ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEW YoRK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY o PRINCIPLES OF PLANT CULTURE AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS IN AG- RICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE BY E. 8S. GOFF LATE PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SEVENTH REVISED EDITION UNIVERSITY CO-OPERATIVE CoO. MADISON, WISCONSIN E912 309619 CoOpYRIGHT, 1897 BY E.S. GOFF COPYRIGHT, 1906 By Cc. F. CRONK Adininistrator Goff Estate CANTWELL PRINTING COMPANY MADISON, WISCONSIN PREFACE This book has grown out of the author’s experience in the lecture room and laboratory, while giving in- structions to students in the Short Course in Agricul- ture, in the University of Wisconsin. It is intended especially for students who have had little or no previous instruction in botany, and it is hoped that it may also be found interesting and profitable to the general reader who would learn more of the prin- ciples that underlie the culture of plants. It is expected that the instructor will amplify the text in proportion to the time at his command, and the capacity of his students. In the author’s practice, the first three chapters have been found sufficient for a term of twelve weeks, and the remaining chapters, supple- mented with some special work in horticulture, have served for a second term. A syllabus of laboratory work is added as an appendix. It is hoped that this book may prove as useful to other instructors as it has proved to the author during its evolution. Madison, Wis., Feb. 15, 1897. E. 8. GOFF. PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION In revising the seventh edition of Principles of Plant Culture the object has been merely to change those portions which are no longer accurate because of the advancement made in some phases of plant culture since the last revision. The greatest changes made in the new edition are to be found in the discussion of ““The Plant as Affected by Parasites.’’ The recent de- velopment in methods of control and materials used against plant enemies necessitates these changes. It is safe to say that the most rapid development at the present time in Plant Culture is that which pertains to the methods of combatting plant parasites. A few other minor changes have been made but in the main “Principles of Plant Culture’’ is stlll as it came from the pen of the author. JAMES G. MOORE, Associate Prof. of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author desires to express his thanks to Prof. Charles R. Barnes, of the University of Chicago, Prof. F. W. Woll, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station and Mr. F. Cranefield, the author’s assistant in horticulture, for revision of the manuscript (of the first edition), and for many valuable suggestions. Figures 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30, 34, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55 and 83 were copied from ‘‘ Agri- cultural Botany,’’ with the sanction of the author, Prof. M. C. Potter, of the Durham College of Science, Eng- land. Figures 61, 62, 63, 82, 84, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 118, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123 and 128 are from ‘““The Nursery Book,’’ by Prof. L. H. Bailey, and are used by permission. Figures 31, 59, 81, 85, 99 and 130 are from ‘‘The Amateur Fruit Book,’’ by Prof. S. B. Green, and are used by permission. Figure 32 is from a photograph kindly loaned by Prof. Green. Figures 37, 39, 40, 41, 42 and 44 are copied by permission of the publishers from ‘‘Barry’s Fruit Garden.’’ Figures 94 and 95 are from ‘‘How to Make the Garden Pay,’’ by T. Greiner, and are used by permission. Figures 65 and 66 were copied by permission from Bulletin No. 37, of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. Figures 77, 78 and 79 are from cuts in the possession of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000684021 CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I.—Introductory___.--_-----_---.---------- 9— 21 Chapter II.—The Round of Plant Life-______-_----__- 22—118 Section 1—The Behavior of Seeds toward Water__--_ 22— 24 oF 2-—Germination =222=-2522.2.-2<22-s-.5-26 24— 32 cs 3—The: Plantlet.ancsssccesoseseeseocssseaes 32— 48 a 4—The Inner Structure of the Plantlet_____ 48— 56 ne 5—The Water of Plants and its Movements.. 57— 65 ‘¢ 6—The Root and the Soil_-_----__--_------ 65— 79 f—Dhe:? Stemsc. vee sas Sees eee 79— 82 oe §—— The. eaves: ie ee ok 82— 85 es Q=-The, Budsssus seu scout e= See sat ee 86— 95 + 10—The Wloweros2se soe see ee 95—103 11—The Fruit and the Seed_-_..------___-- 103—106 ‘« 12—The Gathering and Storing of Seeds_____ 106—111 ‘« —13—The Decline of Growth and the Rest Pe- PIO 22: $a eee su See cele sees 111—117 Chapter III.—The Plants as Affected by Unfavorable Environment .2..-..-.-2-2---5---4+.7 118—188 Section 1—The Plant as Affected by Unfavorable Temperature ------------------------ 118—136 A—By Excessive Heat______---_~-_ 118—121 B—By Excessive Cold --_---------- 121—127 Section 2—Methods of Averting Injury by Cold__--_ 127—136 A—During the Dormant Period_____ 127—129 B—During the Growing Period_-_-- 129—136 Section 3—The Plant as Affected by Unfavorable Water Supply_-.=--=--=2==----++-=+-- 137—144 A—By Excessive Water_----------- 137—141 B—By Insufficient Water -_-------- 142—144 8 Contents. Pace Chapter III.—Section 4—The Plant as Affected by Un- favorable, Light...22+.--252-2-.2sse5 145—149 A—By Excessive Light _-_--_---__- 145—147 B—By Insufficient Light--__-_---__ 147—149 Section 5—The Plant as Affected by Unfavorable Wind.o22 2222522 s2sss2ccn seen sess 150—151 A~—By Excessive Wind_----__-__--~ 150 B—By Insufficient Wind_-_------_~- 151 Section 6—The Plant as Affected by Unfavorable Hood) Supply =a 22 Seco eee 151—159 A—By Excessive Food_------------ 151—152 B—By Insufficient Food_---------_- 152—159 Section 7—The Plant as Affected by Parasites______ 159—187 A—By Animal Parasites___---_---_ 160—179 B—By Vegetable Parasites_-_.-___- 179—187 Section 8—The Plant as Affected by Weeds__--____ 187—189 Chapter IV.—Plant Manipulation-__--_-----------___ 190—271 Section 1—Plant Propagation _-_--_--.-----_-----_ 190—236 As By Needs event eae ece see eek 191—192 B—By Division, i. v., by parts other THAN HECUS ie seu ea eH SES: 192—236 Section 2—Transplanting --_-__-___-__________1.__ 236—252 A—Lifting the Plant___--__._______ 237—240 B—Removing the Plant-___-__-_____ 240—243 Ca Replantiig: 2 ==) oo e ae ot cee 2438—251 D—After Care of Transplanted Stock 251—253 Section 3—Prutiing..W-- =o e cee secet- 5 2538—270 A—Formative Pruning ~-_-_--_____ 257—263 B—Stimulative Pruning____________ 263—267 C—Protective Pruning_____________ 267 D—Maturative Pruning____________ 267—268 Chapter V.—Plant Breeding_______-_________________ 271—280 PRINCIPLES OF PLANT CULTURE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Before taking up a systematic study of plant culure, we may profitably consider a few principles of a more general nature. 1. Close Observation offers the best means of gain- ing knowledge of material things. The habit of ac- curate discernment, and of studying the relations of and the reasons for things and facts as we find them, should be constantly cultivated. Knowledge once gained must be applied at the proper place, the proper manner and. at the proper time, or the highest success in any calling cannot be expected. 2. The Difference between Art and Science. Art is simply knowing how to do a thing without reference to reasons. Science considers the reasons for doing it in a particular manner. Art implies more or less of skill gained through practice. Science implies a knowledge of the objects to be gained by a given operation and the conditions affecting the process. An intelligent but ignorant person might be taught to prepare and insert a cion (386)* in the most approved *The numbers in, parenthesis in the text refer to the numbered paragraphs in this book, and are intended to help students to a better understanding of the subject. Students should be urged to look up these cross references. 2 (9) id 10 Principles of Plant Culture. manner. This pertains to the art of grafting. The same person might be taught the reasons why each step of the process is performed in its particular manner. This pertains to the science of grafting. One may be- come a skilled grafter without learning the science of grafting, but he cannot graft intelligently. The arti- san, however skillful, who knows only the art, cannot become a master workman in the highest sense until he learns also the science that underlies his trade. The art of doing any kind of work is best learned by working under the guidance of a skilled workman. The science is best learned from books with the help of trained instructors. Science not yet wrought out, and hence not explained in publications, is learned by close, persistent and thoughtful observation and study. 3. Environment is a term used to express all the out- side influences, taken as a whole, that affect a given object in any way. 10 Bean—Kidney _____ 3 8 eek: secas 3 6 (9 Bean—Soy -------- 2 6 Lentils 4 9 Beet: oi seen eke 6 10 ‘Lettuce 5 69 Borecole or Kale___ 5 10 Maize or Indian corn_.__ 2 7 Broccoli ~---------- 5 10 Melon—Musk ___~______ 5 10 Cabbage _- ~~ __----~ 5 10 Melon—Water _________ 6 10 Cardo0n). jas sae 7 .9 Mustard—Black or Brn. 4 9 Carrot -s-s20 52555 4 or 5 10 DION cep wen me 2) Cauliflower ~----------- 5 10 Parsnip. s-s.- 22-204 2: 4 @elery. = seeseseeceee a= OND PO: oe cee aes 3 9 0G) ig ea Tomatoes i ie Ontors Lettuce penne oad ton ¢ r < 4 ie. ee 8 ks SSS oo Pha Inton; or | Bun e47 Fic. 95. Cross-section of greenhouse. (After Greiner.) Walls of concrete are rapidly becoming more popular and will doubtless largely replace all other materials for this purpose. The furnace and potting rooms ob- struct the light least, and afford the most protection, when located to form the wall opposite the sun. In houses extending north and south, the south end is usually glazed above the height of the side walls, 367. Heating Devices for the Greenhouse are of various kinds. Greenhouses of the better class are now 208 Principles of Plant Culture. almost invariably heated with steam or hot water, or with a combination of the two. Pipes from a boiler lo- cated beneath the floor level, extend nearly horizontally about the house, below the benches, returning to the boiler; or the main feed pipe extends overhead to the farther end of the house, where it connects with a sys- tem of return pipes beneath the benches. While the steam or hot-water heating costs much more at the out- set than the smoke-flue system, it is generally found not less economical and far more satisfactory in the long run. Where the pipes need to make many turns, steam is usually more satisfactory than hot water. In round numbers, the cost of the.smoke-flue may be esti- mated at ten per cent of the whole outlay required in a house heated by this method, while in one heated with hot water or steam, the cost of the heating apparatus is not far from fifty per cent of the whole. 368. The Propagating Bed. A certain part of the greenhouse is usually set apart for propagating plants from cuttings. The propagating bed is made upon the ordinary greenhouse bench, directly over the flue or heating pipes. To furnish the bottom heat (362 a), the space beneath the bench is boxed in with boards. Hori- zontal doors are, however, provided which may be opened when it is desirable to allow a part of the heat to pass directly into the house. The floor of the bench should not be so tight as to hinder drainage. In large commercial establishments, entire glass houses are often devoted solely to propagation. Such houses are Propagation by Cuttings. 209 usually eleven or twelve feet wide, with low side walls. Sometimes lean-to houses are built for propagation, on the north side of a wall, where direct sunlight is cut off. In making the propagating bed, a thin layer of sphag- num moss is usually spread over the floor of the bench and covered to a depth of two to four inches with well- packed, clean, rather coarse sand, brickdust or pow- dered charcoal. Sometimes the whole bed is made of moss. These materials are used because they will not retain an excess of water if the proper provision is made for drainage. Sand is most used because it is as a rule readily obtained, but it needs to be selected with care, as it often contains injurious mineral matters. Sand found along the borders of fresh-water streams or lakes may generally be used without washing, but that dug from sandpits should in most cases be exposed to the air for a few weeks, and then be thoroughly washed before being employed for cuttings. The same sand should be used for but one lot of cuttings, as a rule, for it is hable to become infested with fungi that may work havoe with cuttings placed in it. 369. Methods of Controlling Humidity. Where moisture needs to be controlled with especial care, as in propagating delicate plants from green cuttings, or in herbaceous grafting (393), the planted cuttings or the grafted plants are often covered with bell-jars. To guard against sudden fluctuations in temperature, a larger bell-jar is sometimes placed over a smaller one. By means of a bell-jar with a tight-fitting ground 210 Principles of Plant Culture. plate, evaporation may be wholly prevented from cut. tings or plants, if desired. Propagating beds are often covered with glazed sash, in addition to the glass roof of the house, to assist in maintaining a moist atmosphere about the cut- tings (Fig. 96). For convenience, we separate propagation by SSISx cuttings into two divi- Sieh ) sions, viz., propagation by cuttings from dor- mant and from active plants. The require- SS ments of these two classes differ in some re- Fic. 96. Propagating bed covered with glazed sash. spects. a—Propagation by cuttings from dormant plants. 370. The Time to Make the Cuttings. We have seen that plant processes may not be wholly suspended during the dormant period (176). This is true not only of the plant as a whole, but also of detached parts of the plant, if they are protected from evaporation. If cuttings are taken from a plant in autumn and stored during winter in a moist place of moderate temperature, the cut surfaces will partially callus over (72), and the formation of roots or buds may commence before spring. When new growing points must be developed before the cuttings can form a plant, as with cuttings of the Propagation by Cuttings. 