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1908 THE
Roswell P. Flower Library

THE GIFT OF
ROSWELL P. FLOWER
FOR THE USE OF ,

THE N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLE L
18907 ag %

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‘ornell Universit

Cornell University

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924001175326

‘VI ‘SHIVY ‘INTTION ALYLG VMOT ‘ONIaTINgG AUTVG

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

OF

BUTTER-MAKING

A TREATISE ON THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MILK AND ITS COMPONENTS
THE HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM, AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF BUTTER THEREFROM

BY

G. L. McKAY,

Professor of Dairying in the Iowa State College, Ames, Ia.

AND

C. LARSEN, MLS.A.
Professor of Dairy Husbandry, So. Dak. State College, Brookings, S D.;
formerly Associate Professor, Lowa State College, Ames, Ia.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

FIRST THOUSAND

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Lrwirep
1908.

ae

Ns
)

er 4
Copydaht, 1906, 1908,
BY

G. L. McKAY anv C. LARSEN

The Scientific Press
Robert Bewmnwnd and Company
New York

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

THE science of dairying is constantly broadening. The
methods and art of manufacturing the best quality of butter
have gradually changed in conformity to the scientific princi-
ples involved, ard no manufacture of butter should now be
undertaken until a careful study has been made of the prin-
ciples governing the best methods of manufacture.

The authors admit that, in our present state of knowledge
and experimental progress, it is in some instances difficult
to distinguish well established facts from those not universally
confirmed; hence it has been the object of the writers to give
only information supported by the preponderance of experi-
mental evidence.

The first edition of this book has been, in a manner, well
received, indicating the work has met with general approval.
The second edition has been carefully revised, and two chapters,
one on ‘‘Creamery Refrigeration” and one on ‘‘Hconomic Oper-
ation of Creameries” have been added to mect an indicated
demand, and the authors hope that this will justify the use of
the book in our dairy schools, and also as a general reference
book for those engaged in dairy pursuits.

The authors believe that the subject of dairying should no
longer be treated as a whole, and for this reason such subjects
as Testing Milk and its Products, Dairy Bacteriology, Cheese-
making, and Technology of Milk and its Products, have not
been treated comprehensively in this work. In connection

with the practical phase of butter-making the writers have
iii

iv PREFACE,

endeavored to give such scientific information related to it
as may be of interest and value.

The scientific knowledge has been acquired from time to
time through work done by various investigators at the different
Experiment Stations. To all of these men who have searched
for and discovered facts bearing upon dairying the authors
wish to express their thanks and acknowledgment.

It may be added that the statistics and tables given in this
work have been quoted from noted, reliable authorities, as
indicated.

The authors are also indebted to the following parties for
the use of electrotypes: Mower-Harwood Co., and Cherry
Bros., Cedar Rapids, Ia.; Creamery Package Co., Waterloo
Cream Separator Co., and Iowa Separator Co., Waterloo, Ia.;
Vermont Farm Machine Co., Bellows Falls, Vt.; Jensen Mfg.
Co., Topeka, Kans.; Ox Fiber Brush Co., Davis Cream Sep-
arator Co., Borden & Selleck Co., and De Laval Separator
Co., Chicago, Ill; Wagner Glass Works, and J. H. Monrad,
New York, N. Y.; Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y.; Empire
Cream Separator Co., Bloomfield. N. J.; Dairy Queen Mfg.
Co., Flora, Ind.; Dairy Record, St. Paul, Minn., and W. D.
Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis.

G. L. McKay.
C. Larsen.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

COMPOSITION OF MILK. ..4c0d00 2c ie be des hn wa ecae os ere a dane ba nine ee 1
1 ye fir ition Ole Milke sain ofblancntede Wado aSeeta dace eh ans See 1
2, -Composition-of Milky a ig dee noting Pay dees sauces Sead wiidoaee 2
3. Variation of Total Solids, «.. .-. o0%%daseees ore aciesce eevee aueas 3
he NAR oe a ae oad fos aa eee Li Ba Sie sya ey es dhsee ence taeda hobea tate fad 4
Be Maier MAIS, 2.25qs .danhie 3 setae Geis oe SA Oe a ee Ay et Eesha ae dl 5
6, Properties Of Mati... iat anc cane ony ad Se Ree wR ee acne ee 7
%. Glycerides:of Hat .: scociseseces seed eve tense ao eed ea te haw ews 8
8. Theories in Regard to Films Enveloping Fat-globules.......... 9
9° \ClASs@S: OF RatS 22 cds cd nea cik es akeeaie Ree MOR ARUN Dd ee ee eae 10

Ay Nolatiles joc. ipod heat iee Le tas oe eee aay Ae ee Ce 11

BON onsvolalesc ise vektqusais eo see ee aela de ilt ee ane sak gala tis 12
10. Composition of Butter-fat. 0... eke cence eee eee 13
Wikio (GASES oe ese a etoeel ohare OH a aah bd mee AE! ace ada eds Myuehel alannes area 15
12 MIbUMENs f.2..c404 p dack wad nad os amrieremtadad win te tee Hawn 4k 16
TS sSugarxd dee awe bee aaenade ce des onus sepia tara en Bie ess 16
Vay ASH gc icsank cdties Be cue PANE BAERS HOOT RTS Mts Hee ee eT Sas 18
15, Gases or Taints of Milk. 10.0.0... 2.0 ccc eee cre eee renee 18
16) Coloring Matters: «4. ic< ca eae 4 ae sais eae ad snk s ae eines oe 20
17. Other Constituents of Milk... .. 0... ee eee cece ee eee eens 20

CHAPTER II.

Milk SECRETION? jas askiss saa ts daly ae tes os eRe othe Bae eG ies Say ee sl 22
1. Mammary Gland as a Secretory Organ .........eccc eee e eee 22
2. Internal Structure of Cow’s Udder. .......... eee e ee eee eens 22
3. Theories of Milk Secretion. . 2.0.00... cece ccc cee eee tenes 25
4, Conditions Affecting Secretion of Milk................ ee 28
5. External Appearance of Udder..........eseee eee eeeeeneeeee 29
Ge Mile fOVer cs, ance edie cna ahaa adce a sehalels longer davenansiarea aerate Siew oraeed 30

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

Opacity Of Milkics scccsansts cw cit aeiw ene da nan eee esi ee eS
. Chemical Reaction: of Malley. cccciv a eiags ese eleg we nee ay aie es
. Specifie Gravity of Milky .ccanss sus nev ed va vies ase ce eae gees
Natural Separation of Milk and Cream... .............00000-
Acdhesiotr Of MTU sy igs asada se eos mud nop sale bot dab dna pled na hulu Viv tain ade
L. Viscosity Of Milk, 4a ctemesdteresowceh ete nd eet eeeee coe eens
L. Specihe: Pleat; of Male ices ghia ws tea rea Sede eaten 2%
. Effect of High Heat on Properties of Milk... ................
. Destroys nearly all Germs... 2.6... eee cee eee eee
. Diminishes Viscosity or Body... ........ 2.0.0 e eee eee

Drivessoff GaseSic.c.camie sca te waa vs wate ee eet eee.
,. Imparts a-Cooked Taste... vcs sc vap aes ga Pu Sea arilge aeiees
. Precipitates Albuminoid and Ash Contents......... ..
. Destroys Properties of Enzymes. ... ......... 0.0 ee eee

Divides the Fat-globules. ........... 0.00: cece eee ee eee
. Caramelizes the Sugar... 0... 0... cece eee eee eee
» General Remarks. «ga: oc x ape lstedten s siena aay o wholes ohana

m
SOMNANMRWNeR

HOOP DoOWS

CHAPTER IV.

FERMENTS- ON MAGK) 0 ccucnkas cacaa cid adea dened da cum Sewwaltudede

her WD ORTUGT ONS, 2 asd vas eles cas silane ry at R Ged als where oy ded Bins mpetslocencteats duis ital ac
2. Size-and Slrape of Bactetiass »2s.5s56deu5s eee sap ceawete yee.
3. Favorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth..............20005

Be. DeMperatine sca we eaaasn tind argu cane dein yieas

Bg NTI Stal Bates te ted tm watches ap ay econis eA bates aresathg cae Larlereualte sees! eae

. Number of Bacteria in Milk. 10... ck ccc cece eevee rene
. Sources of Bacteria in Milk. 2... ccc cece cence

WN me

CHAPTER V.

ANBNORMAG: MGR: 2ccc-ast oae.24 4 Gee d4 eS aueus tnd dade eae beeewten

1. (Colostrum lil tsuniieaainte pent eens s Ged maya swat eee hess
De alta MAM s. ss coushansts an atane terials a Wie low aod aces eae eg es aidan ioe Narees
3: Bloody ot Red Milk. .xisc: cece rs aa sie cesta ead eb aia a nmels
Be Blue: Mil Kasia so sae eee ed Bale eg lies et had ee Riles nie rade ab we Sky

CONTENTS.

. Milk from Cows which have been in Milk a Long Period... ....
. Milk fron Spayed ‘Cows... 05. .eseeseisvev neu Oareraesteebes

i

GDODNAN
e4
aay
+
oO
a]
=
ian

. Milk: front Bick: Cows ie ss .dscecu's eH aoa e Oe ae ak en SOs

CHAPTER VI.

VARIATION Of Far in MUIPK..,. ¢¢c4¢csec¥ es ee be eet oo ges oe as Rie ees

SOnMANOaAhWNH

me

Individuality: OF COWS. 5c ais gursunt aed deh d Lda Reeth eee Slee aay
5 BREE. OF COWS: So actanw on Rat EAR eA ROE eka eae
Time between Milkings. ..........0. 00.00 cee eee eee eee
_ Manner of Milling 'ss gos exiexee eaietsesed ghana xed See oe lees
) Millimesnisehinedis ans cacave senses bee ahs ef apiac dak peneaen dae
, Hore Milk and After Milk. .cc: acieaascngme dene ach awe ee eeen
Mee: Of COW: c.2%.a yaa the gele Wee eo Bea RHEE Hage es
. dactation: Peétiod..s5 dueeekte been gcd eo bee kes cles 4 Saree Sete
HOO) Of COWS) 2:05 aulnancate.s oe uitsc ding uaa ne@lees Senury gual week
. Environmental Conditions. ...... 0.0... 2c ieee ee ee eee ee

CHAPTER VII.

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING MILK AND CREAM.............
1. Receiving and Grading of Milk and Cream...................

A
B

C.

D
E

ANION hwh

Detection of Abnormal Milk Through the Senses. .......
Use ior Acid RGStS: hve waiisienn ty sing sthyiees Min ee deh ap idlg ances
Use of Fermentation Tests. .....0..0..000 0000 cence eee

a. Gerber and Wisconsin Curd Tests. ..............
Grading Milk by Heating. ................0.0...0000.
Use of Babcock Test and Lactometer.............0.0.

. Necessity of Good Milky sacs cege ee cee ca gereyancarmesesenees
SamplingiOf Mile, a sesacit aa iene ta cuattcae nica Sa Ses Das ».
PaMphnis-tubeyg. «russes alee sous sd esle adleneteadle mene oo
. Sampling Churned. Milky: cv aecas en sei edeaworewesacese eds
Brozen. Milly ve 6 ve ss gees eee wera cawtyseeave aes ube ees tee
. Sour and Coagulated Milk. 2... c5.c04 ssce: se we teawec es we one
Apportioning Skimmed Milk... 2.0... oe eee eee eee

CHAPTER VIII.

CoMPpoSITE SAMPLES. ..........- Sciseissgssiiboud: a 4 ula Geena dena asayivend aoe wnbael Dib lnah oe
Te DefnitiOns oa 9.c-0G davon cdae hehe wiadies cadens need eee thane 4

99
99

vill CONTENTS.

PAGE

3. Kind of Preservatives to Add. 2.2... 0... cc cece eee eee eee 99

4, Arrangement of Composite Samples... ............ 00000 e eee 102

5. Care of Composite Samples. ... 0.0.0... eee eee eee 102

6. Asieragé Samples. caro. duet avmee ed mas becedcen Ce smaee¥a wiegcd se 104

7. Composite Sampling without the Use of Preservatives......... 104
CHAPTER IX,

CREAMBERY ‘CALCULATIONS vv go tals ioe add ade sh gO guard gan Mela oe des pe GO 105
1. Finding Average Percentage of Fat... 2.0.0... 00. cece eee eee 105
2. Caleulation, OF OVerrii p..2 psc scone Gag hacen Sa ero S EAA 107

A, Thoroughness of Skimming... ............0000 00 eee ee 108

B. Completeness of Churning. ........-.....-..000 0-0 108

C. General Losses in Creameries. ........... 00000000020 ee 108

D. Composition of Butter Manufactured. ................. 108
8. Calculation of Churn-yield. .......... 0.0.0.0 cee cece eee eee eee 109
4. Calculation, Of Dividends: ncou4aeawa eee bad Qe namede aa Rea w eee 109
5. Cream-raising Coefficient... . 0.2.00... 000. eee eee 113
G, ‘Statement! toPatrons, . g%2. ys: sya rina ea eR ean Gea pee es wR 113
7. Paying for Fat in Cream as Compared with Paving for Fat in Milk 116
8. Degree of Justice in Paying Cream Patrons More per Pound of

Hat than the: Mik Batronsy, ...s.. 2 ceed b wun pee nee eoe le aS wee 117

CHAPTER NX,

Heatina MitK PREVIOUS TO SKIMMING... 0.0.0.0. ccc ee eee ee eens 118
1. Reasons for H@Sting: con ces sc ies nosey weduyue ees awntianaaves 118

2. Advantages of Warming Milk to High Heat Previous to Skim-
MINGS &, \iicietpraas Seameed wee se pegs Gere ye kako RR me 119
By LLOW PLCAUCC Sy eevee asal vera des Hie ueaenciaeateoden, deaths ese a. kites eaatals 121

CHAPTER XI.

SEPARATION ‘OF CREA 9 sce gins $44 ae eg eed v4 BREE BETS Ra ee a ads 123
1. Grayitye Greaininigy yok we esd 4 peace eee od ah vs dea ane a 123

A. Shallow-pan System, 2.000.000. 0c cece eee e eee ees 123

B. Deep-setting System. 2.0.0.6... cece eee enna 124

a, Probable Explanation... ............0.00000000- 126

C. Water-dilution Cream (Hydraulic). ...............000. 128

2. Centrifugal Creaming............0. 00000 c cece cece eee eeeeee 129

As Awantagess: © casa stain «Match nis & paltaee nde Owed Se aes 129

B. History of Centrifugal Separators. .......0.....0000005 130

Cl” Modern: Séparators: s.cssan awe coder cs aes end eee toe Sas 132

D. Classification of Separators.............000cc cece ee eee 133

CONTENTS. ix

PAGE

E, Process of Separation. « « ¢.24 0:44 a ceadevssevesaunees 134
F, Relative Amount and Richness of Milk and Cream

QO Paine eee gaan An tadaenn ean nap dese RE 137

a, Regulation of the Cream or Skimmed-milk *crew. 137

b; Rate of Inflow: s24245) on See ersee ce Geeere ytnen 138

Gee SPCC O 3s, Meee Na stig ah nassau ile aod MORE hayerte Migr 138

d@. Temperature: .ci.¢eedenecigsesaperiaaea ads 139

G, Conditions Affecting Efficiency of Separators........... 139

a. Manner of Heating Milk... .......0........... 139

b. Condition of the Milk... ...........00..0 0000000. 141

c. Overfeeding the Separator..................200. 141

Gs SPCC y oie 5 2 sei aipgwcie Ma age Wide +a Bier see 142

e. Steadiness in Running......................00. 143

fF. Thickness of Creams... 2. cages ie eese pee naib ee 144

g: Slushin Bowl... ndsdenteada seals aancanseaancn 144

h, General Remarks. ... .........0 02-0 s cece eeeees 145

CHAPTER NII.

Harm SEPARATORS ja. wise cede ew a eeenins eens Mea Reged weed 146
1. Introduction of Farm Separators... 22.2... eee 146
2. Reasons for Introducing Farm Separators..............-06-. 147
3. Objections to Farm Separators. ...... 00.00.2200 2 eee eee 152
4, Thickness: 6f Créamit. ccs sx acc aa vues Geen yes REV SRA NORMS 152
5. Power for Farm Separators... 2.0.0... 0c cece eee 155
6. Care of Cream on the Farm............. 0.00 c cece ees 158
7, Disposition Of Creat, cygeuca.wakewic ane and God alas Ge Gand saa eee 167

A, Shipping Of Cream. vac. ess cease eae canw anced acawe ioe 169
B. Making Butter onthe Farm................0......00, 169
CHAPTER NIII.

PUSTEURIZATION: & died acd Sa Rdoder aces bled Rady SR GaSe iG vee RP adi 173
1. Definitions yy pesesoo tose dw dede rer dulce ee Aa Bae 173
2. Methods of Pasteurization, ......... 0.6.00. cee cee ee eee 173

A, Intermittent. vac caa peers seus cay nes BS dese das ees 4 173

Bi - COMPA UOUS: fy i5o ine ais balavers oka Riga ee ans wtarmaerseale Gare aeS 174

3. Selection of Pasteurizers. . 0.2.0... eee eee 175
A. Durabilityvand Capacityis cs conisasen eres nae « 175

B. Economic Efficiency... 0... .. 2. cc cece cee eee eee 175

@., HORI SUPTACE: by a ba een cscs Fe Es 176

b. Degree of Adhesiveness.. 1 ........ 000-0 ee eee 177

c. Thickness of Layer of Condensed Steam.......... 180

d. Difference in Temperature on Each Side of Heat-
MNS SUTLACE 2 oes i aims saan 4 dia sbreeee neues aon 181

x CONTENTS.

PAGE
e. Proper Utilization of Steam Turned into the Pas-

OUTIL Da ie-tagng mine ie avai) Boeri tace Seal Seg ahi cae ed 182

C. The Cost of Pasteurization. ........... 0.00.00. e eee eee 183
D. Advancement of Pasteurization. ................2..000. 183
E, Advantages of Pasteurization. .....0......0 0c e eee 1s4
FE. Disadvantages of Pasteurization... ..............-.00. 186

CHAPTER NIV.

CREAMARIPENINGscvase 44 in eae oe seeet ge Mebane hada aeebana meee 187
1, WDehniiOniy +s) ue a kayes aide iaw eee mies else a eee tedisige + 1S7
2, Objects: of Cream-ripemime: 2... ;csocwes ered dese useeQiseveniy 187

A. Production of Flavor and Aroma... ................004 187

B. Increases the Churnability of Cream... ..........2-.4.- 191

C. Increases the Keeping Quality of Butter............... 192

3. Ripening Temperature of Cream... ..........6. 0005.00 eee eae 194
4. Amount of Starter to Add to Cream. .. 2.0... eee 196
5. Stirring of Cream during Ripening. ......... go ab Dales uoares 197
Gs Natural: Pupemiige cae sane dopa geaerg oe wie rad ean 4 CaS 198
7 Nata ficial SRA 1A gh cpa 5 Sle a echgs sarah eh gegen 9 stan adadadehh GG bala DRM Se 199
8. Ripening Cream when Churning is Done Every Other Day... .. 201
9. Nisine Of Cr@ai. ig cc de Sah eb gee tok HS Rew GaSe wae ee ew 202
A MOUATINe OR Creams whi ag aks a phage ease eeesnaw ene 203

By Wind of Matkets ccc gases karan de neces gaan soa da na Zee 204

Cs Amount ol Cream): caec genni ea ee area adminis he manliga aeeees 204

D. General Creamery Conditions...............0..022000. 205

10. Examining and Testing Cream for Acidity during Ripening. ... 205
‘iL’, ANTM S: SESE 1. m ehh nee e te euhieh aaah 5.8 rca tanh NSO Gyectett A gol Wh ake co 206
2k: TAUPE GROIN S! LES ties dpc ne: genase ait tal 6 dear ead g dente a a Had a ie Eg 208
13. Amount of Acid to Develop. ........0..0. 0.000. c eee ce eens 208
tay Chances in Cred... var daver Sones wears were Boe et Gace s 210
wy /PhVSI@al. nord bale eas 228 Hie gu GFE Mos Weed wand gas 210

Bs Biologia: ag Gta isha gives Wiel ae & auton Relea een darkaee 210

Gy (Chemica), cecnaxiian Aeeeiet AG aaa n owen 8 pean eke ¥ pleas 211

CHAPTER NY.

STA TRISTE S lan fe lamces wld Sniecd dow nace vodig Goweunn a dane a Big laa eee GNI 4g. ante ies 216
Ls DEANITLOTIR 44-8. alae wad & Ronen ks BAeAe GM edn bad onde as 216
D> FU SUOTY hod oe: woe sue wien ak laa Banh naate ane aR awa Wes teres a 216
8. Classification of Starters... 0.0.0... 0. cece cece eee eeees 216
4. Preparation of Natural Starters........0 00.0... eee e eee ee eee 217
5. Commercial Starters or Pure Cultures... 2.2.0.0... 000.0000 217
6. Preparation of Commercial Starters..............00006 hte DES

PF, WH OGULAHTO No tsege ais: Wasa Bite HEA See BN ave corlerre vahlagtednie as Gee Ea ee 220

CONTENTS. xi

PAGE

8. Length of Time a Starter Can be Carried............0.00.00 00 222

9: POOPISUAREENS! 22.1. os ade ne aS SORE ERG aS Gwen aera’ 223

10. Under-ripening and Over-ripening of Starters... ........000- 223

11. Amount of Starter to Use... 0... ce cee eee 224

12): Usé- Of Starter Can's.3.4oacaulas Gitelnk Saene thas ea ewlee Bake ne Reta y 225
CHAPTER XVI.

