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[Partly reprinted from the QUARTERLY JoUBNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE IN INDIA]. 


A MANUAL 


OF THE 


DISEASES OF THE ELEPHANT 


AND OF HIS MANAGEMENT AND USES. 
BY 


JOHN HENRY STEEL, V.S., A.V.D., M.R.C.V.S., 
CO-EDITOR OF THE Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, 
AUTHOR OF Outlines of Equine Anatomy AND 
oF a Manual of Bovine Pathology. 


‘ (ILUUSTRATED.) 


£ Tv, a% NV 
SEMARY SUROS 


MADRAS, 
PRINTED AT THE LAWRENCE ASYLUM PRESS, MOUNT ROAD, 
BY W. H. MOORE, 


1885, 
(All rights reserved.) 


IVS Yet, Cot, £ ihya ay 
Tune s, G29 


MIS “fF BE 


=" 
Aor 
Ee 


Se 


Li9.9 76/8 


TO 


CHARLES STEEL, F.R.c.v.s., 


(INSPECTING VETERINARY SURGEON, BOMBAY ALRMY.) 


THIS LITTLE WORK 


1 
f 


18 


AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 
BY 


HIS SON, 


THE AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


The small amount of knowledge possessed by us con- 
cerning the Diseases of the Elephant is thus far advan- 
tageous that it enables us for the present to deal with 
their cure in language familiar to non-professional read- 
ers and at the same time make our remarks suggestive 
also to those who have been scientifically educated to the 
treatment of diseases of animals in general. 

Few veterinarians pay attention to the branch of their 
science with which we are about to deal and even those 
who do are rarely placed in professional charge of ele- 
phants, facts which react on one another and retard the 
advance of this division of pathology. Such observations 
as have been made are mostly due to Transport and other 
Military and Civil Officers in whose way chance has 
thrown the charge of elephants among multifarious duties 
of a very different nature. 

It is extremely creditable to such officers as Drs. Gil- 
christ and Slymm and Lieut. Ouchterlony that, under such 
discouraging circumstances, they have done so much as 
they have “‘on the spur of the moment” as it were. 

Although we know very little about elephant diseases 
and still less about the action of remedies on this huge 
quadruped, the labours of various authors have resulted 
in a considerable amount of information about the man- 
agement of the elephant and his relations to Army Trans- 
port. Qur object is to summarize and digest such mate- 
rial as is to hand and adapt it to the use of Transport and 


Veterinary Officers and to others interested in Elephant 
Management. 


Bancatore, 1885. JOHN HENRY STEEL. 


CONTENTS. 


PART IL. 
Page IX. Ixtropuction: On the Natural History of the Elephaut— 
His uses in present day, especially in the Army, although 
he is getting a little “behind the times” in warfare—Trans- 
port by rail—The opening of railway lines in o country 
renders him less necessary—Sanderson’s method—Regula- 
tion instructions—Wood stacking in Burma—Grass stack. 
ing—Shikar—Uscs in Native States—Varieties: African, 
Indian, Ceylonese, Shan, Burmese, Assamese. Zoological 
classification—Sanderson on the Elephant requirements and 
supplies of India—Nepaul and Malay Elephant—Tuskers— 
Muknas—Guneshas— White Elephants—Siamese views on 
Elephant varieties—Steel’s general review of the Zoological 
Characters of the Elephant—Habits of Wild Elephants as 
bearing on question of management during domestication— 
Capture—Rogues—Size of herds and proportion of malesto 
females—Determination of sex by foot mark—Size—East 
India Company’s Standard—Native method of measuring— 
The Calf—Size at birth and growth with age—Life in jun- 
gle—Protection from sun—Pace and surefootedness—Habi- 
tat—Short sleep—Natural losses from injuries in jungle— 
Normal limit of life—What becomes of Elephants which die 
naturally—Influences at work tending to limit the number 
of Elephants—Why Elephants are not bred in domestication 
in India—They are in Siam and other places—March from 
place of capture and shipment. : 
On the Elephant as used in Modern ‘Armics.—Supplies, past 
and present—Government Elephant Establishment—Ex- 
amination as to soundness and fitness for Service—Age— 
Determination from size, state of teeth, tail, fect, trunk, &c., 
—Dentition in relation to age—Commissariat regulations 
as to sclection—Deceptions practised by dealers—Food—- 
Ratib—Oil, &—In cases of Musth—Scale of rations—— 
Sanderson’s suggestions as to reform—His arguments 
against the Ratib—Tamarind—Mussals— Salt —Fodder 
(Cherrai)-Components—Johnstone’s dietary—Slymm’s views 
— Sanderson’s — 'Tennent’s — Fresh Grasses — Trees, & 
—Precautions necessary in turning Elephants out to graze 
—Hobbling—Fodder collection—Routine management in the 


vi 


Page 


” 


1. 


CONTENTS. 


Lines—Grooming—Fecding—Slecp—Selection of Camping 
ground — Elephant sheds, construction of, — Chains — 
Watcring—Precautions on the line of march—To overcome 
obstructions—To free from quicksands, &c.—Effects of expo- 
sure to the sun—Elephant attendants—Mahouts, their vices 
—Exercise—Working hours—Equipment—Uses in Artil- 
lery Work—IWarness for Timber work—Rcgulation weights 
for Carriage —Effects of excessive load—Distance which 
the Elephant can travel—Pace—Effects on feet—Necessity 
of dressing sore feet (Chébing)—Prescriptions—Pcculiar 
accident described by Slymm—Crossing rivers, &e.—Space 
occupied on line of march—Although best on the flat 
Elephants have worked excellently in hill Countries—Per- 
sistence in the standing position by the Elephant—Time of 
day for marching—Scrious effects of cold—Gear and Ap- 
pointments—State and Shikar equipment—Commissariat 
regulation scale of Elephant gear—Sanderson’s improved 
equipment—Gilchrist’s suggestions—Loading—Causes of 
Injury—Description of Heavy Field Battery Harness—The 
Kookee—The Art of Elephant Driving—Methods of break- 
ing in to work—Elephants’ vices. 

On the Elephant as an Animal of Transport.—Load—Attend- 
ants—Mobility—Procurability—Cost and facility of food 
supply, especial difficulties at Front on Active Service—Are 
economical in convoy as to guards and spacc—The Elephant 
can work in many ways, but is being superseded for Tran- 
sport in the present day—A mount of care of animal requir- 
ed—P.V.S. Oliphant’s views—The Elephant’s temper and 
habits adapt him for transport work—Summary., 


PART IL. 


Chapter I; Ox tue Diszaszs of THE ELErHant.—General 
considerations—General signs of an Elephant being ill— 
Causes—-Therapeutics—Gilchrist’s good work, | 

Chapter II: On the general discascs of the Elephant.—Non- 
specifie disorders of the blood—Asthenia, Zérbad, Simple 
Fevor, Rheumatism —Spccific disorders of the blood— 
Pleuro-pneumonia Zymotica, Anthrax, Rabics, Foot and 
mouth disease—Variola Elephanti—Statistics of Elephant 
mortality —Elephant poisoning. 

Chapter JII: On the Circulatory System.—Anatomy—Pulse 
—Phlcbotomy— Wounds of Vessels. 

Chapter IV: On the Alimentary System.—Lips—Teeth— 
Tusks—Cutting them—Fracture—Bullet lodged in Tusk— 
Parasitic deposits on them—Tennent’s Statements—Molars 


CONTENTS. wu 


—Koochilee, Fracture, displacement, Tumours, discased 
fangs—Inflammation of the Check—Tongue and Salivary 
Glands—Pharynx-——Is it a water pouch ?—Gullet—Vomition 
—Intestines—Gencral symptoms of abdominal pain—Simple 
colic—Flatulent colic, Enteritis, Diarrhwa, Dysentery, In- 
testinal obstruction—Purasites—Round worms, Flukes, Am- 
phistoma Hawkcsii—Lungun—Mookundha—Fascioliasis or 
Rot—Bots. 

Appendiz, On the Biliary Apparatus.—Anatomy—Hy datids 
-—Hepatitis. 

Page 39. Chapter V: On the Respiratory Apparatus.—The Trunk or 
Proboscis—Anatomy and Physiology—Wounds of Trunk— 
Paralysed ‘Trunk-—Nasal Chambers—Facial Sinuses—To 
shoot an Elephant—Inflammation of the lining membrane 
of the Sinuses—(Sunstroke)—Catarrh, Sore-throat, Lurza; 
Of the Thorax and Lungs; Why no pleurisy in the Elephant 
—Inflammation of the Lungs, Bronchitis, Apoplexy of the 
Lungs. 

” 48. Chapter VI: Ou the Urinary Apparatus.—Comparative Ana- 
tomy—“ Bloody Urine”—Renitis. 

s 48. (Chapter VII: On the Nervous System—Anatomy of the 
Brain—Phrensy, Encephalitis, Apoplexy, Tctanus, Paraly- 
sis, “Broken Heart” (Tennent), 

* 51, Chapter VIII: On the Organs of Special Sense: Skin.—Ana- 
tomy and Physicology—Pityriasis, Eczema; Ectozoa—Flies; 
Tsetze, Gad, Common-Maggots in wounds-Cobbold on other 
Elephant Ectozoa—Tennent on Albinic spots—Boils—Ul- 
ceration of the Skin of the Forechead—Progressive mortifica- 
tion of the Tail. Har: Progressive ulceration and slough- 
ing of the External car—Inflammation of the skin lining 
the external auditory canal—Paralysis of External Ear— ° 
Home on the Internal Ear—Deafness. Eye: Anatomy of 
Eyeball and its appendages—Conjunctivitis—Opacity of 
the Cornea, Staphyloma, Leucoma, Blindness. Foot; Ana 
tomy—Variations of Hoof Slipper according to breed and 
sex—I'oot soreness, Sorefcet (‘Thullec), Kandi or Abscess 
in the foot, Quittor (Bumbood)—Cracked Icel (Sajhan), 
Inflammation of the feet, Cracked Sole, Rope Galls, Tu- 
mours and Distortions of the Too Nails—Horny fungus 
near the toc nails (Slymm). 

Chapter IX: Wounds and other surgical conditions.—Gun- 
shot wounds—Cappcd clbow—Harness galls—Saddle or pad 
guls—Regulation under which the Mahout is to bo fined 
during incapacity of his El¢phant—Khceels. 

” 63. Chapter X: On the Locomotive System.—Pcculiarities of the 

skeleton and muscular tissue—Fracturcs—Continuous mo- 


GL 


viii 


Page 


65, 


CONTENTS. 


tion in healthy elephant—Sprains (Lutchuk),—Chowrung 
and Gunruss (weak joints). 

Chapter XI: On the Generative System.—Section I. In the 
Muale.—Anatomy, Must or Musthee—Castration or Spaying 
—I.V. 8. Hallen’s rescarches—Temporal gland or Kuppool 
—Inflammation of it—A picce of wood in the duct. 

Section 2. In the Female,—Anatomy—The act of copulation— 
Questions which have arisen on this subject—Pregnancy— 
Methods of sucking—Parturition—Artingstall’s account— 
Milk—Symptoms of strum or “ Heat”—Conclusion. 

Note: Elephant Stealing, 

Chapter XII: Therapeuties.—Errors of present system of 
Treatment—The waste attendant on it and suggestions as 
to economy—Our imperfect knowledge of the action of 
medicines—Successive stages in the development of Ele- 
phant Medicine—Influence of peculiaritics of Constitution 
of the Elephant on the action of medicines—Doses—Phar- 
macy—Administration of Medicines :—Solid—Liquid—To 
give an ecnema—Subcutaneous injection—Remedial agents 
applied externally—Poultices, fomentations, blisters, firing, 
methods of restraint—Post morten eaaminations—Precau- 
tions to be taken by the Opcrator. 


79. List of Medicines for the Elephant :— 


1, European Veterinary Medicines and those procurable 
fairly unadultcrated in most Bazaars. 

2. Some of the most useful medicines not yet mentioned, 
all procurable in the Bazaars. 


83. Formularium or Dispensatory.—Mussals—Tonic, Stimulant, 


Antispasmodic Anodyne, Sedative, Diurctic, Cathartic, As- 
tringent, for Musthee—External applications—Camphorated 
oil, Dikkamalay Ointment, Ointment for tender feet, Blis- 
tering Ointment. : 
Aprendix,—Bibliography. 
Copy of Elephants’ Preservation Act. 
Tustructions as to carriage of Elephants by rail 
(official). 4 


ix 


INTRODUCTION. 
PART I. 
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE ELEPHANT, 

Ina practical study, such as this is, we need-not enter into 
questions of the origin of the various extant genera of Elephas 
nor their relations to the large extinct quadrupeds, mammoth and 
mastodon. We need not even dilate on the use of Elephants as 
animals of war by the Carthaginians, Romans, Persians, and other 
great nations of the Past nor their use in grand triumphal pro- 
cessions and in combats of the Arena. We at once proceed to 
their value in the present day, when we find that as an animal of 
war the Elephant is utilized only in the South of Asia, and even 
there his use is becoming much restricted. The enormous 
weight of the elephant, which renders hin difficult to transport by 
boat or rail, and the expense of keep and original cost, as also 
his liability to disorder and the amount of care necessitated in 
his use, have considerably restricted the employment of the Ele- 
phant for military purposes among civilized races. His terror of 
fire arms renders his huge bulk and great strength terrible rather 
to friends than foes and in the Burmese wars formidable lines of 
elephants have been put to rout by small bodies of Cavalry. Even 
in Siam and Burma he is becoming in Government service mainly 
an animal of State. However there are parts of our Indian Em; 
pire in which he can still be rendered extremely useful to an Army 
for Transport and other purposes; thus he will carry tents and 
other impedimenta, also mortars and cannon of various kinds, will 
often serve to free a gun or wagon fixed in the mud by pressing 
his enormous weight against it and will prove useful in bringing 
heavy building materials for fortifications, bridges, and so on, also 
in moving heavy siege train guns. In a jungle country too, he may 
be used asa pioneer androad maker. He will, therefore, for a long 
time continue to be one of our Army Animals in spite of his not 
“standing fire,” nor being useful in theexigencies of modern battle, 
Though no longer retaining his former proud position in the fore, 
most line of the fight, but ignominiously replaced by bullocks be- . 
fore hereaches the line of fire, he still appears in gorgeous pageants 
of State and proves useful in various ways to the sportsman. 


x 


Sanderson discusses the question of transport of elephants by 
rail. He preludes his remarks by saying “at the present day, 
when railways and good roads have modified the requirements of 
military transport, elephants are not so necessary with troops as 
formerly. They will of course always be reqaired for the carriage 
of frontier Regiments in Assam and Burma, as the conditions of 
those countries will always .preclude the use of any other means 
of Transport.” He then shows that carrying Elephants by rail 

_ would render thera useful in adaptation to Army Transport and also 
to enable their being stationed where keep is cheap; they at most 
stations cost Rs. 1 per diem, for fodder only, and cannot conveniently 
be marched more than 300 miles per month, Elephants have been 
successfully carried by rail secured in open cattle trucks fitted 
with cross beams on each side of and before and behind the animal 
to steady it: 40 wagons could in 10 days be fitted to carry ele- 
phants with their clothing, gear, and some fodder ; 32 elephants 
can be carried in one train, within the regular goods train weight 
of 400 tons, and they would not make the trucks top heavy; the 
fore and hind feet should be shackled together in pairs and the 
shackles passed through ringbolts in the floor between each pair 
of feet. Fodder can be provided for the animals in their trucks 
and water given morning and evening ; there need be no difficulty 
in getting them into the trucks with proper arrangements. The 
four beams forming the fittings for cattle wagons when used to 
convey elephants poner be kept in readiness at the railway 
stores. In this way elephants might be as expeditiously concen- 
trated at any point as troops. Thus we see, from the statements 
of the leading authority of the day on the subject of Elephants, 
that some of the objections raised against their use for military 
purposes are purely theoretical and that they can be conveyed 
economically and with facility by rail; elephants, also, are often 
carried by boat. 

In Burma wood stacking is very largely done by elephants, and 
the precision and accuracy with which they move and adjust 
enormous beams is an object of admiration to the observer. 
They sometimes carry beams accurately balanced on the Tusks. 

Recent warlike operations by the British in the East have been 
associated with the use of the elephant. In Abyssinia and Af- 
ghanistan he has done his work well. We see him in India en- 


xi 


gaged in drawing heavy field guns, carrying fodder and baggage, 
penetrating jungle in tiger hunting, and conveying magnates in 
religious and state processions. 

Para. 1706(a) of the Commissariat Code, 1882, states that in 
Bengal occasionally elephants may be lent to officers for shoot- 
ing excursions on payment of all expense incurred in excess 
of the ordinary keep. In Bombay also such animals may 
be obtained “ to be ridden or used as beaters and not as baggage 
animals” and the actual cost of keep together with the pay of 
attendants must be defrayed by the hirer. In either Presidency 
no animal is to be lent except he be in fit condition and he is to 
be accompanied by instructions in writing as to the food and 
care he will require, which instructions must be carried out. In 
the event of the animal becoming injured the borrower must 
show that every necessary care has been paid to him or be liable 
for the full value of the beast, which in Bengal is put at Rs. 1,400. 

Authority is given in the Code (Para. 1714 and 1846) for aspe- 
cial Howdah-Khana or Shootur-Khana Equipment to be kept up 
by the Commissariat for the use of the Viceroy and Commander- 
in-Chief. Also in Bengal, when ambulance carts are not available, 
elephants may be lent by the Commissariat, fitted with Charja- 
mahs (foot boards and ropes), for the purpose of taking hospital 
patients out for an airing. 

In the Native States of India elephants still retain much of 
their importance. Thus at the grand annual mustering of the 
feudatories of the Nizam of Hyderabad large numbers march 
past in the Lungur procession covered with gorgeous trappings 
and painted in vivid colours interspersed with gilding. These 
animals gravely salaam with their trunks to the Nizam and his 
ministers and guests. At other times they may be seen picketed . 
in open lines, and those which belong to His Highness are lent to 
British officers for shooting in the jungle or for journeys to see 
“the City.’ Thus to some extent the fact that in the Madras 
Presidency Government elephant may not be used for private 
purposes is atoned to officers by the liberality of our Royal Allies. 
Such Native States as Baroda and Indore are also remarkable 
for their show of elephants—the former especially, since under 
the late Guicowar were to be seen on festive occasions horrible 
exhibitions of cruelty in the form of elephant baiting and combats. 


xil 


Tho varieties oF THE ELEPHANT are much more numerous than 
has been imagined. Zoologists speak of Loxodon, the African 
elephant, recognizable by his large ears, lozenge shaped-enamel 
markings on the grinding surface of the teeth, convex forehead 
and few hoofs (generally 4 in fore and 3 in hind foot), also small 
tusks of the female. The range of this form has been gradually 
curtailed by the advance of civilization from the Cape of Good 
Hope, but East African explorers and Ivory hunters meet with 
them in numbers increasing towards the interior of the “ Dark 
Continent.” The verdict of arecent writer (Ouchterlony) that 
“ African elephants are all head and no barrel and lack the intel- 
ligonce and tractability of the Indian” is hardly borne out by the 
history of the Carthaginians under whom the African elephant 
rendered most important and willing services —however the fierce 
tide of Moslem invasion seems to have proved prejudicial to the 
civilization of the elephant in Africa, and at the present day he is 
slaughtered recklessly for the sake of his ivory tusks but is left 
to roam free in his native wilds undisturbed by the trainer and 
Mahout. Doubtless the reckless profusion displayed in his des- | 
truction requires attention and some efforts should be made for 
his re-domestication. Huelephas, the Indian genus, on the other 
hand, is an animal which has been domesticated continuously in 
the historic period and has undergone a great deal of variation. 
We have the authority of Sanderson for saying that there is no 
evidence of decrease in number of elephants in India, but cer- 
tainly they are much less numerous in Ceylon than formerly. 
Sir Stamford Raffles and Sir Emerson Tennent are the principal 
authorities on the Ceylon Elephant which is much less frequently 
tusked than that of India. Elephants have been exported from 
Ceylon since the time of the first Punic War. They were the 
perquisite of the Kandyan Crown. The Portuguese and Dutch 
Governments successively kept up elephant-hunting establish- 
ments in Ceylon, and now there is a large export trade, mainly 
from Manaar, horses being received in exchange (Tennent), 
All the varieties of Euclephas agree in the concavity of the fore- 
head, smallness of the ears, and the parallel arrangement of the 
enamel layers of the molars, generally tho toe nails are five before 
and four behind, but subject to considerable range of variety in 
number. Shan clephants are tall, massive and handsome, gene- 


xii 

ally tuskers; Burmese have been described as smaller and. 
somewhat weedy mucknas, but, according to Capt. Hood, the 
Burmese elephants are shorter, stouter, and more compact 
than those of Hindustan being superior for hill work, carry- 
ing loads over steep places and across swamp boggy ground 
and they are excellent for draught purposes. The Chittagong 
are good all round and make the best koonkies; the Assamese 
are large, both tall and massive, and excellent for hunting 
purposes (Field). 

With regard to the Sumatran variety, Prince Lucien Bonaparte,* 
summarizes Temminck’s conclusions as follows :—“ This species 
is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and African, espe- 
cially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly put an end to 
the distinction between Elephas and Loxodon, with those who 
admit that anatomical genus; since although the crowns of 
the teeth of £. Sumatranus are more like the Asiatic animal, 
still the less numerous undulated ribbons of enamel are nearly 
quite as wide as those forming the lozenges of the African. The 
number of pairs of false ribs (which alone vary, the true ones 
being always six) is fourteen, one less than in the Africanus, one 
more than in the Indicus ; and so it is with the dorsal vertebra, 
which are 20 in the swmatranus (21 and 19 in the others), whilst 
the new species agrees with Africanus in the number of sacral 
vertebre (4) and with Indicus in that of caudal ones, which are 
thirty-four.” Schlegel confirms the identity of the Ceylon ele- 
phant with that of Sumatra and shows that “ the Indian species 
is more robust and powerful; the proboscis longer and more 
slender ; and the extremity (a point in which the elephant ‘of 
Sumatra resembles that of Africa) is more flattened and provided 
with coarser and longer hair than that of India.” 

Sanderson in 1882, enumerated the Government elephants as 
follows :—Commissariat, Bengal and North India, 1,016; Bom- 
bay, 78; Madras and Burma, 213; Forest, Frontier, Police, 
Railway, Telegraph,and Public Works Department in India and 
Burma, 300; Grand Total, 1,607 (and a few males kept for State 
purposes). 

The Government hunting establishment (Keddah) at Dacca is 
the only one at present working in India, Mr. Sanderson being 


* Pro. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1849, p. 144; note. 


xiv 


its Superintendent. The total revenue from the elephant mahals 
in Assam amounted in 1881 to Rs. 63,108, i.e, a large clear 
gain to Government. Only females are in future to be pur- 
chased for the public service (Commissariat Code, para. 1768)—. 
the necessary numbers can readily be obtained from Dacca al- 
though many are lost by death and incapacitation through inju- 
ries in capture and training, also defective preliminary domestica- 
tion. A recent Army Commission has recommended that the 
Keddah establishment be abolished and such Commissariat ele- 
phants as are required be the Government share of captures made 
by native hunters. At present the restrictions on private capture 
render the prices exorbitant. 

Tu Nepaul there is a breed of elephant of dwarf size and adapted 
for lifeamong the mountains. Inthe Maiay Peninsula (see Orien- 
tal Sporting Magazine, (New Series), Vol. I., 1868) there seem 
to be two varieties, those north of the hilly districts of Queda 
resemble the Mirgabund, or very light built Indian elephant, 
those south of Queda (including Cambodia, Cochin China, Bor- 
neo, and Sumatra) are much heavier in build, more majestic, 
carry their heads higher, and slope more from the top of the spine 
to the tail root—the forehead, too, is much more prominent. It 
has been observed that, whereas “tuskers” are rare in Ceylon, in 
India and South of Queda (in Maiaya) they are the rule. Muck- 
nas or Hives, on the other hand, are frequent (and always have 
tusks) in South Malaya but are rare in India. 

The Dacca captures show :— 

Males : females 7343: 100 
Male tuskers : Mucknas :: 10:1 


F. T. P., writing to the “ Field,” says Mucxnas, are exactly 
like Ceylon elephants and have 20 pairs of ribs. They are tusk- 
less or have imperfect tusks pointing downwards, are of larger 
size and have long melancholy looking heads, narrow foreheads, 
and great depressions between the frontals above the eyes and 
the temple; trunk large and massive ; eye sleepy: countenance 
morose and are excellent workers. Some elephants (Gunéshes) 
are born with only one tusk—if this be the right hand one they 
are reverenced by the Hindoos. 

Much has been said about the “ WeitE Evepruant,” which 
receives royal and divine honours in Burma—its very name has 


xv 


become a synonym for something expensive, useless, and extra- 
ordinary ; yet we are assured that there is “no such thing as a 
white elephant.” It is certain that the animals which have been 
exhibited under this designation in Europe have only been ren- 
dered white by more or less skilful artificial processes. Archibald 
Forbes, in his “ Glimpses through the cannon smoke,” describes a 
visit to the royal animal at Mandalay. ‘“ His Lordship, in so far as 
his literal claim to be styled a white elephant, is an impostor of the 
deepest dye, and a very grim and ugly impostor to boot. He isa 
great, lean, brown, flat-sided brute, his ears, forehead, and trunk 
are mottled with a dingy cream colour. It is not the whiteness 
that is the criterion of a white elephant, which may be a brown 
elephant actually in colour. The points are the mottling of the 
face, the shape and colour of the eyes, the position of the eyes, 
and the length of the tail. He has a peculiar and abnormal eye. 
The iris is yellow, with a reddish outer annulus and a small, 
clear, black pupil, it is essentially a shifty treacherous eye and 
I noticed that everybody took particularly good care to keep 
out of range of bis lordship’s trunk and tusks. The latter are 
superb, long, massive, and smooth, their tips quite meeting far 
in front of his trunk. His tail is much longer than in the Indian 
elephants and is tipped with a bunch of long, straight, black hair. 
The so-called white elephants are sports of nature und of no 
special breed. They are called Albinves, and are more plentiful 
in the Siam region than in Burma.” A Siamese work tells us that 
Xang Phuck is the Siamese name for a genuine white elephant, 
Xang Pralat is wonderful but not otherwise eminent. The follow- 
ing are the points looked for in a genuine white elephant—Skin 
must have areddish colour; eye with reddish outerannulus; teeth 
to have a peculiar formation, and tail to be unmutilated ; toenails 
pure black and (says a Burmese work) five in number on the 
hind feet. The animal must turn red when water is poured over 
him, and must be a male to receive honors. Asa rule the white 
elephant is not healthy ; his legs are usually swollen at the joints 
and often covered with tumours; his sides lean and hollow, and 
his hide dry and furrowed. The Siamese consider that elephants 
which affect a fish diet are very truculent and dangerous. They 
also say that Hinzat is the one which wanders about the sea 
coast and eats crabs, he will attack man at sight; Bek eats so 
much fish that his hide becomes scaly, 


xvi 


There has been much discussion as to the position of the ele- 
phant in relation to other vertebrated animals. To show that this 
question is by no means a simple one we may quote the following 
extract from a Lecture on the Elephant as published in 1881.* 

The Comparative Anatomist gazes with wonder and delight 
on the elephant: its structure may be thought to result from a 
union of the disjecta membra of animals most diverse and far 
separated from each other in the zoological series, so that it is 
bird-like in the absence of pleura and the abdominal position of 
the testes ; whale-like in the arrangement of many of the bones 
of the face ; and approaches even man in the form of the pelvis 
and the shortness of the cervical vertebrae, It is well worth our 
while to draw up a list of the principal features of structure which 
this animal shares with others :— 

The teeth in their general characters remind us of those of 
rodents; but for a parallel to the enormous defensive anterior 
teeth we can refer only to those of ziphius (the sword whale), 
and the continued production of fresh molars at the posterior 
part of the series, as the jaw elongates, reminds us also of the 
toothed whales, and even of animals lower considerably in the 
scale of vertebrates. Like the molars of ‘the horse, these teeth 
have much crusta petrosa, but in the elephant this binds the teeth 
together. In accordance with the state of the teeth the temporo- 
mawillary joint is somewhat like that of rodents, whereas the 
stomach and intestines remind us strongly of these organs as 
seen in the rat and horse. While the face is like that of the horse 
and rat in some respects, it also resembles that of the whale and 
the tapir. As in the latter animal, there is a remarkable deve- 
lopment of the upper lip and nostrils, kuown as the trunk; as in 
the whales, the malar arch is very slight, the nasal passage in the 
skull vertical, short, with rudimentary turbinated bones, and the 
nasals are very small the premaxilla very long and important, 
and, in association with these characters, the cervical region very 
short. In this latter respect, as also in the inferior maxilla 
being pointed anteriorly, and the molars extended posteriorly 
within the ramus, and the skin being thick, it resembles our 
familiar friend, sus domesticus. The thorax consists of a large 
nuinber of vertebrz, ribs, and sternal elements, reminding us of 
that of the horse ; but it is conical in shape, like that of rodents 


* (Veterinary Journal, 1881, Vol. I, p. 17.) 


xvii 


and carnivora and other animals which move the fore-limbs with 
freedom for purposes other than progression. And yet the form 
of the brain (like that of the horse), and the almost complete 
absence of clavicle, the rudimentary state of the coracoid, and 
enormous scapula, with the “hoof-slippers” (like those of the 
camel) leave no doubt as to its being an ungulate. Yet this same 
scapula, and with it the leg and thigh bones, are strangely want- 
ing in finish, are generalized, as we anatomists term it; and so 
also must be set down as general characters the conical form of 
the chest, with itslarge number of bones, the man-like pelvis, 
and the pentadactyl fore-foot (manus), together with some indi- 
cations of what we should term, had they occurred in the horse, 
imperfections of development, or infantile characters, such as the 
tendency to division of the apex of the heart (as seen also in 
dolphins), the persistence of the Eustachian valve, the kidneys 
lobulated like those of the ox and bear, and the short condition of 
the sacrum, which consists of only afew vertebra Other special 
features are the enormous facial sinuses in the adult, like those 
of the ox and owl, the spine of the scapula like that of a rat, and 
the semi-plantigrade progression. The excretory apparatus of the 
liver resembles that of the horse, but also, like that of the giraffe, 
has a dilatation against the duodenum. The uterus somewhat re- 
sembles that of the mare, but the placentais zonary, as in carni- 
vora; the external generative opening of the female is remarkably 
far forward, and the mamme are pectoral like those of the woman 
and the bat. The radius very remarkably crosses the anterior sur- 
face of the enormous ulna. Add to this that the elephant resem- 
bles the extinct monsters of old in hugeness of his bulk, and we 
may well ask ourselves how we shall, through this almost endless 
complication and mixture of characters, trace such an animal in 
its relations to the other mammalian inhabitants of the globe. 
We have seen that there can be no doubt as to the ungulate 
characters, though they are intermingled with the generalised. 
And so we learn that the elephant, ‘“‘as one born out of due time,” 
isa near relative of those generalised pentadactyl ungulates, 
which were the progenitors, in ages long past, of the hoofed 
animals of the present day. The elephant isan anachronism, but 
a noble one, which has happily been preserved for our use inthe 
present day by some of the wonderful features of structure which 


xviii 


we have just noticed. Without his huge weight, his upright limbs, 
short strong neck, and large weighty skull, hollowed out by 
sinuses, he could not have rambled through the dense jungle 
which protects him; without his huge plantigrade feet, his tusks, 
and the irregular facial sinuses by which the brain is concealed, he 
would long ago have succumbed to carnivorous foes and to man. 
His beautiful organ of touch and prehension has atoned for the 
shoriness of his neck, and obtains for him grass, or branches 
from trees toa level with which his stature brings him above 
most other mammalian denizens of the jungle. The nature of 
his food accounts for the similarities between his alimentary 
canal and that of the horse and some other licrbivora, and that 
of the rat. Even branches of considerable size crushed be- 
tween his enormous grinders assist to feed him, for, like rodents, 
he can obtain nourishment from wood, which, however, generally 
conduces simply to due repletion of his digestive organs. But 
why the cetacean characters of the skull? They result from 
atrophy of the nasal chambers, and can hardly be thought true 
affinitive indications. This imperfect development of nasal pas- 
sages accords well with the absence of pleural sac, and the ex- 
treme smallness of the nostrils and the length of the nasal pas- 
sages. Doubtless throughout these passages the odoriferous 
particles make due impression on the mucous membrane, as the 
air is slowly drawn in by expansion of the long generalised 
pleuraless thorax, sufficiently to fulfil the respiratory needs of 
the animal, which are not great, for the circulatory apparatus is 
small and infantile, the pulse slow, and the red corpuscles below 
the mammalian average size. The life changes of the animal, 
also, are not rapid; excretion is slowly performed by his poorly 
developed respiratory and renal organs and not excessively large 
liver nor very active skin, and so we can well understand why, in 
nature, the elephant, like other slow living animals, attains a 
great age. Anatomy often leads us to surmise what is confirmed 
by other lines of observation ! Finally, the thickness of the skin 
protects the other organs from sharp stakes and other bodies 
likely to injure during passage through the jungle, the attacks 
of leeches and other external parasites, such as might readily 
be obtained in marshy parts of the jungle, and in the ponds and 
nullahs in which the elephant delighteth to gambol. Also, with 


the well-developed panniculus carnosus like that of the horse, it 
protects from the teeth of mammalian foes, and from insect 
enemies, so that the gadfly has to content herself with the tusks 
on which to deposit her eggs. ‘The owner of the tame elephant 
will regret this large development of panniculus, when he finds 
his fully loaded or overladen animal at once free himself from 
encumbrances by making energetic use of the cutaneous muscle. 

Thus, though the elephant is rodent-like, whale-like, man-like, 
and owl-like, it is so only in adaptation to its conditions of life; 
to the same causes may be attributed its special resemblances to 
the horse, ox, pig, and tapir. In the main it stands isolated as 
a generalised ungulate, the closest relatives of which have long 
ago succumbed to the greater energy and higher specialization of 
the hoofed animals, which we find so well adapted to the present 
state of our earth. 

We must now hastily summarise some facts with regard to the 
HABITS OF WILD ELEPHANTS which have an important bearing upon 
the questions of his management after domestication both in 
-health and under disease. Writers on sport and travel from 
very early-times give us pleasing.details of the qualities of ele- 
phants, most of them good and such as facilitate domestication. 
The-social habit which leads them to go about in herds, fond- 
ness for the offspring, courage in facing carnivorous animals, 
and inoffensiveness are admitted to them by all observers, but 
Sanderson informs us that the sagacity of the elephant has been 
much over-rated, that whereas he.is very cultivable and obedient 
-he is decidedly wanting in originality. Though his vices are few; 
and in obedience, gentleness, and patience he surpasses all other 
domesticated animals ; still he is “ decidedly stupid.” Hard as 
this verdict may seem to us and contrary to what we have been 
led to believe few will find themselves in a position to dispute it. 
‘Whether it be from stupidity or from contempt of the devices of 
such a petty creature as man, or whether, as Tennent says, his 
terror and inexperience render size and sagacity of no avail 
against the devices of hunters, the lordly beast is captured very 
‘frequently, and by various methods thus classified by Sanderson. 

I. Capture of single elephants :—(1) By pitfall, the old native 
‘method:now prohibited as wasteful and, brutal. (2) By running 
down and noosing by the aid of tame elephants. In this process 


xx 


the wear and tear of tame animals is great and they are goaded 
unmercifully by blows with a spiked mallet. (3) By handnoosing ; 
men on foot securing the hind legs; this is practised in Ceylon. 

II. Capture of herds of elephants.— (4) By enclosing in a salt 
lick or in a pool in the jungle, this is reckless waste. (5) (Govern- 
ment plan) By surrounding a herd, wherever found, with 2 circle 
of men and building a stockade (Korahl or Keddah) into which 
the herd is driven. 

TIT. Large solitary elephants are captured by means of trained 
females, but these, though called so, are not true “decoys” but 
entirely at the command of their riders. 

These solitary elephants, termed “ Goondahs” or “ Rogues,”’ are 
most sought after by the hunters, they being the males expelled 
from the herd by some more powerful animal and therefore the 
more disposed to yield to the blandishments of females, though 
morose in the extreme and dangerous toapproach. Sir S. Raffles 
speaking of Ceylon says “the natives fancy that there are two 
kinds of elephants—the Gaja berkampong, those which always go 
in herds and which are seldom mischievous, and the Gaga salung- | 
gal, or single elephants, which are much larger and ferocious, 
going about either singly or only two or three in a company.” 
Johnstone, in his “ Notes on Elephants” read before the Asiatic 
Society, says herds average 20—25 ; in Ceylon 6—12; in Sumatra 
and Borneo, 12—18; in the Nepaul terai, Nilgiris, and Southern 
Ghauts, 25 to 35; in Malayala, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, 
40—50 ; one herd seen in Siam must have numbered 500 at least. 
Herds of elephants (which are families, their members presenting 
family traits) vary much in size, sometimes consisting of even 100 
individuals but generally more or less broken up. They make 
their way through otherwise trackless forests—precedéd by a 
female, generally the largest, and following mostly in Indian file. 
When fleeing from danger the female assiduously keeps the 
young in front of her. Herds which have been broken up re-collect, 
and if one herd has been disturbed even others will leave the place 
(Young Shikarry). The conformation and great weight of the 
enimal specially adapt him for thus making a track through the 
jungle. The Bull rambles much more than the cows, but he 
always keeps the herd within reach, and will often nobly cover 
the retreat of his cows. After elephants have been disturbed 


xxi 


in a district they are apt to desert it often even for years. How- 
ever they are not readily driven from a good feeding ground— 
they especially enjoy young sugar cane and completely devastate 
the crops of natives, for whose spears and arrows they care but 
little. It has been observed that the Malayan clephant wanders 
over a great tract of country, annually secking the sea for its 
salt licks in hot weather and the mountains in the rainy season, 
spending a few hours in each paddy field on the route ; sometimes 
solitary elephants, “ Rogucs,” remain where they find good quar- 
ters and become the terror and scourge of the district (Young 
Shikarry). ‘he rifle drives them 30 or 40 miles off, and if 3 or 4 
dead elephants lie about fresh herds fight shy of the place. 

Although all elephants become shy on the approach of man, it 
has been found that the races differ much in tractability, those of 
Northern India are timid, but those of Southern India are savage 
and plucky in attack. The track of the Bull’s fore foot is larger 
and rounder than that of the cow; females are preferred for cap- 
ture both because they are the more tractable and also because 
they are not liable to run musth (vide infra). Since females 
only are used in the public service, the males captured are sold 
by the Keddahs to native princes by whom they are preferred as 
being larger, prouder, and more imposing than females. 

Male elephants in Southern India sometimes attain 9 feet 10 
inches in height (7}—8 feet being the medium). Twice round 
the fore foot gives the shoulder height to within a few inches: 
taken at the shoulder, the females seldom exceed 8 feet. The 
East India Company fixed their standard at 7 feet and upwands in 
height taken at the shoulder, and the New Comniissariat Code 
adopts the same standard ‘to be taken as witha horse’? The 
native method of measuring is by throwing a rope over them until 
it touches the ground on either side. Half the total length af 
the rope from ground to ground is taken as the height, a manifest 
inaccuracy which accounts for apparently exaggerated statements 
as to gigantic elephants (vide Indinn Sporting Review, October 
1857). Very much misconception exists with regan to the 
size of elephants, which has been much oxaggerated by authors 
of works on travels and fiction. The olophant calf at birth is 
about 3 feet at the shouldor and woighs 200 Tbs. A large mature 
elephant weighs 6,000—7,000 Ibs. (3-3) tons) ; Sir Garnet Woh 


te 


seley says “72 cwt., of which 4/10 is borne on the hind feet, 
whicn are 64 feet from the fore legs.”” The full growth is attain- 
ed at 20—25 years of age, which may be considered the age of 
puberty. Then the sexual passion of the male manifests itself 
and he is driven from the herd to live a solitary life until, at 35, 
he attains maturity und adult strength to enable him to assume 
command of a herd. Maturity is earlier in the female, the first calf 
being born when the cow is 13 to 16 years of age, generally 
during the rains in September to November. The young animal is 
capable of moving with the herd in a day or two after birth and 
lives on the mother’s milk for some five or six months; one obser- 
ver states that “many elephants suck for 10 or 12 years,”’ which 
savours somewhat of exaggeration! Tender grass and delicate 
herbage is the earliest solid food of the calf and he rapidly 
thrives on it. Although the cow is said to evince “no special 
attachment for the offspring” it is certain that she protects the 
little one in various ways carrying it over rivers with her trunk 
or on her shoulder and protecting it from injury with great zeal 
and bravery. Also in spite of her notorious dislike for small 
‘animals, especially dogs and fowls, she fondles the calf with her 
trunk and facilitates its obtaining its natural food. 

When, in due course of time, the youngster becomes a recog- 
nized member of the herd he shares with it the free life in the 
jungle. The elephant (like most other pachyderms) loves water, 
will draw it into his trunk and blow it over his body surface, rolls 
in the stream or tank, and gambols freely, giving free way to the 
sportive tendencies of his nature, or quietly lies broadside enjoy- 
‘ing the cool moisture. Although essentially a tropical animal he 
‘stands exposure to considerable heat badly: he constantly en- 
-deavours to cover the upper part of the head and more exposed 
‘parts of his body with leaves, branches, and mud, also, we are 
told by one author that the elephant is enabled to draw from his 
throat by means of his trunk, a copious supply of saliva (probably 
fluid accumulated in the pharyngal pouch) which it squirts with 
‘great force very frequently all over its skin, and that “it grubs up 
dust and blows it over its back and sides to keep off the flies, and 
‘may often be seen fanning itself with a large bough.” Dr. Cobbold, 
‘incommenting on the paucity of Ectozoa of the elephant attributes 
it'te the ‘rough time” they would have in consequence of: this 


FIG: 1. YOUNG ELEPHANT SUCKLING. 


{FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY M* JNO FORTER, SCHOOLMASTER, 277 BT% BEDFORDSHIRE RECIMENT) 


FlG:2. ELEPKANT DAM with CALF. 
(trom APROTOGRAPH BY m* 


JN? PORTER, SCHOOLMAITER 2"9 BATS REDFOROSHIAE REGIMENT.) 


a 
PLATE,2. 


AVON BARBER, LITHOG MapRas. ingp 


xxiii 

habit. The pace adopted by the elephant on his migrations is the’ 
walk—only when frightened or annoyed does he assume any 
faster rate of locomotion. When he comes to a river hé fords it if 
the bottom be good and the water not deep but he crosses deeper 
rivers by swimming, his body being well down in the water and 
only the end of the trunk out for breathing purposes. He is 
proverbially sure footed and will often travel over very rough 
ground, he has been known to charge uphill or down, never falling 
although constantly making false steps or slipping (Young Shi- 
karry). The march of the herd, in consequence of the conforma- 
tion of the foot and the soft nature of the ground traversed, ia 
remarkably silent, so much so as to prove a means of protection 
against Shikarees. The elephant is said to sleep only 2—4 hours 
and in the wild state he generally reclines flat on his side. 

The progress of the wild elephant through his migrative 
voracious life is varied in its even tenor in various ways, 
Sometimes while engaged in rooting up bulbs and other 
dainty morsels of food with his tusks or obtaining leaves and 
branches by means of the trunk, he is set upon by carnivores, 
but few of whom, however, dare assault the giant of the forest, 
Again, Elephants sometimes fall victims to inundations, and, 
perhaps, jungle fires, or to starvation in seasons of drought. But 
their direst enemy is man. In vain does the whole race retire 
from the energetic forest destroying human being, vainare strength 
and valour against firearms and other ingenious lethal devices 
of man. Snares and pitfalls sadly reduce their numbers—and it. 
seems that, after survival through many vicissitudes and ages, 
the race of elephants must at length be exterminated by Mankind. 
Their non-extermination hitherto has been accounted for already 
as being to an extent due to certain points of conformation, it is 
dependent also on longevity. Sanderson says “ I think it by no 
means improbable, looking to their peculiar dentition and other 
circumstances that elephants live to 150 or 200 years.”” The natives 
of India attribute to them an average life of 80 years, but fix 120 
as the maximum. Some domesticated elephants have, like old 
trees, become historical ; thus Tennent tells us that ‘“ amongst _ 
the papers left by Col. Robertson, who held command in Ceylon 
in 1799 shortly after the capture of the Island by the British, I 
have found a memorandum showing that Decoy was then attach- 


Xxiv 


ed to the Elephant Establishment at Matura which the records 
proved to have served under the Dutch during the entire period 
of their occupation extending to upwards of one hundred and 
forty years, and it was said to have been found in the stables by 
the Dutch on the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1656.” 

The many curious ideas concerning what become of elephants that 
die naturally are noticed by Sanderson:-—-(1) The Cingalese say 
they retire to an universal sepulchre; (2) Others say that jungle 
fires burn their bones ; (3) Others affirm that they sink into the 
beds of morasses; (4) Sanderson concludes that only five per cent. 
die annually and that we do not know wnat becomes of their 
remains; certainly but few bones are found in the jungle. However 
Wallace observed many in Java, as mentioned by him in his 
“Malay Archipelago.’ Considering the low rate of mortaliny 
under ordinary circumstances, the unexplored nature of their 
habitat, the liability of their carcases to be devoured by jackals, 
hyenas, and other bone destroying carnivora, we hardly believe 
that this matter is so mysterious as has been supposed. When 
an animal falls sick he is expelled from the herd—a wise provi- 
sion of nature against the spread of epizootics. 

The influences at work tending to reduce the number of elephants 
are :— 


I. The limiting of his range by destruction of forests, &c. 
II. The influence of man— 
(1) Capturing him for domestication. 
(2) Hunting him either for sport or in defence of crops. 
(3) Destroying him for the sake of ivory. 

III. The straits to which he is put by accidents, droughts, 

famines, and epizootics. 

IV. Thefact of the elephant being uniparous (very seldom bear- 

ing twins), and having a long period of uterogestation. 

V. The fact that elephants seldom breed in captivity. 

For economic reasons, and not through ‘‘a noble reluctance 
on the part of the proud animals to generate fresh slaves for men’”’ 
as has been supposed, clephants are captured rather than bred. 
Twenty-five years would be rather a long period to have to keep 
so voracious and expensive an animal as an elephant before he 
attained his full working value and the cows would require 
special care during the long period of pregnancy—again, it is 


XxV 

found that breeding in captivity is uncertain, although semi- 
wild animals breed freely in Siam and Burma, and the Cartha- 
ginians used to breed elephants. Probably the deficiency of sexual 
instinct among domesticated clephants is due to underfeeding, 
for Sanderson tells us that in elephant management the chief 
point is that they do not get enough to eat, partial starvation 
being frequent. The march of captured animals from the jungle 
commences in February, they reach Dacca in May, are then put 
into training, and by November are quite steady and drafted 
into the military service (Sanderson). 

The process by which the Ceylonese elephants are shipped for 
conveyance to India is graphically described by Tennent.—Four 
or five are conveyed in the same dhoney or native boat and ferried 
across the narrow strait (afterwards vessels with hinged sides were 
used). The boat is three parts filled with palmyra leaves and 
the elephant backed into it by use of the goad—he fights ener- 
getically against his fore legs leaving terra firma, Hannibal 
conveyed his elephants across large rivers by means of island- 
like rafts specially prepared with a great deal of earth (Silicus 
Italicus; Bk. iii.), Elephants are habitually swum across the 
Ganges from Dacca and will remain for a long time swimming with- 
out inconvenience In 1857---60 between 890 and 900 elephants 
were brought to Daccafrom Moulmein or Rangoon in sailing 
vessels, but a vast number of casualties resulted, mainly from 
slinging, and it was found that the abrupt transition from a damp 
climate to a dry one (with a complete change of food) proved very 
fatal; so it was decided in future to march them up by land. 
Some escaped and others died en route, and over 30 per cent. died 
in 1866-7 as a result of their being subjected to native misman- 
agement at Chittagong. The introduction of European manage- 
ment materially lessened the fatality. 


xxvi 


INTRODUCTION. 


—d 


PART II. 
THE ELEPHANT AS USED IN MODERN ARMIES. 


In the previous Chapter we have dealt with the question of 
elephant supplies to the Army, and have seen firstly, that Breed- 
ing Studs, though practicable, are not economic, and secondly, 
that Sanderson practically proves capturing is an actual source 
of income to Government, and, withal, fully adequate to present 
requirements for public purposes. The Elephants of the Com- 
missariat, he considered, might be reduced to one-third of their 
numbers at the time when he wrote, and we find that 600 Tran- 
sport Elephants in future to be kept by the Indian Government 
was fixed by the Army Estimates for 1883-4 ; Five per cent. more 
being allowed for casualties. Sanderson, further urged they 
serve for along time, and the cost of their keep may be much 
reduced. Thus, he estimated, a saving of Rs. 4,38,000 per 
ainum would be effected by reform of elephant feeding in 
India. The present price of a good baggage elephant he puts 
at Rs. 2,000 and shows that the largeness of this price is due to 
Government monopoly of capture. The important question of 
whether elephants are really essential to Government and econo- 
mical in these days of machinery and train locomotion is one we 
are not here inclined to discuss in full detail—suffice it for our 
present purpose that they are used in numerous and diverse ways 
in military operations. 

Elephants on admission into the service should be in good 
health—that is, free from obvious defect in eye-sight and, espe- 
cially, limb—their respiratory powers are seldom defective. In 
considering the limbs of this animal, we must include under this 
heading the proboscis or trunk (the “hand” of the elephant, as 
it has been called) and remember that any defect in power of 
movenent or injury tothe end of this important organ is a 
serious unsoundness. The Signs of General Health are :—skin, 
nearly black, the light parts to have a healthy pink tinge ; mucous 
membrane of mouth of a rich pink colour without black spots; eye 
bright and clear; pulse normal ; the animal should sleep well 2-4 
hours during the night and at once on awakening recommence 
eating. When awake should be constantly on the move with trunk, 


ai oe 


ears, and legs—and should feed well (Slymm). In purchasing 
an elephant we should make it lie down and tap smartly all over 
the sole of the foot,* for the dealers plug sinuous ulcers of this 
part with great skill. Galls of various kinds are liable to heal 
superficially and then recur and accordingly should be specially 
looked for in examinations for soundness under the saddle, on 
the forehead, and in other likely positions. Both Ouchterlony 
and Forsyth touch on the question of examination as to sound- 
ness. The hints they give are good and are summarized in our 
notes as follows :—Examine eyes, then trunk for age and general 
state of the health; ears for scabs and ulcers at their supero-exter- 
nal parts and junction with the head, also their free margins and 
the ear holes; the spine for saddle galls, warts, and soon. Look 
for galls on belly, withers, loins, and shoulder ; feet for wear and 
absence of disease ; try the paces, and examine as to age, docility, 
and degree of training. The selection of the animal, of course, 
depends to an extent in the work required from him. The most 
generally useful are of medium. height; with large barrel ; large 
broad, straight back (such being generally sound and free from 
galls and better adapted for carrying a howdah than a highly 
arched one ; massive head ; open chest; a mukhna is the best, 
and a cow better than a bull; height medium ; age at least twenty 
years, preferably somewhat more. 

The following summary from a Singalese book on the Elephant 
may prove interesting tothe reader. Marks of inferior breeding :— 
eyes restless ; hair of head of mixed shades ; face wrinkled ; 
tongue curved and black; nails short and green; ears small; 
neck thin ; skin freckled; tail tuftless ; forehand lean and low. 
Marks of perfection :—skin soft ; tongue and mouth red ; forehead 
expansive and hollow ; ears broad and rectangular; trunk broad 
at the root and blotched with pink in front; eyes bright and 
kindly ; cheeks large; neck full ; back level ; chest square ; fore 
legs short and convex in front ; hind quarters plump ; five nails to 
each foot all smooth, polished, and round ; tail sometimes touch- 
ing the ground. 

The Aas is to an extent shown by the teeth ; but the size, state 
of the tail, and the condition of the ears, feet, and trunk assist us 


*In a good working beast the lower margins of the toe nails will be 
found worn. 


xXVHi 

in judging. Thus the aged elephant has the end of the trunk 
mottled and its bend worn and cakey (Ouchterlony) and “legs 
almost uniform in girth throughout.” Instead of walking firmly 
and planting the feet flat he brings them to the ground some- 
what in the manner of a plantigrade animal, touching with the 
heels first,* a method of progression which frequently results 
from the animals being put to draught work prematurely ; the 
ears frayed and the top lapping over ; skin wrinkled shiny and 
shrivelled (often beset with peculiar stellate warts) ; head lean, 
deep hollows above the eyes; tail hard and caked ; and with 
little hair left on it, body hairs worn short by friction. With 
regard to size, the maximum is attained at about 35 years of 
age, before when the animal is often timid and deficient in 
powers of endurance. Teeth: The tushes afford indications of 
ageappreciable to natives—Sanderson erroneously affirms they 
are never renewed or shed. They vary much in different vari- 
eties, and, no doubt, his remark applies to some—however, in 
others the milk tusks are shed between one and two years of 
age and replaced by the permanent ones which often attain 
seventy lbs. weight in the male. The nonoccurrence of tusks 
in many Indian elephants of course tends materially to reduce 
their value as indicative of age. Thus in many Ceylon Elephants 
small Tusks distinctively called Tushes are found. In some 
animals the tusks grow so large as to become cumbersome or 
to split lengthwise. In such cases (vide Commissariat Code, para. 
1782) they are to be cut every Ist April, and the ivory sold. 
The price of metal bands to be fastened round to prevent 
splitting is authorized as a legitimate charge. The tusks of 
all animals which die are to be sold and the price realized to be 
credited to Government. 

“The first set of grinders or milk teeth are not shed, but are 
gradually worn away during the time the second set are coming 
forward, and as soou as the body of the grinder is nearly worn 
away the fangs begin to be absorbed. From the end of the second 
to the beginning of the sixth year the third set come gradually for- 
ward as the jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this additional space 
but also to supply the place of the second set, which are, during 
the same period, gradually worn away and have their fangs ab- 


*Thirteen years among the Wild Beasts of India.” 


EXIX 


sorbed. From the beginning of the sixth to the end of the ninth 
year the fourth set of grinders come forward to supply the gra- 
dual waste of the third set. Ip this manner to the end of life 
the elephant obtains a set of new teeth as the old ones become 
unfit for the mastication of his food. The milk grinders consist 
each of four teeth or lamina, the second set of grinders of eight 
or nine laminw, the third set of twelve or thirteen, the fourth 
set of fifteen, and so on to the seventh or eighth set, when each 
grinder consists of twenty-two or twenty-three ; and, it may be 
added, that each succeeding grinder takes at Jeast a year more than 
its predecessor to be completed’’* Gilchrist’s ideas were much 
less exact than those of the experienced observer just quoted. 
He tells us that at about eighty years of age the front parts of the 
teeth—“ eye teeth” —drop from the lower jaw, and that in extreme 
old age the molar teeth are worn level with the gum. It is evident 
that for practical purposes but little exact information as to age 
can be derived from the teeth of the elephant in our present 
state of knowledge. We must be guided in purchase to an 
extent by the statements of the seller, endeavouring to confirm 
them as much as possible by observation of the conditions of ears, 
trunk, &c. 

Elephants bought for the Commissariat} are to be not less 
than 15 nor more than 30 years old, and growing elephants are 
to be measured annually on Ist April in order that the amount 
of their feed may be regulated in accordance with their size. 
It seems that elephant dealers are not above suspicion, for 
Forsyth tells us, though Bengal landowners sell young useful 
animals “at Sénptr fair, Mahommedan dealers bring the halt 
and the blind. A dangerous mankiller reduced to temporary 
harmlessness by a daily pill of opinm and hemp; Ka4ndi sores 
plugged; Sajhan cracks packed with tow; sore backs surface- 
healed ; animals so bedizened with paint, and so fattened with 
artificial feeding, that it is hard to tell what any one of them 
would look like if stripped to the bones, space so confined 
and crowd so great that you can’t get a fair trot. Such are a 
few traps for the unwary elephant buyer.’’ 

The regulation allowance of roop for Government elephants is 


* (Corse, in Brewster's “ Edinburgh Encyclopmdia.”) 
+ Commissariat Code, para. 1768 (1882). 


xXx 


Jaid down in paras. 1769-1774 (inclusive) of the 1882 Commis- 
sariat Code. It comprises Ratib and Forage. The Matib con- 
sists of Atta (coarse wheat flour), or rice of the third quality, 
or of Dhan (unhusked rice) in twice the amount of either Atta or 
husked rice. This grain is to be cooked by baking on an iron 
plate, and made into cakes or chupatees weighing about 2 lbs. each. 
Mussalas ‘also sometimes salt and oil) are issued free in the form 
of allowance to the Mahout. The oil is useful for external applica- 
tion; firewood also for cooking is allowed them. No ratib is 
allowed for Naga (suffering from indigestion) elephants, the 
dates of sickness and recovery of which are to be noted on the 
feeding bills; also “ Musth” elephants are to get only half 
ratib, the value of the remainder to be spent on green fodder. 
In Bengal increased fodder in lieu of ratib is allowed on produc- 
tion of a certificate of disbursement. 
Scale of Rations for Elephant. 


In Cantonment. {On Command At Graze. At Sea. 
Fodder. Fodder: 

Size. 3 2 
a gig @ | Fodder. } Grain.} ¢ .| 8 3 
eB) 2/2 izle] E | B| Pl eis 
S/S\5 aS & S1 EIS aE 

Ist Class] Ibs! Ibs! Ibs! ozloz Ibs. |As when} lbs. |]bs.| lbs. | lbs. |oz. |gals. 
8 ft.and | | in Can- 

over ... 15,200,480... 2 1} 15 |tonment] 15 | 20! 170} 320) 2) 50 
2ndClass 
under ‘ 

feet ...J 15)150/32 je: i 115 do. 15 | 18 150) 300 s 40 


(a). When paddy or rice is issued to elephants 10 lbs. of grass 
or straw is allowed per elephant per diem for tying up the grain 
in the small bundles known as Koojra, to prevent waste. 

(b). The dietary scale is sanctioned tentatively pending the 
results of experiments on elephant feeding. 

(c). All changes of diet to be graduated. 

Sanderson wrote on this subject when the keep of each Govern- 
ment elephant averaged Rs. 50-80 per mensem. The grain ration 
in Bengal being daily per elephant 9 seers of (dhan) unhusked 
rice or of wheaten flour; in Madras 12} seers of cleaned rice. 
Green fodder was allowed at the rate of 400 Ibs., dry 250 lbs. 
(Bengal) ; green in Bombay, 340 Ibs. ; in Madras, 250 Ibs. green 


xxxi 

or 125 Ibs. dry. He considers the Bengal allowance sufficient if 
the grass be good, but that at least 800 lbs. of frontier coarse 
grass should be given, He argues against the use of grain ration 
which is the most expensive article of food and (he considers) is 
not necessary for :—(1) When wild elephants have none; (2) Nor 
when under native owners, although they are severely worked ; 
(8) Cooked food is unnatural and the nutritive value of rice is 
doubtful; (4) Most of the grain is appropriated by the atten- 
dants who systematically pilfer. He surely would not argue that 
no grain is required ! When wild the elephant gets grain in husk 
and growing ; also nutritious roots and bulbs such as contain 
much starchy material. The statement that rice is of doubtful 
nutritive value is no longer in force, for recent experiments have 
shown that rice gives the best nutritive result with the least expen-, 
diture of vital energy on digestion. The refinement of cooking the 
ratib is certainly superfluous, but we must hesitate before introduc- 
ing any innovation on systems which have answered for a long 
time. Possibly the firewood for cooking is a Mahout’s perquisite, 
like many of the ingredients of mussauls and much of the rice 
ratib. Many mahouts reckon on keeping a large family of 
several generations ont of pickings from the Sahib’s or Sirkar’s 
elephant. Any reduction in allowances (indirect) thus given to 
these men will arouse the conservative tendencies . of these 
natives and unless the strictest supervision be exercised the 
elephant will shortly be found starving. At present few get more 
than the bare necessaries of life. Ghee (clarified butter), half a 
pound, or else jaggery (coarse sugar), one pound, used to be com- 
monly given in the ratib. They are valuable nutritives, but, it is 
to be feared, generally proved so to the attendants rather than 
to the elephants. 

Tamarind is sometimes added to the Ratib but is said not to 
be good in the cold weather. Its laxative properties are valuable 
during the hut season. 

The spice balls known as Mussaulsare given once a week. They 
consist of various aromatic vegetable substances such as cayenne 
pepper, assafcetida, ginger, garlic, caraway, &c., all peculiarly 
agreeable to the native interior economy and much appreciated as 
curry stuff. If these be given in full amount under intelligent 
supervision, they are very useful—promoting the digestive func- 


xxxii 


tions and supplying the place of aromatic plants which are par- 
taken of freely by the wild elephant. The enormous bulk of the 
elephant’s fodder seems to render some such addition essential, 
and experience seems to show that almost aJ] animals in tropical 
climate, from man to the ox, require some such artificial stimulant 
to the digestive organs, especially during hot weather. 

Wild elephants like other herbivora resort freely to salt-licks, 
They are often captured by surrounding these places with a stock- 
ade. The salt ration is most valuable in promoting digestion and in 
freeing the stomach and bowels from parasites so liable to be trans- 
ferred into them with the large quantity of green forage. With 
regard to the Fodder or Cherrai ; since this constitutes so much 
of the large quadruped’s dietetic support it requires the great- 
est exercise of care to ensure that it be good in quality, sufficient 
in quantity, clean, and palatable. Also it must be given at the pro- 
per time of day and in accordance with the season of the year. 
In thinking of the elephant in relation to food we must not lose 
sight of the general principles of food and feeding, The remark- 
able resemblances between the alimentary canal of this animal 
and that of the horse should guide us to an extent. We should 
also as much as possible imitate nature in our treatment of domes- 
ticated animals. Tho elephant is fastidious about his diet, he 
beats his grass against the fore legs to free it from dirt, and will 
refuse slimy grass or branches and leaves covered with bird’s 
dung—his grass-food requires to be cleaned and picked over like 
the grass of horses in India because, especially when the Mahouts 
are given an allowance for cutting fodder free of cost, useless 
grass, faded leaves, and rubbish of various kinds is often supplied 
instead of good grass or hay. 

“The golden rule to be observed with an elephant is to give 
him enough to eat”’ says Johnstone;* at ieast 3 maunds of eatable 
stuff (10 maunds ; Ep.’s 0.8. M.) per diem should be allowed in 
addition to his ratib. No doubt grazing when possible is the 
best, method of feeding but sufficient range is not always procura- 
ble and in the hot season grass runs short, even then, however, 


* Johnstone’s Fodder Dietary (Bengal). 
Kerbee. 


XXxiii 

the branches of trees can be obtained and the leaves which consti- 
tute their hot weather foliage. Slymm says, “ My opinion is that 
grass should form the principal kind of green fodder all the 
year round, and that either on the march, or when the good 
kinds are not obtainable, or as a kind of variation, its use may 
be substituted either by banian, jack tree, peepul, bamboo, 
plantain leaves, fresh paddy straw, or sugar-cane. The plantain: 
leaves I would-not recommend during cold or chilly weather,” 

At the commencement of the rains when the grass springs up 
very plentifully the ratib of grazing elephants may be reduced. 
With regard to the use of branches and leaves as cherrai it must 
be remembered that it is easier work to break off large branches 
than to select grass. Therefore the attendants prefer to give the 
less nutritious branches ; however the latter must necessarily be 
used in many places where a sufficiency of grass is not procurable 
and they are best for food when the twigs snap rather than bend 
under pressure, for branches are not relished when the sap runs 
(Sanderson). To deal satisfactorily with the question of what 
trees and grasses may with advantage be given to elephants would 
require a more extensive acquaintance with Indian Botany and 
vernacular names of plants found in the peninsula and also in 
British Burma than we can bring to bear. We may enumerate 
the following—quoting authorities. Bamboo (Forsyth) will not, 
alone, be taken as food for long; the young shoots are very accept- 
able and nutritious ; it is good in thecold season (Slymm). Kurbee, 
millet stalks are useful for a short time but soon a change 
to green food is required (Forsyth). It is not suited for new 
elephants—which, for the first three months should be fed on 
green cherrai (Johnstone). Sugarcane is good in small quantities 
and is a great treat (Forsyth). 

Fresu Grasses— 

(1). Kusseelah or Kussalah (Gilchrist and Slymm). 

(2). Lavaloo (Gilchrist); and Ghut lavaloo (Gilchrist and 
Slymm) ; and Chit lavaloo (Gilchrist). 

(3). Puttatrah (Gilchrist and Slymm)—or Gutaoloo. 

(4). Pance-ka-Arecalee or Rakhsee (Poh, Hlapareahi) found 
in tanks during the rains, mixed with a weed con- 
sidered liable to purge and cause the discase known as 
Lungun. 


XXXiV 


(5). Lypha clephantina—perhaps the same as (4). It also is 
found in tanks during the rains. 
(6). Pokhla lavaloo or Budh. 
Trees, branches of, (Gilchrist). The inner bark of the larger, 
and the whole of the smaller, branches are used. 
(1). Rahmbuhd (Babool)—ka-jahd—valuable. 


(2). Nahnddrovo-ka-jahd—better than 1. 
(3). Piplee-ka-jahd 59 ees 
(4). Bhud-ka-jahd 53 ye Be 
(0). Peepul-ka-jahd. Good, but the leaves are not given in hot 


weather as being cousidered liable to cause Enteritis 

and opacity of Cornea. 
(6,. Goolaree-ka-jahd—unwholesome, especially to sick ani- 

mals, 
(7). Bahns-ka-jahd not of much value. 

Tenney in dealing with the Food of the Elephant tells us that 
“ Hlis favourite foods are the palms, especially the cluster of rich 
unopened leaves known as the “ cabbage” of the cocoanut, and 
areca; and he delights to tear open the young trunks of the palmyra 
and jaggery (Caryota ureus) in search of the farinaceous matter 
contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties of 
fig trees, particularly the sacred Bo (I. religiosa) which is found 
near every temple, and the na gaha (Messua ferrea) with thick dark 
leaves and ascarlet flower. ‘I'he leaves of the jak tree and bread 
fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia and A. incisa), the wood apple 
(digle Marmelos), Palu (Alimusops Indica), and a number of others 
well known to their attendants, are all consumed in turn. The 
stems of the plantain, the stalks of the sugarcane, and the feathery 
tops of the bamboos, are irresistible luxuries. Pine-apples, water- 
inclons, and fruits of every description are voraciously devoured, 
and a cocoa-nut when found is first rolled under foot to detach it 
from the husk and fibre, and then raised in his trunk and crushed, 
almost without an effort, by his ponderous jaws. The grasses are 
not found in sufficient quantity to be an item of daily fodder; the 
Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with avidity, lemon grass 
is rejected from its overpowering perfume ; but rice in the straw, 
aud every description of grain, whetber growing or dry, gram 
(Cicer Arietinum), Indian corn, and millet, are his natural food.” 
Hood urges that a timely attention to dicting might avert 


XXXV 


many a case of sickness and subsequent loss by death. Bengali 
Mahouts are very fond of giving Dhuli or jheel grass to their 
charges because it can be obtained easily—but it is at least 80 
per cent. mud and water combined, and “constantly purges the. 
elephants and when fed solely on it they dwindle away to half 
their proper size. For grazing purposes, however, it is not so 
bad, as elephants if Jeft to themselves will eat the clean tips of 
the Dhull, thoroughly washing them beforehand. The good 
effects, if any, are frequently more than counterbalanced by the 
myriads of leeches that infest the jheels where the dhull grows. 
These adhere to the elephants when they are standing in the 
water grazing, and bleed them copiously”. 

Paddy straw, Rhagi grass (Bajree or Natchenee), Cholum or 
Kadhy straw, and other grass crops are also used as fodder for 
the elephant, the total amount of which should at least equal 
450 lbs. Banian, plantain, sumul, pakur, teak, dahn, amrah, 
purme, nurkut, bans, kurean, ocree, numdwa, and tawar are also 
useful in elephant feeding and recommended by Slymm. Practi- 
cally, most green stuffs, grasses and leafy branches, are accept- 
able to the elephant and can be utilized by him as food—much 
must be left to his judgment in selection on the emergencies of 
the march and when the Commissariat Stores run short ona 
Campaign. The latter, emergency is liable to affect elephants 
specially of all the animals belonging to an army. In peace 
they are with difficulty sufficiently supplied with fodder but 
in war the largeness of their food requirements militates very 
seriously against their use. The first elephants captured by the 
Romans from their enemies were killed because the Republic 
was too poor to keep them ! 

Slymm reminds us that in letting elephants loose to graze in 
the jungle we should take care to give them such a direction as 
to enable them to find good suitable fodder, shackling them well 
[with a double loop of cane put round both forefeet and lashed in 
the centre between the legs, known as the Andoo (J. H. S.)], 
Jest they roam too far from camp, from which cause they are apt 


Weatuer Dist—Charra most suitable for Bengal and Assam. 
Cold—Tarra, bamboo, peepul, burgot, lahkur, palikur, jungly burgot, 
jungly dhoomur, dhoodea, and sugar-cane. : 
cE ada Hie Se ele ghoolur; § of bamboo, peepul, or lakhur 
Rainy—Kussaylah grass, kutra grass, plantains (a few), pe al : 
and bainboo a proportion (Hovd). de Nesey ingots 


xxxvi 


to get more exercise and less food than we intend and require to be 
brought back a long way into camp and are in a state of fatigue 
when they ought to be fresh and fit for work. He also says “ many 
times, in travelling, I have arrived at places which I have thought 
fine spots for letting the elephants loose during the night, but 
I have been disappointed to find that the elephants would not eat 
the grass I saw; on such occasions I had to tie the animals in a 
guiet place and feed them on rice or paddy with a little salt and 
give them either some plantain leaves or fresh paddy straw, but 
not in a very large qaantity.” * 

When the animals work during the day they ought on return- 
ing to the lines, to be allowed to stand quiet for a short time and 
the mahout in the meanwhile collect the fodder, also well malish 
the back with his hands and feet after removal of the load, and 
examine the feet for thorns and cuts, the body for leeches especi- 
ally during the rains. Next they should be taken to water and 
washed. After which and during this process of grooming some 
grass may be given. Then they should reccive the grain ration, 
being drawn up in line four paces apart, and the non-commissioned 
or warrant officer in charge should sce the rice given in the proper 
manner in straw or grass, or plantain husk. Allthe grain may be 
given now or athird of it reserved as a chota haziri to be given in 
the morning before starting on the march, and finally a sufficiency 
of fodder placed before them to last until the time when they 
should go to sleep, say at 10 p.wn. Thus they should be allowed 
about five hours for feeding which will give them an opportunity 
of consuming a considerable bulk of fodder. Hunter’s experiments 
show that in this time an elephant can consume nine seers of 
dhan aud twenty seers of straw.t These experiments prove that 
it is most essential for elephants to be fed by hand with their 


* When elephants have to bring in their own fodder they should be des- 
patched punctually every morning at day-break into the jungle, when pos- 
sible under care of a Jemadar, for it is during grazin g time mahouts are most 
frequently cruel to their elephants. They should be accustomed to carry the 
cherrai barebacked, the load being secured by a single rope running round 
the neck along either flank and under the tail, provided with gullarband and 
dumchi to prevent galls. If the animals be accustomed gradually to carry- 
ing the cherrai in this way it will save the guddee from wear, harden the 
back, and lessen the frequency of galls. In loading with fodder the lower 
part or basis of the load should be plantain trees or bundles of grass 
(Hood). 


¢ Oriental Sporting Magazine. 


xxxvii 


grain or be supplied with grain in the straw, and, as they are such 
slow feeders, to be never without fodder before them while stand. 
ing at their pickets during the day. They can also get a little in 
the intervals of their work. The slow feeding of the animal gives 
time for the first food taken in to pass fully digested from the 
stomach into the bowels and thus before midnight the elephant 
will be in that comfortable state of repletion which is conducive 
to repose. 

Sleep is particularly essential although but a small amount is 
required to keep an animal in working order. Practical observers 
say that four hours regular and undisturbed sleep is necessary 
and sufficient, and that if elephants sleep longer than this it isa 
sign of disorder and of the necessity for enough rest, and provi- 
sion must be made to secure this, especially on the march, by 
proper camp arrangements. There should be strict silence in the 
filkhana after 9-30 p.m. as "by that time most of the elephants will 
have filled themselves and will he down and sleep (Hood). 
Ouchterlony particularly impresses on us that the head should be 
up hill when the animal lies down in camp for otherwise he will 
be unable to rise without the assistance of two or three other 
elephants. He will become much distressed and must be given 
a stimulant, then pushed on his side to rest himself, and finally 
pushed on to bis legs. In rising he elevates the forehand first, 
and in lying he flexes the forelimb at the elbow and the hind- 
limb at the stifle, the forefoot is bent inwards with the sole 
turned towards the root of the trunk, which organ lies curled upon 
the ground. Encamping on sloping ground will secure dryness 
of the lines, which is most essential becausz rheumatism ig fre- 
quent in the elephant and also his feet are liable to disease as a 
result of constant exposure to moisture. In permanent lines the 
greatest care must be exercised to secure a proper outflow of 
urine by surface drainage, the channels being paved to prevent 
the formation of holes by a great bulk of fluid falling from a 
height into them.* Topes (groves) are considered prejudicial 


* Filkhannah to be on banks of a small stream with sandy bed of runnin 
water, within easy distance of grazing jungles ; shelter necessary for hot fee 
rainy weather—sheds should be built—they are cheap, if built at end of cold 
weather when timber can be obtained for the trouble of cutting it. The 
mahouts and coolies to provide a certain number of logs daily until the 
number necessary has been obtained. Each elephant can easily bring in 
(with his charra) 2 logs (15 ft. x 20 ft. 9 in.) to he tied on either side of the 


KxXXvill 


except during the hot weather when they are dr » free from 
miasma, and afford a welcome shelter from the powerful rays of 
the sun. The most approved elephant lines are covered sheds 
whereby the animals can be sheltered as well from the cool of the 
early morning as from the heat of midday and the cold of monsoon 
rains, conditions equally prejudicial to the animal. These build- 
ings should be on high ground, open to breezes, and a wooden 
stout flooring at some elevation from the ground is useful, but not 
essential if the soil flooring be of kunkur or morrum and kept in 
good order, in the same way as the flooring of horse lines.* When 


animal on the top of the charra, the ends resting on the ground. (uller- 
bands, leathern neckpieces, through which the stout neck-rope securing 
the logs passes, should be provided for this work as the animals are liable 
to get galled about the neck and chest when transporting timber in this 
wise. Sueps should be open at sides and give space 22 ft. x 22 ft. for 
each elephant and be 20 ft. high. To prevent the elephants getting sorefeet, 
to which they are very liable when chained for any length of time in one 
place, each stall should be paved in the centre with logs (which are the 
least expensive, although boards are better, (3 in. thick by 10 ft. long) 
under the hind feet forming a level square of 10 ft. x 10 ft.: inthe centre 
underneath the logs a small drain should be cut to carry off moisture. 
This will communicate in turn with a larger drain which must be dug ata 
distance of 15 yards. or so in rear of the sheds, and running parallel to it 
two rows of stout posts should be planted, one in front and the other in 
rear, for securing the elephant chains, or Bhundhung, to. The thatch of 
the sheds need not be more than 4 in. in thickness. “ During the monsoons 
several casualties and much sickness will be prevented by providing them 
with timely shelter”—(Hood) 


*The “ Manual of Mountain Artillery, 1882,” enumerates the following 
methods of securing elephants :— 

1. Anklet on one fore foot only, the other ankle being linked through 
the ring of a long chain, the hook end being secured round a tree, post, 


or into the ringbolt. Allows the maximum amount of liberty ; to be used 
during the day. 


2. Long chain round one hind leg, to tree, post, or ringbolt. Also suit- 


able for day tethering. 

3. The above with addition of anklets on both fore feet. 
4. Anklet on one fore foot only, the other being linked on the ringbolt. 
5. Both anklets on fore feet, the coupling chain through a ringbolt. 

6. The above, with the addition of long chain on one hind leg; only to 
be allowed in special cases. 

It is a good thing to protect Elephants standing in the open by low mud 
walls, especially if fed on dry fodder, for the bhoosa is blown away from their 
trunks, Elephants on service require jhools of gunny lined with blanket. 


XXx1X 


on the march elephants are generally tied to trees, in the lines 
they are fastened by means of a chain to a ring in the ground.* 
They are usually so docile that this suffices and many will volun- 
tarily fasten it around the forelimb above the foot. So adroit are 
they, indeed, with the trunk, that it is wonderful they do not free 
themselves when they like. Males showing the premonitory signs 
of Must require special fastening by shackles of considerable 
strength and “a set of implements used to restrain unruly ele- 
phants should always be kept on hand in the cattle lines and one, 
set should be sent with elephants proceeding on command,” of 
course attention to this para. 1780 of 1882 C. C. is less requisite, 
now females only ave obtained for the public service. The camp- 
ing ground must be fairly smooth and freed from large stones, 
and plenty of room should be given to each animal so that he 
can move and lie down freely and not steal his neighbour's food. 
An elephant 10} feet high is about 16 feet long from front of 
face to root of tail, so the picketting rings should be about 
20 feet apart. Itmneed scarcely be impressed on the minds of 
those who are in supervision of elephants that strict attention must 
in every respect be paid to the laws of Hygiene. It was hardly 
creditable to those officers who were in charge of elephants in 
the Kuram valley in 1879 that the Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon 
found the elephants there bedded down on their own dung! 
Water should be given twice daily, say at 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. 
Wild elephants usually drink after sunrise and before sunset. 
Good water is a prime essential for elephants on the march; they 
are fastidious over this even more perhaps than over food. Parkes 
(we know not who was his authority) is very far from the mark 


* “Asa rule the chains with which elephants are secured are of various 
patterns and sizes; either the links are so thick that only a very thin hook 
can be inserted into them, and their strength is thereby rendered unavail- 
ing; or they are so thin that if elephants are alarmed during a storm or by 
a fire in a village near they snap them and make off. Elephant fetters of 
the best patterns can be obtained from the Dacca Depdt. Mahouts are 
very fond of sccuring their clepbants both fore and aft in the most irksome 
manner, though w rope or chain fastened to one foot and to a peg in the 
ground is sufficient restraint for most elephants. This latter mode of 
fastening allows them to turn to or from the sy or wind as they find 
agrecable. Natives think nothing of securing an elephant so that one side 
is exposed day and night for wecks together to wind and rain” (Sanderson). 