211 stem and roots of many species, cuttings of dormant plants are preferably made at the beginning of the dor- mant period, i. e., in autumn, and placed during winter under conditions favoring the formation of new grow- ing points. 371. The Storage of Cuttings. Cuttings should be stored in a place sufficiently moist to prevent loss of water by evaporation, and warm enough to favor mod- erate root growth. Cuttings with ready-formed buds must be kept cool enough to prevent growth of these. Root growth may proceed to some extent at tempera- tures too low to excite the buds. These conditions are usually fulfilled by covering the cuttings in damp saw- dust, sand or loose loam, and storing them through the winter in a moist, moderately cool cellar, or by bury- ing them in the open ground beneath the frost line. In mild climates the latter plan is often preferable. Stem cuttings (873) of plants that do not root freely from the stem are frequently buried with the proximal end (115) uppermost. This gives them, to some extent, the advantage of bottom heat (362a), since the sur- face layers of the soil are first warmed by the sun in spring. Cuttings stored in the ground over winter should be taken up and planted in spring before the buds expand. Cuttings of evergreen plants should not be buried, as this would destroy the leaves, without which they rarely form roots. Cuttings of these plants are usually made in autumn and planted at once in boxes of sand, which are kept for a time in a light, cool place, as a cool 212 Principles of Plant Culture. greenhouse, until the growing points of the roots have formed, after which they are removed to a warmer location. 372. Planting Cuttings in Autumn. Stem cuttings of the currant and other hardy plants, and root cuttings (376) of the blackberry, are sometimes made as soon as the wood is mature in autumn, and planted at once in well-drained loamy or sandy soil in the open ground. Cuttings thus treated often commence to form roots before winter. They should be covered with a little earth and mulched with some coarse litter on the approach of freezing weather, and should be shaded for a time after the opening of spring (Fig. 64). 373. Cuttings from Dor- mant Stems (stem cuttings) usually form roots more promptly if the proximal end is cut off shortly below a node (115). (See Figs. 97, 98 and 99). In certain plants, as many of the coni- Fic. 97. Fic. 98. ic. 99. fers, cutting ie 97. Stem cutting of cur- : 1 mney Teak more rant. rT i Fie, “ee cutting of poempuy when, enh with “a grape. (Both after Bailey.) i i is eas mec ag a lee, 1. e., with a small por rooted. tion of the wood of the pre- vious year at the base. The very short internodes at Propagation by Cuttings. 213 the juncticn of the two season’s growth appear to favor the emission of roots. Some varieties of the grape root more readily when.a short section of the parent branch is removed with the cutting, forming a mallet or T-shaped cutting (mallet cuttings). The cut forming the distal end of the cutting (115) is preferably made somewhat above a node, in order that the bud may not lose an undue amount of moisture by evaporation from the adjacent cut surface. Cuttings of certain plants that do not readily form roots when made in the ordinary way, may be induced to do so by ‘‘ringing’’ the branch from which the cut- ting is to be made (428d), just below a node at about midsummer. Callus will then form at the upper edge of the ring (79), and food will be stored in the stem immediately above it. In autumn the branch may be severed just below the ring and a cutting made, of which the base shall include the callused part, and which may be treated in the usual manner. 374. The Proper Length for Stem Cuttings depends upon the conditions under which they are to be grown. Cuttings containing only one bud often root freely and form vigorous plants in the propagating bed, where heat and moisture may be readily controlled. Such short cuttings, however, are seldom used except when cut- ting wood is scarce. Cuttings intended for planting in the open ground are preferably made at least six inches long. 375. How to Plant Stem Cuttings. The general rules given for the planting of seeds apply with nearly equal force to cuttings of the stem (344). Single-bud 214 Principles of Plant Culture. cuttings should be planted with the bud facing upward, and one-half to three-fourths inch deep, in order that the developing bud may readily reach the surface. Cut- tings of more than one bud may be placed upright or at an angle, at such a depth that the bud at the distal end (115) is about on a level with the surface. In cut- tings of shrubbery plants desired to produce a single stem, the central buds should be rubbed off before planting, leaving but one or two buds at the distal end (Fig. 97). 376. Fropagation from Cuttings of the Root. Plants that naturally sucker from the root (347) and some others may be propagated from short pieces of the reot (root cuttings). For this purpose roots of about the thickness of a lead-pencil are commonly cut into pieces one to three inches long (Fig. 100), as soon as growth ceases in autumn, and packed Fic. 100. Root cutting of in boxes with alternate lay- blackberry. (Arter Bailey.) ers of moist sand or moss. The boxes are preferably stored in a cool cellar where they may be examined from time to time during win- ter; the sand or moss should be moistened when it ap- pears dry. Root cuttings of different varieties of the same plant often require different degrees of tempera- ture to induce the formation of callus and buds, hence the boxes should be frequently examined, particularly toward spring, in. order that those in which the cut- tings are backward in starting may be placed in a higher temperature. Thus treated, root-cuttings of many hardy plants, such as the plum, raspberry, blackberry, Propagation by Cuttings. 21h juneberry, ete., often form both buds and rootlets by spring, so that they may be planted directly in the open ground. Those of more tender species, such as the bouvardia, geranium, etc., will not start to the same degree, unless placed in the propagating hed toward spring and given bottom heat. Root cuttings should be planted shallow, usually not more than one-half to three-fourths of an inch deep, in order that the developing bud may soon reach the light ; otherwise, as in too-deeply planted seeds, the reserve food may be exhausted before the shoot reaches the surface. When planted in the open ground (372), the soil should be made very fine and carefully pressed about the cuitings; if the weather is warm and dry, shading (Fig. 64) and watering will be necessary. h—Propagation by cutlings from active plants (green cuttings, slips). 377. Nearly All Plants may be Propagated from Green Cuttings. A succulent cutting of nasturtium* with its leaves intact, and with its proximal end im- mersed in fresh well or spring-water, will for a time absorb sufficient of the liquid to make good the loss from transpiration (74). So long as the water remains fresh and the tissues of the stem are unobstructed, the water thus absorbed will answer the same purpose to this cutting as if it had been absorbed by the roots. Food formation (58) will continue, and the growth current (79) will transport the prepared food from the leaves into the stem and in the direction of the roots. No roots being present, however, the growing points of * Tropoeolum. 216 Principles of Plant Culture. roots will form at the base of the stem, and we shall soon have a rooted cutting. Not all plants, however, root freely in water, possibly owing to the insufficient sup- ply of oxygen. With very few exceptions, of which the greenhouse smilax* is one, cuttings of the succulent growth of the stem, with a certain amount of healthy leaf surface in- tact, will develop roots in all plants, under proper con- ditions of humidity and temperature; hence propagation from green cuttings is a very common and expeditious method of multiplying plants. The healthy leaf surface, capable of preparing food, is a very important part of a green cutting, because the stem is less abundantly sup- plied with reserve food during the growth period than during the dormant period (184). Since the presence of leaf surface upon the cutting greatly promotes transpiration (74), propagation from green cuttings is scarcely practicable in the open air. Bottom heat (362), with a comparatively low air tem- perature, is especially important with green cuttings, in order that the food prepared in the leaves may be de- voted to the formation of roots. A small leaf surface on the cutting is generally preferable to a larger one; in many plants, a portion of a single leaf is sufficient. The leaf surface should in no case be permitted to wilt ; hence the cuttings should generally be sprinkled with water as soon as made. 378. Especial Care is Necessary in Propagating plants from Green Cuttings. In planting the cuttings, the material of the propagating bed should be put i in * Asparagus Mete lotitre, Propagation by Cuttings. 217 close contact with the stems, and no leaves of the cut- tings should be covered. Since roots cannot form with- out oxygen, the bed must not be so freely watered as to exclude all air. Transpiration should be reduced by sheltering the cuttings from the direct rays of the sun. Movable screens used during sunshine only, are prefer- able to whitening the glass, which causes | too much shade when the sun is not shining. Damping off, a much-dreaded disease: causing cut- tings to rot at the surface of the bed, is promoted by excessive heat, over-watering, or insufficient light or air; also by decomposing organic mat- ter in the material of the bed. Affected : euttings- should be promptly removed #4 and the trouble cor- rected. 379. Green Cuttings should be Potted as Fic. tot Gatting of snepann bien, Soon as Roots Form, Fic. Ne ee nay coleus, which may be de- tected by their foliage assuming a bright color. They should first be placed in small pots, and until they have commenced growth in these, should be treated pre- cisely as before they were potted. Propagation by green cuttings includes three divi- sions, of which the requirements differ in some respects, , propagation by cuttings of herbaceous plants, of cae plants and of the leaf or parts of the leaf (leaf cuttings). 15 215 Principles of Plant Culture. 380. How to Make Green Cuttings of Herbaceous. Flants. In herbaceous plants roots develop most read- ily from the younger and more succulent parts of the stem. Bend the shoot near its terminus in the form of a U, and then press the parts together. If the stem breaks with a snap, it is in the proper condition to root promptly ; if it bends without breaking it has become too hard. Cutting below a node (115) is not essential to the formation of roots in herbaceous plants.* While the propagating house or hotbed is necessary to the extensive multiplication of herbaceous plants by green cuttings, the amateur may readily propagate a limited number of plants by the so-called ‘‘saucer sys- tem.’’ The cuttings may be placed in glazed saucers containing sand that should be kept saturated with water. The saucers may be set in any warm, well- lighted place, such as the window of a living room. The stems being in this case in contact with the water in the bottom of the saucer, the cuttings require less shad- ing than those in the propagating bed. 381. How to Make Green Cuttings of Woody Plants. Cuttings of woody plants are preferably made of harder growths than those best suited to herbaceous plants. They should be selected from young shoots of medium size and from half-mature wood, and should generally contain from two to three nodes, though where the ma- terial for cuttings is scarce, single buds may be used in many plants. The base of the cutting is preferably *In a few plants, such as the dahlia, the presence of a dormant bud at the crown is essential to the development of the stem the succeeding year. Cuttings of such plants should therefore be made below a node, if the roots are desired for future use. Propagation by Grafting. 219 cut shortly below the node, but this is not essential in all plants. In this kind of propagation a mild bottom heat is helpful; though it is sometimes carried on during the summer months without artificial heat. 382. Propagation by Leaf Cuttings. A considerable number of plants, including the bryophyllum, begonia, gesnera and others, readily develop growing points of the stem and roots upon their leaves, a fact often turned to account in propagating these plants. Well-matured Fic. 108. Leaf of begonia on surface of propagating bed, forming young plants. (After Bailey.) leaves, with the principal nerves cut across on the under side, are held in close contact with the surface of the propagating bed by pegging or by light weights, or the leaf may be cut into pieces, which may be placed in the propagating bed and treated as ordinary green cut- tings (378). The leaves of the bryophyllum form rootlets and buds from the notches on their borders wherever these chance to come in contact with a moist medium. 220 Principles of Plant Culture. b—Propagation by grafting. 383. Grafting consists in placing together two por- tions of a plant or of different plants, containing living cambium (68) in such a way that their cambium parts are maintained in intimate contact. If the operation is. successful, growth will unite the two parts (69), and plant processes will go on much as if the parts had never been separated. The union usually takes place most rapidly when the cambium cells are in the state of most rapid division, i. e., when growth is most vigorous. The more intimate the contact of the cambium in the parts brought together, and the less injury their cells sustain in adjusting them, the more likely are they ‘to unite. ° The plant that it is desired to change by grafting is called the stock, and the part designed to be united to the stock is called the cion (scion), graft or bud. Although the tissues of two plants of differing char- acter often unite in grafting, each of the united parts almost always retains its individual character. For ex- aniple, if one or more buds of the Ben Davis apple are caused to unite by grafting with the stem of a Baldwin apple the parts that grow thereafter from the Ben Davis, buds, though nourished by sap that has passed through the Baldwin roots and stem, with rare excep- tions, continue to be Ben Davis, while the parts that grow from the Baldwin stock continue to be Baldwin. To this fact is due the chief value of grafting, viz., it enables us to change the character of a plant. Propagation by Grafling. 