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NATURE STUDY LESSONS

FOR PRIMARY GRADES

NATURE STUDY LESSONS

FOR PRIMARY GRADES

BY

MRS. LIDA B. McMURRY

WITH AN INTRODUCTION

BY

CHARLES A. McMURRY

News Bork

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Lrp.

1905

All rights reserved

oe,

CoPYRIGHT, 1905,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1905.

PREFACE

THE series of nature study lessons furnished in this
book was worked out in the class room and in out-
door excursions with children.

Most of the lessons are studies of plant and animal
life as it presents itself in one locality; but the ob-
jects studied are found in most temperate regions,
and the lessons can be modified to suit almost any
region of the United States. :

The method of treatment is also somewhat fully
indicated by questions and answers. These work
out more fully the plan for primary grades outlined
in the “Special Method in Elementary Science,”
which also contains full references to the best books
and helps for primary grades.

Many of these lessons were originally published
as a part of the first edition of the “ Special Method
in Elementary Science.” But the series of lessons
is now enlarged and published separately.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . 3 r 2

PART I. ANIMAL LIFE

I. THE SHEPHERD DOG .

Il. THe Cat. - 5 2
III. THe Horse . . é ;
IV. THE Cow

V. THE SHEEP.
VI. THE Fox SquirREL
VII. THe LiFe ofr A GRAY SQUIRREL
VIII. Our Mousz, Jim F $ ‘
IX. THE Raspit (COMMON HARE) .
X. THE CHICKEN . 3 -
XI. IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS . ;
XII. THE ROBIN. 5 A i 7
XII. THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER
XIV. THE Common Crow . é :
XV. THE SCREECH OWL . . .
XVI. THE ENGLISH SPARROW. .
XVII. CATERPILLARS . . ‘

viii

XVIII.

VIII.

CONTENTS

THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 5

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR . .

PART II. PLANT LIFE

IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS . .
THE NASTURTIUM . :

THE MORNING-GLORY

THE CoMMON BLUE VIOLET

THE WILD ROSE . : 5
TREE Bups ‘ a ‘ : ‘
AuTuMN LEAVES AND Bups . ‘
A Nut GAME . i é 2 .
THE APPLE é 3 é . 5

THE AUSTRIAN PINE. . * .

INTRODUCTION

TueE problem of working out suitable nature study
lessons for primary grades involves numerous diffi-
culties, which can best be solved by enthusiastic
teachers working with the children. It is only thus
that the broad general requirements of elementary
science instruction can be adapted to the immature
minds of little children.

In a general way it is not difficult to point out the
requirements of this study, such as a growing in-
terest in plants, animals, and weather conditions, and
a closer habit of observation.

But a selection of the common objects upon which
to focus the observations of children and the manner
of directing their attention to these objects call out
the best skill of experienced teachers.

One of the prepossessions which an adult teacher
must get rid of in dealing with children in the midst
of nature is the idea of system and classification in
science. There should be no haste to reach the
wise conclusions of the scientists. Children are more
easily and properly absorbed in the objects and their
surroundings, and there will be plenty of time later

1.9

x INTRODUCTION

to hunt out the deeper truths. At the same time,
however, children should gain a positive enrichment
of knowledge and observation and should give ex-
pression to a definite fund of ideas and experience.
In other words, the lessons should be fruitful in
ideas and in the power to express them.

It is quite evident that a teacher in nature study
must know how to live happily and companionably
with children among the birds, flowers, insects, and
trees. Merely to know how to enjoy an excursion
with children is a great thing. In addition to this,
one must learn to concentrate the children’s thoughts
along given lines, for a mere chasing after chance
birds and butterflies will not answer. Having awak-
ened the attention and interest of children in certain
lines, it is necessary to lead on to more definite
observations, and, sooner or later, to get from the
children a clear statement of facts.

The teacher’s questions and suggestions are de-
signed to throw the children constantly upon their
own power to observe, to experiment, to find out.
Self-activity and thoughtfulness may be stimulated
at every turn, and the foundation may be laid for
an alert and self-reliant mind.

It is natural for children in these early years to
observe, but the teacher should lead them to observe

INTRODUCTION xi

more closely, to inquire more definitely, and to be
inquisitive about many important things which they
would never think of if left to themselves.

While no two teachers in the same or in different
neighborhoods would select just the same series of
topics for primary grades, there is still great advan-
tage in trying to pick out those objects which seem
to be best suited to younger children and to give
them a full treatment. Again, while the treatment
of any given topic, as the red squirrel, would not be
the same with any two teachers, it is still helpful to
young teachers to see how an experienced primary
teacher has handled one of these topics. A study
of such lessons by younger teachers need not lead
to any slavish imitation of models, but it may give
an insight into the spirit and method of those who
have gained success by experience and labor.

CHARLES A. McMURRY.

WINTER PARK, FLORIDA,
January 6, 1905.

PART I
ANIMAL LIFE

NATURE STUDY LESSONS
FOR PRIMARY GRADES

I
THE SHEPHERD DOG

How many have seen a dog driving sheep? How
did it drive them? (Trotted along behind them; if
one lagged or went out of the way, the dog barked at
it, or, if necessary, even snapped at it.) What do we
call a dog that cares for sheep?

Pupils’ aim: we shall see how shepherd dogs
are fitted for their work of caring for sheep.

Some of you have shepherd dogs. Do they know
much? Howdo you know? (Children relate what
they know of this variety of dogs, the teacher telling
stories from her own experience or such as she has
read, illustrating their sagacity.)

When I was a little girl my father owned a shep-
herd dog, named Prince. We were all very fond of
him. Our home was a long, long way from any
neighbor, and in the daytime our sheep grazed on a

3

4 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

great pasture which was as large as this whole town.
This was a queer pasture, you will think, when I tell
you that there was no fence at all around it; and
‘when we spoke of it we called it a prairie. Every
morning Prince would help my father drive the sheep
to this prairie. A place was found where thé grass
was good, and here the sheep would spend the day.
One of their number wore a bell, and through the
day we could hear the distant tinkle of the bell. If
for any length of time we failed to hear it, some one
went with Prince to the prairie to see what was the
matter.

At night my father would call Prince and say,

“Prince, bring up the sheep;” and away he would
trot, alone, the very instant he was told to go. He
gathered his flock together and drove them home.
If any sheep was hurt or sick so it could not go,
Prince, after trying to get it along, would leave it
and drive home the others. He knew just how fast
the sheep could go without becoming tired out, and
no matter how many rabbits ran across his path, he
never left the sheep to chase the rabbits, though he
enjoyed nothing better when by himself. On reach-
ing home, had a sheep been left behind, Prince would
go to my father, look up into his face, bark, and start

THE SHEPHERD DOG 5

toward the prairie. We always knew from this that
something was wrong, so my father would follow
Prince and get the poor sheep home.

Our cattle were kept in a fenced pasture. One
Sunday, on returning from church, we saw that some
strange cattle had broken into this pasture and were
grazing with our own. The gate of the pasture was
opened and Prince told to “drive them out.” He
knew our own cattle well, and we all watched him as
he went into the herd, picked out one by one the
strange cattle, and drove them to the gate.

How do you think Prince could tell which cattle
were not our own? (He had sharp eyes.) Have
the shepherd dogs that you know sharp eyes? Why
do you think so? Of what color are their eyes?
Do all the dogs which you know have eyes of this
color? Do the little puppies have brown eyes? Are
the shepherd dog’s eyes larger or smaller than your
own? Of the same shape? Are they in the same
part of the face as your own? Tell what you
have learned about the shepherd dog’s eyes.

But when Prince started out for the sheep, was it
his eyes that told him where they were? (No, he
could not see them.) How did he know where they
were? (He might have heard the bell.) Could he

6 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

hear well, do you think? Do your dogs hear well?
(Children relate their experiences.) What does your
dog do first when you call him? (Pricks up his ears.)
Why? (So that he may catch all of the sound that
he can.) Can you prick up your ears? (Our ears
stand out so that we can catch the sound easily with-
out moving them.) Where does the sound which the
dog catches go? (Through the openings in the side
of his head.) Did you ever look into these open-
ings? What is to hinder flies, bugs, dust, etc., from
going far into them? (Shepherd dogs’ ears droop
over these openings, and hair covers them largely.)
How is it with your ears? What keeps insects out?
Where on the dog’s head do you find his ears? Are
they higher up or lower down than our own? How
many ears has he? Why does he need two?

Tell now all you can about a shepherd dog’s ears.

But Prince sometimes could neither see nor hear
the sheep, yet he started off in the right direction.
How did he know where to go? He might have
remembered. But if he had not remembered, quite
likely he could have found them. Have you ever
seen a dog that was lost from his master? What
did he do? (Put his nose down close to the ground.)
Why? (To scent the tracks of his master.) Can

THE SHEPHERD DOG. ye

your shepherd dog smell well? What about the
nose would make you think that he can smell well?
(Yes, it is long, and pointed, and has large holes.)
We call these holes nostrils.

Now, tell how a shepherd dog might find the
sheep when he could neither see nor hear them.

Prince had to go for the sheep in rainy as well as
in pleasant weather. He had no rubber coat’ or
umbrella. How did he keep off the rain? (He had
a good hair coat.) Why do you call it a good coat?
(Shepherd dogs have thick hair all over the body.)
What did he do with his coat in pleasant weather?
Of what use was it to him then? (Kept him warm.)
Did he wear such a coat in summer?) Why? (To
help keep bugs, flies, etc., from biting him.) Is not
the winter coat too thick for summer? What is done
about it? How do you know? (We do not like to
handle the dog or have him in the house in the
spring and summer when he is shedding his coat.)
Is the hair next the body like that on the outside?
Do you think this is well for the dog? Is a shepherd
dog’s hair the same length all over his body? Why
shorter on the legs? Why on the face? Are there
any bare places on his face? Do the flies ever
bother him here? How does he get them off?

8 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

(Shakes his head or brushes them off with his paw.
Sometimes he sleeps with his paw over the end of
his nose.)

No matter how fast Prince ran, his coat never
looked wet with sweat. Did you ever think of it —
that your dogs do not sweat as do horses, or as you
do? How do you think Prince showed that he was
very warm? (He hung out his tongue; something
that looked like water ran off from it.) Do you
suppose that this cooled him off? Put your fingers
into your mouth, then hold them up in the air a
minute. What happens? (They get cold.) What
happens when the wind blows on the dog’s wet
tongue? (It cools him.)

What is the color of the coat of a shepherd dog?
Prince’s coat was black, with a white collar, a white
star in his forehead, and white toes.

You may tell, now, all you can about a shepherd
dog’s coat.

The road over which Prince went was a rough
one; quite stony, too, in one place. Why did not
his feet become sore? Notice whether the bottoms
of his feet touch the ground as do yours when
you walk. [Have a shepherd dog in the class if
possible; if not, another dog will do.] What part

THE SHEPHERD DOG 9

touches the ground? (Only his toes and the ball
of his foot.) On how many toes does he walk?
Look at the dog’s foot. Picture one of the front
feet, also one of the hind feet. Has the dog a toe
answering to your thumb? Point to it. One
answering to your big toe? Point to it. Where
are his heels? Feel of them. Some child, quite
likely, may have on low shoes. Call attention to
the great tendon of Achilles which lifts the heel.
Where do we find this in the dog’s hind legs?
Where is his heel? Look at these toes on which
the dog walks. Feel of the part that touches the
ground. (It is almost as tough as leather. Each
toe and the ball of the foot has a cushion with a
very thick cover.) Do you think that the stones
hurt Prince? Does the dog make much noise in
running? Why not? Listen as he runs over the
floor. What do you hear? Now you may tell all
you can about a shepherd dog’s feet. .

When Prince came home at night we used to pet
him. In what way, do you think? Do you think
he liked to be petted? How would he show that
he liked it? What was he telling us?

In what other way do you think we showed that
we cared for Prince? (Gave him a good dinner.)

10 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

What do dogs like best to eat? How do they eat
the meat? (Swallow large pieces without chewing.
They sometimes hold the meat down with their front
feet, or hands, while they pull off pieces of it.)
What part that we never eat do they eat? (Bones.)

[Bring a gentle dog to the class and examine its
teeth.] What are these long, sharp teeth for? Have
you such teeth? Show me that you have. Are they
longer or shorter than those of the dog? What are
these smaller front teeth of the dog for? How
many? Have you such teeth? Where? With what
teeth does the dog chew the bones? Are they good
teeth for that? What do dogs do with bones left
from a meal? (Bury them.) Why? Where? How
do they make the hole in which to bury them?
Which claws do they use? What kind of claws
does a dog need to dig with? (Strong claws.)
Why? (So they will not break.) What shape
must they be? Look at thé shepherd dog’s claws
and find if they are strong and slightly curved.
How does he cover the hole? Notice carefully.
How get the bones from the hole?

We also set a pan of water where Prince could
get it. How did he drink it? Watch your dogs
drink water and tell just how they do it. Do

THE SHEPHERD DOG II

dogs drink much water? How much at a time?
Sometimes they suffer because their masters forget
that they need water.

Not long after Prince had had his dinner he went
to bed. What kind of bed does a dog like? Did
you ever watch a dog lie down in his bed? What
does it do? Children report later, if not ready now.

Did you ever hear a dog talk? Prince was a good
talker, after his fashion, and we could understand
what he meant, usually. In what ways do you think
he talked? ((@) He growled when he did not like
what he saw or heard. (4) He barked hard and
long when he wished to drive animals away. (c) He
barked short, happy barks when he was glad to see
us. (d@) He whined when not allowed to follow us
into the house. (e¢) He snarled at any one who tried
to get his food away from him, or at a tramp.
(7) He howled when left at home alone. (g) He
yelped when he was hurt.)

He had a way of talking, also, without making a
sound. How was that? (By moving his tail.) What
did his tail tell? (When he wagged his tail, it told
us that he was pleased, or that he thought we were
going to give him something that he liked. Dogs
wag their tails just before they “speak.” When he

I2 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

was frightened, or ashamed, he carried his tail down
between his legs.)

The children might review the whole subject of
shepherd dogs by going with Prince after the
sheep.

Do you think shepherd dogs are useful? What
have we found that they can do? What other help-
ful things have you seen them do?

Other species of dogs familiar to the children may
be studied by comparison with the above, thus : —

What other kind of dogs do you know? One
has a rat-terrier. How many have seen one?
(Probably all.) How does a rat-terrier help us?
(Catches rats.) How is it that he can catch rats
better than a shepherd dog can? (a) He is much
smaller. How does this help him? (He can go
under piles of rubbish and into holes where a
shepherd dog could not go.) (4) He is quicker in
his movements. How does this help? (A rat runs
fast. A dog must be very quick to catch it.)
(c) His cutting and biting teeth are smaller and
sharper than those of a shepherd dog. (d) His hair
is straight, short, and stiff, and lies down close to his
body, so he can more easily get into holes than the
shepherd dog with his long, thick, curly hair.

THE CAT 13

How true a friend is adog? Tell what you know
about this. :

What do you think of him as a playfellow? Tell
what he plays. Tell how little puppies play.

Tell other things that you like about a dog.

II
THE CAT

We have talked of the usefulness of the dog.
What other animal that lives about the house is
useful? Of what use is the cat? Let us see how
it is fitted for catching mice.

How does the cat know that a mouse is about?
(Quite likely it hears it gnawing.) How does the
cat show that it is listening? [If the children have
not noticed how the cat shows attention, have a cat
in the class. A child scratches, not very loud, on the
wall. Notice the effect on the cat.] How does it
hold its ears? Its head? How does it show that it
knows from what direction the sound comes? What
does it do if the scratching continues? Notice its
eyes. How do they look? Is the pupil —the black
part in the center—Jlarge or small? Could the
mouse, without seeing kitty, tell that she is coming

14 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

over the floor? Why not? How can she move so
softly? Notice closely the cushions on her feet.
Which moves the more quietly, the dog or the cat?
Why cannot the dog move over the floor as quietly as
the cat? (His claws touch the floor.) When a cat
has found the hole of a mouse, and knows the mouse
is within, what does it do? How long do you think
it will wait? Does it stand or sit? What have you
noticed about its tail while it is watching for the
mouse? How does it catch the mouse? We saw no
claws while looking at kitty’s feet. Where were
they? What reason can you think for kitty hav-
ing claws that she can pull in when she chooses
to do so? (She can walk so softly a mouse
cannot hear her; her claws are kept from being
broken or dulled.) What have you that corresponds
to the cat’s claws? What care do you have to give
your nails? Why cut them? Do kitty’s nails grow?
What does she do to keep them from becoming too
long? (Scratches on trees or other wood.) How
does the shape of her claws fit her for catching and
holding a mouse?

Often in hunting mice cats have to go into holes.
They have a way of telling whether or not the
hole is too small for their bodies; what is it? (The

THE CAT 15

whiskers extend outward a long way. Any hole
which is so large that the whiskers do not touch
its sides is wide enough for the body of the cat
to pass through.) What are the whiskers sometimes
called? (Feelers.) Why? Notice what the cat
does even when you touch her whiskers lightly.
How do these feelers help her when she is moving
about in the dark? Some people think cats can
see well in the dark, but we are told, by people who
should know, that this is not so, hence it is well
that cats have feelers and hear well, if they wish
to hunt in the night. The cat’s eyes are queer.
Notice pussy’s eyes when the sun is shining brightly
in her face. What are the shape and size of the
pupil? Why does so little of it show? (The
circular curtain— which gives color to the eye —
has been drawn nearly together so as to keep
the sun from hurting the eye.) What is the
color of this curtain? Is it of the same color
in all cats? Notice the shape of the pupil when it
is nearly dark. Why is the pupil so large? (The
curtain has opened wide, to let in much light, so
that the cat can see well.)

What besides mice does the cat sometimes catch?
How can it get birds? One cat catches many birds

16 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

in a season, so that people who care very much for
birds will not have a cat about.

What else do cats catch?, (Young rabbits.)
Where do they find these? Watch a cat as she
hunts in a field and tell what you notice about her.

What besides little animals does a cat find to eat
out of doors? (Catnip and fresh grass.) How does
she eat them? With what teeth does she nip
them? (The small front teeth.) [Show a good
picture of a cat’s open mouth; there is one in
“Cats and Dogs,” by James Johonnot. Have the
pupils notice, also, the teeth of their cats at home,
if they have gentle cats.] Of what use are the
long, strong teeth in the fore part of each jaw?

We have been speaking of the food which the
cat gets for itself. Do the pussies you love have
to get all their food by hunting? What do you
feed them? How do they drink milk? Watch
your cat to see how. (It is very difficult to see just
how the cat laps milk, she takes it up so fast.)
What else does she lap?

What besides milk do you feed the cat? How
does she eat meat? Does she crush bones as
the dog sometimes does? Notice the back teeth
to see if they are fitted for crushing. How does

THE CAT 17

she get meat from bones? (She laps it off.) How
can she do this? (Her tongue is rough. It has
little hooks on it, which point backward.) What
does the cat do if you take her meat from her?
What does she often do to the plate after eating
all the food from it? Look at the plate she
has lapped. How could she get it so clean? (Her
rough tongue makes a good dishcloth.) How does
the cat ask for food?

After pussy has had a good dinner, what does she
do? (Sleeps.) Where does she like to sleep in the
winter? (By the stove or in the sun.) How does
she lie as she sleeps? Where is her head? Her
tail? In the summer time where does she sleep?
(Often in the grass in the shade of a tree.) Watch
her when she wakens. What does she do?

Now that pussy is well fed and wide awake she
may like to play. What have you seen her play?
How did she play?

Does your cat like to stay in the house all of
the time? How does she ask to be let out? Watch
her as she walks off; how does she walk? When the
weather is cold, how is she kept warm? Examine
this coat. Put your fingers into it. All the air in
the coat is warm; that helps to keep the cat warm.

c

18 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Is her coat of the same thickness in the summer?
How do you know part of it comes out? Stroke
pussy’s fur in the right way; how does she like it?
How do you know? How does she like to have it
stroked the other way? Why is it well for pussy
that her hair extends backward and downward? (It
sheds the rain.) When kitty gets in out of the rain,
what does she do? Why shake herself? What
is the color of her good coat? How does the cat
keep it clean? Tell how she washes the top of her
head. What other parts does she wash with her
paws?

Sometimes when the cat is out walking or hunting
she gets frightened. At what, do you think? What
does she do when a strange dog comes toward her?
How does she climb a tree? What does the dog do?
(Barks and puts his paws up against the tree as if he
were going to climb it.) Why doesn’t he climb the
tree? How long does the cat stay up the tree?
After the dog is gone, how does the cat get down?
Watch her and tell. Why does she have a harder
time getting down than up? Remember the position
and shape of her claws. If the cat cannot find a
tree to climb and cannot get away from the dog,
how does she defend herself? When the cat gets

THE HORSE 19

back home, how does she ask to be let in? How
does she show that she is glad to see you?

We have been talking about how kitty spends the
day. What do you do with her at night? What
kind of bed do you give her? Where?

You have not told about the cunning kittens.
Why do we call them cunning? How does the
mother feed them? How keep them clean? Tell
how they play with their mother. How do they
play with one another? How does the mother
carry them?

Have a reproduction of all the children have
learned about the cat.

III
THE HORSE

We have been learning many things about some
of our animal friends. What ones? (The dog and
the cat.) Can you think of any other animal that
does very much for us? (The horse.) How
many of you have horses at home? Tell me
some of the things your horses do for you. Tell
of some of the heavy loads you have seen them
haul. Could men draw such loads? How is it, then,

20 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

that horses can pull so much? (They are very
strong, much stronger than men.) Do they often
appear unwilling to do such heavy work? Do they
work very long at a time? (Nearly all day, often.)
After you have worked a little while you become
tired and stop to rest. Do horses ever need to rest?
Can they stop whenever they wish? Why not? Do
masters think about their horses becoming tired?
(Kind masters do.) The children have probably
noticed horses with heavy loads being stopped on the
road that they might rest. Is there any danger of
putting on too heavy loads? Children have no doubt
noticed that sometimes horses have more than they
can well draw. How do the horses show that the
load is too heavy? (By trying very hard to pull it.)
Must they draw the too heavy load? (Yes, unless
the master is kind enough to take some of it off.)
Why does not the horse refuse to draw such a load?
His master would whip him and make him do it.
What do you think of treating horses in that way?
Sometimes horses refuse to try hard to pull a load.
Have you ever seen horses refusing to go? What do
we call this? (Balking.) Have you noticed the size
of the horses that are kept for heavy work? (They
are very large and have strong, heavy legs.) What

THE HORSE 21

other things do these horses do for us? (Draw
plows, harrows, reapers, etc.)