xl 


in putting the water requirements of an elephant at 6—8 gallons, 
Gilchrist from careful observations has shown that an ordinary 
clephant will take 15} gallons twice daily and on boardship they 
are allowed 40—50 gallons according to size. They must be 
allowed as much water as they will drink when it is available. 
Gilchrist informs us that “the animal generally cannot with impu- 
nity support a deprivation of water much beyond 2+hours.” They 
require the water to be sweet and free from mud. Well water is 
preferable for them to tank water as being cleaner and less hable 
to contaminations such as turn the animal against it. The large 
amount of water required by elephants renders it advisable 
during the hot weather to picket them out or keep them in stations 
near small tributary running streams rather than take them into 
the jungle where stagnant pools, semi-dried tanks, and brackish 
ponds only are available as a means of water supply [Slymm]. 
Elephants prefer running water and will drink freely that obtained 
by digging holes in the sandy bed of ariver. When on the march 
[in addition to the routine watering parades] every opportunity 
should be taken of allowing elephants to drink a smal) amount of 
water which taken then is not liable to do harm if the animal con- 
tinue on the march. It is a well established rule that they should 
not be allowed to bathe or to throw water over themselves when 
heated, wild elephants seldom bathe after sundown. According 
to Slymm ‘ when elephants used for travelling have to cross a 
deep river either at: the end of the march (before the sun is up), 
or when their bodies are heated by a part of the march already 
undergone, they should not cross before the next morning or 
till the heated state of their bodies has subsided. The sudden 
cold of the water produces the same effect as a chill from extreme 
cold, which gives them the discase called “ Chowrung.” Hood 
gives the following useful details about crossing rivers and nalas 
with elephants :—Halt and allow to stand without guddees for 
half an hour before entering water. With one hundred to cross 
send four or five good swimmers across first and keep the remain- 
der for the refractory. Tie the good swimmers and refractory neck 
to neck by slip knot, and be sure each mahout carries his knife into 
to the water with him. Send a Jemadar over first to select the best 
landing place. Make much allowance for current. Send main 
body of elephants after the pioneers, 2 or 3 abreast, as closely as 


xii 


possible, this gives them confidence and they are more leisurely 
in their movements and do not distress themselves so much as 
when alone. Each animal to have a rope on, passing round its 
waist just behind the withers from which runs a short rope 5 or 
4 feet long for mahout to hold on by when he stands on the 
elephant’s back in deep water. After crossing a wide river graze 
for }—1 hour, if time is no object, on bamboo leaves or Dhullee 
(such as boughs of peepul trees), An unknown, apparently forda- 
ble, river should be crossed by a small strong naked elephant as 
a pioneer. If he became involved to his breast in sticky mud he 
could only disengage himself by rolling over from side to side, 
and the load (if on) would be lost in the mud. A place where 
there is a little water generally has a firmer bed than where thera 
is none. To construct a road over an otherwise impassable nala any- 
thing procurable should be made into bundles 6—8 feet long and 
2 feet in diameter, and handed to a well trained Koonkie who will 
stamp them well down into the mud with her forefeet. Over these 
two parallel lines of logs 6 feet apart should be laid crosswise, 
other logs close together bound firmly by strips of cane or any- 
thing available. The thicker the logs the better, but trees as 
small as 6 inches or less will do. Jf an elephant gets into a quick- 
sand the nearest articles to hand, even the guddees of other elephants, 
should be thrown to it. Ifthe quicksand is dry throw water to 
loosen it. After this or any other severe exertion elephants will 
o off their feed and become “‘soost.” Give mussalas with plenty 
a gar and they will probably drink arrack or rum (half a bottle). 
Water is also required for washing purposes. When ill 
cared for the skin of the domesticated elephant becomes harsh, 
with the cuticle much hypertrophied. Grooming the elephant 
consists of properly washing the surface of the body or rather 
applying vigorous friction. The mahouts use a special kind of 
soft stone, a lump of dry clay, or a whisp of loose nut husk for 
this purpose, while the animal throws water over himself with the 
trunk, -Aljso in keeping the feet and natural orifices clean, and 
preparing for exposure to the sun by lubrification of the surface of 
the body with oil and ghee. It is most essential that the latter duty 
be properly performed and other means must be adopted when it 
is necessary to work or march during the hotter hcurs, for ele- 
phants are very liable to suffer from apoplexy, inflammation of the 


xlit 


facial sinuses, skin eruptions, conjunctivitis, and sloughing of the 
external car and tail from exposure to the sun. The head there- 
fore should be protected by a white padding of wool one or two’ 
inches thick or the small felted cloth on which the driver sits 
ghould be large enough to project and cover the forehead (Forsyth). 
The trappings generally suffice to protect the rest of the surface 
of the body of animals carrying aload. Witha view to allowing 
domesticated elephants to give to themselves that protection 
which is adopted by wild ones they should not be prevented 
caking mud over the body surface however it may interfere with 
smartness of appearance. Good ELEPHANT ATTENDANTS are very: 
difficult to get and in proportion to the ignorance of the Euro- 
peans in charge concerning elephant management is the self 
sufficiency and positivism of the mahout. Government allows to 
each elephant one mahout (the best come from Oudh and Chitta- 
gong) who is “held responsible for the appearance and con- 
dition of his animal and should not be unnecessarily removed from 
it,” also one cooly (two when the animal is habitually violent or 
musth), Also one Bhistie is allowed per 20 elephants in Bengal. 
When 20 elepharts are in a station one Jemadar is placed in 
charge. Whena less number an experienced mahout acts as a 
Naib Jemadar. Thus the mahout must be considered equivalent 
toa “ groom” and the coolie or coolies as “ strappers”. It is neces- 
sary in engaging a mahout to see that he really knows something 
about elephants. He is very well paid and has good position and 
perquisites and so should thoroughly understand his work, but few 
are really competent although, it seems, we are better offin India 
than they are in Burma. Sanderson finds that the following are: 
the principal vices of mahouts as elephant keepers, and it will be 
inferred that with them as with other Indian servants all details 
of general management, especially the utilization of supplies in 
full for the benefit of the elephant, must be most strictly super- 
vised. Mahouts make their elephants’ comfort and convenience 
subservient to their own but are rarely wantonly cruel. They 
prevent them throwing dust and litter over themselves and rarely 
put them under a tree to protect from sun. They picket them 
tightly and uncomfortably with two chains allowing no change of 
position to avoid wind, rain, and sun. ‘They use chains either 
too thick or too thin for elephant fetters. The mis-appropriation 


xliti 


of food, oil, and firewood has already been alluded to. We may 
add to this that, although nothing scems of too little value for 
the native to purloin, be will, unless very carefully looked after, 
ruin the most valuable trappings and appointments by neglect of 
the most elementary care and by the loss of small but essential 
straps and buckles—replacing the latter temporarily by some petty 
makeshift. It requires some little experience of Indian ways to 
enable an European to appreciate the careful attention to detail 
requisite in animal management through natives of this country. 
For elephants not in regular work ExeRcIsE is most essential, 
According to regulation it is not to be during the heat of the day, 
except in emergency. Working hours are to be 5 a.m. to 10 a.m, 
and 4 p.m. to 8 P.M. or on the march from an hour before day- 
light until the day begins to get hot. Elephants seldom sleep. after 
2 or 3 a.m. and therefore are usually astir early. The shortness 
of the neck, straightness of the fore limbs, great weight of the 
head, and flatness of the forehead, which adapt the pioneer ele- 
phant to his duty of forcing a passage through the jungle, are 
utilised in getting him to push down walls, force weighty objects 
onwards, and press against a fallen comrade or obstinate camel 
until he is compelled to rise, When the elephant is used for 
these purposes the head should be protected by a shield consisting 
of a well stuffed leather pad. Evidently by conformation the 
elephant is a beast of burden. Although he can perform 
heavy draught work this scon tires him and so does pushing. 
Thus when called upon to push or drag it should only be 
where great labour is required for a short time, as in extricat- 
ing a gun or cart from a bog. The common breast harness of the 
Heavy Field Batteries may be used in case of draught but in 
emergency “ The tusks are useful for lifting heavy weights, turn- 
ing them over, or dragging thém by means of ropes twisted 
round these teeth,” Also elephants sometimes drag very heavy 
loads by means of the molars. It is most certainly a fact that 
the feet of this large animal are not adapted to stand such wear 
as results from even two or three forced marches along a level 
road when the weight bearing is altered and regulation of bear- 
ing on the soles is prevented by a considerable weight, such as a 
heavy gun, behind them—five miles a day, with frequent rests, 
is given by an experienced authority as quite sufficient for ele- 


xliv 
phants in fair condition. ‘This fact, taken with their timidity at 
the sound of fire arms, suffices to show that the elephant thus uti- 
lized is out of place in any draught Battery requiring mobility and 
to be brought to the front. It must be always kept in mind by 
Commanding Officers of Artillery that they can use such Elephant 
Batteries only over a limited range of country. In Southern Af- 
ghanistan guns were carried on the backs of elephants in the 
march from Candahar to Cabul, to which it was objected that 
enterprising riflemen in this rough country would find an easy 
mark in the bedy of the huge quadruped. In the Elephant Moun- 
tain Batteries, such as the one at Tounghoo in Burma, the animals 
in being broken-in to stand fire are hobbled by both fore-legs on 
coming into action, and any elephant which shows a tendency to 
bolt has in addition the long chain with drag ropes attached to 
one of the hind legs. These can be manned should the elephant 
run and will have a. powerful influence in stopping him (vide Moun- 
tain Artillery Manual, 1882). Elephants, also, during the Afghan 
Campaign were attached to the ordinary Field Batteries and, when 
properly used and cared for, were found generally useful. Slymm’s 
experience of timber dragging work in Burma is that Elephants 
areas much unfit for this as they are suited for carrying pur- 
poses. The dragging throws the animals into an unnatural posi- 
tion as can be observed at a single glance. ‘‘The whole of the 
pressure from the breast bands les upon the upper part of the chest, 
which forms the most delicate part of the animal’s construction. 
The cavity is very narrow in proportion to animals of a smaller 
size. They never suffer more than when used for the dragging 
of timber on hilly'localities. If not conducted with great care, 
and if they are used longer than 5 or 6 hours daily, they will 
soon show weariness” and “ pushing timber down stream is the 
casiest work for which elephants can be used, as their natural 
construction is well adapted for it. They have strong legs and 
powerful muscles on the neck and trunk. They can work on this 
during the rainy season from morning to night without showing 
any signs of weariuess. But with this work, the soles of the feet 
become very tender and apt to burst when used afterwards for 
travelling over hard and dry soil.” Properly selected, in accord- 
anco with the duties required from them, elephants are most valu- 
able on the march as beasts of burthen—when thus used they 


xlv 


can carry great weights, cover much ground, and require few 
attendants. The regulation load varies according to the size of 
the elephant and the nature of the country from 738 Ibs. (in 
Madras) to 1,640 lbs. exclusive of gear (in Bengal). The Bombay 
regulation 1,200 Ibs. (15 maunds) may be taken as the average 
and in Mountain Batteries the female clephants (74—8} feet high) 
are considered capable of carrying this load ‘at a pinch on a 
good road.” In the Abyssinian Campaign some succumbed to 
exhaustion under overweights of 1,500—1,800 Ibs. (some discre- 
tionary power being allowed to the officers in charge). Hood 
gives the following scale of loads for elephants in a hilly or moun- 
tainous country :— 
7 ft. 6 in. Elephants not to exceed 6 maunds. 


8 ” ” ” 7 _y 
9 a” ” ” 8 ”» 
10 ” ” ” 9 ” 


In a level country increase by 2 maunds. Chains, coolies, ma- 
houts, &c., weigh at least 2 maunds (Oriental Sporting Magazine). 

An excessive load is apt to tire the animal too soon, to make the 
feet sore, and to cause stumbling. This load is equal to that of 
three camels and of seven and a half ponies or smail mules. The 
large amount of elastic tissue in the elephant, the uprightness 
of his weight-supporting limb bones, and his lymphatic tem- 
perament adapt him for sustained exertion under a burden. He 
will work all day long, in emergencies remaining under his load 
even twenty hours at a stretch but, as a rule, may be required to 
go fifteen or twenty miles spending about 5 or 6 hours on the move 
and averaging a rate of some 3 miles per hour.. “ Properly laden 
and properly fed an elephant will easily do 12 miles per diem all 
the year round” (Hood). He moves ata peculiar ambling pace 
the two limbs of one side advancing simultaneously, this can for 
a short distance be increased to a fast shuffle of about 15 miles 
per hour (Sanderson). On the march metalled roads are to be 
avoided as much as possible out of consideration for the feet of 
the animal ; no part of the body is more liable to disorder, and 
complete temporary incapacity results from injury to or disease 
of these important organs; so that we may well modify the old 
saying into “no foot ; no elephant.” We shall sce this hereafter, 
but must now observe that sudden transitions from a long march 


“xlvi 


onmoist ground to rock surface or metalled road are to be avoided. 
The thickness of the horn of the sole is in relation to the amount of 
exercise and it will be found that the feet of elephants which 
have beon little exercised and are not in proper condition, have 
less resisting power than those regularly worked in moderation. 
‘he mahouts as a precaution against overwear of the feet resort 
toa process called “Cuénine,” applying a hot mixture resembling 
coal tar (one ingredient of which is generally the gum resin of the 
Sil tree) to the sole. The applications used for this purpose vary 
somewhat. ‘That referred to by Forsyth is preserved as a secret 
Recipe by the mahout ; it requires to be applied twice annually to 
an elephant working regularly on hard ground, the price of the 
operation being Rs. 24. Gilchrist gives two Recipes for Chébing— 
each contains fourteen ingredients which are either astrigent or 
adhesive or vehicles. 


I ’ II 
( 1 Aloes ...2 Ibs. Aloes....... ie ee 
; 2Catechu.1Ib. Catechu......... 43 ascie 
Equals practically equals practi- 
CGatechu.3 Ibe. 3 Tender Ink Pealte Ceteeh 
sa : nuts 43=Tender Ink nuts | °*-Y ‘avechu, 
L 43 | 128. 
(4 Sesquioxide of =Sesquioxside of } 
lead......... 83 lead... 2 tolahs. Nentialidan be 
4 5 Country goose- S enihed 
berries ...... 83=Country _goose- 
L | berries ...... 83) 
6 Wax ... 2 Ibs =Wazx...,.,... 2 Ibs. : 
hicles. 
7Jingilioil 6. ,," Jingili oil...4 ,, }ve rae 
Tolahs, 
8 Suet ... 2 lbs —White arsenic 13 Unimportant 
4, 9 Jageery. 6 ,, —Croton seeds...4 (being in too 
Vehicles 


10 Loble ic Uy Alt cnc (oo ee 
11 Black gram.43—Litharge 3 to have much 


isis value. 
C 12 Common salt 
Equals practically 1b. Columbo ...... 83 | Equals practi- 
Markingnut6 Ibs} 13 Areca......1 »  Galls.....,...... 83 cally Galls, 1 Ib. 


Gum..,...., » 1),, [14 Marking nut 5 lbs. Ink nuts... 43 


By thus analysing and examining Gilchrist’s recipes we obtain 
the following :— 


Ibs.} quid to the thoroughly cleaned, 
[.—1. Catechu powdered... 3 sole of the foot. 
2. Marking nut do... 6 ozs. 
3. Gum of Sdl tree... 14] 1I.—1. Catechu powdered... 12 
4, Wax “ere 2. Gals. cccecsensveree lbs. 1 
5. Jageery 6 B. Wax. ...cccccsones o ay 2 
6. Suet peer) 4, Jingili oil ..... oo» 4 
7. Jingili oil . 6 Melt together: apply to soles 
Melt together: apply ee li- lof feet night and morning. 


IlI.—Take a large quantity of the bark of the jack and 


palmyra trees ; boil it with plenty of water for about four hours 
till reduced to about 6 or 7 quarts, then strain it through a cloth, 
and, while hot, add the following :—~ 

Cutch ... 2 ozs. ae make the elephant to he down in the posi- 

Soda ... 2 | tion as while sleeping, the crevices or cracks 

Wax ...4 ,, {should be well cleaned of mud and sand by 

Oil ...... 2 bots. ) washing—after which apply the medicine hot 
by gently hitting the soles of the feet fora few minutes with a 
piece of rag fastened to a stick and soaked in the application, 
(Slymm). 

Government sanctions Chobe (in Bengal) but the cost per 
elephant is not to exceed 12 annas; in Mountain Batteries it is 
allowed whenever considered necessary. Various kinds of boots 
have been tried from time to time to prevent excessive wear of 
the fect but the enormous weight and peculiar movement of the 
elephant renders them of but temporary value for they are soon 
worn out even though the boot of leather be shod with an iron 
shoe. This is, however, a very useful surgical means in cases of 
sore feet, for retaining dressings, Indeed from its peculiar form, 
especially on very flat and moist but hard ground, the foot acts as 
a kind of sucker, as is concluded by Slymm froma remarkable 
accident which happened to him when on the march ‘one of my 
elephants when crossing a small river in which the water rose to: 
a little above the belly of the animal, in descending made the 
motion of slipping from the side of the stream to its middle, and 
there he remained without being able to go any further or move 
afoot. I sent men down but they could ascertain nothing else 
than that his feet were surrounded by blue clay. Everything 
tried to free the animal was fruitless, till at last, but not before 


xviii 

tho next day, I directed the nullah to be dammed up and the 
water baled out with native pots; when this was done and the 
clay below the animal was removed, we found that he was stand- 
ing upon a solid rock, upon which the form of his feet acted like 
suckers. It was with great difficulty we succeeded in admitting 
some air below the soles of his feet after which he soon ascended 
the opposite bank and after having been fed in the choung for 
more than thirty-six hours.” 

Gilchrist temarks that the elephant goes on his hind knees down 
an incline, on his fore knees up. We also are told that he can 
climb steep but soft banks of nullahs by so moulding the clay as 
to form steps for himself, but the authority for this statement is 
doubtful. It is certain, however, that in crossing boggy places, 
and to extricate himself from sloughs and quicksands he will 
place bundles of wood, branches, or fascines beneath his feet. 
In all cases as a preliminary to crossing rivers the load should be 
removed, for the weight of the elephant (over three tons) in itself 
suffices to render passage difficult when the bottom is muddy or 
of clay or loose sand. The peculiar position of the elephant in 
swimming will compel the mahout to stand on his back, they swim 
freely and for a considerable distance and are seldom drowned in 
passage of deep rivers. The great care exhibited by the elephant 
in securing a firm foot-tread has become almost proverbial, and 
he can only with the greatest difficulty be persuaded to cross any 
structure, such asa bridge, which he considers insufficient to sup- 
port his huge weight. Experience would seem to indicate the 
inadvisability of forcing the animal to cross a structure which he 
seems to consider insecure. It is not the least remarkable proof 
of the tractability of this animal, that, in spite of this instinct of 
self-preservation, he may be tanght to walk on a tight rope! 
Since a large elephant weighs with his load some 3 to 4 tons a 
bridge which will support him is probably well fitted for ordinary 
army passage. It is estimated that a loaded elephant occupies a 
space 99 square feet, and an unloaded one 11 fect by 5 feet ; and 
they cannot be made to crowd together (Sir G. Wolseley). On 
the march they generally proceed in Indian file and so consider- 
ably lengthen the column and increase the the number of guards 
required in a hostile country. Whenever possible they should 
advance in line and can be kept well up against the fighting body 


xlix 


at a rate of 3—3} miles per hour and without halts ; they will not 
be left far bchind in a 10 to 15 miles march.* Although the ele- 
phant is very sure-footed, round stones on smooth ground and 
stony roads seriously incommode him. Yet it is familiar to any 
one who has been among elephants with what facility he will walk 
along the beds of streams even although there be many large and 
sharp stones in the way, finding, somehow or other, means of 
obtaining hold for his large feet. Dry nullahs and ditches prove 
serious obstacles to the elephant for he cannot leap on account of 
the perpendicular position of his limb bones and the smallness of 
his hind-hand, a trench 8 feet wide and 8 feet deep is quite im- 
passable to an elephant. The same conditions also account for 
the liability of the elephant to fall backwards on ascending moun- 
tains when bearing considerable loads, which he is sometimes 
required to do in the emergencies of service; “ whenever they 
fall under the immense burthen usually placed on their backs they 
never rise again, even on a good road,” says Bernier, who travelled 
into Cashmere with Aurungzebe (“ Travels in the Mogul Empire’’). 
He also relates a peculiar accident in the following terms: “ The 
king was followed by a long line of elephants,upon which sat ten 
ladies, in mik-dembers and hauzes, The foremost, appalled, as 
is supposed, by the great length and acclivity of the great path 
before him, stepped back upon the elephant that was moving in 
his track; who, again, pushed against the third elephant, the 
third against the fourth, and so on until fifteen of them, incapable 
of turning round or extricating themselves in a road so steep and 
narrow, fell down the precipice.’ The absence a ligamentum 
teres to the hip is an anatomical indication that the elephant is 
best adapted for movement on level ground and also that he is 
not fitted for draught purposes. Some varieties, notably that of 
Nepaul, are better suited for mountain work, being larger behind 
in proportion to the forehand than the others, even in hilly coun- 
tries (ag Abyssinia) elephants have done good military service. 
We have already noticed how persistently the elephant stands ; 
this has been much exaggerated in early descriptions of the ani- 
mal, perhaps in consequence of Master Will Shakspere having 


* On the line of march with Artillery in India the Elephants are not un- 
frequently at the halting place before the Battery arrives. 


| 


written “the elephant hath joints but none for courtesy.’ The 
feats of our ordinary circuses disprove this assertion, still there 
are anatomical explanations of this ability to retain the standing 
position for a long time. It is said that in a state of nature the 
tusks are used as a means to support by being placed against a 
tree; and one imprisoned elephant ‘‘ employed his tusks in making 
two cavities in the two faces of a stone buttress which projected 
from the wall of his cell, and these cavities served him for a sup. 
port when he slept, his tusks being fixed in them”; so runs the 
account. But we know very well that the structures of the limbs 
of the elephant, like those of the horse, are so arranged as to enable 
the animal to sleep standing. Tennent relates a case where an 
elephant shot dead by a single bullet remained standing. The 
elephant, like the camel, is very chicken-hearted when sick, and 
will not attempt to rise, but if made to do so he will remain 
standing. Whena sick elephant lies down it is a very bad sign. 
When marching it is well to be on the road at the hour preceding 
dawn because often it is then very cold, an influence to which 
elephants are extremely, susceptible. When thoroughly chilled 
by cold weather or by use in a cold climate the animal loses its 
vigour and the circulation is retaded rand difficult to restore ; he 
struggles, shivers, fails, and grows weaker until he-dies; unless 
aroused by the timely administration of cordials, such as ardent 
spirits in doses of 1 pint to 14 pints made up into mussauls with 
large quantities of spices formed into chapatties, some of which 
should be always carried on the march in a cold country. 

The subject of Elephant Gzar anp Aproinrments is one which 
requires much and careful attention. The most approved pat- 
terns of equipment are by no means generally adopted, galls and 
chafes are the most frequent source of incapacity on service. 
The complicated riding equipment of the Mogul emperors con- 
sisted principally of mik-dembers described as small houses or 
square wooden towers gilt and painted, or Hauzes, oval chairs, 
with a canopy of pillars, superbly decorated with colours and 
gold. Now for riding purposes we use either a sort of gig body 
with hood, a Howdah (Shootur Khana), or a Chaérjameh. The 
form of Shootur Khana generally used somewhat resembles an 
“Inside” Irish Car. The Sportsman will find a good description 
of Howdah and equipment in the “ Field” for 29th April 1882. 


hi 


The Chérjamch is like an “ Outside” car without the Well.” 
Some pads are convertible into riding saddles by addition of foot 
boards. Sanderson has introduced a special riding saddle or 
charjama which “ seats four people comfortably, has large leather 
wallets for clothes and odds and ends ; and weighs only 120 lbs.’’ 
Indian Commissariat Code: Appendix 41, para. 1780 gives the 
Regulation Scale of Blephant Gear (approximately) as follows :— 
(a) 1 Guddeyla of quilted numbda. 
(6) 1 Guddee of strong gunny stuffed with rushes, or with 
Shola (which is lighter). 
(c) 1 Neem guddi (or iron saddle in lieu). 
(d) 1 Jhool. 
(e) 1 Neck rope* and Ct Certain portions of these 
(f) 1 Girth rope and Paytie ropes are sheathed with lea- 
ther to prevent abrasion of the skin. An iron tube 
to surround the rope under the tail to prevent galling 
is under trial. Oil is allowed for soaking the leather 
aroand the ropes, also for the rope under the tail. 
(g) 1 Load rope. 
(h) 1 Ratib bag (Dana-khorie). 
(i) 1 Tawah (Iron Chupatti plate). 
(Gj) 1 Leather bucket or dolchi, with rope. 
(k) 1 Bherie or Undhoo—a hobble for the fore feet. 
() 1 Bhundunt or lungur—a long chain for fastening the 
hind leg. 
(m) 1 Kanass for fastening the bherie to the ground. 
(n § 0) 1 Iron gumaila and 1 broom per elephant, as line gear. 
(p) 1 Sirhee or head cover per elephant 
(g) 1 Akree. 
(r) 1 Spear to four elephants 
(s) 1 Sulletah. . 
(Small neck bells are useful in the jungle in the event of th 
animal getting loose at night). 


(In Bombay). -_ 


* These ropes should be of jute and not too tightly twisted; handmade 
ones are the best. Cotton ropes (2 in.) are necessary for Houdahs, 1} in. 
for Charjahmchs (Hood). Kellawas are rings united by plaited rope used 
as stirrups. Paytics are, properly, breastplates of well tanned thick cowhide 
through which the rope that passes round the elephant’s body goes. 

¢ Hood considers 2 Bhunduns necessary and insists that all these chains 
be as light as is consistent with the necessary strength, 


hi 


(a). The Guddeyla may be of felt covered above with gunny 
or stout doosootce, below with coarse cloth or quilted cloth about 
1} inches thick and six fect square, thus reaching half way down 
the animals sides and from nape of neck to croup. It should be 
large enough to allow of the ends: folding under the guddee,. 
front and rear, to keep it level (Hood). 

(b). The guddeo or pad used at Hoonsoor consisted of two 
bags of gunny filled with rushes each 4 or 5 feet long, 1 thick, 
and 2 broad, and joined sideways at each extremity. That in 
common use is only a pad 9 inches in thickness, 5 feet broad, 6 
feet long consisting of stout sacking stuffed with grass. “The 
outer case should be of stout upccuntry path, sewn with strong 
skin—each elephant should have his own guddee; he should 
wear it a few days when collecting fodder, it will thus become 
limp and its upper surface can be filled with a thin layer of grass 
to prevent the solah cutting through the cloth. The sides of the 
guddee where the ropes press should be protected with leather 
or bamboo” (Hood). 

(c). Over this the neem guddi, resembling a small Hoonsoor pad, 
is sometimes placed—and the whole retained by a loading rope 
which is specially arranged to form girth, croup and breast strap 
as follows “one end is converted into a loop, sufficiently large 
nearly to surround the body of the animal and the pads. It is 
tied on the top, the double rope is thence passed simply round 
the neck, then along the upper sides of the pads, then below the 
tail, and finally tied again at the place of the first knot on the 
top” (Gilchrist). The average weight of the whole is 200 lbs. 
Sanderson’s Elephant Pad or Saddle * consists of 2 pads or 
pillows entirely detached, each 4 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 
6 inches thick, consisting of blanket covered with tarpaulin and 
encased in stout sacking. One of these is placed on each side of 
the spine and retained by two connecting arches of Tiron. There 
aro rings for the breast strap and crupper to hook on and these 
only come into play in steep ground. The girth hooks on to the 
saddle on the off side and is drawn tight on the near by a rope 
6 feet long. In G. O., 23rd August 1882, No. 4502 of Madras, 
Sanderson’s Elephant Equipment is dealt with in detail—Part I, 


* Vide his paper in Journal of the United Service Institution of India— 
July 1880, 


Conor more 


NECK ROPE, WITH 
se LEATHER SHEATH, 


CRUPRER ROPE 


WITH LEATHER SHEATFY ------- GUDDELA 


Bs 
Lean? 


OLD FATTERN BENGAL BAGCAGE CEAR. 
{ARTER SANDERSON.) 


Ss g or ~ = > 
a ee 


A. Thick hempen rope, padded and bound with le 
B. Saddle of wood, covered with a plate or ieee ey, 4 
©. Girth and breeching of white cotton Yope sewn together. 
9. Iron plate and staple. i 
E.Thick cotton pads. 
& beeen strapping to ditto. 

»Crupper, white co n a 
¥. Chain Wee te ls 


SHAFT ELEPHANT OF HEAVY FIELD BATTERY GUN. 
(From THE ARTILLERY manuac.) 


PLATE, 3. ALEX. BARREN, LITHOE®, MADRAS, 1608. 


liii 


describes the present gear and its defects, of which the principal 
are injury to the back from pressure of the posterior cross pad of 
the guddve, which under superincumbent weight becomes almost 
as hard as wood—also the fact that “in going down hill the gear 
moves forward, because, the girth, breast rope, and crupper being 
in one, a pull at any point takes up the slack elsewhere, the hind 
cross pad then mounts the spine and causes pressure.” A saddle 
tree is cbjectionable on several grounds—the improved equipment 
is characterized by freeing the spine from Pee and heating, 
by cutting away the guddela and guddee a'ong it, unstuffing 
the rear cross pad, and covering the opening along the spine by 
a fender or load guard. ‘The forward cross pad is retained over 
the withers with a view to giving a maximum extent of bearing 
surface. The longitudinal opening in the guddela and guddee 
are prevented from gaping by cross bands. The saddle or load 
guard consists of 3 arches of T iron united by four longitudinal 
bars, hollow but with short solid cores and nuts at their ends. 
The upper bars carry two revolving bobbins for the girth. Four 
rings at the corners receive the breast and crupper ropes. The 
lower two bars are each to be wrapped with rope to increase the 
bearing on the pad and a netting of rope should be stretched 
between the top bars. The girth is so arranged as to be re-ad- 
justable on the march and capable of prompt division if a laden 
animal gets into difficulties. The neck rope and crupper are quite 
independent and come-at-able. The crupper is covered with a bent 
piece of galvanized pipe. 

Part II, gives instructions for using Sanderson’s baggage gear. 
The disadvantages of extra weight and increased cost are more 
than covered by the advantages. Its inventor claims for this 
saddle that it is beneficial because no saddle cloth is required 
and the spine remains unpressed upon for its wholelength, the 
load resting upon the upper part of the ribs. It is much less 
cumbersome than the old arrangement and less liable to be 
enormously increased in weight by absorbing moisture in wet 
weather. Also the girths, crupper, and breast strap can be tighten- 
ed without removal of the load—the latter is more stable and less. 
liable to displacement. Nor is exact equiposition of the load neces- 
sary as on the old pad, thus the improved saddle is much better, 
especially in hilly countries. Foot boards can he attached so as 


liv 


to render it useful for riding purposes or a gun cradle fitted on it, 
available also for mortars and carriages—undoubtedly this saddle 
is a great improvement on all others and we see that the New 
Code allows use of an “iron saddle” in lieu of the neem 
guddi. Gilchrist suggested as an improvement on the Hoonsoor 
method of equipment that the gunny used be tanned with the 
bark of Cassia Auriculata and that for the rope, which although 
sheathed with leather frequently causes galls, be substituted a 
wide (12-14 inches) belly-band of gunny stitched to the numdah 
on the off-side but laced on the near. Also a breeching connec- 
ted in front with the lower angle of the numdah behind, from 
which also a band should run to the lowest part of the girth 
which it would prevent puckering forwards. Also a breast band 
kept in position each side by a rope from the withers. The load 
to be attached by ropes passing through eyelet holes in the lower | 
edge of the numnah. 

In all cases the pad must be of full size and well stuffed, and its 
stuffing regularly renewed and constantly seen to for it is very 
liable to get rotten, especially in wet weather (when the skin 
is peculiarly liable to chafe), and so to prove a fertile source of 
galls. The pad must be fastened on firmly and in the proper 
way. It must, like the inside of a horse’s saddle, be kept 
soft, clean, and dry—if left on when thoroughly saturated 
with perspiration (and without provision for a free current of air 
along the back) it softens and relaxes the skin, “ draws” it as the 
process is popularly termed, and so renders it liable to gall. Hur- 

vied, careless packing must be avoided by order, system, and 
strict supervision, in so far as circumstances will allow. The load 
must be well and evenly divided over the back (avoiding all pres- 
sure on the spine) and so arranged that it may not, by its centre 
of gravity being too high, upset the animal, or by swaying too 
frecly produce galls. Finally it must be firmly and tightly fixed 
so that it may not loosen and shift, and all parts liable to gall 
may before work be freely dressed with ghee. All parts of the 
equipment must be kept in good order the ropes especially 
being kept soft and pliable. The ropes and other fastenings must 
be tightened after the animal has gone a short distance on the 
road for they invariably loosen somewhat with work. And ad- 
yantage must be taken of the halt to see whether the animal is 


PTCNT WALES 


yr 
= a, Z. 4 is 
ar a ai @ — Gi eal Freie pameoos 
be fT ae, gee ar 


ee 
an = at 
Qiicoee) 
Cay. At | f 
it boat 

MG Aw dig i 


a 


fe if 

ee ok A 
a 
aah 


PART OF EUROPEAN PRIVATE TENTS ON ELEPHANT. 
N¢ 1, LOAD (arteR HAYTER ¥ KELLY) 


is ee ed wow ee 
SIT GUN ELEPHANT 


(rRom GRAPHIC 24,0eT1 as.) 


PLATE, &. : ALEX: BARREN, LITHOS MADRAS, 1685. 


ly 


becoming in any way galled or chafed and to dovise measures 
for removing-any injurious influence which is found to be at work 
by means of pads, stuffing, bandaging, &c. 

The old pattern harness for the elephants of Heavy Field 
Batteries, drawing 18-pounder guns and 18” howitzers, consists 
of :—The large pad which completely covers the animal from 
the withers coming well on the quarters and down both sides low 
enough to prevent the skin from being chafed by either the shaft 
or draft chains ; over this large pad is a smaller one to protect the 
back, and over it again a very thick pad stuffed with straw on 
which the saddle is placed. The saddle (the arches of which 
should be wide, so as not to gall the shoulders with its front points) 
is used only as the means whereby the girths can be attached, 
for the elephant pulls from the girth by means of a hook attached 
to a plate on the girth to which the draught chain and shaft chain 
are hooked ; then there are the breast piece and crupper attached 
to the saddle to prevent it shifting forward or backward; the 
back-bands for holding up the shafts ; the breechings which hook 
on to the shafts and are used for backing a gun down a slope, 
and the stirrups made of rope only for the drivers feet to rest on. 
The harness of elephant both shaft and leader weighs about 4 
cwt.—the former has to carry over 2 cwt. as the weight of shafts, 
(Handbook for Field Service, 1867). Each gun with its carriage 
and limber weighs about 83} cwt., each Howitzer 66 cwt. 

The new pattern harness differs only in some minor improve- 
ments from that just described. 

The-9-pounder Batteries in Afghanistan in 1879 mustered 22 
elephants each, the guns, carriages, limbers, and ammunition 
boxes were carried in cradles resting on thick pads. The cradle 
for the gun supported it by an arch at the breech and one at the 
muzzle (which points to the rear). Itis found that the gudee- 
laks become very heavy when wet, and retain the sweat and keep 
the animal’s back moist, being liable to cause galls. 7-pounder 
(200 lbs.) guns also are carried on elephants. A squad of 12 men 
can dismount gun and carriage, put them together and fire a 
round under four minutes. The elephants must kneel on pads 
or soft ground otherwise they are liable to jump up at a critical 
moment (Handbook for Field Service, Vol. I). 

‘Weare indebted to Slymm’s work for the following information 


lvi 


as to the gear used in British Burma for weight dragging, which 
is entircly a native production, The dragging band is made of 
bark as being the cheapest material and always procurable. The 
saddle is in the form of two X connccted together with cross 
sticks under which hides are placed and somctimes pads, but still 
the weight of the log which is being drawn causes the saddle to 
squeeze the back. He suggests as a uscful modification that a 
saddle tree to fit the back be used over pads, also he recommends 
plaits for tying the saddle and hides instead of ropes, 

The spear used by the elephant drivers is called Ankuss, Hen- 
door Kookee, or Guz-baz. The Guz-baz is a heavy goad of iron, 
but the Kookee, a light iron hook fitted horizontally on a stick 2 
feet long, suffices for ordinary purposes, it is often resorted to 
most cruelly as we shall have to note hereafter when treating of 
diseases of the head.* It should be applied only behind the ear. 
A jhool of some thickness is most valuable as a protector from 
cold at nights and from heat during the day—sometimes the 
jhool is worn over the equipment, under the load. In the rainy 
season it is very necessary and is to be covered with a paulin 
while the rain is falling (Para. 1788, C. C. of 1882). One spare 
elephant in ten will be found sufficient in the performance of 
ordinary duties. 

In accordance with Para. 1681, C. Code of 1882, a descriptive 
register of all Government Mlephants is to be kept at every sta- 
tion showing their names, age, sex, height, blemishes, temper, 
tusks, value, and when and whence originally obtained. 

The art of elephant driving is decidedly a speciality—many 
of the movements of the animal which seem to be spontaneous 
are the result of scarcely perceptible hints from the driver, who 
occupies a special seat on a cloth above the neck supporting 
himself by two rope stirrups, Kellawas. Sanderson informs us 
that the so-called “ decoy” elephants act entirely under the com- 
mand of their riders. He also gives a description of the method 
of training at present adopted:—“The new elephants are first 
tied between two trees, and are rabbed down by a number of men 


* In animals which are apt to run away cither as a vice or frightened by. 
jungle fires (which sound like file firing), the Andoos, an iron fetter of 3 
joints with spikes on the inside of it, may be put on foreleg; a rope runs 
from it which should be held by the mahout. 


RRC My UN j i 


anil 


ee 


at 


(Rom A PHOTOGRAPH.) 


BURMESE ELEPHANT MOVING LOGS. 


ALEX: BARREN, LITHOG: MADRAS, [885 


PLATE, 5. 


lvii 


with long bamboos, to the accompanyment of the most extrava. 
gant eulogies of the animal, sung and shouted at it at the top of 
their voices. The animal of course lashes out furiously at first, 
but in a few days it ceases to act on the offensive, or as natives 
say “shurum lugta hai” (It becomes ashamed of itself), Ropes 
ure now tied round its body, and it is mounted at its picket for 
several days. It is then taken out for exercise secured between 
two tame elephants. The ropes still remain round its body to 
enable the mahout to hold on should the elephant try to shake 
him off. A man precedes it with a spear to teach it to halt when 
ordered to do so ; whilst as the tame elephants wheel to the right 
or left the mahout presses its neck with his knees, and taps it on 
the head with a small stick, to train it to turn in the required 
direction. To teach an elephant to kneel it is taken into water 
about 5 feet deep when the sun is hot, and upon being pricked 
on the back with a pointed .stick it soon les down, partly to 
avoid the pain, and partly from inclination for a bath. By taking 
it into shallower water daily, it is soon taught to kneel even on 
land. Elephants are taught to pick up anything from the ground 
by a rope with a piece of wood attached to it being dangled over 
their foreheads, near to the ground. The wood strikes against 
their trunk and forefeet and to avoid the discomfort the elephant 
soon takes it in its trunk and carries it. It eventually learns to 
do this without a rope being attached to the object.” The pro- 
cess adopted in Ceylon is similar even to minute details. Tennent 
in describing it says that those Elephants which are most violent 
at first are generally the most effectually and early subdued— 
the sullen and morose are rarely to be trusted in after life. 
Those with a thin trunk and flabby ears are the most vicious 
and troublesome to tame and the most worthless when tamed. 
Lieut. Johnstone states that it is an excellent plan to scratch 
newly captured elephants with fasces of split bamboo, it makes 
them docile because they enjoy such treatment very much. Train- 
ing at the Depét lasts 2 months, and in 6 months’ time the ani- 
mals are fit for Sawari occasionally, but it is a fatal mistake to 
work them until after the second rainy season. The immense 
power of the animal renders it a fortunate thing that the best 
training can be carried out by the judicious giving of rewards, 
such as spice-balls and other tit-bits or fining offenders their 


lili 


allowance of jaggery or sugarcane. Although the elephant is 
naturally of a mild and even timid nature he may be trained to 
exhibitions of ferocity and cruelty against men or other animals 
and even against other clephants. The state executions in Ceylon, 
and often in other parts of India, were performed by elephants. 

An elephant enraged is a fearful object; his bellowings are 
terrific. He charges his enemy with resistless force, seizes him 
with his trunk, and dashes him against the ground, tramples him 
under foot, or crushes him beneath the knees, sometimes endea- 
vouring to transfix him with the strongand pointed tusks, although 
this is a matter of difficulty on account of their direction which 
ill adapts them as organs of offence. When less excited, he has 
been known to hurl stones and other such missiles at the object 
of his dislike, and in opposing one another, elephants, watching 
their opportunity, charge and upset the enemy on his side. They 
have a curious dislike for small animals, such as dogs, and in an 
encampment this dislike ought to be respected. Tennent attri- 
butes this to fear lest the dog should attack the feet, organs of 
which the elephant is most careful. It is well known to be dan- 
gerous to encounter elephants by night, for they have a most 
acute power of smell, and hear with facility. They make sounds 
differing under different circumstances, indicative of rage, appre- 
hension, satisfaction, and other feelings, and the mahouts learn to 
‘discriminate between these. 

One of the few vices of elephants is “ bolting’—generally 
the result of fear. Sometimes blind- folding suffices to check the 
flight but Hood urges the advisability of putting on the hind leg 
of an elephant liable to bolt a Bhundhun, the other end of which 
should be lightly attached to the guddee, so that in the event of 
the animal trying to rush off into the jungle the end of the chain 
can be easily disengaged and thrown down on the ground when 
it will lap round some tree or stump and arrest the flight. 


lix 
INTRODUCTION PART III. 


ON THE ELEPHANT AS AN ANIMAL OF TRANSPORT, 
The value of any animal for army transport purposes depends 
upon a number of considerations as to his qualities, mental, moral, 
physical, and vital, and consequently is not to be decided off- 
hand in a mathematical and commercial manner, although exact 
calculation and economics give us a basis upon which to work. 
In the first place, the normal load of a full-sized elephant is 15 
maunds—on service it may be estimated at 8—10 maunds (say 
800 Ibs.). That of the pack mule and bullock is 200 lbs. (say for 
service 160 lbs.). That for camels is four maunds (say 240 Ibs. 
for service). That for small mules, ponies, and asses about 100 lbs. 
Thus we conclude that on service the loads are proportionately. | 
Pony, ass, or small mule: Elephant: : 1: 8. 
“Pack mule or bullock : do ::1:5, 
Camel : do ::1: 34. 
The number of attendants required (according to Colonel Mac- 
Gregor) is camels, mules, and ponies, | man to 3. 


Bullocks ... oe See ey eo 
and we have seen that the allowance for 
Elephantsis ... .. 2mento 1, 


‘Therefore by use of Elephants instead of Ponies there is a saving 
in attendants in proportion to load carried at the rate of 2: 24, 
but in other animals there is a loss, thus Camels 2: 1, Pack mules 
2: 1%, Pack bullocks 2: 1. ; 

Thus elephants require more attendants than most other trans- 
port animals provided they be allowed two per head. This pro- 
bably would not be the case on service where the fodder would be 
supplied by the Commissariat and thus the grass-cutter not be 
required. Again it must be remembered that Col. MacGregor’s 
estimate is contrary to the conclusions deduced from the Abys- 
sinian expedition where it was found that there should be one 
attendant to each pack animal. ; 

All transport animals require skilled attendants. In Abyssinia 
it was found necessary to wait until Panjabi Muletcers had heen 
imported to replace the useless non-descripts who had been cole 
lected for charge of the mules, before the transport could be 
organized, Thus although the Mahouts must be experienced men 
this is no drawback to the relative value of elephants for trangs 
port. Probably there are proportionately as many skilled Mahoutg 


lx 


available as there are Serwans or Muleteers. Of course the loss 
by desertion, sickness, or death of a Mahout would be wore seri- 
ous than that of a camel or mule driver. 

We must next deal with the relative mobility of elephants. As 
a matter of fact they will do ordinary or even forced marches with 
easo, moving 3-3} miles per hour and they are capable of doing 
this for 10 or 12 hours at a stretch. They can do with little sleep, 
their limbs are specially constructed for long slow work, and for 
rest in the standing position. Endurance, capability of forced 
marches, and a high daily average rate of progress may be put 
down in favour of the elephant and he may be relied upon to keep 
up with an ordinary army or baggage train. Havelock in march- 
ing to the relief of Cawnpore heard that the rebels were assemb- 
ling at Futtehpur to obstruct his advance, he sent 150 of the 5th 
Fusiliers in haste on elephants to attack them. 

Sanderson has shown that his Department is able to supply as 
many elcphants as are required at present and in the event of 
even considerable increase in requirements would be able to meet 
the demand. But the question of procurability can not thus 
readily be dismissed. In writing on the Looshai Expedition, Col. 
Roberts (now General Sir F. Roberts) has shown that out of 157 
elephants told off for the left column, 51 were incapacitated by 
the journey to the base of operations. This reduction in num- 
bers by one-third is very serious, although perhaps it was advan- 
tageous to the column since “ survival of the fittest” left only the 
most useful animals available. It seems too, that Koonkies, 
“trained decoy elephants which are not supposed to be used for 
baggage purposes and are quite unable to carry any but the light- 
est loads,” also newly captured elephants and zemindaree ani- 
mals, many of them quite untrained, constituted about three-fifths 
of the elephants supplied; this was in 1871-2, Mr. Sanderson wrote 
ten years later. Although elephants can be transported by rail it 
is certain they cannot be moved with such facility as the smaller 
pack animals, thus the numbers of them available for any expedi- 
tion are limited. We shall show that, in satisfactory accordance 
with this, the purposes for which elephants can be used in army 
transport also are limited. Thus we can conclude “ we have evidence 
to show that elephants for transport can be supplied, with equipment 
and attendants, in sufficient numbers to meet ordinary requirements 
for active service’’. Dealing now with the question of fodder we 


Ixi 


must first enquire whether the elephant can be fed economically 
and with facility on service. We have the ascertained facts to 
work on, that in almost every expedition in which they have been 
utilized some of these animals have died directly from starvation 
and others from the effects of malnutrition. Also that even in times 
of peace many suffer from under feeding. Cost of food sinks into 
insignificance during operations of war, the necessary amounts 
must be procured at any expense if possible, We will not deal 
with the question of actual money expenditure, which will vary 
with the locality and according as war prices are permitted or 
forbidden by the authorities. In most countries the great bulk 
of fodder required for elephants is not procurable, the small 
amounts of local supplies requiring to be very largely supplement- 
ed from the base. An elephant’s ration of bhoosa for work on 
service may be put at 200 lbs. per diem, deduct for local supplies 
of grass, leaves, boughs, &c., 50 Ibs., then 150 lbs. per diem per 
elephant remains to be supplied by the Cominissariat. This would 
suffice for double the equivalent of donkeys, pack bullocks, camels, 
or mules. The grain rations of the different animals in proportion 
to their carrying power may be considered practically equal. 
Therefore the fodder bulk requisite is a very decided objection to 
the use of elephants on service ; an objection which increases with 
their distance from the base of operations. With regard to the 
power of obtaining food for himself, the elephant requires wide 
range and a considerable time for feeding, conditions seldom ob- 
tainable on service. According to present methods a great deal 
of care is required in preparation of his food and when ready it is 
of a nature to prove too great a temptation for a hungry cattle 
attendant. This too is liable to increase the number of starved 
elephants with a force. 