221 384. Objects of Grafting. Grafting enables us a—To change a plant of an undesirable variety into one or more desirable ones; b—To preserve and multiply plants of varieties that cannot be preserved or multiplied by growing them from their seeds; c—To hasten the flowering or fruiting of seedlings grown with a view to improving varieties; d—To change the size of trees, so as to dwarf them. e—To restore lost or defective branches; £—To adapt varieties to special soils, g—To save girdled trees; h—To avoid insect injury to the trunk or root, as in erafting the peach on the plum, or the European grape on the American. 385. The Plants that Unite by Grafting, Plants of different varieties of the same species (21) almost always unite by grafting. Examples,—the Ben Davis and Baldwin apples, the Bartlett and Seckel pears. Plants of different species of the same genus (21) often unite by grafting. Examples,—The peach unites with the plum, many pears unite with the quince, the tomato unites with the potato. Plants of different genera in the same family or or- der (21) sometimes unite by grafting. Examples, the chestnut unites with the oak; the pear unites with the thorn. 5.) Sek Plants belonging to different families rarely unite by grafting. The oak and walnut and the fir and lin- den have been grafted. Ww 222 Principles of Plant Culture. The apparent resemblance of two plants of different species is not always evidence that they will unite by erafting, e. g., the peach and apricot, though resem- bling each other in many respects, do not readily unite by grafting, but both unite freely when worked upon the plum, though the latter apparently differs from both the peach and apricot more than these differ from each other. Many plants unite freely when grafted in one direc- tion, that fail to unite when worked in the opposite direction; e. g., many cultivated cherries unite freely when worked upon the mahaleb cherry, while the latter fails to unite when worked upon any of the cultivated cherries; many pears unite freely when grafted upon the quince, but the quince does not freely unite when worked upon the pear. The only sure way of deter- mining what species may be united by grafting is by trial. Three principal kinds of grafting are in use, viz., cion grafting, budding and approach grafting. 386. Cion Grafting is used in grafting on roots (root-grafting) and very often in grafting on the stem, especially on large trees. The cion is a portion of the dormant stem, of the variety it is desired to propagate. It should generally be of the preceding season’s growth and should always contain one or more healthy leaf- buds* (131). It is probably best to cut cions from trees known to be fruitful. Cions are usually cut in autumn or during mild weather in winter or early __ * Flower-buds are occasionally used, but should be avoided except in special cases, Propagation by Grafting. 223 spring, and are commonly stored, until needed for use, in a cool cellar packed in moist sawdust, moss or leaves. In climates of severe winters, they should always be cut in autumn. Cions should not be kept so moist as to cause swelling of th. ebuds or the formation of a callus (72), nor so dry as to cause shriveling. In cion grafting the proximal end of the cion (115) is joined to the distal end of the stock if the stock is a stem, or to the proximal end if it is a root in such a way that the cambium layers of the two coincide in at least one place. Cion grafting in the open air is usu- ally most successful when performed just before or during the resumption of active growth in spring, and the cion is thought to unite more readily if in a slightly more dormant condition than the stock, possibly owing to its more ready absorption of water when in this state. The joints made in cion grafting are generally coated with a thin layer of grafting-wax (387) or bound in grafting-paper, cloth or cord (58, 309), to prevent evaporation and to keep out water. Siinediitan the whole exposed part of the cion is waxed. 387. To Make Grafting-Wax for cleft-grafting (392), melt together four parts, by weight, of unbleached rosin, two parts of beeswax and one part of beef tallow; pour into water, and when sufficiently cool, work with the hands* until the mass assumes a buff color; make into rolls and wrap with parafined (waxed) paper to pre- vent the rolls from sticking together. Several other for- mulae are in use. * The hands should be greased before touching the wax to prevent sticking. 224 Principles of Plant Culture. For whip-grafting (390), where waxed cord, cloth or paper is used, the beeswax may be omitted from the above formula, or one-half more tallow may be added. SM Tic. 104. Fig. 105. Fic. 106. Fic. 107. Fic, 108. Fic. 109.Frc. 110. Fic. 104. Grafting knife. This should be of excellent steel. The curve in the blade is not essential. Fig. 105. Cion used for whip, root or cleft grafting, one-fourth natural size.. Fig. 106. Seedling root, used in root-grafting, one-fourth natural Fic. 107. Cion shaped ready for insertion, reduced nearly one-half. Fic. 108. Portion of seedling root, shaped to receive the cion. Fie. 109. The cion and portion of root, put together. Fic. 110. The same as Fig. 109, wrapped with grafting paper. Propagation by Grafting. 225 388. Grafting Cord is made by soaking balls of com- mon wrapping twine in melted grafting-wax. 389. Grafting Paper is made by painting thin ma- nilla paper with melted grafting-wax. For painting, the paper is preferably spread out on a board of the exact size of the sheet; to prevent too rapid cooling of the wax the board should be heated. The wax should be heated hot enough to spread easily, but not so hot that it is absorbed by the paper. Thin muslin or calico is often used instead of paper. Grafting paper and grafting cloth should be stored in a cool, moist place to preserve their adhesiveness. Many kinds of cion grafting slightly differing in de- tails have been described, but the more important are whip-grafting, cleft-grafting and side-grafting. 390. In Whip-Grafting (splice-grafting, tongue graft- ing) the cion and stock are both cut off with a sloping cut, about an inch long, after which a tongue is formed on each by splitting the wood longitudinally a short dis- tance (Figs. 107, 108). The cion is best cut behind a bud, as shown. In joining, the tongue of the cion is inserted into the split of the stock, so that the cambium line of the cion and stock (68) coincide on one edge, and the two are crowded together with considerable force, after which the joint is wrapped with a narrow strip of grafting paper or grafting cloth (389), or wound with grafting cord (388). Sometimes the joints are simply tied with unwaxed cord. Whip-grafting is generally used when the stock is little if any thicker than the cion. It is much used by 226 Principles of Plant Culture. nurserymen in certain localities in grafting the apple and some other fruits upon roots (root-grafting (391) ). Whip-grafting is also considerably used in some cli- mates of severe winters, in top-grafting or ‘‘top-work- ing’’ apple trees in the nursery, in order to give cer- tain slightly-tender varieties the benefit of an especially hardy stock. This grafting is performed on two or three-year-old trees, that have been grown from root grafts. The trunk is cut off at the height it is desired to form the head of the tree, and a cion of the variety to be propagated is inserted; or several cions are in- serted in as many branches. The latter method, while more expensive, has the advantage of giving to the top- grafted trees the branch formation of the stock, which is sometimes important. As growth starts on the top-grafted trees, shoots that push out from the stock should be rubbed off to pre- vent them from robbing the cions of nourishment. 391. Root Grafting is generally performed in winter and in-doors. The stocks are small trees, grown one or two years from seed (seedlings). These are dug in au- tumn, and stored as recommended for cions (386). When ready for grafting, the roots are washed and trimmed by cutting off the larger branch roots, after which the stem is cut off at the crown, and the end of the root (115) is shaped as directed above (390). It is then cut off two or three inches down, and the re- maining root, if sufficiently thick, is shaped for another stock. Three or four stocks are sometimes made from a single root. As a rule, the stocks should not be less than three-sixteenths inch in diameter, nor less than two inches long. Propagation by Grafting. 227 Some nurserymen prefer to make but a single stock from one root (‘‘whole-root’’ grafts). Different nurserymen cut the cions for root-grafts from two to six inches long. In climates subject to drought in summer and severe freezing in winter, the Fic. 111. Shaping the cions for root-grafting. A, making the “long cut; B, cutting the “tongue;’’ C, cutting off the cion. These positions, and the movements they indicate, are adapted to rapid work. longer cions are more satisfactory, since they permit the stock to be covered to a greater depth, and encour- age rooting from the cion, which is sometimes regarded as an advantage. Root-grafts should be stored until the time for plant- out, as directed for cions (386). 392. Cleft-Grafting is generally employed when the stock is considerably thicker than the cion. The cut-off end of the stock is split across its center, with the graft- ing chisel (Fig. 112), and the proximal end of the cion (115), which is cut wedge-shaped and a little thicker on one edge than the other, is so inserted into the cleft that the cambium of the thicker edge of the cion forms a line with the cambium of the stock (Figs. 113, 114, 115). Success is promoted if the wedge-shaped por- tion of the cion contains a bud on its thicker edge. When the stock exceeds an inch in thickness, two cions 228 Principles of Plant Culture. are usually inserted (Fig. 114), to increase the chances of success. sufficient between it and the be tightly bound The cions should yond the end of eut is usually Fie. 112. ‘ Grafting chisel for making the cleft in cleft-grafting. The point at _ the right is for holding the cleft open during insertion of cions. The projection above is for driving this point in or out; one- fifth natural size. pressure Fic. 118. Fic. 118. The elasticity of the stock should exert to maintain very close contact cion; otherwise it should with cord or raffia (893), contain at least one bud be- the stock. The wedge-shaped made about one inch long, and the cion should be in- serted into the cleft as far as the length of the wedge, after which all the exposed wounded surfaces, including Fic. 114, Irie, 115. Cion shaped ready for insertion in cleft. (After Bailey.) Fic. 114, Cions inserted in cleft, for waxing. Fic. 115. Cross-section of Fig. 113 (after Maynard). C. cambium layer of stock; C’, cambium layer of cion. The cambium layers of the outer edge of the cion should form a continuous line with those of the stock. The cion is made a little thinner at its inner edge to permit the pressure of the stock to be exerted at the outer edge. ready the distal end of the cion, should be coated with graft- ing-wax (887). Cleft-grafting is most used in top-grafting old trees. Four to six of the main branches, located ag nearly Propagation by Grafting. 229 equidistant as possible (Fig. 116), are selected for grafting, and it is desirable to graft these rather near to the top of the trunk. Branches exceeding two inches = in diameter should not, as a rule, be grafted. About half of the top of the tree should be cut away just before the grafting z SQ leaving some branches to utilize a part of the sap. The more or less horizontal branches should eee generally be selected for graft- | Fic. 116. Branches of tree to be top-grafted, as ing and in these, the cleft should scen from above, showing where to insert the cions be made horizontally, to give the to “make a_ well-formed head, i. e., at the dotted two cions inserted an equal op- lines. portunity for growth. If both of the cions in a branch grow, the weaker one should be pruned off later.’ As erowth starts, shoots from the stock must be rubbed off (890). The spring following the top-grafting, all or a part of the branches left on the stock at grafting should be pruned Fic. 117. Cleft-graft_in off to encourage growth of the trunk of old grape vine. The cions are usually inserted be- ; oe ee ates Or ane grafts. If the tree is large ground in grafting the grape, and of a vigorous variety, it and no wax is used. (After — < 2 Bailey.) is wise to leave a part of these branches until the second spring. . 393. Side-Grafting is chiefly practiced with plants in leaf, under glass. The cion is joined at the side of 230 Principles of Plant Culture. the stock, which is usually not cut off, and is secured in place by wrapping tightly with grafting cloth or raffia. Three slightly different methods are in use. a—A shaving of bark, thick enough to reach into the cambium layer, is removed from the side of the stock by making a long vertical cut and a short transverse eut at the base, and to this cut surface the cion is care- fully fitted, and bound with raffia. This method is called venecr-grafting. b—A sloping cut is made rather deeply into the sap- wood of the stock, into which the cion, after being ta- pered at its base to the form of a wedge, is inserted (Fig. 118), and the parts are then held closely together by binding with raffia. This method is generally employed in herbaceous grafting, as with the po- tato, tomato, ete. It is also much used in grafting evergreens under glass, and oc- easionally in grafting outdoor nursery Opera oaks Brees In the jae case, a coating of gratt ne grafting wax is usually substituted for the tying. c—A short, transverse incision is made, and imme- diately below this, a somewhat longer, vertical cut— the two cuts, which are just deep enough to reach through the bark, forming. a T (Fig. 121). The cion is then cut off with a long, sloping cut, and the point inserted, the cut surface inward, beneath the two lips of bark formed by the T-cut, after which the cion is crowded downward until its cut surface is in contact with the cambium layer of the stock, when the juncture is bound with raffia. , Propagation by Grafting. 