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. .......... 0000: cece cece e neces 226
Le Wehinitiony a: 446 ecu deeek eee ed ee eee SOL e es eee Re ke 226)
2, Conditions Affecting the Churnability of Cream. .............. 227

Au TOMMPSPO CUES, 124 oa cance atlas Gubsnann hae dh aubleha Roane eveomss ages 227

B. Richness of Cream... 1.0... 0000.0 c cece eee nee eens 231

C. Amount of Cream in Churn. .......... 00.000 cece eee 233

1D; Degree of Ripeness: wia ce suc. ea ease desde eke os 234

Hy Nature OF AGI at NOM. 325 mas diy-ertdans on tatnns Melee eet 235

F. Size of Fat-globules.. 1.2.02... 0. eee eee cence nee 236

3. Strainine Of Creatives sac waite das Gero s'k/occu dla sere es ata wen eeeas 238

A COLO sc yeh eo eda Rah DR AS Pe LSE aed ae washed kos oan: 238

5. When to Stop the Churning Process. .............00.00.00008 239

6. Churning Mixed, Sweet, and Sour Cream... .......0.2.0...0.. 243

7 Ditneult Churnime:, » 2s. sack wales eee cake ks ed eek ee 6 243

8. Keeping Churn in Sweet Condition. ......................00. 245

9. WWashiner of I whter. 0 Sy ocacte ce tal Sanat ee ancy, BPaligd edie Gud Bk 247

A. Purpose:0f Washingicc ais casi iea cere pO Lea Ranwsneaes 247

B. Temperature of Wash-water.... 0.0.00... 00.0.0. ee eee 247

C. Kind of Wash-water to Use... 0.0.00... 0 00 eee 248

10. Methods of Purifying Wash-water.............0. 0... 000000.. 250

A, PilGRatlOn’ 2) ath eres hg bap iaes ual anos eno uEs Sun GanahAe eee 250

ds. COMTMUOUSS 2.6 +e eiee ey ee RE SRE eae tee meee 253

bs. Lint Srimitt Crit aac. covets wei Re ace eos awe onli ese aloe 254

Bi Pasteurization. 24.24 Abe Sey oo ee dae ee ass Sete ees ces 250

11. Advantages of Purification of Wash-water................00. 255
CHAPTER NVITI.

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER.......... 000. c cece e eee eens 256
1. Amount of Salt to Use to Produce Proper Flavor............. 256
2. Effects of Salt upon Keeping Properties... ...............6-. 258
3. Salt Facilitates the Removal of Buttermilk. .................. 259
4, Salt in Relation to Water in Butter... ...............000000- 259
5s Gritty Butter: 3 atite.cawenpon aneards dds cake Sova nod 263
6. Mottled! Butters. caiece an ciainas deg aie RR Anka eee ower ae aed apenas 263
7, MNe-SaltnGs 4 .54cewesaed SSSa iss OE ME er ee de Ee wey as GSede 264
8. Objects of Working Butter... ...... 0... c cece eee eee eee eee 266

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVIIL

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER .. .ececceuccccvececccecevcercs
d- Kind! of Packupe tO: Use: ciacgg anos dase tidy swan eeneieroe 6 Uae
2: UPreparatlonot Lubses vs. sis sages Mawes Seles gaits aes ee eels 2M

aQmr Ww

Packing of Butter. 0 cose ce tacte edd aeemiede ee ee ee Gee sas
. Packing Butter for Exhibition Purposes. ...........00 eee eee
. Storing Butter in Creameries... 00.0.0... cece cece ee eee eens
. Cost of Producing One Pound of Butter... ..... ccc eee e eee eee

CHAPTER NIX,

COMPOSITION’ OF: BUTTER) oo cg0 cine dei ses va ug nse we ee WRG sould en nee eo
1, Average: Composition: ii6 ciara cd ea eee sak Galen ae hae oe

2. Effect of Composition of Butter on Quality... .............0-,

A; Curd Bnd Sugars i neceooida eas seat pene e anes Goons

CHAPTER XX,

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. ...... ccc cece cece eee ee eee eeeees
1, Standard. for Judging: oo. ccussue cedae essa sede rece eeneeya

26 Manner of JMG GING) ces esac cuaodsaven bear oeaeaad eee ea aees

DAS BOC V itd anes aceite aie acyals aomaenn a hdtiecd bths SAE Me © hleiaCiepulad Be

Be HAVOR 208 ode dance bam tabbed aw Someone onwa canada

CS COLOR Gare sar occa erat g Shes ern tao wa alle aw RE ote aR nresasiued 9 aati a

DD: Ball tint negcateuy ate wie arias naan tee nama om wean ee eee HOw he

Wh GS LCs gaa a oe ahs aes cee gle a ad abst aod aedegrdon ub valde wed eect’

3. ‘Classification Of Butter’ oso o0.5 a6 oeaaeahaed thew 8 mel ad wild ars

4. Grades Of Butters. cic scca au ccs te ee RR away oe gen Yew cudhte Ghats dhe

Coouine Faciuitres FoR CREAMERIES.....
1. Cooling Systems......... b Spt: suc aNa aesth a4
2. Natural Ice-system ...................
A. IXind of Ice-house........ :
B. Size and Shape of Ice-house
C. Filling the Ice-house......
D. Source of Ice
3. Usage of Ice in Cooling Cream

CHAPTER XNXI.

A. Directly.
B. Indirectly

CONTENTS. Xilk

4. Mechanical Rofrigeration.............00 0000.00 eeeeeee 323
A. Application of, in Creameries..................... 323
B. Chemicals Used for Mechanical Refrigeration. ....... 324
C. Principles of Producing Cold Artificially. ........... 324

a. Compression.

b. Condensation.

c. Expansion.
D. Transferring the Cold. o:3 6 ci deeaveu tev sass oak cana 326
CHAPTER XXII,
EXcoNOMIC OPERATION OF CREAMERY...........0 0000 ce cee eveuee 329
1, Hiring: the Boilers :2.s 0 cereus toi e ie cigs mae Seow era ane en 329
2, Burning: Wood.or Coal so. css nave aciwee cea aeane ewe ualeaina 330
3. Daily Weighing of Coal Used........................... 331
4., Cleaning the: Boiletieccwiaa we pea been i ee'see tees BS os & be 332
ov. Priming of BoilerSies4 4 s¢¢s9e¢ ga53 as ee eteas yao ea ee Eek 332
Gi “The: TMC ClO 4 chic Gnade aa eee an Wee adaetee eee 333
(, OMl-S6patahorss, ose .am geo eds ee P andes ode ites arg meee Hn .. 333
8. Belts, Pulley, and Speed Calculation..................... 334
APPENDIX.

I. Lecat Stanparps ror Mitk—Dairy Laws......... ........ 335

II. Merric System oF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES WITH TABLES FOR
CONVERTING THEM INTO CuSTOMARY UNITED States Equiv-
ALENTS AND THE REVERSE......... 0.000 cee cece eee eee 336

BUTTER-MAKING.,

CHAPTER I.
COMPOSITION OF MILK.

Definition—Normal milk is a liquid secreted in special
glands of all females belonging to the mammalian group. It
is composed chiefly of water, proteids, fats, sugar, and minerals.
Coloring-matters and gases and some organic acids are found
in small quantities.

All normal milk from the different classes of animals, such
as mare, buffalo, goat, ewe, ass, and cow, has a general resem-
blance in that it all contains water, fat, proteids, sugar, and
ash. But milk from different animals varies in the relative
proportions of its constituents. The chemical and_ physical
properties are not alike. Human milk, when treated with
half its volume of ammonium hydrate and the mixture kept
at a temperature of 60° centigrade for about twenty minutes,
assumes an intense red color. Cow’s milk turns faintly yellow
if treated in the same way. ‘This test was reported by Unikoff,
of St. Petersburg, at the meeting of the Medical Section, Royal
Academy of Medicine, in Ireland. The various kinds of milk
also differ from each other in their behavior towards rennet.
Richmond has divided milk into two classes: Class T includes
milk from the ewe, buffalo, goat, and cow. When rennet is
added to the milk from these animals, the casein coagulates into
a firm curd. Class IT includes human milk, milk of the ass,
and mare. When rennet is added to the milk of these animals,
a soft curd or none at all is formcd. The latter class seems

2 BUTTER-MAKING.

to include the animals without horns, while the first includes
those with horns.

As the cow’s milk is used chiefly as a food, it has been
subjected to more extended and more careful investigation
than the milk of other animals, and, as a consequence, more
definite knowledge has been obtained concerning its com-
position, properties, and uses. The succeeding discussions
have reference to cow's milk, if not otherwise stated.

Composition of Milk.—It is impossible to get accurate
figures on the composition of milk, as each of the milk con-
stituents is subject to fluctuation from various conditions,
such as individuality of cow, breed, season of the year, lacta-
tion period, milking, and environment.

The average composition, as determined by 200,000 analyses
reported by Richmond as follows:

WER Avis 6 aati eeaole inca a eee, “ko

Pea bx backed Sears te Seu eee eae ont Oe O0)

MilkssiPatiatveseseeieiertheceeswages “Ayo
(OAREINIES shedcpcaheny Rabat Ged LO

oe | Albian << AGAR a Gee Se at

The composition of various kinds of milk is given by Konig
as follows:

No. of : Casein Milk- Specifi

Analy. Water. Fat. ei cs sugar, | Ash. Gravity.
Human... ...-. 107 87.41 | 3.78 2.29 6.21 .31 | 1.0270
Mare, as en se dae 50 90.78 | 1.21 1.99 5.67 .35 | 1.0347
Buffalo. ......... 8 82.25 | 7.51 5.05 4.44 .75 | 1.0350
ASSs cs wee Yew ales 7 89.64 | 1.64 222 5.99 .51 | 1.0345
COW a ieee eee 793 87.17 | 3.69 3.55 4.88 -71 | 1.0316
EWE: 6 dosh ios ans 2s 32 80.82 | 6.86 6.52 4.G1 .89 | 1.0341
GOabs gas. 8 peut vne 38 85.71 | 4.78 4.29 4.46 .76 | 1.0328
SOW? oa 3 aca sarang 8 84.04 | 4.55 7.23 3.23 | 1.05 | 1.038
Bitch, . .06 cess 28 75.44 | 9.57 | 11.17 3.09 .73 | 1.035
Elephant........ 3 79.30 | 9.10 2.51 8.59 .50 | 1.0313
Hippopotamus. . . 1 90.43 | 4.51] ...... 4.40 ll
Camel. .......... 3 86.57 | 3.07 4 5.59 .77 | 1.042
Llama,......... 3 86.55 | 3.15 3.90 5.60 .80 | 1.034

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 3

Variation of Total Solids—As applied to milk, “ Total
Solids,” is a term that includes fat, casein, albumen, sugar,
and ash; in other words, all the milk constituents except the
water. “Solids Not Fat” is a term often used, and includes
the casein, albumen, sugar, and ash, or all the milk constituents
except water and fat. “Serum” is a term used to designate all the
milk constituents except the fat. The fat is the most valuable
constituent of the total solids. The variation in the total
solids of milk during the summer months is shown in the table
quoted below from Dr. Van Slyke of Geneva, New York:

Monit, at Water, ‘Total Solids,
Mie nips or Ad 12.56

J UITIG <2, Ssceieer chee haeg ch Sa 87.31 12.69
Dilly; a geo sue ewaias 87.52 12.48
AUBUSte yo aa5 ery acs 87.37 12.63
September,....... 87 13
October, .......... 86.55 13.45

Dr. Van Slyke also studied the effect of the lactation period
upon the total solids in milk. A herd of fifty cows, calving
in different months of the year, was used in the experiment.
The per cent of total solids of this herd seems to average a
little high all through the ten months. The total solids were
found to be 14° during the first month, decreasing to 13.47%
during the next two months, then gradually increasing with the
advance of the lactation period. In the tenth month the average
total solids was 14.83%. Pingree, of Pennsylvania, reports
having found normal milk from a cow, which contained 17.01%
total solids. Sherman * reports a very high average total of
the milk solids. He treated the milk from thirteen cows,
and found it to contain on an average 18.03% of total solids.
Ixnig reports a minimum of total solids of 9.31%, a maximum
of 19.68%, and an average of 12.83%. The average total
solids quoted above from Richmond is 12.90%, which agrees
closely with Kénig’s results.

* Journ. Am. Chem. Soc.

4 BUTITER-MAKING.

The difference in total solids of milk from some ot the
leading breeds has also been studied by Dr. Van Slyke. and
the results are as follows:

Per Cent Per Cent of

Breed. of Water. ‘Total Solids.
Holstein... ......- 88.20 11.80
Ayrshire... ...e.6- 87.25 12.75
Shorthorn... ...... 85.70 14.30
eV OMe sues es Kies 85.50 14.50
Guernsey........4. 85.10 14.90
Jersey, .ocsaee.aes 84.60 15.40

The maximum and minimum amounts of total solids men-
tioned above are abnormal cases. The normal variations of
the solids in milk are within comparatively narrow limits.
For this reason the minimum standard for total milk solids,
in states where dairy laws are in force, is fixed by law. Usually
12% is the minimum,

Water.—From what has been said above concerning the
total milk solids, it will be seen that water constitutes by far
the largest portion of milk. It is quite uniform, and in milk
from a mixed herd the water seldom falls below 86°% and
seldom exceeds SS°(. Variations ranging from a little less
than 80% to a trifle over 90% are on record. But such varia-
tions must be looked upon as occurring in only a very few special
cases.

It has often been asserted that cows in the spring of the
year, when they are pasturing on new grass, or feeding on other
succulent foods, yield milk which contains an excess of water.
Under such conditions there is a tendency for cows to pro-
duce milk with a water content a trifle higher, as has already
been shown by the figures quoted from Dr Van Slyke. As a
rule this is much overestimated. It is even a common occur-
rence to hear creamery operators say that their “soft” or
“slushy ” butter, in the early spring, is due to the excess of the
water present in the milk. This particular phase will be dis-
cussed further under the heading of ‘‘ Fats in Milk.”

The question has often been raisec Is the water in milk

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 5

the same, or any more valuable than water obtained from
other natural sources? The water in milk, so far as known, is
transuded from the blood-vessels in the udder into the milk
glands. It is so perfectly mixed with the other milk con-
stituents, and holds the milk solids in such perfect emulsion
and solution that it would seemingly be impossible to prepare
milk so perfectly by artificial means. However, a substance
is prepared by Jacob C. Van Marken, Neuweid, Germany,
which, when added to water, produces a substance similar in
appearance to watered skimmed milk. The preparation is
named ‘Kalberrahm Vita.’’ The first name literally means
calf-cream. It has a syrupy consistency, and in appearance
resembles light-brownish molasses. It is sold in tin cans, and
recommended highly for calf-feeding when mixed with skimmed
milk. When mixed with water, it is recommended highly for
hog-feeding.

Water distilled from milk has the same appearance as ordi-
nary distilled water. It is clear and colorless. The chemical
reaction when phenolphthalein is used as an indicator, is neutral,
the same as that of ordinary distilled water, even when dis-
tilled from milk in which acid has developed. But there is
a considerable difference in the taste and smell. This indi-
cates that some of the volatile substances are distilled over with
the water. The probability is that these flavoring substances
are so closely associated with water in milk that they are in-
separable, and that the only place where this water can be
prepared so as to assume these qualities is in the cow’s udder,
The conclusion would then be that the water in normal cow’s
milk cannot be distilled and substituted again by natural
water and the product retain its normal good flavor.

Fat mw Minx.

This is by far the most important constituent of milk,
especially to creamery operators. It exists in the milk in sus-
pension, in the form of globules so small as to be invisible
to the naked eye. According to the best authorities, fat-

6 B

UTTER-MAKING.

globules, at ordinary living-room temperature, are present in

milk in a liquid form.

Cooling the milk to a very low tem-

a. Skim milk,

Ce)
058 ORS ° 5
08 2 O °
70°25 eee
C)
2Oo BOY O

@, Colostrum,

feo

ee

D5 8 Oo?

&

6.2 ro)

(°)
Ove se ape,o © Gseor

ene ree

if

Fic. 1—Microscopical appearance of different kinds of milk,

300 times,

perature (about 50° F.)

Magni
(U_ 8, Farmers’ Bul. No, 42.) pened

hardens them. When the globules are

caused to unite, as in churning, they also solidify.
The size of the fat-globules is very minute, and varies con-

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 7

siderably, according to breeds, individual cows, and the stage
in the lactation period. The globules in the milk from the same
cow also vary a great deal. Lloyd found that fat-globules in
Jersey milk to be from 8 to 12 micro-millimeters in diameter.
Very few were less than 4 micro-millimeters (a micro-milli-
meter is zj5y millimeter, or 3335; of an inch). The majority
of the fat-globules in milk from Shorthorn cows measured from
6 to 8 micro-millimeters in diameter. According to Fleisch-
mann, the size of fat-globules varies between 1.6 micro-milli-
meters and 10 micro-millimeters in diameter. A Danish in-
vestigator maintains that the diameter of fat-globules is
between .0063 and .00014 millimeters, and that 1 cubic centi-
meter of milk contains from 2.6 to 11.7 million globules. He
also asserts that a reflection of the light renders it very difficult
to get the proper size of the fat-globules, as the light tends to
make the globules appear larger than they are in reality.

It has been maintained by some that the larger fat-globules
contain fats which are different from those contained in the
smaller globules. But this is by some investigators considered
to be a matter of conjecture. Most authorities now believe
that there is no difference in the kinds of fat of the different-
sized globules, even though some experiments * show that fat
composed of larger globules has a finer flavor, and a little more
oily appearance.

From what has been said, it will be seen that the minute-
ness of the fat-globules is almost inconceivable. They were
first discovered in 1697 by A. von Leeuwenhoek. The minute
state of division, or the form of emulsion in which they exist
in milk, renders it easy to digest when consumed as a food.

Properties of Fat.—The specific gravity of pure butter-fat
at 15° centigrade is .93002. The refractive index of butter-
fat at 22° centigrade is on an average 1.459. The melting-
point of pure butter-fat, as now determined, varies between
32° and 37° centigrade. (90° F. and 99° F.)

* Gembloux, Belgium, Creamery Jo., London, No. 8, Vol. I.

8 BUTTER-MAKING.

When pure butter-tat 1s rapidly cooled, 1% solidifies into one
solid mass; but if allowed to cool gradually, part of it solidifies,
and part of it remains a liquid longer than other parts. This
seems to indicate that some fats with a high melting-point
separate out from the fats with a low melting-point. This
behavior of pure butter-fat is not well understood, as it con-
tradicts the now accepted theory that the different fats are
in chemical combination with each other, rather than a me-
chanical mixture of different glycerides of fat.

Glycerides of Fat.—By this term we understand that the
fatty acid radicals are in chemical combination with the glycerol]
(glycerine) radical, thus:

Fatty acid radicals.
Glycerol radical. [ CysH7O2 (Butyric)
CoH | CiallgsOs (Oleic)
| CisH330» (Stearic)

The chemical formula for glycerine is:

Hydroxyl! groups,

Glycerol radical. [ OH
CsHs | OH
| OH

Comparing these two formulas, their difference and simi-
larity are easily observed, and the reason why the term “ Gly-
ceride of Fat” has been applied to such a compound is evident.

Condition of Fat.—Whether the fats in milk exist in chem-
ical combinaticn, or whether they exist as glyceride of butyrin,
stearin, olein, ete., in the form of a mechanical mixture, is a
question in dispute. If they exist in the latter form, the com-
position of the different fats must be thus:

Butyrin. Olein. Stearin,
C4H702 | CigH3302 [ Ci sH3502
C3sHs {CaH7O2 C3Hs | CisH3s02 — CsHs | CigHs502 ete.
| CsH702 | CigH3302 | Cre Ha 50s

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 9

and the total fat made up of a mechanical mixture of these
and the remainder of the fats in butter-fat.

Richmond and other authors believe that fat probably exists
in milk chemically, as first mentioned and illustrated; because,
if the fat were a mixture of glycerine tributyrate with other
elycerides of fat, butyrin or glycerol tributyrate could be
dissolved out by the use of alcohol. But this is not the case.
Moreover, if butyrin existed separately in milk, it would be
possible to distill 1t off under reduced pressure. This cannot be
done.

Theory in Regard to Films Enveloping Fat-globules.—The
extreme minuteness of the fat-globules in milk renders it almost
impossible to determine by direct microscopical observation
whether there is a membrane around each globule or not.
Fleischmann and Lloyd assert that, so far as they were able
to detect, there is no real membrane surrounding each globule.

The theory generally accepted in the past was that the
only film surrounding the fat-globules was simply due to sur-
face tension, or to the fact that the molecules of the fat have
a greater attraction for themselves than they have for the
molecules of the serum, in which they are held in suspension.
In support of this two thing: are considered:

(1) The natural milk-fat may be removed from milk and
artificial fat substituted in its place. The resultant milk has
characteristics similar to milk containing normal fat; that
is, the emulsion which milk forms with the artificial fat is ap-
parently like that formed with the natural fat.

(2) If there were a special albuminous membrane around
each fat-globule, cream should contain a higher percentage
of albuminoids than milk. This, Richmond maintains, ix not so.

Dr. Storch concludes from extensive researches that there
is a gelatinous membrane enveloping the fat-globules. His
conelusions are based mainly upon the first three reasons
given below. The other facts mentioned also support his
conclusions:

(1) When milk has been stained with ammoniacal picro-

10 BUTTER-MAKING

carmine, and the cream washed with water until it is free
from milk-sugar, a stained layer is present around each globule.

(2) He has succeeded in isolating this gelatinous substance
from cream and butter. Owing to its existence in these two
substances, he assumes that it is also present in milk.

(3) When ether is added to milk, the fat globules dissolve
with difficulty, unless some alkali is added to the milk first.

(4) Bichamp maintains that when ether is added to milk
the fat-globules are enlarged due to the ether passing through
the supposed membrane by the process of osmosis. He con-
siders this fact sufficient to prove that there is a membrane
encircling each globule.

(5) Butter containing 85 to 86% fat is asserted by Rich-
mond to have the same consistency as cream containing about
72% fat at the same temperature. The solidity of butter
is due to the close proximity of the fat-globules. Now, if
cream with less fat has the same consistency as butter, the
proximity of the fat-globules must be equal to that of the
butter; this would indicate that there is a membrane and
that this membrane increases the size of the fat-globules.

(6) The fact that cream separated by centrifugal force is
more easily churned than cream of same richness separated
by gravity methods, would also be explained if the fat glob-
ules in milk had such a membrane surrounding them.

This membrane, or what is believed to be a membrane,
Storch has isolated and analyzed. He finds it to consist of
94°. of water and 6° of proteid.

The reasons deduced by Storch are strong; and the behavior
of cream and butter renders it probable that there is such a
membrane enveloping each globule of fat.

CLASSES OF Fats.

There are two great classes or groups of fats present in the
butter, namely:

(1) Volatile and Soluble,

(2) Non-volatile and Insoluble.

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 11

It was previously stated that little is known concerning
the way in which the fatty acids are combined with glycerine
in the milk; but, for the sake of convenience, the fats will be
referred to as if they exist as separate glycerides of fat.

The terms “ Volatile” and ‘“ Non-volatile” are applied
to the glycerides of fat, or to the fats as they exist in butter.
Strictly speaking, this is not proper, as they do not assume
the volatile characteristics until the glycerine separates from
the fatty acids; it is only then that the latter becomes volatile.

Volatile Fats.—The first group, or the volatile fats, include
butyrin, caproin, caprylin, caprin, and laurin. Butyrin is the
one present in the largest proportion. Laurin and caprin are
partially non-volatile. Butyrin is the most important fat
belonging to the volatile group. It is the most important
quantitatively, and also qualitatively. So far as is known,
butyrin is the least stable of any of the butter-fats. Under
normal conditions, so long as the fatty acid remains in com-
bination with the glycerol, it is not volatile nor soluble in
water but as soon as separation takes place, due to the action
of micro-organisms, or to the effect of light and air, then it
becomes volatile, and escapes in the form of gas. According
to the mass of evidence, these factors are the chief causes of
rancidity in butter.

It is also claimed that these volatile fats have the special
properties of absorbing odors and gases to a greater extent
than any of the other fats. This absorption takes place when
fat comes into contact with the undesirable taints. For this
reason it is essential that milk, cream, or butter be kept away
from any foreign undesirable odors. These undesirable taints
may also be imparted to the fat before the milk is drawn.
If the cow is fed on undesirable food such as turnips, onions,
garlic, ete., the milk from the cow assumes undesirable char-
acteristic flavors, which can-easily be recognized in the finished
product. On the other hand, such foods as well-cured sweet-
clover hay, and bran, seem to impart desirable flavors to
milk and butter.

12 BUTTER-MAKING.

The presence of these volatile fats in butter is quite uniform,
and is a distinguishing feature of pure butter-fat. The detec-
tion of adulteration of butter with foreign fats is based chiefly
upon the presence of these volatile fats. The characteristic
desirable flavor of butter is also believed to be due to the pres-
ence of the volatile fats. The volatile fats vary but slightly
during the different seasons of the year. They are present
in the greatest proportion during the spring and early summer
months, when cows are fed on grass, and also during the early
stage of the period of lactation. They decrease gradually
as the lactation period advances.

About 8% of the total fats in milk is volatile fats.

Non-volatile Fats—This group constitutes about 92° of
the total fats in butter. Chemists now agree that palmitin,
stearin, olein, and myristin are the most important ones to
be considered, as will be seen from the table quoted from Rich-
mond.

These non-volatile fats are of special importance, as the
relative amount of each of these fats largely causes the varia-
tion in the hardness and softness of the butter and butter-fat.
The melting-point of these different fats varies according to
the different investigators: olein is a liquid at ordinary tem-
perature and melts at about 41° F.; stearin, on the other hand,
has a melting-point of about 150° F.; palmitin also has a high
melting-point, namely, about 142° F.; myristin melts at about
129° F.

Olein has been found to be present in the greatest pro-
portion during the spring, when cows are fed on grass. When
cows are fed on normal dry food, as in the winter time, it is
present in a much less degree. This, together with the small
increase of volatile fats, is the cause of the softer butter so
frequent in the spring. The hardness of the butter in the
fall or winter is due chiefly to the presence of a slightly increased
amount of the fats, with a high melting-point, as mentioned
above.