On the march if 400 elephants occupy a mile, an equivalent 
number of camels will occupy three miles, and of mules or ponies 
six miles. Thus elephants ina convoy are economical in the matter 
of guards and space. They are more conspicuous than most other 
kinds of transport animals and their loss is relatively more serious, 

However, tho value of the elephant is seriously reduced by his 
non-adaptability to draught. If put in harness he at once loses 
much of the relative advantage his weight, size, and strength 
give him. It is here the bullock and the mule have the great ad- 
yantage. A mule or bullock in a cart is for transport purposes, as 


xu 


far as load is concerned, the equal of an elephant. with the incal- 
culable advantages of requiring less food, fewer attendants, and 
less general attention—but with the disadvantage of being limited 
to roads fit for wheeled traffic. The elephant is available for 
draught only when severe work is to be done for a short time, con- 
sequently it is an advantage to have equipped elephants with any 
force having guns or a heavily laden baggage or siege train. In 
a sandy country when the bullocks refuse to move he will draw 
a heavy weight faster even that horses, in crossing muddy or 
sandy beds of rivers, and in narrow ravines, where there is not 
room for a team, his great strength renders him useful. It isa 
mistake to suppose that the elephant cannot work in a hilly coun- 
try. Asa matter of fact he has done good service both among 
mountains and on the flat, in thick jungle country and on open 
maidan. This is only what we might expect from a knowledge 
of his geographical range. ‘Tennent records the discovery of a 
spore of elephant on a high mountain peak in Ceylon. However, 
it must be remembered that some elephants are better adapted 
than others for work inacountry of special physical conformation, 
plain elephants for plains, hill elephants for hills. Continuous 
work especially in draught over hard roads or rocky ground is 
apt to cause sore feet—which, however, is especially liable to 
result when the animals.are used with undried feet on hard dry 
ground. Stony ground proves trying to laden, and especially 
overloaded, elephants, who stumble and may fall or bruise their 
feet severely. An unladen elephant will pass without accident 
over very rough ground. 

The elephant cannot be objected to on the ground of want of ver- 
satility—he can do work in more ways than most other animals 
and with an amount of intelligence, or at any rate methodical per- 
formance, which is most admirable and valuable. But the trans- 
port work for which he is most useful, the carriage of large 
tents, and other nondivisible bulky and weighty articles, is be- 
coming of less importance now than previously, and it cannot be 
doubted that as a general transport animal the elephant has “ seen 
his day.” He does not stand climatic change well, being seriously 
affected both by cold and heat if they be extreme. Although aa 
inhabitant of the tropics and naturally nocturnal in his habits, 
yet when domesticated he requires careful protection from the 
sun during day and from cold in the night. Although he actually 


xiii 


has received but little European supervision, he requires to be 
carefully tended, for he cannot be considered a hardy animal like 
the mule or the ass. He is apt when neglected to suffer from sore 
feet, and galls of various kinds, and is liable to several epizoo- 
tics or rather panzootics, such as Anthrax, Foot and Mouth 
Disease, and Variola. To the male there is the physiological 
objection that he is liable to the periodical sexual furor known 
as musthee. Thus elephants are no exception to the rule, as deter- . 
mined from Abyssinian experience, that, Transport animals re- 
quire constant veterinary supervision, and there should be an 
adequate veterinary establishment with each Division of Trans- 
port. The amount of care required in the ordinary management 
of these animals is not greater than should be given to all those 
other species on which the value of a Transport service depends. 
The elephant, however, has hitherto not only shared in the general 
neglect, but, through diffidence on the part of Europeans, due to 
their ignorance of details of his management, has, both in health 
and disease, been left entirely in the hands of natives. I. V.S. 
Oliphant in his valuable Report of Operations in the Kuram Val- 
ley, pertinently says “ The native driver or mahout appears to 
reign pretty nearly supereme in the management of these useful 
and valuable animals, and | think it a pity that means are not taken 
by Europeans to attain more knowledge of their habits and dis- 
eases.” That elephants are incapacitated on service by sore feet 
and sore backs is due to want of adequate veterinary supervision of 
transport—indeed, it may be said, to want of supervision by officers, 
of any kind, so few are posted to such an important duty. The © 
habits of the elephant are very simple, but strange to say are not 
generally known, most popular ideas about him being sentimental 
and fictitious. His mentaland moral qualities are in the main such 
as are suited to render him useful as a working animal—he is easy 
to train (especially by kindness), will readily repeat any work he 
has been shown how to do, and seems in many cases to work with 
a will—he is patient under labour and very tractable—indeed, if 
we are to believe some people, he is a big, goodnatured, pliable 
fool! He has very little courage, for although at times he will 
fight well, against other elephants or tigers for instance, he is 
somewhat deficient in pluck as a rule, bolts from the sound of fire 
arms, and has been put to route even by such a small animal as 
adog. Indecd he objects to most sinall animals—dogs, pigs, 


lxiv 


and such like—and is said to have an unconquerable dislike for 
poultry. He is apt to be boisterously playful at times and by a 
sudden broadside charge at a laden elephant to send him sprawl- 
ing on the ground. 

We may state in Summary. 

I. The elephant as an actual weight bearer is most valuable. 

II. He is very difficult to feed, therefore, but few can be al- 
lowed to the Front on service. 

ITI. But a few are very useful there to assist guns and other 
heavy draught over awkward places—whether sandy, 
muddy, or narrow. 

IV. In siege trains, for slow draught movement of heavy guns, 
for carriage of scaling ladders, &c., &c., elephants legi- 
timately find'a place. 

V. At the Base, and along the line of communications, where 
they can easily feed and are not exposed to attack or 
capture, elephants are a most useful means for the trans- 
port of heavy baggage, stores, and munitions of war. 
In this respect they are an excellent substitute for wheel- 
ed transport if roads be impracticable for the latter. But 
they cannot advantageously replace carts and waggons 
or Traction Engines when the roads are fit for draught. 

VI. The spread of Railways and metalled roads lessens the 
need for Elephant Transport—but in unopened jungly 
country the elephant is invaluable for Commissariat pur- 
poses. ‘Thus wherever there is a want of good roads from 
the base the Elephant finds his proper place as an animal 
of Transport, he is there more useful than any other ani- 
mal, and will to an important extent compensate for the 
impracticability of wheeled transport. 

VII. To Engineers the elephant proves most useful for shifting 
heavy guns, for moving heavy beams, and other weighty 
articles, in throwing down walls and in various other 
ways. 

VIII. Once the elephant acted the part of Artillery in War— 
breaking up compact masses of Infantry at once by the 
weight of its charge and by the dread its appearance 
gave rise to. It is now used at ine front for artillery 
purposes only in carrying small guns, or in drawing 
those of Heavy Field Batteries. 


PART IV: THE PATHOLOGY OF THE ELEPHANT. 


CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION. 


General Considerations : The study of diseases of any animal 
passes through phases of development. At first those people who 
have charge of the patient in health deal with him under 
disease, guided only by tradition and individual experience. This 
empirical method generally doesmore harm than good ;itthwartsthe - 
reparative efforts of nature ; it ignores sanitation and prophylaxis, 
and it tends to the multiplication of Recipes. Next, the impor- 
tance of the subject attracts the attention of some regularly edu- 
cated medical men, who throw some light on the pathology of 
affections, make post-mortem examinations, and combat the use of 
charms and potions in treatment ; but they have not the special 
knowledge of Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and Thera- 
peutics necessary to guide them in treatment. So the practical 
handling of disease remains in stati qué. Finally, scientific 
and practical dealing with discases of the animal is undertaken 
onthe basis of accurate observation, appreciation of previous work; 
and knowledge of scientific methods. Our knowledge of the dis- 
eases of the horse long ago emerged from the second stage, and 
is now a true and well established branchof science. Of the ox we 
know less, but our knowledge of his diseases has been systematised, 
and we are now making rapid strides on true lines of progress. By 
this series of papers I wish to enter stage three of pathology of the 
Elephant and to give a sound basis for future advancement, a point 
@appui for future efforts. Ishall show that although we know 
something about the symptoms of diseases of Hlephants, such know- 
ledge is marked by a want of accuracy and exactness ; that we have 
much tolearn about respiratory sounds, pulse, chemical composition 
of the body fluids, and internal temperature ; also it is evident that 
the symptomatology ofthisimportant animal requiresto be worked 
up with care. There can be no doubt now that the diseases of 
elephants are as numerous, complex, and amenable to treatment 
as those of other animals, but until their study is made ona 


2 


scientific basis, the management of elephants under disease must 
remain somewhat cmpirical, and the man best acquainted with 
the manners and habits of the animal will have the advantage. 
“The diseases of elephants are little understood by Europeans ; 
anda knowledge of their treatment, with few exccptions, is confined 
to half a dozen or so old Jemadars in the service in the Commis- 
sariat Department. Some of these men are acquainted with reme- 
dies that will effectually cure the worst forms of disease elephants 
are liable to, but the ingredicnts of the medicines in most instances 
are very expensive. Their skill, therefore, is seldom tested, as 
beyond afew annas per month, no allowance is made for medicines 
to sick elephants.” (Hood) The little that has been done in this 
direction is eclipsed by the large amount of work that remains to 
be done. The patients are very valuable, and mostly belong to 
the Government ; 7 therefore is incumbent upon the authorities 
to do their duty, and make arrangements for the scientific and 
' systematic study of the diseases of the elephant. The infrequency 
of remains of dead elephants in their native wilds has been 
commented upon, and therefore it has been urged there should 
be no necessity for a separate study of elephant pathology. 
It is probable that internal parasites prove troublesome to the 
wild elephant, and that insects and other partial ectozoa torment 
him; nevertheless, the infrequency of disease in him is attribu- 
table to the simplicity of his life-conditions, But we take ele- 
phants from their native wilds, and submit them to conditions of 
domestication without those hereditary adaptations to the domes- 
ticated state which we find in most of our other beasts of burden ; 
that the effect of this is not a fearful mortality is due to their 
large size and great value, which to an extent protects them from 
cruelty, and from being housed in ill-ventilated stables. It also 
ensures a reasonable amount of attention being paid to them, 
but, nevertheless, the death roll of captured elephants is high. 
There is an idea very prevalent that diseases of the elephant are 
in most cases not detectable until the animal is about to die and 
also that his disease-resisting power is small. Asa matter of fact 
the disease is not detected earlicr because we are generally igno- 
rant of the signs of deviation from health, we do not resort to exact 
and nice means of diagnosis, and the management of elephants 
is generally left entirely to natives. Certainly the domesticated 


3 


elephant has but little discasc-resisting power, as compared with 
the horse for instance, but cases of disease in him are not tr eated 
carly, they are left to run their course until matters are desperate, 
and then, only too often, treated with drasticand debilitating agents 
where tho system especially requires support. We speak, too, 
of want of disease-resisting power of the camel and the sheep, 
because we know very little, comparatively, about their diseases, 

Once sick, an elephant is, of all animals, the most difficult 
to cure, and, I may say, is the least understood of any in 
the domesticated state. The diseases they are liable to, however, 
mainly follow on loss of condition, and it is most unusual to find an 
elephant ailing when in proper form.”—(Hood). 

“The general signs of anelephant being ill are langour, want 
of appetite, and want of sleep, The eyes become watery and 
contracted, the colour of the mucous membrane or lining of the 
mouth and tongue loses its rich pink tint, and becomes either 
whitish or vory red with black on the palate, The light spots on 
the head and trunk lose their healthy appearance. The pulsation 
is in many instances 90 or 100 in a minute ; the animal becomes 
very thin, and the skin gots a greyish, dirty appearance.” (Slym), 
A dilated pupil, ochre colour of the white parts of the skin, 
excessive brightness and clearness of the cye, absence of that 
incessant motion of tail, trunk, ears, or feet which is seen in the 
healthy elephant, are signs of something wrong, and when an 
clephant is in perfect health, if patted smartly with the hand, the 
hairs penetrate one’s fingers and make the flesh tingle. (Hood), 
With regard to causzs of discase, the elephant when properly 
managed very seldom suffers from disorder. His derangementa 
and injuries are the result of want of care through laziness or in~ 
difference, of wilful injury or mismanagement, or of culpablo 
ignorance of the means of preserving health, We shall show 
that he is not exempt from epizootic and communicable disorders, - 
most of which can be conveyed or transmitted to him by other 
Transport animals such as bullocksand camels, Weshall show that 
much remains to be detcrmined concerning the exact nature and 
communicability of these disorders, some of which, by imped- 
ing transport operations in Afghanistan, yet proved of value as 
affording qualified Vetcrinary Surgeons opportunities of observa- 
tion, of which they made good use, The bulk of tho animal 


4 


under consideration has somewhat impeded progress as rendering 
post-mortem examinations, surgical operations, and medical treat- 
ment more difficult than in the smaller animals. It also has 
impresscd the generality of mankind with a dread of enquiry 
about, and interfcrence with, so formidable and extraordinary an 
animal. As we have elsewhere said, we believe many observations 
and records of cascs of disease of elephants are stored up in the 
note books of Army Veterinary Surgeons, who have served or 
are serving in India, and it is to be hoped these and any official 
Reports on this subject will be made public. The largeness of 
the patient has, also, necessarily somewhat magnified the size of 
surgical implements over the ordinary ; but we are of opinion, to an 
unnecessary degree the bulk and amount of doses and ingre- 
dients. 

In our chapter on Therapeutics, we shall deal with this 
question, but here we may remark that in reading Gilchrist’s 
account of mussauls as recommended by the mahouts, we are 
reminded of the treatment of the horse in England in the time 
of Gervaise Markham, as given in his “ Way to get Wealth,” 
and of the barber surgeons of the middleages. The processes 
of preparation are most elaborate; ingredients of the most 
diverse actions, sometimes numbering eighteen to twenty, 
are taken, prepared, and compounded with the utmost exact- 
ness. Sometimes this can only be done on a holy day, or they 
require to be buried near the grave of an elephant and left 
there fora cortain time! The receipts can be ascertained only 
by the greatest pertinacity in enquiry. An important ingre- 
dient is disemboweled frogs with their legs cut off! A suspi- 
ciously large number of the ingredients mentioned by the 
mahout are useful for his own curries. 

We are told that the use of cathartics in the treatment of 
diseases of elephants is unknown to the natives, and that their 
medical theory is, “Treatment must be directed either to in- 
crease or decrease the body heat.” Their experience has rightly 
led them to adopt the stimulant plan of treatment in most cases, 
although Gilchrist, in 1841, introduced free bleeding and the 
use of cathartics, no matter whether for Zérbéd or for Inflam- 
mation of the Lungs, and suggested remoyal of blood to the 
extent of one to one-and-a-half or two gallons, to be repeated 


5 


if necessary. Our experience in the present day is not in favour 
of depletory measures such as the medical theories of his time 
led Gilchrist to suggest. 

Those who have examined Gilchrist’s works on the camel, 
bullock, and elephant, will admire the energy he brought to his 
task, his zeal in extracting practical information from native 
sources, and his boldness in taking on himself the duty of 
pioneer in this unbeaten track of medical science. If he bleeds, 
purges, and generally depletes in almost every disease, he but 
follows the current medical system of his time as applied to dis- 
orders of lower animals. If he does not launch into scientific 
dissertations on his subjects, we must remember that our then 
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of these animals 
would not allow him to do so, and he wisely viewed the matter 
with an essentially practical eye, and wrote for men with vory 
elementary notions on medical science. 

It only remains for us to impress on our readers the urgent 
necessity for experiments and observations on clephant patho- 
logy and for record of all conclusions arrived at and facts ascer- 
tained, each of which has a scientific and practical value. 

It will be observed that we have utilized freely all records 
accessible to us, and, we hope, have not failed to give “honour 
where honour is due.” To Gi.curist is undoubtedly due the 
credit of having laid the foundation of the scientific study of 
elephant pathology. 


CHAPTER Il: ON THE GENERAL DISEASES 
OF THE ELEPHANT, 

These disorders are among the most important we have to 
notice, and present some problems for discussion and future 
solution which have the highest pathological and practical 
interest. The various derangements which may, roughly, be 
comprehended under the terms Debility and Asthenia are 
numerous, frequent, and fatal, but it scems that very much 
may be done to prevent and cure them. Again, the specific 
disorders of the Elephant acquire a very great interest and 
importance in relation to those of other animals. We must lay 
the more stress upon these latter because until quite recently 
their epizootic and communicable nature has been ignored ‘and 
it is only in isolated reports that we find them touched upon. 


6 


Secon 1 :—Non-Specific Disorders of the Blood. 

AsrneniA (Desriiry). There are many causes which may 
give rise to want of condition in the Elephant. Overwork, 
underfeeding, the use of coarso indigestiblo fodder, disorder of 
internal organs (such as the Liver), Internal parasitos all tend 
to give rise to gradually increasing emaciation, the face and trunk 
become diminished in size, the templehollows increase much and 
the patient shows weakness, and listlessness. The skin becomes 
dry, rusty (often whitish), harsh, rough, and scaly. The hairs fall 
from those parts where they are found in health, The appetite 
becomes very capricious and, often, depraved, the animal eats 
earth, likes to find something cold to play with in the end of his 
trunk. The feeces are irregular in colour and consistency and 
generally of an unpleasant odour. These signs of disorder 
develope gradually and the case is usually chronic. At its 
latter stages dropsy of different parts of the body sets in, 
Jilchrist mentions a debility which follows abuse of mercurial 
preparations. (idema of the limbs is generally described as a 
distinct affection but it is only one of the symptoms of 
advanced debility and as such must be treated. In these cases 
the blood is depraved and contains an excess of water with a 
deficiency of red corpuscles. Treatment of ordinary debility 
must be by careful regulation of diet and work, and adminis- , 
tration of iron and vegetable tonics also occasionally of the 
stomachic aromatic vegetable products. In cases of dropsy, 
Diuretics may be given with judgment and exercise whenever 
possible is very essential. 

Zuarpav (Zaarbad, Zaarba’hd, Zérbad) is described as the 
most formidable disease to which elephants are liable, so it is 
very important that we should clearly determine what is meant 
by this term which is one in general use among those who have 
charge of elepbants. 14 is certain that the term is applied to 
cases of debility with dropsy. The Symptoms are either acute or 
chronic. In the former case they commence as swelling around the 
throat which extends down the neck and finally occupies the sub- 
cutaneous tissue of the lower part of the chest and belly, the 
swelling which results isvery marked, and when it is tapped a quan- 
tity of fluid of a serous nature flows gencrally with freedom. One 
or more of those symptoms may be absent. The Asthenia is pro- 


Z 


tracted, the case sometimes lasting for months and resulting in 
Paraplegia and death. In chronic cases blind boils (Nunjee) 
occur beneath the belly especially. They appear like ordinary 
boils (Russoolec) but do not suppurate, after a time they gradually 
disappear. They are associated with the general signs of Asthenia. 
Forsyth applies the term “ As?’””’ to acute cascs and Sikha to the 
chronic form. 5 

One very important question suggests itself which carcful 
observation and experiment alone can scttle. Is there a specific 
form of Zérbad? The general opinion is that the disease is 
soietimes epizootic and communicable, but there is always a 
tendency when a number of similar cases occur simultancously to 
attribute them tocontagion. In many outbreaks of Zérbddin certain 
places the same influences affect a number of animals. Thus when, 
as is very frequent, it follows rocent capture it is no doubt. attri- 
butable to the debilitating effects of climate and to errors of diet, 
or when it depends on the presence of parasites a number of these 
from the same source may have invaded several elephants simul- 
taneously. On the other hand, there are the following considers 
ations which afford a good basis for the belief that one form of the 
disease hasa specific character :—There is sometimes an incipient 
febrile stage ; swellings appear in the positions of the lymphatic 
glands and extend thence; a fatal result sometimes ensucs in36—48 
hours ; several animals are often simultaneously affected ; and 
{it is said) the effused fluid may communicate the disease. 

Forsyth speaks of troublesome sores resulting and Gilchrist of 
extensive sloughing and mortification of the external generative 
apparatus—but we have never observed these complications. Wild 
animals, even, may be affected especially during the monsoon and 
cold weather. ‘The disorder is very frequent as a result of the 
hardships and exigencies of campaigns. Post-mortem examination 
shows enormous dropsical accumulations not only in the subcn- 
taneous areolar tissue, but also in the serous cavities, including 
that of the spinal cord. Also the depraved state of the blood 
and other signs characteristic of anwmia are present. 

Comparative pathology.—Gilchrist says “with the exception of 
the swelling of the parotid glands this disease very much resem- 
bles, in its symptoms and appearance shown by dissection, the 
acute form of the disease to which in the Northern Circars the 


8 


human being is subject, known by the name of Beri-beri ; and it 
is a singular fact that several of the horses, belonging to the 
officers of the Goomsoor Force (1837-38), died from an affection 
the symptoms of which, were very similar to those detailed above 
as obtaining in the affection of the elephant now under consider- 
ation.” Now it would not be at all remarkable if horses and men 
showed signs of Asthenia so as to resemble simple Zérbéd so that 
it is probable that Gilchrist hore alludes to the blind boil form as 
resembling Beri-beri of man. We are not prepared to state 
whether the two diseases are pathologically equivalent. It seems to 
be this latter form of Zérbid among wild animals of which ‘ Young 
Shikarry” writes from the Malay Peninsula; he found expelled 
from the herd a sick animal which “had only one stumpy dis- 
coloured tusk and from head to foot was covered with enormous 
boils as large as duck’s eggs and as thickly spread over him as 
small-pox covers its victims. Not a square inch of the animal 
was free from disease, the ears and inside of the mouth and tongue 
were one mass of running ulcers. The trunk was percolated with 
holes like a nutmeg grater, whilst the ear hung like dirty rags, 
scemingly only held together by the dry matter with which they 
were covered.” When he was alive the poor brute made a 
wretched cracked sound like the yapping of acur. Another, alarge 
cow, had a big boil on the temple and also one under the fore- 
legs: some natives attribute this to a guinea worm peculiar to 
certain districts, cthers say that it periodically attacks whole 
herds and causes death of numbers of those going to the coast 
not of those returning from it: perhaps the sea salt cures any 
tendency to it. Such extracts asthe above effectually do away 
with the idea that the wild elephant never suffers from disease. 
Treatment: The treatment for Zérbéd is that recommended 
for Asthenia ; Stimulants, Tonics, and (with judgment) Diure- 
tics. Purgatives and Bleeding as recommended by several 
authors can orly do harm and may account for the great fatality 
which they set down to the disease. Hood advocates Quinine in 
drachm doses with Sulphate of Iron in ounce doses, also avoidance 
of succulent fodder but free use of stimulant Aromatic Cherrai, 
such as Peepul, Burgot, Bamboo; also a short bath twice a week 
only, and to keep the animal under cover, but give exercise daily. 
He omits the Quinine in the dry form of the disease. Sander- 


9 


son sensibly suggests “Freedom from unnecessary restraint, 
liberty to graze at will, or if that be impossible a thorongh 
change of food from dry to green or vice versi according to 
what the animal has been having when the disease appeared ; 
and protection from all debilitating causes such as exposure to 
the sun or inclement weather are the best preventatives and 
restoratives.”” Slymm’s suggestion that the animal be “ let loose 
to graze and find itself the various medicinal vegetables which by 
instinct it isin the habit of eating’? is open to the objection that 
as we have seen, the disease may in some cases be communicable ! 
“Tt is an undoubted fact that elephants when sick seek forand 
devour certain plants and creepers, which at other times they will 
not care-to touch; and if allowed to graze daily in the jungle 
merely hobbled, will rapidly regain health and condition. Gilchrist 
tells us that the accumulated serous fluid may be drawn off with 
a trocar and canula or by puncturing the swelling with a fleam 
having a blade 1} in. wide. 

Simpte Fever as a disease per se, seldom or never occurs, but 
when dependent on internal Inflammation or preceding a specific 
disorder it is sometimes severe. Symptoms: Animal dull, off 
feed, thirsty, pulse accelerated, trank cold and contracted, other 
extremities and the ears generally cold. The first symptom may 
be a shivering fit. Urine scanty and reddish in severe cases, in 
others white and muddy. The animal tries to cool himself by 
throwing water over the body and in bad cases there isa frothy dis- 
charge from the eyes (Gilchrist). Treatment: Careful nursing 
and a laxative dose of medicine followed by diffusible stimulants 
and diuretics. Bleeding will seldom be required. ‘The diet must 
be light, cooling, and digestible, and the animal freely supplied 
with water. 

RueEuMatism, as might have been anticipated, from the large 
amount of fibrous tissue entering into the structure of the 
elephant is a common disorder especially on the march and in the 
rainy scason from exposure to cold and wet. It also is apt to 
supervene on the animal when heated being taken to water. 
Symptoms : The joints are principally affected, the shoulder being 
most often involved. The signs are swelling, acute inflammation 
of a fugitive nature and liable to recur, giving rise to lameness 
which may shift its seat from one limb to another. Treatment: 

2 


10 


principally preventative in avoidance of the causes. Comprises 
local applications of stimulants, anodynes, and fomentations. The 
benefit of medicines administered internally is doubtful. 
Secrion 2. Specific Disorders of the Blood. 
Phevropyeumonia Zysotica. Under the name “ Epidemic 
disease of the Lungs” Dr. Macdonald, in the Topographical 
Report to the Madras Medical Board, has described an outbreak 
of disease among Elephants on the Tenasserim Coast in 1839, 
which assumed the epizooticform. He says (but the italics are our 
own) “It began in Moulmein, after the mortality ceased among the 
bullocks, some time in June. Previous to this elephants through- 
out the provinces died in immense numbers. Post-mortem examin- 
ations were made in many of these cases, and, save in two 
instances, when death appeared to be the result of Peritonitis 
(in one of which rupture into the abdominal cavity had taken 
place), all died of disease of the Lungs in various stages of 
congestion and very frequently suppuration was present. Is 
was observed also that generally one side of the chest only 
was affected, the other lung being fairly healthy. Among 
those who died in the first outbreak of the disease the lungs 
were absolutely black throughout their whole structure, more 
like the spleen, save in its tough membranous intersections, 
than the lungs. This was so general that in our first examin- 
ations it was a matter of doubt what was health and what 
was disease; but in progress it was ascertained that the healthy 
lung is of a pale, fleshy, firm, elastic substance while the diseased 
structure showed every shade, from the florid appearance of active 
Inflammation to the black apoplectic condition, this, when cut into, 
giving fortha frothy purulent ewudation. The animals continued 
to work till the hour of their death.” The italicised passages will 
be very significant to any reader acquainted with cattle pathology, 
and it is evidently very important for us to know whether the 
communicable pleuropenumonia of cattle can affect the elephant ? 
This is not at all improbable, if we consider that elephants and 
exen suffer in common from several diseases such as Foot and 
mouth disease, Anthrax, and Rabies, but these affect also animals 
of many other species. So we must look a little more carefully into 
this question of communicability of diseases of oxen to elephants, 
and then we find that there is a disorder known as Epizoortic 


li 


DysrnTrery or Murrarn which has been observed in Ceylon. 
The description of it is quoted by Slym as follows:—“ The 
disease is contagious and attacks old as well as young animals ; 
the symptoms are of a most distressing nature ; want of appe- 
tite, the ears drop down, and the hair stands on end, severe 
griping pains of the stomach and bowels, the animal strikes its 
head on the ground and rolls about with pain, the dung is 
mixed with blood and of a very offensive smell, 80 per cent. of 
the animals die of those which are attacked by this disease.” 
This information is not sufficient to enable us to say positively 
that the elephant suffers from Rinderpest ora disease patholo- 
gically equivalent to it. We also are not yet ina position to 
state whether or no that disease of the Elephant known as 
“ Bloody Urine” is the disease which in the oxis known vul- 
garly as “ Red Water.” 

Anturax. This terribleand protean disease, so fermidable to 
horses and cattle in India does not spare the elephant. From 
time to time most serious outbreaks have been recorded but of 
these, the most detailed has been given by Veterinary Surgeon 
Frost, then of the R. A. (See Veterinary Journal, Vol. VIT., 1879). 
We venture to give the following summary of facts and ob- 
servations recorded therein. 

V. S. Frost’s paper. Post-mortem examination No. 1.—Gela- 
tinous effusion in axillary areolar tissue; anthracoid tumour (6 in. 
to 8 in.) in region of left parotid; effusion in gastro-splenic 
omentum ; spleen ecchymosed, weight 374 Ibs. (5 Ibs. being the 
normal) ; under surface of stomach, sub-lumbar and super-penial 
areolar tissue laden with deposit; 34 to 40 oz. of scrum in peri- 
cardium, of the colour of diluted venous blood; coagula in heart ; 
gelatinous deposits and ecchymosis of heart. 

Symptoms.—23rd. In morning lameness of left legs; refused. 
food (?); no sleep. 

24th. Left side apparently better, having been fomented ; 
kept getting up and lying down; refused all food; slept a little 
that night. Given a cathartic, which acted slightly. 

25th. Worse; a large swelling observed behind left ear. Sat 
on haunches and bit the trunk. Died at 4-30 p.m. 

Post-mortem examination No. 2.—Anthraxof bowels, and tumours 
against penis ; blood in vessels fluid; spleen 24 lbs. ; liver 614 Ibs. 


12 


Tlistory of the case: 27th June, 4 p.m., observed to be limping 
when brought to feeding place from shed ; ate rice and straw, no 
sleep during night and ate very little; favoured left hind leg on 
account of pain. 

28th. A swelling between the two hind legs, on right of penis, 
was observed early this morning. On being taken out of the 
shed the animal drags the left hind leg, ate charab freely from 
9-80 to 10 a.m, passed urine of a whitish colour at 9-45 a.m., and 
appeared to have no pain in doing so. Passed about a glassful 
ofa dark, watery excrement. At 11-30 a.m. passed, with diffi- 
culty, excroment of the usual description, denoting food well 
digested. At 12-30 pat. drank a few small buckets of well water, 
and appeared refreshed. 2 P.M. lively and healthy-looking ; 
eating charab ; excrement of a healthy nature. 4-30 P.m., during 
this night no sleep, and the swelling at hind legs grew larger. 

29th. Between 8-30 and 9 a.u., animal becoming worse ; the 
eyes changed froma bright appearance toa black colour; the 
tumour greatly enlarged since 6 a.M., and the creature weak, with 
a watery discharge from both eyes. At 9-10 a.m. it fell down in 
the shed, suffering from pain and biting the trunk. (Notes by 
Cattle Sergeant). 

Seen by V. S. Frost, on 29th June at 9-30 a.m. Tumours cold 
and painless on incision ; pulse 68; pupils dilated to full ; breath- 
ing hurried ; animal down and in great pain. This animal was at 
first lame of left hind leg. Died at 10- -10/a. M. 

These are very typical cases of the disorder in question and 
they serve to elucidate one point which has hitherto perplexed us 
for they show clearly that the ‘“ Specific Zharbad is Anthrax.” 

Mr. Frost tells us, “Jolay,”’ or Anthrax, is very common in 
British Burmah. The soil is retentive, and at the commencement 
of the monsoon vegetable decomposition is very active. The 
water is contaminated with every kind of filth, for surface drainage 
finds its way into the tanks. About thirty elephants daily washed 
in the tanks at which they were watered ; natives also wash in it, 
and bullocks defecate in it. 

There cannot be the slightest doubt in the mind of any one who 
enquires carefully into this matter that Anthrax has been the 
cause of death in very many cases attributed to other influences. 
Familiar as we are with its manifestations in man and domes- 


13 


ticated animals we are aware that it assumes many forms 
ranging from the carbuncular, most frequently scen in man and 
the least fatal, to the splenic, intestinal, and pulmonary forms as 
seen in the ox and horse. The form described by Mr. Frost 
reminds us of those known as “ Blackleg,” (technically Inflamma- 
tory edema) in cattle and the carbuncular form combined. Al- 
ways, as inthe former disease, commencing with lameness and lead- 
ing to death, and as in the latter characterised by local tumours, 
which most frequently first appear in the lymphatic glands of 
the limbs and by so doing afford us important information as to 
how the disease originated. Anthrax is due to fungal organisms 
entering the body through apparently: insignificant wounds 
either on the surface of the body or of the mucous membrane of 
the alimentary canal. It is admitted that these parasites cannot 
enter the body so long as the skin and mucous membranes 
remain intact and it is highly probable that the glands which are 
first swollen in an attack are these which lie on the path of the 
lymph vessels from the wound to the blood. Thus it would 
seem that in the elephant the gates of entry for Anthrax fungi 
are generally wounds of the limbs. These need not be large and 
conspicuous, slight abrasions, foot wounds, even gnat bites 
might suffice. However sometimes the swelling first appears in 
the parotid region, then entry probably took place through the 
abraded mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx. Let us 
now look through Gilchrist’s work and see what passages may 
allude to Anthrax : 

(1). “It would appear that the Elephant is sometimes, 
though rarely, seized with an cpidemic affection of a nature 
similar to the Budda Azar of the Bullock (Phrenitic cattle 
plague). The name Budda Bhao is more especially given to 
this fatal variety of the disease.”’ 

(2). Mumps “is a rare affection, but has been known to occa- 
sion death after the second or third day’’—perhaps this is “Gloss: 
Anthrax.” 

(3). The Epizootic Inflammation recorded by Dr. Macdonald 
may have been pulmonary anthrax, but we are inclimed to doubt 
whether it was so. 25 elephants are recorded as having died of 
lung disease at Tonghoo in 1860, the main mortality being in April 
and May. The outbreak was evidently not simple lung disease. 


14 


(4). “Ghut Bhao (apoplexy of the lungs) is the name given 
by the mahawuts to a very fatal affection of the lungs, and one 
which also shows itself epidemically. It is said, indeed, to be 
the form in which affections of the lungs generally appear in 
epidemic visitations. The premonitory symptoms of the invasion 
of this disease consist in the appearance of hard tumours at the 
back of the car, and inside of the top of the foreleg, after a 
variable period, usually 24 hours. The animal then leaves off 
feeding and soon shows symptoms of delirium sometimes of a 
furious kind. It falls down, limbs become convulsed, and dies 
after an hour or more from the commencement of the disturbance. 
About the year 1810, I am told that the Government Elephants 
then stationed at Goa were seized with an epidemic affection of 
the above kind, with the exception of the appearance of tumours. 
It proved fatal to every animal attacked” and was evidently 
Anthrax. 

(5). Jolay ka Murz, (termed by Gilchrist, Palsy of the Hind 
extremities) from the facts that phrensy and high coloured urme 
are marked symptoms, and that it proves very fatal may in some 
cases be a form of Anthrax. 

(6). As also may the disease described as Bloody urine. 

(7), And the blind boils mentioned by Gilchrist possibly are 
often Anthrax Carbuncles. 

The idea conveyed to the reader by the above remarks will 
probably be, that almost any fatal disorder may be Anthrax. 
This disease by its different forms certainly resembles many 
others, but detection of the Anthrax fungi in blood or serum of 
the affected animal is proof of the true anthracoid nature of the 
case but want of detection is not always proof to the contrary. 
These fungi are obtained directly or indirectly from animals of 
the same or other species for we are not yet acquainted with a 
species of vertebrated animals to which the disorder cannot be 
communicated by inoculation. It is probably Anthrax inocula- 
tions from elephants of men making post-mortem examinations 
which are alluded to in para. 1792 of the Commissariat Code 
which instils the necessity for adopting precautions against in 
oculation. The prevalence of Anthrax amoug our cattle and 
sheep is a standing menace to our elephants whose drinking 
water and fodder is liable to contamination with the Anthrax 


15 


fungi. Treatment: must be mainly preventative in carefully 
avoiding contaminated water and semi-dry tanks made use of by 
cattle. Also in curing as rapidly as possible even apparently 
insignificant wounds of the limbs, in complete destruction by 
cremation of the carcases and excreta of animals which die from 
this disease. In isolation of diseased animals and carefully sus- 
taining the strength of those which are not yet affected but have 
been exposed to contamination. Sick animals must be treated 
with stimulants and tonics. Also such agents as chlorate of potash, 
carbolic acid, and sulphite of soda may do some good, and the car- 
buncles must be freely incised and dressed with oil of turpentine 
andammonia. Animals once thoroughly affected seldom recover, 
but Anthrax runs its course in the elephant more slowly than in 
any other animal we can think of except man, and thus increases 
the chance of good results from treatment. 

Rasrzs is apt to follow when an elephant has been bitten by a 
dog affected with this disorder provided the wounds be not 
promptly cauterized or excised. Dr. Gilchrist has some cases to 
record. ‘A mad dog, about five years ago, appeared in the 
elephant lines at Hydrabad. It attempted to bite several ele- 
phants but was by each driven away. During the night it 
attacked an elephant when asleep and bit it on the trunk, 
The bite marks having been distinctly observed next day a little 
oil was applied but nothing more was done; and nothing parti- 
cular occurred until a month after the infliction of the bite, when 
decided symptoms of delirium suddenly supervened. During 
the first three days the animal took fodder, ratib, and water, but 
afterwards took nothing. Jt did not appear to be afraid of water, 
as it drew it into its trunk and squirted it about, and did not 
drink any. It continued furious for two days, not allowing even 
the Mahawut to approach, after which it fell down and died sud- 
denly.” Capt. F. H. Hood B.S. C. contributes to the Oriental 
Sporting Magazine, ITI. 1870, an article, “In Memoriam; Begum,” 
of which the following is a summary :—She was bitten, a mere 
scratch, on end of trunk by a pariah in September 1869. 
Wound cauterized and medicines administered, 10 days of illaess, 
for first three suffered great agony and it was necessary to 
remove her from the sheds, as she commenced to pull them down. 
She was tied safely to a tree and soon became most violent. After 


16 


first day refused all food and water and towards the evening of 
the third she fell down, apparently exhausted. On the evening 
of 4th day with one great convulsive gasp she expired. The 
carliest symptoms were excessive tremblings of her hind quarters, 
convulsive twitchings in her trunk and limbs, accompanied with 
obstinate retention of urine, and an angry and inflamed appear- 
ance of the scar on the trunk. A man and bullock which had 
been bitten by the same dog both died mad, as also did an ele- 
phant which probably had been bitten. 

We are not informed whether there was method in the madness 
of these elephants as contrasted with the indiscriminate fury 
found in phrenitis. In the event of the elephant having been 
bitten by a mad dog, even after due precautions have been taken, 
he should be kept for months under strict supervision and shackled 
if any signs of extraordinary behaviour are manifested, and if 
madness sets in he should be shot. No medicine should be given, 
for the mahouts remedy, containing Bahg ka gosht (tiger’s flesh) 
and aul Bunnath (red flannel) are “the former difficult to pro- 
cure and the latter most difficult to swallow.’—(Slymm). 

Foor anp Mourn Drserasp, Eczum,a Epizoorica, Ktitlé was 
very well described by Gilchrist in 1851 who said it “ had all the 
characters, except that of being contagious, of the affection of the 
Bullock called Moopaung.” We now know that it is the same 
disease as the contagious Eczema of cattle. Our knowledge of 
this disorder as affecting the elephant is principally the outcome 
of observations made during the Afghan War by Veterinary 
Officers of the Kuram Field Force. I. V. 8. Oliphant in his 
official report mentions it as a severe disease termed by the 
natives “ Bhow,” which in one case led to a fatal result from 
Irritative Fever and in several to the shedding of the hoof 
slipper. (Vide Quarterly. Journal of Veterinary Science in 
India, Vol. 1., 1882-3.) Symptoms: The disease generally com- 
mences with difficulty in feeding, but some fever probably un- 
noticed, has preceded this. Large blebs, about the size of a 
Rupee occur in the mouth, and the lining membrane of the trunk 
is similarly affected, indeed from the manner in which the trunk 
and mouth are used in feeding and drinking they can scarcely 
escape mutual contagion! The blebs (commonly called vesice) 
burst or their epithelial wall is torn off them and the bright red sen- 


17 

sitive layer of the mucous membrane is exposed. Later the feet 
become iavolved, attention is first drawn to them by lameness and 
some swelling of the soft parts around the outer margin of 
the hoof slipper. On examination some purulent stinking fluid 
may be found oozing from under the horn. The change most to 
be dreaded here is that pus may under run the whole sole and 
lead to shedding of the hoof slipper. When, however, this 

casualty occurs the case is not to be given up as hopeless, for so 

simple is this horny investment of the lower part of the limb that 

it can be well reproduced in the course of time. The fever sub- 

sides and recovery rapidly takes place in uncomplicated cases. 

Treatment. Except the application of astringents ‘locally, the 

protection of sore fect by a boot, isolation, and disinfection, but 

little is required. Considering the liability of Inflammation to 

run to excess in the feet it is advisable to give a laxative, Perhaps 

the following is the best, Tamarind pulp and common salt of each 

eight ounces given with the rice. Care will also be necessary to 

prevent the ulcers of the feet and trunk from becoming the seat 

of maggots. It must be remembered that Foot and mouth 

disease is highly contagious and can be communicated to all mam- 

mals and birds. It very frequently appears among the Transport _ 
Cattle of Indian Armics, and proves a very serious impediment to 
. advance. With care and watchfulness it is not a fatal disease to 
the elephant but neglected cases prove scrious and tedious. 
Occasionally it is said that, as in tho smaller mammals, the 
eruption invades the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal 
giving rise to exhausting diarrhoea and death. 