231 394. Budding is now extensively employed in propa- gating fruit trees, roses and the varieties of deciduous ornamental trees and shrubs. A (usually dormant) leaf-bud, with a small portion of surrounding bark (Fig. 120), is placed in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Budding may be successful whenever the cells of the cambium layer are in a state of active division, as indicated by the ready separation of the bark from the wood. In climates having severe winters, budding is most satisfactory when _ per- formed near the end of the growing sea- son and with fully matured buds, in order that the buds may not ex- pand until the following spring; Fic. 119. Fre, 121. Fie. 122 Fre, 190, !hus the — shoots Fie. 119. Shoot containing buds. The frowing from the white spaces about the buds indicate the , ; amount of bark to be cut off with the bud. inserted bud will The shoot is inverted for cutting the buds. Fic. 120. Bud cut off, ready for insertion.-have the whole Fie. 121. Bud partially inserted between the lips of the stock. season for growth Fic. 122. Bud inserted and tied. (All r after Bailey.) and maturity. With plants that unite freely and with the stock in the proper condition, 232 Principles of Plant Culture. 395. Success in Budding Depends Upon a—A fresh condition of the buds; these must not be in the least shriveled from dryness. b—The proper removal and insertion of the bud; the growing point of the latter (66) must not be injured. If this comes out, leaving the bud-scales partially hol- low, the bud will not grow, even if properly inserted. The bud should be inserted promptly to avoid loss of moisture. e—The proper wrapping of the wounded bark, to pre- vent evaporation and exclude moisture. The ligature should not cover the bud. d—The removal of the ligature after the union, to permit expansion of the stock. -e—The cutting off of the stock just beyond the bud, when the latter commences growth, to stimulate its de- velopment. Two methods of budding are in use, viz., T- or shield- budding and ring- or annular-budding. 396. In T-Budding, which is the more common and expeditious method, a short shaving, containing a hard and plump bud, cut deep enough to reach through the cambium (Fig. 120), is inserted beneath the bark of the stock, as described for side-grafting (393 ¢). The buds, which should be plump and mature, and of the variety it is desired to propagate, are taken from shoots of the current season’s growth. These shoots (‘‘bud sticks’’) (Fig. 119) should be cut the day the buds are to be inserted, and should be trimmed at once, and rolled in damp cloth, to prevent loss of moisture. The trimming consists in cutting off the leaves, saving a Propagation by Grafting. 233 bit of the leaf stem to serve as a handle while inserting the buds. The stocks, whether grown from seeds or from cuttings, are usually of one or two season’s growth. The lower branches of the stock are cut off up to three inches or more from the ground, and a smooth place is selected for the bud, usually on the side least exposed to the sun’s rays. With the budding knife, a T-shaped cut is made on the stock (393 c) about two inches above Fic. 123. A lesson in budding. The left-hand student is cutting a bud; the central one is lifting the lips of the bark with the spatula of his budding knife; the right-hand student is tying the bud. the ground. A bud is then cut from the bud stick, by inserting the blade of the budding knife about a fourth of an inch below the bud, at such an angle that the back of the blade nearly touches the bark of the stick. The blade is passed just behind the bud, touching the wood, but not removing much of it, and then turned a little, running out about a fourth of an inch above the bud (Fig. 120). Often the knife does not run out, but the bark is cut off square, a quarter of an inch above the bud, as indicated in (Fig. 119). 16 234 Principles of Plant Culture. With the spatula of the budding knife (397), the lips of bark in the angles of the T-cut are loosened from the wood, when the bit of bark bearing the bud is slipped down behind them (Fig. 121), with the bud pointing upward, until the top end of the bit of bark is just below the horizontal cut of the T. Some budders do not use the spatula, but raise the lips of bark with the blade of the budding knife. The center of a strip of moistened raffia is then applied to the stock just below the inserted bud; the ends of the strip are crossed on the opposite side of the stock, brought forward and again crossed just above the bud, , thus covering the horizontal cut of the T. The ends of the raffia are then brought behind the stock, tied Fie. 125. Fie. i26. Tie. 124. Fie. 124. Man budding in nursery row. (After Bailey.) Fie. 125. Budding knife with ivory spatula on the end opposite the blade. Fic. 126. Budding knife made from erasing knife by rounding the edge at A. in a half knot, and drawn moderately tight (Fig. 122), pressing the lips down snugly about the bud, which now protrudes between the lips. If the bud ‘‘takes,’’ it will unite with the stock in a few days. The raffia should be taken off in about ten Transplanting. 235 days, by cutting it on the back side of the stock, to enable the latter to expand by growth. 397. The Budding Knife should contain a blade of good steel, shaped as indicated in (Fig. 125), and a round-edged spatula for lifting the bark. The spatula is better placed on the back of the blade, as shown in (Fig. 126). 398. Ring Budding is used to some extent in the propagation of thick-barked plants, such as the hickory and magnolia. A section of bark is removed nearly or entirely round the stock, and a similar section contain- ing a bud from the variety it is desired to propagate, is fitted to its place and snugly bound with raffia. Ring budding is oftener performed in spring than later in the season. 399. Approach Grafting is now seldom employed, except in a few plants that unite poorly by other meth- ods. It is only possible between two plants in close proximity, or between parts of the same plant, since the graft is not severed from the parent until it has united with the stock. The plants are nourished by their own roots until the union takes place. Approach grafting is performed during or just pre- vious to the growing season. The parts are held in con- tact by binding them with raffia; the juncture should also be waxed if the work is done in the open air. Two methods of approach grafting are in use: a—A shaving reaching into the cambium layer is re- moved from both stock and graft on the sides toward each other (Fig. 127), and the cut surfaces are brought together and closely bound until they unite (Fig. 128), 236 Principles of Plant Culture: after which the graft is cut off below, and the stock above, the union. b—The top of the stock is cut off with a long sloping eut, preferably behind the bud, and the cut surface of the remaining part is inserted be- neath the bark of the graft, as de- scribed in side grafting (393c¢), ex- v cept that the T-cut is inverted, and the stock is inserted from beneath. Fic. 127. Fic. 128. Fic. 127. Two plants prepared for approach grafting. The cut surfaces, a, a, are to he placed together and bound. Fic. 128. Two plants bound together for approach grafting. (After Bailey.) The graft is cut off below the point of union when the parts are fully united. In both these methods the graft should be severed gradually to avoid a check to the growth. Section IJ. TRANSPLANTING. 400. Transplanting consists in lifting a plant from the medium in which its roots are established, and in Transplanting. 237 replanting the latter in a different location. Trans- planting is a violent operation because the younger roots with their root-hairs that absorb the greater part of the water required for the plant (101) are, as a rule, largely sacrificed in the lifting process. The water supply, so vitally important to the plant (62), is thus greatly cur- tailed until new root-hairs can be formed. Vigorous plants are generally better able to endure transplanting than feebler ones, because they can sooner repair the damage done to their roots. It follows that plants endure transplanting with less facility as they advance in age beyond the period of greatest vigor (9). 401. The Most Favorable Time for Transplanting, in the case of plants that live more than one year, is during the dormant period, because growth processes are then least active, and comparatively little water is needed. In countries having mild winters, the most favorable time for transplanting is generally at the be- ginning of the dormant period, provided this comes at a moist season of the year. The roots will then have time to slowly callus over their wounds and to form new rootlets, and thus be prepared for active growth in spring. But in countries of severe winters, where the. roots are largely frozen in the soil for two or three months, and in countries in which the autumn is gener- ally dry, spring is, as a rule, the more favorable season for transplanting. Trees that have been long exposed to cold, drying winds and have thus suffered depletion of water from their buds and branches, are better not lifted until the buds begin to swell. This is especially true of ever- 238 Principles of Plant Culture. green trees in severe climates. Being always in leaf they require more careful treatment than deciduous trees. : We shall consider transplanting under three divisions, viz., a, lifting the plant; b, removing the plant; and e, replanting the plant. A—LIFTING THE PLANT. 402. The object to be obtained in this operation should be to remove the roots from the soil with the least possible damage consistent with reasonable econ- omy of time and labor. Plants in low vigor should receive especial care in this respect. Very young plants, such as tobacco, cabbage, lettuce, etc., grown thickly in the seed-bed, are often pulled from the soil with the hands. In this case, the soil of the bed should first be saturated with water, in order that the roots may be broken as little as possible, and may come up with more or less adhering soil. It is generally prefer- able to grow such plants in drills rather than broad- cast. This enables them to be drawn from the soil with less damage to their roots. Trees and shrubs sufficiently grown for their final planting out should be more carefully handled. If it is necessary to cut off the main roots, the farther from the trunk this is done, the better for the tree, and the spade used should be kept as sharp as possible. The roots should not be barked, mangled or split by the dig- ing tools, as is so often done with nursery stock. Tree- digging machines are now much used by the larger nurserymen. Transplanting. 239 403. Lifting Large Trees. Trees considerably larger than nursery sizes are best lifted when the ground is frozen about their roots. A trench may be dug about the tree before the ground freezes, deep enough to per- mit the severing of the main roots, and a hole for the reception of the cylinder of earth left within the trench should also be dug at the place to which it is desired to remove the tree. This cylinder should be large enough so that the tree is left with abundant roots, or as large as can be removed with the apparatus at hand. When the ground is frozen to the proper depth, the tree may be tipped over by means of a rope and windlass, after which the cylinder of earth inclosing the roots may be pried up sufficiently to allow some low vehicle to be placed beneath it. The branches are usually permitted to drag upon the ground in removal, since the wounded parts may be cut off in the severe pruning necessary in planting large trees (409 ¢). Large trees may be lifted or lowered to accommodate grading. A trench is dug round the tree, leaving a eylinder of earth intact about the roots. Soil is then removed from beneath one side of the cylinder below the roots and a block set under as a fulcrum. The top of the tree is then inclined toward the fulcrum by means of a rope, until the roots are lifted on the op- posite side. If the tree is to be raised, soil is packed under the elevated roots, after which the top is tilted in the opposite direction, until the roots are lifted on the fulerum side, when soil is placed under as before. This process is repeated until the tree has been lifted to the 240 Principles of Plant Culture. desired height. If the tree is to be lowered, earth is removed at each tilt. 404. Sacking the Earth-Enclosed Roots is practiced in lifting and removing orange trees in California and may be profitably employed with other evergreens. A rather deep trench is dug at one side of the tree, and from this trench, the deeper roots are severed. The top earth is then removed down to the first lateral roots, when all the remaining large roots are severed at some distance from the trunk. The tree is next tilted to one side and a piece of burlap or matting is drawn beneath it, after which the matting is folded about the earth cylinder and well tied. B—REMOVING THE PLANT. Plants with their roots out of the soil should be care- fully protected from mechanical injury, from drying and from freezing. To insure nerethe oy such protection, plants to be ge transported any considerable = ee distance should be packed. =—Ssa7== 405. Plants Packed for oie Transportation should be in- Anse anaes NY closed throughout, and the Saas roots should be in close contact | ‘ with some moist material, pref- erably bog moss. Straw is often SN used for this purpose and an- Fic. 129. Showing how j cue ona ee well for packing about for shippiag. the trunks and branches of trees, but it is inferior to moss for inclosing roots, as Transplanting. 