and burn all rubbish. The hibernating quarters should be
reduced to 2 minimum by the removal of everything that will

Fic. 121.—Plum curculio on a young peach. (Quaintance, United States
Department of Agriculture.)

Fie. 122.—Plum showing crescent-shaped, egg-laying punctures.
(Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture.)

give the insects shelter over winter. The trees should be
pruned so as to admit plenty of light to the interior branches.

296 STONE FRUITS

The frequent and thorough cultivation of the ground while
the pupa is still in the soil is of great value. The cultivation
should begin in the first part of July and continue to the first
of August in the north, but it must begin somewhat earlier
in the south.

One of the earliest methods of control for the curculio was
by jarring. This method was the chief means of control for
many years and it is still practised extensively where only a
few trees are treated. In order to control the curculio by
jarring a sheet is first spread on the ground under the tree.
The tree is then suddenly jolted by hitting the trunk with
the end of a padded mallet. The beetles when suddenly
disturbed curl up and fall on the sheet and can then be col-
lected and destroyed. The jarring, to be the most effective,
should be done early in the morning when the beetles are less
active.

The jarring has gradually been replaced by spraying in the
larger orchard because of the cheaper cost.

The spraying with arsenate of lead either alone or com-
bined with a fungicide has now come to be the most favorite
method of controlling the curculio. The spraying of the
plum is somewhat more difficult than most of the other
fruits, but many growers believe that the result justifies the
practice. Two applications are usually made, the first soon
after the petals fall and the second from a week to ten days
later. Arsenate of lead applied at the rate of about 23 pounds
to 50 gallons is effective. This can be added to either lime
sulphur or a 2-2-50 Bordeaux mixture.

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE PLUM.

No. of

spray. Time to spray. Spray materials.

First Just before the blossoms open 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture or
lime sulphur 1 to 40.

Second. Just after the blossoms fall Commercial lime sulphur 1 to
50 or self-boiled lime sul-
phur, plus 2 pounds arsen-
ate of lead to 50 gallons.

Third Two weeks after the second Same as second.

Fourth About the middle of June Same as second.

Fifth Late July or early August Self-boiled lime sulphur or am-

moniacal copper carbonate.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 297

If the plant lice appear spray the trees with Black Leaf
40 at the rate of 1 part to 500 parts of water.
Cut out and burn all knots whenever they are seen.

Owr wd

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. Name the stone fruits.

. Why are these fruits called stone fruits?

. How does the sweet cherry differ from the sour cherry?

. Why is the cherry usually propagated by budding?

. How does the soil for the cherry differ from that of the peach?

. What conditions influence the distance apart the cherry should be

planted?

7.
8.
9.
10.

What determines the time for planting young cherry trees?

Discuss the cultivation of the cherry.

Name three sweet and three sour cherries for home planting.

Discuss the brown rot of the cherry and give the best remedy for its

control.

11.
12.
13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24,
25.
26.

How is the black knot of the cherry controlled?

Give the spray outline for the cherry.

What factors prove that the peach is a very old fruit?

Discuss the propagation of the peach.

Has the soil and the site of a peach orchard any relation to each other?
What type of soil is preferable for the peach? Why?

Discuss the preparation of the soil before planting the peach.

What treatment should be given the young peach tree before planting?
What determines the distance in setting out the peach?

How do the peach yellows differ from the little peach?

What is used for the control of the peach-leaf curl?

How can the peach-tree borer be exterminated?

Why is it impossible to control the borer with an insecticide?

Give the spraying outline for the peach.

How does the plum compare in age with the peach?

How does the propagation of the plum differ from that of the peach or

the cherry?

27.
28.
29,
30.

Discuss the methods of planting the plum.

What is the value of thinning the fruit of the plum?

Name several varieties that are generally grown.

Discuss the diseases common to the plum? What remedies are

advised?

31.
32.

Discuss the plum curculio. How is it controlled?
Give the spray outline for the plum.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE CITRUS FRUITS.

Tue citrus fruits include the orange, lemon, grape fruit,
tangerine, kumquat and lime. All of these fruits are grown
in the citrus belt, but the oranges, lemons and the grape
fruit are the most important of the citrus fruits.

The citrus industry is confined to certain definite regions
of the United States. The citrus regions are located in
California, Florida, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, but by
far the larger commercial plantings are found in California
and in Florida. The original home of the citrus fruit was in
India and the Malay Archipelago, but today the great
bulk of the oranges which supply the markets of the world
are produced in California, Florida, Spain, Palestine, Aus-
tralia, Italy and Japan. Certain parts of Mexico produce
citrus fruit to a limited extent, but they seem to lack good
shipping qualities.

The citrus fruit was first introduced into this country in
southern California. The seed was brought into this state
from the lower peninsula of California by the early Spanish
settlers. These settlers not only brought the citrus fruit
but they introduced many other tropical and semitropical
fruits such as figs, grapes, olives and dates.

Orange.—The orange is divided into several species, some
of which are edible, as the sweet oranges, and others, the
sour oranges, which are used for the manufacture of certain
oils and other products.

The sweet orange is the one which is commonly known and
which is used extensively for the table. The sweet orange
includes many varieties. The Navel and the Valencia are
the most important varieties, although there is a long list,
and some give excellent promise for the production of superior
fruit.

LEMON 299

The sour orange is used principally as stock on which to
graft the sweet varieties. The fruit of the sour orange is
not edible, but it is used to some extent for flavoring. The
sour orange is valuable as a stock because of its resistance
to the foot rot and the gum diseases.

Grape Fruit.—Technically the term grape fruit is incor-
rect, but it has gained so much prestige on the market that
it will in all probability remain. The correct name of this
fruit is pomela. The grape fruit is usually a prolific bearer.
The fruit is gaining rapidly in popularity and more of it is
consumed every year.

Kumquat.—The kumquat is a small yellow citrus fruit
resembling a small orange. It is sometimes called golden
orange. The fruit is often used for decorating and the pulp
of the fruit for preserving.

Lime.—The lime is a small yellow citrus fruit resembling
a small lemon. It is classed as a shrub, but when it is given
room to grow it forms a small tree. The lime is the most
tender of the citrus fruits, and it is killed back by a slight frost
but usually sprouts up vigorously the next year. The skin
of the lime is thin and of a lemon-yellow color. The pulp
is a pale green and is filled with a very sharp acid juice.
The juice and the pulp of the lime are better for most purposes
than that of the lemon, and it is used in preference to the
lemon by people in tropical countries. The lime is now
found on most of our important northern markets, due to
the better transportation facilities.

Lemon.—The lemon is one of the best-known citrus fruits.
While the lemon is not as extensively cultivated as the
orange it is probably equally as valuable. The lemon is
gaining in popularity in the citrus regions and it is now
being planted more than formerly. The lemon is supposed
to have originated from the citron, and it was first intro-
duced into Palestine and Egypt in the tenth century and
into Europe at the time of the crusades. The lemon trees
are faster growing than the orange trees, and they are
usually more productive and will stand more neglect. The
lemon includes both the sweet and the sour types.

300 CITRUS FRUITS

Propagation.—The citrus fruits are usually propagated by
budding. Although a few varieties can be grown with some
success by grafting, cutting and layering these methods
are not to be generally recommended. Occasionally the
lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the trees are rarely
ever successful. The orange cutting can rarely ever be made
to take root, and this method of propagation_should not be
considered.

Fig. 123.—Making a new top on a citrus tree.

The shield or T-bud is universally used in the propaga-
tion of the citrus fruits. The success of this method is
largely dependent upon the proper selection of the budding
wood. Citrus buds should be cut from round plump wood
taken from fruiting branches. Suitable wood of this char-
acter is difficult to find on the orange but it is more plentiful
on the lemon. The orange tree from which the buds are to be
selected must be prepared a year in advance. The prepara-
tion of the tree consists in systematically pruning the

PROPAGATION 301

branches to a given length and causing healthy, plump buds
to form.

The bud-sticks are usually all cut at one time and stored
until they are used. It is thought by some nurserymen
that bud-sticks which have been stored produce a larger
percentage of buds that will grow. Stored bud-sticks pro-
duce a greater percentage of uniform trees because the buds
seem to mature in some way during storage. The bud-
sticks are tied in bundles and either packed in damp sand,
sawdust or damp moss until they are used. The damp moss
or sawdust is preferred by most growers, because the sand
has a tendency to dull the budding knife. The bud-sticks
should have the leaves pruned off, leaving a little of the
leaf stem to serve as a handle with which to hold the bud.

Fic. 124.—The method of top working a citrus orchard.

The budding of the citrus fruit is usually performed during
November or December in those regions where a more or
less definite winter occurs. This is called dormant budding.
If any buds fail to grow from dormant budding or are killed
back by the winter then spring budding is performed. Spring
budding should be done after a vigorous growth has started.
However, budding can usually be performed at any time
of the year when the bark peels or separates easily from the
wood.

302 CITRUS FRUITS

Soil.—The citrus fruits are very cosmopolitan with regard
to soil. In California as well as in Florida and other citrus
regions the citrus fruits are grown on a great variety of
soils, ranging from light sandy soil through loams to black
heavy, adobe soils. There are probably no other fruit trees
which are so plastic and which will adapt themselves with
such ease as to grow on almost any type of soil. The de-
termining factor in the soil seems to be its physical con-
dition and where this is good the citrus fruit is almost sure
to grow on any soil. From the standpoint of cultivation
and ease of handling the soft sandy loams should be pre-
ferred over the sticky, heavier soils.

The subsoil perhaps influences the growth of the citrus
fruits to a greater extent than does the top soil. In many
cases the layer of soil just below the top soil varies in thick-
ness from a few inches to several feet. Sometimes this sub-
soil is so hard and so firm as to be impervious to water.
Not only does it prevent the water from soaking away or
rising from lower levels, but it is so hard that the roots of
the plants cannot penetrate it. On such a soil the root
development of the tree is greatly restricted.

Sometimes the subsoil is too loose and open and unretentive
of moisture. This condition gives a deficiency of plant
food and a lack of water.

A good soil then for the citrus tree may be of any type,
but preferably a sandy loam which should be at least 4 or
5 feet deep. It must be well drained and the subsoil should
neither be too hard nor very loose.

Cultivation Good preparation of the soil is essential if
profitable crops are to be grown. The soil should be thor-
oughly plowed and worked into a very fine state before
any trees are planted. After the trees are set, the soil
should be plowed thoroughly once a year, preferably in
March or April. At this time the cover crop should be
turned under. The plowing should be completed before the
tree comes into full bloom, in order to avoid the cutting
of the roots at this critical time. The depth of plowing
should vary with each year so as to prevent any hard layer
from forming hy the pressure of the plow.

PLANTING 303

The proper cultivation determines the success of the
orchard. It makes little difference whether the trees are
grown on irrigated land or on dry land, frequent cultiva-
tions should be given to the soil. The soil should be stirred
to a depth of about 4 inches after each irrigation or after
each rain. No attempt should be made to cultivate until
after the soil has dried out, or until it is in the proper condi-
tion for cultivation. If the soil is cultivated when it is too
wet it will be hard and lumpy.

SAE

Fic. 125.—Protecting a young orange tree from the hot sun.

The tillage implement should be selected with reference
to the type of soil. One type of soil will require one kind
of a cultivator and another type of soil will need a different
tool.

Planting.—The planting of a citrus tree is similar to that
of any other fruit tree. The general conditions concerning
the preparation of the soil, the digging of the holes, etc.,
are identical to those of other fruits.

The distance to set the trees is determined by the variety
as well as by the fertility and the character of the soil. The
smaller growing varieties such as the Mandarin oranges and

304 CITRUS FRUITS

the limes should not number more than 200 trees to the acre.
This will mean that the trees should be set about 12 to 18
feet apart. The larger growing varieties are usually planted
farther apart. Usually about 100 trees to the acre is the
proper number, which means the trees must stand in the
neighborhood of 18 to 24 feet apart.

Harvesting and Curing.—The citrus fruits are harvested
throughout the year. There is considerable difference
observed in the picking and the packing of the different
citrus fruits. Some fruits are picked while they are green
‘and allowed to cure before they are shipped, while others
are picked as soon as they are ripe and shipped at once.
All citrus fruits must be handled with care, and precaution
taken to see that thorns do not fall into the picking vessel.
Such thorns or sharp twigs will scratch the skin of the fruit
and damage it.

