Cornell University Lik=>: QL 673.T76 1916 Tn e bird book for A mann Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001098700 Books bp Gilbert bh. Crafton PUBLISHED BY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BIRD FRIENDS. Illustrated. METHODS OF ATTRACTING BIRDS. Illus- trated. BIRD FRIENDS Missing Page BIRD:>FRIENDS A COMPLETE BIRD BOOK __ggFOR AMERICANS Jy 7 FPGILBERT H.TRAFTON - WITH Iu] USTRATIONS BOSTON AND NEWYORK ~ HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Bs * _— THhe Riverside Press Cambridge. £ ba SACKER 1916 A.37423) COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY GILBERT H. TRAFTON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Published September 1916 TO MY SON LEROY PATIENT, CHEERFUL, UNCOMPLAINING DURING LONG-CONTINUED AFFLICTION THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED PREFACE THESE pages are written, not only for the bird- lover, but also for the general reader who has no special interest in birds, but who is interested in those matters that pertain to community welfare. Most of the topics presented in this book have been treated in an entertaining way in many excel- lent bird books, but most of these books cover only one or two phases of bird life, so that a person de- siring to be generally informed on birds must secure several books. The bird enthusiast is glad to do this, but not the average citizen, who has no more inter- est in birds than in many other topics. It is highly desirable that every citizen should be informed on the need of conserving bird life as one of our valu- able national resources. It has been the purpose of the author to gather within one set of covers a brief discussion of the essential facts concerning bird life that are of general interest, which are now scattered through many books, bulletins, and magazines. One of the most interesting developments of the past few years has been the rapid strides made in the cause of bird-protection. Much of this work has been of such recent origin that information regard- vili PREFACE ing these various protective agencies and their work can be found only in recent periodicals. An effort has been made in these pages to bring together some of the more valuable of this material. The author has also presented for the general reader a brief summary of the investigations of the food habits of our common birds, made by the Bureau of Biological Survey, the reports of which were originally published in bulletins to which most readers do not have access. The author has had especially in mind one large group of readers, who have something of a profes- sional interest in this subject, namely, the teachers of the country, who are now teaching children about birds in nature-study and through bird clubs. The last chapter has been specially prepared for their use, in the hope that it may prove helpful to them in teaching this subject to children. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to those who have so kindly looked over portions of the manuscript and given suggestions thereon: to the Bureau of Biological Survey for looking over Chapters VI to XI inclusive; to Mr. Ernest Inger- soll for reading Chapters XVI, XVII, and XVIII; to Mr. Edward H. Forbush for reading Chapters I to VI, inclusive, and XII to XV, inclusive; and to Miss Helen M. Reynolds for suggestions on Chapter XXIII. Special thanks are due to Mr. Forbush for his courtesy in sending advance sheets of his annual PREFACE ix reports and of his bulletin on the Domestic Cat, from both of which much valuable material was obtained. The entire manuscript has been read by Mr. Francis H. Allen, who has given many valuable suggestions. G. H. T. Manxarto, Minn. CONTENTS PART I The Value of Birds A. Terr AistHetic VALUE AS A SUBJECT FOR STUDY I. Brrp TRAVELERS . Discovery of America — Ghaaves au rm Alirsition _ Regularity of migration — Distances birds travel — Winter homes — Speed and height — Routes of migra- tion — How birds find their way — Causes of migra- tion. II. Brrp Music Why birds sing — pion is song — ‘Tinie of ala of song — Music of songs — Methods of recording songs — Similarity to human music — Classification of songs — Variations in songs — Call-notes. III. Brrp Homes . Time of building — Location of diet _ Materials _— Shape — Time occupied in building — Nesting-habits of cowbird — Number of broods — Change in nesting- habits. IV. Home Lire or Brrps ‘ Eggs — Incubation — Condition of young sigh hatched — Feeding young — Brooding young — A house wren’s day — Care after leaving nest — Enemies of nestlings. V. Cotors AND PiumaceE or Birps . Moulting — Change due to wear — Changes in olor — Differences due to sex — Protective coloration. VI. How to Know raz Birps i Attractions of bird-study — identification of pa Where to find birds —~ When to find birds — How to study birds — What to study — Bird-photography — Table of fifty common land-birds. 1 13 26 33 44 48 XI. XIIT. . STRIKING THE BALANCE CONTENTS B. Tuetr Economic VaLur . FRIENDS AMONG THE Brirps aS DESTROYERS OF Insect Pests oe Satie ae bah tee Be Bureau of Biological Survey — Methods of determin- ing food of birds — Harm done by insects — Nature’s check on insects —Service performed by birds — Amount of food eaten by birds — Value of nestling birds — Control of insect outbreaks — Division of labor — Birds of a Maryland farm — Birds and human health. . FrreENDS AMONG THE Brrps As DESTROYERS OF Weep SEEDS... Harm done by weeds — Characteristics that make weeds troublesome — Birds as destroyers of weed seeds — Amounts of weed seeds eaten — Effect on weed- patches. . Brrps as Destroyers oF RopEent Prsts Harm done by rodent pests — Value of hawks and owls — Study of food of hawks and owls — Classifica- tion of hawks and owls — Money value of hawks and owls. . Fors AMONG THE Brirps Fruit-eaters — Injury to grain — Destruction of poultry — Damage to trees and wood products — De- stroying beneficial insects — Injury to valuable birds — Preventing depredations of birds. Harmful birds — Neutral birds — Beneficial birds — Table of food of birds. PART II Enemies of the Birds CHANGES IN THE NumBERS or Brrps . . Extinct birds — Species in danger of extermination —~ Decrease of game-birds and shore-birds— Have song- birds decreased ? Tur Natura, Enewies or Birps Four-footed enemies — Feathered enemies — The elements. 63 84 91 99 - 110 «216 - 128 CONTENTS XIV. Brrv Enemies Inrropucep py Man: Tue Cat AND THE ENcGLIsH SPARROW The Cat. Method of doing harm — Opinions of bird-students — Number of birds killed by cats — Cats as disease- carriers — Remedies. The English Sparrow. Ways in which it is harmful — Remedies: — Shoot- ing — Poisoning — Trapping. XV. Maw as an Enemy oF THE Birps . Advance of civilization — Shooting for sport — Shooting for market — The milliner’s trade — Egg- collecting — Remedies. PART III Bird-Protection A. Prorective AGENCIES XVI. Work or THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES. History of the Societies — American Ornithologists’ Union — Work of National Association of Audubon Societies: Legislation — Warden work — Egret-protection — Publications — Junior Audubon classes — Field agents. State Societies. XVII. Brrp-Protection BY GOVERNMENTS — STATE AND NATIONAL . ‘ Work of State @oveennieute: History of legislation — Model law — Bird day — Laws for game-birds — Summary. Work of National Government: Bureau of Biological Survey —Lacey Act — Mi- gratory bird law — Tariff regulations — Bird res- ervations. XVII. Brrv Cruss .. Meriden Bird Club — aneadh Hill ‘Bird Clits Burroughs Nature Club — Liberty Bell Bird Club — Private game preserves — Summary of results in bird-protection. xiii . 135 . 161 . 174 . 188 - 209 XIV XTX. XXII. XXII. XXIII. CONTENTS B. Arrractine Braps Nestinc-BoxgEs Bl eB Be cn ih, ete i B28 Reasons for attracting birds — Birds using boxes — Types of houses — Imitation both inside and outside —[mitation outside only — No attempt at imitation —Entrance opening — Putting out the house — Martin-houses — Open Houses — Nesting-material — Dealers in apparatus to attract birds. . Feepinc tHe Winrer Birps . . . . . 249 Reasons for feeding birds — Birds to expect — Kinds of food — Methods of putting out food — Diffi- culties. FouNTAINS AND SHRUBS FOR THE Birps . . 260 Fountains: : Essentials — Location — Plans for fountains — Fountains on lawns — Visitors at fountains. Shrubs: Planting for shelter — Planting for nesting-sites — Planting for food. Calendar for attracting birds. DomesticaTION OF Witp Birps .. ee Success achieved — Methods of rearing wild birds — Rearing the bob-white — Rearing ducks — Attract- ing wild ducks. PART IV Bird-Study in Schools TracHinG Birp-PRoTEcTION IN THE ScHoots . 279 Purposes of bird-study — Materials for bird-study — Hand work—Bird games— Bird calendar — Using children’s activities — Field trips — Bird clubs — Bird day — Relation of bird-study to other subjects — Essentials of a good lesson — A type les- son — Outline of bird-study by grades and seasons — Series of lessons. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . 817 INDEX s).. a Gee a OT ILLUSTRATIONS A Brrp Garpen . . . «Sg sg. Colored Frontispiece From a drawing by Amy M. Sacker Buvuesirps, Mate anp FEMALE fo ye. Ja". GE! tee Jas From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Rosin SINGING BS OR Ober i ma SP AS A se SI From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Lone-sILLED Marso Wren at Nest . . . .. . 26 Insipr or Housrt Wren’s Nestinc-Box . . . . 26 Youne Green Herons iNest... . . . 30 Two-Storiep NEst oF YELLOW WARBLER, SHOWING COW- BIRD’S EGG SEALED IN LOWER STORY . . . .. . 30 A Wren Moruer anp Her Famiry . . . . . 88 MorTHER WoRKS WHILE FatHer sines. Pam or Housse WRENS “ae oe el BR lee 1 aR es oe 288 Battmore OrtoLtes, Mate aNnD FEMALE . . . . 46 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes TowHEE, oR CHEWINK, Mate anp Fema. (colored) . 50 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes ReED-HEADED WoopPsEcKER (colored) O. Oa ee ee, 42-64 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes SpeciMEN Lear from A Brrp NoteBook . . . . 58 A Userut Citizen. Houser Wren. . . . . . 66 DiacraM oF Foop or Aputt Houser Wren . .. . 66 From Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1900 Downy Woopprcker (colored). . . «. «. « « TA From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes xvi ILLUSTRATIONS Fox Sparrows, Eaters oF WEED SEEDS . . . . 84 From a drawing by R. Bruce Horsfall Goprincu (colored) ste Se eG -2- S88 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Hueties Screech Own . Pe ee a From a drawing by R. Paice Horsfall Enecusu Sparrows, Mate AND FematE . . .. . 100 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Cat with Ropmy. . oe: er ow ASE From a photograph by William Tasiell oe A Cat THAT DOES NOT KILL Birps ‘ . 136 From a photograph of a cat owned by Prof. Burt G. Ww idee Youne Ecrets Lert FaTHERLEss AND MorHERLESS BY Puume-Hunters .. . 168 From a photograph seasoned is permission of ihe National Association of Audubon Societies Rep Sourrrent, A Nest-RopBER ao we ge a-68 From a photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt Birp Isuanp, Fioripa. RESERVATION OWNED BY THE NatTIoNaL ASSOCIATION OF AUDUBON SocIETIES . . 186 From a photograph by C. E. Baynard reproduced by permis- sion of the National Association CauirorniA Murres oN THREE Arco Rocks OFF THE OrEGON Coast, ONE OF THE GOVERNMENT Birp REs- ERVATIONS : . 186 From a photograph by William i Riley saa i. ‘Es ‘Pekan JoHN BuRROUGHS AT THE DEDICATION OF “‘ WrEN’s NEST” In ATLANTA, GA., BY THE BuRROUGHS NatTuRE CLUB . 214 From.a photograph by Albert H. Pratt Fretp Day in Renwick Woops, Iruaca, N.Y. Mr. L. A. FUERTES ADDRESSING THE Cayuca Brrp Cius .. 214 From a photograph by Arthur A. Allen ILLUSTRATIONS LoNGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF WOODPECKER’S HOLE AND OF Von Brrierscu Nestinc-Box From Hiesemann’s “‘ How to Attract and Prsteet Wild Birds ” Naturau Nestinc-SitE oF A FLICKER IN AN OLD APPLE TREE Turer Tyres or Nestine-Boxes From a photograph by J. R. Snow Orren Nestinc-Boxts ror Rosin AnD PH@BE a From a photograph by J. R. Snow Buvesirp at Entrance to Nestinc-Box . House WrEN anp Tomato-Can Housze TREE SwaLLtow at Nestine-Box From a photograph by W. H. Phillips Martin-House AccommMopaTING Five THousanp Birps From a photograph by C. E. Hamilton Screrecu-Ow. mw Nestine-Box From a photograph by E. H. Forbush Sone Sparrow at Luncu-CounteR Downy Wooprecker at LuncH-CouNTER . CHICKADEE FEEDING FRoM Hanp Hermit TurusH at LuncH-CountTER A Brirp’s TEPEE, MADE OF BEAN-POLES WITH THE VINES STILL ATTACHED From a photograph by iiaale M. Cusine A Seur-Supptyinc Feep-Box . . . . . From a photograph by Edwin C. Brown Suer-BaskETs . . eM From a photograph by J. R. Snow Rep-Breastep NuTHatcH, PERCHED ON Hanp From a photograph by Laurence J. Webster xvii « 228 - 228 - 232 . 232 . 236 . 236 . 236 236 « 244 . 250 . 250 - 250 . 250 . 250 . 250 - 254 . 254 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS Wuitr-Breastep NuTHATCH, FEEDING FrRoM Hanp . 254 From a photograph by Edwin C. Brown SHELTER FoR Brrps’ Foop. FIFTEEN BIRDS FEEDING, — Sone Sparrows, TREE SparRows, JUNcos . . . 258 From a photograph by William C. Horton Winpow anp Movine Foop-SHELVES . . . . . 258 Bosp-WHITE REARED IN CapTiviry .. . 262 Reproduced by permission of the National ‘sivetaiink of Audubon Societies Concrete Brrp FounrTarn on THE AvTHOR’s Lawn... 262 ScHoot Brrp CALENDAR. e See al Be. ee B84 From a photograph by A. D. Whedon Freepinc-Station ror Brrps ww Yarp or Tranmrnc- ‘Scoot, Mankato State Normat Scuoon, Minnesota 284 Scnoot Brrp Founrar, Passaic, N.J. oe ew. 292 Junior AUDUBON Cuass aT TRAINING-SCHOOL, Manxarto, Min. hs Sain” GS oe. 220) From a nieiscagh by As D. Whedon The illustrations, except as otherwise stated, are from photographs by the author. BIRD FRIENDS BIRD FRIENDS CHAPTER I BIRD TRAVELERS Discovery of America. The subject of bird mi- gration is of special interest to Americans, because it is probable that migrating birds aided Columbus in the discovery of America. During the latter part of his voyage, when his sailors were beginning to mutiny, he fell in with flocks of birds which were making their annual flight from the Bermudas to the Bahamas. Columbus followed these birds and was thus guided to land. Otherwise it is quite pos- sible that he could not have induced his sailors to continue farther, and thus the discovery of America would have been postponed. Recent records of migration. During recent -- years, there has been kept at Washington a very complete record of the facts of migration, relating to the times and routes of migration and to the winter homes of birds. For more than twenty years these records have been collected by the Bureau of Biological Survey, through the codperation of over two thousand bird students throughout North America, so that now they have a large array of g BIRD FRIENDS reliable data regarding bird migration, comprising over a half-million records. Changes due to migration. The conspicuous sea- sonal changes in bird life which occur regularly every year are due to bird migration. Birds may be divided into four groups in accordance with the portion of the year that they remain in a given locality. Permanent residents remain in a locality all the year. In the cold Northern States these in- clude such common birds as the blue jay, nuthatch, chickadee, downy woodpecker, goldfinch, and a few others. Farther south the list becomes longer. Summer residents remain for the summer only, during which season they are nesting. They spend the winter in regions farther south. Most of the com- mon birds found during the summer in the north- eastern section of the United States belong to this group, such as the oriole and the house wren. Winter residents are found in a locality only during the winter, the summer being spent in re- gions farther north. In the Northern States, this group includes such birds as the winter wren, snow bunting, tree sparrow, redpoll, and red-breasted nuthatch. Transient visitants are birds which are seen for a few weeks in the spring and again for a few weeks in the fall as they are migrating. These birds spend the winter farther south and the summer farther north, and are seen only when passing through, on BIRD TRAVELERS 3 their way to and from their breeding-grounds. Many warblers belong to this group. The birds which be- long in each of these four groups vary according to the locality. The general changes in bird life due to migration which occur annually in any locality may be briefly summarized as follows: During the winter months the birds found in a locality belong to the perma- nent residents and winter residents. For several months there is little change in the kinds of birds seen. But beginning with the early spring the migra- tion commences, the exact date varying with the lat- itude and the weather. New birds continue to come in large numbers up to the middle or last of May, some remaining for the summer and others passing farther north. Meanwhile the winter residents have been leaving. Then follows the breeding-season, and for several months there is little change in the kinds of birds seen. About the first of September the fall migration begins, extending into Novem- ber, the birds gradually leaving for the South, slipping away so quietly that they may be gone for some time before their absence is noted. In the late fall the winter residents arrive, and bird life settles down again to the winter quiet. Thus this annual change occurs year after year with great regularity. Regularity of migration. The time at which each species of bird arrives at a certain place varies little 4 BIRD FRIENDS from year to year for most birds. The date when the early migrants arrive may vary considerably ac- cording to the season, but the dates for the later migrants are fairly constant. The order in which the various birds arrive is also well fixed. Certain birds are always among the first migrants regardless of the season, such as the robin and the bluebird, and other birds are always among the last migrants to arrive, such as the indigo bunt- ing and wood pewee, and this order remains about the same from year to year. Distances. The distances that birds migrate vary greatly with the species. Some birds may mi- grate southward only a few miles; others travel farther, to the Southern States; and over a hundred species leave the United States. Some winter in Central America, some in the northern part of South America, and still others in the southern part of South America. Some warblers which nest in Alaska probably travel to Brazil, a distance of seven thousand miles. Golden plover. The two most noted travelers among birds are the golden plover and the Arctic tern. The golden plover nests along the Arctic coast of North America. It then proceeds to Lab- rador and Nova Scotia, and from here it may make a continuous flight, in pleasant weather, of twenty- four hundred miles, to the coast of South America. It then passes on to Argentina, where it spends the BLUEBIRD Upper, male; lower, female BIRD TRAVELERS 5 winter. It returns north by a different route, pass- ing along the western part of South America and through the United States by the Mississippi Val- ley, and thence to the northern coast of North America, its nesting-site, a distance of eight thou- sand miles from its winter home. Arctic tern. The Arctic tern has even a longer range of travel than the golden plover. Some of these birds breed along the Arctic coast of North America, a nest having been found within seven and a half degrees of the North Pole. Its winter home is eleven thousand miles away, within the Antarctic Circle, within sixteen degrees of the South Pole. Thus the bird flies almost from pole to pole, twice a year, a journey of twenty-two thou- sand miles, a distance nearly equal to the earth’s circumference. Mr. W. W. Cooke points out that, as a result of being near the poles for so much of the year, it lives for about eight months in regions of perpetual sunshine, and during the rest of the year its days are much longer than its nights. It might well be called the bird of sunshine. Winter homes. As one watches the birds in their flight, it is interesting to think of the countries from which they have come, and of the varied scenery which their keen eyes have looked upon. The hum- mingbird that visits our garden flowers has seen the Panama Canal; the Baltimore oriole that swings its nest from our elm trees has seen the Andes in 6 BIRD FRIENDS Colombia; the rose-breasted grosbeak spends his winter just over the equator in Ecuador; the king- bird has perhaps flown above the waters of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and Peru; the bobolink has traveled from Paraguay to build his nest in our meadows; the red-eyed vireo has visited the coffee plantations of southwestern Brazil; the barn swal- low that builds his mud nest in our barns will return to the Pampas in Argentina for his winter sojourn; while some of the nighthawks that nest in Alaska may travel to the southern part of South America, to Patagonia, a distance of about seven thousand miles and of about one hundred and fif- teen degrees of latitude. Speed. The speed with which birds migrate varies with different species of birds and with the same species of bird in different parts of its journey. In general, birds travel faster during the latter part of their journey than during the first part. During the first part of March, the robin averages thirteen miles a day in migrating from southern Iowa to central Minnesota. From here its speed keeps in- creasing till it is traveling at the rate of seventy miles a day when it reaches Alaska by the middle of May. The robins along the Atlantic Coast travel more slowly, at the rate of seventeen miles a day. The average speed for all species of birds is twenty-three miles per day from New Orleans to southern Minnesota. From this locality some spe- BIRD TRAVELERS 7 cies travel northward at the rate of forty miles a day, and still farther north some at seventy-two miles, others at one hundred and sixteen miles, and five species, on arriving in Alaska, are traveling at the rate of one hundred and fifty miles a day. The figures here given are for the species as a whole, not for individual birds. Usually birds mi- grate only a few hours during the night and then rest for a day or two, so that the average rate at which a species migrates is much less than for an individual bird. Our common small birds prob- ably travel at the rate of about thirty miles an hour while migrating; ducks and geese may travel at the rate of forty-five miles an hour. Thus during a single night birds may travel from two hundred to four hundred miles. Daily time of migration. Some birds migrate by day, some by night, and some both by day and night, but most are night travelers. The time se- lected by a bird for migration depends on its power of flight, its method of procuring food, and its dis- position. The warblers, vireos, and thrushes mi- grate by night, the swallows and hawks by day; while ducks, shore-birds, and sea-birds migrate both by day and night. Routes. As birds travel between their winter and summer homes, it is found that they follow fairly well-defined routes. In the central United States the Mississippi Valley is the most common route, 8 BIRD FRIENDS and in the eastern United States, the coast-line. The route by which a bird travels north is usually the same as the one by which it returns south, al- though there are some exceptions to this rule. When birds which are en route for South Amer- ica reach the Gulf Coast of the Southern States, several routes are possible. A few birds pass from Florida and follow the chain of islands extending southeast —the Bahamas, Haiti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles— and thence to South America. A few fly from southern Florida to Cuba, thence to Jamaica, and then make the flight of five hun- dred miles from Jamaica to South America: the bobolink takes this route. A few birds, like the cliff swallows, follow along the coast of Mexico; but the great majority of species fly directly from the Gulf Coast of the Southern States across the Gulf of Mexico to the southern shore of the Gulf, a distance of from five hundred to seven hundred miles. From there the journey is continued through Central America to South America. Another route much used by water-birds extends from Nova Scotia to the Lesser Antilles and the northern coast of South America. It was the birds which were migrating along a portion of this route that guided Columbus to land. How birds find their way. One of the puzzling problems of migration is how birds find their way during these long journeys. On June 7, 1911, a BIRD TRAVELERS 9 chimney swift fell through an opening in a chimney into a room of a house located in Meriden, New Hampshire. Mr. E. H. Baynes was in the room and placed on the bird a small numbered leg-band and let the bird go. About one year later, on June 15, 1912, a chimney swift again fell through the same hole into the same room, and when Mr. Baynes took up the bird he found it to be the same one he had banded the year before. This bird had traveled to Central America, spent the winter there, and then traveled back to the same town, and to exactly the same chimney it had occupied the previous year. How had it been able to find its way over this long route back to the same nesting-site? Bird’s sight. Many theories have been advanced to explain how birds find their way. Probably no one theory will satisfy all conditions. There are doubt- less many factors needed to give a satisfactory ex- planation. One important factor is the bird’s sight. Birds have very keen eyesight, and it seems probable that birds flying at a great height may be guided by conspicuous landmarks, such as mountain-chains, coast-lines, and river-valleys which extend in the same direction as the routes of migration. In North America, the coast-lines and mountain-chains and the Mississippi Valley extend in the general direction in which most of the birds migrate. But this expla- nation alone is not sufficient, as birds may migrate at right angles to these landmarks, and may find their 10 BIRD FRIENDS way in a fog when landmarks are invisible, or over large bodies of water where no landmarks can be seen; and frequently birds fly so close to the ground or water that they cannot see any landmarks. And again birds may travel straight for long distances over routes which they have never seen before. Sense of direction. Still another suggestion is that birds have a sense of direction which enables them to find their way. This is simply ascribing a power to birds without any real explanation, but experiments which have been made with birds seem to show quite conclusively that some birds do pos- sess this sense of direction. Several birds were cap- tured on Bird Key south of Florida, and were placed in the hold of a steamship and taken north to Cape Hatteras, a distance of about one thousand miles from their nesting-sites, and released. Five days later, two of them were back on their nests. In this case no other explanation seems possible than that the birds found their way through a sense of direc- tion, as the birds had never flown over this route before, and could not see the way over which they had come, and so could not make use of any land- marks. Causes of migration. The most puzzling of all questions concerning migration is, why do birds migrate? At the outset it may be stated that bird students are not agreed as to the causes of migra- tion, but brief reference may be made to a few of the BIRD TRAVELERS ll theories*which have been put forward at various times to explain the cause of bird migration. Food and temperature. It is very commonly stated that lack of food and low temperatures cause birds to migrate. But even a very hasty examination of the facts shows that these do not explain migra- tion. The fall migration begins during the late sum- mer, when the temperature is still high, and at a time when insect life is abundant. Furthermore, during the spring migration, birds are traveling into regions where the temperature is lower and insect life is less abundant than in the regions which they are leaving. And again, some tropical sea-birds mi- grate from one section to another where the condi- tions of temperature and food-supply are practically the same. Glacial theory. One theory relates the origin of bird migration closely with the glacial age. Fossils which have been found show that before this age North America had a warm climate, even in its northern portions. ‘This climate must have been well adapted for bird life during all parts of the year. As the ice-sheet began to extend south, the birds were driven before it, and as it melted and receded north, the birds followed it back. In accordance with this theory, the habit which the birds thus acquired of moving back and forth, following the oscillations of the ice-sheet, was inherited eventually by the birds as an instinct and still exists to this day. 12 BIRD FRIENDS Physiological explanation. None of these theories is generally accepted by bird students as giving a satisfactory explanation of migration. It is probable that birds have a physiological instinct which prompts them to migrate in order to rear their young, just as their instinct leads to other actions, such as singing, mating, nest-building, egg-laying, and incubating. But this statement, of course, gives no explanation as to how and why this instinct originated. CHAPTER II BIRD MUSIC Why birds sing. Of the many interesting sounds in nature, bird songs are the most charming. The song of birds is a sexual characteristic developed in the male during the nesting-season. It is closely re- lated in the first place with mating, and is one means by which the male attracts the attention of the fe- male during courtship; it continues, however, dur- ing most of the nesting-season. Occasionally the female has been known to sing, as with the rose- breasted grosbeak and cardinal. While singing is primarily a sexual instinct with the birds, yet it may probably be carried on for the esthetic pleasure derived, as some birds seem to show appreciation of the harmony of music. Season when birds sing. Spring and early summer is the season of bird song, but there is a great varia- tion as regards the time when different species begin and end their song. The first birds that come in the spring begin to sing at once, so that the song sea- son in the northern United States begins in March. The song of the later arrivals is added to these, till the height of the song season is reached in May. As the family cares begin to occupy the attention of the 14 BIRD FRIENDS birds, they become more wary and busy, so that during June the volume of bird music gradually becomes less as the birds drop out of the chorus one by one. During July there is a still more marked decrease, till by the end of the month nearly all the birds have ceased singing, although a few continue well through the summer, such as the house wren and red-eyed vireo. When birds rear two broods, this tends to prolong the song season. Time of day when birds sing. The bird chorus begins in the early morning at earliest daybreak and reaches its climax about sunrise and then declines till it is nearly over by the middle of the forenoon, although a few birds, like the wren, sing nearly all day long. During the middle of the day most of the birds are quiet. The chorus begins again late in the afternoon and continues till some time after sun- set. The evening chorus is not so vigorous and long- continued as the morning chorus, although some species of birds sing rather more in the afternoon than in the morning. The birds do not all begin and end their morning song at the same time. Certain birds are usually among the first to begin, an hour or more before sunrise, such as the chipping sparrow, the robin, and the song sparrow, and as the morning advances other birds join the chorus. This order in which the different birds begin to sing is about the same from morning to morning. BIRD MUSIC 15 Identification by song. Bird songs are of interest to mankind for two reasons: as a means of identifying the singer and as a source of pleasure on account of the musical harmonies produced, just as one enjoys human music. When the leaves on the trees have developed in the late springtime, it is often difficult to see the birds which may be behind the foliage. But if one knows the song of the bird, he can identify it without seeing it. It is a source of much pleasure to be able to recognize the voices of one’s bird friends as he walks past their haunts. Music of bird songs. But the feature about bird songs that appeals most strongly to one is their har- mony, that reaches the musical sense which every one possesses in some degree. As one may plan to attend a concert to hear some of the fine musical produc- tions of the human voice, so one may plan to attend the morning or evening chorus of the birds to hear some of the fine musical productions of the bird’s voice. Each kind of music has its accompaniment. The human voice is usually accompanied by some instrument, which adds to the charm of the voice. The accompaniment of bird music is the natural sur- roundings in which it is rendered, the things that we associate with it. A beautiful sunset may be the accompaniment of the song of the vesper sparrow, a quiet wood on a hill-slope that of the hermit thrush, and a little tree-bordered brook that of the kinglet. These natural accompaniments are closely 16 BIRD FRIENDS interwoven with the songs and add greatly to our enjoyment of them. Methods of recording bird music. Several plans have been used for describing and recording bird songs. People differ so much in their way of inter- preting bird songs that no one method of description will be clear to all. One of the simplest methods of recording bird songs is to use syllables sounding like the song of the bird. In some cases this works very well, as in the case of the chickadee and some other birds which have been named from their song. In other cases the attempts to describe the song by syllables are not so successful, as different syllables may be used by different people. Following are some examples of attempts that have been made to describe songs this way: — Red-winged blackbird: kong-quer-ree, or o-ka-lee, or gug- lug-eee. These all agree in having three syllables and in having the last syllable end in e. Maryland yellow-throat: wichity, wichity. Flicker: wick, wick, wick. Nuthatch: guank, quank, quank. Oven-bird: teacher, teacher, teacher. Another way of recording songs is to use a series of dots or dashes to indicate the number of syl- lables and the difference in pitch. The song of the chestnut-sided wees might be represented thus: . This means that the song has ROBIN SINGING BIRD MUSIC 17 six syllables and that they are all on the same pitch except the next to the last, which is higher than the others. The song of the robin may be represented CUMS: ar. a : : . This indicates that fie notes are ee ditivered ¢ in groups of three, with an occasional two-note group. Still another method of recording bird songs is the attempt to write them on the musical scale used for human music. Following is a record of the rob- in’s song in musical notation, as given by Mr. Schuyler Mathews in his “ Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music”’: — Allegro agitato. = aaa : t c 2 ae we mf rs ROBIN In order that the three methods of recording bird songs may be compared, the song of the white- throated sparrow is given in each of these methods. By syllables: Old Sam ee ae Peabody. By dots: By musical staff: — d= 76. Moderato. — ne -p-° 8° 0 @ 6° © 6 9° - -O- mead at, aS NEN ee ae CE ESSN — Be 7 CA Tos a —— ae a | Ofts—to—t | | me CWZ- ot i i J vu WHITE-THROATED SPARROW (The bird sings two octaves higher) 18 BIRD FRIENDS Described in words, this last means that first come two long tones of equal length, then three groups of triplets, each group being equal in length to one of the long notes; and in each triplet the middle note is the shortest, the first note being equal to three of these and the last note equal to two of them. Similarity of bird music to human music. There is something of interest in the song itself as a musical production divested of its harmony and surroundings. Mr. Henry Oldys, who has made a special study of bird songs for a number of years, finds some interest- ing similarities between bird music and human mu- sic. First, the resemblances in form of structure are so close that it is possible to record many bird songs on the same musical scales that are used for human music. Mr. Oldys writes: — One especially remarkable point of resemblance be- tween bird and human music, however, cannot be too strongly emphasized. I have found the wood pewee and the wood thrush uttering songs, in some cases identical, in others nearly so, in structural form with many of our four-time ballads and hymns. This form is governed by the following unwritten rule: the first and third lines are identical; the second and fourth are identical in notes or character, except that the second ends with a note that leaves the musical sense suspended, and the fourth with one that satisfies it, the keynote. The wood pewee song follows this form strictly. BIRD MUSIC 19 Mr. Oldys gives the following song of the wood thrush as illustrating thisrule of the human ballad:— WOOD THRUSH - A second similarity between bird and human music is found in the fact that these two kinds of music have been developing along similar lines. Bird music to-day is very similar to human music in its earliest stages, and similar to the music of some prim- itive people to-day, and may even be superior to it. Bird duets. A third similarity is shown in the fact that birds possess a musical taste and show ap- preciation of musical tones. Mr. Oldys cites cases where birds sing duets, one immediately following the other, where the second bird sings a theme which naturally follows and completes the theme of the first bird. The birds have been known to repeat these several times, each waiting till the other fin- ishes. In some cases where two birds were singing unrelated themes, one bird has been known to change its theme soas to makeit harmonize with the other’s notes. This antiphonal form of singing has 20 BIRD FRIENDS been observed especially among meadowlarks, but also among chickadees, chewinks, song sparrows, and field sparrows. These duets are usually sung between birds of the same species, but occasionally are heard between birds of different species. The following records of duets are given by Mr. Oldys: — o6- £t: =f). oo “pst etTetTe et @ TT @ f i | | a a f H zi aE H 1 + H |e a eT I ll Tice al =a al Ces EEE ES ee US? I { DUET OF TWO FIELD SPARROWS | = 192). tr Pee |: a // Jere (ota # co Se i—7 i Chewink o= 89. 1 oe 2 2 pepe == £ Ago —} J Bewick’s Wren DUET OF CHEWINK AND BEWICK’S WREN Bird trios. Mr. Oldys also records a very unusual case of three meadowlarks singing a trio. Two larks were first singing unrelated phrases. One bird then changed its song to make it respond to that of the other, and after this was repeated several times, a third meadowlark cut in with a phrase related to BIRD MUSIC 21 the other two and appropriately placed, and the three birds sang twice around this trio. Og Brrp 2np Birp 1sr Birp fis f - F + fo + . fie tt eee tidy 5 LI CSE = TRIO OF MEADOWLARKS All these cases seem to show conclusively that birds do possess musical appreciation. Classification of bird songs. It is extremely diffi- cult to make a classification of bird songs that will appeal to all people in the same way, but the following crude grouping is suggested as hinting at some of the more conspicuous differences in bird songs: — Instrumentalists. The first group might be called “instrumentalists,” as they do not make the sound with the throat, but with the bill, wings, or an air- sac. In its general purpose, however, the sound made corresponds with the songs of the song-birds. The woodpeckers, the ruffed grouse, and the prairie chicken belong to this group. The woodpeckers pro- duce their note by beating on a limb with their bills. The grouse produces its sound by beating the air with its wings. The prairie chicken produces his booming sound by means of air-sacs situated on the sides of the head. Syllable songs. A second group of songs may in- clude those which possess enough similarity to 22 BIRD FRIENDS spoken syllables so that the bird has been named from its song. In this group belong such birds as the chickadee, bob-white, wood pewee, chebec, phoebe, and whip-poor-will. The songs of these birds are not very musical, but some are rather pleasing, as that of the chickadee. No sharp line can be drawn between these songs and the whistle songs men- tioned in the next paragraph, as some of these sylla- ble songs possess the character of a whistle. Whistle songs. In a third group may be placed most of the remainder of the song-birds which have a more or less complex song of a whistled character, many of which are very musical and pleasing. Some songs are monotonous, like that of the chip- ping sparrow; others are varied, like that of the song sparrow. Some are ringing and loud, like that of the Baltimore oriole; others are soft and subdued, like that of the vesper sparrow. Some are unmusical, like that of the phcebe; others are musical, like that of the wood thrush. Among the birds which deserve special mention, either on account of the variety or the pleasing qual- ity of their notes, are the house wren, the Baltimore oriole, the rose-breasted grosbeak, the catbird, the brown thrasher, the goldfinch, the song sparrow, the vesper sparrow, the wood thrush, the veery, and the hermit thrush. The wren’s song consists of a warble without much variety, but very cheerful, and given almost BIRD MUSIC 23 continuously during the day. ‘The grosbeak has a pleasing warble reminding one of the robin. The brown thrasher’s notes suggest an orchestra. The goldfinch has been well named the “wild canary.” The song of the vesper sparrow has a subdued, rest- ful character, frequently heard in the late afternoon. Probably the first place among the bird musicians should be given to one of the thrushes. There is a resonant, ringing, penetrating character about their notes that it is impossible to describe. Mr. Wilson Flagg writes in his ““A Year with the Birds”: — The singing birds with reference to their songs are dis- tinguishable into four classes: The rapid singers, whose song is uninterrupted, of considerable length, and deliv- ered in apparent ecstasy, like the bobolink; the moderate singers, whose notes are slowly modulated, without pauses or rests between the different strains, like the robin and veery; the interrupted singers, who sometimes modulate their notes with rapidity, but make a distinct pause after each strain, like the red thrush and hermit thrush. The fourth class includes birds whose lay con- sists only of two or three notes, not sufficient to be called a song, like the bluebird and golden robin. Variations in songs. A study of bird songs soon shows that while the songs of different birds of a given species are much alike in the rhythm, there is a great variation in different individuals in the notes used and in the excellence of rendering, so that the ear trained to bird music soon distinguishes 24 BIRD FRIENDS different robins and different orioles through their songs. There may also be a variation in the song of any one individual, dependent on age and season. The first efforts of the young bird to sing are not so near the type of that species as those which he makes in later seasons. Again the song of the individual may change as the season progresses, the song becoming shorter and shorter till it ceases altogether. Mr. Oldys reports that he has noted more than eighty different wood thrush phrases, and he says that song sparrows’ phrases are more diverse than those of wood thrushes. A song sparrow has been known to render twelve distinct themes in fifteen minutes. Individual differences are due, not only to the use of different phrases, but also to the way in which the phrases are rendered. There may be excellent rendering and poor rendering of the same phrase among birds, just as there are varying degrees of excellence among human voices. Range of voice. A study of the records made of bird songs suggests the pitch and range for different birds. The tones of nearly all birds are high-pitched, ranging between two and four octaves above middle C. The range of voice in different species varies from three notes for the chickadee to two octaves for the hermit thrush. A number of birds have a range of about one octave. BIRD MUSIC 25 Call notes. Besides their songs, birds also make sounds known as “call notes,” which differ from their songs in about the same way that human lan- guage differs from human songs. These call notes probably serve the purpose of a language by which birds communicate. They are used by all birds, both male and female, and at all times of the year. Some birds have a great variety of call notes, each representing some emotion, such as a hunger call, given by the young birds in the nest; the lost call of a young bird after leaving the nest; the warning call given to the young to show no signs of life in the face of danger; the recognition call, by which individuals of the same species are brought together in flocks, especially during migration; and the rally cry by which other birds are brought to the spot. An ob- server of the crow has recorded twenty-seven dis- tinct calls for this bird. CHAPTER II BIRD HOMES Courtship. The nesting-season begins with the courtship of the birds, during which time the birds mate in preparation for the nest-building and the rearing of the young. The male is in full song at this time and frequently performs curious antics as a means of attracting the attention of a mate. In some cases it is probable that birds mate for only one season, while in other cases it is believed that this mating lasts for life. Some birds, such as pheas- ants, are polygamous. The author once watched a male red-winged blackbird which had three mates, each with a nest and young ones. Distinguishing characteristics of nests. After the mating, the next step is the construction of the nest. Each species builds a characteristic nest similar to those built by its parents, so that it is possible from seeing a nest to tell the bird which made it. But while the nests of birds of the same species are quite similar, yet there are many individual variations within these limits set by the species. It is interest- ing to know that the first time a young bird builds a nest, it uses the same sort of material, makes the nest of the same shape, and constructs it in the same LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN AT NEST INSIDE OF HOUSE WREN’S NESTING-BOX BIRD HOMES Q7 manner as did its parents before it, although it has never seen a nest built. Time of building. There is a regular time and order in nest-building as there is in migration, although the order is not exactly the same. In any given locality certain kinds of birds begin to nest at about the same time each year; in some species the older birds beginning to nest before the younger ones. Certain birds, like the robin and bluebird, are always among the first to nest, and other birds, like the cedar-bird and goldfinch, are always among the last to nest, and this order of nesting remains the same from year to year. In the northeastern United States the first birds begin to nest in February (the great horned owl), the last begin the latter part of July (goldfinch), but May is preéminently the nest- building month. Some birds, like the robin, blue- bird, and house wren, rear two broods, and this brings the nesting-season well along into the mid- dle of the summer. The nesting-dates for a few common birds are given in the table on pages 61 and 62. Location of nest. Nests are found in a great va- riety of places. Many birds nest on the ground. Some of these, such as the bob-white and bobolink, build their nests in open fields. Others, such as the ruffed grouse and hermit thrush, build their nests on the ground in woods. The oven-bird builds an arched nest with an entrance on one side. Some birds, such 28 BIRD FRIENDS as the red-winged blackbird and the marsh wren, build their nests among the reeds of marshes, a few feet from the ground. Still others, as the field spar- row, catbird, chipping sparrow, and many warblers, build in low shrubberies or small trees. Others, as the robin, wood thrush, and many hawks, place their nests in the crotches of trees; while still others, such as the hummingbird and chebec, saddle them on to branches. Others hang their nests from branches, as do the Baltimore oriole and the vireos. The chimney swift glues the sticks of its nest together and attaches it to the chimney by means of its sticky saliva. Many birds nest in cavities in trees. Some birds, like the woodpeckers, drill these holes themselves. Other birds, such as the house wren, bluebird, and tree swallow, use holes which they find already made, either by woodpeckers or through decay. Kingfishers and bank swallows dig tunnels in banks and rear their young here. These tunnels ex- tend from three to eleven feet. At the end of the tunnel the swallow makes an enlargement and con- structs a nest of straw and feathers, but the king- fisher usually makes no nest. The question is often asked whether birds use the same nest more than once. Birds differ in this re- spect. John Burroughs divided birds into three groups. One group, as the bluebird, house wren, fish hawk, and eagle, repairs the last year’s nest. BIRD HOMES 29 A second group, including the phcebe, builds a new nest each season, but may rear more than one brood in the nest. A third group, which includes most of our birds, builds a new nest each year and for each brood when more than one is reared. Materials. Birds use a great variety of materials in the construction of their nests. Among the more common materials are dry grass, rootlets, small twigs, and hair. Robins and barn swallows use mud. The Baltimore oriole uses string, yarn, and hair. The catbird uses strips of bark from the grapevine. The house wren fills its nesting-cavity with small twigs. The pheebe constructs its nest of mosses and mud. Many nests contain materials which man has indi- rectly furnished, such as strings, yarn, pieces of cloth and of paper. The nest is usually lined with a finer, softer ma- terial than that used in the foundation. The chip- ping sparrow uses horsehair for a lining, and many birds use a very fine plant down. The crested fly- catcher almost invariably puts into its nest a cast- off snake-skin. Shape. The shape of the nest of the robin and chebec has been observed in a number of cases to be moulded by the breast of the bird, which moves round and round in the nest fitting it to the breast. The cavities which woodpeckers make are found to agree in general shape. This cavity is not simply a hole of uniform diameter, but it is somewhat flask- 30 BIRD FRIENDS shaped, gradually growing larger till near the bottom, and then tapering to a point. The only materials in the woodpecker’s nest are the chips that happen to fall down, and the pointed cavity keeps the eggs from rolling around. The marsh wren builds a globular nest attached to the reeds of the marsh and makes an entrance at one side. So strongly developed is the nesting in- stinct in this bird that it builds several extra nests besides the one which it uses. Time occupied in building. Observations have been made on birds while building nests and it is found that the time occupied in building the nest varies, both with the species of bird and with the same species at different times. A pair of house wrens was found to occupy seven days in construct- ing anest. This nest contained one thousand sticks, so that about one hundred and fifty sticks were brought a day, or an average of ten per hour. Mr. Francis H. Herrick watched a pair of robins building and found that they completed the nest in three days. On the first day the birds worked five hours; on the second, fourteen, and on the third four and one half, making a total of twenty-three and one half hours. On the first day, both male and female worked; on the second and third days, the female alone. During this time two hundred and eighteen loads of material were brought to the nest. On the first day an average of seventeen visits per YOUNG GREEN HERONS IN NEST TWO-STORIED NEST OF YELLOW WARBLER Showing cowbird’s egg sealed in lower nest * BIRD HOMES 31 hour was made; on the second day, eight visits; and on the third day, five visits. Cowbird. The cowbird never makes a nest of her own, but lays her eggs in the nests of other birds, and these eggs are usually hatched and the young reared by the foster mother. These eggs are gener- ally laid in the nests of birds smaller than the cow- bird, so that when the eggs hatch, the young cow- bird gets more than its share of food and gradually either starves the other nestlings or crowds them out of the nest, so that the rearing of this parasite usu- ally means the destruction of all the other nestlings. There are ninety species of birds on which the cowbird has been known to impose in this way. When the young cowbird is full-grown and leaving the nest, it is a most curious sight to see the little foster mother feed her adopted baby. Once the author saw a little mother redstart, a little over five inches in length, following around and feeding anearly full-grown cowbird nestling, about eight inches long. The little mother seemed quite as con- cerned over her big baby as she would have been over her own offspring. There are a number of interesting records showing how the yellow warbler meets this difficulty. When she has found a cowbird’s egg in her nest, she has been known to make another nest on top of the first, thus sealing up the intruder’s egg, and then to lay her eggs and rear her young in the second story. 