241 it is more liable to heat and does not so well. retain moisture. Herbaceous plants, such as the strawberry, cabbage, sweet potato, etc., may be packed in layers separated with moss, as follows: Over the bottom of the box, the width of which is about twice as long as the plants to be packed, and which has slatted sides, place a thin layer of damp (not wet) moss, and over this, place a layer formed of a double row of the plants, with their roots at the center, overlapping a little, and ‘ops toward the sides of the box (Fig. 129). Then put in another layer of moss and so on until the box is full, or the desired quantity is packed. The thickness of the layers will depend upon the time of year, the temperature, the distance to be transported and the kind of plants. The warmer the weather, the thinner should he the lay- ers of plants, as a rule. When the top of the box is put on, the contents should be pressed sufficiently to prevent the plants from shaking out of place. 406. Fuddling the Roots of Trees, i e., dipping them in a paste of soil and water, is much practiced by nur- serymen and tends to prevent them from drying. The paste should be made with rather light, loamy soil and of the consistency of cream. 407. Trees are commonly Bundled for Transporta- tion to economize space. For this purpose, a device resembling a sawbuck, with the arms cushioned with burlap or carpeting is very convenient. The trees are laid between the arms, with the roots placed evenly at one end. The stems are then drawn snugly together with a broad strap, after which they are bound wi-.h 242 Principles of Plant Culture. soft cord or with young and tender shoots of the osier willow.* After bundling, the space between the roots should be filled with damp moss, and the whole mass of roots surrounded with the same material. If the dis- tance to be transported is short, the mossed roots may be sewed up in burlap or matting and the tops may be tied up in straight straw, or the whole bundle may be inclosed in burlap. If the distance is long, the bundle should be boxed, to more effectually prevent the tree from damage. The bundles may be packed very closely in the box without injury, provided they nowhere come in direct contact with it. Boxed or bundled trees, that cannot be shipped at once, should be stored in a cool, damp place. 408. Unpacking and Heeling-In. Packed plants should generally be removed from their package as soon as they reach their destination. If they cannot be replanted immediately, they should be heeled-in. This con- Fig. 180. Nursery trees heeled-in to prevent drying. A, a short row of trees with only the roots covered. B, a row with their tops bent down and covered with earth at C. (After Green.) Sometimes fea tops are covered. Trees should not be heeled-in in the undles, sists in removing them from their bundles and tempo- rarily planting their roots in soil (Fig. 130). The *Salin viminalis. Transplanting. 243 roots shculd be well covered, and if at a dry season, they should also be mulched. To avoid mixing varie- ties, a separate row should be made of each sort. Nursery trees that cannot be packed for shipment at the proper time, are often lifted and heeled in, to retard the starting of the buds. C—REPLANTING. 409. Preparation of the Flant. a—Washing the roots. The ‘‘puddled’’ roots of nursery trees (406) are sometimes found inclosed at unpacking in a mass of mud that is so compact as to largely exclude the air (Fig. 131). The roots of such trees should be washed clean be- fore replanting (Fig. 132). b—Trimming the roots. The roots of trees that have been “Jal broken or mangled in the lifting 4 or transportation should be cut back to sound wood with a sharp 5, 191, ie. 189. knife. Fic. 131. Puddled roots of nursery tree. i a h Fic. 132. The same Fibrous rooted plants, as the ee ea strawberry, are much more read- ins. ily planted when the roots are trimmed, as shown in Fig. 131. c—Reducing the top. The buds of trees and shrubs should generally be reduced in number at replanting to correspond with the destruction of the younger roots during the lifting process; otherwise the water supplied by the roots may be insufficient to open the buds (62). This is best accomplished by thinning out and cutting 244 Principles of Plant Culture. back the branches. As a rule, it is better to reduce the top rather sparingly at replanting, with the expecta- tion of cutting it back farther if the buds do not promptly open at the proper time. The branches that Fic, 133. Fie. 154. Fic. 188. Roots of tree properly planted. Fic. 1384. Same improperly planted. can best be spared should be removed (420). Failure to properly reduce the top is a frequent cause of death or loss of vigor in transplanted trees. Small plants in leaf, such as the strawberry, cabbage, etc., usually en- dure transplanting better if their larger leaves are re- moved at replanting. d—Wetting the roots just before replanting is quite important, as it favors intimate contact with the soil particles. Plants that have suffered from loss of moisture in transit should have their roots soaked in clean water for a few hours ‘before replanting. Deciduous trees of which the bark is considerably shriveled may often be saved, if the center of the buds is still fresh, by burying them in moist earth until the bark resumes its plump- ness, Transplanting. 245 410. Replanting the Roots. The object to be at- tained in this operation is to place moist and well-aer- ated soil in contact with all of the roots of the plant. The roots should also be placed at about the same depth, and in nearly the same position that they grew before the removal. Fig. 133 shows the roots of a tree properly planted. The hole. was dug sufficiently large so that the roots were readily placed in it without crowding, and the soil was so well worked in among the roots that it comes in contact with the whole surface. Fig. 134 shows the roots of the same tree improperly planted. The hole was dug so small that the roots were necessarily crowded out of their nat- : ural position, and the earth was NAT Fic. 135. Fic. 136. Wie. 137. Fic. 135. Strawberry plant too deeply planted. Fic. 136. The same planted too shallow. Fic. 137. Strawberry plant properly planted. thrown in so loosely that it comes in contact with only a part of the root surface. Distortion of the roots of trees and shrubs at planting may cause injurious root galls. In planting trees of which the roots are not already inclosed in soil (403), the hands should be freely used to bring the soil in contact with the whole root surface, 246 Principles of Plant Culture. and the earth should be moderately packed about the roots with the feet, or otherwise. If the soil is dry, it is probably better to moisten it be- fore placing it about the roots, rather than after, since we have then a better opportunity | to judge of the quantity of water, _ )/\} required, and the soil is less likely .\ to settle away from the roots. Trees of considerable size should generally be staked or otherwise supported after planting, to pre- vent shaking by wind (Fig. 138). —_— Surrounding the trunk with poor- conducting material, such as hay, straw or canvas, tends to prevent damage from sun-seald (185), to which recently-transplante1 trees are especially _ lia- ble; since the evaporation stream (77) is much re- duced, the bark tends to Fic. 138. Large transplanted tree wound with hay rope and become unduly heated. supported by wires. 411. Devices for Transplanting. With young trees and plants, that possess abundant vigor, rapidity of planting is often of greater importance than the ob- servance of precise rules. In this case, that method is best which secures a given number of transplanted and vigorously-growing plants at the least cost. The trans- planting devices shown in Figs, 139-141 aid greatly in accomplishing this end. Transplanting. 247 The dibber (Fig. 139) is perhaps, aside from the spade, the most valuable single tool for transplanting. It is used for opening the hole to receive the roots of small plants, such as cabbage, celery, onions, ete., and for pressing earth about the roots; it answers equally well for planting cuttings and root grafts. The manner of using it ap- » pears in (Figs. Wy 143 and 144). Fig. 140 ‘shows a very convenient tool ——— SOLVAY IXT Vic. 1389. Fie. 140. Fic. 141 Fic. 1389. Flat steel dibber (one-sixth natural size). Fic. 140. Tool for planting root grafts and cuttings (much reduced). r 1 in Fic. 141. Richards’ transplanting tools, made fo Pp ant gs by F. Richards, Freeport, N. Y. root grafts and cuttings. It consists of five steel dibbers, attached equi- distant in a line to a piece of scantling, with a handle affixed above. In using this tool, the operator crowds the dibbers into the scil with the foot, guided by a line. He then moves the frame to and fro until the holes are sufficiently opened, when he withdraws the dibbers by lifting the frame, and passes on to repeat the operation. A person follows inserting the grafts or cuttings, and erowding earth about them with the ordinary dibber. Fig. 141 shows a set of transplanting tools, useful in removing a limited number of plants that are not closely crowded and that need to be carried but a short 248 Principles of Plant Culture. distance. They are especially useful for transplanting strawberry plants during summer and autumn. These tools and also the Baldridge trans- planter enable the plant to be read- ily lifted with.a cylinder of earth Fic. 142. Bemis Transplanter, made by Madison Plow Co.. - Madison, Wis. and replanted in a hole just large enough to receive the latter. Fig. 142 shows a successful machine for planting to- bacco, cabbage, strawberry and other low, herbaceous plants. It plants these as rapidly as two boys can de- liver them to it in the proper position, and waters the soil about the roots at the same time. 412. Potting and Shifting. Potting is the act of planting plants in greenhouse pots. The pots should be clean and are usually dipped in water before receiving the plants, until they have ab- sorbed as much of the liquid as they will take without leaving any upon the surface. Rooted cuttings are generally potted in pots one and one-half to two inches in diameter, and the plants are changed to larger pots (shifted) as the roots require more room. Pots three inches or more in diameter are commonly filled one- Transplanting. 249 third full or less with pieces of broken pots (potsherds) to insure abundant drainage, and these are often cov- ered with a little sphagnum moss before putting in the soil. The soil used for potting should be of a sort that does not harden, ‘‘bake,’’ on drying, and should gener- ally be liberally supplied with plant food. Decayed sods from an old pasture, leaf mold, decomposed ma- nure, and sand, the whole mixed and sifted through a coarse sieve, form-a good potting soil. The proportions of the differ- Fic. 148. : Fie. 144. Showing manner of using the dibber in planting. Fic. 143. Inserting roots in the hole opened by dibber. Tic. 144. Pressing earth about roots with the dibber. ent ingredients used vary with different plants. The soil should be moderately moist, and should be closely pressed about the roots. The details of potting are shown in Figs. 145 to 148. Shifting is the changing of a plant from one pot to another, usually a larger one. Plants in small pots are generally shifted as often as their roots begin to crowd, 7 250 Principles of Plant Culture. and the shifting is continued as long as further growth is expected. When bloom is desired, the pots are per- mitted to become filled with roots (135). The pots into which plants are to be shifted should be prepared as directed for potting. A little potting soil is placed in the bottom of the pot, or over the drainage material, after which the plant to be shifted is tipped out of its pot, by inverting the latter, placing Fic. 145. Fic. 146. Tic. 145. The workman takes the pot in his left hand, and at the same time a handful of potting soil in the right hand. Trig. 146. He places the soil in the pot, pressing it against one side with the right hand, while he picks up a plant with the left hand. the hand upon the surface of the soil, to support it, and tapping the rim of the pot gently upon the edge of the potting bench. If the soil is in the proper condition, it will readily slip out of the pot intact, after which it should be placed in the center of the new pot and the space about it filled with potting soil moderately pressed down. The roots Transplanting. 251 of woody plants should not be covered deeper than they grew before the shifting. (See Figs. 150, 151 and 152.) D—AFTER-CARE OF TRANSPLANTED STOCK. 413. Mulching the soil about transplanted plants (232) is very important in localities subject to drought. As a rule, it is wise to apply the mulch immediately Fic. 147. Fie. 148. fic. 147. Placing the roots of the plant against the Soil in the wee with the left hand, he takes another handful of soil with the right hand. ; ; Fic. 148. He fills the remaining space in the pot with soil and presses it down with the thumbs, tapping the pot gently upon the bench in the meantime. after transplanting, but with trees transplanted very early in spring, it is better to defer mulching until the soil becomes sufficiently warm to promote root absorp- tion (101). 252 Principles of Plant Culture. Watering recently-transplanted plants requires dis- cretion. As a rule, mulching is preferable to watering, but if mulching proves insufficient, watering is the last resort. In this case, the soil about the roots should be saturated with water and should not -be permitted to become dry again until growth starts. A hole may be made in the soil about the roots and kept filled with water until the liquid ceases to soak away rapidly, after n which it should be occasionally filled until growth commences. 414. Shading plants transplanted in leaf, until the roots resume activity, is \ important: (235). Evergreen trees and \y } shrubs may often be shaded with bar- rels or boxes, or with boughs from other evergreen trees. 415. Tardy Starting into Growth after transplanting is usually evidence that the roots are not supplying suf- ficient water. In such cases, if other precautions have been observed, it is well to further reduce the top. Plants .in this condition may sometimes be " saved by wrapping the stem in oiled or rubber cloth to check loss of moisture, Fic. 149. De- or with straw or moss which may be vice for starting 3 growth in trees. wet frequently till growth starts. The device shown in Fig. 149 often causes recently planted trees to start growth that seem likely to fail without it. It consists of a flask or bottle containing distilled or rain water, supported a few feet above the Pruning. 