From what has been said above, one is led to believe that,

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 13

by melting a sample of butter which contains these different
fats, the fats with a low melting-point would melt first, and
leave the remainder in an unmelted condition. Such is not
the case. Butter-fat in this respect behaves a good deal like
different metals with different fusing-points. When they are
melted and mixed together, cooled and then remelted again,
they assume a common melting-point. It is the same way
with butter-fat. It melts at a temperature of 91° to
96° F.

As the body temperature of cows (about 101° F.) is above
this temperature, the fat globules are present in the milk in
liquid form when milk is first drawn. <A peculiarity about
these fat-globules in milk is that the milk and fat may be cooled
down below the melting-point of the fat of butter without
the fat-globules in milk being solidified. It requires a tem-
perature of between 60° and 78° F. before the fat-globules
in milk begin to solidify. When these small fat-globules are
caused to unite, as during the churning process, they solidify
at higher temperature. This behavior of the fat in milk evi-
dently must be due to a relative change in the position of the
molecules of fat during the process of cooling and warming.
No definite explanations, so far as is known, have been given
for this condition of the fat.

The non-volatile fats found in butter-fat are practically
the same as those found in other animal fats.

Composition of Butter-fat—tIn his ‘“ Dairy Chemistry,”
Richmond gives the following composition of butter-fat, repre-
senting the mean results obtained by different observers:

; f Butyrin. ........ 3.85%

8% Volatile......... i Caproin,, .ceesx<5 3.60%
Caprylin,........ 55%

Fat...... Caprin.. ........ 1.9%
Laurin, gsi eee 7.4%

+ : Myristin. ........ 20.2%

2% Non-volatile.... 4 [9Ut ° a

Hey ease Palmitin,....... 25.7%
Stearin.......... 1.8%

Olein.. = ....... 35%

14 BUTTER-MAKING.

Richmond also gives the percentage of glycerine and fatty
acids in each of the different fats, as follows:

Butyrin... 3.85% yielding 3.48°% fatty acids and 1.17% glycerine

Caproin.. 3.60 3.25 me fe E86 ce
Caprylin... — .55 ah 51 a6 iam (0) ae
Caprin.... 1.9 Oe Te es She 38d oF
Laurin. ... 7.4 6.94 ba Be EE DOF ne
Myristin. .. 20.2 «19.14 BE he 2D ve
Palmitin .. 25.7 fe 24.48 he ee one 291 ue
Stearin.... 1.8 ‘1.72 BR EE HE 219) as
Olein..... 35 fe 33 . 60 we sd «3.39 as
100 94.84 12.53

Proreips (ALBUMINOIDS).

The proteids of milk are present partly in solution and
partly in suspension. They are present in a very complex
chemical form. Some of the chemists reckon as many as
eight different albuminoids or proteids in milk. Duclaux
claims that there are only two kinds of albuminoids, the coagu-
lable, and non-coagulable casein. He has, by the use of a fine
filter, been able to separate the fat and the coagulable from
the rest of the serum. The amount of coagulable casein is
claimed to vary considerably, and seems to depend upon the
amount of lime phosphate present. The filtrate which Duclaux
obtained from filtering the milk was clear and colorless, which
proves that the removal of the casein was quite complete.
In order to remove casein from milk, a special filter (Chamber-
land) is employed. Owing to this fact, we may consider the
casein to be present in suspension or semi-solution. Noted
chemists, such as Babcock, Van Slyke, Duclaux, Storch, Ham-
marsten, Ritthausen, and Richmond, disagree upon the num-
ber of albuminoid substances found in milk, and upon the
chemical behavior of each.

For all practical purposes it is safe to mention two, namely,
(1) casein, and (2) albumen. Those two substances, as all
agree, are present in milk, and constitute practically all the

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 15

albuminoids in milk. But after these two have been separated
from milk a slight precipitation can be obtained by treating
the filtrate with alcohol. This has been called albumose and
also lactoglobulin. From this resultant filtrate can again
be separated a very small amount of material containing
nitrogen. Dr. Babcock has obtained a substance from milk
called fibrin. These latter substances, however, are present
in minute portions, and are believed by some of the best scien-
tists to be the same as the albumen, and their presence in the
filtrate is due to incomplete precipitation of the albumen in
the first place.

Casein.—Casein is by far the most important of all of the
albuminoids. It is the substance which forms the curd in
cheese-making. In fresh milk, as is now understood, it is in
chemical combination with lime salts. It is on this account
that fresh milk shows the amphoteric reaction, which will be
explained under the ‘ Properties of Milk.” The coagulation
of casein by the addition of rennet or dilute acids is thought
to be due to this union between the casein and lime. Fleisch-
mann refers to this as the ‘“ caseous matter” of milk. The
viscosity of normal milk is believed to be due in a large meas-
ure to this condition of casein in milk. It causes the casein
to be present in a colloidal condition. When milk coagu-
lates by natural or by artificial means, the union between
the casein and lime phosphate is largely broken.

Casein and albumen differ in composition, in that the casein
contains phosphorus and less sulphur than does albumen.
Fleischmann maintains that a substance called nuclein is
associated with casein, and is not found in albumen.

Casein is precipitated by the use of rennet and dilute acids,
and coagulates spontaneously, due to the acid formed in the
milk. The precipitates formed by the use of different pre-
cipitating agents are not alike. The curd coagulated by ren-
net contains more fat and calcium phosphate than the curd
does which is precipitated by dilute acid or soured sponta-
neously. If milk stands at air temperature for any length

16 BUTTER-MAKING.

of time after milking, the caseous matter (or the nitrogenous
matter combined with lime) tends to separate. The caseous
matter of milk is not completely precipitated by heat, although
heat partially destroys the union between the casein and lime.
This destroys the action of rennet. Instead of getting a smooth
solid coagulum, a more flaky precipitate is obtained. For this
reason milk for cheese-making should not be heated to a high
temperature. By heating milk in a glass flask to a high tem-
perature, and letting it stand for a time, it will be found that
a mineral precipitate has settled to the bottom. This pre-
cipitate is believed to be a lime phosphate, which, previous
to heating, was combined with the casein of the milk. By
adding calcium chloride (Ci. Clz) to milk which has been heated,
its normal condition towards the action of rennet is again
restored.

Albumen.—If the casein is removed from the milk by
precipitation, and then filtered off, the filtrate will contain a
substance which will precipitate when boiled. This is albumen,
and is similar in character to albumen from the white of an
egg. It differs from casein in that it is not precipitated by
rennet or acids, but precipitates on heating. It does not
contain any phosphates, but contains a comparatively large
amount of sulphur.

As the albumen is soluble in rennet and dilute acids, it
can readily be seen that it is retained in the whey obtained in
cheese-making. When albumen is present in small quanti-
ties, as it is in normal milk, heating does not completely pre-
cipitate it, unless the casein or curd is first removed. If, on
the other hand, albumen is present in excess, as is the case
in colostrum, the major portion of the albumen is precipitated
when heat is applied, without first removing the casein.

Sugar.— Milk-sugar occurs in milk to the extent of about
5%. It varies very little in quantity, seldom falling below
34% and seldom rising above 5$%. It occurs in solution,
and is found in no other place in nature.

Milk-sugar is the most unstable component of milk. It

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 17

quickly and easily decomposes. This decomposition is caused
by micro-organisms. If these could be entirely excluded
from the milk, it would keep for an almost indefinite length
of time. As it is impossible under practicable conditions to
entirely exclude organisms from the milk, the only way in
which the growth of germs can be retarded and prevented,
and thereby prevent the changing of the sugar into other
products, is to cool the milk to a low temperature (50° F.),
or to heat the milk to a sufficiently high temperature (180° F.)
to destroy most of the germs. According to Van Slyke and
Hart, the decomposition of the caseous matter produces free
casein. When about .5% acid has developed in the milk,
the free casein combines with the acid and forms casein
lactate.

The chemical composition of milk-sugar is C12H2201, +H20.
When a perfect decomposition of milk-sugar into lactic acid
takes place, the following equation would represent the
change:

(Milk-sugar) (Lactic acid)
Cy2H24012=4C3H60s3.

Such an ideal change, however, never takes place. In
such a case, one gram of milk-sugar should produce one
gram of lactic acid. In a number of experiments carried
on by one of the authors of “ The Analysis of Cream During
Different Ripening Stages,” * the highest amount of acid
produced from one gram of milk-sugar was .8 of a gram.
This indicates that there are always accompanying by-products
produced, besides lactic acid, when milk-sugar is being decom-
posed in cream or milk. The sourness of milk is due to this
change. The by-products which accompany the production
of lactic acid are many and ‘various. The most important
ones are gases of different kinds, such as carbonic acid gas
(CO2); marsh gas (CH4); hydrogen (H); and nitrogen (N). A

* Thesis I. 8. C., Ames, Ia.

18 BUTTER-MAKING.

small amount of alcohol, formic, acetic, and succinic acids are
said to be normal accompanying by-products also. These
by-products may also partially result from the breaking down
of some of the other milk components.

As milk-sugar is in perfect solution, it follows the water
of milk, and in cheese-making nearly all of it passes into the
whey. Commercially and chemically it is prepared from
whey. It is a white, not very sweet powder, and is used for
medicinal purposes to dilute pure, powerful drugs. It is also
used extensively in the preparation of modified milk.

Ash.—The ash of milk is present in very small quantities,
and when viewed from such a standpoint it may first seem
to be of small importance. On account of the effect of the
mineral constituents upon the properties of milk, it is one
of the most important components of the milk. It consists
partly in solution, and partly in suspension. Babcock main-
tains that about one-third of the usual ash constituents is in
suspension, and that they consist chiefly of lime phosphate.

All of the minerals in milk consist chiefly of potash, lime,
soda, magnesia, and iron, combined with phosphoric, hydro-
chloric, sulphuric, and carbonic acid. Calcium phosphate
constitutes about one-half of all the ash constituents. They
are named above, in order, according to the extent in which
they occur in milk.

Gases of Milk.-These do not normally exist in milk to
such an extent as to enable chemists to determine them quan-
titatively, but they are of great importance, owing to the
effect they have upon the quality of the milk, viewing it in
the commercial sense.

Gases in milk may be divided into two classes according to
their origin; namely, (1) those imparted to milk before milk-
ing and (2) those which are formed and absorbed in milk
later.

(1) When freshly drawn milk has a characteristic cowy
smell, which seems to be normal to all fresh milk. These
gases are very volatile, and by cooling and aerating milk (differ-

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 19

ent processes of which are now in use in this country) these
gases can, to a large extent, be eliminated. The amount and
kind of taints existing in milk, immediately after it has been
drawn, largely depend upon the food which the cow has been
fed. Turnips, onions, and garlic, when fed to cows a short
time before milking, cause undesirable gases or taints to exist
in the milk. Good sweet hay, bran, and good grass are said
to produce milk of superior quality, and containing no bad
taints, except the cowy or animal taste, which is natural to
all milk when first drawn.

The milk yielded by cows pasturing in the Alps of Switzer-
land is said by tourists to possess a peculiar, not undesirable,
spicy odor and flavor. It is maintained by the native people
in Switzerland that the peculiar flavor of the Emmanthaler
cheese cannot be developed anywhere else in the world. This
flavor they believe to be due to the kind of vegetation the
cows feed upon in the Alpine pastures. In Denmark, the
poor people who do not own much land, graze their cows along
the roads where weeds of different kinds grow. Milk from
such cows has a peculiar characteristic odor or taint. In this
country it is a common occurrence to find that milk delivered
by patrons who keep their cows on timber-land pastures has
a peculiar weedy odor. Especially is this true in the fall or
late summer. These flavors are somewhat difficult to remove
by the ordinary process of aeration. By heating such milk
to 160° or 180° F., and stirring occasionally, most of these
taints pass off. An addition of a small amount of saltpeter
also improves it.

Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the food that
the cows receive. While it is true that much of the desirable
aroma and flavor in butter are due to bacterial growth, the
kind of food fed to cows is not without significance. It is
a well known fact that districts such as Normandy and
Denmark, which have become famous for their high quality
of dairy products, have the best of pasture and winter
feeds.

20 BUTTER-MAKING.

Besides the kind of food, some physiological disturbances
of the cow may cause abnormal taints in milk.

(2) Gases or taints which are formed in the milk or absorbed
by the milk are due to fermentation and absorption respectively.
The fermentation cause will be considered in a separate chapter,
and the latter cause needs little explanation. It is a well known
fact that milk, or any of its products, has the special property
of absorbing odors which may be present in the surroundings
of milk. For this reason, milk, as well as other dairy products,
should at all times be kept in clean utensils and pure surround-
ings.

Abnormal taints appearing in milk immediately after
milking are due to absorption within the cow. Taints that
develop on standing are due to bacterial growth in the milk,
or to absorption from impure surroundings. In removing
undesirable taints from milk the first step is to remove the
inciting cause, and the second to cause as many of these taints
as possible to escape by a process of aeration or pasteurization.

Coloring-matter.—It is not known of what the coloring-
matter in milk consists. A substance named lactochrome
has been found in milk. So far as known, this coloring-sub-
stance is closely associated with the fat called palmitin. The
amount of coloring-matter varies during the different seasons
of the year. It also varies according to the different breeds.
During the spring of the year, when cows are first put on grass,
the color of the butter-fat is always higher than it is during
the latter portion of the summer. During the winter, the
fat in milk is quite pale. By feeding the cows some succulent
feed in the winter, such as silage, carrots, and beets, the color
of the butter-fat becomes much higher.

From this it would seem that the change in the color of
the fat with the different seasons, and the food fed, is closely
associated with chlorophyl, the coloring-matter of grass.

Other Constituents of Milk.—It is said that constituents
such as citric acid, urea, nuclein, lecithin, and galactase are
present. Babcock maintains that he has discovered a sub-

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 21

stance named fibrin. This seems to be similar to the nuclein
mentioned by Fleischmann, if not the same. But as these
substances are present to a very small extent, citric acid, urea,
and fibrin being present to the extent of .12, .007, and .0002%
respectively (Fleischmann and Babcock), they are of little
importance.

CHAPTER II.
MILK SECRETION.

The Mammary Gland as a Secretory Organ.— The mam-
mary gland of females belonging to the order of mammalia,
secretes a fluid known as milk. This substance is strictly a
secretory product. There are two kinds of glands present
in the animal body; viz., the excretory and the secretory. Gen-
erally speaking, an excretory gland is one which receives or
absorbs the waste matter of the body, and causes it to be
carried off without causing any marked change to take place
in the substance excreted. A secretory gland is one in which
the raw material is obtained from the blood and then manu-
factured into a special different product within the gland
itself. As an example of a secretory gland, the milk-gland
of the cow’s udder is an apt illustration. The glands in the
mouth secreting saliva, and those in the walls of the stomach
secreting the digestive fluids, are also secretory glands.

Internal Structure of Cow’s Udder. — The cow’s udder is
composed of two separate glands, the right and left halves.
These two glands are distinctly separated from each other
by a fibrous tissue running longitudinally. This fibrous par-
tition extends along the abdomen in front, and back to a point
between the thighs of the cow. It also serves to hold the
cow’s udder in place. There is no connection at all between
the right and left gland, and consequently milk cannot be
drawn from the left side over to the right, and vice versa.

Each of these right and left halves is again divided into
two parts, thus making the cow's udder appear in quarters.

The cow’s udder may then be said to consist of two glands
22

MILK SECRETION. 23

on the right side, and two on the left side. The divisions
between the two glands on the side are not entirely complete.
That is, there is enough connection between the two glands
on the same side to allow a portion of the milk to be drawn
from the rear teat to the front teat on the same side, and from

MILK-CISTERN

Fic. 2—Schematic figure showing cross-section of cow’s udder; and also
enlargement of epithelial cells in alveoli when cow is giving milk (1). Each’
alveolus is surrounded with a membrane called tunica propria. Cell
nuclei not shown, When cow is in milk they are also enlarged. When
not the epithelial!cells are flat and the nuclei small and spindle shaped (2).

the front teat to the rear teat. The milk-glands proper are
located near the abdomen and extend downwards into the
udder a trifle. The remainder of the udder is filled with ducts,
fibrous and connective tissue, muscle, nerves, and blood-vessels,
the whole udder assuming a sort of spongy and open condition.

24 BUTTER-MAKING.

The teat is simply a cylindrical-shaped body, with a hollow
tube extending down through the center of it. At the bot-
tom of this opening, or at the end of the teat, there is a sphincter
muscle. This muscle in some circumstances is drawn up very
tight, while in other instances it is so loose that it will not guard
the milk from escaping. In case the muscle is so tight that
the milk can be drawn only with difficulty, it may be relaxed
a trifle by entering a small, smooth wooden plug. This will
usually dilate the opening sufficiently, so that the milk may
be drawn with comparative ease. In some instances this
muscle is so tight that it is necessary to relax it by the use
of a sharp knife. This, however, should be done with sur-
gical skill; otherwise the whole muscle is likely to be so injured
as to cause the milk to leak away at all times.

The upper part of this canal in the teat connects with
what is called the milk-reservoir. The size of this reservoir
varies in different cows. The average capacity of this milk-
cistern is about one pint. The opening from this reservoir
into the teat is also guarded with a muscle. Over this muscle
the cow has little control. Over the muscle at the lower end
of the teat the cow has no control whatever.

Opening into the sides and top of this reservoir is a large
number of tubes, which are called milk-ducts. These milk-
ducts extend from the reservoir up into the milk-gland. They
radiate in all directions, divide and subdivide, so as to form
a very large number of small tubes. These milk-ducts are
surrounded with fibrous muscular tissue, nerves, and blood-
vessels. They are all guarded by a special muscle at the
junction to the main milk-ducts, from which they radiate.
These muscles are so intimately connected with the nerves
and muscular system of the cow that she is able to open and
close them at will. There are very few cows that are not
able to hold up their milk during nervous and exciting periods.
It is a common occurrence for a milker to get only a small
part of the milk froma cow. This small amount is the portion
which is present in the teat and milk-reservoir. Some cows

MILK SECRETION. 25

are able to hold up this milk also, but the majority of cows
cannot perfectly control the muscle which guards the en-
trance to the teat. The milk which is present in the milk-
ducts and which has to pass through these junctions referred
to above, can be held up by most cows at will.

All of these small milk-ducts end in small sack-like bodies.
Each of these dilated portions is called the gland-lobule
or ultimate follicle. These gland-lobules enclose numerous
individual microscopical bodies called alveoli or acini. These
alveoli constitute the organs which possess the proper secre-
tory functions. These alveoli are lined on the outside with a
membrane called the tunica propria. Next to this membrane
is a layer of cell-tissue. The inside layer is composed of cells,
which are named the epithelial cells. These epithelial cells
within the alveoli are supplied with blood from the cow’s
system. During lactation they assume a different form.
When the cow is yielding milk abundantly, these cells swell
and extend into the cavity of the alveoli. When the cow is
not in milk these alveolian cells become flat. A certain number
of alveoli is tributary to one particular duct leading from the
gland-lobule into still larger milk-ducts.

Each aggregation of gland-lobules, tributary to one milk-
cistern, constitutes a lobe, and may be likened to a side branch
of a bunch of grapes. Each separate grape may represent
a gland-lobule. The seeds within the grape, if we imagine each
seed to be hollowed out and lined with small column-like
bodies, may be likened to the alveoli. These column-like
bodies would then represent the epithelial cells. The stem
leading from each individual grape may represent the small
duct which carries the milk on to the larger ducts. The main
stems of the bunch may represent the larger ducts that enter
into the milk-reservoir. The air which everywhere fills the
openings or interstices of the various parts of the bunch of
grapes may be likened to the fibrous fatty tissue between the
alveoli and the lobules of the gland.

Theories of Milk Secretion.—Although the theories of milk

26 BUTTER-MAKING.

secretion have been studied considerably, many things in this
connection are not well understood. Previous to the year
1840 it was thought that the only function of the milk-gland
was to filter the milk as it transuded from the blood. It was
supposed that the quality and quantity of milk depended
entirely upon the food. The theory has also been advanced
that the major portion of the milk constituents was a decom-
position of the product of the lymph bodies of the blood. It
was believed that the lymph bodies were a source of nourish-
ment to the foetus, and that the calf received its nourishment
from the same source after it was born as it did previous to
birth. It was supposed that after the birth of the calf the
opening on the uterus through which the food was supplied
was closed, and that a new opening was formed in the milk-
gland. These two theories have now been practically over-
thrown. It has been demonstrated that the major portion of
the milk is formed within the milk-gland. The fat, casein,
milk-sugar, and part of the albumen are supposed to be formed
in the udder. This conclusion is substantiated by the fact
that these substances do not appear in the blood, at least not
to such an extent as to warrant the assumption that they are
not manufactured in the cow's udder. The total amount. of
fat in the blood of the cow would not equal the fat in the milk
from one milking.

By some it is maintained that the substances in milk which
are found in solution may be transuded directly from the
blood. Here again milk-sugar is found to be in perfect solu-
tion in the milk, but this substance can be found nowhere in
nature besides in milk. It is not present in the blood of the
animal, consequently it must be manufactured within the
gland itself. The water of milk, and the ash constituents which
are in solution, are probably transuded directly from the blood.
No attempts have been made to determine definitely how
casein and albumen are formed within the gland.

The theory advanced for the formation of fat is, that the
epithelial cells break down and form fat. When the breaking-

MILK SECRETION 27

down process is completed, the transformed cells appear at
the opening of the alveoli in the form of distinct fat-globules.
This is supposed to be the origin and formation of fat-globules
in milk; so it may be said that so far as known the fat
is the result of a breaking down of degenerated epithelial cells.

Dr. Bitting asserts that the formation of milk solids in the
cow's udder is probably due to a metabolic process rather than

Fie. 3.—A schematic figure showing the course of the artery leading to the
mammary gland and the veins returning to the heart. The light-colored
lines represent arteries and the dark-colored lines the veins. (From
Bitting, Twelfth An. Report, Indiana.)

to a degenerative. Collier found that a cow giving a normal
amount of milk would secrete about 136,000,000 fat-globules
per second. He also suggests that a cow secretes about 5
pounds of milk solids per day. As a cow’s udder weighs only
about 24 pounds, the whole udder would have to be renewed
twice daily. This is not consistent with our present knowledge
of tissue building.

28 BUTTER-MAKING.

The chief incentive to milk secretion is maternity. As soon
as the young mammalia is born the blood which went to the
uterus to supply the calf is turned towards the udder instead.
As soon as this current of blood begins to flow, all of the blood-
vessels and capillaries in the cow’s udder swell. This causes
the minute blood-vessels or capillaries which form a network
in the walls of the alveoli to swell. This swelling stimulates
the epithelial cells to activity.

Conditions Affecting Secretion of Milk.— There are a
great many conditions which affect the milking capacity of a
cow. These conditions may be conveniently grouped into two
classes according to their causes: (1) conditions which are con-
troiled largely by man, and (2) conditions which are inherent
to the cow.

1. Some of the chief conditions which reduce the secretion
of milk and are largely controlled by man are: improper care
and treatment of the cow, lack of proper food, incomplete and
improper milking, irregularity, and long periods between
milkings. Pregnancy, nervousness, or excitement of any kind
affect the proper working of the milk-glands considerably.
These latter causes, however, are not always controlled by man.

2. Without denying the influence of those conditions men-
tioned above, the conditions which chiefly affect the milk-
secreting capacity are inherent. It does not matter how much
good care and food a cow receives, if she does not possess
these inherent necessary qualities. As was mentioned before,
the milk-secreting capacity depends upon the nwmber of gland-
lobules, upon the amount of blood which is supplied to these secre-
tory parts, and upon the capacity of the cow to digest and assimilate
jood.

