oe

4 GO 7

L647

/E9 B THE

Exterior of the Horse.

BY
ARMAND GOUBAUX, anp GUSTAVE*BARRIER,

Honorary Director of the Veterinary School Professor of Anatomy and the Exterior, at

of Alfort, Member of the Academy of the Veterinary School at Alfort, Member
Medicine and of the National Society of the Central Society of Veterinary
of Agriculture of France. Medicine of France.

With 346 Figures and 34 Plates, by G. Nicolet,

Librarian at the Veterinary School of Alfort.

First Edition in English Translated from the Second French Edition
AND EDITED BY
SIMON J. J. HARGER, V.M.D.,

Professor of Anatomy and Zodtechnics in the Veterinary Department of
the University of Pennsylvania.

' of
CORNELL UNIVERSITY |
THE |
Flower Ueterinary Library :
FOUNDED BY Pes
r ROSWELL P. FLOWER S
t for the use of the Et
' N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE -
1 | Meade of
: This Volume is the Gift of a
Sa | vpeeeersereeren Dr. Willian t. Wea tee,

5577

Cornell University Library
SF 907.L96t 1898

A text-book of h

MN

3 1924

Date Due

lorseshoeing for horsesho

ET

001 116 247 vet

—S

p@ 196 f

PRINTED |/IN U.S, A.

MAY §
REB
WOR 15 & y9R

®

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001116247

A TEXT-BOOK

OF

HORSESHOEING

FOR

Horseshoers and Veterinarians

BY
A. LUNGWITZ

INSTRUCTOR IN THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF HORSESHOEING, AND DIRECTOR OF THE
SHOEING SCHOOL OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE IN DRESDEN, GERMANY

TRANSLATED FROM THE EIGHTH GERMAN EDITION
BY

JOHN W. ADAMS, A.B., V.M.D.

PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS, AND LECTURER ON SHOEING IN THE
VETERINARY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIA
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
Lonpon: 6 Henrietta STREET, Covent GarDEN
1898

(0. J4L4S
CoPYRIGHT, 1897,
BY

J. B. Lippincott Company.

i Mz
70° 7 ee
LG6t
(a7e

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Tue inauguration of the law requiring horseshoers to be ex-
amined emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood
text-book on theoretical and practical horseshoeing. At the re-
quest of the Royal Veterinary Commission, in charge of the Royal
Veterinary School in Dresden, and many interested individuals,
I have attempted to meet this need by condensing within the
narrowest possible limits all that is essential to the horseshoer
in the practice of his profession. The subject-matter has been
cast into a logically arranged course of instruction; all that is
superfluous and is found only in exhaustive treatises on shoeing
has been omitted. ,

In order to make this elementary text-book more easy to under-
stand, numerous instructive illustrations have been incorporated,
which were taken partly from ‘“‘ Der Fuss des Pferdes,” by Lei-
sering & Hartmann, fifth edition, Dresden, 1882; partly from the
journal Der Hufschmied, and partly from drawings made specially
for this work.

With the desire that this little book may find many friends
and supply them with valuable information, it is herewith given

to the public.
Tue AvTHOR.
Drespen, September, 1884.

PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.

In this new edition the old, approved features of previous edi-
tions are presented unchanged, and yet the book has been some-
what improved and its scope widened by the addition of new
material. For example, the individual peculiarities and the fit-
ting of shoes designed for the various kinds of hoofs have been
more clearly indicated, and the chapter on winter shoeing has
been enriched by a discussion of heel-calks that do not require
sharpening. Several illustrations have been dropped, yet an
equal number of new ones have been added, so that the aggre-
gate remains the same.

Tue AUTHOR.
Drespen, March, 1896.

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

Durine the past four years in which it has been my privilege
to teach horseshoeing to students of veterinary medicine in the
University of Pennsylvania, and to classes of horseshoers under
the auspices of the Master Horseshoers’ National Protective
Association of America, I have been forcibly impressed with the
urgent need of a text-book of horseshoeing that is adapted to
the needs of beginners. In my opinion, such a work must pre-
sent a detailed description of the anatomy and physiology of the
legs below the middle of the cannons, and must emphasize in
unmistakable terms the definite relations which exist between
certain well-defined forms of the hoof and certain well-defined
standing positions of the limb. Only on this sure foundation
can a thoroughly scientific system of shoeing be based. Further-
more, the teachings must be eminently practical, logically ar-
ranged, as brief as is consistent with clearness, easy of compre-
hension by persons who are unfamiliar with technical language,
profusely illustrated, and moderate in price.

Through the kindness of my respected friend and former
teacher, Professor A. Lungwitz, one of the highest authorities in
all matters pertaining to shoeing, and now and for many years
past a teacher in and the Director of what I believe to be the
best school of shoeing in the world, 1am enabled to present to
the public this translation of his text-book for students of shoe-
ing. Written to meet requirements identical with those existing
to-day in the United States, and in scope and arrangement
exactly suited to both student and teacher, I am confident that it

will meet with the favor that it merits.
THE TRANSLATOR.

PHILADELPHIA, 1898.
5

CONTENTS.

; PAGR
INTRODUCTION. 2... ee ee ee ee ee db Gy Se? es “SPE 11
The Object of Shoeing. ........20,4 ae ar ay ae Ss aha HE, et 11
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,
Boyes or THE Heap—Bones oF THE TRUNK... 1... ee aye dD
Tue Spina, Cotumn—Bones of THE THORAX. . .. 2... ee ae 15, 16
Bones or THE Petvis—Bonzs or tHE Limps . .... 1. ee ee ~ «a « 17
Joints—Musctes—Tenpon SHEATHS ...... eee eee eae 20-22
THE FOOT.
A. The Bones of the Foot ...............2.20.4. 22
The Cannon—The Long Pastern—The Sesamoid Bones—The
Short Pastern—The Pedal Bone—The Navicular Bone .. 23-26
B. The Articulations of the Foot. .......... sw % = BE
1. THe Fereock-JOnT se sg 3 a ee Re ES RR we ae 26
The Suspensory Ligament .............26. 27
The Inferior Sesamoid Ligament ............ 27
Il. THe Coronary JOT 2... 1 ee ee 29
Ill. Tue Pepat Articunation (Corrin Jot)... ......4. 29
C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot .... ...... 30
The Anterior Extensor Tendon of the Phalanges—The Perforatus
Tendon—The Perforans Tendon .... ....... 80-32
D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot. ..... ......... 83
The Lateral Cartilages—The Plantar Cushion. ....... 83, 34
B. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves .............-.. 85
The Arteries of the Foot—The Veins of the Foot—The Nerves of
the Foot” << @ee. wliealeliey wc wie aww ee 85-38

8 CONTENTS.

PAGE

F. The Protective Organs of the Foot. ............ 39
(@), te ATR SKIN So Ges, rie ae RR ae BR a Se 389
I. “Phe: Wpidermis: ssn se ee ee Be eS GE YR 389

2. The Dermis.s ¢ 6 6 ee 8 pe ww aw HE HES 40

3. The Subcutaneous Tissue... .. 2.2.2... 004. 40

(6) THe Hoor-Skin, on PopopERM . wee ee ee ee es 40
1. The Perioplic Band ..........2..2..0048. 41

2. The Coronary Band ..... 2... eee 42

8. The Fleshy Wall: ss 4 @ «3 3 ee we Ha we we 42

The Fleshy Leaves (Podophyllous Tissue). . ..... 44

4. The Velvety Tissue of the Sole .. .......-.. 44

5. The Velvety Tissue of the Frog... ......-.. 44

(c) Tue Horn Capsute on HooF . . . 2 eee ee ee . 45
MWC BAYS) gk. woe OR BO a eR ee RR a 47

THE Wall. i Sp seuds wie ge wh > a a Gan he a es 47

The Layers of the Wall: 1. The Periople. 2. The Middle
or Protective Layer. 38. The Leafy Layer (Keraphyllous

Wayer) ee vesg eek be Gg Si RG 47-48
THE SOl@. a. ees de a ee a 49
TTHGSHRGSS 32: a ca US fe vib Gh we eke @ Ai “SL GP Ae Se Ay GE ered 51
The Minute Structure of the Horn. .......... 52
Hardand Soft Horn ............0.2402084 53

CHAPTER II.

THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.

A. Standing Positions of the Limbs... ........... 56

(a) Tue Postrions oF a Fore-LimB VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN
PRORITBCA SS 8 se Wee ee Ml A SS ae eS 57, 58

(5) THe Positions oF 4 Finn Limp vieweD FROM BEHIND AND IN
PRORITE? 4. 4240.90. - Wis Ge, 28 Hee Re aR ke 60

B. Forms of Feet, viewed from i in Front, from Behind, and in
PE OTI GS csc sass. Say Ga ah aegis cde peas le: <p Gace Be ak cathe WE a get 62
C. Lines of Flight of Hoofsin Motion ............. 65
D. Forms of Hoofp.s: .. 68 es see eR He we 66

The Hoof of the Regular Position—The Hoof of the Base-Wide
Position—The Hoof of the Base-Narrow Position—Forms of
Hind Hoofs—The Wide and the Narrow Hoof—The Character-
istics of Healthy Hoofs. ............. 66-70
E. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe .. . 71
F. Physiological Movements of the Hoof ........... 74

HHOOWp

wp

mo be

an

A.

B.

CONTENTS. 9

PART II.

CHAPTER I.
SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.

. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to shoeing ..... 78
Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse tobe shod .. 81
Removing the Old Shoes .............-04805 83

. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe ............. 83
Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot .......... 87
Making Shoes:; 24:44 8%42 24 0504 #6 eas ze 88

The Podometer—Making Front Shoes—Making Hind Shoes—Gen-

eral Characteristics of Shoes—A Shoe with Heel-Calks—A Shoe
with Toe- and Heel-Calks—Special Characteristics of Shoes . 88-97
. Choosing the Shoe. ................ oa OF
. Shaping and Fitting Shoes—General Considerations ... 98
Shaping and Fitting Shoes—Special Considerations . . 101
Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draught-Horses ........ 102
Nailing the Shoe. .......... 6. . eee ee eee 105
Horséshoe Nails: « . 4%. ee ek ee 105

CHAPTER II.
SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.
sMOrsing) go se kk a GK Se a ae SS ew SO eS 109
TMGOTievIn eg 2. sae ee A A ee Re wt 110
CHAPTER IIl.
WINTER SHOEING.
. Icz-Nams (Frost-Natts). 6. 6 6 6 ee ee ee et 118
. SHaRP Tor- anp Heen-Canks. . 6 1 6 ee ee ew et te te es 113
» SeneweGaiks: 8g Se eA eo eh eS ee a 114
M SPBGAGRT RSs tan cscs vad Cxeraeee ay GF len ee et LA SSE a. OS eo ee a 116
(a) Round Peg-Calks. «6 6 ee ee ee ee 116
(6) Square Peg-Calks ©. 1 ee eee ee ee 118
. PreTowGaiks: « 6 i. Se eR RADE BH EH we Ee Ye 120
. Removasie Hee.-CaLks, THAT DO NOT REQUIRE SHARPENING... .. . 120
CHAPTER IV.
HOOF NURTURE.
Care of Unshod Hoofs. ...... 2 ee ee ee ene 123
Care of Shod Hoofs.... 1... ee ee eee tt es 124

Greasing and soaking the Hoof ©... ee eee eee 125

10 CONTENTS.

PART III.
CHAPTER ILI
GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME
HORSES. : ee
GENERAL REMARKS’ . 4.4% % S @ 4 4 Goa We we we eae | @ 127-130
CuassIFicaTion oF Diseases OF THE HooF. ........ Lee aby ae 131
CHAPTER II.
INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM.
TSUN AIDING eee ee ow eee ca Gv ea eg a ee se 132
2. STRERT-NATE Si: vas Sle eo ae a as BO A SO EO RES 1385
8. CaLK-WouNDS OF THE CORONET. . . 1 1 ee ee ee we ee ee 1388
4. CORNS) 4 i wie ak ae eX OR ee SE RS Ee Ew Ee EB ERS 138
5. InFLAMMATION OF THE HEELS . . 2 1 1. 1 ee ee ee ee 141
6. Laminitis on FounpDER . ww ww ee et te th ee es 141
7, KeRAPHYLLOCELE (HonN Tumor) .. ~~... + ee eee ee eee 145
CHAPTER III.
DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.
A. Changesof Form .. .........+4..-- .. 146
1. Tue Firat anp THE Fun Hoor . .. .. 1. ee ee ee ee 146
2. Tue Upricut on Stumpy Hoor.........-2..2+2:5 148
3. Tne Contracten HooF «3 4 6 eG ee ee ee Re 149
(a) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs. ........... 150
(6) Contraction of the Sole .. 2... 0 2. ee ee ee 161
4. Tre Wa HOOF | 5. <0 ee Se Ge le age es ek a 151
5. Tue CrooxkepD Hoor. . .........-24- eon owt 1538
6. OssiricaTion oF THE Laterat Cartitace (Siwe-BonzE). . . . . 154
B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof. ......... 155
Ti, “CRACKS 5) en a8 Geo ee che Bee A Raw ne ne ALAS Rah 155
25 CLERTS:< 4. ge ee RR a ee Se we ee eS 160
Bi EGOSE: WAGE 2: aGs) as dee ees Sera a di ae Se bs 161
4. Hotow WALL: e 545 G) ae ee we ty a A GO wees eG 162
5. TurusH oF THE FRoG . . 1. 2. ww ee ee te es 163

CHAPTER IV.

; SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN,
1. THe SHorine or Mutes anp Asses. . 2 1 1 we ee ee te ee 164
2. THe SHoring oF OXEN 2... 1. we ee eh 164

INTRODUCTION.

Horsesuoerne is an industry which requires, in equal degree,
knowledge and skill.

The word “ horseshoeing” embraces various acts, especially
preparing the iron sole, the horseshoe; forming it and fitting it
to the hoof, whose ground-surface has been previously dressed
in accordance with the direction of the limb, and fastening it to
the hoof by means of nails.

Owing to the complicated structure of the hoof, success in the
practice of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy
and physiology of the horse’s body in general and of the foot in
particular.

The object of shoeing is,—

1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear, and thus render
the horse continuously serviceable upon our hard roads.

2. To prevent slipping and falling during the winter season.

3. To so far remove the disadvantages of faulty positions of
the limbs that horses may render good service, and, in some
cases,

4. To cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs or feet.

Horseshoeing, though apparently simple, involves many diffi-
culties, owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging body,
but varies much with respect to form, growth, quality, and elas-

ticity. Furthermore, there are such great differences in the char-
11

12 INTRODUCTION.

acter of ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses’ work that
shoeing which is not performed with great ability and care in-
duces disease and makes horses lame.

In view of these facts, a thorough training of the young horse-
shoer in the principles and practice of his trade is not only
greatly to be desired, but is really essential to success ; unreason-
ing work does as much harm in this as in any other vocation.
A good common-school education is necessary (more will do no
harm). Further requisites are a healthy body, not too tall, liking
for the work, aptness, an active, reasoning mind, fearlessness, dex-
terity, a good eye for proportion, and, finally, careful selection of
a master-instructor. Theoretically educated, practically expe-
rienced and approved masters, in whose shops all kinds of
horses are shod, are to be preferred.

During his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice
should learn to make drawings of horseshoes, of tools of the trade,
and of hoofs of various forms, and should also make one or
more model shoes as an indication of his ability. After completing
his time he should seek a position in a first-class shop, either at
home or abroad. A visit to foreign lands will widen one’s
mental horizon and make him a broader, abler man in every
respect. Later, opportunity will be given to some (in Germany)
to join the cavalry, and thus acquire a good education in shoe-
ing under the patronage of the government. Finally, a course
of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert an already
practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful, capable,
expert workman.

The scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and in-
significant as it may appear, and since a knowledge of the anat-
omy and physiology of the horse’s body in general, and of the

INTRODUCTION. 18

foot in particular, is necessary, it is evident that the schools of
horseshoeing in which one can get the best instruction are those
in which there is not only a regularly graded course of instruc-
tion, with demonstrations upon dissected material and upon
living horses, but also an abundance of daily work at the forge
and on the floor in the shoeing of horses. A course of four
to six weeks is not sufficient.

Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that schools of horse-
shoeing are not for the purpose of instructing young men in all
matters which pertain to the trade, but only in the making of
shoes, the critical examination and management of hoofs, and
the rational and skilful performance of shoeing. For this reason
itis not advisable for young men to attend a school of horse-
shoeing until they have at least completed their apprenticeship.

HORSESHOEING.

PART I.

CHAPTER I
THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

THE supporting structure of the horse’s body is the Bony FRAME-
work or skeleton (Fig. 1, page 16). We distinguish in the skele-
ton the bones of the head, trunk, and limbs.

The bones of the head are numerous and, excepting the lower
jaw, are solidly united with one another. In general, we distin-
guish in the head only the upper and lower jaws (1 and 1’).
Both form various cavities ; for example, the cranial cavity, in
which the brain lies, the orbital cavities (eye-sockets), the nasal
passages, and the mouth. Besides, the teeth are set in the jaws.

The trunk comprises the bones of the spinal column, thorax,
and pelvis.

The spinal or vertebral column (2 to 6), which bears the head
at its anterior end, is the chief support of the entire skeleton.
It consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four single and irregular
bones called vertebre, placed in the upper part of the median
vertical plane of the body. Each vertebra, with the exception
of those of the tail (coccygeal or caudal vertebree), is traversed
by a large opening called the vertebral foramen. The vertebrae
are placed end to end in a row, and through them runs a con-
tinuous large canal called the vertebral or spinal canal, in which
lies the spinal cord. The horse has seven cervical, eighteen dor-

sal, six lumbar, five sacral, and sixteen to eighteen caudal verte-
15

16 HORSESHOEING.

bre. The sacral vertebrae are grown together to form one piece
called the sacrum.

Fic. 1.

SKELETON OF THE Horsr.—1, bones of the head; 1’, lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebre ; 3,
dorsal vertebre ; 4, lumbar vertebre ; 5, sacral vertebree (sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebre ; 7,
ribs ; 8, sternum (breast-bone) ; 9, pelvis; 9’, ilium ; 9”, ischium ; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade) ;
the dotted line shows the position of the scapular cartilage ; 11, humerus ; 12, radius ; 13, ulna;
14, carpus (knee); 15, large metacarpal bone (cannon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones
(splint-bones) ; 17, os suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os corone (short pastern) ; 19, os pedis
(hoof-bone) ; 20, sesamoid bones ; 21, femur ; 22, patella (knee-pan, stifle) ; 23, tibia ; 24, fibula;
25, tarsus, or hock ; 26, large metatarsal bone (cannon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint-
bones) ; 28, os suffraginis (long pastern) ; 29, os corone (short pastern) ; 30, os pedis (hoof-bone,

“coffin bone’’) ; 31, sesamoid bones.

The thorax is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or ster-
num. The horse has eighteen ribs on each side (7), and all
articulate with the dorsal vertebree. The first eight pairs unite
by their lower ends directly to the sternum or breast-bone, and

HORSESHOEING. 17

are therefore called true ribs, while the last ten pairs are only
indirectly attached to the sternum, and are consequently called
false ribs. The sternum (8) lies between the forelegs, and helps
to form the floor of the chest cavity. The space enclosed by the
bones of the thorax is called the thoracic, pulmonary, or chest
cavity, and contains the heart and lungs. The bones of the pelvis
form a complete circle or girdle. The upper part, called the
ilium (9’), articulates on its inner side with the sacrum (5),
while its outer side is prolonged to form a prominent angle,
which is the support of the hip, and is called the “ point of the
hip.” The posterior part of the pelvis is called the ischium
(9’"), and that part lying between the ilium and the ischium and
forming part of the floor of the pelvis is called the pubis.

The space between the thorax and the pelvis, bounded above
by the lumbar vertebre and shut in below and on the sides by
the skin and muscular walls of the belly (abdomen), is called
the abdominal cavity. This cavity opens directly into the pel-
vic cavity, and contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys, and a part of the generative organs. The
thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated by a muscular
partition, the diaphragm.

The bones of the limbs may be likened to columns, upon
which the body rests; they articulate with one another at various
angles, are tubular in structure, and strong.

The bones of the fore-limbs do not articulate directly with the
bones of the trunk, but are attached to the body by means of the
skin and muscles. From above to below we distinguish the
following bones:

1. The scapula, or shoulder-blade (10), a flat, triangular bone,
prolonged at its upper border by a flat, very elastic cartilage,
called the scapular cartilage. At its lower end the scapula
articulates with—

2. The upper end of the humerus (11), forming the shoulder-
joint (scapulo-humeral articulation). The humerus articulates

at its lower end with—
2

18 HORSESHOEING.

3. The radius (12) and the ulna (13), to form the elbow-joint.
These two bones are the basis of the forearm. The ulna,
smaller and weaker than the radius, lies behind and projects
above it to form the point of the elbow. The lower end of the
radius articulates with—

4, The carpus, or knee (14), which comprises seven small,
cubical bones disposed in two horizontal rows, one above the
other. The upper row comprises four bones and the lower row
three. The lower row rests upon—

5. The large metacarpal or cannon bone, and the two rudimen-
tary metacarpal or splint-bones. The lower end of the radius, the
upper ends of the metacarpal bones, and the small carpal bones
together form the carpal or knee-~joint (wrist of man). Of the meta-
carpals, the middle one is the largest, longest, strongest, and most
important, and is called the large metacarpal, cannon, or shin-
bone (15). It articulates at its lower end with the os suffraginis,
or long pastern (17), and with the two small sesamoid bones (20).
On each side of the upper part of its posterior surface lie the
two long, slender splint-bones (16). The inner splint-bone is
sometimes affected with bony thickenings (exostoses) called
“ splints.”

6. The bones of the phalanges (all bones below the cannon)
will be fully described in another place.

The bones of the hind limbs articulate directly with the pelvis
at the hip-joint. They are stronger than the bones of the ante-
rior limbs. We distinguish the following bones in the hind legs:

1. The highest bone in the hind limb is the femur (21). It is
the strongest bone in the entire body. It lies in an oblique
direction downward and forward, and at its lower end articulates
with—

2. The patella (22), the tibia (23), and the fibula (24), to form
the stifleyoint (knee of man). The patella plays over the ante-
rior surface of the lower end of the femur. The fibula is small,
and lies against the upper and outer side of the tibia. The latter
at its lower end articulates with—

HORSESHOEING. 19

3. The bones of the tarsus, or hock (25), which are six small,
irregular bones disposed in three rows, one above another. The
os caleis, or heel-bone, and the astragalus are in the uppermost
row, and are the most important. The former projects above
the true hock-joint from behind, to form a long lever, the upper
end of which is called the “ point of the hock,” and the latter
articulates with the tibia. The tarsal (hock) bones articulate
below with—

4, The metatarsal bones (26 and 27), which are longer, and the
cannon narrower from side to side, than the corresponding meta-
carpal bones, but are otherwise similar.

5. The phalanges of a-hind limb (28 to 31) are also narrower
than those of a fore-limb, but are nearly alike in other respects.

All the horse’s bones present small, but more or less distinct
openings (nutrient foramina) for the passage of blood-vessels and
nerves. Many bones possess roughened elevations and depres-
sions, to which ligaments, tendons, or muscles are attached.
With the exception of the os pedis, all bones are enveloped in a
sort of “ bone-skin” called periosteum. The bones unite among
themselves to form either movable or immovable unions. A mova-
ble union between two or more bones is termed a “ joint,” or
articulation. The articulating ends of the bones, presenting
on one side a convex surface (head or condyle) and on the other
a corresponding concave surface (glenoid or cotyloid cavity), are
covered with elastic articular cartilage. The bones are bound
together by means of ligaments, which are tough, fibrous, cord-
like, or sheet-like structures. Ligaments are either (1) capsular
or (2) funicular (cord-like). Every articulation in the limbs pos-
sesses a capsular ligament, and all, except the shoulder-joint,
have several funicular (cord-like) ligaments. The capsular liga-
ments are lined upon their inner face with a delicate membrane
(synovial membrane) which secretes the synovia, or “joint
water,” whose function is to lubricate the joint and prevent fric-
tion; they enclose the joint in a sort of air-tight cuff or sack.
The funicular ligaments are very strong and often large, and are

20 HORSESHOEING.

the chief means of union of the bones. The immovable articu-
lations are termed sutures; they are found principally in the
head. The mixed joints are found between the bodies of the
vertebrae, each two of which are united by an elastic fibro-carti-
lage which, in the form of a pad, lies between them, and by its
elasticity allows of very slight movement, though the spinal col-
umn as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements, as
shown by the neck and tail.

Joints which permit motion in all directions are known as free
joints ; such are the shoulder- and hip-joints (ball-and-socket
joints). Those which admit of motion in but two directions
(flexion and extension), and often to a very limited extent, are
called hinge-joints,—e.g., the elbow, hock, and fetlock. The
joints between the long and short pasterns and between the
latter and the pedal bone are imperfect hinge-joints, because
they allow of some other movements: besides flexion and exten-
sion. The articulation between the first and second cervical
vertebree (atlas and axis) is called a pivot-joint.

The skeleton represents a framework which closely ap-
proaches the external form of the body, and by reason of its
hardness and stiffness furnishes a firm foundation for all other
parts of the body. By reason of the great variety of position
and direction of the bones, and of the fact that changes of posi-
tion of each single part of this complicated system of levers
may result in the greatest variety of bodily movements, we can
readily understand how the horse is enabled to move from place
to place. Of course, the bones have no power of themselves to
move, but this power is possessed by other organs that are
attached to the bones. These organs are the muscles, and,
owing to their ability to contract and shorten themselves, and
afterwards to relax and allow themselves to be stretched out,
they furnish the motive power that is communicated to and
moves the bones.

The muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh
which we observe in every slaughtered animal. They are not,

HORSESHOEING. 21

Fia. 2.

OUTER MUSCLES OF THE HorsE.—1, cervical trapezius; 2, dorsal trapezius; 3, mastoido-
humeralis ; 4, great dorsal muscle ; 5, long abductor of the arm: 6, long extensor of the fore-
arm ; 7, large extensor of the forearm; 8, short extensor of the forearm; 9, sterno-trochinus
(deep pectoral); 10, sterno-aponeuroticus; 11, great serratus; 12, common extensor of the
metacarpus; 18, common extensor of the toe (anterior extensor); 14, common extensor of
the long pastern (lateral extensor) ; 15, oblique extensor of the metacarpus ; 16, external flexor
of the metacarpus ; 17, internal flexor of the metacarpus ; 18, oblique flexor of the metacarpus ;
19, fascia lata; 20, superficial gluteus (anterior portion); 21, middle gluteus; 22, superficial
gluteus (posterior portion) ; 23 and 24, femoral biceps ; 25, semitendinosus ; 26, semimembra-
nosus ; 27, anterior extensor of the toe ; 28, lateral extensor of the toe; 29, perforans muscle
(deep flexor of toe) ; 80, oblique flexor of the phalanges ; 31, perforatus tendon (superficial flexor
of phalanges) ; 32, Achilles tendon (hamstring).

however, so shapeless as they appear while in this condition ;
on the contrary, they present well-arranged muscular layers
of variable size, thickness, length, and position. (See Fig. 2.)

22 HORSESHOEING.

The muscles clothe the skeleton externally, give the body
its peculiar form, and, by their special power of contraction,
change the relative positions of the bones and thus make it pos-
sible for the animal to move. For this reason, the muscles are
called the active, and the bones the passive, organs of motion.
By carefully examining a muscle it will be found to consist of
actual, minute, reddish, muscular fibres. As a rule, muscles ter-
minate in more or less strong, glistening, fibrous cords called
tendons, or fibrous sheets termed aponeuroses, by which they
are attached to the bones. In the limbs are muscles terminating
in very long tendons, which act as draw-lines upon the distant
bones of the foot (long and short pasterns and pedal bone) and
set them in motion. Such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths
of thin, membranous tissue, known as tendon sheaths. The inner
surface of such a sheath is in direct contact with the surface of
the tendon, and secretes a thin slippery fluid (synovia) which
lubricates the tendon and facilitates its gliding within the sheath.

As long as the bones, articulations, muscles, and tendons of
the limbs remain healthy, just so long will the legs maintain
their natural direction and position. Frequently, however, this
normal condition of the limbs is gradually altered by disease of
the bones, joints, and tendons, and defects in the form and
action of the lower parts of the limbs arise that often require
attention in shoeing.

THE FOOT.
A. The Bones of the Foot.

Since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his move-
ments, his foot deserves the most carcful attention. The horse-
shoer should be familiar with all its parts. Fig. 3 shows the
osseous framework of the foot, consisting of the lower end of the
cannon bone (A), the long pastern (B), the two sesamoid bones
(C), the short pastern (D), and the pedal bone (E). The lower
end of the cannon, or large metacarpal bone (A) exhibits two
convex articular surfaces (condyles) separated by a median ridge
running from before to behind, and all covered by articular car-

HORSESHOEING. 23

tilage. On both the external and the internal aspects of the
lower end of the cannon are small uneven depressions in which
ligaments take their
attachment.