What else do horses do for us besides drawing
heavy loads? (They take us riding in carriages, carts,
and sleighs.) Why do you not drive cows? (They
go too slowly.) In some places they work cows.
Here is a picture of some oxen taking a load of chil-
dren to a picnic. Where oxen are used, it is usually
to draw heavy loads, not to take people out for the
pleasure of a ride. When you are out riding, do you
like to go fast or slowly? Do the horses that people
drive fast look just like those they use for heavy work?
(No, they have lighter bodies and their legs are more
slender.) Why are such horses better for driving?
Compare movements of the heavy Newfoundland dog
with those of the light rat-terrier or greyhound to
show that heavy animals are slower in their move-
ments than the lighter ones. Does the horse seem
to enjoy going out for a drive? How does he show
that he enjoys it? How do horses know which way
you wish them to turn? (If the driver wishes the
horse to turn to the right, he pulls the right line. If
he wishes him to turn to the left, he pulls the left
line. When he wishes him to stop he pulls both lines
and says “Whoa.”) Howcan the lines tell the horse

_22 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

where and when to turn? (The lines are fastened to
a bit in the horse’s mouth.) Of what are bits made?
How do they look? (Children show by a drawing.)
Afterward, if any child has never seen a bit, the
teacher shows one, explaining how and where the
lines are fastened. In what part of the mouth is
the bit held? [Children observe that the horse has
front teeth and back teeth, and that between the two
groups of teeth there is quite a long vacant place.
Into this the bit fits. Children show place for bit
by diagram on the board. The teacher has a bridle
in the class.] What is this I have here? (A bridle.)
What are these pieces of leather for? (To hold the
bit in place.) Notice what is fastened to the sides of
the bridle. (Two square or oblong leather pieces.)
Why are they there? (To keep the horse from see-
ing many things. He might become frightened at
some of these things.) Without these blinders, as
these pieces are called, could the horse see things
at either side without turning his head? How is
that? His eyes are so placed in his head that he
can see to the front and to the sides also. The eyes
are far apart and are large. Would you like to have
to look straight ahead all of the time? Can you see
things to the right and left without turning your

THE HORSE 23

head? (Not well.) Why not? Do you suppose the
horse likes to have his view of the sides of the road
cut off? Some masters have their bridles made with-
out blinders. What do you think of that?

But horses with blinders, and horses wholly blind,
sometimes become frightened. What could frighten
a blind horse? (Sounds of cannon, firecrackers,
barking of dogs, etc.) Has the horse good ears?
Tell me how you know. On what part of his head
does he carry his ears? What shape are they? Did
you ever see him move his ears? How? When?
Why? Do the horse’s ears ever lie down? When?
You may draw the horse’s head, showing where his
eyes and ears are. Where shall we draw the ears?
(Standing up side by side from the top of his head.)
Look closely at their shape.

We all know how to guzde the horse; let us see
how he pulls a buggy or sleigh. Is it in the same
way that you pull your hand sleds and express
wagons? (No, we pull them with our hands. The
horse has no hands.) No, the horse’s arms are his
fore legs, and it cannot take hold of the buggy with
them, but I have seen children draw sleds very much
as your horse draws your sleigh or buggy. How is
the horse fastened to the sleigh? [Children explain

24 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

‘from observation.] The purpose is to show how the
pulling is mostly done by the breast and shoulders.
In the same way children sometimes, in drawing a
loaded hand sled, have a rope fastened to the
two sides of the round in front; this they put over
their shoulders so that the weight rests there. Any
who have never drawn sleds in this way are shown
how. Do horses get tired traveling all day when the
load is light? (Yes, if driven fast.) How do they
show that they are tired? (Go slowly.) Then what
does the driver often do? (Whip them to make
them go faster.) And what do the horses do? (Go
faster. They have to do as the driver wishes, and if
he does not care for his team they will often have a
hard time.) How do horses show that they have
been driven too rapidly? (They are covered with
sweat, even in cold weather, and they breathe fast,
the breath coming from their great nostrils in clouds.)
What care should they receive at the end of their
journey when they have been so overdriven? (They
should be wiped dry with a cloth, then covered with
a blanket. They should not be given much water to
drink at first, although they are thirsty, but should
wait until they are cooled off.)

How else besides to draw heavy loads and take

THE HORSE 25

you out riding are horses used? (People often ride
on their backs.) Did you ever ride horseback? Did
the horse walk when you were on its back? In what
other ways do riding horses sometimes move along?
(Sometimes trot, or pace, or gallop.) How do the
horses’ feet move in trotting? Children observe that
the right fore foot and the left hind foot move
forward together. How do the horse’s feet move in
pacing? Children see that the two right feet are
raised at the same time, then the two left feet.
How do horses gallop? Children notice that the
fore feet are lifted together, then the hind feet.
Can you tell whether a horse is walking, trotting,
pacing, or galloping, without seeing it at all? (Yes,
sometimes, by hearing the sound of its feet as they
come down on the ground.) What is it about the
foot that makes this noise? (Its hard hoof or its
shoe.) What is this hoof? (The horse’s toe nail.)
Of what shape is the horse’s hoof? Does it go all
the way around the toe? Picture its shape on the
board. Where is the hoof the broadest? Where
narrowest? If this hoof is the horse’s nail, on what
does a horse stand? (On its toe nail.) What kind
of toe nails must these be that they may hold up the
heavy body of the horse and may stand being brought

26 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

against the hard ground or pavement? (They must
be strong and hard.) Should you not think that
they would wear off? Look at horses’ hoofs. (The
lower part of some hoofs looks ragged.) Do you ever
lose part of your nails? (Yes, mamma cuts the ends
off.) Then do they stay short? (No, they grow out
again.) So the horse’s hoofs or nails wear off and
grow out again as your nails do. It is better for
the horse to have his nails trimmed, as you have
yours, but sometimes they are allowed to grow
rough like those we have noticed.

How do horses keep from slipping on ice?
(They wear iron or steel shoes usually.) [Teacher
has a shoe in the class.] How are these shoes put
on to the horse? [Visit a blacksmith shop if pos-
sible.] Does it hurt the horse to have the shoes
nailed to his hoof? Does it hurt you to have your
finger nails cut? Neither does it hurt the horse
to have nails driven into his hoofs. How many
nails are put in? How are they driven through
the shoes? [Children notice the holes for nails,
in the shoe.] What are these three sharp pieces —
two at the heel and one at the toe —extending
downward? (Calks.) What are they for? (The
horse is so heavy that as it comes down with its

THE HORSE 27

weight on its shoes, these pieces cut deeply into
the ice, keeping the horse from slipping.) When
a horse is shod with such sharp shoes, we say he
is rough shod. Look at the tracks of horses on the
ice. What do you see? In the summer or during
time of good roads, some horses wear smooth shoes,
like this — showing one. Feel of it. We said before
that the horse was rough shod; we might now say
that he is how shod? (Smooth shod.)

What else does a horse use his feet for besides
walking, running, etc.? (He strikes with them to
knock off flies. He kicks his enemies.) Children
give examples. How else does he protect himself?
(He bites.)

We have found that horses can be driven in winter
without danger of falling. But do they not get very
cold without overcoats? (They have a hair coat.)
We will call the skin an under coat. This is thick
and warm. These coats keep the horse warm enough
when traveling. What shall be done for horses
when standing waiting for us? (They should be
covered with blankets.) What protection do they
need in cold weather, when not working or travel-
ing? (A good warm stable, with a clean straw bed
to lie on.)

28 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Do the horses wear the same coat winter and sum-
mer? (In the spring they shed their old coat and
keep only the new one that began to grow out the
summer before. So they are not dressed as warm
in summer as in winter.) Children relate what they
know of the horse shedding his coat. There is
other hair on the horse which protects him in sum-
mer. What is that? (His tail.) How does the
horse use his tail in the summer? (To brush the flies
off.) Where else is the hair long on the horse?
(On the neck.) What do we call the long hair
there? (A mane.) How would you like the looks
of a horse without a mane?

We have found that the horse does a great deal
for us. What makes him strong and able to work?
(Good food.) What does the horse like to get in the
summer time? (Green grass, and he likes to be out
in the pasture and get it for himself.) How does he
get the grass into his mouth? (By the aid of his
thick lips.) And how does he bite it off? Has he
or has he not teeth in his upper jaw? Children
observe that he has. After he has the grass bitten
off, what does he do? (Chews it.) Notice how
his jaws move in chewing. Up and down or

sidewise ?

THE HORSE 29

What else do horses eat besides grass and hay?
(Straw, fodder, oats, wheat, corn, and carrots.) How
does the horse eat salt? How drink water? What
other animals drink in the same way? What ones
drink differently? Does the horse drink much?
How much? How often should he be watered?
(It is best to have water in the pasture so the horse
can get it whenever he wishes.) If the horse is
being driven, water him often.

How does the horse let us know when he wants to
be fed or watered? (He whinnies or neighs.) Tell
of some other times when he whinnies. (If his mate
is taken from the field or stable, he whinnies for it.
That is the way, too, the mother calls her little colt.
Horses sometimes whinny for their masters, too.)

The teacher should insist on the children making
the observations for themselves.

Frequent reproductions by topics should be re-
quired. Thus: “Tell how the horses are kept from
slipping on the ice.” “How are they protected from
the cold?”

30 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

IV
THE COW

To what animal did the old woman (in the story
of “The Old Woman and Her Pig”?) go last for
help? (To the cow.) What did she want the cow
to do for her? (Give her some milk.) But before
the cow would give her any milk, she must do some-
thing for the cow. What was that? (Give her some
hay.) How much did she give her? (An armful.)
Is an armful of hay enough to last a cow all day?
How many of my armfuls do you think it would
take? Why does a cow need so much to eat? (She
is large.) As large as a shepherd dog? (Much larger.
A shepherd dog could walk right under a good-sized
cow.) Where do the farmers get this hay that the cow
likes? Do the cows ever get it from the fields, them-
selves? When? Did you ever watch a cow eating
grass? What did she do first? (Put her head down
to the ground.) Could you do that? (Yes, if I
could stand as a cow stands.) Do you think so?
How does the cow stand? On what? Its toes, as
the dog does? (No, it stands on the zaz/s of its

1 “Classic Stories for the Little Ones.” Public-School Publishing
Co,, Bloomington, Ill.

THE COW 31

third and fourth fingers and toes.) What do we call
these nails of the cow? (Hoofs.) Where are the
nails on our fingers? (On the back of the ends of
our fingers.) Where are the nails of the cow? (Her
nails or hoofs go all the way around.) Feel of them.
(They are very hard and thick.) Does she need
such hoofs? Why? Notice the shape. (They look
like one hoof cut in two.) Because they look this
way we say the cow has a cloven hoof. Cloven
means cut in two, but we know that she has two nails
or hoofs on each foot. Now you know how the cow
stands. How is it? Does the cow find it hard to
stand? Can she reach the grass on the ground with
ease? How does she gather the grass? (She reaches
out with her tongue and draws a wisp into her mouth,
and nips it off with her teeth.) What kind of tongue
has she? (A long, limber, rough one.) Why does
it need to be so long? Why limber? Why rough?
What else does she use in gathering the grass?
(Her thick, broad lips.) [These answers should be
' the result of the child’s careful observations.] How
does she bite off the grass? (With her front teeth.)
Have you noticed anything strange about these front
teeth? (The cow has no front teeth in her upper
jaw.) How then can she bite off the grass? (The

32 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

upper front jaw is very hard, almost as hard as a
bone.) Does she eat rapidly? How long does she
chew on a mouthful of grass? Does she keep on
eating all day at this rate? (No; after a while she
lies down, or stands and rests.) Did you ever notice
how a cow lies down? Does she lie down as the
dog does? What does she do first? Then what?
If you watch her mouth while she is lying down or
standing, if at rest, what will you find her doing?
(Chewing her cud.) What is this cud, and where
does it come from? I will tell you. Where does
your food go after you swallow it? (Into the
stomach.) Now, a cow has a very large stomach.
The grass which she bites off she chews but a lit-
tle, if any. She swallows it, and it goes into a
room in this big stomach, where it soaks for a
while. Watch a cow’s throat a little while after
she lies down, and tell what you see. (Something
going up her throat toward her mouth.) This
is a little of the soaked grass going up to be well
chewed. We now call it a cud. What becomes
of this cud? (After it is chewed up fine, the
cow swallows it and it goes into another part of
this big stomach.) Then what? (Another cud goes
up to be chewed in the same way, and soon.) Do

THE COW 33

the cow’s jaws move as yours do when chewing?
How do yours move? (The upper jaw does not
move. The lower jaw moves chiefly up and down.)
Do the cow’s jaws move in that way? (Her upper
jaw does not move, but her lower jaw moves from one
side to the other.) What does this sidewise motion
of the lower teeth on the upper teeth do for the grass?
(Grinds it up. It is her mill in motion.) Which
teeth do the grinding? (The back teeth.) Let us
see if they are good grinders. [Have jaw of cow
if possible.] (They are broad, flat, and hard.)
Is it a good thing that the cow can pack away her
food, and chew it when at rest? (Yes. She can
gather grass in the cool of the day, then lie down in
the shade when the sun is hot, and eat it. She does
not have to stand as much as she otherwise would,
but can rest while eating.)

In the winter time, what does the cow eat instead
of grass? (Hay, straw, and fodder.) She eats these
as she does the grass, z.e. chews them slightly, swal-
lows, then re-chews as a cud. What besides grass,
hay, and straw does the cow like to eat? (Corn.)
How does she get hold of the ears of corn? How
does she eat corn? What becomes of the cob?
What else does the cow like? (Oats, meal, and bran.)

D

34 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

How does she eat them? What is bran? Can you
think of. anything else we feed the cow? (Carrots,
turnips, beets.) How does she eat them? Anything
else? (Salt.) Do we salt the cow often? How
does she eat it?

Can you think of something else she would want?
(Water.) How often should a cow be watered?
Does she lap up the water as the dog does? How,
then, does she drink?

[All these answers made by the children should be
the result of their own observations. |

Is there anything we can do for the cow in the
summer, besides feeding her well? (Give her a
pasture in which there are trees or a shed to protect
her from the hot sun.) And in the winter, what?
(Give her good shelter from the cold and snow, and
a good straw bed at night.) But has she not a hair
coat to keep off the cold and snow? (This coat
helps, but it is not thick enough to keep her warm in
bad weather.) Is it as thick as the horse’s coat?
Are the hairs of the same length as his? Are they
as fine? Does she wear the same coat in summer
and winter, or has she a lighter coat in the summer?
How do you know? Is her coat the same color as
that of the horse? We do not often see the cow’s

THE COW 35

coat wet from sweating. When she gets warm, she
opens her mouth, lolls out her tongue, and pants,
much as the dog does. In the winter you can see
the steam coming from her great nostrils. Have
you noticed these nostrils?

Where is the hair longest on the cow? (On end
of tail.) What use does she make of this long brush?
But she cannot keep the flies off her neck and
shoulders, even with so long a brush. (She drives
them off by tossing her head about.) How does
she keep them off her feet and fore legs? (Stamps
her feet.) Children speak of the trouble of milking
cows in summer on account of flies,

Can you think of any other way she has of driving
away things that bother her? Does she bark or bite,
as the dog does? (She has horns to hook with.)
[ Have a horn in the class if possible.] Can she hurt
with such horns? (Yes, the outside is very hard, and
they are strong and sharp-pointed.) From what part
of the head do they grow? Is that a good place for
them? Why do you think so? How does she use
them? When? (Not so often to defend herself as
to protect her calf. She is very fond of it.) Did
- you ever see her drive away dogs? How else does
she show that she is fond of her calf? (She cries for

36 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

it if it is taken away. She licks it with her tongue.
That is the only way she has of kissing it. She
stands still for it to get its dinner.) Do you think
the little calf pretty? What do you like about its
looks? (It has pretty eyes for one thing; so has its
mother.)

We have found many things that we can do for
the cow, now we shall see what she does for us.
What does she give us night and morning? How do
we get the milk? Which gives the more, the cow
kindly cared for, or the cow poorly housed and fed?
For what do we use milk? Do we get cream from
the cow? Do you see it when she is being milked?
(No, we only see the milk.) Where do we get the
cream? (It rises on the milk.) What is made
from cream? (Butter.) How is butter made? [If
possible, watch the process.] What is made from
cream and milk? (Cheese and cottage cheese.)
What else is cream used for? (Ice cream, etc.)

THE SHEEP 37

Vv
THE SHEEP

(By COMPARISON WITH THE Cow)

What other animals, besides cows and calves and
horses, have you seen grazing in pastures? (Sheep.)
Have all seen sheep? [If any are unfamiliar with
them, a visit should be made to one; or, better, to a
flock. Perhaps some child may have a pet lamb,
which, like Mary’s in the poem, might follow her
“to school one day.” This would afford an excellent
opportunity for close study. |

Watch the sheep as it eats grass. What does it
do? How does it bite off the grass? (With its
front teeth.) Look at these front teeth. [The chil-
dren might do this at home and report the following
day. They discover that the sheep has no teeth in
the front part of its upper jaw.] What other animal
have you found lacking teeth here? (The cow.)

See how long the sheep chews the grass before
swallowing. What are these sheep over here doing?
(Lying down and chewing their cuds.) What will
these sheep that are eating so rapidly now do by and
by? What other animal eats grass inthe same way?
(The cow.) From what you know of the cow’s cud,

38 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

tell how you think the sheep gets its cud? [Chil-
dren review process of rumination in the cow. If
this study is taken up in the winter time, the children
observe the sheep eating hay instead of grass. |

Which eats the grass off the shorter, the cow or
the sheep? Why can the sheep do this?

Does the sheep eat corn in the same way that a
cow eats it? [Children name any differences that
they may have observed.] (A sheep nibbles off the
kernels.) Watch it and see how it does this. What
else does it eat ? Does it eat carrots, turnips, and
beets, as a cow eatsthem? What difference? Does
it hold the food down with its foot, as the dog some-
times does, when eating its food? How do sheep
eat salt? How drink water?

Notice how lightly the sheep step about. Let us
look at their little feet. What do you find? (They,
like the cow, walk on their toe nails —two on each
foot.)

Did you ever think how much the cow and the
sheep are alike? They surely must be cousins.
Name those points in which they are alike.

(a) Both have cloven hoofs (walk on toe nails).

(4) Both lack teeth in front part of the upper jaw.

(¢) Both chew the cud.

THE SHEEP 39

Are they unlike in any ways? Look at the two as
they graze side by side. How can you tell them
apart? (The cow is much larger than the sheep.
The sheep could run under the cow. The sheep is
nearer the size of the shepherd dog.)

If both were of the same size, could you tell them
apart by their looks? (The sheep has a wool coat,
the cow a hair coat.) Is there any other difference
in these coats, except that one is wool and the other
hair? (The sheep’s coat is usually white — occasion-
ally brown; the cow’s coat may be white, red, black,
or spotted.) Is there not still another difference
between the sheep’s coat and that of the cow? (The
sheep’s wool coat is much thicker than the cow’s
hair coat.) Let us look closely at this wool coat.
Have wool in the class. Each child may pick some
to pieces and see if it is at all like the cow’s hair
coat. (It zs hair, only the hairs are much finer than
those of the cow, and they are wavy and seem to
be fastened together, so that it is hard to pull them
apart.) Stretch one of these fine hairs. What about
its length now? (It is much longer than it looks to
be when on the sheep.) Does the wool lie down on
the sheep’s body in the same way that the hair lies
down on the cow’s body?

40 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

You have said that the sheep and cow are
unlike in size, and wear different kinds of coats.
If the sheep were the same size as the cow and
wore the same kind of a coat, could you tell them
apart? (Not many sheep have horns.) Do all cows
have horns? (Many have none.) Could you tell
them apart by the looks of their horns? Look at
the sheep with horns and the cow with horns and see.
(The cow’s horns aré round, quite smooth, and
pointed. They usually start out from the head in
opposite directions, then curve inward and forward
so it can hook with them.) [Children show by draw-
ing at the board.] The sheep’s horns grow back-
ward and downward, often forming a curl. They
are not round, and are rough. [Children draw a
sheep’s head to show how its horns look.] Can you
think why it is well that the sheep’s horns do not
stand out in front of its head? (Sheep crowd close
together in the fold at night, or when frightened,
and sharp-pointed horns such as the cow has would
be apt to injure other sheep.)

How can sheep keep away their enemies with
such horns, or no horns at all, as in most cases?
[Children relate any experience of their own, or such
as they have heard, of the terrible blow given by

THE SHEEP 41

a sheep with its head, butting. The large horned
sheep are usually willing to do the fighting for a
flock. They are no cowards. The teacher might
relate instances showing the bravery of the rams in
defending a flock.] Have you ever noticed a mother
sheep when a dog came near her lamb? What did
she do to show her anger? (Stamped her foot.)
And if the dog came nearer, what did she do? She
can fight to save her baby from harm, even though
she has no horns. You may tell again of some dif-
ference between the horns of the sheep and the cow.

In how many points have we found the sheep
different in looks from the cow?

If the sheep were like the cow in size, wore the
same kind of coat, and had the same kind of horns,
could you still tell them apart? Look closely at
the animals and see. (The end of a cow’s nose is
wide and bare. Its nostrils are far apart. The
sheep’s nose is more pointed. There is hair on
the end of its nose, and its nostrils are quite close
together.)

Let us name the difference in looks between the
sheep and the cow. (a) The sheep is smaller than
the cow. (4) It wears a wool coat, while the cow
wears a hair coat. (¢) The sheep’s horns are differ.

42 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

ent from those of the cow. [Children explain.]
(d@) Their noses are different. [Children explain. ]

But I might be able to tell a sheep from a cow
without looking at one. How? (By its cry. A
sheep says, ‘“ Baa.” A cow says, “Moo.” We call
a sheep’s cry a bleat, and the cow’s a low.) When do
we hear the sheep bleating a great deal? (In the
spring when the lambs are little.) And how do the
lambs answer their mothers’ calls? The sheep bleat
also when they are hungry or thirsty. So we can tell
sheep and cows apart both by seeing and by hearing
them. The scent of the sheep is also peculiar.

We found that the cow does a great deal for us.
Is the sheep also our good friend? What does it do
for us? (Its woolis made into blankets for our beds,
warm shawls, cloaks, coats, etc.) [Children show
garments made of wool.] How do we get it from the
sheep? (Men cut it off with great sheep shears.)
How often? But is it not very dirty after being worn
without change for a whole year? [Children tell
about sheep washing, which occurs a few days before
the shearing. If none have seen the process, the
teacher explains and shows pictures.] Then, when
their wool becomes dry, what is done? [Children
who have seen sheep sheared explain how the coat is

THE FOX SQUIRREL 43

taken off, and how packed away. The teacher shows
good pictures to those who have never seen this done.
Show sheep shears, explaining how they are worked. |
An explanation of the making of wool into cloth is
given later.

Which does the most for us, the sheep, the cow,
the horse, the cat, or the shepherd dog? Which one
do you like best for a pet?

VI

THE FOX SQUIRREL
(A WINTER StuDy)

It is supposed that this study will be carried on
with classes of children who have often seen this
squirrel, and are to some extent acquainted with its
habits. A live squirrel, if possible, will be brought
into the class whenever facts in regard to structure
need proof.

The following questions may be asked for the
purpose of finding out how much the children already
know about the animal: Where have you seen fox
squirrels? How could you tell them from other
squirrels? Their color is orange (or red) and gray.
What have you seen themdoing? Did you ever visit

44 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

at one of their homes? Where was it? How did
you reach it? How was it furnished?

We will see if we cannot become better acquainted
with this lively little fellow.