The number of gland-lobules is believed to increase until
the cow is about seven years old. The milk-secreting glands
are present only in a rudimentary form, until the cow has had
her first calf, or is well advanced in the first stage of pregnancy.
The gland-lobules then increase in number up to the age of
about seven. The relative number of lobules in the cow’s

MILK SECRETION. 29

udder can only be approximately ascertained. The size of
the udder in some measure indicates this. A cow with a large
flexible udder is usually a good milker, due to the fact that a
large udder usually contains a large number of gland-lobules.
The amount of blood which is turned through the cow’s
udder to supply the milk-secreting cells may approximately
be ascertained by the size of the blood vessels. The blood
enters the udder from the heart near the region of the hips.
It then passes down through the udder, along the abdomen
just beneath the skin, until it reaches about midway between
the flank and the girth. At this place it penetrates the abdom-
inal wall and enters the thorax. The place at which the blood
penetrates the abdominal wall may be felt with the finger.
It is supposed that the size of this hole is in some measure
indicative of the milk-producing capacity of the cow. This
opening in the abdominal wall is called the milk-hole or milk-
fountain. Large irregular veins are considered a much better
indication of good milking properties than small straight veins.
The formation of gland-lobules is entirely inherent in the
cow. The only way that these may be increased is through
selection and breeding. The amount of blood which passes
through the cow’s udder is also largely inherent, although
this may in a small measure be affected by the amount and
quality of food given to the cow. It should at all times be
remembered that a cow is not a mere receptacle into which
so much food can be introduced, and so much milk drawn
from the other end. After giving due credit for the influence
of all other conditions, we must still recognize that the inherent
conditions affecting the secretion of milk are the most important.
External Appearance of the Udder.—A cow’s udder should
be well and symmetrically formed. It should be square, wide,
extend well along the abdomen of the cow, and back up between
the thighs. When the udder is empty it should be soft and
flexible. The teats should be medium large, should be placed
well apart, and should point downwards.
There should be little or no depression in the udder between

30 BUTTER-MAKING.

the teats; that is, each quarter should not appear distinct
and separate when viewed from the exterior.

The cow's udder should be covered with fine soft, downy
hair. A light golden yellow is said to be indicative of a good
quality of milk.

A firm, fleshy udder is undesirable. In the first place, it is
not indicative of good milking qualities, and, secondly, such
an udder is predisposed to inflammatory diseases.

Milk-fever.— This is a common disease in fresh cows.
It is due to a congested condition of the cow’s udder. The
decomposition products of the colostrum milk in the udder
are absorbed by the blood, and produce the characteristic
symptoms of milk-fever. Dr. Peters, of the Nebraska Experi-
ment Station, says that a good and simple remedy for a diseased
udder is to pump it full of air. This can be accomplished
with an ordinary bicycle pump. After some air has been
pumped in, then the cow’s udder should be worked or massaged
with the hand so as to cause the air to pass through the quarter.
Ile claims that the udder can thus be restored to its normal
condition very quickly, thereby preventing and even curing
milk-fever. In case the udder is caked very badly, apply a
hot poultice. Small five- or ten-pound bags filled with bran
and kept hot is a good substance to use. A compress
is also used. This consists simply of using a piece of heavy
cloth. Put it on so that it lifts up the entire udder, and tie
it over the back of the cow. Straw should be put underneath
it on the back so that the cord does not injure the animal.

CHAPTER III.
PROPERTIES OF MILK.

Color.—The color of normal milk ranges between bluish
white and golden yellow, according to breeds, foods, and sea-
sons of the year. The milk yielded by Jersey cows generally
is more yellow, due chiefly to the larger amount of fat which
it contains. Holstein cows yield milk of a whiter color. Foods
such as grass and certain roots (mangles and carrots) have
the power of giving to milk a higher color. As has been pre-
viously mentioned, the coloring substance in milk has been
named lactochrome, and so far as known is associated with
the palmitin fat.

Flavor.—Milk has a sweet flavor, and a faint odor. Fresh
milk has a peculiar cowy taste and odor, which pass off when
exposed to the air. The flavor is affected by foods and con-
ditions of the cow, as mentioned under ‘ Abnormal Milk.”’

Opacity of Milk.—Milk is opaque, except when seen in
very thin layers; then it is slightly transparent. The opacity
of milk is due to the presence of the fat and nitrogenous mat-
ter. When these substances are filtered away on a fine clay
filter (the Chamberland), the filtrate which passes through
is clear and transparent. It has been maintained that the
fat in milk is the chief cause of its opacity, and that the per-
centage of fat could be determined according to the degree
of opacity and transparency of milk with an instrument named
ploscope; but 1t was soon found out that the size of the
fat-globules, as well as the number, had considerable influence
upon the degree of opacity of milk. For that reason, this

method of determining the amount of fat in milk was not
31

32 BUTTER-MAKING.

reliable. The fat-globules themselves are said to be almost
transparent, yet the color and opacity of milk is largely due
to their presence. This characteristic may perhaps be explained
by assuming that the fat-globules in milk deflect the light
instead of allowing it to pass through them.

The opacity of milk, after the fat has been removed, is
due to the presence of nitrogeneous matter. After the fat
has been removed from the milk, the milk still continues to
be opaque. When the albuminoid matter has been removed
and filtered off the filtrate becomes clear and transparent.

Chemical Reaction of Milk.—Milk when fresh shows an
amphoteric reaction, which means that it exhibits both an
alkaline and an acid reaction when tested with litmus paper.
Tt turns blue litmus paper red, and red litmus paper blue. This
peculiar behavior of milk is said to be due to the caseous matter
in the milk, which itself has an acid reaction, but the remainder
of the serum has a slight alkaline reaction. By testing the
reaction of fresh milk with a tenth normal alkali solution,
and using phenolphthalein as an indicator, it will be found
to give an acid reaction. After standing, milk soon becomes dis-
tinctly acid, which is due to a change of the milk-sugar into
acids, chiefly lactic acid, through the action of micro-organisms.
Richmond maintains that the amphoteric reaction of milk
has acquired a false importance, as he believes that the neu-
trality, as measured by the action of litmus paper, is not chemi-
cal neutrality.

Specific Gravity of Milk.—By specific gravity of milk we
mean the weight of the milk as compared to that of an equal
volume of water at the same temperature. If a certain volume
of water weighs 1000 pounds, an equal volume of milk at the
same temperature and under the same conditions, will weigh
about 1032 pounds. Reducing the figure to a basis of 1, as is
always done, the comparison between the two equal volumes
of water and milk will be 1 and 1.032. This latter figure
represents the average specific gravity of normal milk.

It can be readily seen that the correct specific gravity can

PROPERTIES OF MILK. 33

only be obtained at one given temperature, for, as the tempera-
ture of the substance becomes higher, the density of it grows less,
and consequently the specific gravity will be less. The tempera-
ture at which the lactometers are standardized is 60° F.

The variations in the specific gravity of milk will also vary
according to the relative variation in amounts of the different
components of milk. Ifa sample of milk is rich in solids not
fat, as, for instance, skimmed milk, the specific gravity will be
high and usually between 1.033 and 1.037. If the sample of
milk is rich in fat, as, for instance, in cream, the specific gravity
will be less.

By adding water to milk, the specific gravity of it is lessened.
Owing to this fact it was first thought that adulteration of milk
with water could be detected by testing its specific gravity,
But this method was soon found to be erroneous, as it is
possible to take cream away and add water in such a proportion
as not to alter the specific gravity of the sample. A low specific
gravity of milk may, however, cause the suspicion that the milk
has been adulterated, and the test for water adulteration can
be supplemented by testing it for fat.

As has been mentioned before, the lactometer reading should
be taken at 60° F. If the temperature of milk is above or
below, corrections must be made. The amount of correction
which will give approximate results is .1 of a degree added to
the lactometer reading for every degree Fahrenheit of tempera-
ture the milk is above 60° F., and also .1 of a degree subtracted
from the lactometer reading for every degree of temperature the
milk is below 60° F. The temperature of milk when tested for
lactometer reading should never go any lower than 10° below
60°, nor any higher than 10° above 60°. This would leave the
range of temperature between 50° and 70° F.

In chemical laboratories, the specific gravity of milk is
usually determined by the use of a picnometer.

In practice there are three instruments in general use for
determination of lactometer reading, or specific gravity, viz.:
Quevenne lactometer, New York Board of Health lactometer

34 BUTTER-MAKING.

and the ordinary hydrometer. The Quevenne tactometer is the
one that is used chiefly in creameries. The graduation of each
one of them is given in the accompanying diagram. It may be

# )
1.000 6
L] lo4—-
oa
= =
¥.005 +4 =
{| 204
LJ =
a zot
f.otot-4 =
ie a4
=
— i
fost iy sl i5ted
= = +
1] eof 7
|_| = |
= I =
#.02014 rod 204-4
— = —~4
= _ =
= sot =
028744 = 24
t_| vot {J
LI | LJ
100 4
1.030444 J eo
CI = a
=
= 110 IL
I 5 ry
9.03544 1204-1 Ee a
a
40+
a LJ
S N a

“S" Specific Gravity Scale.,
“N" New York State.
“QO” Quevenne,

Fic, 4.—Comparative graduation of lactometer stems,
seen from the figures that in order to change the Quevenne

lactometer reading into specific gravity, all that is necessary is
to add 1000 and divide the sum by 1000. In order to change the

PROPERTIES OF MILK. 35

specific gravity into lactometer reading the reverse process will
give correct results.

The hydrometer gives the specific gravity directly. The
Board of Health lactometer has a special graduation. In
devising this lactometer it was thought that 1.029 was the
minimum specific gravity of unadulterated milk. The scale on
this lactometer was made from zero to 120; zero marking the
point which represents the specific gravity of water, namely, 1.
100 is the point which is assumed to represent the least. specific
gravity of milk 1.029. If the specific gravity of a certain
sample of milk fell to 90, it indicated that there was 10% of
water present. If it fell to 80, it indicated that there was 20%
of water, etc.

In order to calculate the total solids, and solids not fat, of
milk, it is necessary to know the lactometer reading, and the
percentage of fat content. Iknowing these factors, by the use
of the following formula given by Farrington and Woll, and
deduced from Fleischmann’s work, the total solids, and solids
not fat, can be found:

Solids not fat= +4 lact. reading+.2 times the fat.
Total solids =fat +solids not fat.

Natural Separation of Milk and Cream.—When milk is
allowed to stand quietly for a short time, a layer having a rich-
yellow color comes to the surface. This is the cream, and
contains most of the fat. This separation is due chiefly to the
difference in weight, or specific gravity, of the fat-globules and
the serum. The force which acts upon the globule of fat is the
difference in weight between the fat-globule and the serum
which it displaces, minus the resistance force with which it
meets in its upward passage. In milk with a high degree of
viscosity this force is great. In milk of a limp and liquid
consistency this force is smaller. By adding water the vis-
cosity of milk is reduced considerably, and the specific gravity
of the serum is also decreased. But the effect of the added
water upon the viscosity is greater than the effect the water has

36 BUTTER-MAKING.

upon the specific gravity of the serum; hence, by adding water
to milk, the resistant force is decreased to such an extent as to
get a more rapid and more efficient separation of the fat. The
water dilution separators are based upon this principle. In
normal milk, the amount of fat left in the skimmed milk by
natural creaming is about .4%. The fat which is left in this
skimmed milk is largely composed of very small globules.
This is due to the fact that the resistant force of these small
globules is equal to cr greater than the buoyant force acting
upon them.

Fic. 5—Standardized milk. Showing the amount of cream on milk con-
taining the designated per cent of butter-fat. (From Bul. 92, IIL)
This completeness of natural skimming is to a certain extent

based upon the mathematical law which is stated as follows:

‘The surfaces of two spheres are to each other as the squares of

their diameters, and their cubical contents are to each other

as the cubes of their diameters.’ The larger the globules are,
the greater the surface is, and the greater the resisting force to
which they are subjected. From the law stated it can be seen
that as the size of the globule increases, the cubical content
increases more rapidly than the surface. If a fat-globule were
split up into smaller ones, there wouid be more surface exposed

PROPERTIES OF MILK. 37

to the serum than was the case while the fat was present in
one globule.

For illustration, take two globules of fat having a diameter of
4 and 2 inches respectively. The squares would be 16 inches
and + inches respectively; their cubes would be 64 inches and
8 inches respectively. It will thus be seen, according to the
law quoted above, that the larger globule has a surface only four
times as great as that of the smaller one; but the cubical content
of the larger globule is eight times that of the smaller one. This
illustrates why the large globules rise in cream quicker than
the small ones. In this particular instance the upward force
the larger globule is subjected to is eight times greater than
that of the smaller one, while the resistance force is only four
times as great as that of the small one.

Adhesion of Milk.—Normal sweet milk adheres to wood,
glass, and metals to a greater extent than does water. Whole
milk has greater adhesive properties than skimmed milk.
A paper moistened with milk or cream makes a label that
will stick to any dry object; the same paper moistened with
skimmed milk has less adhesive power. The adhesive prop-
erties of milk are also due to the condition of the nitrogenous
matter. This fact is made use of in painting and whitewashing.
Slacked lime, when mixed with buttermilk, or milk of any
kind, gives a whitewash which will remain on objects much
longer than that made by mixing with water.

Viscosity of Milk.—Milk is more viscous than water. The
degree of viscosity of fresh milk varies chiefly with the tem-
perature and fat content. So far as understood, the lower
the temperature, the greater the viscosity. Development of
acid, and high temperature lessens the viscosity of milk. Pas-
teurized milk or cream is less viscous than the same milk or
cream unpasteurized. This lack of body can again be restored
by adding a little viscogen, as recommended by Babcock
and Russell. It is advisable not to use it, however, as it does
not add materially to the nutritive value of milk. It merely
restores the body.

38 BUTTER-MAKING.

The great viscosity of thick and cold cream has been
encountered by most butter-makers when attempts have
been made to churn cream under such conditions. It adheres
to the inside of the churn and does not agitate. It simply
rotates with the churn. Cream that is cold and_ thick
whips more easily than thin and warm cream. The viscosity
is so great that the air incorporated cannot escape so easily.
In ice-cream making, a greater yield is obtained by using
cold and thick cream. The air, when once incorporated,
cannot easily escape, owing to the great viscosity of such
cream.

Specific Heat of Milk.—The specific heat of milk is less
than that of water; that is, it requires less heat to warm a
definite amount of milk to a certain temperature than it does
to heat the same quantity of water to the same temperature.
It also takes less ice to cool the same volume of milk to a cer-
tain temperature than it does to cool the same quantity of
water to the same temperature. The specific heat of milk
is, according to Fjord, .94. The specific heat of cream is
about .7. It varies according to the percentage of fat in the
cream. The specific heat of butter is about .4.. From these
figures it will be seen that it takes less heat to warm milk,
cream, and butter, and less cold to cool the same substances,
than it does to heat and cool water; but it takes a longer time
to heat or to cool milk, cream, and butter; that is, the milk,
cream, and butter are not as rapid conductors of heat and
cold as is water.

The maximum density of milk is not, like water, at 4° C.
but at about .3°C. The boiling-point of milk is a trifle higher
and the freezing-point a trifle lower than that of water.

Effect of High Heating (180° and above) on Properties of
Milk.—The chief effects of heat upon milk may be summarized
in the following headings:

(1) It destroys nearly all germs present in the milk.

(2) It diminishes the viscosity, or body.

(3) It drives off gases.

PROPERTIES OF MILK 39

(4) It imparts a cooked taste (especially if not heated and
cooled properly).

(5) It precipitates some of the albuminoids and ash con-
stituents.

(6) It destroys the properties of enzymes present in milk,

(7) It divides or splits up the fat globules.

(8) It caramelizes some of the sugar.

1. Destroys Nearly All Germs.—Heating milk to a tem-
perature of about 180° F. for ten minutes destroys most of
the germs present in milk. This is the temperature used
chiefly in creameries for pasteurization. The details concern-
ing the different effects of temperature upon growth of germs
properly comes under the heading of bacteriology, and will
be referred to more in detail in the chapter on “ Bacteria in
Milk.”

2. Diminishes the Viscosity, or Body.—Heating milk or
cream diminishes the viscosity of these substances; that is,
the body or consistency is lessened; and in cities where milk
or cream is sold directly to consumers, heated milk appears
as if it had been adulterated. This diminution in the body
is claimed to be due to a breaking up of the fat-globules and
the caseous matter. The chemical union of some of the cal-
cium salts and the casein is altered or destroyed.

The consistency of milk or cream can be restored by adding
a substance named viscogen. Russell and Babcock * advise
this method of overcoming the apparent defect caused by
heating. It consists of making a strong solution of cane-sugar
and mixing it with freshly slacked lime. This mixture is
allowed to stand, and the clear solution coming to the top
is the viscogen, which, when drawn off and used in the pro-
portion of one part of viscogen to from 100 to 150 parts of
cream, restores the body of cream or milk. This is due to
the fact that viscogen causes the fat-globules to cluster together
again, and the lime in the viscogen may combine with the

* Bulletin No. 54, Wisconsin.

40 BUTTER-MAKING.

nitrogenous constituents in such a way as to aid in the resto-
ration of the body of the cream or milk.

Nearly all dairy laws forbid the addition of any foreign
substances to milk or cream. If viscogen is added, Babcock
and Russell suggest to name it visco-milk, visco-cream, ete.
When this modification is made, then no Objection can be

raised to its legitimate use.

Fie. 6.—Microscopic appearance of milk, showing natural grouping of the
fat-globules. Single group in circle, highly magnified. (Irom Bul. 64,
Wis.)

3. Drives off Gases—When milk is heated, taints, and
gases of different kinds pass off to some extent. This is facili-
tated by heating and stirring in an open vessel. Many of
these gases also escape when milk is aerated and cooled in a
pure atmosphere.

4. Imparts a Cooked Taste—When milk is heated to 160° F.
or above, it assumes a distinctly cooked taste, which makes it
disagreeable as a food for many people. On this account,
milk for city supply in America is generally not heated.
In a few cities where milk is consumed directly, heating and
cooling (pasteurization) has been generally introduced. It
is said that people can become accustomed to this cooked
flavor and acquire a liking for it. When milk is not heated
higher than 180° F., nor exposed to the heat very long, and

PROPERTIES OF MILK. 4t

cooled quickly, the cooked taste can be greatly reduced and
almost entirely avoided. Where heating or pasteurization
of cream has been adopted, as in some creameries, the pre-
vention of this cooked flavor in the butter is of vital importance.

The reason why this cooked flavor forms in milk when
heated is not well understood. It is supposed to be due to
the effect which heat has upon the nitrogeneous constituents
of milk.

5. Precipitates Albuminoid and Ash Constituents. When
milk is heated, there is a tendency for the soluble salts and a
portion of the albuminoids to be thrown down, or changed into
an insoluble form.

The higher the milk is heated, the greater is this tendency.
By subjecting a sample of milk in a flask to intense heat, and then
allowing it to stand, a fine white sediment will be deposited on
the bottom. This is believed to be minerals precipitated from
the milk.

When milk has been heated to about 170° F., and cooled,
rennet is unable to precipitate the curd in anormal way. The
curd resulting from adding rennet to pasteurized milk is floccu-
lent in nature. It does not assume that smooth and even
texture that curd from raw milk has when precipitated with
rennet. This abnormal behavior of pasteurized milk towards.
rennet can be reestablished by adding a small quantity of
calcium chloride (CaCl). Whether this would effect the
quality of cheese materiaily has not yet been determined
definitely. According to G. Fascetti,* if pasteurized milk is
used for cheese-making, the cheese ripens more slowly than
when made from raw milk. The same investigator also claims
that a larger quantity of cheese is obtained per 100 parts of milk
when pasteurized milk is used.

6. Destroys Properties of Enzymes.—As was mentioned in
the composition of milk there is a substance normal to milk
named galactase. This is an enzyme. By heating milk to

* Exper. Sta. Record, Vol. 15, No. 10, 1904.

42 BUTTER-MAKING.

about 175° F. the properties of the enzyme are destroyed Owing
to this it is easy to detect whether a certain sample of milk has
been pasteurized or not. Galactase is present in sosmall a
quantity that it could not be determined in milk quantitatively.
It must be detected in a qualitative way.

The test used and invented by Storch, of Copenhagen,
Denmark, is to put a small quantity of milk in a test-tube, add to
it a small quantity of a weak solution (2%) of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), a small quantity of potassium iodide, and a little starch
solution. The whole mixture is then shaken. If the mixture does
not change in color, it has been heated to at least 170° F. If it
turns blue, it has not been heated to a sufficiently high tempera-
ture to destroy the properties of the enzyme present in the milk.
Another test which can be used in distinguishing raw milk from
scalded or boiled milk is to take 10 cubic centimeters of the milk
to be tested, add 1% of recently prepared aqueous solution of
“Ortol,”’ and then one or two drops of hydrogen peroxide. If
the milk has not been heated, a vivid red color is produced.
Heated milk shows no effect.

7. Divides the Fat-globules.— The fat-globules in normal
milk are grouped in minute clusters. When milk is heated,
these clusters break up, and each globule exists more or
less independently. When heated to an excessively high
temperature, and exposed to this temperature very long, the
fat-globules tend to run together. This can be proved by
heating milk in an open vat for about half an hour. <A small
amount of yellow fat will then be seen floating on the top.

8. Caramelizes the Sugar.—The brownish color which the
milk assumes when it is heated excessively is due to a change
which the milk-sugar undergoes. Fleischmann claims that the
sugar begins to change into a substance known as lacto-caramel
at a temperature of 160° IF. This change, however, is not
pronounced enough to be apparent in the color, unless the milk
is heated a long time. The higher the temperature is, and the
longer it is exposed to the heat, the more pronounced is the
change.

PROPERTIES OF MILK. 43

General Remarks.—While all of the above changes have
been found by investigators to take place when milk is heated,
they can, in a measure, be avoided, if special precautions are
taken in the heating an.! cooling of milk with the special,
recently improved forms of apparatus for heating and cooling
milk. The heating to 160° F. can be accomplished without
changing materially the chemical or physical properties of
milk.* Rapid heating and rapid cooling seem to be two essen-
tials in order to prevent changes from occurring in the milk.

* Fjadon, Koshe, and Hertel in Exp. St. Record, Vol. 14, No. 5.

CHAPTER IV.
FERMENTS IN MILK.

Definition —The changes which milk undergoes by standing
at a suitable temperature are called fermentations. The
causal agents are called ferments. There are two kinds of
ferments in milk; viz.: (1) the organized, and (2) the unorgan-
ized. The latter includes the enzymes. So far as known, only
one pre-existing enzyme is found in milk. This one was dis-
covered by Russell and Babcock. They named it galactase.
It is a tryptic ferment. This galactase is present to such a
small extent in milk that it exercises very little influence upon
the characteristics of milk. If the milk were rendered entirely
sterile or free from organized ferments, the fermentative changes
would proceed at an unusually slow rate. The galactase has
been suggested to be of some importance to the butter-making
industry. The properties of galactase, like those of any other
enzyme, are destroyed by heating to or above a temperature of
about 175° F.

The organized ferments are by far the most important to the
dairy industry. It should be understood in this connection
that the organized ferments may produce unorganized ferments,
or enzymes, as products, but these produced enzymes do not
exist in milk, like galactase, when it is first drawn from the cow.
The organized ferments of milk consist chiefly of bacteria.
There are present also some yeasts and molds.

It is a common impression that bacteria are animals, which
is incorrect. Bacteria are minute microscopical plants, belong-
ing to the lowest order of plants in the vegetable kingdom.
Bacteria differ from the ordinary plants that we see, in that
they are composed of a single cell containing protoplasm,

44

FERMENTS IN MILK. 45

while the plants that we see in every-day life are aggregations
of cells. Some bacteria are motile, while others are not.

Size and Shape of Bacteria.—In size, bacteria are the smallest
organisms that exist, so far as known. The size varies con-
siderably. Russell * gives the average diameter as yz 457
of an inch. They are so inconceivably small and light that
nine hundred billions of them would only weigh 3‘; of an
ounce.t

Bacteria also vary considerably in shape. They are as a
rule classed into three groups: (1) The bacillus or rod-shaped;
(2) The coccus or ball-shaped; (3) The spirillum or spiral-
shaped (like a corkscrew). Some types of bacteria are clas-
sified according to the way in which they adhere to each other.
For instance, when two cocci occur together and form a pair,
they are called diplococci, when bacteria occur in chains,
they are called streptococci, when bacteria appear in bunches
they are called staphylococci, etc.