The condyles of
the cannon articulate
with the os suffra-
ginis (long pastern)
and the two sesa-
moids (Figs. 3, C, and
4, B) in such a man-
ner that in the fore-
feet the cannon Td)
makes an angle with o/
the long pastern of
from one hundred
and thirty to one hun-
dred and forty de-
grees, and in the hind
feet of from one hun- Ms
dred and forty to one 7 V/A
hundred and_ fifty PDN
degrees.

The long pastern
(first phalanx) (Fig.
4, A) is about one-third the length of the cannon; its upper and
thicker end presents two condyloid cavities (a) (glenoid cavities),
separated by a median groove, which exactly fit the condyles
and ridge at the lower end of the cannon. The lower end of
the long pastern is smaller than the upper, and is provided with
two condyles, between which is a shallow groove (e). The an-
terior face of the bone is smooth, rounded from side to side,
and blends into the lateral borders. The posterior face is flatter,
and shows a clearly marked triangle to which ligaments attach.

The two sesamoid bones (Fig. 4, B) are small, and somewhat

Fig. 3.

24

HORSESHOEING.

pyramidal in shape, and, lying against the posterior part of the

Fia. 4.

LCE

Os suffraginis with both sesamoid bones
in position, as in Fig. 3. 4, os suffraginis; B,
sesamoid bones; a, upper joint-surface of
long pastern; 0b, joint-surface of sesamoid
bones; ¢, roughened surface at upper end ; d,
roughened surface at lower end, both for
attachment of ligaments; e, lower joint sur-
face,

condyles of the cannon bone,
increase the articular surfaces
at the upper end of the long
pastern.

The short pastern (second
phalanx) (Figs. 5 and 6) lies
under the first phalanx and
above the os pedis; it is some-
what cubical in shape. Its
upper articular surface (Fig. 5,
a) presents two glenoid cavities
to correspond with the condyles
of the first phalanx. The lower
articular surface (Fig. 5, d) re-
sembles the lower end of the
first phalanx. The upper poste-
rior border of this bone is promi-
nent and prolonged transversely

(Fig. 6, a), to serve as a supporting ledge for the first phalanx, as

Short pastern (os coronz)
viewed in front and in pro-
file : a, upper joint-surface ;
b, anterior surface: ec, lat-
eral surface ; d, lower joint-
surface.

surface over

surface.

Short pastern seen
from behind : a, smooth
which
the perforans tendon
glides; b, lower joint-

a point of attachment for
the perforatus tendon,
and asa gliding surface for
the perforans tendon.
The lowest bone of the
limb is the third phalanx
cr os pedis (Fig. 7). In
form it is similar to the
hoof. The anterior or
wall-surface (a) is rough,
like pumice stone. Above
and in front is the pyram-
idal eminence to which the

tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges attaches. Be-
hind, the bone extends backward to form the inner and outer

HORSESHOEING. 25

branches (c, c) or wings of the os pedis. The wpper, articular
surface (6) slopes backward and downward. The lower, solar or
plantar surface (Fig. 8, a) is slightly concave, and presents pos-
teriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation, with a roughened bor-
der called the semilunar crest (c), to which the perforans tendon
attaches ; just above this crest are two small holes (e) known as
the plantar foramina, through which the plantar arteries pass
into the bone. The surfaces of wall and sole come together in
a sharp edge, which is circular in its course. It is easy to tell

Os pedis seen in profile and in front; a,
anterior face with pyramidal eminence
above ; 5, joint-surface ; c, wings or branches
of hoof-bone ; d, notch which, by the attach-
ment of the lateral cartilage, is converted

Lower surface of hoof-hbone; a, anterior
portion covered by the velvety tissue of the
sole; b, wing of the os pedis; c, semilunar
crest, to which the perforans tendon at-
taches; d, plantar fissure leading to e, plan-

into a foramen and leads to e, the preplan- tar foramen.

tar fissure.

whether a pedal bone is from a fore or a hind limb ; the os pedis
of a hind leg has a steeper and more pointed toe, and a more
strongly concaved solar surface than the same bone of a foreleg.
Not only is the outline of the sharp inferior border of the os
pedis of a front foot more rounded at the toe, but when placed on
a flat surface the toe does not touch by reason of being turned
slightly upward, much as a shoe designed to give a “rolling
motion.” The os pedis of a hind foot is narrower from side to
side (pointed), and does not turn up at the toe.

The right and left hoof-bones are also, as a rule, easily distin-
guished by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole. The shape

26 HORSESHOEING.

of the os pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box or hoof,
and therefore a knowledge of this bone is absolutely necessary.
The navicular bone (os naviculare, nut-bone, Figs. 9 and 10)
is an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis. It is a small
bone, transversely elongated
and situated behind and below
the os pedis and between the
wings of the latter.. It adds to
the articular surface of the pedal
Fig. 9 represents the upper surface of the joint. Its under surface is
gavicular one Pig 10m over sue of ‘smooth, and acts as a gliding
vation in middle of undersurface. surface for the perforans tendon,
which is quite wide at this point.
The long axes of the three phalanges (os suffraginis, os co-
ronee, and os pedis) should unite to form a straight line, when
viewed either from in front or from one side; that is, the direc-
tion of each of these three bones should be the same as the com-
mon direction of the three considered as a whole.

Fia. 9.

In young colts both the long and short pasterns are in three parts and the
pedal bone in two parts, all of which unite later in life to form their re-
spective single bones.

In mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively small and narrow. In
cattle all three phalanges are double, and split hoofs cover the divided os pedis.

B. The Articulations of the Foot.

There are three articulations in the foot—namely, the fetlock,
coronary, and pedal joints. All are hinge-joints, the fetlock being
a perfect hinge-joint, and the other two imperfect hinge-joints.
Each has a capsular ligament, and also several funicular or cord-
like ligaments which are placed at the sides of (lateral ligaments),
or behind (on the side of flexion) the joints.

I. The fetlock or metacarpo-phalangeal articulation is
formed by the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone
and the glenoid cavities formed by the union of the articular sur-
faces of the sesamoids and the upper end of the first phalanx.
The following ligaments are about this joint :

HORSESHOEING. 27

1. Two lateral ligaments, an external and an internal (Fig. 11, a).

2. Two lateral sesamoid ligaments (f).

3. An intersesamoid ligament (Fig. 12, b), a thick, fibrous mass,

binding the sesamoid
bones almost immovably
together, extending
above them and _pre-
senting on its posterior
face a smooth groove, in
which glide the flexor
tendons of the phalan-
ges (perforans and _per-
foratus).

4. Thesuspensory liga-

ment of the fetlock (Figs.
11, ¢, 12, ¢, and 18, e,
pages 27 and 28.) This
may also be called the
superior sesamoid liga-
ment. It is a long and
very powerful brace,
originating on the lower
row of carpal bones
(bones of the hock in
the hind leg) and on the
upper end of the cannon
between the heads of

the two splint-bones, '

Fig. 11.

and dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two branches
(c), which are attached one to each sesamoid bone. Below these
bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward
and forward on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into
the borders of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about
the middle of the long pastern (Fig. 14, 6’, page 30).

5. The inferior sesamoid ligament (Figs. 11, d, d’, 12, d, d’, and

28 HORSESHOEING.

their articular ligaments. The lettering is the same in all three figures: a, lateral ligament
of fetlock-joint ; b, intersesamoid ligament ; c, suspensory ligament of the fetlock ; d, median
branch of inferior sesamoid ligament; d’, lateral branches of inferior sesamoid ligament; e,
deep inferior sesamoid ligament; /, lateral sesamoid ligaments; g, inferior coronary liga-
ments; h, superior coronary ligaments; h’, median coronary ligaments ; 7, lateral pedal liga-

ment; k, lateral coronary ligament and suspensory ligament of the navicular bone; J, inter-
osseous ligament.

13, d, d’). This originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid
bones and intersesamoid ligament, and consists of three parts or

HORSESHOEING. 29

branches. The median branch (d) is the longest and strongest,
and takes its lower attachment in the middle of the fibro-carti-
laginous lip found on the upper border of the posterior face of
the second phalanx. The two lateral branches (d’) approach each
other as they descend, and terminate on the sides of the rough-
ened triangle on the posterior face of the first phalanx.

6. The deep inferior sesamoid ligament (Fig. 18, e) is quite short,
and consists of a number of distinct, thin fibrous bands lying
directly against the bone and entirely covered by the median
and lateral inferior sesamoid ligaments. These fibrous bands
cross one another in passing from the sesamoids to the first
phalanx.

II. The coronary joint is the simplest of the three articula-
tions of the foot. The long pastern furnishes two condyles and
the short pastern two glenoid cavities. Besides a capsular liga-
ment there are—

1. Two lateral coronary ligaments (k) and,

2. Six posterior coronary ligaments,—namely, two superior cor-
onary ligaments (h), two median coronary ligaments (h’), and two
inferior coronary ligaments (9).

Ill. The pedal articulation (“ coffin” joint) is an imperfect
hinge-joint, and is formed by the condyles at the lower end of
the short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the united upper
surfaces of the pedal and navicular bones. Besides the capsular
ligament (Figs. 12 and 18, /), which binds all three bones together,
there are the following accessory ligaments :

1. Two strong lateral ligaments, an external and an internal
(Fig. 11, i), whose posterior borders are lost in the lateral carti-
lages which cover them.

2. Two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone (k).
They begin on the posterior border and ends of the navicular
bone, and terminate on the lower part of the anterior surface of
the os suffraginis, where they are lost in the lateral ligaments of
the coronary articulation.

3. The lateral ligaments of the lateral cartilages, navicular bone,

30 HORSESHOEING.

and os pedis. They are short, and unite the navicular bone with

the os pedis and lateral cartilages.

Of the three phalangeal articulations, the pedal is the only one
that permits of any'lateral movement; hence it is an imperfect

hinge-joint.

C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot.
Though the muscles are the organs which produce motion, the

Wy)
'

4 y Y
‘
a |

Right forefoot viewed from in front and from the ex-

ternal side: u, anterior extensor tendon of the toe; 0,
suspensory ligament of the fetlock ; b’, branch of thesame
passing forward and uniting with the extensor tendon
ot the toe; ¢, extensor tendon of the os suffraginis (ab-
sent in the hind leg), called the lateral extensor.

horseshoer need con-
cern himself only with
the tendons of those
muscles which extend
and flex the phalanges.
These tendons are either
extensors or flexors.
The extensors lie on the
anterior face and the
flexors on the posterior
face of the phalanges.
The anterior extensor
of the phalanges (Fig.
14, a) extends the long
and short pasterns and
the hoof-bone; it is
broad, and made some-
what broader by re-
ceiving the branches of
the suspensory ligament
(b’) that come from the
sesamoid bones. It takes
a firm attachment on the
pyramidal eminence of
the os pedis. In the
forefeet the long pastern
has a special extensor

tendon (¢), which is known as the lateral extensor. When the

HORSESHOEING. 31

muscles to which these tendons are attached act,—that is, when
they draw themselves together, or contract, as we term this action,
—the foot is carried forward (extended).

There are two flexor tendons of the pha-
langes,—namely, the superficial (perfo-
ratus tendon) and the deep (perforans
tendon).

1. The superficial flexor or perforatus
tendon (Figs. 15, 6, and 16, a, b) lies
behind, immediately under the skin,
and covers the deep flexor or perfo-
rans tendon. At the gliding surface
between the sesamoid bones (Fig. 15, f)
it broadens, and forms a ring or tube
(Fig. 15, 6’) through which the perforans
tendon (a’’’) passes, while a short dis-
tance farther down it bifurcates, or
divides into two branches (Figs. 15, 6”,
and 16, 6), which terminate, one on
either side, partly on the inferior lateral
borders of the first phalanx and partly
on the fibro-cartilage of the second
phalanx. It acts simultaneously on the
long and short pasterns.

Right forefoot seen from behind: a, lower end of the
perforans tendon, cut through and hanging down, so
that its anterior surface is visible; a’, lower expanded
end (plantar aponeurosis) of this tendon, which attaches
itself to the semilunar crest of the os pedis; a”, shallow
groove which receives the slight elevation on the under
surface of the navicular bone ; a”, piece of the perforans
tendon enclosed by the ring formed by the perforatus
tendon ; b, perforatus tendon bent over backward so that
its anterior surface is visible ; b’, ring of the perforatus tendon; b”, terminal branches of
the same; the perforans tendon passes through the space between these two branches; ¢,
navicular bone; d, suspensory ligament of the same; e, smooth surface on the os corone over
which the perforans tendon glides; f, the smooth groove (sesamoid groove) on the posterior
surface of the intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of the perforans tendon; g, body of the
suspensory ligament of the fetlock ; g’, terminal branches of the same, attaching to the sesa-
moid bones.

32 HORSESHOEING.

2. The deep flewor or perforans tendon (Figs. 15, a, and 16, ¢)
is cylindrical and stronger than the perforatus tendon ; above the
fetlock-joint it lies between the perfo-
ratus and the suspensory ligament of the
fetlock. At the sesamoid bones it passes
through the ring formed by the perfo-
ratus tendon (Fig. 15, 6’), then becomes
broad and double-edged, passes between
the two terminal branches of the perfo-
ratus, glides over the fibro-cartilage of
the second phalanx and over the inferior
surface of the navicular bone, and finally
ends on the semilunar crest of the third
phalanx. In common with the perforatus
tendon it flexes the foot.

If at a point a few inches above the
fetlock a limb be cut through from be-
hind, the knife will pass successively
through the following structures: skin,
perforatus tendon, perforans tendon, sus-
pensory ligament, cannon bone, lateral
extensor tendon, anterior extensor ten-
don, and, lastly, the skin oh the anterior
surface of the limb. The flexor tendons
are frequently thickened and shortened
by inflammation due to injury, and asa
result the foot is pulled backward and the
hoof gradually becomes more nearly up-
right,—1.e., stubby, steep-toed. A knowl-
edge of the normal condition of the ten-

Right forefoot seen from behind and a little from the external side: a, perforatus tendon ;
b, terminal branches of the same; c, perforans tendon ; d, annular ligament which attaches
to the sesamoid bones: d’, the ‘‘x”’ ligament, which attaches itself by four branches to the os
suffraginis ; d,” an upper branch of the same (the lower branches are not shown in the figure) ;
e, reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon, covering the under surface of the latter and
attached by its branches at e’ to the lower end of the os suffraginis ; f, suspensory ligament of
the fetlock.

HORSESHOEING. 33

dons is, therefore, absolutely necessary to the horseshoer. Both
flexor tendons are embraced and held in place by ligaments and
fascia passing out from the phalanges (Figs. 16, d’, and 20, e, f).
The extensor and flexor tendons essentially contribute to the
strong union of the phalangeal bones, and especially to the sup-
port and stability of the fetlock-joint. The gliding of the tendons
is made easy by the secretion of a lubricating fluid, called synovia,
from the inner surface of the sheaths which surround them. In
thin-skinned, well-bred horses with sound limbs one can not only
distinctly feel the tendons through the skin, but can see their out-
line. When the tendons and bones are free from all inflammatory
thickenings, and the tendon sheaths are not visibly distended, we say
that the leg is “ clean.”

D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot.

All bodies which under pressure or traction change their form,
but return again to their original shape as soon as the press-
ure or traction ceases, are
called elastic or springy.
Nearly all parts of the
horse’s foot, except the
bones, possess more or
less elasticity. The Jlat-
eral cartilages and the
plantar cushion are elastic
to a high degree, but the
coronary band, the lamince,

the articular cartilage, ee
Right forefoot viewed from the external side: A, os
and the horny Bex. oF corone ; B, os pedis; C, external lateral cartilage; a,

hoof are less elastic. This lateral pedal ligament ; 0, ligament uniting the lateral
farteti cartilage with the os corone ; ¢, apomeurosis joining lat-
property or characteristic eral cartilage and os pedis.

is possessed by the re-
spective parts of the foot in accordance with their function,

location, and structure.

The two lateral cartilages (Fig. 17, C) are irregular, quad-
3

34 HORSESHOEING.

rangular plates, attached to the wings of the os pedis, and ex-
tending so far upward and backward that one can feel them
yield to pressure on the skin above the coronet, and can thus
test their elasticity. The perforans tendon and the plantar
cushion lie between the lateral cartilages, and on the sides and
behind are partially enclosed by them. The internal concave sur-
face of the lateral cartilage is attached to the plantar cushion, the
os pedis, and the navicular bone, and, like the external, slightly
convex surface, is covered with many blood-vessels (veins).

The plantar cushion (Figs. 18 and 19) is composed almost
entirely of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues, with adipose

Fig. 18.

Plantar cushion seen from be- Plantar cushion seen from above: a, base
low : a, base or bulb of the plantar (bulbs) of same ; b, summit ; ¢, supensory liga-
cushion; 6, summit; c, median ment of plantar cushion ; d, place at which the
lacuna or cleft in which lies the elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis
“frog-stay’’ of the horny frog. and the lateral cartilage unites with the plan-

tar cushion.

(fat) cells distributed throughout their substance. It is similar
in form to the horny frog, and lies between it and the perfo-
rans tendon (Fig. 20, a). The bulbs are formed by the pos-
terior thicker portion which lies between the lateral cartilages
and is divided into two parts by the cleft or median lacuna (Fig.
18, c). The summit is attached to the plantar face of the os
pedis in front of the semilunar crest, and the bulbs are attached
to the lateral cartilages. It is covered inferiorly by the velvety
tissue of the frog (pododerm).

HORSESHOEING. 35

E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves.

Vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are
called arteries, while those which return the blood to the heart
from the tissues are called veins. Arteries and veins are con-
nected by very small, thread-like
vessels called capillaries, which
originate in the smallest arteries
and are so minute that they can
not be seen without the aid of
a microscope. The capillaries
penetrate the soft tissues in every
direction, and finally unite to
form small veins. For our pur-
pose we need consider only the
arteries and veins.

The arteries carrying blood
from the heart ramify and subdi-
vide in all parts of the body, and
thus reach the foot. They are

Fig. 20.

Right forefoot viewed from below, behind,
and the external side. This figure shows
clearly the position of the plantar cushion.
The external lateral cartilage and the tissues
covering the plantar cushion and under sur-
face of the os pedis (velvety tissue of the sole
and fleshy frog) have been removed : a, fleshy
frog or plantar cushion; a/, bulbs of plantar
cushion ; the remaining visible parts belong to
the so-called ‘‘ fleshy frog ;” a’, groove (median
lacuna) in the lower surface of the fleshy frog,
in which lies the frog-stay of the horny frog ;
b, suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion
passing out of the bulbs; 0’, small elastic cords
passing to the lateral cartilage ; c, elastic liga-
ment coming from the lateral cartilage and
uniting with the suspensory ligament of the
plantar cushion; d, small tendinous cord be-
ginning in the skin behind the fetlock-joint
and ending on the os suffraginis in common with 6 and ¢c; e, tendinous reinforcing sheath of
the perforans tendon; jf, reinforcing stay of the perforatus tendon; g, perforatus tendon ; h,
perforans tendon ; 7, suspensory ligament of the fetlock ; k, plantar surface of the os pedis, to
which the plantar cushion is joined by fibrous bands.

36 HORSESHOEING.

thick-walled, very elastic tubes, without valves, and carry
bright-red blood, which flows in spurts, as can be seen when an
artery is cut. If a finger be pressed lightly over an artery lying

Fig. 21,

see

erp v
SNe Mage
RNA
DAS

Side view of forefoot, showing blood-vessels and nerves: a, digital artery ; b, anterior artery
of the os suffraginis; d, anterior coronary artery, or circumflex artery of the coronet; e’ pre-
plantar ungual artery; /’, inferior communicating arteries passing out from the semilunar
artery of the os pedis, through minute holes just above the lower border of the bone; they
unite to form (f”) the circumflex artery of the toe; A, digital vein; B, superficial venous
plexus of coronary band and lateral cartilage ; C, podopbyllous venous plexus; G, circumflex
vein of the toe; 1, plantar nerve ; 2, anterior digital branch of same; 3, posterior digital branch
of same ; 4, small cutaneous branches of same.

near the surface, the blood-wave can be felt as a light stroke
(pulse). The character of the pulse is important, because in
inflammations of the pododerm or horn-producing membrane
of the foot we can ascertain by feeling that the pulse is stronger

HORSESHOEING. 37

than usual in the large arteries carrying blood to the inflamed
foot.

On either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there
lies an artery called the digital artery (Fig. 21, a). The pulse
can be felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at A, Fig. 21. It
gives off the following collateral (side) branches: 1. The artery
of the first phalana (perpendicular artery), with anterior and pos-
terior branches. 2. The artery of the plantar cushion, which sup-
plies with blood the plantar cushion, the velvety tissue of the
sole and frog, the bar portion of the coronary band, and the sen-
sitive lamine of the bars. 3. The coronary artery, which carries
blood to the coronary band, os corone, ligaments of the coronary
and pedal joints, flexor tendons, and skin.

The terminal branches of the digital arteries are the preplan-
tar and plantar wngual arteries. The preplantar artery passes
through the notch in the wing of the os pedis, then along the
preplantar fissure, splitting up into many branches, which spread
over and penetrate the porous surface of the os pedis. The
plantar artery courses along the plantar fissure, enters the
plantar foramen, and passes into the semilunar sinus of the os
pedis, where it unites with the terminal branch of the opposite
digital artery, forming the semi-lunar arch.

After the arterial or pure blood passes through the capillaries
it is collected by the veins, to be returned to the heart; then it
is driven to the lungs for purification, and is again returned to the
heart, from whence it is pumped through the arteries to all parts
of the body.

The veins are more numerous than the arteries; they have
thinner walls, and the larger ones are provided with valves
that prevent the impure blood from flowing backward. The
veins carry impure or dark-red blood towards the heart, and
if one is opened the dark blood flows in a steady stream; it
does not spurt. The great number of veinlets in the lower parts
of the foot form a complex net-work (plexus) of vessels which
are in such manifold and close union with one another that

38 HORSESHOEING.

checking the flow of blood in one part does not seriously inter-
fere with the flowing of the blood towards the larger veins. The
following are the most important of these net-works of veins or

Foot viewed from below and behind: a, digital
arteries; c, arteries of the plantar cushion; /”,
small branches of the semilunar artery of the os
pedis, which ramify in the velvety tissue of the sole;
A, digital vein; B, venous plexus of the heels or
bulbs; D, solar venous plexus; G, circumflex vein
of the toe ; 3, posterior digital branch of the plantar
nerve; 4, cutaneous branches of the same.

venous plexuses: (1) the
solar venous plexus (Fig. 22,
D); (2) the podophyllous
venous plecus (Fig. 21, C);
(3) superficial coronary ve-
nous plecus (Fig. 21, B); (4)
bulbar venous plevus (Fig.
22, B). All these plexuses
of small veins contribute to
form the digital veins (Figs.
21 and 22 A).

Nerves are roundish
white cords which come
from the brain and spinal
cord; they generally accom-
pany arteries. They divide
and subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches till
they become invisible to the
naked eye and are lost in
the tissues. The nerves
that are found in the foot
come from the spinal cord,
and because the largest
nerves of the foot accom-
pany the digital arteries they
are called digital nerves
(Fig. 21, 1). The branches
ramify throughout all parts

of the foot except the horny box and the hair. Nerves, according
to their use or function, are classed as motor and sensory. The
motor nerves end in muscles which they stimulate to action and

HORSESHOEING. 39

control. The sensory nerves terminate in the skin and in the
soft tissues just under the horny box or hoof (pododerm), and
render these parts sensitive ; that is, they convey certain feelings,
as, for example, the pain caused by bruising, pricking, or close-
nailing, to the brain and consciousness.

F. The Protective Organs of the Foot.

The protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof.

The eaternal skin, or hide, covers the entire body ; in the feet it
covers the bones, tendons, and ligaments, even passing in under
the hoof and directly covering the os pedis. This portion of
the skin, enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible, is called
the pododerm or foot-skin. In Germany it is called the hoof-skin
(huflederhaut), because it is
a continuation of the outer Fig. 23.
visible skin, and because it
secretes the hoof,—that is,
the hoof is produced by
it. That part of the skin
which is covered with hair
is known as the external or
hair-skin.

(a) The hair-skin (Fig.
23, a) consists of three su-
perposed layers,—(1) the
external superficial layer, or Soo AN

7 . . Foot from which the horny capsule, or hoof, has
ep idermis ; (2) the middle been removed by prolonged soa; kinga, skin; on

layer derm or leather-skin _ the left the hair has been rubbed away ; b, perioplic
i band; ¢, coronary cushion; d, podophyllous tissue
(so-called because leather (fleshy leaves); at the lower border of the figure

js made from it); (8) the oe aie ioneret oe
internal layer, or subcuta- feshy leat.
neous connective tissue.

1. The external layer, or epidermis, is composed merely of single
flattened, horn-like cells (scales) lying side by side and over one

another, and uniting to form one entire structure,—a thin, horn-

40 HORSESHOEING.

like layer, without blood-vessels or nerves. It extends over the
entire surface of the body, and protects the underlying, very sen-
sitive middle layer from external influences. The oldest cell-
layers lie on the outer surface, and are being continuously brushed
off in patches or scales, while new ones are constantly being
formed on the outer surface of the middle layer.

2. The middle layer, leather-skin or dermis, is composed of
solid, fibrous, and elastic tissues, and contains many blood-ves-
sels, small nerves, sweat- and oil-glands, and hair follicles from
which the hair grows. The hair upon the posterior surface of
the fetlock-joint is usually long and coarse, forming a tuft known

os yy
ss Hh a !

si i} HN NW ms AN
w nt)

NW y

Foot from which the near half of the horny wall and
a greater part of the so-called fleshy wall have been
removed, in order to show the relation of the lateral
cartilage to adjacent structures : a, vertical section of
the skin prolonged downward through the pododerm
(foot-skin) to show clearly that the latter is but a con-
tinuation of the former ; a’, hairless place on the skin ;
d, perioplic band ; b’, line indicating the upper border
of the same; 6”, surface of section of the periople, or
perioplic horn-band ; ¢, coronary cushion; ¢’, (left)
line which marks the upper border of the coronary
cushion ; ¢”, section of wall at the toe; d, podophyl-
lous tissue (sensitive lamine) ; e, horny sole; f, white
line; g, horny frog ; h, fleshy frog ; 7, lateral cartilage.

as the ‘* footlock,” which
encloses a horny spur,
called the ergot. Common
bred horses have, as arule,
larger and coarser foot-
locks than thoroughbreds.
The derm or leather-skin,
which produces the hair
and epiderm, is the thick-
est and most important
layer of the skin.

3. The inner layer, or
subcutaneous tissue, unites
the middle layer with
the muscles, tendons, liga-
ments, bones, or other
structures. It is that loose
fibrous mesh or net-work
through which the butcher
cuts in removing the hide
from the carcass.

(6) The hoof-skin (Figs.
23 and 24, b, c, d), or po-

doderm, is completely enclosed by the hoof. Although it is only

HORSESHOEING. 41

an extension of the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin, it
‘differs from the latter in structure and relations.

In order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the
hoof off with violence, but should allow the foot to partially de-
compose by leaving it for six to eight days in ordinary room tem-
perature ; it can then be removed without injuring the pododerm.
After the hoof has been removed the entire pododerm presents
a more or less dark-red color (flesh-color), which is due to the
great number of blood-vessels that it contains. For this reason
different parts of the pododerm have received the prefix ‘‘ fleshy,”
as for example, fleshy wall, fleshy sole, fleshy frog, etc. The
pododerm is what the uninformed horseshoer calls the “ quick.”
I will here remark that the three layers of the external or hair-
skin are represented in the foot; however, the epidermis is in
an entirely different form,—namely, the horny box or hoof. The
internal layer or subcutaneous tissue of the hair-skin is absent
in those parts of the foot where the pododerm covers the os pedis.
There remains, therefore, only the middle layer, derm, or podo-
derm, which secretes the hoof, and which is the prolongation and
representative of the middle layer of the hair-skin. The podo-
derm is distinguished from the derm of the hair-skin chiefly by
the absence of hairs, oil- and sweat-glands, and the presence on
its outer surface of fleshy, sensitive laminze and small thread-
like projections called villi.

The pododerm consists of five different parts: the perioplic
band, the coronary band, the sensitive lamine (podophyllous tissue),
the velvety tissue of the sole, and the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog.

1. The perioplic band (Fig. 23, 6) is a narrow ridge, about one-
fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide, lying between the hair-skin
and the coronary band. Somewhat broader at the toe than on
the sides, it broadens out near the bulbs of the heels, over which
it passes to end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog. It is
separated from the coronary band by a narrow depression called
the coronary furrow (Moeller). The surface of the perioplic band
glistens faintly, and is thickly studded with numerous thread-

42 HORSESHOEING.

like projections called villi, which are from one-twenty-fifth to
one-twelfth of an inch in length. The perioplic band secretes
the soft horn of the perioplic ring and the periople or varnish-
like outer layer of the wall.