VanioLa ELeraanti, usually described as “ Small-pox” of the 
elephant, is probably the form of variolous disease peculiar to 
the species. We have no evidence that it is small-pox communi- 
cated from man nor any other form of animal pox. Much has to be 
learned about it, but thus much we are sure that sometimes an 
epizootic occurs among clephants characterized by variolous erup- 
tions generally on head, chest, and trunk. Sometimes the eyes 
are invaded and opacity of the cornea (even causing blindness) 
takes place, generally this is purely temporary. This seems to be 
the cisorder alluded in the following extract as “an epidemic 
disease, corresponding to murrain in cattle (cattle plague) from 
which wild and tame clephants suffer at long intervals. It at- 

3 


: 13 


tacked the elephants of the Government stud at Dacca, in Bengal, 
about 30 years ago, and carried off nearly 50 per cent. of a total of 
upwards of 300. It lasted, with varying virulence, for more than 
ten years. ‘The animals in best conditions suffered most; cnly 
two, both in poor condition, are recorded as having recovered 
after seizure. The symptoms were: breaking-out and gather- 
ings on the throat and legs, spots on the tongue, and rupning 
from the eyes, with the cessation of the flow from the eyes the 
animals died, usually on the second day after attack. In 1862 au 
similar epidemic carried off large numbers of elephants in the 
Chittagong forests, a few years later the herds in the Kakankoté 
jangles in Mysore were attacked ; but the mortality was not great 
and the disease soon left” (Thirteen years among the Wild Beasts 
of India). ‘The description of symptoms is not ample enough for 
exact diagnosis. The disorder is seldom severe among adults, 
internal treatment and preventive measures as sugyested for Foot 
and mouth disease may be adopted. ‘The seat and nature of the 
cruption will enable the observer to readily distinguish between 
these two disorders. 

Having thus indicated the epizootic disorders to which 
the elephant is Hable we must, finally, point out that they 
are generally communicable from and to other species. 
That such hygienic preventative measures as modern 
science suggests are possible and should be rigidly enforeed in 
all cases of communicable diseases of clephants. They are, prin- 
cipally, isolation of affected or suspected animals, disinfection of 
saddlery and other appointments with destruction cof the least 
valuable. Cremation of litter, carcases, and exereta(especially dung 
and urine), disinfection of lines, and then, if possible, a change of 
station for the healthy. It must be remembered that medical 
and ordinary attcndants can convey these diseases, unless great 
care be exercised. Prevention and repression are better than cure. 
T have known Bullocks affected with Foot and mouth disease 
“isolated” by being put among the elephants |! 

Statistics of Elephant Mortality. 

Tennent shows that, out of 240 elephants employed by the 
Ceylon Government which died in 25 years (1831-56), when the 
duration of captivity was known it was under one year in about 
50 per cent. ; of these 3 were females. The following are enu- 
erated as the causes of 34 deaths between 1841 and 1849 :— 
Swellings of Jaws and Abdomen, 9; Cattle Murrain (?), 10 ; 
Sore fect, 1; Colds and Inflammation, 6; Diarrhea, 1; 
Worms, 1; Diseased liver, 1; injuries froma fall, 1; General 
debility, 1; unknown causes, 3. 


19 


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At first sight it will seen that these statistica tend to disprove 
some of the statements in the text. After carcful examination, 
aad making allowance for inaccuracies and inexactitude, I con- 
clude that the reverse is the case. One thing is certainly made 
very clear by them, that very many Government elephants are 
lost by disease annually and that this involves a heavy drain on 
the public purse. 

Eepnant Porsonina 

Is sometimes carried out rather extensively by natives whose 
crops have been destroyed by invasion of herds. A writer in 
the Asiatic Researches, Vol. XV., p. 183, describes how in some 
parts of Bengal (especially near the wilds of Ramgur) the natives 
poison elephants by mixing a preparation of the poisonous 
Nepaul root called Dakra in balls of grain and other materials of 
which the animal is fond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago, 
mineral poison was laid for them in the same way and the car- 
cases of eighty were found which had been killed by it. 

Mercurtat eorsoninc.—The formation of tumours over the 
body, progressive anemia, and even disorders of the feet have 
been attributed to the empirical use of the compounds of mercury 
in too large quantities. There can be little doubt that nature 
has provided the elephant with a discriminating instinct by 
means of which he is able to avoid ingestion of substances of 
poisonous properties among the numerous and various plants. 
offered him as food. To the disappointment of the traveller, 
elephants enlarged among apparently beautiful pasture grass will 
often reject it in favour of less plentiful and much less inviting 
food. A good mahout in preparing the fodder will reject those 
substances, which, as experience has shown him, are usually left 
uueaten by his elephaut. 


CHAPTER JII: ON THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 


The most remarkable facts about the Blood Circulatory Appara- 
tus of the Elephant from an anatomical point of view are :— 
The Heart has two points, its sides being separate towards the 
apex, this organ very scldom has fat in its grooves, and the. 
blood pours into it from the front of the body by two large 
vessels instead of a single antorior vena cava. The veins form 
in the temporal region, about the front of the chest, and in other 
parts large networks (especially predominant about the bends of 
joints) and in these the flow of blood is doubtless much retarded 
while the animal is in a state of repose, and from them it is 
driven more rapidly when the animal is moving. This anato- 
mical fact is associated with the small development of the 


22 


Lymphatic system, and both show that nature has adapted the 
animal for a somewhat sluggish, but long life—for long continued 
slow work. The most notable peculiarity of the Elephant’s blood, 

tho smallness of its corpuscles (relatively, although, absolutely, 
they are among the largest nonnucleated corpuscles known) 
arranges for the limited supply of oxygen for tissue waste. 
The characteristic features of the circulatory system are juvenile 
and not highly special—thus the organs which compose it are but 
little liable to disease. There is not vigour in the system of the 
Elephant to enable him to withstand serious disorder, so he is a 
“bad patient,’ and his disorders assume the asthenic (weak) 
type and require to be treated in almost every case by means of 
stimulants. We are not prepared to state the use of two fibrous 
cords which pass from the back of the pericardium to blend with 
the elastic tissue covering the front of the Diaphragm. These 
bands are themselves elastic. 

The Punsz, taken at the posterior auricular artery, averages 
about 49 beats [25-28 in Europe (Colin)] per minute, its indica- 
tions as to the presence or absence of fever and internal inflamma- 
tion are fairly reliable. We feel for it at the root of the ear, 
somewhat behind, but it requires a good deal of practice to be 
able to take the pulse of an Elephant satisfactorily. The same 
vessel may be utilized for the abstraction of blood, however this 
operation is one which will seldom be required for the Elephant, the 
only cases in which it is admissible being those of Brain disorder 
(Inflammatory or Apoplectic) or of Inflammation of the Facial 
Sinuses; in fact itis a useful measure in cases of “ Sunstroke”’ and 
may thon be performed byopening the artery behind the ear witha 
common abscess lancet. Phicbotomy, the opening of a vein, cannot 
be performed in the neck at the jugular because of the smallness 
of this vessel as compared with that of most other quadrupeds, the 
greater part of the blood returning from the head by one 
much more deeply placed in the neck. There are mechanical 
difficulties, too, in the way of bleeding—the skin is so thick that it 
must first be divided and then the wall of the vessel punctured 
with an abscess lancet. The patient also-requires to be secured 
by fetters; and the vein (generally the large one inside the thigh) 
raised by a ligature passed round the limb above the scat of 
operation. The amount of blood to be removed should not be 


23 


much, the pulse and general condition of the patient will be our 
guide. 

Wounds of Bloodvessels are to be treated on ordinary sur- 
gical principles, such as by pressure, ligature, and application 
of hot iron to stop the bleeding. In case of emergency con- 
tinuous cold water affusions are the best means of restraining 
bleeding, or it may be necessary to pin up the wound; the 
haemorrhage is not likely to prove fatal although seriously. 
debilitating in some cases—an exception to this rule is an 
injury to the T»unk, complete severing of the extremity of 
which organ leads to speedy death from blecding, although 
partial ablation has not the same serious effects (Vide a letter 
by Mr. Sanderson recently published in the Englishman, and Sir 
8. Baker’s “ Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia”). The arteries and 
veins of the Trunk are large and run through channels in the 
organ, the main ones longitudinally aud in loose areolar tis- 
sue; thus the organ seems somewhat erectile in its structure. 


CHAPTER IV: ON THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. 

The Lips are peculiar; the upper one is blended with the 
nostrils to form that remarkable organ, the Trunk, which 
at its base on either side below has a thin lip-like expansion. 
‘The lower lip is pointed anteriorly being small and rudimentary, 
forming a mucous channel above for the tongue, which is also 
small in proportion to the size of the animal. Since the trunk 
introduces food with precision into the mouth the latter is not 
large and its roof is quite smooth and free from the ridges 
running from side to side such as are seen in the Horse and Ox. 
The Trt are of two kinds; Tusks and Molars. 

The Tusks are peculiarly modified incisors, and do not there- 
fore represent the “Tushes’” of the horse. They are simple 
tecth, found only in the upper jaw, generally one on each side, 
occasionally one only as an irregularity. Thoy are often very 
small in the male and are then called “ Tushes”; they are 
ordinarily found in the female of the African Elephant only (but 
in the rudimentary form in all varieties) ; in the extinct ancestors 
of tho Hlephant they attained a maximum of size and curvature. 
They areembeddedin very deep sockets of the premaxille (mainly),. 
and havo a single pulp cavity extending into each of thom for 
a considerable distance, This fact must be remembored in 


24 


Currina tHE Tusks, an operation which requires to be performed 
either when in large animals they grow inconveniently long, 
cross one another so as to impede the free action of the trunk, 
or when they split up longitudinally. ‘‘The operation is done 
with a common saw kept continually wet with a trickling stream 
of wator. ‘To find the proper place to cut the tusk measure with 
a bit of twine the distance from the eye to the insertion of the 
tusk in the lip, this length measured from the latter point along 
the tusk will give the spot where it should be cut” (Hawkes). This 
practical rule occasionally proves misleading, for the proportion 
of tusk to pulp increases with age, and so occasionally the tusk is, 
espccially in young animals, cut off too short—hence Col. Hawkes 
advises us to “cut off too little rather than too much.” By 
Fracture of the Tusk also the pulp may be exposed, and as it is 
full of vessels and nerves such an injury is very painful and the 
exposed soft parts bleed freely. They must be,as quickly as 
possible, covered with some agent which will neither prove too 
stimulating nor allow access of flies. The latter may very 
seriously aggravate the case by depositing their eggs which 
develope into maggots and retard healing by causing irrita- 
tion. Col. Hawkes’ treatment with Dikamali (Gardenia lucida) 
Ointment and binding the injured tooth with a cloth dipped 
in tar is good and scientific; Turpentine Oiutment may be 
usec instead but is more stimulating. The growth of the 
Tusk is by gradual converson of the surface of the pulp 
into tooth substance which gradually prolongs that already 
formed. Occasionally a bullet lodges in the tooth pulp entering 
from behind and in course of time it will by this process of 
growth become embedded in sold ivory—this is no exception 
to the general process of tooth growth. Small temporary 
tusks generally precede the permanent ones and are shed 
between the first and second year when still very small. The 
tusks in addition to being powerful organs of offence and 
defence are uscful in various ways; Pringle shows how they 
are by the wild clephant used as crowbars in uprooting 
trees tho succulent rootlets of which may be consumed as food, 
they are used as spades for obtaining fleshy underground 
roots of plants, and cascs have been recorded of animals 
helping a comrade out of a hole by means of the tusks. 


25 


Ouchterlony mentions them as useful for “ tearing bark off trées, 
digging from banks the peculiar clay of which cattle are very 
fond, and prising down bamboos from clumps too thorny for use 
of the trunk, and for detaching earth and roots from tufts of grass 
and shrubs.” Dragging ropes are sometimes attached to them. 
Thus any injury to these useful organs is a serious detriment. It 
is interesting to observe that undoubted ova are sometines found 
deposited on the roots of the tusks of young wild elephants, within 
easy reach of the tongue, protected from accidential removal by 
the ivory having keen indented from the action of the corrosive 
fluid ejected by the female gad fly with and around them. ‘Chis 
is an interesting example of instinct in the adult fly causing it to 
deposit the eggs in that place whence they are most likely to be 
conveyed into the stomach for development into larve. Does 
‘Tennent allude to this when he writes “‘ Elephants are said to be 
affiicted with toothache; their tusks have likewise been found 
with symptoms of internal perforation by some parasite, and 
the natives assert that in their agony, these animals have been 
known to break them off short’’ and to pick caried molars with 
a piece of wood !! 

Tae Morar or Grinpine Terra of the elephant deviate in a 
remarkable manner from those of most mammals. They aro 
enormous, very complex in structure, very firmly fixed in the 
jaw, and special in their mode of replacement, Generally on 
each side of each jaw two or three teeth may be seen—the front 
one is small, often loose, and is sometimes shed because the 
growth of the second gradually cuts off its supply of nutriment 
by compression of the fangs. his is a natural result of develop- 
ment, but has been termed ‘ Koochlee” by the mahouts. The 
second or main tooth consists of a number of subdivisions, com- 
posed of dentine coated by enamel, arranged in a linear series 
from before backwards. All these are embedded in an enormous 
umount of cementum, layers of which are between each sub. 
division and coating every part of the surface except the 
depressions for the pulp cavities and the table or grinding 
surface of the tooth. When the organ comes well into wear the 
table presents a series of onamel edges which vary in shape in 
the African and Indian species—those of the former being 
arranged in diamond or lozenge-shaped figures, those of the 


26 


latter in oblongs the long sides of which are parallel to one 
another. Thus the tooth of the African elephant contains 
fewer subdivisions than that of the Indian. These huge masses 
of tooth constituents are admirably adapted to act as millstones 
in grinding down hard vegetable matters, the arrangement of 
substances of a different degree of hardness on the table 
secures a constant roughness which gives the firmness of grasp 
necessary for proper comminution of food. As the animal grows 
older a succession of teeth takes place from behind resulting 
from development of the tooth capsule backwards as the jaw 
lengthens; also in each individual tooth the subdivisions come 
into wear in turn from front to back, thus each in turn attains a 
maximum of size and then its fang begins to lengthen, and 
to become absorbed in consequence of pressure from the sub-. 
division behind, and wear reduces the length of the tooth from 
the other extremity, so each tooth subdivision has its period of 
growth and decline. The total arrangement is such as to 
most thoroughly provide for sufficient tooth material through- 
out the long period of life allotted to elephants, 

Such complex and important organs as the Elephant’s molars 
aro naturally liable to disorder. Firstly, Crusta Petrosa Tumours 
aro apt to result from excess of the normally enormous amount of 
this material. They are generally of considerable size and liable 
to seriously reduce the condition of the animal by interfering with 
mastication. It is necessary to secure the animal by mean of 
shackles in a recumbent position, fix the mouth open by means of 
a wooden gag* and remove the tumour by means of a butcher's 
or amputating saw. Colonel Hawkes mentions an trregularity 
caused by disease of the fang, abnormal growths on which force 
the teeth, especially the small front ones, so much out of placo 
that they abrado tho inner surface of the check and render mas- 
tication painful in the extreme. It is evident that in such cases 
simple sawing off of the projecting portion is not sufficient; we 
have to deal with tooth ache from diseased fang as well as with 
inability and impediment to mastication, the displaced portion 
of tooth must, if possible, be extracted by judicious use of a 
chisel or pritchel and mallet. 

The enormous weight of the Elephant’s teeth implies large jaws, 


* Tho gag used by the mahouts has sometimes unnecessary iron spikes in it, 


27 


stout jaw muscles, and a very strong ligamentum auchm, also a 
great development of the facial sinuses to lessen the weight of the 
head by containing much rarificd air, and shortness of the neck 
at the unsupported extremity of which this huge and weighty 
skullis placed. The elephant’s skeleton, only, of all which I have 
mounted was found to require a special prop for the skull! An 
clephant in feeding makes use of the tusks and even the fore 
limbs occasionally in the emergencies of wild life, but usually he 
simply requires the trunk as an organ of prehension. With this 
“lithe proboscis” he is enabled to grasp either large things 
or small. The former he seizes by twisting the trunk more 
or less round them, and the skin of the posterior surface of 
the organ is ordinarily transversely corrugated to make the 
gvip firm, with smaller objects he simply closes the hand-like 
extremity of the organ, and, while seeking a fair trnnk-full, he 
will retain small particles in the end of the organ by slight 
short sniffings. Thus by the judicious exercise of patience the 
trunk is able to collect sufficient material to make it worth 
while for the huge jaws to come into motion, and the immense 
millstone-like teeth to crush the materials placed between them by 
the backward flexure of the proboscis. This careful collection of 
the food by the trunk and its precise direction in suitable quanti- 
ties into the month render injuries to the mouth infrequent. How- 
ever an INFLAMMATION OF THE CHEEK has been discribed by Slym 
as “in a more or less degree a common disorder.”? The animal is 
off his feed, the check is swollen and painful, there is a little fever 
present, the bowels being torpid. The treatment he recommends 
is local abstraction of blood by means of leeches, free fomentations, 
and a cathartic dose consisting of Cassia and Tamarind plups, 
2 ounces each, with common salt and gingili oil of each 8 ounces. 
It is liable to interfere with the condition of the patient. 
The Tongue is small, and posteriorly, instead of anteriorly, ver 
flexible and highly developed. Th be err 
g ped. e Salivary glands are small, 
indeed a doubt exists in the minds of anatomists as to whether 
there really are any but the small parotids. We, theoretically, 
would hardly anticipate this anatomical stato in a strict 
vegetarian like the elephant ! 
The Pharynz exhibits several important peculiarities, It is so 
arranged that the part commonly described as Isthmus faucium, 


28 


between the base of the Tongue and the upper opening of the 
larynx can be isolated asa special pouch for physiological 
purposes and is capable of holding a fair amount of fluid, which * 
may possibly be supplemented by gradual regurgitation from 
the stomach. The trunk introduced through the mouth can, by 
suction, take up the fluid accumulated in the pharyngeal pouch to 
be utilized subsequently either for throwing over the surface of 
the body or for drinking. Dr. Watson has carefully examined, 
and given theories as to the physiological value of the special 
anatomical features of the pharynx of the elephant, he says 
“an elephant can, as tho quotations sufficiently prove, with- 
draw water from his stomach in two ways: first it may be 
regurgitated directly into the nasal passages by the action of 
the diaphragm and abdominal muscles [I consider this view 
open to grave doubt, (J.H.8.)] the soft palate being at the same 
time depressed to prevent the entrance of water into the mouth. 
Having in this manner filled the large nasal passages communi- 
cating with the trunk, the water contained in them is then forced 
throngh the trank by means of a powerful expiration ; or, in the 
second place, the water may be withdrawn from the cavity of the 
mouth by means of the trunk inserted into it.” We are rather 
inclined to agree with Miall and Greenwood in considering the 
pharyngeal pouch as in the main concerned in the formation of the 
masticated food into pellets, a sort of anatomical compensation 
for the very imperfect condition of development of the soft 
' parts (lips, cheeks, and tongue) of the front opening of the 
clephant’s mouth. 

We must next consider certain peculiarities and physiological 
views concerning the action of the stomach and esophagus. 
The Gullet is rather small in calibre for so large an animal and 
throughout its extent presents voluntary muscular fibre, so 
mranged as toadmit movements of food pellets either up or down 
the passage. The mucous membrane of the gullet does not, as 
in the horse, extend unaltered in appearance into the stomach to 
Ine its left extremity. There has been described and figured a 
band of muscle running from the posterior part of the windpipe 
to the gullet which it has been supposed would so raise the sto- 
mach as to assist vomition. Recent very careful researches have 
uot shown this muscle, which must have been very exceptional in 


FASCIOLA JACKSON). AMPHISTOMA HAWKESII. 


PATHOGENIC PARASITES OF ELEPHANTS 
(AFteR cossotn). 


(arreR campen:) 


DIAGRAMS OF STOMACH ano OESOPHAGUS of ELEPHANT. 


[TROM EMMERSON TENNENTS NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON) 


| 


PLAT €. 6 : ALOE. BARREN, LITHOG: MADRAS Neb 


29 


the specimen from which it was figured. The stomach is elongat- 
ed, small, and remarkably uniform in diameter throughout. It 
has no cuticular portion of its mucous membrane, but at its left 
extremity has a large cul-de-sac of a conical shape, the lining 
membrane of which presents slight transverse folds. Sir E. 
Tennent supposes this cul-de-sac acts as a water stomach, a view 
which has neither been proved nor disproved. However. it is 
certain that the clephant can, by insertion of the trunk into 
the mouth, obtain, to throw over himself, more fluid than could be 
stored either in the pharyngeal pouch or in any other cavity in 
the throat and the arrangements of the esophagus are such as to 
facilitate regurgitation. The only other use to which such ar- 
rangements could be put is for rumination, but we have no evi- 
dence that this occurs in the elephant. Vomririon however, does 
occur very freely under certain circumstances. Gilchrist informs 
us that sometimes, as a result of the animal being washed while 
heated, violent vomition sets in very suddenly, due to spasms of 
the stomach and active reversed peristalsis of the cesophagus. 
The stomach is so irritable that immediate rejection of aliment 
whether liquid or solid takes place, a condition which continues 
for several hours, hiccough and great distress are also present, 
the former of which symptoms seems to support the view that 
spasm of the diaphragm is present in these cases and causes ob- 
struction at the posterior part of the gullct. At length it is 
found that food is retained but only as a result of paralysis of 
the gullet, into which the food passes, and in which it is accumu- 
lated, preventing the complete deglutition of freshly masticated 
pellets, for the animal continues to feed. Shortly a hard swelling 
becomes perceptible in the neck along the course of the cesopha- 
gus and the animal remains unable to swallow either food: 
or medicine; at length mortification of the gullet sets in, as de- 
noted by general coldness, after which death soon occurs. 
Whether the impaction of the csophagus results from or is the 
cause of paralysis of the organ has not been clearly ascertained, 
the former view seems most probable. This disease is said 
to occur at any season and to prove very fatal. There are 
several points in connection with it which have not been 
thoroughly explained ; thus we ought to know why the vomiting 
occurs, what is the actual seat of primary disorder, and on 


30 


what the paralysis depends. Treatment comprises withdrawal 
of aliment until the stomach regains its tone and then the gradual 
administration of easily digestible food combined with antispas- 
modics. Itis the food accumulating in the cesophagus which 
induces mortification and the fatal result—if some of the food 
has already become impacted measures must be taken to free the 
passage, firstly by fomentations and external manipulations over 
the courso of the ccsophagus and then, if these do not prove suc- 
cessful, the surgeon will perform the operation of incision into the 
gullet rather than allow mortification to set in. There is no dan- 
ger in making a bold cut down or to the distended gullet but the 
wound is aptto take along time to heal. As after treatment the 
administration of stomachics and astringent tonics such as 
Chiretta and Gentian is indicated, but not the more powerful 
stimulants, such as chillies, pepper, &c. 

The Intestines. I.V.S. Steel records the length of the Bowels of 
a male elephant, 94 feet at the shoulder, destroyed at Poona, 23rd 
May 1882 :—Small Intestiues, 76 feet ; Caecum, 5 ft.; Colon, 20 
ft. ; Rectum, 12 ft.; Total Large Intestine, 37 ft. ; Total length of 
Intestinal Tract, 113 feet. The Bowels in appearance resemble 
those of the Horse—the Czacum presents three longitudinal 
muscular bands and is puckered to form numerous pouches. The 
valve between stomach and bowels is large and strong. 

The Digestive Apparatus being somewhat similar to that of 
the Horse we might anticipate a corresponding agreement of 
disorders, as, to an extent, is the case. Thus we find on record 
cases of Spasmodic Colic with Intussusception in consequence ; 
also, Flatulent Colic and Enteritis—but are by no means pre- 
pared for Gilchrist’s account of vomition being frequent although 
no medicinal agent is known to cause emesis in the Elephant. The 
General Symptoms of Abdominal Pain are restlessness, crossing 
the hind legs or resting one hind foot on the otber, lying and 
rising very often, lashing the sides with the tail, opening the 
mouth very wide frequently, inserting the trunk (which seems 
shrunken) into it, and champing the jaws. Sr«piz Conic: is 
characterised by sudden access of abdominal pain which occurs in 
paroxysms, and is indicated by the abovementioned symptoms 
to be severe while it lasts. No fever is present—but the bowels 
are generally somewhat torpid. It results from some kind of 


31 


irritation of the bowels giving rise to spasm. Some acrid substance 
in the food, presence of worms, even exposure to cold when the 
body is heated is apt to bring it on—usually it readily yields to 
treatment but cases have been recorded in which the bowels 
became so entangled (Intussuscepted) as to give rise to death, - 
V. 8. Powell found this condition of 22} inches of the small 
bowel from the stomach—the entangled part was filled with firm - 
fibrine, and parasites were observed in considerable numbers in - 
the Large Intestines. Treatment: Antispasmodic doses; encmata: 
and, if judged necessary, a cathartic dose, when the spasm does 
not seem to yield, the bowels remain torpid, and inflammation 
has not set in. Foment the abdomen freely or apply stimulating 
applications to it. 
FiatuLtent Cotic—(The animal is said to be “ Soost? when 
affected with this disorder)—generally occurs under a subacute 
form in the elephant—being somewhat frequent. The bowels of 
this animal are very liable to deficient tone leading to imperfect 
digestion, distention of the abdomen with gas, colicky pains, 
and violent rumblings of the bowels. The appetite is impaired 
or depraved, the feces abnormally soft and pale, the general 
condition reduced, the animal being Jistless and dull in the 
extreme. “After crossing large rivers, when clephants have’ 
been several hours in the water at a time, some of them are sure 
to have swallowed a large amount of water and will appear swollen 
out to bursting point iu consequence. These will generally refuse 
their food” (Hood). Treatment: must be directed to improving 
the general tone of the system, and that of the bowels in particu- 
lar, by the use of a liberal supply of nourishing food, iron and: 
vegetable tonics—with mild stomachics as aids to digestion.; 
Ginger, Gentian, Chiretta, and Assafoctida are useful in such 
cases. Regular exercise must not be neglected. - ; 
Enteritis: is said to be frequent in hot weather and to 
result from too free use as ordinary articles of diet of highly. 
stimulating food, such as pecpul leaves. The symptoms are 
those of dull subacute abdominal pain, fever, and a slimy coat- 
ing of the small amount of feces passed every now and then.* 
Treatment consists in fomenting the belly freely, abstraction of 


* A case supposed to be enteritis is recorded in tho Jnl. Comp. Med. eee 
for April 1884, in which an occasional thumping was to be seen on both sides of 
the hypochondriac region (recorded by G. Bowler, M.D., V.8.) : 


32 


blood, and the administration of doses of Gum Opium with 
Calomel—cven when this is carried out judiciously the case 
generally proves fatal. 

Diarrua@a: assumes two forms in the elephant, the non- 
parasitic aud the parasitic: It is denoted by a “loose state 
of the bowels,” the fecal evacuations being watery and foul 
smelling. Thero is generally some abdominal pain and, when 
the disarrangement has been present for a few days, its effects 
are marked by loss uf condition, and dullness, with debility. This 
is generally an effort of nature to throw off some irritant from the 
bowels the living membrane of which becomes congested and 
even, later on, inflamed. The ordinary mucous secretion of the 
bowel is increased in quantity and a.considerable amount of 
watery matter is thrown into the bowel with it. The animal 
becomes somowhat feverish and very thirsty in consequence of 
this drain on the liquid constituents of the blood. As in other 
forms of indigestion, the appetite is very capricious and the 
patient will eat mud and sand; the latter symptom being most 
frequent in the parasitic form with which we shall deal more in 
detail presently. Among the most frequent causes are food impro- 
perly prepared or of bad quality or irritating properties, also ex- 
posure to cold, and bathing the animal when heated. Coarse in- 
nutritious fodder is especially liable to induce the chronic form. 

Treatment :—must be directed, not so much to stopping the 
diarrhoea, as to regulating its effects on the system. Indeed, as 
nature’s means of removing irritants from the bowels, the purg- 
ing is to be encouraged in the first place—by small doses of 
aloes and cordials ; later the astringents, such as chalk, catechu, 
and galls may be required. Rice conjce should be given liberally, 
and the animal nursed and sheltered in every way possible. The 
after treatment will consist in very careful regulation of the diet. 

Dysenrery: When inflammation becomes confirmed as a 
sequela of diarrhoea the evacuations become coated with slimy 
lymph and intermingled with blood—and they are either soft or 
hard, or of a mixed consistency, small hard particles floating in 
watery slime and blood. Fever runs high, there is much 
straining, and the animal attempts to find relief by pressing the 
belly against the ground. Such cases generally prove rapidly 
fatal. Treatment: Food to be given only in small quantities 


33 


and of a highly nutritious character, as milk, suttoo, conjea, 
Calomel and Opium must be administered internally and demulcent 
enemata may be given with benefit. It must be remembered 
that dysenteric symptoms are found in an epizootic disorder of 
clephants resembling Rinderpest of cattle. 

Cases of IntesrinaL Oxsreuction have been recorded. These 
depend generally on accumulations of woody fibre. It is a stand- 
ing joke that a V. 8. called to treat such a case had to utilize 
the jire engine asan enema pump. Itis satisfactory that this 
case was successful, for the story goes on to say that the cdlephant 
passed a éree and immediately experienced relief | 

PaRasiITES IN THE ALIMENTARY CanaL or THE ELernant.—The 
most interesting resemblance between the disorders of the 
stomach and bowels of the elephant and the horse is to be found 
in the fact of each (in India) being frequently invaded by para- 
sites, especially those known as Bots and Amphistomes. ‘The 
learned zoologist, Dr. Cobbold, has specially investigated the 
parasites of the elephant and embodied his results in a paper 
read before Linnean Society. From this we learn that the inter- 
nal parasites which may be found are of twelve different kinds, 
being either Round worms, Flukes, or Bots; the flukes are of 
the greatest practical importance, as giving rise to two serious 
and often fatal disorders. Both in the Horse and Elephant Round 
worms are liable to burrow in the coats of the stomach and there 
form for themselves “ abodes ”—these occur as tumours occupied 
by burrowing channels in the mucous membrane lining tke 
elephant’s stomach—it has been found by Dr. Cobbold that the 
larger and smaller of these abodes are formed by different species 
of worms. No practical importance can yet be attributed to 
these parasites. One round worm occurs in both stomach and 
intestines—three other specics have been found in the Jatter 
organs, they vary in length from 9 lines to 3 inches—and an even 
larger form is said to occasionally occur in the Bileducts. We 
have no evidence that these inconvenience the animal in any way. 

Three species of Plukes—of the kind known asamphistomes, 
occur in the bowels—only one of these is of any importance. It 
has been named Amphistoma Hawkesii by Dr. Cobbold after 
Colonel Hawkes from whom he received specimens, and who has. 
written on the disorder to which it gives rise (Vetcrinarian, 1875). 


x 


34 


Lunaun is parasitical diarrhoea, It is the most frequent. disease 
of government elephants, and proves fatal in some cases, such as 
when it occurs among young animals, improperly fed and tended, 
as in the notorious outbreak among Sangar’s Circus Elephants 
described by me in the Medical Examiner, 1878, p, 886. Death 
results from exhaustion, which is caused by the drain on the sys- 
tem effected by these animal parasites in two ways, firstly, by ir- 
ritation causing profuse diarrhoea, secondly (in all probability) by 
direct removal of blood from the mucous membrane of the bowels 
to which they adhere with the greatest tenacity by means of their 
suckers. I wish it to be clearly understood that although the 
animal dies from exhaustion of which the parasites are the cause, 
it is only because they are present in very large numbers that they: 
aro enabled to produce such serious effects, and they do so the 
more readily when the elephant they invade is already weakened. 
Almost every Government elephant in India has some of these 
flukes in him, in some cases they become so numerous and cause 
such irritation that purging sets, and thus they are got rid of, ina 
few cases however the system of the elephant is not strong enough 
to resist their attack. Parasites of a closely allied species occasion- 
ally cause the death of horses in India; Dr. Cobbold, indeed, con- 
siders that the true elephant Amphistome has also been obtained 
from the horse. Symptoms. Those of ordinary diarrhoea of a severe: 
and persistent character, preceded by a tendency to eat earth 
which renders the faces muddy, and also the dung contains, gene- 
rally in enormous numbers, small translucent bodies of a pink 
colour resembling soaked barley grains ($ of an inch by }),: 
Careful examination will make it evident that these ara 
Amphistomes, and will disclose a circular sucker at each extre- 
mity of their clongated bodies. When the diarrhea has per- 
sisted for some time the symptoms of zerbad set in, oedematous- 
effusions occurring about the head and shoulders and the animal ' 
sinking from debility. Post mortem examination if made immediate- : 
ly after death shows these parasites adherent by their suckers to’ 
the mucous membrane of the Large Intestine, some also being 
free in the cavity of the bowel. The Intestine exhibits signs of: 
irritation especially in the form of gelatinous effusion between the’ 
coats—generally other parasites are to be found in the Stomach, 
Intestines, or Liver—these whether Bots, Round worms, or Liver * 


35 


Flukes possibly assist in giving rise to irritation of the bowels. 
The other organs of the body are anwmic and more or less 
dropsical and the blood is very deficient in colour. There are 
several questions about these parasites and the disorder to which 
they give rise which have not yet been definitely settled. 

(1.) Does the amphistome suck blood from the host—Dr. 
Cobbold objects to the conclusion that it does, saying this would 
necessitate the fluke relaxing its hold to expel any of the blood it 
could not digest. We have no evidence that it does not do so, 
the worms are often found free in the bowel and their reddish 
colour seems to be due to blood. 

(2.) Gilchrist is evidently somewhat “mixed up” over the 
parasites expelled in Lungun. Dr. Cobbold’s researches have 
left little doubt as to the true position and characters of these 
worms: ‘hat which is described by Gilchrist a3 the ‘‘ mussodee 
of the mahawats” may be either the amphistome or Fasciola 
Jacksoni such as we shall directly describe. All the round worms 
are included by him under the names soorti, shotee, chotee. 

(8.) Do the elephants select a special kind of earth in these 
cases ? Forsyth thinks they prefer red earth, but practical obser- 
vation shows that they will take what they can get rather than 
go without. It seems that wild elephants get rid of such parasites 
by resorting to salt licks, the Chloride of Sodium of which acts 
not only as an aid to digestion, but also as an antiparasitic and 
cathartic. Experience shows that Kala Nimak (black salt) is 
the best agent for use in these cases. Lungun is often associated 
with deficient salt ration or misappropriation of the salt allowance, 
which is very liable to occur since this necessary of life is heavily 
taxed and proves an expensive article in India Deductions 
from the pay of the mahout while his animal is suffering from this 
disease will tend to shorten its duration and lessen its frequency. 

(4.) Is the earth the cause of purgation? It is said that by 
instinct the animal eats earth to free himself from the parasites 
by thus inducing purgation—also the mahouts givo a bad name, 
to elephants which do not periodically eat earth, and say that 
they “do” badly. Other Herbivora when suffering from abdominal 
irritation and indigestion exhibit depravity of appetite and eat 
earth; does the elephant simply do this or is he guided by special 
instinct ? The fact that he eats earth is the more remarkable — 


36 


because he naturally is very careful to free his food from dirt 
adhering to roots, &c. It is certain that shortly after he has eaten 
earth the purgation sets in and very possibly there is some guid- 
ing instinct, but that the earth is not the whole and sole cause of 
purgation was shown in the Sangar cases, they constantly searched 
with tho trunk, gathering small amounts of dust and feeling for 
anything cold about the fittings of the stable, and they were not 
supplied with carth yet succumbed to diarrhcea although treated. 
with enormous doses of astringents. There is some discrepancy 
in the statements made as to the amount of earth taken, Forsyth 
puts it at 10 or 12 Ibs., Gilchrist at 1 or 2 seers. 

Causes: We are told that “ this disease was not present while 
the elephants were getting green food but showed itself after- 
. wards when they were put on dry fodder entirely.” This looks 
very much as if the parasites were conveyed to the elephant by the 
green fodder (since the disease manifested itself after that article 
of diet was used)—the larval form possibly inhabiting small mol- 
lusks or other soft bodied animals on the forage stalks. Gil- 
christ hints at the possibility of communication by contagion, . 
ho having observed a number of animals in the same place 
affected apparently in sequence. It is not probable that this 
depended on contagion, but rather that the animals simulta- 
neously invaded succumbed in turn as the loss of resisting power 
together with the severity of invasion, proved sufficient to 
cause sensible interference with the animals health: Treatment, 
apart from that recommended for diarrhoea in general, we 
must stop the Ratib—experience has shown that if this be 
not done severe flatulence and indigestion will ensue, a con- 
dition known as * Mookundha.’? Also it is clear that the 
animal should be allowed to freely indulge in the tendency to eat 
earth, and liberally supplied with salt. As a preventive means 
the last ration may be always increased when tho animals are on 
green fodder. Tho debility which results from Lungun, constitu- 
ting its advanced stage, must be treated as heretofore recommend- 
ed. ‘The ejecta and parasites passed by elephants suffering from 
Lungun as also those obtained post mortem should be destroyed 
by means of fire. 

Fascroutasis or “ Rot” of Elephants very closely resembles the 
disease of the same name as seen in the sheep being due to the 


37 


presence of a Fluke (Fasciola Jacksoni) in the Biliary ducts 
of the Liver causing disease of that organ to such a degree as to 
seriously debilitate the “ bearer,” or cause death. Dr. Cobbold 
says, “ As causing disease, and zoologically speaking, this ento- 
zoon is the most important of the whole group of parasites infest- 
ing Elephants” but, we have already shown that it is of much less 
import than theamphistomes. In one of the outbreaks described 
by Dr. Cobbold as being “ Rot” it seems that the evidence rather 
shows it to have been Lungun, for although V. 8. Adams who 
made the post mortem examinations found many flukes in the 
Livers he could not detect any of the disease to which they give 
rise (such as must have been very familiar to him from the Livers 
of “ Rotten” sheep) and Colonel Hawkes, who has shown himself 
a very competent authority on matters relating to the ele- 
phant, strongly suspected the amphistomes of doing the 
mischief. However the ‘ Burmese outbreak” seems to have 
been one of true “Rot.” ‘The “Liver Fluke” of the elephant 
although closely allied to the familiar parasite of the same name 
as found in the sheep is rounder in outline and differs otherwise 
to an extent sufficient to mark it as a distinct species. The 
manner in which it causes disorder is by collecting in sufficient 
numbers in the liver to cause morbid changes in that important 
digestive organ and by consuming the bile which should be 
utilized in digestion. Jaundice and progressive debility set in 
but without the purging seen in Lungun, finally death occurs 
and postmortem examination shows the bile ducts blocked with 
the flukes which are collected into groups, the walls of the ducts 
thickened, and some few flukes free in the bowel cavity. 
Treatment, (preventive and curative): stimulant, tonic, and, in 
general, as for Lungun. Dr. Cobbold says “there is every 
likelihood that the mollusk harbouring the Cercarian larva 
of Fasciola Jacksoni is small and possessed of amphibious habits. 
Not impossibly more than one mollusk is concerned in this 
intermediate office. Be that as it may, we shall never settle 
this question in connexion with the flukes of the elephant 
unless our Indian Zoologists take up the study of parasites in 
the same earnest spirit in which so many of them have advanced 


other branches of Natural History.” 


38 


Bots:—In the stomach of both the Indian and African 
Elephant have been found larva of the Gadfly, known as “ Bots”, 
familiar to most of us as occurring also in the horse. {The Bot of 
the elephant is however specifically distinct from that of the 
Horse, the former is the larger being sometimes 1 inch in 
length. I found that they when removed from the membrane 
of the stomach struggled violently and several grasped my 
finger firmly with their hooklets. We cannot attribute any 
clinical importance to these parasitic grubs, which are technically 
known as Gastrophilus elephantis, and Dr. Cobbold thinks it “ not 
improbable that the ova in question (those which we have 
already mentioned as found on the tusks) have been deposited 
by the mature fly of this gastrophilus.” 

APPENDIX, 1: ON THE BILIARY APPARATUS. 

The Liver of the mature elephant weighs about 52 lbs., it is 
simple in its outline, less broken up than that of the horse, and 
we have observed that the umbilical vein ends in the vena porte. 
There is no gall bladder, but the simple excretory tube dilates 
into a sacculated pouch where it opens into the Small Bowel, and 
into this pouch the pancreatic duct opens: parasites are some- 
times found in this dilatation. 

The parasitical larvee of a tapeworm of the dog, known 
commonly as Hydatids, technically as Echinococci, have been 
observed in the liver and lungs of the elephant on post- 
mortem examination. They are white tumours either on the 
surface or in the substance of the organ, from which, when 
they are cut into, forcibly cscapes an opalescent fluid in 
which examination under the microscope enables us to detect 
tapeworm heads. They do not, apparently, interfere with the 
health of the elephant but Ulver or lungs containing them should 
always be burnt. 