253 ground and connected by a rubber tube with the cut-off end of a root, as shown. If the inverted flask is used, a short tube B B should extend through the cork and to near the bottom of the flask, to admit air. ae ‘ Tice. 150. Fie. 151. Fie. 152. Fic. 150. the cylinder in the position shown (Fig. Vic. 173. Device 173). The height to which the water for weighing and rises is then noted, after which the seeds determining cae are dropped into the test tube, and the top of the cylinder is jarred slightly by tapping it with a pencil. The height of the water is again noted, when the difference in the readings indi- cates the weight of the seeds in grammes. The test tube should float in the center of the cylin- der, as shown, and the readings should be taken with the eye on a level with the surface of the water. Each student (or pair of students) is provided with the apparatus shown in Fig. 173, and with two bottles alppendix—Syllabus of Laboratory Work. 283 of at least 100 cc. capacity, with corks. Each bottle should have a strip of white paper pasted vertically a it to receive the name of the student and other ata. Each student weighs or measures the volume of 50 fresh seeds of the bean, pea or Indian corn in the man- ner described above. Having noted the weight or vol- ume in his note book, he pours the seeds, with the water, into one of his bottles, corks the latter and writes his name, with the date, on the paper pasted on its side. He then repeats the process with seeds of the honey locust, yellow wood or some other seed that does not readily absorb cool water, and after recording the data in his notebook, places the bottles in a warm place until the following day, when he again determines the weight or volume of the two kinds of seeds. The seeds placed in the first bottle will usually be found to have nearly or quite doubled in size, while those in the second bottle have searcely swollen at all. Next, show the class a sample of the second lot of seeds that have fully swollen from soaking in hot water. Impress upon their minds the fact that while most seeds readily absorb moisture at ordinary temperatures, a few kinds do not, and seeds of the latter class need to be soaked cautiously, before planting, in hot water (27 d). The rate at which seeds absorb water depends a—Upon the water content of the medium (27). Weigh 3 samples of navy beans. Place one sample in water, a second in very damp earth and the third in slightly damp earth. Weigh again the next day and compute the water absorbed by the three lots. b—Upon the point of contact. Weigh 2 samples of navy beans, placing one sample in moist soil without compacting, and the second in the same kind of soil well compacted about the seeds. Determine the water ab- sorbed by the two samples the next day. e—Upon temperature. Repeat the above with 2 sam- ples of navy beans, placing one lot in a temperature of 80° to 90° F., and the other in 40° to 50° F. 284 Principles of Plant Culture. Other means of using the apparatus shown in Fig. 173 will oceur to the thoughtful teacher. It may be used for determining specific gravities by dividing the weight by the volume. Germination (28). Give an exercise in testing seeds with the apparatus shown in Fig. 6. Moisture essential to germination (29). Soak one lot of navy beans in water until they are fully swollen and another lot until they are about half swollen. Wipe the beans as dry as possible, put each lot into a bottle, cork the bottles, and set them in a warm room. The fully- swollen beans will usually germinate promptly, while the others will not. Oxygen essential to germination (381). Perform the saucer experiment as described. Also place seeds of rice in two bottles, and add to each, water that has been boiled 20 minutes; cover the water in one bottle with a little olive cr cotton-seed oil. It is important to soak the seeds a short time in boiled water before putting them into the bottles to remove the air in contact with their seed-cases. C's«mination hastened by soaking seeds (35). Soak t..ds of Indian corn two or three hours in warm water, aud let each student place in a seed tester a sample of the soaked seeds, with one or two other seeds of the same kind that have not been soaked. Germination hastened by mutilating the seed-case (86). This may be illustrated with seeds of the navy bean, in the seed-tester. The plantlet (40). Place seeds of radish, onions, etc., loosely on the surface of a saucer filled with fine moist loam; keep the surface moist and note the repeated at- tempts of the hypocotyl to enter the soil. Seeds of the pumpkin family should be planted flat- wise (42). Plant seeds of the pumpkin or squash, in the three positions indicated, in large greenhouse sau- cers. Cover each saucer with a pane of glass and place all in a warm room until the plantlets appear, after which note the number of each lot of seeds of which the seed-case appears above the surface. Appendix—Syllabus of Laboratory Work. 285 Development of plantlets (44-46). Devote several ex- ercises to a study of the development of plantlets of the bean, pea, wheat, Indian corn, pumpkin, etc. To furnish the plantlets, seeds of the different sorts should be planted on several successive days, beginning at least 10 days in advance. Not all seeds should be deeply planted (47). Plant seeds of the bean, pea, Indian corn and wheat in 6-inch flower pots, at three different depths, viz., Yt inch, 3 inches and 6 inches from the bottom; place the pots in a warm place for 3 weeks, after which carefully re. move the soil, noting the germination of the seeds in the different layers. Vigor of plantlet proportionate to size of seed (48). Plant large and small specimens of navy beans by them- selves, in greenhouse saucers, and permit them to ger- minate. The smaller seeds usually germinate earlier than the larger, but they produce more slender plant- lets, which soon fall behind the others in development. Plantlet visible in the seed. (53). Boil samples of various kinds of seeds until they are fully swollen, after which require the students to dissect them and to seek out the plantlets. Lenses, needles and forceps are very useful in this work. The cotyledons a storehouse for food (59). Remove the cotyledons of some bean plantlets growing in a flower pot or saucer, leaving those of other plantlets intact. After a week note the result in the checked growth of the mutilated plants. Vascular bundles (67). Study these as shown in the stalk of Indian corn, in the leaf stems of various plants and in the leaf-scars on the stems of plants. Cambium layers (68). Locate this in sections of various dicotyledonous stems, including the potato tu- ber; also note the absence of the cambium layer in monocotyledonous stems. Root-hairs (100). Study these as illustrated when seeds germinate in the seed tester. Germinated radish- seeds, left in the seed tester two or three days, usually develop root-hairs in great abundance. Also search out 286 Principles of Plant Culture. the root-hairs in potted plants. Emphasize the differ- ence between root hairs and root branches. Effects of transplanting on root branching (104). Study young plants of lettuce, tomato, cabbage, etc., that have been pricked off, and compare their roots with those of others that have not been pricked off. Relation of roots to food supply (111). Plant seeds of the radish in saucers containing clean sand and pot- ting soil respectively, and when the seedlings have at- tained some size, wash out and examine the roots in the two soils. Root tubercles (112). Study the roots of young clover plants of various ages, and note how early in the development of the plant the tubercles are discernible. Underground stems (114). Study the development of the potato plant from growing specimens, noting the points at which the tuber-bearing stems originate, and the marked difference between these and the roots. Nodes and internodes (115). Observe the nodes in the stems of many plants, noting the relation of the ‘diameter of the young stem to the length of the inter- nodes; also note the undeveloped internodes near the terminus of the stem. Buds (127). Study specimens of leaf-buds from many plants, noting their structure, position, ete. Flower-buds (132). Study the form and location of the flower-buds in many plants, particularly in fruit trees. Parts of the flower (140). Study the parts of the flower, explaining the function of each part. Perfect and imperfect flowers (153). Study these as produced by several different plants, particularly of the strawberry. Degree of maturity necessary to germination (162). Test seeds of Indian corn, pea, tomato, ete., that were gathered at varying stages of maturity. Seed vitality limited by age (164). Test seeds of lettuce, parsnip, onion, etc., 1 year, 2 years and 5 years old, respectively. Appendix—Syllabus of Laboratory Work. 287 Stratification of seeds (169). Perform the process, as described, in boxes or large flower pots. Sun-scald (185). Require each student to make a lath tree protector (Fig. 59). Winter protection of plants (201). Protect half- hardy shrubs by wrapping them with straw or covering them with earth. Foretelling frost (206). Devote an exercise to the use of the psychrometer and the computation of the dew point. Plant protectors (278). Require each student to make at least one plant protector, as shown in Fig. 67, patterns for which are to be furnished. Kerosene Emulsion (294). Let each student make a given quantity of the kerosene emulsion after one of the formulae given. Spraying pumps (304). Give at least one exercise to the construction and use of spraying pumps and nozzles. Prevention of grain smuts (325). Require the stu- dents to treat a quantity of oats with formalin as de- scribed. Bordeaux Mixture (329). Require each student to make a stated quantity of the Bordeaux mixture after the formulae given. Propagation by seeds (344). Instruct the students in the use of the hand seed-drill and broadcast sower. Let them ascertain how much clover seed the broadcast machine is sowing per acre, by laying on the ground or floor several sheets of paper, exactly one foot square, painted with glycerine to catch the falling seeds. Hav- ing learned the average number of seeds deposited per square foot with a given rate of motion of the machine, let the students compute the number of seeds sown per acre, and reduce this to ounces. The number of clover seeds in an ounce may be ascertained by dividing an ounce of seed among the students for counting. Propagation by layers (349). Instruct the students in layering canes of the grape, and in mound-layering the stems of the gooseberry. 288 Principles of Plant Culture. The bulb (352). Dissect bulbs of the onion, tulip, lily, ete., ascertaining their structure and finding the embryo flowers. The cold-frame (364). Require the students to make a drawing and write a description of a cold-frame, from a model furnished them. The hotbed (365). Let the students assist in making a hotbed after the plan described. Also let them note the temperature of the soil within the frame on sev- eral successive days after the bed is finished, and give them instruction in ventilating the hotbed. The propagating bed (368). Require the students to make a propagating bed in the greenhouse, after the plan described. Stem cuttings (3873-375). Let the students make cuttings from the stems of the grape, currant, etc., and plant them, both in the propagating bed and in the garden. Root-cuttings (876). Give a lesson in making root- cuttings of the raspberry or blackberry, in packing the same for winter storage, and in planting them in the propagating bed and in the garden. Green cuttings (380-381). Give a lesson in making and planting cuttings of coleus, geranium, rose, ete., followed by instructions in the care of green cuttings in the propagating bed. : Leaf cuttings (882). Give a lesson in making and planting leaf cuttings of the begonia. Grafting wax, etc. (387-389). Give a lesson in mak- ing grafting wax, grafting cord and grafting paper, as described. Whip-grafting (390-391). Give ‘several lessons in whip-grafting including grafting both of the stem and of the root. Cleft grafting (392). Give one or two lessons in cleft grafting. Side grafting (393). Give a lesson in side grafting, as described. Budding (394). Give one or more lessons in bud- ding, as described. The bark on the stocks may be Appendiz—Syllabus of Laboratory Work. 289 made to peel by boiling, and trimmed bud sticks may be preserved for winter use, in dilute alcohol. Approach grafting (399). Give one exercise in ap- proach grafting, as described. Packing plants for transportation (405). Devote one exercise to packing strawberry, cabbage or some other herbaceous plants, as described. Heeling-in, Replanting (408-410). Give one or more lessons in heeling-in and planting trees, as described; also at least one lesson in planting root grafts, cuttings and herbaceous plants as shown in Figs. 143-144; and a lesson in planting strawberry plants. Potting and shifting (412). Give two or more les- sons in potting and shifting as shown in Figs. 145-148. Pruning (427 ete.). Give one or more lessons in pruning by the methods described. Cross pollination (441). Give one or more lessons in cross pollination, as described. The Numbers refer to Pages. Accumulation of reserve how to promote, 93. Acid phosphate, 157. Active state of protoplasm, 15. Adventitious buds, 87. Aeration of soil drainage, 70. Air-dry defined, 15. Air, roots require, 66, 67. Ammoniacal solution’ of copper carbonate, 185. Ammonium sulfate, 156. Animal parasites, 160. Animals, domestic, defined, 11. Annular budding, 233. Anther, : ‘Apparatus for applying icides, 172. Appendix, 282. Apple, blight of, 181, 267; mag- got, 178; scab, Approach grafting, 235. Army worm, 172. Arsenate of lead, 164. Arsenic compounds, deadly eons 165. Arsenic, white, 164. Arsenite of copper, 164; 158. Art and science defined, 9; how best learned, 10. Assimilation defined, 43. food, promoted by insect- 164; are of lime, Baldridge transplanter, 248. Books recommended for collateral reading, 117, 189, 270, 281. Bark bursting, 5. -Bark, epidermis replaced by, 49. Bemis Transplanter, 248. Birds, damage from, 160, 161. Black-heart, 124. Black knot of plum, 181, 267. Black rot of grape, 185. Blanching of vegetables, 149. wee of apple and pear, 181, 267. Bloom defined, 49. Board screen for shading young plants, Bordeaux mixture, 184; diseases prevented by, 185. Borers in trunks of trees,. 