2. The coronary band (Fig. 23, c) lies between the perioplic
band and the sensitive lamine or fleshy leaves. It presents a
prominent convex band or cushion about four-fifths of an inch
wide, which extends entirely around the foot from one bulb of
the heel to the other. In front it directly covers the anterior
extensor tendon of the toe, and at the sides the lateral surfaces
of the os corone and the upper part of the lateral cartilages,
while farther back towards the heels the lateral cartilages pro-
ject considerably above both coronary and perioplic bands. The

coronary band is more convex

Fig. 26. (rounded) in front than on the

sides of the foot, and is flattened

in the region of the bulbs of the
heels. Its surface is thickly cov-
ered with villi, which are longer
and stronger than those of the
perioplic band. At the bulbs of
the heels the coronary band turns
forward and inward along the fleshy
frog nearly to its summit. This por-
tion of the coronary band is from
dine one-third to one-half an inch wide,
, Plantar surface of a foot deprived of and is called the bar portion of the
ho eatule by prolonged macera- oononary band. It is also covered

tion: a, lamin of the bars; b, velvety

tissue of the sole ; ¢, velvety tissue ofthe with villi, Which are directly con-
frog; d, median cleft of the fleshy frog, . c
into which the velvety tissue dips; e, tinuous with those of the fleshy

bulbar Portion of the perioplic band, frog, The coronary band secretes

which passes insensibly into the velvety a ‘s

tissue of the fleshy frog. the principal part (middle layer)
of the horny wall of the hoof,

including the bar portion (bars) of the wall.

3. The fleshy wall, or podophyllous tissue (Figs. 23, 24, d, and 25,

HORSESHOEING. 43

a), is all that portion of the pododerm on which there are fleshy
leaves. This leafy tissue covers the anterior surface of the os
pedis and the lower portion of the external surface of the lateral
cartilages. At the bulbs of the heels it turns inward at a sharp
angle and extends forward and inward, between the bar portion
of the coronary band and the posterior part of the velvety tissue
of the sole, nearly to the middle of the solar surface of the foot, to
form the lamine of the bars (Fig. 25, a). The fleshy wall and fleshy
bars are not covered with villi, but with numerous prominent,
parallel, fleshy leaves placed close together, each of which runs in
a straight line downward and forward from the coronary band to
the lower border of the os pedis. Between the fleshy leaves are
deep furrows in which, in a foot which has not been deprived of
its horny capsule, lie the horny or insensitive leaves of the wall.
The fleshy leaves (podophyllous laminz) are related to one
another somewhat as the leaves of a book; their posterior bor-
ders are attached to the body or basement membrane of the
‘fleshy wall, while their anterior borders and sides are free. At
their upper ends immediately below the coronary band the
leaves are quite narrow, but they gradually increase in width
down to the middle, and thereafter maintain that breadth to the
lower border of the os pedis, where they terminate in free,
fleshy villi, which differ in no respect from those of the fleshy
sole. The number and length of the fleshy leaves vary; in a
medium-sized foot there are about five hundred, while in a large
foot there may be as many as six hundred. On the anterior sur-
face of the os pedis the leaves are thickest and longest; on the
sides and quarters they gradually decrease in length, while in
the bar region they aré the shortest and gradually disappear
near the anterior ends of the bars. The width of the leaves
decreases as they become shorter. Viewed with the naked
eye the leaves appear flat and smooth, but under the micro-
scope one can see on both sides of a fleshy leaf numerous
small, fleshy leaflets parallel to one another and extending
lengthwise with the larger leaf. The large ones are called prin-

44 HORSESHOEING.

cipal leaves, and the small ones are known as collateral leaves, or
simply as leaflets.

The fleshy leaves (podophyllous tissue) secrete the horny
leaves (keraphyllous tissue) and serve to bind the horny wall
to the pododerm. The strength of this union is due largely

to the dovetailing of the

Fie. 26. horny leaves and their

leaflets with the fleshy
leaves and their leaflets.

4. The fleshy sole or
velvety tissue of the sole
(Fig. 25, b) is that part of
the pododerm which cov-
ers all the under surface
of the foot except the
plantar cushion, the bar
lamine, and the bar

Side view of hoof recently removed: a, the perioplic i:
horn-band ; it is swollen from prolonged maceration in portion of the coronary

water; the upper border shows adhering hairs; the : :
inner surface (perioplic groove) presents many minute band. It is sometimes
openings; a’, oe ae pegs eed in slate-colored or studded
passing over the bulb or glome of the heel, and is . :

finally lost in the horny frog; a”, section of wall re- with black spots, but is
moved. That part of hoof on the right of 6 is called usually dark red. It is
the toe ; between b and c is the side wall or “‘ mamma,” . ‘ nus
and between c and d the ‘‘quarter;” e, projecting thickly set with villi,

horny frog; f, coronary groove with numerous minute * s
openings; g, keraphyllous layer of the wall (horny which are especially long

leaves). and strong* near its pe-

riphery. The fleshy sole

covers the solar venous plexus, or net-work of veins, and se-
cretes the horny sole.

5. The velvety tissue of the frog (Fig. 25, c) covers the lower

surface of the plantar cushion, and in the region of the bulbs (e)

passes insensibly into the perioplic band. In comparison with

* In order to see the length, thickness, and abundance of the villi of the
pododerm, place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass jar and cover
it with water, renewing the latter until it is no longer tinged with blood.
The result is astonishing.

HORSESHOEING. 45

the fleshy sole, it has much finer and shorter villi and contains
fewer blood-vessels. It secretes the soft, horny frog.

(c) The horn capsule or hoof (Fig. 26) is the entire mass made
up of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface of the podo-
derm, and next to the shoe is the organ with which the horse-
shoer has most todo. The horn capsule or hoof is nothing more
than a very thick epidermis that protects the horse’s foot, just as
a well-fitting shoe protects the human foot. The hoof of a sound
foot is so firmly united with the underlying pododerm that only
an extraordinary force can separate them. In its normal condi-
tion the hoof exactly fits the soft structures within it; hence it is
evident that local or general contraction of the hoof must pro-
duce pressure on the blood-vessels and nerve-endings of the
pododerm, disturb the circulation of the blood and the nutrition
of the foot, and cause pain.

The hoof is divided into three principal parts, which are
solidly united in the healthy foot,—namely, the wall, the sole,
and the frog. That part of the hoof which is almost wholly
visible when the foot is on the ground (Fig. 26, 6, c), and which
protects the foot in front and upon the sides, is known as the
wall. In position, course, direction, and arrangement of its
parts it simulates the different parts of the pododerm from
which it is developed. It extends from the edge of the hair just
above the coronary band to the ground ; backward it gradually
decreases in height (length), passes around the bulbs of the heels,
and turns forward and inward (Fig. 28, a, 6) to form the bars,
which are finally lost in the edge of the sole near the summit of
the frog. It thus forms at each heel an angle (Fig. 27, d) known
asa buttress, which encloses a branch of the horny sole. Exter-
nally the wall is smooth, covered with the varnish-like periople,
and presents indistinct ring-like markings (Fig. 26). Its inner
surface, on the contrary, presents a great number of horn-leaves
which are spoken of collectively as the keraphyllous tissue
(Fig. 29, f). The upper or coronary border of the wall is thin
and flexible, and on its inner aspect is the coronary groove, into

46 HORSESHOEING.

which fits the coronary band (Fig. 26, f). The lower border of
the wall, called the “‘ bearing-edge” or plantar border (Fig. 27, a),
is the one to which the horseshoe is fastened. By dividing a hoof
from before to behind along its median line, owter and inner halves
or walls are produced, and by dividing the entire lower circum-
ference of the wall into five equal parts or sections, a toe, two
side walls or mamme, and
two quarters will be exhib-
ited (Fig. 27, a, 6, ¢). In
order to designate these re-
gions of the hoof still more
accurately, they are spoken
of as outer and inner toes,
quarters, and heels.

The direction (slant) and
length of the wall vary in one
and the same hoof, as well
as between fore and hind
hoofs. The toe portion of
the wall of fore-hoofs is
the most slanting,—that is,
forms the most acute angle

— with the surface of the
Plantar surface of right fore-hoof: a, a, bearing-

surface of the toe; a, b, bearing-surface of the side ground,—and is also the
walls or mamme; b, ce, bearing-surface of the =
quarters; d, buttress, or angle formed by wall and longest. Towards the uae
bar; €, bar; f, sole; f’, branches of the sole; g, ters the wall gradually be-
white line ; it passes between the sole and bars and $ 3
ends at g’; h, horny frog; i, branches of the frog; os NERY. nearly vertical 2
k, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof; 7, median in almost all hoofs the pos-
lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and the teri t of th 7
horny frog lie the lateral lacunz of the frog. erlor part 0 € quar ers
slants downward and _ in-
ward towards the median vertical antero-posterior plane of the
foot. At the same time the wall, in passing back from the toe to
the heel, becomes gradually shorter in such a manner that the
heights of the toe, side walls, and quarters are related to one

another about as 3:2:1 in front hoofs, and as 4: 3: 2 in hind

HORSESHOEING, _ 47

hoofs. The outer wall is, as a rule, somewhat more slant-
ing than the inner. Viewing a foot in profile, the toe and heel
should be parallel; that is, the line from the hair to the ground
at the toe should be parallel to the line from the hair to the
ground at the but-
tress. All deviations Fig. 28.
of the wall from a
straight line (outward
or inward bendings)
are to be regarded as
faults or defects.
The thickness of the «
wall is also variable.
In front hoofs the Vertical section through the middle of a hoof, with horny
wall is thickest at frog removed, to show the position of the bar: a, b, marks

the line at which the wall bends forward and inward to-
the toe, and becomes wards the median line of the foot to become the bar. Bar

gradually thinner to- runs forward and passes imperceptibly into the sole ¢ a, a,
the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in con-
wards the quarters, tact with the horny frog.
while in hind hoofs
there is very little difference in the thickness of the wall of the
toe, sides, and quarters. Zhe more slanting half of the hoof is
always the thicker ; thus, for example, the outer wall of a base-
wide foot is always longer and more oblique than the inner wall,
and is also thicker. According to Mayer,* the thickness of the
wall at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths of an inch, and
at the quarters from one- to two-fifths of an inch. These meas-
urements are dependent upon the size and breeding of the horse.
The horn wall is composed of three superposed layers. These
from without to within are: (1) the periople, secreted by the
perioplic band. It is very thin, glistening, and varnish-like in
appearance, and covers the entire outer surface of the wall, ex-
cept where it has been removed by the rasp, and prevents rapid
evaporation of moisture from the horn. (2) The middle or pro-

* Hufschmied, vol. iv. p. 50.

48 HORSESHOEING.

tective layer (Fig. 29, d) is the thickest, strongest, and most
important of the three layers; it forms the principal mass of the
wall, and is developed or secreted by the coronary band, which
fits into the coronary groove. There are in the coronary groove
a great number of small, funnel-shaped openings into which
project the horn-producing villi or papillee of the coronary band.

Fig. 29.

pti

The outer wall of the hoof has been removed by cutting vertically through the middle of
the toe, down to the upper surface of the sole, then horizontally backward into the quarter,
and, finally, upward through the quarter: a, perioplic horn-band; b, coronary groove; it
turns inward and forward at c to form the upper border of the bar; d, surface of section of
the wall at the toe; d’, at the quarter; e, surface of horizontal section of the wall near its
lower border; f, keraphyllous layer of the wall; at f’ it turns forward and inward to cover
the bar; f”, horny leaves standing free and passing insensibly into the white horn of the
middle layer or true wall; g, horny sole; 2, white line; 7, small horn-spur in middle of toe;
k, part of horny frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge of the bar; J, frog-stay
of horny frog; it divides the trough-like depression of the upper surface of the frog into m,
the two upper channels of the frog.

(3) The inner layer or keraphyllous layer (Fig. 29, f) consists
of prominent, parallel horn-leaves lying side by side over the
entire inner surface of the middle layer of the wall, and continu-
ing beyond the buttresses to the ends of the bars (Fig. 29, f’).
This layer of horn-leaves (keraphyllous layer) has in a general
way about the same shape and arrangement as the layer of fleshy
leaves (podophyllous layer) which secretes it; for the horn-
leaves fit in with the fleshy leaves in such a way that every
fleshy leaf is embraced by two horn-leaves, and every horn-leaf

HORSESHOEING. 49

by two fleshy leaves (Fig. 30). The keraphyllous layer and the
horn of the inmost part of the middle or protective layer are
always white, even in pigmented (colored) hoofs.

Fia. 30.
(oo ae Ca @” 4a.

a

CONN Aneta x

Cross-section of keraphyllous and podophyllous lamine (horny and fleshy leaves) : a, inmost
part of the solid wall ; the horn-tubes approach very close to the horny leaves; b, body of the
podophyllous membrane ; ¢, horny portion of a horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle
or principal layer of the wall; c’, a rudimentary horn-leaf that does not reach the body of the
podophyllous membrane; ce”, cross-section of horny leaves from the sides of which branch
many secondary leaves (leaflets) composed of soft (young) horn-cells. These soft cellular
horn-leaflets dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets; d, podophyllous lamine ex-
tending from the body of the podophyllous membrane ; @’, podophyllous lamine which have
branched in their course to the wall, and thus given rise to ¢c’, rudimentary horn-leaves; d”,
cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending from the sides of the podophyllous leaves;
each two such leaflets secrete a keraphyllous leaflet between them ; ¢, injected arterial vessels.

The horn sole (Fig. 27, f, and Fig. 29, g) is secreted by the
velvety tissue of the sole. A sole from which the loose flakes
of old horn have been removed is about as thick as the wall.
It covers the under surface of the foot, and presents upon its
upper surface a convexity which exactly fits into the concavity
on the under surface of the os pedis. This upper surface is
thickly covered by a multitude of minute funnel-shaped open-
ings for the reception of the villi of the velvety tissue of the sole
(Fig. 31). The lower surface of the sole is more or less concave,
rough, uneven, and often covered by loose scales of dead horn.

Behind, the sole presents a triangular opening whose borders lie
4

50 HORSESHOEING.

partly in contact with the horny frog and partly with the bars.
This opening or re-entering angle divides the sole into a body
(Fig. 27, f) and two wings or branches (Fig. 27, f’). The outer
border of the sole unites through the medium of the white line

Fia. 32.

Vertical section of the horny sole magnified: a, | Horny frog, with the posterior portion of
funnel-shaped openings which contain the horn- the perioplic horn-band and the periople
producing villi of the fleshy sole; they are of Which covers the quarters removed from the
various sizes; b, horn-tubes; c, intertubular horn. hoof as one piece by maceration : a, trough-

shaped depression of upper surface, which
, ’ is divided posteriorly into the two upper
with the lower part of the inner channels of the frog by b, the frog-stay ; ¢,

— ° < part of the frog that is joined tothe bar and
surface of the wall, that 18, with forms the lateral wall of the depression

the keraphyllous layer of the (channels) on upper surface of frog; d, lat-

ll Thi hite li Fi 27 eral surface of horny frog which, in its
Wall, 1s White line ( igs. 1 upper part, adheres to the bar, but below, at
gd; and 29, h), of so much impor- d’, lies free ; e, point or summit of the frog; f,

tance to the horseshoer, is formed ie aia ince icaie aide
by the horn-leaves, and by those

short plugs of tubular horn which are secreted by the villi that are
always found at the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. The white
line may be said to exist wherever the horn-leaves can be dis-
cerned upon the plantar surface of the hoof. It not only passes
around the circumference of the sole from heel to heel, but may
be followed forward from the buttresses along the bars almost
to the summit of the frog. The horn of the white line is soft,
unpigmented (white), and possesses so very little resistance
(strength) that it is often found crumbling or even absent in

HORSESHOEING. 61

places. The visible part of the white line is usually of a grayish-
black color, owing to the working in from below of dirt and
liquid manure, and to staining by rust from the nails. The white
line is very important, since
it serves as the point from Fig. 33.
which we judge of the thick-
ness of the wall, and be-
cause the horseshoe nail
should penetrate it.

The Frog (Figs. 27, h, 29,
k, l, 32, and 33), secreted by

: ; : 2

the v elvety tissue covering A horny frog cut vertically and lengthwise
the plantar cushion and pre- through its middle: a, upper surface; b, frog-

: stay ; c, median lacuna of frog, which at c’ is
senting almost the same form _ overlaid with superposed layers of horn.
as the latter, lies as a wedge
between the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front
of the bars, with both of which structures it is intimately united.

Its horn is quite soft and very elastic. The median lacuna or cleft

Longitudinal section of the wall magnified. The dark stripes parallel and close together are
horn-tubes ; the lighter surface between the tubes represents the intertubular horn. Notice
that the horn-tubes are of various diameters. The space between a and b represents the small
tubes of the outer, darker horn of the principal (middle) layer of the wall ; the space between
b and ¢ the lighter, inner horn of the wall; c, d, the horn separating the wall proper from the
horny leaves; d, e, the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue), on which can be seen fine, parallel.
vertical stripes: in the horn-leaf at /, /’ are seen fissures passing obliquely upward and out-
ward towards the wall.

of the frog (Fig. 27, 1) divides it into two branches (Fig. 27, i),
which pass backward and outward into the horny bulbs (Fig. 27,

52 HORSESHOEING.

k). In front of the median lacuna the two branches unite to form
the body of the frog (Fig. 27, h), which ends in a point, designated
the point, apex, or summit of the frog.
On the upper surface of the frog, di-
rectly over the median cleft of the
lower surface, there is a small projec-
tion called the frog-stay (Figs. 29, 0, 32,
and 33, 6), which fits into the median
cleft of the plantar cushion. Besides,
the upper surface of the frog shows
many minute openings, similar to but
smaller than those of the sole and
Be ine gear eens) coronary groove, for the reception of
bular horn. oe villi. In unshod hoofs the frog, sole,

bars, and bearing-edge of the wall are
on a level; that is, the plantar surface of such hoofs is perfectly
flat.

The minute structure of the horn can scarcely be considered in detail in an
elementary treatise such as this is. However,a few of the most important
facts are as follows:

If we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the wall
(Fig. 35), sole, or frog, we will see with the naked eye, though much better
with a magnifying glass, many minute points quite close to one another, and
greatly resembling the small openings which we have seen in the coronary
groove of the wall and on the upper surface of the horny sole and frog. If,
now, we examine a longitudinal section of the wall (Fig. 34) or sole, we will
see a number of fine, dark stripes, which are straight, parallel, quite close
to one another, of different widths, and which are separated by bands of
lighter horn also of different widths. A thin section or slice of the wall
taken at right angles to the direction of these dark lines (Fig. 85) shows us
that the minute points that are visible to the naked eye, when held up to the
light or moderately magnified, prove to be small openings (Fig. 85, a). Since
these openings, shown in Fig. 35, represent the dark lines shown in Fig. 34,
because an opening is found wherever there is a dark line, we must regard all
dark lines seen in longitudinal sections of wall, sole, and frog as hollow cylinders
or tubes, though they are not always hollow, but are often filled with loosely
adjusted, crumbling, broken-down horn-cells. The dark edges of the open-
ings (a) consist of thick layers of horn-cells (tube-walls). The entire struc-

HORSESHOEING. 53

ture is called a horn-tube, and the lighter-colored masses of horn (Fig.
35, b) between the tubes are known as intertubular horn.

With the exception of the horny leaves of the wall and
bars, all the horn of the hoof is composed of horn-tubes and
intertubular horn.

The horn-tubes of the wall, sole, and frog always run down-
ward and forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the
toe,—that is, in a direction parallel with the inclination of the
hoof asa whole. Although the wall, sole, and frog differ from
one another considerably with respect to the size and number
of the horn-tubes, the quality of the intertubular horn, and the
thickness and strength of the horn-cells, these differences are
only of subordinate interest or importance to the horseshoer;
but he who desires to learn more of this matter is referred to
the work of Leisering & Hartmann, “Der Fuss des Pferdes in
Riicksicht auf Bau, Verrichtungen und Hufbeschlag,” eighth
edition, Dresden, 1893. This book also treats of the variations
in the quality of hoofs, which is very important for the practical
horse-shoer to know. It, furthermore, considers the solidity
and strength of the horn of the different parts of the hoof.

With respect to solidity, two kinds of horn are distinguished,—
namely, hard and soft horn. The periople, the white line, and the
frog are soft horn structures ; the middle layer of the wall and the
sole are hard or solid horn. The wall, however, is somewhat
harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the latter passes
off in more or less large flakes (exfoliates) or crumbles away on
its lower surface, at least in shod feet, while no such spontaneous
shortening occurs in the wall.

Soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never
become hard and horn-like. It is very elastic, absorbs water
quickly, and as readily dries out and becomes very hard and
brittle and easily fissured and chapped. With respect to quality,
we distinguish good and bad horn; the former is fine and tena-
cious (tough), the latter coarse and either soft and crumbling or

54 HORSESHOEING,

Vertical section through middle of a forefoot, the skin and pododerm being in red. (In
the figure the direction of both long and short pasterns, B and D, is too nearly vertical—too
steep.) .4, metacarpal bone (cannon); B, os suffraginis (long pastern); C, inner sesamoid
bone (to render it visible a portion of the intersesamoid ligament was removed); D, os coro-
ne (short pastern) ; E, os pedis (foot-bone) ; F, navicular bone; a, extensor tendon; b, suspen-
sory ligament of the fetlock ; b’, superficial inferior sesamoid hgament; c, perforatus tendon
or flexor of the os corone ; c’, ring passing forward from this tendon and encircling the per-
forans tendon ; d, perforans tendon ; e, capsular ligament of fetlock-joint ; f, capsular ligament
of coronary joint; g, g’, capsular ligament of pedal joint; 2, synovial sheath of the per-
forans tendon ; 7, plantar cushion and fleshy frog; 7’, bulbs or glomes of plantar cushion ; 7”
indicates the lowest point reached by the plantar cushion, which in the figure is hidden below
by the frog-stay of the horny frog; k, coronary band (red); 2, podophyllous tissue (red) ; m,
velvety tissue of the sole (red); n, velvety tissue of fleshy frog (red); 0, wall; p, sole; q, frog;
q, the inner half of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the fleshy frog; *,
spur of horn in middle of the toe ; s, hair-skin (red).

HORSESHOEING. 58

hard and brittle. If not dried out, all horn is elastic, though soft

horn is more elastic than hard. All horn is a poor conductor of
heat.

Fic. 37.

Right forefoot viewed from the side: A, lower end of the cannon; B, fetlock-joint; C,
long pastern ; D, coronet; £, hoof; F, heel; J’, inner heel ; G, foot-lock covering the ergot.

The relative positions of the various parts of the foot are
shown in Fig. 36.
Fig. 37 represents the exterior of a well-formed foot.

CHAPTER IL.
THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.

As there are well-formed and badly formed bodies, so there
are well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs. The form
of the hoof depends upon the position of the limb. A straight
limb of normal direction possesses, as
a rule, a regular hoof, while an oblique
or crooked limb is accompanied by an
irregular or oblique hoof. Hence, it is
necessary, before discussing the various
forms of the hoof, to consider briefly
the various positions that may be as-
sumed by the limbs. In this discussion
we shall deal with the living horse.

A. Standing Positions of the Limbs.
The position of a limb depends upon -
the varying lengths of its component
bones and the angles at which they
meet one another. To judge the stand-
ing position of a fore-limb one must
stand in front of the horse; to judge a
hind limb, stand behind the horse; the
backward or forward deviations of both
front and hind limbs are judged by
Manual, Geuly ooien Bk standing at the side. Buta horse does
fore-limbs. not always move as his standing posi-

tion would lead one to suspect; stand-

ing and moving are different. Therefore, in order to arrive at a
proper judgment, one must observe the limbs both at rest and in

motion.
56

HORSESHOEING. 57

(a) The position of a limb viewed from in front is normal or
straight (Fig. 38) when it stands vertical or perpendicular. A
plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder (middle of
the scapulo-humeral articulation) should pass down the middle
line of the limb, dividing it into inner and outer halves of equal
width, and meeting the ground at the middle of the toe.

In the base-wide standing position (Fig. 39) the plumb-line falls
to the inner side of the limb; the limb extends obliquely down-
ward and outward. To this class belong also the knee-narrow

Fia. 40. Fia. 41.

Base-wide position of fore- Toe-wide position of fore- V
limbs. limbs, limbs.

(knock-kneed) position, in which the front knees are too close
together, while the feet stand wide apart, and the toe-wide position
(splay-footed, Fig. 40) in which the toes point obliquely forward
and outward. In base-wide positions either the entire limb ex-
tends downward and outward or the foot alone is turned outward.

The base narrow position is frequently observed in horses with
very wide breasts. The limbs run downward and inward, a
plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to the
outer side of the leg and foot. A special form of the base-narrow
position is the toe-narrow or pigeon-toed position (Fig. 41). In

58 HORSESHOEING.

some instances the legs are straight and perpendicular down to
the fetlock, while from there to the ground the phalanges incline
obliquely inward. Another form is the knee-wide or bandy-legged
position, in which the knees are placed too far apart, while the
cannons and phalanges incline downward and inward.

The position of a fore-limb viewed in profile is regular or
normal (Fig. 42) when a perpendicular line dropped from the

Fig. 42.

Normal (regular) position of limbs viewed from the side.

middle of the shoulder-blade (tuberosity of the acromion spine)
divides the leg from the elbow to the fetlock into anterior and
posterior halves of equal width, and touches the ground imme-
diately back of the bulbs of the heel. The foot-avis (line of
direction of the three phalanges) and the wall at the toe form an
angle of from forty-five to fifty degrees with the horizontal
ground-surface.

HORSESHOEING. 59

From this normal or regular standing position, there are devi-
ations forward as well as backward.

Forward Deviations,— Standing in front” or “ camped in
front” (Fig. 43) is that position in which the entire leg from the
body to the ground is placed too far forward. Sheep-kneed (Fig.
44) is that position in which the forward deviation is from the
knee downward, the knee being placed too far under the body.
“ Weak-jointed,” “ low-jointed,” or acute-angled” (Fig. 45) is that

Fig. 44. 5
Tie. 43 Fic. 45.

f

Camped in front. Sheep-kneed position. Acute-angled foot. ,

position in which the limbs are perpendicular and straight down
as far as the fetlock-joint, but the feet are placed too far in front.

Backward Deviations.—Standing under in front (Fig. 46) is
that deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down is
placed back of the perpendicular line and, therefore, too far
under the body. When this deviation affects only the cannon
bone, the horse stands bent forward at the knees,—a condition
known as ‘goat-kneed,” ‘‘ buck-kneed,” “over in the knees,” or,
more commonly, * knee-sprung” (Fig. 47). When the backward
deviation is only from the fetlock down, the animal is said to

60 HORSESHOKEING.

stand upright or “ straight in the fetlock.” Fig. 46 shows this
position of the fetlock, though the leg above is too far back of the
perpendicular line.

(6) A hind leg viewed from behind is said to be regular or
straight (Fig. 48) when a perpendicular line dropped from the
tuberosity of the ischium (see Fig. 1, 9’’) divides the entire limb
into inner and outer halves of equal width and touches the
ground opposite the
median lacuna of the
frog. Seen from the
side, this line just
touches the point of
the hock and, passing
down at some dis-
tance from the flexor
tendons, meets the
ground considerably
back of the heels. A
perpendicular line
dropped from the
hip-joint should pass
through the foot,

meeting the ground

Standing under in front. Knee-sprung (goat-kneed) z
Paeion half-way between the

Fic. 46. Fia. 47.

point of the toe and
the heel (Fig. 42). There are base-wide, base-narrow, toe-
wide, and toe-narrow deviations in the hind limbs as in the
fore-limbs.

The hind limbs are base-wide when they, either as a whole or
in part, deviate outward from the normal. The “ cow-hocked”
position (Fig. 49) is an example of the base-wide; in this case
the points of the hocks are too close and turn towards each other,
while the feet are widely separated and the toes turned outward.
Base-narrow (Fig. 50) is that position of the hind legs in which
the hocks are too far apart (bandy-legged).

HORSESHOEING. 61

Viewing a hind limb from the side, it may be observed to de-
viate either forward or backward from the normal. Among for-
ward deviations is the so-called ‘“ sabre-leg” or ‘ sickle-hock” (Fig.
51), in which the hock-joint is too much flexed, the foot placed
too far forward under the body, and the fetlock too slanting. In
the position known as ‘“ camped behind”
(Fig. 52) the leg is behind the body and the
pastern is too upright, too nearly vertical.

Fie. 48.

Fia. 50.

= ee een ote ee ek AS f

Normal (regular) position of Base-wide position of hind = Base-narrow position of hind
hind limbs viewed from be- limbs (cow-hocked). limbs (bandy-legged).
hind.

It is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a
different direction. It more often happens that if the fore-limbs
are base-wide the hind limbs are base-narrow, or vice versa.
While there are some other deviations that differ somewhat from
those already described, they are of less importance to the horse-
shoer.

62 HORSESHOEING.

B. Forms of Feet, viewed from in Front, from Behind,
and in Profile.

In all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in

one of the following three forms, or very like one of them. By

means of a proper knowledge of these three forms, the judging

Fria. 51. Fig. 52.