32 BIRD FRIENDS And when the cowbird has visited the nest again and laid her egg in this second nest, the warbler has been known to build a third nest on top of the other and there rear her young, in the third story. This action certainly strongly suggests some degree of intelli- gence on the part of the warbler. Number of broods. The general rule among birds is that one brood is reared each season, but a num- ber of common birds, such as the robin, bluebird, and wren, rear two, and perhaps occasionally three broods; and the English sparrow has been known to rear six broods in a season. Change in nesting-habits. Many birds have changed their nesting-habits to adapt themselves to the conditions brought about by man. Chimney swifts, which formerly nested in hollow trees, now nest in chimneys. Cliff swallows now nest under eaves instead of on cliffs. The purple martin has left its nesting-sites in hollow trees and now nests al- most entirely in houses provided for it. The phabe has largely abandoned its nesting-place on the face of cliffs and now nests around sheds and barns and under bridges. Many birds which formerly nested in cavities now nest in boxes provided for them. The most common occupants of these houses are wrens, bluebirds, and martins, CHAPTER IV HOME LIFE OF BIRDS The eggs. The most common colors found among birds’ eggs are white and various shades of brown and blue. It seems to be a general rule that eggs which are laid in cavities, where they are not easily seen, like the woodpeckers’, are white; and those which are laid in more exposed positions take on some brighter color. But there are exceptions to these generalizations. Some eggs are of a uniform color, while others are spotted or mottled. The number of eggs laid varies from one to twenty. For most of our common land-birds the number ranges from four to six. Incubation. The period of incubation ranges from twelve days for a small bird like the chipping spar- row to twenty-eight days for a large bird like the osprey. The larger the egg, the longer the time usu- ally required for incubation. The work of incubation is done chiefly by the female, but in some cases the male may help, or the male may feed the female on the nest. While the female is incubating the eggs, one of the chief duties of the male is to drive away any intruding birds or animals that may come within a certain distance. 34 BIRD FRIENDS Condition of young at birth. For the most part the lower forms of birds are precocial, the young being ready to walk when first hatched; the higher forms are altricia]l, the young being helpless and re- quiring the care of the parents. This constant care of the young is a sign of advancement among all animals. Probably the first birds were all precocial and some gradually evolved the altricial habit. Time in nest. The time that the altricial birds remain in the nest varies with the size of the birds. In general the larger birds remain longer in the nest than do the smaller birds. In the case of the song sparrow, the young may leave the nest at the end of a week, while some birds may remain several months in the nest; but for most of our common birds the time averages about two weeks. The following tables give in brief form some facts regarding the nesting-habits of a few birds. These figures represent observations made of a particular pair of birds. Observations on other birds of the same species would doubtless give different figures. But these results give at least an approximate idea of the time involved in these various activities. The incompleteness of this table suggests how many things are yet to be learned about the habits of our common birds. The work of the parent birds in rearing their young consists chiefly in three activities: feeding the young, cleaning the nest, and brooding the young. HOME LIFE OF BIRDS 35 Time taken to| Number | Time in | Period of |Time in Name of bird) build nests | of eggs laying eggs| incubation | nest (days) (days) (days) | (days) Cedar-bird.. 2 4 4 10 14 Bluebird..... 7 3 3 15 19 Kingbird 4 13 18 Kingfisher 5 25 Nighthawk... 1 18 Baltimore oriole... .. 7 5 14 14 Robin....... 8 3 14 12 Phoebe 5 12 14 Song sparrow. 4 5 12 zi English spar- ; TOW....... 5 ae Wood thrush. 4 12 House wren. . vi 7 7 13 17 Feeding the young. Birds eat enormous amounts of food and grow with remarkable rapidity. Obser- vations made on young birds show that they may eat their own weight of food in a day and increase in weight fifty per cent. One observer watched a nest of cedar waxwings and weighed the young each day till they left the nest. He found that the weight of one nestling was doubled on the first day, more than trebled on the second, and nearly quadrupled on the third. By the twelfth day it had increased in weight thirteen fold, and was nearly three times as long as when first hatched. The parents usually begin to feed the young at about sunrise und continue till sunset, making a working day of about fifteen hours. Observations 36 BIRD FRIENDS show that on the average many birds feed their young about every four minutes, or about two hun- dred times a day. In order to convey some idea of the vast amount of food consumed by nestlings, a table is given below showing the number of times the young are fed hourly, during the day, as learned from actual ob- servation. The number of visits varies with the age of nestlings, as they are generally fed oftenér when nearly fledged than when first hatched. Times family 7 Age o Name of bird fed none | Number a, eae of nestlings (days) Red-winged blackbird 10 3 10 Bluebird tec: cacsecse 13 3 5 Catbitd 2s cec2 er: aes 13 4 uh Cedar-bird........... 6 4 9 Rose-breasted gros- Beales. sses1 canes 40 4 Not recorded Kingbird 36325 ese ned 23 4 12 19 4 10 17 2 4 7 3 9 7 4 7 14 6 13 Red-eyed vireo....... 7 2 7 House wren.......... 19 4 3 Average......... 15 Kind of food. The kind of food fed the young is usually the same kind that the adults use, which for most birds is insects, but in the case of the seed-eat- ing birds, like sparrows, the young are fed at first HOME LIFE OF BIRDS 37 almost exclusively on insects. The most common kinds of food are caterpillars, spiders, and grass- hoppers. Some birds feed fruit to their young, the kingfishers feed fish,and hawks and owls feed mice and other rodents. Large insects are frequently broken into smaller pieces by the parents before being fed to the young. Some birds, like the hummingbird and flicker, feed their young by regurgitation. The food is first par- tially digested in the crop or stomach of the parent bird and then fed to the young by the parent bird’s inserting its bill far into the mouth of the nestling. As a prevention against overfeeding, young birds have an instinctive response in the throat. The parents place the food in the throat, and if the gullet is already full, the throat does not respond, and the parent removes the food and puts it into the throat of another, till one is found which does respond. Cleaning the nest. Another duty of the parents is to keep the nest clean. The excreta of the young are voided in membranous sacs, and these are either removed by the parent or swallowed. Brooding. During hot days birds may frequently be seen brooding their young. They stand with spreading wings and tail shielding the young from the sun’s rays, often themselves panting with wide- opened bills. During hot days this may occupy a large portion of the bird’s time, the bird sometimes 38 BIRD FRIENDS remaining for a period of forty minutes without leav- ing. In the same way the birds may protect their young from rain. A house wren’s day. In order to give some idea of the activities of birds while rearing their young, the following account of a day’s observations of a pair of house wrens is given. During the summer of 1913 the class in nature- study at the Mankato State Normal School kept a detailed record for one day of the feeding activities of a pair of house wrens which reared their young in a nesting-house located on the writer’s grounds. The class was divided into ten sections and each section watched the birds for an hour and a half. The young wrens were two days old. The day was a typical, clear summer day with the temperature 67 degrees at 4 o’clock a.m. In the afternoon there was a heavy shower. The observations began at 4 A.m., a half-hour be- fore sunrise, and extended till 8.20 p.m., a half-hour after sunset. The birds began to feed their young at 4.36, three minutes before sunrise, and continued till 7.58, thirteen minutes after sunset, thus making a working day of fifteen hours and twenty-two min- utes. At the end of the day the records were summar- ized with the following results: The young birds were fed two hundred and thirty-eight times, two hun- dred and eighteen by the female, eighteen by the male, and on two visits the sex was not deter- A WREN MOTHER AND HER FAMILY MOTHER WORKS WHILE FATHER SINGS Pair of house wrens HOME LIFE OF BIRDS 39 mined. The following table shows the summary by hours: — Sex unde- Hour By female | By male | ined Total 6 0 6 20 1 21 17 0 17 14 1 15 15 0 2 17 19 2 21 14 0 14 12 1 13 17 2 19 10 1 11 17 2 19 13 4 17 16 1 17 8 0 8 10 1 11 10 2 12 otal is dee oa aheiiaes 218 18 2 238 Average per hour...... 14 1 15 The longest time between any two consecutive feedings was twelve minutes, except during the shower, when a period of sixteen minutes elapsed. The shortest time between two consecutive feedings by the same parent was one half-minute. The male was singing most of the day. Frequently he sang with an insect in his closed bill, sometimes waiting several minutes before feeding the young. Three times during the day he drove away a red squirrel, and once another wren. During the remainder of the time that the young were in the nest, they were watched occasionally 40 BIRD FRIENDS from day to day for short periods, with the follow- ing results: — Number of times fed Age of Nest Date Time young cleaned (days) By By Sex (times) fe- dle un- | Total male | ™ known July 4] 12- 1pm. 5 12 7 ote 19 AS July 6 | 12- 1pm. 4 EL 3 2 16 6 July 11 5— 6 P.M. 12 12 10 a 25 5 July 13 9-10 a.m. 14 10 12 es 22 6 July 13 1- 2PM. 14 11 10 ah 21 4 July 13 4-5 PM. 14 8 6 g 16 4 July 13 6- 7 P.M. 14 10 10 sue 20 ¢g On July 14 the young birds left the nest. As shown by the above table, on July 13, when the young were fourteen days old, the birds were watched for four hours at different times of the day, showing an average of nineteen and three fourths feedings per hour. For the day of fifteen hours, this would mean three hundred and three times per day. Taking the average between this and two hundred and thirty-eight, the times the young were fed when two days old, we get two hundred and seventy times as the average number of times the young were fed daily during the period they were in the nest. Mul- tiplying this by fifteen, the number of days the young were in the nest, gives four thousand and fifty as the total number of times the young were fed. As the parent often brought more than one insect HOME LIFE OF BIRDS 41 at a visit, the rearing of this wren family meant the destruction of from four to five thousand insects. The largest number of times the young were fed in an hour was twenty-five, immediately after a storm when the young were twelve days old. The smallest number of times was eight during a heavy shower when the birds were two days old. During the first days of rearing the young, most of the feeding was done by the female alone, but later more assistance was given by the male, until on the last day the work was about equally divided be- tween them. During the summer of 1914, a pair of Baltimore orioles was watched in a similar way for a day. The parents began to feed at 4.45 a.m., and finished at 8.45 P.M., a period of sixteen hours. Altogether the young were fed two hundred and eighty-five times, one hundred and fifty-four by the female and one hundred and thirty-one by the male, or an average of nineteen times an hour. Devotion of parents. While caring for their young, birds show a most remarkable devotion, sel- dom deserting their nest, regardless of what may happen. They show reckless courage in trying to protect their young from intruders, sometimes even striking a person with their bills. Care after leaving the nest. After the young leave the nest, they must be taught many lessons before they are able to care for themselves. One of 42 BIRD FRIENDS the first lessons learned is how to fly. The parents will often hold the food in front of the young and fly from branch to branch to induce the young to do the same. The young must also be taught where to find their own food and how to pick it up. When the young first leave the nest, they do not even know how to pick up an insect. If food is brought and placed beside them, they stand with heads thrown back and mouths wide open, expecting to be fed as they always have been while in the nest, and make no attempt to pick up the food. The parents teach the young by doing the action over and over again before them, and then leaving the young be- side the food for a long time. And besides these there are many other lessons the young birds must learn. This period of schooling is very brief, probably only a few weeks, and in the case of birds that rear two broods, the first brood is hardly properly taught before the second brood is started. Enemies. During the time that the young are in the nest and for a short time just after leaving it, the birds are exposed to many dangers and fall victims to their many enemies. Probably only a small pro- portion of young birds ever reach maturity. From the time the first egg is laid, the difficulties arise. Some enemies destroy the eggs; such as the crow, blue jay, and red squirrel. And sometimes boy egg- collectors may devastate a whole neighborhood. HOME LIFE OF BIRDS 43 When the young are hatched, they are utterly help- less and fall a prey to any enemy that can reach the nest. Undoubtedly the worst enemy of nesting birds is the cat. It finds the nests on the ground and climbs to nests situated in trees, and easily catches the young birds just as they are learning to fly, and may even kill the old birds while they are defending their young. Another very destructive enemy is the squirrel, which is able to reach almost any nest. Then, too, many birds are destroyed by unfavorable weather, by hailstorms and cold rainstorms, which chill the birds and reduce the food-supply to the star- vation point. Ground-nesting birds on the farm are exposed to the dangers of mowing and other farm operations. Mr. Frank M. Chapman has well said, “With such an array of adverse conditions and re- lentless foes, the bird which reaches maturity may be said to have escaped nine tenths of the dangers to which bird flesh is heir.” CHAPTER V THE COLORS AND PLUMAGE OF BIRDS Moulting of scarlet tanager. The bright colors of plumage found on some birds have been one means of attracting attention to the study of bird life. Quite as interesting as the bright colors themselves are the changes in color through which a bird may pass during a year. The case of the scarlet tanager may be taken as an illustration. When the young bird first leaves the nest, its general color is vellow- ish green above and streaked below. During the fall these feathers are moulted and a new set appears, the bird being olive green above and greenish yellow below, with brown wings and tail. The bird passes the winter in this plumage, that of the male and female being similar. In the spring the bird again moults and the male acquires the bright-red body feathers, while the female retains its olive-green color. These are the breeding-plumages which the birds re- tain during the summer. In the fall the birds moult again and the male again acquires the greenish plum- age of the previous winter except that its wings and tail are now black instead of brown. Moulting. All birds moult in the fall, and when the male in his summer plumage is more brightly COLORS AND PLUMAGE OF BIRDS 45 colored than the female, he takes on during the win- ter a duller color similar to that of the female. Some birds moult again in the spring, as in the case of the brightly colored birds just mentioned, when the male again acquires his bright breeding-plumage. Some- times this moult is complete, sometimes only par- tial. Change due to wear. A bird’s color may also change by wear and fading. The tip of a feather may be of a different color from the rest of the feather, and when this tip wears off, another color will be ex- posed. When the male bobolink first moults in the spring, it is of a yellowish color, due to yellow tips on the feathers. In a few weeks these yellow tips wear off exposing the black and giving the bird its characteristic summer plumage. Other illustrations -are found in the snow bunting and red-winged blackbird. Changes in color. The color of an individual bird may change in accordance with two factors, age and season. The plumage of the nestling is often differ- ent in color from that which it later acquires. When the male and female are differently colored, the young usually resemble the female, as with the gold- finch and scarlet tanager. In the case of the blue- bird, however, the young birds have spotted breasts and resemble neither of the adults entirely, although even here the general color is similar to that of the female. When the male and female are alike, the 46 BIRD FRIENDS young usually resemble them, as in the case of the chickadee. But in the case of the red-headed wood- pecker, the young lack the brightly colored feathers that both adults possess on the head. The color of a bird may also change according to season. In the case of those birds in which the male and female are differently colored, the male has two distinct plumages, that of the summer, which is usu- ally conspicuously colored, and that of the winter, which is usually dull-colored. And during the two moulting periods when the bird is changing from one plumage to another, it may show a partial combina- tion of both plumages. Differences in sex. Some species of birds show a difference in color between the male and the female. Sometimes this difference may be slight, as in the yellow warbler, Baltimore oriole, and bluebird, in- volving only different shades of the same color; or it may be extremely conspicuous, involving an entire change of color, as with the red-winged blackbird and its sparrow-like mate, the scarlet tanager and its greenish mate, the rose-breasted grosbeak and its brownish mate. Other examples are the indigo bunting, goldfinch, and bobolink. Protective coloration. Naturalists are not agreed as to the significance of the extremely bright colors found on some birds, but it seems to be a very gen- eral law that the coloring of many birds is such as to render them inconspicuous and thus furnish pro- BALTIMORE ORIOLE Upper, male; lower, female COLORS AND PLUMAGE OF BIRDS 47 tection from their enemies; hence the term, “‘pro- tective coloration.” Many birds that live on the ground, such as the ruffed grouse and woodcock, are so similar in appearance to their surroundings that the birds are rendered almost invisible. Many birds are protected by the law of coun- ter-shading. The back which is exposed to the light, is darker than the breast, which is in the shadow, and the sides gradually shade from dark above to light below. The effect of this gradation in coloring is to make the bird so harmonize with its surroundings that it is rendered much less conspicuous than it would otherwise be. It is very common to find birds with the under parts lighter colored than the upper parts; such as the house wren, phoebe, red-eyed vireo, cuckoo, and many others. This law has been worked out and proved by means of interesting ex- periments by Abbott H. Thayer. CHAPTER VI HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS Attractions of bird-study. The only way really to know the birds is to study them in the field in their natural environment. Bird-study furnishes one of the most attractive hobbies. The pleasure that birds furnish in this way makes their esthetic value quite as important as their economic value. Bird ac- tivities pass through so many changes in the course of a year that there is no opportunity for bird- study to become monotonous. Then, too, bird-study takes one out into the fields, in the open, so that the setting in which bird-study is carried on is in itself attractive. While the individuals of a species change, the species remains about the same to us, and thus we come to associate with certain birds some of our pleasantest reminiscences. People and conditions in our former homes may change, but as we return to visit these scenes of our younger days, the bird life remains unchanged to welcome us and remind us of former days. While special trips to the woods and water to look for birds offer many pleasant hours, yet, perhaps, the greatest pleasure from bird-study comes through the observation of the birds found around one’s HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 49 home, as one sits on the porch and watches the wrens and bluebirds rear their young in the houses pro- vided for them, or sees the robins and flickers that dot the lawn in search of insects, or hears the bird chorus that swells through the open window as one awakens in the early spring morn. The pleasure thus derived is the lasting, unconscious enjoyment that becomes an intimate part of one’s life. Birds also appeal to the imagination on account of the annual cycle of life changes through which they pass over and over again year after year. It seems as though every spring birds were reborn and lived their lives over again, so that youth seems forever renewed with the return of the first birds. There are all stages of attainment possible to suit every condition, from the identifying of a few birds in the field up to the most careful study of bird hab- its, which may occupy one’s entire time. One of the most satisfactory methods of studying bird life is to observe close at hand in one’s yard the birds that may be attracted there by nesting-houses, foun- tains, and food. This will be discussed more fully in the chapters on attracting birds. Identification. The first step in bird-study is the identification of birds. Learning a bird’s name is much like an introduction to a person; it is a means by which a new friendship may be formed. But there is a great deal of pleasure in merely learning to name the birds. Many people will never care to go beyond 50 BIRD FRIENDS this point in bird-study. The ability to name the birds from year to year as they return in the spring is one of the chief pleasures in bird-study, and gives a sort of feeling of friendship for the birds. But in the process of learning the names of birds, one of necessity learns many interesting things about them. There is a sort of fascination to see if one can learn to name all the birds of a locality. It serves as an incentive from year to year, as one recognizes the old friends, to try each year to make a few new friends, as well as to get better acquainted with the old. Equipment. In order to name the birds, the first essential is a bird book. There is a great variety of books on the market adapted to every requirement. For the purpose of identification the most helpful books are those that contain colored pictures. For a beginner in bird-study, who knows only a few birds, Reed’s “ Land Birds” is well adapted. This contains a small colored picture of every land bird in the eastern United States, accompanied by a brief description of the bird. This is a small book and can easily be carried in the field. Mr. Reed has a companion volume entitled ‘‘ Water Birds,” on the same general plan. These books cost from seventy- five cents to one dollar and a quarter, according to the binding. After one has made a beginning and can name twenty-five or thirty birds, an excellent book for general reference is Chapman’s “Handbook of Birds TOWHEE, OR CHEWINK Upper, male; lower, female HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 51 of Eastern North America.” This contains a de- tailed description of all the birds of eastern North America, and about one hundred pages of reading matter about bird habits. This costs three dollars and a half. Another helpful book for identification is Ralph Hoffmann’s ‘“‘Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York.” Provided with these books one may hope to name most of the common birds. These and other bird books may be obtained through bookstores or through the National Association of Audubon So- cieties, 1974 Broadway, New York City. Tf one has access to a museum with a collection of birds, the study of the specimens there will be a great help in identifying the birds found in the field, but pictures may serve as a satisfactory substitute. Separate colored plates of birds may be obtained of the Association of Audubon Societies, just men- tioned, at two cents each. The pictures of about ninety birds have been issued so far and new ones are being made each year. A pair of opera- or field-glasses is a wonderful help to bird-study. Some birds are easily frightened, and often it is not possible to approach near enough to see them distinctly without glasses. Many of our common birds have become accustomed to man and allow one to approach them closely, but glasses add much pleasure to bird-study and render it much more effective and satisfactory. A very good glass, 52 BIRD FRIENDS magnifying three diameters, may be obtained for six dollars from the National Association of Audu- bon Societies. Points to observe. Color is the best aid in the identification of birds in the field. When a new bird is seen, a record should be made at the time, in a notebook provided for the purpose, of the color markings and their location, whether on head, back, tail, wings, or breast. The size should be noted in comparison with some well-known bird, like the robin or English sparrow. The shape of the bill is also a help in identification. Shapes of wings and peculiarities in method of flight should be noted. Some birds are on the wing almost constantly. Some birds have white lateral tail feathers, which show only in flight, and these make good field marks for identification. These are found on the vesper sparrow, junco, meadowlark, and towhee. Some birds are usually found on tree-trunks; as the woodpeckers, the nuthatch, and the brown creeper. The nuthatch can be told by its method of hopping down the tree-trunk head first. One of the best ways of identifying birds is through their songs. Birds can thus be identified at a long distance and when hidden in the foliage of trees and shrubs. It is difficult to make a record of these songs that will help any one else, but some record made at the time may help the one making it in identifying the bird later. HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 53 Many birds have one or two conspicuous field marks by which they may be identified. So that it is not necessary to make a detailed description of every part of all birds seen, as one soon comes to learn these conspicuous markings and to name the birds from them. Where to find birds. The best place to begin the study of birds is right around one’s own home, if this be situated in the country or a small town, or on the edge of a city. Many birds prefer to live around human habitations if the houses are not too thickly crowded together. If measures are taken to attract birds and if they are protected from their enemies, the number of birds found around one’s home may be increased. The birds found here one may enjoy at all times without undertaking any special bird trips. If one lives in a city, the parks are good places in which to study birds, especially during the spring migration. In the Boston Public Gar- den, one hundred and ten species have been re- ported in nine years; in Lincoln Park, Chicago, one hundred and fourteen species have been seen; and in Central Park, New York City, one hundred and forty species have been recorded. In alittle book by Herbert-E. and Alice H. Walter, entitled ‘“‘ Wild Birds in City Parks,” the authors write in their preface: — Any one caring to make use of these hints may be assured that during the migrations of the birds, city dwellers have one of the keenest delights of country life 54 BIRD FRIENDS brought to their very doors, because many birds, migrat- ing largely at night, are attracted by the lights of the city and stop off in their long journey to feed, so that a city park often contains a greater variety of feathered visitors than an equal area in the country. One will see a greater variety of birds if he visits a number of different localities. Some birds have certain habitats where they are chiefly found. In the swamps are found water-birds, which are not often found elsewhere. In the woods one is more apt to see the vireos, warblers, and some of the thrushes. In the meadows are found the bobolinks and some of the sparrows. The orchard is a locality where a great variety of birds may be found. When to find birds. A good time to begin the study of birds is in the late winter or early spring. The number of birds seen at this time is compara- tively small, and it is not so confusing to the beginner as it is later when the birds are numerous. By start- ing at this time one may learn a few birds at a time and keep increasing the number as the later mi- grants arrive. Another advantage in beginning at this time is that the birds can easily be seen, because there is no foliage to conceal them. Later in the season, when the leaves have developed, it is much more difficult to see them. The spring is the most interesting season to study birds. It is the season of bird song and of nesting, and birds render themselves very conspicuous at RED-HEADED WOODPECKER HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 55 this time. Later, when home duties begin, there is less singing and birds are more wary about exposing themselves. June, when the nesting-season is at its height, is also an interesting month for bird-study. During the late summer, birds are moulting, and re- main quiet and concealed, so that it is a discouraging season for bird-study. Then during the fall follows a more active period when the fall migration is un- der way. During the winter there is opportunity to study at close hand the winter birds that may be attracted by food. , The best time of the day to study birds is in the early morning up to about nine o’clock, as this is the time when birds are most active and do most of their singing. The next best time is in the late after- noon. How to study birds. In order that one may be most successful in finding birds, a few precautions need to be observed. Loud noises should be avoided, as should quick, sudden movements. It is well sometimes to seat one’s self in one place and remain quiet for some time, to find the birds that may be seen in that one locality. Birds may be attracted by making a sort of squeak, which is made by kissing the back of the hand vigorously. This will often bring out birds whose presence had not been sus- pected. Every season of the year has something new in the line of bird activities, so that there is a constant 56 BIRD FRIENDS variety of interesting things to attract one’s atten- tion. What to study. Beginning in the early spring- time and continuing till the last of May, one may keep a record of the spring migration. In its sim- plest form this may consist of two columns giving the name of the bird and the date when first seen. To this may be added as many more points as one wishes, such as place where seen, number, etc. These records may be kept in the following tabular form: — Name of bird Date when Place where Number seen first seen seen It is interesting to spend all of a day or a part of a day during May in the field, to see how many birds one can find in a day. This is the season when one can find the greatest number in the northern United States, as it may include permanent and summer residents and transient visitants. Songs. Shortly after birds arrive in the spring, they are in full song, and this bird music forms one of the most attractive features for study. Some of the things that may be noted are the time of day when the song is given, length of singing-season, character of song, its variety, pitch, quality, location of bird when given, and whether given on the wing. Some brief description of the song written in a notebook HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 57 will help fix it more firmly in the mind. Any of the methods described in Chapter II may be used, or simply a description in words may be given. An- other interesting study is to begin just before sun- rise some morning in May, and note the order in which the different birds begin to sing, and the order in which they leave off as the day progresses. Like- wise the order of beginning and stopping in the late afternoon. Nesting-habits. The nesting-season offers oppor- tunity for the closest observation of birds. Many things may be learned which have never before been recorded. Some things that may be observed are the location of the nest, materials used in making it, work done by male and female, length of time re- quired to build, number and color of eggs, time of incubation, number of times young are fed in an hour, kind of food brought, how the work is divided between male and female, time young remain in nest, care of young after leaving nest. During the height of the nesting-season, about the middle of June, a list may be made of all the birds seen for a week, which will include those birds that nest in a locality, as by this time the transient visit- ants have departed. The United States Bureau of Biological Survey has begun to have annual censuses taken by volun- teer bird-students throughout the United States, so that some definite information may be obtained re- 58 BIRD FRIENDS garding the number of birds and the need for their protection and increase. Details of how this census is to be made may be obtained by writing to the Bureau of Biological Survey, Washington, D.C. Winter birds. During the winter, birds may be attracted around the home by means of food placed on trees and shelves and even on the window- sill, and thus an opportunity offered to study birds through the window even in the coldest weather. Different kinds of food may be tried to see which each bird likes best and which foods birds will eat. The habits of the birds in approaching the food and in eating it are interesting to watch. Christmas census. It has been the custom of ** Bird-Lore”’ to invite its readers to make a bird census on Christmas Day and to send the list of birds seen to “Bird-Lore.”’ These lists are published in the next issue of the magazine. Below is a sam- ple record taken from the January-February issue, 1915: — Eagle Bend, Minn.— Dec. 24; 10 am. to 4 PM. Clear; about 3 in. of snow; no wind; temp.—5°. Bob- white, 12; Ruffed Grouse, 4; Pileated Woodpecker, 2; Hairy Woodpecker, 4; Downy Woodpecker, 3; Evening Grosbeak, 10; White-breasted Nuthatch, 2; Black-capped Chickadee, 11. Total, 8 species, 48 individuals. In the census for 1914 the greatest number of birds was reported from Santa Barbara, California; 108 species, 7269 individuals; the smallest number Location Date. Hour Weather Wind. SIZE: Between sparrow and robin Smaller than wren Between robin and crow Between wren and sparrow Larger than crow SEEN: Bushy places Swamp Near ground or High up Orchard Open country In Heavy woods Garden Near water Name Order Family Genus. Species COLORS: 1 Black 6 Chestnut 11 Gray 2 White 7 Yellow 12 Slate 3 Blue 8 Orange 13 Rusty 4 Red 9 Green 14 White washed 5 Brown 10 Olive green with yellow REMARKS: (Such as wing bars, white in tail, eye ring, shape of bill, marks on head, notes or song, characteristic movements, details of nest.) [On the outline on the preceding page numbers are to be placed in accordance with the table above to show the kind and location of colors.] HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 59 from Buffalo, New York, 4 species, 8 individuals. In the northern part of the United States the num- ber was smaller than in the southern part. The aver- age number of species reported from the northern sections ranged from 7 to 15. A number of bird notebooks are published in which one may record his observations, for the purpose of identification. Opposite is a sample leaf from a book sold for fifteen cents by the National Association of Audubon Societies, New York City. Bird photography. Another means of studying birds which some people employ with much pleas- ure is to photograph them. All kinds of outfits may be used, from the ordinary focusing camera with an ordinary lens up to the most expensive reflex camera with the best kind of lens. As birds are small, the camera must be placed near in order to get an image of sufficient size, and hence the camera must be provided with a long draw of bellows and a long- focus lens. In order that the birds may come near enough to the camera so that a satisfactory picture may be secured, it is usually necessary to work the shutter from a distance. One of the simplest methods is to use a spool of linen thread. The thread is fastened to the shutter and then this may be worked by pull- ing the thread from any desired distance. Sometimes birds will become so tame that one may stand by the camera and take pictures, as when photographing 60 BIRD FRIENDS from inside the window birds feeding on a window- sill. The two best seasons for photographing birds are the spring and summer, when the birds are nesting, and the winter, when they come to eat food pro- vided for them. If one attracts birds around his home, he will find many opportunities for photo- graphing them. The birds that use nesting-boxes become tame and may easily be photographed after the young are hatched, as the parents enter and leave the box. One may watch the birds to see how they approach and where they usually alight, and then the camera may be focused on this spot, and when the bird is in the right position, the thread may be pulled. Likewise, the winter birds become very tame, coming to the window shelf for food, and the camera may be set up just inside the window and the picture taken through the window-pane. A little patience will often enable one to secure a picture of a bird feeding from the hand. During one winter the au- thor was able to secure pictures of the nine following species: chickadee, white-breasted nuthatch, downy woodpecker, brown creeper, blue jay, hermit thrush, myrtle warbler, junco, and song sparrow. Pictures of all except the junco were obtained at the window- sill. Pictures of the chickadee feeding from the hand were secured. Besides these pictures of birds that nest in boxes HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS 61 there will be many opportunities of photographing the nests and eggs of other birds and the parents feeding their young. Many people are now using the camera instead of the gun, and it is found that the use of the camera requires much more skill and patience than the use of the gun, and gives one more pleasure and does no harm to the birds. For this kind of hunting there is no closed season. As a matter of convenience for reference, the fol- lowing table of fifty common birds is given, showing the dates of migration and nesting for the vicinity of New York City as found in Chapman’s “Hand- book of Birds.” These dates are earlier for regions farther south and later for those farther north: — | CHART OF FIFTY COMMON BIRDS (Latitude of New York City) PERMANENT RESIDENTS Name Date of nesting Bobwhite. oso: veanceniadides dateeeiieed eae need May, 4th week Chickadee: «212.0 cucncwanacvee sass ee eequ same ee cess ee May, 3d week CrOWe Seis ee gs Sea sarancaland e's o's Svlebagersee nie ware sets April, 2d week Goldfinch. vis00 ss ca guxicg she sea memes tees Soe June, 3d week Blue Jaye cis.co.0-5 cease at's «so teeta ee See ss May, 2d week White-breasted nuthatch.......... 00. cece ee eee eee April, 3d week Downy woodpecker...........200eeeceeeeeecer rere May, 3d week Winter Resipents Name Date of arrival Date of departure Brown creeper. .........-++-+ Sept. 20-30........ April 1-30 J UNCOs cise cs se Se Aas ee ee Sept. 20-30........ April 10-May 10 White-throated sparrow........ Sept. 20-30........ May 1-25 Tree sparrow... .. eee eee eee ee Oct. 20-31........ April 1-30 62 BIRD FRIENDS Sumuer RESIDENTS (Arranged in the order of their arrival in spring) Name Date of arrival Date of nesting Date of departure Song sparrow...... Feb. 15—March 10. . April, 4th week... Nov. 1-30 Bliekers cnet eee Feb. 15—March 10. .May, Ist week...Nov. 1-30 Crow blackbird... ..Feb. 15-March 10. .April, 4th week... Nov. 1-30 Red-winged black- bird cicictscte sesees Feb. 15—-March 10.. May, 3d week...Nov. 1-30 Robin esses ees ss Feb. 15—March 10. .April, 3d week...Nov. 1-30 Bluebirds siaivese ios Feb. 15—March 10. . April, 2d week...Nov. 1-30 Phoobet oss cassis dss « March 10-20...... April, 4th week...Oct. 20-30 Meadowlark....... March 10-20...... May, 3d week....Nov. 1-30 Gowbird. .s< 6 sess March 10-20...... May, Ist week...Nov. 1-30 (In other nests) Kingfisher......... March 20-31...... May, Ist week...Nov. 1-30 Mourning dove... . March 20-31...... April, 4th week... Nov. 1-30 Vesper sparrow....April 1-10........ May, 2d week....Nov. 1-30 Chipping sparrow. .April 1-10........ May, 2d week....Nov. 1-30 Barn swallow...... April 10-20........ May, 2d week....Oct. 1-10 Chimney swift..... April 20-30. ....... May, 4th week...Oct. 1-10 Towhee........... April 20-30 .. May, 2d week... .Oct. 20-30 Purple martin..... April 20-30........ May, 4th week...Sept. 20-30 Oven-bird......... April 20-30 ..May, 3d week. ...Oct. 1-10 House wren....... April 20-30........ May, 3d week... .Oct. 10-20 Brown thrasher. ... April 20-30........ May, 3d week....Oct. 10-20 Catbird: vccassdax< April 20-30........ May, 3d week... .Oct. 10-20 Wood thrush...... April 20-30........ May, 3d week....Oct. 1-10 Cuck00 .35..c. 4d; May: IQs cesaciss May, 4th week...Oct. 1-10 Nighthawk........ May 1-10........ June, Ist week. ..Oct. 10-20 Hummingbird..... May 1-10........ May, 2d week... .Sept. 20-30 Kingbird.......... May 1-10. .. May. 4th week...Sept. 20-30 Baltimore oriole....May 1-10........ May, 4th week. ..Sept. 10-20 Bobolink.......... May 1-10........ May, 4th week...Oct. 1-10 Indigo bunting.....May 1-10........ May, 4th week...Oct. 1-10 Rose-breasted gros- Gabe ce nes alone: May 1-10........ May, 3d week... .Sept. 20-30 Scarlet tanager..... May J=10) cxcsncs June, lst week...Oct. 1-10 Red-eyed vireo..... May: 1-10. esac May, 4th week...Oct. 10-20 Warbling vireo.....May 1-10........ May, 4th week...Sept. 20-30 Yellow warbler..... May 1-10........ May, 3d week... .Sept. 10-20 Maryland yellow- ENLOSb = grails = May 1-10........ May, 4th week. ..Oct. 10-20 Redstart.......... May 1-10........ May, 3dweek....Oct. 1-10 NSCT TGs. <4 wnsersni vane May 1-10........ May, 3d week... .Sept. 20-30 Wood pewee....... May 10=20 vciccsieee June, Ist week. .. .Sept. 20-30 Marsh wren....... May 10-20........ May, 4th week...Oct. 10-20 CHAPTER VII FRIENDS AMONG THE BIRDS AS DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS Tue practical value of birds to man, whether helpful or harmful, depends chiefly on their food habits. Some of their food consists of things injuri- ous to man, such as insect pests, weed seeds, and rodent pests, while some consists of things valuable to man, such as fruit and grain: so that the exact economic status of a bird is determined by a careful study of its food habits. The United States Bureau of Biological Survey. The first systematic and thorough study of the-food habits of birds began in 1885, when the National Government established a section of economic orni- thology whose purpose was to investigate the food habits, distribution, and migration of North Ameri- can birds and mammals in relation to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. This was later given the title of Bureau of Biological Survey. Its work upon the economic value of birds has been along three lines: (1) to determine as accurately as possible the food of birds of economic importance; (2) to act as a court of appeal to investigate complaints concern- ing depredations of birds on crops; (3) to diffuse 64 BIRD FRIENDS the results of its work and to educate the public as to the value of birds. Since its formation, the Bureau has collected a large mass of facts regarding the food habits of over four hundred species of birds and has published the results of its investigations in bulletins printed by the Government, some given away, others sold at nominal prices. Some conception of the work of the Bureau may be gained by looking over the partial list of bulletins given on pages 318-19. This work has steadily grown in importance and to-day the Bureau is one of the most serviceable divisions of the Department of Agriculture, employing eleven men in the work on economic ornithology. Methods of determining food of birds. Three methods have been used to determine the food hab- its of birds: (1) field observations of living birds to observe the kinds of foods taken and the amounts; (2) study of birds kept in captivity; (3) examina- tion of the contents of birds’ stomachs after the birds have been killed. Field observations. In order to determine a bird’s food from a study of the living bird, it is necessary to get close to the bird or use a pair of field-glasses, and even then it is difficult to determine exactly the specific nature of the food. This method can best be used in studying the food of nestlings. The parents bring food frequently to the same spot and one is able to approach close to the nest. Some observers DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 65 place a small tent within arm’s length of the nest and watch the bird from within the tent. The birds usually become accustomed to the presence of the tent and come and go as usual. The number of times that the young are fed may thus be learned. Phe young may be weighed each day, and thus some idea obtained of the increase in weight and of the amount of food eaten. Birds in captivity. When birds are kept in captiv- ity the exact amount and kinds of food eaten may be determined. The kinds eaten, under those condi- tions, however, are not a safe guide for determining the kinds eaten in nature, as doubtless, when hun- gry, birds will eat many things which they do not normally eat when at liberty. More accurate esti- mates may be made of the amount of food eaten, as the bird would doubtless require more food when free than when in captivity, so that the amount eaten in captivity would be a minimum. Bob-white. The food habits of the bob-white have been studied with birds kept in captivity. Each of the following is a single day’s rations: 1350 flies, 5000 aphids, 1532 insects, 600 seeds of burdock, 12,000 seeds of pigweed, 15,000 seeds of lamb’s- quarters. The bob-white was found to eat in cap- tivity 61 kinds of weed seeds, besides the 68 kinds previously recorded, making a total of 129 species. It has also been found to eat 135 different kinds of insects. As a result of these studies it is estimated 66 BIRD FRIENDS that a single bob-white will eat in a year an average of 75,090 insects and 5,000,000 weed seeds, which would make about 73 pounds of insects and 10 pounds of weed seeds. Examination of stomachs. But the most impor- tant method of determining the focd of birds is by examination of the contents of birds’ stomachs. This is the final court of appeal, and is the method used chiefly by the Bureau of Biological Survey. Many specimens of a certain bird are collected dur- ing different months from different sections of the country and sent to Washington, where the stomachs are examined. There usually remain in the stomach some of the harder portions of the insects which have not been changed, such as mandibles, scales of moths, wing-covers, and pieces of legs. From an examination of these with microscopes, experts are able to determine the insects from which they have come. Among the vegetable foods, differences in the epidermis of many fruits and in the starch grains of common cereals can be detected, and weed seeds can be identified. Food of similar kinds is arranged in piles and the percentage of the various kinds of food computed. As an illustration of the method pur- sued, we may take results obtained from the study of the robin. Twelve hundred and thirty-six stom- achs, collected from forty-two States, the District of Columbia, and three Canadian Provinces, and representing every month in the year, were exam- A USEFUL CITIZEN House Wren DIAGRAM SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF THE FOOD OF ADULT HOUSE WREN 1, cutworm ; 2,spider ; 3, stink-bug ; 4, May-fly; 5, weevil ; 6, grasshopper DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 67 ined. The food consisted of 42.4 per cent animal food and 57.6 per cent vegetable food, divided as follows: — Animal food Vegetable food Per cent Per cent Beetles........ 17 Wild fruit.......... 42 Caterpillars.... 9 Cultivated fruit..... 8 Grasshoppers.. 5 Miscellaneous....... 74 Flies occ. os 3 Totals sccissccutec ams Bees and ants.. $3 574 Bug 0560-34-55 2 Miscellaneous.. 34 Total. .... 42h The animal food included 223 kinds of insects, and the vegetable food 65 kinds of wild and 10 kinds of cultivated fruit. This food may be classified ac- cording to its value to man in the following groups: To the robin’s credit To the robin’s discredit Neutral food Per cent Per cent Per cent Caterpillars... 9 Cultivated fruit.. 8 Wild fruit... 42 May beetles.. 5.5 Beneficial beetles. 5 Miscellaneous 10 Grasshoppers. 5 Spiders.......... 1 Weevils...... 4 Bees ..605 666 sess 1 March flies... 3 ANUS? ce odin ee 1.5 Other insects.. 5 Total.... 33 15 52 Approximately one seventh of the robin’s food is composed of materials beneficial to man, one third is composed of insects harmful to man, and about one half is composed of neutral elements. So far more than sixty thousand stomachs, com- prising over four hundred species of birds have been examined by the Bureau of Biological Survey. 68 BIRD FRIENDS Still a fourth method is the combination of field and laboratory work. The birds are studied in the field in those localities where birds are collected for stomach examinations. Facts are gathered relative to the available food-supply for birds; these, in con- nection with the examination of the stomach, show what a bird will eat, what it prefers, and what it refuses. Good done by birds. These studies of the food of birds show that they help man in three ways: (1) by eating injurious insects; (2) by eating weed seeds; and (3) by eating mice and other rodents. Another way of minor importance in which the birds are use- ful is in acting as scavengers. Harm done by insects. Among insects are found some of man’s most common foes. In almost every walk of life, man has to contend with insects. The mosquito and fly carry diseases and thus cause thousands of cases of sickness and death every year. The gardener, the fruit-grower, and the farmer are constantly fighting the insects that prey upon their crops. In the vegetable garden, the cabbage-worm attacks the cabbage; the cucumber-beetle, the vine crops; the potato-beetle, the potatoes. In the fruit- garden, the codling moth damages the apple; the currant-worm, the currant; the white grub, the strawberry. On the farm the army-worm destroys the wheat, and the root-aphis attacks the corn. The elm-beetle and tussock-moth attack shade-trees, DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 69 and the forest tent-caterpillar destroys forest-trees. Nearly all crops have a great variety of different kinds of insects that may prey upon them. One hundred and seventy-six kinds have been found preying on the apple tree alone and four hundred kinds on the oak. The following table prepared by the United States Bureau of Entomology gives an estimate of the annual loss caused by insects in the United States: — Value — Product Value di 2 i en of 088 Cereals............ $2,000,000,000 10 $200,000,000 Hay! .2se5 cane oxess 530,000,000 10 53,000,000 Cotton...... es ites 600,000,000 10 60,000,000 Tobacco........... 53,000,000 10 5,300,000 Truck crops........ 265,000,000 20 53,000,000 DUR AD 8h oan tec ucla 50,000,000 10 5,000,000 Priits).o2585 caieusenvers 135,000,000 20 27,000,000 Farm forests....... 110,000,000 10 11,000,000 Miscellaneous crops 58,000,000 10 5,800,000 Animal products... . 