In picking citrus fruit some precaution should be taken
to see that no imperfect specimens are included in the
package. The fruit must be separated from the tree by
means of a clipper which cuts the stem off close to the fruit.
The picked fruit should be placed in baskets or crates.
The fruit should be taken to the packing house with the
greatest care and permitted to cure before it is fit to pack
for shipment. After the fruit has been picked for some
time the skin will toughen and the fruit will shrink, and
then it can be handled with less danger of being injured.
The curing time varies with the different citrus fruits and
ranges from several days for the orange to several weeks for
the lemon. After the fruit has cured properly it is graded
and packed.

The oranges are harvested throughout the year. The
Valencia are the summer oranges and they are harvested
from June to November, while the Navel or winter oranges
are picked from November to May. The seasons for both
oranges somewhat overlap.

The oranges should be picked with a great deal of care
so that all bruises or cuts on the skin will be avoided. Any
abrasion of the skin admits the germs of decay and the
fruit is ruined.

HARVESTING AND CURING 305

The oranges in some cases must be colored or cured by
sweating. The sweat-room is an air-tight, fire-proof room
built separately from the main packing-house. The heat
is provided by kerosene stoves which do not give complete
combustion. The hot gases and water vapor fill the sweating
room and envelop the fruit. The temperature is controlled
by ventilators. In the sweating process the fruit is kept
at a temperature of 100° F. The time of curing varies from
three to five days or until the oranges are properly colored.

The harvesting and the curing of the lemon differs greatly
from that of the orange. The lemons are usually picked from
ten to twelve times a year. The heaviest pickings of the
lemon come in March and April, while the lightest pickings
come in August and in September. This roughly divides
the lemons into a fall and a spring crop. The summer crop
is usually rushed to the market while the winter crop is held
until later in the season.

The method of picking the lemons from the tree is similar
to that of the oranges. The chief difference between the
two fruits is that the lemons are always picked by the use
of aring. The lemons are harvested while green and there-
fore a ring is used to determine the size and maturity of the
fruit. The picking rings are made of iron wire. The rings
vary slightly in size and during the summer a ring 23 inches
in diameter is used while during the winter a larger size,
namely, 23 inches, in diameter is used. The larger ring is
used in the winter because the fruit will be kept longer and
a greater amount of shrinkage will take place.

After the lemons reach the packing-house they must go
through a curing process. The curing is done by subjecting
the fruit to a sweating. The sweating of the lemons is for
the purpose of quickly changing the green color to a light
yellow color.

The lemons should be sweated alternately for the best
results. The air of the sweating-room should be kept satu-
rated with moisture all the time. If the air is allowed to
become dry the lemons shrivel quickly. The temperature
of the sweating chamber should be held around 90° F,

The winter lemons are usually stored and held for spring

20

306 CITRUS FRUITS

trade. Therefore the winter lemons are not treated in the
same manner as the summer lemons. Instead of sweating
the fruit and hastening the curing the lemons are prevented
from sweating. As soon as the fruit is brought to the pack-
ing-house it is washed in a very weak solution of copper
sulphate. This solution is made by adding 1 pound of cop-
per sulphate to 1000 gallons of water in the morning and 4

Fig. 126.—Showing the method of washing oranges to remove the sooty
mould fungus. (Bulletin No. 123, United States Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry.)

pound at noon to keep the strength constant. The fruit
is washed in this manner for disinfection against the brown
rot. The lemons after being properly graded are placed
loosely in packing boxes and stacked up on the storage floor.
Lemons are often stored in this manner for six or seven
months.

Washing.—In most of the citrus-growing regions the
fruit must be washed before it is shipped. If the fruit is

PACKING 307

grown on a healthy tree, free from diseases or scale insects,
washing is not always necessary. The appearance of the
fruit cannot be improved by washing unless it is grown
where it is dry and windy and the fruit is covered with dust.
If the fruit is affected with sooty mould which causes black
spots it must be washed.

The fruit is either washed by hand or by machine. Various
machines have been invented for this work. A machine
which gives good satisfaction is made with a series of brushes.
The brushes are slightly larger than scrubbing brushes and
are arranged on a chain belt. The fruit is placed on a chute
and rolls into a vessel containing water. It is then made
to circulate in this vessel between the brushes, and in this
way is cleaned. There are several other washing machines,
but all are constructed on the same general principles.

Grading.—The citrus fruit cannot be packed as it comes
from the orchard. Jt must first be graded. All fruits of
one size should be sorted out and placed in a given bin.
Most of the grading is done by machinery. Scattered
along the belt which carries the fruit when it is graded are
several men whose duty it is to take out all of the imperfect
or defective fruits. The remainder are carried along the
belt until they reach the opening of the proper size, where
they fall through and are caught in a bin. This method
of grading saves time and labor. The fruit of different sizes
is collected in a separate bin and can then be packed in a
uniform manner.

The lemons are usually picked with a ring, which makes
them approximately one size, and very little if any grading is
necessary. The orange requires more grading perhaps than
any other citrus fruit.

Packing.—The citrus fruits are packed either by hand or
by machinery. By far the greater percentage is packed by
hand. Each fruit is placed in a given position in the box,
and uniform packing has been developed to a high degree.

The fruit is wrapped in paper. Sometimes a monogram
or some other pleasing design is printed on the wrapping

paper.

308 CITRUS FRUITS

The fruit is then packed in boxes and the number of
fruit in each box is determined by the size of each specimen.
The number is always the same for a given size.

The oranges which are suitable for packing vary in size
from 2} to 33 inches. The orange crate measures approxi-
mately 12 x 12 x 28 inches. This crate holds 360 specimens
of the smallest size and only 80 of the largest size.

ee oe

— a

=

Fic. 127.—The usual package for citrus fruit.

The grape fruit is packed similar to that of the orange.
The picking season for this fruit ranges from December
until the following August. The fruit is ordinarily stored
in boxes for several days, until the skin becomes soft. After
the skin has reached the proper stage the fruit is wrapped
in paper and packed in boxes the same as oranges.

DISEASES OF THE CITRUS FRUITS.

The citrus trees are susceptible to the attack of a number
of diseases. The fungus diseases as well as the physiological
troubles cause great loss to the citrus grower. In regions
where the climate is moist the damage from fungus disease
is greater than in regions where the climate is dry. The
reverse is true with regard to the physiological troubles.

The disease injury to the citrus tree is found on the root,
the stem and the fruit, and in this respect resembles the
injuries found on many of our temperate fruits.

Gum Diseases.—The citrus fruits often secrete gum from
many parts of the tree, due to a number of causes. It seems
to be the direct result of certain forms of diseases, and gener-
ally such troubles are classed as gum diseases.

DISEASES OF THE CITRUS FRUIT 309

The leaf gumming is very common, especially on the
orange. It is more prevalent when the weather is very
warm. The gum appears as little drops, usually on the
undersides of the leaves. It is reddish brown in color. This
trouble is not very serious and should cause no uneasiness.

The brown rot gumming is caused by the brown-rot fungus.
It is most common on lemon trees. The greatest exudation
of the gum usually occurs on the trunk of the tree close
to the bud union. This disease can be largely prevented
by avoiding soil conditions which are the most favorable
for the growth of the fungus. Do not allow water to stand
around the tree or to come in contact with the trunk.

Twig gumming is sometimes found on nursery stock. It
is thought to be caused when the trees are copiously watered
after they have dried out considerably. The gum is found
on the twigs and causes the bark to split. The leaves usually
drop and the twigs die.

Rots.—Besides the gum diseases there are several rots
which are injurious. The foot rot and the toadstool rot are
the most important. In Florida the foot rot is well dis-
tributed, but it is comparatively rare in the citrus belt of
California. The root rot is the result of a fungus which
causes the roots to rot. The affected roots soon become
soft and slimy and the disease gradually spreads downward.
The sour orange is the least susceptible to the attack of the
fungus, and the disease is largely controlled by grafting on
the sour orange stock.

Toadstool Rot.—The toadstool rot is the result of a fungus
growth. This fungus is native to the root of the oaks, but
it has been able to flourish on the citrus trees, and it is caus-
ing much damage. The disease usually kills the tree in
three or four years, the affected tree dying gradually.
During a long, rainy season this fungus produces several
clusters of brownish colored toadstools from the roots.
It is from these toadstools produced as the fruiting bodies
that the fungus take the name. At present there is no satis-
factory remedy for this disease.

Brown Rot.—The brown rot of the fruit causes great losses
annually. The spores of this disease enter the fruit through

310 CITRUS FRUITS

the breathing pores, where they germinate and grow in the
fruit. In a short time the fruit begins to decay and it soon
develops the characteristic brown color. All of the citrus
fruits are affected with this rot, but the lemons suffer the
least from its attacks. The loss from this disease is the
greatest during wet weather. The disease continues to
spread rapidly in the packing house and often destroys whole
boxes of fruit before it is detected.

The brown rot can easily be controlled if the fruit is washed
in water which contains copper sulphate at the rate of 14
pounds to 1000 gallons of water.

Stem-end Rot.—The stem-end rot affects the stem of the
fruit and causes it to drop. The dropping begins with the
green fruits and continues through the entire season. The
stem-end rot often causes the fruit to decay after it has
reached the market. This disease is difficult to control,
but the most successful method of control is to keep the tree
carefully pruned and to remove and destroy all mummied
fruit and dead twigs.

Mould.—The blue and the green mould of the fruit causes
great losses in the citrus industry. These moulds are only
slightly parasitic on perfect fruits, and the decay is confined
principally to those fruits which have been injured in handling.
The moulds produce a soft rot and the spores appear as blue
or green powder on the surface of the affected fruit. The
loss from this disease can be largely prevented by the careful
handling of the fruit.

Several other less important diseases are found on the
citrus fruit, and the reader is referred to some more extensive
treatise of that subject should he desire more information
concerning citrus diseases.

INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS.

The insects which attack the citrus fruits are small in
number, but they are very resistant to any control measures.
They cause great financial loss annually. The scale insects
are the most widely distributed and probably cause the
greatest damage.

INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS dll

The amount of the insect damage is largely controlled by
the climate. In one region a certain insect pest will pre-
dominate and do great damage while in another region a
different insect will do the greatest damage. Each citrus
region usually has some well-defined insect which may not
be serious in any other region.

Fic. 128.—An orange tree partly killed by the red scale. (After Quayle,
California Agriculture Experiment Station.)

The control and eradication of all citrus insects is based
principally upon sanitation. All weeds should be destroyed.
The fence rows should be clean and rubbish which harbors
insects should be removed. Where perfect sanitation exists

312 CITRUS FRUITS

and a systematic and a logical program of fumigation is
practised no great amount of damage is caused by the insect
pests.

Scale Insects.—The scale insects which are troublesome, in
almost every case, are foreign insects which have been intro-
duced into this country through shipments of nursery stock
and by other ways. Some of the scale insects not only
damage the plants by sucking out the juices, but they secrete
a sweet substance which gives a good medium for the grapth
of certain moulds.

Fic. 129.—Citrus trees covered with tents preparatory to fumigating
them, taken at night when the operation is carried on. (After Quayle,
California Agriculture Experiment Station.)

The most practical means of control of the scale insects
is by fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas. Each insect
varies in its power to withstand the gas and separate dosage
tables have been worked out for each important scale insect.
The success of this gas in controlling the scale insect is in
its ease of generation and its exceedingly poisonous nature.

The fumigation is done by the use of a tent placed over the
tree. The tents are made of the best duck and vary in size
from 20 to 36 feet for different sized trees.

The cost of fumigating is about thirty cents for the aver-
age-sized tree.

es]

INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS ol:

—

Thrip.—Besides the scale insects several others are inju-
rious. The orange thrip is often troublesome and is found
principally in the flowers of the citrus fruit. The presence
of the thrip is usually first detected by the distorted and
irregular growth of young leaves.

The thrip injures the fruit by producing irregular scars
around the stem and at other places over the surface. The
damage done to the fruit does not injure the edible qualities,
but it reduces the sale and places it in an inferior grade.

The most effective remedy for the thrip recommended
by the United States Department of Agriculture is 2} quarts
of commercial lime sulphur at 22° Baumé plus 33 fluid-
ounces of a 40 per cent. Black Leaf extract to 30 gallons of
water. This material should be sprayed on the trees with a
force of 175 or 200 pounds pressure.

Red Spider.—There are two species of red spider injurious
to the citrus fruit. They are found throughout the citrus
regions both in Florida and in California.