Sabre-legged or sickle-hocked position. Camped behind.

of the form, flight of the foot in travelling, and preparation of
the hoof for the shoe, as well as the choice of the length of the
shoe, are regulated, facilitated, and simplified.

Fig. 53. Fig. 54.

HORSESHOEING. 63

_ Whether a horse’s feet be observed from in front or from be-
hind, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that
of the regular position (Figs. 53 and 54), the base-wide or toe-

Fig. 55.

ee Sj

A pair of feet of the base-wide (toe-wide) position.

wide position (Figs. 55 and 56), or the base-narrow or toe-nar-
row position (Figs. 57 and 58).

By the direction of the foot-axis—that is, an imaginary line
passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones (Figs.

Fia. 57.

A pair of feet of the base-narrow (toe-narrow) position.

53, 57, 59, 60, and 61)—we determine whether or not the hoof
and pastern stand in proper mutual relation.

In the regular standing position (Figs. 53 and 54) the foot-axis
runs straight downward and forward, in the base-wide position

64 ' HORSESHOEING.

(Figs. 55 and 56) it runs obliquely downward and outward, and
in the base-narrow position (Figs. 57 and 58) it runs obliquely
downward and inward.

Viewing the foot from the side, we distinguish the regular (nor-
mal) position (Fig. 60), and designate all forward deviations as

Fia. 59. Fia. 60. Fia. 61.

The so-called acute-angled Normal-angled hoof. So-called stumpy or obtuse-
hoof. angled hoof.

acute-angled (long toe and low heel, Fig. 59), and all deviations
backward from the regular position as obtuse-angled * (short
toe and high heel, Fig. 61), steep-toed, or stumpy.

When the body-weight is uniformly dis-
tributed over all four limbs, the foot-axis
should he straight (Figs. 59 and 61, dotted
line), not “broken” (bent); the long pas-
tern, wall at the toe, and foot-axis should
have the same slant..

A peculiar form of foot is the so-called
bear-foot (Fig. 62), in which the foot-axis,
viewed from the side, is broken strongly
forward at the coronet. The wall at the
toe stands much steeper than the long
pastern; in other words, a low-jointed,
sloping pastern is attached to an upright (obtuse-angled) hoof.
Such a foot is sometimes improperly called a * club-foot.”

* The expression “‘ obtuse-angled” is here used only in a comparative sense.

HORSESHOEING. 65

C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion.

If we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground,
we will notice differences in the carriage of the feet. In the
regular standing position of the limbs the hoofs are carried for-

Fig. 63. Fie. 64. Fig. 65.

@ 2 @

A } : A

ward in a straight direction,—that is, in a line parallel with the
median line of the body (Fig. 63). The toes likewise point
straight forward ; the hoofs alight properly (flat) on the ground.

If the horse stands base-wide, the hoof is carried in a circle ; from
5

66 HORSESHOEING.

its position, which is behind and well out from the median line,
the hoof passes first forward and inward until it is close to the
supporting leg, and then outward to the ground (Fig. 64), where
the shock is received principally upon the outer toe. The toes
point either directly forward, as in the regular standing position,
or forward and outward as in the toe-wide position.

Exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands base-narrow ;
in this case the hoof is moved in a circle whose convexity is
outward,—that is, the hoof from its position behind, and close to
the median line, is carried forward and outward and then inward
to the ground (Fig. 65). The direction in which the hoofs move
is diagrammatically illustrated in Figs. 63, 64, and 65. Many
deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the manner in
which they are set to the ground occur; for example, horses
heavily burdened or pulling heavy loads, and, therefore, not
having free use of their limbs, project their limbs irregularly and
meet the ground first with the toe; however, careful observation
will detect the presence of one or the other of these lines of flight
of the foot. Irregular carriage of the feet renders a horse
unsuitable for general purposes only when it is very pronounced,
in which case certain troublesome conditions, such as interfering
and disease of joints, are of frequent occurrence.

D. Forms of Hoofs.

A front hoof of the regular standing position (Fig. 66). The
inner and outer walls differ but little in direction and thickness.
The outer wall is a little thicker and somewhat more slanting
than the inner (see Figs. 53 and 54), and its outer circumference
describes a larger arc of a circle,—that is, is more curved, as can
be seen both at its plantar border and at the coronet. The
length of the quarter in relation to the length or height of the
side wall and toe is about as 1:2:3. The toe forms an angle
with the ground of forty-five to fifty degrees (see Fig. 60). The
direction of the wall at the toe, viewed from the side, should be
parallel with the direction of the long pastern.

HORSESHOEING. 67

A hoof of the base-wide position (Fig. 67) is always awry, because
the outer wall is naturally somewhat longer and decidedly more
slanting than the inner (see
Figs. 55 and 56). The plan-
tar border of the outer wall
describes a large arc, whose
sharpest curvature is where
the side wall passes into the
quarter. The plantar body
of the inner wall is straighter
(less curved) ; the outer half
of the ground: surface (sole)
of the hoof is, therefore,
wider than the inner. So
long as the hoof is healthy,
both branches of the frog
are equally developed. The
wryness of the hoof depends
upon the direction of the E
limb; therefore, a base-wide Right fore-hoof of the regular position.
hoof should be regarded as
a normally wry hoof, to distinguish it from hoofs which are wry
from disease.

A hoof of the toe-wide position (Fig. 68) is distinguished from
the preceding by the bending or curvature of the plantar border
of the outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly less
pronounced than on the inner toe and outer quarter; therefore,
two short curves and two long curves lie opposite each other ; in
other words, the inner toe and outer quarter, lying opposite each
other, are sharply curved, while the outer toe and inner quarter,
lying opposite each other, are much less sharply bent or curved.
The toes are turned out. The feet are not set down flat upon
the ground, but meet it with the outer toe.

A hoof of the base-narrow position is normally wry, but never so
pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position. The inner

68 HORSESHOEING.

Right fore-hoof of the base-wide position. Right fore-hoof of the toe-wide position.

wall is but little more oblique than the outer, the difference
being most noticeable at the quarters (Figs. 57 and 58). The
curve of the plantar border
of the wall is similar to that
of a regular hoof, except
that the inner side wall and
quarter are a little more
sharply curved in a hase-
narrow hoof. Occasionally
the outer quarter is some-
what drawn in under the
foot.

This form of hoof is most
distinctly marked in animals
that stand toe narrow or are
bandy-legged.

As to the forms of the hind

: Ese hoofs, what has been said

Right hind hoof of the regular position. i ‘i
concerning the influence of
position of the limbs upon the shape of the front feet will apply
equally well to them. The hind hoof (Fig. 69) is not round at

HORSESHOEING. 69

the toe, but somewhat pointed or oval. Its greatest width is
between the middle and posterior thirds of the sole. It usually
has a strongly concaved sole and a somewhat steeper toe than
the fore-hoof; viewed from the side, the angle of the toe with the
ground in the regular standing position is from fifty to fifty-five
degrees.

Finally, we also distinguish wide and narrow hoofs; they are
not dependent upon the position of the limbs, but upon the race
and breeding of the animal.

The wide hoof (Fig. 70) is almost round upon its plantar sur-
face. Its wall runs quite oblique to the ground. The sole is but
moderately concave, and the frog is strong and well developed.

Fie. 71.

Wide fore-hoof. Narrow fore-hoof.

The narrow hoof (Fig. 71) is rather elliptical, with steep side walls,
strongly concaved sole, and small, undeveloped frog. The horn
of the narrow hoof is fine and tough; of the wide hoof, usually
coarse. The wide hoof may readily become flat. Narrow hoofs
are either the result of breeding or premature shoeing.

In enumerating the preceding forms of the hoof we have by
no means referred to all the forms in which the hoof may be

70 HORSESHOEING.

found; on the contrary, hoofs vary in shape and quality to such
an extent that among a hundred horses no two hoofs can be
found which are exactly alike. In fact, the same variety exists
as in the faces of people, and we know that we can recall in
succession even many more faces without finding two that are
exactly alike. This explains the manifold differences in horse-
shoes with respect to size, form, and other qualities.

Suppose now a hoof is before us; it is first necessary to know
whether or not it is healthy. Unfortunately, a perfectly healthy
hoof is not so easy to find as one may think. We recognize a
sound hoof by the following marks: Seen from in front or from
the side, the course of the wall from the coronet to the ground,
in the direction of the horn-tubes, is straight,—that is, bent
neither in nor out. A straight edge, placed upon the wall in the
direction of the horn-tubes, touches at every point. The wall
must show neither longitudinal nor transverse cracks or fissures.
If there be rings, their position and course are important. Rings
which pass around the entire circumference of the wall parallel
to the coronet indicate nothing more than disturbances of nutri-
tion of the hoof; but the hoof cannot pass for sound when the
rings have any other position and direction than the one men-
tioned, or if the rings upon any part of the wall are more marked
than elsewhere, even though they may be parallel to the coro-
nary band. Marked ring-building upon the hoofs of horses
which have regular feeding, grooming, and work indicates a weak
hoof. Viewed from the ground-surface and from behind, the
bulbs of the heels should be well rounded, strongly developed,
and not displaced. The concave sole should show no separation
along the white line. The frog should be strong, well developed,
and have symmetrical branches and a broad, shallow, dry me-
dian lacuna. The lateral lacune of the frog should be clean
and not too narrow. The bars should pass in a straight direc-
tion forward and inward towards the point of the frog. Any
bending outward of the bars towards the branches of the sole
indicates the beginning of a narrowing of the space occupied by

HORSESHOEING. 71

the frog,—that is, contraction of the heels. The horn of the
branches of the sole in the buttresses and in their proximity .
should show no red staining. The lateral cartilages should be
elastic. No part of the foot should be weakened at the cost of
other parts. By firm union of all strong parts the strength
and vigor of the hoof is in no sense disturbed. If one desires
to ascertain the exact form and state of health of the hoof, it must
never be inspected and judged alone, but in connection with the
entire limb.

E. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe.

All parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and for-
ward, the material for this growth being furnished by the re-
markably large quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm.
The growth of the hoof is regulated by the nerves.

As a rule, the hoof grows uniformly,—that is, one section of
the wall grows just as rapidly as another. A visible indication
of growth is the increase in height and width of the hoof from
colthood to maturity.

The rapidity of growth of the wall varies, amounting in a
month to from one-sixth to one-half of an inch. The average
monthly growth in both shod and unshod horses of both sexes
is, according to my own experiments, one-third of an inch.
Hind hoofs grow faster than front hoofs, and unshod faster than
shod. The hoofs of stallions grow more slowly than those of
mares and geldings.

Abundant exercise, proper grooming (flexibility and moist-
ness of the horn), regular dressing of the wall, and running
barefoot from time to time favor growth; while little or no
exercise, dryness, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth.

The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to
the ground is, therefore, equally variable, and is, moreover, de-
pendent upon the height (length of toe) of the hoof. At the toe
the horn grows down in from eleven to thirteen months, at the
mammee or sides in from six to eight months, and at the quarters

72 HORSESHOEING.

in from three to five months. The time required for the re-
- newal of the entire hoof we term the period of hoof renewal. If,
for example, we know exactly the rapidity of horn growth in a
given case, we can estimate without difficulty the length of the
‘period of hoof renewal,” as well for the entire hoof as for
each individual section of the wall. The duration of many
diseases of the hoof (cracks, clefts, partial bendings of the wall,
contractions, etc.) can be foretold with relative certainty only by
knowing the period of hoof renewal.

Irregular growth sometimes takes place. The chief cause of
this is usually an improper distribution of the body-weight over

the hoof,—that is, an unbalanced

Fig. 72. foot. Wry hoofs of faulty positions

: of the limbs are often exposed to

this evil; a faulty preparation of the

hoof (dressing) for the shoe, as well

as neglect of the colt’s hoofs, is in

the majority of cases directly re-
sponsible for this condition.

If in the shortening of the wall a
part is from ignorance left too long,
or one-half of the hoof shortened
too much in relation to the other
half, the foot will be unbalanced.

enioked atetit) dorecnoot The horse will then touch the ground
first with the section of wall which

has been left too high, and will continue to do so until this long
section has been reduced to its proper level (length) by the
increased wear which will take place at this point. In unshod
hoofs this levelling process takes place rapidly ; such, however,
is not the case in shod hoofs, for here the shoe prevents rapid
wear, and, indeed this levelling process is often rendered impos-
sible through the welding of high steel calks to the shoe. If
this fault in trimming be repeated at the next and subsequent
shoeings, and if the faulty relation of the ground-surface of the

HORSESHOEING. 73

hoof to the direction of the fetlock axis remain during several
months, the portion of wall left too high will grow more rapidly,
the walls will lose their natural straight direction and become
bent. If, for example, the outer wall has been left too long
during a considerable period of time, a crooked hoof results
(Fig. 72) in which the rings are placed closer together upon the
low (concave) side than upon the high (convex) side. If fora
long time the toe is excessively long, it will become bent; or if
this fault affects excessively high quarters, they will contract
either just under the coronary band or will curl forward and
inward at their lower borders. These examples are sufficient
to show both the importance of the manner in which a horse
places his foot to the ground and its influence upon the loading,
growth, and form of the hoof.

Wear of the Shoe and of the Hoof upon the Shoe.

The wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of
the animal’s body than by the rubbing which takes place be-
tween the shoe and the earth whenever the foot is placed to the
ground and lifted.

The wear of the shoe which occurs when the foot is placed
on the ground is termed ‘grounding wear,” and that which
occurs while the foot is being lifted from the ground is termed
“swinging-off wear.” When a horse travels normally, both
kinds of wear are nearly alike, but are very distinct when the
paces are abnormal, especially when there is faulty direction of
the limbs. While in the majority of horses whose limbs have
been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are most
marked at the toe of the shoe, we see relatively fewer cases of
“rounding wear” at the ends of the branches (as in laminitis) ;
on the contrary, we always notice “ swinging-off wear” at the
toe of the shoe. It is worthy of notice that length of stride
has much to do with the wear. We observe that with shorten-
ing of the stride both kinds of wear occur at the toe of the
shoe, and this is rapidly worn away, as is the case with horses

74 HORSESHOEING.

which are fretful and prance under the rider, draw heavy loads,
or from any other cause, as disease or infirmity, are obliged to
shorten their steps. With increase of length of stride the wear
of the shoe becomes more uniform.

Also the position and form of the shoe have a marked influence
upon its wear; at the place where the shoe is too far under
the hoof, either as a result of shifting or of having been nailed
on crooked, or where the outer branch has not the necessary
width, or does not form a sufficiently large curve, the wear will
be increased.

The wear of the hoof wpon the shoe occurs as a result of the
movements of the quarters. Visible indications of this are the
brightly polished, often sunken places upon the bearing-surface
of the ends of the branches, showing that scouring occurs be-
tween the horn and the iron. Shoes which show brightly pol-
ished places in their anterior halves have been loose. The wear
of the quarters upon the shoe is not always uniform, but is
usually greater on the inner than on the outer quarter, especially
in base-wide feet. The degree of this wear of the hoof may be
from nothing to one-fifth of an inch or more from one shoeing to
the next. Finally, we should remember that this usually invisi-
ble scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails at the
quarters to become loose, and that this is more clearly marked
in the front than in the hind hoofs.

F. Physiological Movements of the Hoof. (Mechanism
of the Hoof.)

These movements comprise all those changes of position within
and of the hoof which are brought about by alternately weighting
and relieving the foot, and which are manifest as changes of
form of the hoof. The following changes in form of the hoof are
most marked at the time that the hoof bears greatest weight,—
that is, simultaneous with the greatest descent of the fetlock-joint.

1. A lateral expansion over the entire region of the quarters,
occurring simultaneously at the coronary and plantar borders.

HORSESHOEING. 75

This expansion is small, and in general varies between one-
fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch.

2. A narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof measured at
the coronary border.

3. A decrease in height of the hoof, with a slight sinking of the
heels,

4. A flattening (sinking) of the sole, especially in its branches.

These changes of form are much more pronounced in the half
of the hoof that bears the greater weight.

A hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form,
and the tissues enclosed within it a different position, than when
not bearing weight. Since loading and unloading of the foot are
continually alternating, the relations of internal pressure even in
the standing animal are continuously changing, so that, strictly
speaking, the hoof is never at rest.

The changes in form take place in the following order: the
body-weight falls from above upon the os corone, os pedis, and
navicular bone, and at the moment that the foot is placed upon
the ground is trans-
mitted through the sen- Fie. 73.
sitive lamine and horny
laminz to the wall. At
the instant that the fet-
lock reaches its lowest
point the os pedis bears
the greatest weight.
Under the body-weight
the latter yields, and

with the navicular bone
i Vertical, transverse section of a foot seen from behind :
sinks downward and A, os corone ; B, os navicularis; C, os pedis; a, lateral

backward. At the same cartilage ; b, anterior portion of fleshy frog ; ¢, section of
perforans tendon ; d, suspensory tendon of the navicular

time the upper posterior bone; J, wall; m, sole; 7, white line; 0, frog.
portion of the os coro-
ne (Fig. 73, A) passes backward and downward between the

lateral cartilages (a), which project above the upper border of

76 HORSESHOEING.

the wall, and presses the perforans tendon down upon the
plantar cushion. The plantar cushion being compressed from
above, and being unable to expand downward, is correspond-
ingly squeezed out towards the sides and crowded against the
lateral cartilages, and they, yielding, press against and push be-
fore them the wall at the quarters. The resistance of the earth
acts upon the plantar surface of the hoof, and especially upon
the frog, and it, widening, crowds the bars apart, and in this
manner contributes to the expansion of the quarters, especially
at their plantar border (see Fig. 73). The horny sole under the
descent and pressure of the os pedis sinks a little—that is, the
arch of the sole becomes somewhat flattened. All these changes
are much more marked upon sound unshod hoofs, because in
them the resistance of the earth upon the sole and frog is pro-
nounced and complete. These changes in form are more marked
in front feet than in hind. In defective and diseased hoofs it
may happen that at the moment of greatest weight-bearing, in-
stead of an expansion a contraction may occur at the plantar
border of the quarters.

Three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief part
in these movements,—namely, the lateral cartilages, the plantar
cushion, and the horny frog. “Besides these structures, indeed,
all the remaining parts of the horn capsule, especially its coro-
nary border, possess more or less elasticity, and contribute to
the above-mentioned changes of form.

In order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their
proper activity, regular and abundant exercise, with protection
against drying out of the hoof, is absolutely necessary, because
the movements of the different structures within the foot and
the changes of form that occur at each step are indispensable in
preserving the health of the hoof. Long-continued rest in the
stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the
physiological movements of the foot, and this leads under cer-
tain conditions to foot diseases, with which the majority of horse
owners are entirely unacquainted.

HORSESHOEING. 77

As an outward, visible indication of the mobility of the quar-
ters upon the shoe we may point to the conspicuous, brightly
polished, and often sunken spots, or grooves, upon the ends of
the branches. They are produced partly by an in-and-out
motion of the walls at the quarters, and partly by a forward and
backward gliding of the quarters upon the shoe.

The benefits of these physiological movements within the hoof are
manifold :

1. Through them shock is dispersed and the body protected
from the evil consequences of concussion or shock.

2. These movements increase the elasticity of the entire limb,
and in this way contribute much to a light and elegant gait.

3. They maintain a lively circulation of blood in the vessels
of the pododerm, and this insures a rapid growth of horn.

Since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes
with the physiological movements of the hoof, alters them, in-
deed, almost suppresses them, and that all these movements are
spontaneous and natural only in sound unshod hoofs, we are jus-
tified in regarding shoeing as a necessary evil. However, it is in-
dispensable if we wish to render horses serviceable upon hard
artificial roads. If, in shoeing, consideration be given to the
structure and functions of the hoof, and particularly to the foot-
surface of the shoe, the ends of the branches being provided
with a smooth, level bearing-surface, which allows free play to
the elastic horn capsule, in so far as this is not hindered by the
nails we need have no fear of subsequent disease of the hoofs,
provided the horse is used with reason and receives proper care.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.
SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.

A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to shoeing.

An examination should be made while the animal is at rest,
and afterwards while in motion. The object of the examination
is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of
the limbs, of the form and character of the feet and hoofs, of the
manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground, of the
form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, and distribution of
the nail-holes, in order that at the next and subsequent shoeings
all ascertained peculiarities of hoof-form may be kept in mind
and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected.

The examination is best conducted in the following order:
The horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the
observer over as level a surface as possible, then turned about
and brought back, that the examiner may notice the direction of .
the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are moved and set
to the ground. While the animal is moving away the observer
notices particularly the hind limbs, and as it comes towards him
he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few steps at a trot will not
only show whether or not the animal is lame, but will often
remove all doubt in those cases in which, while the animal was
walking, the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to
which was the predominating position of the limb. The problem

presented is, therefore, to determine whether or not the direction
78

HORSESHOEING. 79

of the limbs, the lines of flight of the hoofs, and the manner in
which they are set down and picked up are regular. If there
are deviations from the normal they will fall either into the base-
wide and toe-wide group or into the base-narrow and toe-narrow
group. When clear upon these points the horse is allowed to
stand quietly, and the observer, placing himself in front, examines
the foot more closely, fixes the direction of the foot axis clearly
in his mind, marks also the form and character of the hoofs and
the position of the coronets, as far as these parts can be inspected
from in front. At the same time each hoof should be closely in-
spected to determine whether the slant of both quarters corre-
sponds to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the
course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is
straight or bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved
from above to below always indicate an unnatural height of some
section of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of
the foot. In order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of
the position of the limbs, the flight of the hoofs, and the manner
of setting the foot to the ground, the horse must frequently be
moved back and forth many times, especially when the standing
position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different
shapes.

At this point begins the examination of the position of the
limbs, and the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After cast-
ing a glance over the entire body, so as to gain an idea of the
animal’s weight, height, and length, the attention is turned to the
position and direction of the limbs and hoofs. The eye should
particularly note whether the form of the hoof corresponds to
the position of the limb, and, furthermore, whether the slant of
the fetlock is the same as that of the wall at the toe,—that is,
whether the foot axis is straight or broken; also whether the
toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is sometimes bulging
(convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the coronet and
plantar border, and the quarters are frequently contracted and
drawn or shoved under the foot (weak quarters). If the wall

80 HORSESHOEING.

presents rings the observer should note their position with refer-
ence to one another and to the coronet, and also their extent,
and, furthermore, should determine whether or not they cross
one another (thrush of the frog). At the same time he should
notice the length of the shoes.

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice
the width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the character of
the frog, the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well as the
presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the old shoes
should be examined as to their age, form, the distribution and
direction of their nail-holes (‘ punching’’), position, and wear.
With respect to the form of the old shoe, one should observe
whether or not it corresponds to the form of the hoof. The
same careful examination should be made of the number and
distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the position of the
shoe, one must first ascertain whether it completely covers the
bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the shoe extends be-
yond the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given
rise to irregular wear. Finally, the wear of the shoe should be
observed, and the following points borne in mind: One-sided
wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an unnatural course of
the wall are often found together, especially when uneven wearing
of the shoe has existed for a long time,—that is, during several
shoeings. Asa rule, in such a case the more worn branch of
the shoe is too near the centre of the foot, and the opposite
branch too far from the centre (too * full’) ; in other words, the
base of support (shoe) has been shifted too far in the direction
of the less worn branch. Moreover, increased wear of a part
of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it
is too high (too long), or that the wall upon the opposite side of
the foot is too low (short). The twisting movement of many
hind feet should, from physiological reasons, not be hindered by
shoeing.

HORSESHOEING. 81

B. Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse to be

shod.

This can always be done without much trouble if the horse
has been accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules
governing the manner of taking hold of the feet, and of after-
wards manipulating them, are of value.

A shoer should never grasp a foot suddenly, or with both
hands. The horse should first be prepared for this act. First
see that the horse stands in such a position that he can bear his
weight comfortably upon three legs. This is well worth no-
ticing, and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an
easy position, move him gently until his feet are well under his
body.

If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left forefoot, he
stands on the left side facing the animal, speaks quietly to him,
places the palm of the right hand flat upon the animal's shoul-
der, and, at the same time, with the left hand strokes the limb
downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon from in front.
With the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards the
opposite side, and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted
upon the other leg, he lifts it from the ground. The right hand
now grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand
upon the outside ; then, turning partly to the right, the holder sup-
ports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in which position he should
always stand as quietly and firmly as possible. The hoof should
not be held higher than the elbow-joint, but for more comfortable
work somewhat lower and never too far back of the elbow. In

’ lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently stroked back
as far as the angle of the hip, against which the left hand is
placed for support, while the right hand strokes the limb down
to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps from behind. While
the left hand presses the animal’s weight over towards the right
side, the right hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and
outward from the body so that the limb is bent at the hock. The

6

82 HORSESHOEING.

holder then turns his body towards the right, brings his left leg
against the anterior surface of the fetlock-joint, and carries the
foot backward, at which time his left arm passes over the horse’s
croup and above and to the inner side of the hock. Finally,
both hands encompass the long pastern.

If the right feet are to be raised, the process is simply reversed.

In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by
pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise shoer
avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, rapid,
painless methods avail much more. In dealing with young
horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long; let them
down from time to time. In old and stiff’ horses the feet should
not be lifted too high, especially in the beginning of the shoeing.

Vicious horses must often be severely handled. Watch the
play of the ears and eyes continually, and immediately punish
every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter or bridle
vigorously, or by loud commands. If this does not avail, then
if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as rapidly as
possible for some time over this soft surface ; it is very disa-
greeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind foot we may
knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side line) into the tail,
loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and hold the end.
This often renders valuable service. The holder seizes the band
close to the fetlock, draws the foot forward under the body, and
then holds it as above described. The use of such a band com-
pels the horse to carry a part of his own weight, and at the same
time hinders him from kicking. Before attempting to place this
rope or band about the fetlock, the front foot on the same side
should be raised. :

The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their use
should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to
be done. The application of the tourniquet, or ‘‘ Spanish wind-
lass,” to the hind leg is equally objectionable.

Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do
not immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a

HORSESHOEING. 83

quiet, trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and
attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention
and confidence.

Ticklish horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light touches
of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than
energetic, rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow their feet
to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without any pre-
paratory movements.

C. Removing the Old Shoes.

If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken off
at the same time, but there are certain diseases of the hoof in
which this should not be done.

The rule to follow in removing every shoe is to draw it cau-
tiously, not wrench it away with violence. Hoofs which are
dirty should first be cleansed, preferably with a stiff brush.
Next, the clinches should be carefully lifted by means of a rather
dull clinch cutter without injuring the horn of the wall. In order,
now, that the nails may be removed singly, the shoe must be
slightly lifted. This may be done in one of two ways. The
shoer may use a pair of pincers with broad bills which will
encompass the branch of the shoe and come well together
underneath it. The handles of the pincers are then moved in
the direction of the branches of the shoe. The second method
consists in raising the branches of the shoe by driving the nail-
cutter from behind between the shoe and hoof and using it as a
lever or pry to loosen the shoe.

Violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of
ligaments may easily occur, but the smith should guard against
them by supporting the hoof with the left hand or with the leg
just above the knee, while loosening the shoe.

D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.

This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or dress-
ing. It is a most important step in the process of shoeing, and

84 HORSESHOEING.

its object is to shorten the hoof, which has grown too long under
the protection of the shoe, and prepare it to receive the new
shoe. The instruments needed for this work are the rasp and
the hoof-knife (Fig. 74); upon large and hard hoofs a pair of
sharp nippers, or a sharp hewing knife, with broad handle and
perfectly flat, smooth sides, may be used, since these instru-
ments will considerably facilitate and hasten the work.

Fic. 74.

German-English hoof-knife.

After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the man-
ner described upon pages 79 and 80, and has fixed in mind the
relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the
body, he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old nails.
At the same time he should be asking himself i/, where, and how
much horn is to be removed. In all cases all loosely attached
fragments of horn are to be removed, for example, chips of
horn produced by repeated bending and stretching of the lower
border of the wall. The sole is then freed from all flakes of
dead horn. The shoer then runs the rasp around the outer
border of the wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he
thinks it should be shortened, and then cuts the wall down to
its union with the sole, so that at least one-tenth of an inch
of the edge of the sole lies in the same level as the bearing-
surface of the wall. Finally, the wall, white line, and outer
margin of the sole, forming the “ bearing-surface,” must be
rasped until they are perfectly horizontal, except that at the
toe this bearing-surface may be bent slightly upward (rolled toe).

In dressing the hoof the frog should always be left prominent
enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters

HORSESHOEING. 85

about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. If it be weakened
by paring, it is deprived of its activity, shrinks, and the hoof
becomes narrow to a corresponding degree. The frog should,
therefore, be trimmed only when it is really too prominent. How-
ever, loose and diseased particles of horn may be trimmed away
from the frog when it is affected with thrush.

The bars should be spared and never shortened except when
too long. Their union with the wall at the quarters must in no
case be weakened, and never cut through (opening up the heels).
They should be left as high as the wall at the quarters, or only
a little less, while the branches of the sole should lie about one-
twelfth of an inch lower.