163, 176. Branches, development of, from lateral leaf-buds, 87; of trees, to prevent splitting down in pruning, 263. Branching stimulated by pinch- ing, 82. Branching of affecting, 74; 75 Breeding defined, 17. Brittleness of plant tissues, 60. enor rape of hemp and tobacco, Brush screen for shading plants, 6 Bud, 220, 231. Budding, 222, 232; annular, 232; ring, 282; shield, 232; success is dependent on, 232; T, 232. Budding knife, 234. Buds, 86; adventitious, 87. Buhach, 166. Bulb, 198. Bulbels, 199. Bulblets, 199. Bundling trees for transportation, 1. roots, conditions how stimulated, Cabbage caterpillar, 166; maggot, 175; club-root of, 183. eas part played by in plant, Callus, how formed, 56. Calyx, 96 Cambium layer, 53; from differ- ent plants may unite, 54. Carbon, proportion of in vege- table material, 44; sources of, in plants, 48. Caulicle, 33. Cauliflower heads to be shaded from sunlight, 146. eee destroying insects by, 163. Cell, division, 15. Cells, guard, 50; palisade, 49; some properties of, 14. Cellular structure of living be- ings, 13. Chili saltpeter, 156. Chinch bug, 171. Chlorid of potash, 157. Chlorophyll defined, 41; forms only in light, 42; iron essen- (291) 292 Chlorophyl— tial to formation of, 45; food formed without, 42. Chlorophyll bodies, 42. Cion, 220, 222. Cion grafting, 222. Classification defined, trated, 19. Cleft grafting, 227. Close pollination, 102. Clouds tend to avert frost, 134. Clover, dodder of, 180; tubercles on roots of, 79. Club-root of cabbage, 183. Codling moth, 177. Cold air drainage, 134. : Cold, excessive, how affecting the plant, 121. Cold-frame, 204. Composite flowers, 98. Conditions affecting power plants to endure cold, 122. Cooling the plant, immediate ef- fect of, 121. Copper carbonate, ammoniacal so- lution of, 185. Corm, 199. Corn. detasseling, 264; smut, 181. Corolla, 96. Cotyledons defined, 35. Covering of seeds in planting, why important, 33. Cracks in fruits and vegetables due to excessive moisture, 140. Crop, affected by age of seed, 110; a growing, tends to conserve fertility, 159; removal of, tends to reduce plant food in the soll, 153; rotation of, economizes plant food, 158. Crops, trees detrimental to neigh- boring, 59. Cee Seedlings, selection of, 79. no 18; illus- of Crosses, after care of, 279; and hybrids defined, 20; variability of, 21. Cross fecundation, plished, 277. Crossing, selection of subjects for, aes variation produced by, Crossings, planting with reference to chance, 280. Cross-pollination, 102; advantage of, to plants, 102. Cucumber beetle, 162; screen- covered frame for hills of, 162. Cucurbitae, provision in, to aid plantlet to emerge from seed- ease, 33, 34. Cultivation tends to drought, 143. how accom- prevent | Index. Culture, aim of, 11; deals with life, 12; defined, 10; plants have improved under, 271; variation produced hy, 274. Cureulio, 177. Currant worm, 166. Current, evaporation, 60; of pre- pared food, 62. i Cuticle defined, 49. Cutting defined, 201; essential characters of a, 202. Cuttings, ccnditions favoring growth of, 202; from active plants, 215; from dormant plants, 210; from dormant stems, 212; of woody plants, preferably made in autumn, 115; parts of plants to be used for, 201; planting in autumn, 212; storage of, 211; tool for planting, 247. Cuttings, green, 215; especial care necessary in propagating plants from, 216; how made from herbaceous plants, 218; how made from woody plants, 218; to be potted as svon as roots are formed, 217. Sager, leaf, propagation by, 19. Cuttings, mallet, 213. Guetiaes, root, propagation by, Cuttings, stem, 212; to make and plant, 213. Cutworms, 162. Dalmatian insect powder, 166. Damage from cold prevented by protecting with non-conduct- ing material, 128. Damping off, 217. Darkening of wood, 124. Deflowering defined, 254. Defruiting defined, 254. Density, pruning for, 260. Depth of roots in soil, 75. Destruction of terminal buds by cold, 124. De-tasseling, 254, 264. Devices for transplanting, 246. Dew point, how to compute the, 132, table for computing, 133. Dibber, 247. Dicotyledons defined, 36. Diffusion, law of, 47. Dioecious flowers, 102. Adie defined, 254; trees, Disease defined, 13. Distal defined, 80. Dodder of clover and flax, 180. Index. Domestic fined, Dormant state of protoplasm, 15. Drainage promotes soil aeration, i required by potted plants, plants and animals de- Dressing defined, 254. Drought _causes toughness of plant tissue, 148; cultivation a preventive of, 143; mulching a preventive of, 144; tends to hasten maturity, 142. Drying kills plant tissues, 144. Duration of germinating power, 108; of seed vitality, condi- tions affecting, 109. Electric light, use of, in glass houses, 149. Elements essential in plant food, ae part played by different, Emasculation of flowers, 277. Embryo defined, 40. Endosperm defined, 40. Environment defined, 10; factors of, 118. Epidermis defined, 48; replaced by bark in older stems, 49. Evaporation current, 60. Evergreen trees destroyed by un- Hniely warm weather in spring, Evolution, theory of, 21. Factors of environment, 118. Families, how formed, 18. Farm manure, 158. Fecundation, 100; cross, how ac- complished, 277. Feebleness defined, 12. aoe how grown from spores, Fertilization, 100. a aed requirements of crops, Filament, 97. Fir tree oil, 171. Fibro-vascular bundles, 51. Fixing desirable variations, 272. Piax, dodder of, 180. Flea beetles, 168. Flower, 95; certain parts of, often wanting, 98; parts of the, 95; parts of, vary in form in different species, 98. Flower-buds, 88; conditions af- fecting formation of, 91; de- stroyed by cold, 126; how dis- tinguished from leaf-buds, 88; ringing often causes formation of, 94, 266. Flowering and fruiting, pruning to promote, 265, root 293 Flowering, glumes, 100. ae came pinching to promote, Flowers, composite, 98; especially sensitive to cold, 127; of the grass family, 99; tend to ex- haust the plant, 95. Flowers and _ fruit, growth, current to 266; pruning for, 264. Flow of sap in spring, 61. Food, current of prepared, 62; elements of, most likely to be deficient in the soil, 45; insuffi- cient dwarfs the plant, 153; materials of, how distributed through plant, 47; reserve, 15; storage of reserve, 64; use of reserve, 64. . Food preparation the function of leaves, 82. Food supply, relation of roots to, 78; unfavorable, effect of, on plant, 151. Formaldehyd, 182. Formalin treatment smut, 182. Formative pruning, 257. Formula for Bordeaux mixture, 184. Formulae for kerosene emulsion, 168; for resin washes, 168. Freezing of plants favored by much water in plant tissue, 122. Freezing, severe, may split open tree trunks, 125. Frost, conditions that tend to avert, 184; how foretold, 181; plants injured by, how saved trom serious damage, 124; lia- bility to, depending compara- tively little upon latitude, 135; localities most subject to, 185; methods of preventing injury by, 186. Frozen tissues, treatment of, 124. Fruit, 104; or flowers, pruning for, 264; thiuning of, 105, 264. Fruitfulness promoted by re- stricting growth current, 63. Fruiting, obstructing growth cur- rent to promote, 266; root pruning to promote, 265. Fruits and vegetables, cracks in, caused by excessive moisture, obstructing promote, for grain 140; rarely develop without fecundation, 104; ripening of, 106. Fungi, 180; endophytic, 182; epi- phytic, 182; methods of con- trolling, 181. 294 Index. Fungicides, 181; various, 183, 186. Fungous diseases, need of con- sulting specialist in, 186. Gathering and storing of seeds, 106. Genera, how formed, 18. Generic name defined, 20. Genus, how formed, 18. oe le power, duration of, 108. Germination defined, 24; depend- ent on stage of maturity of seeds, 106; hastened by com- pacting soil, 28; hastened by mutilating seed case, 30; has- tened by soaking seeds, 29; in water, 27; moisture essential to, 25; not hindered by light, 32; oxygen essential to, 26; promptness in, important, 28; requisites for, 28; retarded by excess of water, 29; seed-case in, 33; temperature at which, takes place, 26; time required for, 32; warmth essential to, 25; when completed, 25. Germinations, earlier, form more vigorous plantlets, 88. Girdling, killing trees by, 63. Glumes, 99. Gooseberry mildew, 185. Gophers, damage from, 161. Gormands on fruit trees, 140. Graft, 220, Grafting, approach, 235, 222; cion, 222; cleft, 227, 225; cord, 225; herbaceous, 229, 235; how possible, 54; objects of, 221; paper, 225; plants uniting by, 221; propagation by, 220; root, 222; side, 229; top, 227; veneer, 230; wax, how made, 223; whip, 225. Grafts, whole root, 227. Gramineae, flowers of, 99. Grape mildew, 183. Grass family, flowers of, 99. Grasshoppers, 172. Greenhouse, 206; heating devi for, 207. strc Growing point defined, 51. Growth by cell division, 15; cutting back new, to promote flowering, 265; decline of, 111: defined, 15% in diameter, of stems, 54; of roots in length, 71; pruning for, 264; retarded by insufficient moisture in soil, 142; tardy starting of, after transplanting, 252; water nee- essary to, 45. Growth current, obstructing, to promote flowering and fruiting, 266; restriction of, promotes fruitfulness, 63. Guard cells, 50, 51. Hardiness defined, 18; dependent on degree of dormancy, 114. Healing of wounds, 56. Health defined, 13. Heat, excessive, how affecting plants, 118. Hedge shears, 268. Heeling-in plants, 242. Hellebore powder, 166, 167. Hemp, broom rape of, 180. Herbaceous grafting, 229, 235. Herbaceous stems defined, 53. Heredity and variation, 16. Hermaphrodite flowers, 102. Hoarfrost, cause of, 130. Horizontal extent of roots, 76. Tost (of parasites) defined, 21. Hotbed, the, 205. Hotbeds require care in ventila- tion, 70. : Hot water, for destroying in- sects, 171. Humidity, methods of controlling, O09. Hybrids and crosses defined, 20. Tiydrocyanic acid gas, 169. Hydrogen, source of, in plants, 44. Hyphae, 181. THypocotyl, defined, 32; develops differently in different species. 36; roots start from, 35; seeds in which it lengthens must be planted shallow, 36. Ice often destroys low plants, 127. Immature vs. ripe seeds, 107. Imperfect flowers, 103 Implements, for pruning, 268; for transplanting, 246, 247, 248. Improvement possible through plant variability, 272. Individuals defined, 18. Injury by cold, methods of avert- ing, 127. Insecticides, 163; apparatus for applying, 172; use of, 174. Insects, beneficial, 162; bur- rowing, 175; destroying by poisons or caustics, 163; eat- ing-insects, 174: hand-picking, 163; injurious, life history of, 179; leaf-eating, 175; ravages, method of preventing, 162; re- pelling, by means of offensive Index. inecis = odors, 163; root-eating, 175, 176; sucking, 174, 178° - Insects, trapping, 162. Internodes, defined, 80; stem lengthens by elongation of, 81; ultimate length of, 81. Iron essential to formation of chlorophyll, 45. Irrigation, 144. Kainit, 157. Kerosene, applied with water, 168; as an insecticide, 168; emulsion, 168. Killing trees by girdling, 63. Knapsack pump, 173. Knife, budding, 234; 224; pruning, 268. Knowledge, application of, essen- tial to success, 9. grafting, 4 mee screen for shading plants, Leaf-buds, 88; comparative vigor of, * “ cuttings, propagation by, 21 ne development, importance of, Leaf fall, time of, an index of wood maturity, 113. Leaf-eating’ insects, 175. Leaf miners, 176, 177. Leaves, 82; are usually snort- lived, 85; comparative size of, 84; function of, 82; manurial value of, 85. Leguminous plants enrich the soil with nitrogen, 79, 156. Lenticels, 51. Lever shears, 269. Life, culture deals with, 12. Life, what is it? 12. Lifting large trees, 239. Lifting the plant, directions for, 24 240. Light does not hinder germina- tion, 32. : Light, unfavorable, how affecting the plant, 145. Lime sulphur wash, 168, 186. Living beings, cellular structure of, 13. Localities most subject to un- timely frosts, 135. Locusts, 172. London purple, 165. Low plants often destroyed by ice, 127. Magnesium. part played by, in plant, 45. Mallet cuttings, 213. 295 Manure increases water-holding capacity of soil, 45. Manurial value of leaves, 85. Maturative pruning, 267. Maturity of plants, influence of drought on, 142. Maximum defined, 25. Mealy bug, 171. Melons, screen-covered frame for protecting hills of, 162. Mice, damage from, 160. Minimum defined, 25. Moisture, an enemy to stored seeds, 109; essential to germi- nation, 25; excessive, causing cracks in fruits and vegetables, 140; excites root growth, 66; excessive, in air, injurious to plants, 141; insufficient, in air, causing excessive transpiration, 142; insufficient, in soil retards growth, 142. Monocotyledons defined, 36. Monoecious flowers, 102. Mound-layering, 196. Mulching, tends to prevent drought, 144; transplanted stock, 251. Muriate of potash, 157. scientific. why used, 19. Names, sources of, Nitrates in the soil, 154. Nitrification, 154, 155. Nitrogen, 154, 155; ‘in proto- plasm, 45; in rain and snow, 155; sources of, in plant, 45; stimulates growth, 152. Nodes defined, 80. Northerly exposure least trying to plants in winter, 129. Notching, 254, 266. Nozzles. spray, Vermorcl, 174. Nursery trees benefited by trans- planting, 76. Oats, treatment of seed for pre- vention of smut, 182. Objects of grafting, 221; of prun- ing, A Oedema in plants, caused by ex- cessive watering, 139. Onion mildew, 183. Optimum defined, 25. Orange rust, 181. Organic manures, partially de- composed, act more promptly than fresh ones, 155. Organic matter, importance of, in soil, 69. Osmosis defined, 61. Ovary, 97. Overbearing should be prevented, 105. 