Hepatitis or Inflammation of the Liver generally assumes a 
chronic form in the Elephant, but (as a case of abscess in the Liver 
of the Elephant recorded in the Vecerinarian, 1877, p. 762, shows) 
is occasionally acute. When, with subacute fever, the bowels are 
very irregular, the dung dry and dark coloured, the urine high- 
coloured and scanty, the respirations laboured, and the patient rest- 
less and sleepless, and the abdomen distended, this disorder may 
be diagnosed. Gilchrist says ‘‘On the whole, the existence of 


39 


Inflamation of the Liver is more to be inferred from the absence 
of any affection of the bowels, or of the head, while the animal 
shows evident symptoms of the existence of some serious affection, 
than from the presence of any distinctive symptom or collection 
of symptoms. Frequently the lungs are consecutively affected and 
dissections show abscess more or less extensive in the right side of 
the liver and right lung. The appetite is variable ; but thirst 
always great.” This disease does not seem to be frequent— 
probably not because elephants in captivity are always given 
enough exercise but because they are almost always so consider- 
ably underfed. If called to such a case we would try Sal Am- 
moniac, which has proved so valuable for Liver disorders in man 
and the horse. Aloetic doses to act as a laxative, vegetable 
tonics, and mild liver stimulants may be resorted to, or the 
use of vegetable bitters may be tried. In acute cases some 
such treatment as that suggested for enteritis should be 
adopted. 


CHAPTER V: ON THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 

The Trunk or Proposcis almost deserves notice under an 
independent heading, so varied are its uses and so important is it 
to the animal. It is an organ of touch, of prehension, of suction, 
of respiration, also of offence and defence, and as such is essential 
to the animal and supplants mary other organs such as in various 
animals are accustomed to perform its numerous duties. The 
Trunk is so special and remarkable an organ as to have attracted 
careful notice from the earliest times. Its anatomy and physio- 
logy are thoroughly known. The two passages through this 
organ are something superadded to the ordinary nasal passages 
the anterior limit of which is indicated by presence of the 
movable cartilages usual in mammals. From each nostril a tube 
lined by mucous membrane extends through the trunk to open 
by a funnel-like end at the free extremity of that organ. These 
canals lie nearer the anterior part of the trunk than the posterior 
and preserve about the same diameter throughout—they are 
united by fibromuscular substance, the red muscular fibres of 
which run from one to the other and possibly, by slightly approx- 
imating the mucous walls, they can assist in the dilatation of the 
tubes. It seems that the nasal cartilages which occur just pos- 
terior to an upward bend of the tubes are the obstruction by 


40 


which water taken into the trunk is prevented from flowing into 
the true nostrils. Besides numerous vessels and nerves the 
bulk of the organ contains much voluntary muscle—which has 
been divided into a superficial set of muscics, which have fibres 
more cr less longitudinal in direction, and a deep set, the fibres of 
which radiate from the canals towards the surface. The super- 
ficial muscles are four in number being a Levator, Depressor, 
and two Laterals. The Levator only is continued into the finger- 
like process of the free end of the trunk: as a rule the ‘Trunk 
tapers from its large end above, where it emerges from the tissues 
of the face, downwards towards its free extremity where it 
expands into a sort of double trumpet shaped opening surmounted 
by a small extremely flexible finger-like process. This extremity 
is larger and more square in the male than the female, its openings 
are ovoid, and there is no notch below. The skin investing the 
trunkis delicate, especially that on its posterior surface, which 
presents transverse ridges giving it a permanent roughness. 
In prehension the finger-like process may be approximated 
to the posterior lip of the free end of the trunk, which 
thus may be used as a hand—or the trunk may be twisted 
round a large object such asa branch or a bunch of grass. 
Tennent mentions a case in which the forcible use of the trunk 
sufficed to break off a tusk of another elephant, and certainly 
the enormous amount of muscle in this peculiar organ gives it 
very great power and pliability. Cases are mentioned in which 
the trunk has been used otherwise as an offensive organ, either in 
striking or in wielding a stick or stones. But in warfare this 
part of the body is rather an impediment to the elephant than 
otherwise, for it is extremely vulnerable, and instinct teaches the 
animal to keep it as much as possible out of harm’s way. The 
elephant when attacked by a tiger elevates the trunk to the 
utmost ; a determined dog has been known to put an elephant to 
ignominious rout by a grip on the trunk ; in days of old when 
horsemen charged elephants they were instructed to endeavour 
to injure the trunk ; and when an elephant was burnt to death 
in Dublin the trunk was found “thrust near 2 feet into a very 
hard ground.”’ In treatment of Wounds of the Trunk the prin- 
ciples of conservative surgery must be strictly adhered to, no part 
which can possibly be saved being removed, for after an animal 


FIG: Vv. 


Boy ae cs 
MINGR (1G: @, MINOR FIG. &. 


aes eae 
Aan etn Cp ee, XO 


YOUNG ELEPHANT BROWSING 


MINOR Pict ©. MINOR’ Fic. @ 


DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATNG USES OF THE TRUNK. 
[Rom KNIGHT'S SERIES) 


PL ATE, 7. ALEX: BARREN, LITHOG: MADRAS, 1886 


Al 


has lost a part of this most important organ a large amount of 
extra care will be required to keep him in working order. We havea 
already mentioned the liability of elephants to bleed to death 
from wounds severing a portion of the trunk. This accident, but 
to the less serious extent of partial division, is liable to occur 
from split bamboos drawn across their trunks in feeding ; repair 
however takes place, and the mahouts object to removal of any 
portion however much it may have been isolated by the injury. 
The snake-like action of the trunk is beautifully exemplified 
when the animal is drinking water from a deep vessel; the end 
of the organ being introduced into water a quantity of the fluid is 
drawn into the trunk passages by an inspiratory effort. The water 
is probably prevented from passing into the actual nasal chambers 
by the valve-like action of the cartilages—but the tubes are dilated 
just outside these cartilages and so a considerable amount of 
water can be stored in these nasal sacs, the radiating muscles 
from which are so arranged as to make them very dilatable. 
The end of the trunk being passed into the mouth, the water 
is then expelled into the pharynx and swallowed with a peculiar 
gurgling sound. We have already seen that the reverse action 
may take place when the animal requires some fluid to squirt 
over the surface of his body. The idea, long prevalent, that the 
young animal sucks with his trunk is an error, as we shall show 
hereafter. As an organ of touch the trunk is very sensitive, 
especially its finger-like appendix—but it is probable that the 
mucous membrane lining the canals of the proboscis has little if 
any use as an organ of smell. We must remember that the trunk 
is to an extent concerned in the modulations and character of the 
animal’s voice. From the large amount of muscular tissue in it the 
trunk affords us a valuable indication of the state of the body in 
general, A want of firmness to the feel and vigour of motion 
indicates a want of tone of the system in general; a contracted 
shrivelled trunk is a sign of fever and perverted nutrition of the 
body in general. A Paratysep TRUNK is seen in advanced 
debility preceding death, also in apoplexy and other forms of 
sunstroke. It is evident that loss of power in this organ from 
any cause acting through a length of time will render the animal, 
as requiring such an amount of care and attention as can seldom 
be given, practically useless to man; in the wild animal, such a 


42 


disorder must evidently cause death from starvation. But little 
can be done to remedy any injury to the nerves of the proboscis 
or to the bony channels through which they run, on which states 
paralysis is most likely to depend; therefore, unless he be a 
zoological specimen or a Burmese deity, an elephant affected with 
paralysis of the trunk of some standing should be destroyed. As 
might have been anticipated the nerves of the trunk are found 
to be very large, they are mainly derived from the fifth cranial 
root, the motor part of which is very large. Cuvier enquires into 
the question of how it is that the trunk can be lengthened, and 
comes to the conclusion that this is due to the intrinsic radiating 
and transverse muscles which, as they lessen the diameter of the 
organ, increase its length. It would seem that in addition to 
this there is a possibility of an “ erection” of the organ, so 
largely is it supplied with blood vessels. This requires, however, 
further investigation; but a certain anatomist, in considering how 
the lengthening occurred, certainly forgot the penis when he said 
‘we do not find any part without a bone, except this, that is 
protruded or prolonged, and so kept for some time.” 

The Nasal Chambers are small and vertical—the turbinated 
bones seem only represented by a flap of cartilage which consti- 
tutes a valvular arrangement (regulated it is said by muscle) 
over the rather large opening from the nasal cavities into the 
Faciat Srxuses. The latter are appendages to the former, but 
attain a considerable importance anatomically, physiologically, 
and pathologically in the elephant. ‘The nobly expansive forehead, 
seemingly indicating great cranial development is singularly 
deceptive on this score for (as in the owl) it depends cz the large 
development of air-containing cavities in the bones of the face 
and anterior part of the cranium. Although the brain cavity is in 
the position which it ordinarily occupies in quadrupeds, the 
bones of the face are developed in so extraordinary a manner as 
to deccive us as to its exact locality. The Facial Sinuses may be 
divided into the maxillary and the frontal, they are present in 
all Herbivora and in many other animals, and their degree of 
development is somewhat proportioned to the total weight of the 
teeth ; accordingly the elephant has them more developed than 
any other known herbivore. They compensate for the weight of 
the teeth by containing heated air which buoys up the head, at 


g 
@. NASAL OPENING. 
B. FRONTAL SINUSES. 
€. CRANIUM. 
a tusk. 
&. FANG OF TUSK. 
f PULP CAVITY OF TUSK. 
gq OCCIPITAL OPENING. 
Rh -1. MOLARS. 


An 
t 


SECTION OF THE SKULL OF. THE ELEPHANT. 


(Faom KNIGHT '® SERIES.) 


THE ANATOMY OF THE SKULL 
OF THE ELEPHANT IN ITS 

BEARINGS ON THE DESTRUC® 
TION OF THE ANIMAL. 


PLATE 38. * ALEX BARREN, LITHOC, MAORAS. 


43 


the same time they increase the extent of bone surface for muscu- 
lar attachment without increase of weight. Also they protect the 
brain in animals which either fight or work with their foreheads 
or in the emergencies of a forest life are liable to fracture of the 
skull, since they remove the seat of collision to some distance from 
the brain. They are broken up into numerous subdivisions by 
irregular septa, the greater number of which radiate directly from 
the outer firm layer of bone to that directly forming the cranium 
and are thus valuable for resistance and, withal, thin enough 
to be elastic. Small and scarcely present in the young animal, 
the sinuses increase in size with age expanding the forehead and 
giving the roots of the tusks perpendicularity in place of their 
original downward and forward inclination and forming a large 
projecting boss above the root of the trunk. To sportsmen and 
those called upon to kill injured elephants it is most important to 
know where to hit them so as to cause immediate death by the 
bullet entering the brain. Inspg. Vety. Surgn. Steel, with a recent 
specimen before him, wrote:— There are no powerful bones 
except one knob in front (the small aborted nasals), a walking 
stick may almost be driven through the skull from the sides. The 
Brain, only vital portion, lies far back and low. In alarge male, 
say 94 ft. at shoulder, brain’s extreme length horizontally is one 
foot; vertically, 3 foot, shape oval. ‘Three chief shots at the brain 
are :— 

1. Front or forehead shot: On level ground, with head in 
natural position, a shot in centre of forehead towards top of 
hump at base of trunk and about 3 inches higher than a line 
drawn between the eyes is fatal. 

2. Side or temple shot: if at right angles to the direction of 
the animal, aim directly into the ear hole in a line to pass through 
the opposite ear hole, or behind the eye in a line between its 
outer corner and the top of the ear—A bullet entering here will 
prove immediately fatal. 


3. car or behind-ear shot: in the hollow just over the hump 
or swelling at junction of jaw and neck—must be taken at an 
angle of about 45 degrees from behind. Alteration in position of 
the head involves alteration in the line of fire; thus an elephant 
charging with his head high will have to be aimed at from in 
front a foot or so lower down than when at rest”. These state. 


44 


ments concisely deal with the question, which has been extensive- 
ly discussed by sportsmen and naturalists, of how the brain may 
best be reached. Gordon Cumming speaks of shooting elephants 
behind the shoulder close to the elbow, with a view of penetrat- 
ing the heart, and there are some circumstances under which, 
firing from above, the junction of the head with the spine cieht 
be penetrated—the latter being a pretty sure way when it is 
necessary to destroy a patient for incurable disorder or injury. 
Occasionally wild elephants which have been mach shot at are 
found with their foreheads riddled with bullets the perforations 
caused by which have partly filled up. In health the membrane 
lining the sinuses is very thin and transparent but it is the fre- 
quent seat of painful and severe disorder, INFLAMMATION OF THE 
LINING MEMBRANE OF THE Facran Srvvuses, which may result either 
from prolonged exposure to a powerful sun with the head unpro- 
tected or from extension of inflammation in consequence of the 
intimate vascular connection through the bones between the skin 
on the forehead and this lining membrane. Gilchrist attributes 
it especially to the exhibition of stimulating mussauls to elephants 
worked in the sun, also to sudden cooling of the heated body 
surface by means of water—undoubtedly also bullet wounds ad- 
mitting cold air into these cavities, which naturally contain warm 
air, may prove a cause. Symptoms of this disorder are obscure, 
but when an elephant with a sore forehead becomes feverish, 
dull, and even somewhat furious, we may surmise that extension 
of inflammation has occurred, and accordingly apply cold water 
over the head, bleed freely, and, if possible, administer a cathar- 
tic dose. The patient must be secured and kept in a cool shady 
place and very quiet. Such a diseased condition, ouce cured 
would be very liable to recur; probably many cases of so-called 
* Sunstroke” are of this nature, 

CararrH is of frequent occurrence and presents no special 
features in the elephant. The conjunctiva is generally involved, 
and watery fluid flows freely from it and the eye-lids are swollen. 
There is generally some fever present. Treatment, mainly con- 
sists in careful nursing and avoidance of exposure, and the 
exhibition internally of stimulants aud febrifuges. 

Sore Turoat [Mumps (Gilchrist)] seems to be rather frequent, 
but varies much in severity. Thus there may be only swelling 


45 


of the neighbouring lymphatic glands or severe and extensive en- 
largement of all the important structures of the throat, threaten- 
ing the animal with suffocation and preventing the ingestion of 
food which is specially required in such cases to sustain the 
strength of the animal. Such extreme cases are not frequent, 
but when they do occur require promptitude in treatment. 
Tracheotomy may even be necessary, and there is no mechanical 
impediment to this operation, although we are not aware of its ever 
having been performed on the elephant. The Trachea is small in 
proportion to the size of the animal; the Larynx differs in one 
essential point from that of the horse. Symptoms: In addition 
to the local signs of Inflammation, there will be impediment to 
swallowing, general fever, and rapidly increasing debility. Gil- 
christ mentions that these cases are sometimes complicated by 
mortification of the Gisophagus from impaction, a mischance to 
which elephants are, as above mentioned, very liable. Causes ; 
exposure, especially when the animal has becn heated, is the 
principal. Treatment, must be, mainly, local fomentations and 
steaming through the mouth with nim leaf infusions ; when possi- 
ble, tonics and stimulants may be administered internally. 


Lurza is a common disease due to bad feeding, loss of condi- 
tion, or excessive exposure to wet or damp. Ulceration of the 
throat and mouth sets in, and the animal becomes unable to eat or 
swallow and dies in consequence; it usually commences by 
tremblings in the limbs and the rapid supervention of loss of 
power. Another type of this disease is where an animal, apparently 
healthy, is suddently seized with “staggers” and falls. The 
natives consider this disease the same as cholera (Hood). 

Or rae THorax anp Lunes: In horseman’s parlance the 
elephant is remarkably ‘well ribbed up,” although rather flat 
sided and “short in the rib,” also he is short and narrow in the’ 
loins and narrow chested. A horse with such points would be 
Weak and “ Washy”’ not adapted for riding purposes, and quite 
unfit for cross-country work or draught; the only use he could be 
profitably put to would be carrying a pack. 

The elephant has long and very narrow air passages and a 
diaphragm containing a large proportion of tendon and said to be 
covered anteriorly by an clastic layer. His ribs are nineteen in 
number on each side: those in front and those behind being very 


46 


short. But tho most important peculiarity from a pathological 
point of view remains to be noticed, the absence of a pleura, which 
exempts the animal from pleurisy, hydrothorax, and the danger of 
wounds penetrating the Pleural Sac, thus materially reducing 
the list of of thoracic disorders. When dissecting the chest 
of an clephant I found that the lungs, instead of having their 
surface covered by a smooth layer adapted to glide over a 
corresponding lining membrane of the chest, were firmly adherent 
by means of elastic tissue throughout the whole of their surface 
to the walls of the chest; I was struck with this anatomical 
peculiarity but yet remembered an account of death of ele- 
phants from pleurisy, thus evidently either my observations 
were erroneous or the recorder of pleurisy in the elephant 
had described what from the nature of things could not take 
place. I found that Owen and other observers had previously, 
noted this remarkable anatomical peculiarity of the elephant, but 
Miall and Greenwood, the latest observers, state “The visceral 
and parietal layers of the pleura are closely connected together 
by matted elastic tissue, while the pleural sac is at the same time 
pretty generally adherent to the Thoracic wall on the one hand 
and to the surface of the lungs on the other.” I cannot help 
thinking that these anatomists lead us into error when they speak 
of the pleura and pleural sac as occurring in the elephant. The 
lungs are but slightly lobulated, their parenchyma is plentiful 
as in the lungs of the ox, their bronchi are only two in number 
(not three as in the ox) and the walls of the bronchial tubes in the 
lungs are described as devoid of cartilages, which gives the whole 
lung texture a peculiar softness under the knife. It is not hard 
to explain why there is no pleura in the elephant. His mode of 
life seldom subjects him to respiratory emergencies and his 
organization is such that he does not require much blood oxy- 
genation. Only when the respiratory passages are wide and ex- 
pansible, so that a rush of air in broad current can rapidly dis- 
tend the lungs and cause extensive motion of the lungs on the 
walls of the chest is a pleura required—when the air enters 
slowly through narrow passages, as in the elephant and birds, a 
gradual expansion of the thoracic walls takes place and only such 
motion between them and the surface of the lungs as can be met 
by the yielding qualities of ordinary elastic tissue. As the respira- 


47 


tory system is poorly developed in the elephant so its diseases 
are few and not well marked. Those of us who are familiar 
with respiratory diseases in the horse will remark the infrequency 
of mention of coughs and abnormal breathing sounds as affecting 
the elephant. 

InyLamMATION oF THE Lunes is deseetbed by Gilchrist. He says 
“It is to be observed, however, that this symptom (frequent wide 
opening of the mouth) is not always present but is confined to 
the most severe varities of the affection, and an inflammation of 
the lungs may exist, which, though less intense in degree and 
unmarked by any prominent symptoms, may continue a variable 
period, and eventually cause death, if allowed to run its course 
undisturbed. It is only by frequent enquiry into the state of 
the animal’s health that obscure diseases are to be detected, as 
any change from the known healthy standard, will thereby aroase 
attention of intelligent subordinates to the animal’s state.” 
Here we have a good field for employment of those valuable aids 
to exact diagnosis which are the just pride of modern medicine, 
with the thermometer and the stethoscope to guide us we ought 
to have no difficulty in determining Inflammation of the Lungs. 
Such aids must not make us dispense with the simple means of 
diagnosis adopted in the days of Gilchrist. There is ample room 
for research with the thermometer and by means of auscultation 
in elephant pathology ; the field is entirely untrodden. Symp- 
toms: Restlessness, fever, cold surface of body, the animal 
does not lie down, but “ coughs several times in an hour and 
opens its mouth wide frequently.” Pathology: In acute cases 
suppuration takes place, but the nonveterinary observer must 
not in post-mortem examinations mistake cystic parasites 
(Echinococci) for abscesses; occasionally the disease assumes a 
chronic form. Treatment, comprises external stimulation, either 
by the application of. irritant medicaments or by bathing with 
very hot water, and, internally, diffusible stimulants are required 
to support the strength of the patient. 

Broncuitis. Congestive engorgement of the lining membrane 
of the respiratory passages occasionally takes place, the re+ 
sult of an unusual amount of work when the animal is out of 
condition. Symptems: Cough, wheezing sound in respirations, 
breathing quick and frequent. Treatment consists in careful 


48 


nursing and avoidance of exposure, also administration, daily, of 
half a bottle of Rum, Arrack, or Brandy, and stimulant tonic 
mussauls. Gilchrist describes as Apoplexy of the lungs a disease 
which is evidently the pulmonary variety of Anthrax. 


CHAPTER VION THE URINARY APPARATUS. 


We have not to hand any observations on the physiology and 
pathology of the urine of the Elephant. His kidneys are, like 
those of the Ox and Bear, lobulated, and several tubes running 
from the kidney unite to form the ureter. Cases of BLoopy uRiNE - 
are said to have occurred, but they have not been accurately 
observed ; so we are not in a position to state whether the urine 
in them contained true blood, bile colouring matter, or broken . 
down albuminoid material. The symptoms described are pain in 
staling, strangury (a voiding of the urine drop by drop). The 
disease is said to be very dangerous. 

Renitis: Inflammation of the Kidneys, is denoted by fever, 
abdominal pain, and swellings and pain detectible on pressure 
over the kidneys during rectal examination ; the urine being 
either passed in drops or entirely suppressed. This disease is 
rare and liable to end fatally. ‘Y'reatment ; Free exhibition. of 
mucilaginous drinks, such as saccharated water, linseed tea, and 
gram water, also avoidance of diuretics, administration of mild 
cathartics, and hot water applications to the belly, with frequent 
enemata. ‘ The animal to be allowed } seer of the tender stock 
of the neem-tree during the taking of his mussauls” (Gilchrist). 

Our knowledge of this part of elephant pathology, such as it 
is, is entirely due to Gilchrist, much remains to be done in the 
systomatic examination of urine in health and disease. 


CHAPTER VIJ.—ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The Brain of the Elephant is not large, nor is it remarkably 
small for the size of the animal. It differs mainly from that of 
the horse in the great development of the mastoid lobules; 
“The olfactory lobes are large, whilst the Optic and muscular 
nerves of the orbit are singularly small for so vast an animal ; 
and one is immediately struck by the prodigious size of the fifth 
nerve, which supplies the proboscis with its exquisite sensibility, 
as well as by the great size of the motor portion of the seventh, 
which supplies the same organ with its power of movement and 


49 


action” (Tennent). We have clsewhere dealt with many of the 
mental and moral qualities cf the clephant and we may conclude 
that he is a very nervous animal. Several serious diseases and 
derangements assume the form of Parensy. Musthce, Inflamma- 
tion of the skin of the forehead and of the lining membrane of 
the Facial sinuses have been dealt with. In some phases of 
Anthrax fury sets in and renders the animal dangerous. But by 
far the most serious form of phrensy is Enceraauiris, Inflamma- 
tion of the Brain and its membranes. Symptoms—The attack is 
ushered in by excitement as manifested by restlessness, frequent 
lying and rising, and struggling to free himself, loss of custom- 
ary obedience to the keeper, frequent shifting of the body, 
general tremors. Fever runs high and the trunk is contracted. 
There is frequent stretching and elevation of thetrunk, conjunctiva 
congested, eyeballs protruding. The animal in this stage is 
furious and unapproachable but evidently unconscious of the 
mischief he is doing. After a time he loses power over the limbs, 
falls and igs unable to rise, and shortly the case terminates 
fatally. Causes—High feeding ; too free use of stimulants with 
a view to supporting the strength of the animal during arduous 
labour (Gilchrist), exposure to the sun, and extension of inflam- 
mation from. the membrane lining the sinuses, are the principal. 
Treatment is difficult on account of the fury of the animal. It 
consists in prompt and large abstraction of blood, constant 
application of ice and cold water to the head, free administration 
of purgatives and powerful febrifuges—opium is to be avoided as 
tending to increase the determination of blood to the brain. 
APOPLEXY, in its preliminary stages resembles the above but 
there is confused action rather than fury. When, on the march 
under a hot sun, the animal commences to walk with uncertain 
staggering gait,and to tremble, to breathe hurriedly, and the 
trunk to lengthen and contract spasmodically, it is probable that 
some of the vessels of the brain have given way. The patient 
after a short time fallsand becomes comatose, all power of sensation 
and motion being lost. The limbs perhaps quiver convulsively, 
and the animal rests on his side; enormous quantities of urine 
frequently are passed. Death may at once ensue or slow 
recovery take place. Treatment consists in the adoption of 
measures recommended for Encephalitis, than which this disease 


50 


is less fatal, it, however, is very liable to recur “at tolerably 
regularly returning intervals, usually about every fourth month ; 
during the intervals, it (the patient) usually exhibits an excited 
demeanour; and, if opposed or disturbed by attendants will 
attempt to strike them with the trunk” (Gilchrist). 

Turanus or Lock Jaw.—The only case of this disorder which 
has come under my notice directly or indirectly was under the 
caro of V.S. Mann, A. V.D. It resulted from exposure to cold 
and wet. The animal lived for some time, being supported by 
nutritive enemata, but at length succumbed. Gilchrist tells us 
that the mahouts treat by means of balls given per anwm and the 
dose mentioned by him seems judicious. This remark however, 
docs not extend to their treatment by pouring quicksilver into 
the external car and plugging it in with opium, nor can we agree 
with Gilchrist that the opium so administered “ most probably 
has considerable curative effect.” Altogether the few accounts 
to hand of Tetanus.in the Elephant seem to show that the disease is 
not frequent and generally neither acute nor very obstinate. 

PARALYSIS OF THE HIND EXTREMITIES, PARAPLEGIA; we have no 
evidence that this has been observed in the Elephant as a disease 
per se, but occasionally it is seen as one of the formsof Anthrax. 
Of course injuries to the spine may give rise to it as well in the 
Elephant as in other animals. Symptoms “For several days 
previously to the setting in of the palsy the animal has an 
irritable, sometimes a wild demeanour, when it may attempt to 
strike the attendants; has no sleep at night, and leaves off taking 
fodder and water. Bowels regular, but urine is high coloured, 
scanty, and sometimes passed indrops. The surface of the body 
is cold from the commencement of the affection, and about eight 
days thereafter palsy of the hinder extremities gradually super- 
venes. During attempts to walk, the legs are as it were dragged ; 
at length palsy supervenes and the animal is unable any longer 
to stand; feeling and power of limbs are completely lost’ 
(Gilchrist). Preatmené: Stimulating medicines, external. stimu- 
lants to the loins, and tonics. Generally fatal results follow. 

“ Broxen Hearr’ is the name given by Sir EH. Tennent to 
sudden death which occurs when the animal is being captured or 
put into training. Tennent himself describes a case and Capt. 
Yule in his “‘ Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in 1855” mentions 


51 


another in which an animal apparently fatigued by his struggles 
in training “ lay down as if quite exhausted, then reared suddenly 
on the hind quarters, and feli on its side—dead|” ‘This is a 
phenomenon remarkable in its nature and frequency. We have 
not enough information to enable us to decide whether the Heart 
has really given way or death has resulted from shock. 


CHAPTER VIII.—ON THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 


THE SKIN.—This organ in the elephant is very sensitive 
although very thick; harsh and coarse to the eye, it is just the 
reverse to the touch in well kept animals, indeed both Pathology and 
Physiology teach us how delicate it is. Its looseness of attachment 
to the tissues beneath by a large quantity of elastic areolar tissue 
adapts it well to admit of free and unrestrained movement of the 
different parts of the body, it also serves to render the apparent 
condition of elephants deceptive and to hide emaciation from 
any but the experienced eye. This looseness of attachment accounts 
for the great liability of elephant packs to work themselves loose 
and also for the ability of the animal by bringing the muscle of 
the skin, Panniculus Carnosus, into action to free himself from 
even apparently firmly secured trappings. It has been stated 
that the skin is not tannable. Surgically, the thickness of the 
skin prevents the pointing of abscesses, which are generally hard to’ 
the feel when fit for opening and their fluctuation is not preceptible. 
Some curious ideas were prevalent concerning the absence of sur- 
face hair on the elephant. Asamatter of fact there are some 
varieties in which the “coat” is very well developed (in the Mam- 
moth there was not only a long shaggy coat of hair but a shorter 
one of fur). The amount of wear of the hairs of the body is an 
indication of the age of a working elephant which affordsa certain 
amount of information. The hairs on the tail are enormous stout 
bristles of horn, which are utilized by natives in the making of 
ornaments. Many elephants shed the hair of their tails, and the 
“‘ Young Shikarry” expresses a fellow-feeling of sympathy for 
the sportsman whose first elephant yields him only a black, bald, 
wrinkled stump as a trophy! Tennent remarks on the lighter 
colour of wild than tame elephants, and it has been over and over 
again remarked how difficult it is to see wild elephants in the 
jungle because their_bodies look very much like rocks. Of course 


52 


the darker“culour of the tame elephants is due.to the care taken 
of their skins, and often to their being prevented throwing dust 
and mud over themselves as a protective from the sun; also to 
the oil dressings applied and to grooming with a lump of clay or 
a piece of stone ofa peculiar kind (Janwa). When ill-cared for the 
skin of the domesticated elephant becomos harsh, dry, unpliable, 
and loses its hair. This condition is familiar to us as occurring in 
diseased menagerie elephants at home and resembles the disease 
Priryrrasis of other animals, It requires not only careful attention 
to the Hygiene of the skin in the way of frequent washings, ap- 
plications of oil, &c., but the internal administration of tonics and 
carminatiyes similar to the Kharisk mussauls given to camels. 

EczeMaTous ERUPTIONS occur on those parts which are exposed, 
to the action of the sun, due to the want of proper precau- 
tionary measures in the way of clothing or anointing the surface. 
prior to work during the heat of the day; sometimes, however, 
they depend upon disorder of the digestive apparatus. Simple. 
Hezema must not be mistaken for disorder of the skin as seen in 
forms of epizootic disease. The eruption is generally first. 
apparent on the poll and quarters, on which parts vesicles break 
out and burst to form small ulcers. The parts are tender and the 
discharge cakes on the surface. When neglected these ulcers are 
apt to run together and form nasty cracks in the flexures of the 
skin, difficult to heal and lable to be aggravated by friction. 
Lotion of acetate of lead proves useful in the earliest stages, 
afterwards dressings with carbolic ointment will be required. 
Laxatives must be given to remove any irritant or indigestible 
substance from the "bawele Then febrifuges and refrigerents, 
such as nitre and sal ammoniac. 

The slightest prick of the skin generally causes a sharp shriek 
of pain, showing the extreme sensitiveness of the integument of 
the clephant, which on the march frequently bleeds from the bites 
of gnats and mosquitoes. lies of various kinds prove a great. 
nuisance to the elephant and often cause very serious detriment.- 
Fleming in his “Animal Plagues” gives the following quotation :— 
« A.D. 260: When Saphor King of Persia was besieging Nisibus, 
his elephants and beasts of burden were so suddenly and furiously. 
attacked by swarms of gnats, as to kill or disable them, thus. 
causing the siege to be raised, and subsequently leading to the 


53 

discomfiture of that monarch’s army.” Theodorite: Hist. Eccles. 
Book ii., p. 30. There is a curious legend among the Burmese 
in which the crow, fly, and frog are made to work the destruction 
of a rogue elephant. The former picking out his eyes, the fly 
depositing eggs (which developed into maggots) in the sockets, 
and the latter tempting (by its croak) the blind, thirsty animal to 
the edge of a precipice—over which the poor beast fell and was 
killed: 

In South Africa, too, the Tsetze Fly has proved a serious 
enemy to the elephant, as to other large quadrupeds—its poison 
giving rise to anthracoid symptoms and rapidly fatal results. We 
have no record of the Gad Fly irritating the elephant, but it is 
certain that maggots of the Common Fly in the stumps of broken 
tusks and in other open wounds cause very serious inconvenience. 
They may be got rid of by camphorated or terebinthinate dress- 
ings or by Dikamali ointment or the juice of the custard apple, 
Flies are more troublesome in the jungle than in the open and 
are horribly frequent at certain times of the year. With regard 
to Ecrozoa propER—a Mahout recently questioned by mie seemed 
_ rather insulted when asked if he ever found any on his elephant 
and said they were seen only on diseased or very badly cared for 
animals. Dr. Cobbold tells us that Homatomyzus elephentis, a 
hugh louse, and a mite named Symbiotes elephantis v. Homopus 
elephantis (the position of which asa “ good species” is doubt- 
ful, it, probably, being an acarus from straw) have been found on 
the elephant. A Bot, Pharyngobolus Africanus has been found 
in the pharynx of the African species. 

Tennent argues that the white spots and patches ion on 
various parts of the body of the elephant “are not natural; nor 
are they hereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by the younger 
individuals of a herd, but appear to be the result of some eruptive 
affection, the irritation of which has induced the animal in its 
uneasiness to rub itself against the rough bark of trees and thus 
to destroy the outer cuticle’? and he argues that the scars of the 
deep wounds caused by the capturing ropes often remain white. 

However, it has now been proved that the white blotches in 
question are only albinic spots (such as are found on piebald 
horses for instance) and their increase of size with age is only, 
what might have been expected from our knowledge of similar. 


54 


spots on other species of animals. The fact that the scars of 
large wounds are white does not disprove this view. 

Bouts of various kinds are most frequent in the elephant, ap- 
pearing especially where the skinis thin, as on the face and inside 
the thighs, as circumscribed hard swellings which take a long time 
to “point” if left alone and will meanwhile do much mischief 
by the burrowing of pus beneath the skin. This is a form of 
mischief familiar to us in the horse in the case of deep seated 
abscesses in the region of the neck or back. It is more frequent 
in the elephant becauso of the amount and great strength of its 
fibrous tissue and also the looseness of the skin. Boils and 
abscesses of various kinds in this animal require to be treated 
boldly. An exploring needle, such as an ordinary trochar and 
canula, may be used to prove the presence of pus, then the 
skin boldly incised with a razor in a firmly fixed handle or 
an ordinary amputating knife plunged into the tumour to evacuate 
the pus by free incision. Oliphant found a Reade’s Enema syringe 
very useful for washing out abscess cavities in such cases. Gene- 
rally it is advisable, when the boils are numerous and extensive, 
to administer a cathartic dose and follow it up with diuretics. 
Aftor abscesses have been opened they must be dressed with 
tincture of myrrh, or, preferably, turpentine ointment which 
will keep away flies. Before they are fit to open and for a short 
time after incision free fomentation is necessary. There can be 
no doubt that boils are generally due to derangement of the 
internal organs, especially the liver, and depravity of the blood. 
True boils are seldom accompanied by ill health. Occasionally 
however, they do not suppurate freely but persist as hard circum- 
scribed swellings and finally disappear without bursting and the 
animal fallsaway rapidly. These are cases in which the boils are 
contemporary with rather than the cause of Zerbad, however, 
sometimes an cruption of blind boils constitutes a symptom of 
that disease. 

ULcERATION OF THE SKIN OF THE ForEHEAD—is not infrequent. 
This part, as a result of exposure to the sun, is predisposed to 
disorder, it is sometimes puncturcd viciously with the iustrument 
known as the Ankuss or Hendoor Kookee, or bruised and abraded 
extensively when the forehead, unprotected by a pad, is pressed 
against a load or used in overthrowing awall. It is said that 


55 


this disorder may result from Inflammation of the lining mem- 
brane of the sinuses, but the latter very much more frequently 
results from the former. Treatment—consists in putting the 
Mahout on short pay while his animal is incapacitated—free 
fomentations, and ordinary wound dressings ; occasionally some- 
what extensive suppuration takes place. After recovery (which 
generally takes some time) the greatest care must be exercised 
to protect the forehead from the sun, and to invariably uso the 
forehead pad when the elephant is required for pushing, as this 
disease is liable to recur. fy a8 

Progressive Mortification or THE Talt is a somawhat Per 
disorder and occurs even in elephants in‘ good condition. 
Although it is attributed to the sun’s heat we can hardly accept 
this as a full explanation of its causation. It seems to resemble 
the sloughing of the tail as seen in monkeys in temperate climates 
and a disorder of the same nature is seen in the camel and tho 
ox—probably from an imperfect supply of nutritive fluid due to 
weak circulation or some such physiological condition. Ulceration 
of the skin of the tail occurs, after the hair has been shed, then 
the organ shrivels and dies from its free end, and finally but a 
stump remains. The animal is disfigured but not seriously dam- 
aged by this, which must be treated by stimulant applications to 
the organ and to the wounds resulting from sloughing. 

THE EAR.—We have seen that the External Ear serves as a 
guide to determination of the species and age of any individual ele- 
phant. Its edges become frayed and scarred and white in colour 
with age. Also the organ is liable to considerable reductious ‘in 
size and loss of substance by a progressive ulceration and sloughing 
similar to that which we have just described as affecting the tail, 
due to similar causes and requiring much the same treatment. 
Another disease of the skin of the external ear resembles that . 
which is so frequent in long eared dogs and is termed “ Canker.” 
Itis INFLAn MATION OF THE SKIN LINING THE EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL, 
from which escapes a fetid pus, it is very liable to recur. Treat- 
ment consists in nim leaves fomentations and syringing the canal 
with alkaline solutions or the solution of acetate of lead. It 
results from ‘dirt, exposure to cold when heated, injury, or 
extension of inflammation from the outer ear into the canal: we 


4 


56 


Gilchrist describes A ParaLysis OF THE EXTERNAL EAR, which 
however seems to be rather an indication of general atony than 
a disease per se; it indicates the necessity for a course of tonics. 
The Internal Ear bas been described by Sir Everard Home 

‘(Philosophical Transactions, 1823) as having a muscular drum 
or Tympanic membrane, and so, although adapted to hearing 
sounds from a distance, quite nonmusical. But Home’s concla- 
sions are generally open to doubt, and even the anatomical 
statement has been denied, while there is ample evidence to show 
that the elephant can appreciate musical sounds and be guided by 
modulations of the voice. Itis said that Deafness is not unfre- 
quent in wild elephants, especially “ Rogues,” and that animals 
thus affected are proverbially dangerous, morose, and vicious. 

THE EYE.—It is well known that almost the only chance of 
escaping an elephant in the open is to pass obliquely out of his 
rauge of vision; this range is limited in consequence mainly of the 
shortness of the neck. The eyes are small as also are the optic 
nerves. The appendages of the eye present some very remarkable 
peculiarities. There are fibres of the orbicularis palpebrarum 
running from both upper and lower lid to the Third Eyelid, and on 
to the surface of the latter pours the secretion of a gland, 
Harderian, which lies inside the orbit against the Internal Rectus 
muscle. This entirely replaces the true lachrymal apparatus, 
consequently we cannot correctly speak of true tears of the 
elephant, although Slymm feelingly describes the tears as rolling 
down the cheeks of animals cruelly maltreated with the ankuss. 
There is a depressor muscle to the lower eyelid and a muscular 
orbital periosteum, The diseases of the eye of the elephant 
present no special features. 

Consunctivitis is indicated by catarrhal flow from the eyes, 
congestive engorgement of the membrane lining the eyelids, and 
opacity of the Cornea. The natives say that it results from giving 
peepul leaves, and in too large quantities, as food. Forsyth tells 
us that the eyes very readily sympathise with the digestive 
apparatus, any disorder of the latter giving rise to Opacity of the 
Correa, which is also attributable in some cases to the heat of the 
sun—hence very few elephants are seen with absolutely sound eyes. 
Treatment ; fomentation with infusion of poppy leaves, exclusion 
of light, and dressings of acetate of lead are required. When 


57 


the cornea becomes thoroughly involved opacity may be associated 
with ulceration, which, however seldom leads to actual perforation, 
As the “tears” prove somewhat excoriating to the skin around 
the eye, the latter may be protected by inunction with ghee. 
In cases of ulceration it may be necessary to arouse the nutritive 
activity of the cornea by touching the ulcers with nitrate of silver, 
Gilchrist mentions outgrowth from the surface of the cornea as 
a result of this disease. This is known tecnically as Staphyloma 
and is called ‘ mothea beenj’’ by the Mahouts, who recommend a 
number of collyria, many of them very prejudicial. Also in 
treatment of diseases of the eye of the elephant it seems that 
caustic agents are used to a deleterious extent, as when quick- 
lime, sulphate of copper, and powdered lunar caustic are blown 
in between the lids. Many of the severe results of conjunctivitis 
as described are indubitably the results of malpractice ; non-pro- 
fessionals when dealing with these cases may content themselves 
with the simple measures above described. ‘To Veterinary Sur- 
geons the treatment will prove similar to that to be adopted in 
the case of the ox or horse. = 

Opacity or THE Cornea, known as Leucoma or Albugo, is con- 
firmed whiteness of the transparent anterior part of the eye-ball. 
When recent and widespread over the surface some improvement 
may be expected with time and non-interference. 

Buinpvess is rare, but may result from disease. or injuries ; 
occasionally the behaviour of the animal and the non-susceptibility 
of the eye to light is the only indication—it may then be attribu- 
ted to. some injury to or pressure on the optic nerve or to great loss ° 
of blood or disease of the brain. Jn other cases the transparent 
parts of the eye may be opaque. This infirmity seriously inter- 
feres with the usefulness of the animal and is generally incurable. 
The best way to stop a run-away elephant is to blindfold him. 

THE FOOT—We have seen that the lower portion of the limbs 
of the elephant are invested by a peculiar horny modification of 
the cuticle, which we have termed the “ Hoof slipper’? This 
consists of sole and toe-nails. The former is a layer of soft horn 
covering the ground surface, rounder in the fore feet than in the 
hind, thinning and curling upwards at its posterior margin—but 
.bearing anteriorly and on either side towards the front a variable 
number of toe nails with which it is fused in the same way as the 


58 


sole of the horse’s hoof is with the wall. The upper surface of the 
horny sole has all over it pin-hole depressions for accommodation 
of villi of the sensitive sole—its under surface presents a number 

of more or less regular cracks. Although five toe-nails to each foot 
are looked for in the White elephant, five to each fore foot and 
four to each hind foot is the general number in the Indian species, 
the African having one less to each limb. “They are not hoofs in 
the correct sense of the term, and bear but little weight. 
Occasionally they are extremely numerous, twelve or thirteen 
having been seen on one foot, A high-bred elephant-of Ceylon 
may have twenty toe-nails on the hind feet (Tennent). The 
peculiar structure of the foot of the elephant enables him to pro- 
gress with very little noise and so assists to hide his presence in 
the jungle. ‘he natives consider their number and regularity 
a matter of import as bringing fortune or disgrace to the owner. 
The bones of the foot are so arranged that the true Knee and 
Hock cf the elephant are a little distance from the ground—and 
the digits run obliquely downwards, the end bones each lying 
within one of the toe-nails and being but a poor and aborted 
representative of the hoof bone we find so well developed in the 
ox, for instance. On the anterior surface of this small bone are 
attached the sensitive lamine which fit in between the horny 
laminze of the toe-nail; they much resemble those of the finger 
nail of man. There is nothing very special in the arrangement 
of the tendons and ligaments of the foot—but between those 
behind the digits and the sole is a large quantity of fibrofatty 
substance constituting an important Elastic Cushion. The 
footing of the wild elephant is generally in soft soil, or over 
accumulations of fallen leaves, and so the hoof slipper suffices to 
protect the sole. Nevertheless, in wild as well as tame elephants 
this sole is sometimes penetrated by thorns, and Ouchterlony in 
his description of the structure of the foot, shows how these gra- 
‘dually become reduced in size as they are deeper penetrating, 
and he attributes this to a special fluid. Whether he is correct 
or in error in this surmise it is certain that often injuries of this 
kind cause but little or no lameness; sometimes, however, the 
thorns require to be cut down upon and. removed and the 
foot put in a poultice. Circumstances are very different with the 
transport animal worked along hard roads and over rocky ground! 