The buttress (angle formed by the union of wall and bar) re-
quires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars run
backward and outward in a straight line from the point of the
frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the buttresses
gradually lengthen, curl inward, and press upon the branches of
the frog, causing the latter to shrink. In such cases the indica-
tion is to remove these prolongations of horn from the buttresses
so as to restore to the bars their normal direction.

The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be
broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the
wall equals its absolute thickness. However, in healthy hoofs,
that is, in those whose walls are straight from the coronet to the
ground, the outer surface of the wall should never be rasped.
The only exceptions to this rule are those cases in which there
is an outward bending of the lower edge of the wall, most fre-
quent on the inner side wall and quarter.

With respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the
hoof to the direction of the fetlock axis, as viewed from in
front, the following facts are established :

In the regular standing position of the limbs (seen from in
front) the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot
axis, and the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.

In the base-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is

86 HORSESHOEING.

more or less inclined to the foot axis, usually to a very small
degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher (longer) and more
slanting than the inner.

In the base-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof-
surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot axis,

usually quite considerably, and the
Fia. 75, inner wall is somewhat higher than
the outer.

The foot is observed from the side
in order to determine the proper re-
lation of the length of the toe to the
height of the quarters.

In this also the foot axis is our guide.
If this axis is as it should be, the wall
at the toe and the long pastern will

Longitudinal (vertical) sectionof have the same slant (Figs. 59, 60, and
ot 61). If the hoof has become too long
of the wall. With aas the centre, under the protection of the shoe, this
and the Line a cas a radius, actrcle will be shown by the foot axis being

is drawn ; the corner of horn in front
of this circle and indicated by dot- no longer a straight line, but broken

re to be removed with the backward at the coronet (Fig. 76);
that is, the hoof in comparison with the
fetlock will be too slanting. By shortening the toe more than the
quarters this faulty relation will be corrected (Fig. 77) and the
foot restored to its proper slant. The plantar surface of the hoof
is therefore correct (balanced) when the horse places the foot
flat upon the ground in travelling, and when the lines bound-
ing the hoof, viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile,
correspond to the direction of the three phalanges (foot axis).
Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing from
flat shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs must
first be dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will remain
straight, and the feet be set always flat to the ground when the
new shoes are on. Each hoof, when ready for the new shoe,
should be let down and the horse allowed to stand upon it while

HORSESHOEING. 87

it is again carefully examined and closely compared with the
opposite hoof. Only after such close inspection has proved the
dressing to be faultless can the hoof be considered as properly

Fig. 76.

Foot with an untrimmed hoof; the foot The same foot dressed, by removal of that
axis is broken backward, and there isasur- portion of the wall below the dotted line in
plus growth of horn at the bottom of the wall. Fig. 76. The relation between hoof and pas-

tern is improved.

prepared and ready for the shoe. The two front hoofs and the two
hind hoofs, when the legs are in the same position, should not only be
of equal size, but also in proper relation to the size and weight of the
body.

E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.

This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and
the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing un-
necessary. However, to go barefoot the hoof must have plenty
of horn, After removing the shoes the frog should be pared
down nearly to the level of the wall, and the sharp outer edge
of the wall well rounded off with the rasp, in some cases as far
as the white line, otherwise large pieces of the wall will readily
break away. Hoofs with very slanting walls must be more
strongly rounded off than upright or stumpy hoofs. Going bare-
foot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition of
these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and
any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately

88 HORSESHOEING.

corrected. It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of
the wall must be repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique
walls (outer half of base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may re-
quire frequent shortening, because they are not always worn
away as fast as the horn at the toe.

F. Making Shoes.*

Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with
a round horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed
hand-hammer, a round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel
of good steel, and, if a fullered shoe is to be made, a round
fuller. Bodily activity and, above all else, a good eye for
measurement are not only desirable, but necessary. A shoe
should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough to make
the most of the heat.

The best method of making a shoe is that originated by Count
Einsiedel. It may be followed with but slight alterations in
making all ordinary shoes, whether heavy or light, and has this
advantage, that it enables the one who practises it for a time to
do rapid, neat, and elegant work.

To make a flat shoe, take the length of the hoof from the point of the toe
to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof; these two measurements,
when added together, give the length of the bar for the shoe. The bar
should be of such width and thickness as will require the least amount of
working. Forashoe with heel-calks the bar must be correspondingly longer.

Should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border of the

wall, we may advantageously use the podometer invented by Ewerloeff, shown
in Fig. 78. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth to

* On a shoe we distinguish an owfer and an inner branch. The anterior
portion, formed by the union of the two branches, is called the toe. The
upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is called the hoof-surface, and the
under surface, which is in contact with the ground, the ground-surface. That
portion of the hoof-surface which is in direct contact with the lower border
of the wall, the white line, and a narrow margin of the sole is termed the
bearing-surface, and when necessary “‘ concaving” (seating) extends from this
to the inner border of the shoe. On the ground-surface is seen the “ fuller-
ing”’ or “crease.”

HORSESHOEING. 89

one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the hoof, and the outline of
the wall marked upon it with chalk.

The instruments devised for this purpose by Niisken, Riquet, and others are
less worthy of notice. If necessary, we can use a broom-straw ora small
stick, and mark upon them the length and width of the hoof.

To make a front shoe (Figs. 81 and 82), heat the bar white-
hot just beyond its middle, run over it lightly with a hammer,
turn it on edge, and work it down a little, make a quarter turn
to the right, and hammer the en-
tire half diamond-shaped. Next,
make a half-turn to the left, flatten
the right edge to within three-
fourths of an inch of the end of
the branch, hammer it smooth,
turn the ground-surface upper-
most, and give the branch a light
bending. Hold the branch upon
its outer (high) edge, and with
the round head of the hand-
hammer bend it into a half-circle
(Fig. 79), and if necessary imme-
diately concave it with or without
the help of the sledge. The con-
caving should end about three- Povlgmicier CRwertbelt a)
fourths of an inch from the end
of the branch. Now turn the branch and fuller it; the fuller
should be set in about one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for
small shoes, somewhat more for large shoes, and led from the
end of the branch towards the toe, twice being necessary to
make the fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp the holes,
punch them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces, go
over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally,
hammer the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left
branch is made in the same way, except that it is turned to the
left and the fullering carried from the toe to the heel. Any ordi-

Fia. 78.

90 HORSESHOEING.

nary shoe can and should be completed in the rough in two
heats. One pair of shoes require from eight to fifteen minutes.

The hind shoe (Fig. 86) is made in like manner, but the
branches are not bent in a circle but given that form shown in

Fia. 79. Exo: i

The curvature of a branch of a front shoe. The curvature of a branch of a hind shoe.

Fig. 80. Concaving is not necessary; it is sufficient merely to
round the inner edge of the web.

Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind
shoe, the inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thick-
ened to the same extent that the outer edge is stretched and
thinned, we must remember to do away with these inequalities
of thickness and strain by hammering the shoe smooth.

Peculiarities of the Shoe.

They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and posi-
tion of the leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse’s service and
the nature of the ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base
of support, and since a proper surface of support is of the
greatest importance in preserving the soundness of the feet and
legs, careful attention must be given to this matter. Naturally
shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs must present

equally great and equally numerous differences of form, as well
as other peculiarities.

HORSESHOEING. 91

General Properties. 1. Form.—A form corresponding to the
shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and
hind and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and easily
distinguishable. Front shoes must, above all else, be round at

Fig. 81. Fig. 82.

ail VY

Right front shoe, ground-surface.

face; b, concaving, or ‘‘seating.”’

the toe. Hind shoes, on the contrary, should be pointed at the toe,
yet not too much so, but as in Fig. 86.

2. Width.—All shoes should be wider webbed (more covered)
at the toe than at the ends of the branches. The medium width
should be about twice the thickness of the wall.

3. Thickness.—Each shoe should, in general terms, be so
thick that it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz
found that the average required thickness is about seven-six-
teenths of an inch. Of course, this thickness must be dimin-
ished or increased according to the rapidity of wear of the shoe.
Shoes without calks should be of wniform thickness, unless there
are special reasons for making them otherwise.

4, Length.—For draught-horses they should be long enough
to reach the bulbs of the heel, though in other respects they
may differ (see ‘“ special properties’’), but should in all cases
completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof.

92 HORSESHOEING.

5. Surfaces.—That part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which

is in contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, Fig. 83,
a) should be horizontal and wide enough to

Fia. 83. cover the wall, the white line, and from a

é Ui y twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the outer

il A | edge of the sole. Shoes for large hoofs re-

MMM _Nii_ quire a broader bearing-surface than those
Patras hacia aa for small hoofs. The concaving, or “ seat-
bearing-surface; 6, con- jne’’ (Fig. 83, 6), should be made deeper or
ieee nhac * shallower, according to the nature of the

sole. Shoes for hoofs with strongly arched
(very concave) soles, do not require any concaving (hind hoofs,
narrow fore-hoofs). The object of concaving is to prevent
pressure of the shoe upon the horny sole.

The ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and perfectly
horizontal, except at the toe, which may be turned upward
(rolling toe, ‘** rolling motion’’).

6. Borders.—The outer border should be moderately base-
narrow,—that is, the circumference of the ground-surface of the
shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof-surface ;
in other words, the entire outer border of the shoe should be
bevelled under the foot. Shoes made base-narrow are not so
easily loosened, and materially assist in preventing interfering.
The inner border should be moderately rounded.

7. The “ Fullering” (Fig. 83, c)—In depth it should be about
two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, and
“clean.” A fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it makes
the shoe lighter in proportion to its size, facilitates a uniform
placing of the nail-holes, renders the ground-surface somewhat
rough, and, because it is rather difficult to make, increases the
workman’s skill.

8. Nail-Holes (Fig. 83, d)—The importance of the nail-
holes, as regards their character, number, distribution, depth, and
direction, cannot be over-estimated, because by the nails which
are driven through them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof

HORSESHOEING. 93

should be maintained without injuring the sensitive structures,
splitting the horny wall, or immoderately interfering with the
elasticity of the hoof. Each nail-hole should taper uniformly
from the ground to the hoof-surface (funnel-shaped). For a
medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are sufficient, while for all
heavy shoes, especially those with toe- and heel-calks, eight are
indicated ; however, it should by no means be said that every
nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes usually require one
more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more than eight. In
front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the anterior half
of the shoe (Figs. 81 and 82), while in hind shoes they are to
be placed in the anterior two-thirds of the shoe, and in both
cases so distributed that the toe shall be without nail-holes (Fig.
86). The depth of the nail-holes—that is, their distance from the
outer edge of the shoe—will depend always upon the thickness
of the wall, and should equal the absolute (real) thickness of the
wall (Fig. 75). It is evident, therefore, that all nail-holes should
not be placed at the same depth (for thickness of the wall, see
p. 47).

a direction in which the nail-holes should pass through the
shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail-holes
around the toe, as a rule, should incline somewhat inward, the
holes at the sides less so, while those at the quarters should be
punched straight,—that is, should pass perpendicularly through
the shoe.

Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and
manceuvres should be so punched that one or two nails may be
placed in the posterior half of the shoe.

9. Clips are half-circular, leaf-like ears drawn upward from
the outer edge of the shoe. They should be strong and without
flaw at the base, and somewhat higher and thicker upon hind
than upon front shoes. Their height on flat shoes should equal
the thickness of the shoe, while on shoes with toe- and heel-
calks they should be somewhat higher.

According to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips.

94 HORSESHOEING.

They secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a rule, every
shoe must have a toe-clip. A side-clip should always be drawn
up on that branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in
locomotion.

A Shoe with Heel-Calks.—All shoes with heel-calks designed
for healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will
disturb the normal setting down of the foot as little as possible,
that the wear of the shoe will take place uniformly, and slipping
be diminished. The toe of the shoe must, therefore, be left
somewhat thicker than the branches just in front of the heel-
calks. Moreover, every front shoe with heel-calks must be rela-
tively long, and be provided with considerable rolling motion at
the toe; that is, the shoe should be turned up at the toe, the
bending beginning near the inner edge of the web. The three-
or four-cornered, somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded
edges should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe. With
reference to the direction of the ends of the branches, we should
see to it that they do not rise excessively, but that they assume
as near as possible a horizontal direction in passing back to the
heels (see Fig. 85).

A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks.—Such a shoe should
everywhere be of uniform thickness, and should have a toe-calk

and two heel-calks that
IDE (Sts are somewhat stronger

EE aid lotr thanthe heel:

aa calks of a shoe which
Shoe without calks, with perfectly level hoof- and ti t
ground-surfaces, and with roli at the toe (flat, rolling- as no oe-calk. If

motion shoe). to a shoe of uniform
Fia. 85. thickness on which the

coe heel-calks are somewhat
i higher than those al-
Se hens ready described a piece
of steel (Fig. 86, b) of
the height of the heel-calks is welded at the toe, we have a
shoe with toe- and heel-calks. The toe-calk should never be

HORSESHOEING. 95

higher than the heel-calks. There are three principal kinds of
toe-calks,—namely :

1. The Sharp Toe-Calk.—A square piece of rather wide toe-
steel, of which one corner is drawn to a sharp point. The shoe
is heated white-hot at the toe and this sharp point driven into
the shoe at the middle of the toe. At the first heat the square
piece of steel standing upon one of its corners is beaten down
and welded from the centre to the right and left corners. In the
second heat the calk is more securely welded and hammered
into shape. [This method of toeing shoes is now but little used.
Its chief disadvantage is that it requires two heats and consid-
erable time. On the other hand, by this method the calk is
more securely welded to the shoe than by the ordinary methods,
and it is peculiarly adapted to winter shoeing.—Apans. ]

9. The Blunt Toe-Calk.—It is a rather long four-cornered piece
of steel with a spud or “ear” raised upon one edge. It is
welded on in one heat.

3. The Half-Sharp Toe-Calk (Coffin-Lid Toe-Calk).—It resem-
bles the blunt calk, except that the surface of the calk that is
applied to the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the
surface that comes in contact with the ground. It is welded on
in one heat, the prolongations of the base of the calk being
welded to the shoe with light taps, as in the case of the right and
left corners of the sharp toe-calk mentioned above. The first
and third kinds are most suitable for winter, because they can be
welded on more securely.

Since heel- and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground
and prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the elas-
ticity of the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also to the
joints, because they furnish a base of support which is essen-
tially smaller than that afforded by a flat shoe. (See Fig. 86).
However, they are indispensable for heavy draught purposes on
slippery roads and in winter. Upon all other roads and in sum-
mer they are superfluous, at least upon front hoofs, especially as
they do not wholly prevent slipping.

96 HORSESHOEING.

Special Properties —The many different forms of hoofs re-
quire a great variety of shoes. Following are the special
peculiarities of each of the chief classes of shoes.

1. Shoe for a Regular Hoof.—Outer edge: moderately base-
narrow (bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction
of the nail-holes: regular. Length: longer than the hoof by the
thickness of the shoe.

2. Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof.—Outer edge: strongly base-
narrow around the toe, but gradually becoming perpendicular
towards the ends of the
branches. Punching: reg-
ular, except that the nail-
holes at the toe must in-
cline inward somewhat
more than usual. Length:
rather longer than the pre-
ceding shoe.

3. Shoe for an Upright
(stumpy) Hoof. — Outer
edge: perpendicular at the
toe; but if the hoof is
] very steep, then base-wide
Right hind shoe with toe- and heel-calks : a, heel- at the toe,—. @, bevelled
calks; b, toe-calk; ¢, greatest width of the base of downward and outwar d.

support (i.¢., contact with the ground) of this shoe :
when without toe- and heel-calks; d, the greatest, Punching: last nail should

genet oon of the base of support of this be place d ju st b eyon d

the middle of the shoe.
Length: short; at most, one-tenth of an inch longer than the
hoof. In the case of a “‘ bear-foot” (see Fig. 62) the shoe should
be long.

4. Shoe for a Base- Wide Hoof.—Outer edge : the outer branch
should be moderately base-narrow,—i.e., bevelled downward
and inward, the inner branch perpendicular. Punching: upon
the outer branch the holes should extend well back, while upon
the inner branch they are to be crowded forward towards the

HORSESHOEING. 97

toe. Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof as seen
in profile (see 1, 2, and 3).

5. Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge : the outer branch
either perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch strongly
base-narrow. Punching: the nail-holes in the outer branch
should be crowded towards the toe and, under certain condi-
tions, punched deeper than the wall is thick, on account of the
greater width of this branch; in the inner branch the nail-holes
are to be distributed back to the quarter and punched light.
Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. The outer
branch should be about one-eighth of an inch longer than the
inner.

6. Shoe for a Wide Hoof—Somewhat wider webbed (more
covered) than usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all
around (base-narrow). Punching: nail-holes carried back into
the posterior half of the shoe. Length will depend upon the
obliquity of the hoof.

7. Shoe for a Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge : moderately bevelled
under the foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere perpendicular.
Distribution of the nail-holes: regular. Direction of the nail-
holes: perpendicular and towards the quarters, inclining some-
what outward. The holes about the toe incline somewhat
inward. Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof.
Concaving unnecessary.

The forms of shoes described in paragraphs 2 to 7 differ from
that described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order to lessen
the injurious consequences of irregular loading (unbalancing) of
the feet, and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight.

G. Choosing the Shoe.

The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult
after we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his
work, his standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and quality
of the horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties

of shoes. Asa rule, we choose a shoe that is longer than the
7

98 HORSESHOEING.

hoof, because the latter grows and carries the shoe forward with
it, and because the quarters gradually become lowered by rub-
bing and wearing away upon the branches of the shoe. The
length of the shoe is of especial importance. For horses em-
ployed for slow, heavy-draught purposes the shoe supplied with
heel- and toe-calks should extend backward far enough to sup-
port the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary, horses used at a
trot or gallop, as coach- and saddle-horses, require shorter shoes.
(See Peculiarities of the Shoe, pages 90 to 96.)

The weight of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands
of the horse’s work, the condition of the legs (whether used up
with work or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing
will last at least a month. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy gait
require strong, durable shoes, which, under some conditions, are
to be rendered still more durable by welding in steel. For mod-
erate service upon soft roads we should use light shoes. Run-
ning horses require unusually thin and narrow shoes of steel.

H. Shaping and fitting Shoes. General Considerations.

This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. Its
object is to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen
for a particular hoof that its circumference will exactly corre-
spond to the lower circumference of the previously prepared hoof,
and its bearing-surface will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of
the hoof. At this time all defects in the surfaces of hoof and
shoe and in the nail-holes must be remedied, the clips drawn up,
and the shoe made to fit perfectly. The bearing-surface of the
shoe, especially at the ends of the branches, must be kept hori-
zontal* and smooth, and its width regulated by the width of
the bearing-surface of the hoof (see page 84). Perfectly wniform

* The horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature, because the
changes of form of the hoof which take place at the plantar border of the
wall, on burdening and unburdening the foot, should not be interfered with.
A horizontal bearing-surface best fulfils this requirement.

HORSESHOEING. 99

heating is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe, because
an irregularly heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the
warm places. Every shoe should be straight, and when held
before the eye one branch should exactly cover the other. A
flat shoe laid upon a level surface should touch at all parts of its
ground-surface ; the only exception to this is the shoe with a
rolled toe (rolling motion), in which the toe is turned upward.

Fic. 87.

Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile to show the “roll” at the toe.

A shoe is termed ‘‘ trough-shaped” when only the inner edge of
the web rests upon the flat surface. It is faulty, disturbs the
stability of the foot, and shifts the weight of the body too much
upon the quarters.

To front shoes we give a rolled toe (Fig. 87, rolling motion),
by which we mean a more or less pronounced upward turn of
the toe of the shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn up at the
middle of the web, and should be elevated about one-half the
thickness of the iron. The rolled toe corresponds to the natural
wear of front hoofs, facilitates the ‘‘ breaking over” of the feet,
and insures a uniform wear of the shoe. The shoe is made mod-
erately hot and placed on the foot with the toe-clip against the
wall exactly in front of the point of the frog. The scorched
horn should be repeatedly removed with the rasp until a perfect-

100 HORSESHOEING.

fitting bed has been made upon the bearing-surface of the hoof.
From the bearing-surface of the shoe to the inner border of the
web the iron must be free from the sole around its entire cir-
cumference. The horn sole should not be burnt, because the
velvety tissue of the sole lies
immediately above it. In the
region of the nail-holes the
outer borders of shoe and
wall should correspond. The
nail-holes must under all
conditions cover the white
line. From the last nail-
hole back to the ends of the
branches, for hoofs of the
regular standing position of
the limbs, the shoe should
eradually widen until it pro-
jects at each quarter from a
twenty-fifth to a twelfth of an
inch beyond the edge of the
wall. The posterior half of
the shoe should, therefore, be somewhat wider than the hoof.
The effect of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes.
With respect to the width of the branches, an exception arises in
the case of hind shoes, in which the inner branch, with few excep-
tions, should closely follow the border of the wall; this will
prevent interfering and tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot.

Between the ends of the branches and the frog there should
be enough room, with few exceptions, to pass a foot-pick.

In order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted
to the hoof, it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand
and, extending it towards the ground, to observe from behind and
above the outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall.

Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should always

have the form of the hoof, so long as the form of the hoof remains un-

Left fore-hoof of normal position shod.

HORSESHOEING. 101

altered. In all hoofs that have already wndergone change of form
we must strive to give the shoe that form which the hoof had before it
underwent change. Such treatment will not only do the hoof no
injury, but, on the contrary, is of advantage to it, as it is well
known that in time the hoof will acquire the form of the shoe.

Shaping and fitting Shoes. Special Considerations.

(a) A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly when the
outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely
follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to
the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a twenty-
fifth to a twelfth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and
air-tight upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall
exactly upon the white line, and there is sufficient space between
the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-
pick. The branches must be of equal length.

While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need pay
attention only to the form of the hoof, it is very different when we
come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms. In these
cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof, but the position
of the limbs and the distribution of weight in the hoof, because where
the most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must
be widened, and where least weight falls (on the opposite side)
the surface of support must be narrowed. In this manner the
improper distribution of weight within the hoof (an unbalanced
foot) is regulated,—that is, is evenly distributed over the surface
of support. The manner in which this is accomplished in the
various forms of hoofs is as follows:

(6) An acute-angled hoof requires the shoe described in para-
graph 2, page 96. The branches must be long, because most of
the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot, and long branches
extend the surface of support backward, while the surface of
support in front is to be diminished by making the toe of the
shoe base-narrow, either by turning it up or by bevelling it in
under the foot. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof fits when it

102 HORSESHOEING.

is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in paragraph a,
page 101.

(c) An obtuse-angled hoof (an upright or stumpy hoof) presents
exactly reverse conditions with respect to the distribution of
weight within the hoof, and is treated in an exactly opposite man-
ner. The surface of support should be increased at the toe and
diminished at the quarters. This is accomplished by a shoe pos-
sessing the peculiarities described in paragraph 38, page 96,
whose nail-holes are directed either straight or slightly outward.

(d) A base-wide hoof requires the surface of support to be
widened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the
outer side, because the inner half of the foot bears the most
weight. A shoe having the peculiarities described in paragraph
4, page 96, accomplishes this end.

(e) The base-narrow hoof is just the reverse of the preceding,
and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in paragragh
5, page 97. While in the normal standing position of the limbs,
viewed from in front, the ends of the branches of the shoe
should be equally distant from the middle of the median lacuna
of the frog, this is not so in the base-wide and base-narrow
positions. In the base-wide position the outer and in the base-
narrow position the inner branch should be somewhat farther
from the median lacuna than the branch of the opposite side.

(f) The wide hoof has too large a surface of support, and, there-
fore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities
enumerated in paragragh 6, page 97.

(g) The narrow hoof has already too narrow a base of support,
and must not be made smaller; therefore, the shoe should not
have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as de-
scribed in paragragh 7, page 97.

Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draught-Horses.
What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good
here ; however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different
in heavy horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs which,

HORSESHOEING. 103

without being clearly diseased, have been injured by shoeing.
The entire operation requires more circumspection, because it is
more difficult. In many cases one will find that the width that
has been advised for the outer branch of the shoe at the quarter
is not sufficient. Indeed, if a horse has wry feet, and there is
unequal distribution of weight within the hoof, and we attempt
in shoeing it to follow to the letter the directions given on pre-
ceding pages, we would be apt to favor the perpetuation of the
defect. In such cases the slant of the wall at the quarters is of
the greatest practical value to us in estimating the proper width
for the shoe at this point.

When uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of
the shoe are desired, every point in the coronary band in the
posterior half of the foot must re-
ceive support by the shoe. This ap-
plies particularly to the outer halves
of hoofs that are extremely base-nar-
row. If, for example, the coronet of
the outer quarter projects beyond the
plantar border of the quarter, the
outer branch of the shoe from the last
nail-hole back must be kept so wide
(full) that an imaginary perpendicular
line dropped from the coronary band
will just touch the outer border of
the shoe. The inner branch, on the
contrary, should follow the edge Of Left hind shoe with a broad, base-
the wall as closely as possible. Fur- banidipiey a cesnaiy ee
thermore, the new shoe should be narrow (close behind).
given more curve,—that is, made
wider and fitted more full where the old shoe shows greatest
wear. The principal thought should be to set the shoe, which should
always be regarded as the base of support of the hoof, farther to-
wards the more strongly worn side. Such a practice renders super-
fluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward

104 HORSESHOEING.

the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner
in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we esti-
mate the distance that the branches of the shoe should be set
from the middle line of the hoof. If in following out this plan
the bearing-surface of the outer quarter of the wall is not com-
pletely covered, the quarter will be pinched and squeezed in-
ward; this should be prevented by a broader branch punched
so deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line (Fig. 89).

When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every
requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, the holes opened
with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a file. In
filing, all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe is to be
filed upon the outer border, to give it a neater appearance, the
filing should be done lengthways of the shoe, and not crossways ; of
course, the shoe must not be bent by being improperly clamped
in the vice.

It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes
when they look clean and finished with little or no filing.

In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a horizontal bearing-surface
for all shoes, with the single exception of shoes provided with the rolled
toe (rolling motion). As far as I can judge from the literature of shoeing,
and from what I have seen with my own eyes in many countries, this is the
most wide-spread practice. In Germany, on the other hand, there is another
method, followed in the military shoeing-shops, which consists in placing the
bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible at right angles to the slant of the
wall. According to this method the bearing-surface of the shoe, depending
upon the direction of the wall (viewed from in front, from behind, and from
the side), should incline more or less, now backward, now inward, now
horizontal, and now outward. Shoes for wide hoofs are given a bearing-
surface which inclines inward, while for narrow hoofs the shoes have a hori-
zontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry hoofs have a bearing-surface which
inclines downward and inward for the slanting wall, and for the steeper wall
a horizontal bearing-surface, which towards the end of the branch may in-
cline slightly downward and outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the
ends of the branches, viewed from the side, has a backward and downward
inclination. This method is practicable only in part.

HORSESHOEING. 105

I. Nailing the Shoe.

This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened
to the hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails,
which are driven through the shoe and horny wall.

At present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-
nails. Both kinds should be made of the best iron (Swedish
wrought iron). The nails must be slender, wedge-shaped, and
twice as wide as they are thick. Thickness and length must be
in proper relation to each other. We should never choose a
nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the
shoe ; six to nine sizes are sufficient for all purposes.

The rough nails, before being used, must undergo a special
shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and in
the desired direction. This preparation is called shaping and
bevelling. In doing this we should see to it that the nails are
made smooth and even, but are not hammered harder than is
absolutely necessary, because the lighter one can hammer the
nails the better they will be.

Furthermore, we must give the nail that form which will
insure its passing through the horn straight and not im a curve ;
with this object in view, the nail is to be slightly curved so that
the side which is turned towards the frog in driving (inside) will
be a little concave, the opposite side convex (Figs. 90, 3, and 91,
5), since it is known that a straight nail always passes through
the horn in a curve, and not only does not long remain tight, but
is quite likely to press upon and injure the soft tissues of the foot.

At the point of the nail the bevel is to be so placed that it will
form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed
from within to without (Figs. 90, 3, and 91). A short bevel is
suitable for nails that are to be driven low, while a long bevel
makes it possible to drive them high. The bevel should never form
a hook ; it must always be straight, should be sharp but not thin, and
under no conditions incomplete (defective).

Machine-made nails, smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready for

106 HORSESHOEING.

use, are, for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made nails,
though the latter are rather tougher.

Before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again
carefully examined by a competent shoer, who should then place
it upon the hoof, where it should be critically observed to see
whether it really fulfils every requirement of a properly-fitting
shoe. Afterwards, the least fault or defect must be remedied,
and then the work of nailing it begins. By nailing, the shoe is

Fig. 91.

Hand-made horseshoe-nails, natural size, Machine-made ‘“Reich’s” horseshoe-
for fullered shoes (1, not bevelled). nails, from Bergedorf near Hamburg, Ger-
many; by reason of their low cap they
are suitable for either stamped or fullered

shoes.

firmly and durably fastened to the hoof, in doing which the
horn of the wall is spared as far as possible, the elasticity of
the hoof borne always in mind, and wounding of the pododerm
entirely avoided. The nails must in all cases penetrate the
white line and pass through the wall in such a straight direction
that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer
surface. In the first case there is considerable danger of prick-

HORSESHOEING. 107

ing or close-nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out
easily when the nails are being clinched.