The red spider is a small red insect which often becomes
so abundant on a leaf as to give a reddish color to it. The
best remedy for the red spider is sulphur. It is used in
either the dry form or in the form of lime sulphur solution.
When it is used dry the sulphur is dusted on the plant,
usually when the foliage is a little damp. When lime sulphur
is used the commercial product is diluted 1 gallon to 35
gallons of water. The lime sulphur is becoming more popular
and its cost is much less than fumigation.

Whiteflies—The whiteflies are serious pests to the citrus
industry especially in Florida. In fact they are perhaps
among the most destructive insect pests in that region.
There are eight different species which may be found on
citrus fruit in Florida. The common citrus whitefly, the
woolly whitefly and the cloudy-winged whitefly are the
three most important species, while the mulberry whitefly,
guava whitefly, sweet potato whitefly, bay whitefly and the
flocculent whitefly are found in this region but are of minor
importance.

The whiteflies are small insects, usually white in color,
although some species have blotches on their wings which

314 CITRUS FRUITS

give them a cloudy appearance, while a few others have
markings on their wings which produce a slight variation
and give a different appearance.

The life histories of all of the whiteflies are very similar.
These insects have complete metamorphoses, that is,‘they
pass through four stages in their development.

The egg is small and nearly oval in outline. It is barely
visible to the naked eye. The eggs are laid on the under side
of the leaves of the plant and hatch in a few days into pale
yellow larve. The larve crawl about for a few hours, usually
on the underside of the leaves, and soon insert their beaks
into the tissue, where they suck out the sap. They never
move again, but continue to feed and grow rapidly, going
through several molts until they reach the fourth larval
stage, which differs from the larva of the other stages in
being thicker, taking less food, and the organs of the adult
fly begin to form. The insect passes through this last stage
and emerges as an adult fly. The life as an adult is very
short, in most cases only a few days. The females lay about
a hundred eggs and then die.

The whitefly can be held in check by spraying. Spraying
with a combination of soap and oils will serve to control
these insects. The original spray recommended by the
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station is as follows:

Whale oil soap wee Se Cn ae ae 8 pounds
Paraffin oil — ‘: 2 gallons
Water i . 1 gallon

More recent experiments have demonstrated that by
substituting other soaps which are cheaper, just as good
results are obtained. The modified formula then is to sub-
stitute two pounds of ordinary soap for the whale oil soap
and then heat the material to the boiling-point and emulsify
it by agitating it vigorously. This stock solution should
be diluted before it is used.

The number of sprayings that are necessary to control the
whiteflies depends upon the weather and the location. The
first spray should be given late in April or early in May.
The best time seems to be when the bulk of the spring brood

INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS 315

of adults have disappeared. Several other sprayings are
usually necessary and are determined by the location. The-
exact time to spray should be determined by the flies and
should be about two weeks after a great number of the
adults have disappeared. Usually spraying must be done in
late August and early September. This spray is considered
the most important of the year.

The whiteflies are also attacked by certain fungi. These
fungi have proved very effective in holding the insects in
check. When the summer rains begin, which is usually in
June or July, an attempt should be made to introduce these
fungi in the citrus grove which will operate as natural enemies
for the control of the whitefly.

Control of Insects.—The control measures for the citrus
insects are different from the control measures for most
other insects. This is made necessary because the trees
have their leaves the entire season, and in the case of the
scale insects, the insecticide effective in killing the scale
would also destroy the foliage. In Florida where the white-
flies are very destructive spraying with miscible oils has
proved very effective in controlling these insects. However,
owing to the different classes of insects as well as the fact
that the trees are in foliage at the time control measures
have to be practised, has led to another method which is
largely practised in certain citrus regions, namely that of
fumigation.

About 1886 California first seriously considered fumiga-
tion as a means of destroying injurious insects. As time
passed the methods of fumigation were greatly improved
but the fundamental principles remain the same.

Fumigation is practised by covering the tree with a tent
made of heavy duck. Under the tent the fumigating material
is placed. Hydrocyanic acid gas is the material commonly
used, and is made by depositing sodium or potassium cyanide
in an earthen jar and covering it with sulphuric acid. The
jars should be at least 2 gallons in capacity to prevent the
acid from foaming up and spilling out. The amount of
material which is used depends upon the size of the tree and
the insect which is doing the damage. There are dosage

316 CITRUS FRUITS

tables worked out by the United States Department of
Agriculture and the various state experiment stations, and
these should be consulted for a more detailed study of
fumigation.

The fumigation gives better results and produces less
injury to the foliage if it is done at night instead of in the
daytime.

The season of the year at which fumigating is done depends
upon the life history of the insects and the condition of the
tree. The fumigation should be carried on when the insects
are in the most tender stage and can be easily killed, and
the time will vary slightly for each insect. However, from
August to January seems to be the time which gives the
most satisfactory results.

The dosages as well as the length of time vary with the
different scale insects. This phase can be learned in some
more complete treatise on the subject.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Name the fruits included in the citrus class.
2. Why is the citrus industry confined to certain special districts?
3. How does the grape fruit differ from the orange?
4. Discuss the propagation of the citrus fruit. What form of budding is
used?
5. What is the best type of soil for the citrus fruit? How does the sub-
soil regulate the value of the top soil?
6. Why is good cultivation essential?
7. How should a citrus orchard be planted?
8. Discuss the curing of citrus fruits. How does the curing of the orange
differ from that of the lemon?
9. What method of picking is used for the lemon? Why?
10. How does the picking of the orange differ from that of the lemon?
11. What is the value of washing citrus fruits? In what solution is the
washing done?
12. Discuss the grading of citrus fruits.
13. Discuss the packing of the lemon, grape fruit and orange.
14. Discuss the principal diseases and give the methods of control.
15. What class of insects is the most injurious to the citrus fruit? Why?
16. Discuss the fumigation of a citrus orchard.
17. Why is fumigation used instead of spraying?
18. When is the best time to fumigate? Why?
19. What is the most destructive citrus insect in Florida?
20. Give the life history of the whitefly.
21. What method of control has proved the most effective with the
whiteflies.
22. Discuss the various ways of controlling the different diseases on the
citrus fruit.

CHAPTER XIX.
BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS.

Tue beautifying of the home grounds is not appreciated
as much in America as it rightfully deserves. For that
reason it is hoped that a few pages relative to the improve-
ment of the home surroundings will stimulate sufficient
interest in this subject so that the average individual will
attempt the improvement of his property by the judicious
planning, and the planting of the home grounds. Why is it
that so many beautiful residences are built and so little
thought given to the grounds encircling them? Is it not true
that the value of a property is largely determined by its
location and its environment? Did you ever stop to think
that by the expenditure of a few dollars for the purchase of
shrubs and ornamental plants you will materially increase the
value of your property? It is important, however, that the
shrubs are placed in an artistic way, and it is hoped that
Figs. 134 to 144 will aid in suggesting the correct loca-
tions and the proper massing of the ornamentals in order
to produce the best effects. The list of shrubs suggested
include only a few of the better and most important orna-
mentals. These are adapted for planting about the home,
and it is hoped that this list will be used only as a guide. A
reliable local nurseryman should also be consulted, because
oftentimes different strains or varieties are much better
adapted to certain local regions, and in such cases these
varieties should be chosen. The list given is far from being
complete and other shrubs which are known to be valuable
can be added.

Locating the House.—In locating a residence, whether it is
on a small city lot or on a ten-acre tract, aim to set the house
comparatively close to one side of the boundary and at the

318 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

proper distance from the street or road. The distance the
house can be located from the street is determined by the
size of the lot, the city regulations and the local environment,
all of which need consideration. Where the conditions
make it possible never place the house closer than 30 feet
from the front boundary. The location of the residence on
the lot is not so rigidly assigned to a given place by city
ordinances, and the individual can usually place it in the
center or to one side without any restriction. To produce the
most pleasing effects the owner should set the house close to
one boundary line and a proportional distance back from
the street.

If the grounds are large the location of the buildings
usually becomes more complicated because outbuildings are
necessary. The buildings must be arranged so that the
- grouping will form a unit and placed so they will not cut up
the grounds into separate pieces. If the house and other
buildings are located near one side of the property a large open
lawn will result on the opposite side and in the rear. This
arrangement of the building will give open vistas and pleas-
ing views from the main rooms. It will also give the impres-
sion of increasing the extent of the lawn. On city or sub-
urban lots the house should also be located nearer to one
side of the lot and not set directly in the center. Such an
arrangement does not permit the ground to be cut in half. It
also gives a larger Jawn, and the planting of the shrubs is
much more effective if they are massed along the border,
which leaves an open lawn between the house and one
boundary. The house should be located so the larger por-
tion of the grounds can be enjoyed from the principal rooms.

Drainage.—The drainage of the soil is very important in
the consideration of any property, and it either increases or
decreases its value. The injurious effects of drainage are
not only seen on the growing of plants, but poor drainage
is unhealthy and is entirely unsuited to the development of
both the lawn and the trees. It is therefore necessary to
drain the land, whenever the location demands it, not only
from the esthetic point of view but from the health con-
siderations. There are many ways in which a piece of land

ARRANGEMENT OF WALKS AND DRIVES 319

can be drained, but space will not permit of a discussion of
the various methods. In case any complicated conditions
arise that cannot judiciously be handled by the owner an
engineer or a drainage expert should be consulted. The best
plan, however, is not to select a poorly drained piece of land
on which to build a residence. The drainage will be largely
determined by the nature of the subsoil, and when you are
selecting the building site due consideration should be given
to the type of subsoil which underlies the top soil. If the
subsoil is comparatively close to the surface and composed of
heavy impervious material in the nature of a hard pan the
drainage will be poor and in all probability the only relief
will be to tile drain. If, on the other hand, the subsoil is com-
paratively deep or is composed of loose material the drainage
will be more perfect and will usually form an ideal site, so
far as this phase is concerned.

Fic. 130.—One method of laying out a curve.

Arrangement of Walks and Drives.—On small city lots the
walks and drives should be the shortest distance between the
two points, namely, the outside walk and the door-step.
Likewise it would be pure folly to construct an automobile
drive in any other manner than to have it go directly from the
street to the garage in a straight line. However, the method
of constructing walks and drives differs when we consider
the suburban home or the country place, and in these cases
the walks and the roads must be viewed from a different
aspect.

320 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

In a suburban home or a country estate it is always desir-
able to locate the outbuildings at a place where they are not
prominent and to connect them to the main highway with a
road in which a graceful curve has been introduced. Easy
flowing curves for the roads are not only permissible in such
cases but are only recommended on such grounds that are
amply large enough to accommodate this treatment. Curved

Fic. 131.—A good method for measuring the opposite side of a curved road.

walks and drives should be avoided on small city lots. Curves,
no matter where they are introduced, should be easy and
flowing wherever they are used. Abrupt angles and corners
should be avoided. Whenever a road or a walk is made to
curve some excuse must be apparent for the curve. The
excuse for a curve usually takes the form of a tree or a group
of shrubs massed in the proper places.

Fia. 132.—The correct curve for a road or a walk.

Treatment of Curved Walks or Drives.—.\s previously stated,
when a walk or a drive is made to curve some excuse must
be given for the existence of the curve, which is best done by
the judicious grouping of shrubs or low evergreen trees.

GROUPING AND MASSING OF SHRUBS 321

When it is desired to prevent one curve from being visible
from another, groups composed largely of evergreens should
be selected and planted near the hollows of the curves.
Massed plantings should never be placed at the extreme
center of the curve but located on either side of it. To secure
the best effects from this treatment the character and the
outline of the grouping should be extremely different.

SSXxsss

Fig. 133.—Incorrect curve for a road or a walk.

Grouping and Massing of Shrubs.—Rarely ever should a
shrub be planted singly. Single planting in some instances
is used, but the grouping of shrubs should be the common
practice. Some skill and art is necessary in the judicious
massing of shrubs, and some facts relative to the growth of
the plants are necessary. The principal practice of the older
landscape gardeners was to group the shrubs in such a way
that the taller growing plants always formed the extreme
border and the smaller growing shrubs were placed in the
front, so that a more or less uniform growth of foliage was the
result. Rarely ever is this procedure excusable. Do we ever
find such an arrangement of shrubs in nature? Consequently
when it is desirable to have our places look natural, natural
ways of planting should be used. Strive to group the plant-

21

322 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

ing so that irregular lines are produced. Interplant shrubs
of varying heights and do not place all tall-growing or all

Fia. 135.—The proper way to group shrubs in an angle.

low-growing shrubs together, so that they produce distinct
uniform lines of foliage. The tall- and the low-growing

GROUPING AND MASSING OF SHRUBS 323

shrubs should be massed together. I do not mean that one
plant should be alternated with another, but groups of one
kind should be massed with groups of another kind.