Have you seen any this winter? Was it on a very
cold or a mild day? At what time of day? What
was it doing? Watch closely and see if you can find
out. Can you ever tell that a squirrel has been out,
even though no one has seen it? How? What
kind of tracks does it leave in the snow? Notice
them so carefully that you can draw them on the
board. If you were to follow these tracks, what
might you find? (The squirrel’s home.) We will
not disturb him, but sometime when the house is
empty we will climb up and peep in and see if he
has a comfortable home. The children, quite likely,
may find the nest in a hollow of a tree. It is lined
with leaves and moss, perhaps. How many rooms?
(Only one—a bedroom.) Does one squirrel live
here alone? There is a whole family of them,
quite likely— father, mother, and two or three
children. Perhaps you can find out how they pack
themselves away in this snug home. Did the
squirrels dig out this hole in the tree? Why
do you think they did not? Why should they

THE FOX SQUIRREL 45

choose such a place as this? Did you ever see
squirrels out house hunting? Did you ever see
them fitting up their home? How did they carry
the leaves and moss? How many of the family
worked? At what time of year was it? Do they
have a door to their house? How, then, do they
keep out the wind and the snow? Is there a
furnace or a stove in this house? How, then, can
they keep warm? (They wear very warm fur coats.)
Without a squirrel, the study of this covering can
be made from a dried pelt. Is there more than
one coat? Notice the inner coat. It is very soft
and compact, a dark drab next to the skin, re-
sembling cotton batting. What does this coat do
for the squirrel? Notice the outer coat. This coat
is coarser and not so compact. Do the hairs stand
straight out from the body, or do they lie down?
What is the use of this coat? Which coat gives the
color to the animal? Notice these long hairs in
which the dark and light alternate. Which color
is at the tip of the hairs?

These are not the squirrel’s only protection from
the cold. What besides? (He carries with him a
beautiful fur cloak—his tail or brush — which he
wraps about him when he lies down to sleep.) Call

46 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

attention to therichness of coloring in this cloak.
The upper part in this specimen before me is a
beautiful combination of black and orange, the
orange tipping every hair—while the under part
(which is the upper part most of the time) is a light
orange.

We have found that the squirrels are very com-
fortable even in cold weather. But are a good
home and warm clothes all that are necessary to
keep them alive? (They need food.) What do
squirrels eat? How can they get these after the
fruit and corn are gathered and the nuts which
remain on the ground in the woods are covered
with snow? (They stored up food in a pantry in
another hole in a tree, not far from their sleeping
room.) Did you ever see them gather nuts for the
winter? How did they carry them to their pantry?
How many worked at this? Did you ever come
across their store of nuts? Did you examine it?
How good a selection had they made? Were there
any wormy ones among them? How do you think
they discover that a nut is not sound?

How do the squirrels spend most of the time in
the winter? Why do you think so? When they
waken and are hungry, how do they get their

THE FOX SQUIRREL 47

meals? (Scamper off to the pantry.) Do they eat
at the pantry, or bring the nuts back to the bed-
room? How do they hold the nuts when eating?
How get at the meat? (Show shells from which the
squirrels have taken the meats.) What kind of
teeth must they have to gnaw into the shell in this
way? Do they chew their food? With what teeth?
[If possible, examine these teeth. The skull of the
squirrel would be of much service here.] What is
the movement of the jaw? Is it well for the
squirrel’s teeth that he does not sleep all winter?
What would be the harm if he were to do so? (His
teeth keep growing. He needs to keep them worn
off at the tip that they may not become too long.)
We know a little about the winter life of this
pretty squirrel. Its summer life is even more in-
teresting. Let us find out all that we can about
that, next term. See how early in the spring it
begins its work and play. We will find out, if we
can, what its summer work is, and what games it

plays.

Bureau Nature Study,

PORNFLL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, N.Y.

48 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

VII

THE FIRST THREE MONTHS IN THE
LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL

(SPENT IN A SCHOOLROOM)

Our school children had the rare opportunity in
the spring of ’97 of observing three gray squirrels,
from the time of their birth.

We had had the mother of these babies for
about six weeks, when, on Monday morning, March
15, our janitor found in the cage five little squirrels.
Two died shortly after birth. The little squirrels
were perfectly naked, not a hair on the whole body.
The bodies of the two largest were two inches
long, the tails one and one fourth inches long, and
the legs three fourths of an inch long. They were
very dark red, with the heads darker than the
body. The ears were no larger than radish or
flax seeds. Their eyes were as large as sweet peas,
but were closed tightly. Their toe nails were black,
with a white tip, and were well developed.

The mother purred to them harshly. The babies
mewed—a single mew at a time; their voices
sounded like those of kittens. We saw two of them
getting their dinner the second morning. Their

THE LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL 49

front feet moved in a happy way while nursing.
We made them a nest of cotton in a box when
they first came. Their mother tore up much paper
and added to this nest.

When they were a week old their bodies had
become plumper, and they had begun to bleach
out. We took one of the little ones from the cage.
It squealed like a little pig,—such a big voice
for such a tiny creature! The mother, Fanny, was
very tame. We patted her and handled her con-
siderably when the squirrels were a week old, with-
out any disposition on her part to bite.

When a week and a half old, the little ones be-
gan to squeak like mice whenever things did not
go to suit them in their home. Their little ears
began to stand out. The mother, when she feared
some one was going to hurt one of her babies,
planted her front feet firmly upon its body.

When three weeks old, the lids to the eyes had
become plainly differentiated. The body had
changed in color to a dark gray, and gray hairs
began to show. They were thickest on the head.
The head looked very large in proportion to the
rest of the body. The ears were now standing out
stiffly. Ten days previous to this the squirrels had

E

50 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

been taken to the home of one of our teachers
to spend the vacation. Fanny was frightened at
being moved, and when her cage was set down in
the new quarters, and the box containing her little
ones was put in, she grabbed up one little one at
a time and lapped it. She seemed to be examin-
ing them to see if any harm had come to them.
At the close of the vacation they were three times
as large, at least, as at the beginning of it.

When three and a half weeks old the little
squirrels had become very active. Hair covered all
of the body excepting the belly and the inner side
of the legs. These parts were still perfectly bare.
The tail had grown to be quite large. The order
in which the hair appeared was this—on head, on
body, on outer part of thigh, on outer part of leg.
The mother’s call sounded like a buzz saw.

When four and a half weeks old the eyelids were
much swollen and looked to be about ready to
open. The head of the squirrels still seemed out
of all proportion to the size of their bodies. For
several days previous to this, rusty hairs had been
noticeable on the squirrels’ heads, mixed with the
gray, and now a rusty line showed low down on each
side of their bodies. While the outside of the

THE LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL SI

mother’s ear is white, theirs was gray. Their tails
were now becoming very hairy. They still con-
tinued to do nothing but sleep, eat, and squirm.
They were never quiet. For two days previous to
this time Fanny had seemed very uneasy. She
jumped out of the nest and called her young, but
they made no move to follow her. On this day
she had many times taken up one of the babies in
her mouth and lapped and handled it, especially the
latter. We put much cotton into the cage so they
might not suffer were she to take them from the
box. When lifting one, she usually grasped it by
a leg, or the skin on the back of its body — far back.

When five weeks old the under part of the body
and inner part of the leg were thickly covered with
white hairs.

When five and a half weeks old we found each
little squirrel with one eye partly open. With the
two larger squirrels it was the left eye, with the
smaller one it was the right eye. The smallest squir-
rel was of a much lighter gray than the other two,
and had no rusty hairs in its coat.

On the morning following that of the above record
we looked with expectancy for wide-open eyes, but
only the little gray had an eye open, its right eye,

52 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

as before, but this was hardly as wide open as on the
previous day. Fanny, about this time, began to lie
flat on her back to suckle her little ones. For
several days previous to this she had been burying
her food in the nest. On this day she took a
piece of cotton from her bed, and with her mouth
and front paws gave it a good shaking, then put
it back into the nest.

On the day following the above record, one of
the large squirrels opened neither eye all day.
The other large one had both eyes open, not wide,
but about halfway. The little one had its right
eye open, but no farther than on the previous
day. The squirrel with both eyes open drew itself
up so as to peep over the top of the box.
Fanny, seeing it, drew it back into the nest.
By this time we were in the habit of handling
the little ones and taking them out of the cage.
Neither Fanny nor the little ones objected.

When the little squirrels were six weeks old, for
the first time all three had both eyes open. They
did not move about much on this great day, slept
as usual, but were more restless. Fanny now began
sunning herself, stretching out flat on the bottom
of the cage.

THE LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL 53

Two days later than the above record the little
squirrels took up cracked nuts in their paws and
nibbled them. The smallest squirrel at this time
was the most active. On the evening of this day
one of the little squirrels kept getting out of the
box. Fanny was displeased. Every time it got out
she would run after it and, grasping it by the hind
leg, lift it into the box. At one time the little fel-
low ran about on the floor of the cage, in a very
animated manner.

Five days later the little ones had begun to walk
and run about the cage a great deal, and on this
day, for the first time, they climbed up the sides
of the wire cage. When walking or running they
still seemed unsteady on their feet, and when hold-
ing up a nut in the paws, as they did on rare
occasions, their hind legs wabbled. On this day
and once previously, one little fellow worked at its
mother’s mouth— seemed to be biting her teeth.
We examined its teeth and found them just through.
We think it was using its mother’s teeth as a baby,
when teething, uses an ivory ring. The mother
was very patient and seemed to regard the opera-
tion as perfectly proper. The little teeth were very
tiny and very white. The little squirrels had sharp

54 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

nails. We could hardly get them off our cloth-
ing when they had been running over us.

One day after the above record all three little
squirrels lay down on the bottom of the cage to-
gether to sleep.

When eight weeks old their tails were beautiful
and they curled them gracefully over their backs.
They had by this time become very nimble. They
would take away Fanny’s nuts when she was nib-
bling them. Fanny stored away in the box large
quantities of nuts, never putting two in the same
spot. She covered them by scratching anything
over them that happened to be handy, even though
it were one of the little squirrels.

Two days later one squirrel would lie on its
back, kick up its legs, and grab another squirrel,
when a skirmish would follow. They continued
to steal the nuts from Fanny’s mouth. They were
now beginning to eat nuts, kernels of corn, and
clover. One lay down and gnawed a kernel of
corn as a dog gnaws a bone.

When nine and a half weeks old the little ones
teased Fanny when eating so much that she hung
by her toes from the side of the cage near the
top, to crack nuts. The tails of the babies were

THE LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL 55

now longer than their bodies. The little ones were
becoming hearty eaters, their favorite food being
hickory nuts. On this day I wore a snowball.
Fanny came to the side of the cage and nibbled
at the snowball. When I took it off and gave it
to her, she ate more than half of it.

One day later than the above Fanny and her
babies quarreled. She was tired of having them
boss her about, and refused to submit.

When ten and a half weeks old Fanny still
washed her babies, lapping them with her tongue.
She still suckled them, though a few times she
had resisted their demands for food. They now
looked to be almost as large as the mother. The
smallest one was a downright wicked tease. It
made a practice of skipping up behind one of the
others and biting it, stealing the food of the others,
biting them when they wished to eat, and the like.
Finally we had to take the little hector out of the
cage and give him a cage to himself.

About a week after this one of the squirrels which
remained in the cage died. We know no cause for
its death. We took the other little squirrel from
the mother, as she had been taking its choice morsels
of food from it. We kept it out only three days, as

56 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

it grieved greatly for itsmother. The evening after
we put it back it had a hard spasm. Fearing that
the room was too warm and sunny, we sent all
to the basement in another building. NHere they
were given much freedom and throve well. This
was near the end of the term. The children had
watched closely and noted with greatest interest
all the changes here recorded, and they loved the
little squirrels and Fanny very much. They re-
lated to the teacher in their nature study class
what they had observed. If any difference of
opinion existed, it was settled by closer observation.

VIII
OUR MOUSE, JIM

The following are some observations made, in the
schoolroom, of our mouse, Jim.

Jim was not a handsome mouse. He was gray,
with the under parts somewhat lighter. Our jani-
tor caught him for us in a trap—one of the kind
that preserves the specimen alive and unmuti-
lated. Before he arrived we had made ready for
him a cage. It was made of woven wire, and was
about a foot square. It had a wooden bottom,

OUR MOUSE, JIM 57

which the mouse never saw fit to gnaw through.
There was a wire handle at the top, and a wire
door in one side, near the bottom. This door was
of such a size that the top of a glass fruit jar ex-
actly fitted into it. The cost of the cage was fifty
cents. A tinner made it for us.

As often as the cage needed cleaning, Jim was
tempted by some dainty to go into a two-quart
jar whose mouth had been put into the door of
the cage. Once in there, the top of the jar was
put on lightly, and the cage was cleaned. Jim,
almost without fail, gave himself a thorough clean-
ing while in this jar. Standing on his hind paws,
he lapped his little pink hands, and then proceeded,
much as a cat does, to clean very carefully all
parts of his body, his hands returning to his mouth
frequently.

In the meantime the cage had been washed out
thoroughly and dried, and a double piece of paper
a foot wide but several inches longer was put into
the cage, so ,that one side folded over, forming a
roof for a retiring room. Jim had asked for this
room in this way: At first we cut the paper a
foot square. Jim would invariably push up one
side of the paper and go under it when he wished

58 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

to sleep or meditate. By lengthening the paper
we saved him this trouble. He had not ceased to
be wary, although he knew us well, for he always
cut out a little window in this private office of his,
and slept with his head in such a position that he
could look out of this window.

How happy he was to get back into his clean
cage! He would run up one side, throw his head
far back, and turn a somersault, landing on his feet
at the bottom of the cage. This was his favorite
pastime. His movements were so rapid, when he
was fairly started, that it was impossible to tell how
he moved.

The children at school were glad to furnish food
to the little fellow for the pleasure of seeing him
eat. His mouth was hid from sight. If a grain
of field corn were given him, he picked it up in his
front paws, standing on his hind legs, exactly as
does a squirrel when eating a nut. He first pulled
off with his teeth the thin husk on the outside of
the grain, dropped it, and, beginning at the crown, ate
downward toward the heart of the kernel for some
distance; then he turned it and ate toward the heart
from the opposite side, until one part dropped. The
remaining part he ate from the outside inward, nib-

OUR MOUSE, JIM 59

bling little bites, or sometimes taking larger bites and
chewing.them. When the one part was eaten, he
scurried around, hunting the other portion, which
he ate in the same way. If he had an abundance
of corn, he would eat the crown out of several
kernels, instead of eating an entire one. When
a kernel of rice popcorn was given him, instead
of beginning at the crown to nibble (the crown is
very hard), he began at the softer base.

We expected him to go into raptures over his
first bit of cheese, this being considered a mouse’s
great luxury, but he disappointed us. He nibbled
a little from it occasionally, but in a half-hearted
way.

He was very fond of cake. One could almost
hear him smack his jaws in satisfaction when he
got hold of a piece. He would hold it up in his
paws, if not too heavy, and eat it in much the same
way that he ate the corn. If the piece were too
large, he put his head down to it, using his paws
in turning it. His hands seemed as necessary to
him, for feeding himself, as do ours. We never
saw him eat anything without bringing them into
use to hold the food in a good position for nibbling.

We watered Jim in a little glass salt cellar. He

60 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

cared for water at least once a day. Sometimes
he would drink oftener. When the water was put
into the cage he would run to it, put his two front
feet on the side of the dish, and lap up rapidly
from the center. Occasionally we gave him milk.
This he would sometimes lap from the center, at
other times from the edge of the dish only.

His hand was very delicate. There were four
slender fingers on a level, and a thumb higher up,
as in our own hand. The foot had but four toes,
the use of the toes being less varied than that of
the fingers.

While we do not doubt that his prominent nose
served a good purpose, we were not able to demon-
strate to our satisfaction that he has the keen scent
accorded him by some.

His little black eyes seemed to see in every direc-
tion at once, and his thin papery ears caught the
slightest sound. His whole attitude was one of
alertness. A cat that could surprise one such little
fellow must be very quick-witted as well as quick-
motioned.

So far as we could discover, his tail was a useless
appendage — not even ornamental, we should say;
but Jim seemed very proud of it. He washed it

THE RABBIT 61

with great care, and laid it out in a graceful curve,
when resting. We think he would look quite in-
artistic, however, without this three-inch measure,
and were it covered with hair, forming a beautiful
brush like that of the squirrel, probably not a mouse
would be making history to-day.

IX

THE RABBIT (Common Hare)

The purpose of the first recitation is to find out
what the children know about the subject.

Did you see some little tracks in the snow this
morning as you came to school? What made them?
(Dogs or cats.) Did you see any others smaller
than these? What had made them? (Rabbits.)
Show me on the board just how these tracks looked.
If the children cannot do this, ask them to notice
closely and draw a picture of them on paper and
bring to class next day. When do you think the
rabbit made them? (At night, perhaps.) Why
was he running about at night? (To get food.)
Why not get his food in the daytime? (He is
afraid some enemy will see him and catch him.)
Then the rabbit has enemies? Name some of the

62 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

enemies that you know. (Men, dogs, cats, snakes,
hawks, owls.) To-morrow we shall see how these
tracks of Bunny’s help some of his enemies to
catch him.

At the next recitation the teacher brings in a
tame rabbit, introducing it as gray Bunny’s cousin,
which hops just as gray Bunny does, and has ears
and eyes much like his, except the color of the
eyes. The teacher takes the pictures called for the
day before. Explanations are made of how the rab-
bit makes three tracks instead of four. The two
front feet strike together, and the two hind feet come
up on the sides, striking a little in front of the two
front feet. Which feet move first, the fore or the
hind feet? Which pair of legs help him the more
in hopping? (Hind legs.) How are they fitted for
helping him so much? (They are long and strong.)
What about the front legs? (They are shorter and
weaker.) How is it that the rabbit can get about
so quietly? I will hold him so that you may see
if you can find out. (The soles of his feet are cush-
ioned and covered with hair.) Why does Bunny
need to get about so quietly? (So his enemies
will not hear him.) But we have found out that
when he hops he leaves what? (Tracks.) And we

THE RABBIT 63

said yesterday that some of his enemies were helped
by these tracks to catch him. What enemies?
(Men. They see the tracks and follow them.)
What other enemies are guided by the tracks?
(Dogs.) How do the tracks help them? Did you
ever see dogs hunting rabbits? What did they
do? (Kept noses down to ground.) What doing?
(Smelling the tracks—‘“ getting the scent.”) Do
they need to see the tracks? (No.) What will
Bunny do to get away from the dogs? How will
he know that they are coming? (See them.) Look
at his eyes; where are they? (On sides of head.)
How does that help? (He can see all about with-
out turning his head.) What does he turn? (His
eyes, so that when he is running he can see the
dogs back of him.) What else tells Bunny that
the dogs are coming? (His ears.) Are they good
ears? Give a low bark in the next room, Earl.
What did Bunny do? (Stuck up his ears.) Why?
(To catch the sounds.) What else do you notice
about his ears? (He can turn them in any direc-
tion.) How will this help him? (Even if he can-
not see the dog, he can tell from what direction he
is coming without turning his head.)

Now that Bunny sees or hears the dog, what will

64 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

he do? (Run.) Can he go fast? How do you
know? (Have seen him.) (Those long, strong hind
legs help him.) How does he hold his ears when
running? (Down and back.) Why? ( (a) So that
they will be out of his way when running under
fences and brush. (4) So that the air pressing
against them will not hinder him. (c) So that he can
hear his pursuers.)

In what other way than by running can he get
away from the dogs? ( (a) He may glide into a hole
or hollow log. (4) Turn suddenly when the dog gets
up to him. The dog cannot turn so quickly, and
not expecting this change in affairs, loses some time,
the rabbit improving it in getting away. (c) Crouch
down on a log or in the bushes. His color being
very similar to that of the log or bushes, the dog
will sometimes give up the search after sniffing
about for a time within a short distance of him.)

If Bunny escapes from the dogs, he goes where?
(To his home.) Where is it? (Near some log,
under bushes, at foot of tree, or in the weeds.)
What kind of a house? (A hollow in the grass or
weeds.) Is there no roof to his house? (No.)
Sometimes there is. What kind of a roof do you
think it is? There is sometimes such a roof on your

THE RABBIT 65

house, over the other roof. (Snow.) How did Bunny
get such a roof? (Remained in his house, or form,
during a snowstorm and let the snow cover him.)
Does snow make a good roof for him? Why do you
have warm covers on your bed at night? (To keep
us warm.) How does it keep you warm? Is not
the cold air all about your bed? (The covers keep
it out and keep the warmth in.) What does the
snow do for Bunny? (Keeps cold air out and the
warmth within.) How can he breathe in there?
Did you ever breathe on the ice covering the win-
dow, some cold morning? What did your warm
breath do to the ice? (Melted it.) What does
Bunny’s breath do to the snow? (Bunny’s breath
melts the snow a little, so he can get fresh air.)
How long will Bunny stay in his snow-covered
home? (Till he gets hungry.)

Why does the hunter want to kill Bunny? ( (a) For
food. (6) For his fur. (c) For fun. [What do you
think of this?] (d@) Because he eats the vegetables in
summer. (e) He girdles the farmer’s trees in winter.)

Does it not seem that with so many enemies there
would be no rabbits left? This would be true were
there not so many young rabbits every year, enough
to take the place of those killed.

F

66 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

We have learned something about Bunny’s ene-
mies. Why do gardeners and fruit raisers often kill
rabbits? (Because they eat their vegetables in the
summer and gnaw their fruit trees in the winter.)
Why do they gnaw the fruit trees in the winter?
(Food is scarce then and they like the bark of trees.)
Do they gnaw young or old trees? (Young trees,
because they have tender bark.) What kind of teeth
must the rabbit have to gnaw this bark? (Sharp
teeth.) Must all the teeth be sharp? (The front
ones, at least, must be so.) What else should be true
of the front teeth that they may nibble off the bark?
(They should be long.) Why? (So his gums will not
be injured by the wood of the tree.) Something else
must be true of his teeth, also. Think of the kind of
food he is getting and how he is getting it. (They
must be strong.) Let us open Bunny’s mouth — for
tame Bunny has teeth like those of wild Bunny —
and see if his front teeth are sharp, long, and strong.
What do you see? (Two long, sharp, strong teeth
in each jaw.) Here are some of Bunny’s teeth
(taken from a skull) and here are some knives.
Let us see if the front and back part of the teeth
are equally hard. (The front is the harder.) As he
nibbles the hard bark, what will become of the softer

THE RABBIT 67

back of the tooth? (It will wear off faster than the
front part.) What will that do for the tooth?
(Sharpen it.) Will not the teeth finally be worn
down to the gum? (They would, did they not keep
growing out from the gum.) What would happen to
Bunny did he not wear off his teeth? (They would
keep: on growing and become great tusks.) (The
teacher might cite examples of deformity caused by
one tooth being broken off.) Do you blame Bunny,
then, for nibbling something hard?

Look at Bunny’s mouth. Do you see anything
about it that helps him in nibbling the trees? (The
upper lip is cleft.) How does this help? (The
lip is out of his way when nibbling, and so does not
get hurt by rubbing against the tree.)

After Bunny nibbles off the food, what does he do
with it before swallowing it? (Chews it.) With his
sharp front teeth? (No, with chewing teeth such as
we have.) Let us see if Bunny has such teeth.
(He has.)

Now Bunny has finished his breakfast or supper
off the bark of the tree. Has he harmed the tree
much? (Killed it if he has gnawed all the way
around.) How is that? (The roads through which
the sap passes from roots to leaves, and from the

68 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

leaves back to the roots, are spoiled.) [This presup-
poses a study of the tree.] And so the fruit grower
would like Bunny to stay away from his orchard,
and when the weather is warm and there is plenty
of clover and vegetables, Bunny is willing to do so.