FavoraBLE CONDITIONS FOR BactTertat GROWTH.

Food.—Bacteria are like other plants in nature,—they need
food for their existence. However, they require their food in
solution. Nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and mineral matter are
essentials for bacteria. These substances are furnished in
abundance in milk from casein, albumen, milk-sugar, and the
mineral salts. Butter-fat in milk is said to be of little value
as a food for bacteria.

Some bacteria prefer a substance having an acid reaction in
which to grow; others thrive best in an alkaline medium.
Most bacteria, however, prefer a neutral or slightly alkaline
substance. Darkness is essential to some bacteria, and is
preferred by the majority of the different species. Bright
sunlight is a very effective germicide. It is fatal to all species,
so far as known. Some germs require air for their growth.
These are called aerobic. Others again grow only in the

* Dairy Bacteriology. t+ Milk, Its Nature and Composition, by Aikman.

46 BUTTER-MAKING.

absence of air. These are called anaerobic. Some grow under
either or both conditions, and are called facultative aerobic or
facultative anaerobic.

Temperature.—Favorable temperature is essential to bac-
terial growth. Temperature is, indeed, the most important
means by which the growth and development of bacteria can
be controlled. The range of temperature at which bacterial
growth can occur may be placed between freezing-point and

Mae
Suh i
See MIN TAT Met
=~ Sigh BANA yb OZ
1 rp I WAN
2. BAN OE an, bby San
Sy eS sity root
NAGS
N IQpReap YQ
7
MY as Hep tae

Fic. 7.—a, single bacterium; 6, progeny resulting from the growth of a bac-
terium during 24 hours in milk at 50° F.; c¢, progeny of a bacterium
during 24 hours growth in milk at 70° F. At 50° F. multiplication was
5-fold. At 70° F. the multiplication was 750-fold. (Bul. 26, Storrs, Conn.)

a little above 110° F. The growth of bacteria at these ex-
treme temperatures is very slight. Even at 50° F. the rate
of growth is very slow. According to experiments conducted
by Dr. Conn, the multiplication of bacteria at 50° F. was 5-
fold, while at 70° F. the multiplication was 750-fold. The
following table shows the number of bacteria per cubic centi-
meter in milk kept at different temperatures: *

In 50 Hours No. of No. of
an. a eee Huu Bae of at Time of Hours be. Hours be-
Ui . o. o Bye urd: le =
se at 50°. at 70°. at 50°. ae wOe” aes Ber foe ae vO"
46,000 | 39,000 | 249,500 11,500,000 5 +2,000,000 190 56 =
47,000 | 44,800 | 360,000 127,500 792,000,000 289 36
36 hours
50,000 | 35,000 | 800,000 160,000 | 2,560,000,000 172 42
= 42 hours

* Bull. 26 Storr’s Stn., Conn.

FERMENTS IN MILK. 47

All bacteria do not have the same optimum growing tem-
perature. Some species develop most rapidly at one tempera-
ture, while other species prefer a different temperature for the
greatest development. It is on this account that certain tem-
peratures are employed in ripening of starters and cream.
According to researches by Conn, Bacillus lactis aerogenes
develops very rapidly in milk at 95° F. It produces much gas
and an unpleasant flavor in the milk. This particular species
sours milk very rapidly. As a rule, milk which has been held
at this high temperature, contains a preponderance of this
undesirable species of bacteria. At 77° F. results are more
uncertain. The species of bacteria which will predominate in
milk at this temperature depends in large measure upon the
number of each kind present. According to Conn, Bacillus
lactis acidt has the highest relative growth at about 70° F.
This particular species produces no gas, and is desirable to have
present in cream for butter-making. Milk kept at this tem-
perature will, in most cases, providing it has previously been
properly treated, develop a pleasant acid taste, will curdle into
a smooth uniform coagulum, and will contain a preponderance
of the species of germ mentioned above.

At as low a temperature as 50° F. acid-producing types of
bacteria do not develop very well. But Conn maintains that
at this temperature miscellaneous species of bacteria develop
that produce unfavorable results. While milk does not easily
sour at this temperature, it should be remembered that un-
desirable germs are constantly developing.

As it is practically impossible to exclude all of the bacteria
from milk during milking and the handling of the milk, it
is very essential that the multiplication of the germs present
be checked, or at least retarded; and this can be done by
controlling the temperature of the milk. As low temperature
is effective in checking the multiplication of the bacteria, the
sooner the milk can be cooled after it is drawn, the better itis
for the keeping quality of the milk.

Moisture.—Moisture is one of the essentials for bacterial

48 BUTTER-MAKING.

growth. As milk is composed largely of water, bacteria find in
milk a good medium for growth. All the other required food
elements are also found in abundance in milk. Damp utensils
and rooms are always more conducive to the growth of germs
than are utensils and rooms which are thoroughly dried and
ventilated. This is well illustrated by a refrigerator. A very
damp dark refrigerator is always more conducive to the growth
of molds in butter than is a dry refrigerator.

Unfavorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth.—The reverse
of the favorable conditions mentioned above would be un-
favorable to the growth of bacteria. As it is practically im-
possible to make conditions unfavorable for the growth of
bacteria by taking away food, other means must be used.
Extremely high temperatures destroy bacteria. Low tem-
peratures check their growth, but so far as known do not
destroy them. Absence of moisture and presence of direct
sunlight are conditions which are not conducive to bacterial
growth. Certain chemical substances when added to milk, or
to the medium in which the bacteria are present, are very un-
favorable to their growth. Some of these chemicals entirely
destroy all germ life when added in even very small quantities.
These are called disinfectants (formaldehyde, corrosive subli-
mate, ete.). Other chemicals are more mild in their effect upon
germ growth, and merely inhibit or retard the growth of micro-
organisms. The chemicals which have this milder effect upon
germs are called antiseptics. Boracic and salicylic acids are
examples. Practically all disinfectants are violent poisons, and
should not be used in any quantity or in any form in milk
or dairy products which are intended for human food. The
milder preservatives, or the antiseptics, are, as a rule, not so
poisonous or injurious to human health. In some countries
they are allowed to a small extent. For instance, according to
reports, the laws of England permit the use of boracic acid to
the extent of 0.5 of one per cent. It is, however, safest not to
use any of these chemicals, except for preserving samples for
analytical or similar purposes. As low and high temperatures

FERMENTS IN MILK. 49

are so effective in producing unfavorable conditions, these should
be chiefly employed in controlling the growth of micro-
organisms in the dairy industry.

Kind of Germs Found in Milk.—The number of species of
germs found in milk has not yet been definitely established,
due chiefly to the fact that it is in some instances difficult

Fie. 8.—Shows a plate exposed in pasture where air must have been very
pure and free from germs, (Bul. 87, Nebraska.)

for bacteriologists to differentiate one species from another.
The description of one species of bacteria by two different bac-
teriologists may vary considerably, as the characteristics of
the germs depend so much upon the conditions throughout
the classification process. Over 200 different species have
been described. It is possible, however, though all of these
types may have different morphological and physiological
characteristics as described by different bacteriologists, that
some two or more of the 200 types may belong to one species.

50 BUTTER-MAKING.

For this purpose, it is sufficient to classify the bacteria into
three groups; viz., (1) those which are harmful to the butter-
making industry, (2) those which are beneficial, and (3) those
which are indifferent, or produce neither good nor bad results.

From the farmer’s or milk-producer’s standpoint, none
of these bacteria are desirable. Each milk-producer should

Fie. 9.—Shows a plate exposed one-half minute under a cow’s udder treated
with a 5% solution of carbolic acid. (Bul, 87, Nebraska.)

make it a point to prevent their entrance and suppress their
development in milk and cream to as great an extent as pos-
sible. The creamery operator should endeavor to suppress
all of the harmful germs, and foster the development of the
desirable ones.

The germs which are desirable belong chiefly to the acid-
producing types. They are often called lactic ferments.

The harmful bacteria include those which produce bitter
milk, red milk, blue milk, yellow milk, slimy milk, etc. There

FERMENTS IN MILK. ol

is a number of species belonging to this group. The patho-
genic germs, or disease-producing bacteria, must also be classed
with the harmful bacteria. It is not the intention in this
work to give an extended discussion of this subject. For
such discussion see special works on Dairy Bacteriology.

Fre. 10.—Shows plate exposed one-half minute under cow’s udder treated
by merely brushing with the hand; each little spot represents a colony
of some kind of bacteria. (Bul. 87, Nebraska.)

Number of Bacteria in Milk.—The number of bacteria
found in milk varies so much that it is practically impossible
to state accurately the average number. The number of
germs found varies according to several conditions, such as
degree of cleanliness of cows, utensils, and milker; degree of
purity of the atmosphere when the cows are milked; and
the temperature at which the milk is kept. When the milk
is being produced under the best practical sanitary conditions,
the number of germs need not exceed 10,000 per c.c. Such

52 BUTTER-MAKING.

results cannot be obtained unless extreme precautions are
taken. Milk produced under average farm conditions sel-
dom contains less than 50,000 germs per c.c. shortly after the
milking. Milk which is produced under filthy conditions,
and which is several hours old, may contain several millions
of bacteria per c.c.

Sources of Bacteria in Milk—HExcept in the cow’s udder
where they are present to only a small extent, bacteria are
present almost everywhere. They float in the atmosphere

A B

a

Ns

Fic. 11.—The wrong and the right kind of a milk-pail. a, the ordinary

type of pail showing sharp angle between sides and bottom; B, the same

roperly flushed with solder so as to facilitate thorough cleaning. The

ower figure represents a joint as ordinarily made in tinware. The de-

pression a affords a place of refuge for bacteria from which they are

not readily dislodged. This open joint should be filled completely with
solder. (From Bul. 62, Wis.)

and adhere to particles of dust. Especially is this so in the
dusty cow-stable. They are present in all well water to a greater
or less extent. They are very abundant in streams and rivers.
They are present in the soil to a depth of several feet, the
number decreasing with the depth. As these germs are prac-
tically present everywhere, the source of germs in milk may
be said to be all around us. The principal sources of germs
in milk are, however, unclean dairy utensils, unclean cows,
and unclean surroundings. As these germs multiply chiefly
by fission, or by one cell dividing into two, it is plain that the
number of germs will increase very rapidly under favorable
conditions. Under the most favorable conditions it requires

FERMENTS IN MILK. 53

approximately twenty minutes for this process of fission to
take place.

Some germs develop small bodies within the cell, called
spores. It is not difficult to destroy the sporeless cell by
heat, but the spores are very resistant to unfavorable con-
ditions. The spore-bearing bacteria cannot be destroyed by
boiling. The heating destroys the vegetative cell, but the
spores still remain. In order to destroy the germ in the spore
form, it is essential that the milk be cooled to a temperature
favorable to growth, and then allow the spore to develop into
a vegetative cell. If heat is again applied, the milk can be
rendered entirely sterile. Usually three or four successive
heatings and coolings are necessary in order to render the milk
completely sterile. A single heating under pressure (15 minutes
at 15 pounds) kills them at once.

It has been demonstrated by several investigators that
freshly drawn milk is not a good medium for bacteria to develop
in. In fact, several experiments seem to indicate that milk
acts as a germicicde to certain varieties of bacteria. For instance,
the cholera germ is to some extent destroyed in fresh milk,
but it is not known to what extent. Organisms producing
lactic acid check the multiplications of these pathogenic bac-
teria. This germicidal property is said to be common, to a
greater or less extent, to all the animal secretions.

Effect of Thunder-storms on Souring of Milk.—It is acommon
impression that thunder-storms hasten the souring of milk.
This was attributed to the electricity in the air accompanying
the storm. Experiments by several investigators have proved
that electricity does not have any effect on hastening the fer-
mentative changes of milk. The reason why milk sours quicker
when an electrical storm is approaching, is that the air tem-
perature is usually higher then than at any other time. This
higher temperature warms the milk and creates more favor-
able conditions for the rapid multiplication of the germs present
in the milk. It is for this reason that milk sours quicker during
or previous to a thunder storm than at any other time.

CHAPTER V.
ABNORMAL MILK.

Colostrum Milk.—Colostrum is the milk yielded immediately
after calving. As the time of calving approaches, a cow usually
diminishes in her milk-producing capacity. Most cows become
dry about two months previous to parturition. If they do not
naturally stop giving milk, they should be dried up so as to have
a seven week's rest before calving. When the rest has been
given, the cows yield, immediately after calving, milk which has
a composition and characteristics different from those of normal
milk. If the cow continues to give a copious flow of milk up to
the time of calving and is not allowed any rest, the difference
in the milk yielded before calving and after calving is compara-
tively shght.

The composition of colostrum varies considerably during the
first three days after calving. According to Engling, as reported
by Richmond, the composition is a follows:

NVACCR eke cath, Shine ee ele las, cece 71.69%
Fat...... Pi tie, eedel 225 Glennie A nates 3.37

hE ckege MCAS 0, ach need oe atin Crats ae 4.83
AUbminunoids | Albumen.............0. 15.85
SHEA. Vadicweunienwecee seen eR aKeees 2.48
Wishigiewtuy dues Gis cHRE ROS 2 ae are Ges eee 1.78

Colostrum greatly changes in composition and appearance
as it gradually assumes the characteristics of normal milk. It
is at first reddish yellow in color, and has a viscous and slimy

54

ABNORMAL MILK. 55

consistency. It is a food which the newly born calf should not
be deprived of, as it seems to be specially suited for the digestive
tract of the young calf.

It will be seen from the above table that the water content
of colostrum is less than that of normal milk. The fat content
is a ittle lower than that of normal milk. The most striking
characteristics of colostrum, however, are the low content of
sugar, and the large amount of albumen. Of the latter substance
very little is present in normal milk. The mineral constituents
of colostrum also run quite high. The specific gravity of
colostrum varies from 1.046 and 1.079. When boiled, the
nitrogenous matter coagulates. The colostrum is not considered
to be suitable for food until about four days after parturition.
Whenever it can be boiled without coagulating, it is claimed
to be safe to use. At times a cow's udder becomes inflamed
after calving. In such cases the abnormal qualities of the
cow’s milk will extend over a greater period of time than that
mentioned above.

Salty Milk.—The average chemical analysis of salty milk as
calculated from results obtained by the analysis of such milk
from four cows given by Boggild,* is as follows:

Water. . Ya. Hoodie. eee an cians 91.09
Bai esuavaavns oo ee enar ake “aes Aes 2.09
Nitrogenous matter.. ...... ......... 2.90
SUBAP.. :.augnKe 22 ely jg. Meer Aas 3.01
ASW aon n oe bed SoS oA Ed hsbngetads 85

It has an average specific gravity of 1.0244.

Salty milk does not occur very often, but whenever it does
occur, it is difficult, and, so far as known, impossible to cure
without drying up the cow. Two samples of such milk have
recently come within the author’s notice. It had the appear-
ance of normal milk, had a foul smell, and very salty taste.

* Maelkeribruget in Denmark.

56 BUTTER-MAKING.

The two samples contained 1.7% and 1.9% of fat respectively.
They soured and curdled in a normal way at living-room tem-
perature in about thirty hours. At this stage they were very
foul in smell, and unpleasant in taste.

The cows which had produced this milk had both calved
about three months previously. It occurred in the month of
July, when pastures were quite good. The udders of the cows
were in an apparently normal condition. At first it was thought
that some conditions in the pasture caused this abnormal milk.
The cows were taken into the barn, and fed on dry food for
two weeks, but without any change in the quality of the milk.
Gradually they dried up.

The reason for the secretion of this salty milk was laid to
the long time which the cows had been yielding milk without
any rest. They had been given no rest previous to the last
calving. It is also believed that this quality of milk will occur
more frequently when the cows are near the close of their
lactation period.

While the above two causes are perhaps the most common,
they are not the only ones. Salty milk has been obtained from
cows to which these reasons could not be ascribed. Béggild has
found that salty milk has been secreted by cows with abnormal
udders. He has also demonstrated that it was the diseased part
of the udder from which the salty milk was yielded. The healthy
portion of the udder yielded normal milk. It is possible that
an obscure, diseased condition of the udder may be the entire
cause.

Salty milk is of course undesirable in the dairy or creamery.
It is very disagreeable to the taste, and in a fermented stage
becomes very foul.

Bloody or Red Milk.—Bloody, or red milk is caused, first,
by an abnormal condition of the cow's udder, which may or may
not be apparent; and second, a red color may be developed in
milk after standing, through the action of bacteria.

The bloody milk, caused by an inflamed udder, often assumes
a reddish-yellow appearance, and may, if not examined care-

ABNORMAL MILK. 57

fully, be mistaken for colostrum. Bloody milk produced by an
inflamed udder, may be distinguished by noticing small blood
particles, which will settle to the bottom, and can be noticed if
the sample is placed in a glass test-tube. Bloody milk caused by
bacterial growth does not show the blood at the bottom, but
instead, previous to stirring the milk or cream, it appears on
the surface in small red dots. The red color which commonly
occurs in milk is due chiefly to a species of germ called Micro-
coccus prodigiosus. Colostrum will show reddish cream on the
surface, but no blood-like material will separate out.

Blue Milk.—Blue milk is quite commonly found. Formerly
it was thought that this color was due to the condition of the
casein in the milk, but since more has been discovered in regard
to the effect of germ life upon conditions and properties of milk,
it has been proved that blue milk is caused by bacteria* (Bacil-
lus cyanogenus). This particular germ produces the blue color
in the milk only when the milk has an acid reaction. When
sterile milk is inoculated with this particular germ, the blue
color is not produced, but by the addition of a little acid, or by
inoculating the milk with the bacteria that produce lactic acid,
the blue color is produced. This seems to be one of the instances
of symbiotie action of bacteria in milk. There are probably
other causes, but they are not known. This germ, according
to Aikman, is killed by heating the milk to about 176° F. The
germ ceases to work as soon as milk is coagulated.

Yellow Milk.—According to Aikman,* yellow milk is caused
chiefly by one species of bacteria, named Bacillus synxranthus.
This micro-organism belongs to the group of ferments that act
upon the fat of milk. There are different shades of yellow
produced in milk, caused by different species of bacteria, but
the above-mentioned one is considered to be the principal cause.
Some produce a brilliant yellow color, while other species first
curdle the casein, and then digest or dissolve it into a yellow
or aimber-colored liquid.

*C. M. Aikman, in ‘‘ Milk, Its Nature and Composition.”

58 BUTTER-M AKING.

Ropy Milk.—The slimy or ropy condition of milk is not
common. It is sometimes found in milk handled by milk-
dealers and is caused by certain micro-
organisms. Aikman mentions the fact that
no less than eighteen different distinct organ-
isms have been identified as associated with
this slimy fermentation. Most of the inves-
tigators agree that two organisms are chiefly
responsible for this slimy condition. One of
these is Bacillus lactis viscosus.* This germ
has been found to be frequently present in
surface waters. The very fact that milk-
dealers in cities are occasionally troubled with
this sliminess in milk indicates that precau-
tions are essential in order to avoid the pres-
ence of this ferment in milk. This germ, when
it once gains entrance to a milk establishment,
is very difficult to eradicate. In order to
overcome this trouble it may be necessary
to cover the whole inside of the milk-store,
and all of the vessels used for handling the
milk, with sour coagulated milk. The lactic
acid germs present in this milk gains ascend-
eee rm pet eney over the germs causing sliminess, and

would ‘‘string in that way the trouble may be eradicated.
i aes Soa a Streplococcus hollandicus + is another spe-
length. (From Bul. cies which produces sliminess in milk. This
62, Wis.) ! : =
particular organism is used in Holland as a
starter. The starter containing this particular germ is added
to the milk used in the manufacture of Edam cheese, in order
to control or check the gassy fermentation which may be present
in it.

Bitter Milk.—This is one of the most common kinds of

abnormal milk, and like some of the others, may have more

* Adametz Landw. Jhr., 1891, p. 185.
+ Milch Zeit., 1889, p. 982.

6¢ ‘S]UAUIO} Suton poid-svs
Jo souasaid of} suogs g put Z UL pans Suyvoy oy, “YU ur uorezuoursay Asse Jo yooya Surmoyg—‘er ‘DI

60 BUTTER-MAKING.

than one cause. It may be due to some undesirable food that
the cow has eaten, or to the development of certain germs in
the milk. If caused by the food eaten by the cow, the bitter
taste is recognizable immediately after the milk has been drawn.
If it develops on letting the milk stand, it is caused by bac-
terial growth.

Several germs have been found to be associated with the
production of this bitter flavor in milk. Conn has described a
micrococcus which produces a bitter flavor in milk. Weig-
mann has described a bacillus which also produces bitter
flavors. Nearly all of the investigators agree that the germs
causing the bitter flavors in milk belong to the group which acts
upon the casein in milk. The bitter flavor is most commonly
found in milk that has been heated, and then cooled to a low
temperature. The heat destroys the bacteria that produce
lactic acid, but does not kill those that produce the bitter
flavor, owing to the fact that they are spore-producing.

The germs that produce a bitter flavor do not develop in
milk that is partly soured, because an acid reaction is un-
favorable to their growth.

It was formerly thought that the organisms that cause the
bitter flavor in milk produced butyric acid. This theory,
however, has been largely overthrown, as it has been found that
the germs causing bitter flavor are chiefly of the kind which
peptonize the casein and produce gas.

Milk from Cows which have Been in Milk for a Long Period.
—The difference in the composition of the fat yielded by cows
in different stages of the lactation period seemingly does not
affect the quality of the milk to a noticeable extent. If the
cows have been giving milk an unusually long time, then the
milk may become abnormal.

The impurities in the small amount of milk yielded by cows
almost dried up are quite apparent, and the causes of the
presence of these impurities are readily understood. The
small amount of milk drawn from such a cow would contain
a proportionately larger amount of dirt and germs than would

ABNORMAL MILK. 61

a larger amount of milk drawn from a cow yielding more milk,
providing the cleanliness of the udder and manner of milking
were the same. Cows givinga good quantity of milk always
seem to have a cleaner udder. This has been laid to the more
vigorous circulation of the blood in the udder of the cow that
yields a larger portion of milk.

When cows calve once a year, and have rest of about seven
weeks previous to parturition, if proper precautions are taken
concerning cleanliness, they seldom yield milk from which a
first-class quality of butter cannot be produced. In practice
this regularity of calving does not always exist. Several in-
stances have come within the author’s notice where cows have
been in milk for two years or more without coming in fresh.
Such a condition happens quite frequently on small farms,
where the cows kept are so few that it is deemed imprac-
ticable to keep a bull. As a consequence cows are not
served at the proper time, and great irregularities in calving
are introduced.

At times it also happens that cows become barren. In
such a case they are usually milked as long as they will pro-
duce even a very small quantity of milk. Milk produced under
such conditions is likely to become abnormal in character.
It may remain normal with a slight increase in the fat-content.
The abnormal milk, so often complained of, is usually brought
about by similar circumstances. It is a common belief that
milk yielded from such animals always contains a high fat-
content, but it may contain very little fat. It may be salty.
It may also appear normal, and the cream when separated
appear viscous and dead. Boggild states that the milk at the
creamery from one barren cow has more than once pro-
duced difficult churning.

Milk from Spayed Cows.—H. Lennat has given this kind of
milk considerable study. He finds that milk from spayed
cows may vary in quality to the same extent as milk from normal
cows. The solids of milk, as a rule, increase as the spayed
cow advances in the milk-giving period. Especially was this

62 BUTTER-MAKING.

noticeable in the fat, sugar, and casein. Such milk is con-
sidered to be of extra good quality, and is recommended as
being especially suitable for infant-feeding.