Fig. 136.—The proper way to mass shrubs in isolated groups.

Single specimen plants have a place on large lawns, but
when they are used the individual plant should appear to be
attached to a group of shrubs and placed at some little

Fic. 137.—An unattractive residence due to the lack of shrubs.

distance from the clump. The distance the single shrubs are
‘Jocated from the general mass should be gauged so that the
specimen does not appear to be entirely distinct but to have

324 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

some connection with the larger group. The more prominent
the projection of a mass of shrubbery the better it will be
fitted for receiving a single specimen plant as an extension.

Fic. 138.—A well-balanced planting.

There are several well-defined places where shrubs and
ornamental plants should be located to produce the best

Fig. 139.—An attractive foundation made by planting annual plants.

effect: (1) grouping or massing along the borders, (2) group-
ing near the centers of curves in walks and roads, (3) group-

THE LAWN 325

ing in the angle of two walks or roads, (4) planting along the
foundations.

The Lawn.—This chapter would not be considered complete
without some mention of the lawn. A number of books have
been written on this subject, telling how to make a lawn
and how to maintain it in its best form, and for that reason
only mere mention will be made here. However, a few
statements are necessary. In the first place the soil should
be well drained, and when it is possible a loam soil is to be
preferred, but this is not essential. The land should be
thoroughly manured, plowed and cultivated previous to

Fic. 140.—A well-planted street. Note the uniformity due to community
planting.

seeding. All stones, pieces of wood, roots and stumps must
be removed and a coating of well-rotted manure placed on
top of the soil when it is possible.

The next important thing to do is to select a good lawn
grass. Various mixtures are on the market, but I believe
better results can be obtained by making your own mixture
and confining it to two or three grasses. In many localities
perhaps one is sufficient. The Kentucky blue grass and the
red top will make an ideal lawn in the great majority of
cases if they are properly handled. Occasionally some other
grasses must be used in certain regions. Seed heavily and

326 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

from 4 to 6 bushels of seed to the acre, or about 1 bushel to
7000 square feet, is not too much. Few people realize the
importance of a thick stand in all parts of the lawn, and to
have success you must show the seed thickly in order to keep
out weeds and other wild grasses. The seed should be sown
in two directions and at right angles to each other to ensure
a uniform stand of grass.

A lawn to be effective and beautiful should be kept mowed
and clean shaven all of the time. A regular time must be
chosen to cut the grass, and the length of the time between
each cutting must be largely determined by the season of the
year and the amount of rainfall. In the spring when the
grass is growing fast it should be cut every week or ten days
and the clippings allowed to remain on the lawn. The
clippings fall between the blades of grass and form a mulch
which aids in preventing evaporation as well as enriching the
soil. As the season advances and the rainfall becomes less,
the time between successive cuttings should be lengthened.

Fig. 141 represents a tentative arrangement for the group-
ing of a few ornamental plants on a city lot emphasizing the
screen and foundation planting. The selection of varieties
must necessarily vary in the different parts of the country,
as well as in the different sections of the same country.
Only plants suitable for foundation and for border planting
should be selected. One or more varieties may be massed in
groups, which should be determined by the individual doing
the planting. In general the fewer the number of pemeucs
the more satisfactory the result will be.

This plan presupposes a garden in the rear, siiak is
screened from view by a mass of shrubs at the boundary
line. In selecting the plants for the grouping, some of the
taller and more vigorous growers will be the most satisfactory
for screening the undesirable portions.

In selecting suitable shrubs consult the list of shrubs
adapted to your location. More detailed and specific infor-
mation regarding your local conditions can be secured by
consulting some nurseryman or landscape gardener in your
immediate vicinity.

THE LAWN 327

Fig. 142 represents the grouping of ornamentals on a
corner lot. This is designed to screen the garden, as well as
to give privacy to the lawn. Foundation plantings are also
emphasized. The garden or drying ground is screened from

GARDEN

Fic. 141.—A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a city lot.

328 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

view by the use of the taller growing shrubs, while shrubs
varying in height should be used in the border. The selection

a
GARDEN ‘©

ENE Sins

WALK

a ()) | parKine (@) 2 AG

Fia. 142.—A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a city lot
with two sides exposed to the street.

of the shrubs to produce this effect can necessarily vary, and
each individual should select those plants which are to his
liking. As a rule better effects will be produced if a number

329

(SS

Qa sane
ROMOMS

Y

‘S ci,

Garace |(G,'

Fic. 143.—A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a corner
lot with two entrances and a garage.

BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS

330

of the same kind of shrubs are grouped together and not

too many different kinds selected.

‘SpvOl OA} UO ZuLMepiog punossd yo ovord selNFo1t ue jo yueuTyee1} OY} Oy ULI oANsosdns Y— PHL ‘OL

THE LAWN 331

Fig. 143 represents the planting of a lot where two sides
are exposed and a residence that has a prominent entrance
from two streets. This plan also introduces a garage and a
drive leading to it. No garden or drying ground is provided.
In this plan the shrubs are intended to screen the borders,
and to effectively conceal the objectionable features con-
nected with the garage. The open side lawn is screened so
that privacy will result and where croquet or tennis can
be indulged in for recreation. Foundation planting is in
evidence and for this some of the smaller growing shrubs
should be selected. The drive should be of cement or gravel
and graded in such a way so as to provide good drainage.

Fig. 144 illustrates a suggestive arrangement for an
irregular piece of ground. This plan omits the garden and
introduces a continuous drive through the grounds. The
garage is practically concealed by plantings from all sides.
The sharp corners are turned and rounded by the grouping
of shrubs which give the open lawn graceful curves. Foun-
dation planting is also used. The selection of the shrubs
will necessarily vary, due to the location and the individual
preference of the owner.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

. What determines the value of a piece of property?

. Why does the planting of shrubs improve the looks of a home?
Where is the proper place to locate a house on a city lot?

What principles are involved in locating a house?

Why is it important that the ground should be well drained?

. Discuss the arrangement of walks and drives.

Why should abrupt angles be avoided?

. How should curved walks and drives be treated?

. How should shrubs be planted?

10. Is the single planting or the massing of shrubs the most effective?

11. When single plantings are used where should they be placed?

12. Name the four well-defined locations where shrubs should be planted.
13. Discuss the lawn.

14. How often should it be moved?

15. What is the value of regular mowing of the lawn?

APPENDIX

332

‘sseyl | ‘qdoeg “sny snowed | OI-8 uoreyg jo esoy * snoeLihs snosiqry
“ssB I Tudy MOTPA | 8-L Tl? GplopD BUIISSIPLILA BIG} ABIOT
“ssB yl [udy MOTPA] S-L 1[9q Uepjod Zutdooiq ‘esuedsns 8Iq}A810,7
“ssB yl uunjny MOTPA | ZI-8 ysnq duraimg snoindaindoie snurAdong
“sse yl zeuruIng peueA | 38-9 BIPPTIOM BAYS Y VAG * epuqAy e][IAleIq
“‘sSUUl ‘opsuIg | oung ‘Avy ay4M | O-F BI[oS1IO MM * epIpuvo BpLiog e[[lA1sIq
“SSBUL {O[SUIG eune UOSUIN) | 9-G ‘BIOBIOM epaunqdtiog e][A10Iq
‘SSB ‘oduIg | ATne ‘eune aga | 8-9 ‘SI[OTIOM O4ITT MA * epIpueo vTLAIeIq
“‘sseyl | oune ‘Avy aya | &-fS ‘eIZ{Nep Iapueys | * SIovls Bizjneq
“SSBUL fopduIg | oung ‘Avy eq M | 8-9 eizyneq | (1eyseyooy Jo eplig) e}eUedo vIzjnNeq
“SSBUL Se[BUIg ABW a7TUM | OI-8 esULIy oy | °C * BOTUTSITA SHYJUBUOIGD
“SSB eune wean) 8-9 PooAsop ueLeqig eolleqis snuloD
‘aBspoy fsseyl ART MOTTA | SI-OT 9e14 vod uBLIaqig susoseloqie eueselED
“Sst IA qouruIng F1OTA | 9-F vio[ppnq puqay * BIpeuliezUr vle[ppng
‘aspog isseyy | une ‘Avy MOTPA | F-E Aqieqreq osouedes Tig1equny} stieqieg
“ssBy eune esuviQ| 2-9 Bo[eZB Pei1o[O0-sMIeT YT eoyn] volezy
*posn MOY jorotne: “I0TOD “qqsIey ‘eure YSstsug ‘ouIeU [BoTUBOg

‘ONVIAUVN ONV FUVMVTAC “VINVATASNNGd ‘ARSHGl! MAN
‘HHO MAN ‘ANWISI FGOHY “LAOILOUNNOOD ‘SLLASOHOVSSVW ‘LNOWYHA “AUIHSdNVA MAN “ANIVIW
SNIGATONI ‘SNOIDHU OLLNVILY HLUON FHL YOd AdIND V SV GSA Ad NVO HOIHM SHO4HS 40 LSTI V

XIGNdddV

333

*ssvul !a[sUIG
“SSB

“sseUl fa[suIg
“SSVUI {a[sUIG
“Sse

“SSBIAL

“sseUl fa[sUIg
SSBUI [a[SUIg
‘sseul fa[sulg
“ssUyAl

“SSCL {e[SUIg
“ssUyAl

“ssu J

“sseUl { Ieplog
“ssl

“Sse

“SSB

*Iepioq ‘a[surg
“SSBUL S O[STIG
“TOQUAT[D YUAT[IOXG
‘SSC fa[sUIg
“ssvUl ‘ospopy
“sseUl ‘o[sulg

APPENDIX

eune ‘ABI
oune

oun ‘ABIL
ARI

aune ‘ARIAL
qeuUINg
oeune ‘Avy
oune ‘ABT
oun ‘Avy
Ajng ‘oune
‘any ‘Arne
Ame ‘eune
Ajng ‘eune
Aqng ‘eune
qeuUINg
AVN

oune

eune ‘Avy
eune ‘Avy
zJeuluIng
ARI

Ajng ‘oun
dag “any

OTT MA

oUt

OMA

aqiq a teyding
OVUM !OBTTT
qu

OTT.

OTT

ort

org MA

ald

OTM

OTM

qa

pee

MOTOA

eM

ar MA

ayy 0} AULT
MOTTO 0} OFM
Wid

OTT

Pil ak al

So
Pes GP 08 oP

ai
N19 09 19190) OOM OO

Treqmoug
yjeqmous ssouvder
Aqiequelo ysnqystpyL

oer]

OBI] ULISIEg

AIIEQ MOUG

qnu Jeppela

eorlds S,0}4noH UA
evands Ss S1equny J,

vondg

voatds 1010384 AUOqUY
Jep[e wepjory

Jepye Weoleury

esol otelg

asoy

ovuing

asUvIO YOOU poleMoP-o31e'T
esuevio HOOT

apyonsAouoY UeLIezIE],
epponsAeuoy sulA
epponsAouo0y JuBIsEL
peat

vosuvIpAY poieMop-osieT

a]eys UINUANQIA
winyeord winuingiA
snindo unuinqiA
SlIVsNA BsUlIsg
eolsiod BSULLAG
snsouraovd Sodivoloydurég
eyeqoll} vopAydeyg

* 1aq9no0Y UBA BeBIIdg

‘ usiequny} sesidg
eyngie eeldg
epleuing verdg
eoaime BisTd snonqureg
sisuepeueos snonqureg
ees BIasT}ES BSOY
Bsosni Bsoy
* gisuepeueo snqy

sniopipueiz snydjepe[rqd
snizeuorloo snydjepeytyg

@dlIe}8} VIOOIUOT

evotuodel visoluo0'T

Z BULISSHUBISCIT BIDOIUO'T
‘+ elesTLA uINIysnarvy
elOpipuvis vye~noiued vesuvIpAP,

“Sst Tudy MOTOX | 8-2 1leq wepjos 8,eunzI0,q Teuny10} BIYYASIOT

“SSByy AC eHyM | 8-2 ysnq [1eeg ‘B1OpIpueid Bp1oyqooxy

“s8BUT fa[sUIG eune yuig| 9-¢ _ BIPDIOM epuoy elAlerq

“ssuyAl eune e7TyM | 8-9 BIz4neq eUIISSIpIpuvo ByeUeI vIZInNeq.