Has he ever been to your garden? Did you see
him? How did you know, then, that he had been
there? The parsley, lettuce, beets, etc., told the
story. Does he like flowers, too? Yes, and he has
good taste —a great liking for carnations and other
pinks. Now this tame rabbit eats as does the wild
one, so we will ask him to show how the gray rabbit
eats, since we cannot catch gray Bunny eating. We
will feed him parsley and carrot and apple. (Chil-
dren try many different kinds of food.)

What have we found Bunny using his front teeth
for? (Gnawing.) Now watch him. What does he
do with the parsley? (Bites off a mouthful, then
chews it.) And with the tender leaves of the beet?
(The same.) And what does he do with the apple?
(Gnaws off a little at a time.) Then he uses his front
teeth for what? His back teeth for what?

Tell me some interesting things you have learned
about the gray rabbit. What else would you like to
know? A study of the young will follow later.

THE CHICKEN 69

xX
THE CHICKEN

In Grimm’s story of “ The Street Musicians,” when
they had stopped in the wood for the night, where
did the rooster settle down? (In the top of a high
tree.) How did he get up so high? (He flew to
one of the lower branches, from there to a higher
one, and so on.) Why do you think so? (I have
seen chickens fly up into trees, and that is the way
they always did.) Why doesn’t a chicken fly
directly to the top of the tree from the ground?
(Its wings are not strong enough to carry its heavy
body so far without stopping to rest.) Does a chicken
have much flying to do? When does it fly? (To and
from its roost.) Where does it roost? Where did
the rooster roost after his good supper in the rob-
bers’ hut? Have you seen chickens fly at other times
than those just spoken of? (Sometimes, when they
cannot get through a crack, they will fly over a
fence.) How? [Children give their observations: ]
They usually fly to the top of the fence, light there,
then fly down on the other side. Why do they make
so much noise about it? (It is such hard work.)

7O NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Do you know what is sometimes done to chickens
to keep them from flying over fences? (Their wing
feathers on one wing are clipped.) How does this
hinder them from flying so high? (They cannot
balance themselves.) How does a chicken fly? (By
beating its wings against the air.) You can raise your
heavy body a little way from the ground by pushing
down on two posts driven into the ground. A bird
has no posts to push against, but it can press against
the air. That is always handy, too. [By the use
of a light fan, fanning downward and outward rapidly,
the children become conscious that there is a resist-
ance of the air. ]

[We do not wish to go deeply into this subject.
Perhaps it would be wise not to touch upon it at
all, but usually the interested children bring up
the question and force some explanation of how
birds fiy.| The motions of the wings made by the
chicken in flying—are they slow or rapid? In
raising its wing why does not the air above push
the bird back? The chicken does not raise its
wing straight up, it cuts through the air with the
front of the wing, — so (showing with the fan).

You have seen the wing of a chicken on the
dinner table and it looks much smaller than when

THE CHICKEN 71

on the chicken. Why is that? (It has the feathers
off.) [If possible, the teacher should have a gentle
hen in the class, also the wing of a dressed chicken,
and a wing with feathers upon it. Compare in
size the two wings.] Is this hen going to fly now?
How do you know she is not? (Her wings are
not spread.) The teacher extends and contracts
gently the wing of the hen a few times. Does that
make you think of anything you sometimes see? (A
fan.) When does the chicken close its fans? When
it does not wish to use them in flying? Why does
it not keep them stretched out all of the time?
(They would be in its way.) When? Can you show
with your arms how the hen closes her wings, or
arms? What does she do when she wishes to fly?
[Children relate their observations.] Show how,
starting with your arms in the position of the closed
wings. This will require close observation. [Call
attention to the position of the thumb or forefinger
in the dressed wing.] Do your arms now look like
the chicken’s spread wing? (No, the skin that holds
the two parts of the hen’s arm, or wing, together
is wanting in our arm.) What, then, can you do
with your arms that the hen cannot do with hers?
(Stretch them out straight.) Picture on the board

we

72 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

John’s arm stretched out. Beside it picture the
dressed wing stretched out. What is this wing
mostly made of? (Skin and bones.) Can you think
of any reason why it may be well that there is no
more meat onit? (The meat would make the wing
heavy. She would tire holding out a heavy wing in
flying.)

But the hen has besides the skin, bones, and mus-
cles, what? (Feathers.) Do these help or hinder
her flying? (She spreads out these feathers and
strikes against much more air than the naked wing
could press against. She could not rise at all with
the naked wing.) Let us look at one of these large
wing feathers and see if we think it is the kind the
chicken needs for flying. Lift it. (It is so light
that I cannot feel its weight.) Does the chicken
need light feathers? Why? Is this feather straight?
(No, it curves downward a little.) Is this well? The
feathers hold the air under better than they would if
they were flat. [They will notice the difference in
pressure of a concave and a flat fan.] How many
of these long feathers? Does it need 30 many?
Pull a feather from this wing which I have here.
[The feather comes only after hard pulling.] Is
it well that the feathers are fastened so tightly?

THE CHICKEN 73

Why? We will look closely at these feathers.
This middle part is called the shaft. Each side
is called a web. Is the web of the same width on
both sides? (Notice how the feathers are arranged
on the wing.) The narrow web of one covers the
wide web of its neighbor. Only one side needs to
be long, and the chicken wishes to have as light
wings as possible, as we have said before. Can
you think of any reason for having the narrow web
over the wide one? Examine the wing. Would it do
just as well to have the wide web over the narrow?
Notice one little part of the web. That is called
a barb. Separate carefully these barbs. (They
cling closely together.) After you have separated
them, smooth them down. What do you notice?
(They cling as before.) Hold the feather up to the
light as you slowly separate these barbs. What do
you see? (Each barb has little teeth on both sides.
These teeth fit into those of the barbs next to them.)
Is that well for the chicken? (Yes, if the feathers
let the air through, it would leave nothing to press
against and the chicken could not rise.) What do
you notice above these long feathers? Of what use
are these feathers? Above these, what? Can you
think how else the chicken is helped by having

74 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

feathers that shut out the air? (Its body is kept
warmer.) How are the little chickens helped by
such feathers? (The wings keep the cold air from
them at night, as the hen covers the chickens with
her wings.)

Are all the barbs on the hen’s feathers hooked
together? [Examine one of the small feathers. ]
On which part of the feather are the barbs hooked
together? (On the part that is on the outside of the
chicken. The part that is covered is softer — more
like down.) How are the small feathers arranged
onthe hen? (They all point backward from the head,
and grow one over another like the shingles on a
house, only closer together. The barbed part is on
the outside.) Is this well for the hen? Why? (It
makes a very thick cover, keeping out the cold, and
also sheds the rain quite well, the rain running off
the end of one feather on to the next, and so on until
it drops to the ground.) Have all the feathers some
barbs? Where do you find feathers without barbs?
Notice how a hen stands in the rain. (With her tail
drooping, as if to let the rain have a chance to run off
by the way of her tail feathers.) In what other way
is the chicken helped to keep dry in rainy weather ?
Have you noticed what a hen sometimes does during

THE CHICKEN Vhs

arain? (She oils her feathers so that they will shed
the rain.) Will oil shed water? How do you know?
[Have oiled paper in the class. Pour water on it and
see what happens.] Where does the chicken get the
oil? (From a little sac just above the tail.) [Show |
on dressed chicken.] Where does the oil come out?
How does the hen get it out? (With her bill.) How
can she reach away around there with her bill? (Her
neck is long and limber, and she can twist it around
easily.) How does she get the oil out? (Presses
down on the sac with her bill, and it comes out as
does the juice when you press on an orange in which
you have made a hole.) How does she carry the oil
to the feathers? With her bill? How put it on the
feathers? (She passes each feather which she wishes
to oil between her two mandibles.) Her bill is the
finest comb the hen has.

But her hair combing is no queerer than her bath.
Did you ever see a hen bathing? No? Did you ever
see a hen in an ash pile or in a pile of dust fluttering
about? Just what did she do? [Children find out
if they cannot tell.] This is her bath. Does she
seem to enjoy it? What does she do when she is
through her dust bath? Change her clothes? No,
but she shakes out the dust and preens her feathers.

76 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

(Smooths her old dress.) How? Does the hen
never change her dress? Have you not seen many
feathers lying about the henhouse? Did some-
thing pull them out? Do they usually come out
easily? How does this happen, then? (Little by
little she is changing her dress. An old feather
falls out and a new one grows in to take its place.
Sometimes a hen loses the whole of her tail at one
time.) When does this changing of dress happen?
(Late in the summer.) Is this a good time? Why?
How do the little new feathers look when they first
come in? What do we call them? (Pinfeathers.)
Examine these carefully if they can be found when
this is studied. Why does the hen need to change
her dress at all? (The feathers wear out and
become much mussed.) Is there any order in
shedding her coat? [When one wing feather
comes out, its mate on the opposite side is said to
fall out also. Watch and see if this is so.] Are
the dresses of the little chickens like their mother’s?
(No, the chickens are covered with down.) How
is the down different from feathers? (Down has
no shaft and web.) Before going farther the
children tell what they have learned about chickens
flying, about their wings, and about their feathers.

THE CHICKEN 77

Have any of the other animals that we have
studied feather coats? What kind of coats did
they have? (The shepherd dog, cow, cat, and
horse have hair coats, the sheep a wool coat.)

Where did we find the rooster in our story
roosting at first? Where later? Where do the
chickens that you know roost? Why should they
leave the ground? (Sometimes the ground is cold
and damp. When on a high roost the chickens are
not so apt to be disturbed or killed by rats, skunks,
dogs, etc.) How do they hold on to the roost? [If
no one in the class can tell, the children may be
given time to find out for themselves by watching
the chickens at home.] (Its three front toes curve
around the roost in front — his way — (showing
with the fingers) while its hind toe reaches around
behind and steadies it.) But when the hen is
asleep will she not stop holding on and fall off?
Notice a hen as. she raises her foot in walking
slowly. How do the toes look? They curl up very
much as if holding to a perch. When do her toes
spread out? (Only when her feet come down on
the flat ground. At other times her feet are in a
position to hold on to a perch. And the weight of
her body only tightens her hold.) When the hens

?

78 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

are on the perch do they stand up all the time or
do they sit? Find out. Do they close their eyes?

At what time of day do chickens go to their
high beds? (About as soon as the sun goes down.)
Do we hear from them at all during the night?
(The old rooster crows occasionally.) How early
in the morning do chickens get up? (In the sum-
mer time, as soon as it begins to be light. In the
winter, they, like ourselves, hate to get up into the
cold, so they stay on their beds sometimes until
after sunrise.) Can you think of any other reason
why they do not get up (or get down, rather)
earlier in the winter? They have not so much work
to do. There are no bugs or worms or vege-
tables to which they may help themselves. What
do they eat in the winter time? Where do they
get it? Did you ever notice how the hen eats the
corn? [The teacher can feed the one she has at
school.] What did she do? (Picked up the
kernels very fast with her bill.) What kind of a
bill has she? (It is hard.) Is that well? Why?
(It is strong.) Why does she need a strong bill?
(It is pointed.) Why is this a good thing? The
upper mandible is curved. Is it better so? Why?
Notice how the forefinger is curved in picking up

THE CHICKEN 79

a pin from the floor. Notice the shape of the
lower mandible. What do you think of that? The
bill has sharp edges. Is this well? (Yes, the
chicken can cut off pieces of leaves, grass, etc.,
very easily with such sharp knives. She can cut
them off as fast as she can swallow them.) What
other animals did we find swallowing food very
rapidly? (Cow and sheep.) But was this the last
we heard of this poorly chewed food? (No, the cows
and sheep re-chew their grass, hay, etc., as a cud.)
Have you ever seen chickens chewing a cud? (They
do not.)

Let us see if we can find why a chicken does
not chew its food. With what do we chew our
food? (Teeth.) What kind of teeth has the
chicken? Very carefully open the hen’s mouth
and the children will see that she has no teeth.
Then why does the chicken not chew its food?
What becomes of the corn that it takes into its
mouth? (It swallows it.) How many have ever
watched the dressing of a chicken? Did you see its
crop? Feel right here on our hen. That is its crop
that you feel. The food that it swallows goes first
into that. I have here the crop of a chicken. We
will open it and see what we find. [There is

80 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

nothing repulsive about this to the children, as all
have seen dressed chickens, and many have watched
the process of preparing them for the table.] Now
the corn, grass, etc., stay in the crop until they are
very well soaked, then they pass on to the gizzard.
Do you know the gizzard? It is the chicken’s
stomach. Hereisone. Feel of it. It is very thick
and tough. We will open it carefully. [Peel so as
to leave the inner sac intact.] What kind of coat
is this outer coat? (Strong and thick.) We will
open the inner coat. What do you see? (The food
ground fine, and some pebbles.) Take hold of this
inner sac. (It is tough and elastic.) Where is the
door through which the soaked corn comes into the
stomach? When it gets inside of this mill it is
tossed back and forth with the stones and becomes
very fine, as you see. From this food the chicken’s
blood, flesh, fat, and feathers are made, and its
muscles and bones are repaired.

Name other things that the chicken eats in the
winter. And in the summer time what? Where do
they find the bugs, spiders, etc.? How catch them?

~ [Children watch chickens and see.] Where do the
chickens find the worms? (In the ground.) How
get them out? (With their sharp toes.) Did you

THE CHICKEN 81

ever see a chicken scratch for worms or seeds?
How did it do the scratching? Then when it found
something good to eat what did it do? (Picked it up
quickly with its bill and swallowed it.) What
happens when a hen with her little chickens finds
something good? (She calls her little chickens with
some quick clucks and lets them have what she has
found. When ¢hey get over being hungry she feeds
herself.) How can she see the little seeds and bugs!
(She has bright eyes.) Where are they? Is this
well for her? Why?

We have spoken of the hen’s food, but not of her
drink. What does she drink? How? (Puts her
bill into the water and then raises her head.) Does
her bill move when in the water? What is she
doing? (Filling it.) Why does she raise it? (To
let the water run down her throat.)

How do you think the rooster that belonged to
the band traveled? (Walked.) As we said before,
chickens fly but little. On what do they walk?
(Their toes.) About what other animal that walks
on his toes have we talked? (The shepherd dog.)
Does the rooster walk as the shepherd dog does?
(No, it walks on the toes of two feet, the dog on the
toes of four feet.) On how many toes does the

G

82 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

chicken step? (Examine tracks in snow or mud.)
Does the hind toe help any in walking? Of what
use is it? Are the front toes all of the same length?
Which is the longest? Why is it well that the
chicken has long toes? (If his toes were very short
his body would more easily tip over. He could
not grasp the perch well.) Are their long nails
in the way when walking? Why not? Look
at the base of the front toes. (A little web is
there.) Why? What keeps their toes from being
hurt by stones, rough dirt, stubble, etc.? (They are
covered by tough, hard rings.) This long part from
the toes up to the joint is the chicken’s heel. Is the
heel naked? (No, covered by plates of tough, hard
skin.) Have you ever seen any chickens with
feathers on the heel and toes? Notice how tiny
are the little chicken’s toes. Can they get about
well?

Did you ever call the chickens to feed them? Did
they hear you? Then what did they do? How can
the chickens hear when we call? Have they ears?
Did you ever see them? [Very likely the children
may never have thought of a chicken’s ears.] The
teacher calls attention to the ears on the tame hen,
or better, the children find them. Why is it well

THE CHICKEN 83

that her ears are so small? Why do the ears need
to be thus protected?

It is said that the hen’s scent is good, as well as her
hearing. How can we find out if this is so? Where
is this hen’s nose? (The children will find its nos-
trils, quite likely.) Are they protected?

Now look at this hen and tell me what you “ke
about her looks. (Her feathers are pretty.) What
is it that you admire about her feathers? What else
do you think is pretty about the hen? (She wears a
pretty red comb on top of her head.) How do you
like the looks of the little chicks? (They are cun-
ning.) How are they dressed? (In fluffy down.)
With their round bodies and heads, and tiny wings
and bill, and bright little eyes, they make a beautiful
sight.

Where did these little chicks come from? (From
eggs.) How do you know? Tell what care the eggs
must have that they may hatch. (Before the chickens
are hatched, the mother hen must sit on the eggs
three weeks, keeping them warm all the time, or they
are kept warm in an incubator.) How does the hen
get food and drink? (She leaves the nest just long
enough to get food and water.) Would you know a
sitting hen were you to meet one? How? When

84 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

the little chicks are ready to leave the shell, who
opens their shell door for them? (They do.) How?
(Notice the little drill on the bill.) Do you see it on
the bills of the older chickens? At what time of the
year do these little chicks come into the world? (In
warm weather, usually, in spring or summer.) Why
not in cold weather? How do they get a living
when young? How many little chicks has the
mother often to scratch for? Does she complain
about her hard work? (No, she likes it.) How does
she call her little chicks when she finds a nice worm?
Does she talk with them as she walks out ? What
does she say? And how do the little chicks answer
her? (By a happy little “peep, peep.”) But when
one gets out of sight of its mother or gets into
trouble? (Then it cries a loud, long, lonesome wail,
until its mamma hears it and runs to it, or some per-
son comes to help it. It is a good thing that a
chicken can let us know when it is in trouble.)
What kind of sound does the mother make when
she sees a hawk in the sky or a snake in the grass?
What does this sound tell the little chickens to
do? (To hide in the grass.) Does the mother hide,
too? (No, she is ready to fight for her babies if there
is need of it.) How’ can she,fight? ..(With her bill,

THE CHICKEN 85

wings, and feet.) Did you ever see her fight an
enemy? Tell about it. Teacher also relates
instances.

How old are the little chickens when the feathers
begin to grow? Where do you first notice these new
feathers growing? How big are the little roosters
when they begin to crow? How well do they crow?
Tell how they look when trying to crow.

Review the life of the little chick from the time
the hen goes on to the nest to begin her sitting, up to
the time when the feathers begin to grow.

How else are eggs used besides for sitting? Chil-
dren tell of the many uses of eggs. How do we
know that a hen has laid an egg? (She cackles.)

Various drawings are made from time to time.
The old hen and a little chick are represented side
by side, showing the difference in size.

Frequent reproductions are given by the children
on topics assigned by the teacher, as: “Tell how the
mother hen protects her babies;” “Tell how the hen
cares for her feathers.”

86 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

XI
IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS

The employment of games in teaching the names
of the birds in first grade makes the recitation
very enjoyable, gives a chance for exercising the
little bodies, and facilitates the learning of the names
of the common birds. A few games only will be
suggested ; the resourceful teacher will think of many

others.
1. HUNTING BIRDS

The colored pictures of birds with which the
children are becoming acquainted may be placed
about the room on the blackboard ledge. The
children hunt birds. One is sent for a junco, another
for a chickadee, etc. Only one trial is given any
child. The children see who can find the most
birds. The teacher must see to it that each child is
called upon as many times as every other child.

2. SIX LITTLE BIRDIES

(In this game each child holds the small colored
picture of the bird he represents.)

Six little birdies,
Very much alive;

IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS

The wren flew south,
And then there were five.

Chorus. Little wren, little wren,
Happy and gay,
Little wren, little wren,
Flew away.

Five little birdies

Wished there were more;
Bluebird flew south,

And then there were four.

Chorus. Bluebird, bluebird, etc.

Four little birdies
Sitting in a tree;
Robin flew south,
And then there were three.

Chorus. Robin, robin, etc.

Three little birdies
Wondered what they’d do;
Blackbird flew south,

And then there were two.

Chorus. Blackbird, blackbird, etc.

87

88 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Two little birdies
Hadn’t much fun;
Kinglet flew south,

And then there was one.

Chorus. Kinglet, kinglet, etc.

One little nuthatch
Left all alone;
He went too,

And then there was none.

Chorus. Nuthatch, nuthatch, etc.

— Arranged by ETHEL PATCHIN.
(Sing to the tune of “ Five Little Chickadees.”)

DIRECTIONS FOR PLAYING. — The teacher or one child sings
the stanzas, the children joining in the chorus. As soon as the
child representing the wren hears the wren’s name sung, he flies
from the ring. If he fails to respond, he is caught, and another
becomes the wren.

The number playing this game need _ not be limited to six.

3. THE BIRDS’ PARTY

Several little girls have pinned upon each a tiny
bow of ribbon, indicating the bird which she repre-
sents; eg. the robin has a bow of robin-red ribbon
pinned upon the breast, the red-winged blackbird

IDENTIFICATION OF BIRDS 89

has a bow of scarlet ribbon pinned upon the
shoulder, the bluebird has a bow of blue upon the
back.

A number of boys, corresponding to the number
of girls, are sent out of the room while the girls are
receiving their names. On their return each is
given a name corresponding to that given to one of
the little girls. As they stand about the room the
teacher nods to one, and he says, “I am Sir Robin
looking for my mate.” (As he speaks he flies about
among the girls, looking for the one wearing the
robin-red ribbon.) When he has found her he says
— “Hasten with me (Jennie) lest we be late,” and
they fly to a corner of the room, where they are
received by a host and hostess who welcome them
and give them perches (chairs or seats upon a strip
of carpet).

As soon as Sir Robin finds his mate, another
starts, in like manner, looking for his mate, and so
the game moves along rapidly.

When all have arrived at the party, the couples
form into line, led by the host and hostess, and fly
airily about the room; then at a signal from the
teacher each little bird takes his mate home, bow-
ing to her politely as he leaves her.

90 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

4. TEST EXERCISES

Children who have observed closely quite a
number of birds will enjoy occasionally test exer-
cises like the following : —

(a) What birds that you know wear some robin-
red? (In Northern Illinois this list will quite likely
contain the robin, the bluebird, the catbird, the
orchard oriole, the red-breasted nuthatch.) The
pupil who has the longest correct list is the winner
in the contest.

Make a list of all of the birds which you know
which wear white; black; yellow; blue; red;
brown.

(6) What is the smallest bird you know? Name
other little birds.

What is the largest bird you know? Name other
large birds.

(c) Which of your bird acquaintances feed upon
seeds? On worms? On insects in the air? On
insects under the bark of trees? On fruit?

(d) What birds which you know run? Hop?
Walk? Which ones get about in more than one
way?

(e) What birds perch on the trunks of trees? etc.

THE ROBIN gI

XII
THE ROBIN

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.— This study of the robin will con-
tinue during the whole of the spring term. It is not intended
that it should be carried on for a week or two on consecutive
days and then dropped. ‘The different phases in the life of the
robin — first appearance, appearance of the females, nest building,
incubation, flight from the nest, care of fledgelings after leaving
the nest — will be studied as they appear in the life of the robin.
Studies of other birds, of flowers, and of trees will be carried
along with the study of the robin. The children will be watch-
ing the robins every day, but only when there is something inter-
esting to report will a recitation period, or part of a period, be
given up to talks about it. The teacher herself must be as alert
in observing as the children, and have as much or more to con-
tribute to the recitation. She will give her observations z¢f there
zs time for her to talk, or if these observations will materially
contribute to the children’s interest in the robin, but she must not
rob the children of a chance to tell what they have seen.

See who will be first this spring to see a robin.
[The older children will write down the date of its
appearance, in notebooks made by them. A page
or more in this nature notebook is devoted to
notes on the robin, which the children make from
time to time as something particularly interesting
occurs. The teacher writes the date of the robin’s
arrival on the board for the younger children. ]
Notice the gay dress of these robins that are the

Q2 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

first to come. These are the males. Describe their
dress. What do they do on bright days? Where
do they perch while singing? What is their song?
Do they always sing the same song? Do they sing
on the wing? What other sounds do they make?
How do they call? Where do they perch when
calling? For what are they calling?