59 


In a good working beast the lower margins of the toe-nails will 
be found worn, but on the march often this and the general wear 
of the pad lead to Foot-soreness. We have elsewhere dealt with 
the measures necessary to prevent this or to enable animals 
affected with overworn. feet to continue at work, A predispos- 
ing cause is overweighting and we may recall to mind that 
too prolonged work on roads, also marching along the road 
directly after traversing marshes and rivers and before the feet 
have had time to dry act as causes. . 

Sore Feer or “ Thullee.”” Imperfect removal of urine and feces 
from the picketing ground tends to keep the feet soft, and 
animals used in heavy draught are liable to overwear at the 
junction of the hoof slipper with the skin, a part not adapted 
to stand wear but exposed to friction by the unnatural work to 
* which the animal is put. In acute cases the animal must be 
rested and the feet bathed with Alum water and the process of 
Chébing, which we elsewhere describe in detail, resorted to. 

“ Kandi” or ABscEss IN THE Fouot isa common form of disorder, 
the result of thorns or stumps of wood penetrating the horny 
sole, or the animal stumbling and bringing the foot down suddenly 
on toa sharp edged flint; also it has been attributed to cold, as 
from continuously marching over damp ground. The sole, too, 
may be bruised by the foot slipping on a rolling stone. Some- 
times the mahouts wilfully lame their elephants to save them- 
selves trouble and to avoid the risk of advance into an enemy’s 
country. These cases being preventible with care, a mahout 
should always be put on stoppages while his animal remains lame. 
In acute cases the lameness is extreme, and inflammation runs 
high in the foot, which the animal constantly soothes with his 
trunk and cools by blowing water over it, and there is great 
flinching on pressure. When the case is neglected a true QuirroR 
forms, known to the natives as Bumbood or Tawakh (Hood)—the 
escape of pus taking place either at the top of the nail or round 
the edge of the hoof slipper. In the former case the state of the 
parts much resembles that seen in quittor of the horse but in the 
latter generally the sole is extensively underrun. Either form 
may result from neglected Foot and Mouth disease. Treatment, 
consists in that ordinarily adopted fur penetrating ulcers—in- 
cluding removal of horn sufficiently to make a depending orifice, 


60 


Occasionally antifly dressings are necessary. This disease is 
very obstinate and during treatment a leathern sole must be 
kept tacked by nails to the horn to prevent dirt entering the ulcer. 

CrackeD Hest, “ Sajhan,” occurs at the junction of the horn 
with the ordinary skin. It is principally serious as depending 
on the constitutional state and being liable to recur every rainy 
season (Forsyth), The grand essential in its treatment and 
prevention is to keep the feet dry. ‘The natives advocate wash- 
ing the feet with Hookah panee in this disease, and morning and 
evening apply nitric acid with strips of copper, rubbing it well 
over the soles of the feet (Hood). 

INYLAMMATION OF THE FeEr has been observed as a result of 
too free use of mussauls, high feeding, and prolonged work. It 
has been described as Laminitis from its resemblance to the 
disease of that naine as affecting the horse—but the main seat of 
inflammation is, here, the sensitive sole. This disease generally 
results in a shedding of the Hoof-slipper in consequence of serous 
effusion between the horny structures and the sensitive parts 
which produce them; it sometimes occurs as a complication of 
Foot and Mouth disease. This disorder is very painful, the animal 
cannot staud, ouzing takes place at the margin of the slipper, and 
fever runs high. Treatmené consists in fomentations and other 
antiphlogistic measures, and, after the horn has been shed, care- 
ful protection of the foot until new horn has been produced in the 
form of a fresh slipper. In these cases death has been known to 
result from mortification setting in. We have a suspicion ‘that 
the disease called Chowrung (vide p. 65), should be inserted here. 

Crackep Sore isa sort of ‘ chapping” of the sole, in which 
ulcers form along the natural groves of the part and prove obstin- 
ate in healing and liable to fungous granulations. It results 
generally from a foul state of the elephant-standing, and “is a 
common complaint in the dry and hot weather, and principally 
with animals which have been used for working in water during 
the previous wet season” (Slym). Treatment must be directed 
towards protecting the diseased parts and keeping them at rest 
by means of bulky adhesives— such as “ Chob”—or by tacking 
ona leathern sole or putting on an elephant boot. 

Rope Gatts, often so severe as to leave permanent white scars, 
sometimes result from the ropes with which the animal is restrain. 
ed just after capture. They frequently take many months to heal, 


61 


Horn Tumours AND OVERGROWTHS WITH DISTORTION OF THE TOE 
NAILS sometimes require surgical attention, V. 8. Nunn relates 
a case (in Veterinary Journal, November, 1882) where the outer toe 
nail of the left fore foot had grown to a sharp point in an inward 
direction curving to the right and causing a deep wound on the 
left side of the second toe, causing lameness of the animal. This 
he removed with an ordinary carpenter’s saw, it cut like India 
Rubber. The parts were subsequently dressed with cherpine 
oil and rapid recovery tock place. Slymm describes, somewhat 
indefinitely, Horny fungus near the nails, “not hurtful .te the 
animal but liable to ran into sores during the wet weather, it 
should be removed by cutting or applying the following :—Take 
a couple of dozen of marking nuts, boil them with oil fora half 
hour, strain the decoction through a cloth, and apply the oil to the 
fungus. Care should be taken in preparing (and using) the oil that 
none should touch the hands or come in contact with the face.” 
g It will be noted that although the diseases of the feet of the 
Elephant are numerous and severe, and such as are liable to 
absolutely incapacitate him for service, they are mostly due to 
want of care in his management and so are preventible. - 


CHAPTER IX.—WOUNDS AND OTHER SURGICAL 
CONDITIONS. 

We need not enter into detail concerning the nature and treats 
ment of wounds and tumours in general as seen in the elephant, 
since they differ only in very minor respects from those of other 
domesticated animals. We have already treated of gunshot wounds 
in relation to the skull as causing death, also of the very great 
import to be attached to injuries of the Trunk. There is a curious 
idea prevalent that wild elephants will plug gunshot wounds with 
lumps of clay. Sir EH. Tennent in his valuable and most interesting 
work on the Natural History of Ceylon, feclingly alludes to the 
amount of suffering which must result to elephants from the num- 
ber of non-fatal gunshot wounds which they receive, and quotes 
Gordon Cumming’s account of Elephant Shooting in South Africa, 
which he justly considersloathsome in the extreme. .. There are 
two surgical conditions, however, to which special allusion must 
be made, on account of their importance on active service. 

Carrep ELBow has been noticed by V. S. Nunn (Veterinary 
Journal, November 1882), as a constant source of trouble. The 


62 


Mahout neglects to spread the guddce on the ground to protect 
the elbows when the animal assumes the recumbent position to 
receive the load. Consequently tumours, resembling those so 
familiar to us as occurring in the horse, form on the points of 
the elbows. They are liable, if neglected, to form obstinate 
ulcers which render the animal almost uscless fora time as being 
unable to lie down and receive his load. Prevention is much 
better than cure but such cases must be taken early and will, 
with proper care, then cause only temporary inconvenience. 

Harness GALLS are either surface abrasions or abscesses. The 
former may result from excessive friction when the harness does 
not fit well or its leather parts have not been properly softened 
with grease or oil. ‘They are of minor importance, and are most 
liable to occur at the breast piece, under the tail, or from the 
trace links. They do not generally throw the animal out of 
work, careful adjustment and care of the harness with a view to 
removal of the cause, together with applications of astringent 
lotions, suffice to effect a cure. 

SaDDLE oR Pap GALLs are much more serious, because they. 
generally assume the form of abscesses and temporarily incapa- 
citate the animal for work. Their principal and most frequent 
causes are:—I. The saddle fitting badly or not being firmly fasten- 
ed on; its stuffing being rotten, unevenly distributed, or dis- 
placed by wear; its fastenings not being tight, so that they 
admit of movement of the saddle on the back. II. The load being 
unevenly distributed or liable to shift in consequence of imper- 
fect fastening. III. Malicious - practices on. the part of the 
Mahout, whether application of caustics to the back or the 
insertion of a stone cr some other irritant between the saddle 
and the back. Pathology: Either an open wound, or a serous 
abscess, or an accumulation of deepseated pus has to be dealt 
with; the most frequent seat being a little behind the tips of the 
shoulder blades. Treatment—Differs in no way from that required 
for ordinary wounds and abscesses (which see). V. S, Nunn, in 
recording his Afghan experiences, alludes to the case of an 
Elephant with a sore back, the ulcer being two feet in circum- 
ference, to which he applied as a poultice a flour sack filled with 
bran! It must not be forgotten that the Mahout is to be (under 
Para. 1726, Comt. Code) fined for negligence in most of these 


vate 


Den 'NDewve Ka 


(AavxaH way) 
(SANV3IMsy NOGOXOT) “LNVHd312 NVIIWAV FHL JO NOLITINS 3HL 


seer svvuVW 


63 


cases and the Pad repaired as much as circumstances will admit 
of, but not used again until thorough recovery has taken place. 

Of course on service this is not generally permissible, nor can 
the case be effectually treated by removal of the cause (Pad) 

in the earliest stages, much may, however, be done, by ad-. 
justing the stuffing and the load, to enable an animal with a 
sore back to doa fair share of work. The greatest care of the 

pads is necessary on service to avoid exposure to wet and to 

keep the stuffing in good order. According toa Bengal regu- 

lation in the Commissariat Code (Para. 1785) Elephants with galls 

are not to be used on the march, three camels, or a three or four 

bullock cart, to be substituted for each elephant to carry its load. 

Hood reminds us that, when treating wounds of the elephant, we 

ought to give the animal a sweatmeat after each dressing and 

take care to have the wounds constantly covered to prevent the 

access of dust and dirt such as these animals constantly throw 

over their bodies especially any parts which are the seat of | 
irritation. The term Kheel is usually applied to small Foils 
which occur especially on the back and flanks. , 


CHAPTER X.—ON THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM. 

We may here simply recall to the mind of the reader certain 
peculiarities of the skeleton heretofore alluded to. The large skull 
with enormous weighty molars and correspondingly huge facial 
sinuses ; the resulting shortness of the cervical vertebra, and 
great development of Ligamentum Nuchw and of the dorsal spines 
to which it is attached; the unusually large numbers ofjribs 
and dorsal vertebra, and the caudal region varying much in 
length and in the number of bones which it contains, even tending 
to shorten morbidly by dry Gangrene. The bones of the fore limb 
are remarkably like those of the hind, in each case the length is 
constituted mainly of three bones. Humerus and the two bones 
of the forearm (which cross one another like X) in the fore, femur, 
and tibia with fibula behind ; and the complex knee and hock 
joints are low down against the ground just above the hoof. 
There is a rudimentary clavicle. The bones of support are 
arranged almost perpendicularly on one another. The effects of 
this are that the animal can stand upright without muscular 
exertion and that he is not suited for rapid locomotion (as compared 
with his size in relation to that of other animals). Also he may 


64 


be very completely and easily upset, for this arrangement ill 
adapts him for the recovery of equilibrium, when once it has been 
disturbed. The upright position of the support bones accounts 
for the discomfort experienced in elephant riding, and it indi- 
cates to us that the elephant is a beast of burden calculated to 
sustain weight but not adapted to throwing his weight into a 
collar. The bones are very strong, their articular surfaces not 
supported on narrowed necks, and their processes small. Hence 
Fracrores are very rare in this animal. Gilchrist records a case 
where an elephant fell into a quagmire from which it could not 
extricate itself, so that in its struggles it broke its leg and 
had to be shot. He attributes such accidents to overloading, 
want of elasticity in the skeleton of the animal, and slippery scil 
causing severe falls. There is an enormous amount of fibrous 
tissue, especially of the yellow elastic kind, in the system of the 
elephant, and his ligaments are very strong. The flesh of the 
elephant is frequently considered good food, indeed the Burmese 
prefer it to any other meat; the heart, tongue, and trunk being 
delicate eating and the foot very useful for making soup. The 
majority of the muscles are tough and fibrous. It is curious to 
observe how some part of the healthy animal is always in motion, 
either ears flapping, legs swinging, tail lashing, or trunk prying 
about over everything near. This continuous motion, which in 
the horse would prevent “condition,” is in the elephant one of 
the most valuable indications of the absence of disease. The 
red “flesh” of many of ba muscles is very small in amount. 
This accounts for several facts :—firstly, for the remarkable 
endurance of the elephant: secondly, for his power of sleeping in 
a standing posturo and even retaining that position after death ; 
thirdly, for the infrequency of sprains ; fourthly, for the difficulty 
in getting abscesses to point; fifthly, for the liability of the 
elephant to rheumatism; and lastly, for the infrequency of 
dislocations of his joints. 


Sprains (Lutchuk), although infrequent, are severe when they 
occur, and apt to permanently incapacitate the animal. They are 
generally the result of over haste, carelessness, and overloading. 
They present nothing special as regards ae symptoms, and 
treatment. . 


65 


CHowruna isa term applied toa disease of frequent occurrence 
but doubtful pathology. Para. 1791 of the Commissariat Code 
commences thus “ In crossing rivers if elephants are in a heated 
state they are liable to contract a disease called “* Chowrung,” if 
they be permitted to gct a chill. Extreme cold has the same 
effect occasionally. ‘The sinews become contracted and the animal 
can barely move. A dram of liquor or a few warm mussauls 
may prevent the discase, but months of care will hardly cure it, 
and the animal will be predisposed to it for the future.” Gilchrist 
considers it a partial affection of all four feet and merely an 
advanced state of the condition known as Gunruss by the Mahouts; 
whereas Hood terms it “ Weak Joints.” ‘The patient is stiff all 
over apparently and turns the feet outwards ; in slight cases he is 
able to walk well and his efficiency is not impaired. Gunrusgs 
affects only the fore feet, occasionally it supervenes suddenly in 
apparently healthy animals as a premonitary symptom of Zérbéd. 
Pathology: It remains to be decided in the future whether this is 
Rheumatism or spasm of the muscles, or (as seems most pro- 
bable) a form of inflammation of the fect. Treatment comprises 
careful nursing and avoidance of exposure to cold, with doses of 


stimulants and antispasmodics internally. 
| 


CHAPTER XI.—ON THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 

Secrion I.—In the Male——-The testes are small, globular, 
situated against the ilium, and suspended, each in its special 
Tunica Vaginalis, freely in the abdomen below the posterior ex- 
tremity of the kidney. The Hpididymis lies on the outer side, 
and the veins are remarkab'e for their number, large size, and 
free communications. ‘"here are four prostate glands. ‘lhe free end 
of the penis is described as resembling a carrot, with a Y shaped 
orifice. The great drawback to the use of males for work is their 
liability to a peculiar sexual disturbance termed Must or Musture 
(in Ceylon, Mudda) which comes on at times and renders the 
animal unsafe and useless while it lasts. Although some of the 
symptoms of this condition occur in the female at the rutting 
season they are not very marked. In the wild male although the 
other symptoms occur (most frequently in the cold weather from 
November to February) they are seldom associated with fury 
(Sanderson). It is, therefore, aggravated by confinement and varies 


66 


much in its method of invasion in different individuals, in some 
the fits coming on frequently, in others bul seldom. This seems 
to depend to an extent on the condition of the animals, those 
highly fed and slightly worked being most affected. Its periodi- 
city may be explaincd by cumulation of generative energy which 
the domesticated animal is not enabled to expend and which 
finds an outlet in this special manner. It has been supposed that 
male elephants as well as females ‘‘come into heat,’ and although 
they seem always prepared to pay attentions to females there 
are certainly times when the sexual instinct in them runs higher 
than at others and which may correctly be called “rutting times.” 
These vary in period of duration from a few days to several weeks 
and if the constitutional symptoms are well marked the animal is 
said to be must. Then he becomes feverish, restless, sleepless, and 
requires to be picketed apart froin others. On the occurrence of 
the earliest premonitory signs he must be hobbled, otherwise he is 
apt to break away from his picket and “run must,” that is to dash 
about in blind fury doing what mischief he can. Quite recently we 
have read of such an occurrence in the city of Hyderabad and His 
Overfed Royal Highness of Siam (a white elephant) recently died 
after exhibiting signs of this peculiar derangement. There is a con- 
comitant swelling of a remarkable gland on the temple and a more 
or less profuse brownish oleaginous discharge from the must-hole 
or ched situated in the region of the temple. This sexual physiolo- 
gical process does not occur before the animal has attained the age 
of puberty (25—30 years). Treatment—The animal having been 
duly and in time secured, it is advisable if possible to let the attack 
rur its course without interference, or at most to reduce the fever 
by salines. Iam informed that in the Rangoon wood stacking 
yards it is the custom when an elephant shows signs of must 
to lower his diet and give him extra work and this is found to 
prevent his becoming furious. Ouchterlony speaks of bleeding 
and castor oil doses but cautions against the use of Sedatives 
*‘which may stop the flow altogether and cause lethargy, sinking, 
and collapse, and even death.” Slymm says “the following dose 
twice a day will soon compose it, camphor and opium, of each two 
drachms; sulphur, one ounce, made into a ball with jaggery. If it 
happens that the animal has become uncontrollable before the 
above medicine can be administered and that it has broken its 


67 


fetters, the best. mode to recapture the animal is to tako a.dozen 
plantains which have been prepared with one drachm of opium 
each—throw these to the animal from a safe distance, and usually 
it will partake of them readily, and after having consumed from 
four to eight plantains (in proportion to the size of the animal) it 
soon becomes giddy, when the keeper can safely walk up and 
secure it.” In view of the serious loss of services and danger from 
male elephants being liable to must, government now purchases 
only females for its use, and of the males now in the Service when 
they are in this state the ratib is to be reduced one-half, and green 
fodder given in compensation (Comt. Code, Para. 1771). As males 
are so much more strong and imposing than females, and as the 
elephant is used by us mainly for purposes uf show or where great 
bulkand enormous strength is required, the liability to ‘must’ consi- 
derably lessens the total value of the elephant. In view of this im- 
portant matter various Veterinary Officers, but especially I. V. 8. 
Hallen, Superintendent of Horse Breeding Operations, have tried 
to prevent Musthee by Casrrarion, or Spayine as it ought rather 
to be termed, however the intra-abdominal position of the testes 
and the size of the animal render this a very formidable operation 
and very frequently quite impracticable. Anatomical examination 
has shown that it is possible to reach the testes through an inci- 
sion in the abdominal wall but the operation must be performed 
on both sides. The hugh bulk of the animal necessitates his being 
drawn into a hole dug in the ground after being thrown and pro- 
perly secured. Then it is found that an incision in the usual position 
is of little use, for, the animal being “well ribbed up,” the operator’s 
arm is numbed by the severe compression it suffers between the 
last rib and the hip bone. An incision lower down is not of much 
value because the testis is difficult to reach and the arm intro- 
duced through the wound is so numbed by the pressure of the 
powerful abdominal muscles as to prove unable to draw the testis 
down from its superior attachments even if a fair grasp be 
obtained (which is not generally the case), Thus it is evident that 
all attempts to perform this operation without chloroform and the 
instrument known as the Ecrascur must be useless. Whether it 
can be done with these aids remains to be seen—possibly division 
of the nerves of the penis might have the desired effect; castra- 
tion of recently captured young males as a routine procedure at 


68 


the capturing establishment would offer more chances of success 
and less difficulty in operating than making the attempt on old 
* males when suffering from must. It is evident that so long as 
females suffice for government purposes this routine castration 
would not be economical, even if practicable, for the operation is 
severe and liable to be attended with fatal results. 

The Temporal Gland or Kuppool is like a salivary gland in ap- 
pearance. It is flattened between the skin and the temporal muscle 
and communicates with the surface by a short duct from its lower 
part. It is found in the female as well as the male. Its secretion 
is oily and odorous. It is an accessory reproductive organ analo- 
gous to the Larmicrs or Tearpits of the Deer. 

Inflammation of this Gland has been described as occasionally 
resulting from its excessive activity during Musthee, the discharge 
containing pus, and the temple being swollen and painful. It 
must be treated by fomenting free! y, and the disorder will subside 
with the sexual excitement which caused it. Occasionally, on care- 
ful examination, a piece of wood may be found in the Ched hole or 
Kuppool duct, probably a thorn broken off short in the passage. 

Section II.——Jn the Female.—The female generative organs are 
in some respects very remarkable. The womb is almost wholly 
divided into two horns and there is in the unimpregnated female 
a well marked Hymen. The vulva is very Jong and so curved or- 
dinarily that its loose external opening hangs down very like and 
in the position occupied in the male by the penis—it forms a re- 
gular prepuce to the clitoris which in the young specimen examin- 
ed by me was very like a small penis and measured over a foot in 
length. The extraordinary position of the generative opening has 
led to a wide spread doubt as to whether the acr OF COPULATION 
is performed by the elephant in the position ordinary to quadru- 
peds. On medals and other native works of art the animals are 
represented sub coiti, the female literally standing on her head. 
Male domesticated elephants “ toy’’ with females endeavouring to 
mount them in{the usual way and the parts of the female are so ar- 
ranged as to alter their position in consequence of erection of the 
clitoris under sexual excitement under which circumstances the 
external opening assumes somewhat the position ordinary to qua- 
drupeds. This was observed by the ancient anatomists, Aristotle 
mentions it in his Historia Animalium ; probably the weight and 


RECTUM 


<- 


BP esl 


meet oti 2 
a VAL OF a PORTION 
CUTORIS OF THEY oF vu) =< 
FAG wale “FUL wuADSER. N 
\ ; 


DIAGRAM OF FEMALE GINERATIVE ORGANS, 
(AFTER MIALL) 


ELEPHANTS COPULATING {rrom ATHOTOCRAPH TAKEN AT 
THEYET MYO, 8Y M% JOHN PORTER, SCHOOL MAGTER ,2"2 BATT" BEDFORDSHIRE RECT ). 
THE FIGURES ARE NECESSARILY INDISTINCT LSPECIALLY THE IRUNKS BO TAILS WHICH WERE CONSTANTLY 
IN MCTION 
(ELEPHANT HOUSE IM Bacnanounn-) 


fey TREMITIES OF THE PROBOSCIS. A, OT THE MALE; BOF THE FLMMALE.) 
Cerige HoveL.) 


PLATE 10. _ ttLuSTRATING SEXUAL ORGANS.B DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE 
‘AND FEMALE ELEPHANTS, ALSO A FIGURE FROM,LIFE, OF THEM IN THE ACT OF 
SEXUAL UNION. 


ALDe BARREL TMOR PL ADRAL BCD 


69 


vigour of the male sometimes indaccs the female to go down on her 
fore knees and rest her forehead against the ground, especially as 
the congress lasts for some time. A writer in the Oriental Sporting 
Magazine gives us some interesting details—“I have only once 
been a distant eyewitness to the copulation of elephants.” * * * 
“A tusker seemed to be struggling in a pitfall with his head and 
fore quarters alone visible, the animal seemingly standing on his 
hind legs, endeavouring to escape from the snare. Upon my bring- 
ing my glass to bear upon him, I at once saw what it was. The 
female was standing in a deep but dry nullah which branched out 
from the main water course : it was not more than 5 ft. in breadth ; 
the male had a forefoot resting on either bank thus in a great 
measure the weight of his body was thrown off the cow. The end 
of his trunk was twined round her throai; nearly, ten minutes 
elapsed without their shifting their positions and not a sound 
was emitted from their throats while in conjunction. Ultimately, 
both animals moved off silently and rejoined the herd, which all 
the time had remained at a distance.” Natives say one leap is 
certain to suffice, also that the animals take over an hour in copu- 
lation. This observation seems most reliable, and (with another 
case observed by a large number of officers in Thayetmyo, and 
photographed) ought to conclusively establish the fact ‘ that 
the elephant copulates in the position ordinary to quadrupeds 
availing himself when possible of the conformation of the 
ground to lessen the burden of his weight on the female. 
We have already commented on the facts that elephants used 
to breed in captivity in the time of the Moguls and Cartha- 
ginians, that they do so in Siam in the present day, and that 
they have not the conditions necessary to enable them to do so in 
Anglo-Indian domestication-—nor would it be economical to have 
elephant breeding studs so long as a sufficient supply can be ob- 
tained by capture. Females in calf or with calf at foot are sometimes 
captured, and the little ones make funny pets, beingjvery playful, 
and sometimes very mischievous. The duration of pregnancy is said 
to be 20 mos. and 18 days (Corse); 22 mos. with male calf, 18 mos. 
with female (Sanderson). Instances of elephants breeding in capti- 
vity are given in the “Asian’’ for Sth June 1883. The duration of 
pregnancy was 583 to 680 days. The placental membrane forms a 
ring round the body of the foetus, and the mammary glands are 


70 


two in number and situated under tho chest. It was at one time 
thought that the young clephant sucks with his trunk, but it is 
now definitely ascertained that this idea is an error based on the 
fact that while sucking the calf caresses the mamma with the 
trunk, and probably thereby assists the flow of milk. The nipple 
is grasped by the side of the mouth, and the dam bends the chest 
downwards that the little one may reach with ease, or is spared 
this labour by the care of the attendants in raising a small mound 
for the calf to rest on (Corse, Philosophical Transactions, 1799). 

It is said that the position of the two breasts in the female “ en- 
ables the young one to suck as it runs along beside the mother 
or even under her belly” (Williamson). Ouchterlony says the 
young are sometimes fed by means of the trunk. 

Parrurition. Mr. George Artingstall has published a paper on 
Parturition in the elephant which is reproduced in the Veterinary 
Journal, July, 1882. “ For the first few months the animal appear- 
ed as usual, but as she advanced towards full term she grew heavy 
and sluggish, until the last month, when she became decidedly lazy. 
One of the earliest symptoms noted was the enlargement of thé 
mamme which were quite prominent from the fourth month, but 
developed slowly within the last few weeks, when they rapidly gain- 
ed in sizo, until they were about as large as those of an ordinary 
Durham cow. As near as could be determined each organ would 
measure from 6-8 inches from base to point of nipple, and at the 
base about 24 inches in circumference, Each nipple was covered 
until the day of delivery with a scaly coating. On the morning of 
2nd Feb, 1882 the animal appeared about as usual, but during the 
forenoon the scaly crusts over the nipples peeled off and watery 
mucous discharge was noticed coming from the numerous openings 
of each. Close observation revealed the fact that each nipple in- 
stead of having a single orcommon opening had several—the right 
eleven and the left thirteen. About two hours before delivery 
there was a slight watery discharge from the vagina, and it was 
plain that the lips of the vuiva were swollen, the vessels distend- 
ed with blood, which appeared as many blue lines. When these 
symptoms were first noticed, the Queen was separated from the 
rest of the elephants, placed in a room by herself, and securely 
fastened. She kept on eating, and seemed perfectly well until 
twenty minutes before the baby was born. From that time until 


71 


birth she appeared a trifle uneasy, but gave no evidence of posi- 
tive labour pains. The delivery was very sudden, and occurred 
while she was standing, having previously separated the posterior 
extremitics to a slight degree.” 

“The baby presented head and front fect first, enclosed in its 
membranes, and appeared to be going up and ont of the rectum, 
which appearance was accounted for by its passage over the 
pubic arch, and in less than three minutes it had dropped to the 
ground. The mother instantly straightened up, crossed her pos- 
terior extremities, and by rubbing them together soon severed 
the cord. The little one lay perfectly quiet, and apparently was 
not breathing; but the mother, as soon as the cord was broken, 
turned round, and with one of her anterior feet struck the mem- 
branous sac quite forcibly, which instantly broke with a loud re- 
port. After rupturing the membrancs, she placed her foot on the 
thorax, and pressed it with the appearance of considerable force, 
raised it and pressed again, and repeated this operation several 
times, until the little one began to breathe and -gave positive 
evidence of life, when she ceased and appeared satisfied. Now 
for the first time, she was considerably excited. This stage of 
excitement lasted for about half an hour. About: this time the 
baby made several attempts to gain his feet, and finally succeed- 
ed, but was quite weak on his legs for a number of hours.”* 

“The mother gave every evidence of suffering more pain after 
the delivery, and until the placenta was discharged, than in giving 
birth to the baby. There was a low beam near by, which she 
got astride of, and settled down upon quite heavily until the after- 
birth was discharged, which occurred two hours after the fetus.” 
This was accompanied by a slight flow of blood; after it the 
animal stepped back from over te beam, and appeared perfectly 
relieved. ‘lhe calf commenced to suck five hours after birth. 


* When we consider the sagacity shown by the elephant under various 
circumstances and the amplitude of detail of the above description, we shall 
have less difficulty, than we otherwise might find, in believing that the 
elephant cow will, on emergency, resort to artificial respiration with the 
newly born calf. We must remember, however, that no such remarkable 
behaviour has been recorded by others who have observed an elephant cow 
give birth and manipulation of the young animal, both in and out of its 
membranes, with the foot might easily be mistakenly supposed to have the 
objects above ascribed to it. 


72 


The milk has been shown, by Dr. Chas. Doremus, to be very 
rich with au agreeable taste and odour, and less water and more 
butter and sugar, than any other (Ifed. Times and Gaz., 1881). 
Artingstall found that it closely resembled cocoa-nut milk and 
wags secreted in quantities daily greater than that of the best 
Jersey cow and one-eighth greater bulk of cream. Corse found 
that after parturition the animal in about six months’ time 
manifests symptoms of heat which last only a few days, there 
being slight swelling and congestion of the vulva, which also 
descends to a slight degree; when the female desires attentions 
of the male she utters certain sounds. It has been found that, 
although pampered and highly fed, white elephants do not breed, 
but this is probably due to their lax constitutions and general 
unhealthiness, for it is recorded that they are liable to enlarge- 
ments of the joints and certain disorders of the skin. 


{I have recently been informed that in the Karen country free 
breeding occurs among the herds of semi-domesticated elephants 
which constitute a considerable part of the wealth of people, and 
which are daily driven out into the jungle to graze. 

So numerous are elephants to the west ot British Burma, that, 
when any are required to carry loads of merchandize, they are 
impressed from the herd, and given a short day’s march under a 
light load cach, being replaced by freshly impressed animals for 
the next day’s journey. Thus the natives get their work done 
without having to give their elephants grain food. 

ELeruant steaine is a branch of industry which has attained 
a considerable development along the Siam Frontier of Burma. 
It is carried on in the night and pursuit prevented by throwing 
along the track traversed pieces of bamboo joints'so cut as to 
form three very sharp projections such as would severely lame 
pursuers, whether on foot or elephants. The elephant stealers 
show much skill in obliteration of distinctive marks. (J. H. 8.)] 


73 


CHAPTER XII: THERAPEUTICS. 


We have shown very clearly that much good may be done by 
the scientific treatment of elephant diseases. We wish now to 
show that it is economical to so treat them, and, as the intrinsic 
and pecuniary value of elephants is great, it would be worth the 
while of Government to enconrage the study of the Pathology of 
the Elephant. Apart from the value to medical science and to 
the art of war of this study, it is not hard to prove, viewing the 
matter from a narrower standpoint, that there is at present great 
waste of medicines used in the compounding of elephant mussauls, 
due to the ignorance (not culpable however) of Europeans in 
charge, and to the ignorance and cupidity of natives. The facts 
which I wish to bring strongly into relief are— 

1. That now usually when an elephant requires treatment 
either one of Gilchrist or of Hawkes’ mussalahs is inden- 
ted for. Those given by the former officer are very com- 
plex, Col. Hawkes’ formula are much less objectionable. 
fn other cases the mahout is supplied with what he con- 
siders necessary. Thus there is no skilled opinion as to 
the disease to be treated nor as to the remedy to be 
used. Upon this system much medicine must unneces- 
sarily be expended. 

2. The formule generally include a number of bazaar medi- 
cines—of which the mineral are very impure and their 
action cannot be relied upon—unor is their dose certain, 
for they constantly vary in composition. 

3. They also include substances known to have no action of 
importance on the animal system. 

4, They generally contain a number of substances so closely 
similar in action as to be interchangeable and the use 
of only one of these similar ingredients necessary. 

5. They generally contain incompatibles—agents which by 
chemical, mechanical, or medicinal properties render 
each other inert. 

6. They probably often contain curry stuffs and other such 
ingredients looked upon by the native attendants as 
perquisites. 

Although, whenever possible, I have drawn on my own experience 
on the treatment of elephants, I have not neglected the informa- 


(% 


tion given by previous authors—their formule, however, wili 
some cases not be recognized when reformed by scientific revisi 
although their actions can be much altered for the better by su 
treatment. To the scientific therapentist of the present day ma 
errors in Gilchrist’s system of treatment will be evident at am 
glance. Thus sulphur is considered “stimulant” in its acti 
cloves and coriander seeds are ‘‘cuoling,” black henbane is ‘co 
ing and carminative,” and stramonium is “stimulant.” We po 
this out not in a spirit of hostile criticism but rather to indic 
the very elementary knowledge possessed by Gilchrist and 

informants of the nature and action of medicines on the syst 
of the elephant and the way in which they may be utilized 
the treatment of disease. The ground was practically unbrol 
then; as far as we can determine from literature, it remains in 

same state now, forty years since Gilchrist turned the first. soc 

The Mahouts knew only about the value of carminatives, : 
some sedatives which they called “cooling”? medicines. T. 
never used purgatives. Their external applications have s¢ 
value, but they were utterly ignorant of the surgical treatmen 
wounds, &c. Gilchrist and his school have introduced the ‘bl 
and physic” plan and also a little system into elephant medic 
have placed the native mussauls on paper and have thus gi 
some basis for fature action. Col. Hawkes and Dr. Slymm, w 
adopting most of Gilchrist’s ideas, have simplified his form 
and pharmacy, with considerable benefit in lessening cost 
promoting efficiency of the remedies. It remains to apply 
present therapeutical knowledge to this subject—and to ¥ 
scientifically on the practical basis thus afforded. 

I have decided, then, to—I. Give a list of ordinary Veter 
medicines procurable in this country useful in elephant treatm 
with their doses and actions.—II. To notice agents which ] 
been specially recommended in elephant treatment.—III. 
give some simple formule such as will prove useful in rot 
treatment and ought to be kept on hand and ready for use. 
latter are the more necessary because at present the disease 
elephants are seldom treated by Veterinary Surgeons and 
prescriptions will probably be more effectual and certainly de 
harm and cost less money than those which are otherwise lh 
to be resorted to. 


75 


Concerning the influence which peculiarities of constitution of 
the elephant exercise over the action of remedies. ‘‘ No medicine, 
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral is known to have an emetic 
effect on the elephant. Tartar emetic has been given in two ounce 
doses morning and evening, till half a pound was taken, but no 
emetic or other obvious medicinal effect followed.’ In this the 
elephant resembles the horse and differs remarkably from the dog, 
man, &c. It is curious that the Mahouts “ never prescribe purga- 
tives, such having no place in their Materia Medica. The aloes, 
indeed, is acommon ingredient in their mussauls, but it is given 
with an alterative and tonic object” (Gilchrist). The list of altera- 
tives for the elephant is large but it must be remembered that 
this class of agents simply includes those which do good “we can- 
not tell hov;’ ! Certain important classes of agents, such as sudo- 
rifics, emetics, and antiperiodics, may, apparently be entirely omit- 
ted from this Materia Medica. Others such as stimulants, tonics, 
and vermifuges have a great importance. « 

_ As regards Doss; here, too, we have no certain guide. It seems 
that the great size of the patient too often suggests an excessively 
large dose. Our authorities differ extremely even over the simplest: 
remedies and those most frequently in use. Much doubt must hang 
over this branch of the subject until careful experiments with 
simple pure remedies have been performed. We shall only indicate 
the probable dose likely to be effectual and free from risk, we 
have elsewhere stated that generally the ‘‘doses given to the ele- 
phant must be double those for the ox,” but have noted that (as. 
Epsom salts for instance) there are many exceptions to this rule. 

Puarmacy: To every elephant establishment should be attached 
a well appointed dispensing room to be used as a pharmacy and 
veterinary office. It is all very well to say that the Mahouts with: 
their chatties, cowdung luting, impromptu’ mortars, and other‘ 
means can sufficiently prepare elephant medicines. It surely can- 
not be denied that the European methods are the more exact, 
cleanly, and supervisable, and there is no specific virtue in native 
ways. It is most important to progress in elephant medicine that: 
the exact European system replace the inexact and confused 

method hitherto adopted. We make these remarks lest it be sug- 
gested in opposition to our views that we have entirely neglected 
the elaborate macerations in chatties, carefully ordered mixture. 


76 


of mussaul ingredients and so on, hitherto resorted to. We have 
done so on the same principle that the modern physician has 
laid aside the pompous manners and gold-headed cane adopted 
in the time of the Georges—because scionce now disdains to im- 
pose on the lay mind by trivial and unnecessary attention to non- 
essential details. Of necessity many bazaar medicines must be 
used in the treatment of elephants but preference must be given to 
those of them which are vegetable products and so less liable to 
impurity than mineral, and always good specimens free from insect 
ravages and dirt must be procured. The vehicles used in preparing 
the medicines for ADMINISTRATION are generally those palatable to 
the animal, gir or jagghery, honey, spices, and so on; by their 
use the medicine may be given through the mouth either as a bolus 
or in the form of a chupattee ; the latter will be eaten in the usual 
way, the former may be introduced as far back as possible into the 
animal’s mouth either as it is or folded up in a piece of plantain 
leaf. “ The administering of medicine is rather difficult with some 
animals, in such cases a piece of wood of the following description 
I have found very serviccable:—lIt should be 2} ft. long, 6 in. 
broad, and 2in. thick and should be put in the animal’s mouth 
with the two ropes at the ends fastened to a rope previously tied 
round the neck, the centre hole should be large enough to allow 
the hand to go through with the medicine in the shape of a ball, 
and, if liquid, it should be put into a bamboo or into a plantain leaf. 
Many animals have to be well fettered before commencing this 
operation’' (Slymm). The fact of the elephant having freedom of 
the posterior part of the tongue much increases the difficulty in 
administering boli through the gag, the tongue gives much resist- 
ance to the hand and pushes it between the grinders. It is won- 
derful how littie room there is for passage of the hand to behind 
the tongue of even a big elephant, and often after the bolus seems 
to have been passed behind the tongue it is gradually returned 
and may be found sticking to the upper part of the opening through 
the gag. Thus some force is required in passing it over the base of 
the tongue, but once this difficulty has been surmounted the bolus 
ust be swallowed. The best means of administration of liquid 
remedies seems to be by using the Read’s patent enema apparatus 
as an artificial trunk ; occasionally tasteless substances may be 
given mixed with the drinking water. Ouchterlony says that 


77 


sometimes in giving draughts it is found necessary to make the 
animal knee] down, sccure him by fastening a chain under the 
forearms and over the neck, hobbling the fore and hind legs, in- 
serting a crowbar between the grinders and injecting the draught; 
this certainly seems a formidable proccss and not likely to doa 
sick animal good! The natives suggest introduction of boli per 
anum in cases of tetanus, they being carvied up as far as the arm 
can reach, Enemata are very useful in elephant practice, indeed 
the only article for elephant treatment mentioned in Messrs. 
Arnold’s catalogue of veterinary instruments is an enema appara- 
tus, which may be obtained at the formidable rate of three guineas! 
To give an enema to an elephant place him in some position where 
the forefeet rest much below the hind. Ifa Read’s pump is not 
available use a syringe with a long nozzle. Let the tail be held 
up by two men sitting on the back of the animal. Introduce the 
nozzle, well lubriated, deeply and with an upward inclination. 
Inject the fluid slowly and steadily. 

The method of administration of the future for the elephant 
* will probably be subcutaneous injection. Although the sensitiveness 
of the skin is considerable this does not prove a very formidable 
obstacle to introduction of the trochar of the, syringe, and the 
elephant stands surgical infliction of pain well and is said to ex- 
hibitSa liking for the Surgeon who has afforded him relief. 

Concerning the use of remedial agents applied externally ; 
Poulticing is a formidable operation as requiring often a large bulk 
of substance—thus V. 8. Nunn speaks of using a wheat bag filled 
with bran in a case of sore back. A very useful substance for 
poultices is the prickly cactus freed from its thorns and well 
bruised—or the common yellow thistle-like plant of waste places 
(Satianassee) similarly treated. 

The method of application of fomentation is given with useful 
minuteness of detail by Gilchrist :—“ Cow-dungis mixed with water. 
This, being heated in a large chatty, is applied to the body over as 
much of the surface as is deemed necessary for the particular 
malady under treatment. The application is continued uninter- 
ruptedly until a coating of it has accumulated, the thickness of 
which prevents the rapid dissipation of heat. When it is wished 
to foment the back and sides of an elephant a flannel cloth (jhool) 
ought to be first thrown over the back, and the ends tied together 


78 


beneath the abdomen. The hot water (without cow-dung) may be 
applied to the cumblie by means of a brush, as above alluded to. 
This will soon become saturated with hot water, and the continu- 
ed application of this will keep up its temperature, which the 
thickness of the cloth will preventimmediately becoming reduced.” 