‘SSBUI fa[sUIg ABI amgM | 9-F BIzjnoq oo eyeuero eIzjneq

‘ssey | Ae ‘Tudy uosug | 9-7 eoumb osoundes voruodel vrmuopAQ

“Sse Ae o}IGM | OI-8 PooMZop peremoy-oyg M BpLIop snui0D

“espe nur emma | °° eZuv1o 07 CIOFLLL, BYEIOFLI} SNIJO,

‘Tepiog fepsurg | Avy ‘Tudy eM | OT-G 901} OSULIT BOIUISITA snyyUeUOIYyD

‘SSBUI So[SUIg Tudy yutg | S1-Z1 eal} sepne [e}UIICO SISUOUTYD S101

“SSBUL LoSuIg | Av ‘Tudy yutg | 0Z-OT pnq pey SISUOPEUBI S10IED

“SSB a eqM | queld voy, * Bay} vIyeUeD

“ssl SNOLIBA elyjoureD ‘eotuodel etyjeured

‘< “sseyl eunr | uMorq qsIppey| 9-7 qniys A11aqMes4g snpliog snqyueosTeD

a “ssByl | ounr ‘Avy uMorg| 9-p eords][e vurjoreg SI[I}10j snyyaBosTeD

& ‘Sse ) = JoUTUINS AOTPA| 9-F BIe[ppnq pqsH vIpeulIe}zUr VreTPpNg

& “sseul ‘spay Avy MOTTE | F-Ee Aryjoqreq esoueder W3r1equny} sueqieg

Q ‘ssey] | oune ‘Avy esueiQ| 7-9 Ba[eze Pe1o[oo-oure] J ; eon] vorezy

= ‘ssvul ‘ospeyy | oune ‘Aeypy snoweA | g-9 Bo[ezy * POlpubeeleZy:
“posn MOF] rowan “I0]OO “4qqa1ey ‘oureu ysTsug ‘oureu peoTaejog

‘VOIUOTL GNV VIDUOUD ‘VINIOUIA LSHM ‘VINIDUIA ‘VNITOUVO HLAOS ‘VNITOUVO HLYON
DNIGOTONI ‘SNOIDAY OILNVILV HLOOS AHL YOd AGIOD V SV GHSN Ad NVO HOIHM SANUHS AO LSII ¥

334

3385

APPENDIX

“SSBUl {e[SUIg
“SSBUL S O[SUIG
“SSBUL { O[SUIG
“SSBUL S O[SUIG
“SSBUL /8[SUIG
“SSBUI SeTsaIG

“sSBI

“sey
“sseul ‘Ieplog
“SSBUL Sa[sUIG
“SSBUL SO[SUIG

“SSBUL /O[SUIG
*IIqUIT[O JUET[IOXA
“SSBUN SO[SUIG
‘ospoy
“espeyy
‘aspoy ‘ssey
‘od poyL
“ss

“SSBUL S o[BUIG
“SSBUL /e@[dUIg
‘SSBUM {e[SUIG
“sseyl

“sseyl

ABT

ABI

ABIN

ABI

Av ‘Tidy
ACWW ‘Tady
eune

eunr

eung ‘Avy
sung ‘Ae
oun ‘ABT
uunyny
eung ‘Avil
qeurmng
AB ‘dy
eunr ‘AByAy
oun ‘AByAT
Avy ‘Tady
Av ‘Tady

eune
"490 ‘4dag
qeuruing
Tady
THdy

OTM

OUT MA

oy teyding
ort

oT MA

org MA

OTT MA

or MA

Ad

SUM

our

OFT MA.

ayy 07 YUL
MOTPA 0} OTT MM
Ad

SUT

ov.

OTM

OUT M

Pere A
AOTIEA,

err M

pored
AOTIOA
MOTTA

i=)
ibis eeaiaroune
Oigwdin oro

a
ob

SI-8

Treqaoug

Arioquesio ysnqysty
Oey

eods §,0}4n0xT UA
eords s,310quny],
eomdg

Jeple weplory

Jeple UeolmeuTy

esol OLIIeIg

asuBIO YOOUL polemop-osIe'T]
eSUIO HOOT

ATO peavel-A][OH
eppnsssuo0Y UvIIeLIV],
epponsAeuoy eur,
epponsssu0xL

qoalig

yoatid vrurojiyey
Jere] A1EeyO

oesuelo PIM

epazsur odevig

AT[OY Ueoteury
vosuvIpAY polomop-os1eT
eurusel edeia

Tq Topo

T19q wepfos Sutdooiq

9p1e}s uNuINqIA
snqndo wmnuingi,,

slies[na esawAg

te}4nhoyY UA varIdg

Tis1equny} verdg

eynsie eelidg

eoine BisTU snonquieg
“sisuepeueo snonquieg

y BIIST{OS VSO
sniopipueis snydjepepyg

* Snizeuoioo snydjepepryg
uintjoyinbs snyjuews_

* go11e7e4 BIO0TUOT

eoluodel eisotm0'T
BULISSIUBISEIT BIDIUO'T

eresMA UINIysNsrT

WINIPOHTSAO WINIISNSrT
SNseIs00INe] snse1es0Me'T
“SUBIUT[OIVD SNSeIs.0Me'T

* SOIpUrl BIuTeysiodeyT

a3 * eoede xoly
BIOpIpUBIs BPeNoUed vesueIpATT
; ‘soporaruse! ermepiey,
BUIISSIPLITA BIYyAsIO Tg

esuedsns ery} Asi0,7

APPENDIX

336

ad

‘SSUUI fo[sulg | “ydeg “any enya | 2-9 sosuviIpsY polomopy-oF1e'T ‘vroprpuwss eyenowued vesueipsH
‘Sst Thdy MOTEKR | 8-L Tleq Uepjo# Burdooiq + esuadsns ery} Asi0g
'SSBIN Tady MOTIeR | 8-L Te4 weploy BUNISSIPLITA eIy AIO]
‘ssByl Av aq MM | 8-2 ysnq [1v0g ‘+ + glopipusid eployooxy
“SSBUI faysurg | ounr ‘AvyAy yUq| 9-¢g BI[OBIO MA BpLlog e[[LAseIq
‘ssey] | ouns ‘Avy oHgM | 2-9 eIzyneqd SuTssYpIpaeo eyeuelo vizyneq
‘espe gia ery | tt eZULIO 0} VI[OFLLL ey eT[OFA} SND
“SSBUL SOTSUIg Tady yutg| SI-Z1 ear} sepne [e}USIIO SISUOUTYO STOEL)
“Sse ounp) UMOIg YsIppey| 9-F qniys ArieqMesyg * snplop snyyaeosyes)
‘ssByy | uns ‘ABT uMolg| ¢—p sords][e wurfores st[tyqey sngyueosyeC)
“Sse yy TeulUIng [OIA | 9-F ele[ppnq priqAyL BIPeULIO}UL VIO[ppNg
“TON BpUNoy ARI MOT]PA| 9-E Alsleqieq ssourdes Has1equny} stieqlogq
“ssBy eune asuvig| 9-P ealeze pelO[00-sUleL,.T voyny volezy
“ssBy] | oung ‘Avy snoweA | ¢-F eoyeze 4UOqL) sIsuaAepuLs vorezy
“ssBy{ Aye asoy]) 8-9 eolezy “susosel0qie BoleZzy

*pasn MOY some *IO[OD “qq 310 ‘eUIBU YSTsay “oureU [ealue}0g

‘VNVISINOT GNV SVSNVMUV ‘IddISSISSIN “AASSANNAL ‘VNVEVIV
DNIGONIONI ‘SNOIDUY NUYABLNOS AHL YOX AaINN V SV Guso Ad NVO HOIHM SANYHS JO LSIT V

337

APPENDIX

SSBUI -a[SUIG
“SSBUL Sa[BUIG
“SSBTAL

“ssByl

“ssey

“sseyl

“ssey

“ssBy

“ssByAl

“SSB

“sse yl

“sseyl

“ssey

“ssey

“ssByl

‘SSBUl fa[sUIg
“SSBVUL fe[STIG
“SSBUL LOTSUIG
*IaqUAT[O FUeT[IOX|
“SSBIAT

“sSUIAL

Ae |
ABW
ABN
Avy ‘Tudy
eune ‘Avy
oun ‘ABI
sony ‘Ane
AB ‘dy
aun
aun
eunge
eune
aune

Aqne ‘eune

ounce ‘AByAy

Avy ‘THdy
qJauuing

‘qdag “any

ory

OTT M

OTM

yuid Io omy AA
OTT MA

ST AA

AN

STM

eT MA

or

Ad

erm M

OUT MA

asoy

STM.

OTT

rTM.

ays 0} HUTT
MOTIEA 07 OFT AA
pore,

SNOB A

oo
| TH ee De

ODA) MO AD nett GOD
OIA HHO OM Oo

TeqAoug

AlIoquesid YsnqystpL
901} SULIBIAG
ystrvure} Yous yy
earids s,0}4nox UGA
worlds § s19quny,y,
sorlds Jeleye Ay ATOGITY
; eordg

Jape wepfoy

Jop[e UvolIeury

esol OIIvIg

esol SUIQUITD

esol ovTT MM
uoipuspopoyy

BITE OFM

eSUvIO YOOW poloMop-esIeT
eZUBIO YO]
epyonsAeuoy UBIIELIE],
epponsAeuoy eUurA
apyzAur edvig,

WoIVyg jo esoy

stjlzejs UINUINIA
snindo wmnuinqi,
euequel UINUINGIA
Bolles XUeUe,
Teyqnoy ues vaemdg
Td1equny} veidg
epremng veandg
eynsie vemndg

eae BiIstu snonquieg
“sIsuepeuvo snonquizg

BIOBTIJOS BSOY
> BIopHyNur esoy
“+ + eqye Bsoy

UINWIxeU WoIpuepopoyy

seplolsey sodsyopoyy

sniopipueis snydpepepyg
* snizeuoioo snydyepeprgqg

* BolIe}e} BIOOIUOT
eotuodel Bisou0’y

BOIPUL VIMIDI{SIEseT

* snovrids snosiqry

22

APPENDIX

338

“SSUIA Judy | MOTI | SHL [J9q wepjod Zurdoodq | * * + esuedsns ery} Asso,
“ssuyy AVIA OM | 8-L ysnq [ivag e1opipueisg ep1oyooxy
“SSBUL S@[SUIG eunr asoy | 9-G TILITIO AA ‘+ e@plLlop ®[[LAl0Iq
“SSBUL !O[SUIG eune uosurlt,) | 9-¢ BIOTA, * epunqluop e[[iAre1q
‘ssbum fopsurig | Ayng ‘oun uosutd,) | 9-G RIpPsIEM PLGA | ONyyEY VAY VLAIIIq
“SSBUI fo[SUIG eune ay M | 8-9 BIPPDIOM OPIY A | * SpIpUueo BILAIEIG
‘IapIog !ssvj ounce OWA | BE BIz{nep soulouleT | TOUIOUIZ] BIZINeq
‘sseyy | oun ‘Avy \ OVUM | F-E BIzZ{NICq | SI[lovis vIZjnNeq
‘Iopsoq tsseyy | Avy ‘Udy uosulll,) 9-f goutmnb uvduy ee He eotuodel vermopség
“SSBUL fOSpoTT ACY | SHUM | ZI-OL usoy} indsyo0g * TW[esysnto sndeBye1—-
“ssUy ALITY | enya | 2-9 Poomsop uvweqig ‘+ eoLIeqIs snuI0D,
“ssuyl ARTA | ay | OS-ST PpoomMZop SuaMmoy oy A - epliog snur0g
“ssBUl Sa[sUlg AVIA ayIY AA | OI-8 OSUTIT O}IY AA ‘eOTUISIIA snyyueUoIy,)
“SSBUl !o[sUIg oun umoig | ¢—p qniys A1IOqMeI}S * snpllog snyyueoATeD
‘sseyy ) oung ‘SALTY umoig | 9-- eordsye euljoreyd * sttqjaey snqjueodyes,
“sseTy TOUIUINS [OIA | 9-F erarppnq PUqAH * SIPSULIO} UT Ble[ppng
“sse ACW MOT[PA | F-E Aqioqieq esouvder Tig.1aquny} stieqieg
“ssBy eune asuvig | 1-9 BI[VZB Pslo[OI-sWe],T ‘7 eayny] Barezy
“sseul tIeplog Av esoy | §-s% puouW[e BULIAMOT,T * epuand snjepsAury
“paan Mop ia oat “IOJOD, Pleches ‘oureU YsTsuG ‘auIBU [volUB}Og