296 Ovule, 97. Oxygen, essential to germination, 26; necessary to life of roots, 66; source of, in plants, 44. Oyster-shell bark-louse, 168. Packing plants for transporta- tion, 0. Pales, 100. Palets, 100. Palisade cells, 49. Parasites, animal, 160; defined, 21; flowering or phanerogamic, 179; fungous, 180; injurious, 159; vegetable, 179. Parenchyma, 51. Paris green, 164. Pear, blight of, 181, 267. Peeling the stems of trees, 57, Perfect flowers, 102. Persian insect powder, 166. Petals, 96. Phosphorous, 157; by, in plants, 45. Picturesqueness, pruning for, 259. Pinching defined, 253; stimulates branching, 82; to promote flowering, 264. Pistil, 97. Pith, 52. Plant food, elements in, 44; ele- ments of, likely to be deficient, 45; from soil must be dissolved by soil water, 44; in soil, re- part played duced by crop growing, 153; sources of, 43. Plant improvement, how ex- plained, 271. Planting, too close, causes defi- cient light, 148; trees, direc- tions for, 243, 246; with ref- erence to chance crossings, 280; with reference to polli- nation, 103. Plantlet, inner structure of, 48; may need help to burst seed- case, 34; principal parts of, 41; vigor of, proportionate to size of seed, 88; visible in seed, 40. Plant life, round of, 22, 116. Plant manipulation, 190; propa- gation, 190. Plant, directions for lifting the, 238; removing the, 0 Plant tissues, brittleness of, 60; killed by drying, 144; tough- ness of, caused by drought, 148. Plants, abnormal development of, due to insufficient light, 147; affected by unfavorable envi- ronment, 118; difference in water requirements of, 139; Index. Plants— distance apart for growing, 83; domestic, defined, 11; have im- proved under culture, 271; heeling-in, 242; injured by ex- cessive water, 139; affected by parasites, 159; only can pre- pare food from mineral sub- stances, 48; packing for trans- portation, 240; potted, require drainage, 70; potting and shift- ing, 248; power of, to endure cold, 122; preparation of, for replanting, 243; rapid-growing, require much water, 138; shad- ing after transplanting, 146; those who improve, are true benefactors, 280. Plants under glass liable to suffer from deficient light, 148; need of rest of, 118; not to be sprinkled in bright sunshine, 119; plants, unpacking, 242; variability of, 272; washing the roots of puddled, 2438; watering of potted, 70, 138; watering the roots of recently transplanted, 251; screens for shading, 145, 146. Plum, black knot of, 181, 267. T'‘lum, curculio, 177, 178. Plumule, 41. Poisons, destroying insects by, 163. Pollen, 97; appearance of mature, BUT 4 applying, 278; to prevent access of undesired, 277. Pole shears, 269. Pollination, 101; in many plants dependent on wind, 151; plant- ing with reference to, 1038; to prevent self, 277; when should it be performed, 278. Potash, caustic, 168. Potassium, 157; assists in food ere en: 45; -sulfid solu- tion, 185. Potato beetle, 163, 165; blight of, 185; foliage of, injured by sun heat, 121. Potato plant, illustrated, 79. Potatoes, knobby, 141, Potted plants require drainage, 70; watering of, 70, 188, 189. Potting and shifting, 248; soil, Powdery mildews, 186. Preparation of plants for replant- ing, 243. Prepared food, current of, 62. Pricking off seedlings, 76. Principle of selection, 17, 271. Propagating bed, the, 208. Index. Propagation by cuttings, 201; by detached parts, 197; by divi- sion, 182, 193: by division of the crown, 197; by grafting, 220; by layers, 196: by parts intact, 198; by sections of the plant, 200; by seeds, 191; by specialized buds, 197; by sto- lons, 195; by suckers, 194; methods of, 191. Prosenchyma, 51. Protective pruning, 267. Protoplasm, active state of, 15: dormant state of, 15; some properties of, 15. Provimal defined, 80. Pruning defined, 253; for density, °60; for flowers or fruit, 264; for growth, 264: for nictur- esoueness, 259: for slenderness, 259: for stockiness, 259; for strength, 261; for symmetry. 257: formative, ?57: imple- ments, 268: insufficient, pre- vents formation of fruit buds, 149; knife, 268: maturative 267; obiects of, 257; protec- tive, 9687: saw. 268: season for, 255: shears, 268: stimu- lative, 263: where and how to make the cut in. 255. Psychrometer, sling, 131. Puddled plants, washing roots of, Puddled soil defined, 26; prevents germination, 27. Puddling the roots of trees, 241. Pumnrkin. nrovision in, to aid plantlet to emerge from seed- ease, 34, 35. Pyrethrum powder, 166. Rabbits, damage from, 161. Radicle, 33. Raspberry pruning hook, 269. Rate of root growth, 78. Reduced vigor, tendencies of, 13. Reducing the tops of trees prior to planting, 243. Removing the plant, 240. Reproduction defined, 16; rela- tion to growth, 16; sexual and non-sexual, 16. Reserve food, 15; how plants use, 64; how to promote accumula- tion of. 91; storage of, 64. Resin washes, 169. Rest period, 111; not peculiar to temperate zones, 112; plant processes may not. entirely cease during, 115. Reversion, 272. 297 eo al transplanting tools, 247. Ring-budding, 232, 285. Ringing, defined, 254; often causes formation of flower- buds, 94. Ripening of fruits, 106. Root, and the soil, 65; office of, 65; originates in stem, 65; starvation, 63. Root branching, ing, 74. Root branching, how stimulated, 75; should be encouraged, Root cap, 71. conditions affect- Root grafts, tools for planting, 247. Root growth, excited by moisture, 66; rate of, 78. Root-hairs absorb water with con- siderable force, 73; apply them- selves to soil particles, 72, 70; dissolve soil particles, 72; na- ture of, 49, 71; show need of roots for air, 67. Root killing of trees, 126. Root pruning to promote flower- ing and fruiting, 265; stimu- lates root branching, 75, 76. Root tubercles, 79. Roots, depth of, in soil, 77; de- stroyed by excessive water in soil, 137; growth of in length, 71; horizontal extent of, 76; of trees, puddling, 241; only youngest active in absorption, 74; oxygen necessary to life of, 66; properly and improperly planted, 244; relation of, to food supply, 78; replanting the, 243; start from hypocotyl, 35; trimming of, prior to planting, 2°43; washing, of puddled plants, 243; wetting, prior to planting, 244. : Root-tip, how penetrates the soil, 70 Root-tips, formation of should be encouraged, 74. Rotation of crops, 158. Rose beetle, 163. Rosin washes, 168. Round of plant life, the, 22, 116. Rust of blackberry, 181. Sacking the roots of trees, 240. Saltpeter, 157. Sap defined, 46. Sap, flow of in spring, 61. Sap-sprouts on fruit trees, 140. Saw, pruning, 269. 298 Science and art defined, 9; how best learned, 10. Scientific names, why used, 20. Scion, 221. Rereens for shading plants, 145, Season for pruning, 255. Seed, 104; age of, as affecting the resulting crop, 110; ma- juring of, injures fodder crops, 105; plantlet visible in, 40; production of, exhausts plants, 104; selection, importance of, 274; vigor of plantlet propor- tionate to size of, 38; vitality, oo affecting duration of, Sced-case defined, 23; influence of on absorption of water by seeds, 28; in germination, 33; is useless after germination commences, 33; plantlet may need help to burst, 34. Seeding, prevention of, prolongs the life of plants, 105. Seed-leaves defined, 36. Seedlings, pricking off young, 76; selection of crossed, 279; varia- tion produced by growing, 275; young, injured by unobstructed rays of sun, 145. Seeds absorb water by contact, 22: a few germinate in water, 27; drying of, how affecting their vitality, 110; earlier ger- minating, form more vigorous plantlets, 38; gathering and storing of, 106; germination . hastened by mutilating seed- ease, 30: how deep should they be planted? 38, 192; immature vs. ripe, 107; in which hypo- cotyl lengthens, must be planted shallow, 86; of pumpkin fam- ily should be planted flatwise, 84; rate at which they absorb water, 22; should be tested be- fore planting, 31; should not be planted until soil becomes warm, 29; stored, moisture an enemy to, 109; stratification of, 111; very small, should not be covered, 89, 192; vitality of, limited by age, 108; why cover, at planting, 33; why they fail to germinate, 30; testing, direc- tions for, 81; tester described, Selection a means of fixing varia- tions, 273 ; of crossed seedlings, 279; of seed, importance of, 274: of subjects for crossing, 276: principle of, 17, 271. Index. Self pollination, 102. Sepal, Sexual reproduction, 16. anaes, aoe after transplant- hedge, 270; lever, 270; pole, 269; pruning, 269. ee screen for shading plants, Shield budding, 232. Shifting plants, 249. Side grafting, 229. ‘Sifting box for applying insecti- cide powders, 172. Slenderness. pruning for, 259. Slips, 215. Slugs, 162. Smut of the small grains, 182; of corn, 181; of onion, 182. Snails, 162. Sodinm nitrate, 156. Soil, and the root, 65; of constant changes, 68; com- pacting, about seeds hastens germination, 28; compacting wet, may prevent germination, 27; depth of roots in, 77; how penetrated by root-tip, 70; ideal, for Jand plants, 68; im- portance of organic matter in, 69: needs ventilation, 69; par- ticles of dissolved by root-hairs, 72: for potting, 249; puddled, defined, 26; puddled, prevents germination, 27. Soil aeration promoted by drain- age, 70; promotes soil fertility, 155. é Species, 18. Specific names defined, 20. Spikelet, 99. Splice grafting, 225. a scene Splitting down, to prevent branches from, 263. Spore germination favored by moisture, 186; prevention of, 182 Spores defined, 39; non-sexual, 16; of ferns, how planted, 39. Spraying outfit, steam, 174. Spray pump, 173. Sprinkling of plants under glass to be avoided in bright sun- shine, 119. Squash, provision in, to aid plant- let to emerge from seed-case, 34; bug, 174; vine borer, 163. Stable manure, 158. Staking trees to prevent shaking by the wind, 246. Stamens, 97. Index. Starvation of roots, 63. Stem and root development de- pendent on number of leaves, Stem defined, 79. Stem, fastest elongation of, 82; how lengthens, 81; root origi- nates in, 65; vital part of woody, 55. Stem cuttings, 212; how plant- ed, 213; proper length of, 213. Stems, how they increase in diam- eter, 54; underground, 80. Stigma, 97. Stimulative pruning, 263. Stocks for grafting, 226. Stockiness, pruning for, 259. Stoma defined, 50. Stomata defined, 50. Storage of cuttings, serve food, 64. Stratification of seeds, 111. Strawberry, perfect and imper- fect flowers of, 103. Strength, pruning for, 261. Striped cucumber beetle, 162. Subjects for crossing, selection of, 276. Style, 97. Suckering defined, 254. Sulfate of potash, 157. Sulfur, part played by in plants, 45 211; of re- Sun heat injurious to young seed- lings, Sun-seald, 120. Superphosphate, 157. Symbiosis, ‘154. Table for computing dew point, 133: showing duration of seed vitality, 108; showing germi- nating temperatures of seeds, 26. Tarred-paper cards, tool for cut- ting, 176. T-Budding, 232. . Temperature as affecting plant growth, 118; fatal to proto- plasm, 119; influence of on ab- sorption of water by seeds, 23; methods of controlling, 203. Tenderness defined, 13. Terminal buds, pinching of, ef- fect on wood maturity, 128; destruction of, by cold, 124. Theory of evolution, 21. Thermal belts, 135. Thinning fruit, 105, 264. Time, most favorable for trans- planting, 237. Tobacco, broom rape of, 179; de- coction of, for destroying aph- 299 Tobacco— ide, 167; smoke for destroying insects, 167; fluid extract of, 167; topping, 254, 264; worm, 163; frenching, 139. Tomato worm, 1638. Tongue grafting, 225. Tool for injecting poisonous quids, 175; for cutting eards, 175. Top grafting. 226. a defined, 254; tobacco, li- paper Transpiration, amount of. 59; conditions affecting, 58: cur- rent, 60; defined, 58; excessive, 59; excessive, caused by insuffi- cient moisture in the air, 142; a aaa with degree of heat, 118. Transplanted plants, 252: watering, 251. Transplanted stock, tardy start- ing of, 252. Transplanter, Bemis, 248. Transplanting. 236; benefits nur- sery trees, 76; endured best by vigorous plants, 237: most fa- vorable time for, 237; stimu- lates root branching, 75; de- vices for, 246. Eegnepeausing tools, Richards’, shading, Baldridge. 248; Trapping insects, 162. Tree trunks split open by severe freezing, 125. c Trees, bundling for transporta- tion, 240; detrimental to neich- boring crops, 59; directions for Planting, 244; killing by gird- ling, 63; lifted or lowered to accommodate grading, 239; lift- ing large, 238; nursery, bene- fited by transplanting, 76; puddling roots of, 241: reduc- ing top of, prior to planting, 243; sacking roots of, 242; staking, to prevent shaking by wind, 246. Trimming defined, 254; prior to planting, 243. Tuber, the, 199. Tubercles on roots, 78. Turn of the year, 115. roots Underground stems, 80. Unhealed wounds introduce de- cay, 256. Unisexual flowers, 102. Unpacking plants, 242. Variability of offspring of cross- es and hybrids, 20; of plants, aie 300 Variation, and heredity, 16; how can we produce, 274; may take place in any direction, 17; pro- duced by crossing, 275; pro- duced by culture, 274; pro- duced by growing seedlings, 275. Variations, how to fix desirable, 272; not always permanent, 212) Varieties, 18; origin of culti- vated, 271 Vascular bundles defined, 51. Vegetables, cracks in caused by excessive moisture, 140. Ventilation, hotbeds require care in, 70: soil needs, 69. Veneer’ grafting, 230. Vermorel nozzle, 174. Vigor defined, 12; of plantlet pro- portionate to size of seed, 38; tendencies of reduced, 13. Vital part of woody stems, 55. Warmth essential to germination, Washing the plants, 248. Water, adequate supply of most importance, 45; excess of, re- tards germination, 29; exces- sive in soil destroys roots, 137; force causing to rise in stems, 62; insufficient, how affecting plants, 142; manuring increas- es capacity of soil for, 45: of plants almost wholly absorbed by root-hairs, 46; only young- est roots absorb, 74; plants contain large amounts of, 57; root-hairs absorb, with force, roots of puddled | Inder. Water— 73; seeds absorb, by contact, Water-sprouts on fruit trees, 140. Water supply, unfavorable, the plant as affected by, 137. Watering, excessive, may produce a dropsical condition, 139; co- pious, at intervals preferable to frequent slight watering, 138: injudicious, 138; of potted plants, 70; recently-transplant- ed plants, 251. Weeds, 187; annual, biennial and perennial, 187: cause deficient light in low-growing crops, 148; how destroyed, 638; plants as affected by, 187. Wet-bulb depression, 133. Whip-grafting, 225. White grubs, 163. White hellebore, 166. Whole-root grafts, 227. Wind breaks, 129. Wind, excessive, effect of, on plants, 150; insufficient, effect on the plant, 150; insufficient, promotes damage from frost, 151; insufficient, promotes de- velopment of fungous parasites, 150; tends to avert frost, 134; unfavorable, how affecting the plant, 150. Wood ashes, 158. Woodchucks, damage from, 161. Wood, darkening of, 124. Wood, maturity of, favored by a dry soil, 127; by pinching ter- minal buds, 128; indicated by leaf fall, 113. Wounds, healing of, 56; unhealed, introduce decay, 256 iwtinten pied pe