In driving a nail, it should be held in the fingers as long as
possible in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass
through the horn. A nail should be driven cautiously, with
attention to its sinking and sownd, and yet with enough force so
that at each stroke it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth
of an inch. The power required at each stroke will depend
upon the hardness of the horn and the size of the nail. Fear-
less driving and timorous tapping should not be allowed.

Nails, which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still
going soft, or which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain,
should be immediately withdrawn.

According to the size of the horsé and his hoofs the nails
should be driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths
high, and as even as possible. As soon as a nail is driven its
point should be immediately bent down towards the shoe in
order to prevent injuries. The heads of all the nails should
then be gone over with a hammer and driven down solidly into
the nail-holes, the hoof being meanwhile supported in the left
hand. Pincers are then held under the bent nails and they are
more sharply bent by light blows upon the nail-heads. The
points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof, the horn
which has been thrown out just below the clinches by bending
the nails down is removed with rasp or gouge, and the ends of
the nails bent down still more, but not quite flush with the
wall. This operation is called “ clinching.” A clinching-block
or a pair of ordinary blacksmith’s pincers is then placed under
the end of the nail, now called a clinch, and by light blows (in
doing this the nail must not bend within the wall) upon the head
the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the wall; finally,
with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch is hammered
down flush with the wall. On the inner half of the wall the
clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall with the fingers.
The small amount of horn that projects beyond the shoe around

108 HORSESHOEING.

the toe may be carefully rasped away in the direction in which
the wall slants, but never higher than the clinches; finally, the
sharp lower edge of the wall is to be removed by carrying the
corner of the rasp around between the shoe and the horn.

A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the
nail at that point.

It is of advantage to use a shoeing-buck or foot-stool in clinch-
ing the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be clinched
in the hands. Then the horse should be led out and again
moved in order to see whether or not the new shoeing has
actually accomplished what was desired. Finally, the entire
hoof should be given a thin layer of hoof-salve.

CHAPTER IL.
SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.

A. Forging.

Foreine is that defect of the horse’s gait by reason of which, at
a trot, he strikes the ends of the branches or the under surface
of the front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe.

Forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse. It
is liable to wound the heels of the forefeet, damages the toes of
the hind hoofs, and often pulls off the front shoes.

Causes.—1. Faulty conformation; for example, horses that
stand considerably higher at the croup than at the withers; horses
with long legs and short bodies; horses that ‘stand under” in front
and behind. 2. Using horses on
heavy ground, unskilful driving ;
riding without holding a horse to
his work by feeling his mouth
and pressing the knees against

Fia. 93.

Right front shoe with concave ground- hin : oe-cliy
surface (‘‘convex iron”) to prevent vent ‘‘ clicking”’ and the various injuries due to

“ forging.” forging.

his sides. 3. Fatigue frequently leads to forging, even in horses
that are well built and properly shod. It may also occur in the

act of vaulting over an obstacle. 4. Poor shoeing, especially too
109

110 HORSESHOEING.

long toes upon the front and hind hoofs, and too long front
shoes.

The means employed to correct forging consist in applying
front shoes which are no longer and no wider than the hoof.
The ends of the branches of a flat shoe, and also the heel-calks,
in case they are used, should be bevelled from the hoof surface
of the shoe downward and forward under the foot. Such short
heel-calks, bevelled to prevent forging, are called ‘ forging calks.”
If the horse forges between the branches and on the lower sur-
face of the shoe, concaving this surface will prove advantageous.
The form of the front shoes of horses that forge should represent
merely a prolongation of the hoof. The hind shoes are to be
shortened at the toe, and the lower edge of the shoe in the
region of the toe well rounded; instead of a toe-clip, two side-
clips are to be drawn up and the shoe so fitted that at least three-
fourths of the thickness of the wall of the toe, with the edge well
rounded, will extend forward beyond the shoe.

B. Interfering.

A horse “interferes” when a hoof in motion strikes the oppo-
site supporting leg. Interfering is apt to produce injuries, either
of the coronary band of the inner half of the foot or of the fet-
lock-joint, or (in fore-limbs) of the cannon, even as high up as
the knee. Lameness frequently accompanies such injuries.

The causes of interfering lie either in the shoeing (of the foot
that strikes, as well as of the foot which is struck), in the posi-
tion of the limbs, or in the use of the animal. Horses that have
the correct standing position do not interfere when they are
properly shod; base-wide horses interfere sometimes; horses
base-narrow down to the fetlock and toe-wide below that
point interfere very frequently. Traces or reins of unequal
length, weariness, and shoeing at too long intervals favor inter-
fering.

In attempting to lessen or remove interfering, the horse must
be most carefully examined with respect to the position of his

HORSESHOEING. 1il

limbs, his gait, and his shoeing, in the manner described on
pages 78 to 80.

If the cause is found to be the twisted position of a shoe, too
wide hoofs, raised clinches, etc., nothing need be done further
than to correct the shoeing ; but if a faulty position of the limbs
is the cause, we must ascertain the exact part of the hoof that
does the striking, diminish the size of the hoof at that point, reg-
ulate the entire plantar surface of the hoof, make the shoe straight
along the region that strikes,—that is, without curve,—and so
fit it to the foot that one-third of the thickness of the wall will

Fig. 94. Fia. 95.
SSS

Shoe with interfering branch, interfering The same (hoof-surface).
shoe (ground-surface).

extend beyond the shoe. Where interfering is so pronounced as
to produce serious injuries, we use a shoe with no nails in the
inner branch (“ dropped-crease”’ shoe).

The so-called interfering shoes (Figs. 94 and 95) are worthy of
recommendation only for hoofs of the base-narrow position. The
interfering branch, whose greater thickness raises the inner wall,
which is often too low, is to be so shaped and directed that the
hoof will project somewhat beyond it. This interfering branch
must be made and shaped in accordance with each individual ease.
The holes in the interfering branch should be punched somewhat

112 HORSESHOEING.

finer (nearer the edge) than usual. Interfering shoes in which
the nail-holes, with the exception of the inner toe nail-hole, are
placed in the outer branch, are called “ dropped-crease interfering
shoes” (Fig. 96). Such shoes are not recommended for hind
hoofs that are decidedly toe-wide (toe-cutters); in such cases
better results will be obtained by using a shoe, either with or
without heel-calks, whose inner branch is straight and without
nails along the striking region, and is fitted wide (full) at the

Left interfering shoe without nail-holes Right hind shoe for toe-cutters. The
in inner branch (‘‘dropped-crease” shoe) : dotted lines indicate the distance that the
u, side-clip. wall projects beyond the shoe : a, side-clip.

quarter. The inner heel-calk should be higher than the outer,
and the end of the outer branch should be as base-narrow as it
can be made (fitted close) (Fig. 97). In order to prevent shifting
of an interfering shoe, a side-clip should be drawn up on the
outer branch (a).

There is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering
which is caused by improper harnessing, crooked hitching, or
weariness. The simpler and the lighter the shoes the less will
horses interfere.

CHAPTER IIL
WINTER SHOEING.

Aut shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances
to prevent slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes.

These various contrivances are produced by several processes
called ** methods of sharpening.” All methods may be gathered
into two groups,—namely, practical sharp-shoeing and impracti-
cal. Only the first will be considered.

The durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon
whether they are made of steel or iron, and partly upon the
nature of the ground in winter. If the ground is
continuously covered with a thick layer of snow, Fie. 98.
whatever method of sharpening is followed, the
shoes stay sharp; if, however, the winter is open,
changeable, with more bare ice than snow, no
method of sharpening, whatever it may be, will
last long; the shoes will not stay sharp.

For these reasons no method of sharpening
which fulfils all conditions satisfactorily has yet
been discovered.

The simplest and at the same time the least
durable method of sharpening is: 1. That by
means of ice-nails or frost-nails (Fig. 98). One or
two nails are drawn from each branch of the shoe ee

: “i An ice-nail, frost-
and replaced with ice-nails. nail.

9. Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks.—The outer
calk is split and a small steel wedge welded in. It is then laid
upon the edge of the anvil, indented and sharpened from within
to without in such a manner that the calk shall be thin from the

branch to the ground, and the outer surface shall be in the same
8 118

114 HORSESHOEING.

vertical plane as the outer edge. If a calk is narrow from its
base to its end, and at the same time without flaw, it does not

needa sharp cutting edge. The inner
Fic. 99. Fria. 100. calk should never be sharpened ex-
< cept the ground be very slippery.
The cutting edge of this inner calk
stands at right angles to the length
of the branch, and its outer corner
should then be rounded to prevent
its injuring the opposite foot (Fig.

Outer and inner heel-calks, sharp-
ened. 100).

For horses used for heavy draught
purposes a toe-calk is welded to the shoe and sharpened. For
this purpose we use only steel (toe-steel), which
is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm. Fig. 101.
Toe-calks and steeled heel-calks are tempered, ‘e

@|

in order, as much as possible, to lengthen their |
period of durability. This method of sharpening i i
is the oldest and most wide-spread, and is em- Q
ployed on the shoes of all horses of which we
require more than light service.
Hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by
frequently repeated sharpening of the shoes, be-
cause every time this is done the shoes must be
removed and replaced. y
3. Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks.—Any or- /
dinary flat shoe not too thin and narrow at the
ends of the branches can be changed to a shoe — gyouna-surface of
with screw heel-calks by punching holes in the the endofa branch
ends of the branches and cutting a thread in a cee wee
them. ter-sinking for a
The screw heel-calk holes are made either by ae a
punching or boring. The punching is done by
means of an almost cylindrical hammer-punch, afterwards finish-
ing the holes by driving through them a round punch which tapers

HORSESHOEING. 115

from the middle towards both ends. On the ground-surface of
the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk (Fig. 101), so that
after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place
the shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking.

At present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery,
either of iron or toe-steel. The former is too soft and therefore
not sufficiently durable; the latter, however, is quite durable
when the calk is properly hard-
ened (tempered) by heating to a Fig. 102. :
cherry-red, sticking the head of a
the calk as far as the tap into a
bed of moist sand, and allowing
it to slowly cool.

The chief requirements of a
good screw-calk are, further, a }
clean, deep, but not too coarse
thread, and but one size of thread
and tap for all calks, so that every
calk will fit in every shoe. A
calk whose tap measures one-
half inch (12.7 millimetres) in
diameter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. In the German
army the calks used have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch
in diameter. The coachman should be given four calks (sharp

Sharp screw-calks with Whitworth thread
(half-inch, natural size),

Fic. 103.

‘i

End of branch of shoe provided with a blunt screw-calk.

and blunt) for each shoe, and a small screw-calk key (Fig. 117)
for placing and removing them. Screw toe-calks are also used,

116 HORSESHOEING.

yet they require special security to prevent their becoming loose.
Experimentation with the screw toe-calks, though not yet entirely
satisfactory, cannot be said to have ended.

The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks
are so manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes
sharpened by the ordinary
methods. The common ob-
jections urged against screw-
calks,—namely, that they
loosen and are lost, or break
off, are not worthy of serious
consideration, since these
evils are merely the result of
unskilful workmanship and
poor material. Shoes with

screw heel-calks are the best
iamres. Buuntres. Lever ert of shoes for winter, especially for
tap; 2, the tap; 0, the horses that have to work hard
head. head. .

and continuously.

Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the
web and concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), and
thoroughly oiling the sole and frog. Sole-pads of felt, leather, or
straw serve the same purpose. Balling with snow is best pre-
vented by a rubber sole-and-frog pad, or by a “stopping” of a
patent hoof cement known in Germany as “ huflederkitt.”

4, Shoeing with Peg-Calks.—The calks are merely stuck
into the calk-holes, hence their name.

Fia. 104. Fig. 105. Fig. 106.

(a) Shoeing with Round Peg-Calks.

The inventor of this method is Judson, an American. The shoes differ in
no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. In order that the calks may not be
lost, it is absolutely necessary that the tap of the calk have a moderately
conical form, and exactly fit into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the
calk-tap is correct if for every two-fifths of an inch in length it increases or
diminishes one-twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter.

Although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe, yet boring and

HORSESHOEING. 117

reaming them is much better, because by this method a more perfect fit can
be secured. For this purpose we require a drill (a spiral drill is the best)
whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end of the calk-tap
(Figs. 104, c, and 105, c). After the shoe has been fitted to the hoof, the pro-
visional holes are drilled and afterwards reamed out from the ground-
surface of the shoe with the reamer shown in Fig. 106. Since the tap of the
reamer corresponds exactly in size to the tap of the calk, it is evident that
the latter must exactly fit and be tight. The wire edge that is raised around
the hole is removed with a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing

ii

wil

=

Model- (normal) punch. Fic. 109. Fre. 108. Fie. 110.

Sharp calk. Matrix; a, Blunt calk.
b, moulds for
shaping the
calks.

the reamer a second time. The calks are made of rolled round steel, which
is a little thicker than the tap of the calk. For this purpose we require a
calk-mould or matrix, in which one or more holes have been finished with
the reamer. The steel rod, at a dark-red heat, is then drawn out between a
swage-hammer and a swage-block until it will pass into the matrix to within
one-twelfth of an inch of the opposite surface. The rod should then be
withdrawn, and at the point marking the length of the desired calk cut deep
enough with a cold-chisel and hardy so that it can be easily broken off. The
ealk is then thrust into the matrix, broken off, and backset a little. Ifa
sharp calk is desired, the upper part of the head of the calk is sharpened in

118 HORSESHOEING.

the ordinary manner, although this is accomplished most easily by using a
pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed upon the inside for seizing
the tap of the calk.

(b) Shoeing with Square Peg-Calks.

They were invented and first advocated by Dominik. The rough calk-
holes are stamped from the ground-surface of the shoe with a hammer-punch
and a hand-punch. The wire-edge which is raised around the hole upon the
hoof-surface of the shoe should never be hammered down, but removed with
a file; if this is not done, the surfaces of the hole are made uneven, whereby
the calks will not be likely to fit accurately and remain tight. The shoe is
then fitted to the hoof, the ends of the branches again heated to a cherry-
red, and the model-punch * (Fig. 107) driven into the holes to shape them for
the reception of the calks. In doing this care must be used not to warp or
twist the shoe. The hole in the shoe should he placed over the hole of a
matrix or over the small round hole in the anvil, and the model-punch
driven through the shoe up to its head. Since in cooling the iron of the
shoe contracts a little and the hole becomes smaller, the punch will not
afterwards pass into the hole quite up to its head.

These peg-calks are made out of square steel which is from a twenty-
fourth to a twelfth of an inch thicker than the diameter of the calk-hole.
They are made with the help of a matrix (Fig. 108) invented by Dominik,
whose thickness is exactly the length of a blunt calk. The width of the
holes a and 6, measured midway in their length, is the same as the thickness
of the model-punch just under its head. The end of the square steel bar is
tapered until it will fit the opening (a) of the matrix, but not extend beyond
the opposite side. It is then passed into the central opening (0) of the matrix,
a set-hammer placed on the bar close up against the matrix, and the end of the
bar struck off; or, in order to spare the matrix, the bar may be cut between
a cold-chisel and hardy. A blunt calk made in this manner requires nothing
more than to have the ends squared with a file.

In order to finish a sharp calk, hold the bar in an oblique direction against
the farther edge of the anvil at the point to which it passed into the matrix,
place the back edge of a set-hammer upon the bar, and, by light blows and
frequent turning of the bar, produce the sharp head of the calk and finally
strike the latter from the bar. When calks are sharpened by heating they
must be subsequently tempered.

*Tf the calks are to be sufficiently secure against loosening, the model-
punch must diminish in diameter one twenty-fifth of an inch for every two-
fifths of an inch of its length.

HORSESHOEING. 119

Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled and
driven into the calk-holes, and the calks passed into the holes to see that
they fit perfectly.

The calks, whether square or round, are driven’ into place after the shoes
are nailed to the hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a
necessary precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and
ealk-holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand
while the second is being driven, otherwise it will either spring from the
calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost.

To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a ham-
mer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a rather hard
blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which have worn down
are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by blows upon the shoe.
Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then very difficult to remove, it
is recommended that all calks be removed every night.

The advantages of peg-calks over screw-calks are: 1. They do not
break off. 2, They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They are
cheaper.

Disadvantages.—1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when properly
made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens much less fre-
quently when the calks are put in by the maker (horseshoer) than when
they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, or other person. When
calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is usually due to some fault in
the calk-holes or in the calks, although when the feet are balled with snow
the calks are easily lost, because they do not then touch the ground.

2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, since they
are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn down so far
that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost impossible to re-
move. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses are rendered
not only restive, but sensitive in the feet. To facilitate the removal of the
calks, various instruments have been devised, by the use of which the stumps
of the calks may be driven from the hoof-surface of the shoe. The use of
such instruments presupposes branches which extend backward considerably
beyond the buttresses of the hoof. Too long branches are, however, not of
advantage, at least for saddle-horses.

3. If horses are used without the calks, a wire-edge forms around the hole
on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing of the calk and
lessens its security.

4, After many shoes have been punched with the normal punch, its cor-
ners become rounded so that it will no longer make a hole which the calks
will fit.

120 HORSESHOEING.

5. Shoeing with Peg Toe-Calks.—Unnecessary for saddle-
horses. For coach horses the following dimensions are recom-
mended (hole,[/_]): The head of a sharp toe-calk, five-
eighths by one and three-eighths inches (fifteen by thirty-five
millimetres); height, ten-sixteenths to eleven-sixteenths inch
(sixteen by seventeen millimetres); tap or shank close to the
head, six-sixteenths by ten-sixteenths inch (ten by eighteen
millimetres); length, seven-sixteenths of an inch (twelve milli-
metres); thickness of the shoe at the toe, nine-sixteenths of an
inch (fourteen millimetres). For heavy draught-horses (more
suitable than for cab or coach horses) the head of the calk
should be exactly five-eighths by one and thirteen-sixteenths
inches (fifteen by forty-six millimetres); height, thirteen-six-
teenths of an inch (twenty millimetres) ; tap or shank of the calk
close to the head, three-eighths by one and three-eighths inches
(ten by thirty-four millimetres); length, eleven-sixteenths inch
(sixteen millimetres). The tap or shank of the toe-calk should
diminish one-twenty-fifth of an inch in thickness for every
five-sixteenths of an inch of its length. "When the toe-calk is
set in place, a space one-twenty-fifth of an inch wide should
remain between the head of the calk and the shoe. Should
the head of the calk rest upon the lower surface of the shoe,
it would soon become loose and fal] out.

Instead of a long four-cornered hole for the tap of the toe-
calk, we may use an elliptical hole with a tap of corresponding
shape.

Many experiments have been made to find a suitable, remova-
ble peg toe-calk, but thus far without complete success.

6. Removable Heel-Calks that do not require Sharpening.
—The undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped
sharp calks become dull in time, and must then either be sharp-
ened or replaced by new calks, renders shoeing not only costly,
but injurious to the hoofs and annoying to the owner. This
drawback is most pronounced in large cities, where the snow
never lies long upon the streets, and the horse just sharp-shod is

HORSESHOEING. 121

soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements. Attempts have been
made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks that do not
require sharpening, and yet which will prevent slipping even after
they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements. It
cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value, and,
except when the ground is covered with ice, many of these calks
render excellent service. Just as the ordinary sharp calks are
satisfactory and very durable outside of the large cities, so now

Fig. 111. Fig. 112.

G

SA
SS

Screw-calk with H-formed cross- Screw-calk with +-formed cross-sec-
section (patented by N tion (patented by Giick).

for the first time a few of these recently invented sharp calks
seem to be worthy of recommendation for city use. The fol-
lowing are the best: ;

1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped cross-section
(patented by Neuss) (Fig. 111). These calks can be obtained of
Leonhardt & Co., Berlin N.W., Schiffbauerdamm, No. 3.

2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section. Inventor: Giick,
of Wesel (Fig. 112).

3. Screw- and peg-calks with T-shaped cross-section. (Pflug.)

4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section. (Ftikenwirth).

5. Angle-calks, of Branscheid & Philippi, of Remscheid (Fig.
118).

x Serew- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad. C. Goetze &
Co., Berlin S., Alte Jacobstrasse, No. 79.

7. Screw-calks with A star-shaped cross-section (Fig. 114).

122 HORSESHOEING.

8. Hollow wedge-calks of Arnstein & Martin, Berlin S., Stall-
schreiberstrasse, No. 60 (Fig. 115.)

9. Perforated screw-calks of A. Lungwitz, of Dresden (Fig.
116).

10. Springing calks of Sickert, of Dresden ; and many more.

Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fic. 115. Fig. 116.

Corner calk (Winkel- Star calk of Gotz Hollow calk of Arnm- _— Perforated calk of
stollen) of Branscheid & Co. stein & Martin. A. Lungwitz.
& Philippi.

There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the
ground and their durability depend upon the diameter and
the arrangement of their surfaces of friction. From all experi-
ments made thus far it is shown that those calks which have

Fie. 117.

Universal screw-calk key.

narrow and comparatively few surfaces of friction are the least
durable.

To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or
wrench. For the shop, the ordinary fork key (Fig. 117), the jaws
of which are tempered, is recommended. It fits all calks.

n

CHAPTER IV.
HOOF NURTURE.

Hoor nurture comprises all those measures which are em-
ployed to keep hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable.

A. Care of Unshod Hoofs.

The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. Abun-
dant exercise upon dry ground which is not too stony is most
beneficial. Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually,
and it will only be necessary from time to time to observe whether
the wear is taking place uniformly, and if not, to correct the un-
even wear with the rasp.

If colts are reared in the stable, the horn continuing to grow
down does not undergo sufficient wear, and changes in form of
the hoof gradually occur. The wall becomes too long and bends
or sometimes separates from the sole and keraphyllous layer.
Weak quarters bend (curl) inward and encroach upon the space
occupied by the frog (contracted feet of colts). The toe becomes
too long, and this gives rise to too steep a position of the pastern
and causes an insecure and diffident gait; therefore the hoofs
must be shortened from time to time. The incurved quarters
should be removed with the hoof-knife, and the outer edge of
the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp. In
a hoof that is becoming awry, restoring to the wall its proper
level with relation to the position of the limb will not only be
invaluable in ultimately producing a good hoof, but will improve
the faulty position of the limb. Furthermore, we should attempt
to secure greater cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly wash-

ing the hoofs and bedding with plenty of good straw.
123

124 HORSESHOEING.

Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious ; it hinders
the development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, young horses
when shod are frequently seriously overworked and prematurely
ruined. Moderate work in the fields does not injure young
horses, but for such service they do not require shoes.

The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically
rounded with a rasp and the length of the walls regulated when,
by reason of a lack of exercise, proper wear has not taken place.

B. Care of Shod Hoofs.

Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are un-
shod hoofs, because shoeing itself, although absolutely necessary
to render horses continuously serviceable upon hard streets, is
injurious to the hoof, since it to a greater or less extent prevents
the physiological movements of the different parts of the foot,
interferes with the circulation of the blood in the foot, slows the
erowth of the horn, and brings about a gradual shrinking of the
entire hoof.

In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabula-
tion. These are prevention of free movement, wncleanliness due
to bad floors and filthy bedding,—as, for example, peat moss and
soiled straw,—and dryness.

Continual standing always contributes to contraction of the
hoofs, and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which more
particularly affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs receive suf-
ficient moisture from the animal’s manure. Poor floors, partic-
ularly those that are uneven, tire the limbs. Accumulation of
manure and the use of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the
frog.

The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all
these injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. It
comprises, therefore, not only the proper shortening of the hoofs
every four to six weeks, but careful attention to cleanliness and
moisture. Both are insured by dry straw and daily picking out
and washing the hoofs. Such measures will prevent thrush in the

HORSESHOEING. 125

hind feet. If front hoofs are washed once a day, sufficient moist-
ure will penetrate the horn to give it that degree of suppleness
(elasticity) which is possessed by an unshod hoof, and which
contributes to a proper expansion of the hoof when the body-
weight is placed upon it. In order to prevent a hoof from again
drying out, the entire hoof should receive a thorough application
of an oil or ointment (hoof-salve). The object of greasing the
horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture that has pene-
trated the horn. Specially compounded hoof-salves are not
necessary. Melted horse-grease, pork-fat, or any other fat that
is not rancid is sufficient. Cosmoline is an excellent hoof-salve.

Abundant but not excessive ewercise is more necessary than
anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It
aids the circulation of blood within the foot, and, therefore, the
growth of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular work
have, as a rule, better hoofs than those which stand the greater
part of the time in the stable. Poulticing hoofs with clay, bran,
linseed-meal, sawdust, or standing them in water is unnecessary
if they have had proper care, but will sometimes be of benefit
when the hoofs have been neglected, and especially so for front
hoofs. The latter are more exposed to drying influences, and
the shoes prevent the moistening process by keeping the hoofs
partially or completely removed from contact with the earth.
Oiling alone is not sufficient to soften horn, but must always be
preceded by permeation of the horn with water. Oiling with-
out first cleansing the hoof is useless, because this soon pro-
duces a greasy crust underneath which the horn is crisp and
brittle.

The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of
the natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent
even after the hoof-ointment has been applied; therefore, black-
ened hoof-ointments should not be used. When hoofs are ex-
posed to too much moisture (muddy roads, melting snow, etc.)
an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to the hoof-oint-
ment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the horn.

126 HORSESHOEING.

No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of the
horn.

Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the
hoof, it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is
possible. This applies especially to horses that from any cause
are thrown out of service, presupposing, of course, that the
nature of the hoofs will allow them to go barefoot.

PART III.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE
HOOFS AND LAME HORSES.

Tue boundary between health and disease of the hoof is diffi-
cult to determine, especially when we have to deal with minor
defects of structure or shape of the hoof. Ordinarily, we first
consider a hoof diseased when it causes lameness. However,
we know that diseases of the hoof may exist without lame-
ness. Therefore, a hoof should be regarded as diseased or
defective when the nature of the horn, the form of the hoof, or
the parts enclosed by it, deviate from what we consider as nor-
mal or healthy (see page 70), whether the service of the animal
is influenced by it or not.

Front hoofs become diseased or defective more readily than
hind hoofs, because they bear greater weight, have more slanting
walls, and are more exposed to drying influences. All nor-
mally wry hoofs and acute-angled hoofs become more readily
diseased than regular and obtuse-angled or stumpy hoofs.

The indications of the various diseases of the hoof are dis-
cussed in the following chapters. We shall in this chapter
undertake only a brief general‘ discussion of inflammation of the
pododerm. ‘This inflammation, known as pododermatitis, al-
ways manifests itself by Jameness and, under closer examination
of the foot, by inereased warmth, pain, and stronger pulsation of the

digital arteries. The pain produces either a timid, shortened (sore)
127

128 HORSESHOEING.

gait, or well-marked lameness, especially upon hard ground. In-
creased sensitiveness of the pododerm is detected by compres-
sion of the hoof with the pincers (hoof-testers), or with greater
certainty by lightly tapping the hoof. The increased warmth of
a part or of the entire hoof is detected by feeling with the hand.
Intense pain and greatly increased warmth, with a moderate,
diffuse swelling of the soft parts between the hoof and fetlock-
joint, indicate suppuration within the hoof.

The examination of horses lame in the feet must always be
cautious and searching, and should begin with the moving and
judging of the horse as already described on page 78. The faults
detected in the hoof or in the shoeing, the pain and increased
warmth of the hoof, will not leave us in doubt as to whether the
animal is lame in the hoof or not. However, should there be a
doubt, we must carefully examine all the joints and tendons of
the foot and, if necessary, of the limb above, and observe the
animal’s manner of travelling at a walk and at a trot, on soft and
on hard ground, in a straight line and in a circle.

The removal of the shoe should be performed with greatest
caution. Under certain conditions the second shoe should not
be removed until the first has been replaced. The same caution
must be observed in paring the hoof, which is to be regarded as
a part of the examination of the hoof. The paring ofa hoof for
this purpose often differs somewhat from the preparation of a
sound hoof for the shoe, and while it is necessary because it
frequently furnishes the first trustworthy indication of the
trouble, it must be done with circumspection and intelligence.

The causes of diseases of the hoof are very numerous, for
many external influences act injuriously upon the hoof. In
addition to too great dryness, want of care (neglected shoeing),
and premature, unreasonable, cruel use of the horse, should be
mentioned particularly injudicious dressing of the hoof and direct
and indirect faults in the shoeing. The pododerm, shut in between
the hard os pedis and the stiff, unyielding horn capsule, is fre-
quently exposed to bruising and other injuries, from which arise

HORSESHOEING. 129

most of the defects of the hoof itself. All these things lead,
under certain conditions, to lameness.