What do the robins do on dark, cold, or even
snowy days? To what places do they go for shelter?
How can you help them on such days? What will
you feed them? (Crumbs, bits of suet, or meal
worms.) Where will you put their food? (If pos-
sible, out of the reach of cats. A window ledge is
a good place.)

You said they were calling for the females; how
can you tell when the females arrive? (Their dress
is not as bright as the males’ dress. They seem
plumper.) Why is it well that they do not wear so
bright colors as the males? (They are not so likely
to be killed. If a female were killed, quite likely
she would leave a nest of eggs unhatched, or helpless
babies. Her color, being rather dull, will not attract
so much attention while she sits on her nest.) Do
the females sing? Do they utter any sound? What?

Where have the robins been? When did they

THE ROBIN 93

leave here? Why? (Because they could not find
food.) What food do they eat? (Worms, bugs, and
other insects, grubs, berries, and early cherries.)
Where do they find worms? How find them? (Their
bright, round eyes see well.) What color are their
eyes? How do they pick up the worms? (With
their sharp pointed bills.) Have you ever seen a
robin picking up a worm? Tell what it did. [If the
children have not noticed how a robin gets a worm,
set them at work observing, and ask them to relate
their observations in the class.] What is the color
of the robin’s bill? How do robins get about on the
ground? Find out. (They hop sometimes, at other
times they run.) When they want to go very fast
which do they do—hop orrun? Do they ever walk?
Notice how they watch for worms. Do they scratch
for them? What do they use for pushing the dead
leaves aside? (Their bills.) Watch them. What
insects have you seen them eating? Where did
they find them? Tell how they get berries from
the bushes. How do they get cherries from the
trees? Do they swallow them whole? How do you
know they do not? (We find on the trees cherries
which they have pecked.) Notice whether they eat
good cherries or wormy ones,

94 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

The robins have other work to do besides getting
food for themselves. This is the month of May —a
busy month with robins. What are they doing?
(Making nests.) Where do they make their nests?
In what part of a tree? (In the crotch, or angle
formed by two branches, usually, but sometimes out
on thebranch.) What trees do they seem to like best?
Why build in trees? (The leaves protect the nest
from observation. They shield it from the rain and
from the sun and from the wind.) How high in the
tree are the nests? Of what shape is the robin’s nest?
Of what built? [The teacher should have several
robins’ nests gathered in the fall, after the robins
have flown.] The typical robin’s nest is made up of
three parts: the outside, of weeds, roots, straw, and
small sticks, woven together; the middle, of mud,
held together by some fine material; the inside, of
grass, with sometimes a few hen feathers and moss.
Which bird made the nest? (The mother bird, or both.)
What did the male do when the female built alone?
(He watched the nest and sang, and sometimes went
to meet the female, when returning with straw, etc.)
How much did she bring at a time? (A mouthful.
Then her mate watched her closely while she wove
the material into the nest.) How could the mother

THE ROBIN 95

give the mud this shape? (She sat down on her nest
and pressed her breast against it, -now here, now
"there. You could see her tail moving around in a
circle as she molded her nest.) How did she get-
the coarse material in shape for the outside? (With
her bill and claws. Her claws and toes are her
hands.) [Study of these as adapted to grasping
and holding, if the teacher has a live robin. If not,
it is enough to know that she does use her toes for
fingers.] How long does it take to build the nest?
(Three or four days; sometimes less.) When the
nest is all done, what happens? (The mother bird
lays some eggs.) How many? (One on each day
until from two to six are laid.) Of what size are
the eggs? (They are about the size of some of
the little candy Easter eggs.) Of what color?
(Bluish green.) Is that a good color for them?
Why? The color resembles that of the leaves of
the tree, so the eggs are not readily noticed.

Does anything ever disturb these eggs? (Some-
times bluejays, crows, blackbirds, or owls go to the
robin’s nest and steal all of the eggs.) What if the
robins should see one of these birds near the nest?
(They would raise a terrible cry, call their neighbors,
and flutter about until the bird might be glad to leave.)

96 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES .-

Are the robins ever disturbed while on their
nests? (Sometimes at night an owl will go to the
nest, snatch off the mother with its bill, then eat
up the eggs or even the baby birds.) Sometimes
in the daytime a black snake will climb the tree,
scare off the mother bird, then steal the eggs or
baby birds. What do the parents do about this?
(They fly all about the snake and try to peck it
and drive it away, but it is not afraid of the old
birds, and sometimes catches them, too.)

Do you know of anything else that steals robin’s
eggs? (Sometimes thoughtless or cruel boys take
them. They have not the excuse that the owl, crow,
and snake have, for boys do not need the eggs at
all. The robins cannot hurt the boys— defend
their nests against them. The boys know this, so
they take the eggs.) What do you think of that?

What does the mother do with the eggs if they
are spared to her? (She sits on them.) How long?
(About twelve days.) Does she never leave the
nest? (Only to get food and bathe. While she is
gone, her mate sits on the nest.) Did you ever see
a robin bathing? (A robin bathes in water every
day.) How does it bathe? Where? [Watch and
see.] Many people help the birds by putting fresh

THE ROBIN 07

water in a pan upon a post where the birds can get
it. Why not put the water on the ground? (Cats
might get the birds.)

After the robin has been sitting about twelve
days, what happens? How do the young robins
look? (They are naked and blind, and seem to be
nearly all mouth. When a little over a week old,
for the first time they see their parents and brothers
and sisters. They never know quite how ugly they
look at first, for when they open their eyes their
feathers have begun to grow.) What becomes of
the eggshells after the birds are out? (The papa
robin pushes them out of the nest with his bill, and
he now cleans out the nest whenever it needs it.)

How do the baby robins spend their time? (Eat-
ing and sleeping.) What do they eat? How get
their food? (The papa and mamma feed them.)
Do they eat much? (They keep their parents hunt-
ing food nearly all the time.) How do the parents
give the food to their children?

Since these birds eat so much, they must grow
very fast. Does their home grow, too? (No; so
the house is soon too small for so many big birds.)
What will be done about it? (The birdies will have
to leave. When about three weeks old they bid

H

98 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

good-by to their home.) How large are they now?
How are they dressed? (Very much as their
parents are dressed, only their vests are spotted
instead of plain orange.) How will they get out
into the world? (They must learn to fly.) Did
you ever watch any young robins learning to fly?
Tell what they did. How did the parents act?
Watch for young robins learning to fly this sum.
mer, and tell what they do. Do they learn to fly
well?

After the young robins have left the nest, do
they go back at night? (They never go back. But
they are not old enough to feed themselves. The
parents take care of them after they leave the nest
until they learn to take care of themselves.) Tell
what you have noticed about the parents feeding
these big children of theirs.

If this was the first brood of the summer, the
mamma bird may go to work immediately to build
another nest and lay some more eggs. She usually
builds this nest near the first one. Sometimes a
mamma robin makes three nests in one summer and
raises three families. She has little time for rest,
aside from that spent on her nest.

What enemies have the little birds? (The cat

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 99

is one of its worst enemies.) How can kitty catch
the birds? What other enemies? (Squirrels and
owls carry off the helpless little birds.) What can
you do to protect them?

Next fall we will see how late in the season the
robins stay with us. How long have they been with
us already? Watch them all summer and tell in the
fall what interesting things you have seen them do.

XIII
THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER

At the beginning of the spring term the chil-
dren are asked to watch for red-headed woodpeck-
ers and report the first one seen, as they notified
us of the first appearance of the robin. To make
sure that the children know what bird they are
to look for, the teacher asks: “How many know
this bird?” “Tell how it looks.” (It wears a red
cap, a bluish black coat, with white skirts (when at
rest), and a white vest.) The female dresses like the
male, only her colors are not so bright, and she is
a smaller bird. [Show a stuffed specimen or colored
picture.] The red-headed woodpecker is late in

coming.

Bureau Nature Study,

Cond ORR, HO TEE ep
What bird have we been talking about? (The
robin redbreast.) And what other bird have we
been looking for? (The red-headed woodpecker.)
How many have seen one? What was it doing?
(Knocking on tree trunks, running up trees, or fly-
ing.) Why were the woodpeckers knocking on the
trees? (They were making holes through the bark.)
Why? (To get at the grubs or insects under the
bark.) How can a woodpecker make this hole?
(A stuffed specimen would be of use in studying
the bill as adapted to its work; if this cannot be
had a good picture could be used to advantage, for
the children cannot get close enough to the bird to
examine its bill. There is a good picture in Hooker’s
“Child’s Book of Nature,” Part II, and in “ Birds”
there is an excellent colored picture.) (Its bill is
long, straight, and pointed.) How much noise does
it make knocking? How does it sound? When it
has the hole made, how does it get the grub?
(It thrusts out its long, narrow, pointed tongue.
The end of its tongue is hard and has little teeth
pointing backward in this way — showing by dia-
gram on the board. It can run this tongue out
far beyond the end of its bill and do it very quickly.
When a grub is once pierced by this hook it cannot

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER IoI

get away, for the barbs hold it on. But sometimes
an insect is too small to be pierced in this way;
such are caught by a sort of glue that is on the
end of the tongue. They get stuck fast in it.)
[If there is any danger that the children-may not
understand the latter statement, a child might take
a little glue on his finger and notice how all small
particles that he touches with his finger cling to it. ]
Can you tell now why this bird is called a wood-
pecker? Does it harm the trees to be bored into in
this way? (They do not often bore into a tree unless
they hear a grub or bug under the bark.) What if
these grubs were left in the tree? (They might kill
it.) Do trees that are healthy have insects under the
bark? (No.) What kind of trees, then, does a red-
headed woodpecker peck? (Only those that need
the woodpecker to take away the insects that injure
them.) Did you ever see them peck at the bark of
dead trees? Do you think they were there for
insects? Strip off the bark from a dead tree and see
if you can find insects there.

Upon what does the woodpecker sit while break-
ing into the grub’s house? (It does not sit at all, it
stands up.) How can it do this? (Have stuffed
specimen or a good picture in the class to show how

102 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

the toes hold it. If neither is to be had, put a
diagram on the board.) (It has four toes, two in
front and two behind. They have strong, sharp,
curved claws. These claws catch into the wood
before and behind, and hold it firmly.) Does it
use anything but its claws? [Children find out for
themselves.] (It has a long and very stiff tail. The
ends of the feathers are pointed, and these are pressed
into the wood and prop the bird up, just as this brace
— showing one — holds this board up.) Does it seem
afraid of falling when running up a tree? (No, it
goes with as much ease as you run on the sidewalk.)

Do the red-heads get insects in any other places
than under the bark of trees? (They find them on
the outside of the bark and on the leaves of trees, on
the ground also.) How do you know? Where else
do you see insects? (In the air.) Do the red-heads
ever catch them while in the air? Watch and see.
They catch beetles and wasps while on the wing.

Do they eat anything except grubs and insects?
What? (Cherries, berries, apples, and pears.) How
do they eat them? [Children observe.] Leander
Keyser says that they sometimes dig out holes in the
top of posts, in dead tree trunks, or in stumps, and
hide fruit. He saw a red-head press a berry into one

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 103

of these holes, then suck out its juice. Sometimes
these birds catch a cherry or a berry on the fly,
but usually they alight near enough to it to reach
it with their bills. Do they swallow a berry whole?
[Children find out.] Do they carry off a whole
cherry? Find out.

Do you know of anything else that red-heads feed
upon? (Once in a while, but not often, you will find
a red-head boring holes into good trees for the sap.) |
Have you noticed these holes? How did they look?
(They often extend around the tree in a circle.) It is
another woodpecker that does most of the sucking.
They suck the sap out of these little wells. After a
while the wells fill up again, when the woodpeckers
suck them dry as before. What little insects that
like sweets do you know? Where might they go for
them? (To these wells.) What might happen to
them here? (The red-heads might make a dinner
off them.) [Dr. Lockwood thinks this is one of the
purposes of these wells.]

Do you think the red-headed woodpecker is a
pretty good bird to have around? Why? (Review.)

What is the only harm we have found this wood-
pecker doing thus far? Ought we to welcome them
when they come back in the spring? Why? Do they

104. NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

come at the same time as the robin? When did we
hear the first robin? When the first red-headed wood-
pecker? Could you tell that he was here without
seeing him? (Yes, by his drumming.) How did it
sound? (“Tap! tap! tap!” very fast, then “tap!
tap!” very loud, with a pause between the two taps.)
What did he use for his drum? (A dry limb or some-
times a shingle on the house.) What did he use to beat
the drum with? (His bill.) Does he never sing?
(No; and he is too happy to keep still, so he beats a
drum to make music.) Does he have but one drum?
(Each woodpecker has a favorite place where he
goes to drum. One spring one wakened me very
early every morning by drumming on a shingle in
the roof just above my head. Woodpeckers drum in
other places, too, as they fly about getting their food.)
Find out whether they do most of their drumming in
the morning or in the afternoon. How early do they
begin? When you hear one, run and ask your mamma
what time it is. Do they drum very long at a time?
Do they drum constantly, or stop to rest a little once
in a while? What do they do when resting? The
drumming seems to be a call to the mate. See if the
children arrive at this conclusion by noticing that the
bird acts as if he were listening, and later is some-

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 105

times joined by the female. Does he drum at all
when his mate is with him? (Yes, and she seems to
think him a fine musician.) Is this the only sound
you hear a red-headed woodpecker make? (He
makes a shrill, lively sound, in which there is no
music.) See if you can make it. You may tell all
you know about the music of a red-headed wood-
pecker. (Review.)

Where do red-headed woodpeckers sleep at the
end of their long, busy day? [Leave the children
to find this out for themselves if they can. Let
them watch near a nest if there be one near their
home.] (They sometimes, early in the season, sleep
in holes in trees, but Leander Keyser says that
they usually sleep on an upright or oblique perch,
clinging with their stout claws, with their heads
pillowed in the feathers on their backs.)

After the red-headed woodpecker has called his
mate they two go to work building a nest. Where?
(In the trunk of a dead tree that is not too soft or in
a branch, a fence post, or a telegraph pole. When
made in a branch it is usually on the under side.)
Why? How dothey make it? (They cut out a round,
smooth, straight hole right in front of them, with their °
bills. They make it large enough around so that the

106 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

bird can go in. When the woodpecker has gone in
five inches or so—show distance by a mark on the
board —he begins to work downward, making the
hole larger and larger as he goes down ten or twenty
inches — show by line.) [If not possible for the
children to see a nest, the teacher should give them
a clear idea of it by a diagram on the board.] You
have learned that the mamma robin sometimes
builds the nest alone. Which is the harder to make,
the robin’s nest or the red-headed woodpecker’s?
(The red-head’s.) Will the mamma have help, do you
think? (Yes, the papa bird does half of the work.)
Can they work together? Why not? (The mamma
bird often works just about as long as the time you
spend in this class, —twenty minutes, —then she
flies to an upper limb and calls her mate in her
shrill voice. When he comes she seems to tell him
how much she has done, and they talk over their
plans together. Then the papa bird flies to the nest
and works about as long as the mamma worked,
while she flies away for food and rest. Then the
papa bird calls the mamma bird and tells her about
his work, etc.) How do they get the chips out of
the nest? (Carry the coarse ones out with their
bills.) How is the nest lined? (The fine wood or

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 107

sawdust falls to the bottom of the nest, and this
forms a soft bed for the eggs.) Is this a good kind
of nest for a bird to have? Why do you think so?
(It is protected from the storms, and from the birds
and animals that trouble the robin’s nest.) What
ones? But there is one animal that troubles the
robin’s nest, which can easily get into this nest.
What is that? (The blacksnake.) Quite often it
steals the woodpecker’s eggs ‘or birds.

Do these birds go to all this work to make a nest
every year, or do they use the same nest year after
year? (They make a new nest. They do not use
a hole which they find already in a tree.) Can you
see the eggs or the tiny woodpeckers in the nest?
Why not? How many eggs? (Six, usually.) How
do they look? (They are more nearly round than
are the robin’s eggs and are larger than hers.
They are pure white and very smooth.) How can you
tell when there are little woodpeckers in the nest
if you cannot see them? (If you are near the tree,
you can hear the babies cry. They are big eaters,
and nearly all the time they are teasing for food.)
Who feeds them? (The mamma and papa.) What
do they feed them? (Bugs, moths, grasshoppers,
etc.) When they are big enough to fly about, how

108 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

can you tell them from their parents? (The first
summer their heads are not red, but, instead, a very
dark gray, and their wings are spotted black and
white. The white on their breasts is not pure
white, but dirty-looking.)

Do these brothers and sisters have good times
playing? (Yes, and the father and mother play,
too.) Children watch them and tell what games
they play. And, if you have a chance, watch one
during a shower and see what it does. [The
teacher should call for their observations and re-
late her own, throughout the summer term and
again in the fall. The children should be taught
to be very wary in watching birds; try to keep
out of their sight as much as possible, and keep
quiet. |

What other woodpeckers have you seen? De-
scribe them. What one is often seen on the
ground? (The flicker.) What ones are with us
through the winter? (The downy and the hairy
woodpeckers.)

THE COMMON CROW 109

XIV
THE COMMON CROW

How do you keep warm this cold weather? How
do we protect horses, cows, and sheep from the
cold winds and the snows and sleet storms? What do
we do for the chickens, geese, ducks, and turkeys?
But there are some birds for which we do not
think of providing shelter, even on the coldest
days or in the most severe storms. What are
they? Let us see if we can find how one of these
birds —the crow—lives through the winter. Do
you all know the crow? How can you tell it from
other birds? (It is large, and has a glossy black
coat. Its bill, legs, and toes are also black. In-
stead of singing or chirping, it says “ Caw.’’)

What keeps this queer bird from freezing? (Its
feather coat.) How is it adapted for keeping out
the cold and snow and shedding the rain? How
are the legs and toes protected when roosting?

Where does it make its home in the winter?
(Usually in evergreen trees.) Is this a good place?
Why? (The thick foliage protects it from the cold
winds and it is hidden from the view of those who

IIO NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

might wish to shoot it.) Does it need anything
besides a good coat and a sheltered home to keep
it alive in the winter? (It must have food.) What
does it eat? Let us watch, this winter, and see if
we can find out for ourselves. [The teacher should
frequently ask for the results of the children’s
observations and give them her own, then they will
think her questions are not idle ones. The chil-
dren may find that it eats mice, carrion, hens’ eggs,
corn, acorns, nuts, frozen apples from the boughs of
trees, and the fruits of poison ivy, poison sumac
and other sumacs, sand, and gravel. They may
discover also that it drinks a great deal of water.
Careful observations made by the children will
arouse in them a more than transient interest in
the object studied. This the teacher should work
for constantly, and feel quite sure that her work
amounts to but little if the children are not inter-
ested enough to watch, outside of school, the move-
ments of the animals studied. ]

Let the children tell what they have observed in
regard to the manner in which the crow catches
and kills the mice. What does it do with the
hens’ eggs? Where and how does it get the fruits
of ivies and sumacs? Why eat sand and pebbles?

THE COMMON CROW Ii!

[Recall what they discovered in the chicken’s giz-
zard.] How is the bill fitted for getting this kind
of food? (It is long, pointed, hard, and strong.)
Does it find plenty of food? Did you ever hear
this expression, “ As poor as a crow”? Many times
crows have a hard time in the winter to find
enough food. They become very poor and some-
times they even starve to death.

Can you get close enough to crows, usually, to
tell how fast they eat? Why are they so afraid?
Why do men and boys shoot them? Are they
any more afraid of a man who carries a gun than
of one without? How can crows get a chance to
eat if they are watching for men all of the time?
(They have sentinels out watching. These warn
the flock of any approach of danger.) What kind
of warning do they give? How is this warning
received by the crows? What follows?

What takes the crow away from danger? (Its
strong, large wings carry it away.) Does it fly high?
How do you know? Does flying seem to tire it?
Study the adaptability of its wings to flight. Do
crows fly singly or in flocks? [Children notice.] Is
this so at all times of the year? We will notice how
they go next spring.

II2 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Have they no other way of getting about than
by flying? (They walk on the ground.) Have you
ever seen them walk? Were their steps long or
short? How did they hold their bodies? Do they
ever run? Do they hop? Why were they on the
ground? Did you ever see a crow’s tracks in the
mud or in the snow? How many tracks did each
foot leave? Picture on the board.

What is the crow’s work in the winter? Is this
all it does the whole year through? (No, in spring
it builds its nest.) How early? Did you ever see
it building its nest? Have you ever seen a crow’s
nest? Why do we so seldom see one? (They are
built high up in trees—very often in evergreen
trees.)

[Have a nest in the class if possible.] This nest
was taken from a tree after all the little crows
were grown up. The crows never use the same
nest for two seasons, so we know they will not
need their old home any more.

Of what is it built? (The outside is made of
twigs and sticks, the inner wall of grasses, leaves,
and bark from cedar trees or grape vines. Some
of their nests are lined with hair.)

Early next spring we will begin watching the

THE SCREECH OWL II3

crows to see if we can find in what trees they
build their nests, and how they get the sticks, etc.,
to the trees.

How do you know that the crows are about when
you cannot see them? (They flap their wings
noisily and cry “Caw! caw!”’)

Abbott says that crows have twenty-seven distinct
cries, each of which is accompanied by a different
act. [It would be interesting for teacher and pupils
to observe closely and see if they notice any connec-
tion between the movements of the crows and their
different notes. |

XV
THE SCREECH OWL

(A WINTER STUDY)

What birds have been with us all winter? Some
of these birds are more often heard than seen; which
are these? (The owls.) Why do we see them so
seldom? Have you ever heard them? What sound
did they make? (Some cry “Hoo! hoo!” others
make a sound variously likened to “the coo of a
dove with the sweetness left out,” “the whining of a
puppy,” “the grating of machinery,” “the wailing
of a little child.”’)

I

II4 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

We shall talk of the ones that make the wailing
cry. On account of the unpleasant music which
they make they have been given a name of which
they cannot be very proud. What is it? (The
screech owls.)

Have you ever seen a screech owl? What was it
doing? What kind of looking bird was it? (Per-
haps of a grayish color, or it may be of a rusty red
color, with lighter and darker markings. It is from
eight and a half to ten inches long. The children
show this by placing the hands so far apart.)

At what time of day was it when you heard the
screech owl? Was it talking in its sleep? (No, the
night is the busy time of day for the screech owl.)
About what is it so busy? (Getting its dinner and
breakfast. These are such hearty meals that it
needs no luncheon in the middle of the day.)
What do they find to eat? (Mice, English sparrows,
and other small birds, eggs of birds, frogs, small
snakes, fish, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, moths,
the cockchafer so injurious to fruit trees, and cut-
worms, which, like the owl, turn their night into day.)

At what time did you say the screech owl catches
the mice? (At night. Both the owl and the mouse
like to hunt after dark.) How can the owl see the

THE SCREECH OWL 115

little mouse? (It has large, bright eyes. These are
in front of its head, so that it can fix both upon one
object.) Study the eye. How large the pupil is!
Why? Of what does it remind you? Notice the
yellow curtain —iris— which surrounds this pupil.
Only a little of it shows at night. Why not?
Each eye is surrounded by a disk of short, stiff
feathers. Have a screech owl in a cage in the
class if possible.