1,750,000,000 10 175,000,000 Totales cuccces $5,551,000,000 xd $595,100,000 Natural forests and forest products is os 100,000,000 Products in storage. . ae ie 100,000,000 Grand total.... ee $795,100,000 Besides the tremendous loss caused directly by the insects in destroying the crops, man spends an- nually millions of dollars for spraying outfits and 70 BIRD FRIENDS other means of controlling these pests. If to this be added the loss in sickness and death caused by mosquitoes and flies, the total annual toll that in- sects collect from man in the United States is about one billion dollars. Power of reproduction of insects. Insects exist in enormous numbers and have a most remarkable power of increase. It is estimated that if the hop- vine aphis should multiply unchecked and each in- sect should live and find enough food, at the end of one season the number of the last brood would be 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. Dr. Hodge has es- timated for the mosquito that if each insect should live, and the female lay the average number of eggs, the number of descendants of a single mosquito at the end of six months would be represented by the figure 2, followed by 39 ciphers. Of course this can never happen, on account of abundance of its ene- mies and lack of food. . Amount of food eaten by insects. Another fact that makes insects so destructive is the enormous amount of food they devour in a short time. Many caterpillars eat each day twice their own weight of leaves. Sometimes a single day’s work of an army of insects may be enough to destroy a crop. Nature’s check on insects. The wonderful power of reproduction possessed by insects and the enor- mous amounts of food eaten suggest how important it is that there should be checks constantly at work DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 71 to keep down their numbers. Such a constant check are the birds, which constitute one of Nature’s most effective means of controlling insects and keeping a proper balance. Parasitic and predaceous insects are another means of keeping the balance. The birds work from sunrise till sunset devouring in- sects during the warmer months of the year when insects are abundant, and some birds during the winter feed on insects’ eggs and on the hibernating insects. Man’s disturbance of Nature’s balance. Nature when left to herself has balanced these forces evenly, so that the insects are kept by birds and other natural checks from becoming excessively numer- ous and destructive. But man has upset Nature’s balance in many ways. First, new crops have been introduced; second, forests have been cleared and crops raised on larger areas, thus furnishing more food for insects and allowing them to increase; third, many insects have unwittingly been intro- duced into the United States from other countries; and fourth, most strange and unbelievable of all, man has wantonly destroyed the birds, Nature’s check on the increase of injurious insects. Service performed by the birds. The great service that birds and other insect-enemies are now render- ing to man is in destroying enough insects so that the remainder will not do excessive and uncontrollable damage. The birds can never utterly destroy any 72 BIRD FRIENDS kind of insect, and this might prove undesirable even if possible, but they help to keep them in check to such an extent that man is able to cope with those that are left and thus raise his crops successfully. If man were suddenly deprived of the services of the birds, this would allow insects to increase to such an extent that it would render it many times more difficult to raise crops; and some bird-students say that without the aid of birds it would not be possible to raise crops at all on account of the enor- mous number of insects that would prey upon them. How serious the results would be if we were de- prived of the service of the birds, it is difficult to say exactly, but enough is known regarding the balance that Nature has established between birds and in- sects, so that we are sure that the birds are among man’s greatest friends in his warfare on injurious insects. Amount of food eaten by birds. One thing about birds that makes them such effective checks on in- sects is the enormous amount of food they require. The temperature of their blood is between 102 and 112 degrees, from 4 to 14 degrees higher than that in man, and large amounts of food must be eaten to maintain this high temperature. The blood courses through the vessels with great rapidity, driven by the heart, which beats one hundred and twenty times a minute when the bird is at rest, and faster DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 73 when the bird is in motion. And the digestive sys- tem is so constructed that it digests very rapidly the bird’s food, which is then taken by the blood to the various parts of the body, where its oxidation main- tains the high temperature of the body. Probably the whole process of digestion and assimilation of food may take place in an hour and a half, so that during the day the bird may eat enough food to fill its stomach ten or twelve times. The study of birds in the field and the examination of the contents of birds’ stomachs show that a bird devours enormous quantities of food. Records of field observations of birds are con- densed in the following table. These are taken from the reports of Edward H. Forbush: — Name of bird — lalate Kind of insect Redstart............. 2 Brown-tail larvee Nashville warbler...... 3 Tent-caterpillars Chickadee............ 4 Brown-tail larvee Red-eyed vireo........ 5 Brown-tail larvee Robin................ 7 Brown-tail larvee Yellow warbler........ 9 Caterpillars of gypsy moth Cuckoo 45 bares 14 Canker-worms Scarlet tanager....... 35 Caterpillars of gypsy moth Maryland yellow-throat 89 Plant-lice A few examples of the number of insects found in the stomach of a single bird are given below in the table. These figures are taken from the reports of the Bureau of Biological Survey: — 74 BIRD FRIENDS Name of bird Number of insects Kind of insect Rose-breasted grosbeak 14 Potato-beetles (adult and larvee) Downy woodpecker... . 18 Larve of codling moth Red-winged blackbird. . 28 Cutworms Crow blackbird....... 30 Grasshoppers Hairy woodpecker..... 100 Wood-boring grubs Cuckoo... is ssseee sess 250 Tent-caterpillars Robinly sc se. cix'gx teed 270 Larve of March-flies Franklin gull......... 340 Grasshoppers Flicker............... 5000 Ants The following table showing the number of differ- ent kinds of insects eaten by various birds is based on the reports of the Bureau of Biological Survey: — Name of bird Number of kinds of insects eaten Hairy woodpecker':isve wens ceeveieioman nese diteac. 21 Downy woodpecker............00cccececcucceeccees 43 Horned Jarl. cx sxnceleo's eae 3-5 © cS role pavicd oe cncusitsacesos see cpewvs 60 Crow BIRCKDIEd 4. cnccareacevenvacsacecteuantatek uteee 2 poe oi 63 CUCKOO 3. aesisihas ee od paroia/a ivnnnaedeiese wad eeasedee eee 65 Rose-breasted grosbeakei:c:. <0 v.ck eyinoulenee do's easiness 67 Red-headed woodpecker.........0.0..00 0000 c cee eeee 75 Teast:fly catcher cwien) sae 2 oeee ks sateen ckeedouea 75 Cardinal.) :co.225 She Gad saa sae atpara ie beanae tet aelen w noet ales 81 Crested fly catchers ive teres od a eas aatien ce Daves 85 MGIC ER snes A andnadoancenere es eetaianed Sees Miah eae e NT See. 89 PRE B Gi 3s: sus55 a Giansitncaeastd Asad Aas asecelorsponaee te eaten cies 121 Wi00d Pewee vee sicneniAsiele se ea nag cdecaia¥ one cts 131 BOB White is2:2705 2 ot entahsonnitacies osm Sate eheistomniia wie x= se 135 Bliebird sos cna katenclciaisie eg. 1 bas Aaw ween es oeeecde 166 LOD Li cngexavim tarps taertans ts wit eos nee ta ash 223 Keimebird ss. scscch Yaracsudeaase ato todo ads eeracaueateheeenceed tah 229 Nightha Whe ones Seaton itec aha eats ddan vances 600 The number of birds known to feed upon certain injurious insects is given in the table below. This, DOWNY WOODPECKER DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 75 also, is based on the reports of the Bureau of Bio- logical Survey : — Injurious insect Number of species of birds feeding on it Plum curculio: gn escectsts sys ew slavery ahes 4 vidios Grain aphids: :s, cassetcaia Sg suvinapasdsnaae eae eH Gees Potato-beetle: canes: cease eae beg greece ses Coding moth..cicinad e404 sosiidemarcnai ata vas 4 soe Birch plant-lee sce sas aa keekcee oe. be COS SESS Brown-tail moth Alfalfa weevil...... Gypsy moth..... Scale insects....... be Boll weevil ..ccccearead sot ay sawdveaeee de weeks inact Below are given some estimates that have been made of the number of insects destroyed by birds: — Professor E. D. Sanderson estimates that the chickadees in the State of Michigan destroy annu- ally about 8,000,000,000 insects. In the States of Virginia and North Carolina it is estimated that the bob-white alone eats 340 tons of insects from June 1 to August 1. Mr. Chester A. Reed estimated that in the State of Massachusetts the birds devour 21,000 bushels of insects each day during the summer season. Mr. Bruner gives the following estimate of the number of insects destroyed in the State of Ne- braska: — Allowing 25 insects per day as an average diet for each individual bird, and estimating that we have about one and one half birds to the acre, or in round numbers 75,000,000 birds in Nebraska, there would be required 1,875,000,000 insects for each day’s rations. Again, es- 76 BIRD FRIENDS timating the number of insects required to fill a bushel at:120,000, it would take 15,625 bushels of insects to feed our birds for a single day, or 937,500 bushels for 60 days, or 2,343,750 bushels for 150 days. Another Nebraska naturalist has estimated that the birds of that State eat 170 carloads of insects per day. It has been calculated that the birds of New York State destroy more than 3,000,000 bushels of noxious insects each season. Value of nestling birds. Special attention may be called to the great service performed by birds when feeding their young. As explained in a previous chapter, nestlings require large amounts of food, being fed every few minutes from sunrise to sunset. This destruction of insects comes at a most oppor- tune time, when the insects are present in great numbers and before the parasitic insects can be de- pended upon to reduce the pests. The chief food of the nestlings is insects. Even when the adults feed also on seeds, the young at first are fed largely on insects. The most common kinds of food of nestlings are caterpillars, grasshoppers, and spiders. A sug- gestive estimate of the money value of nestlings has been made in a government publication, from which the following is taken: — During the outbreak of Recky Mountain locusts in Nebraska, in 1874-77, Professor Samuel Aughey saw a long-billed marsh wren carry 30 locusts to her young in an DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 77 hour. At this rate, for seven hours a day, a brood would consume 210 locusts per day, and the passerine birds of the eastern half of Nebraska, allowing only 20 broods to the square mile, would destroy daily 162,771,000 of the pests. The average locust weighs about 15 grains, and is capable each day of consuming its own weight of standing forage crops, corn and wheat. The locusts eaten by the nestlings would therefore be able to destroy in one day 174.397 tons of crops, which at $10 per ton would be worth $1743.97. This case may serve as an illustration of the vast good that is done every year by the destruction of insect pests fed to nestling birds. Number of insects destroyed by birds in the eastern United States. Birds feed their young, on an average, about two hundred insects a day. If we take fifteen days as the average time that young birds remain in the nest, the young during this time would devour about three thousand insects. A recent bird-census of the United States, made by the Bureau of Biological Survey, showed that there was an average of one pair of birds per acre on the farms of the eastern United States. East of the Mississippi River there are about 375,000,000 acres of farmland supporting an equal number of pairs of birds. These birds in rearing one brood of young would destroy about 1,100,000,000,000 insects. This is the amount for only two weeks eaten by the young birds alone while in the nest. To get some conception of the total amount of food eaten by all birds, to this must be added the insects eaten by the second and third broods which some species raise, those eaten by the 78 BIRD FRIENDS adult birds, and those eaten by the young birds after leaving the nest. The amount eaten by the young after leaving the nest and by the adults in a month would doubtless equal the amount required to feed the young for a half-month in the nest. This would make a monthly total of about 2,000,000,000,000 insects destroyed by birds on the farms of the east- ern United States, or for the summer season about 10,000,000,000,000 insects. If these insects averaged an inch in length and were placed end to end, they would make a proces- sion 160,000,000 miles long, which, if it were to travel at the rate of a mile a minute, would require three hundred years to pass any given point. This would reach to the sun and almost back again; it would reach the moon and return three hundred times; it would encircle the earth sixty-four hundred times. If the insects were placed side by side one inch apart they would make a band fifty feet wide extending to the moon, and would form a belt five hundred feet wide extending all the way around the earth. These insects, if placed an inch apart each way would form a sheet that would completely cover the State of Delaware. Control of outbreaks of insects. One feature of birds that makes them such a successful check upon insects is their power of flight. Wherever insects are found in unusually large numbers, there birds quickly gather to prey upon them. When the Mor- DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS, 79 mons first settled in Utah, their crops were attacked by the crickets and nearly destroyed, until the gulls came in large numbers and preyed upon the crickets and saved the remainder of the crops. In commem- oration of this, a monument to the gulls has recently been erected in Salt Lake City. Outbreaks of locusts in the Middle West have been controlled by birds. A serious outbreak of the forest tent-caterpillar occurred in New York and New Eng- land in 1897-98, but was finally brought under con- trol by the action of the birds. An outbreak of the canker-worm occurred in an apple orchard in Illi- nois. A study of the birds found here showed that twenty-six kinds of birds were feeding on these canker-worms, which formed thirty-five per cent of the birds’ food. There are many other records of small local outbreaks which have been controlled by the birds. But yet the greatest service that the birds render is in keeping the insects down to such a point that outbreaks do not occur. Division of labor. The division of labor in those places where insects are found is well apportioned among the birds. Some birds, like the sparrows, feed upon the insects found on the ground; the wood- peckers spear those in the bark and wood of trees; warblers and vireos glean the small insects found on the leaves, while the larger birds, like the cuckoos, feed upon the larger insects found on the foliage; the swallows prey upon the insects in the air. 80 BIRD FRIENDS ‘¢ Birds of a Maryland Farm.” The figures so far given regarding the food habits of birds have been based largely on the averages for many birds col- lected from all parts of the country. But in some cases, in order to determine the value of birds in a particular locality, certain local facts regarding the crops raised and the insects present must be ascer- tained in order to decide definitely the economic status of the birds found there. Dr. Judd, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, made a careful study of a single farm of about two hundred and thirty acres in Maryland, in order to ascertain which birds were valuable and which were injurious on this particular farm. The farm was visited frequently during every month in the year for a period of seven years. A list of the available food-supply was made, consisting of insects, seeds, and fruit; the crops grown were noted, and the insects preying upon them. The birds were studied with reference to the kinds found, the abundance of each kind, their distribution, and es- pecially with reference to their food habits. The birds were first studied in the field to ascertain on what they were feeding, and a few birds were shot and the contents of their stomachs examined. This study is one of the most valuable ever carried on along this line, and the results have been published in a bulletin entitled ‘“‘Birds of a Maryland Farm.” The results found here so nearly parallel the gen- eral conclusions drawn from a study of birds through- DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 81 out the whole country, that a brief summary may be given. During this period 163 species of birds were observed. The stomachs of 298 birds were collected and examined. Considering the food of all the birds collectively, exclusive of the English sparrow, it was found that beneficial insects formed 4 per cent of the food, while injurious insects formed 27 per cent; grain formed 1 per cent, while weed seeds formed 18 per cent. This food may be grouped as follows: — Food beneficial to man Food injurious to man Per cent Per cent Beneficial insects... 4 Injurious insects.... 27 Greit he scoiecietienns i Weed seeds........ 18 Totals. c.cewes 5} Total......... 45 The injurious food is thus seen to equal in amount nine times the beneficial food; or, in other words, the birds did nine times as much good as harm. A small amount of cultivated fruit was eaten, but the exact per cent was not given in the bulletin. Birds and human health. It is now well known that some insects carry diseases and thus are the in- direct causes of sickness and death. The house-fly and mosquito are the two most common and deadly insects in this way. The house-fly carries typhoid fever, tuberculosis, children’s diseases of the alimen- tary canal, and many other diseases. Mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow fever, and are the only means known by which these diseases are carried from one person to another. And even in the north- 82 BIRD FRIENDS ern sections of the country where these diseases are not found, mosquitoes are a great pest and prevent one from enjoying outdoors at the best time of the year. The food habits of birds may be studied with special interest in this connection to see to what ex- tent they feed on flies and mosquitoes. The reports of the Bureau of Biological Survey show that there are a number of birds known to eat these insects. Nine species of shore-birds are known to feed on the wigglers of mosquitoes. In a killdeer’s stomach, hundreds of larve of the salt-marsh mos- quito have been found. Fifty-three per cent of the food of twenty-eight northern phalaropes from one locality consisted of mosquito larve. ° The following land-birds are known to feed on the adult mosquito: nighthawk, purple martin, yellow- throated vireo, whip-poor-will, chimney swift, wood pewee, pheebe, kingbird, bank swallow, cliff swallow, tree swallow, barn swallow, violet-green swallow, wren-tit, and summer warbler. Five hundred mos- quitoes are said to have been found in the stomach of a single nighthawk. Among the species eaten by this bird is the kind that carries malaria, so that, as we watch a nighthawk soaring around at twilight, we may believe it quite possible that it has been the means of saving some human life by destroying malaria-laden mosquitoes which might otherwise have bitten and infected a human being, thus caus- ing sickness or death. DESTROYERS OF INSECT PESTS 83 A bob-white kept in captivity ate 568 mosquitoes in two hours. The following birds have been known to feed on house-flies: wood pewee, phoebe, yellow-throated vireo, martin, bob-white, and horned lark. A bob-white kept in captivity ate 1350 flies in one day. Mr. E. H. Baynes, in his “Wild Bird Guests,” writes: — The pair of phoebes on our piazza, with two pairs of tree swallows which nest in boxes in the garden, and a pair of barn swallows in the barn, keep our house practically free from flies and mosquitoes all summer long. CHAPTER VIII FRIENDS AMONG THE BIRDS AS DESTROYERS OF WEED SEEDS Harm done by weeds. Weeds constitute one of the greatest enemies against which the farmer or gardener must contend. During the growing season he must wage a constant warfare against them. Weeds may be injurious in the following ways: (1) Weeds interfere with the growth of crops by depriv- ing them of plant-food, moisture, and sunlight and thus reduce the yield. (2) Another loss results from the mixture of weed seeds with the seeds of farm crops. It has been estimated that in the State of Minnesota alone the damage due to weed seeds amounts yearly to two and a half million dollars. (3) Weeds interfere with the harvesting and curing of crops. (4) Some weeds harbor insect pests and fungus diseases, which may injure crops growing near. (5) Some weeds are poisonous either to man or to live- stock. A recent bulletin published by the Department of Agriculture estimated that weeds cost the Amer- ican farmer three hundred million dollars every year. The seed period of the weeds is one of the most vital at which they may be attacked. It is the migration stage during which they are spread from FOX SPARROWS, EATERS OF WEED SEEDS DESTROYERS OF WEED SEEDS 85 place to place. Many of the troublesome qualities which weeds possess are due indirectly to certain characteristics of the seeds: (1) the enormous num- ber produced by a single plant; (2) their remarkable adaptations for dispersal; and (3) their wonderful vitality. Productivity of weeds. A single plant of many common weeds like the foxtail and the lamb’s-quar- ters may produce 25,000 seeds. It has been esti- mated that a single plant of purslane may produce 100,000 seeds; of pigweed, 300,000; of lamb’s-quar- ters, 1,800,000; and of wormseed, 26,000,000. At Ames, Iowa, a square rod of ground in a garden, which had been in potatoes the year before and cul- tivated with a hoe, yielded 187,884 plants of eight common weeds. Dispersal of weed seeds. The seeds of weeds are well adapted for dispersal. Many are scattered by the wind; some of the tumble-weeds are rolled along on the prairies; some have winglike attachments, like the docks; others have hairlike appendages, like the dandelions. Others have hooks by means of which they may be attached to clothing and fur and thus be carried long distances. Vitality of weed seeds. And then, finally, after the seeds have reached their resting-places, they may retain their vitality and be able to germinate after many years of exposure to winter cold and summer drought. The seeds of most of our common weeds 86 BIRD FRIENDS retain their vitality from three to five years. The mustard seeds may retain theirs for ten years. In one study made on the longevity of seeds, some seeds of the Indian mallow and shoo-fly germinated after a lapse of fifty-seven years, and the seed of white sweet clover after seventy-seven years. Birds as destroyers of weed seeds. We have already seen that another enemy of the farmer is the insect, and it is a very interesting and remarkable fact of vital importance to the farmer that one of Nature’s means of controlling both these pests is the same, namely, the birds. Sometimes one group of birds helps to control the insect pests, and another group helps to control weed pests, but in many cases the same birds help to control both insect and weed pests, as is the case with the native sparrows. In fact, in the great majority of cases those birds which feed upon weed seeds also feed upon insects, al- though there are many birds which feed upon insects that do not eat weed seeds. There are two or three hundred kinds of birds known to eat weed seeds to some extent, and about one hundred kinds of weed seeds are known to be eaten. The birds which are most effective in con- trolling weeds are the bob-white, the mourning dove, and the native sparrows. The seeds most commonly eaten are those of ragweed, pigeon-grass, crab- grass, bindweed, purslane, smartweed, pigweed, and lamb’s-quarters. DESTROYERS OF WEED SEEDS 87 The percentage of weed seeds eaten by some of the more effective weed-seed destroyers are shown in the following table, based on the reports of the Bureau of Biological Survey: — Name of bird Per cent of whole food that weed seeds form Mournitig- doves cscs cies ccaktimedvaecesees 4468 64 Horned darks siscita cia. vs case aieaiamonincdens vee rietegan 64 Cowbitdins « .tiissd oe Riek cee iiwoatiaseund tat adnek es 60 Red-winged blackbird. ........-....-eeee sees etree eee 55 Chipping sparrow. ...... 6c. ceeee cece ee eet e eee eeeees 53 Bob- white ic cake boos) eras adtngewnid eelee Wake 50 Song sparrows se ccuos ii see eenaeesaeeiasaneeeeeeas 50 WeeSPEl? SPOLLOWS., 2:2 teisisis we nve:ace ddeat nsvayolentuacesabaleas;d asec ee veyeigee 42 Biel: sparrowic scandens sss2008 seaceawenaw saree Saud 8 40 The following table, also based on the reports of the Bureau of Biological Survey, shows the number of different kinds of weed seeds known to be eaten by certain species of birds: — Name of bird Number of kinds of weed seeds eaten Grow blackbird. cusavwwe vexeites oo eeetainc eee es eeak se 6 Rose-breasted grosbeak ........... 0c cece ee eens eeeee 14 Red-winged blackbird.........-. cece eee erecee een ees 14 Cowbivd sn: z b= rt = i ee Name of bird Beak 3.38 sek | 3.2 ef | ‘S28 ag | Bei | BH! | def) GP SE & & RMé&e & Bak MRE TPE PEE | SE) SB | B52 Crow-blackbird..... 19 4 23, 3 22 6 Red-winged _ black- i 20 57 17 s 7 5 47 aie 47 da 9 10 50 60 5 ee 24 86 60 ss 4 2 12 a 12 19 oe 3 10- a 10 13 ad ane 20 60 80 ye 8 ac iste aS 4 12 2 Mourning dove on ie 64 64 8 Flicker............. 55 te 55 1 2 Crested flycatcher... 70 70 or 8 Least flycatcher..... 52 52 13 Rose-breasted gros- Beakicc visi siee sieeve 45 16 61 agi 2 5 Blue jay 19 a 19 2 9 4 Junco..... 17 62 79 is 4 a Kingbird.... 50, ote 50 fe 4 13. Horned lark . 15 64 19 8 2 30 Meadowlark. 56 7 63 ag 3 12 Baltimore ori 58 - 58 ee ee Re Wood pewee 56 ete 56 az a9 11 Phoebe. 61 Fea 51 ig sc 10 Robin. . ee 33 Me 33 8 ae 6 Sie aed sparrow... 28 53 81 ile 2 1 tine ish sparrow..... aa 24. 24 a 74 lips Field sparrow....... 80 40 70 ee 4 4 Song sparrow....... 18 50 68 ai 2 2 Vesper sparrow..... 22 42 64 ae 6 2 Brown thrasher..... 33 aa 33 8 3 8 Wood thrush.......} 38, 38. 4 Be 2 Downy woodpecker. . 69 69 as 1 2 Hairy woodpecker. . . 72 72 1 1 Red-headed = wood- pecker. .......... 21 21 8 4 9 House wren .....-..| 69 69 oye are 6 Total debit (per cent) CHAPTER XII CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS THERE are certain natural agencies which tend to keep birds in check and prevent their too great increase, and these agencies are necessary to pre- serve the balance of nature, else birds might be- come so numerous as to be harmful. Since the white man came to this country he has been re- sponsible both directly and indirectly for other agencies tending to check bird life. The question naturally arises as to whether all these causes com- bined are tending to reduce bird life to such a mini- mum that extermination of certain species is threat- ened, or their reduction to such small numbers that they are no longer able to keep insects in check. We will first investigate the question as to whether the birds have decreased in numbers, either as re- gards the number of species or the number of in- dividuals. , Extinct birds. Within the past sixty-five years several species of birds, which were formerly found in some portion of the United States, have become extinct, and the last stages of the extermination of two species are being enacted at the present time. Two species, the great auk, and the Labrador duck, CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 117 are certainly extinct; one species, the passenger pigeon, is probably extinct; and one species, the Eskimo curlew, is nearly if not already extinct. In the case of three of these species it is known that destruction by man was the cause of the extermina- tion. Following is the list: — Name of bird Date of last Where found formerly one seen Great auk (certainly ex- tinct): soee2 censuses 1853 Northern North America. Northern Europe. Labrador duck (certainly extinct)............4. 1875 Northern Atlantic Coast. \ Passenger pigeon (prob- ably extinct).......... 1908 Canada and Northern United States Eskimo curlew (nearly ex- TNC) s eectiomelecnels vc 1913 Atlantic Coast of North America. Besides these, five other species of birds, for- merly found in the West Indies and one species found in the Bering Islands, have become extinct. Little is known of their history or of the cause of their extermination. The passenger pigeon. The passenger pigeon was formerly found widely distributed in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and in such enormous numbers that it is difficult to appreciate the meaning of the records which were kept by men of that time. They passed in flocks which darkened the sun and required hours to pass over. 118 BIRD FRIENDS About a hundred years ago Alexander Wilson re- corded a flight of pigeons which he estimated to be one mile wide and 240 miles long. Judged from the time it took to pass over, which was four hours, he estimated that this flock contained over 2,000,000- 000 birds. These pigeons nested together in large colonies with many nests in a single tree. Audubon records a breeding-place several miles in breadth and forty miles in extent. During the first half of the last century the birds decreased very noticeably in numbers and by the middle of the century this decrease was being no- ticed by bird-students, although enormous flocks were seen occasionally at this time, and even for twenty years later in certain States. The last large nesting-place was recorded in Miichigan, in 1878, covering a space of 100,000 acres. But from this time on, the records of this bird became fewer and fewer, and the last authentic record was in 1908. A single bird was kept in captivity in the Cincin- nati Zodlogical Garden for several years after this. This bird, believed to be the last of its race, died on September 1,1914. “any efforts have been made in recent years to find the passenger pigeon and prizes offered, but without avail, so that we are driven to the conclusion that there is not now left a single liv- ing bird of a species which was, within the memory of men now living, the most abundant species of bird in this country. CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 119 The cause of this shameful extermination is well known. It was the capture of birds for sale in the market as food. It was the general custom during the migration season, when these enormous flocks appeared, for people to turn out and kill pigeons. Some hunters made it a business to follow them from place to place to secure them for market. In the days of their abundance they nested in large colonies in areas forty miles long and three or four miles wide. Great numbers of men, women, and children, armed with guns, clubs, and nets, came to these nesting-places and massacred both old and young birds during the entire night. The young in the nest were considered great delicacies. The birds were so numerous that they were easily killed in enormous numbers. Sometimes a single shot would kill dozens of birds. They were also caught in nets and several hun- dred were so caught at one time. Sometimes a single hunter killed as many as a thousand pigeons in a day. They were hunted both day and night and were sent to market, where they were sold for twelve to fifty cents a dozen. In 1874, from a nest- ing-place in Michigan, one hundred barrels were shipped daily for thirty days, or about a million and a half birds. In another year about fourteen million birds were sent to market. In 1881, in an- other part of the same State, five hundred men were netting pigeons and took about ten million birds. 120 BIRD FRIENDS With such figures as these at hand it is easy to understand how the passenger pigeon became ex- terminated. The economic status of this species is not known, but the sad fate of the bird shows that any wild bird is in danger of extermination when it is hunted for commercial purposes. The Eskimo curlew. The Eskimo curlew is an- other example of an abundant bird rendered nearly extinct through market demand. It was to be found on the Atlantic Coast in enormous flocks up to about fifty years ago. Since that time the bird has gradually disappeared, till now it is seldom seen. A few have been taken in the last three years, but it seems only a matter of a few years till it becomes absolutely extinct. The cause is the same as for the passenger pigeon, continued and unrestricted shooting to meet the market demand. Species in danger of extermination. Other birds have been decreasing in numbers at such a rate that they are threatened with extinction unless some radical measures are taken to preserve those that are still left. Following are some of the birds which seem to be most in danger of extermina- tion: Carolina paroquet, whooping crane, trumpeter swan, snowy heron, American egret, woodcock, and many shore-birds, including the golden plover, pec- toral sandpiper, knot, upland plover, willet, and dowitcher. Decrease of game-birds. There is general agree- CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 121 ment among all bird-students that there has been a very marked decrease among the game-birds, wild fowl, and shore-birds during the last twenty-five years, in some cases threatening extinction, as men- tioned in the previous paragraph. In 1901, Mr. W. T. Hornaday sent a questionnaire to bird-stu- dents in all parts of the United States asking their opinion regarding the decrease in birds in their lo- calities during the past fifteen years. One hundred and ninety reports were received. Almost without exception, these all agreed that there had been a very marked decrease in the number of game-birds, some estimating the decrease as high as ninety per cent. Mr. E. H. Forbush, in 1907, made a detailed study of the conditions in the State of Massachu- setts. A list of fifty-eight species of game-birds, wild fowl, and shore-birds was sent to about five hundred gunners and ornithologists in the State, and these were asked to report on the increase or decrease of each species. In the case of every spe- cies, some observers reported a decrease, while there were four species for which every one reported a decrease. For every one of the fifty-eight species, more observers reported a decrease than reported an increase. Usually the numbers reporting a decrease were much larger than those reporting an increase. Taking all the birds together, the average number of observers reporting an increase for each bird was ten, while the average number reporting a decrease 122 BIRD FRIENDS was sixty-four, so that for one region of the State where a bird had increased, there were six regions where it had decreased. For twenty species ten times as many observers reported the birds to be decreasing as to be increasing. The per cent of de- crease reported ranged from fifty to seventy-five; the per cent of increase from twenty-five to fifty. Have the song-birds decreased? These instances are enough to prove conclusively that the game- birds, wild fowl, and shore-birds have decreased very markedly. We may next inquire if this is also true of the common song-birds. In the report of Mr. Hornaday to which reference has already been made the statement is made that birds had de- creased forty-six per cent during the previous fifteen years. In 1904, Mr. E. H. Forbush made a careful study of the relative abundance of song-birds found in Massachusetts. Reports were received from about two hundred bird-students to whom ques- tions had been sent relative to the abundance of birds compared with that in previous years. From these reports Mr. Forbush concludes that the num- bers of the smaller birds have remained about the same, excepting in and near towns and cities, where there has been a decrease. A decrease in herons, hawks, and owls was noted. The following quotation is taken from this report: — The smaller native birds fluctuate, some species de- creasing in some localities and increasing in others, but CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 123 apparently holding their own very well, in general. There may be a slight decrease in the aggregate, owing to the evident diminution of many species in and near cities, with no corresponding increase in the country. There appears to be no general and noticeable reduction in the rural sections except where the birds are subjected to an unusual amount of persecution. On the whole, the bal- ance of life among the smaller birds seems to be fairly maintained. Information received from other states along the Atlantic seaboard seems to indicate, that, as here, shore birds and game birds are decreasing, while the insectiv- orous birds are, with some exceptions, holding their own. Comparing the conclusions of Messrs. Hornaday and Forbush with reference to the song-birds, we may note, first, that Mr. Hornaday’s figures repre- sent the decrease for all birds, game-birds included, while Mr. Forbush is speaking here of song-birds only; and furthermore, it is probable that some of those who answered Mr. Hornaday’s questions had the game-birds specially in mind. So far as there is any discrepancy between these reports, doubt- less Mr. Forbush’s report is more nearly correct. His report was based on the observations of two hundred people from many parts of the State, while Mr. Hornaday’s report, as far as Massachu- setts is concerned, was based on the observations of only eleven people, more than half of whom lived in or near cities. ‘¢ Bird-Lore’s ’? Christmas census. The readers of “ Bird-Lore”’ have been making a Christmas 124 BIRD FRIENDS census of birds for about fifteen years. These re- cords have now been kept long enough to throw some light on the question as to whether the winter birds have changed in numbers. In “ Bird-Lore ” for January-February, 1914, was published a sum- mary of the reports from 1901 to 1911. Graphs are shown representing the abundance of ten species for the different years. The graphs for four species are very regular and show practically no change during the ten years. The graphs for five species are quite irregular, showing fluctuations from year to year, but on the average there is no tendency toward any regular change, either an increase or a decrease. Mr. Frank L. Burns made a bird-census during the nesting-seasons of 1899-1901 of the birds found on a 640-acre farm in Berwyn, Pennsylvania. Thir- teen years later, in 1914, he made another census of the same area. In the first census he found sixty- two species represented by 1388 individuals; in the last census he found sixty species represented by 1424 individuals. This would seem to indicate that on the whole birds were holding their own on this area. Mr. Burns writes, ““ The tendency seems to be toward a less varied fauna and increase of individuals of the more adaptive species.” United States census of birds. The Bureau of Biological Survey has begun taking a series of cen- suses which will eventually answer the question as CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 125 to whether birds are changing in numbers. The first census was taken in 1914. During the nesting- season of that year a census was taken by several hundred observers on farms situated in different parts of the United States, but chiefly in the north- eastern section. These reports showed that there was an average of one pair of birds to the acre. At this rate there would be about 350,000,000 pairs of adult birds on the farms east of the Mississippi River. The following quotation is taken from a cir- cular describing the census: — That the present bird population is much less than it ought to be, and much less than it would be if birds were given proper protection and encouragement, is the most important deduction from this preliminary census. An approximate average of one pair of birds to each acre of land was found, but individual censuses showed that it is possible, under strictly farm conditions, very largely to increase this number. Near Wellington, Virginia, a tract of forty-nine acres of a dairy farm, of rather less than the average of ploughed ground, supported a bird population of one hundred and thirty-seven pairs, or three pairs to the acre. On a forty-acre farm in Rantoul, Kan- sas, after fourteen years of bird protection and encourage- ment, there were found one hundred and fifty-seven pairs of birds, or about four pairs of birds to the acre. It is evident from the foregoing statement that double the present bird population is easily obtainable, while a threefold increase is well within the possibilities. It was noticeable that the blocks most thickly in- habited by people were also most fully occupied by breeding birds. This is a striking refutation of the wide- spread belief that human beings and birds are naturally 126 BIRD FRIENDS antagonistic, and that as the population of the United States increases the number of birds must necessarily decrease. On the author’s place of three acres, situated on the edge of a city of ten thousand population, there were fifteen pairs of birds representing seven species, nesting during 1914. One village of twenty-three acres showed an average of seventeen pairs of birds per acre. One man in Chevy Chase, Maryland, reported thirteen pairs nesting in a half-acre yard. The record for the largest number of birds comes from a farm in Maryland, where fifty-nine pairs of birds were found nesting on a single acre. In this census the robin was found to be the most abundant bird, with six pairs per farm of fifty- eight acres, and the English sparrow next, with five pairs per farm. For every one hundred robins reported there were eighty-three English sparrows, forty-nine catbirds, thirty-seven brown thrashers, twenty-eight house wrens, twenty-seven kingbirds, and twenty-six bluebirds. It may be considered, then, that the following statements represent the approximate truth at the present time relative to the abundance of birds: (1) some birds have become extinct; (2) other birds are threatened with extinction; (3) the game-birds, wild fowl, shore-birds, and egrets have greatly decreased in numbers in recent years; (4) hawks and owls have decreased to some extent; (5) song-birds have CHANGES IN THE NUMBERS OF BIRDS 127 decreased in the neighborhood of cities; (6) in the country there has been no appreciable change in the numbers of song-birds; (7) the numbers of these birds could be considerably increased with advan- tage to man without disturbing nature’s balance. CHAPTER XIII THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF BIRDS Tue facts presented in the preceding chapter nat- urally lead one to inquire what are the forces that have caused the great decrease of some birds, and that are holding our song-birds in check and pre- venting their increase. In the report by Mr. For- bush to which reference has already been made statistics were gathered regarding the causes of the decrease of birds. The following is taken from his report for the State of Massachusetts, with a few of the minor causes omitted: — Man THE EXTERMINATOR The reports on the diminution of bird life, as caused directly or indirectly by man, may be tabulated as fol- lows to show the relative importance of each cause: — Cause Number of observers Sportsmen, or (so-called “sportsmen”’)..............055 Italians and other foreigners............0 ce eseeeeeees 70 Cutting off timber and sbrubbery.................0055 62 Market hunters: 2 cecsleisccnveerosuen < 4s avert in onssrantonasete 57 Bird shooters and trappers... 22... 2... cece cece neces 32 Egg collectors, boys and others..............c0c0e00ee 32 Millinérs* Hunters cecal veahaaid ssouwrsousdGien eatin cate 18 Draining marshes and meadows.............0.eeeeeeee 17 Gun clubs and hunting contests ..........0..00ceceecee 16 THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF BIRDS 129° The natural enemies of birds, noted as harmful by the observers who have contributed to this portion of the report, may be arranged in the following order, with reference to the number reporting each: — Natural enemy Number of ob- servers reporting Cats eels sae wal D¥ie to 84 oe Qua tetaiee oe ease 82 POXESie savance ac aves Sea x MaRS Rs See eT Ses 58 CROWS sein, bre dita et Revel actocaann eusialien nd 44°45. S ean 54 Squirrels), ccunsvee essa tosses weuneieeteeteecs ceaees 42 Englishisparrowst cs. cecac06% seaaii wars ey eee sa ee 39 TET Gh WS se cae ected sseaer zu usta aas canauerausaaeeatuaacAcr Hae secon ae IE 34 The enemies of birds may be arranged as follows with special reference to the part that man has played in their destruction: — I. Natural enemies. 1. Four-footed enemies. A. Squirrels. B. Foxes, weasels, etc. 2. Feathered enemies. A. Crow, blue jay, crow blackbird. B. Hawks and owls. 83. The elements. II. Man as an enemy. 1. Agencies for which man is indirectly responsible. A. The cat. B. The English sparrow. 2. Agencies for which man is directly responsible. A. Unavoidable destruction. a. Cutting off timber and shrubbery. b. Draining marshes. c. Lighthouses. d. Wires (telegraph, telephone, trolley, elec- tric lighting). 130 BIRD FRIENDS B. Needless destruction. . Shooting for sport. . Market hunters. . Milliners’ hunters. . Egg-collecting. . Shooting song-birds for food. no coms Among the agencies destructive to bird life are natural enemies which were operative before the advent of the white man, and most of which are still in existence, although many have been de- stroyed by man. Squirrels. Among the squirrels the red squirrel is one of the worst offenders. When it is common, it is a serious enemy of small birds. It eats both eggs and young birds. It is able to reach almost any bird’s nest and the small birds can do little to protect themselves from it. When the red squirrels are present in excessive numbers, it may be neces- sary to reduce their numbers to protect the birds. The gray squirrel and chipmunk occasionally feed on young birds, but not so commonly as does the red squirrel. Other four-footed enemies. Other animals that may at times destroy eggs and young birds are foxes, weasels, minks, and skunks. Probably none of these, except when numerous, is to be consid- ered a serious enemy of the song-birds. As these animals are rare throughout many portions of the United States, they do not usually do much dam- age. THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF BIRDS 131 Feathered enemies. There is strong evidence that the crow, blue jay, and crow blackbird at times do much damage, especially the crow, in de- stroying eggs and the young of small birds. These birds have been repeatedly observed to attack the nests of other birds, and some students consider the crow the worst natural enemy of small birds. An examination of eleven hundred stomachs of crows, made by the Bureau of Biological Survey, showed that fifty, or about five per cent, had fed on wild birds or their eggs. In the same bulletin is the following reference to the egg-eating habit of the blue jay: “As this trait of the jay appears to be most pronounced during its own breeding season, it is quite possible for many birds which have suffered from his boldness early in the season to raise an- other brood unmolested.” This egg-destroying habit is probably not true of all crows and jays, but is limited to a certain number of individuals. Among the hawks are found some of the worst natural enemies of birds, the chief offenders being the pigeon hawk, Cooper’s hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk. They attack the adult birds, and our small insectivorous birds make up over half of the food of the sharp-shinned hawk. The owls occasionally feed on small birds, but not nearly so frequently as hawks. They are not to be considered serious enemies of the small birds. Shrikes feed to some extent on small birds, which 132 BIRD FRIENDS comprise about one fourth of their food. Among these, however, are included:'a good many English sparrows. The elements. Birds which spend the winter in the northern United States may suffer severely from the extreme cold and from lack of food on account of the deep snows and the coating of ice on trees that cover their food-supply. Many birds perish every severe winter. The lack of food is one of the chief reasons for this mortality. With plenty of food birds can withstand very low temperatures, but when they are only half fed, they easily suc- cumb to the cold. Mortality during winter. In Massachusetts, Mr. Forbush made a study of this matter during the winter of 1903 to 1904 from reports received from seventy-five correspondents. These reports showed that during the first half of the winter, birds were present in about their usual number, but as the severity of the weather increased, the number of birds began to decrease, till by the end of the winter a very noticeable mortality was universally reported, and many birds were found dying of cold and hunger; and it was the opinion of those best fitted to judge that most of the birds which usually win- tered there were either starved or frozen. Among the greatest sufferers were the bob-white, ruffed grouse, meadowlark, and flicker. In some localities the bob-white was apparently entirely THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF BIRDS 133 exterminated, Mr. Forbush estimating that it had been reduced at least ninety-five per cent. During the winter of 1911-12, which was excep- tionally severe, many reports received from por- tions of the northeastern United States indicated that many birds perished. The sleet and snow cov- ered their food so that the birds fell easy victims to the low temperatures. Water-fowl perished by the thousands on the Delaware River. In Iowa it was estimated that seventy-five per cent of the bob-whites and prairie chickens perished. In New Jersey it was reported that grouse and quail were dying from hunger on account of a coating of ice beneath the snow, through which the birds could not dig holes for food. Similar reports came from Kansas. The marshes and coves by the sea, where water-birds usually stay, froze so that the birds were not able to secure food. In the Jate winter of 1895, bluebirds were over- taken by a spell of cold weather in the South, as a result of which thousands perished. The diminished number of bluebirds was very noticeable for many years afterward. Mortality during spring. Dr. T. S. Roberts re- ports in “ The Auk” a Lapland longspur tragedy that occurred in southern Minnesota and northern Iowa in March, 1904. Apparently a great host of these birds were migrating to their northern home on the night in question, when they were over- 134 BIRD FRIENDS taken by a snowstorm, and, becoming confused by the darkness and snow, some were attracted by the lights of the towns, where they dashed themselves to the ground and against the buildings and per- ished in enormous numbers. Many others, laden with the heavy, wet snow, were evidently unable to continue their flight and fell to the earth, where they were stunned or killed. The next morning the ground was strewn with dead birds. On two lakes of an area of about two square miles, it was esti- mated that a million birds had perished. The total area in which this tragedy occurred was about fifteen hundred square miles. If in two square miles a million birds perished, it is difficult to imagine what the destruction must have been throughout the whole area. Unseasonable storms, especially cold rains in the spring, destroy a great many birds. The early migrants are the birds most apt to be affected by these storms. During the nesting-period, prolonged seasons of cold, rainy weather may render it difficult for the birds to find food either for themselves or their young, and the young may be chilled in the nest. In 1903 the numbers of martins were reduced very noticeably by this means in some sections of the country. In portions of New England they were almost wiped out. CHAPTER XIV BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN: THE CAT AND THE ENGLISH SPARROW Comine now to the part that man has played in the destruction of bird life, we will first consider those agencies for which he is indirectly responsible, namely, the cat and the English sparrow. The cat was brought to this country as a pet by the white man, and is now often so poorly fed and cared for, and even entirely deserted by people, that man must be held largely accountable for the harm that cats do. In a similar way man is responsible for the English sparrow, because it was introduced by him into this country in 1851 and at later dates, and has now become one of the worst enemies of cer- tain song-birds. The Cat Method of doing harm. There is quite general agreement among bird-students that cats are the worst enemy of the song-birds. The chief harm is done during the nesting-season. While the young are in the nest, they are entirely helpless and un- able to defend themselves against the cat. Not only does the cat find nests on the ground, but it can 136 BIRD FRIENDS easily climb trees and reach the nests there, so that there are few places where birds build their nests that are not accessible to the cat. And even after the young leave the nest, many are caught when learning to fly. Cats destroy also a great many adult birds. When the parent birds are de- fending their young against the attacks of the cat, they often come within reach of the cat’s paws; and even when birds are feeding on the ground, they may be pounced upon by cats that are lurking near, hidden in some shrub or tuft of grass. And again, when birds are bathing, they are not able to fly and so may be easily caught. It seems to be a nearly universal instinct among cats to delight in catching birds. Even when cats are not hungry, they catch more birds than they can eat, torturing them in the most sickening fash- ion. Mr. Neil W. Ladd, of Greenwich, Connecti- cut, reports that his household Angora cat, though loaded with bells, brought to their veranda thirty- two birds during one nesting-season and twenty- eight birds during the next season, none of which it ate. The cat at best is only partially domesticated, and, when deserted, as is so often the case by thought- less people, it runs wild and lives almost entirely on birds during the season when they can be ob- tained. There are many thousands of these stray, vagrant cats thus devastating our bird life, aided CAT WITH ROBIN A CAT THAT DOES NOT KILL BIRDS He is kept in or caged during the night, fed regularly, and given a good breakfast before his morning liberty BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 187 by many other thousands of pet cats, which hunt birds, not so much from hunger as from a natural instinct to kill birds. Most people do not realize the harm done by cats because they work quietly, on the sly, chiefly in the early morning, before most people have arisen. Mr. Forbush’s investigations showed that about ninety per cent of the cats are allowed to roam at night. At earliest daybreak they attack the young birds in the nest, frequently killing also the mother bird on the nest. And then, too, the nests which the cats attack are frequently so well hidden that a person who is not specially watching does not see the tragedies that are being enacted there. The control of the cat, as one of the chief enemies, if not the chief enemy, of bird life, is one of the pressing questions to be solved by those interested in bird-protection. In order that the harm done by cats may be more generally appreciated, below is given a list of quotations from a number of bird- students. These quotations will suffice to show that the views expressed in these pages are not simply those of the author alone: — The most important problem confronting bird pro- tectors to-day is the devising of a proper means for the disposition of the surplus cat population of this country. (Frank M. Chapman, Curator of Birds in the American Museum of Natural History and author of several well- known bird books.) 