Milk from Sick Cows.—Too much cannot be said against
the use of milk from sick cows. As soon as the cows decline
in health, the quantity will be noticeably decreased, and the
quality is usually abnormal. The kind of milk yielded varies
with different cows and different diseases, but it is interesting
to note from the study of this subject, by several men, that
the milk-secreting glands are quickly affected by disease and
are unable to perform their proper functions. Even a slight
derangement of the digestive organs is said to have a marked
influence upon the flavor of the milk and butter. When cows
do not clean well after calving, the milk secreted by them
always has an undesirable taste. During the time of sexual
excitement of the cow, milk is usually decreased in quantity,
and in a great many instances assumes a very (lisagreeable flavor.

When a cow’s udder is inflamed, the milk usually assumes
an abnormal condition. It usually contains large, white,
slimy lumps. According to Bang,* this is caused by a small
round bacterium, and is contagious. When this germ is in-
oculated into the udder, the cow gets feverish and the milk
becomes slimy.

When cows become infected with tuberculosis to such an
extent that the udder shows lesions and nodules, then the
composition and appearance of the milk is altered consider-
ably. Milk from such cows contains tubercle germs, appears
yellowish brown in color, and has an alkaline reaction. The
composition of such milk has been studied in Denmark and
reported by Boggild to be as follows:

Water...... Te ee Showy sede Board) S80 79
Hats traieere Peete oie mine ote COUR
Albuminoids. ..........0.0.0............ 5.69
IEG, hana eereds Teanehenek we opeetacs ALG

* Maelkeribruget i Danmark, by Boggild.

ABNORMAL MILK. 63

¥Ia. 14—The carcass of an animal killed for beef, showing tuberculosis of
the liver, omentum, and lungs. Generalized tuberculosis. (Bul. 229,
Cornell, N. Y.)

64 BUTTER.MAKING.

These results represent the average of four samples taken
from the diseased part of the udder. It will be seen that the
greatest variation from normal milk exists in the small amount

of sugar it contains and the high per cent of ash and nitrog-
enous matter.

CHAPTER Vi.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK,

THE percentage of fat in normal milk varies a great deal
more than any other of the constituents of milk. Dr. Rich-
mond reports that the fat of milk may go as low as 1.04% and
as high as 12.52%. Such extreme variations are, of course,
abnormal. The fat-content seldom falls below 24°7 or rises
above 7%. The fat-content of milk from a whole herd of
cows, varies only within comparatively narrow limits. The
following are the chief factors which cause the fat-content
of milk to vary:

(1) Individuality of cows.

(2) Breed of cows.

(3) Time between milkings.

(4) Manner of milking.

(5) Whether the milk is fore or after milk.
(6) Age of cow.

(7) Lactation period.

(8) Feed of cows.

(9) Environmental conditions.

1. Individuality of Cows.—That the quantity of milk from
individual cows varies is a fact that is well known to every-
one who keeps cows, but the average cow-keeper does not very
well apprehend that the percentage of fat is as variable a factor
asit really is. Asarule, when a cow yields only a small quantity
of milk she is in many instances condemned without taking

the quality into consideration. If the fat content were taken
65

66 BUTTER-MAKING.

into consideration, such a cow might prove more profitable
to keep than another that yields a larger quantity of milk.
For this reason the yield of fat is a better standard by which
to judge the value of a cow than the quantity of milk. Since
the general introduction of the Babcock test for the deter-
mination of fat in milk, the fat-content of milk can be easily
determined, even on the farm. The importance of testing
the milk of each cow in a herd is sufficient to warrant every
cow owner to have a complete Babcock testing outfit on the
farm.

Unprofitable cows are, and have been, a serious draw-
back to dairy progress. According to Dairy Commissioner
Wright’s reports, the average yield of butter per cow, in the
State of Iowa, is less than 140 pounds per year. Some of the
cows from which these statistics were calculated evidently
gave good returns to the owners, while others again would
run their owners in debt. Cases are on record where single
cows have produced more than eight hundred pounds of butter
annually. Such a yield is the result of a great many years
of attention to the selection and breeding, and can be obtained
only in special cases. A yield of 400 pounds of fat per cow
annually might be a good standard for which to strive. Even
if the average annual butter yield per cow could be brought
up to 300 pounds, the dairy industry would be put on a sounder
and more profitable basis. The average price of butter is
about twenty cents per pound. At this rate 300 pounds of
butter would be worth $60.00. The average cost of keeping a
cow in the State of Iowa is about $35.00, including care and
feed. This would leave a net profit of $25.00 per cow. If
a cow yielded only 140 pounds per year, which at 20 cents
would be worth $28.00, the owner of that cow would suffer
a loss of $7.00. It must not he forgotten that the above cal-
culation is based only upon the butter-fat. The calf and the
skimmed milk are not taken into consideration. The skimmed
milk is worth 25 cents per bundred pounds for feeding pur-
poses, and the calf is worth about $3.00.

GUERNSEY Cow (CustER’s Bruusr, 9514).

Owned and bred by W. D. Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis. Calved when
two years old. She produced that year +25 pounds of butter-fat. Periodical
weighing of milk every seventh week and testing showed that she had pro-
duced 6649 pounds of milk containing 314 pounds of fat in eight months
ending Sept. 14, 1905. She calved again Jan. 15, 1905. The above records
wee made under ordinary feeding and management such as the whole herd
received.

VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK. 67

TABLE BY GURLER, SHowInG REcorDs or INDIVIDUAL Cows.

& F ,
% ‘Ba | as sa | en Slee) s ; +1
Ba 27 |& So | 28 | tg] s28| se Br lisence '| | Cli
eB | $4 |Cs| =e | Be | 8 | BE] 22] 38 | 22] 22
os i eat o a os | oe an oo
Bo z= |S) 5m ea | ea len sn es Es éAl
Av. of q
50 cows | 5708 |4.47/255.2 |297.7 |59.54/5453]14.00} 73.57/41.06/+19.98
244 2382. 5/4.87/116.13}135.48]27 .09/2266) 5.66) 32.75/31.23]-—11.00
154 3619 {4.51]163.4 ]190.63/38.1213494] 8.64, 46.76/41.06]/— 6.80
44 3399 |4.58]155.94]181 .93]/36.86/3243} 8.10} 44.48/37.32]— 5.34
72 2661 |5.06}134 97/157 .46]31 49/2526) 6.31) 37.80)/26.4F/— 1.15
308 4617 |3.83]177.16/206. 68|41 .43/4440]11 .03} 52.36)39.32}+ 0.44
184 7997 \4.77/382 .041445.71]89.14/7615]19. 14/108. 28/44 .32)4+51.46
262 9297 15.03}372 .56/434. 65/86 . 93/8900] 22 .00}109 .02|44.721+51.80
283 10151 |3.68]374.76]436.75|87.35/9777/ 24 .44)111.79)44.72| +54.57
129 8449 |4.52)406.73]472.18]94. 43'8545}21 .36)115.80/ 46.06) + 57. 24
Av. of 4
best 9098 [4.22)384.00]447 32/89 .46:8709]21 .76)111 scala +53.77
Ay. of 4
poorest 3020 |4.75}/142.60]160. 40}33 . 28/2881} 7.20) 40.48. 33.96)- 5.98
Ay. of 9
cows 5897 |4.43)253.5 [295 7 le Lt.11 a 416)4+ 21.25

In making the calculations in the above table the price of
butter per pound was taken as 20 cents, the skimmed milk
was considered to be worth 25 cents per hundred pounds, and
the cost of iabor was taken at $12.50 per cow.

Breed of Cows.—There is a marked difference in the milk
secreted by different breeds of cows. The most striking differ-
ence is, perhaps, between the Holstein and the Jersey breeds,
The former, as a rule, yields a large quantity of milk, with a
comparatively low fat-content; the latter, as a rule, yields
a comparatively small quantity of milk, with a high per-
centage of fat. The influence of individuality of cows must
not be overlooked in this connection.

It is said that the color of the skin, and of the fine hairs on
the exterior of the cow's udder may be taken as a guide in
selecting cows for breeding purposes. A fine soft skin, darkish
golden yellow in color, enveloping the milk-glands, and covered
with fine soft hair, are considered indications of rich milk.
While the Jersey cows perhaps yield milk with a higher fat-

68

BUTTER-MAKING.

content than any other breed, a high percentage of fat is char-
acteristic of the milk from all the Channel Island breeds. On
account of the great variation in the composition of milk from
different cows, it is difficult to get results from experiments
where the number of cows involved in each breed and trial
have been so numerous as to overcome the individuality of
the cow. We quote the following table, which shows the
average results from the breed tests conducted at the Annual
Dairy Shows of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association between

the years 1879 and 1893, inclusive:

Average Total Solids. Fat
Breed vo eae

Lbs. | pet | Par | get | Bee
Daily Lbs. Cent. Lbs. Cent
Shorthorn. .....- 43.86 | 5.64 112.86] 1 65 | 3 77
Jersey......--- 27.36 | 3.98 | 14.54} 1.33 | 4 85
Guernsey. ...| 28 95 | 4.07 | 14.05] 1.38 | 4 78
Holstein, ...... 45.19 | 5.53 112.25] 1.54 | 3 41
Ayrshire....... 37.82 | 5.09 | 13.45| 1.60 | 4 22
Devons........ 30.12 | 4.32 | 14.34] 1.48 | 4 90
Red Polls...... 35.10 | 4.55 | 12.96) 1 38 | 3.92
WreelShic ce cotene 2 46.00 | 5.86 | 12.74] 1.91 | 4.16
Aberdeen-Ang. .| 60.30 | 8.29 | 13.74} 3.01 | 4.99

Ixerries and
Dexters......| 26 59 | 3.56 13.37/ 1.11 | 4.18
CPOSNOS, eee 42.05 | 5.41 1 S7| 1.56 | 3.70

Live
Weight.

749
1362

These results agree very closely with tests carried on in
the United States, with the exception of the two breeds, Welsh
and Aberdeen Angus,

The latter breed is considered to be quite inferior as a milk-

producing breed, but one of the best beef types known.

The former breed is rare in this country.

The

results obtained in the test above, where only one cow was
involved, are abnormal and cannot represent the average of
Angus cows’ milk.

Time Between Milkings.— The common practice in the
United States is to milk twice during twenty-four hours, every
morning and evening. The intervals between these milkings
Under the average farm

are not always of the same length.

Houstein Cow (SHipy Brook Gerern, 43753, H. F. H. B.).
Property of M. E. Moor, Cameron, Mo. Record at St. Louis Exposi-
tion, June 16 to Oct. 13, 1904, (120 days,) $101.7 pounds of milk containing
282.6 pounds of fat. Value of feed consumed $36.57. Dropped in June,
1892. Weight 1319 pounds.

VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK. 69

conditions the cows are milked in the morning about 5 o’clock,
and in the evening about 7 o’clock. This is especially true
during the spring and early summer months. This long interval
during the day causes the cow to give a greater quantity of
milk in the evening, but it contains a smaller per cent of fat.
The recent results obtained by Ingle illustrate this point very
plainly. Five cows were milked at 6 a.m. and at 3 p.m. during

Fic, 15—The wrong way to milk cows. (From Glucose Sugar Refining
Catalogue. )

a period of three weeks. The average fat-content of the eve-
ning’s milk was 4.26% and of the morning’s milk 2.87%.
During the four weeks following the same cows were milked
at 5.30 a.m. and 5 p.m. The fat-content of the evening’s milk
was 3.80%, and of the morning’s milk 3.18°%. It is main-
tained, ancl the above results indicate the same, that even

70 BUTTER.MAKING.

if the intervals between milkings are equal, the morning’s
milk will contain slightly less fat. This is accounted for by
the theory that the fat-secreting cells are more active during
the day, when the cow is exercising.

It is customary in Denmark, and in other countries where
dairying is practiced extensively, to milk three times a day,
early morning, noon, and late at night. The only reason that
can be assigned for getting richer mik after the shorter in-
terval is that the distension caused by the excess of milk in
the udder retards or restrains the free activity of the fat-secreting
cells in the mammary glands. Experiments also show that
frequent milking gives a greater quantity of milk. The in-
crease, however, is not great enough to induce the average
dairy farmers in America at the present time to milk more
than twice daily. The intervals between milkings, however,
can, without any special outlay of money or time, be equalized.

Manner of Milking.—The milk should in all cases be drawn
as rapidly as possible, and in such a way as to cause no dis-
comfort to the animal. The hand anil fingers should be use
in such a way as to imitate nature’s method as closely as pos-
sible. When the hand is placed around the teat, the upper part
of the hand, or the thumb and forefinger, should close around
the teat first, then the others closing gradually as the milk
ix pressed out. The fingers should encircle the teat without
inserting the nails anc causing discomfort to the animal. The
Hegelund method of milking, in comparison with the ordinary
method, has been investigated by Woll, and the results ob-
tained were in favor of the former.

The Hegelund method consists of manipulating the udder
and parts of the udder in a systematic and regular way by
lifting and pressing the different quarters of the udder. In
the Wisconsin University herd of 24 cows, with which Dr.
Woll experimented, the quantity of milk was increased by 4.5°%
and the quantity of fat by 9.2°c, by the use of the Hegelund
method.

Fic. 16.—First manipulation of udder, right Fic. 17.—First manipulation, left quarters.
quarters,

Fie, 18.—Second manipulation, right fore-quarter.

ae

é eae ake \

Fie. 20.—Third manipulation.

Fic. 19.—Second manipulation, right hind-
quarter, rear view.
ILLUsTRATING HEGELUND METHOD OF MILKING. (From Report of Kansas State Board
of Agriculture, No. 87, 1903.)

71

71a BUTTER-MAKING.

Milking-machines.*—For a long time successful milking-
machines have been expected by dairy enthusiasts. Seem-
ingly these expectations have been fulfilled. Many large
dairy farmers are now operating such machines. The Bur-
rell- Lawrence- Kenedy milking-machine and the Globe are
two of the machines which under proper conditions and

Fic. 20a.—The Globe milking-machine.

care have been found to operate successfully in the United
States.

The cost of installation, and care and skill necessary in
-conomic operations, are factors which retard their use on the

* Bulletin No. 92, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 3. Dept. of Agr.
Bulletin No. 47, Storr’s Experiment Station, Conn.
Bulletin No. 140, Manhattan, Kans.

VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK, 71b

Fig. 20b.—The Burrell-Lawrence-Kenedy milking-machine.

Fic. 20c.—A foot-power cow-milker with attachments. (Mehring.}

72 BUTTER-MAKING,

average sized dairy farms. If a man keeps at least twenty
good cows in milk at the time, and makes dairying a business,
not a side issue, and is willing and able to care for the machine
as it should be cared for, then the milking-machine can appar-
ently be economically and successfully operated. The milking-
machine question is still in a transitional period and shall not
be considered in detail at this writing.

Fic, 21.—De Schmidt milking-machine.

All of the above machines are represented by their
respective inventors and manufacturers to do successful
work. Whether a milking-machine will ever be perfected
which can imitate nature’s methods as closely as the human
hands, is a question which has yet to be solved.

An UNREGISTERED BUT PURE-BRED AYRSHIRE Cow.
Owned by C. C. Burr, St. Charles, Ill. In the year 1902-3, under ordinary
farm conditions and feeding, she gave 8467 pounds of milk which contained
342 pounds of butter-fat.

VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK 73

According to experimental evidence, milk drawnwith a
machine contains more bacteria than milk drawn by hand.
This is claimed to be due to the suction on the exterior of the
teat, and to the tubes through which the milk must pass after
it is drawn.

Fore-milk and After-milk.— The fore-milk, or the milk
drawn from the cow’s udder first, contains much less fat than
does the milk drawn subsequently. The very first milk drawn

Fic, 22.—Milking goats in Norway.

appears watery and contains as little as 0.1% of fat, while
the very last milk in the udder may contain as high as 12%.
The reasons assigned for this variation are (1) the milk in
the canal of the teat, and lower portion of the milk-reservoir
is present under such conditions as to allow creaming to proceed.
(2) The larger fat-globules are about as large as the smaller
milk-dusts in the cow’s udder; consequently the downward
passage of these fat-globules meets with some obstruction

74 BUTTER-MAKING.

and they are drawn out only when the last milk is removed.
(3) The fore-milk has been subjected to a re-absorption process
of the lymphatics. The third factor perhaps plays only a
small part in reducing the fat-content of the fore-milk. As
the fore-milk contains so very little fat, and a great many
micro-organisms, it is often advantageous to reject the first
few streams of milk. Especially is this important when sani-
tary milk is desired.

It is in many instances customary, in order to apportion
the calf a certain amount of milk, to first partly milk the cow
by hand, and send this milk to the creamery, and then allow
the calf to suck the remainder. The results of such procedure
are plain, yet it is practiced to a large extent. When dis-
covered, it has in many instances explained why a certain
creamery patron’s milk has been testing low at the creamery.

Age of Cow.—There is a time during the life of a cow when
she is most vigorous and most productive. At the time she
first calves (about three years old) the cow or heifer is. still
growing, and her milk-producing capacity is not so great then
as it is later on, when she becomes matured. After this increase
in quantity there is also a slight increase in quality. At the
age of about seven years the cow is usually at her best. As
the cow advances in age, usually the quantity and quality
diminish. However, the individuality of cows prevents draw-
ing any definite line. In some cows age has considerable
effect, while in others age has but little effect.

Lactation Period.—By lactation period we understand the
milking period, from the time of calving until the cow is dried
up. The first few days after calving, the cow yields milk
which is rich in solids, not fat. The fat-content in milk from
most cows usually increases a trifle during the first two weeks
after parturition. Then, when conditions are normal and uni-
form, the percentage of fat is nearly constant for about three
months. After this time the quantity decreases and the
quality gradually increases a trifle. This applies more fully
if the cow is pregnant. Most cows calve in the spring of the

SHORT-HORN Cow (Co_LtecE Moore).
Owned py Iowa State College, Ames, Ia. She produced 9896.5 pounds
of milk containing 406.8 pounds of fat during one milking period extend-
ing over 393 days beginning Oct. 4, 1899. Weight 1695.8 pounds.

VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK. 75

year, and as a consequence milk usually tests a little higher in
the fall.

Food of Cows.—For a long time it was thought that the
kind of food had considerable influence upon the fat-content of
milk, but later experiments in this country, as well as in foreign
countries, have almost completely demonstrated that food has
practically no effect upon the quality of milk. Investigators
agree that foods may affect the fat-content of milk by increasing
the quantity of milk, without reducing the per cent of fat, thus
increasing the total amount of fat. Extensive experiments
were carried on in Denmark, where more than one hundred
and fifty cows were involved in each experiment, on ten different
estates, in order to determine the effect of food upon the per-
centage of fat in the milk. Roots of different kinds, which
are very succulent, were fed with out reducing the per cent
of fat. Different concentrated feeds (oil-cake, wheat, bran,
ground barley, and oats) were also fed with a view of increasing
the percentage of fat, but without any noticeable effect. The
New York Station found, through carefully conducted experi-
ments, that feeding tallow to cows did not increase the percent-
age of fat in the milk.

Soxhlet found that by feeding tallow, in the form of an
emulsion, for a considerable time, he was able to increase the
percentage of fat in the milk. The Iowa Experiment Station
also reported that the percentage of fat could be increased by
feeding oil meal. Dr. Lindsey, at the Hatch Experiment
Station, Massachusetts, recently found that fat can be slightly
increased by the use of certain foods rich in oil.

But on the whole, the results reached so far show that
different foods have little influence on the percentage of fat in
the milk. Especially is this so under practical condi-
tions.

On the other hand, different kinds of foods affect the compo-
sition of the fat itself. Gluten meal, in fact all gluten products,
produce butter containing a high percent of olein, and usually
an increase in the volatile fats. Cottonseed-oil produces a

76 BUTTER-MAKING.

decrease in the volatile fats, and makes butter noticeably
harder and more tallowy in appearance.

Environment.— Unfavorable environmental conditions im-
posed upon a cow, such as sudden changes in temperature,
storms, impure surroundings, and ill-ventilated barns, are
certain to decrease the flow of milk; and if they are continued a
few days, the percentage of fat in the milk will decrease also. In
a general way it might be said that any unfavorable condition
which causes a decrease in the quantity of milk will cause a
slight increase in the percentage of fat during the first few days.
But if the cow is surrounded with these unfavorable conditions
for any length of time, the percentage of fat will again decrease.
It is possible, however, by ill treatment, to diminish the fat-
content greatly.

Exercise, also, affects the yield of milk, as well as the quality.
Uninterrupted, long confinement in a stall is detrimental to
a cow's health. For a time it shows no effect upon the quan-
tity and quality of the milk, but eventually it will decrease
both. However, many Danish dairy farmers keep their cows
in the barn all winter, without letting them out for exercise,
and it is said that this confinement has apparently no effect
upon the quantity and quality of milk. But a proportion-
ately large number of their cows are infested with tubercu-
losis. Whether this is due to lack of fresh air and exercise, the
authors cannot say.

Too much exercise is adverse to producing the most and
best milk. If a cow is kept in the barn every day, half an
hour’s exercise, preferably out of doors, when weather permits,
seems to give good results. A small box-stall for each cow, or
a well-bedded shed for them to stand or lie down in after feeding,
are favorable conditions for getting the proper amount of
exercise, especially during cold weather. ‘

Change of location, fright, sudden shocks, and nervousness
are conditions from which the cow must be kept, in order to
do her best as a milk-producing animal.

CHAPTER VII.
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING MILK AND CREAM.

Receiving and Grading of Milk and Cream. — The man
who receives and samples milk at a creamery should be
accurate and quick with figures, have ability to grade and
select milk, and to stimulate interest in the production of
good milk. He should also be able to reconcile and satisfy
patrons. The method employed in some creameries of allowing
a boy with immature judgment to weigh and sample milk
should not be tolerated. The person who weighs and samples
milk and cream comes in direct contact with the patrons.
Therefore, he is a strong factor in preserving the best interests
of the creamery. In many of the best butter and cheese factories
in the country the head maker or manager in charge is usually
found at the weighing can. This gives him the opportunity
of studying the raw material from which he is expected to make
a high grade of butter or cheese. Some of our large central
plants pay the highest salary to the man who has the ability
to properly grade the cream and prepare the starters. This
requires a fine sense of smell and taste, which is not possessed
by every one.

The first step in the receiving of milk is to ascertain the
quality of the milk delivered by the patrons. It is now a
recognized fact that the best butter cannot be produced from
defective or abnormal milk or cream, no matter how many
improved methods are employed in the manufacture. In view
of this, and the knowledge we now have of the transmission
of undesirable germs from one sample of milk to another, and

also the probability that some of the patrons will deliver poor
77

SL ‘oO, Arourvar) [eyuauTUO)) “‘weato Suipwad pus Burrto2ay~—' es “PLT

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 79

milk, it is essential that the milk or cream be graded when it
is delivered at the creamery.

In the grading of milk or cream, different methods can be
used for detecting abnormal milk: (1) through the senses,
taste, sight, and smell; (2) by the acid tests; (3) by the fer-
mentation test; (4) by heating; (5) by the Babcock test and
the lactometer.

1. Detection of Abnormal Milk through the Senses.—In order
to detect the different kinds of defective milk, one must be

at ES

Fie, 24.—The Twentieth-century can-washer.

endowed with acute senses of smell, taste, and sight. When
the milk is in a good condition, it has a pleasant smell and
sweet taste, and appears normal. If it has a disagreeable
smell and taste it cannot produce good butter or cheese. As
a rule, the quantity of defective milk brought into the aver-
age creamery is much in excess of that of really perfect milk.
As a consequence it would not be practical to separate all
the defective milk into one class and the perfect into another.
The question as to where the line should be drawn between
the good, medium, and very bad milk or cream, must depend

80 BUTTER-MAKING.

upon the judgment of the receiver, and in a great measure
upon the local conditions. Some of the creameries have no
facilities for handling different grades of milk, and some sell
butter on a market where no sharp distinction is made between
good and poor butter. Others have, through experience, sat-
isfied themselves that under American creamery conditions
it does not pay to make too many grades, nor does it pay to
grade too closely. Two, or at the most three, grades of but-
ter can at times be manufactured in one creamery profitably.
It is advisable to reject sour and abnormal milk. If accepted,
it should not be mixed with the remainder of the milk, as it
might contaminate all of it; or, the sour milk might cause
coagulation, and thereby clog up the separators. If a can of
milk is sour, but otherwise clean, it is not necessarily unfit
for the production of first-class butter. If retained until after
the sweet milk has been skimmed, it may be run through
the separator successfully.