Blistering and Firing are not frequently resorted to. They are, 
as compared with the same processes on horse, ox, camel, &c., 
simplified by the paucity of hair. The common Buisterine Ornt-. 
MENT is made up of ordinary Unguentum Cantharidis together 
with twice its bulk of turpentine. 

Poulticing boots for the feet are particularly useful as a protection 
from injury and dirt of these important organs when they are 
suffering from disease. 

We have already dealt with the MeTHoDs or RESTRAINT adopted 
during operations. Sometimes these provo quite unnecessary but 
generally they are required for the safety of the Surgeon and his, 
Assistants. We believe chloroform has been successfully used in 
operations on the clephant but have no exact record of this to 
hand. There are very few operations in which it would be required. 
and it is doubtful whether the elephant feels pain very acutely. 

In making Post Mortem Examinations of the elephant the greatest 
care must be exercised to avoid entry of the body-fluids through. 
small wounds about the hands and arms of the operator. A recent. 
sad case of fatality resulting from such inoculation has been 
brought to my notice, anc para. 1792 of the 1882 Indian Com- 
missariat Code says “ attendants cutting up dead elephants should, 
anoint their hands with sweet vil to prevent the breaking out of 
ulcers which are liabie to. be caused by contact with the fluids of 
the dead body.” Probably the cases in which ill results have. 
ensued were of specific disorder. The same paragraph enjoins 
that “when an elephant dies, after the usual post-mortem examin- 
ation, it shall be removed to some distance from the cantonment 
and buried.” The ordinary post mortem instruments, as supplied 
by Government, suffice, with exception of the saw, in place of. 
which a long thin saw devoid of back is needed for making. 
sections of the skull. A sharp axe will also be found useful., 
Each elephant establishment should have a set of these instru- 
ments available, 


79 


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80 


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81 


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82 


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-(panuyuog)—zuvydapy 247 4of sauropary fo sv] 


83 
FORMULARIUM OR DISPENSATORY. 


I. Tonic Mussavts (for such diseases as Zérb4d and Asthenia). 


1. Take of Gentian 
Bondue nut. 
Sweet flag 
Ujwan 
Ginger 
Arsenic (White), 


each 1 ounce 


ine zy 
~F each}, 


Reduce to powder 
and mix with suf- 
ficient honey to 
make a bolus. 


5 grains (Slymam)- 


2. Take of Bondue nut. 


) Infusein about two 


Sweet flag .. each 4 cance pints of boiling 
Long pepper water for half an 
Cummin seed hour, strain it 
Chiretta ... ko 4 well and then add 
Jaggery ... 2 Sy the Jaggery and 
Arrack 3, J Arrack.(Slymm). 


Black pepper 


3. Take of Chiretta, powdered 2 a with water, a 


Arrack 


4. Take of Malkagini 
Kootkee ... 
Ginger 
Honey (sufficient) 


pint and a half, 


—e pint and give daily. 
es ounces 

sek gs Mix and give as a 
1, £ Bolus. 


II. Srimunanr Mussauts (‘To be given in cases of collapse and 


depression), 


1. Take of Spirits of Turpen- 
.. & ounces 
BEI 13 

Sweet (Jingili) oil. 


tine 
Nitrous Ether 


Mix and give asa 
drink. 
1 pint 


2. Take of Gum Assafcetida... 


Ginger 
Bonduc nut 


Honey and Jaggery, 


sufficient. 


1 ounce 


a - is ic and give asa 
= ” 


bolus. 


84 


IIT. Anrispassopic ANopyxe Mussauts (for Colic, &c.). 
1. Take of Opium... » each 5 drachms.—Mix with nine 
Assafeetida.. \ ounces of Jaggery. Repeat in an 
Ginger hour if necesary. (Gilchrist). 


2. Take of Ginger... ... 4 ounces) Mix with sufficient 
Assafeetida gical’. 335 Jaggery ; for cases 
Sweet flag Sage ip of flatulence. 
Margosa bark ...8 ,, (Gilchrist). 
(Antimony Sulphuret (Omit the Anti_ 


2 drachms.) } mony compound), 


IV. Sepatrive Moussavt. 
Take of Tartar Emetic. 
Aconite : A each 2 ie tte 


Wheat flour... beach ahotank a bolus. 
Ghee bs 


VY. Drvretic Doss. 


Take of Nitre... sal 7 ounce ie ite ans 
7 eperans -_ and give asa bo- 
Resin Toa 5 
Country Li Aree ohh : 99 . 


VI. Caruartic Mussav.s. 


1. Take of Aloes_ ... — ounce 
Make into a bolus. 


Coriander. : 
(Slymm). 


Jaggery ... os ee 


Reduce to powder 
& give with Jag- 
gery as a bolus. 

(Gilchrist). 


2. Take of Aloes a : drachms 
Croton seeds 


Salt ~e es 
Cassia pulp 1 
Sweet oil ... oe) 
Cummin ... 1 


Put the whole into 
a tender plantain 
leaf and give. 


3. Take. of Tamarind... as 2 4 


85 
4. Take of Croton sceds 1 ounce 
Calomel ... 14 drachms 
Mix and make into 


Alocs.,, 6 3 
a ball. (Forsyth). 


Rice flour or Gur as much as 
necessary. 


VII. Asrrincenr Mussavt. 


1. Take of Opium _... 1 ounce Divide into four. 
Catechu oy 2} ounces/{ Give one dose 
Chalk ea Br) g5 every 4 hours. 
Jaggery ve 10 ,, (Hawkes). 
(For Lungun). 


2. Take of Inderjou ... ) 
Bdellium .., peach 4 ounce 
Mix and give as a 


Catechu ror fees iy 

Common salt jee Oe bj { as 

Water oe ... 14 pint 

VIII. Misce.iangovs. 
(For Musthee) Ghee ... 4 lbs.) Make into boli and give 

Wheat flour.. 8 » one night and morn- 
Onions eu Oo ing till the whole have 
Sugar ines been taken (Hawkes). 


IX. Exrernat Apprications. These do not differ materially 
from those resorted to in other branches of veterinary practice. 
The following recipes are useful :— 

1. Camphorated Oil. (Gilchris$). 
Take of Jingili Oil .. Lpint ) 
Camphor ... Bounces § 
(To prevent flies attacking wounds). 


Mix and dissolve. 


2. Dikkamalay Ointment. (Hawkes). 
Take of Resin of Gardenia. ) 


lucida (Dikka- lor ee ee 
malay) 


Bees wax - J 


86 


Jingili oil oes ... 6 tolas (say 2 oz.) 
Pulverised gall nuts ... 2 tolas (say } 02.) 
Boil the powdered gall nut in the oil, then add the 
Dikkamalay, and when it is melted strain through a 
cloth ; lastly add the wax and stir till cold. 


3. Ointment for tender fect (Hawkes). “‘ Chébing.” 


Take of Aloes ] 
Wax w.. Melt together and 
Dammer.. of each T past apply as an oint- 
Grease ... ment. 


Catechu... ... 4 pts.) 


4. Blistering ointment. 
Take of Common Cartharides ointment (1-6), one part. 
Venice Turpentine ... two parts. 
Heat together, with stirring, until they are thoroughly 
mixed. 


APPENDIX. 


Bisrioararuy : being a list of the principal works and papers of 
interest dealing with the subject of Elephants—in health and 
disease, tame and wild—especially those consulted by the author 
of the present work. 

“The Elephant,” by Lieut. Ouchterlony; Veterinarian, 1878, (An 
Essay). 

“On the Management of the Elephant,” by Col. Hawkes. Anda 
series of papers on the same subject in the Veterinarian, 1875. 

Forsyth “ Highlands of Central India,’’ Analysis in Veterinarian, 
1873. 

Sanderson “Thirteen years among the wild beasts of India.” 

A few records of cases of disease in the Elephant in Veterinary 
periodicals. 

J. H. Steel; Article in Medical Examiner, 1878, p. 886. 

Royal Engineers’ and Royal Artillery Manuals for Field Service. 

Government (Indian) Records of Cattle Diseases. 

Williamson “ Oriental Field Sports.” 

Anderson “ The Lion and the Elephant.” 

Shakspeare “ Wild Sports of India.” 


87 


Gilchrist “ A Practical Treatise on the discases of the Elephant,” 
Editions of 18-41 and 1851, 

Slymin “ Treatise on the Treatment of Elephants in health and 
disease.” 

“The Klephant”; Knight’s Series, 1844. 

Petrus‘ab Hartenfels—“ Elephanto-graphia,”” 1517. 

‘* Oriental Sporting Magazine,” N.S., Vol. I., 1868. “On the 
Malayan Elephant” by Young Shikarry. 

Sir Emmerson Tenicnt—“'The Natural History of Ceylon.” 

“ Field” —Naturalist’s Column, April 1882. 

Sanderson “The Elephant in freedom and captivity” (a Lecture), 
in the Journal of the United Service Institution of India, 
Vol. IX, No. 44, July 1880. : 

Notes in the “ Quarterly Journal of Veteriuary Science in India.” 

Transactionsof the Zoological, Linnean, and other learned Societies. 

«Asiatic Researches” ; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; 
Philosophical Transactions. 

Indian Commissariat Code, 1882. 

Cobbold—“ Parasites” and ‘‘ On the internal Parasites of Domes- 
ticated Animals.” 

Browning—“ Siam, its kingdom and its people.” 

Livingstone’s Journals. 

Journal of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, 1880. 

Gordon Cumming ‘‘ Huntcr’s life in South Africa.” 

Major Macready “ Elephant Shooting in Ceylon.” 

Baker “ ‘The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon.” 

Indian Sporting Review. 

Hastisiipe ; a Singhalese work on the Klephant. 

Phile— Expositio de elephante.”’ 

Armandi—“ Histoire Militaire des Elephans.”’ 

Naturalists Library, Volume IX. 

Temminck—Coup d’ oeil général sur les possessions néerlandaiser 
dans l Inde Archipelagique. . 

Works of Aristotle. Pliny, and lian on Natural History. 

Yule—“ Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in 1855.” 

Dr. O. Von Linstow— Compendium der Helminthologie,”’ 1878. 

Works on Parasites by Deising, Rudolphi, &c. 

Cobbold—Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, Jan., 1869, 

Bernier’s Travels in the Mogul Empire. 


88 


Pringle, Knox, Shipp, Marco Polo, Passim—in works on travel. 
Sanderson on Elephant equipment. In G.O., 23rd August 1882, 
No. 4503 of Madras. 


“Anatomy of the Indian Elephant” by Miall and Greenwood, 
1878, in which book are enumerated the following Memoirs 
on the Anatomy of the Elephant :— 

Philosophical Transactions XX VII, p. 53; XXX, p. 885; LXXXIX 
pp. 205—236, and pp. 237—258 ; CXLVII, pp. 347—353. 

Camper— Description Anatomique @’un Elephant male.” 

“Kleinere Schriften,” and “ (uvres.” 

Cuvier—“ Recherches sur les Ossemeus fossiles.” 

“Recueil des planches de myologie.”’ 

Buffon and Daubenton—“ Histoire Naturelle.” 

Goodsir—“ Anatomical Memoirs.” 

“ Proceedings of the Irish Academy,” Vols. III and IV. 

Howel—“ Histoire Naturelle des deux E!ephans.’’ 

Hunter, John—‘ Essays and Observations.” Edited by Owen. 

Leurct et Gratiolet-— Anatomie comparée du systéme nerveux.” 

Mayer—‘ Beitrage zur Anatomie des Elephanten” dkad. Ces, 
Leop., Vol. XXII. 

Moulins, Allen—* Anatomical account of an elephant accidentally 
burnt in Dublin,” 1682. 

Owen—‘ Odontography.” 

Perrault—Mémoires de |’Acad. Roy. des Sc. ; Tom ITI, p. 3, and 
Mémoires pour servir 4 l’ Histoire Naturelle des Animaux. 

Seba, Albert—A paper on the Foetus of the Elephant. Amster- 
dam (1734—1765). 

Serrao—Opuscoli di vario Argomento, Naples, 1766. 

Stukeley—“ Two Essays, 1723 and 17383. 

Suply—Remarques Anatomiques sur un €léphant ouvert au Fort 
St. George, 1715. 

Huxley, Owen, and Macalister in their works on “ Anatomy of 
Vertebrata,’ and Flower ‘ Osteology of the Mammalia.’ 

'Turner—Lectures on the Comp. Anatomy of the Placenta. 

Vulpian and Phillippaux—Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., Vol. V, (1856). 

Watson—Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, (1871—74). 

Observations in Human and Comparative Anatomy. 

Zimmerman—Beschreibung und Abbildung eines Neugebornen 

Elephanten, (1783). 


89 


II. The following Translation of a passago from Book VIII of 
Aristotir’s IHistoria Animaliuim is here inserted as ons of the 
earliest notices of Discases of Elephants, probably the first in 
occidental literature :— , 

Elephants are said to be free from other maladics but to be trou- 
bled with flatulency * * * *, Elephants suffer from flatulent 
disorders, whence it happens that they can neither expel the moist 
excrement or urine nor that of the belly ; and if they have eaten 
earth, they become diseased, unless they have been constantly in 
the habit of doing this, in which case they are not injured. Some- 
times also they devour stones and are attackod with Diarrhea, 
of which they are cured by warm water being given them to drink, 
with hay to eat steeped in honey; both of these remedios 
arrest the disease. When they are wearied from want of repose, 
a cure is effected by rubbing the shoulders with oil and warm 
water, but if the shoulders are in pain roasted pig’s flesh is 
applied with relief. Some elephants do not drink oil, but others 
do, and such it is said have the power of ejecting any iron- 
weapon that has been plunged into the body ; but to those who do 
not drink it they give roots cooked with oil.” 


JII: MADRAS ACT No. I OF 1872 
An Act to prevent the indiscriminate destruction of wild clephants. 

Whereas it is expedient to make provisicn to prevent the in- 
discriminate destruction of wild elephants within the Presidency 
of Madras; it is hereby enacted as follows :— 

1. This Act extends to the Territories for the time being sub- 
ject to the Government of the Presidency of Fort St. George; 
and it shall come into force on the first day of October 1873. 

2. From and after the said day, the destruction of wild ele- 
phants is prohibited, except as hereinafter provided. 

3. Whoevershoots at, orintentionally destroys, or abets, within 
the meaning of the Indian Penal Code, the shooting at, or des- 
truction of, any wild female elephant upon waste or forest land, 
whether such land be the property of Government, or otherwise, 
shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five hundred Rupecs, 
and, in default of payment, to simple or rigorous imprisonment 
for a period not exceeding three months. 

Any person convicted under this Act of an offence committed 


90 


after his previous conviction under this Act, shall be liable toa 
penalty not exceeding one thousand Rupees, and, in default of 
payment, to simple or rigorous imprisonment for a period not 
exceeding six months. 

4, Whoever, not being authorized thereto by a license grant- 
ed under the provisions of Section 7, shoots at, or intentionally 
destroys, or abets, within the meaning of the Indian Penal Code, 
the shooting at, or destruction of, any wild male elephant upon 
waste or forest land, the property of the Government, shall, upon 
a first or second conviction, be liable to the penalties and periods 
of imprisonment respectively provided for a first or second con- 
viction in Section 3 of this Act. 

5. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to prevent any Zemin- 
dar or other proprietor or occupier of land, or any person duly 
authorized in that behalf by any such Zemindar, proprietor, or 
occupier, from destroying wild male elephants upon the waste or 
forest lands of such Zemindar, proprietor, or occupier. 

6. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to prevent any person 
from shooting at, or destroying any wild male or female elephant 
found upon cultivated lands, or upon or in the immediate vicinity 
of any public road, or to prevent any person from shooting at, or 
destroying any malo or female elephant in defence of himself or 
any other person. 

7. The collector or other officer in charge of a district may, 
subject to such rules as may, from time to time, be made by the 
Local Government, issue a license to any person authorizing him 
by name to shoot wild male elephants upon waste or forest lands, 
tho property of the Government, in such district, for the period 

-of one year from the date of the grant of such license. Every 
such licenso shall become void at the expiration of the said period, 
but may be renewed by such Collector or other officer for a like 
period. 

Provided that every such license shall become void upon the 
conviction under this Act of the person to whom such license was 
granted. 

8. The Local Government may make rules for regulating the 
grant or renewal of licenses under this Act, and the fees to be 
charged on such grant or renewal, and may, from time to time, 
altor or cancel such rules, 


91 


9. Every prosecution under this Act. shall be commenced 
within a period of six months from the date of the offence in res- 
pect of which it is instituted. 


IV. Ovvue Inrervat Temperature or tne Evernant (from No. 
116, Vol. XX of the Veterinary Journal). 

Preliminaries and Detail. These animals are very nervous at 
the operation, require to be judiciously handled or they will rise 
from the kneeling posture which they should be made assume and 
impede the operation by passage of urine and feces. There isa 
lot of loose skin around the anus, so the Thermometer has to be 
passed in very deeply. The tail is powerful, requires two men to 
hold it, and then is apt to press on the hand at the anus very forcibly. 

Results.—My researches so far lead me to believe that the 
normal internal temperature at the rectum is 97°6°F.—a reading 
equal to the normal of the herse, therefore, shows high fover. 

(J. H. Steel.) 


V: AppENDIX xxxIv. of Revisep Transport RecuLarions. 

Revised Rules for the Embarkation of Elephants In Railway 
Trains, framed by Lieutenant-Colonel Kinloch, Officiating Assist- 
ant Quarter Master General, Presidency District,—dated Fort 
William, 19th May, 1881. 

The first precaution to be taken is to avoid all noise, or any- 
thing that may frighten or excite the elephants. For this reason 
they should, when practicable, be embarked in a quict shed, 
where no one should be allowed to enter except the elephants’ 
attendants and such a number of workmen as may be necessary 
for arranging the fittings and closing the carriages. 

The men thus employed should be previously carefully instruct- 
edas to what they have to do, and should be warned to work 
expeditiously and silently. 

Elephants being gregarious animals and frequently apt to be 
uneasy when alone, three or four together should be taken into 
the loading shed ; more are not desirable, as there would be ad- 
ditional risk of noise and confusion. As some elephants are too 
timid to enter a truck or other strange place without coercion, 
two or three staunch and powerful tuskers should, when practi- 
cable, be kept in readiness to force unwilling elephants into the 


92 


trucks. This expedient, however, should only be resorted to as 
a last resource ; it will seldom be necessary. 

The trucks selected should be very carefully inspected, and it 
should be particularly ascertained that the floors are strong, and 
fittings complete and in perfect working order. 

As some elephants are shy of trusting their weight on any 
yielding surface, it is well to put wedges under the springs of 
the trucks, so that the animals may find a firm platform to tread on. 

Tn order that the elephants may be secured as quickly as possi- 
ble after entering the trucks, they should be fitted with fetters, 
and chained beforchand as follows :— 

I. The two fore and hind legs should be coupled together with 
strong fetters (“berries”) so closely connected as just to allow 
the animal to shuffle along by short steps. 

II. The front and hind coupling chains should be connected 
by a chain so adjusted as to bo about six inches longer than the 
space between the elephant’s fore and hind legs when standing 
in a natural position. 

III. Chains terminating in bent hooks should be attached to 
the connecting rings of each pair of “ berries.” These are for 
the purpose of securing the elephant to the ring-bolts outside each 
end of the truck. The front chain should be handed to the 
mahout on the elephant’s neck and hauled up clear of the ground, 
soas not to be trodden on. The rear chain may be allowed to 
drag. 

IV. A strong chain collar covered with leather, and furnished 
with a chain long enough to be secured to a ring-bolt in the-floor 
of the truck, should be fitted to each elephant. 

V. Strong ring-bolts are fixed in the floor of the truck, one 
just in front of, and one just behind, the clephant. The fore and 
aft chains (No. III) are passed through these ring-bolts before 
being sccured to the end ring-bolts above referred to.* 

The neck chain is also hooked to the front ring-bolt. 

The “ berries ” or coupling chains, and the connecting chains, 
are fastened by the well-known device of “ pinched links”: the 
three chains by which the elephant is secured to the truck ter- 


* There would be considcrable risk in using inferior or badly fitted 
tackle: special fetters of approved pattern have been constructed by Messrs. 
Jessop & Co. of Calcutta, and are stored in Fort William Arsenal. 


93 


minate in long bent hooks, and the links of these chains are made 
so large as to admit of the hooks being inserted in them ; and the 
chain may thus be rove through a ring and adjusted to any re- 
quired length. 

The chains should, if possible, be fitted to each animal before 
he is brought to the loading platform * * * * * * 

VI. The bridge from the platform to the truck should be strong 
and firm and as nearly level as possible. Both it and the floor 
of the truck should be covered with short grass or straw. 

VII. The doors of the truck having been thrown wide open, the 
side beams on the side of entry having been removed, and the rear 
beam having been adjusted according to the length of the elephant, 
the mahout will ride the first selected elephant (which shonld be 
one of the quietest and boldest) into the track, another attendant 
going in front with a bundle of sugarcane or other attractive food. 
If a portion of the carriage is roofed in (which does not appear 
to be necessary now that the elephant’s head is secured,) the 
mahout should either sit on its back from the first, or slip back 
from the neck, as the elephant enters the truck. j 

VIII. The moment it is fairly in its place, the collar chain 
should be hooked to the ring-bolt in the floor, and the side beams 
expeditiously but silently run into their places and firmly bolted 
down to the cross pieces by men who have been standing ready 
for the purpose. The most convenient and quickest method of 
placing these long beams in their places is by hauling them through 
by ropes attached to rings or staples in their ends. 

IX.. The front chain hitherto held up by the mahout should be 
dropped as soon as the neck chain is secured, passed through the 
ring-bolt in floor, and then through the opening at end of truck ; 
where, after being hauled tant, it should be hooked. 

The rear chain should similarly be passed through the ring- 
bolt, behind the elephant, and secured to the other end of the 
truck. In case of an elephant proving troublesome, a man with 
a long hook should be stationed at each end of the truck, so as 
to be ready to catch hold of the chains and draw them within reach. 

X. Ifthe above is properly done, the animal should be im- 
movably secured in a few seconds, during which time his attend- 
ants should have been diverting his attention by feeding and 
carressing him. 


94 


XI. The mahouts should always travel in the truck with their 
elephants and should re-assure them by their voices and give 
them favourite food ; but they should not go where the elephant 
could accidentally injure them if frightened. 

XII. When three or four elephants have been embarked, the 
trucks should be quietly run out of the loading shed by hand; 
and another batch of elephants brought in, and so on. 

XIII. Care should be taken to alarm the elephants as little as 
possible at first, and the train should be quietly and carefully 
started, without unnecessary whistling or other noise. 

XIV. On the journey elephants should have abundance of some 
forage which they like, and they should be frequently supplied 
with water at halts. They should also have water poured over 
them. To enable the animals to drink, care should be taken not to 
place the rear bar too close, nor to shorten the collar chain too 
much, or the elephant will be unable to raise its head sufficiently. 

XV. Before elephants have to travel by rail, it would appear 
to be a safe precaution to starve them for a few hours, as animals 
distend with food would probably be more liable to rupture or 
other internal injury, should they struggle much. 

XVI. When disembarking, the same precautions should be 
taken as when embarking, all fastenings being removed in reverse 
order to that in which they were secured. 


VI. V.S. (1st Cl.) R. Frost has experimented as to the effects 
of “ Anthrax vaccination” according to Pasteur’s method on 
Forest Department elephants in British Burma. His results are 
encouraging but not conclusive. 


95 


INDEX. 


A B 
Page. Page. 
Abdominal Pain ... 30] Bamboo Xxxili 
Abscess in foot 59| Baroda elephants xi 
Absence of Pleura.. 46] Behind-ear Shot... 43 
Adams on Fascioliasis 37 | Bek . KV 
Administration of Bernier on aremark- 
Medicines 76| able accident .., xlix 
Admission to Govt. Bhow we 16 
Service .xxvi] Bhunduns wa 
African Elephant... xii| Bibliography we 86 
Age . ¥xii—xxvi| Biliary apparatus... 38 
», for purchase .. .xxix| Bleeding, operation 
Albinic spots 53] of oe) 
Albugo ... 07] Blindness 57 
Alimentary ak Blistering eA: 
parasites in... 23 ip ointment... 86 
» system. ... 23] Blood, non-s ecific 
Amphistoma Haw- disordersof 6 
kesii 33 » specific dis- 
Anatomy, Comp. of orders of... 10 
Elephant xvi » vessels, wounds 
Ankuss Ivi of .. 23 
Anodyne 84} Boils 54 
Anthrax 11} Bolting Vili 
» inoculation, “Appx. Bots a. 38 
Antispasmodics ... 84), Boughs 30 
Apoplexy .. 49] Brain 48 
» of Jungs... 48] Breeding . 69 
Apparatus, biliary... 38 » reasons for 
» respiratory... 39 not, . XSiv 
» urinary 48 » signs of in- 
Applications exter- ferior, ...XXvii 
nal 85| Broken Heart ... 50 
ce and Bronchitis we 47 
1] Budda Bhao ve «13 
Aporatle on Ele- Bulletin Tusk .. 24 
phant Diseases, Appx. | Bumbood 59 
Army, uses of Ele- Burmese elephants.. xiii 
hant in . ¥Ev1 » outbreak of 
ee on Milk. 72] Rot among 37 
Parturition.. a 6 
As. m Mahals, Reve- 
ae from . xiv Camphorated oil ... 85 
Assamese elephants, xiii] Canal Alimentary, 
Asthenia 6| _ parasites of w. 33 
Astringent mussaul. 85 Capped elbow 61 
‘Attendants for Ele- | Capture xix 
phants xili,lix | Castration 67 
Auditory Canal, In- Catarrh 44 
flammation of ... 551 Cathartic 84 


Page. 
Causes of disease... 3 
Ceylon elephant... xii 
Chambers, nasal . os, 42 
Se aaa xi &1 
Ched 68 
Cheek, Inflamma- .. 

tion of 

Cherrai Vxxxii 
Chéb (Hawkes) nis 
Chébing ee “at 
Choteo (worms) ... 35 
Chowrung 65 
Circulatory System 21 


Chittagong elephantaxiii 
Cobbold on Ectozoa. 53 
» » Fascioliasis 37 


»  5,Parasites.., 9 
Colic, flatulent $1 
» Simple 30 
Comparative ana- 
tomy « Xvi 
Constitution as in- 
fluencing medicines 75 
Conjunctivitis 56 
Copulation 68 
Cornea, opacity of. 56 
Cracked feel 60 
» sole 60 
Cranial nerves 48 
Crossing rivers... xxiv 


” » BYS- 
tem of... xl & xlviii 
Crusta petrosa tu- 
mours 6 
Cutting the tusks... 24 


D 
Deafness 56 
Dealers tricks —...xxix 
Debility 6 


Destructive influen- 
ces 
Dhull 
Diarrhea - 
»  parasitical... 
Dikkamali ointment 85 


ainaenees As gue 5 
» Of blood,s i- 
: fe... 10 


96 


Page. Pace. o 
Discases of blood — Fang of molar dis- ~ | General Signs ar 
nonspccific s» 6] eased .. 26] — sickness . 8 
Dispensatory ... 83] Fasciola Jacksoni... 73} Generative system.. 65 
Distorted toe nails.. 61} Fascioliasis .. 36] Ghee xxxi 
Diurctic ... 84) Feet, Inflammation Ghut Bhao 14 
Doremus on milk... 72] of 0} Gilchrist on An- 
Doses .. 75| Fetters vey XXXIX thrax (2) ... 13 
Draught, unfitness Female genital or- » onchobing .., xlvi 
for ... xliv| gans .. 68/ |, ,, drink rae be 
Driving elephants. lvi] Fever, simple ... 9! 4, ,, elephant dis- 
Dysentery .. 82] Filkhannah xxxvii eases 5 
» epizootic ... 11] Firing 78} 4, 4, equipment.. liv 
Fitting of gear liv] ,, ,, fomentation 77 
Flatulent colic 31], 4, gear w. liv 
E Flesh 64 »  » hepatitis... 38 
Flies 52} ,, ,, intestinal 
Far 55 | Finkes 2. 38 worms ... 35 
Earth cating 35 | Fly, gad we «OS » 4s lungun 35 
Ectozoa .. 53] 4, Tsetze .. 53] ,, 4, paraplegia. 50 
»  epizootica... 16} Fodder Xxxii—xzxili] ,, ,, pnenmonia. 47 
Echinococei 38 | Fomentation 771 4, 4, rabies 15 
Eezema ... 62] Food as influencing » 3, teeth wo XX1X 
Elephant — bazaar value for transport Ix! ,, ,, treatment... 4,74 
medicines... 81]  ,, regulation ...xxix| ,,  ,, tetanus 4 
a Boots ... xlvii] Foot iow OF +» » vomition ... 29 
a Discases, » Abscessof ... 59} ,, ,, zabrbad ... 7 
Aristotle on Appx. » and mouth dis- Goondahs xx 

Pe Fetters xxxix ease 16|Gordon Cumming 

ie Preserva- » soreness 59] on destruction ... 44 

tion Act Madras. Appx. | Forchead shot 43]Government _ ele- 

» Stealing... 72] ,, ulcerationof... 54; phants, No. of ... xiii 
Elbow capped 61 | Formularium 83 | Grain oi BXE 
Encephalitis 49} Forsyth on Lungun 35] ,, ration, Sander- 
Enemata . 77) Fracture , .. 64 son on ve. XXXL 
Enteritis vee OL a of tusk .., 24]Grasses fresh  ...xxxiii 
Entraining ... Appx. | Front shot ... 43]Grazing, —precau- 
Epizootic dysentery 11{Froston Anthrax... 11] tions in, xxxv & xxxvi 
Equipment (Sander- » » Vaccination Appx | Grinders . EXVili 

son’s) .. li]  ,, Mortality tables 19,} Grinding teeth 25 
Eruptions on skin... 52 20| Grooming an ele- 
Euclephas xii| Fury of elephant... Iviii]  phant we xii 
Europcanmedicines 79 Growth » Xxi 
Examinations post Guddee tee lit 

mortem a. 78 G Gudeyla we hii 

» for soundness xxvii Gullet .. §28 
Exercise ... Xliii | Gad-Fly .. 3{ Guneshas . xiv 
External applications 85 ” ovaof ... 25| Guzbaz ww lvi 

a Ear .. 55] Galls «. 62 

7 » paralysis 56; ,, rope w. 60]° 

i » ulceration 55 | Gaja : xx a 
Eye, Anatomy of... 53} Gastrophilus 38 . ’ 

Gear and appvint- Habits of wild ele- | 
ments es phants . xix 
F General considera- Hematomyzus 62 
tions of disease... 1] Harness galls .. 63 
Facial sinuses 42) ,, diseases 5 7 cavy Field 

~ » inflamma- » health, signs Battery ... lv 

tion of 44 of ...XXvi! Hauzes wen ob 


Page. 

Hawkes, Col.on Am- 
phistomes.,. 33 

», on cutting the 


Tusks 94 
%s Rot 37 
» on diseased 


teeth... 24 & 26 


»  Dascioliasis 37 
Heart ¥ a BY 
Heat «. 66 
Heavy Field Battery 

Harness samy 1 
Heel, cracked ... 60 
Hendoor Kookee ..._ lvi 
Hepatitis 38 
Herds, size of xX 
Hinxat gin SRN 
Homopus 53 


Hoof slippers Xvi, 57 


Hood on cherrai 
(Bengal) ...xxxv 
» diet .. XXXIV 


» -diseases eae et 
» filkhannah xxxvii 


» grazing... xxxvi 
» loads . xiv 
+ lurza 45 
» Tabies 15 
Horny Fungus 61 


Howdah khana xi &1 


feeding XXXVI 
Hydatids 38 
Hymen 68 


Inflammation, fa- 


cial sinuses,. 44 
» feet .. 60 
»-- kuppool 68 
» lungs we. 47 
» Skin of Ext, 

Aud Canal... 55 


Influences reducing 
Nos. of elephants xxiv 

Intestines .. 30 

Intestinal obstruc- 
tion 


Tron saddle : liv 
J 
Joints, weak 65 


97 


Page. 
Kandi we OD 
Karens’ elephants... 72 
Keddah, Dacea. xiii & xx 


Kheels 63 
Kidneys 48 
Korahl XX 
Kuppool 68 
Kurbee . XXNill 
L 

Leucoma aan 
Lines ; elephant...xxxvii 

ips a. 23 
Liquids administra- 

tionof . 76 
Liver, Inflammation 

of we 38 
Loads xlv 
Loxodon . xi 
Lungs 


» apoplexy of ... 48 

»» inflammation of 47 
Lungur, elephantsin xi 
Lungun we OF 
Lurza 45 
Lutchuk 64 


iM 


Macdonald on anele- 
phant disease 10 
Maggots .. 53 
Mahouts, vices of... xlii 
Malay elephants ... xiv 
Male genital organs 65 
Mann on Tetanus.., 50 
March, elephants on xlix 


» 


Page, 
Mortality, statistics. 18 
Mortification of tail 55 


Mountain — hattery 
equipment lv 
Mucknas xiv 
Mudda 65 
Mumps 44 
Murrain sox UL 
Mussauls &3, xxxi 
Mussodee (worms) 35 
Must w. 65 
» dose for 85 
» food in. .. XXX 
Musthee 65 
N 


Naga,foodfor ~ .., xxx 


Nala, tocross difficult xli 
Nasal canals 39 

» Chambers 42 
Natural death —.., xxiv 


Neem guddce lii 
Nepaul elephants... xiv 
Nervous system 48 
Non-extermination, 


causes of vee XXHii 
Non-specific — dis- 
orders ae 
Nunn on Capped el- 
bow it 

» Galls 62 


» horn tumour 61 
Numbers of  ele- 

phants, reduction xxiv 
Nunjee 7 


oO. 


» Ofherds  .., xxiii . 
Maturity ... xxii; Obstruction, intesti- 
Measuring, method. xxi] _ nal. a. 33 

+» (Native) ... xxi] Gidema tiem 50 
Medicines . 79| Gistrum wae, OR 
Meningitis 49|Qisophagus —.., 28 
Mercurial poisoning 21 | Oliphant on ignor- 
Mcthods of res- ance about ele- 

traint ... 78| _phants we Lsiii 

» 9 Securing ele- Ointment, _blister- 

phants . a XXXVii ing 08, 86 
Miallon the Pleura 46 », Dikkamali.., 85 

3 | Mik-dembers 1] Oil, camphorated... 85 
Milk .. 42] Opacity of Cornea... 56 

- 4,5. Teeth xxviii] Organs of special 
Mobility of elephant Ix] sense ° w. Ol 
Mookundha ... 86] Ouchterlony on 
Mortality annual in slee we. XXXVI 
Burma ... 19] Ova of gad fly 25 
causes of ... 20! Owenonpleura ., 46 


P 

Page. 

Pace of wild ele- 
phants xxii 
Pad liv 
» galls 62 
Pain, abdominal 30 
Panniculus carnosus 51 
Paralysis of ext. ear 56 
» hind extremities 50 
Paralysed trunk 1... 41 
Paraplegia an) 


Parasites in alimen- 


tary canal . 33 
Parasitical diarrhaa 34 
Parturition we 20 
Pathology ae J 
Peytis dae / AE 
Pharmac fa WO 
Pharyngobolus ... 590 
Pharynx rn RE 
Phiebotomy ame 22. 
Phrensy 49 
Picketing . XXXIX 
Pleura, absence of... 46 
Pleuro-pneumonia — 

zymotica san 
Points of elephant ..xxvii 
Poisoning 21 

» Mercurial 21 


Post mortem exam- 
jnations eke ae 
Poulticing in HE 
Powell on intussus- 

ception nak 
Enopiiaty, duration 
° 


.. 69] 
Preservation Act; Appx. 


Price of elephants... xxvi 


Proboscis se OD) 
Procurability of ele- 
phants lx 


Protection of body 


surface .. XXH 
Puberty 66 & xxii 
Pulse teri OF 


Q 


Quicksand tofreefrom xli 
Quittor 59 


R 


Rabies 15 
Race .. Xiv 
Rage of elephants... lviii 


98 


Page. 
Ratib .. XXX 
Rations, scale of NSX 
Rear shot 43 


Register of Govern- 


ment elephants... lvi 
Regulation scale of 

elephant gear... li 
Renitis 48 
Respiratory appara- 

tus eS) 
Restraint, methods of 78 
Revenue from Mahals xiv 
Rheumatism sees 9) 


Rice 2 XXN1 
Rivers crossing, xl, xlviii 
Road across nullah xii 
Roberts on Looshai 


expedition lx 
Rogues xx 
Rope galls 60 
Rot 36 
Round worms 33 
Russoolee sine OR 

s 
Saddle galls 62 
Saddling . liv 
Sajhan 60 
Salivary glands 27 
Salt ration se. XEXii 
Sanderson, Mr. ... xiii 
» on Army ele- 

phants —... xxvi 

» epizootics 17 

» fodder .. XEXil 

» padorsaddle... lxx 

» Yiding saddle li 

» training . lvii 
Sangar out-break... 34 
Saving in clephant 

keep « XXVI 
Scale of Rations ... xxx 


Securing eal 
methods of .... xxxviii 


” ” 


must... xxxix 


Sedatives . 8t 
Sexes, proportion 

of, in captures ... xiv 
Shan elephants xii 
Shipping XXV 
Shootur-Khana x], 1 
Shotee (worms) 35 
Shots, fatal 43 
Sickness, general 

signs of be 


Side shot a 43 
Signs of Sickness, 
general ie SS 
Simple Fever ... 9 
Sinuses, Facial 42, 
+ » Inflam- 
mation of we 44 
Size of elephant ... xxi 


Skeleton, anatomy of 63 


Skin 51 
Sleep . XXXVii 
Slymm on fodder xxviii 


» grazing . XXxv 


» horny fungus 61 
» a remarkable 
accident « Xivii 


» Weight drag- 


ging gcar lvi 
Small pox vi 
Sole, cracked 60 
Soorti (worms) 35 
Soost 31 
Sore feet xlvi 

» throat 44 
Soundness, examin- 

ation for, .. XXVii 
Space occupied by 

elephant ... Xivill 
Spaying «. 67 
Special Sense, or- 

gans of eae, SOs 
Specific disorders... 10 
Sprains a. 64 
Standing position of 

elephant aoa. SUE 
Staphyloma .. 57 
Statistics of mortality 18 
Steel, C., on Intestines30 
Si » shots... 43 

» J. H., on Internal 
Temperature Appx. 
Stimulant mussaul 83 
Stomach 29 
Straw .-. XXXV 

Subcutaneous injec- 

tion Se 77 
Sucking 41 
Sugar cane . Xxxili 
Sukha aoe 
Summary of uses of 

elephant w. Ixiv 
Sumatran elephant xiii 
Sunstroke . 44 
Swimming XxV 
Sy mbiotes 53 


System, alimentary 23 
» circulatory... 21 
» Nervous 48 


T 

Page. 

Tail, mortification, 
of 55 
Tamarind Xxxi 
Tawakh 59 
Teeth was 23 

» 8 indictative 
of age XxVili 
Tetanus . 50 
Temple shot 43 
Temporal gland 68 


Tennent on albinic 
spots . Od 
Broken heart 50 
» cranial nerves 48 
» elephants’ food xxxiv 


» wounds 61 
Therapeutics 73 
Thorns in the foot... 58 
Thullee 59 
Toe en distorted 61 
Tongu 27 


herue anatomy of 
Tonic mussaul 
Track of male and 
female ox SXL 
Training lvi & lvii 
Transport, elephants 
for lix 
» by rail x & ‘Appx. 
Trees as fodder... xxxiv 
Trunk w. 39 
anatomy of... 40 


99 


U 


Ulceration of ext. 

ear : 

» skin of fore- 
head 


Urinary apparatus.. 
Uses of elephant .. 


» in Artillery... 
», tusks 
Vv 
Varieties of  ele- 
phant 
ae iola elephanti... 
Vomition 


Page. 1 Ww 

Trunk paralysis of. 41 ! Page. 
+ uses of , 27,40 | Water reqnired xl 
5 wounds of... 93 40;  ,, receptacles e) 28 
i} Tsetze fly 53 | Watering xl 
Tumours, Crusta pe- | Weak joints ' 65 
trosa 26, ‘Waght of ae xxi 
» horny” 61 | * loaded . xivili 
»  instomach, ae dragging gear lvi 
parasitic... 33: White elephant .., xiv 

Tushes .. 23, Xxvili Wild elephant, ha- 
Tusks . 23, xxvili; bits of vee XL 
» cutting the... 24, Work by a sliii 
» fracture of ... 24) Working hours .,, xliii 
| Wounds 61 


» Of blood ves. 
sels on, 23 
55 x 
54] Xang xv 
48 
Ix 
* xliv Y 
24 
.| Yule on Broken 
Heart nh 
2 
xii 
17| Zabrbad 6 
29 


Plate 1. Frontispicce. Burmese elephant moving beams 


” 


” 


” 


” 


100 


TABLE OF PLATES. 


Fig. 1. Young clephant suckling 
Elephant dam with calf 
Old pattern Bengal Baggage Gear 
Shaft elephant of Heavy Field Gun 
Part of BE. P. Tent on Elephant 
Mountain Gun Elephant 
Burmese elephant moving logs 
» 1&2. Pathogenic parasites of Elephant 
» 3&4, Stomach and Gullet... 
» X. Young clephant browsing 
a,b,c, §d. Tllustrations of uses of trunk 
Section of the skull of the Elephant 
Diagrams illustrating anatomy of skull in edlotion to the 
truction ... 
Skeicton of the Riinort Aephant 
Diagram of female generative organs .., 
Elephants copulating (from a photo.) ... 
Sexual differences in extremity of proboscis 


fo poe 


To face Page. 


Title, 


io . 


“} xxii 


69