‘IMNOSSIIN GNV VMOI ‘AMONLNAM ‘SIONITII ‘YNVIGNI ‘OIHO
DNIGOTONI ‘SNOIDTY IVULNAD YOX AGIND V SV GaSN Ad NVO HOIHM SdOUHS JO LSIT V

339

APPENDIX

“ssUyy
‘Iepioq ‘sseyy
“SSB SafsUIg
“ssBUl fa[sUIg
“ssB IAL

“SSBUL a[3UIg
“SSBUI {apsUIg
“SSBUI fa[sUuIg
“ssUy

“sseyAy

“SSUIA

“ssvul fapsuIg
“SSBU fapsuIg
“Iopiog !ssey
“SSBUL fa[sUIg
“Sse

“sseyl

“SSRI
*IEqUIIPD JUOTTOOXA,
‘aspoy ‘sseyAy
“ssByy

“ssByAy

“ssUyl

“SSB

aune
eune

ARIA

ABN
qouIUINg
ABTA

ABIN

Av

‘any ‘A[ne
eune
eune

Arne ‘eune
qJewUINg
ARI
aune
Av

aune ‘AByAL
oaune ‘AvyL
aeuuIng
oun

eune

qdeg “any

Ajne ‘oung
THdy

SHUM

oy

e[ding

or AL

oy YSPat
oT

OM

OTT MM
uosulltg
OTT MA

OTT MA

aU.

pelea
MOTPA

udeedd YSTMoT[a x
ott MM

Ov MA

OUT M,

ayIYM 0} MOTE A
OTM

MOTPA

oy M

OHM

MOTPA

N i=)

A tad

Ad) SHAD CO CO NID H 1D OD 1 OO

°
&

Pa leovl

ww
o

oOtrHoOHon

L

+

Aqlequelo ysnqysty

Por o3Ty MA
oery
oR] UBISIEg

ALIaqMOUg

vonds §,0}]n0H UGA
vords s s10quntyy,

vomds peave-un[g

vomds 101038 A, AUOYJUY
Japa wepfoy

Jop[e uvoTIeULy

OSOl OLITBIg

esor ssouvdesr

JUVIINI SULOMOLT

9ery ayourg

puoulye oy etqnog
epponsAoUOY UBIIE,IV],
a]yonsAouoy ysnq sseuvder
epponsAouoy SULA

qoatid speseyy

TMOG eqo[y

eosuvIpAy pelemop-o51eT
y[eqmMous rewuing

T8q wepjor)

snindo umuinqia,
Seploulssvod WINUINGTA,
‘+ siesmMa esundg
weorisied eVsullAg
snsowmoovs sodivotioyduAg

st os ss tegqnoy uBA BeerIdg
tsrequny} vendg
“3 elpoyrunid vandg

? “+ epreuinq veemdg
Bane visu snonqueg

: “SIsuepeuey snonqueg

‘ BIIBI}ES VSOY
esosnd BsSOYy

GUE ~ Taneine seqry
i oy ee snurjoo snyy
7 ‘wuey, qe “eA votuodel snunig
* + Bolreye) BIBOTUO'T

TMOLIOUL BIDDTUOT

gotuodel eia01u0'T

wnuel[esel WINIYSNSTT

2 eoodel elias

BIOpIPUBIs eyemotued vosuviIpAH

‘ susosaloqie voasuvipAH

i BUIISSIPLILA VIY}ASIOT

‘anpay | Avy ‘Tudy | =r S-F Arioq opeyng yoyuasie verhZiedeT
“sevul fapsutg | ydeg “any! ony | 2-9 veduvipAYy polaMop-os1e'T Bop purrs vuqepnoued vesuvipAT
“SSBIN INdy | j MOTTPA | S-L T[I9q Uepjos suidooiq | * seus ets sae a
“SSUT AVY enum | S-2 | ysnq [reve | eIOpIpuLiga Bp1oyoox
“ssByAy oun MOT[PK | ZI-S | ysnq sutuing | ~ sneindindoijye snuAdony
“ssvyT ABIN ayyM | §-s | eizqynoqd | sI[lovis vizyneqd
‘IapsIog !ssvyAy ABN 49JIBIG | 9-¢G aoumb utdee | * evotuodel emopAsD
“SSB eune wey) g-9 . poomZop uviiaqig BoLIaqis SNUIOD,
“SSBUL fa[sUIg judy yUIg | SI-O1 | 901} SEPNEG [e}USTIG | * SISUAPBUBI STOOD,
“SSULUI fopsuIg | oun ‘ABIY, MOTOR | SI-OT | 9a1} Bod UBIIAqIC | | SsudISaIOGIV BUBBEIBD,
“SSB, qawUINg | 49[olA | 9-F Ble[pphq puqs‘y | | VIPIulIa}Ul Bla[ppng
‘aBpoy issvyy | oun ‘Avyy MOTPA | C-F Aqloqieq esouvder Uud1equnyy SsLieqiag
“SSB oun esuvIgQ, 2-9 | Bayeze palo[oo-aure | | Bayn] vee
Sd “SSB £0 J@TOIA | OI-G OSIPUL Os[By | * esvorniy eydiouly
s “SSB AvTV oHyM | S-G | Aiiaq oune | eljojruye Jetqouvpeury-
S
al | | |
= “pasn MOTT | wm oH | “I0T0D Wyse ‘oureU YsT[sUTy | ‘aureU [BoTUe}Og
<

“SVSNYM GNY VUSVUPUN

‘ONINOAM ‘VAVAUN ‘HVLA ‘OGVYOIOD DNIGNIONI

‘SHLYLS NUALSUM TVELNAO GHL UO AGINDY V SV GSN aa NVO HOIAM SANUS JO LSIT ¥

340

341

APPENDIX

‘sseyy | oun ‘AvyAT ou MA | OI-8 Arreqdeeyg|* °° OsByUET TANUINGIA

“‘SSBUI So[sUIg | ouns ‘AVIA oy M | S-L Alrequedo ysnqystzy | * ee 8a ts snqndo umnainqtA
‘aspeyH | oun ‘Avyy ea 0Z-ST esuvio aBesQO|* ° ° ° * UMnresIUI0d Uo[AXO],
‘ssByy | une ‘Avy | urd Jo eyy AMA | OT-S ysuvme J, | * ‘fs + goryes xeurey,

‘apsurg | ounce ‘Avy OVIGM SOVTIT | 8-9 eT] WeIsIag | * oy si eoIsied BSULIAG

“SSBUI a[BUIg ARI aya fading | O1[-8 Pal) 1 sates * sles[na esulitg
“SSBUL fo]sUIg ACI any M| S-P words s,0}4no0yH Uta ‘+ + + yaqqgnoy wea Bertdg
“SSBUL S O[SUIG ARI aya | g-e vords s,s1equny,y, . Tis1equny} vemdg
“sseyy, | Ae ‘oune aga | 8-9 Joeple wepjoy : Bone BIsIU shonquIeg

‘ssvyy, | Ang ‘oun eM | ZI-8 Japp Weoley : * ‘sisUepeueo snonquieg

“SSB eune aT | 9-F esol SUIQUITID $ “+ BIOMT} [NUL esoy

“SSB eune omy | 9-G OSOL OUTTA * Bqye Bsoy

“SSB ABI | AOTTAA YstuseIN | OI-E oeuINs Y}OOUIG eiqe[s snyy

“SSBTAL INCHING aya | 9-P BIIIOY OI AA seploliey snydAyopoyy

“SSB eune asoy | OI-8 uoipuspopoyy | ° WNUITXVUL UOIPUspopoyy

‘sseyy | oun ‘ABT ouyM | CP YIVqeulu WIpjoy | ° vame snipoyi[ndo sndivsosAyg

‘sseyy | oun ‘ABT ay M | €-S yABqouINn |: ° * snipfoytindo sndivoosAyg

“sSBUL faTsTIg ABI ou M | SI-S8 esuUBIO YOO | * sniqeuo109 snydyepelyg
“sSBUl fafsurg | eune ‘AvyAy ayIYM 0} YUIG) 8-9 eT{onsAoUoY Uv WV, | * * BolIe{e} BIVOIMOT
‘aBpoy isseyAy eune ey | 9-¢ qoatid osouvder | - B{Oq! WNIysNSryT

APPENDIX

342

sssuyy | ouns AOTIAA | ZI-8 ysnq during snoindindosye snuAuongy
“SSUy aun AAU | 9-G BIPOSTO MA ; epHop eT[tArord
“ssUy eune oyuM | 9-F Blzjnoq |(da}seyIOY Jo eplig) vyeualo vizyneqd
“ssey | AByy ‘Tudy yuid uoswug | 9-7 soutnb uvder | * xe de votuodel ermopAD
“SsUyAL Judy Giese 8-P qnu jozeyT eUuBOIIOWE SN{AIOLD
“sst yl eune wBeg| 8-9 PoomMZop uvieqig BoLIeqis snulod
“SSB eunr oHyM | 8-9 JaIso poy eoumndues snui0d
“SSB Ame ayuM | g-e ysnq sedded yoomg BIOMUle BiIqye[D
“SSUUl /O[SUIS AvIN amy | OI-8 osULIy OVUM BolUIsIIA sny}UeUOrYy
“ssUyl Ane ay MM | 9-F ysnq u0y4ng sIjejuepiov0 snyyueleyday
‘Iopiog issvyy | oun ‘Avyy MOT[PA | SI-OL 9a1} vad UBIIEqIg sueoseioqie BueseIeD
“sseyy Beleraceterey 4ealolA | 9-P elolppnq puqAy BIPOULIOJUL BIa[ppng
‘aspoy issvyy | oune ‘Avy MOT[PA | F-E Arjoqieq esoueder TH1equny} stieqiag
“ssByy | oun ‘Avy aHyM | 9-G Aisiaq oun munidevArjoq Jarouepuy
“ssvyy | oun ‘Avy a1yuM | 9-¢e Aqioq oun ‘eloyluye Jetqouepuy
“pesn MOF 6 3 a Ce) (79) “qq S10, ‘aWIBU YSI[suq ‘aueU [eolueyog

‘OHVdI GNV NISNOOSIM ‘VLOSANNIW ‘VNVINOW ‘VLOMVG HLQOS ‘VLOMVd HLYON
DNIGOTIONI ‘SALVLS TVUINAD HLUON AHL YOA AGIND V SV GaSN Ad NVO HOINM SANUHS AO LSIT V

APPENDIX

“SSBUL fapsUIQ | ouns ‘Avy a114 MA | OI-8 9o1} SuTIvjABM |" * eueyuel, TINUINGIA
“sseyl eune aaa 0¢-SI eSUBIO BSBSC) * uansejsiuod uofAxo J,

‘ssey | ounr ‘AvP | =yUrd 0} yA | OI-8 ystivure y, | * * Boles x11eurey,

“SSBUI SO[SUIG ABI etding | OI-8 oV'y : * slivsyna esulAg
“sseyl Jaurung oyIyM YSU | G-g ArrIeqMoug snsomeoel sodivooyduAg

“SSBUL fa[suIg | eung ‘AByy auyM | C-P eorids 8,019n0yH UeA = 9s te}4hoy UBA eeRIIdg
‘SSVU SaTsUIg | sung ‘ABT ay M | g-E voids 8, s1equny,y, ae Tisiequny) eendg
‘ssByy) Arne ‘oune ayM | 2-9 Jape Uepfory * weaine Bist snonquirg

‘sseyy | Ame ‘oune ey | OI-9 Jople uvowomy “sIsUsptuBo Snonqueg

“ssByAL qouruing asoy| 9-¢ asoy eBsosni Bsoy

“SSBUL /O[SUIg ACI MOT[PA | F-E JUBIIND UleJUNOf : “wUNaIdye seqny
“SSB]A AR AOTPA| F-E ovuing | * sisuepeuvo snyy

“sseyT | oun ‘Avyy ayy | 9-F BIIIay Oy | * * seploloy snydAyopoyy

‘sSBUL ‘otdulg | sung ‘AeA, ou M | ZI-8 esuvIO YOO] | * sniivuoioo snydpperyg
“SSB fa[sUIG | oun ‘AvTAT a}TyM 0} YUIG) g-9 epponsAsuoy UBII}IV], * Bolle{ey BIBVdITO'T
“IOQUIT[D FUST[AOX qeutuing | AMoT[eA 07 071 AA | GI-OT epponsAeuoy sur, | * eotuodel e1soTm0'T
‘aspoy issey] aune em |. 8-9 qeAtig | * ‘ * grBByNA UINYSNsrT
“SsSbUM ‘asulg | ydag “sny em | 2-9 voBUvIPAY peloMOPp-9s1eT e1Opipuvis Bye[noued vosueipAPT
“SSBUI a[SUIG | “Ydag “Sny ayM | 8-9 eosueipA “7 * eyetnotued vosuvipA