Let us see how screech owls catch and eat mice.
Where do they find them? (In shocks of corn, in
their field nests, about barns and corn cribs, running
over the snow.) How do they catch them? (Swoop
down upon them and grasp them with their long,
sharp claws.) Study the very sharp, long, strong,
curved claws on the strong flexible toes, as to their
adaptability for catching and holding prey. Notice
the reversible outer toe. How does the owl use it?
We are very glad that the owl kills the little mouse
almost instantly.

How does it eat the mouse? (Often tosses it up
with its bill in such a way that the head comes down
into the owl’s mouth; then it makes one big gulp,
but often a second is needed before the’ mouse is
down, tail andall.) Are you surprised that it eats the

116 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

whole mouse? What parts should you think it might
better have left out? (The hair, teeth, and bones.)
Examine these little balls found at the foot of a tree
in which an owl had a nest. [The children find here
hair, teeth, bones, feathers, etc.] Where could these
have come from? The owl, a few hours after eating
a mouse or a bird, throws up one of these balls.
Look in the owl’s cage for the balls.

Why do not the mice get out of the owl’s way?
(The owl makes almost no noise when flying, on
account of the soft feathers which line the wings
and cover the body.) Study the wings with reference
to their fitness for noiseless flight.

Owls often know when a mouse is near, even
though the mouse be out of sight. How is that?
It hears it. Where are its ears? [The children will
call the tufts of feathers on the top of its head the
ears. If you have a stuffed specimen, let them
discover that there are no ears there. They will
find large ears, covered by feathers, just outside the
disk of feathers surrounding the eye. This is
the only bird that has an outer ear.] Notice how
the feathers are arranged just outside the ear.
How does this help its hearing? Why is it well
that the ears are covered with feathers?

THE SCREECH OWL 117

What else does the owl eat? (Small birds. These,
too, it kills almost immediately.) How does it catch
them? Does it swallow them whole? (No, it tears
them in pieces.) Do the birds know that the owl
is their enemy? How do they treat it? (If they
find an owl in the daytime, they make a terrible
commotion. All the birds gather together and scream
at it, flying as close to it as they dare. When it
flies away they follow it, calling it hard names.)

How does the owl catch its other food? How
much of this food can it get in the winter? Does
it go out hunting on the coldest nights? (In the
warmer weather it often stores up enough food to
last it a week or more, and mature owls often go a
week without any food, not seeming to mind it.)

What, besides food, does it need? (Water.) It is
a great drinker. Owls are sometimes caught by cut-
ting holes in the ice. They come here to drink and
are captured.

Is the screech owl’s coat well fitted for a bird which
must make a living in the winter as well as in the
cold, damp nights in warmer weather? Study care-
fully the plumage of the owl as adapted to its protec-
tion from cold and damp. Unlike many other birds,
the legs are covered their whole length with feathers,

118 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

and the feathers even run down each toe. What
care does it take of this thick, soft, light coat? (It
bathes very frequently, and enjoys its bath greatly.)

Where were the screech owls which you saw?
(Peeping out from the hollow of a tree or among the
thick foliage.) Very likely you nearly passed an owl
without seeing it, for they keep very quiet and do
not cry out if they see a person coming. Its color
helps the owl to escape notice. How is this? Why
do its bright eyes not attract the notice of people?
(They are nearly closed in the daytime.)

Find out all you can about how the owl makes a
living. ,

SPRING STUDY OF THE OWL

We have learned how the owl makes a living for
itself. Does it never care for others? There must
be little owls sometimes. When do you think the
little owls come? (In warm weather, in May or June.)
Have you ever seen an owlet? Where was it? Per-
haps in a rotten hole in an apple tree. How far from
the ground was the hole? (Not higher than this
room, ten feet.) How is the nest made? (The owls
choose a hole in a tree,—they do not make one,
as does the woodpecker. This hole is often not
lined at all. There is rotten wood in the bottom,

THE SCREECH OWL 119

and often dry leaves which have been blown into it;
but sometimes the mother adds a few feathers from
her breast, and sometimes the parents line the nest
roughly with dry grass.)

What kind of eggs are laid in this nest? (Four or
more round, white eggs.) Which bird sits on the
eggs? (The female; and during the day the male,
too, sits there if the nest is roomy enough; if not, he
chooses a hollow tree near by.) How long does it
take the eggs to hatch? (About one month after the
first egg is laid, the little owls are out of the shell.)

How do they look when first hatched? Did you
ever see one? [If possible, the children should see
one before the season is over. It is a sight they
will never forget.] (The owlets are at first covered
with a yellowish white, downy coat. They look like
fluffy balls.)

How long do they stay in the nest? (About a
month. Then they scramble out on the branches.
They can climb like cats.) Did you ever try to catch
one? What did it do? (Snapped its bill viciously.)

How are they cared for, while growing up? (Both
father and mother are kept very busy providing these
hearty children with food. It would be a sad thing
for the babies if one of their parents should be killed

120 NATURE STUDY. LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

ere they were old enough to provide for themselves.
We hope for their sake that this may never happen.
Before cold weather comes, every owlet is grown
and able to care for itself.)

Frequent reviews should be made by topic, as,
“ Tell how the eyes fit the screech owl for work at
night,” or, “In what respect does the owl resemble
the cat?” (Its head looks like the cat’s, it hunts at
night, it likes mice and birds to eat, it can climb,
etc.)

XVI
THE ENGLISH SPARROW

This is a bird which we may study at our doors all the year
round. No inducement need be offered to bring it near, it
never fails us. Since the bird is so common we should know
its habits well, but in truth we know little about it. Juncos and
spatrows that we love for their music are often called by its
name, because so few take pains to identify this very common
bird.

How can you tell the male from the female?
(The male has much chestnut in the coloring of its
coat and it wears a black goatee. The female wears
a light-colored dress in the coloring of which is no
chestnut, and it has no black on its throat.)

Where does the English sparrow live? When

THE ENGLISH SPARROW 121

does it leave us in the fall? (It stays all winter.)
Most of the other birds have to go south; how can
the English sparrow stay? (It lives upon grains,
crumbs, and refuse that it finds in the streets.)
Where does it stay during the winter? How does
it get about upon the ground? Watch for its tracks
in the snow. How does it protect its feet in the cold
weather?

Where does it build its nest? What kind of
nest does it make? Of what does it build it?
How many eggs does it lay? What color? Which
of the parents feeds the young birds, or do both
work? Watch each as it brings food to the young,
and notice which makes the more ado about it.
Notice carefully what is fed to the young. Watch
the fledgelings as they leave the nest, and describe
what you see.

Why are there so many more of the English spar-
rows than of the songsters we love? [The children
will tell how the English sparrows drive the other
birds away and take their nesting places from them. ]
The wrens, bluebirds, and martins all suffer at their
hands. Notice, too, how late in the season some of
these birds are still building nests, even in cold
weather. Sometimes the young are raised and

I22 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

hatched even in the winter time, so industrious is
this bird. The best way to drive the bird away is
to destroy the nests before the young are hatched.
It would be cruel to harm the helpless young birds.

How could you tell without looking that the Eng-
lish sparrows are about? (By the constant chirp.)
What is their song? (They have none.)

What are their good points? Their bad points?

XVII
CATERPILLARS

These numerous little visitors are a very interest-
ing study for all grades in our public schools. Few
people see in one of these odd little creatures a
whole, wonderful life history. This is not the fault
of the caterpillar, however, for its manner of life is
quite open to the inspection of any one who cares to
know of it, and it is certainly a pleasure to be able to
say to one of these little folks: “How do you do?
I am glad to make your acquaintance, for I knew
your mother, whom you never saw. She showed her
devotion to her children by making the best prepara-
tion possible for satisfying their babyhood wants.
For before your life was begun hers was ended ; so

CATERPILLARS 123

she made it possible.for you to care for yourself. I
saw her one day seeking a home for you. She chose
a place which she knew you would like, and there, on
the leaf of a plant like the one upon which you are
now feeding, she laid the egg from which you came.
She did not crawl up the stalk, but flew lightly down
to the plant. Does not that seem strange to you?
Do you remember how happy you were when you
crept from your shell and found your dinner waiting
for you? Why did you eat up the house in which
you had been staying? Did you fear that an enemy,
on seeing that, might know that you were near?
Eat away, my little fellow; that is your business at
present. No one should call you a glutton. Under
the same circumstances your accusers would do no
better. You must eat, in two or three weeks,
enough to last you the remainder of the fall, and all
winter, besides. No wonder you give yourself up to
business so thoroughly.”

As the caterpillar eats away, some little child, per-
haps, picks the leaf on which it rests and places both
in a box, or he gently brushes the caterpillar into the
box, puts fresh leaves beside it, and carries it home
or to school, where he may watch it. That all the
children at school may see all of a caterpillar’s

124 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

movements well, it is put into a glass which is cov-
ered with netting or perforated paper. Two or three
times a day the children supply it with fresh leaves,
removing the wilted ones and occasionally cleaning
the glass. The little captive seems quite contented
so long as it has plenty of fresh food of the kind that
it likes best, and a good appetite.

Often we find caterpillars on the walks or in the
road; these must be tested with a variety of food
until leaves are found which they will eat. The
hairy caterpillars which I found this summer con-
tented themselves with the leaves of the smartweed
or a closely allied plant. The plantain was, also,
accepted by several. But whenever possible to know
its choice, the caterpillar has been fed the food which
it likes best.

Some of the caterpillars may begin spinning, or
otherwise changing, the day on which they are cap-
tured. When we find one spinning at school, we
pass the glass to the children for their inspection,
taking care not to disturb the little worker. Some
lesson may suffer for this interruption, but the chil-
dren have a bit of experience all their own, which
they would not care to part with, and school is
made pleasanter for this little break in the routine.

CATERPILLARS 125

Long after most of the other lessons are forgotten,
the children will look back with pleasure upon
these happy moments of discovery.

It has been our good fortune twice this fall to
see a hairy caterpillar divesting itself of its hairs
that it might weave them into its coverlet. It
seemed to require no effort. Did it pull them out
or bite them off? I am not sure. It did not
appear to carry them in its mouth. How, then, did it
carry them? This question must be solved by further
observation. How deftly it wove those hairs into its
cocoon, spreading them very evenly over its surface!
How could that clumsy-looking body, with the still
clumsier fleshy feet, move over that web with never
a trip or a break of the dainty silk? In what a
businesslike way the weaving was done, — the thread
coming from its mouth as needed, and placed in
position by movements of its head and front legs.
When the top of the cocoon is to be thickened, it,
lying within, turns upon its back and weaves away
as if this were its natural position. It really never
seems awkward when making its house, yet this
is the first one it ever built, and it will never have
an opportunity to build another.

Several of the caterpillars use leaves as a par-

126 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

tial or a complete outside cover. These are woven
firmly together and lined with silk.

Once, in a very close little home, in which there
seemed not room enough to stir, the caterpillar
turned completely around, end for end. It moved
with dignity and grace. We could not tell exactly
how, for we did not understand its intentions at
first.

One of the caterpillars which we watched snipped
off small portions of the leaves in the glass and
wove these into its outer cover. They made the
cocoon look very pretty, scattered regularly over
its surface. Why did it do this? Has a caterpillar
an eye for beauty?

I have named but few of the many queer things
which we noticed while the hairy caterpillars made
ready for their sleep.

The glasses which held the cocoons were placed
in a dry cellar late in the fall, where they were
kept until early spring, when they were again
watched by the children for the housebreaking.

In the fall work on the caterpillars, the children
note the changes and give orally the history of
each caterpillar so far as they have observed it.
They also write portions of this history. They

CATERPILLARS 127

make drawings of the caterpillar and its chrysalis,
or the cocoon. The chrysalis and caterpillar are
molded in clay and placed side by side on a plaque.

The older children can do more. They can keep
a book, which they might name “ Life Histories of
Caterpillars.” They number the glass in which each
little prisoner is confined, and write on the first page
a few facts about Caterpillar No. 1, viz.:—

(2) Hairy or smooth.

(6) Length, color, and any striking characteristic
in appearance ; number and position of legs.

(¢) When and where found. Food on which it is
fed.

(dz) Any peculiarities in its actions.

The next page is devoted to The Cocoon or Chrysa-
lis of No. 1.

(a) Length and shape of the cocoon and manner
in which it was made; also time of making.

Or description of the chrysalis, with account of the
gradual change and date of its consummation.

The third page is devoted to The Moth (or Butter-
Jy) of No. t.

(a) When did it come out? Description of the
method of releasing itself.

(4) Description of the moth (or butterfly).

128 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

(c) From what flowers does it get its nectar?
Color of these flowers?

On the fourth page is given a record of The Eggs
and Growth of No. 1.

(a) Where were the eggs laid? How many in a
place? Color? Form? Size?

(6) How long did it take the eggs to hatch?

(c) How long does it take the caterpillar to
mature? How many moultings?

It may be some time before this page is filled out,
but watchfulness will reward the patient seeker.
Quite likely more than one page may be needed for
some of the descriptions.

Many cocoons are found in the fall. What cater-
pillar made them is a mystery, so our first entry in
the book will be on the page devoted to the cocoon
or chrysalis.

This book may be used season after season, until
every caterpillar is known through its whole series
of changes.

It is a wonder that more boys and girls living on
farms do not make a study of caterpillars, learning to
distinguish the harmful from the harmless. Through
knowledge of the habits of those which are injurious
to trees, vegetables, etc., the eggs of their moths or
butterflies might be found and destroyed.

THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 129

XVIII
THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY

Have you seen butterflies in a “cabbage patch”?
Of what color? What were they doing there?
Watch them closely and see if you can find out.
(They were laying eggs.) Where did they lay the
eggs? What was their color? Why was it well that
they were of this color? How many were there
together?

The teacher might well bring to the class a head
of cabbage on which are some of these eggs. Keep
in a shady, cool place where the leaves will not wilt,
and allow the children to look at the eggs every day.

Encourage them also to watch those on one head
in their gardens at home. In about ten days from
the time the eggs were laid they will hatch out into
tiny green caterpillars. Is it well for them that their
color is green? Why? What do they do as soon as
they come from the egg? (Go to eating the leaves.)
Why did the mother lay the eggs just where she did?

A few of these caterpillars may be put into a glass
and supplied with fresh leaves every day. The top
should be covered with paper in which there are

K

130 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

holes for the air to pass through. The children
will feed the caterpillars and watch their growth.
They grow to their full length, one and one-half
inches or less, in about three weeks.

What happens when they are fully grown? (They
hang themselves up.) How? Where does the silk
come from? (From the mouth.) In the body of the
caterpillar are two long bags which hold a sticky fluid.
This fluid flows through a tube which ends in the
middle of the lower lip. The fluid hardens as soon
as it comes to the air.

Does the caterpillar hang with its head up or
down? Then what happens? (It throws off its
caterpillar skin.) Make a picture of it as it hangs
now.

The children note the day when it goes into its
chrysalid state, and watch for it to come out. They
will need to watch about eleven days if the study
is begun early in the season. It will be a joyful
moment for them if they are so fortunate as to see
it leave its home. How does it go to work to get
out? (It begins to move about, a slit comes on its
back, and it puts its head out; then the rest of
its body comes out, and the little green house is

left empty.)

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR 131

The children now have the whole life of the
cabbage butterfly learned from their own obser-
vation. They will never forget it. It helps them
to interpret the life of all caterpillars.

They will gather, feed, and watch other cater-
pillars. Not all of them will change into butter-
flies — some will become moths; and by comparison
they will find these differences between butterflies
and moths : —

(2) A butterfly flies in the daytime, a moth by
night.

(6) A butterfly holds its wings erect when at
rest. The wings of a moth lie flat, or slant like
the roof of a house.

(c) A butterfly has knobbed feelers. A moth’s
feelers are not knobbed.

XIX

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR
HATCHING OF THE EGG

[What the older boys and girls may see if they look
closely.]

On the afternoon of August 12 we found an
egg of the milkweed butterfly on the center of

132 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

the under side of a milkweed leaf. It was cylin-
drical, with a conical top. In color it resembled
a pearl.

In the morning, three days later, the cone at the
top of the cylinder was found to have turned black
or purple, and later in the day black specks were seen
in the cylinder. About twelve o’clock two bright
dots, looking like bubbles, appeared on the purple
dome, and kept shifting from one point to another.
Suddenly there was a bright flash which looked
as if a blow from within had cracked into many
pieces the dome, but it was not broken. There
were now seen to be rapid motions inside the egg.
The dome looked to be made of dainty silver
rafters with still daintier crosspieces. Now the
jaws of the imprisoned caterpillar began cutting
the silver rafters at the base of one side of the
dome. The light which was admitted changed the
silver rafters to rows of beads,—red separated by
short gold ones. A large hole was eaten in the
side of the cylinder, then the black head of the tiny
caterpillar was thrust out, followed by its white
body, which bore a mere. suggestion of yellow
rings.

The shell, after the caterpillar had left it, was

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR 133

beautiful beyond description. It was like rare filigreed
silver, the pattern being the daintiest of feathers.

The caterpillar nosed about for a few minutes,
then went back to the shell and took a few bites
of it; left it, as if its freedom from cramped quarters
made it too happy to eat, but in ten minutes re-
turned to it again and ate voraciously for five
minutes or so; then after further investigation of
its premises returned to the egg for a larger
meal.

The day after this little caterpillar came out, it
was killed by kindness. The teacher moved it to a
fresh leaf. It was too young to be disturbed, and
died. 4

MOULTING

On August 6 of the following year we procured
a milkweed caterpillar not more than one fourth of
an inch long. It was eating round holes in the
milkweed leaf. It was light green, with yellow and
black transverse stripes. The head was black. On
the 9th of the month two black horns were noticed
on the front of the head and two shorter black ones
on the back of the posterior extremity.

Two days later the light green color of the cater-
pillar had changed to bright yellow, of which there

134 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

were double rows, branching low down on the sides.
On this morning it attached itself to the side of the
jar by a web which it wove, and there it hung motion-
less, head downward, for some time. At half-past
one o’clock it began the task of disrobing. It first
drew in its head until it seemed heavily hooded, and
its true feet seemed drawn together under its chin;
then began a series of shrinkings backward within it-
self, — apparent chokings, shiverings, tremblings, and
gaspings, the body swelling out and then contracting.
The head gradually sank farther back into the hood,
leaving only a tiny yellow triangle. The greatest
movement was now noticeable at the posterior
extremity. The skin there stretched as if it would
break, and became so thin we could see through it.
At last the old skin at the front broke and the cater-
pillar worked out in front, pushing the skin back as
it worked forward until the old coat came off at the
back. Then the caterpillar threw its head about
from side to side until the old headpiece dropped off.
This changing of the coat occupied one hour. Occa-
sionally the caterpillar rested. After the old head-
piece had fallen off the caterpillar went back into
its web and rested about twenty minutes, then ate
up the coat it had just shed. Within two or three

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR 135

hours after it had shed its skin, it went to eating the
fresh milkweed leaves.

THE CHRYSALID

The following year we had many milkweed cater-
pillars in glasses and watched their growth.

One morning one of our large caterpillars wove a
web for a path and went to the top of the glass,
which was covered with a perforated paper. Here
it remained as if making plans for its change.
The middle of the afternoon it underwent agonizing
contortions. It threw its head to one side and then
to the other, and then drew it in. The “feelers”
were working nervously as the body worked. Late
in the afternoon it let go its hold on the cover and
swung free, being held to the cover by its hind feet,
which were fastened in the web it had made. In
this position it remained quiet part of the time, its
head turned to one side, and part of the time’
wriggling to get free from its old coat. In the night
it changed to a beautiful light green chrysalis. We
could see the colored stripes of its coat through the
thin cover. The dome-shaped top was narrower in
front. The dome was separated from the body of
the chrysalis by a narrow black line, above which was

136 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

a row of small white dots interspersed with eight
larger dots. Just above the larger end of the chrysalis,
eight yellow dots, occurring at regular intervals, began
to show. At the top there were six black dots, ex-
tending, in twos, toward the front from the point
of attachment. The next morning all the white on
the chrysalis was changed to gold, and a gold dot
appeared on each side toward the front.

We had not seen the change from the caterpillar
to the chrysalis. This was a disappointment, but
later we saw what we had so regretted missing. This
caterpillar swung off at six o’clock in the evening.
I was up at half-past four o’clock in the morning.
It was gnawing at its feet industriously. Occasion-
ally it threw its head back. There was a great con-
traction and relaxation of the muscles between the
black and white rings, occurring every second or so
at the last. At the end these movements became
very violent, the skin burst open on the back, near its
head, and was worked backward and off, where it
finally fell to the bottom of the glass. The chrysalis
swung around, first a few turns to the right, then a
few turns to the left, thus forming the strong, twisted
thread by which it hung. It became a chrysalis at
half-past five o’clock in the morning.

THE MILKWEED CATERPILLAR 137

THE HOUSEBREAKING

Twelve days after the caterpillar became a chrys-
alis, the chrysalis became a beautiful brown and
black butterfly with white markings —the Moxarch,
or Milkweed, butterfly. The change, at the end, was
very gradual. Two days before it occurred, the
chrysalis had become of a lighter green; a day later,
the orange and black showed through the thin chrys-
alis shell; then three shining points appeared on each
side, extending from the center toward the bottom.
In front the veinings of the wings were now visible,
then the limits of the wings were plainly marked off
on the sides. The margins of the wings broke
through a little. While we were out of the room it
came out, leaving its transparent chrysalis shell swing-
ing empty. This was a disappointment. But the last
chapter, it is hoped, will be recorded later.

PART II
PLANT LIFE

I
IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS

HERE, too, as well as in identifying birds, the
games may be used in the first grade with profit
and pleasure, ag. :—

1. “Flower Game” in “Kindergarten Chimes,”
Kate Douglas Wiggin, p. 115.

2. “Smelling,” in the same book, p. 107.

3. “Guessing Game,” p. 108 in the same book,
may be altered in meaning a little so as to become
a flower or a leaf game. Each child has a flower
pinned upon his breast, and takes the name of the
flower he wears; so the “wo” in the third line
refers to dazsy fleabane, or oak, perhaps.

4. In “Touching,” a game in the same book,
which reads in the second line, “Now take the
thing we give you,” substitute flower.

[For similar games see “Songs for Little Children,”
II, Eleanor Smith, and “ Merry Songs and Games,”
Hubbard. ]

141

142 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

5. A pupil, or the teacher, describes a flower
which he is thinking about; the class name it.

6. Each of several children is provided with a
flower — no two alike. A few children form a ring
in front and sing, e.g.:—

“We're calling to you for a daffodil,
A daffodil, a daffodil ;
We're calling to you for a daffodil,
And here is one.”
or
“ And there is none.”

As soon as the name of the daffodil is spoken,
the child who has that flower skips forward and
enters the ring, or if she does not respond, her
flower is given to another.

II
THE NASTURTIUM

(A FALL Stupy)

How do you know the flower? (By its color,
shape of its blossom, its fragrance, its taste, and
its peculiar leaf.)

Each child is provided with a blossom. They
examine it for the purpose of describing it accurately,
so that one unacquainted with it would know it

THE NASTURTIUM 143

were he to come upon it. The points in which the
children will be interested are these : —

(a) The variety in colors of the different flowers,
the variety in one blossom, the markings of the petals.
Out-of-door study: What besides people does the
color attract? (Bees and humming birds.) Notice
what these do when they come to the flowers. Find
what it is they are seeking in the heart of the flower.
(The juice in the long sac.) We call that the
nectar. Taste of it. How do you like it? See if
the sac is full. How can the humming bird reach
it? the bee? Watch a bee as it leaves a flower.
What is it carrying away? (Yellow dust.) On
what part of its body does it carry it? From what
did it come? Where does the bee go on leaving
this blossom? Watch to see.