Treatment.—First of all, the discovered causes should be re-
moved, or, if this is not possible, as is frequently the case, they
should be ameliorated. Very often the lameness may be removed
by proper shoeing, a change in the animal's work, and better
care of the hoof. When there is intense inflammation within
the foot, the shoe should be removed for a few days. When the
inflammation is moderate and confined to a small area, it is
usually sufficient to alter the shoeing by regulating unnatural
relations of height in the different parts of the wall, and by re-
moving all superfluous horn from the wall and sole (to a less
degree from the frog), partly for the purpose of rendering the
horn capsule more yielding, and partly to make the poultices
which are used more effective. The shoe is then to be so applied
that the diseased region will be relieved of the body-weight, and
will remain free from all pressure from the shoe. This can be
done partly by making the underlying branch of the shoe
somewhat wider and longer than
the other, and partly by cutting Fig. 118.
down the bearing-edge of the
wall where this is possible with-
out weakening it too much, other-
wise by concaving or beating
down the upper surface of the
shoe. By reason of the fact that
the posterior half of the hoof is
the seat of most diseases of the
hoof, it 1s to be recommended that
the nail-holes in shoes used in
these diseases be placed as far as \
possible in the anterior half of the Huxahioestorrisiit tool,
shoe, and in some special cases
distributed evenly around the toe. Among shoes suitable for dis-
eased hoofs the bar-shoe (Fig. 118) holds the first place, because

9

130 HORSESHOEING.,

it renders superfluous many other shoes specially designed for
various diseases of the hoof. It is made like an ordinary flat
shoe, except that it requires a somewhat longer piece of iron;
the ends of the branches are bent inward over a dull corner of
the anvil, bevelled, laid one over the other, and welded together
to form the bar. The width and thickness of the bar should be
the same as of the rest of the shoe, and its frog-surface should
be slightly concave.

The bar-shoe is valuable, because it protects from pressure dis-
eased sections of the wall which have been laid free, allows part
of the body-weight to be borne by the frog, and restores normal
activity to the disturbed physiological movements of the foot.
By using it we can either gain a more extensive bearing- surface
for the hoof, or can make it easier for the surface that bears the
weight to do the work. If on account of weakness of the bearing-
surface of the hoof, or from any other cause, we wish to dis-
tribute the body-weight over the entire plantar surface of the
foot with the exception of the painful region, we add a leather
sole to the bar-shoe.

In this case it is necessary to place holes in the ends of the
branches of the shoe, so that we may rivet the leather firmly to
the shoe with small nails. The shoe should be made somewhat
wider than the hoof, and the clips somewhat higher than usual.
After fitting the shoe the grooves for the clips are cut in the
leather, the latter is riveted to the shoe, and all leather projecting
beyond the outer edge of the shoe is trimmed away. The lacune
of the frog and other concavities of the sole are then thickly
smeared with wood-tar and afterwards filled up with oakum to
such a degree that the packing will bear some of the body-weight
when the shoe and leather sole are in position. This packing is
of great importance, because it prevents the filtering in from be-
hind of sand and slime, preserves the toughness and pliability of
the horn, breaks shock, and produces a gradual expansion of the
posterior half of the hoof. Before nailing the shoe to the foot
the leather sole should be soaked in water.

HORSESHOEING. 131

Classification of Diseases of the Hoof.
INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM.
1, Nailing (pricking and close nailing); 2, street-nail; 3, calk-
wounds; 4, corns (bruised sole); 5, bruised heels; 6, Laminitis
(founder) ; 7, keraphyllocele (tumor of horny leaves).

DEFECTS OF THE HORN CAPSULE AND LATERAL CARTILAGES.

(a) Changes of form: 1, flat hoof and full hoof (dropped sole) ;
2, upright hoof (stumpy or stubby hoof); 3, contracted hoof; 4,
wry hoof; 5, crooked hoof; 6, ossification of the lateral carti-
lage (side-bone).

(6) Disturbances of continuity of the horn capsule: 1, cracks ;
2, clefts; 8, loose wall; 4, hollow wall; 5, thrush.

CHAPTER II.
INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM (PODODERMATITIS).

1. Nailing.

Wounns of the velvety tissue of the sole or of the podophyl-
lous tissue of the wall, caused by nails which have been driven
into the hoof for the purpose of fastening the shoe, are usually
termed “ nailing.”

We distinguish direct and indirect nailing ; the former is noticed
immediately, the latter later.

In direct nailing the nail passes directly into the pododerm
(velvety tissue of the sole, podophyllous tissue); the wound pro-
duced may vary from a simple puncture of the pododerm to
chipping of the border of the os pedis, and is always accompa-
nied by bleeding, even though it may not always be noticed.

In indirect nailing the nail does not pass entirely through the
horn capsule, but very close to the sensitive tissues, and crowds
the soft horn inward against them. This inward bulging presses
upon the pododerm and causes inflammation and lameness, which
may not manifest themselves for several days.

Symptoms.—The first symptom of direct nailing is instant pain,
indicated by flinching or a jerking of the limb, showing that the
nail has taken a wrong course, and then a more or less profuse
hemorrhage. Usually the blood flows from the nail-hole, or the
nail when withdrawn may merely show a blood-stain at its point;
however, internal bleeding may occur without any external man-
ifestations. The symptoms of indirect nailing are entirely dif-
ferent. In this case pain does not arise immediately, but later,
sometimes as soon as the horse attempts to bear his weight upon
the shod foot. In the latter case, on holding up the opposite foot

the animal sways backward and throws his weight upon the
132

HORSESHOEING. 133

holder, or becomes restless. As a rule, the consequences of
indirect nailing are first manifested after two or three days, in-
frequently from the eighth to the fourteenth day, as inflammation
within the hoof and lameness, at which time a careful examina-
tion will usually reveal increased warmth of the hoof, pain upon
pressure with the hoof-testers and on tapping the hoof lightly,
some swelling of the entire foot, increased pulsation of the digi-
tal arteries, and unwillingness of the animal to place all or per-
haps any of its weight upon the foot.

Suspicion of nailing should be entertained if the shoeing be
recent, the hoof appear too small in relation to the body-weight,
the walls have been thinned by rasping or have been broken
away, or if the nails have been driven too high or very irregu-
larly.

Causes.—The most common causes are mistakes in shoeing.
In the majority of cases the cause is a disregard of the rule that
the nails should penetrate the white line (see pages 100 and 106,
heavy type). 1, Using badly-punched shoes; 2, excessive paring
and shortening of the hoof; 3, weakening the lower border of
the wall by excessive rasping away of the outside; 4, mistakes
in fitting the shoe, especially applying shoes that are too narrow,
letting the toe-clips too deep into the horn, by which the nail-
holes near the toe, instead of falling upon the white line, are car-
ried back upon the edge of the sole, or using shoes in which the
nail-holes are too wide or improperly directed; 5, using nails
that are split, incomplete, badly formed and bevelled, and too
large ; 6, starting nails too deep or with the bevel on the outside,
or drawing them too tight. As occasional causes may be men-
tioned: 7, old nail-stubs in the horn ; 8, walls that are very thin
or broken away ; 9, a soft, crumbling wall, which alters the sound
and feeling of the nail as it is driven, and makes it difficult to
judge of its course ; 10, restlessness of the animal while being
shod.

Examination.—Press with the hoof-testers upon the sole and
clinches ; tap lightly upon the clinches. If these acts cause pain,

134 HORSESHOEING.

there can be little doubt that the nail is responsible for the dam-
age. Remove the shoe by drawing each nail separately and
carefully. Examine the nails with reference to their direction
and size, as well as to staining with blood, blood-serum, or pus.
Immediately after removing the shoe, look for the point of en-
trance of each nail into the hoof, and if a nail-hole be found
upon the edge of the sole instead of in the white line, it is highly
probable that the nail which passed in at that place pressed upon
the sensitive tissues of the foot. Every nail-hole should then be
searched by passing a clean new nail into it and pressing its
point towards the soft tissues at various depths; any indication
of pain caused by this act is pretty sure proof of nailing. It
stands to reason that the character of the nail-holes in the shoe
should be closely examined.

Treatment.—When the foot has sustained an ordinary simple
prick with a nail, the latter should be left out and the hole well
filled with wax. Asa rule, no serious results follow. In severe
direct nailing the entire shoeing should be most carefully exam-
ined, and only after everything is found to be right, and the shoe
fits in such a manner that the nails can only penetrate the wall
from the white line, can it be regarded as correct. The offend-
ing nail-hole is then to be closed with wax. According to the
intensity of the wound we may expect a more or less pronounced
inflammation of the pododerm, and this is to be combated by
resting the animal and cooling the foot.

If the wound is clean and recent, enlarging the opening in the
horn by cutting and boring can have no reasonable object; the
wound by such an act will not be made smaller, but larger.

Frequently, however, the wound is not observed or suspected
until the pain has become very intense (indirect nailing, nail-
pressure); in such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is
apt to be covered with pus or a dark, thin, ill-smelling liquid.
In such a case the liquid, whatever its nature may be, must be
given free escape. In order to accomplish this it is entirely suffi-
cient to cut away a section of the wall from the nail-hole out-

HORSESHOEING. 135

ward, not greater than the width of the little finger, and then to
assist in the discharge of the pus by placing the foot in a warm
bath; it is entirely wrong, in fact, reprehensible, to remove all
horn of the wall and sole which has been loosened from the
soft parts by the suppurative process. After the escape of the
inflammatory fluids, the wall and sole will form the best-fitting
and most suitable protective dressing for the diseased region
until it has secreted new horn. If, after removal of the nail and
pus, the pain does not diminish, warm baths of an infusion of
hay-seed at a temperature of about 90° F., or of a three- to five-
per-cent. solution of carbolic acid in water, will be of especial
benefit ; they will not only soften the horn, but by their moisture
and warmth will directly diminish the pain and have a healing
influence upon the suppurative surfaces. The warm baths must
actually be warm and be kept warm.

If the pain has not been very pronounced, or if it has been
greatly alleviated by two or three warm baths, then, as a rule, it
is sufficient to put a few drops of the tincture of myrrh upon
the inflamed surface, and to close the opening with oakum (car-
bolized oakum or carbolized cotton is better).

The horse which has been nailed will be again perfectly ser-
viceable after a few days if shod with a shoe which does not
press upon the inflamed region. The shoe does not press when it
rests only upon the bearing-edge of the wall, when the white line and
the edge of the sole are entirely free of the shoe, and no nails are
driven in the immediate vicinity of the wound.

Even though, as we have seen, nailing in the great majority of cases is not
particularly serious to the horse and owner, yet we should never forget that
tetanus (lockjaw), a disease which is nearly always fatal to horses, may follow.
Nailing, however insignificant it may seem, may under any conditions lead to
the death of the horse.

2. Street-Nail.

The condition caused by accidental injury of the sensitive
structures covered by the horny sole, such as the velvety tissue
of the sole and frog, plantar cushion, perforans tendon, navicu-

136 HORSESHOEING.

lar bone, os pedis, or the pedal articulation, by sharp objects,
especially nails, is called ‘“ penetrating street-nail,” or simply
“street nail.” The resistance of the ground to the weight of the
body drives these penetrating
Fia. 119. objects through the sole or

frog into the foot.

Hind hoofs are more often
affected than fore-hoofs. A
favorite point of entrance is
the lateral lacuna of the frog.
Street-nail is favored by ex-
cessive thinning of the sole
and frog.

Symptoms.—The symptoms
are, as a rule, sudden pain fol-
lowed by lameness. The first
assistance is usually sought in
the shoeing-shop. Ifthe cause
of lameness be found to be a
penetrating nail, piece of glass,
or other pointed foreign body,

Shod hind foot, with splint dressing. it must be carefully drawn out,

in doing which we should re-

move the entire object, not allowing pieces to break off and re-

main in the wound. Since it is always important to know in

what direction and how deep the foreign body has penetrated,

in order to be able to estimate the gravity of the wound, it is

advisable in all cases to preserve the penetrating body, that

it may be shown to the veterinarian, in case his services are
required.

In slight injuries to the velvety tissue of the sole or frog,
accompanied with moderate pain, it is of no benefit to enlarge
the opening, though the horn of the sole or frog should be
thinned for the space of an inch or more around the wound,
followed by cooling applications. Deep, penetrating wounds

HORSESHOEING. 137

accompanied with intense pain require the attention of a veter-
inarian.

Often some form of dressing is necessary, and this is usually
held in place by a special shoe. For slight injuries, such a splint-
dressing as is shown in Fig. 119 is sufficient. Whether such a
dressing be applied to the front or hind feet, the shoe should be
well concaved upon the hoof-surface. The dressing is held in
place by thin splints of tough wood, which are firmly wedged
between the shoe and hoof.

_In those rare cases in which it is necessary to maintain con-
tinuous pressure upon the seat of the wound, and to protect the

Fie. 120.
Fie. 121
a Ay = co
m 4 | il TK
fi\ “ue | |) | wl
= / Mil
WN
i
Ht
i) | mh
| WAAAY
— |
\ | HA
A HTN
{| |
; W)
: vA
Shoe designed to hold the plate shown in Cover-plate and screw-calk belonging
Fig. 121; suitable where pressure-dressing to the street-nail shoe: a, wings of
is desired : a, branches fitting the wings of cover-plate with calk-holes exactly fit-
the cover-plate and provided with screw ting the ends of the branches of the
calk-holes; b, hole for reception of spur of shoe; b, spur of cover-plate fitting into
cover-plate. hole (120, b) at toe of shoe.

entire plantar surface of the hoof, a covered shoe (Figs. 120 and
121) is recommended. This shoe is provided with a sheet-iron
cover, having at the toe a spur which fits into a corresponding
hole in the toe of the shoe, and being fastened at the heels by
means of screw heel-calks.

138 HORSESHOEING.

3. Calk Wounds of the Coronet.

All tread-wounds of the coronet, caused by the calks of the
opposite shoe, or by the shoes of other horses, are known as calk
wounds, or simply as ‘“calking.” The injury itself is either a
bruise or a bruised wound, followed by inflammation of the
coronary cushion and an interruption in the formation of horn
at that point. It occurs most often in winter from sharp calks,
especially on the hind feet. The common seat of the injury is
the coronet of the toe and the inner side of the foot.

The inflammation terminates either in resolution—that is,
passes gradually away, leaving the tissues apparently normal—or
in suppuration. The perioplic horn-band, which is usually loos-
ened from the perioplic band by the injury, does not again unite.
For this reason, and because of the interruption in the formation
of horn at the seat of injury, there results a transverse depres-
sion or cleft in the wall.

The shoeing has to deal only with the lameness that may be
present as a result of the calking. The section of the wall con-
taining the lesion should be shortened, so that it will not press
upon the shoe. Serious calk wounds, as a rule, require treat-
ment by a veterinarian.

4. Corns (Bruised Sole).

The expression ‘‘ corns” is applied to nearly all bruises of the
pododerm of the posterior half of the foot, with the exception of
the frog, which are apparent to the eye as yellowish, reddish, or
bluish-red discolorations of the horn of the sole and white line.

The surface of the pododerm (fleshy leaves and villi) is chiefly
involved, and almost without exception there is rupture of small
blood-vessels and an outpouring of blood between the pododerm
and the horn. The blood penetrates the horn-tubes and causes
the above-mentioned staining. By subsequent growth of horn
these stained patches are carried downward, and are finally
uncovered and brought to sight in paring the hoof.

The seat of corns is either on the fleshy leaves of the quarters,

HORSESHOEING. 139

or on the velvety tissue of the sole in the angle between the wall
and the bar, or on the fleshy leaves of the bars. Thus we dis-
tinguish corns of the wall, sole, and bars.

Corns affect chiefly the front hoofs, and more often the inner
half than the outer. Unshod feet are seldom affected.

According to the intensity of the lesions we distinguish :

1. Dry Corns.—The red-stained horn is dry, and there is
seldom lameness.

2. Suppurating Corns.—They are the result of intense bruising
followed by inflammation. The pus is either thin and dark gray-
ish in color, denoting a superficial inflammation of the pododerm,
or yellowish and thick, denoting a deep inflammation of the
pododerm. In the latter case a veterinarian should be called.
Lameness is usually pronounced.

3. Chronic Corns.—In this case there is vivid discoloration of
horn in all possible hues. The horn is either soft, moist, and
lardy, or crumbling, cracked, and at times bloody. The inner
surface of the horn capsule has lost its normal character, and is
covered with horny swellings or nodules (Fig. 122, a). Some-
times the wing of the os pedis on that side has become morbidly
enlarged and loosened. A short,
cautious gait alternates with well- Fie. 122.
marked lameness; the latter ap-
pears whenever the shoe presses
too firmly on the corn, or when
the hoof becomes too dry.

The causes, aside from the form
and quality of the hoofs and the

osition of the limbs, lie in inju- Lt
dicious dressing of the hoof and ptntay Stat wos te
in faulty shoes. Too much trim- a. ig horny tumor resulting
ming of wide and flat hoofs, ex-
cessive weakening of the quarters, sole, bars, and frog of all
other hoofs, while the toe is usually left too long, are the usual
causes. Shortening one quarter too much in relation to the

140 HORSESHOEING.

other, so that the foot is unbalanced and the lower side over-
loaded, is a frequent cause. Hollowing the sole and bars exces-
sively and unnecessary thinning of the branches of the sole in
the search for corns are also causes.

Among faulty shoes we may mention those not level on the
hoof-surface, trough-shaped, too short in the branches, shoes
which do not completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof,
or whose bearing-surface at the ends of the branches is directed
downward and inward so that the quarters are squeezed to-
gether when the weight is put on the foot. Insufficient con-
caving of the shoe is often an exciting cause of corns in flat feet
and in those with dropped soles. A well-formed shoe which
does not rest firmly upon the hoof, or which has been shifted as
a result of careless nailing, may as readily cause bruising of the
quarters as neglected shoeing. The latter causes, as a rule, corns
of the sole. It is very rarely that corns are caused by stones
fastened between the frog and branches of the shoe.

Dryness is particularly injurious to the hoofs, and is in the
highest degree favorable to the production of corns. It renders
the hoof stiff and inelastic, and first manifests itself by a short,
cautious (sore) gait when the horse is first put to work.

Treatment.—First, removal of the causes, by restoring the
proper form to the hoof through shortening a toe which is too
long (especially apt to be the case in acute-angled hoofs), cutting
down quarters which are too high, and applying a shoe which
does not interfere with the action of any part of the hoof. In
no case should the upper surface of the ends of the branches
rise, and it should never press upon the branches of the sole.
A sensitive quarter should be rasped down from a twentieth toa
tenth of an inch before the shoe is nailed on.

When there is a suppurating corn, the shoe should be left off
several days, and then a bar-shoe applied, because this best pro-
tects the inflamed region from pinching and bruising.

A chronic corn should be protected continuously from pressure
by the shoe. This is accomplished by using a bar-shoe with

HORSESHOEING. 141

leather sole. A three-quarter shoe is not sufficient to properly pro-
tect a hoof affected with a chronic corn, if the animal must perform
exacting labor on hard roads.

Deeply digging out a small area of blood-stained horn is inju-
rious. It is much better to thin the horn of the entire branch of
the sole uniformly, in doing which we should avoid wounding the
velvety tissue of the sole, or drawing blood.

The care of the hoof consists in keeping it cool, moderately
moist, and pliant.

5. Inflammation of the Heels.

Inflammation of the bulbs of the plantar cushion (heels) is
usually caused by such external influences as bruising. It occurs
in both shod and unshod feet. The symptoms are: increased
warmth, pain and swelling, sometimes infiltration of the tissues
with blood, accompanied by a short, cautious gait, or, if only one
foot is affected, by well-marked lameness.

The most frequent causes are: going barefoot upon hard
(frozen), uneven ground; shoeing hoofs having low heels with
flat shoes that are too short; sometimes too much frog-pressure
by the bar of a bar-shoe ; forging and grabbing.

The treatment first indicated is a cooling application in the
form of an ice-poultice, or a soaking in cold water. Later,
astringent (drying) applications are of benefit, especially if the
perioplic horn-ring has partially loosened from the bulbs of the
heels; for example, a weak solution in water of sulphate of
copper (1 to 20), followed by the application of a shoe with heel-
calks, which is quite long in the branches and which must not
press upon the wall of the quarters.

6. Laminitis or Founder. Rheumatic Laminitis.

By this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the
pododerm, which is usually brought on by chilling. It arises
suddenly, without previous symptoms, in well-nourished and
apparently healthy horses, following excessive work or long-

142 HORSESHOEING.

continued rest in the stable, and frequently leads to a decided
change of form of the hoof.

The disease is always accompanied with intense pain. It most
often affects both front feet, more rarely all four feet, or only one
foot. In the first case the two front feet are planted far in ad-
vance of the body, and the hind feet well forward under the
belly. When all four feet are affected, travelling is exceedingly
difficult, often impossible; in this case there is nearly always a
high fever over the entire body.

The seat of the disease is in the fleshy leaves about the toe,
more rarely upon the side walls and quarters. Depending upon
the intensity of the inflammation, the fleshy leaves are more or
less loosened from the horny leaves, as a result of which there
is a change of position of the os pedis, with a simultaneous sink-
ing of the coronet at the toe. This produces a change of form
of the hoof. The quarters become higher. Rings form upon
the wall, and their course is quite characteristic of the disease. _

Fig. 1238. Fia. 124.

Exterior of a foundered foot. Vertical median section of a foundered
foot: a, sinuous course of the horn-tubes;
b, cicatricial horn ; ¢, point of os pedis.

At the toe these rings are quite close to one another, but as they
pass back towards the quarters they gradually separate from one
another and recede from the coronary band (Figs. 123, 125, and
126).

HORSESHOEING. 143

The wall at the toe is sunken in just under the coronet; its
lower part, on the contrary, is thrust forward. Later, the white
line becomes pathologically widened. The horn of the white line
is dry, crumbling, and easily broken down, so that a break in
continuity (crack) is apt to occur between the wall and sole, and
lead to the formation of a hollow wall (‘‘ seedy toe’’). Where the
inflammation is moderate and is not repeated, healing usually
takes place and the horn grows down regularly and in normal
direction from the coronet. However, a rather brittle condition
of the horn remains permanently. If, on the contrary, the in-

Fig. 125. Fia. 126.

Foundered foot, dressed and shod. The
dressing. dotted lines indicate its form before being
dressed ,—i.é., as shown in Fig. 125.

flammation was very severe or repeated several times, the horny
sole becomes flat just in front of the point of the frog as a result
of the sinking of the os pedis, or it may even drop below the level
of the wall (full hoof, dropped sole). Indeed, it even happens at
times that the toe of the os pedis perforates the horny sole just
in front of the point of the frog. The wall at the toe, which was
previously but little altered in form, is now thrust prominently
forward.

The inflammation of the pododerm may under certain condi-
tions and by skilful veterinary treatment be removed, so that
the characteristic changes of form and quality of the hoof will
not occur. But if this is not accomplished, as is often the case,
the disease will be obstinate, and permanent morbid changes of

the horn capsule take place.

144 HORSESHOEING.

A horse in such a condition can be used, but the gait will be
short and stiff. The hoofs are shuffled forward and set heels
first to the ground, a manner of travelling that rapidly wears
away the branches of the shoe.

In dressing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of the
sole is the guide. The thick projecting wall at the toe may be
removed with the rasp without injuring the foot. The sole

Fig. 128.
Fia@. 127.

A well-covered (wide-webbed) bar-shoe, with two A piece of wall from the toe, show-
lateral toe-clips and an end-clip, for a foundered ing a keraphyllocele (horn-leaf
foot. tumor) : a, coronary border ; b, plan-

tar border; c¢, cone-shaped horny
tumor with a cavity (d) in which
pus had collected.

should be spared, but the quarters should be lowered to improve
the setting of the foot to the ground.

The choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and nature
of the sole. If this is still concave, an ordinary shoe may be
used. If, however, the sole is flat or dropped, it must be pro-
tected by an open shoe with a broad web, or with a bar-shoe

(Fig. 127), which is of especial value when the bearing-edge of
the wall is weak or broken away.

HORSESHOEING. 145

As long as there is pain on pressure about the toe there should
be no toe-clip, but two side-clips. The wall between these clips
should be lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch to prevent
pressure of the shoe upon the sensitive tissues of the toe (Fig.
126).

The shoes of horses affected with founder often work forward
as a result of the animals travelling upon their heels. To pre-
vent this evil, clips may be raised at the ends of the branches of
an open shoe, or one clip in the middle of the bar, in case a bar-
shoe is used (Fig. 127).

7. Keraphyllocele (Horn Tumor).

A keraphyllocele is a more or less sharply bounded horn-tumor projecting
from the inner surface of the wall.

Its occurrence is rare. Its favorite seat is at the toe. It rarely causes
lameness. It can only be diagnosed with certainty when it extends down-
ward to the lower border of the wall. In this case there may be seen a half-
moon-shaped thickening of the white line which rounds inward upon the
edge of the sole, and is of a waxen color. Frequently the horn at this place
crumbles away, leaving a more or less dark-colored cavity from which there
sometimes escapes a small quantity of dark-grayish pus.

Causes.—Chronic inflammation of the podophyllous tissue, resulting from
compression or bruising.

Prognosis.—Unfavorable, whether there is lameness or not. If there is no
lameness it is very apt to arise later, and if lameness is already present it
can only be removed by an operation, which should be performed by a veter-
inarian. A return of the lameness following hard work at a trot upon hard
roads is always to be feared.

Shoeing.—An ordinary shoe well concaved underneath the inflamed region,
which should be relieved of all pressure.

10

CHAPTER III.

DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.

A. Changes of Form.

1. Tue Frat anp THE Futt Hoor (Droprep Sozz).

(a) Flat Hoof.—A flat hoof is one whose toe and side walls
are inclined very obliquely to the ground surface, and whose sole
is on a level with the bearing-surface of the wall.

It exists most often in horses bred in low-lying, marshy coun-

tries.

Frequently the frog is fleshy, and projects considerably beyond

the level of the wall.

The branches of the sole sink perceptibly

under the weight of the body, much more than in better-formed

hoofs.

Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.—The rule is to spare the

plantar surface of the foot.

Fig. 129.

Cross-section of ashod flat foot : a, sufficiently
high bearing-edge of wall, and a horizontal
bearing-surface on the shoe; b, insufficient
height of bearing-edge of wall, and therefore
a corresponding downward and inward incli-
nation of the bearing-surface of the shoe.

After removing from the sole what

little loose horn there may be,
level the usually deficient bear-
ing-surface of the wall with the
rasp. The outer border of
the wall, especially at the toe,
should be rounded off rather
more strongly than usual, be-
cause the toe requires and will
bear considerable shortening.
Outward bendings of the lower
border of the wall should be
removed as far as it is prac-
ticable to do so.

The shoe, which should He rather wider in the web and thicker
than usual, should have its bearing-surface shaped to correspond

146

HORSESHOEING. 147

to the bearing-surface of the wall; that is, if the bearing-surface
of the wall is below the margin of the sole (the sole of the foot
being uppermost), then the bearing-surface of the shoe should
incline downward and inward (Fig. 129, 6). The bearing-surface
of the branches, however, must always remain horizontal. The
shoe always requires deep concaving, especially along the inner
branch of the sole. If the quarters are weak, the walls defective,
or there are corns, cracks, loose walls, or other diseases of the
hoof, a bar-shoe should be selected.

(6) Full Hoof (Dropped Sole).—A full hoof is one whose sole
instead of being concave is convex,—that is, bulges beyond the
bearing-surface of the wall. It either arises gradually from a flat
hoof or is the result of laminitis (founder). In full hoofs the lower
surface of the os pedis is of the same shape as the horny sole.

The preparation of a full hoof for the shoe consists merely in
removing all loose horn. In case the dropping of the sole is very
pronounced, the bearing surface of the wall should be built up
artificially with Defay’s hoof cement. The shoe should be light,
but broad in the web, and furnished with a more or less deep
concaving, which extends from the inner edge of the web to the
outer edge of the shoe, and corresponds in shape to the bulging
of the sole. By reason of the deficiency of the wall, the bar-
shoe deserves the preference over an open shoe. It is fre-
quently necessary to apply toe- and heel-calks to remove the hoof
from contact with the ground. The nails should be thinner and
longer than usual, and a more secure position of the shoe may be
secured without injury to the hoof by drawing up two side-clips.

Flat and full hoofs are incurable. Shoeing is of benefit only
in rendering such horses serviceable. Soles that are soft and
sensitive should be smeared with crude turpentine or pine-tar,
though unusual sensitiveness calls for a leather sole. Horses
with full hoofs should not be driven faster than a walk over hard
roads. During long-continued spells of wet weather softening
of these hoofs should be prevented by smearing the soles with a
hoof-ointment containing resin.

148 HORSESHOEING.

2. Tue Upricut or Stumpy Hoor.

The upright or stumpy hoof is that form in which the quarters,
with relation to the toe, are too long (too high). The wall at the
toe stands very steep, in some cases perpendicular, and is strongly
worn away by standing and travelling.

Causes.—1. The upright hoof is peculiar to the obtuse-angled
position (Fig. 46, page 60) and to the so-called bear-foot (Fig. 62,
page 64).

2. It arises also as a result of all those alterations in the direc-
tion of the limbs which tend to remove the quarters from con-
tact with the ground (contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin).