138 BIRD FRIENDS The cat is more dangerous to birds than is any native mammal that roams our woods, for it is nocturnal, a splendid climber, a good stalker, a strong leaper, and is very quick and active. (E. H. Forbush, State Ornitholo- gist of Massachusetts.) There is no wild bird or animal in the United States whose destructive inroads on our bird population are in any sense comparable to the widespread devastation created by the domestic cat. (T. Gilbert Pearson, secre- tary of the National Association of Audubon Societies.) The cat is acknowledged to be one of the most de- structive of all the bird enemies and is, therefore, an ex- pensive luxury. If crops are worth money, the birds that save them from pest destruction are worth money, and the cat takes money out of your pocket every time it catches a bird. As birds decrease in numbers, insect pests increase and eat our crops, plants and trees. (Charles H. Pease, secretary of the Connecticut Commission of Fisheries and Game.) Field naturalists and others who have studied condi- tions surrounding our native birds, agree that the house cat is as destructive to birds as all other natural enemies combined. (A. K. Fisher, of the Bureau of Biological Survey.) Taking into account bird life in general, the cat is un- doubtedly the most destructive mammal we have, and the aggregate number of birds annually killed by them is enormous. (Henry W. Henshaw, chief of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey.) In such thickly settled communities as our northern States, from the Atlantic Coast to the sandhills of Kan- sas and Nebraska, the domestic cat is probably the great- est four-footed scourge of bird life. That cats destroy annually in the United States several millions of very valuable birds, seems fairly beyond question. (William T. Hornaday, Director of New York Zodlogical Fark.) BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 139 John Burroughs says that cats destroy more birds than all other animals combined. William Dutcher, president of the National Association of Audubon Societies, considers the wild house cat one of the greatest causes of bird destruc- tion known. Mr. E. H. Forbush found that nearly a hundred correspondents scattered through all the counties of Massachusetts reported the cat as one of the greatest enemies of birds, a larger number reporting this than any other enemy. M. Raspail in France watched sixty-seven nests for one season and found that forty-one of these were destroyed. Fifteen of these were robbed by cats, which destroyed more nests than any other single enemy. The destruction of birds by cats means a direct economic money loss. It means an increase of in- sect pests. This increase means more destruction of crops, which means smaller yields and smaller financial returns: more cats — fewer birds — more insects — smaller crops — less money. Number of birds killed by cats. There are enough data available so that one may secure an approx- imate estimate of the number of birds killed by cats in a year. Mr. A. C. Dyke reports a pet cat that was well fed, which was actually seen to kill fifty-eight birds in one season, including the young in five nests. 140 BIRD FRIENDS Mr. E. H. Forbush estimates that a mature cat in good hunting-grounds kills, on the average, fifty birds a year. He saw a cat kill all the young in six nests and two parent birds in a day. He also re- ports two instances where more than ten birds were killed by a cat in one day, and another where seven were killed. In “Bird-Lore ”’ for March-April, 1915, and in a bulletin on the “ Domestic Cat,’’ Mr. Forbush gives some interesting results of his investigations regard- ing the cat. A series of questions was sent out to a number of people in Massachusetts, and answers received from more than four hundred. These showed that one hundred and seven species of birds killed by cats had been identified by the writers. Following is a partial list of the birds reported: — Name of bird killed Number of ob- Servers reporting Ro Bins wiid say 2 enndn a in eet eae nantes oe canteen Saetlacees 272 MBL Ue ai ec 5 scsnacsvsetiesedalare Goes ss eevd anew MORN ee 75 Bong lish Sparro wee ois cocccrdsscane ods vow Suspense aoe 72 Chipping sparrow.......... Uiuinem gnesapye a oneeaeee ned 54 CBT UR io 8 2 cca oa uaedon taytoeatstolas oli wes tipeets ood onsngra ean nee 52 Rou fheds grouse ass 5x acdevd nn aectutea edo hecho ao udaeaeiai, Rae 46 SONG SparrOwiieciuc esate ew eu iouaieniies cintvaterena srs 46 Boba white sos 2 suds aceccizvacssavusiasdvasasbialn seq: dcthe annua oyecpveeeeghdeeess 44 Barn swallows, gercwcudsnsaeasakstass es vs cs eae eos a 42 PUMCO YR waz saecutstans apataletadl On an eavan evsreeshoeasvemas ah tee 34 Bluejays ccntes sess ented ncaeieGelas beaks mano’ 25 CHICKA GE costs oscnve ca water neenieinn cates eee Sao: 24 NICK GR cg goss ving 5 ae pasniceaanaydisntauceslsid RE 2 ote ontasts roe 24 ‘Mellow warblet:ci accor ocaveneavette wax nae eeaee ince 20 ET OUSE WHET Gatch eri poses yr tcetiestentenaseteraees dca nichat oases oan mre 16 Meadowlark: sew teulectints och bie caer Sie iccne we an dexanines 14 Balti ore“oriole: asgescctetewhiien ste ora sases an rcs 8 13 BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 141 Numerous correspondents had known individual cats to kill from two to eight birds in a day, though the average was much smaller. In several cases cats were known to kill almost or more than fifty birds in a year. The reports showed that — 226 cats killed 624 birds in one day, an average per day of 2.7. 32 cats killed 239 birds in one week, an average per week of 7.9. 15 cats killed 307 birds in one month, an average per month of 20.4. 47 cats killed 534 birds in one year, an average per year of 11.3. The average for the year is small because few persons kept careful account of the birds killed during a whole year, while others, whose cats had been “taught not to kill birds,” reported that their cats had killed only one, two, or three birds in a year. If we assume that these cats continued to kill birds at the same rate for one month and average them all, taking into account the number of cats in each group, the average for a month is 62. If we give the four groups equal consideration, regard- less of the number in each group, the average num- ber killed is 33. The average of the third group alone, comprising 15 cats, is 20.4. And if finally we average these three averages, the result is 38. In order to make a conservative estimate, we will take the lowest of the four averages, 20.4 as the average number of birds killed in a month by one cat. It is fair to assume that a cat would continue to kill birds at this rate during at least one month 142 BIRD FRIENDS in the height of the nesting-season, when young birds are easily caught, and when most of the harm is done. Number of birds killed by cats in Massachusetts. These investigations of Mr. Forbush give data for forming some estimate of the total number of birds killed each year by cats in the State of Massachu- setts. It was found that an average of about one cat per family was kept in towns and nearly three cats per farm in the country, so that we may take two cats per farm as a fair average. There are in Massachusetts 37,000 farms supporting about 74- 000 cats. As previously shown, the average num- ber of birds killed by one cat during one month of the nesting-season was 20.4. This multiplied by 74,000 gives a total of 1,509,600 birds, probably mostly young birds, killed annually by cats on the farms of Massachusetts, or, in round numbers, one and a half millions. We may next inquire what per cent of the total bird population this number comprises. In a bird- census conducted by the United States Bureau of Biological Survey, it was found that there was an average of one pair of nesting birds per acre on the farms of the northeastern United States. In Massa- chusetts there are about 2,800,000 acres of farm- land, which, in accordance with the above census, support 2,800,000 pairs of birds. Assuming that each pair reared two young birds to at least partial BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 143 maturity would give a total of 5,600,000 young birds for the first brood. We may also estimate the second brood from the data furnished by the cen- sus, in accordance with which there would be in Massachusetts about 300,000 pairs of robins. 250,000 pairs of English sparrows. 78,000 pairs of house wrens. 72,000 pairs of bluebirds. 700,000 pairs in all. Assuming again two young reared in the second brood gives a total of 1,400,000. This, added to the number of the first brood and to the number of adults, gives a total of 12,600,000 birds on the farms of Massachusetts. In accordance with the previous estimate that cats kill about one and a half millions, this would mean that they destroy annually about one eighth of the total bird population found on the farms of Massachusetts. Mr. Forbush, in his bulletin on the “‘ Domestic Cat,” quotes the following estimates: — Dr. George W. Field, chairman of the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game, estimates that there is at least one stray cat to every hundred acres in the State, and that each cat kills on the average at least one bird every ten days through the season, making the an- nual destruction of birds by stray cats in the State approximate 2,000,000. Dr. A. K. Fisher, in charge of Economic Investiga- 144 BIRD FRIENDS tions of the Biological Survey, estimates that the cats of New York State destroy 3,500,000 birds annually. Mr. Albert H. Pratt calculates that the farm cats of Tlinois kill about 2,500,000 annually. Number of birds killed by cats in the eastern United States. The average of these estimates for the three States is about one hundred birds killed per square mile. If this average is applied to all the States east of the Mississippi River, it would give a total of 85,000,000 birds killed annually by cats in the eastern United States. We may also make a rough estimate from the number of farms and families in the country. There are in the United States east of the Mississippi River 3,800,000 farms. If we take the conditions in Massachusetts as being typical of the rest of the country in averaging two cats to a farm, these farms support 7,600,000 cats. On the farm, where there are excellent hunting-grounds for the cat, it is a very conservative estimate that each cat averages to kill ten birds in a year, making a total of 76,000,- 000 birds killed annually by cats on the farms of the eastern United States. An estimate may also be made of the number of birds killed by town cats. According to the census of 1910, the urban population of the United States east of the Mississippi River, living in towns and cities of twenty-five hundred and over, was 33,- 500,000, comprising about 7,400,000 families. The BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 145 cats kept by families living in the more crowded portions of the large cities can do little harm to native birds, because few birds are present. In 1910 there were east of the Mississippi River 37 cities having a population of over one hundred thousand, making a total of 16,700,000, comprising about 3,700,000 families. Subtracting this number from the total number of families given above leaves 3,700,000 families living in towns and cities where cats might find birds to kill. The number of fami- lies living in the centers of cities with a population of less than one hundred thousand, where few birds are found, would be about balanced by the number of families living in the suburbs of the large cities where birds are found. At the last census there were about one million families east of the Mississippi River living in in- corporated places of less than twenty-five hundred. This added to the previous number gives 4,700,000 families living in the towns and smaller cities where birds are found quite commonly. Mr. Forbush’s investigations in Massachusetts showed that in the towns the average number of cats per family was about one. Allowing one cat per family throughout the country would give a to- tal of 4,700,000 cats kept by these families. If we assume that the farm cat in good hunting-grounds kills ten birds a year, we may assume that the town cat, under less favorable conditions, aver- 146 BIRD FRIENDS ages to kill five birds annually. This would give a total of 23,500,000 birds killed by these town cats. This added to the number destroyed by farm cats gives a total of 99,500,000, or about one hundred million birds killed annually by cats in the United States east of the Mississippi River. An estimate may be made of the percentage that this forms of the total bird population. A census taken of the birds on the farms in the United States showed that there was an average of one pair to the acre, making a total of about seven hundred mil- lion birds east of the Mississippi River. If we as- sume that each pair rears to at least partial matur- ity two young birds, there would be approximately a billion and a half birds in this area, of which num- ber, in accordance with the above estimate, about one fifteenth are destroyed by cats. The above estimate does not take into account the numerous stray and homeless cats, which in the country doubtless may number as many as the pet farm cats and may do fully as much harm. Mr. Chapman says that there are not less than twenty- five million cats in the United States and that there may be double that number. Cats as disease-carriers. One of the reasons why cats are kept is to serve as pets. But even here their value is doubtful, as it has been proved that cats occasionally act as disease-carriers. Sometimes they have the disease themselves and then carry BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 147 it directly to human beings; in other cases they simply carry on their fur the disease germs which are taken from infected sources. The scavenging habits of cats in filthy places are well known. While seeking food in these places and while rolling in the dirt, their fur takes up the bacteria-laden dirt, and these bacteria may then be transferred to children and others who fondle the cat. A few years ago Dr. Caroline A. Osborne made a careful investigation of the evidence at hand re- lating to the part that cats play in carrying diseases. The results of her investigations were published in the “ Chicago Medical Record.” In accordance with the evidence there presented, it seems estab- lished that cats are subject to the following dis- eases which are also found in man: tuberculosis, diphtheria, bubonic plague, whooping-cough, an- thrax, ringworm, mange, tapeworm, trachina, gland- ers, sleeping-sickness, pulmonary distomatosis, and Asiatic liver fluke. Evidence is also presented which indicates that the cat has been known to carry the following diseases to human beings, either mechani- cally on its fur or through having the disease itself: diphtheria, bubonic plague, scarlet fever, smallpox, ringworm, and mange. Rats are a source of dan- ger as disease-carriers, and it is shown that cats through contact with rats have been known to carry bubonic plague and diphtheria to human beings. Mr. Forbush in his investigations in Massachu- 148 BIRD FRIENDS setts gathered evidence regarding the part that cats play in the transmission of diseases. After con- sultation with medical authorities, he reached the conclusion that most of the data he had gathered furnished only circumstantial evidence and were inconclusive. But he concludes that the evidence shows that “cats undoubtedly disseminate ring- worm and rabies, and they may carry such infec- tions as smallpox and scarlet fever; and in some cases serious infections appear to have been trans- mitted by the bites or scratches of cats.” The evidence at hand proves conclusively that cats have sometimes been the means of transmit- ting diseases to. human beings. To determine ex- actly what kinds of diseases and how frequently they may be transmitted to human beings requires fur- ther investigations. Remedies. Bird-students are quite generally agreed that a partial solution of the cat problem lies in licensing cats. Owners of cats should be required to pay an annual license, such as is now required for dogs. This licensing would tend to re- duce the number of cats, as people who now keep several cats would then keep but one, and some people would not keep any at all, and the cats that were kept would be better cared for. Such a cat license is required in St. Petersburg, Florida. The town of Montclair, New Jersey, has recently passed an ordinance to the effect that owners of cats shall BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 149 place marked tags or collars on their cats, and pro- visions are made for the humane disposal of any cats not thus marked. This licensing should be accompanied by some plan by means of which unlicensed stray cats would be disposed of. The fee from the licenses might be used to employ some one to capture and kill in some humane way the vagrant cats. In Montclair an animal warden has been appointed to look after the enforcement of the cat and dog ordinances. The license fees have been sufficient to pay his salary. The destruction of these vagrant cats is a kindness to the cats, as during the colder months of the year they are not able to secure enough food and consequently live in a half-starved condition. In New York City alone, the Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Animals killed, during 1915, 175,000 sick, injured, and homeless cats. The mat- ter of disposing of stray cats concerns the cat-lover quite as much as the bird-lover. Little can be done in training cats to let birds alone. It is the exceptional cat that can be thus trained. Belling the cat is another method of little value. During the nesting-season of birds cats should be shut up, especially at night and during the early morning, and at all times should be well fed so that they will not have hunger added to their natural instinct as a stimulus to catch birds. The following note is contributed to “ Bird-Lore”’ by 150 BIRD FRIENDS Cornelia T. Fairbanks, of St. Johnsbury, Ver- mont: — We have solved the question of how to control our family cat. His days are spent under the south piazza, where he sits contentedly looking out through the netting in front, or curls up in a box in a shady corner. After the birds are quiet for the night, he is released. The good supper that awaits him at nine o’clock never fails to bring him to the door, where he is captured and safely shut up for the night. Another solution of the problem is to keep the cat tethered to an overhead wire during the birds’ nesting-season. As a matter of common decency no one has a right to keep a cat that becomes a nuisance in kill- ing birds on his neighbor’s place, any more than he has a right to keep cows and horses and allow them to roam at will over his neighbor’s garden. Any one who wishes to attract birds around his home in any considerable numbers must dispose of the cats that trespass on his place, whether they be stray cats or neighbors’ cats. These can be caught by means of cat-traps, a number of which are now in the market, for sale by some of the deal- ers listed in Chapter XIX. Nests and nesting-boxes may be protected from cats by wrapping a piece of tin or zine, about eighteen inches wide, around the tree or post four feet from the ground, and fas- tening it there. Cats are not able to climb over this. BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 151 The cat is kept for two purposes, as a pet and as a mouser. As a pet it may be dangerous to health, and there are other pets that are equally or more desirable. As a means of controlling rats and mice, it is only moderately successful, and mice and rats can be more effectually controlled by means of traps and poisons. Mr. Forbush’s investigations in Mas- sachusetts seem to indicate that only about one fifth of the cats kept in country towns are efficient ratters. And when these pests are once cleaned out there is no need for keeping a cat. Professor Nathaniel Southgate Shaler in his “ Do- mesticated Animals,” writes as follows of the cat: — The cat is the only animal that has been tolerated, esteemed, and, at times, worshiped, without having a single distinctly valuable quality. It is in a small way serviceable in keeping down the excessive development of small rodents, which from the beginning have been the self-invited guests of man. As it is in a certain in- different way sympathetic, and by its caressing appears to indicate affection, it has awakened a measure of sym- pathy which it hardly deserves. I have been unable to find any authentic instances which go to show the exist- ence in cats of any real love for their masters. Mrs. Alice H. Walter, in “ Bird-Lore ” for Janu- ary—February, 1915, summarizes the matter in the following list of questions: — Every person is free to his or her own opinion, but conscientious answers to the following questions may help some who are not decided as to the merits of this question to make up their minds definitely : — 152 BIRD FRIENDS 1. Am I harboring a cat which may be a disease-carrier? 2. Does my cat trespass on the grounds of other peo- ple and interfere with their plans for saving or at- tracting birds? 3. How many wild birds does my cat catch and bring to my notice every year? 4. Does my cat wander free at night, disturbing my neighbors by fighting with other cats or by making harassing noises? 5. Am I perfectly sure that my cat is a good mouser? 6. Am I sure that rats and mice about barns and houses cannot be more effectively destroyed by some other means than cats? 7. Am I justified in keeping cats which breed fre- quently and in letting their progeny go here, there, and everywhere? 8. Do I know how many stray cats are about my neighborhood? 9. AmI taking a broad-minded view of the cat question? Any person who considers this matter in the light of the public welfare, instead of his own personal interests, is the right kind of citizen. Nowadays, we live in com- munities which are too thickly populated to warrant a superabundance of any animal, be it cat, dog, bird, or pig. Favor should be given to those creatures which are doing the most good and not to those which are doing the most harm. The English Sparrow Ways in which it is harmful. Perhaps the Eng- lish sparrow ranks next to the cat as an enemy of certain birds which it most directly affects. The birds which it especially injures are those which seek simi- lar nesting-sites, such as the wren, bluebird, martin, and tree swallow. These: birds, like the sparrow, BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 153 all nest in cavities or nesting-boxes. The sparrows remain all the year round and begin to nest before the native birds have returned in the spring, so that when they do return, they frequently find their nesting-sites already occupied. And even when the native birds have found an unoccupied ‘site, and have started to build their nests, the sparrows often come and attempt to drive them away, and as there are so many more of the sparrows than of the na- tive species they are usually successful. The sparrows do not confine their persecution to birds that seek similar nesting-sites, but may at- tack other birds, such as the robin, vireo, and cat- bird, and cause them to desert the places where they are nesting. And the sparrows even attack the nests of cliff swallows, and drive barn swallows from the buildings where they are nesting. The sparrows even go farther than this and sometimes break the eggs and destroy young birds in the nests. Professor Barrows gives a list of seventy-five species of our native birds which English sparrows have been reported to molest. The following table shows the number of times they were reported to have attacked certain birds: — Bird attacked Number of different records of attacking Swallows: and martins jo v¢5 essa saewsaunae sc sied 440 TBIWeD Rd. sa cos ce aricecetaveuiualane aie -ece esa 'o aia eviovoverareladeunaiecn nde 377 Other sparrows .......0ccscceeeeeeeens Nader eee 273 Wrens vied dincansaccigmres Bee esas Sawieian sass Vs 191 154 BIRD FRIENDS One thing that makes the sparrows so trouble- some is the large number of young that they raise each year. They begin nesting in late winter or early spring and may rear five or six broods, in- cluding from twenty to thirty young, in a season. It has been estimated that the offspring from a sin- gle pair of sparrows in ten years might number 275 ,000,000,000. Remedies. Where bird-houses are put out to at- tract native birds, the sparrows usually attempt to occupy them, and must be driven away or killed if we wish to induce the native birds to nest there. The sparrow may be kept from using boxes in- tended for smaller birds by making the hole so small that the sparrows cannot enter. The sparrow can- not enter a one-and-one-eighth-inch hole, but this hole is large enough for the chickadee, and an inch hole is large enough for the wren. Sparrows may be prevented from rearing their young in bird-boxes by removing their eggs every week or two during the nesting-season, and some- times the sparrows will leave as a result; but the only satisfactory solution seems to be to kill the sparrows. This may be done in three ways: by shooting, by poisoning, and by trapping. The enormous numbers of sparrows and the wide range over which they are found might at first seem to make any attempts at their destruction hope- less. But experiments in the destruction of these BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 155 birds have shown that flocks and individuals have a very narrow range, and confine their activities largely to one locality, so that when a place has once been freed of sparrows, some time passes be- fore others come in. The following illustration of this is given in the Farmers’ Bulletin No. 493, “ The English Sparrow as a Pest ’’: — This tendency to remain on a special territory was well shown during a recent experiment with a flock in a small garden. During the fall steady trapping reduced the resident flock in the garden to a dozen individuals, 274 birds having been trapped. The survivors were poisoned. Though another flock lived in the street just beyond the fence, the garden was sparrow-free for three months. In the following spring a few sparrows ap- peared, but were soon trapped. After this the garden con- tinued throughout the summer without a resident flock, and only rarely was it visited by sparrows from other parts of the neighborhood. Shooting the sparrows. There are a number of reports available which show that the sparrow can be controlled by systematic shooting. Mr. Newton Miller reports in “Bird-Lore” that for twenty-five years on his father’s farm the sparrows were almost completely kept under control by shooting. Each spring from two to five pairs of sparrows came look- ing for nesting-sites, but when these were shot, the farm remained practically free from the pest for the rest of the year. Mr. E. H. Baynes reports from Meriden, New 156 BIRD FRIENDS Hampshire, that the sparrows have been easily con- trolled by shooting. During the first season a war- fare was kept up with two guns for a number of weeks till the sparrows that had not been shot left town. About once a year a flock of from twenty to thirty sparrows comes to Meriden from the surround- ing villages, but these are quickly disposed of, or driven away by a few days’ shooting. Mr. E. H. Forbush reports that his farm has been kept clear of sparrows for ten years by the practice of shooting promptly the first one that appeared. Mr. Neil M. Ladd gives the following suggestions in the first annual report of the Greenwich Bird Protective Society : — Shooting accomplishes great results when done as follows: Feed small grains from a small narrow trough on the ground for several days until hundreds of sparrows from the surrounding neighborhood flock to it the mo- ment the food is put out. A shotgun so placed as to sweep the length of the trough will kill dozens at each shot. The gun can easily be secured in place and the trigger released by a long string. In this connection the question has been raised whether shooting would not drive away other birds. But the records which the author has been able to obtain, together with his own experience, indicate that this fear is groundless. Poisoning the sparrows. During the winter spar- rows may be poisoned if care is taken to see that no other birds eat the poisoned food. In the Farmers’ BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 157 Bulletin No. 493, on “The English Sparrow as a Pest,” the following directions are given for the preparation of poisoned grain: — Put one eighth ounce of pulverized strychnine sul- phate into three fourths of a gill of hot water, add one and one-half teaspoonfuls of starch or wheat flour, mois- tened with a few drops of cold water, and heat, stirring constantly till the mixture thickens. Pour the hot poi- soned starch over one quart of wheat and stir till every kernel is coated. Small-kerneled wheat sold as poultry food, if reasonably clean, is preferable to first-quality grain, being cheaper and more easily eaten by the spar- rows. A two-quart glass fruit jar is a good vessel to mix in, as it is easily shaken and allows the condition of the contents to be seen. If the coated wheat be spread thinly on a hard, flat surface, it will be dry enough for use in a short time. It should be dried thoroughly if it is to be put into jars and kept for future use. The following method of using poisoned grain is given by Dr. Hodge in “‘ Nature-Study and Life” :— It requires but one kernel to kill a sparrow. A quart of wheat contains about 23,000 kernels, and the spar- rows seldom take more than two or three. Expose the grain where poultry and tame pigeons cannot get it, and by operating only during the winter, there will be no danger of poisoning seed-eating wild birds at least for all Northern towns and cities. By taking advantage of the sparrows’ gregarious habits, and the fact that they drive off other birds from localities where they are nu- merous, much might be done even in the South. Sparrows are such suspicious and cunning birds that, if the strychninized grain be exposed at first, they will probably roll each kernel in their bills, taste it, reject it, 158 BIRD FRIENDS and possibly refuse to touch it again that winter. The best way is to select a place where the wind is not likely to scatter it away, — a walk, a driveway, or porch-roof with a smooth surface, — so that the grain may be swept up after each trial. Accustom them to feeding there daily with grain exactly like that which is medicated. (I often do this for a week, or even a month, until all the sparrows in the neighborhood are wont to come regularly.) Study the times when they come for their meals, and then on a cold, dry morning, after a heavy snowstorm, having swept up all the good grain the morning before, wait till they have gathered and then put enough strychninized grain to feed the whole flock. You have about ten minutes before any begin to drop, and those that have not partaken of the grain by this time will probably be frightened off: but by timing it properly I have repeatedly caught every sparrow in the flock. I have found morning the best time, as they all come then; and it is essential to success to select a dry day, since in wet weather they taste the strychnine too easily; I have seen them actually throwit out of thecrop. With this simple method at command, by concerted action, a few friends of our native birds can rid any Northern city of the sparrow pest in a single winter. This is no more than parents ought to do for the sake of the native birds, and if not for their sake, at least to clear the way for the children to do effective work in their be- half. That sparrows can be kept in check by systematic poisoning is shown by the experience of Mr. Frank Bond while a resident of Cheyenne, Wyoming. Each winter a campaign was waged and the numbers of the sparrows were so reduced that they did not interfere with the breeding of the native birds, which BIRD ENEMIES INTRODUCED BY MAN 159 increased greatly in numbers with the growth of trees and parks, and the mountain bluebirds and house finch were common occupants of bird-houses. At the close of the winter’s work there were never left more than thirty or forty sparrows, and some- times even fewer. When using the poisoned grain, after some of the birds have been killed, other birds will be frightened away, so that after each killing unpoisoned grain should be fed till the birds become accustomed to feeding there. Then the poisoned grain may be used again. Trapping the sparrows. Trapping is one of the most satisfactory methods of killing the sparrows, and in some localities it is the only method that can be used. It is a safer method than shooting or poison- ing, and may be used in cities where the other meth- ods would not be allowed. Sparrows caught in this way may be used for food, if desired, and if native birds are caught they can be set free. In using poisons and traps special care should be taken to see that our native birds are not killed by mistake. The combined use of traps and poisons is very ef- fective. The trap may first be used to catch as many of the flock as will enter it and then poison may be used to kill the remainder. At least two types of traps may be used for catch- ing sparrows, the nest-box trap and the bait trap. The nest-box trap is so arranged that when the 160 BIRD FRIENDS bird enters, its weight pushes down a pivoted can and the bird drops down into the bottom, where it is imprisoned and may be easily removed and killed. In Farmers’ Bulletin No. 493 is described a bait trap. This is a kind of funnel trap made of woven- wire poultry netting. It consists of four parts: (1) a half-funnel leading into (2) an antechamber, which ends in (3) a complete funnel leading into (4) a final chamber. Canary seed, hemp seed, wheat, oats, and bread-crumbs may be used for bait. These are scattered in the antechamber and a little about the entrance. A live sparrow may be kept in the trap as a decoy. The trap will prove more effective if it is moved daily from one feeding-place to an- other. The sparrows are removed from the trap by means of a small receiving-box which is placed against a small door leading out of the final cham- ber. The sparrows may be easily drowned by placing in a bag and immersing in a pail of water. These traps have been widely used with much success. Average catches of ten or twenty birds a day are reported, and an occasional catch of one hundred in a day. The bulletin mentioned above reports a catch of three hundred in six weeks. One man reports a catch of six thousand sparrows in four years through the use of traps. These traps may be purchased from a number of dealers listed in Chap- ter XIX, at prices ranging from three to six dollars. CHAPTER XV MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS Tus chapter will be devoted to a discussion of the part that man has played directly in the destruc- tion of birds. Some of the ways in which bird life has been destroyed are due to settlement and the general advance of civilization, and these are unavoidable. Advance of civilization. With the rapid increase in population in the cities and towns, and their cor- responding growth countryward, roadside shrub- bery, orchards, decaying trees, and other nesting- sites are steadily disappearing. In the suburbs of cities birds that nest in cavities, such as the blue- bird and wren, experience difficulty in finding nest- ing-sites. In the country sometimes the farmer thinks he must clear up the shrubbery and the tangles by the roadside and along the fences, which, however, furnish one excellent means of inducing the birds to remain and nest. The breeding-places of many water-birds are be- ing destroyed by the drainage of swamps and marshes. Not only is this true in the growth of towns and cities as their limits are broadened, but large areas are being drained for agricultural pur- poses to reclaim waste land. Throughout the north 162 BIRD FRIENDS central part of the United States are many small marshes which are being tiled and reclaimed by the farmer. During migration seasons many birds lose their lives by dashing against lighthouses that happen to be in their path. This has been especially ob- served along the Atlantic Coast. It was reported that at the base of the statue of Liberty in New York Harbor there were found one morning four- teen hundred dead birds which had been killed during the night. And finally man has played a very prominent part directly in bird-destruction by intentionally and deliberately killing birds; and this forms one of the saddest stories in connection with bird life, sad from the standpoint of birds on account of the harm that has been done them, and sad from the standpoint of mankind, as indicating the savage spirit which still pervades “civilized” man. All other forces combined are mere trifles compared with the part that man has played in the extermina- tion of bird life. Shooting for sport. Every year a vast army of men and boys, equipped with modern weapons, goes to the woods, fields, and lakes to slaughter birds. Mr. H. W. Henshaw, chief of the United States Biologi- cal Survey, writes that more than ten per cent of all people in the Northwest are licensed hunters, and that there are probably not far from five millions MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 163 in the United States who are interested in the pur- suit of game. In the year 1911, hunting licenses were issued to 2,642,000 gunners in the United States. Besides these there is another great army of gunners who hunt contrary to law and without licenses, which is believed to be equally as large as the number of licensed hunters. This makes five million gunners, an army comparable to those en- gaged in the great European conflict. And this vast horde, averaging about one person to every three voters, marches forth each year for the “sport of killing,” deliberately bent on destroying bird life. There is little wonder that our game-birds are fast disappearing. The improvements that have been made in fire- arms render shooting much more deadly than form- erly to bird life. The pump and automatic guns are really machine guns which allow five or six shots to be fired in as many seconds. The annual output of these guns is over one hundred thousand. It is easy to understand that the annual slaughter by gunners armed with such weapons is enormous. A few examples will be given to show what devas- tation is possible with these modern weapons, which give the birds little if any chance of escape. On Marsh Island, Louisiana, one man killed 369 ducks in one day and another market hunter killed 430. Two hunters in California killed 218 geese in one hour and 450 in one day. One case is recorded 164 BIRD FRIENDS where a man, armed with several pump guns and assisted by a man to keep them loaded, hid in a blind, and killed over one hundred ducks in less than two hours. By means of these guns a hunter may kill seven or eight birds out of a flock. The term “‘game hog” has been aptly applied to this type of man who kills without limit, merely for the sport of killing. Most States have a “bag-limit” on game which defines the largest number of birds a person may take in one day, but the limit is usu- ally so high as to furnish insufficient protection. Railroads have been built through hunting- grounds hitherto inaccessible. The use of automo- biles and motor-boats allows gunners to travel over five times as large an area as formerly and hence to do five times as much damage. A form of gun that is now being used by men and boys to shoot song-birds is called the “Sunday gun.” It is the combination of a rifle and shotgun, having two barrels. It is light and easily concealed under the coat. It derived its name on account of the use to which it is put. On Sundays boys and men start out with these weapons concealed under their coats, and when they reach the country spend the day shooting song-birds. Hunting contests. In some parts of the country it has been the custom to have hunting contests. The men and boys of acommunity meet, armed with guns. Captains are selected and sides chosen. The MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 165 purpose of the day’s hunt is to see which side can kill the most birds. The hunters scatter over the coun- try shooting all living things, and, bringing in their game, meet again, and count up the points to see which side has the higher score. Each bird killed counts for a certain number of points. Five hundred and sixty-five birds and other ani- mals were killed in an annual “ side”’ hunt at Enos- burg Falls, Vermont, October 9, 1896. In a town in Vermont in which the author lived, a hunting con- test was conducted on Thanksgiving Day; and after the hunt was over, the party went to a hotel and the side which had scored the highest count was treated to a Thanksgiving dinner by the losing side. Most of the destruction to which reference has so far been made refers to the game-birds, but the small song-birds are also threatened by gunners, in- cluding boys, foreigners (mostly Italians), negroes, and poor whites in the South. Shooting by boys. Rifles and other guns are often used by boys to shoot small birds. Sometimes there is a contest to see who can kill the greatest number. Mr. Forbush records a case in which one boy with his air rifle killed 470 song-birds, and some of his companions had killed more than this. One boy was found near Washington, D.C., with seventy-two kinglets alone, besides many other birds which had been killed in one day. During the season he had killed over one hundred catbirds. Boys sometimes 166 BIRD FRIENDS start out to kill English sparrows, but are not able to distinguish the different kinds of sparrows and so kill valuable native sparrows. Shooting of song-birds by foreigners. In Italy any kind of song-bird is considered legitimate game, and when the Italians first come to this country they often begin to hunt our small song-birds. Mr. C. A. Johnson, of Hoosick Falls, New York, reports that two Italians recently confessed in court that they had boiled alive and then eaten young robins and flickers which they had taken from their nests. Wherever there are large construction works of railroads, aqueducts, ete., for which large numbers of Italians are employed, Sunday is apt to be a day of bird-slaughter. In Pennsylvania, six game- wardens were killed and eight or ten wounded while enforcing the law against foreigners. Slaughter of robins in the South. In the South the song-birds are not so well protected as in the North, and many of them are shot for food. Robins were formerly killed in enormous numbers for this purpose. The robins roost together in large num- bers and are easily killed at night by means of torches, clubs, and poles. One small hamlet in the South sent 120,000 robins to market, where they were sold at five cents per dozen. In one section of Louisiana, where the robins came in the winter to feed on the holly berries, about ten thousand birds were slain daily as long MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 167 as the robins remained in the locality. An officer of the Louisiana Audubon Society estimates that one quarter-million robins are killed annually in that State for food purposes. In 1911 there were eight Southern States in which robins were legally shot and eaten: Louisiana, Mis- sissippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Maryland, Texas, and Florida. Shooting for market. Regarding the hunters who shoot to supply the markets, Dr. Hornaday writes, in “Our Vanishing Wild Life”: — Beyond reasonable doubt, this awful traffic in dead game is responsible for at least three fourths of the slaughter that has reduced our game birds to a mere remnant of their former abundance. There is no influ- ence so deadly to wild life as that of the market gunner who works six days a week, from sunrise till sunset, hunting and killing every game bird that he can reach with a choke-bore gun. It has been estimated by careful observers that on the coast of North Carolina and in southern Louisiana, at least fifty per cent of the ducks that wintered there were formerly killed each year. The following records of a professional market hunter have been published in a sportsman’s maga- zine. During a three months’ shoot in Iowa and Minnesota he shot 6250 game-birds. During a win- ter’s hunting in the South he killed 4450 ducks. Dur- ing his forty years’ experience as a market hunter 168 BIRD FRIENDS he killed 4948 plover, 5066 snipe, 5291 quail, 5291 prairie chickens, 8117 useful blackbirds, 61,752 ducks, and many other birds, making a total of 139,628 birds representing twenty-nine species. In the State of Nebraska nearly a half-million quail and grouse were formerly sold annually. In the State of Alabama, before the present game laws were passed, nine million bob-whites were killed in one season. In Georgetown, South Carolina, 240,000 rails and 720,000 bobolinks have been shipped in one season. Below is the official record of game killed in Louisiana during the season (12 months) of 1909 and 1910: — Wild ducks (sea and river)............2000000eee 3,176,000 Quail (bob-white) ...22...00.ay es 12445 8ke eee ck 1,140,750 Snipe, sandpiper, and plover................--- 606,635 DOVES iss ses 9 sic St ck Ahetes cation nacand Graig Slaven ease teeta 810,660 CoOts scaia eee nay ye ea eiheeiaee 62 Yes faauotas 280,740 Geésé'and brant ac cccarciuciaske canciones Gxnsice 202,210 Wald turke ye oia.chsccctnnctiseun ces cae Gatun 2,219 Total number of game-birds killed........ 5,719,214 The milliners’ trade. Formerly our common song- birds, such as scarlet tanagers, orioles, and blue- birds, were shot and sold for the milliners’ trade. In 1886 Mr. Frank M. Chapman observed the feathered decorations on the hats of women he hap- pened to meet in the shopping district of New York City for two afternoons. He found in common use such birds as robins, thrushes, blackbirds, tanagers, swallows, warblers, and waxwings. He also found YOUNG EGRETS LEFT FATHERLESS AND MOTHERLESS BY PLUME-HUNTERS RED SQUIRREL, A NEST-ROBBER MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 169 bobolinks, larks, orioles, and woodpeckers. He recognized the plumage of forty species of common song-birds. Out of seven hundred hats counted in one afternoon, five hundred and forty-two were decorated with feathers. When the shooting of song-birds was more gener- ally prohibited by law, some of the water-birds, such as the gulls, terns, and herons, were next slaughtered for this purpose. Between 1900 and 1908, thousands of grebes were slaughtered in the lake region of south- ern Oregon, till the birds were almost exterminated. The pursuit of these birds has continued until recent times, and when the shooting and sale of these were prohibited, birds were sought from other countries, till now the importation of plumes for milliners’ use is prohibited by federal law. Terns were formerly slaughtered along the coast of Long Island. One village alone supplied seventy thousand bird-skins in four months to the New York trade. Mr. Dutcher wrote: “On the coast of Long Island, the slaughter has been carried on to such a degree that, where, a few years since, thousands and thousands of terns were gracefully sailing over the surf-beaten shore and the wind-rippled bays, now one is rarely to be seen.” One dealer, during a three months’ stay in North Carolina, prepared eleven thousand bird-skins. He handled about thirty thousand skins every year. One wmilliner visited Cobb’s Island, on the coast 170 BIRD FRIENDS of Virginia, to fill a foreign order for forty thousand bird-skins. Men were hired to kill the terns and gulls found here and were paid ten cents for each bird killed. Tragedy on Laysan Island. Six years ago a bird tragedy was enacted on Laysan Island, an American island in the Hawaiian group, in order to get plumes for the milliners’ trade. Water-birds bred on this island in enormous numbers. A plume-hunter, accompanied by twenty-three Japanese laborers, sailed from Honolulu and made a raid on the island to kill the birds found there, for their feathers. For several months they remained here slaughtering the birds, when the United States Government learned of what was happening and sent a revenue cutter to stop them. When the captain arrived, he found that they had already killed about three hundred thousand birds and had about three carloads of wings, feathers, and skins. Nearly every bird on the island had been killed, and doubtless the remainder would have been had not the hunters been stopped in their butchery. Hundreds of birds were impris- oned in a dry cistern and allowed slowly to starve to death, because the skins from these birds were easier to prepare than those from birds killed while they were fat. There now comes another report that during the year 1915 another raid was made on Laysan Island, almost as destructive as the one mentioned above. MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 171 The egret. One of the most expensive plumes used in the milliners’ trade is the aigrette, which sells at about forty dollars an ounce. Six birds are required to furnish an ounce of feathers. These plumes are borne by the bird only during the nesting-season, and the birds must be killed then to obtain them. The reports that they are picked up after being shed by the bird is absolutely untrue. The birds nest together in large numbers and so when once found are easily destroyed. The method by which the plumes are obtained is most sickening and horrible. The adult birds are shot and the plumes are stripped from their backs, often before the birds are dead. Thus the nestling birds, after the parents are killed, are left to die slowly of expos- ure and starvation. And in one case a still sadder chapter was added to this pitiful story. The Audu- bon Societies were making efforts to protect the few remaining colonies in the South and had appointed Mr. Guy Bradley as warden to guard these colonies, which were protected by the laws of the State. While doing his duty guarding this colony he was killed by plume-hunters. Egg-collecting. The collecting of birds’ eggs has been one cause of the decrease of birds. In former years large numbers of eggs of water-birds, which nested in large colonies, were collected along the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts and sold in the markets, but this is now almost entirely a thing of the past. 172 BIRD FRIENDS Another scourge of birds in some localities has been the boy egg-collector. Boys have a natural instinct for collecting, and unless taught better sometimes collect birds’ eggs. These collections usually have no scientific value, the chief purpose of the collector being to see how many kinds of eggs he can find. Where there is rivalry among boys to see who can collect the most eggs, the results will be disastrous to the bird life of that locality. In most cases, prob- ably, boys do not realize that the taking of eggs is forbidden by law. This kind of collecting is appar- ently now not so common as in former years. Some- times professional collectors who have a license to collect may go to extremes in the number they secure. Remedies. The remedy for excessive shooting for sport is to shorten the open seasons, reduce the bag- limit, and regulate the guns that may be used. In recent years there has been a great improvement along these lines in all the state laws. The remedy for shooting for market and for feathers is to prohibit the selling of game and the use of feathers of wild birds for millinery purposes. In most of our States the sale of game is prohibited now, and in some the use of feathers, and the recent federal tariff regulation forbids the importation of feathers for millinery purposes. Thus, with refer- ence to all kinds of shooting the outlook for the protection of birds is very hopeful. MAN AS AN ENEMY OF BIRDS 173 The small boy who shoots birds and collects eggs must be reached through the schools, and with the introduction of nature-study into so many schools the value and protection of bird life are now being widely taught. The problem presented by the shooting of song- birds by foreigners has been solved by several States by prohibiting aliens from hunting or from owning or possessing guns. CHAPTER XVI WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES THE preceding chapters have explained the work done by the army of destruction in slaughtering birds. The next few chapters will be devoted to the much pleasanter task of explaining the work done by the army of protection in trying to save our birds. This army is constantly growing larger and has been winning battle after battle of such decisive char- acter that the outlook is now most promising that this army will soon be entirely victorious. The first Audubon Society. The most active and effective agents in the cause of bird-protection are the Audubon Societies. The first society of this name was organized in 1886 by Dr. George B. Grin- nell, editor of “‘Forest and Stream.” As the result of an editorial written by Dr. Grinnell the idea of forming such a society met with a ready response and was endorsed by such men as Henry Ward Beecher, John G. Whittier, Henry C. Potter, and Oliver Wendell Holmes. By the end of the year, the Audubon Society had sixteen thousand mem- bers with over three hundred local secretaries scat- tered throughout the United States and in foreign countries. By August of the following year the membership had reached thirty-eight thousand. WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 175 In January, 1887, “Forest and Stream” started the publication of the “Audubon Magazine,” to serve as the special organ of the Audubon Society. This contained articles of general interest on bird life. After being published for two years, the maga- zine was discontinued, and with it passed the first - Audubon movement. For a number of years the enemies of bird life again held sway and there was little organized ef- fort in the interest of bird-protection. By 1895 the cause of bird-protection