Notice in what direction the lines on the petals
extend. Can you think of any reason for this?
(They show the bees the way to the nectar.)

(b) The shape of the petals. What reason can
you see for the broader upper petals? The over-
lapping of the edges of these petals? Of what
does it make you think? (The roof of a house.)

(c) How the flower is held. Can you see any
reason why it is held so that it opens at the side

144. NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

instead of at the top? (The rain cannot get in to
spoil the nectar and the pollen.)

(d) The development from bud to blossom. How
is the bud protected? Are these sepals of any use
to the flower after it blossoms? Of what use?
In which is the stem longer, the full-sized blossom
or the tiny bud? Can you think of any reason for
the longer stem of the blossom? (To attract bees,
the blossom must be well above the leaves. The
bud has nothing to offer to the bees and humming
birds. )

(e) The development from flower to fruit. Notice
all the changes in the flower,—the drying up of
the petals and the sepals and the falling of the same;
the growth of the inside of the flower—the ovary
—until it finally matures, and turns brown. Where
did you find the blossom, above or below the leaves?
Where do you find the ripened seeds? How did
they get down there? (The children will notice
that the stem has twisted, in a curious way, so as
to bring the seed pod under the leaves.) Can you
think of any reason for this? (Perhaps it is to make
room for the flowers, or to protect the seeds from the
rain and the sun and from enemies that might like
to eat them.) Taste of one of the seeds not yet

THE MORNING-GLORY 145

ripe. What do you notice? Is it well for the seed
that it has a spicy taste? Of what use is the seed
to us other than giving us new plants? How many
seeds in one pod? How are the seeds scattered?
Will plants come next year from these seeds that
are scattered? (The home of this plant is in a
warm country, where the plants do not freeze after
they sprout. They cannot bear our cold springs, so
we save the seeds and plant them when the weather
becomes warm.)

(f) The dense foliage. Describe the leaf. The
stems of the young and of the older leaves. Of what
use are the leaves to the little buds and to the seed
pods?

NotE. — This is not intended to be an exhaustive study of
the nasturtium. A fuller study would be made in the higher
grades, including the cross-fertilization of the plants.

III

THE MORNING-GLORY
(A SPRING STUDY)
Have you planted any flower seeds this spring?
What ones? [Among others quite likely the morn-

ing-glory may be mentioned.] Have you any morn-

L

146 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

ing-glory seeds? You may bring some to school to
plant, that we may have their pretty leaves and
blossoms in our windows. [If the children have
not the seeds, the teacher will furnish them. ]

On the following day a number of seeds are
placed in a dish where all can see them well. No-
tice their colors. Notice their shape. What gave
them this queer shape? If they have not noticed
the seed pod, they will be told that we shall find
out later.

The teacher has in the class two wooden starch
boxes, or other boxes, filled with rich soil. The girls
plant seeds in one box and the boys in another.
See which will have the better plants. Each is
labeled. What do you expect from these seeds?
(Morning-glory vines.) What care must the seeds
have? (They must be kept warm and must have
water.) How much water? [Appoint one careful
girl to care for the girls’ box of seeds, and a thought-
ful boy to care for the other box.] The boxes are
now set away. Where shall we set them?

Now each child is supplied with a morning-glory
seed and a pin. Would you like to find what is
inside this seed? You may take off its outside coat.
(We cannot, it is fastened on so very tightly.)

THE MORNING-GLORY 147

What shall we do to the seeds to loosen the out.
side coat? (Soak them.) I will soak them over
night in warm water and see if that will loosen
their coats. Is it well that their coats cannot be
easily removed? Why? [On the following day the
soaked seeds are taken to the class. Each child is
provided with one and with a pin.] You may see
now if you can remove the seed’s coat. Be very
careful not to injure what is inside. What do you
find? (Underneath the coat is a layer which looks
like light-colored jelly.) And what is inside the jelly?
(Two tiny white leaves, all crumpled up, and between
the two, and protected by them, is a little white stem.)
Spread out the leaves. Why were they so crum-
pled? (If they had been spread out as they are
now they would have taken up much more room.
They were packed in as closely as possible.) Did
you notice any jelly in the dry seed? Scratch a
little of the coat off these dry seeds. (There is no
jelly here, it is a hard substance.) What is this
hard lining of the coat which turns into jelly
when soaked? What do you expect these little
stems and leaves to do? (To grow.) And what
must they have to make them grow? (Food.)
Where will they get the food? (The roots will

148 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

gather it for them from the ground.) Where are
the roots of this little plant? (It has none, yet.)
What will feed it until its roots grow? (This jelly
which is all around it.) Why did not the little plant
begin to grow in the winter, in the paper in which
we found it? (It cannot take hard food. Its food
must be dissolved for it before it can take it.) Then
what must happen to the seed before the tiny plant
can begin growing? (It must be wet.) You may
make a picture in the left-hand corner of your draw-
ing paper of this little plant as it looks when it first
comes from the seed, then we shall remember how
the morning-glory began life.

At the same time that the children planted their
seeds, the teacher planted a quantity in a box by
themselves. As soon as the plants in her box begin
to break through the ground, a few are taken up and
changes noticed by the children. Where is the
jelly? (The seeds have used it up. The plant has
little roots now and they have gone to work.)
[Drawings are made at each stage of the plant’s
development. ]

As soon as the leaves are above ground they are
compared in color, size, and shape with the same
when in the seed. Look closely between the two

THE MORNING-GLORY 149

leaves. What do you see? (A little green dot.)
We will watch and see what becomes of it. [They
will find later that this “green dot” changes into a
leaf.] Only one? Is its shape the same as that of
the two? Draw the two leaves side by side on the
board.

But this was not all that the “little dot” contained,
for they see a small bud pushing right past the leaf ;
and what has it? (Another leaf and a bud.) On
which side of the stem does this leaf grow? (On the
side opposite to the other.) [Later the children find
that the leaves all grow out in this way, — first, one on
one side, then one on the other. They admire the
beauty of the shape of the leaf and its delicate tex-
ture. They notice the veining and illustrate at the
board.] Why does it have these veins? (They are
the troughs through which the sap passes to all parts
of the leaf. They also hold the leaf out, giving it its
shape, and allowing the sun, air, and moisture to reach
all parts of it.) But why are the vines stretching out
their arms to us so pleadingly? (They wish us to
help them to stand.) What shall we do for them?
(Give them strings for support.)

[After a while the children notice something grow-
ing in the axils of the leaves.] What is it? We will

150 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

watch it and see. Some of these turn out to be
branches, others flowers.

[The flower buds are watched carefully from the
time they are big enough to be seen until they open
and close, and drawings are made of them, showing
how they look at different stages of their growth. ]
How long do they remain in blossom? Mark certain
flowers and find out. (From morning until after-
noon.) Will this same blossom open again to-morrow
morning? Look and see. Can you tell by the looks
of a closed flower whether it has blossomed or not?
How? Picture, side by side, a bud that will open in
the morning and one that has opened and closed.
What becomes of the flower that is through blos-
soming? How long does its pretty dress —the corolla
—remain on the vine after it is through blossoming?
Watch and see. Why does it fall off? (It is of no
more use.) What was its work?

Let us look at this fresh dress. (It is all in one
piece, but you can see where five pieces were put
together to make it. The seams show.) Let us
open it and look at the inside. (The stamens are
fastened to the lower part of this dress. There are
five of them, one on each piece of its dress.) And
do they fall off with the dress? (Yes.) Are they

THE MORNING-GLORY Ist

not leaving before their work is done? What is
their work? They bear the pollen that makes the
seeds grow. Where are the seeds? Do the sta-
mens shed their pollen before falling? Notice the
open flower and see if they do. How does the pollen
reach the seeds? (It falls on the stigma and passes
down the style to the seeds; or the bees leave pollen
which they have gathered from some other morning-
glory on the stigma, when they go into the flower for
the nectar which is at its base; or the wind blowing
carries the pollen from one flower to another.) Did
the sepals fall with the corolla? (No, they stay to
protect the seed pod.)

The children watch the growth of the seed pod on
several flowers which they may select. They see
that finally the style dries up, only a small portion of
it remaining. Is its work done? What did it have
to do? Notice how long a time elapses after the
blossom opens before the seeds are ripened. What
happens when they are ripe? (Three doors open into
three little rooms, in each of which dwells snugly
two three-sided seeds. These seeds drop out when
the plant is disturbed.)

Now we have found out how the seeds happen to
have such queer shapes, — six of them were packed

I52 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

closely in a little, round, three-roomed house. What
other shape would have packed so well?

IV
THE COMMON BLUE VIOLET

At the beginning of the spring term, or at the
close of the winter term, the children are asked to
look for violets and see who will be first to find one.

As soon as violets become plentiful the children
are asked to notice carefully what kind of home they
live in. Is it moist ground or dry? Is it in the
shade or in the sun? In the woods or out? In
company with what other flowers?

‘Did any of you know exactly where to go to look
for violets this year? How did you know? (They
grew there last year.) Did they grow all winter?
When the snow was off the ground could you see
them? (No, the frost killed the /eaves in the fall.)
Did it kill all of the plant? (No, the root lived
through the winter.) How was it protected from
the cold? (It was covered with soil; above that
were dead leaves, and over all the snow.) Is
snow warm? How could it keep the violets warm?
(It shut out the cold air and kept in the warmth.)

THE COMMON BLUE VIOLET 153

Did you look for violets at all before they came,
this year? Were there any promises of violets?
(The leaves.) Can you think of any reason why
the leaves should come first? (They make a pretty
home for the flower. They stand around it like
little soldiers, ready to protect it.) But that is not
all. The leaves are the plants’ kitchens, in which
all the food is prepared for the flowers and the
whole plant as well. The little flowers must have
food or they could not grow, so the leaves come
first and get the food ready for them. Can you
see the work going on in the leaves? (No, the
preparation of the food is made in a very quiet
and orderly manner.)

Where does the food which is prepared in the
leaves come from? (The roots get it from the
ground.) Have you ever noticed the roots of
the violet? I have a plant here with its roots
washed so that you can see them plainly. Which
are the working roots? (The very small ones.)
What must these roots have through which to take
their food? (Mouths. ) Where are their mouths?
(All over the tiny roots.) Can you see them? (No.)
What kind of food can be taken through such little
mouths? (Water.) If you put a little salt or soda

I§54 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

into water, what becomes of it? (It dissolves so we
cannot see it.) Could the plant take anything but
water through its tiny root mouths? (It could take
other things if they were dissolved in water.) It
does this. We do not know all of the things that
it takes in this way.

How does this food reach the leaves? (It first
passes along to “the large root,” then up the stem
to the stalks of the leaves, on through the large
veins in the leaves into the smaller ones, and so on
to all parts of the leaf, where it is prepared as food
and then sent to all parts of the plant to feed it.)

What furnishes the heat for preparing the food?
(The sun.) Yes, the food cannot be made ready
unless the sun helps, and so when the sun goes
down the work in the leaves ceases. You have
noticed that when your mother is cooking, steam
arises from the kettles or saucepans. Does steam
arise from this food as it is being prepared? You
may place several fresh violet leaves under this
glass, look at the glass occasionally, and tell us to-
morrow what you noticed. On the inside of the
glass will be moisture. From what did this come?
Can you see the holes through which it came?
(No, they are too small to be seen.) Through these

THE COMMON BLUE VIOLET 155

tiny holes air goes into the leaf and mixes with
the food from the roots before that is fit for the
plant to eat. When the food is all ready what
becomes of it? (Some of it goes to all parts of
the leaf, some to the roots, and some to the pretty
blue blossoms.)

You said that there were no leaves in the winter.
When did these leaves come? How could they grow
when there were no leaves in which to prepare the
food for them? (Last autumn, before Jack Frost
killed the working leaves, this “large root,” as you
call it, packed up enough prepared food to feed the
roots and leaves this spring, until they got well
started at their work and could feed themselves.)

Let us look at this trunk in which the food was
packed last autumn. Why do you call it a root? (It
looks like one. It grows underground.) What do
we find growing from it here? (Leaves.) [The
teacher should have a number of different plants
in the class.] From what do the leaves on this
plant grow? (A stem.) Onthis? (A stem.) What
do we call this part from which the leaves and
flowers grow? (A stem.) What shall we call zhzs,
then, from which the violet’s leaves and flowers
grow (pointing to the root-stock)? (A stem.) Since

156 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

it grows under the ground what name, might we give
it? (An underground stem.)

How did the little leaves look when they started
up from this stem to get a peep into the great world,
where they were to make ready a home for the
flowers? Here are some on this plant which I took
up. (The stalk sticks its back up through the ground
first, as if to make way for the little leaf blade. Then
it comes through with the blade bent over so as to
lie close to the upper part of the stalk.) Look
closely at the little leaves. (They are rolled tightly
from both edges toward the midrib so as to get
through the ground without being torn or broken.)
And does it unroll suddenly? Notice the bases of
the half-grown leaves.

What shape is the leaf? Draw it on the board.
Does the shape of the leaf help it any after it is
grown? [Sprinkle some water on a leaf of a grow-
ing plant. It is well to have some growing in boxes
in the house.] What do you see? (The water
gathers in the center of the leaf and runs down the
little trough in its stalk.) Is that well or not? (It
carries the water directly to the roots, where it is
needed.) What does the water do? (Dissolves
solid food which it finds in the earth, then is taken

THE COMMON BLUE VIOLET 157

in by the little roots, goes to the leaf, and is mixed
with air and moisture coming through the tiny holes
in the leaves.)

And while the roots are working away and the
leaves are so busy, what is the little flower doing?
(Growing.) How does it look when you first see it
above ground? Picture on the board. What changes
do you notice as it grows older? (The stem lengthens,
lifting the bud higher and higher into the air and
sunlight. The bud grows fuller and longer. At
last the green blanket that covers little Violet is
pushed aside, and we see her blue dress.) Notice
how her dress was folded while she was wrapped
in the blanket. Did it get wrinkled? Do you
think you could fold a dress and pack it so tightly
and have it come out without a wrinkle? What
becomes of the green blanket? Can you see it on
your flowers? It still protects Violet. Her dress
is very delicate.

Do all violets wear dresses of the same tint of
blue? (Some are dark and some are light.) Do they
ever wear any other color? (Some violets are white,
some are yellow, and some are purple.) Is the dress
in one piece? What are the pieces called? (Petals.)
Are they all of the same size and shape? (The

158 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

lowest petal is a little larger than the others, and it
has a little pocket behind.) Let us see if we can
find anything in this pocket. [This can better be
shown with a large pansy.] We will cut the pocket
off. Now pinch it. Taste. What do you find?
(Honey.) We will call it nectar. Why is the nectar
there? What would like it? (Bees and other
insects.) Have you ever seen any insects about the
violets? Watch closely and tell all that the bees
or other insects do. Later the children will very
likely have discovered that the bee alights on the
lower petal, then thrusts in his “long mouth” —
proboscis —and drinks in the nectar. Notice care-
fully the path which the proboscis of the bee takes
in going to the nectar. There seems to be a path
on purpose for it right through the middle of the
lower petal, and there is a hedge along both sides of
this road. What is this hedge? (A thick beard of
short hairs running down the two petals on each
side of the flower.) Take this fine stalk of grass
and let it follow the road which the proboscis of the
bee follows. Then look closely at the grass and
tell what you see. (There is pollen on it.) Where
did it come from? What is it good for? (To feed
the tiny seeds so they will grow.) Let us look

THE COMMON BLUE VIOLET 159

closely at the home of these seeds. Where shall
we find them? [Each child has a flower and finds
the pistil.] Where are the little seeds? How is
the pollen to reach them? (It must fall on the
sticky top of the pistil and pass down through
that ¢vde to the seeds.) The sticky top is the
stigma and the tube is the style.

Watch one clump of violets at or near your home
this spring. Look for seed pods. Here are some
which I gathered last summer. Let us see who
will be the first to find one on his clump.

Look far down among the violet leaves for some-
thing that grows up from the underground stem about
which we have not spoken. Tell about it to-morrow.
[The next day the children are questioned in
regard to their discoveries. They will tell of
queer little three-sided buds, of roundish, hard balls,
something that looked like the flowers but had no
petals, etc. The teacher should have some of these
apetalous flowers in the class room, showing dif-
ferent degrees of development. It will be easy
to find other seed pods also.] What are these?
(Queer little flowers with no petals.) Why do they
not come up where we can see them? (They
have no pretty petals to show.) Have they borne

160 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

seeds down here in the shade? (Some of them
have.)

Here is something still stranger about these queer
flowers. [The teacher has a plant in the class with
soil on its roots.] Look as I open the soil. (There
are some of those queer flowers below the ground,
and some have gone to seed here without ever seeing
the light.)

When the violet pod is ripe, what happens? (It
divides into three parts and opens.) How are the
seeds scattered? What becomes of them? We will
plant some in this box and see if they will grow
for us. Mamie may care for the box this week.

If the underground roots were all to die, might
we still have violets? How?

[Review the life of the violet later, starting with
the seed. ]

Vv
THE WILD ROSE

The wild rose is in full bloom in June, before our
schools are closed, and is a very simple flower for
study. The following are some of the points in
which the children will be interested: —

THE WILD ROSE 161

It presents no loud color, but passes from pure
white, which is somewhat rare, to intense pink,
through all the intermediate tints. Not unfrequently
we find in a single flower exquisite markings and
shadings. Its fragrance, too, is as delightful as its
coloring.

When the sun is shining the mature rose spreads
wide its petals, catching every ray which comes its
way, but when darkness reigns it closes, and says to
the world, “Good night.” Does it close, also, before
and during a storm? Watch and see. The closed
flower is as beautiful as the open one. When you
have seen one you have not seen all, for there are
many different arrangements of the petals in closing,
but in each the adaptation is so perfect that one
wonders that any other plan could have answered so
well. Why should the rose close at night? If we
notice the texture of one of the petals we find its
two sides quite unlike. The soft, velvety upper side
might easily be marred by the dew, while the coarser
under side seems better fitted to cope with it. This
suggests what may be one reason for closing. Later
we may find a better one.

Any child can find out how long the petals remain
after the flower opens by watching carefully the

M

162 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

unfolding of certain buds which he has marked, but
he must bear in mind that storms of wind or rain
often cut the tender lives short.

Although each petal usually performs its part in
closing, occasionally we find one, like a willful child,
standing off by itself, rolled up to resemble a bud.
Sometimes, too, one little petal will creep out of the
bud many hours before the others are ready. It
looks too dismal to be enjoying its joke.

If there is room in the schoolhouse yard, wild
roses might be planted there. Here the children will
discover many interesting facts about their appearance
and growth.

About the time that the petals fall, the stamens
change their bright color for a dark brown, and
later this color gives place to black. Their work
is done, although they do not pass out of sight.
The only part of the rose now especially notice-
able is the green seed cup with the sepals fastened
to its rim, and falling back over its sides. We
had noticed this cup but little when the petals
stood about and above it, but it has been growing
quite rapidly all of the time. Why should this
cup remain while the petals fall and the stamens
fade? There is not much more beauty to it than

THE WILD ROSE 163

to a little green apple, which it much resembles.
We will open one of these cups—a large one.
Inside we find a number of shining yellow seeds.
They form a circle around the inside of the cup.
All are closely packed together. The outer seeds
are rounded on the outside. There is no definite
number of sides to each seed, they differ consid-
erably in shape, and we find, too, some seeds that
seem to be dried up. Why is this? We will go
back a little. The children have noticed that when
they touched the stamens, pollen covered the tip of
the finger. The little pollen sacks have burst and
the pollen is free. Much of it falls on the little
green cushion in the center of the flower. By
opening one of the smaller cups it will be seen
that this cushion is the feathery top of many
small styles which reach down to the seeds. The
pollen touches a little seed and says, “Wake up
and grow,” and the seed obeys. The ovules that
did not develop into seeds failed to receive the
message, so they did not grow. The petals need
to guard the pollen that its seed children may
thrive. How does the closing of the rose at night
help? Why is it well that the petals are so deli-
cate on the upper side?

164 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

How long a time the seeds grow before ripening
can be learned by the children by recording the
time of the falling of the petals on a few marked
roses.

As the seeds grow the little cup which holds
them grows. At last, when they are ripened, the
cup proclaims it to the world by its changed
color, now a bright red. But this is a covered
cup. How are the seeds to get out into the
world? Has the plant been working so hard for
nothing? ‘That red cup looks very attractive,” says
birdie, and down it pounces upon it, breaking the
cup and scattering some of the seeds, while it eats
greedily from the broken cup. So the rose feeds
the birds and the birds free the seeds. Nature’s
children are everywhere helping one another.

VI
TREE BUDS

(A SpriInG STuDy)

There are wonderful discoveries to be made by
watching the development of the tree buds in the
spring.

Sometimes twigs are put into glasses in the school-
room early in the season, before the buds begin to

TREE BUDS 165

swell. They can be watched here by the young
children much more advantageously than out of
doors, as oftentimes the branches of the trees are
so high that the children cannot see the buds well.
It is best to take but few twigs at a time.

Watching the sycamore twigs, a little green ball
appears upon one of the side shoots. We are sure
it must be a seed ball. It has a white stem about
three fourths of an inch long. On each of two
opposite sides of the ball is a leaf, growing from
its base. Between the ball and each of these larger
leaves is a tiny leaf, making four in all. The ball
grows quite rapidly, then becomes fluffy. It turns
gray —what can this mean? Now showers of pol-
len are falling from it every time it is disturbed.
Are there not seeds, too? (No, the stamens drop
off, leaving a white, woolly ball. It turns brown,
dies, and falls.)

Now a ball resembling the one previously de-
scribed grows from a terminal bud. It has a light
green stem over an inch long. ‘It is surrounded by
leaves as was the other ball. It grows and grows,
but sheds no pollen. It is the true seed ball.

The staminate and pistillate blossoms of the
balm of Gilead tree grow on separate trees. We

166 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

have twigs from both trees. The staminate blos-
soms come out dark red, dotted with white.
Further observation shows us that these “white
dots” are scales which separate the blossoms.
They are packed as carefully as if they were deli-
cate china. These scales fall out as soon as the
blossoms expand. When the anthers burst, the
flowers turn yellow, then a dirty brown. At last
they fall. The seed catkins are green, and are
sometimes over eight inches long. Their maturing
can be followed on the trees.

What do the buds of the plum trees contain?
(Three or four flower buds each.) Naturally we
look to the cherry tree, expecting to find the same
thing true of its buds, but here we find clusters of
little green knobs. The central bud develops into
a twig, the others into blossoms. Which one is the
apple bud like? When its brown bud opens it dis-
closes a gray velvet hood, which contains a set of
five or six flower buds surrounded by six or seven
leaves. It is quite different from the others.

The opening linden buds make one think of a
child’s face with its sunbonnet pushed back. The
buds are separated by a long space — sometimes
three inches.

AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS 167

The catalpa buds come out from under the bark of
the twig where they have been protected all winter.
There are four buds in a circle. What queer leaf
scars on the twigs!