APPENDIX

344

"SSUUL SoPsuIg oun ‘Avy ayIYM OF YUTG] 2-9 epponsAeuoy UBLIRYINY 4 eb Ye BOLIEYS} B1IIUOT
“TOCUWUTD JUO[POONTT, young | MoT[o.f 07 eT AL | GI-OL apponsfouoy out , ee a2) vouodel tiaytory
“‘SSBUL fa[sUIg | ouns ‘ABT PSS 9-¢ epponsAouoy ssouvdey Bes 0 IMOLIOUL B1991U07T
‘odpoy| Apne ‘ounsr arty | OI-9 qoaud BIULOstR, ) “8 8 UINITOFT[BAO UINIYSNSVT
“SSUyA neon’, pouva | O0Z-OT opyiAur edvig) E * BOIPUL BIUIAI}S10Be'T
“SSBUI foTsuIg | “ydeg “Sny]| sya oF YUIG | = 2-G vesUuvIpAY PolaMmoy-os1U'T viopipuesid eye[notued vosuvipsY
‘SSBUL {O[SUIg zecuung pov, | OI-F outuisel eda seprloulusel viuapier)
“SSBUI Sa[sUIg oune yuIg| 9-G BIPOTIO A. ‘ epllop BT[tAreIq
‘sSUyy | AvTY ‘Tudy uosullIy) | 9-F soumb uvdey | * . evotuodel etuops9
‘ssUI oun ayM | 8-9 1aIso pay” ‘e1ajTU0][O}S SNULOD,
‘ssu yl oune wary! 9-9 | PoomMSop uBiieqig * Bolaqis snuiog
“oSpoH pes OTM i esuvio oyelosaL, BYUlOFEy SIT)
‘SSUTY OEE OM. queid voy, Boy} eI[eUIeD
‘aBpey issvy | oung ‘Av MOUIR | FE” Arseqieq ssouedus ae a TIS1equny} sleqieg
“SSB, qourumng MOT]PX | 9-F Aiioqieq pepatoseT aaa SlIvNoOse} SLIeqieg

“posn MOF, oon “IOJOD “Vy sIOPT | ‘owe YSsTsuq ‘gUIeU [BOIUeOg

‘VINUOAITVD UNV NODAYO ‘NOLONIHSVM DNICOTONI
‘SNOIDAY LSVOO O1MIOVd AHL YOX AGIND V SV GaSN Ad NVO HOIHM SaNUHS JO LSIT V

345

APPENDIX

“OUTTA

“SSBUI Sasulg
“SSBUL So[sUIg
“ssv

“SSBUL /a[SUIg
“eBuIg

“SSBUL fa[sUIg
“SSBUL fo[sUIg
“sse yl

‘SSBUL /a[sUIg
“ssByAl

“ssBy

“SSBUL { Iopilog
‘ssBy

“ssBy

‘ssBJ

“SSBUL fo[sUIg
“SSBUL fo[SUIg
“SSBUL fO[SUIG

oun
ABI

ABI

ABN

ABI

oune ‘Avy
Av

Av ‘udy
‘any ‘Aine
ABN

Apne ‘eune
A[ng ‘oune
Ane ‘eune
young
eune

aun
JOUNING
eune

eune ‘AvBTAy

e[ding

OTT Mm

oy

yutd Jo ayy AA
eqiy a fording
OPITM SOVTIT
ov

oy A

Id

ova

oy

Ov

AUN

pey

oT M

oy MA

pore,
ovr
ore

wD
itp

oo
Io I !
~ooO

i
4 O CO CO

+

I

bedbadbar

=

BIIBISIM UBOLIOULY
Treqaous

Aljequeid ysnqyusty
ysueuey yous

oeTry

OBIT] UBISIOg

eesds $,0}4n0H UGA

eeds s,s1equny,y,

eorlds 910jv A ATOYUY
vomdg

Jep]e wapjoy

Jepla uvoeUry

asol OLIeIg

esoy

esol SUIQUIT[D

OSOI OFT MA

BAl[O Paavel-AT[OHL

Iapuvs[oO

eSUBIO YIOUL PelaMOP-I5IeT
eBUCIO YOOJ]

SUIDSONIJ VIIVIST MA
" * * ayes TanuUINqTA
: snjndo umnuinqi,
‘+ Boles x1zeurey,
‘+ sles[nA esulitg

* eortsied esusg
To}qnoY uBA BaBIIdg
Terequny} wendy
epremng verdg
Sia eynsie eeridg
voIne BIsIU snonquieg
“sIsuepeueo snonquirg
‘+ BLesTyes BSOY

* esosni esoy

‘ * BIOMI}]NUL Bsoy
"tf 8s -eqye Bsoy
“uintpoyinbe snyyeus¢C

: * JepuBefo UNION
sniopipusis snydjepepyg
sniqeuoioo snydjepyyg

APPENDIX

346

‘rop1og.

o[dand ovpry

Avy BIUIBYSIM UBILIOWY | “+ eisooeds BLIBysT MM
“OuTA, eunr atdang | GI-O1 BLIBISIM ULIOULY | . ; BuUdDseNIJ VIICISTM
*“TapIoq !ssvyy sali ee. si wyeg | ‘5 7 egsnqod ermozdurTYysE A
‘IOpsog issvyl z Ks we | " * e1OJyTY vrucyZuryse A
“SSUUL / O[SUIG ARI oyyM | S-P ealids s0}JNOF] UBA , * " * teyynoy ues vandg
“SSUUI So[SUIG Avy oWuM | S-E vortds § A1OQURY J, ; 7 Iigiequny} vesidg
‘ssuy | oun ‘Avyy oytUM | 8-9 Jop]a wappory Bane Vidiu snonquieg
“sseyy | oun ‘Avyy OM | ZI-8 Jops UvoWOULy “sIsuapeuBy snonquieg
“ssuyy | ounr ‘Avy yg) 9-¢ 9SOl OLIVIg BLOBS BSOY
“ssvyy | ounr ‘Avyy ONY | S-F asod SUIq UL], ) BIOYH [NU Bsoy
“ssuy | oung ‘Avy ayM | 9-¢ aSOl O}TY AA | Bq[e tsoy
“ssvy | AB ‘Tudy ayy AA | S-P BILIOY OYIY AA | SOpIloLLiey sodAyopoyy
“SSUUI {O[SUIg ABTY aHyM | ZI-8 osUBIO YOO 7 snuivdoloo snydjepeyiyg
“SSUUL SO[aUTS dJeuung pelea | OI-9 Japues[O : . * Jepues[o WINWaN
‘OPsUly ace : OI-8 AL1aq [NUL FUrdaa AA einpued eqe sniojy
“sstul {opSUIS Av | 9}tYM 07 YUIG| 8-9 apponsAouoy uvlwezIe J, * Bole} 2} BIZOTMO'T
*TOQUIT[D JUOT[IOX JIWMIUING | MOT[PA 0} OFT AA | OZ-ST apyonsAOUOY OUTA, eouodel viaomo0T
“appa ABIY SHIA | = 8-9 qoallg . elesnA wnIysnsyvy
‘o3peH pa OU | 8-9 qoatd BrusoxTe,) VANTOFTCAO VUNISNSVT
“Sse oe pee a | OZ-OT apacur advia BoIpUl BIUIAI{slose'T
“SSUUL SO[SUIG Tea OVA | 2-9 easUBIPAY PoloMopy-asIe'T VIOPIpuvis BJelMoraed vesueIpATT
“SSBy ‘sny snolv,A | OI-8 BouyTy . * SNOVLIAS sTLosIqIpy
“SSUUT {a[SUIg qJowwng pelea | OI-F outuisef odvd,) : soeprourusel vlueprey
“SSUYT Tudy MOTPA | S-L 1194 ueplos suldooiq . * esuedsns BIYAASIO.T
“sey AVI aWUM | &-% eizqneq syloeis eizynaq
“SsUyy eane meeig| g-9 PoomMsop uvweqig volleqis snui0od
‘eBpoy ‘epsulg nt oes OI-* poomxoq jreaq BsoolyNIgNs snxog
‘espey ‘apsulg ae SI-8 poomxog sueloJedures snxog
“eSpoy {ssvyy AR MOTAL) F-€ Alioqieq esoueder Tarequny} streqieg
“ssuyy Avy asuelgQ | 9-f BoTeZe posojoo-ourT LT | ‘ Baqny vorezy

‘pesn Moy soon i <) (ele) “qqs1OT ‘euBU YsT[suq | “eUIeU [BOlUBIOg

‘VWOHVIMO GNV SVXHL ‘VNOZIUV DNICOTONI
‘SNOIDAU NUALSAMBLAOS AHL YOX AGIND V SV GSN Ad NVO HOIHM

SdOuUHs AO LSIT Vv

INDEX.

A

Ariat, layering, 87
Agitator, 134
Amount of seed to plant, 22
Anthracnose on brambles, 218
on bush fruits, 204
Aphis on bush fruits, 205
on cherry, 274
on peach, 274
Apple, cultivation and mulching of,
241, 243
diseases of, 247
distance to plant, 240
insects of, 250
packing of, 245
propagation of, 237
pruning of, 243
soil for planting of, 238
systems of planting, 240
varieties of, 246
Arrangement of city garden, 29
of plants, 20
of walks and drives, 319
Arsenate of lead formula, 138
Asexual reproduction, 79
Asparagus, 21, 22
Automatic sprayer, 130

B

Bacteria, kinds of, 121
multiplication of, 121

Bacterial action of soil influenced
by cultivation, 74

Bark graft, 106

Barrel sprayer, 131

Beans, 21, 22

Beautifying the home grounds, 317

Beets, 21, 22

Bitter rot on apple, 247
Black knot on cherry, 273
on plum, 293
rot on apple, 247
on grape, 230, 231
Blackberry, 21, 22
cultivation of, 209
Bordeaux mixture, 142, 144
Brambles, 208
diseases of, 217
harvesting of, 216
insects of, 218
planting of, 213
propagation of, 211
soil and fertilizer for, 212
systems of training, pruning of,
215
varieties of, 217
winter protection of, 216
Bridge graft, 107
Broker, the, 169
Brown rot on apple, 247
on cherry, 273
on citrus fruits, 309
on peach, 283
Bucket spray, 129
Bud, cutting of, 96
plate, 98, 99
shield, 96, 97
Budding knife, 97
time for, 95
Bulb, 80
Bush fruits, 196
cultivation of, 199
diseases of, 203
harvesting of, 200
insects of, 204
planting of, 199
propagation of, 197
pruning of, 200
soil for, 198
varieties of, 202
(347)

348

Cc

CaBBaGE, 21, 22
worm, 112
Cane blight, 218
borer, 218
Canker worm, 254
Carbolic acid emulsion, 141
Care of produce, 160
Carrots, 21, 22
Cauliflower, 21, 22
in crates, 164
Cause for pruning, 150
Celery, 21, 22
cabbage, 164
crate, 162
Chard, 21, 22
Cherry, diseases of, 273
harvesting and packing of, 272
insects of, 274
planting and cultivation. of, 270
propagation of, 267
pruning of, 271
soil for, 269
varieties of, 272
Cion, 101
Citrus fruits, 298
diseases of, 308
grading and packing of, 307
harvesting and curing of, 304
insects of, 310
planting of, 303
propagation of, 300
soil and cultivation of, 302
washing of, 306
City garden, 21, 22
Cleft graft, 105
Codling moth, 250, 251
Cold frame, 35, 55, 64
cross-section of, 65
Commission man, 169
Companion planting, 24
Composting manure, 62
Contact poisons, 139
Corm, 81
Corn, 21, 22
Corrosive sublimate, 145
Cucumber, 21, 22
Cultivation, 67
of apple, 241
of bush fruits, 199
of cherry, 270
of citrus fruits, 302
of grape, 225