3. It may arise gradually from neglect of the hoofs of horses
running barefoot.

4. It may arise from excessive shortening of the toe in relation
to the quarters.

Shoeing.—The forms of hoofs mentioned in class 1 should be
left as they are. The hoofs that fall under class 2 should be
dressed and shod until a more
natural setting down of the foot
issecured. This is brought about
by sparing the quarters, and ap-
plying a shoe with thickened
branches or with heel- calks.
Where the service of the animal
is exacting and upon hard streets,

; : the toes, especially of the hind
Upright or stumpy hoof, shod with a
“tip”: a, end of tip let into the wall. shoes, may be made more dura-
ble by welding in steel plates.
Besides, the shoe should be moderately base-wide around the toe,
—that is, should be bevelled downward and outward, should
have a strong toe-clip, and should be quite concave at the toe and
rolled. Should the hoof tip forward whenever the weight is
thrown upon the limb, a shoe with a spur projecting from the
centre of the toe, and turning back and pressing upon the wall
just underneath the coronary band, will be of service.

HORSESHOEING, 149

Only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes
mentioned in 3 and 4 are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs, and
if the service required is not too exacting they should be shod
with tips (Fig. 130), or with shoes with thinned branches.

3. THe Contractep Hoor.

A hoof which has deviated from its normal form in such a manner
that its posterior half, either in part or as a whole, is too narrow, is
a contracted hoof. The walls of the quarters assume an abnor-
mally oblique direction downward and inward towards the
median line of the hoof.

When contraction affects only one quarter, it is called wni-
lateral contraction, or abnormal wryness.

The buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press
upon the frog and cause it to shrink. The bars no longer run in
the natural straight direction from the point of the frog backward
and outward, but describe a circle passing outward, backward,
and inward.

Contraction affects front feet, especially those of the acute-
angled form, more often than hind feet. In order to determine
whether or not a hoof is too narrow, we should always examine
the frog and its lateral lacunee. If the frog is small and narrow,
and the lateral lacunee very narrow and deep, there can be no
doubt but that the hoof is too narrow (contracted).

The causes, aside from too little exercise, are chiefly errors in
shoeing, such as weakening the posterior half of the hoof, leav-
ing too long a toe, either neglecting to remove the spurs of horn
which grow from the buttresses and press upon the frog, or re-
moving them incompletely, and using shoes whose branches are
either too wide apart or are inclined downward and inward, so
that under the weight of the body the heels are squeezed together
and contraction is favored.

Prevention and Treatment.—First, it should be borne in mind
that whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole, frog, and
bars tends to expand the hoof. The action and value of the va-
rious shoes, frog-, and sole-pads, are measured by this rule. For

150 HORSESHOEING.

this reason a shoe with heel-calks is never advisable if an open
flat shoe without other means of relief can be used. Further-
more, since contraction is the parent of nearly all diseases of the
hoof (corns, quarter-cracks, bar-cracks, thrush of the frog), we
should use the greatest care to prevent it by dressing the hoof
as described on pages 83 to 87, using flat shoes with a horizontal
bearing-surface for the quarters, giving abundant exercise,
preventing drying out of the horn, and allowing the animal to
go barefoot whenever possible.

Where the contraction is but slight the foregoing rules will be
found sufficient. Jn very pronounced contraction, where the hoof
is not acute-angled, an expansive shoe with clips raised at the
ends of the branches to press against the buttresses may prove
very advantageous; but under no conditions should violence be
used in expanding the heels with the expanding-screw. This
act should be performed only by experienced veterinarians.

For contracted hoofs of the acute-angled form we use the bar-
shoe, and if there are other diseases of the hoof present, or if we
wish a more rapid and continuous expansive action, we use also
a leather sole with foot-packing. A foul frog should be properly
cleansed, and then disinfected with pine-tar thinned with alcohol
or crude wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid).

Further curative measures are: turning the horse out without
shoes (expensive and seldom practicable); applying tips; using
shoes the bearing-surface of whose branches inclines downward
and outward (unilateral contraction requires but oné branch to
be so constructed) ; hoof-pads of rubber (Hartmann’s pad), straw,
rope, cork, hoof-cement, etc. Special forms of contraction are
distinguished, and are as follows:

(a) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs.—This contraction is man-
ifest as a concavity or groove in the wall just below the coronet,
usually at the quarters, though sometimes extending entirely
around the foot parallel to the coronary band. Pain is produced
in the contracted area by lightly tapping the horn, but not by
moderate pressure with the hoof-testers.

HORSESHOEING. 151

Green horses with wide hoofs, just from the pasture, are par-
ticularly liable to this form of contraction. Asa rule, the lame-
ness does not disappear completely until the wall has assumed
its natural, straight direction by growing down properly from the
coronary band.

In dressing the hoof and applying the bar-shoe, care must be
taken that the lower border of the wall underneath the painful
area is lowered so much that it will not receive direct pressure
from the shoe.

(6) Contraction of the Sole.—This is accompanied by an unnat-
ural direction of the wall. Instead of the wall being straight
from the coronet to the shoe, it describes a curve whose con-
vexity is outward (keg-shaped, claw-shaped when seen from the
side). The hoof seems constricted (tiéd in) at the coronet and
at its plantar border, the sole is abnormally concave (arched),
and the plantar surface of the hoof is considerably shortened
from toe to heel.

It happens in both shod and unshod horses, with otherwise
strong hoofs.

Causes.—Principally dryness, too little exercise, and shoes
without horizontal bearing-surface.

The treatment is correspondingly simple: flat shoes with per-
fectly horizontal bearing-surface, and in very strongly marked
cases clips at the ends of the branches (buttress clips).

In all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and the
maintenance of the natural pliancy of the horn by daily moistening
(washing) with water are absolutely necessary for successful treat-
ment.

4. Tue Wry Hoor.

If one side wall and quarter is steep, and the other very slant-
ing or oblique, we term such a hoof a “wry hoof.” Such a
hoof divided in the middle line presents two very dissimilar
halves. There are three classes of wry hoofs: 1, normal wry
hoofs (see page 67); 2, pathological wry hoofs, or hoofs con-
tracted in one quarter (see contracted hoofs); 38, wry hoofs

152 HORSESHOEING.

which are the result of improper shortening of the wall and of
neglect in horses running barefoot.

Only the third class of wry hoofs requires especial attention.
First, the more oblique wall must be cut down, and the steep
wall spared,—a procedure which differs essentially from that
employed in treating the first and second classes, but is, never-
theless, entirely warranted, because this third kind of wry hoof
does not correspond to the direction of the limb.

In order to take weight from the steep wall, we use with ad-
vantage a bar-shoe, and concave the upper surface of the bar
underneath the outer branch of the frog (Fig. 181). The con-
tracted (steep) wall should neither rest upon the shoe nor be
nailed to it; it should be left wholly free, either by rasping it
down or by beating down the upper surface of the correspond-
ing branch of the shoe.

In old work-horses any sort of shoe may be used, though a
flat shoe serves the purpose best. If a hoof is wry from faulty
paring, and we cannot at once completely restore the proper
relative slant of the two walls by paring alone, we may use a
shoe with a thicker branch for
the half of the hoof which is
too low (too steep).

In colts such wry hoofs. can
often be cured only by shoe-
ing. The shoe employed for this
purpose is so made that the
branch underneath the steep
(contracted) wall is quite thick,
i | ia but gradually thins away around

Bar-shoe for wry hoof: a, the steep and con- the toe to the end of the other
she wall; 0, the place left free from press- Hranch. In strongly marked

‘ cases the thin branch may end
at the middle of the side wall (a three-quarter shoe). This method
of shoeing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting wall and re-
stores the foot to its proper shape in from two to four shoeings.

HORSESHOEING. 153

5. Tue Crooxep Hoor.

A crooked hoof (Fig. 132) is one whose walls (viewed from in
front or behind) do not pass in a straight, natural direction from
the coronet to the ground, but are bent in such a manner that
the bearing-surface of the wall in relation to the foot axis lies
either too far out or in.

It may occur on any foot, but is seldom strongly marked.

Causes.—The causes are either long-continued leaving of one-
half of the wall too high, or the use of shoes shaped for normal
feet upon hoofs of the base-
wide position. Fie. 132.

The principal part of the
treatment is the proper dress-
ing of the hoof. The wall
which is bent out at the mid-
dle and drawn in at the plantar
border is, as a rule, too high
and too near the centre of the
foot (too narrow); the oppe-
site wall, on the contrary, is
too low and too far from the
centre of the foot (too wide).
This explains the manner in
which the hoof should be cut
down and rasped. The shoe
must be laid out as far as pos- “4 aoe ae fore-hoof of the base-wide
sible towards the side which position : a, convex wall, too high ; 6, concave
« ‘ wall, too low; ¢ d@ shows how much of the
1S too high and narrow. A outer wall must be removed with the hoof-
straight edge placed against Hal nae aor afar te
the high wall touches it only position of the shoe with relation to the hoof.
at its middle. The distance
of this line from the lower edge of the wall shows us how far the
surface of support—namely, the shoe—should be set out beyond
the horn. If the straight edge be placed against the opposite

164 HORSESHOEING.

wall, it will touch only at the coronet and at the plantar border,
showing that the wall is concave. The distance of the middle of
this wall from the straight edge shows us how much too wide this
half of the wall is at its plantar border, and how much of the
outer surface of the wall at its plantar border should be removed
with the rasp. The restoration of a crooked hoof to its normal
form requires several shoeings.

6. OssiFicaTIoN OF THE LaTERAL CarTILAGE (S1DE-Bone).

The ossification of a lateral cartilage consists in a change of
the cartilage into bone. Heavy horses are more frequently
affected than lighter ones. It most often involves the outer car-
tilages of the forefeet, seldom both cartilages. Side-bones always
interfere with the physiological movements of the foot, and may,
indeed, entirely suppress them.

The disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the
upper part of the cartilage has ossified. The coronet is then
rather prominent (bulging), and feels hard. The gait is short and
cautious, and well-marked lameness often follows severe work.
As causes, may be mentioned predisposition in heavy lymphatic
horses, and violent concussion or shock due to fast work upon
hard roads. The disease is incurable.

A special method of shoeing is only necessary when the outer
cartilage is ossified and the quarter upon that side is contracted.
After removing the old shoe, whose outer branch is, as a rule,
more worn away than the inner, the outer wall will always be
found too high, due to the fact that there has been little or no
expansion and contraction in this quarter and, therefore, little or
_ no wear of the horn against the shoe. The hoof is therefore wry,
—on the outside too high, and on the inside too low. This shows
us how the foot should be dressed so as to obtain a proper base of
support and a uniform wear of the shoe. The most suitable shoe
is a flat shoe, whose outer branch must be wider than the inner.
It is so applied that the inner branch follows the edge of the wall
closely, while the outer branch must be full and at the quarter

HORSESHOEING. 155

must extend beyond the wall far enough to touch a perpendicular
line dropped from the coronet (Fig. 134). The shoe must, there-
fore, be punched deep (coarse) on the outer branch and fine on

Fig. 134.

ZZ

Right fore-hoof whose form has changed as Shoe with broad outer branch, for the hoof
a result of ossification of the external lateral shown in the preceding cut.
cartilage.

the inner. A side-clip must be placed on the outer branch, be-
cause in time the outer half of the hoof will again be too high.
Bar-shoes are injurious.

B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof.
1. Cracks.

Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the direc-
tion of the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They
have, according to their location, degree, and extent, not only
various names, but also a varying significance.

Occurrence.—On the inner side of front hoofs, especially of
horses that stand base-wide; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe.

Classification.—According to location we distinguish toe-
cracks, side-cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar-cracks. Those
cracks which affect only the upper border of the hoof are called

156 HORSESHOEING.

coronary cracks ; those which are limited to the lower border of
the hoof are sometimes designated low cracks ; while those which
are continuous from one border to the other are called complete
cracks. If the crack passes through the entire thickness of the
wall to the sensitive tissues underneath, it is called a deep or pene-
trating crack, in contradistinction to the superficial crack (Fig. 135).

Causes.—There are many. Besides wounds of the coronet,
everything that impairs the elasticity of the horn, weakens the
hoof, and causes an overloading of one-half of the hoof. Fur-
thermore, great dryness and excessive work on hard streets.

Prognosis.—This will depend upon the age, kind, and location
of the crack. <A low crack is without significance unless it is the
remnant of an old coronary crack which has grown down. Coro-
nary cracks, on the contrary, are more serious because of the
lameness which often accompanies them, and especially on ac-
count of the long duration of the healing process.

The borders of the crack never grow together, and healing
can only take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing
down from the coronary band.

(a) Treatment of Coronary and Bar-Cracks.—If practicable, —
allow the affected horse to go barefoot; otherwise, the use of
the bar-shoe for all cracks is ad-
vised, because it will continuously
protect the diseased section of wall
from pressure by the shoe. If there
are present still other diseases of the
hoof (corns, contraction, flat or full
hoof), the addition of a leather sole
with packing will be most beneficial,
can ee ae not only in favoring the healing of
to be clinched. the crack, but also in improving

the form of the hoof and in favoring
the cure of the other lesions. In all coronary cracks it is of
advantage to assist healing by fastening or immobilizing the
borders of the crack by one of the following methods:

HORSESHOEING. 157

1. By rivets (nails), which pass across the crack through holes
previously drilled in the horn.

2. By clamps or hooks, which by means of special pincers are
forced into pockets previously burnt into the horn on opposite
sides of the crack.

3. By a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured
by small wood screws.

4, By means of wood screws, screwed at right angles through
the edges of the crack.

5. By means of a strap buckled around the hoof.

In all cases the hoof should be dressed with such care that
the shoe will fit air-tight. Before the shoe is nailed on it is
necessary to relieve pressure from certain parts of the wall.
For toe-cracks we use, as a rule,an open shoe upon which, under
certain conditions, clips are raised upon the ends of the branches
to press against the buttresses. Two lateral toe-clips (Fig. 136)
are drawn up, and the wall between these clips is cut down from
a twelfth to an eighth of an inch.

For side-cracks we determine the extent of wall to be laid free
in the following manner: We imagine the crack to be prolonged
in the direction of the horn-tubes to the plantar border, and drop
a perpendicular line from the upper end of the crack to the
plantar border. That part of the plantar border lying between
these two points is then to be lowered sufficiently to prevent
pressure from the shoe until the next shoeing (Fig. 137).

For quarter-cracks we use a bar-shoe, and proceed as described
above, even when the perpendicular line falls behind the buttress.

Next to shoeing, Aoof-pads render good service, because
through them a part of the body-weight is distributed over the
sole and frog. They assist in widening the hoof, and lessen
shock when the foot is set to the ground. These are all matters
which favor the growing down of coherent (unbroken) horn.

When the crack gaps widely, and the frog is small and deep in
the foot, a shoe with bar-clips (Defay’s shoe) may be used. It is
not impossible, indeed, to obtain a cure by using an ordinary

158 HORSESHOEING.

open flat shoe, though much will depend upon the other lesions
that may be present, the nature of the hoof, and the service
required of the animal.

If the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping, the
shoer should carefully thin away all overlapping edges. Thin-
ning the horn on both sides of the crack over the coronary band,
preventing drying out of the horn, and frequent applications of
laurel oil to the coronet favor growth of undivided horn and
guard against a renewal of the crack.

If in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and
lameness, cooling poultices should be used for several days.

Fig. 137.

I

Toe-crack immobilized by lateral toe-clips Hoof with coronary quarter-crack, shod
and an iron plate secured by small wood with a bar-shoe, The part of the quarter
screws. relieved of pressure is indicated by the

dotted lines.

When there is no lameness, the horse may be used for slow
draught purposes. Coach- and saddle-horses should be kept from
Jast work until sound horn has grown down at least two-fifths of an
inch from the coronet.

Bar-cracks are usually the result of changes of position of the
quarters, and are just as frequently brought about by contraction
as by leaving the quarters too high. We see them almost en-
tirely upon the fore-hoofs. They seldom occur alone, but are
usually accompanied by corns. When the crack extends to the
pododerm there is a superficial inflammation of the pododerm
and lameness. When treatment is not promptly begun the

HORSESHOEING. 159

inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the pododerm, or,
indeed, even to the plantar cushion, and gives rise to swelling of
the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a well-marked lame-
ness, which requires treatment by a competent veterinarian.

The bars lie in the most elastic region of the hoof. The cracks
open and close alternately as the body-weight is thrown upon
and taken from the hoof. This continuous movement not only
renders healing difficult,.but, on the contrary, tends to prolong
the crack and to irritate and inflame the pododerm.

Ordinarily a bar-crack is only found by a close examination
of the hoof after the shoe has been removed. In paring the
hoof the crack usually appears as a dark streak, sometimes as a
bloody fissure ; not infrequently grayish hoof-pus is discovered
in the depths of the crack.

The treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth
of a continuous (unbroken) bar. This is accomplished by com-
pletely removing the edges of the crack, paring the horn of the
vicinity very thin, and preventing the least pressure upon the
wall of this quarter by the shoe, by lowering this quarter with the
rasp and applying a bar-shoe, and when necessary a leather sole.

Following the removal of the edges of the crack there often
appears, especially in stumpy hoofs, a deep groove ; if the bottom
of this groove is moist, we should pack it with oakum wet with
tincture of myrrh or tincture of aloes, and cover the oakum with
wax (grafting wax). The cracks will return if the exciting
causes cannot be completely removed.

(b) Treatment of Low Cracks (Plantar Border Cracks).—These
cracks, occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses,
are the result of excessive stretching and bending of the lower
border of the wall. Insufficient rounding of the wall with the
rasp is largely responsible for them. An exciting cause in shod
horses is the use of too large nails in shoes that are punched too
fine.

Every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar-border
crack, and this has an important bearing upon the prognosis,

160 HORSESHOEING.

because a renewal of the coronary crack will be followed by a
low crack.

In order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to shoe
the horse. Upon shod horses they may be prevented by using
properly punched shoes and thin nails. The lower border of
the wall near the crack should be relieved of pressure by cutting
out a half-moon-shaped piece of horn. To prevent the crack
from extending farther upward we may burn a transverse slot at
the upper end of the crack, in as far as the leafy layer of the
wall, or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife.

2. CLEFTS.

An interruption of continuity of the wall, at right angles to the
direction of the horn-tubes, is called a cleft.

Clefts may occur at any part of the wall; yet they occur most
often upon the inner toe and inner side, as a result of injury
from sharp, improperly placed heel-calks (see page 138). How-
ever, suppurating corns, or other suppurative processes situated
at the coronet or which find their point of escape at the coronet,
may from time to time lead to separations of continuity and the
formation of horn-clefts.

Horn-clefts, though the result of lesions which are often very
injurious and interfere with the use of the horse, are of them-
selves not an evil which can be abolished or healed by shoeing,
although, in many cases, proper shoeing would have prevented
them. A horn-cleft is not a matter for consideration by the
shoer until it has grown down so far that it comes within the
region of the nails.

In order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily, the horn
below the cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by
shortening the wall at that point, to remove shoe-pressure, and
by driving no nails into it. If, however, the horn is loose and
about to come away, it should be removed and the defect filled
with grafting-wax or, still better, with Defay’s patent horn-
cement.

HORSESHOEING. 161

3. Loose Watt.

Separation of the wall from the sole in the white line is called
loose wall (Fig. 138, a).

Occurrence.—Frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and unshod
horses, and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer side.
More rare on hind hoofs. Common-bred horses with wide and
flat feet are predisposed to this trouble.

We distinguish superficial and deep loose wall; only the latter
requires the shoer’s attention, because it leads to lameness.

Causes.—Walls which are very oblique (slanting); outward
bendings of the plantar border of the wall; burning the horn
with hot shoes; dryness; neglected shoeing ; excessive softening
of the horn with poultices, particularly of cow-dung ; careless-
ness in preparing the bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoe-
ing; uneven fitting of the shoe.

Treatment.—It aims to remove the lameness and to favor
growth of coherent horn. In the first place the removal of the
exciting causes, followed by proper shortening of the wall. We
should apply a shoe whose bearing-surface inclines slightly down-
ward and inward, is perfectly smooth, and wide enough to cover
the wall, white line, and outer border of the sole; the iron should
be only moderately warm. Where there is lameness we use a
leather sole with packing, or a bar-shoe. The loose wall should
be freed from shoe-pressure only when it does not extend far
along the white line. When the separation is extensive the loose
wall should not be lowered. The crack should be filled with
wood-tar, crude turpentine, or soft grafting-wax.

If a loose wall occur upon the foot of a horse while running
barefoot, all separated horn should be removed; if, on account
of the nature of the ground, this seems to be impracticable, the
hoof must be shod.

Care of the Hoof.—Regular shoeing at least every month.
Preserving the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious

moistening.
11

162 HORSESHOEING.

4, Hottow Watt.

A hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred be-

tween the middle layer of the wall and the keraphyllous layer.

This crack or separation

Fia. 138. always extends in the di-

rection of the layers of
the wall (Fig. 138, 0).

Occurrence—Quite
rare.

We should suspect a
An imaginary transverse vertical section of a hoof hollow wall when a part

showing (a) loose wall and (6) hollow wall. of the wall rounds out
prominently beyond the rest,
and gives forth a hollow (resonant) sound when struck. The
white line presents a crack, yet we should hesitate to form a
conclusion as to the extent of the separation from the extent of
the crack along the white line, since the latter may be consider-
ably smaller. The separation extends higher up the wall than in
the case of loose wall, frequently to the coronet. The cavity is
usually filled with crumbling, disintegrated horn.

Hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain. Lameness
may arise, however, if the hollow section of wall assists in bear-
ing the body-weight, and if the animal does fast work upon paved
streets. ‘

Causes.—Mechanical influences resulting in chronic inflamma-
tion of fleshy leaves.

Treatment.—A cure is possible, but requires considerable time.
In shoeing, which should always aim to relieve pressure from the
hollow section of wall, we cleanse the cavity and fill it with
oakum and tar, crude turpentine, or wax. Where the separation
is very extensive we use a bar-shoe.

The time required for complete cure of hollow and loose
walls will depend upon the height of the separation (see growth
of the hoof, page 71).

HORSESHOEING. 163

5. THRUSH OF THE FRoG.

When the horny frog is ragged and fissured, and an ill-smelling,
dark-colored liquid collects in the lacune of the frog, it is affected
with thrush. When thrush exists uninterruptedly for several
months the perioplic band is irritated and forms rings of periople
which assume an ir-
regular course and Fig. 139.
cross the rings of the 4
middle layer of the
wall and each other
at various angles (Fig.
139).

The causes are: un-
cleanliness, too little
exercise in fresh air,
excessive paring of
the frog, the use of

shoes with calks by

: = _ Hoof with irregular superficial rings resulting from thrush
which the frog is per argent

manently removed
from the ground, and the use of frog-pads which are kept on
from month to month.

The consequences are, besides contraction of the hoof, soreness
in travelling, a shortening of the step, and, occasionally, well-
marked lameness.

Treatment.—Removal of all greasy horn from the frog, and of
the prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses (see page 85),
thorough washing of the frog once or twice daily, abundant
exercise, and shoes without calks.

CHAPTER IV.
SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN,

1. The shoeing of mules and asses is, as in the case of horses,
a necessity if these animals are to be used for draught or saddle
purposes on hard streets. The structure and characteristics of
the hoofs of these animals are quite similar to those of the horse,
differing chiefly in the form and thickness of the wall. The mule
hoof is long and narrow and round at the toe, the sole is well
arched, and the side walls are rather steep. In the ass the nar-
rowness of hoof is still more pronounced, the wall is relatively
thick, the frog is particularly well developed in its branches,
and therefore the hoof is relatively wide in the region of the
quarters. The horn of both mule and ass is tough.

The shoes differ from those of the horse in no other respect
than that they should be lighter and narrower. Four nail-holes
are sufficient for an ass’s shoe, and five to six for a mule’s.

On account of the hardness and toughness of the walls, we
use nails that are short but strong in the shank; nails with weak
shanks are apt to bend in driving.

2. The shoeing of oxen is essentially different from that of
horses, because the foot of the ox is cloven (split), the long pas-
tern, short pastern, and hoof-bone are double, so that, instead of
one hoof or claw, there are two upon each foot, distinguished as
outer and inner. Each claw consists of wall, sole, and bulbs;
the frog is absent. The wall is considerably thinner than that
of the horse’s hoof, the sole is thin, and the bulbs are low. For
these reasons the shoe designed for a claw must be thin, but
wide.

The holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite short

and strong. On each shoe a long tongue should be made on the
164

HORSESHOEING. 165

inner edge near the toe, and so directed that it can be turned
upward and outward to embrace the toe of the claw. A small
clip raised on the outer toe of each shoe will increase its sta-
bility. In some parts of Saxony the shoes are so made that the
tongue of each shoe begins in the rear third of its inner edge and
runs forward, upward, and outward, closely embracing the wall
of the toe. The smaller clip is drawn up on the outer edge of
the shoe close to the toe. These shoes are more difficult to
make, but when applied sit more firmly and remain fast longer

Fig. 140.

Tip ft

sell
Lang

A shod ox-claw.

than all others. An undivided shoe (the so-called “ closed claw-
shoe”’) is unsuitable for oxen, because it deprives both claws of
their natural, free movements. However, such a shoe is of ad-
vantage for heavy draught over hard and very rough roads, be-
cause it lessens the liability of the fetlock and coronary joints
and the cleft of the claws to strains.

Great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet during
the operation of shoeing. It is necessary to fasten the head
securely against a tree, post, or wall. <A front foot may be raised

166 HORSESHOEING.

and held by passing a slip-noose in the end of a rope or side-line
around the fetlock and carrying the line over the withers to the
opposite side, where it is held by an assistant. A hind limb may
be controlled by passing a round pole in front of the hock of the
leg to be raised, and, with a man at each end of the pole, carry-
ing the limb backward and upward, in which position it is held;
or the limb may be bent and controlled by tightening a twitch
or tourniquet upon the leg just above the hock. Oxen that con-
tinue to resist may sometimes be quieted by light blows of a
short stick upon the base of the horns. In parts of the country
where many oxen are shod stocks are in common use.

Very satisfactory stocks have been designed by Gutendcker, of
Munich (Fig. 141). The four corner-posts (a, a, 6, 6) are eight
inches square and eight feet long, of which three feet four inches
are solidly implanted in the ground. They are united by side-
and cross-bars (¢, ¢, d). In front of the corner-posts (a, a) and
in the middle line stands a head-post (e) of the same dimensions
as the corner-posts, provided with a slot four inches wide and
twenty inches long beginning three feet from the ground. In this
slot is a pulley-wheel (i), and below it a windlass (4) for winding
up the rope which is tied around the base of the animal’s horns.
The corner-posts are provided with a slot (n) three inches wide
and three inches deep, within which are placed two movable
side-bars (0, p), which can be set at desired heights and fastened
by iron pins. Between the front and rear corner-posts of the
right-hand side is an eight-sided roller with a ratchet and click
at one end, and having on one of the sides six iron hooks, to
which a girth is attached. On the opposite side of the stocks, at
the same height, is a stationary bar (f) with six hooks (g, g) on
the outer side. The belly girth is six feet long, six inches wide,
and terminates at both ends in several strong cords two feet
four inches long with iron rings at their ends. Between the
front corner-posts are a neck-yoke (h) and a breast-bar which
slide in the slots (m) and may be fixed at desired heights by iron
pins. On the rear face of each rear corner-post is an iron

HORSESHOEING. 167

bracket (s) one foot and a half long, with a ring (¢) six inches in
diameter, through which passes a round pole padded in the

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middle and kept in place by two iron pins. Above each bracket
is a hook (uw) to which the end of the breeching attaches.

168 HORSESHOEING.

Before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke is
raised, the breast-bar lowered, and the girth left hanging from
the hooks on the stationary bar. The ox is then led into the
stocks and the rope which is tied around the base of the horns
is carried over the pulley (i), fastened to the hook on the roller
(&), and wound up till the head is tight against the head-post.
The yoke and breast-bar are then placed in position and fast-
ened, the breeching hung on the hooks (uw), and the belly girth
attached to the hooks on the roller, so that, if need be, it can be
shortened till it bears the animal’s entire weight.

To control a front foot a slip noose is placed about the fetlock
and the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar, the rope pass-
ing finally to the hook (vr). To control a hind foot a slip noose
is placed about the fetlock, the foot carried upward and back-
ward over the rear cross-bar, and, with the front surface of the
fetlock-joint resting against the padding of the bar, the limb is
firmly secured by wrapping the line several times about the limb
and bar.

When no stocks areat hand, we may use an ordinary farm
wagon or a truck wagon. ‘Tie the ox with his head forward be-
tween the front and hind wheels. Fasten the large end of a
binding pole to the spokes of the front wheel and let it rest on
the hub. Swing the pole close to the ox and induce him to step
over it with one hind leg, then raise the rear end of the pole,
and with it the leg and so much of the animal’s hind quarters
that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon rests but
lightly upon the ground. The binding pole may then be slung
with a rope from the rack of the wagon or other stationary
object and the outer limb held in the usual manner. By fol-
lowing this method a shoer with one assistant can easily and
safely control the most refractory oxen.

THE END.