The twigs of all the trees are interesting. Each
variety has a different method of putting forth its
blossoms and twigs, and there are constant surprises
for the children. The few examples given above are
no more interesting than hundreds of others. There
is not a prosy one among them.

VII
AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS

As soon as the leaves begin to fall, encourage
the children to bring beautiful ones to school, the
teacher pressing some of them for the decoration
of the schoolroom. Ask the children to name
the trees from which the leaves come. Notice
what tree first puts on gay colors, and have the
children note the succession. What tree is soonest
bare? What one retains its leaves longest of all?
Notice the movement of the leaves in falling. Listen
to the sounds which they make.

The trees that wear yellow dresses may be

168 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

grouped together, also those that wear dresses of
red, bronze, brown, red and yellow, etc. Do all
trees that send off their leaves dress them beauti-
fully before they go? What trees have leaves that
shrivel up when the frosts come?

You have had a story about a little leaf that worried
a great deal [“ The Anxious Leaf,’ by Henry Ward
Beecher]. About what did it worry? (For fear the
wind would pull it off and throw it down on the ground
to die.) Is the wind doing that with any leaves
now? Do they fall easily? Could the wind always
pull the leaves off so easily? (No, not in the spring
and summer.) You may shake the little branch that
I brought in. (The leaves come fluttering down.)
Let us see if we can find out why the leaves fall
so easily now. Why is it, do you think? (“They
forget to hang on.” “They are loose.” ‘“ Some-
thing is growing up between the leaf and the
branch, and the leaf can’t reach around it.”)
Look closely at that something. What is it? (A
tiny bud.) Will it fall off? Why do you think it
will not? (It holds on so tightly.) Do you think
it liked to have the leaf by it? (Yes, the leaf
clasped it and kept it warm, and dry, and out of
the sight of bugs which might eat such a tender

AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS 169

thing.) It is true that the buds need the leaves
when they are so tiny, but they do not push the
leaves off. Notice carefully these leaves on the
branch. Here is a little fence which has been
slowly built up between the leaf and the branch.
When the fence is done, the leaf drops. But this
fence is never built up too fast. The leaves, all
through the summer, are working away, for they
prepare all the food which the tree needs. When
the little fence is begun, the tree ceases to need much
food and so stops growing. Instead of using now the :
food prepared by the leaves, jt packs it away in its
trunk and branches, for it will need it in the spring;
and when the leaves have furnished the tree all the
food it needs, their work is done, and they are ready
to go, and just at that time the fence is finished.

Of what use are the leaves after they fall? (They
cover the roots of the plants and protect them from
the cold. The snows and rains cause them to decay.)
Of what use are the decayed leaves? Bring leaf
mold to the class—coarse and fine. How is it
made? Of what use?

[This is probably as deep as we shall care to go
into the subject with little children who have just
entered school. ]

170 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

You have spoken of the leaf caring for the bud.
Why should it care for it so tenderly? Of what use
is a bud? Let us see what is in this little cotton-
wood bud. (The outside is sticky.) Why is that?
(To protect it from the rain and snow and to keep
bugs from eating it.) We will take off this water-
proof coat very carefully. What do you see here?
What do these coats do? (There must be something
very valuable inside which these coats are keeping
safe.) And inside these soft wrappings what do
we find? (Some tiny leaves—a little twig.)
What are they doing here? (They are lying in
their warm bed, cuddled closely together, waiting
for spring. When the weather begins to get warm
in the spring, the wax on the outside will melt and
the buds will swell so that their covers become too
small, then they burst open and finally fall.) Why
do the buds not open now? (They would freeze
in the winter, so the tree gives them very little
food —just enough to keep them alive, but not
enough to make them grow.)

Open other buds; some will be found to contain
flowers. Notice the difference in the shapes of the
twig buds and flower buds. [The flower buds on
many trees are short and round, while the twig

AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS 171

buds are long and pointed.] By noticing the open-
ing of the buds in the spring these same facts can
be learned without destroying the buds.

Was it not too bad for the leaf to leave the
little bud? (No; the bud does not need it longer,
it is covered up so well. The leaf stayed with it
until it had on all its covers, so the little buds do
not need the leaves, and the tree does not need
them to prepare its food.) But would it do any
harm for them to stay? (Yes, the snow might
gather on the leaves and break the branches with
its weight.)

Do you think you would find buds on all these
trees that are losing their leaves? Look and see,
and find if the leaves and flowers of the different
trees are wrapped up in the same way that those
on the cottonwood are wrapped.

It is advisable when beginning the study of buds to
center observation chiefly upon two or three kinds of
trees, as hickory and cottonwood.

DEVICES IN IDENTIFYING LEAVES

1. Have a package of leaves of several different
varieties for each child. Give the name of a leaf
and have each child show a leaf of that name.

172 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

2. Have a number of leaves on the table. Call
rapidly on the children, one at a time, to select the
different leaves you name.

3. A child names a leaf, calling on another child
to select it; the school approve the choice by saying,
eg. “Yes, Earl,” or “No, Mary.” If the child
called upon selects the correct leaf, he names a leaf
for another to select, and so on.

4. Acchild stands before the class with a package
of leaves; holding up a leaf, he says, ¢.g., “‘ This is a
sugar maple leaf,” etc., until he names one incorrectly.
The first child who detects the mistake takes his place
and names leaves until he misses one, and so on.

5. The children are each supplied with several vari-
eties of leaves. They examine closely and describe.
They name the characteristics, eg., of the elm, the
scarlet oak, the linden.

6. (a) The teacher describes a leaf; the children
name it from her description. (0) A child de-
scribes; the others name.

7. All the pupils close their eyes. Each is pro-
vided with a leaf, which he names by feeling it.

8. A child makes a drawing of a leaf at the board.
The children name from the drawing. These
sketches are put on the board rapidly.

AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS 173

g. A child draws, for example, an oak leaf; the
children criticise the drawing.

10. Beautiful autumn leaves are mounted on pan-
els. These panels are strung together and hung
upon the walls at the top of the blackboards. A
pupil points to the leaves and names rapidly.

11. Leaves of various trees are given to the chil-
dren. Seeds of these same trees are also given to
them. The children arrange the leaves on their
desks and place upon each leaf the corresponding
seed.

12. Cut slips of cardboard five by ten inches. Upon
each slip print, or write with a brush, the name of a
tree. Scatter these slips about the room, placing
them on the ledge of the blackboard.

Upon the table place leaves of the trees named
upon the cards.

A child is asked to pick out a leaf and place it by

itsname. The class say, “ Yes, ” (calling the
name of the child), if the leaf is correctly placed, or
“ No,

See which one can match correctly the largest num-

,’ if the leaf is placed by the wrong slip.

ber of leaves and cards.
To vary the exercise, slips may be chosen to

match the leaves.

174 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

[This may be used for bird identification by sub-
stituting mounted specimens or colored pictures of
birds for leaves, and using the names of birds on the
slips. ]

LEAF GAME No. 1

The children play leaf games, e.g. the following,
suggested by Lula Ward :—
“ Oak, elm, and walnut, standing in a row,
Standing there so straight and tall,
With leaves all showing so.

Now one away is skipping, as fast as she can go.
Name her quickly, Florence, and you'll be in the row.”

Explanation : —

Each child in the class has a leaf pinned upon his
breast. Three pupils are called to stand out in front
of the class; the names of the leaves which they
wear are substituted for the names given in the first
line of the little rhyme. As the fourth line is
sung, one of the three children skips away. If
the child whose name is called in the last line can
give the name of the leaf which the former child
wears, he takes his place in the row in front of the
class. (He wears a leaf of some other tree.)

The little rhyme is sung by all the children ex-
cept the three in the row.

AUTUMN LEAVES AND BUDS 175

LEAF GAMES Nos. 2, 3, AND 4

In “For Grace and Pleasure” are three games
which may be used in connection with the identi-
fication of leaves; see “Leaves in the Wind,” p. 7,
“The Barberry” (or other plant), p. 28. Substitute
the name of the tree from which a leaf came, eg.
maple tree, in place of “ September leaves,” p. 7.

LEAF GAME No. 5

Each child has the leaf of a tree pinned upon his
waist. The children form a circle and sing this song
as they move about in the ring : —

“Here we go round the —— tree, the —— tree, the —— tree;
Here we go round the —— tree,
So early in the morning.”

(Sing to the tune of “Here we go round the mulberry bush.”)

As soon as the name of the tree is sung, the child
who wears a leaf from that tree steps quickly into the
ring. If he fails to respond, through inattention or
lack of identification of the tree by its leaf, he steps
out of thering. If he recognizes his leaf name when
called later, he dodges into the center of the ring and
is again in the game.

176 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

LEAF GAME No. 6

A leaf is pinned upon each child’s waist as in the

previous game. The children sing : —

“Fly away, fly away,
Dear little —— leaf, fly away ;
Over the brown fields dance and play,
But come back to see us again to-day.
Come back, leaf.
Come back, leaf.”
(Tune, “Milkweed Babies,” Primary Education, October, 1902.)
— ELEANOR TROXELL.

As soon as the name of a leaf is sung, the child
who wears that leaf flies about the room. The chil-
dren at their seats sing “Come back,” etc., beckoning
at the same time to the “ little leaf” flying about.

VIII
A NUT GAME

Different kinds of nuts are scattered about the
room. One of the children who knows the names
of all the nuts is the mother squirrel. The other
children are the little squirrels). The mother sends
one little squirrel out to find walnuts, another to find
beechnuts, another to find hickory nuts, etc. If one
brings back the wrong nut, he must return it to the

THE APPLE 177

place where he found it, and another little squirrel is
then sent with him to find the nut which he was
asked to find. See how many can find all the nuts
called for, without making a mistake or having to be
helped.
A RIDDLE
As soft as silk, as white as milk,
As bitter as gall, a thick wall,

And a green coat covers me all.
(A Walnut.)
— ‘Mother Goose Melodies.”

IX

THE APPLE
(A WINTER Stupy)

How many like apples? What kind do you like
best? (The child does not need to name the variety,
although if he knows its name it would be well to
give it. The children’s answers will reveal the fact
that some like sweet apples; others, sour apples,
juicy apples, mealy apples, apples that have a spicy
taste, etc. Nearly every taste can be suited in apples,
therefore many people eat them.)

Do you eat the whole apple? What part do you
throw away? (The skin, perhaps, and the core.)

N

178 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Many people, however, eat the skin. Did you ever
eat a core? How do you like it? What trouble does
eating a core sometimes give you? (The scales of
the cells stick in the throat.) What is the use of
these scales? Let us examine these apple cores.
(The scales make rooms for the seeds.) How many
scales does it take to make one room? How are the
scales fitted together? How many seeds inside a
room? (The children will find that the numbers
differ.) Describe the inside of the room. How are
the seeds packed in it? (They will notice that the
pointed end of every seed points toward the center.)
Of what use are the scales to the seeds? (They shut
them away from the rest of the apple, keeping them
safe, no matter how juicy the apple or watery the
core.) Give to each child an apple cut horizontally
through the center. How many rooms in each apple
core? Notice how the five rooms are arranged about
the center. Show at the board.

With what are these rooms surrounded? Of what
use is the pulp to the seeds? (It shuts them in until
they (and the pulp as well) are ripe.) What other
uses for the pulp?

Now it is strange that the part of the apple that
you do not care about —the seeds in the core— the

THE APPLE 179

apple tree cares most for and has taken the greatest
of pains to protect. Can you think why? (That the
seeds may make more apple trees.) Is it or is it not
well for the seeds that you like the pulp? (By eat-
ing the pulp from the core the apple seeds are set
free; they could not grow inside the apple.) Why is
it well for apple seeds that there are many different
kinds of apples? (They suit the different tastes of
different people, and so a large number of people all
over the country are setting apple seeds free.) What
other uses are made of the pulp? (It is stewed, fried,
made into pies, dumplings, salads, jelly, preserves,
etc., and it is dried.)

What besides people like apples? Do the chickens
eat the seeds? Find out if this isso. What part of
the apple do the pigs eat? What eat the apples that
are left on the trees in the winter?

How do the apples make known to us that their
seeds are ripe and ready to be set free? (Their
bright colors — red, yellow, green, and russet-brown —
attract us.) How can the green apples attract us
while the leaves are still green? (They are glossy
and are of a different shade of green from the leaves.)
What gives the color to the apple? (Its skin.) De-
scribe the skin. (It is thin, smooth, glossy, tough,

180 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

and somewhat elastic.) Of what use is it other than
being the sign which says, “I am ripe”? (It holds
the pulp in shape, keeps it from being broken and
rubbed off, holds in the juice.) Why is it well that
it is somewhat elastic? (It does not readily crack
when the apple falls.)

How is the apple fastened to the twig? To what
part of the twig is it fastened? Notice the stem.
Chew it a little. Of what is it made? (Of many
little threads or fibers.) These are much stronger
than one large single piece would be.

What color are the apples before they are ripe?
Why do you think this is well? (They are of nearly
the same shade as the leaves, and so are not noticed
much by people who are passing and by birds.)
What is the color of the seeds of an unripe apple?
How does the pulp feel?

How do the apples begin life? We will find this
out next spring. We will begin watching a tree now
—and look at it every week until we find some little
apples. What do you see on the tree now? (Buds.)
Describe the buds.

Note. — Before the subject is left, review it thoroughly. Have
the children tell all they have learned about the seeds; their
rooms; the pulp; the skin; the stem.

THE AUSTRIAN PINE 181

Xx
THE AUSTRIAN PINE

(A WINTER STuDy)

Did the Christmas tree surprise you on Christ-
mas eve? What did it bring you that you did
not expect? When the presents were all off and
the decorations removed, had it any more sur-
prises for you? You did not care for the bare
tree, then. This bare tree which is sometimes used
as a Christmas tree has greater surprises for you
than the presents gave. It is full of secrets which
few people find out. Would you like to find some
of them out, all by yourselves?

But we must become better acquainted with
the tree before we expect it to tell us any secrets,
and we will visit one that has not been cut down.
What kind of tree was the Christmas tree?
Why was an evergreen chosen? What was its
name? Do you think all evergreen trees are alike?
[The children find out by examining the foliage of
different evergreen trees that they differ greatly.
Other differences will be discovered later. |

We. will visit the tree with the long, stiff
needles. I will introduce you to it. Austrian

182 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Pine, these are my little boys and girls who wish
to visit you often.

On this first day the children learn to distin-
guish the Austrian pine from other evergreen
trees by its general appearance. They know it
by the shade of green of its dress; by its straight,
pointed trunk ; by its arms or branches, which extend
out nearly straight from the trunk, then curve up-
ward; by several branches starting out from
the same circle and reaching out in different di-
rections; by gradual shortening of the branches
from below upward. After learning to recognize
the tree readily, the children make drawings,
showing its general shape. This is the picture of
the naked tree as it looked after it had lost its
leaves in the story of “The Unhappy Pine Tree.” }
Is it pretty?, What gives beauty to the tree? Its
dress. And this is a wonderful dress. Let us
see of what it is made. [Each child has a small
twig.] (It is made of needles. And the needles
are put up in bundles, only two in a bundle. The
wrapper which holds them together is around one
end only.)

1 “Classic Stories for the Little Ones,” published by Public School
Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois.

THE AUSTRIAN PINE 183

Let us look at one needle. [The children measure
it.] It is longer than a darning needle and of differ-
ent shape, being round on the outside and nearly flat
on the inside. It is very strong. We can hardly
pull it in two. Is it well that the pine tree has such
needles? [Refer to the story of “The Unhappy Pine
Tree.” ] Not only goats but caterpillars and insects
usually pass the leaves of this tree by. Hail, snow,
and sleet cannot injure them much. Why not?

Pull out one pair of needles. [The children
find that it is set very deeply and firmly into the
twig.] Why is this well? [The children discover
that the needles in a package so fit together as to
resemble in shape a darning needle.| Where on the
twig are they set? Do you like that arrangement?
Why? Does the Austrian pine ever lose its leaves
as do the maples and oaks? How do you know?
When do they fall? Do they fall singly or in pairs ?
What color are they when they fall? Do you see
any such on the tree now? If so, where? How old
are the needles when they fall? You cannot tell

.now. You do not know it well enough yet to find
out all its secrets. Now tell all the secrets you do
know about the package of needles. Make a drawing
of them. What secret has the tree failed to tell you?

184 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

We have been talking about the Austrian pine’s
dress. Does it wear any ornaments? (The cones.)
Where does it wear them? Notice this carefully.
Are they all alike? [Have twigs in the class with
cones of last summer’s growth and others a year
older.] Notice color and size of each, the number in
a cluster (if you are so fortunate as to find two or
three together). Notice cones under the trees and
compare them with those on the twig. Do you find
on the ground any of the little cones? Why not?
Their work is not done. The leaves on the elms and
maples did not leave the tree until their work was
done, neither will the little cones.

Let us see if we can find out what the work of the
cones is. The cones that have seen two summers
are chosen. Where on the twig did we find them?
Draw the cone when first brought into the room.
Draw also the twig with the cone upon it, fixing its
place on the twig. [The children notice the queer
shapes of the doors with their comical little knobs;
they also notice how each door is braced in front by
two doors at its side and one before it. The doors
are very many, and are closed so tightly that it is
with great trouble that we get them open.] Will
the cone not let us know what she is guarding so

THE AUSTRIAN PINE 185

carefully? We will not break into her house. We
will lay these cones where we can watch them. [If
possible, the children should hear and see the doors
pop open. This will happen after they have been
in the warm room a few hours.] Now that the
cone has opened her doors we will look in and see
if we can find what secret she was keeping. [The
children discover two little seeds behind each door,
each with a large wing.] How cozily they lie in the
little room! They are well worth guarding. Why?
Why were they shut in so tightly? What will open
the doors of the cones on the trees? (The sun.)
When will they open? What will the seeds do
then? How will the wing help them? The tiny
cones are placed also in the warm room and left
there for some time. Why do they not open?

Some old cones may be found with their doors
open. Inside are no good seeds. Why is that so?
(The seeds flew away last spring when the warm sun
opened the doors.) [The children now make a draw-
ing of the twig with cones of two sizes. They tell
the secrets of the cones. They draw a single door
with the two seeds, and one seed by itself, and tell
the secret of the seeds. A number of seeds are kept
for planting when spring shall come. ]

186 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

What else do we find on the branch besides leaves
and cones? (Buds.) On what part of the twig do
you find these buds? Are all of the same shape?
[The children find that some are large and pointed,
others are round and flat, while others are made up
of a cluster of little buds.] Why this difference?
Let us see if we can find out. [A pointed bud is first
examined. The children notice how the lower scales
curve downward. (If kept in a warm room, more of
the scales will turn down.) They also notice the
great number of coverings.] Are they thick or
thin? Soft or harsh? How arranged? All of the
same length? How held together? [The pitch
shows itself after being kept in a warm room some
time.] The covers being carefully removed, the
children are delighted to find what they think
is a cone. But where on the twig did we find
the cones? (On the sides, but this is directly at the
end.) What does grow at the end of a twig?
Leaves on a stem. What then should you expect
to find in this bud? We will put this little bare bud, |
with a covered one, into this bottle of alcohol. It’
will keep them fresh. How shall we label it? We
will say we do not £zow what this is. But what do
you think it ought to be? It is another secret which

THE AUSTRIAN PINE 187

we can not find out until we know the tree better.
What was the first secret kept from us? When may
we surely know the secret of the bud? Tell the
secrets which you know of the pointed buds, and
the one which the tree is keeping from you, but
which you think you can guess.

Now, let us see if we can find out the secret of the
round, flat buds. [The children find that the outside
covers are much like those of the pointed buds, but
inside of a few covers they find from five to ten tiny
buds crowded all the way around a small, pointed
bud. The inside covers are soft and transparent.
When uncovered, the children are apt to think they
have again found cones.] But where do we find
these buds? Do you find such clusters of cones on
the tree? [The children notice the resemblance be-
tween the pointed bud in the center here and the
pointed bud we examined before. They tell what
they think this bud contains and what they think
may grow from the center bud.] The naked, tiny
buds are placed in alcohol with a bud as we found it
on the tree. What shall we label it?

There is still another kind of bud, a clustered
bud, not covered to appear like a single bud as was
the preceding. Does it contain a pointed bud?

190 NATURE STUDY LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

as it did before the storm. The children make a
drawing of it now and compare this picture with
the first one drawn. Why does not the heavy
snow break off the branches? Show sections of
the tree where branches have grown out, that the
children may see how well the tree guards against
such accidents.

What secrets have you found out about the twig
and branch? You may draw a branch of seven years’
growth. [If they have observed carefully they
will put no needles on the oldest growth, and per-
haps none on the sixth or fifth.] But here are side
shoots. From what did they come? Notice where
they start out. From what buds did they come?
Can you tell? Then we must also find this out next
spring. Can you tell yet from what the cones will
come? We shall have to watch the tree closely next
spring, else it will keep this secret from us. Now
what are all the secrets which the Austrian pine is
keeping from us this winter?

Do you like this tree? What do you like about
it? It is a useful tree, too. For what is it used?
(For lumber.) [Children name articles made from
pine.] (The birds come to its shelter when they
return early in the spring. The winter birds —

THE AUSTRIAN PINE Ig!

crows, owls, etc., —spend much time in its branches,
which shelter them from the cold winds.)

As a summing up of many facts discovered in
regard to the Austrian pine, and a reminder of
their pleasant acquaintance with it, a collection
of the following may be mounted on stiff card-
board: A pair of green leaves, a pointed bud, a
round flat bud, an open clustered bud, cones of
one, two, and three seasons’ growth (the cone
of two seasons will need to be varnished to keep
it from opening), a cone scale, two seeds, a bare
twig, a twig with leaves, cross and vertical sections
of the wood.

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1.25

1.00

1.25 net

1.25 net

1.50 net

1.25 net

2.25 net

1.00 net
1.25 net

1.00 net

1.00
1.00 net

1.00 net

1.00 net

A MODERN SCHOOL

$1.25 Net

By PAUL H. HANUS

Professor of the History and Art of Teaching in Harvard University
Author of “Educational Aims and Educational Values,” etc.

The chapters of which this volume consists, except the last, deal
with various phases of one central theme: the scope and aims of a
modern school, and the conditions essential to its highest efficiency.
The last chapter offers some testimony on the working of the elective
system, — a contemporary question of great importance to both schools
and colleges, — but the testimony offered pertains only to the college.
The first chapter deals specifically with the secondary school; and in
it the author has endeavored to extend and strengthen certain concep-
tions set forth in his earlier book. The next seven chapters contain a
fuller treatment of certain topics than was appropriate or expedient in
the first chapter, and discuss the internal and external conditions essen-
tial to a high degree of success in the work of any school.

PIONEER HISTORY STORIES

PIONEERS ON LAND AND SEA 40
PIONEERS OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY \ cents
PIONEERS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS AND THE WEST J each

By DR. CHARLES A. McMURRY

This series provides excellent supplementary reading matter for
schools of from the fifth to the eighth grade. In these volumes is told
the story of the pioneer life of all sections of our country, from the
epoch-making voyages of Columbus to Major Powell’s marvellous jour-
ney through the Grand Cafion of the Colorado. The stories are com-
plete and interesting, making the experiences of pioneer life as graphic
and real as possible. Indeed, the text is made up largely of source
materials. These narratives, which are accompanied by admirable
maps and illustrations, constitute the best of all introductions for chil-
dren to the history and geography of the country.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York
CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
4

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