was at its lowest ebb. The American Ornithologists’ Union. The early history of the Audubon movement is closely bound up with the American Ornithologists’ Union, an or- ganization composed of the leading bird-students of the country. In 1884 a committee on bird-pro- tection was appointed by the Union. This did very effective work in gathering statistics and publishing bulletins to arouse the public to the need of bird- protection. This committee worked in conjunction with the National Committee of Audubon Societies, and during one year the same man was chairman of both committees. The second Audubon movement. In 1896 was begun the second Audubon movement, which has continued with constantly increasing momentum up to the present time. In that year state Audubon societies were organized in Massachusetts and Penn- sylvania, and these were rapidly followed within the 176 BIRD FRIENDS next few years with organizations in other States, until now there are societies in thirty-seven States and in the District of Columbia. The National Association of Audubon Societies. After these state societies were organized, it was felt that there should be a central national organi- zation to bind the others together and direct their work. Accordingly, in 1902, a federation, known as the National Committee of Audubon Societies, was formed, composed of one member from each state society. The work of the committee grew rapidly and in 1905 led to the organization of the National Association of Audubon Societies for the Protection of Wild Birds and Animals. Besides being a medium of exchange between the several state societies, this association has taken on other functions, such as the formation of new societies, encouragement of proper legislation, promotion of educational work, and other lines of work, and it is to-day the mainstay and back- bone of the whole Audubon movement. The objects of the organization are stated as follows in acircular issued by the Association: — The objects of the Association are to arouse in a greater degree the public conscience on the important subject of preserving wild birds and game animals of the country and to secure protection at all times for the valuable non-game bird life. The credit for the initial success of this movement is due largely to the enthusiasm and untiring effort WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 177 of its president, Mr. William Dutcher, who since 1910 has been unable on account of sickness to take any active part in the work of the Association. Since that time the chief executive officer has been the secretary, Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson. Under his ener- getic management the Association has made remark- able growth, and many new lines of activity have been developed. The following are the classes of membership in the Association: — $5 annually pays a sustaining membership. $100 paid at one time constitutes a life member- ship. $1000 constitutes a person a patron. $5000 constitutes a person a founder. $25,000 constitutes a person a benefactor. In 1915, there were 2558 sustaining members, 244 life members, 3 patrons, 1 founder, and 1 bene- factor (deceased). The fees of the life members are added to the endowment fund. The total disburse- ments for the year 1915 were $93,000. The funds to meet these expenses are derived chiefly from three sources, the returns from the endowment fund, which now amounts to about $400,000, the dues of the sustaining members, and special contribu- tions. In the work for bird-protection many agencies have been active, but the National Association of Audubon Societies has been the prime mover which 178 BIRD FRIENDS has brought these agencies together to work in unison. The work of the Association has been extended in many lines, chief of which are the following: (1) legislation, (2) warden work, (3) egret-protec- tion, (4) publications, (5) junior Audubon classes, (6) field agents, (7) department of applied orni- thology, (8) arranging for bird courses in summer schools, (9) establishing bird sanctuaries. Legislation. The Association first gave its atten- tion to securing proper laws protecting birds. The American Ornithologists’ Union had prepared a model law for the protection of song-birds, and this was brought to the attention of legislatures in the various States, and efforts were made to secure its passage. These efforts have been almost uniformly successful and now this law has been adopted by forty States. Efforts were also made to secure bet- ter laws for the protection of game-birds, such as prohibiting spring shooting, shortening the open season, limiting the number of birds that may be shot, removing small birds from the game list, regu- lating the kind of weapons that may be used, and prohibiting the sale of game. Great progress has been made along all these lines. When state legislatures are in session, all bills relating to bird life are carefully studied, and any bill that tends to remove protection from valuable birds is opposed, and bills that give birds more WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 179 protection are sanctioned. The Association has also been active in furthering national legislation. Warden work. Many of the water-birds nest to- gether in large colonies where thousands of birds nest within a small area. The Association employs about twenty-five wardens to guard these colonies during the breeding-season. The colonies which are thus protected are situated on the islands off the coast of Maine, along the coasts of New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Florida, and in the lakes of Michi- gan. It was estimated that during the season of 1913 about two million birds were protected in these colonies, and that during 1915 at least half a million young birds were brought to maturity. Egret protection. For many years the Association has been endeavoring to save the egrets, whose extermination was threatened by the demands of the milliners. One of its wardens was shot while pro- tecting colonies of these birds, and their numbers were reduced to such an extent that it seemed doubt- ful whether these beautiful birds could be saved, but persistent efforts have been made and the Asso- ciation has raised a special egret fund to be used in protecting these birds, and the outlook is now very encouraging for their preservation. During 1915 the Association had seventeen special wardens protecting these egret colonies, which are located in Florida, South Carolina, and Missouri. During the season of 1915 these wardens had under their 180 BIRD FRIENDS care twenty distinct rookeries which contained about three thousand snowy herons and seven thousand egrets. In these rookeries many other water-birds are also protected, which were estimated im the sea- son of 1914 to number about half a million. Publications. One of the most important lines of work carried on by the Association is the issuing of its various publications for the education of the public on bird matters. First may be mentioned the magazine ‘‘Bird-Lore,” which is the official organ of the Association. This was established in 1899 and stands to-day as the leading popular bird maga- zine in the country. The fact that Mr. Frank M. Chapman is editor is guaranty of the high standard of the magazine. This is published six times yearly, and is sent free to members of the Association. The price to others is one dollar. Each issue contains two colored plates of birds, one of which is accompanied by a four-page insert descriptive of the bird’s habits. The other picture is accompanied by a migration table based on the data furnished by the United States Bureau of Bio- logical Survey. The magazine contains interesting articles by well-known bird-students, which are us- ually accompanied by photographs taken from life. There is a special school department for teachers and children, in which are given suggestions to teach- ers for teaching about birds, and to children on how to study birds; and opportunities are given for the WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 181 accounts of their observations to be published in “Bird-Lore.” Brief notes are given of the work being done by the Audubon Societies, and in the Novem- ber—December issue is given the annual report of the National Association. Reviews of books and magazine articles relating to birds are given. Vol- ume 17, for 1915, contained 560 pages. The maga- zine is published at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. After the educational leaflets are published in ‘*Bird-Lore,” they are printed separately and sold for two cents each, including the four-page leaflet, the colored plate, and an outline drawing. Other special leaflets are issued from time to time. During the year 1914 nearly four million colored plates and educational leaflets were issued. About ninety leaf- lets have now been published, some of which have been bound together in book form. The Association publishes annually over six mil- lion pages of literature devoted to bird-protection, and at the office in New York City twenty clerks are employed to look after its business. It has for sale nearly two hundred colored lantern-slides of birds. A very satisfactory field-glass for bird-study is offered for sale for six dollars. The Association acts as a purchasing agent for its members in se- curing anything wanted in the line of bird-study and Audubon work. A circular giving full details may be had on application to the Association at 1974 Broadway, New York City. 182 BIRD FRIENDS Junior Audubon classes. Perhaps the most im- portant work the Association has been doing dur- ing the last few years is its effort to interest children in birds through the medium of the schools. For several years the following plan has been used: In the early spring circulars are sent to teachers, ex- plaining the method of organizing junior Audubon classes. Each child who wishes to join pays ten cents as the annual dues. He receives in return ten educational leaflets with the colored plate and out- line of some common bird, and a bird button with a small picture of a robin on it and the inscription “‘Audubon Society.” If the club numbers ten mem- bers, ‘‘Bird-Lore”’ is sent free to the teacher for one year. The leaflets alone would ordinarily cost twenty cents, but the Association is able to sell them at the rate of one cent, because it has a special fund, contributed by a friend for carrying on this work. After the club is formed, it can meet as often as it wishes and carry out such programs as the teacher and children may devise. Later in the sea- son a letter is sent to each leader of a junior class offering prizes for the best and most interesting photographs of junior Audubon classes, the photo- graph to be accompanied with a brief account of the work of the class. This movement first started in the South in 1910 with ten thousand pupils enrolled, and since then the movement has grown steadily and spread all WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 183 over the United States. In 1915 there were 7723 classes, including 152,179 members; and in 1916, 9901 classes, including 205,138 members. “Bird-Lore” for July-August, 1915, gives the photographs of the clubs to which the prizes were awarded, and the accompanying explanation sent by the teacher. The first prize was given to the West North Street School, Canton, Ohio. Following is the letter sent from this school: — April [writes the teacher who conducts this vigorous class] was the “‘ Month of Birds” at West North Street School. During the spring vacation wren and bluebird houses to the number of one hundred and thirty were placed in yards adjoining the homes of the members. These houses had been built by the older boys, each one making two, so that the girls also might enjoy the society of bird-families near their homes. For Bird- Month each schoolroom displayed pictures of birds. many were those sent with the leaflets, and painted by the pupils themselves. The halls were also decorated, each room taking a section and trying to outdo the others in the originality of their decorations. Birds are studied in all departments of the school. The pupils in the upper grades used the pictures of the Educational Leaflets of this and former years in the lan- tern, and each one gave us a talk about his bird as it appeared on the screen. Monday morning is the most interesting time of all, as so many birds have been ob- served during the two preceding holidays, and every one is anxious to hear the new reports and to add new birds to their list. This led to our boys being invited to speak to the boys and girls in other buildings, and tell them why and how birds should be protected. This was re- 184 BIRD FRIENDS garded by them as a great compliment. They went out in twos, on the afternoon of Arbor Day, carrying with them a wren house and a bluebird house. It was a pleas- ing sight. We heard very flattering reports of their work, and we are certain they won many new friends for the birds, and had an enjoyable and instructive experience. Field agents. During the year 1915 the Associa- tion employed six field agerits who gave their time to lecturing, attending the sessions of legislatures to look after bird legislation, securing new members for the National Association, and in general pro- moting the interests of the Association and the cause for which it stands. Tlustrated lectures are given to audiences of school-children, women’s clubs, granges, and other organizations. Department of Applied Ornithology. There has been recently organized a new department of the National Association, called the Department of Applied Ornithology, in charge of Mr. Herbert K. Job. The purpose of this department is to furnish information by means of lectures and bulletins on methods of attracting birds around homes and farms, and on methods of raising wild game-birds by arti- ficial means. Two bulletins have so far been issued, one on the propagation of water-fowl and another on the propagation of upland game-birds. Summer courses in bird-study. During the summer of 1915 courses in bird-study were given under the auspices of the National Association at WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 185 eight summer schools, six of which were in state universities. Bird sanctuaries. The Association has been in- fluential in establishing bird sanctuaries, either buy- ing or leasing land at its own expense, or interest- ing others to do so. It originated the system of federal bird reservations and codperates financially with the Government in protecting them. It con- tributes financially for feeding birds in winter, for protecting big game, and for prosecuting violators of the law. Needs of the Association. The needs of the Association are set forth in a recent circular as follows: — Needs. The National Association depends for its sup- port upon the income from a small endowment, and the contributions of its members and friends. The present income is totally inadequate to meet the urgent and tremendously growing demands for aid from all parts of the country. Persons interested in the study or preservation of wild birds or animals from any standpoint are invited to unite with us in this great economic movement. A contribution of five dollars or more pays the fee of a sustaining member for one year. A gift of one hundred dollars constitutes the donor a life member. All members receive the magazine ‘‘ Bird-Lore”’ and the various publications of the Association as they ap- pear. 186 BIRD FRIENDS Application Blank Being in sympathy with the objects of THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUDUBON SOCIETIES FOR THE PROTEC- TION oF Witp Birps aND ANIMALS (incorporated), I here- by agree to become a Sustarnine Mexper, and enclose ‘the sum of $5.00, the first annual fee. Please mail to office of the Association, 1974 Broadway, New York City. $100 paid at one time constitutes a life membership. State societies. There are now state Audubon societies in thirty-seven States and in the District of Columbia. As an illustration of the work of these societies, a brief summary of the activities of the Massachusetts Audubon Society for the year 1914 is given. It had 225 life members and 2200 sustain- ing members. The Society occupies an office in Boston where exhibitions on various features of bird life are kept open to the public. During the win- ter it took steps to encourage the feeding of birds throughout the State. Junior Audubon classes were formed in codperation with the National Association of Audubon Societies. A bird calendar is published each year and the Audubon bird charts are sold. It holds an annual meeting in the spring. Birdcraft sanctuary. The Connecticut Audubon Society has recently created a bird sanctuary. This BIRD ISLAND, FLORIDA Reservation owned by the National Association of Audubon Societies CALIFORNIA MURRES ON THREE ARCH ROCKS OFF THE OREGON COAST, ONE OF THE GOVERNMENT BIRD RESERVATIONS WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES 187 consists of ten acres of land situated just outside the city of Fairfield. It has been surrounded by a cat- proof fence. Shrubs have been planted and nesting- boxes and winter feeding-devices installed. A small museum has been built, in which birds are displayed with appropriate surroundings. The museum and sanctuary are open to the public under certain re- strictions. A warden is employed constantly to take charge of the sanctuary and museum. CHAPTER XVII BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS — STATE AND NATIONAL Work of State Governments BRIEF mention has been made in a previous chap- ter of the work done by the Audubon Societies in procuring legislation. The nature of this legislation may now be examined a little more carefully. History of legislation. The first laws for the protection of song-birds were passed during the last of the eighteenth century, but it was not till the middle of the nineteenth century that laws pro- tecting these birds began to be general. These were first adopted in the States in the northeastern United States, later by those in the western United States, and still more recently by the States in the South, till now every State in the Union accords some degree of protection to the song-birds. In the first laws the distinction between the in- sectivorous birds, which were to be protected at all times, and the game-birds, for which open seasons were to be allowed, was not clearly defined. In 1886 the Bird Protection Committee of the Ameri- can Ornithologists’ Union drafted a law which has since been known as the Model A.O.U. Law, and BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 189 has formed the basis for nearly all bird legislation since that time. This law, with some modifications, has been adopted in forty States. The provisions of the law may be briefly summarized as follows: — 1. A definition of what constitutes game-birds. 2. A list of injurious birds. 3. Protection of all other birds, their nests and eggs. 4. Permission to collect birds for scientific pur- poses. 5. Statement of the fine for violation of the law. Changes still needed in some States are a reduc- tion of the number of birds exempted from protec- tion so as to exclude only the injurious birds, espe- cially among the hawks and owls, and the removal of all song-birds from the game list. More than half of the States have laws prohibiting Sunday shoot- ing, thus making this a closed season for all birds. Bird Day. Bird Day is now officially recognized in the following nine States: California, Connecti- cut, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Minnesota, Ohio, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Game laws. For game-birds a separate set of laws is enacted which prescribes regulations regarding: (1) the open season when game may be shot; (2) the shipment of game outside of the State; (3) the sale of game; (4) the bag-limit; (5) the procuring of li- censes for hunting and shipping game. Formerly spring and summer shooting were per- mitted, but now nearly all States forbid shooting 190 BIRD FRIENDS at these seasons, and limit it to the fall and winter, or fall alone. The length of the open season ranges from two to four months. Sometimes when the bird is very rare no open season is allowed. Most of the States prohibit export of all game protected by local laws, except that sportsmen may take out a limited amount under special restrictions. Twenty-two States prohibit the sale of all pro- tected game at all seasons. Twenty-five others pro- hibit the sale of certain kinds of game at all seasons. About two thirds of the States permit the sale of game raised in captivity. All States, with three exceptions, have laws limit- ing the amount of game that may be killed or had in possession in a day. The number allowed, ranging from fifteen to fifty, is too large to afford adequate protection to birds. Following is the Minnesota law: “Licensed resident: 15 ducks, 10 other birds combined, a day; 45 ducks, 30 other kinds com- bined, in possession.” Tn all the States licenses must be secured by non- residents before they can hunt any or certain kinds of game. This fee varies from ten to twenty-five dollars. In forty-two States residents are also required to secure a license, but the fees are much smaller, usually about a dollar. In about half of the States a special kind of hunting-license, called the “alien license” has been adopted to restrict hunting by persons who are not citizens of the country. In BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 191 some States aliens are not allowed to hunt or to own guns. The protection of game-birds has a practical side as furnishing a supply of food. Dr. W. T. Hornaday estimates that if our game-birds and game quadru- peds had been properly conserved, they would now be yielding each year ten million dollars’ worth of food. Summary. Summarizing the legislation of recent years, we may note that the tendency is constantly and consistently toward giving birds more complete protection. Following are some tendencies as shown in recent state legislation: — The protection at all seasons of all birds except game-birds and injurious birds. Removing all song-birds from thelist of game-birds. Granting a prolonged closed season for game-birds which are very scarce. Shortening the open season for game-birds. Prohibiting spring, summer, and winter shooting. Reducing the bag limit. Prohibiting the export of game-birds. Prohibiting the sale of game-birds. Limiting the shooting of game-birds to those who have obtained licenses. Prohibiting the sale of feathers of wild birds. Prohibiting the use of feathers of wild birds for millinery purposes. Restrictions on the kinds of weapons that may be used. 192 BIRD FRIENDS Work of the National Government The United States Bureau of Biological Survey. One of the most important steps ever taken in this country in the interest of bird-protection was the establishment, in 1885, of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey, as a result of the activities of the American Ornithologists’ Union. This Bureau began the study of the economic relations of birds. The findings of this study have been the foundation for nearly all the legislation in this country for the protection of song-birds and birds of prey. The facts here found regarding the food of birds have been the chief arguments used in influencing legisla- tures to pass laws protecting birds. The Audubon Societies have worked in close touch with the Bureau of Biological Survey. All important plans and movements of the National Association are adopted after consultation with the Bureau. The work of the Bureau was first started by Dr. C. Hart Merriam who, with one assistant, began to investigate the economic relations of birds to agri- culture. The number of men employed has been increased and the scope of the field enlarged, till it now includes the study of the economic relations of mammals, the geographic distribution of plants and animals, and the supervision of matters pertaining to game-protection and the importation of foreign birds and animals; and now the preparation of the regu- BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 193 lations for the new Migratory Bird Law has been entrusted to the Bureau. An explanation of the methods used in investi- gating the food of birds has already been given in Chapter VII. The Lacey Act. The first federal law passed deal- ing with the protection of birds was the Lacey Act, approved in 1900. This was important as establish- ing the principle that the protection of birds came within the jurisdiction of the National Government. It contains three main divisions: (1) it places the preservation of birds under the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture; (2) it authorizes the Se- cretary of Agriculture to regulate the importation of foreign birds and animals, and prohibits the intro- duction of the mongoose, “flying foxes,” English sparrow, starling, or other species which may be declared injurious; and (3) it prohibits interstate traffic in birds killed in violation of state laws. This last provision was an important step in help- ing to protect the game-birds, as hitherto there had been much shipping and sale of game out of the State where it was killed. The Migratory Bird Law. Since the passing of the Lacey Act various bills have been introduced into Congress whose purpose was to protect mi- gratory birds. One was introduced into the House of Representatives in 1904 by Hon. George Shiras, 3d. Another was introduced in 1908 by Hon. John 194 BIRD FRIENDS W. Weeks, and again one in 1909 by the same author, but none of these received favorable consideration. Again, in 1911, Hon. John W. Weeks introduced a bill in the House, and later Senator McLean, of Connecticut, introduced an identical bill in the Senate. By this time enough sentiment had been aroused in the country regarding the protection of birds, so that the bill was given serious consideration. The friends of birds codperated and waged a long and successful campaign in favor of this bill. Gover- nors and legislatures were asked to send resolutions to Congress endorsing it. Sportsmen’s organizations, zoological societies, and scientific bodies passed resolutions and sent them to their Representatives in Congress. The Audubon Societies sent thousands of letters and telegrams to Senators and Represen- tatives. Some of the organizations whose officers and members aided in the campaign are: The Ameri- can Game Protective and Propagation Association, the Camp-fire Club of America, the New York Zodlogical Society, the Boone and Crockett Club, the National Federation of Women’s Clubs, the Long Island Sportsmen’s Association, the State Audubon societies, and numerous sportsmen’s clubs scattered throughout the country. The game commissioners of nearly every State and thousands of individual workers strove for the passage of the Weeks-McLean bill. The efforts of these friends of the birds were BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 195 finally successful and the bill was passed without one dissenting vote in the Senate, and with only fifteen votes cast against it in the House. One of the last of- ficial acts of President Taft was the signing of this bill on March 4, 1913. This was the most important step ever taken by any country in the interest of bird-protection. Fol- lowing is the text of the law: — Section 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all wild geese, wild swan, brant, wild ducks, snipe, plover, woodcocks, rail, wild pigeons, and all other migratory game and insectivorous birds, which in their northern and southern migrations pass through, or do not remain permanently the entire year within the borders of any State or Territory, shall hereafter be deemed to be within the custody and protection of the Government of the United States, and shall not be de- stroyed or taken contrary to regulations hereinafter pro- vided therefor. Srection 2. That the Department of Agriculture is hereby authorized to adopt suitable regulations to give effect to the previous section by prescribing and fixing closed seasons, having due regard to the zones of tempera- ture, breeding habits, and times and lines of migratory flight, thereby enabling the department to select and des- ignate suitable districts for different portions of the coun- try within which said closed seasons it shall not be lawful to shoot, or by any device kill or seize and capture migra- tory birds within the protection of this law, and by de- claring penalties by fine of not more than one hundred dollars or imprisonment for ninety days, or both, for viola- tion of such regulations. Section 3. That the Department of Agriculture, after 196 BIRD FRIENDS the preparation of said regulations, shall cause the same to be made public, and shall allow a period of three months in which said regulations may be examined and considered before final adoption, permitting, when deemed proper, public hearings thereon, and after final adoption to cause same to be engrossed and submitted to the Presi- dent of the United States for approval: Provided however, That nothing herein contained shall be deemed to affect or interfere with the local laws of the States and Territories for the protection of non-migratory game or other birds resident and breeding within their borders, nor to prevent the States and Territories from enacting laws and regula- tions to promote and render efficient the regulations of the Department of Agriculture provided under this statute. Section 4. That there is hereby appropriated, out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this act, the sum of ten thousand dollars. This bill applies only to the migratory birds and not to the permanent residents, and regulates the closed and open seasons for game-birds, but the States are left to regulate matters such as the kinds of guns that may be used, sale of game within the State, and bag-limits. This bill does not take the place of the state laws protecting birds, but is added to them, so that an offender may be prosecuted twice, once under the state laws and again under the federal law. Advantages of federal law. The advantages of this federal law over the state laws are many. First, it insures a uniform regulation. Under the state laws a bird may be protected in one State and killed in another, as was true of the robin. BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 197 Second, it controls the open season so as to give better protection to game-birds. Under the state regulations a bird might be shot from the time it left its home in the North all the way on its migra- tion South. The state control of game has proved a failure. No State has given its game adequate pro- tection. The number of game-birds has been stead- ily decreasing under state control, some being threat- ened with extermination. It seems almost certain that under federal control birds will be more effec- tively protected, and that their numbers will soon begin to increase; and already this increase has been noted in some localities. Third, it means permanency of bird-protection. Under the state systems at the meeting of nearly every legislature efforts are made to repeal some of the laws protecting birds and to pass new laws which permit the killing of more birds. Fourth, federal laws are generally better enforced and more feared than state laws, and so are more effective. The preparation of the regulations for the protec- tion of migratory birds was entrusted to a committee of experts from the Bureau of Biological Survey. These Regulations form one of the most important scientific documents ever issued on the subject of bird-protection. Portions of these regulations are quoted below, as amended August 16, 1916: — 198 BIRD FRIENDS Regulation 1: Definitions For the purposes of these regulations the following shall be considered migratory game birds: — (a) Anatidee, or waterfowl, including brant, wild ducks, geese, and swans. (b) Gruidee, or cranes, including little brown, sandhill, and whooping cranes. (ec) Rallidze, or rails, including coots, gallinules, and sora and other rails. (d) Limicole, or shore birds, including avocets, curlew, dowitchers, godwits, knots, oyster-catchers, phalaropes, plover, sandpipers, snipe, stilts, surf-birds, turnstones, willet, woodcock, and yellow-legs. (e) Columbide or pigeons, including doves and wild pigeons. For the purposes of these regulations the following shall be considered migratory insectivorous birds: — (f) Bobolinks, catbirds, chickadees, cuckoos, flickers, flycatchers, grosbeaks, hummingbirds, kinglets, martins, meadowlarks, nighthawks or bullbats, nuthatches, ori- oles, robins, shrikes, swallows, swifts, tanagers, titmice, thrushes, vireos, warblers, waxwings, whip-poor-wills, woodpeckers, and wrens, and all other perching birds which feed entirely or chiefly on insects. Regulation 2: Closed season at night A daily closed season on all migratory game and in- sectivorous birds shall extend from sunset to sunrise. Regulation 3: Closed season on insectivorous birds A closed season on migratory insectivorous birds shall continue throughout the year, except that the closed season on reedbirds or ricebirds in New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 199 Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, shall com- mence November I and end August 31, next following, both dates inclusive: Provided, That nothing in this or any other of these regulations shall be construed to pre- vent the issue of permits for collecting birds for scientific purposes in accordance with the laws and regulations in force in the respective States and Territories and the Dis- strict of Columbia. Regulation 4: Closed seasons on certain game birds A closed season shall continue until September 1, 1918, on the following migratory game birds: Band-tailed pigeons, little brown, sandhill, and whooping cranes, wood ducks, swans, curlew, willet, and all shore birds ex- cept the black-breasted and golden plover, Wilson snipe or jacksnipe, woodcock, and the greater and lesser yel- low-legs. A closed season shall also continue until September 1, 1918, on rails in California and Vermont; and on wood- cock in Illinois and Missouri. : At the same time with the original regulations there was issued Circular No. 93, giving explana- tions of these regulations, from which the following is quoted: — Laws for the protection of migratory birds hitherto enacted have usually provided Jong open seasons and have been framed mainly in the interests of the hunter rather than of the game. In preparing the regulations under the Federal law for the protection of migratory birds an effort has been made to reduce the open seasons to rea- sonable limits, to provide hunting at the time of the year when game birds are most abundant and in the best condi- tion, and in all cases to give the benefit of the doubt to 200 BIRD FRIENDS the bird. Recognizing the fact that many species of shore birds and some of the water fowl have diminished to a point where they are approaching extinction, protection has been extended to several species throughout the year and to others at least three fourths of the year. The prep- aration of the regulations was entrusted to a committee of members of the Biological Survey appointed by the Acting Secretary of Agriculture on March 21, 1913. The members of this committee were: T. S. Palmer, Assistant Chief, chairman; A. K. Fisher, in charge of Economic Investigations; and W. W. Cooke, Migration Expert. The committee at once took up the work of examining the data on file in the Biological Survey relating to the distribution, migration, and protection of migratory birds, had a series of maps prepared, collected much special information, and after numerous conferences rec- ommended the regulations contained in Circular 92, These regulations differ from the ordinary restrictions under state laws, since they take into consideration the entire range of the species and the condition of the birds at all times of the year and not merely the local conditions when a certain species is most abundant in some particu- lar State or region. Basis of the Regulations In carrying out the statutory requirements of “due regard to the zones of temperature, breeding habits, times and lines of migratory flight,”’ the following are some of the more important principles on which the regulations have been based: — To limit the list of migratory game birds to species properly so called and to eliminate species too small to be considered legitimate game or too rare to be longer hunted for sport or profit. This list has been made to conform as closely as possible with the statutory definitions of game. BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 201 To prevent spring shooting. To protect migratory birds between sunset and sunrise. To provide protected flight lines along at least two of the great navigable rivers. To make the seasons approximately equal in length in different parts of the country. To limit the hunting seasons to a maximum of three or three and one-half months. To regulate these seasons according to latitude and times of migration and to adjust them so that there may be a reasonable opportunity of securing thirty days’ shoot- ing of any species at a given place. To provide separate seasons for water fowl, rail, shore birds, and woodcock. The woodcock seasons are made to conform as nearly as possible with the seasons for upland game under state laws, so that there may be no opportu- nity in close seasons to hunt quail or grouse under the guise of shooting woodcock. To curtail hunting at the end instead of the beginning of the open season, in the interest of both birds and the sportsmen. To utilize all the protection now accorded by the closed seasons under state laws and extend these seasons when necessary. Effect of the Regulations The probable effect of these regulations may be briefly stated as follows: — (1) Uniformity in protection of migratory game and insectivorous birds in the several States. (2) Protection of birds in spring while en route to their nesting grounds and while mating. (3) Uniformity in protection of migratory birds at night. (4) Establishment of protected migration routes along two great rivers in the central United States. 202 BIRD FRIENDS (5) Complete protection for five years for the smaller shore birds and other species which have become greatly reduced in numbers. (6) Reduction of the open season on migratory game birds, but in most cases not more than twenty-five to fifty per cent. (7) No change in existing conditions before October 1, 1913. Three months were allowed for criticism, during which public hearings were given, and then finally, with a few minor changes, the regulations were approved by President Wilson and became effective October 1, 1913. Congress in the session of 1914 appropriated $50,000 for the enforcement of this law. Federal wardens have been appointed to codperate with the state wardens in the enforcement of this law and of the law regulating interstate shipment of game. The provisions of this federal law may be briefly summarized by saying that four kinds of protection are granted to migratory birds: — 1. Permanent protection, granted to all migra- tory insectivorous birds. 2. Limited protection, for five years to certain game-birds which are very scarce, including sixty- two species. 3. Seasonal protection, of about nine months to migratory game-birds. 4. Nightly protection, given to all birds between sunset and sunrise. BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 203 The constitutionality of this law has been chal- lenged and the matter has been brought to the Supreme Court of the United States, but the de- cision has not yet been given. Careful students of the law believe that it will stand the test of con- stitutionality. Tariff regulations. At the first session of Congress in 1913 bird-lovers fought and won another great battle for the birds. Congress in its revision of the tariff adopted the following schedule prohibiting the importation of feathers: — Provided, that importation of aigrettes, egret plumes, or so called osprey plumes, and the feathers, quills, heads, wings, tails, skins, and parts of skins of wild birds, either raw or manufactured, and not for scientific or educational purposes is hereby prohibited, but this provision shall not apply to the feathers of domestic fowls of any kind. When the matter was under consideration by the House Committee on Ways and Means, friends of bird-protection appeared before it asking that the importation of feathers be prohibited. This was adopted by the House and the bill was sent to the Senate. The Senate Finance Committee made such radical changes as to make the provision worthless for the purpose originally intended. The friends of bird-protection made strenuous efforts to have the tariff provision inserted as it came from the House, and the Senators were deluged with letters and telegrams demanding that this provision be retained 204 BIRD FRIENDS unchanged. When the matter finally came to the Democratic caucus, it rejected the report of the Sen- ate Committee and adopted the House provision prohibiting the importation of the plumage of wild birds except for scientific and educational purposes. This was later adopted by the Senate. National Bird Reservations. On March 14, 1903, President Roosevelt issued the following order: — It is hereby ordered that Pelican Island in Indian River, Florida, is reserved and set apart for the use of the De- partment of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding- ground for native birds. Thus was the first National Bird Refuge set aside and a government policy was then initiated which has since been expanded into a system of many bird refuges. The need of such reservations was first brought to the attention of President Roosevelt by the National Association of Audubon Societies, some of whose members had noticed the needless destruction of birds on these islands. As the question was raised as to whether the President had power to set aside such reservations, a little later a bill was enacted by Congress giving the President authority to establish reservations of this character on government lands not fitted for agriculture. Most of these are situated on small, rocky islands or on tracts of marsh land of no value to man. These reservations vary in size from two acres (Hog Island, Wisconsin, the home of a colony BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 205 of gulls) to the very large Hawaiian Island reserva- tion, which extends over five degrees of longitude and includes the breeding-ground of over a million sea-birds. The National Association of Audubon Societies has agents in the field making searches for areas suitable for such reservations, and when found they are brought to the attention of the President of the United States. Birds are given protection at all times on these reservations, wardens are stationed on the most important ones, and the National Association of Audubon Societies codperates with the Depart- ment of Agriculture in protecting the birds. The policy thus initiated by President Roosevelt has been followed by Presidents Taft and Wilson till the Government has sixty-nine bird reservations up to January 20, 1915. The purpose of these reservations is threefold: first, to protect important breeding-colonies of water-birds; second, to furnish refuges for migra- tory species on their northern and southern flights; and third, to furnish refuges for migratory species during the winter. These bird reservations may be grouped into six districts : — 1. The Gulf District, including ten in Florida, four in Louisiana, and one in Porto Rico. The chief birds protected are brown pelicans, gulls, terns, herons of various kinds, and ducks. 206 BIRD FRIENDS 2. The Lake District, including two in Michigan, two in North Dakota, and one in Wisconsin. The principal birds protected here are breeding colonies of gulls, ducks, and white pelicans. 3. The Mountain District, including twelve in the Rocky Mountain States, South Dakota, and Nebraska. These serve as a refuge for water-fowl and shore-birds during the spring and fall migra- tions. 4. The Pacific District, including eight in Wash- ington, four in Oregon, and three in California. The reservations on the coast contain great rookeries of sea-birds. The inland reservations contain breeding colonies of gulls, Caspian terns, grebes, white peli- cans, ducks, and geese. 5. The Alaskan District, including eight reser- vations. In these reservations are nesting-grounds of sea-birds, ducks, and geese. 6. The Hawaiian District, including one reser- vation. Large numbers of sea-birds are found here. Besides these reservations which have been created especially for protecting birds, there are a number of other reservations which were set aside for other purposes, in which birds receive special protection. These include (1) ten National Parks; (2) five Military Parks; (3) nine national game pre- serves and other refuges for wild life; (4) ten reser- vations for aquatic species; and (5) seven national reservations made into game preserves in whole or in BIRD-PROTECTION BY GOVERNMENTS 207 part by state laws. These, together with the bird reservations, constitute one hundred and ten res- ervations in which birds receive special protection. The following are the ten National Parks that may be considered bird refuges: Yellowstone, Wyoming; National Zodlogical Park and Rock Creek Park, in the District of Columbia; Sequoia, Yosemite, and General Grant, California; Mount Rainier, Washington; Crater Lake, Oregon; Wind Cave, South Dakota; Glacier, Montana,— having a total area of 4,320,000 acres. The National Military Parks were created to commemorate some notable engagement during the Civil War. There are five of these, situated at Chickamauga and Chattanooga, Antietam, Shiloh, Gettysburg, and Vicksburg, with a total area of eleven thousand acres. These refuges are important because their location is such that, in connection with some other reservations, they form a chain of refuges almost in line with the migratory flights of the birds. The largest national reservation which has be- come a game preserve through state laws is the Superior National Forest, Minnesota, including 1,420,000 acres. The next great step needed in the cause of bird- protection is to make every national forest a na- tional game preserve in which no hunting for sport shall be allowed. Then these areas will produce 208 BIRD FRIENDS enough birds to keep the surrounding country well supplied. State reservations. Some of the States have also set aside game preserves, notably Pennsylvania (with five), New York, Montana (with three), Wy- oming (with two), Rhode Island, Louisiana, Idaho, California, Oregon (with six, including 1,700,000 acres). In Wisconsin are twenty-two refuges with an acreage of thirty thousand acres, including five state parks, the University grounds at Madison, and a number of private refuges. The preserves in New York State amount to about a million acres. In Iowa, game preserves are being established in every county, wherein no shooting will be allowed for five years, and where the birds will be provided with food and shelter during severe weather. CHAPTER XVIII BIRD CLUBS Meriden Bird Club. Other agencies which are aiding the cause of bird-protection are bird clubs which have been organized in various parts of the country. The best known of these is the Meriden Bird Club, in Meriden, New Hampshire, organized through the efforts of Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes, who has been instrumental in the organization of many other clubs. Meriden is a small village of about three hundred inhabitants and is the seat of Kimball Union Academy. The students of the Academy and the people of the village were first in- terested in birds by lectures given by Mr. Baynes, and in December, 1910, the club was organized. The club had for its objects “‘ the increase and protection of our local wild birds, the stimulation of interest in bird life, and the gradual establishment of a model bird sanctuary.” The total number of mem- bers the first year was 214, and 356 the second year. There are many associate members interested in the formation of the club who are scattered over about thirty States. During the winter special attention is given to feeding the birds. In the spring, nesting- houses are put up by the members of the club. A 210 BIRD FRIENDS campaign has been carried on against the English sparrows till the town is practically free of them. Most interesting results have attended these efforts to befriend the birds. Many nesting-houses are occupied, and in the winter flocks of a great variety of birds are constant visitors at the feeding-stations. Seven species of birds in this little town have be- come so tame as to feed from the hand. The chief matter to which attention was given was the establishment of a bird sanctuary. A friend offered to give one thousand dollars toward this, and a farm of thirty-two acres in the edge of the village was bought and named the “Helen Woodruff Smith Sanctuary,” after the donor. This is being gradually developed so as to make it attractive to the birds. Shrubs have been planted, nesting-boxes put up, and feeding-stations planned for the winter. At the dedication of this bird sanctuary, Perey MacKaye’s bird masque, “‘Sanctuary,”’ was first presented. Other activities of the club are to place bird charts in local schools, to start a library of bird books, to conduct a column of bird notes in the local paper, to offer prizes for essays and photographs, and to organize other bird clubs. The club publishes an annual report setting forth its activities during the year. The influence of this club has been widely felt, and as a result many other bird clubs have been organized. Brush Hill Bird Club. The Brush Hill Bird Club BIRD CLUBS 211 of Milton, Massachusetts, published its first report in 1914. The preface begins: — The Brush Hill Bird Club wishes to impress on all who chance to see this Report that our Club is not composed of learned ornithologists, in fact, most of us know compara- tively few birds. Our aims are to protect the birds and to attract them about our houses and grounds. Our watch- word is “‘ Conservation.” Following are some of the activities of this club which were carried on in appreciation of their op- portunity for useful service to their community : — 1. Bird-houses were put up by the members. 2. A campaign of education was waged through the library and schools. 3. The library was supplied with bird books and magazines. 4. Plans were made to attract birds to the public park by providing feeding-stations, nesting-houses, and bird-baths. 5. Bird lectures were given. 6. Articles regarding birds were supplied to the local papers. 7. An exhibition was held in the public library. The chief activity for the first year was the prep- aration of this exhibition, which was kept in the library for two months. As this is very suggestive of what might be done elsewhere, a brief outline is given of the chief features of this exhibit: — 1. Nesting-boxes. 2. Devices for feeding birds. A. Feeding-stations. B. Food-stick. 212 BIRD FRIENDS . A bird’s Christmas-tree. . Suet pudding. . Home-made bird pudding. Bird breakfast foods. (A collection of grains and cereals to show how man can feed the birds.) . Nature’s method of feeding the birds. (A collection of branches of trees and shrubs bearing berries and seeds.) . English sparrow trap. . Bird books and magazines. . Bird portraits and colored outlines made by children. . Bird games. . Text of federal and state laws. . Cloth signs for posting. The constitution of the Brush Hill Bird Club is given as being suggestive for use in the organization of other bird clubs. CONSTITUTION OF THE BRUSH HILL BIRD CLUB QO mata COD Or SP 09 ArticLeE I — Name This Club shall be known as the Brush Hill Bird Club. ArticLteE If — Purpose The purpose of this Club shall be to encourage protec- tion of and interest in bird life in our community. ArticLe III] — Mempersaie Section 1. The membership in this Club shall consist of Active Membership, Active Family Membership, Associate Membership, Life Membership, Patrons and Benefactors. Section 2. Any resident of the Brush Hill—Blue Hill district of Milton may become an active member on payment of the prescribed dues. BIRD CLUBS 213 Secrion 3. Any family residing in the Brush Hill- Blue Hill district of Milton may obtain a Family Mem- bership on payment of the prescribed dues. Section 4. Any non-resident in sympathy with the purpose of this Club may become an Associate Member on payment of the prescribed dues. Section 5. Any person may become a Life Member on payment of the prescribed fee. Section 6. Any person may become a Patron on pay- ment of the prescribed fee. Section 7. Any person may become a Benefactor on payment of the prescribed fee. Section 8. The dues for Active Members shall be $1, payable annually. Section 9. The dues for Active Family Membership shall be $5, payable annually. Section 10. The dues for Associate Membership shall be $1, payable annually. Section 11. The fee for Life Membership shall be $25. Section 12. The fee for a Patron shall be $100. Section 13. The fee for a Benefactor shall be $1000. Section 14. The voting power shall be limited to ac- tive members. Articte [IV — Meerines or tae Cius Meetings shall be held at the discretion of the Execu- tive Committee. The first meeting after September 1 shall be the business meeting, at which the election of officers for the ensuing year shall be held. Articte V— GovERNMENT The officers of the Club shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and General Mana- ger. The officers.of the Club shall constitute the Execu- tive Committee, which Committee shall pass upon all business that is to be brought before the Club for action. 