2. The Use of Acid Tests—Some creameries, especially
the larger central cream plants, are now grading the milk or
cream according to the amount of acid it contains. For instance,
cream or milk containing .2% acid or less is classed as first
erade; that containing from .2 to .4°% as second grade, and
the cream containing more than 4°, acid as third grade.
Mann’s and Farrington’s acid tests can both be used, but a
more rapid and convenient way is to use a solution prepared
from Farrington’s tablets. The solution is prepared by taking
one tablet for each ounce of warm water and allowing the
tablets to dissolve. When one part of this alkaline solution
and one part of milk are put together in a cup and mixed
and the solution still retains a pink color, it shows that there
is less than .1°%, acid in the sample tested. If two parts of
alkali and one part of milk are mixed and the mixture remains
pink, then there is less than .2% of acid. If the mixture turns
colorless, it shows there is more than .2°% acid in the sample.
If three measures of alkali to one measure of milk are taken,
and the mixture remains pink, that indicates that there is

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 81

less than .38% of acid, etc. By means of such a test the acidity
can quickly be determined.

The sample cups should be numbered to correspond with
the number of each patron. The results of the tests should
be noticed at once, as the action of the atmosphere affects
the color.

The acid tests are of value in grading cream, as a sour
sample of milk or cream is either old or has been improperly
kept and handled. The number of grades of cream and milk
and the maximum limit of acid each grade can contain, are
factors which must be decided according to local conditions,
by the operator.

3. Use of the Fermentation Tests.—Curdled, ropy, red and
blue milk can, as a rule, readily be detected without the appli-
cation of a special test, but there are cases when a person’s
senses are not sufficiently acute to detect samples of milk
containing undesirable fermentations. Several instances have
recently come within the authors’ notice. A neighboring
creamery was infested with a peculiar fermentation that
caused a very rank flavor in the butter. The milk that came
to the creamery was carefully examined, but without locating
the source of the trouble. The cause could not be ascertained
without the use of the fermentation test.

It is in such instances that a fermentation test is of special
value. As arule, at least when the trouble first begins, it is
milk from one particular patron that causes the trouble. This
milk may appear to be normal, and yet contain germs which
are very undesirable for the manufacture of the best quality
of butter.

Fermentation Te ts.—There are two tests which may be
of general use; namely, the “ Wisconsin Curd Test ’’ and
the ‘Gerber Fermentation Test.’ The former is used in
cheese factories, but the latter is to be recommended in testing
milk for butter-making.

Gerber Test.—This test consists of properly made glass
tubes which fit into a rack. This rack, containing the bottles,

82 BUTTER-MAKING.

fits into a small round tin tank, which is kept about two-thirds
full of water. The temperature of this water can be con-
trolled by means of a lamp kept burning underneath, or by
the use of steam. The milk from the different patrons is
put into the glass tubes, and these tubes numbered so as to
indicate to which patron each belongs. The temperature
should be kept at about 104 to 106° F. for about six hours.
Then the tubes are taken out, the milk shaken, and the appear-
ance, smell, and taste of the milk noted. The tubes are warmed
again for about another six hours, when they are again examined.
If any samples contain a preponderance of abnormal ferments,
the fact will usually appear in less than eighteen hours. If
milk does not coagulate in twelve hours, or become abnormal
in some way, it is supposed to be good.

The special apparatus mentioned above is not absolutely
essential, nor is the temperature employed considered by the
authors to be the most suitable to give reliable results. Ordi-
nary sample jars can be used, instead of specially prepared tubes.
After the milk has been placed in the jars they can be kept
in any convenient place, at a temperature of about 98° F.
The best place to keep them is in a vessel containing water,
the temperature of which can be controlled.

Wisconsin Curd Test.—This test consists of taking some
milk in a jar and adding about ten drops of rennet, which
coagulates the milk. The sample is allowed to stand until
the curd hardens, then it is cut into small pieces with a case
knife; the whey is drawn off, and the curd allowed to stand
at a temperature of 98° F. If there are any undesirable forms
of bacteria present, they will reveal themselves by developing
small holes in the curd, usually accompanied by a bad odor.

This test is a very ingenious one for cheese-making. In
butter-making the Gerber Fermentation Test, or a similar one,
is more convenient.

4. Grading Milk by Heating.—This test is not used very
much in creameries; but in cheese factories the heating of
milk in order to ascertain its suitability for cheese-making is

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 83

practised to a considerable extent. This test is in common
use in Canada. It consists of heating a small sample of the
milk to be tested to 120° F. If it will stand this temperature
without coagulating, it is considered to be good milk. If it

Fic. 25 —Troemner’s Babcock cream-testing scales,

Fic. 26.—Tortion cream test- Tic. 27.—Troemner’s Bab-

ing sca:es. cock cream-testing scales.

coagulates when heated to this temperature, it is too sour
to be used for cheese.

This heating may be considered an acid test. When milk
contains about .39 acid, it usually coagulates when heated.
It should be borne in mind in this connection that different
samples of milk do not coagulate when containing exactly the
same amount of-acid, and at the same temperature. Some
samples will coagulate upon heating when containing little

84 BUTTER-MAKING.

less than .3% acid, while others will not coagulate until more
than .3% acid has developed.

In practice the temperature (120° F.) is not always considered.
A small portion of the sample to be tested is put into a tin cup.
The cup containing the milk is put into hot water or over a jet
of steam. When hot its characteristics are noticed.

5. Use of Babcock Test and Lactometer.—These tests are
of special value in detecting watered or skimmed milk. When-

=o

Fig, 28.—Acid carboy trunnion, Fie. 29.—Acid hydrometer.

ever a sample of milk appears watery or blue, it is fair to presume
that water has been added. The test for specific gravity and
the test for fat can then be applied to such samples of milk.
As a rule composite samples are taken daily at creameries, and
the patrons paid according to the fat delivered. For this
reason water adulteration is not very common at creameries,
but is practiced to a greater extent in the milk-supplies of
cities. The use of the lactometer in connection with the Bab-
cock test has already been referred to under the heading of
“Specific Gravity of Milk.”

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 85

There are two tests commonly used for determining fat in
milk, viz., the Babcock and Oil-test Churn. The latter method
is rapidly giving way to the former. The Babcock tes‘ is un-
doubtedly superior, though many still prefer the ©l-test,

i. \
fctend
[UP TO OATE|
‘ PIPETTE.
\l7

Fie. 30.—17.6 ¢.c. milk Fie, 31.—Automatic = Fic. 32 —Automatic
pipette. 17.6. ¢ ¢. pipette. Russian pipette.

The Babcock method of testing consists of taking 18 grams of
the substance to be tested into a special graduated bottle as
shown inillustration. Milk is measured out with a pipette hold-
ing 17.6c.c. Cream, butter, and cheese, or any other substance
which cannot be measured accurately, should be weighed.
The measured quantity of milk in the bottle is then digested by
adding 17.5 c.c. of commercial sulphuric acid having a specific

gravity of about 1.82. The acid digests all proteids and sets

86 BUTTER-MAKING.

free the fat. The contents of the bottle should be well shaken
at once after the acid has been added.

The bottle with its contents is then whirled about five
minutes in a centrifugal machine at a rate depending upon the
diameter of the machine, usually about 850 to 1000 revolutions

if
5
Ea

f Fj s
(" = =a
=D el

| 10 =o)

0 4

Fic. 33. Fia. 34. Fie, 35. Fic. 36. Fie. 37.

Skim-milk Whole-milk Cream test- 9-gram cream Cream
test-bottle. test-bottle. bottle test-bottle. test-bottle.

Baxscock TEsT-BOTTLEs.

per minute. The machine is then stopped and filled to the
neck of the bottle with pure hot water. Distilled water is
preferred. The hottles are then whirled two minutes, and
hot water added again until the fat rises in the neck where it
can be read. The bottles are then whirled again-for about one
minute. The machine is then stopped and the fat read in
percentage direct from the bottle. By using a pair of dividers

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 87

the reading may be facilitated. The temperature at the time of
reading should be between 120° and 140° F.

There are three very common defects in the clearness of fat
reading: (1) The fat contains black, charred, flocculent matter
at the bottom of the fat column. This is commonly caused by

|

wo pew = 6 =

Pa a ny

New Yoru,

HEW.G. W,

\"

1a. 39. Fre. 40. Fic. 41,

1G. 38.
Wagner’s skim- Ohlson’s skim- Butter test-bottle, and Russian Babcock
milk bottle. milk bottle. funnel which hotds test-bottle and
(Both with pneumatic fat- about 9 grams of reading-tube.
indicator (pat.).) butter,

using too much or too strong acid or mixing milk and acid at too
high a temperature. The remedy is to use less acid or to
cool milk and acid before mixing. The lack charred matter
may also be due to allowing the acid to stand in contact with
the milk too long a time before mixing or by pouring acid
through the center of the milk. (2) There may be a layer of
white flocculent matter at the bottom of the fat column. This
is due to not having used enough acid or to the temperature of
milk and acid being too low or to not mixing the acid and milk

88

Acid measure.

NT

I

<)

il
|

|

BUTTER-M AKING.

h 1
wit

: i . ao
2 GOMBN
w AGID ; g

Fic. 44.—Automatic acid pipette. Fie, 45.—Wagner’s acid siphon,

RECEIVING SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 89

thoroughly. The remedy is to use more acid, or to warm milk
and acid before mixing, or to shake the mixture thoroughly
before whirling. (3) Occasionally there is a layer of impure
foam at the top of the fat column. This is generally due

y ee ai

- : a

za
ey <7) ae ———
= J

Fig. 46. ths oil- test churn,

to the use of hard and impure water. The remedy is to use
pure distilled hot water. For more detailed information on
this subject see ‘‘ Testing Milk and its Products,” by Farrington
and Woll.

Necessity of Good Milk.—All authorities agree that the best
grade of butter and cheese cannot be made from sour or tainted
milk. The two countries renowned for the excellence of their

90 BUTTER-MAKING.

dairy products—Denmark and Canada—owe their success
largely to the purity of the milk furnished by their patrons.
Makers who have won for themselves national reputation in
cheese- and butter-making have almost invariably been men
who insisted on getting first-class milk. Badly tainted milk

¥ia. 47.—Wizard tester.

should not be manufactured into food. The method of classify-
ing milk and cream and paying for each according to quality
has been adopted by some creameries, especially by some of
the large central plants. The object of this is to induce those
patrons who are sending poor milk or cream to furnish a better
grade. It seems more practical with milk than with cream,
because the average maker dislikes to reject a can of cream,

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 91

owing to the loss the patrons would sustain. If such cream is
received, it should be churned separately, and the butter marked
and sold on its merits. The practice of taking in poor milk
and cream should be discouraged. One of the authors has
come in contact with many patrons in different parts of the

Fie. 50.—Russian Babcock tester.

country and has yet to find the first patron who seriously
objected to taking his milk back home when he was thoroughly
convinced that it was not in good condition. Patrons as a
rule respect the maker who keeps his creamery in a good sanitary
condition and insists on getting good milk. It should be the
aim of every creameryman to make the highest grade of butter
possible.

92

A

BUTTER-MAKING.

GG), |

RECEIVING, STAMPING, AND GRADING. 93

Sampling of Milk——The sampling of milk and cream for
fat tests is one of the most delicate problems with which the
creamery operator has to deal. If a proper sample is not
obtained, the ultimate test will not be correct, no matter how
carefully the succeeding steps may be carried out. There are
two methods of sampling in use: First, sampling with a small
dipper, and second, sampling with a sample-tube, or milk-

Fig. 53.—Danish milk-wagon. (N, Y. Produce Review.)

thief. The sampling of milk for composite samples should be
done every day, and the samples taken should represent the
average quality and form a certain proportionate part of the
milk or cream delivered.

In order to get a sample which represents the average quality,
the milk or cream delivered must be thoroughly stirred, so as
to get an even distribution of the fat.

In order to get a proportionate part of the milk or cream
delivered from day to day, it is necessary to use a sampling-
tube.

The sampling of milk or cream with a dipper for composite
samples has been in use so long that this method has become

94 BUTTER-MAKING.

very general. If composite samples are not kept, and the
testing of each patron’s milk is done every day, the dipper
method of sampling answers the purpose. If thick cream is
being delivered, the dipper may be found to work better than
the sampling-tube, as the cream in some cases may be so viscous
that it will adhere to the sides and ends of the tube, and in
that way prevent the cream from entering. The sampling-
tube may also retain some of the thick cream on the inside
and if not rinsed out properly each time, the adhering cream

Fra. 54.—Delivering milk in Santiago. (Farmers’ Bulletin )

is likely to interfere with getting a fair sample of the succeeding
lot. If the sampling-tube is rinsed in hot water each time, this
probable mistake will be obviated.

Sampling-tube.— At creameries where milk is received,
the sampling-tube, or milk-thief, gives the best results and
satisfaction. It is very difficult in practice to get a propor-
tionate sample with a dipper, from day to day. To illustrate:
A patron who delivers 200 pounds of milk testing 3°% fat one
day may on another day deliver 100 pounds of milk testing
5° fat. If a dipperful is taken from each for a composite

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 95

sample, the test of that composite sample will be 3+5~2,
or 4[%o. According to this test, these 300 pounds of milk
delivered will contain 12 pounds of butter-fat. In reality
8 pounds of fat were delivered in the 200 pounds, and 5 pounds
of fat in the 100 pounds, making a total of 11 pounds of fat.
Thus we see that the dipper method is not reliable, and in this

404 L so
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Sel Le

Fig. 55.—The McKay cream and Fic. 56.—Cream sam pling-tube.
milk sampler.

case the patron was paid for 1 pound of butter-fat too much
for the two days’ delivery. If the sample taken from the
200 pounds of milk had been twice as great as that taken from
the 100 pounds of milk, then the composite test would have
been perfect, no matter whether it had been taken with a
dipper or with a sampling-tube. If the same weighing-can
is used every day, then an exact proportion for a sample can be

96 BUTTER-MAKING.

maintained, if the sampling-tube is put down perpendicularly
into the milk every day at the same place in the weighing-can
and otherwise carefully taken.

In case the cream is being collected from different patrons
by a hauler, a milk-thief often works unsatisfactorily. This
is especially true during cold weather. A cream tube similar
to the one shown in the accompanying illustration is more
effective. The way in which the tube is used is apparent from
the figure. If a certain patron has 40 pounds of cream, the
cream is filled to the 40 mark on the scale of the tube. If he
has 30 pounds, it is filled to the 30 mark, ete.

Sampling Churned Milk.—It occasionally happens that the
milk arrives at the creamery slightly churned. This is espe-
cially the case during the summer. Usually such milk is
sampled in this condition, but if it is desired to find the per-
centage of fat in such milk in its unchurned condition, it is
essential to melt the churned fat before sampling. If the
butter has been churned into a few large lumps, these lumps
can be taken out in a pan, or pail, with a comparatively small
amount of milk, and this heated until the butter has melted.
Then this is remixed with the milk from which it was first
taken, and sampled while it is being stirred.

The churning of the milk during transit is mainly due to
two things: First, to a high temperature of the milk (65° to
85° F.), and secondly, to hauling partly filled cans a long distance
over rough roads. If the temperature of the milk is low (about
50° F.), when it leaves the producer, then there is seldom any
danger of having churned milk at the creamery.

Frozen Milk.—When milk is cooled to 31° F., or below, the
milk freezes. Ice forms near the sides and bottom of the can,
until a funnel-shaped cavity filled with milk is left in the center.
According to both Richmond and Fleischmann, the icy por-
tion contains more water than the unfrozen milk, and the
unfrozen portion is rich in solids. According to Farrington,
when 25% of the sample of milk was frozen, the icy portion
contained about 1°% less fat than the original portion. When

RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 97

about half of it was frozen there was no great difference in
the fat-content of the frozen and unfrozen parts.

In practice, however, it seems to be different. When a
can full of partly frozen milk is sampled at the creamery, the
unfrozen milk nearly always contains less fat than the original
sample. This can be accounted for by opening the can of
milk and noting the amount of frozen cream on the sides near
the top. Whether the unfrozen portion contains less or more
fat than the original depends, therefore, upon conditions. At
any rate, frozen milk has a composition different from that
of the original sample. On this account an accurate sample
cannot be had, unless the frozen portion be first completely
melted and well mixed with the remainder.

Sour and Coagulated Milk.—In order to get a fair sample
from a can of sour and coagulated milk, it must be stirred
very thoroughly, so as to bring the coagulated milk into a
uniformemulsion. A better sample can usually be obtained with
a dipper. If the milk is not too thick, a fair sample can be
obtained by the use of the sampling-tube. In order to reduce
a can of coagulated milk to a thoroughly uniform quality, it
is best to pour it from one can into another. This mixes it
much more completely than if the sample were simply stirred
with a dipper or any other kind of an agitator.

Apportioning Skimmed Milk.—The amount of skimmed
milk to be received by the patron depends largely upon the
thickness of cream skimmed, and upon the amount of skimmed
milk retained at the creamery for various purposes. The
amount of skimmed milk generally returned by. creameries
varies between 80 and 90% of the whole milk delivered.

Most up-to-date creameries now make use of skimmed-
milk weighers. Where such are employed the man, who receives
the milk, hands each patron a check for the amount of milk
delivered. This check is put into the skimmed-milk weigher,
and it allows an amount of skim-milk to flow out, corre-
sponding to the number of pounds indicated on the check.

In case a skimmed-milk weigher is not employed, it is

98 BUTTER-MAKING.

essential to have a man at the skim-milk tank to weigh
out the proper amount of skimmed milk to each patron. If

ae

Fi@. 57.—Check-rack,.

the patrons are allowed to weigh out their own skimmed milk,
mistakes are frequently made, which result in more or less
dissatisfaction. It is quite customary for butter-makers to

Fic. 58.—The Ideal skim-milk weigher.

draw a chalk line on the outside of the can some distance
below the surface of the milk. This indicates the point to
which the can may be filled with skimmed milk.

CHAPTER VIII.
COMPOSITE SAMPLES.

Definition.—In order to avoid testing each patron’s milk
or cream every day for fat, a small sample, which represents
the average quality and a proportionate part of the whole, is
taken from each patron’s milk every day and placed in a jar.
A preservative of some kind is previously added, which keeps
it from spoiling. This is called a composite sample.

When to Sample—Some makers prefer to sample the milk
or cream cdlelivered every day; others prefer to sample every
other day. Some creamery operators, again, sample four or
five times in succession at intervals, the patrons being unaware
of the time when the sampling is to take place. The most
reliable and practical method, however, is to take a sample
every day, and test it for fat at the end of every two weeks.
When cream is received it is not reliable to take composite
samples.

Kind of Preservative to Add.—A number of different pre-
servatives are now in use, and different ones are being recom-
mended for creameries and cheese factories by various authori-
ties. Even a few of the best authorities differ as to which
one of the preservatives gives the best results.

Among the most common of the milk preservatives, and
less poisonous than certain others, are salicylic acid, borax,
boracic acid, and bicarbonate of soda. Among the more vio-
lent poisons and strong preservatives are formaldehyde and
its compounds, chloroform, corrosive sublimate, and bichromate
of potash. Bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate are
the two most commonly used in preserving composite samples.

The former is recommended highly by Farrington & Woll on
99

100 BUTTER-MAKING.

account of its relative harmlessness, its cheapness, and efficiency.

While bichromate of potash is relatively efficient in its
preservative effect, and not so poisonous as some of the others,
it does not give as general satisfaction as does corrosive sub-
limate (mercuric chloride), unless relatively greater precau-
tions are taken. If the composite samples preserved with
bichromate of potash are left standing in the light very long,
a leathery scum forms on the top, which is very difficult to
dissolve in the sulphuric acid. This is claimed to be due to
the reducing influence of light on chromate solutions. If too

Fic. 59.—Composite Fic. 60 —Composite samples and rack
sample bottle. to hold sample jars.
much bichromate of potash is added, the sulphurie acid added
digests the curd with difficulty. When the sulphuric acid is
added the curd is precipitated into a heavy, gray-colored coag-
ulum, which dissolves with difficulty in the acid.

According to the authors’ experience, corrosive sublimate
tablets can be highly recommended. The tablets contain a
color, which, when dissolved, colors milk, so that it can readily
be distinguished as not being fit for human food. The tab-
lets are very poisonous, but are more efficient in their preser-
vative effect than bichromate of potash. They can be obtained
from any creamery-supply house.

During the winter, when the samples are kept comparatively
cold, less preservative is needed than in the summer. One

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102 BUTTER-MAKING.

corrosive sublimate tablet will keep a half-pint to a pint of
milk or cream in good condition for about two weeks in summer,
and about three weeks in winter, providing the sample is properly
cared for. Some makers are practicing testing at the end of
every month during the winter, and every two weeks during
the summer. Testing at the end of every month saves labor,
but it is not a reliable method to follow under all conditions,
as some of the samples are likely to be somewhat impaired
after standing so long.

Arrangement of Composite Samples.—Pint glass jars with
covers are, so far as known, the most convenient vessels to
use for composite samples. Shelves should be arranged in the
weighing-room on which to keep the bottles. If possible, it
is best to have them in a case closed with glass sliding doors.
This is neat, and, if the glass doors fit well, the samples are in
some measure protected in case of quick, unexpected changes
in temperature. These sliding doors should be locked when
the creamery operator is absent from the creamery, in order
to prevent any tampering with the composite samples.

The best method of arranging the sample jars is to have all
the jars belonging to the patrons of each route standing in
one group, or on one shelf together, if possible. The bottles
are numbered to correspond with the number given each patron
on the milk sheet. The name of the hauler, or the number
of the route, can be put on each shelf. The samples be-
longing to those who haul their own milk can be put on another
shelf. These can be designated as individual haulers. Such a
classification, when the bottles are plainly numbered, will often
prevent the mistakes that are likely to occur if the bottles are
simply numbered and put into a rack together.

Care of Composite Samples.—In the first place the jars should
be kept scrupulously clean. It makes the test unreliable if
the jars are left covered with milk and molds round the neck
from one month to another. When the samples have been
tested the jars should be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary,
scalded, before they are used again. Care should be taken to

COMPOSITE SAMPLES 103

spill as little milk as possible around the neck, inside as well
as outside, of the bottle when the sample is put in. If the
milk is spilled there, it makes an unattractive appearance.
Very often it becomes moldy, and, as more milk is added and
the sample shaken every day, this mold gradually extends
down the sides of the bottle. This causes the composite sample
to be infested with undesirable growth, and to spoil sooner than

Fic. 62.—Testing-room in Model Dairy, St. Louis Exposition.
(Chicago Dairy Produce.)

it would if greater care were taken in keeping the milk from
coming in contact with the sides of the bottle, before coming
in contact with the preservative.

It is important also that the sample jars be well covered,
otherwise the moisture evaporates and causes the milk or cream
to dry up. It also makes the test unreliable by increasing the
per cent of butter-fat. A gentle rotary motion should be
given each jar when a sample is added to it to mix the cream,
which rises to some extent after the milk has stood a while.

104 BUTTER-MAKING.

Average Sample.—It is sometimes desirable to obtain an
average test of the milk from a whole day’s delivery. This
ean be obtained in two ways: First, by taking a sample from
each patron's milk with a sampling-tube, and putting it all
together in one jar. The result represents an average test, pro-
viding the samples have been correctly taken. Second, an aver-
age test can be had by boring a small hole in the conductor-head.
When the milk passes over this hole, a small portion of it
drops through. A vessel of some kind can be put underneath
to catch the drops. Such a drip-sample will represent very
accurately the average quality of the milk received at the
creamery. If it is desirable to keep this sample, a preservative
can be added to it.