INDEX

Cultivation, objects of, 68

of peach, 279

of pear, 257

of plum, 290

of quince, 264

shallow or deep, 69

of strawberry, 186
Cultivators, 76, 77
Curculio on grape, 235

on plum, 294, 295
Currant, 21, 22

types of, 196

worms, 204
Cuttings, 88, 90

greenwood, 90

hardwood, 92, 221

heel, 222

soft wood, 90
Cylinders, 134

D

DENITRIFICATION, 76
Depth of planting, 48
Dewberry, 209
Dinner plate seed tester, 45, 46
Disease of apples, 247
bacterial, 120
of brambles, 217
of cherries, 273
of citrus fruit, 308
control of, 119
fungous, 119
of grapes, 230
of peaches, 282
of pears, 259
of plums, 292
of quinces, 265
symptoms of, 117
Disk harrow, 73
Distance to plant perennial plants,
21

small fruits, 21
vegetables, 21
Double hedge row system, 186
Downy mildew on grape, 232
Drainage, 318
Drive, arrangement of, 319
treatment of, 320

E

Errects of pruning, 151
Eggplant, 21, 22

INDEX

Embryo, 38
Equilibrium of plant, 148
disturbance of, 148

F

Fay plowing, 72
preparation of plants, 173

Farm garden, 21

Fertilizers, 23

Fire blight on apple, 249
on pear, 259

Firming board, 49

Flea beetle, 233

Fly speck, 248

Formalin, formula of, 144

Fumigation, 144

Fungicides, 143

Fungous disease, 119

Fruit worm, 205

G

GarpDEN plans, 29, 30, 32, 38, 34, 35

soil, preparation of, 23
Geneva seed tester, 46
Germinating cup, 46
Germination, 38

internal conditions affecting, 42

oxygen necessary for, 40

processes of, 42

temperature necessary for, 41

water necessary for, 38
Germinative energy of seed, 44
Gooseberry, 21, 22

classes of, 197

pruning of, 200
Grades, standardized, 166
Grafting, 95, 99

bark, 106

bridge, 107

cleft, 105, 106

purpose and value of, 100

saddle, 104

splice, 102

tongue, 102

use of, 100

waxes, formulas for, 110, 111
Grape, 21, 22

cultivation of, 225

diseases of, 230

fruit, 299

349

Grape, harvesting and packing of,
228

insects of, 232

planting of, 224

propagation of, 220

pruning of, 225

soil for, 223

training of, 226

varieties of, 229
Grapeberry moth, 234
Greenwood cutting, 90, 91
Gum diseases of citrus fruits, 308
Gummosis on plum, 292

H

Hanp atomizcr, 129
Hardwood cuttings, 92
storing and handling of, 92

Harvesting, 159

of apples, 244

of brambles, 216

of cherry, 272

of citrus fruits, 304

of grapes, 228

of pears, 258

of plum, 291

of strawberry, 188
Hellebore, formula for, 138
ie plants, winter care of,

174

Hill system, 184
Horse cultivator, 76
Horseradish, 21, 22
Hot-bed, 35, 55
advantages of, 55
cross-section of, 58
frame, 57
location of, 56
pit, 56
depth of, 57
plan, 61
sash, 59
How to remove large branches, 152

I

ImpLeMEnts of cultivation, 76

Insecticides, 137-141, 148

Insects, biting, boring, sucking, 113
control measures of, 115

Internal conditions affecting ger-
mination, 42

350
J
JoBBER, the, 170

K

KEROSENE emulsion, formula for,
141
Kumquat, 299

Lawn, 325
Layer, 84
Layering, aérial, 87
mound, 85
serpentine, 87
time for, 88
tip, 86
trench, 86, 87
Laying out the garden, 17
Leaf hopper on grape, 233
roller on strawberry, 193
spot on brambles, 217
on bush fruits, 203
on strawberry, 192
Lemon, 299
Lettuce, 21, 22
Lime, 299
commercial, 143
self-boiled, 142
sulphur, 138
for summer spray, 143
table for dilution for dormant
spray, 139
Little peach, 283
Locating the house, 317
Location of garden, 18
Loganberry, 208, 211
Long season crops, 20
Longevity of seed, 43

M

Manure, 23
composting of, 62

Marketing, 159
agencies, 169

Matted row system, 186

Maturity of seed, 42

INDEX

Melon, 21, 22
Metamorphoses, complete, 113
incomplete, 114
Mildew on bush fruits, 204
on grape, 231, 232
on strawberry, 193
Mould on citrus fruit, 310
Mound layering, 84, 85
Mulched plants, spring treatment
of, 179
Mulching of apple, 243
of strawberry, 187, 188
the soil, 178
Mustard, 22

N

Nematopgs, 194

Nicotine products, 140

Nitrification, 74

Notching, 86

Nozzles, 135

Number of plants for small garden,
22

Oo

Onton, 21, 22
in sacks, 163

Orange, 298

Oxygen necessary for germination,
40

P

Pacxaags, kinds of, 161
quality of, 165
Packing of apples, 245
of grapes, 228
for market, 165
of strawberry, 190
supplies, 168
Packs, standardized, 166
Paris green, formula of, 138
Parsley, 21, 22
Peach, 275
cultivation and pruning of, 279
diseases of, 282
harvesting of, 281
insects of, 285
leaf curl, 285
planting of, 277

INDEX 851

Peach, propagation of, 276

soil, site for, 277

tree borer, 285

varieties, 282

yellows, 282

Pear blight, 259, 260

cultivation of, 257

diseases of, 259

harvesting of, 258

insects of, 261 |

marketing of, 258

planting of, 257

propagation of, 256

pruning of, 258

psylla, 261

scab, 261

soil for, 257

thrips, 262

varieties, 259

Peas, 21, 22

Peg tooth harrow, 75

Peppers, 21, 22

Pests of plants, 112

Physiological troubles, 123
control of, 123

ane “g gardens, 29, 30, 32, 38, 34,

for home grounds, 327-330
of hotbed, 61
Planning the home garden, 17
Plant diseases, 117
equilibrium of, 148
louse on bush fruits, 205
on cherry, 274
on peach, 287
Planting of brambles, 213
companion, 24
depth of, 48
rotation, 24
of strawberry, systems of, 184
succession, 24
Plants, thinning of, 51
Plate bud, 98, 99
Plowing, 72
Plum, 287
cultivation and thinning of, 290
diseases of, 292
insects of, 294
propagation of, 288
pruning and harvesting of, 291
soil and planting of, 289
varieties of, 292
Plunger, 134
Poisoned bait, 117

Poisons for biting insects, 137
for plant diseases, 141
for sucking insects, 139
Pome fruits, 237
Position of vegetables in garden, 20
Potatoes, 21, 22
Powdery mildew on bush fruits, 204
on grape, 231
Power sprayer, 133
Predaceous animals, 124
control measure for, 124, 127
Processes of germination, 42
Procumbent stems, 82
Produce, care of, 160

grading of, 161
preparing of, for market, 163

Propagation, 79

of apples, 237

of brambles, 211
by bulbs, 80

of bush fruits, 197
of cherry, 267

of citrus fruits, 300
by corms, 81

by cuttings, 88

of grapes, 220

by layers, 84

of peach, 276

of plum, 288

of quince, 264

by rhizomes, 81

by runners, 83

by stolons, 83

of strawberries, 182
by tubers, 82

Protection of wounds, 149
Prune, time to, 148
Pruning of apple, 243

of bearing trees, 155
of black raspberry, 210
of brambles, 215

of bush fruits, 200
cause for, 150

of cherry, 271

effects of, 151 -

of gooseberry, 201

of old trees, 156

of peach, 279, 280

of pear, 258

of plum, 291
principles of, 147
roots of plants, 153
saws, knives, 149, 150
summer, winter, 153

352

Pruning tools, 149, 150

top of plants, 142

of young trees, 154
Pyrethrum, formula for, 138

Q

QUINCE, cultivation of, 264
diseases of, 265
insects of, 265
propagation of, 264
pruning of, 265
soil for, 264

R

RapisuH, 21, 22
in Delaware basket, 163
Raspberry, 21, 22
cultivation of, 208, 209
Red spider, 313
Regulation of water, 39
Repellents, 116
Retailer, the, 170
Review questions, 36, 53, 65, 77, 94,
111, 128, 146, 158, 172, 181, 195,
206, 219, 235, 266, 297, 316, 331
Rhizomes, 81
Rhubarb, 21, 22
Riding cultivator, 77
Ringing, 36
Root cutting, 90
graft, 104
Rose, winter care of, 176, 177
Rotation planting, 24
Runner, 83

5

SavDDLE graft, 104
San José scale on, apple, 252-254
on peach, 187
Sash, 59
Scab on apple, 248
on pear, 261
on plum, 294
Scale insects on apple, 252
on citrus fruits, 312
n peach, 287
Seed-bed, soil for, 47

INDEX

‘Seed, germinative energy of, 44

its needs, 38
longevity of, 43
maturity of, 42
pot, 39
soundness of, 43
sowing of, 50
tester, kinds of, 45
dinner plate, 46
Geneva, 46
testing, 44
treatment, 145
Seedlings, transplantings of, 52
watering of, 50
Self-boiled lime sulphur, 142
Selling associations, 170
Semi-hardwood cuttings, 93
Serpentine layering, 87
Sexual reproduction, 80
Shield bud, 96, 97
Short season crops, 20
Shot hole disease on cherry, 274
Shrubs, grouping and massing of,
321

Single hedge row system, 185
Size of garden, 19
Slug on cherry, 275
Soap formula, 140
Softwood cutting, 90
methods of handling, 93
Soil, compacting of, 49
mulching of, 178
sanitation of, 122
thermometer for, 64
water-holding capacity of, influ-
enced by cultivation, 70
Sooty blotch, 248
Spinach, 22
in Delaware basket, 163
Splice graft, 102
Spray gun, 136
machine parts, 134-136
machinery, 129
materials, 136-146
nozzles, 135
rod, 136
"Sprayers, automatic, 130
barrel, 131
kinds of, 129
power, 128
twin cylinder, 132
Spraying outline for apple, 256
for brambles, 219
for cherry, 275

INDEX

Spraying outline for currants and
gooseberries, 206
for grape, 235
for peach, 287
for pear, 264
for plum, 296
for quince, 265
for strawberries, 195
Spring plowing, 72
tooth harrow, 74
Squash, 21, 22
bug, 113
Standardized grades and packs, 166
Stem cutting, 90
end rot of citrus fruits, 310
Stock, 102
Stolon, 83
Stone fruits, 267
Storing hardwood cuttings, 92
Strawberry, 21, 22
bed, renewal of, 182
soil for, 183
cultivation of, 186
diseases, leaf spot, 192
mildew, 193
harvesting of, 188
insects, leaf roller, 193
weevil, 194
mulching of, 187, 188
packing of, 190
planting of, 184
propagation of, 182
varieties of, 191
Suburban garden, 20, 21
Succession planting, 24
Summer pruning, 153
sprays, formulas for, 143, 144
Supply tank, 135
Sweet potato, 22
System of planting orchard fruits,
240

hexayonal, 241, 242
quincunx, 241, 242
square system, 240, 241

T

TEMPERATURE necessary for ger-
mination, 41
maximum, 41
minimum, 41
optimum, 41
Tent caterpillar, 255

353

Thinning of plants, 51, 52
Thrip on citrus fruits, 313
Tile germinator, 46
Tillage, 68
Time for layering, 88
to plant, 49
Tip layering, 86
Toadstool rot, 309
Tobacco, 141
Tomato, 21, 22
disease of, 118
Tongue graft, 102, 103
Tongueing, 86
Tools, budding, 97
pruning, 149, 150
Top working, 108
of citrus orchard, 3C1
Training of brambles, 214
of grapes, 226
Transportation, 171
Tree protectors, 125-127
Trellises, 227
Trench layering, 86
Tuber, 82
cutting, 88, 89
Twin cylinder sprayer, 132

U

Unit of measure, 18

Vv

VALVES, valve seats, 134
Varieties of apples, 246
of brambles, 217
of bush fruits, 202
of cherries, 272
of grapes, 229
of peaches, 282
of pears, 259
of plums, 292
of quinces, 265
of strawberries, 191
Vegetables grown for foliage, 27
for fruit, 27
for roots, 26
for seed, 27
Vegetative reproduction, 79

O04 INDEX

Ww Whiteflies, 313
spraying for, 314

WaALKs, arrangement of, 319 Windbreaks, 19

treatment of, 320 Winter care of bulbs and roots,
Water, bottom, capillary, 70 180

hygroscopic, 71 killing, 174

regulation of, 39 protection of plants, 173
Waxes, grafting, 110, 111 pruning, 154

Weevil, 194 Woody plants, winter care of, 175