214 BIRD FRIENDS Burroughs Nature Club. The Burroughs Nature Club was organized in 1910 for the purpose of study- ing Mr. Burroughs’s writings, and local clubs have been formed in many towns. This club has taken a special interest in the protection of bird life. Examples of the development of the Burroughs Club idea appear in the bird sanctuaries established by the organization. Among the most notable is the ““Wren’s Nest,” the old home of Joel Chandler Harris at Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated by Mr. Bur- roughs himself by placing a wren’s nesting-box on a branch near the porch where so many of the Uncle Remus stories were written. The Cottage Grove and Fernwood Sanctuary was established by the Rochester Burroughs Club on the shore of Lake Ontario. Near Ellenville, Ulster County, New York, the Mount Meenahga estate of seven hundred acres, in the midst of a wild section of about four thousand acres, has become one of their regular sanctuaries, where there have been erected over one hundred nesting-boxes and devices for winter feeding. Each year, Burroughs’s birthday, April 3, is ob- served by the dedication of new sanctuaries, usually consisting of school grounds or public parks. The year 1915 saw this done in Utica, New York, and in Toledo, Ohio, where the bird-boxes were made by the children and placed in the parks, with the codperation of the city government. JOHN BURROUGHS AT THE DEDICATION OF “WREN’S NEST” IN ATLANTA, GA. BY THE BURROUGHS NATURE CLUB 7a EA aad alia ET Gae 7 FIELD DAY IN RENWICK WOODS, ITHACA, N.Y. Mr. L. A. Fuertes addressing the Cayuga Bird Club BIRD CLUBS Q15 The Governor of Utah proclaimed Burroughs’s birthday as a State Bird Day, with the reeommenda- tion that the grounds surrounding all schoolhouses and all public parks and cemeteries be dedicated to the birds. This recommendation is rapidly being carried out. The schools have taken it up gener- ally, and in 1915 the campus of the University of Utah (a tract of ground one hundred and fifteen acres in extent) was dedicated as a bird sanctuary. Their latest effort is to start a bird sanctuary in a residential park bordering on Prospect Park, Brook- lyn. Members are urged to establish bird refuges in the summer resorts where they spend their vaca- tions. Liberty Bell Bird Club. The Liberty Bell Bird Club was organized in 1913 by the “Farm Journal,” Philadelphia. Its object is to protect song and in- sectivorous birds. Special effort is made to interest people in the country. On July 1, 1916, its member- ship was 706,000. Those who desire to become mem- bers sign the following pledge and receive free the club button and a little pamphlet entitled, “Guide of the Liberty Bell Bird Club”: — Pledge. I desire to become a member of the Liberty Bell Bird Club, and promise to study and protect all song and insectivorous birds and to do what I can for the Club. The club has installed bird sanctuaries in three of the largest cemeteries in the country. 216 BIRD FRIENDS The “Guide” for 1916 reports that they have fought the battle for the birds before 3577 county superintendents and 166,471 teachers, and have in- troduced bird-study into 15,615 schools up to July 1, 1915. Bird club activities. The following summary shows the activities that have been carried on by the various bird clubs: — 1. Meetings of club members. A. Field trips to study birds. B. Evening meetings for the discussion of bird topics. 2. Individual work of club members. A. Provide nesting-houses. B. Feed winter birds. C. Provide fountains. 8. Work with school-children. A. Bird talks to children. B. Furnish pictures, bird leaflets, and bird books. C. Form children’s bird clubs. D. Offer prizes for best nesting-houses and essays. E. Present feeding devices to school. 4, Means of educating the public and arousing interest. A. Bird items in local newspapers. B. Issuing circulars for general distribution. C. Lectures given, open to the public. D. Public library supplied with bird books and magazines. E. Exhibitions held in some public place. 5. Establish feeding-stations for winter birds. 6. Establish bird sanctuary, or make sanctuary out of parks. 7. Manufacture and sale of devices for attracting birds. BIRD CLUBS 217 8. Local bird warden appointed. 9. Protection of birds from their enemies. A. Destruction of English sparrow. B. Control of the cat. The first annual report of the Brush Hill Bird Club gives a list of thirty-seven bird clubs, located chiefly in New England. The annual report of the National Association of Audubon Societies gives a list of twenty bird clubs affiliated with the National Association. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes, who has been the prime factor in this movement, has organ- ized about sixty bird clubs; so that there are prob- ably about one hundred bird clubs to be found in the United States. The organization of a bird club enables those interested in birds to work more effectively than would be possible individually, and many people who are not acquainted with birds are interested in the opportunity for doing public service through the conservation of valuable birds. Interest may be aroused by having some one deliver a lecture on birds. A club may be organized at the close of such a lecture. Details regarding the methods to be used are given in Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes’s “Wild Bird Guests.” One interesting result of these bird clubs has been the effect upon the communities in which they have been organized. Frequently a feeling of indifference to bird life has been changed to one of enthusiasm 218 BIRD FRIENDS for bird-protection. In some cases the club has served as a center of general interest for the whole town and has been a means of arousing a community spirit. Other organizations which have been active in the protection of birds and wild life in general are the New York Zodlogical Society, the Boone and Crock- ett Club, the Camp-fire Club of America, the Ameri- can Game Protective and Propagation Association, the Wild Life Protective Association, and the State Game Protective Associations. Private game preserves. There are in the United States about five hundred private game preserves. These may be controlled by hunting-clubs or pri- vately by individuals. They are kept for the sake of raising game, either naturally or by artificial methods, so as to furnish shooting for the owners. Some of them are duck preserves and marshes, and some are upland preserves for big game or game- birds. They may vary in size from 1000 acres or less up to 125,000 acres. In New York State the private game preserves comprise an area of 800,000 acres. In these preserves native game is protected and is sure to increase, and some of the birds spread out and help to maintain the game-supply in the surrounding country. So while there have been some objections raised against these private game preserves, on the whole they tend toward the con- servation of bird life. In Dearborn, Michigan, Mr. Henry Ford has a BIRD CLUBS 219 farm of twenty-eight hundred acres which has been given to bird attraction and protection. Mr. Jeffer- son Butler, one of Michigan’s ornithologists, was employed before his death to superintend the devel- opment of the farm. The entire farm is managed with the sole thought of attracting birds. Bird-ene- mies are disposed of. Shrubs and vines are planted the fruits of which are eaten by birds. Thickets are allowed to grow to furnish nesting-sites for birds. A river has been dammed to make a marsh of thirty acres for the water-birds. Varieties of nesting-boxes have been put up by the hundreds. Automatic feed- ing-devices are kept in many places and these are well supplied with food during the winter. The results are already evident in the increased number of birds. One writer estimates that there are ten times as many birds to the acre on this farm as anywhere else in the State. In a glen by the river, about two hundred feet long by thirty feet wide, twenty-three pairs of birds, including fifteen species, were found nesting in one season. Mention may be made also of Messrs. Edward A. MclIlhenny and Charles W. Ward, who have done much for the protection of birds in the State of Louisiana through the establishment of bird pre- serves. They at first established a private preserve of about fifty thousand acres on the coast of Louisi- ana, in the heart of the greatest winter home of ducks on the continent of North America. Game 220 BIRD FRIENDS wardens were hired to protect this and to prevent shooting. Later they gave thirteen thousand acres of this to the State of Louisiana as a perpetual bird refuge. They were also instrumental in having the Marsh Island Reserve of seventy-five thousand acres bought by Mrs. Russell Sage, who contributed $150,000 for this purpose. This has now been of- fered to the Government to be kept as a bird refuge. Later the Carnegie Foundation acquired a large tract adjoining this of about eighty-five thousand acres, at a cost of $225,000. Together these extend along the coast for seventy-five miles and comprise about five hundred square miles. A fourth tract is gradually being acquired. In New York, Mr. E. H. Litchfield has a fenced preserve in the Adirondacks of about ten thousand acres. Another fenced preserve of about three thou- sand acres in New York State is owned by Mr. C. P. Dieterich. In New Jersey, Mr. Charles C. Worthington has a large bird refuge of eighty thousand acres which he has offered to the State of New Jersey to be held as a permanent game refuge. Recently the Minnetonka Bird Sanctuary has been established along Lake Minnetonka, near Minneapolis, Minnesota, as a result of a petition of hundreds of residents of that section. This includes a tract of about fifty-five thousand acres. The State Game Commission has prohibited shooting BIRD CLUBS 221 and even the carrying of firearms either on the lake or on a surrounding zone of land one mile in width. A number of years ago a tract of two acres, situ- ated near the grounds of the University of Cincin- nati, was purchased by a woman interested in birds, at a cost of $250,000. This is to be made a bird park and has been given to the city. Its development is under the charge of the Department of Biology of the University of Cincinnati. City and state ornithologists. The city of Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania, has appointed a city ornithol- ogist whose duty it is to protect birds in the city from molestation, especially when nesting; to erect bird-houses; to provide food for wild birds; and to report annually upon the increase or decrease of the birds. Under a recent law passed in Massachusetts, the towns of Dover, Brookline, and Milton have appointed bird wardens. Within recent years state ornithologists have been appointed in the following States: Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont, Penn- sylvania, and Delaware. Summary of what has been accomplished in pro- tecting the birds. During the past quarter of a cen- tury remarkable strides have been made in the cause of bird-protection. Thirty years ago our common song-birds were used for millinery purposes. To-day many States have laws forbidding the use of feathers of wild birds for millinery purposes and the National 222 BIRD FRIENDS Government has prohibited the importation of the feathers of any wild birds. Formerly game-birds were shot at all seasons of the year, were sold in the market in large numbers, and no limit was set on the number that could be shot; now shooting is allowed only in the fall, the sale of game is prohibited, and the number of game that may be killed is limited, though there is still opportunity for improvement along this line. Formerly birds were almost entirely unprotected by law, and when laws were passed, there was often such lack of uniformity in the laws of the different States that the protection was very inadequate. To-day practically all the States give full protection to valuable insectivorous birds. Formerly the Na- tional Government gave no attention to the protec- tion of birds; now it protects all the migratory game and insectivorous birds and has given a closed season of five years to many game-birds. Formerly there was little general interest in birds and nothing was taught about them to children in schools. To-day there is a very wide-spread gen- eral interest in bird life, and many children in our schools are being taught the value of bird life and its protection. Formerly there were few places where birds were safe from persecution; now there are many refuges, national, state, and private, where birds are pro- tected at all times. CHAPTER XIX NESTING-BOXES Tue kind of protection discussed in the previous chapters has been chiefly of a negative character, in which the purpose is to stop the unnecessary killing of birds and to allow them to increase by natural methods. We come now to discuss a positive kind of protection, which includes the negative, but goes a step farther and seeks to increase the number of birds by providing the conditions essen- tial to bird life. The things which man can furnish to meet these conditions are nesting-sites, food, and water. Reasons for positive protection. The reasons why one might desire to carry on this positive kind of protection are fourfold: first, on account of the pleasure that one may derive from watching the birds thus brought around the home; second, on account of the help which the birds will render in the de- struction of injurious insects; third, on account of the influence that the study of birds may have upon the children in the home and the school; and fourth, on account of the assistance one is giving to the con- servation of valuable birds. The pleasures of bird-study are increased many Q24 BIRD FRIENDS times when one can find the birds right around one’s home and know that he has been instrumental in bringing them there. From the standpoint of the gardener, fruit-grower, and farmer, increasing the birds is a business prop- osition, the same as when one invests in a spraying- outfit for controlling the insects that prey upon the fruits and vegetables; only in this case the expense is negligible, and after the birds are once brought to the farm and garden, their work in destroying in- sects continues from sunrise to sunset without any effort on the part of the farmer. There are on rec- ord many instances showing the resulting benefits when systematic efforts are made to encourage the presence of birds. Mr. E. H. Forbush cites an in- stance of four young apple trees which were in- fested with plant-lice. Two of the trees, which were located near houses containing families of bluebirds and chickadees, were almost entirely cleared of the lice by these birds, while the other two, which were some distance away, finally died from the effect of the pests. Evidence of the value of attracting birds comes also from Germany, where systematic experiments have been carried on. In the spring of 1905 the larvee of a moth attacked a large wood near Eisen- bach, and stripped it almost entirely of its foliage; while in the neighboring wood at Seebach, in which nesting-houses had been systematically placed, the NESTING-BOXES 225 trees were uninjured. A similar effect was noticed in the orchards. At Seebach the trees always escaped the devastation of insects, while the neighboring orchards frequently suffered from their attacks. To the parent and teacher, attracting birds has a special interest on account of the relation of this work to child life. Children are naturally interested in bird life and especially enjoy making bird-houses. This kind of work has a beneficial effect on children, because it teaches a sort of care, a sense of responsi- bility for those birds which their efforts have brought around the house. And, lastly, to every citizen interested in furthering the conservation of the resources of the country this work appeals. It does not follow that one need to be especially familiar with the birds in order to be interested in this line of work, if one but appreciates the value of bird life and the need of conserving it. Some of the bird clubs recently organized have been formed by people who know very few birds, but who are interested in doing something for the welfare of the community in which they live. Need of nesting-boxes. With the rapid increase of population in our cities and towns and their cor- responding growth countryward, orchards, decaying trees, shrubbery, and other nesting-sites are steadily disappearing. As a result, in the suburbs of cities birds that nest in cavities find it difficult to obtain suitable nesting-sites, and as the old sites are cut 226 BIRD FRIENDS down the birds are driven farther out in the country to nest. Birds using boxes. Whether any particular kind of bird will use a nesting-box depends primarily on its natural nesting-site. If it nests in a hollow tree or limb, there is a possibility that it may occupy these artificial nesting-boxes. There are other birds which usually build their nests in the open that may use open nesting-boxes. The birds which have been actually known to nest in bird-houses, as far as the author has been able to secure any records, are the following: — Birds using nesting-houses (Those marked with a * are quite common occupants) *Bluebirds: — Eastern (Sialia sialis sialis). Western (Sialia mexicana occidentalis). Mountain (Sialia currucoides). Chickadees : — Black-capped (Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus). Oregon (Penthestes atricapillus occidentalis). Carolina (Penthestes carolinensis carolinensis). Duck, wood (Aix sponsa). Finch, house (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis). *Flicker (Colaptes auratus luteus). Flycatcher, crested (Myiarchus crinitus). Hawk, sparrow (Falco sparverius sparverius). *Martin, purple (Progne subis subis). Nuthatch, red-breasted (Sitta canadensis). Nuthatch, white-breasted (Sitta carolinensis carolinensis). Owl, screech (Otus asio asio). NESTING-BOXES 227 *Sparrow, English (Passer domesticus). Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). *Swallows: — Tree (Iridoprocne bicolor). Violet-green (Tachycineta thalassina lepida). Titmouse, tufted (Beolophus bicolor). Warbler, prothonotary (Protonotaria citrea). Woodpeckers: — Downy (Dryobates pubescens medianus). Hairy (Dryobates villosus villosus). Red-headed (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). *Wrens: — House (Troglodytes aédon aédon). Parkman’s (Troglodytes aédon parkmant). Bewick’s (Thryomanes bewicki). Texas (Thryomanes bewicki cryptus). Vigors’s (Thryomanes bewicki spilurus). The following have been reported as using the nesting-boxes of the open type; cardinal, catbird, purple finch, grackle, mockingbird, orchard oriole, pheebe, robin, song sparrow, and brown thrasher. Types of houses. The great variety of houses now being made may conveniently be classified into three groups, based on the attempt to imitate the natural nesting-sites of birds. In the first group are those houses made in imitation of a woodpecker’s nesting- site, both inside and outside; in the second group are those which imitate the natural nesting-sites on the outside only; and in the third group are those which make no attempt to imitate the natural nest- ing-sites either inside or outside. Imitation both outside and inside. The best- 228 BIRD FRIENDS known houses of the first group are those devised by Baron von Berlepsch in Germany. He has made a special study of woodpeckers’ nests, collecting hun- dreds of them, and he finds that they all agree in the following features: the opening is always circular and of unvarying size for each species; the lower portion of the nesting-cavity is enlarged in a gourd shape, and ends in a pointed trough at the bottom; the inner walls are roughened somewhat to allow the birds to cling to them more easily; and in the extreme point of the nest are a few fine shavings. Baron von Berlepsch has constructed a nesting-house embody- ing all these features. The results following the use of this house are very remarkable. Of five thousand boxes hung up by Baron von Berlepsch in his own woods, and of about ten thousand hung up in other localities by state authorities, ninety per cent or over were occupied. And this was true in some localities where unsuccessful experiments have been tried in previous years with other kinds of nesting-boxes. These houses are being made and sold in large quan- tities by a German manufacturer, and in one case are being made and used on a large scale by German state authorities. They are now being made by at least two firms in this country. This type may be made by splitting a limb in two and hollowing out the inside of each half in the proper shape and then fastening the two parts together by means of screws or nails. LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF WOODPECKER’S HOLE AND OF VON BERLEPSCH NESTING-BOX NATURAL NESTING-SITE OF A FLICKER IN AN OLD APPR: TREE NESTING-BOXES 229 Imitation on outside only. In this type the houses are made of sections of small trees or of pieces of wood with the bark on, but there is no attempt to make the inside conform to the shape of a woodpecker’s nest. It may be cylindrical, cubical, or of irregular shape. This type includes the following kinds of houses; bark houses, boxes made of slabs with the bark on, hollow limbs and sections of limbs, or small trees with a hole excavated by boring lengthwise with a large auger. Bark houses. Very attractive houses can be made entirely of bark. Limbs of trees, or small trees of the desired size, should be cut into sections of ten or twelve inches in length, about the latter part of June. The bark can be easily removed and with the addition of a roof and floor may easily be made into a nesting-box. Very good imitations of tree-trunks may be secured by constructing boxes out of slabs with the bark on. Sections of hollow trees or limbs make some of the very best bird-houses. Sometimes pieces may be found with the center already decayed, in which case it is only necessary to saw off a section of the desired length, fasten on a floor and a roof, and make the entrance hole. It is desirable that the roof be put on in such a way as to be readily removed. To hollow out a solid limb, saw it in halves from one end to about three inches from the other, where a cross-cut is made at right angles. The two pieces 230 BIRD FRIENDS may be gouged out to the desired size and wired or screwed together, so that they can be easily taken apart if desired; or if one has a large auger, a hole may be bored. No attempt at imitation. The third type of house, in which no attempt is made to imitate the natural nesting-site, may be classified, according to the ma- terial of which they are made, as follows: wood, tin, pottery, cement, roofing-paper, and gourds. Of these wood is the most easily obtained and the most easily worked. A satisfactory box can be made out of or- dinary boards, the older the better, as the birds are apt to be frightened away by new boards; but if new boards are used, they should be smeared with moist sand and exposed to the weather as long as possible before the birds are expected to use the house, or they may be stained or painted green or brown. Tin houses. Quite a variety of houses may be made from various kinds of tin receptacles, such as tomato-cans, varnish-cans, coffee-cans, etc., by fitting in at one end a circular piece of wood con- taining the entrance hole. The author has been very successful in attracting house wrens by using old tomato-cans. An empty can was placed upon a hot stove, with the cut end down, till the solder was melted, and then the rest of the cover was knocked off with a poker. A circular piece of wood from a half-inch board was cut out so as to fit into NESTING-BOXES 231 the can. A one-inch hole was made in the board a little above the center, and then the board was fastened in place by driving tacks through the tin. Nails were driven obliquely through the rear of the can into a strip of wood, by means of which the house was fastened in the desired position; or the can may be suspended by means of wire placed around it. In one can of this sort, made by the au- thor, there were successfully reared, in four succes- sive seasons, five broods of house wrens, making a total of from twenty-five to thirty young birds. Pottery houses. The author has seen two styles of houses made of pottery or earthenware that are now on the market. This type of house has the ad- vantage of being very durable as it is not affected by the weather. Cement boxes. One manufacturer makes cement boxes. These are durable and do not admit of undesirable birds and squirrels enlarging the hole. The cement also allows some ventilation. They are made with removable lids. Boxes of roofing-paper. Another manufacturer makes houses out of roofing-paper. These are of cylindrical shape, light and durable. The top may be easily lifted and the box cleaned. Comparison of types. When we come to compare these different types to decide which is the most attractive to the birds, we find each type of box has its champions. Mr. E. H. Baynes, in his “‘ Wild 232 BIRD FRIENDS Bird Guests,” writes very enthusiastically of the Von Berlepsch type, and prefers it to any other type. He cites twelve species of birds known to use these boxes, of which three species, the hairy and downy woodpeckers and the red-breasted nuthatch, have never been known to use any other type. On the other hand, Mr. Edward H. Forbush, after three years’ trial of the Von Berlepsch type comes to the conclusion that most Massachusetts birds do not prefer them to the hollow kind or even to the rectangular box. But the only way of finding out is to put up the different types of houses, side by side, and see which the birds choose. This has been done by several men and the results in these cases were that most birds showed a preference for the plain-box type over the hollow-log type. This pref- erence doubtless varies for different birds and pos- sibly for the same species in different parts of the country. So far as the author has been able to gather evi- dence on this question, the following seems a fair statement of the case at the present time: — Wrens, bluebirds, and tree swallows will occupy almost any convenient type, perhaps preferring the plain wooden box; the chickadee and flicker will probably select one type as quickly as the other, while other wood- peckers, such as the downy and the hairy, and the nuthatches, which have not occupied bird-houses so commonly, may prefer the hollow-log type. It THREE TYPES OF NESTING-BOXES * OPEN NESTING-BOXES FOR ROBIN AND PHCEBE NESTING-BOXES is impossible to make any definite statement re- garding this matter till a large number of experi- 233 ments have been tried. The following table shows the number of houses occupied on the author’s place of about three acres, situated on the edge of a small city: — Von Berlepsch| Imitation on | Plain-box type type outside only (6 bores 1914) | (1 bor 1914) | (8 boxes 1914) (6 boxes 1915) | (3 boxes 1915) | (7 boxes 1915) 1914 1915 | 1914 1915 | 1914 1915 Blucbirdy2.. svaecnaw ves 1 2 Bickers 2363 3ssceccsacte 3 1 Red-headed wood- pecker. ic sicurecsiies 1 1 House wren........... 1 2 1 2 5 Total for two years. . % 3 7 Per cent occupied. ... 58 75 49 Size and shape of house. The size of the house depends on the size of the nest made by the birds. The bottom of the box should be just large enough to accommodate the nest usually built by the bird. In the case of woodpeckers, which make no nests, the size of the house depends on the size of the bird. A great variety of shapes may be employed. Some boxes have the long axis vertical, some horizontal, and others are nearly cubical in shape. Probably no one shape is best for all birds, but the box with the long axis vertical has one advantage, that it can be made practically cat-proof if it is built very deep, 234 BIRD FRIENDS has the entrance hole near the top, and has the roof project well out over the hole. Size of entrance hole. Two features of the en- trance hole are of great importance, its size and lo- cation. The size is important because this enables one to keep out larger birds than the one for which the house is intended. This is one successful way of keeping out the English sparrow from houses intended for the wren and the chickadee, and the starling from houses intended for these birds and for the bluebird and the tree swallow. The smallest hole the English sparrow can enter is one and a quarter inches, and the starling one and three quarters inches. Thus a one-and-one-eighth- inch hole will exclude the sparrow and a one-and- five-eighths-inch hole the starling. The birds may be classed in four groups accord- ing to the size of the hole needed: — First group: small birds that can use a hole too small for the English sparrow, one and one eighth inches or less; chickadee, house wren, Bewick’s wren, Carolina wren. Second group: medium-sized birds that can use a hole too small for the starling, one and one fourth inches to one and five eighths inches; tufted tit- mouse, white-breasted nuthatch, downy wood- pecker, bluebird, violet-green swallow, tree swallow, hairy woodpecker. Third group: large birds that require an entrance NESTING-BOXES 235 of two or three inches; house finch, crested fly- catcher, red-headed woodpecker, flicker, martin, saw-whet owl, screech owl, sparrow hawk. Fourth group: extra large birds that require an entrance of six inches; wood duck and barn owl. The size of the floor for the various groups should be about as follows: — First, group sis ercsases ee eees 4 inches square Second group............... 5-6 inches square Third group..............-. 6-8 inches square Fourth group...............--- 10 x 18 inches Location of entrance hole. A second important point about the entrance hole relates to its loca- tion. It should be near the top, except for the mar- tins. This is for two reasons; first, it serves as a better protection from cats, and, second, it makes it necessary for the young to be well matured before they are able to climb to the hole and leave the box, and as a result they will be better able to care for themselves and to escape such enemies as the cat and the squirrel. Movable covers for cleaning box. It is best to have all boxes made so that they can be easily opened. This is advantageous for two reasons: first, because, if the sparrows are using the house, their eggs may be taken out; and, second, because early each spring the house should be cleaned of the old nest and any other material that may be found there. In nature the birds’ nesting-sites are not 236 BIRD FRIENDS cleaned out, but observations that have been made of nesting-boxes seem to indicate that birds will more readily cccupy a box that has no nesting- material in it. The construction of the nest is a part of the cycle of activities that goes with the period of reproduction, and doubtless it is best to give this nest-building instinct free play. The roof of the house can easily be fastened on by hinges and at- tached in front by a clasp. Putting out the box. In putting out the box one needs to consider the following matters: (1) the time, (2) the location, (3) the height, (4) the method of fastening, (5) protection from enemies. Time to put out. It is well to put the boxes out early. For some weeks before the birds seem to be ready to begin nesting, they are undoubtedly flying about searching for a site, and the houses, if placed out early, may induce some birds to stay of whose presence we might not otherwise have had the least intimation. By putting the houses out early, they will also become more weather-beaten and lose something of their new appearance. Some birds rear two broods, as the wren and bluebird, in which case the box may be occupied by the second brood, even if it is not placed out till late in the season. In the case of the martin-house, if it is kept up all the year, it is well to cover the holes till the mar- tins return in the spring, so as to keep out the spar- rows. And likewise with the other houses, when BLUEBIRD AT ENTRANCE TO HOUSE WREN AND NESTING-BOX TOMATO-CAN HOUSE TREE SWALLOW AT MARTIN-HOUSE NESTING-BOX Accommodating five thousand birds NESTING-BOXES 237 the sparrows begin nesting in them very early, the holes may be covered till time for the native birds to return. Houses for woodpeckers should have a small amount of a mixture of dry dirt and sawdust placed in them to take the place of the peckings of wood that the birds leave in their holes. Location of box. The location of the box is im- portant. Very few birds will occupy a box in the dense woods, so that boxes should not be placed in heavy shade, but should be well exposed. Boxes may be placed on grape arbors and trees in the yard, and even on porches. Telephone-poles furnish good lo- cations. Experiments that have been made seem to indicate that birds prefer a house placed on a post to one placed on a tree and that they prefer houses in the open or light shade to those in the dense shade. Mr. Edward H. Forbush, State Ornithologist of Massachusetts, in his annual report for 1915 gives the results of his experiments with nesting-boxes during the past season. Twenty-five boxes were erected on poles in the open, and fifty boxes on trees. A census taken on July 4 showed that of the houses on poles ninety-six per cent were occupied by birds (including one pair of English sparrows; the other sparrows were driven away by removing their eggs); while of the boxes on trees only eight per cent were occupied. Mr. Forbush also cites the case of an- other man who mounted twenty-one nesting-boxes 238 BIRD FRIENDS on short poles on the posts of his pasture fences, of which eighteen boxes, or eighty-six per cent were occupied. For three years the author had a nesting- box placed at the edge of the woods, during which time it was unoccupied. In the spring of 1915 this was taken down and placed on a post supporting a martin-house. Within two days it was occupied by a pair of bluebirds. These results all point strongly to the conclusion that more boxes will be occupied if they are put on posts in the open than if put on trees. Although the author has had many houses occupied that were placed on trees, in most cases these were isolated trees standing in the yard. Boxes put up in the woods and on trees are more apt to be occupied by such enemies of the birds as squirrels. Martins prefer their houses out in the open at some little distance from trees or buildings. Height. Excessive heights should be avoided. in general birds prefer medium heights, from eight to twenty feet. The details for the different birds are given in the table on page 243. Method of fastening. The house should be fast- ened so that it is secure against the winds, but so that it can be taken down easily without injuring the box. Some have a screw-eye or loop of wire which can be placed on a hook; others have a hole in the back which will fit over a nail; others have an extension of the back at the top and bottom by NESTING-BOXES 239 which they can be nailed or screwed up; and still others are suspended so as to swing in the wind. When houses are put up on posts, the posts may be jointed near the ground so that they can easily be taken down. This may be done by setting into the ground a short post projecting a few feet above the surface, and fastening to this the post on which the box is placed. The two posts may be fastened together by means of a large hinge and clasp, or by joining the two posts by two long bolts. When it is desired to take down the house, one bolt may be removed and the post rotated around the other. If the house is heavy, as for the martins, two posts may be driven into the ground and the other post fastened between them. Protection from the cat. Two enemies of our native birds are unfortunately very common, the cat and the English sparrow. The birds can be pro- tected from the cat to some extent, in the construc- tion of the house, if this is made deep with the entrance hole placed near the top and with the roof projecting well out over the entrance. Still further protection may be given after the house is put up. A piece of zine or tin about two feet wide may be wrapped around the tree or post below the box and fastened at such a height that the cat cannot leap above it from the ground. It is unable to climb over this. If boxes are placed on slippery poles, cats seldom climb them. A method used on the Ford 240 BIRD FRIENDS farm is to fasten the boxes to the top of posts by means of iron bands about two feet long. Several of the dealers mentioned at the close of this chap- ter advertise cat guards that may be put around posts or trees. Protection from the English sparrow. Various de- vices have been tried in the construction of the house and the method of putting it out, to protect birds from the sparrow. Of these devices the author knows of only one which is always successful; that is to make the hole so smal! (one and one eighth inches or less) that the sparrow cannot enter, but large enough for small birds such as the wren and chick- adee. Other devices which have been suggested, such as leaving off the perch from the house and sus- pending the house so that it can move, are not uni- versally successful. In the author’s experience they have proved of little value. He has found that the sparrows do not use the moving houses as often as the stationary houses, but they do use them in about the same proportion as the other birds, so that little is gained in suspending the houses. If the sparrows begin to use a box, the eggs can be removed every week or two and thus the birds may be prevented from raising young, at least, and sometimes the sparrows will leave and thus give an opportunity for other birds to use the box. On May 26, 1915, Mr. E. H. Forbush found in twenty-five of his nesting-boxes, ten tree swallows’ nests, ten NESTING-BOXES 241 English sparrows’, and two bluebirds’. Shortly after this the eggs of the sparrows were removed and no more eggs were laid, although a new nest was built. On July 4, there were twenty swallows’ nests, three bluebirds’, and one English sparrow’s. So that as a result of removing the sparrows’ eggs the number of native birds using the boxes was about doubled. But the only final solution of the problem seems to be to kill the sparrow either by shooting or by trap- ping, as explained in Chapter XTV. The most essential points to consider in making bird-boxes may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) the size of the entrance hole, which should be of the right size for the bird desired; (2) the lo- cation of the box, which should be on posts in the open rather than on trees in the shade; and (3) the protection of the boxes from the birds’ enemies, especially, the cat, the English sparrow, and the squirrels. Of secondary importance are the following points; material of which made, size, shape, type, height put out, and direction in which the entrance hole faces. Open houses. There are some birds which do not nest ‘in cavities, that will, however, build nests in shelters having open sides. Birds which have been re- ported as using these shelters are listed on page 227. For the catbird, song sparrow, and brown thrasher the shelter should be open on all four sides and placed in shrubbery where these birds nest. Q4Q BIRD FRIENDS OPEN SHELTERS Height Name of bird Kind of Floor | Height | above shelter (inches) | (inches) | ground (feet) Robi vev. pees va eeoaties One or more sides open | 6x8 8 6 to 15 Phebe: vine sccaeiss cass One or more sides open | 6x6 6 8 to 12 Barn swallow........... One or more sides open | 6x6 6 8to12 Song sparrow........... All sides open| 6x6 6 lto 3 Brown thrasher......... All sides open| 7x9 8 lto 3 Cathie. ise. caoresareresae cesar Allsides open} 6x8 8 3 to 10 A shelter with the front and two ends open may be placed where robins and pheebes naturally nest, and sometimes simple shelves placed in appropriate situations are used by these birds. A shelter with the front and one side open, if placed under the eaves of a barn, may be occupied by barn swallows. Some of the important points to consider in the building of a box for a particular bird are given for convenience in tke accompanying tabular form, which is taken, with some changes, from Farmer’s Bulletin No. 609, “Bird-Houses and How to Build Them.” These are arranged in the order of the size of the entrance, the smallest first. NESTING-BOXES 243 NESTING-BOXES Diameter | Floor of ries Entrance| Hi ley . of Cavity | of Cavity| above | above Name of bird entrance floor | ground (inches) | (inches) | (inches) | (inches) | (feet) a ( House wren...... 1 4x 4] 6to 8] 4to 6| 6tol0 8 Bewick’s wren. ... 1 4x 4] 6to 8/ 4to 6| 6tol0d & | Vigors’s wren .... 1 4x 4] 6to 8] 4to 6] 6told ‘J Carolina chickadee} 1 4x 4] 6to 8| 4to 6] 8tol0d © | Carolina wren.... ii 4x 4] 6to 8| 4&to 6} 6told E Black-capped Gg | _ chickadee......) 14 4x 4] 8tol0| 6to 8| 6told | Parkman’s wren. . 14 4x 4] 6to 8] 4to 6} 8told Tufted titmouse. . 1} 4x 4] 8tol0|] 6to 8] 6told White-breasted on nuthatch...... 14 4x 41] 8tol0] 6to 8 |12to20 8 Downy wood- a pecker......... 1} 4x 4] 8tol10| 7to 9| 6to20 204 Bluebird......... 1¢ 5x 5 | 8tol0| 6to 8| 5tol0 a Violet-green 8 swallow ....... 14 5x 5 6| 4to 5/10to15 2 | Tree swallow..... 14 5x 5 6] 4to 5|10told Hairy wood- L pecker......... res 6x 6 | 12to15 | 10to 12 | 12 to 20 House finch...... 2 6x 6 6 4| 8tol? Crested flycatcher.) 2 6x 6] 8tol0] 6to 8| 8to20 Red-headed wood- pecker........ 2 6x 6 | 12to15 | 10 to 12 | 12 to 20 Flicker.......... 24 7x 7 |16to18/14to16| 6to20 Martin.......... Qk 6x 6 6 1 | 15 to 20 Saw-whet owl.... Qh 6x 6 | 10to12} 8tol0/12to20 Sparrow hawk.... 3 8x 8 | 12tol5 | 10to12 | 10 to 30 Screech owl...... 3 8x 8 | 12tol5 | 10to12/10 to 30 Barn owl........ 6 10x18 | 15to18 4 |12to18 Wood duck...... 6 10x18 | 10to15 3 | 4to 20 Martins. Martins prefer to nest in colonies, so that houses should be provided which contain a number of compartments. Each dimension of a sin- gle room should be about six or seven inches. The Q44 BIRD FRIENDS entrance hole may be either square or circular, and should be about two and a half inches across. The best height for erecting the house is from fifteen to twenty feet, although houses placed much higher have been used. To prevent the English sparrow from getting established early in the spring, the house may be taken down in the fall and put up again in the spring. This may be easily done if the pole is put up as suggested on page 239. Directions for making a simple house out of a barrel are given in Mr. E. H. Forbush’s “‘Useful Birds and Their Protection.”” This type of house has been adopted by the Meriden Bird Club. Most birds will use a hole which just permits them to enter, but the martin prefers a hole large enough to admit light while it is entering, so that while it could just enter a one-and-five-eighths-inch hole, the openings in martin-houses are made about two and one half inches in diameter. As it seems probable that starlings may drive martins from their houses, it has been suggested that the hole be made small enough (one and five eighths inches) to exclude the starling and that a small hole about one half inch in diameter be bored above the entrance to admit light while the bird is entering. Providing nesting-material. There are still other birds, which, while they will not allow us to choose the exact site of their nest for them, may sometimes be induced to nest in our immediate vicinity if some NESTING-BOX N I CH OWL x SCI MR. FORBUSH’S NESTING-BOXES 245 materials which can be utilized in the construction of the nest are put in a conspicuous place which is easily accessible. An examination which the author made of a collection of nests showed that twenty-one species used materials provided for them by man. Horsehair was used by eleven species, strings by seven, mud by four, paper by three, cloth by two, and feathers by two. The Baltimore oriole uses a large amount of such materials as string and yarn; the chipping sparrow nearly always lines its nest with horsehair; robins commonly use pieces of cloth; vireos, the wood pewee, the least flycatcher, and the kingbird may line their nests with cotton batting. : Material to be exposed. Some of the materials which may be exposed on fences, bushes, trees, etc., are the following: yarn, string, thread, rags, horse- hair, straw, tufts of cotton and wool, small strips of cloth, pieces of grapevine bark, feathers, cotton batting, and shoemakers’ flax. This flax is a good substitute for the plant-fibers which many birds use. The yarn and strings should be of a somber color, and should be cut into lengths of not over twelve inches, lest the birds become entangled and hang themselves. If any of this material is taken by the birds, it furnishes opportunity for locating the nest, so that it may be watched and such means taken as may be necessary to protect the occupants. Dur- ing dry seasons, if pans of mud are set in easily ac- cessible and protected places, they may be found and 246 BIRD FRIENDS used by such birds as the robin, barn swallow, and pheebe. Results. As one example of what results one may expect, the table on page 233 shows the results on the author’s place for the years 1914 and 1915. Mr. Neil M. Ladd, of Greenwich, Connecticut, reports that on his place of ten acres there were but twelve nests representing four species when he first began to take steps to increase the birds around his home. As a result of four years’ efforts, the number was increased to seventy-five nests representing twenty species. Mr. Edward H. Forbush, in his annual report for 1915, writes that within an area of eight acres on his farm, during the season of 1915, one hundred and twenty-six young birds were reared, representing four species, where prior to 1914 not one bird of any of these species was reared, or could have been reared, as there were no nesting-places for them. Dealers in apparatus to attract birds. One of the most interesting developments during the past five years has been the appearance of a large number of dealers who advertise for sale various types of ap- pliances for attracting birds. The appearance of these dealers indicates that there is a widespread interest in birds and a demand for these appliances. Below is given a list of the dealers whose advertise- ments the author has seen. All publish circulars which may be had on application. NESTING-BOXES 247 The following abbreviations are used to indicate the nature of the apparatus for sale by each dealer: (N =nesting-boxes; M=martin-houses; W=winter feeding devices; F =fountains; S =sparrow-traps; C =cat-traps.) American Column Company, Battle Creek, Michigan. N. The Audubon Bird-House Company, Meriden, New Hamp- shire. N; W; F; C. Chicago Birdhouse Company, 624 South Norton Street, Chicago. N; M; W; F; 5; C. Albert Crescent, Thom’s River, New Jersey. N; M; W; S. Joseph H. Dodson, 701 Security Building, Chicago. N; M; W; F; §; C. Henry A. Dreer, 714 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. N; M; W; BS. Electric Fountain Co., 348 G West 42d St., New York City. F, Farley and Loelscher Manufacturing Company, Dubuque, Iowa. N; M; W; S. Garden Unique, 3163 Iveson Ave., Berwin, Ill. N. Greenwich Bird Protective Society, Greenwich, Connecticut. N; W; 5; C. Holm & Olson, 20 W. Fifth St., St. Paul, Minn. N; W; F. Ideal Bird-House Company, New Windsor, Maryland. N; M. Jacobs Bird-House Company, Waynesburg, Pennsylvania. N; M; W; 5S. Jersey Keystone Wood Co., Trenton, N.J. N; W. Louis Kuertz, Route 2, Loveland, Ohio. N; M; W. Lansing Company, Lansing, Mich. N. Liberty Bell Bird Club, “Farm Journal,’’ Philadelphia. N;M; W; S. H. B. Logan, Montevideo, Minnesota. N; M. Maplewood Biological Laboratory, Stamford, Connecticut. N; M; W; F. Matthews Manufacturing Company, Williamson Building, Cleveland, Ohio. N; M; W; F; 8. Henry F. Mitchell, 518 Market Street, Philadelphia, N; M. Neighorhood Craft, Locust Valley, Long Island, N.Y. N; M; W. 248 BIRD FRIENDS Winthrop Packard, Canton, Massachusetts. N; M; W. Philip E. Perry, P.O. Box 2275, Boston, Massachusetts. N. Pinedale Bird-Nesting-Box Company, Wareham, Massa- chusetts. N. Rookwood Pottery Co., Cincinnati, O. F. Sharonware Workshop, 42 Lexington Avenue, New York City. F. Simplex Bird Apparatus Company, Demarest, New Jersey. Ww. West Chester Bird-Box Company, West Chester, Pennsyl- vania. N. Wheatley Pottery Company, 2426 Reading Place, Cincinnati, Ohio. N; F. Charles E. White, Box 45, Kenilworth, Illinois. N; W. Whip-O-Will-O Furniture Co., 352 Adams Ave., Scranton, Pa. N; W; F. CHAPTER XX FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS Durine the winter season the opportunity of- fered for studying birds, at a time when nature’s activities are at their lowest ebb, is most welcome, and especially so because the birds may become so tame that they will feed from the window-sill while one is sitting just inside the window, thus affording opportunity to observe them at close range. Value to man. There is also a great practical value in attracting the birds around the farm and garden that they may feed upon insects’ eggs and hibernating insects and remain in the spring to attack the newly hatched caterpillars. A very instructive experiment was tried by Mr. Forbush in Massachusetts. An old neglected or- chard was selected, and during the winter special effort was made to attract the birds by means of suet and other foods. By this means nuthatches, chicka- dees, woodpeckers, and creepers were attracted to the orchard, remaining during the winter months. Observations of the feeding-habits and examination of the stomach-contents of a few chickadees showed that they were eating large numbers of eggs of the fall canker-worm moth, and the larve and pupz 250 BIRD FRIENDS of other injurious insects. In the spring, when the female canker-worm moths appeared in the orchard the chickadee fed on these. While the trees in the neighboring orchards were badly infected with the worms, comparatively few were found in the or- chard which had been frequented by the winter birds, and the few which did appear were easily dis- posed of by the summer birds which came to the locality. The trees in other orchards were almost stripped of their foliage, while this one retained its leaves, and, with one exception, was the only orchard in the neighborhood to produce any fruit. It should be noted that the exception was the near- est orchard to the one on which the experiment was tried. Need of feeding birds in winter. The winter is a season when, from the bird’s standpoint, assist- ance in obtaining food is particularly welcome. When heavy snows lie on the ground, much of the supply of the seed-eating birds is hidden; and when the tree-trunks are covered with ice, insect-eating birds find it difficult to break through this coating, to secure insects and their eggs in the bark beneath. Under ordinary conditions our birds can withstand quite cold weather if they are well supplied with food; but their food is digested so quickly that birds require a large amount of it and frequent access to it. Birds may also perish from exposure to seyere storms and weather, as well as from starvation, so 2 = — [x DOWNY WOODPECKER HERMIT THRUSH A BIRD’S TEPEE Made of bean-poles with the vines still attached SELF-SUPPLYING FEED BOX FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS 251 that shelter as well as food is necessary to protect the winter birds. Birds to expect. The success of winter feeding and the kinds of birds one may expect to come and feed vary with the locality and with the season. In general more birds will visit feeding-stations in the Northern States, where the severe storms cover their natural food-supply, than in the Southern States, and one may expect more birds during a severe win- ter with heavy snows than in a mild winter with little snow. From a number of reports recorded in “Bird- Lore” and elsewhere, including forty-five observers, representing fourteen States, situated chiefly in the northeastern section of the country, the author has made a brief summary of the birds known to eat food put out for them. This includes forty-nine species of birds of which the ten most common in the order of frequency are the chickadee, white- breasted nuthatch, downy woodpecker, blue jay, junco, hairy woodpecker, tree sparrow, red-breasted nuthatch, brown creeper, and song sparrow. Feeding from the hand. With the exercise of a little patience there is the possibility, not only that birds will come to the window to feed, but that they will soon feed out of one’s hand. Of the forty-nine species of birds previously mentioned as using food provided for them, twenty-nine have become suffi- ciently tame to feed from a window shelf, and thir- Q52 BIRD FRIENDS teen have fed from the hand. Those reported as feeding from the hand, arranged in the order of the number of records, are the chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, white-breasted nuthatch, redpoll, tufted titmouse, Oregon jay, Canada jay, evening gros- beak, bluebird, chipping sparrow, pine grosbeak, white-winged crossbill, and’ pine siskin. Kinds of food. As far as possible one should put out the kinds of food which birds prefer; but in times of great hunger birds will eat many foods which under ordinary circumstances would not be attractive to them. Birds may be divided into two groups according to their food habits, seed-eating and insect-eating, although many birds eat both seeds and insects. But this suggests that we may seek to find substitutes for these two classes of natural food. Without question the best food for insectiv- orous birds is suet. It is cheap, does not freeze easily, and is eaten by many birds. The seed-eating birds live largely on weed seeds in nature, but many other kinds of seeds are relished by them. Among the best are hemp, sunflower, millet, and peanuts. Other foods which have been eaten by birds are: crumbs, cracked corn, fat pork, dog-biscuits, oats, oatmeal, ‘squash seed, nuts, mar- row of bones, wheat, and boiled rice. The food should be supplied with regularity, par- ticularly so during stormy or severe weather, so that the birds may be able to find a supply at all FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS 253 times. Care should be taken, in the use of such foods as decay or sour easily, to see that the spoiled food is removed and a fresh supply provided; at times it may be well to supply water. Methods of putting out food. Food may be put out in a great variety of ways: (1) on the ground, (2) on shelves, (3) fastened on limbs of trees, (4) in suet baskets, (5) on old Christmas trees, (6) in an automatic hopper, (7) in an Audubon food- house, (8) in a weathercock food-house, (9) in a window box, and (10) on a moving counter. On the ground. To supply seed-eating birds, a bit of ground may be swept clear of the snow, or the snow trampled down, and chaff, crumbs, and the various kinds of grain and other seeds scattered there. To this may come such birds as the sparrow, junco, snow bunting, blue jay, and quail. This food may be protected by means of boards placed over it in the form of an “A.” A large brush-heap, covered well with evergreen boughs, with grain thrown under it, does very well. Shelves. Various kinds of shelves may be used. Tn its simplest form a shelf may consist of a board at- tached to a tree, with a narrow strip around the edge to prevent the food from being blown off. This may be placed at first at a little distance till the birds become accustomed to coming to it, and then brought nearer to the house; or it may be placed on the top of a short post. 254 BIRD FRIENDS Window shelf. The shelf may be placed at a win- dow, and many birds will become so tame that they will feed here, even when a person is sitting by the window inside. This shelf should be wide, so as to allow room for a number of birds to dine at once. If covered with burlap, the small seeds and crumbs will blow away less easily. It would doubtless be worth while to arrange some kind of awning or roof over this to keep off the snow, so that the birds might be able to find food during the storms. Suet-box. Suet may be tied to branches of trees, or a suet-box, adapted for hanging on a tree, can be easily made. A piece of half-inch board about five by six inches forms the back. Around this on the two sides and across the bottom are nailed strips of narrow half-inch boards, about two inches wide. Across these strips is fastened a piece of poultry-wire netting with one-inch mesh or a piece of hardware cloth. The top of the box is left open for inserting the suet. A screw-eye is screwed into the top of the back so that the box may be sus- pended from a nail driven into a tree. This pre- vents the birds from carrying off large pieces of suet and wasting it, but enables them to feed through the meshes. Suet-baskets may be bought of several of the dealers listed in Chapter XIX. Christmas tree. After the Christmas season is over, instead of throwing away the tree, it may be loaded with food for the birds. Suet and berries may SUET-BASKETS One in lower left-hand corner made by fifth-grade boy in manual-training department RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS 255 be fastened to the branches and bags containing seeds and nuts may be suspended. This tree may be fastened upright in the yard or the small tip may be placed on a window shelf. Automatic hopper. Several automatic feeders on the principle of poultry hoppers are now for sale on the market, or they can be easily made. The large hopper can be filled with seeds, which come out of a small opening at the bottom leading to a shelf. As fast as the seeds are used, others fall down to take their place. When once filled this may last several weeks. The Audubon food-house. A modification of the Von Berlepsch food-house has been made by Mr. Frederic H. Kennard in this country and has been widely and successfully used. This consists of a post from five to six feet above ground and three feet in the ground. A rustic appearance is given by using a stout post with the bark on, such as red cedar. The house consists of a square hip roof two feet, ten inches over all, and supports beneath it four glazed sashes, two feet long by ten and one half inches high, and jointed at the corners. It is fast- ened to the post by means of a wooden block two inches thick, attached beneath the apex of the roof, with a hole in the center, into which the top of the post is driven and nailed. There are two food shelves fastened about the post, an upper one, twelve inches in diameter on a level with the bottom 256 BIRD FRIENDS of the sash, anda lower tray, eight inches in diameter placed about ten inches lower. This lower one is used to attract the attention of the birds to the upper one, where most of the food is kept. In the sashes are fastened pieces of glass. The advantages of this food-house are, first, that the birds are protected from storms; second, that they are protected from cats; and third, that the glass allows one to watch the birds inside as well as throwing light on the food. Weathercock food-house. The weathercock food- house consists of a box open on one side and so ar- ranged on a pivot that it is easily turned by the wind by means of long vanes projecting back. The front may be made of glass. Whichever way the wind blows, the house turns so that the open side is away from the wind. Sometimes the ends are made of glass also. This enables one to see the birds feeding there. This house has been tried by the Meriden Bird Club and found to work satisfactorily. Window box. The window box was suggested by Mr. William Dutcher and was worked out by Mr. Baynes at Meriden. This consists of a frame that fits under the open window and projects into the room, the top, sides, and back being of glass. At the top is a hinged door through which food may be passed. Mr. Baynes reports this as being very successful. Moving counter. One of the most satisfactory plans which the author has tried is a shelf moving FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS 257 on a wire. The details of this have been worked out very ingeniously by Edward Uehling, who, at the time this work was done, was a boy in the eighth grade of school. The author was closely associated with him in this work and tried a similar device at his own home. Some of the most successful results of which the author has known followed from this plan as worked out by his friend during the winter of 1906 and 1907. A wire was put up, sloping from a second-story window to a tree about forty feet dis- tant. On this wire the lunch counter was sus- pended by means of two pulleys set in a frame. To this frame a string was attached and run to the win- dow. The slope of the wire carried the counter to- ward the tree, so that it could be kept in any desired position along the wire. On this were placed suet, nuts, sunflower seeds, and other foods. At first this was allowed to remain out at full length of the wire, touching the tree. Tree-climbing birds soon found this and came regularly to feed upon it. After the birds had become accustomed to coming to the counter in this position, it was drawn up a little nearer each day, till at the end of a month it had been pulled to the window. Those birds which at first came to it continued to do so even when it was brought up near enough to touch the window. The following winter a roof was placed over the trough, which partially prevented the food from being cov- ered by snow during storms. 258 BIRD FRIENDS On one cold day when the snow was deep, the author and Mr. Uehling watched the birds from within the window from 6 a. M. to 5 p.M. The first birds came at 6.42 and the last at 4.23. Eight species of birds visited the counter, including the chickadee, the junco, the white-breasted nuthatch, the blue jay, the hermit thrush, the downy wood- pecker, the English sparrow, and the brown creeper (arranged inthe order of the number of visits made). A total number of two hundred and two visits were made, or an average of twenty per hour. All the birds at some time during the day, except the spar- row and the creeper, came to the window shelf or the moving counter. The downy and the creeper ate only suet, and the junco and the sparrow only bread crumbs. Difficulties. The same two difficulties confront us here as in providing nesting-houses — the cat and the English sparrow. The birds may be easily protected from cats by wrapping a piece of tin or zinc around the tree below the food; by putting the window shelf at a second-story window; or by sus- pending the counter from a wire as explained on page 257. English sparrows. The sparrow problem, how- ever, is not so easily solved. In one way the diffi- culty is not so acute as with the nesting-houses, where two birds cannot occupy the same apartment; for it is possible to furnish food both for the spar- SHELTER FOR BIRDS’ FOOD Fifteen birds feeding, — song sparrows, tree sparrows, juncos WINDOW AND MOVING FOOD-SHELVES FEEDING THE WINTER BIRDS 259 rows and other birds; but as a matter of fact experi- ence shows that where the sparrows congregate in large flocks, as is their custom, the other birds keep away. The author’s experience suggests that a mov- ing counter tends to keep the sparrows away, as they will not visit it so frequently as the stationary shelf, and only when driven to it by lack of food else- where; on the other hand, our native birds come to it readily. CHAPTER XXI FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS FOR THE BIRDS Fountains Essentials of fountains. Birds use water for two purposes, for drinking and for bathing. In con- structing a fountain which will be adapted to both of these purposes, three essentials should be kept in mind; first, the edge and bottom should be of roughened material, so that the birds will not slip; second, the water should be shallow, two and a half to three inches is deep enough for most birds; third, the bottom of the fountain should slope gradually from the edge out to the center, so as to give a gradual change in the depth of water. Location. In deciding upon the location, the im- portant matter to consider is protection from cats. Birds fly with difficulty when their feathers are wet, and thus are easily caught. Fountains may be raised on pedestals as a protection from cats, or set in the middle of a lawn with no bushes near behind which cats may hide; or probably the best solution is to look after the cats and place the fountain near shrubbery where it will be partially shaded, and other plants may be put around it for an ornamental set- ting. FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS 261 Pans for fountains. Simple and effective bird- baths may be made of almost any shallow recep- tacle, such as large flower-pot saucers, pans of vari- ous kinds, wash-boiler covers, etc. Sand and gravel should be placed in these so as to give a range in depth of water from a half-inch or less at the edge to about three inches in the center; or shelving rocks may be placed in the basin; these would render easier the change of water, which should be renewed each day, and would furnish a better standing-place for the birds than the smooth edge of the pan. The pan may be fastened in a crotch of a tree, or placed on a post or window-sill, high enough to be out of the reach of cats. It is preferable to place it where it will be partially shaded to prevent the water from becoming warm. Concrete fountains on the lawn. One of the most satisfactory types of fountain is one made of con- crete sunk in the ground. To make this, a hole about three feet across is dug out, gradually sloping from the edge to a depth of five or six inches in the middle. This is plastered over with a mixture of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion of one to four, thick enough to leave the center about three inches deep and to slope gradually from there to the edge. If the water leaks through too rapidly, another thin coating may be placed over this, made by mix- ing about equal parts of sand and cement. This may be located near shrubbery where it will 262 BIRD FRIENDS be partially shaded, and various plants, such as ferns, may be grown around it. If one has no access to running water, the fountains may be cleaned out once or twice a week with a broom. This frequent cleaning will prevent mosquitoes from breeding. If one has a supply of running water, this can be let in at one side and out at the other. The overflow can be disposed of by digging a hole several feet deep and filling with rocks, into which the drain-pipe can be led. This may then be covered with turf. ‘Some members of the Meriden Bird Club use a fountain made of zinc, which contains a succession of five or six broad steps about one half-inch high and seven inches wide, thus giving a range of from one half to three inches in depth. This may also be made with the bottom gradually sloping from one end to the other. Visitors at fountains. The number of birds that visit a fountain during a season may be very large. The number that will occupy bird-houses is com- paratively small, limited by the natural nesting- habits of the birds; the number that may be at- tracted by winter feeding is larger, but still limited to those birds which have the ability to withstand cold weather; the number that may be attracted by fountains is still larger, as there is the possibility of enticing birds from the three great groups of transient visitants, summer residents, and perma- nent residents. One observer reports that sixty- KR TISES ae, CONCRETE BIRD FOUNTAIN ON THE AUTHOR’S LAWN FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS 263 nine different species of birds — many rare warblers and migrants among them — came in one season to drink from a basin on a suburbanlawn. Another observer reports seeing fifteen kinds of birds around his fountain in one afternoon. Mr. E. H. Baynes writes that twenty-two species of birds have visited his fountain. Trees, Shrubs, and Vines Planting for the birds. For one who owns a farm, or a place with fair-sized grounds, on which he ex- pects to live for a number of years, perhaps no greater returns in bird life will be given than from a proper planting of trees, shrubs, and vines. A tree- less and shrubless locality means a more or less bird- less locality. These are essentials to furnish nesting- sites and shelter for most of our common birds. These plantings may serve a fivefold purpose — to furnish shelter, nesting-sites, and food for the birds, to protect cultivated fruit from the birds, and to beautify the home grounds. Planting for shelter. While all trees furnish some shelter for the birds, the coniferous trees are espe- cially valuable for this purpose on account of the re- tention of their foliage during the cold months, which furnishes some protection against the winter storms and serves as a favorite roosting-place during the long, cold nights. Windbreaks of any kind of trees may also serve as a shelter. The smaller plants, too, 264 BIRD FRIENDS such as tangles of shrubs and vines, furnish retreats for many of the smaller birds when pursued by hawks; and serve as a shelter for winter birds. Planting for nesting-sites. While occasionally some birds seem to show a preference for some par- ticular kind of tree or shrub in which to place their nests, usually it is a question of the general locality, with its surroundings and the food and protection given, which decides the bird in its selection of a nesting-site. Hence those plants which will best serve the purpose of food and shelter will also fur- nish nesting-sites. A number of trees and tangles of shrubbery, thickly overgrown with vines, furnish the needed conditions for nesting-sites, provided the other factors are favorable. If hedges are sub- stituted for fences, they may furnish nesting-sites and at the same time serve as a means of orna- mentation. Planting for food. In selecting plants the ques- tion of food should receive first consideration. Some of our birds feed quite largely on fruits in their season, and a large number of them select fruits as a small part, at least, of their diet. The birds which feed to a considerable extent on wild fruit are arranged in the following table in the order of the percentage which this forms of their whole food. These figures are taken from the re- ports of the United States Bureau of Biological Survey:— FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS 265 Per cent that wild | Number of kinds of Name of bird fruit forms of total | fruit known to be food eaten Cedar-bird............... 4 20 Bob-white................ Av 20 ROD 5c scaseos'soetee eek eae 42 32 Catbird............0000ee 5 15 Ruffed grouse............. 28 23 Fox sparrow............4. 28 6 Yellow-bellied sapsucker... . 26 17 White-throated sparrow. ... 25 12 Cardinal.............0044 24 20 Hicker cs need oes esha eac 20 28 Rose-breasted grosbeak..... 19 12 Bluebird................. 18 23 A study of the last column shows the variety of fruits eaten by the different birds. In a government publication is given the follow- ing list of fruits and the number of birds that feed on this fruit as determined by the studies made by the Bureau of Biological Survey : — Number Number Fruit of birds Fruit of birds eating eating Elder aj(tsteeccgasigs es 67 Virginia creeper berries.... 25 Raspberries Blackberries Bayberries' «3 6000280 Mulberries.............6 Juniper berries Dogwood June-berries...... SUMae.-3544...0éesaassate® Holly berries........ 62 Wild cherries Strawberries............. Blueberries.............. Viburnum............... Wild grapes Hackberries............. Pokeberries.............. Huckleberries............ Succession of fruits. The accompanying table, on page 266, is taken from a publication of the Bureau 266 BIRD FRIENDS TABLE OF FRUITING-PERIODS | Mar Apr May ens | Deo, Tartarian honey Black alder.....-.+---2--++ eae | | | | | at Wild black cherry........- | | ae l High-bush cranberry....... ee | | se Sanaa —— Frost grape.---- Huckleberry...... FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS 267 of Biological Survey, with a few omissions and a change in the order. These plants are arranged in the order in which the fruit begins to ripen, so that from a study of this table one may select shrubs which will furnish the birds with a succession of food from spring through summer and fall, and even through winter, as the fruit of several shrubs re- mains during most of the winter season. The period of the fruiting-season is taken from the earliest and latest dates recorded for New York and New Eng- land, so that an individual plant would not remain in fruit during all of this period. Mr. Frederic H. Kennard, in Baynes’s “Our Wild Bird Guests,” suggests the following species as among the best for providing birds with a con- tinuous supply of food throughout the year: — Trees Shrubs Vines White mulberry Shad-bush Red mulberry Blue cornel Summer Bird cherry (Prunus Tartarian honey- pennsylvanica) suckle Red-berried elder Flowering dogwood Silky cornel Frost grape White thorn Gray cornel Autumn Bird cherry (Prunus Arrowwood serotina) Withe-rod Common elder Gray birch Barberry Virginia creeper Cockspur thorn Black alder Summer grape : European mountain- Common privet Wines ash Buckthorn Siberian crab-apple Sheep-berry Black haw 268 BIRD FRIENDS Trees Shrubs Vines Washington thorn Japanese barberry False bittersweet American larch Non-poisonous Boston ivy European larch sumac Spring < Flowering crab-apple Highbush cran- berry Wild rose Rosa multiflora Most desirable fruits. It is a matter of quite common observation that, on the whole, the best single tree to plant is the mulberry. It begins to bear early and its fruiting season is well prolonged. Other especially attractive fruits are the June- berry, elderberry, and wild cherries. A study of the table on page 265 will suggest others of the most desirable plants. Herbaceous plants. There are also some herba- ceous plants which can be grown to attract birds. A row of sunflowers at the back of the garden is often visited by goldfinches or others of the finch family. Goldfinches also eat the seeds of the blue cornflower. The hummingbird is attracted by bright flowers with deep tubes. Either red or orange flowers are preferred. Some of its favorite flowers among wild plants are coral honeysuckle, painted-cup, columbine, jewel-weed, Oswego-tea, and cardinal- flower; and among cultivated flowers, columbine, scarlet salvia, bee-balm, nasturtium, and gladiolus. Planting for ornamentation. The plants which are set out to attract the birds may also serve the FOUNTAINS AND SHRUBS 269 purpose of ornamentation. Among our vines the Virginia creeper, which is a favorite among the birds, is very attractive because of its decorative effect. Shrubs may be chosen which hold their berries dur- ing the winter, thus furnishing the birds with food when it is especially welcome, and also adding greatly to the winter landscape by their bright and attrac- tive colors. Some of the shrubs which carry their fruit through a part or the whole of the winter are holly, bayberry, mountain-ash, black alder, green- brier, red cedar, sumac, hackberry, bittersweet, and burning bush. Reference has already been made in Chapter X to the planting of shrubs and trees to protect cul- tivated fruit. Calendar for attracting birds March-April. Continue to keep out food as suggested for October—Feb- ruary. Put out nesting-houses. Clean out the old nesting-houses. Put a little sawdust in boxes intended for woodpeckers. Set out shrubs to attract birds. May. Plant seeds of sunflower and gourds. Below the nesting-houses that are occupied fasten around the tree or post a sheet of tin or zinc about eighteen inches wide, to protect the houses from cats. Put out yarn, string, cotton batting, and other nesting- material. June. Put out fountains for drinking and bathing. Keep cats shut up. 270 _BIRD FRIENDS July-September. Keep fountain clean and filled with fresh water. October—February. Begin early to put out food, suet, grains, etc. After storms, trample down the snow and throw out grains. Examine feeding-shelves and hoppers after storms and keep them constantly supplied with food. Keep suet-baskets full. Put out nesting-boxes for shelter. CHAPTER XXII DOMESTICATION OF WILD BIRDS Success achieved. Considerable progress has been made in recent years in the domestication of wild birds. Many experiments have been tried with a great variety of birds with varying degrees of suc- cess, but some have been so fully successful that several species of wild birds may be considered partially domesticated. These experiments have been tried with two classes of birds, the water-fowl and the so-called gallinaceous birds, or land game-birds. Among the first group the birds which have been successfully reared in captivity are ducks, geese, and swans. Among the gallinaceous birds, the bob-whites and several other quail, the ruffed grouse, the prairie hen, the wild turkey, and pheasants have been suc- cessfully reared. The greatest success has been achieved in rear- ing the mallard duck. Some strains have become thoroughly domesticated like barnyard fowl. Other ducks which have been successfully reared are the wood duck, pintail, redhead, gadwall, widgeon, shoveler, green-winged and blue-winged teals, black duck, canvasback, and lesser scaup. The Canada goose has also been successfully reared. 272 BIRD FRIENDS The rearing of wild birds has now become quite an industry. In a recent issue of a paper devoted to outdoor life were advertisements of four firms offering for sale wild birds which had been reared in captivity. Many people are raising bob-whites, pheasants, and ducks. Nine States have game farms on which various species of wild birds are reared. The artificial rearing of birds settles the question of the preservation of any species of bird, for as soon as a bird is reared artificially the danger of its extermination is past. The wood duck was form- erly classed as a “vanishing game-bird,” but now it is being raised artificially by the thousands and in some localities is becoming common. A book treating of the domestication of wild birds has recently appeared, entitled ‘“The Propagation of Wild Birds,” by Herbert K. Job. So far as the author knows, this is the first manual of its kind to be published in this country. Those who are inter- ested in the exact methods by which the various species of birds are reared will find full directions in this book. Mr. Job has also prepared two bulletins on the subject, one on “Propagation of Upland Game Birds,” and another on “‘Propagation of Wild Water Fowl.” These are sold for twenty-five cents each by the National Association of Audubon Societies. Methods of rearing wild birds. In some ways the general methods used in rearing all wild birds are DOMESTICATION OF WILD BIRDS = 273 similar. Two general methods are in use, the arti- ficial method and the natural method. In the arti- ficial method the birds are kept confined and the young reared in much the same way as poultry. In the natural method the birds are allowed to breed in their natural way, but are protected and helped in every way possible. Each of these methods has its advantages and they may be combined. Rearing the bob-white. Among the gallinaceous birds the greatest success has been achieved with the bob-white. The Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game raised several hundred in 1914. Mr. A. C. MacVicar, of New Jersey, has raised one hundred and fifty in a season, the Connecticut State Farm at Madison about two hundred, Mr. Harry T. Rogers, of New York, four hundred, and the New Jersey Commission about five hundred. There are a number of men who raise large numbers with as much certainty as one raises poultry. The following résumé is given in Mr. Job’s “Propagation of Wild Birds” : — Résumé of plan. Following is a résumé of the general plan, based upon my own experience and observation, which I suggest for the handling of quail on an estate, farm, or preserve: — 1. Secure breeding-stock in late fall or early winter either by purchase or by capture of a small stock by permission of the authorities. 2. Keep through the winter in a wire enclosure with simple shelter from storms and cold winds. QT BIRD FRIENDS 3. In April, separate the pairs, having each pair in a small pen by itself. Some can remain in the larger pen together, if there are not enough small pens. 4. Hatch out the eggs and raise the young with ban- tams. Do not attempt incubators and brooders. 5. Put the breeders back into the large pen together by the latter part of July, unless they wish to incubate. 6. In late fall or early winter, catch up what young are desired. The rest can be left wild to breed naturally, next summer. Feed regularly under shelters throughout the winter, to hold them on the land, as also by planted areas of grain left standing for them. In severe winter weather coveys might be shut up and cared for, and let go again. Pheasants. Pheasants are very widely reared in large numbers. The game farm of West Virginia has distributed two hundred pheasants, the Iowa farm seven hundred, the California farm four thou- sand, the New Jersey farm forty-four hundred, the Connecticut farm six thousand, and the New York farm ten thousand. Mr. Donald MacVicar hatches annually about four thousand. Ruffed grouse. Dr. Clifton Hedge was the first man successfully to rear ruffed grouse. Mr. Her- bert K. Job has conducted a number of successful experiments with them. Mr. Rogers raised seventy- five young grouse in one season. The American Game Protective and Propagation Association has raised them for three successive generations on its game farm at South Carver, Massachusetts. Wild turkeys. Wild turkeys have been success- DOMESTICATION OF WILD BIRDS = 275 fully reared on the preserve of the Woodmount Rod and Gun Club in Maryland. One season two hundred young turkeys were reared. Canada goose. The Canada goose is easily reared in captivity, and is readily tamed, even more readily than ducks. Mr. J. W. Wheaton, on Chincoteague Island, Virginia, has raised Canada geese for more than fifty years. In 1909 he had about four hundred and fifty birds. About seventy-five pairs breed and he raises annually from two hundred to three hun- dred young birds. Some of these pairs are over fifty years of age and have come back spring after spring to nest for nearly half a century. Ducks. Wild ducks are now being raised in large numbers. On the Walcott game preserve at Norfolk, Connecticut, from fifteen hundred to two thou- sand mallards are raised each season for the mar- ket. The Game Breeders’ Association, of Sparrow- bush, New York, during the season of 1913 gathered four thousand eggs from one hundred and seventy mallard ducks and hatched twenty-five hundred ducklings. The Clove Valley Rod and Gun Club, of Dutchess County, New York, during 1913 reared and marketed about four thousand mallards. Dur- ing the season of 1914 Mr. Wallace Evans raised more than six thousand young wood ducks. Wild ducks are easily reared. The outfit is simple and inexpensive, consisting of a pond or brook, an open shed, and a wire fence. The food is easily pro- 276 BIRD FRIENDS vided, and as the birds are hardy, they are easily kept in good health. It is easy also to rear the young. And it is even possible to rear them in a city back yard, if one has a cement basin and shrubbery. Mr. F. Manross has a pair of wood ducks which rear their young each year in a small artificial pond under the windows of his factory in Forestville, Connecti- cut. The water is kept open during the winter by a steam pipe and the birds remain here during the whole year. In another part of his yard he is rearing Canada geese, which were originally wild. As another example of what may be done in a city back yard may be mentioned the case of Dr. A. F. Warren, of Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. For several years he has kept several green-winged teals in his small yard, where he has made a cement basin and set out shrubbery. Attracting wild ducks. In localities where ducks are found, much can be done to attract them with- out artificial breeding. Brooks may be dammed so as to make ponds and marshes. A few captive ducks kept on ponds may serve to attract wild ducks, which may remain and breed. Mallard ducks reared in captivity make good decoys and have been used successfully in attracting wild ducks into ponds, even when situated in city parks. Food is another means of enticing ducks to remain. Such grains as corn, wheat, or rice may be scattered in shallow water, and ponds may be rendered still DOMESTICATION OF WILD BIRDS == 277 more atiractive to ducks by planting water-plants that are used by them as food. The most important of these are wild celery, wild rice, and pondweeds. A study of the stomach-contents of a number of in- dividuals of sixteen species of ducks showed that these three plants composed one quarter of the food of these birds, divided as follows: pondweeds, four- teen per cent; wild celery, six per cent; and wild rice, five per cent. Every part of the plant of wild rice is eaten — stem, leaves, flowers, and seeds. The seeds may be obtained of several reliable dealers, and should be sown broadcast in the shallow water around the edge of the pond. Wild celery may be propagated in a similar way by seeds, and also by winter buds, and by pieces of the plant with a bit of rootstock attached. Nineteen plants that serve as food for wild ducks are given in a bulletin published by the United States Bureau of Biological Survey. Among them, besides the three mentioned above, are: wapato, wild millet, musk grasses, duckweed, frogbit, water elm, marine eel-grass, water cress, and coontail. Heronry. Mr. McIlhenny, of Louisiana, has been successful in starting a heronry near his home. He first secured some young herons from nests and reared them by hand. These went away during the winter, but returned in the spring and nested near his house. Other herons joined them, and there is now a large colony, containing thousands of herons 278 BIRD FRIENDS of various kinds. Mr. Herbert K. Job, who recently visited this heronry, writes: — Several days were spent at Avery Island, Louisiana, where I was most kindly entertained by Mr. E. A. Me- Tlhenny, whose astounding -colony, artificially built up, of forty thousand snowy egrets, herons, and other water birds, attracted to his overflowed garden, might well be considered “the eighth wonder of the world.” CHAPTER XXIII TEACHING BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS Purposes of bird-study. In the schools it is im- portant that the teacher should have clearly in mind the purposes of bird-study so that these may serve as a guide in her teaching. The chief purposes of bird-study in the schools may be briefly stated as follows: first, to give the children greater plea- sure in living through an acquaintance with the birds; second, to teach them the economic value of birds; third, to teach them to protect and to aid the birds. Materials for bird-study. One of the features of nature-study that gives it special value is the fact that it deals with things at first hand, and the child is learning from a direct study of the thing itself instead of by reading about it. Hence it is im- portant that there should be provided materials for the child to study. The best and final thing is for the child to study the living bird outdoors. For the schoolroom lessons some material is needed to create an interest which shall lead the child to this outdoor study. In most schools mounted birds can- not be obtained, and it is questionable whether these would be desirable, especially for young children. 280 BIRD FRIENDS As an introduction to bird-study sometimes it may be possible to keep a pet canary in the schoolroom for a few days. Pictures. There is a substitute for mounted birds that can be used, which serves the purpose excep- tionally well, namely, colored pictures. Very good pictures can now be obtained from the following sources : — National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broadway, New York City. About ninety pictures have been published, to which six are being added each year. The price is two cents apiece, including, besides the picture, an outline drawing and a four- page pamphlet descriptive of the bird’s habits. G. P. Browne Company, Beverly, Massachusetts. About three hundred and fifty pictures have been published. The price is two cents each. These may be obtained on light-weight mounts for four cents each. Liberty Bell Bird Club, “Farm Journal,’’ Phila- delphia. Twenty pictures have been published and are sold at two cents each. Massachusetts Audubon Society, 66 Newbury Street, Boston. This Society sells pictures mounted as charts. There are three charts known as the Audubon Bird Charts, twenty-seven by forty-two inches, arranged so that they can be hung in the schoolroom. Charts numbers 1 and 2 each contain twenty-six common birds, and Chart number 38, BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 281 twenty winter birds. The price of each chart is $1.50. Handwork. For young children it is important that a large amount of handwork should be pro- vided, as children acquire knowledge faster by this means. Colored pictures furnish material for this kind of work. The children are given uncolored outlines and, with the colored pictures before them, color in the outline, using either colored crayons or water-colors. The outlines may be obtained in three ways: First, they may be bought. The National Association of Audubon Societies sells an outline with each picture, but does not sell the outlines sepa- rately. Separate outlines of thirty common birds may be bought for one cent each of the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York. Second, the teacher, by means of a mimeograph or other device, may make enough outlines to supply the class. Third, the children may make the outlines themselves. The older children may make free-hand drawings of the outline from the picture. The younger children may trace the outlines. For this purpose two grades of paper are needed, the ordinary drawing-paper on which the final outline is to be colored, and some paper thin enough for tracing: thin typewriting paper will do. The thin paper is held over the picture and the outline of the bird traced. When this is finished, it is turned over and placed on the ordinary drawing-paper with 282 BIRD FRIENDS the outline next to it. The child takes his pencil and marks back and forth a number of times across the paper just over the outline already drawn. This causes enough of the pencil mark to be rubbed off to reproduce the outline on the second paper. The child may go over this outline with a pencil to make it clear, and then color it. Free-hand outlines of birds may be cut from paper or cardboard and then colored on both sides with crayons. These may be suspended by means of thread to represent flying birds. Outlines may also be cut from thin pieces of board with a knife or fret saw, and then the two sides painted. These may be fastened to sticks to make flower-sticks to put in flower-pots. The purpose of this work is to enable the children to identify the birds in the field more easily, be- cause they have noted the colors and their location, and they should be encouraged to look for these birds. If this handwork stops in the schoolroom without leading to the study of birds outdoors, it may be questioned whether it is worth while. Bird games. The game element may profitably be introduced into bird-study, especially with young children. Following are some games which the au- thor has seen used that help the child in describing and identifying the birds: — Games with colored pictures. Game number 1. The teacher shows the pictures one at a time to the BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 283 children, keeping the name covered. The child who first correctly names the bird takes the picture. The child who has the most pictures at the end of the game wins. Game number 2. This may be used with older children. A large number of pictures are hung around the room and numbered, the names being covered. Each child writes the list of numbers on a piece of paper and opposite the number the name of the bird. The child who names the most wins. Game number 3. The teacher pins the picture of some bird on a child’s back and shows the picture to the class. The child stands before the class and asks questions of any cone he wishes about the bird, till he guesses it correctly. He then names some one else to take his place. Games without pictures. Game number 4. A child stands before the class and describes some bird which he has in mind. The children try to guess the bird from the description. The child who first guesses it correctly then begins the description of another bird. Game number 5. This is a slight modification of the previous game. A child stands before the class and has some particular bird in mind. The children take turns in asking questions about the bird, its color, size, etc., till some one guesses the bird. This child then takes his turn in answering questions about some other bird. 284 BIRD FRIENDS Dramatization. Children enjoy dramatization and learn much thereby. Some simple bird play could be easily arranged and the parts taken by the children. The Liberty Bell Bird Club has arranged three plays: “The Workers,” “The Birds’ Return,” and “The Birds’ House-Hunting,” which may be obtained of the “‘ Farm Journal,” Philadelphia, for three two-cent stamps each. Probably Percy Mac- Kaye’s “Sanctuary ” could be adapted for grammar grades. Bird calendar. A spring bird calendar is a source of never-failing interest, beginning even with the very youngest children and extending up through the grades. A calendar may best be kept on a large piece of heavy paper or cardboard. At the top should be some artistic decoration appropriate to the subject. For the young children the reports may be arranged in four columns: — Name of child Name of bird jirst reporting Date first seen Where seen For the older children the following columns may be added: — Date when abundant Date when nesting Remarks The competitive element suggested in having the child’s name appear on the calendar stimulates the children and arouses much interest. Several pre- MAR IbIL eae MAR27MILDRED| NEAR HOME. APAISISUMNER| NEAR HOME APRI5|TAMES | NEAR HOME JAPRI7MERCEDES| NEAR HOME. GROSBEAKIA PR.SO|MILDRED | NEAR SWAMP EEO PR.3OJCHARLES! IN FIELD FAMAY | [FRED | NEARHOME SCHOOL BIRD CALENDAR Kept by a third grade FEEDING-STATION FOR BIRDS IN YARD OF TRAINING-SCHOOL MANKATO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MINNESOTA BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 285 cautions will need to be observed by the teacher. Children will often report very positively the appear- ance of a bird a month before it is due to arrive. If the teacher has access to a local calendar kept by some bird-student, it will help her in knowing when to expect certain birds. The migration dates for several localities in the eastern United States are given in Chapman’s “Handbook of Birds.” If the children report birds several weeks ahead of the dates given on some reliable migration record, prob- ably they have made a mistake and they should be told so by the teacher. After it is probable that the bird has arrived, it must be understood by the class that no bird’s name is to go down on the calendar till the child has given such a good description of the bird that there is no doubt about its being seen. In case of doubt the name should not be put down. One important line of work is to take up in turn in the various grades different species of birds so as to acquaint the child each year with a few new birds. For the younger children the most common and conspicuous birds should be studied, with emphasis placed on identification. In later grades other birds may be taken up and adaptations and economic value studied in addition to identification. The colored plates may be used to show the colors and their location as an aid to naming the birds when seen outdoors. 286 BIRD FRIENDS The children should be encouraged to look for the birds, and some questions may be written on the board that they may answer from a study of the bird. The children should be asked to report to the class the results of their observations, and frequent opportunities should be given for these reports. At first not all the children will make these studies and reports, but if the teacher encourages and expects this and gives opportunities for reports, the number of children who do this can be gradually increased. As a means for reviewing and summarizing the birds from the standpoint of identification, the tables given later on pages 312 and 313 may be used. The child’s activities. One of the most effective phases of nature-study is that which calls into play the manual activities of the child in providing op- portunities himself for making a study of the life around him. This principle of utilizing the child’s activities is one that is well understood and applied in the kindergarten, but too little employed in later years. It will prove a most effective instrument to be used with the children when circumstances allow. Bird-study is specially well adapted to making use of these activities in building nesting-houses, in feeding the winter birds, and in providing fountains. The very fact that the child is doing something for the birds is a means of developing that helpful sympathy with nature which may prove such an important factor in all his subsequent life. And, BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 287 furthermore, an excellent opportunity is offered for watching the birds that may come in response to the attractions offered. These observations will be carried on with much greater ardor and thorough- ness because the child has himself helped to furnish the conditions which make his observations possible. Nesting-houses. Perhaps there is no one line of work that interests the children so much as the making of bird-houses, especially in the primary and intermediate grades. Even very young children are interested, and when they are too small to make the houses themselves, some one of the family at home may help them. The houses can be built at home or in the manual-training department. Children may be asked to bring materials, and then some one may help them in the manual-training shops. Many children may be interested to the point where they will make houses at home. As an added in- centive the children may be asked to bring their houses to school on a certain day, so that a picture of the children with their houses may be taken. The matter may be brought to the attention of the children in the early spring. The subject may be introduced by a general discussion of the nesting- habits of those birds that nest in hollow trees or other cavities. The children should be asked to search the neighborhood to ascertain to what extent these natural nesting-sites may be found. In many locali- ties these have been entirely cleared away in the 288 BIRD FRIENDS development of the land for real-estate purposes, and hence there may be emphasized the necessity of building nesting-houses if we would keep these birds around our homes. The problems which arise in connection with the construction and location of bird-houses should be talked over with the children and the important precautions to be observed ex- plained to them. The really éssential features hav- ing been made clear, the children should be allowed to use their ingenuity and individuality about ar- ranging details. Difficulties. The children should understand the difficulties to be met, so as to avoid undue disap- pointment, and should be prepared to overcome them as far as possible. The greatest obstacle of all is the English sparrow. Some devices which may as- sist in keeping this bird away have been discussed in Chapter XIX, the most effective one of which is to make the hole so small that the sparrows cannot enter, but large enough for the wren and chickadee. With houses for bluebirds and tree swallows, prob- ably the most effective thing which the children can do is to make the houses so that the tops can be easily lifted, and then to remove the sparrows’ eggs once a week or as fast as they are laid. This often causes the sparrows to leave the nesting-house. If nothing else can be done the entrance can be cov- ered or the house taken down, as soon as it is evi- dent that no other bird is going to use the house, 4 BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 289 thus preventing the sparrows from rearing their young. Of course killing the sparrow cannot be recommended to the children. Whatever is done along this line must be left to adults. If the school-building is favorably situated, houses may be put up in the school-yard. If these are occupied, opportunity will be given the school for bird-study at close range. The children may be sufficiently interested to raise money for a martin- house to be erected in the school-yard, as was done by the children in the Training-School of the Man- kato State Normal School, Minnesota. It would be well worth while to see if the park boards would not codperate with the schools, so that the children might make bird-houses and place them in the parks. Such a plan was carried out in Jackson and Washington Parks, Chicago, the children making several hundred wren- and bluebird-houses. During one season the children of Portland, Oregon, built eight thousand bird-houses and placed them in the various parks and about different sections of the city. Most of them were built by the pupils of the manual-training depart- ments of the different schools. In many localities prizes have been offered for the best bird-houses. As a result thousands of bird-houses have been built by children. These houses are often kept on exhibition for awhile, and many of them are then sold by the children to the people of the community. 290 BIRD FRIENDS Feeding the winter birds. The introductory work to feeding the winter birds should be done in the late fall. A talk on the food of birds may be given, so as to bring out the two classes of foods, animal and vegetable. The kinds of food to put out and the methods of putting it out may be dis- cussed. The necessity of providing a constant supply of food should be emphasized, and also of seeing that there is a good supply immediately after a snow- storm. The children may occasionally be reminded of the feeding so that they will not neglect it too long. The possibility of taming the birds to feed from the hand should be brought to the children’s attention. The construction of winter-feeding de- vices, as suggested in Chapter XX, may be made a part of the manual-training work. And while the children are being encouraged to feed the birds at home, a lunch-counter may be provided in the school-yard if the conditions will allow it. Committees may be appointed among the children to see that the counter is provided with food. ’ While the two methods of attracting birds al- ready mentioned are the ones best adapted for school use, something may also be done in the line of en- couraging the children to provide fountains. The planting of shrubs requires so long before the re- turns come in that this method of attracting birds will not appeal to children, but they may be en- BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 291 couraged to plant seeds of annuals, such as hemp, millet, and sunflower. In Carrick, Pennsylvania, a public-spirited man has been giving small mul- berry and cherry trees to those children who would agree to plant them and take care of them. Previous to 1912, fifteen hundred trees had been given to the children. Bird fountain in a school-yard. In some cases it may be practicable to construct a bird fountain in the school-yard. Such a fountain was built in a yard in Worcester, Massachusetts. Connections were made so that running water dripped into the basin and a drain carried off the surplus water. Wild flowers were planted in the crevices of the fountain and at its base, and clumps of shrubbery were planted near so that their fruit might furnish food for the birds. The first year the fountain was visited by twenty-five species of birds. Another similar foun- tain was built at Passaic, New Jersey. Field trips. There is but one way to know the birds; that is, to study them in the field. In the schoolroom the children may be prepared for field studies and may learn about the value of the birds and how to protect them, but without a knowledge of the birds themselves enthusiasm will be lacking. The ordinary class of thirty to forty children is too large to attempt a field trip as a body, but fre- quently some arrangement may be made with the principal by which half of the class may be taken 292 BIRD FRIENDS at one time. Sometimes walks may be taken with a few children who are especially interested. Both teacher and children should start out with a very definite purpose in mind. The teacher should prepare and plan for the trip very carefully. One purpose may be to see how many kinds of birds can be identified and to make a list of them. Another purpose may be to make a special study of one or two kinds of birds, noting the size, general colors, song, nesting-habits, and methods of locomotion. Whether field trips with the children are taken or not, the teacher should constantly encourage the children, when by themselves as they pass to and from school and when at home, to study the birds and report their observations to the class. One of the chief purposes of the field trips taken by the teacher with the children is to stimulate them to observe birds when by themselves. Bird clubs. Much enthusiasm can be aroused by the organization of bird clubs. A local bird club can be formed anywhere, but more interest will be aroused if this is formed in connection with some large organization. There are at least two ways in which this may be done. One is through the Na- tional Association of Audubon Societies, as explained in Chapter XVI. Each child who wishes to join pays ten cents. The names are sent by the teacher to New York City to the Association, and each child receives in return ten colored bird pictures and an JUNIOR AUDUBON CLASS AT TRAINING-SCHOOL MANKATO, MINN. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 293 Audubon button, which has on it a picture of the robin and the words “Audubon Society”; and if there are ten or more members, the teacher receives “Bird-Lore” for one year. Another means is through the Liberty Bell Bird Club of the “Farm Journal,” Philadelphia, to which reference has been made in Chapter XX. The pledge there printed is written at the top of a sheet of paper and the children who wish to join write their names under this pledge. This list is sent to the ‘Farm Journal” at Philadelphia, and each child in return receives a little pamphlet, entitled “Guide of the Liberty Bell Bird Club”; and also a bird button, which has on it a picture of a swallow and of the Liberty Bell, and printed across it the motto “Protect Our Feathered Friends” and around the circumference the name “The Liberty Bell Bird Club.” The advantage of the first club is that each child receives pictures which may be used in connection with the meetings of the club. The advantage of the second club is that no money is required. The teacher can select whichever seems best suited to the locality where she is teaching. Except with the very young children, it is well to elect officers and to allow the children to assume the chief responsibility for the work of the club under the supervision of the teacher. There is a great variety of things that may be done at the meetings of the club. If the colored 294 BIRD FRIENDS plates are used, the children may color some of the outlines. Any one of these birds may be taken as the topic of the meeting, and the pamphlet and other references studied in preparation, different children being assigned topics to look up. About a week be- fore the meeting, the bird to be studied should be an- nounced, so that the children may be watching the birds outdoors and report what they have seen. A meeting may be held to discuss the making of bird- houses, and at another meeting these may be brought together and compared. A number of field trips should be taken to study the birds outdoors. All of the above can best be done in the spring. In the fall nests may be collected and studied. In the winter the subject of winter feeding may be taken up. From a number of letters published in “Bird- Lore” explaining about the work of the clubs, the following list is taken of the things which were done by the various clubs: — Prizes offered for the following: — Best bird-houses. Greatest number of bird-houses for different birds. Longest list of birds identified from pictures. Best bird records. Best composition showing intimate knowledge of birds. Best colored drawing of some bird. Prize to the school or room having the largest number of clippings in their bird-clipping book. Making bird-houses, feeding devices, and fountains for the home yard. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 295 Building bird-houses to put up in school-yard. Exhibition of bird-houses open to the public. Members of clubs give talks to children in other build- ings. Talks given to club by various members about some birds shown by the radiopticon. Demonstration of tying suet to branches of trees. Debates on such questions as, “Should the crow be protected?” Providing Christmas tree for the birds. Field trips. Publication of a paper containing articles about birds. Playing bird games. Spring migration records of birds kept by club. Attending illustrated lecture given by some one who has lantern slides. The following are the suggestions for meetings as given in the “Guide of the Liberty Bell Bird Club”: First: Repeat in concert the pledge of the Liberty Bell Bird Club. Second: Members report all the different varieties of birds seen since the last meeting. This report to be writ- ten, read, and given to the teacher or director and to be filed. Third: Recitation or reading — a bird poem or a bird story. Many good ones appear from time to time in the “Farm Journal’s” Bird Club column and elsewhere in the paper. Fourth: Members report what they have observed and all special bird work done by them. Fifth: Composition on one of the articles in the Bird Club page of the “Farm Journal.” Subject to be given by the teacher or director. Sixth: Question box. 296 BIRD FRIENDS Seventh: Work outlined by teacher or director for the following week. Eighth: Adjournment. In many cases enough interest is aroused so that the members of the club meet during the summer vacation at the homes of the members. Bird Day. Bird Day is observed often in connec- tion with Arbor Day. Bird Day is now officially recognized in nine States. In observing this day one special feature to be emphasized is doing some- thing for the birds, such as putting up houses at home or in the school-yard. The program should not be so formal as to obliterate this important fea- ture. The following are suggestions for a few gen- eral lines of work that may be carried on: — . Reading of proclamation. . Talk by some one outside of the schools. . Talk by teacher. . Original essays by children. . Reports on outdoor observations. Recitations and readings. Dramatic presentation. Songs. . Putting up bird-houses and planting shrubs in school- yard to attract birds. Arbor and Bird Day Annuals are published in some States, which give many helpful suggestions. Correlation with other subjects. Bird-study may do much to add to other lines of school work and may also itself be made more interesting by proper © OH WH TB o BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 297 correlation. Many opportunities present them- selves in connection with several subjects, especially with art and literature. The following chart suggests briefly something of what may be done along this line: — Manual training Literature) Art Language ee Civies Read lit-|Color {Make nest-| Reports [Migra- | Bird {Problems erature | outlines} ing- onout-| tion. club on the about | of birds.| houses, door |Seasonal| to number the Make feederies,| obser- | change! pro- of in- birds artis- andfoun-| va- in bird] tect sects studied.| tic tains. tions. | life. birds. | eaten bird by calen- young dar. birds. Birds and literature. A study of good literature should form an important part of the work with birds. Below is a list of books containing bird poems: — For Primary Grades Ingpen, One Thousand Poems for Children. G. W. Jacobs & Co., Philadelphia. $1.25. McMurry and Cook, Songs of Tree-Top and Meadow. Public ‘School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. $.40. Wiggin and Smith, The Posy Ring. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y. $1.25. For Intermediate Grades Bailey and Lewis, For the Children’s Hour. Milton Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass. $1.50. Knowlton, Nature Songs for Children. Milton Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass. $1.00. Lovejoy, Nature in Verse. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston. $.60. 298 BIRD FRIENDS For Grammar Grades - Burroughs, Songs of Nature. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y. $1.35. Lovejoy, Poetry of the Seasons. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston. $.60. Williams, Through the Year with Birds and Poets. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Boston. $1.00. Below are suggested a few books for the children’s library, which are written in a style that children can understand : — Burroughs, Bird Stories from Burroughs. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. $.60. Gould, Mother Nature’s Children. Ginn & Co., Boston. $.60. Johonnot, Neighbors with Wings and Fins. American Book Co., New York. $.40. Miller, First Book of Birds. Houghton Miffin Co., Boston. $.60. Miller, Second Book of Birds. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. $1.00. Stickney and Hoffmann, Bird World. Ginn & Co., Boston. $.60. Walker, Our Birds and their Nestlings. American Book Co., New York. $.60. Wright, Gray Lady and the Birds. Macmillan Co., New York. $1.00 (school edition). Arithmetic and bird-study. Some problems in arithmetic relating to the number of insects eaten by birds, the numbers of birds, and other topics may be given the children. A few are here suggested: — A. Problems on the number of insects eaten by nestlings. 1. A pair of wrens were observed to feed their young 17 times in an hour. The parents fed their young from 5 a.o. till 8 p.m., and the young remained in the nest 15 days. Assuming that one insect was brought at each visit, how many insects were destroyed by this brood of wrens? 2. During an outbreak of locusts in Nebraska in 1874, a man BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 299 saw a long-billed marsh wren carry 30 locusts to her young in an hour. At this rate how many locusts did the brood consume in a day of 12 hours? The area of Nebraska is about 77,000 square miles. If we assume that there were 20 broods of wrens to each square mile, how many locusts did the wrens in Ne- braska destroy in one day? 3. Many birds on the average feed their young about 200 times a day, and the young stay in the nest about two weeks. After the leaves have fallen, count the number of nests in a cer- tain area and then estimate the number of insects that have been destroyed by the birds reared in these nests, assuming one insect brought at each feeding. 4. A 40-acre farm in Rantoul, Kansas, had 157 pairs of birds nesting on it in 1914. Assuming that the birds averaged to feed their young 200 times a day, and that the young remained in the nest 14 days, how many insects per acre were destroyed by these birds? How many insects were destroyed on the whole farm? B. Problems on amount of food eaten by adult birds. 1. A study made of owls during the winter months showed that they destroyed 2 mice a day. It has been estimated that each mouse does damage to the extent of 2 cents each year. How much is an ow] worth a year? 2. A study made by the Biological Survey of the red-shoul- dered hawk showed that out of 214 birds, 3 had eaten poultry and 102 had eaten mice. What per cent of the birds had eaten poul- try and what per cent mice? C. Problems on the numbers of birds. 1. A census made of birds in the eastern United States showed that there was an average of 6 pairs of robins to each farm of 58 acres. There are about 4,000,000 farms east of the Mississippi, averaging 93 acres each. How many robins are there on the farms east of the Mississippi River? 2. This census also showed that for every 100 robins there were 83 English sparrows, 49 catbirds, 37 brown thrashers, 28 house wrens, 27 kingbirds, and 26 bluebirds. How many in- dividuals of each kind of birds are there on the farms east of the Mississippi River? 3. This census also showed that there was an average of one pair of birds per acre. How many birds are there altogether on the farms east of the Mississippi River? 800 BIRD FRIENDS D. Problems on migration. 1. Some Arctic terns travel each year from the edge of the Antarctic continent to the most northern part of North Amer- ica, a distance of 11,000 miles. It takes the bird about 20 weeks to make the round trip. How far does it travel in a day? 2. The robin as a species travels from Iowa to Alaska, a dis- tance of 3000 miles, in '78 days. How many miles does the robin average to travel in a day? E. Problems on the number of birds killed by cats. 1. A man in Massachusetts wrote to many people in the State asking about the number of birds killed by a single cat. The answers received from several hundred persons showed that on an average a cat kills 33 birds during 1 month at the height of the nesting-season, and that each farm averages to keep 2 cats. There are in the State 37,000 farms. How many birds do the cats on these farms kill each season? 2. Find the number of cats kept in your locality, and estimate the number of birds killed each year by these cats, assuming, as in the previous problem, that each cat kills 33 birds in a season. F. Miscellaneous problem. 1. A study of hawks made by the United States Department of Agriculture showed that 5 kinds were harmful, 7 kinds were neutral, and 35 kinds were beneficial. What per cent of the hawks respectively are harmful, neutral, and beneficial? Essentials of a good lesson. As previously men- tioned, the teacher needs to consider the matter of materials in planning for a bird lesson; and it is also suggested that a consideration of the three following points for each lesson or topic taught may prove helpful: (1) the child’s problem; (2) the de- velopment of the lesson based on the problem; and (3) the application or use by the child of what he has been taught. Child’s problem. The child’s problem is a means of arousing the child’s interest. It should be a ques- BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 301 tion that appeals to him, that he is anxious to solve. This should find its origin in the present needs and interests of the child; that is, it should be a child’s and not an adult’s problem. It should be very def- inite and specific and so stated as to involve only one leading thought. It should be something the solution of which is evidently worth while. This problem will serve, not only as a stimulus to the child, but also as a guide to both child and teacher to determine what particular phases of the topic shall be considered. Hence it is evident that the first step is to get the problem clearly before the chil- dren so that they may understand the purpose of the lesson. In order to interest the children in the problem, it should be led up to by questioning them about things they already know concerning some topic closely related to the problem. The problem should be the central thought of the lesson around which the points to be taught may be grouped. In the outline given on the following pages, ques- tions are suggested which may serve as problems for the topic under consideration. Development. The development should be based on the problem. The purpose of this is to solve the problem, and only those points should be included which are necessary for this solution. All other points should be omitted. On the other hand, enough points should be included to answer the problem satisfactorily. The problem will be the 302 BIRD FRIENDS basis, not only for the selection of the subject matter, but for its organization as well. Application. The use of knowledge is the chief end of education. One of the vital things in plan- ning a nature-study lesson is to consider how the children may be encouraged to make use of what they have learned. If the problem does not seem to allow of any application, it may well be ques- tioned whether it has been wisely chosen. The appli- cation should be the doing of something which in- terests the child and which can be done naturally in his ordinary life. It should be so clearly stated that the child has a very definite idea of what is to be done. It is usually well to suggest only a few things at a time, perhaps only one. Following are suggested some ways in which ap- plication may be made in bird-study: (1) actually doing the things taught in the lesson, as in build- ing nesting-houses, feeding winter birds, and provid- ing fountains; (2) making outdoor observations on the birds studied in the schoolroom; (3) watching others do the things studied, such as planting of shrubs in the parks and the erection of martin- houses; (4) making a collection of birds’ nests (in the fall) and of nesting-houses; (5) talking over with parents at home the topics studied; (6) cutting out clippings from newspapers and magazines relating to the topic under consideration, and bringing them to school. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 303 As a definite illustration of these suggestions the following lesson is given for a third grade: — 1. Grade and season: third, spring. 2. Topic: nesting-house for wren. 8. Materials: picture of house wren, wren’s nest, several types of wren’s houses. 4. The lesson. A. The child’s problem. 1. Approach to child’s problem. What kind of a house do you live in? Of what is it made? How many floors are there? How many rooms? How many windows and doors? 2. Statement of child’s problem. We will try to learn to-day what kind of a house we should make for a pair of wrens to nest in. B. Development. Outline of points. Questions. 1. Kinds of How many different kinds of ma- materials terials can we use? Which do you to use. think will be the best? Why? 2. Size of How can we tell how large to house. make the house? How large a nest does the wren make? How large is the bird? 3. Shape of What shape is your house? What house. shapes can we make the house for the wren? Which do you think is the best shape? 4. Entrance How large is the house wren? hole. How large shall we make the en- A. Size. trance? What is the best shape B. Shape. to make it? In what part of the C. Loca- house shall we make it? tion. 5. Provision | What shall we put on the house for fas- so we can hang it up? tening. |§ Whichof these housesdo you think a wren would like best? Why? 304 BIRD FRIENDS C. Application. How many would like to make a wren house so as to have a pair of wrens nest in your yard? How many of you will try; and find materials to make it of, such as thin boards, a cigar-box, or a chalk-box? If you cannot make the house yourself, ask some one at home to help you, or you may bring the material to school and I will help you. See if you can all get your houses finished in a few days, and you may all bring your houses to school a week from to-day, and we will have a picture taken of those children who have their bird-houses with them. This lesson should be followed by another, after the house is finished, on how to put out the house, involving a consideration of the place to put it, the height, the method of fastening, and protection from cats. Two problems are constantly confronting the teacher: first, how to teach, and second, what to teach. Some suggestions on the first problem have already been given. A partial solution of the second problem is offered in the following outline of bird- study arranged by grades and seasons: — OUTLINE OF BIRD-STUDY (Arranged by grades and seasons with problems suggested for the various topics) First GRADE Spring 1. Bird walks. 2, Special study of robin and bluebird. Problems. How can wetell the bluebird when weseeit? (See page310.) Why do you like the robin? Oo tO ©9 2 et ore BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 305 SEconD GRADE Spring . Bird calendar. . Bird walks. . Special study of the red-winged blackbird, Baltimore oriole, and chimney swift. Problems. How can we tell the oriole (or blackbird or swift) when we see it outdoors? How does the swift differ from the oriole in its habits? Which do you think is the most interesting bird of these three? Tamp GRADE Winter Christmas dinner for the birds. (Use old Christmas tree.) Problem. : What kind of Christmas gifts do birds like? Spring . Bird calendar. . Bird walks. . Special study of house wren, scarlet tanager and rose- breasted grosbeak. . Building nesting-houses for the wren. . Bird club organized and meetings held through the term.’ Problems. Which do you think is the prettier bird, the tanager or the grosbeak? How can you tell each of these from other birds? Why would you like to have a wren nest around your home this summer? What kind of a house shall we make for a wren to nest in? (See page 303.) What can our bird club do to help the birds? 306 Saas oF Seu BIRD FRIENDS FourtH GRADE Fall . Departure of birds; comparison with bird life in the spring. . Bird club meets to report on experiences with bird-houses the previous summer. Spring Bird calendar. Changes in bird activities as the season advances. Special study of the birds of the dooryards and shade- trees, such as blue jay, English sparrow, robin, bluebird, chipping sparrow, house wren, Baltimore oriole, yellow warbler. Building nesting-houses for the wrens. Formation of bird clubs; meetings through term. Fountains for drinking and bathing. Problems. What changes do you notice in bird activities as the season advances? Is the English sparrow a nuisance or is it of value to us? Of what use is the robin to us? How is the oriole fitted for its life in the air and among the trees? How can you tell the yellow warbler from the gold- finch? How can we provide water for the birds during the summer? (See page 311.) Why would you like to form a bird club? Firrh GrapE Winter Winter birds, such as the blue jay, nuthatch, chickadee, woodpecker; their identification and feeding. Problems. What is the best way of telling the winter birds apart? How can we help them? (See page 311.) —_ BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 307 Spring . Special study of birds of the air, such as the bank swallow, tree swallow, barn swallow, eave swallow, martin, chimney swift, nighthawk. . Building nesting-houses for the bluebird. . Study of nesting-habits of birds. Nest — location, materials, construction; eggs — num- ber, size, color, incubation; young birds — care given by parents, time in nest. Putting out nesting-material. . Formation of bird clubs and meetings through term. Problems. In what ways are swallows fitted for living on the wing? How can we tell the different swallows apart? Of what use are the swallows to us? What makes bird-houses a better protection to birds than their natural nesting-sites? How can we get the bluebird to help destroy the insects in our garden? What materials do birds’ nests contain that we can put out for the birds to use? (See page 312.) What care do parent birds give their young? SrxtH GRADE Fall . Migration. . Nest census (after leaves fall). Problems. Which are among the first birds to leave and which stay the longest? How many nests can we find in the trees and shrubs growing within two blocks of the schoolhouse? Winter . Value of winter birds. . Helping the birds by feeding them. Problems. What do the winter birds do for us? How can we help the winter birds? 308 9 2 BIRD FRIENDS Spring . Special study of birds of the marsh, such as the red-winged blackbird and marsh wren; and of birds of meadows and fields, such as the bob-white, horned lark, meadowlark, vesper sparrow, field sparrow, cowbird, bobolink. . Building open nesting-boxes for the robin and the pheebe. . Migration — times, groups of birds (permanent, summer, and winter residents, and transient visitants); routes, distances, calendar of spring migration. . Bird-protection; special emphasis on the work of the Audubon societies. Formation of an Audubon Bird Club. . Grouping of birds according to color and size. (See pages 312 and 313.) Problems. Why is the red-winged blackbird an interesting bird to study? Of what use are the birds of the meadows and fields to us? Which is the most valuable of these birds? What kind of a nesting-box can we make so as to get a pair of robins or pheebestonestin it? (See page 313.) How are birds grouped according to the time of the year they stay with us? Let us try to follow on a map the travels of a bobolink for a year. What is the Audubon Society doing to protect birds? (See page 314.) What can we do in our Audubon Club to help the birds? SEVENTH GRADE Spring . Birds of the garden and orchard, such as the chickadee, cuckoo, kingbird, nuthatch, phoebe, woodpecker, gros- beak, bluebird. . Attracting bird friends to the yard and garden by planting shrubs and providing fountains. . Bird songs; use for identification, differences, methods of recording, time given. . Plumage and moulting; differences in color due to age, sex, and season. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 309 Or oe 09 Problems. Why is it desirable to have birds around the yard and garden? Which is the most interesting bird? How may each of these birds be identified? In what ways is the wren (or other bird) useful? What may be done to increase the number of birds around our homes? How can we identify birds from their songs? Through what changes in plumage does a rose-breasted grosbeak pass from the time it is first hatched till it is two years old. Eieuta Grape Spring . Special study of birds of the woods, such as warblers, thrushes, woodpeckers, and vireos. . Economic value of birds to the forests in destroying in- jurious insects; value elsewhere in destroying weed seeds and rodent pests. . Bird-enemies; natural enemies, cat, man as an enemy. . Work of the National Government to protect birds. . Adaptations shown in bill, feet, wings, and tail. Problems. | In what ways’are birds useful to the forest? In what other ways are birds useful? Which is greater, the good or harm that birds do? Are all of our birds worthy of protection? How may we identify the different species of the follow- ing families; warblers, vireos, woodpeckers, thrushes? What interesting habits of these birds may we study this spring? Which have done more harm to the birds, man or the birds’ natural enemies? What is the National Government doing to protect birds? (See page 315.) How can we help in the work of protecting birds? How do the water-birds differ from the land-birds in the structure and use of their feet, bill, wings, and tail? 310 BIRD FRIENDS Series of lessons. Following is a series of lessons based on the outline already given. For each lesson, the child’s problem, the outline of the points of the development, and the application are suggested: — First Grade — Spring. Topic, the Bluebird. Materials, colored picture of a bluebird. Child’s problem. How can we tell the bluebird when we see it? Outline of development. 1. Color. A. On back. B. On breast. 2. Size. Application. Ask the children to watch for a bluebird and report to the class the first one they see. Correlated work. Have children color outline of bluebird. Read from Wiggin and Smith, Posy Ring, page 68. Wright, Gray Lady and the Birds, page 318. Walker, Our Birds and their Nestlings, page 24. Second Grade — Spring. Topic, the Baltimore Oriole. Materials, colored picture and nest of the oriole. Child’s problem. Why would you like to have a pair of orioles nest in your yard? Outline of development. 1. Pretty colors. 2. Pleasing song. 3. Interesting nest. 4. Care of the young. Application. Ask the children to watch for the oriole, and when they find one, watch what it does and report to the class. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 311 Correlated work. Color outline; draw nest or make free-hand cutting. Read from some of the following: — Whittier, Child-Life, page 64. Burroughs, Songs of Nature, page 74. Bailey and Lewis, For the Children’s Hour, page 171. Wright, Gray Lady and the Birds, pages 413 and 419. Third Grade — Spring. Topic, Wren’s House. (See page 303.) Fourth Grade — Spring. Topic, Bird Fountains. Materials, pictures of fountains; receptacles suitable for fountains, such as pans and flower-pot saucers. Child’s problem. How can we provide water for the birds to drink and bathe in during the summer? Outline of development. 1. Kind of fountain. 2. Depth of water. 3. Character of edge and bottom. 4. Keeping fresh supply. 5. Places to put fountain. Application. Encourage the children to put out the fountains around their homes and report the results to the class. Fifth Grade — Winter. Topic, the Winter Birds. Materials, samples of food that may be used, such as grains, nuts, etc.; a few simple feeding-devices, such as shelves, hoppers, and a suet-basket. Child’s problem. How can we help the birds this winter? Outline of development. 1. Kinds of food. 2. Methods of putting it out. 8. Birds that may come. 4. Taming birds to feed from the hand. Application. Having a feeding-station put in school-yard and food provided by children. Encourage children to feed the birds at their homes and to report the results. 312 BIRD FRIENDS Correlated work. Have the children in the manual-training department make various feeding-devices, such as suet-baskets, shelves, hoppers, moving counters, and a large feedery for the school-yard. Fifth Grade — Spring. Topic, Nesting-Material for the Birds. Materials, a collection of nests; samples of things that may be put out, pictures of some birds most apt to use these materials, such as the oriole, chipping spar- Tow. Child’s problem. We will examine these nests to find what kind of material they contain that we may put out for the birds to use in making their nests. Outline of development. 1. List of things found in nests. 2. List of things furnished by man. 8. Relative abundance of materials. 4, Birds making most use of these materials. Application. Encourage the children to put out things around their homes that birds might use in their nests, such as string, yarn, cotton batting, pieces of cloth, horsehair, etc. Sixth Grade — Spring. Topic, Identification of Birds. (A review lesson.) Child’s problem. What are the most common colors found on birds by which we may identify them? Write on the board a list of all the birds the children know. Then put the following table on the board and have the children fill in the names of the birds in the proper columns: — Birds marked with Red Blue Yellow Brown Black Gray BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 313 Sixth Grade — Spring. Topic, Size of Birds. (A review lesson.) Child’s problem. How do our common birds compare in size with the English sparrow and the robin? Write on the board a list of the birds that the children know. Then put the following table on the board and have the children fill in the names of the birds in the proper col- umns: — Birds grouped according to size Larger than | Same size as Bdueon tie Same size as | Smaller than the robin the robin the sparraw the sparrow | the sparrow Sizth Grade — Spring. Topic, Open Boxes for Robin and Pheebe. Materials, pictures and nests of the robin and the pheebe; samples or pictures of open houses. Child’s problem. How may we get a pair of robins or pheebes to nest in our yard and help destroy the injurious insects in our gardens? Outline of development. 1. Kind of material to make house of. 2. Size of house. 3. Shape of house. 4. Number of open sides. 5. Place to put out. Application. Encourage children to make them and put out in their yards. Have one made for the school-yard. Correlated work. These boxes may be made in connection with the manual- training department. Sizth Grade — Spring. Topic, Work of the Audubon Societies. Materials, samples of the leaflets published by the Aubudon 314 BIRD FRIENDS Societies; a November-December issue of “‘ Bird-Lore,” which contains the annual report of the National Asso- ciation of Audubon Societies. Child’s problem. What are the Audubon Societies doing to protect birds? Outline of development. 1. Legislation. 2. Wardens. 8. Lecturers. 4. Bird reservations. 5. Publications. 6. Junior Audubon Societies. Application. Have the children form a Junior Audubon Class to help protect the birds. Seventh Grade — Spring. Topic, the Robin. Materials, picture of robin, nest; pictures or samples of insects eaten. Child’s problem. Which is greater, the good or the harm that therobin does? Outline of development. 1. Good done. A. Injurious insects eaten. B. Pleasure given as an interesting bird. 2. Harm done. A. Fruit eaten. 3. Comparison of the two. Application. Ask the children to watch the robin and see if they can tell what it eats. Eighth Grade — Spring. Topic, Hawks and Owls. Materials, pictures of hawks and owls and of the animals they eat. Child’s problem. Should hawks and owls be protected? Outline of development. 1. Beneficial species. 2. Neutral species. 3. Harmful species. BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS 315 Application. Have the children look up the state law to see which hawks and owls are protected. Have the papers watched and clippings made. Eighth Grade. Pee Work of the National Government in Protecting irds. Maierials, sample of bulletin published by the Bureau of Biological Survey; map showing location of bird reservations; copy of the Migratory Bird Law. Child’s problem. What is the National Government doing to protect birds? Outline of development. 1. Work of the Bureau of Biological Survey 2. Bird reservations. 3. Law protecting migratory birds. 4. Tariff restrictions on feathers. Application. Ask the children to watch the papers for items concerning any of the above, especially number 3, and bring clippings to class. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tue following is a brief bibliography to suggest a few refer- ences for those who may wish to find more detailed discussion of the topics which have necessarily been briefly treated in these pages. MIGRATION Cuapman. Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Cowarp. Migration of Birds. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. National Geographic Magazine, April, 1911. Bulletin 185 of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey. MUSIC Cuapman. Handbook of Birds. Independent, vol. 63, pp. 491-97; 604-09. Harper’s Magazine, vol. 113, pp. 725-30; vol. 114, pp. 766-71. Matuews. Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. NESTS Ducemore. Bird Homes. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y. REARING THE YOUNG Cnapman. Handbook of Birds. Herrick. Home Life of Wild Birds. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. PLUMAGE Cuapman. Handbook of Birds. Breese. The Bird. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 318 BIBLIOGRAPHY HOW TO KNOW THE BIRDS Jos. How to Study Birds. Outing Publishing Co., New York. Cuapman. Handbook of Birds. Batter. Handbook of Birds of the Western United States. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Horrmann. A Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Reep. Land Birds. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS ForsusH. Our Useful Birds and their Protection. Massachu- setts State Board of Agriculture, Boston, Mass. WEED and Dearsorn. Birds in Relation to Man. J. B. Lippin- cott Co., Philadelphia. Publications of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, sold at a nominal price by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Bulletin No. 9. Cuckoos and Shrikes. Bulletin No. 15. Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. Bulletin No. 17. Birds of a Maryland Farm. Bulletin No. 21. The Bob-White and other Quails of the United States in their Economic Relations. Bulletin No. 22. Birds known to Eat the Boll Weevil. Bulletin No. 23. The Horned Larks and their Relation to Agri- culture. Bulletin No. 32. Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. Bulletin No. 37. Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. Bulletin No. 39. Woodpeckers in Relation to Trees and Wood Products. : Bulletin No. 44. Food of Our More Important Flycatchers. Bulletin No. 171. Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United States. Farmers’ Bulletins: — No. 456. Our Grosbeaks and their Value to Agriculture. No. 493. The English Sparrow as a Pest. No. 497. Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. BIBLIOGRAPHY 319 No. 506. Food of Some Well-Known Birds of Forest, Farm and Garden. No. 513. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. No. 630. Some Common Birds Useful to Farmers. Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture. In nearly every Yearbook since 1894 are found articles dealing with the economic value of birds. ENEMIES OF BIRDS Forsusx. Useful Birds and their Protection. Forsusn. Game Birds, Wild Fowl, and Shore Birds. Forsusn. The Domestic Cat. Economic Biology Bulletin No. 2. All three published by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, Boston, Mass. Baynes. Wild Bird Guests. E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. Hornapay. Our Vanishing Wild Life. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. BIRD-PROTECTION Bird-Lore. The issue for November-December in any recent year contains the annual report of the National Association of Audubon Societies. Forsuss. Our Useful Birds and their Protection. Hornapay. Our Vanishing Wild Life. Reports of the Meriden (N.H.) Bird Club. Reports of the Brush Hill Bird Club, Milton, Mass. Circular No. 87 of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey. Na- tional Reservations for the Protection of Wild Life. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 692. Game Laws for 1915. Circulars Nos. 92 and 93 of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Sur- vey: — Circular No. 92. Proposed Regulations for the Protection of Migratory Birds. Circular No. 93. Explanation of the Proposed Regulations for the Protection of Migratory Birds. ATTRACTING BIRDS Baynes. Wild Bird Guests. E. P. Dutton, New York. Forsusx. Our Useful Birds and their Protection. Hirsemann. How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds. National Association of Audubon Societies, New York. 320 BIBLIOGRAPHY Jos. Propagation of Wild Birds. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y. Trarton. Methods of Attracting Birds. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 621. How to Attract Birds in the North- eastern United States. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 609. Bird-Houses and Howto Build Them. Bulletins Nos. 1, 2, and 3 of the National Association of Au- dubon Societies: — 1. Attracting Birds around the Home. 2. Propagation of Upland Game Birds. 3. Propagation of Wild Water Foul. National Geographic Magazine, March, 1914. Found also in Some Common Birds of Town and Country, published by the Magazine. TEACHING BIRD-PROTECTION IN THE SCHOOLS Comstock. Handbook of Nature-Study. Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. Hover. Nature-Study and Life. Ginn & Co., Boston. Trarton. Methods of Attracting Birds. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. INDEX INDEX Activities of children, 286. oe Ornithologists’ Union, o. Application of lessons, 302. Arithmetic and bird-study, 298. auduben classes, junior, 182-84, 92. Audubon food-house, 255. Audubon Magazine, 175. Audubon Societies, National Asso- ciation of, bird sanctuaries, 185; classes of membership, 177; de- partment of applied ornithology, 184; egret-protection, 179; field agents, 184; formation of, 176; junior Audubon classes, 182-84; legislation, 178-79; lesson on, 313-14; needs of, 185; publica- tions of, 180-81; summer courses in bird-study, 184; warden work, 179. Audubon Societies, State, 186. Audubon Society, first, 174-75. Auk, great, 117. Barrows, Prof. Walter B., 153. Baynes, Ernest Harold, 9, 83, 98, 155, 209, 217, 231, 256, 263. Beneficial birds, 110, 112. Berlepsch, Baron von, 228. Bird clubs; activities of, 216-17; for children, 292; number of, 217. Bird day, 189, 296. Bird-Lore, 58, 123, 140, 151, 180, 181. Bird-study, attractions of, 48; equipment for, 50; how to study, 55; what to study, 56; when to study, 54; where to study, 53. Blackbird, crow (grackle), dates of nesting and migration, 62; eco- nomic status of, 112; grain eaten by, 101; nest-robber, 108; num- ber and kinds of insects eaten by, 74; table of food, 115; weed seeds eaten by, 87, 88. Blackbird, red-winged, dates of migration and nesting, 62; eco- nomic status of, 112; feeding young, 86; food of, 115; grain eaten by, 101; nest of, 28; num- ber of insects eaten by, 74; sexual differences in color, 46; song of, 16; weed seeds eaten by, 87. Bluebird, attacked by English sparrow, 153; dates of migration and nesting, 62; destruction in winter, 133; economic status of, 112; food of, 115; killed by cats, 140; kinds of insects eaten by, 74; lesson on, 310; nesting-box for, 243; number of broods of, 32; number in United States, 126; phamge of nestlings, 45; sexual differences in color, 46; song of, 23; table of nesting- habits, 35. Bobolink, change in plumage of, 45; dates of migration and nest- ing, 62; economic status of, 112; harm done in rice-fields by, 102~ 03; killed in South Carolina, 168; location of nest, 27; migration- route of, 8; song of, 23; winter home of, 6. Bob-white, call of, 22; date of nest- ing, 61; destruction in winter, 132-33; economic status of, 113; food of, 115; in captivity, 65; in- sects eaten by, 74, 75, 83; killed in Louisiana and Alabama, 168; nest of, 27; number killed by cats, 140; rearing of, 273; weed seeds eaten by, 87, 88. Bond, Frank, 158. Bounties, 93. 324 Boys, shooting by, 165. Bradley, Guy, 171. Brooding young, 37. Broods, number of, 32. Brush Hill Bird Club, constitution of, 212-13; exhibit by, 211-12. Bunting, indigo, dates of migration and nesting, 62. Bureau of Biological Survey, 63, 73, 74, 75, 87, 88, 94, 95, 105, 114, 124, 192, 264, 265. Burns, Frank L., 124. Burroughs, John, 25, 28, 139, 214. Burroughs Nature Club, 214-15. Calendar, for attracting birds, 269; for children, 284. Call-notes, 25. Cardinal, food of, 115; kinds of in- sects eaten by, 74; song of fe- male, 13; weed seeds eaten by, 87. Carnegie foundation, 220. Cat, dealers in traps for, 247; disease-carrier, 146-18; enemy of nestlings, 43; licensing, 148; method of doing harm, 135-36; number kept per family, 142; number of birds killed by, 189- 46; protection of nesting-houses from, 39-40; protection of win- ter birds from, 258; remedies, 148-51. Catbird, dates of migration and nesting, 62; economic status, 112; feeding young, 36; food of, 115; fruit eaten by, 99; nest of, 28, 29; number in United States, 126; number killed by cats, 140. Cedar-bird, economic status of, 112; food of, 115; fruit eaten by, 99; growth of nestlings, 35; table of nesting-habits, 35, 36. Census, by Bureau of Biological Survey, 57, 124; by Bird-Lore, 58, 123, Chapman, Frank M., 43, 114, 137, 168, 180. Chebec (least flycatcher); benefi- INDEX cial insects eaten by, 106; eco- nomic states of, 112; food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten by, 74; nest of, 28. Chewink (towhee), dates of mi- gration and nesting, 62; song of, 20. Chickadee, date of nesting, 61; eco- nomic status, 113: nesting-box for, 243; number of insects eaten by, 73, 75; number killed by cats, 140; plumage of nestlings, 45. Chicken, prairie, 21. Child’s problem, 300. Coloration, protective, 46. Colors of birds, lesson on, 312. Cooke, Wells W., 5. Correlation of bird-study, 296. Counter-shading, 14. Courtship, 26. Cowbird, dates of migration and nesting, 62; economic status, 112; food of, 115; grain eaten by, 101; nesting-habits of, 31, 108; weed seeds eaten by, 87. Crane, whooping, 120. Creeper, brown, dates of migration, 61. Crow, call-notes of, 25; date of nesting, 61; economic status of, 112; enemy of other birds, 129, 131; food of, 115; grain eaten by, 101; nest-robber, 108. Cuckoo, economic status of, 113; food of, 115; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 73, 74. Curlew, Eskimo, 120. Dove, mourning, dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; economic status of, 112; food of, 115; weed seeds eaten by, 87, 88. Dowitcher, 120. Dramatization, 284. Duck, Labrador, 117. Ducks, attracting, 276; number killed in Louisiana, 168; rear- ing, 275. Duets of birds, 19. INDEX Dutcher, William, 169, 177, 256. Dyke, A. C., 139. Egg-collecting, 171-72. Eggs, 33. Egret, American, 120, 171. Entrance hole of nesting-boxes, lo- cation of, 235; size of, 234-35. Extinct birds, 116. Fairbanks, Cornelia T., 150. Feeding winter birds, by children, 280; dealers in apparatus for, 247-48; from hand, 251; in Au- dubon food-house, 255; in hop- per, 255; in school-yard, 290; in suet-box, 254; in weather- cock food-house, 256; in window box, 256; kinds of food, 252; les- son on, 311; methods of, 253; need of, 250-51; on ground, 253; on moving counter, 256-58; on shelves, 253. Field agents, 184. Field, George W., 143. Field-glasses, 51. Field trips with children, 291. Fisher, Dr. A. K., 94, 132, 138, 143. Flagg, Wilson, 23. Flicker, dates of migration and nesting, 62; food of, 115; method of feeding young, 37; nesting- box for, 243; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 74; number killed by cats, 140; song of, 16. Fly, birds eating, 81, 83. Flycatcher, crested, food of, 115: kinds of insects eaten by, 74; nest of, 29. Flycatcher, least. See Chebec. Food-house, Audubon, 255; weath- ercock, 256. Food of birds, amount of, 72; how determined, 64-68; table of, 115. Forbush, Edward H., 73, 88, 121, 122, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 147, 156, 165, 224, 232, 237, 240, 244, 246, 249. Ford, Henry, 218. 325 Foreigners, shooting by, 166. Fountains, concrete, 261-62; deal- ers in, 247-48; essentials of, 260; in school-yard, 291; lesson on, 311; location of, 260. Foxes, 129. Fruit-eaters, 99. Fruits, kinds eaten by birds, 265; succession of, 267; table of fruit- ing-periods, 260. Game-birds, decrease of, 120. Game laws, 189-91. Game preserves, 218-20. Games for children, 282. Goldfinch, American, date of nest- ing, 61; plumage of nestling, 45; song of, 23. Goose, Canada, 275. Goshawk, 94. Grackle. See Blackbird, crow. Grain-eaters, 100. Grinnell, George B., 174. Grosbeak, rose-breasted, dates of migration and nesting, 62; eco- nomic status of, 113; feeding young, 36; food of, 115; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 74; sexual differences in color, 46; song of, 13, 23; weed seeds eaten by, 87; winter home of, 6. Grouse, ruffed, location of nest of, 27; number killed by cats, 140; protective coloring, 47; rearing, Q74, Gull, Franklin’s, number of insects eaten by, 74. Gulls, 79. Handwork for children, 281. Hawk, broad-winged, 96. Hawk, Cooper’s, 96, 103, 107, 111. Hawk, duck, 94. Hawk, fish (osprey), 33. Hawk, marsh, 96, 98, 103. Hawk, pigeon, 95, 96, 107. Hawk, red-shouldered, 96. Hawk, red-tailed, 96, 103. Hawk, Swainson’s, 97. 326 Hawks, beneficial, 94; enemies of other birds, 129; food-chart of, 96; harmful, 94; money value of, 97 Health, human, and birds, 81. Henshaw, H. W., 90, 97, 114, 138, 162. Herbaceous plants, 268. Heron, snowy, 120. Heronry, 277. Hodge, Clifton H., 157, 274. Hopper, automatic, 255. Hornaday, W. T., 121, 138, 167. Hummingbird, dates of migration and nesting, 62; killed by cats, 140; method of feeding young, 37; nest of, 28; winter home of, 3. Hunting contests, 164. Identification of birds, 49. Incubation, 33. Injurious birds, 110, 111. Insects, beneficial destroyed by birds, 106; harm done by, 68; kinds eaten by birds, 74; nature's check on, 70; number eaten by birds, 73, 74, 77, 78; power of re- production of, 70. day, blue, date of nesting, 61; eco- nomic status, 112; enemy of: other birds, 129, 131; food of, 115; nest-robber, 108; number killed by cats, 140. Job, Herbert K., 184, 272, 273, 278. Johnson, C. A., 166. Judd, Sylvester D., 80, 110. | Junco, slate-colored, dates of mi-| ; gration, 61; food of, 115; number . killed by cats, 140. Kennard, Frederic H., 255, 267. Killdeer, insects eaten by, 82. Kingbird, beneficial insects eaten by, 106; dates of migration and nesting, 61; economic status of, 112; food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten by. 74, 82; number in United States, 126; table of; INDEX n -habits, 35, 36: winter home of, 6. Kingfisher, dates of migration and nesting, 61; nest of, 28; table of nesting-habits, 35. Knot, 120. Lacey Act, 193. Ladd, Neil W., 136, 156, 246. Lark, horned, food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten, 74, 53; weed seeds eaten by, 57. Laysan Island, tragedy on, 170. eta history of, 178, 188- fe es on birds, on Audubon So- ciety, 313-14; on Baltimore ori- ole, 310-11; on bluebird, 310; on colors of birds, 312; on foun- tains, 311; on hawks and owls, 314-15; on national government, 315; on nesting-box for wren, 303-04; on nesting-mat 312; on open box for robin and phcebe, 313; on robin, 314; on size of birds, 313; on winter birds, 311-12. Liberty Bell Bird Club, 213-56, 293, 295. Litchfield, E. H., 220. Literature and birds, 297. Longspur, Lapland, destruction of, 133-34. MeTlhenny, Edward A., 219, 277. McLean, George P.. 194. Market shooting, 167-68. Marsh Island reservation, 220. Martin, purple, attacked by Eng- lish Sparrow, 153; dates of mi- gration and nesting, 61; destruc- tion by storms, 134; house for, 243-44; house in school-yard, 289; insects eaten by, 82, 83. Mathews, F. Schuyler, 17. Meadowlark, dates of migration and nesting, 62; economic status of, 112: food of, 115; number killed by cats, 140; trio by, 20 INDEX Meriden Bird Club, 209-10. Merriam, Dr. C. Hart, 93, 97, 192. Migration, causes of, 10; changes due to, 2; distances of, 4; rec- ords of, 1; regularity of, 3; routes of, 7; speed of, 6; time of, 7, 61, 62. Migratory bird law, advantages of, 196-97; passage of, 193-95; regulations for, 197-202; text of, 195-96. Miller, Newton, 155. Millinery, birds killed for, 168-70. eae Bird Sanctuary, 220- Mosquitoes, eaten by birds, 81-82. Moulting, 44. Moving counter, 256-58. Music of birds, recording, 16; simi- larity to human music, 18. National Government, work of, 192-208; lesson on, 315. Nesting-boxes, birds using, 226-27; cement, 231; comparison of types, 231; dealers in, 246-48; entrance hole, 234-35; for chil- dren, 287; height to put out, 238; in school-yard, 289; lesson, 303; location of, 237; method of fastening, 238; movable covers, 235; need of, 225; open, 241-42, 313; pottery, 231; putting out, 236; protection from cats, 239; protection from English sparrow, 240; roofing-paper, 231; size and shape of, 233; table of, 243; time to put out, 236; tin, 230; types of, 2o7. Nesting-dates, 61-62. Nesting-habits, study of, 57. Nesting-materials, 244-45; lesson on, 312. Nests, location of, 27; materials in, 29; shape of, 29; time of building, 27, 30. Nighthawk, dates of migration and nesting, 61; economic status of, 113; kinds of insects eaten by, 327 74, 82; table of nesting-habits, 35; winter home of, 6. Nuthatch, white-breasted, date of nesting, 61; song of, 16. Oldys, Henry, 18. Oriole, Baltimore, dates of migra- tion and nesting, 61; economic status of, 113; food of, 115; les- son on, 310; nest of, 28, 29; nesting-material for, 245; num- ber killed by cats, 140; sexual differences in color, 46; table of nesting-habits, 35, 36; winter home of, 5. Ornithologists, 221. Osborne, Dr. Caroline A., 147. Osprey, 33. Outline of bird-study, 304-09. Oven-bird, dates of migration and nesting, 62; nest of, 27; song of, 16. Owl, barn, 92. Owl, barred, 96, 103. Owl, great horned, 93, 95, 96, 103, 107. Owl, long-eared, 92, 96. Owl, screech, 96. Owl, short-eared, 96. Owls, beneficial, 94; food-chart of, 96; money value of, 97. Parks, Military, 207; National, 207. Paroquet, Carolina, 120. Pearson, T. Gilbert, 138, 177. Pease, Charles H., 138. Pewee, wood, beneficial insects eaten by, 106; dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; economic status of, 112; food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten by, 74, 82, 83; song of, 18. Phalarope, Northern, insects eaten by, 82. Pheasants, rearing, 274. Phebe, beneficial insects eaten by, 106; dates of migration and nest- ing, 62; economic status of, 112; 328 food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten by, 74, 82, 83; nest of, 29, 32; open shelter for, 242; table of nesting-habits, 35, 36. Photography, 59. Pictures of birds, 280. Pigeon, passenger, 117-20. Plover, golden, 120. Plover, upland, 120. Poultry, destruction of by birds, 103. Pratt, Albert H., 144. Quail. See Bob-white. Redstart, and cowbird, 31; dates of nesting and migration, 62; number of insects eaten by, 73. Regurgitation, 37. Reservations, national bird, 204— 07; private, 218-21; state, 208. Residents, permanent, 61; summer, 2, 62; winter, 2, 62. Rice-fields, bobolink in, 102. Roberts, Dr. T. S., 133. Robin, attacked by English spar- row, 153; dates of migration and nesting, 62; economic status of, 112; food of, 66, 67, 115; fruit eaten by, 99; lessons on, 313, 314; nest of, 29; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 73, 74; number in United States, 126; number killed by cats, 140; number of broods, 32; open houses for, 242; slaughtered in South, 166; song of, 17, 23; speed of migration of, 6; table of nesting-habits, 35, 36; time of singing, 14; time to build nest, 30. Rodents, harm done by, 91. Roosevelt, Theodore, 204. Sage, Mrs. Russell, 220. Sanctuaries, 185; Birdcraft Sanc- tuary, 186-87. Sandpiper, pectoral, 120. Sapsucker, economic status of, 111; harm done to trees by, 104-06. INDEX Shaler, Nathaniel S., 151. Shrike, 107. Shrubs, for food, 264; for nesting- sites, 264; for shelter, 263. Sight of birds, 9. Size of birds, lesson on, 313. Songs, classification of, 21; season of, 13: study of, 56; time of day of, 14; variations in, 23. Sparrow, chipping, dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; food of, 115; nest of, 28, 29; number killed by cats, 140; period of incubation, 33; time of singing, 14; weed seeds eaten by, 87, 88. Sparrow, English, economic status, 111; enemy of other birds, 129; food of, 115; grain eaten by, 101; nest-robber, 108; number in United States, 126; number killed by cats, 140; number of broods, 32; poisoning, 156-59; protection of nesting-houses from, 240-41; protection of win- ter birds from, 258-59; shooting, 155-56; table of nesting-habits, 35; trapping, 159-60; ways in which harmful, 152-54. Sparrow, field, duet by, 20; food of, 115; nest of, 28; weed seeds eaten by, 88. ; Sparrow, song, dates of migration and nesting, 62; food of, 115; number killed by cats, 140; open shelter for, 242; table of nesting- habits, 35, 36; time of singing, 14; weed seeds eaten by, 87. Sparrow, tree, dates of migration, 61; weed seeds eaten by, 88, 89. Sparrow, vesper; dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; food of, 115; song of, 23; weed seeds eaten by, 87. Sparrow, white-throated, dates of migration, 61; song of, 17. Sportsmen, shooting by, 162-65. Squirrel, red, 42, 130. Starling, 108. INDEX ae governments, work of, 188- 9 Suet-box, 254. Swallow, bank, insects eaten by, 82; nest of, 28. Swallow, barn, dates of migration and nesting, 62; insects eaten by, 82, 83; nest of 29; number killed by cats, 140; open shelter for, 242; winter home of, 6. Swallow, cliff, insects eaten by, 82; route of migration, 8. Swallow, tree, feeding young, 36; insects eaten by, 82; nesting-box for, 243. Swallow, violet-green, insects eaten by, 82. Swan, trumpeter, 120. Swift, chimney, dates of migration and nesting, 62; insects eaten by, 82; nest of, 28; return to nesting- site, 28. Tanager, scarlet, dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; insects eaten by, 73; moulting of, 44, 45, 46 Tariff regulations on plumes, 203- 04 Tern, Arctic, 5. Thrasher. brown, dates of migra- tion and nesting, 62; economic status of, 112; food of, 115; fruits eaten by, 99; number in United States, 126; song of, 23. Thrush, hermit, location of nest of, 27; song of, 23, 24. Thrush, wood, dates of migration and nesting, 62; food of, 115; song of, 19, 24; table of nesting- habits, 35. Towhee. See Chewink. Traps, for cats, 247; for sparrows, 159-60, 247. Trees, damaged by sapsucker, 104. Trios among birds, 20. Turkeys, 274. Uehling, Edward, 257-58. 329 Veery, dates of migration and nest- ing, 62; song of, 23. Vireo, red-eyed, dates of migration and nesting, 62; duration of sing- ing, 14: feeding young, 36; num- ber of insects eaten by, 73; win- ter home of, 6. Vireo, warbling, dates of migration and nesting, 62. Vireo, yellow-throated, eaten by, 82, 83. Visitants, transient, 2. insects Walter, Mrs. Alice H., 151. Warbler, chestnut-sided, song of, 16. Warbler, Nashville, number of in- sects eaten by, 73. Warbler, yellow, and cowbird, 31; dates of migration and nesting, 62; insects eaten by, 73, 82; number killed by cats, 140. Ward, Charles W., 219. Water-plants for ducks, 276. Waxwing, cedar. See Cedar-bird. Weasels, 129. Weathercock food-house, 256. Weed seeds, dispersal of, 85; kinds eaten by birds, 87; number eaten by birds, 88; number of, 85; vi- tality of, 85. Weeds, harm done by, 84. Weeks, John W., 194. Whip-poor-will, insects eaten by, 82 Willet, 120. Window box, 256. Window shelf, 254. Winter birds, feeding, 249-59; study of, 58; lesson on, 311-12. Winter homes of birds, 5. Woodcock, 47, 120. Woodpecker, downy, date of nest- ing, 61; food of, 115; nesting- box for, 243; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 7+. Woodpecker, hairy, food of, 115; number and kinds of insects eaten by, 74. 330 Woodpecker, red-headed, economic status of, 112; food of, 115; kinds of insects eaten by, 74; nesting- box for, 243; plumage of nestlings of, 46. Worthington, Charles C., 219. Wren, Bewick’s, song of, 20. Wren, house, attacked by English sparrow, 153; dates of migration and nesting, 62; duration of song- period, 14: economic status of, 113; food of, 115; lesson on, 303- 04; nest of, 29; nesting-box for, 243; number in United States, 126; number killed by cats, 140; INDEX number of broods of, 32; rearing young, 38-41; song of, 22; table of nesting-habits, 35, 36; time of building nest, 30. Wren, marsh, dates of migration and nesting, 62; insects eaten by, 76; nest of, 28, 30. Wren-tit, insects eaten by, 82. Yellow-throat, Maryland, dates of migration and nesting, 62; num- ber of insects eaten by, 73; song of, 16. Young birds, feeding, 35; food of, 36; time in nest, 34; value of, 76. Che Wivergide press CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS U.S.A as SS eas ae SESH