Composite Sampling without the Use of Preservatives.—
Pipettes can be obtained holding 5.87 ¢.c. of milk. These are
one-third the size of the ordinary 17.6 ¢.c. pipette used for
the Babeock test. With this small pipette a sample may be
taken every day from each patron’s milk, during three suc-
cessive days, and emptied into the same test-bottle each
day. At the end of three days the samples may be tested
and the bottles cleaned, ready for use again.

Accurate composite samples may be obtained in this way,
providing the sample in the pipette is correctly taken each
day. No preservative is needed. The preservatives are added
to the composite samples to prevent curdling. The test-bottles
may be placed on a shelf, or preferably in a rack made to hold
them. They should be marked in such a way as to identify
them. A good way is to mark them the same as the com-
posite jars, the number on the jar corresponding to the number
on the milk-sheet for each patron.

CHAPTER IX.
CREAMERY CALCULATION,

Find the Average Per Cent of Fat——In calculating the
average per cent of fat from a number of cows, or the milk
furnished by the different patrons, the mistake of adding the
tests of all the samples together and dividing the sum by the
total number of samples tested is often made. Milk from
different patrons, or from different cows, will always vary,
some in quality and some in quantity, and in order to get a
correct average test, both quantity and quality must be taken
into consideration. The wrong way of calculating the average
percentage may be illustrated as follows:

Sample. Milk Delivered. Per cent Fat.
1 50 Ibs. 5.0
2 100‘ 4.5
3 500. ‘< 3.0
4 300 ‘‘ 3.5
416%
4

The average test, according to the wrong method, =4%.
The correct way of calculating the average percentage may
be illustrated as follows:

Sample. Milk Delivered. Per cent Fat.
1 50. Ibs. 5.0= 2.5 Ibs. fat
2 100 ‘‘ 4.5= 4.5 “ «
2 500 ‘‘ 3.0=15 0 ‘ *
4 300 ‘‘ 3.5=10.5 ‘*
950 lbs. 950)32.5 Ibs. fat
3.42

105

106 BUTTER-MAKING.

The average test, according to the correct method, is 3.42%.

It will be seen from the example quoted that there is a
difference of more than .5%. If the percentage of fat or
the number of pounds of milk is uniform, then it does not
matter which of the two ways illustrated above is used. But
as uniformity in either of these respects scarcely ever exists
in practice, the only correct way of calculating the percentage
is to find the total number of pounds of fat and divide it by
the total number of pounds of milk; the result is .0342, which
may be written 3.42%.

Fic. 63.—A Russian co-operative creamery in Siberia.
(U8. Government Bulletin.)

It is very common for creamery patrons to test the milk
from each of their cows, then add the tests together and divide
by the total number of cows tested. The result they will
call the average test, and frequently such tests are made use
of as evidence against a creamery operator to prove that his
tests at the creamery were not correct. The fallacy is evident
from what has been said above.

CREAMERY CALCULATION. 107

The same mistake is also likely to be made in finding
the average test from several creamery-plants and skimmine-
stations,

Calculation of Overrun.—The amount of overrun is the
difference between the amount of pure butter-fat, and the
amount of butter manufactured from that given amount of
fat. This difference, divided by the amount of fat and multi-
pled by 100 will give the percentage of overrun. The calcu-
lation of the overrun in the creamery should always be made

Fie. 64.—A Cheshire creamery, England. (London Creamery Journal.)

from the fat-basis on which the patrons are being paid. If
the fat is delivered in the cream, the overrun should be caleu-
lated from the fat in the cream. The overrun calculated from
the composition of the butter manufactured would not be an
indication of the correct overrun, as there might be serious
losses of fat sustained during the different steps in the manu-
facture, such as from inefficient skimming, incomplete churning,
and general losses in the creamery. It is possible that butter
might show a high content of the substances not fat, and
yet not show a good overrun on account of losses; while butter
containing only a medium high moisture-content might show
as great or greater overrun on account of thorough and efficient
work during the different steps of manufacture.

108 BUTTER-MAKING.

The amount of overrun depends upon:
1. Thoroughness of skimming.
2. Completeness of churning.
3. General losses in the creamery.
4. Composition of the butter manufactured.

The theoretical overrun, however, may be quite accurately
calculated from the composition of the batter manufactured
in a well regulated creamery. In creameries where the con-
ditions of separation and churning are almost perfect, the
amount of fat lost in the buttermilk and the skimmed milk
is quite constant from day to day, and should not exceed .1%
in the skimmed milk and .2%% in the buttermilk, according
to the Babcock test. Basing the calculations upon the above
figures, the theoretical overrun may be calculated from the
composition of the butter as follows:

If, for instance, we start with 1000 pounds of milk-testing
4°¢ fat, there will be a total of 40 pounds of fat. If we skim
32% cream from 4% milk, we should have , or 4, of it cream,
and the remainder skim-milk, or 125 pounds of cream and
875 pounds of skimmed milk. If there were .1% of fat in the
skimmed milk, there would be a loss of .875 pounds of fat during
skimming. There would then be 39.125 pounds of fat in the
125 pounds of cream (40—.875=39.125). If 10% of starter
were added to the cream we should get 137.5 pounds of cream
testing 28.4°¢. (125 pounds cream X 1.10= 187.5 pounds cream;
39.125 +137.5=28.4°% fat.) By churning this cream we
should obtain about 100 pounds of buttermilk. If it tested
.2% fat there would be a loss of about .2 pounds of fat, making
a total loss of fat in skim-milk and buttermilk of 1.075 pounds.
Subtracting this total loss of 1.075 from 40 pounds we would
have 38.925 pounds of fat left to be made into butter
(40 —1.075=38.925 pounds of fat). If the butter on analysis
proves to contain 82% fat, the total number of pounds manu-
factured will be 38.925 +82=47.47 pounds of butter. 47.47—
40 =7.47 pounds theoretical overrun, and 7.47 +40 x 100= 18.7%
overrun (theoretical).

CREAMERY CALCULATION. 109

It is evident that the losses of fat will vary according to
the different conditions. The richer the cream, and the less
fat in the whole milk to be skimmed, the more skim-milk there
will be; the thinner the cream, and the more fat there is in
the milk to be skimmed, the less skimmed milk there will be,
and consequently with the same skimming efficiency less fat
will be lost in the skim-milk. The thinner the cream is the
more buttermilk there will be. These conditions must be left
for the operator to govern according to the conditions present.

The actual amount and per cent of overrun as determined
in creameries is calculated as described previously. The
formula is as follows:

= <100= per cent of actual overrun.
Calculation of Churn-yield—Instead of expressing the in-
crease of butter over that of fat in the percentage overrun,
as above, it is often customary among creamerymen to speak
of the ‘‘churn-yield.”’ For instance, they say that their test
was 3.90, and their churn-yield was 5, meaning that on the
average each 100 pounds of milk contained 3.9 pounds of
fat and yielded 5 pounds of butter. The churn-yield is always
expressed in percentage, and is obtained by dividing the total
pounds of butter obtained by the total pounds of milk from
which the butter was made, according to the following formula:

Pounds of butter
Pounds of milk

100 =churn-yield.

In case cream is handled instead of milk, the same may
be obtained by substituting ‘‘pounds of cream’’ for ‘pounds
of milk” in the formula.

Calculation of Dividends.—The method of calculating
dividends will vary according to the agreements between the
manufacturer of the butter and the milk and cream producers.

110 BUTTER-MAKING.

Some manufacturers agree to make the butter for so many
cents per pound of butter (usually 3 or 4 cents). Occasionally
the creamery proprietor agrees to pay a final fixed sum for milk
delivered containing a definite amount of fat (usually 4%).
These two methods are not in use much at the present time,
although in the eastern part of the United States the method
of paying the operator so much per pound of butter-fat manu-
factured is quite common.

GPa bs

Fic. 65,—Jeinsen creamery, Barnten Province, Hamburg, Germany.
(Creamery Journal.)

The two methods most commonly used, especially in the
central West, are as follows:

(1) Pay so much per pound of butter-fat based upon some
standard market price, such as Elgin or New York. The
amount paid now by the central plants for butter-fat is usually
2 or 3 cents per pound below “New York Extras,” and the
company pays all freight or express charges.

(2) Pay per pound of fat based upon the net income of the
creamery.

CREAMERY CALCULATION. 111

1. The former method of paying for butter-fat has become
quite common. Nearly all the hand-separator or central plants
are paying for butter according to this method. Payments are
usually made every two weeks. Although this causes more
work, it is much more satisfactory to the patrons than to pay
only at the end of each month.

In order to caleulate dividends when paid at the end of
two weeks or at the end of each month, the first step is to
find how many pounds of butter-fat have been delivered by
each patron. If composite samples are taken, and _ these
tested for fat at intervals of one week, which would make about
four tests during the month, and two during half a month,
the results of the several tests may be added, and the sum
divided by the number of samples tested. This may give the
average test, but it must be borne in mind that this method
is also likely to give wrong results. Especially is this so
when cream is delivered which varies in quantity as well as
quality during the different parts of the month.

If cream only is being received, it is a good plan to test
each patron’s cream every day, as it is more or less difficult
to get absolutely accurate composite samples from creams of
different richness. Besides this, the patrons can get the test
as well as the weight of the cream of each previous day’s de-
livery, and thus know how their account stands from day to
day. A little more labor is involved in doing this, but in the
long run it keeps the patrons better satisfied.

2. If the price of butter-fat per pound is being based upon
the net income, as is the case in nearly all co-operative cream-
eries, and also in many proprietary creameries, the first step
is to find out how much butter-fat each patron delivered during
the specified time, — two weeks or a month, whichever may
be the case. When this has been obtained, the total pounds
of fat delivered by all the patrons are found. From the gross
income the total expenses of running the creamery are sub-
tracted. The remainder represents the net income. This is
then divided by the total pounds of fat delivered to the cream-

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CREAMERY CALCULATION. 113

ery, and the quotient represents the price per pound of butter-
fat to the patrons.

Knowing the price of one pound of fat to be paid to the
patrons, the sum due to each patron is found by multiplying
the price per pound by the total number of pounds of fat each
patron delivered during the specified time.

In some instances provisions are made for a ‘sinking fund.”
This is a name given to a fund raised by deducting so much
per pound of fat, or per 100 pounds of milk, from each patron’s
delivery at the end of each month. This fund is for the pur-
pose of paying off a debt gradually, or for raising a fund for
new equipment, or other improvements in the creamery. In
case such money is to be withheld, it is deducted previous to
making the final calculation.

Cream-raising Coefficient.—By the term cream-raising coefhi-
cient we understand the percentage of fat removed from the
milk during the process of separation. The calculation of the
cream-raising coefficient may be illustrated as follows:

Suppose we have 100 pounds of milk containing 4¢7, fat,
and yielding 85 pounds of skim-milk and 15 pounds of cream,
the skim-milk containing .2°% fat.

Total fat in whole milk =100 Ibs. x4% =4 lbs.
Total fat in skim-milk = 85 lbs. X.2°% =.17 lbs.
Total fat in cream = 4l|bs.—.17 lbs. =3.83 lbs.

385x100 =95.75% of the total 4 pounds of fat, or the
cream-raising coefficient.

Statement to Patrons.—A complete statement should be
made each time a settlement is made, and accompanied with
the check. A statement similar to the following one may

serve as an example: *

* Creamery Butter-making, by Michels,

114 BUTTER-MAKING.

CREAMERY COMPANY

IN ACCOUNT WITH

Mr.
For the month of 190____
Cis Dr.

No. pounds milk delivered Pounds butter........ Alt chances ove
_ DYYOW- se oa Cans, at & «ils (ids > melee en
Average test . . oe, apeseA sass Cashni ae e ig) cat Beevers
No. pounds butter-fat = ........ Hauling at... per 100Ibs ........
Price per pound a Bite eases Giese ac-ek
Balance due you Be es & btst gt: Fy Gan ge. Sent hee liplabaeeedtry
Total pounds milk delivered at creamery ee Ww es 8 wk Baeesecees
Average test at creamery bee Celie Mean ep a Ed Stee eaienests
Total pounds butter-fat at creamery & isin We “Rie Gte we | Me neelats

f ———- -— Ibs.at ————. . 2. 2. Bo. eee

| lanl : b eee ee
Sales of butter j ree ae Seea oe $ Pee

eee
Less cts. for making.
Balance due patrons. 2 1 ww wwe ww ww Bee eee eee
Per cent overrun 2 be oly Legs) as fa. Spreng). ae el Gol Sesieho stances
Testing witnessed by

Prest
Secy.

At the end of the year a final statement should be made
by the respective officers, similar to the following one:

ANNUAL REPORT.

Incorporated.......... 190... Commenced Operations,.......... 190...
Hse er wede anh Annual Report, 190...
of the
CREAMERY COMPANY
of ; , Iowa.
( Butter-maker; Asst. Butter-maker)
CapiraL STock $............+. Pain IN $.............,

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS.

President, ————Secretary, ~———Treasurer.

CREAMERY CALCULATION.

SECRETARY’S REPORT.

To the Stockholders:

115

Your Secretary herewith submits the following
report for the year ending December 31, 190...

Total pounds of milk received

Total pounds butter-fat contained in same

Total pounds butter manufactured

Average test of butter-fat per hundred pounds of milk
Average yield of butter per hundred pounds of milk. . . . .
Average price paid per hundred pounds of milk . :
Average price paid per hundred pounds of butter-fat
Average per cent increase of churn over test (overrun) 4 F
Average price received per pound of butter j

Average monthly expenses of running creamery
Average cost of manufacturing butter per pound.

Following is a Monthly Statement for the year 190...

January
February
March
April

May

June.
July.
August .
September
October
November .
December .

Totals

STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIVED AND DISBURSED.

REcEIPTS.
Received for butter

Total amount of cash re-
ceived and paid to
Treasurer

Cash balance in hands of
Treasurer, Jan. 190. .

Total :

DiIsBURSEMENTS,
Paid to patrons for milk
Running expenses of cream-
ery and supplies on hand
Paid for machinery, ma-
terial, repairs, etc. (out
of percentage fund) .
Paid dividend on stock for
190. . (out of petoentags
fi und) ;
Paid dividend on stock for
190. . (out of percentage
f und)

Total amount of orders

drawnon Treasurer . .

Cash balance in hands of
Treasurer, Jan. 190..

Total

116 BUTTER-MAKING.

TREASURER’S REPORT.

To the Stockholders of the Creamery Company: Your
Treasurer herewith submits the following report:
StaTEMENT OF CasH RECEIVED AND DISBURSED.
RECEIPTS. DISBURSEMENTS.
Total. © HR Total —eatiete a ieaat ine
Respectfully submitted, , Treasurer.
, Cashier of Bank.

REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.

To the Stockholders of the_ Creamery Company:

We, the undersigned, appointed by your Board of Directors to examine
and audit the Books, Accounts, and Vouchers of the Secretary and Treas-
urer of the____ Creamery Company for the year 190..., hereby
certify that we have carefully examined the same and compared them with
the above reports of said officers, and find them correct.

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands at , Iowa,
this .... day of ...... A.D., 190....

)
| Auditing Committee.

Paying for Fat in Cream Compared with Paying for Fat in
Milk.—It is evident that when patrons deliver fat in the form
of milk the creamery operator sustains a loss in the skimmed
milk, while if the fat is delivered in the form of cream, no
fat is lost in the skim-milk at the creamery, and consequently
the cream patron should receive more per pound of fat delivered
than the whole-milk patron, providing the quality of the fat
in the cream is as good as that in the form of milk. The butter-
maker should obtain a larger overrun from the fat of the cream
than he does from the fat of the milk. The amount which
the patrons should be paid for fat, delivered in the form of
cream, depends upon the thoroughness of skimming. If
1000 pounds of milk testing 4% fat were bought and skimmed,
there would be a loss of about .9 of a pound of fat during the
skimming, which would make about 1 pound of butter, worth
about 20 cents. If bought in the form of cream this loss would
not be sustained. The above loss, during skimming, according
to the figures mentioned, would amount to about half a cent

CREAMERY CALCULATION. 117

per pound of butter manufactured. The fat lost during the
skimming process would amount to about 2% of the total
fat. If the cream fat be increased by 2%, an approximate
basis for paying milk and cream patrons is obtained.

Degree of Justice in Paying Cream Patrons More per Pound
of Fat than the Milk Patrons.—There is another side to this
question of reaching an equity of payment between the cream
patrons and milk patrons. A cream patron should not receive
more pay than a milk patron, unless the quality of the fat
is as good as that delivered by the milk patron. It is a well-
known fact that the fat delivered in the form of cream is, as
a rule, and has been, much inferior to that delivered in the
form of whole milk. This is evidently due to the fact that
cream is not delivered daily to the creamery, and that it is
improperly handled on the farm, and during transportation.
According to the results obtained in the Iowa Educational
Contest, and other scorings, butter from hand-separator cream
on an average seldom scores above 90, on a scale of 100. It is
safe to come to the conclusion that there is at least a difference
of three points in quality in favor of creamery butter made
from milk-fat. Mr. Healy, one of the best known butter judges,
claims that in the near future butter will be sold more accord-
ing to quality than it is now. He asserts that a fair basis of
paying for butter according to scores would be to deduct a
quarter of a cent for every point that the butter scores below 91,
and an addition of a quarter of a cent for every point it scores
above. This would make a difference of three-quarters of a
cent per pound in the selling price of butter made from whole
milk and that made from hand-separator cream. It was
figured above that the loss from skimming would amount to
about half a cent per pound of butter, thus leaving a margin
of one-quarter of a cent in favor of the whole-milk patron
per pound of butter, rather than being in favor of the cream
patron.

CHAPTER X.
HEATING MILK PREVIOUS TO SKIMMING,

Reasons for Heating.—Owing to the fact that all separators
will skim closer and not clog so easily when milk is heated,
nearly all creameries heat or warm the milk previous to skim-
ming. By thus heating and stirring the milk in a pure atmo-
sphere, many undesirable odors or taints escape. With an
increase of temperature, the viscosity of the milk is lessened,
due chiefly to the softening and separation of the fat-globules.
Such an increased fluidity of the milk lessens the resistant
force of the fat-globules when exposed to the centrifugal force
of the separator. The higher the temperature the more fluid
the milk becomes, and consequently the easier the fat can be
separated.

By warming the milk to a high temperature and leaving
it for some time, and then cooling quickly again to skimming
temperature (90° F.) and separating, the skimming efficiency
of the separator is increased materially. If the milk has been
standing at a very low teniperature for at least three hours,
and then is quickly warmed up to the usual skimming tem-
perature, and skimmed, the warming of the milk has com-
paratively little effect in bringing it into a good condition for
skimming. It will thus be seen that it is possible to skim
milk at the same temperature, and yet get different results,
due to previous temperature conditions. Duration of tem-
perature should be considered as well as the temperature itself.

The temperature to which milk should be heated previous
to skimming varies according to different investigators. The
temperature that has been mostly employed in the past in

118

HEATING MILK PREVIOUS TO SKIMMING. 119

this country, and perhaps at the present time, is about 90° F.
This comparatively low temperature was fixed owing to the
supposedly bad effect high skimming temperature had upon
the body of the finished butter. Exposing milk, at high tem-
peratures, to the centrifugal force in a separator was said
to producea greasy body in butter. According to some ex-
periments conducted at the Iowa Experiment Station by the
authors during the year 1902, milk can be skimmed at 175° F.
without any injury to the quality of the butter, providing the
cream is cooled to ripening temperature, or below, as soon
as it has been skimmed. After the ripening has been com-
pleted the cream should be exposed at least three hours to a
low temperature (50° F.) previous to churning.

If the milk is heated in any of the best modern heaters,
no injurious results to the quality of the butter will be obtained.
Prof. Dean, at the Ontario Agricultural College, has also found
it practical to heat to pasteurization temperature previous to.
skimming. In many creameries in Denmark this method of
heating milk is also followed. The Danes, as a rule, however,
have the heated milk pass over a cooler before it goes into
the separator.

The chief difficulty encountered by the authors in heating
milk to such a high temperature previous to skimming, was
that the upper bearing in the separator got so hot that it was
deemed injurious to the separator, although the bearing did
not heat to such an extent as to cause the running of the
machine to be abnormal in any way.

Advantages of Warming Milk to High Heat Previous to
Skimming.—The advantages of heating milk to a high tem-
perature (175° F.) previous to skimming, may be summarized
as follows:

(1) Undesirable taints are eliminated from the milk to a
greater extent than can be accomplished in any other way,
without applying chemicals.

(2) The heating of whole milk destroys the germs in the
resultant skimmed milk and cream practically as efficiently

OZT
CR ‘Taye A, ye Araurvasg) ‘ALUIILIU JO quaWMOSUBIUIT poos vB Surasoys ‘wWool-1oyerrdoas BV JO louI0I W—L9 “SIT

HEATING MILK PREVIOUS TO SKIMMING. 121

as when heated after the skimming process has been com-
pleted.

(3) Less heating and cooling apparatus is necessary.

(4) Closer skimming.

How Heated.—There are two methods by which milk is
heated previous to skimming. Tirst, by the use of direct
live steam; second, by the use of heaters which heat with
steam or hot water indirectly.

Fie. 68.—The Twentieth-century milk-heater.

Heating of milk with direct live steam is accomplished in
two ways: first, by entering a steam hose into the vat full
of milk; and, second, by making use of special heaters, which
allow steam to come in direct contact with the milk as the
milk passes through.

The method of heating milk with direct live steam cannot
be too strongly condemned, because it leaves bad effects upon
the flavor of the butter. At the Milwaukee National Butter
contest in 1903, where over eight hundred exhibitors were
represented, the authors noticed that where the criticism
“burnt, oily flavor” was made on the score card, the milk
from which the butter was made had in most cases been heated
with live steam. The burnt flavor may possibly be due to the
sudden excessive heat to which the milk will be exposed when
coming in contact with live steam. The greatest danger,
however, in heating milk with live steam is, that impurities
from the pipes and boiler are likely to be transmitted to the

122 BUTTER-MAKING.

milk, and cause bad flavors. In most of the creameries the
exhaust-steam from the engine is used to heat the water for the
boiler. This steam is likely to carry with it cylinder-oil, which
will impart undesirable flavors to the butter. Some creameries
are also using boiler compounds for the removal of scales.
These, when subjected to high heat and pressure, are likely
to be transmitted to the steam-pipes, and from there with the
steam into the milk. The scale and rust of steam-pipes are
also likely to be transferred to the milk.

The right way to heat milk previous to skimming is to make
use of one of the special heaters on the market, which heat
by the use of steam or hot water indirectly.

CHAPTER NI.
SEPARATION OF CREAM.

In the process of the manufacture of butter it is essential
that the fat of the milk shall be concentrated into a compara-
tively small portion of the milk-serum. This concentration of
fat carries with it a portion of all the other milk constituents,
and the product is called cream. It is possible to churn milk
without any separation, but a much greater loss is attendant,
if the fat is not brought together by the process called separa-
tion.

The different kinds of cream may be classified according to
the different methods of cream-separating:

( Shallow-pan cream.
Gravity cream... .. { Deep-setting cream.

c | Water dilution cream (hydraulic).
ream

Hand-separator cream.

Contriiigel ream { Creamery-separator cream.

GRAVITY CREAMING.

Shallow-pan System.—This method of creaming is used
mostly on farms which are situated unfavorably in relation to a
creamery, or for some other reasons do not send their milk to
the creamery. It consists in placing the milk in shallow pans,
from 2 to 4 inches in depth, as soon after milking as possible.
The milk is then placed where it can be quickly cooled to a
temperature of at least 60° F. A lower temperature than this
is desirable if conditions permit. The atmosphere in the room

in which the milk is standing must be pure, free from dust,
123

124 BUTTER-MAKING,

draught, and any undesirable taints or odors, since it takes
about thirty-six hours of quiet standing for the cream to rise.
If there is a constant current of air in the room, a leathery
cream is likely to form. At the end of this time the cream is
removed by the use of a skimmer, made especially for this
purpose. It is difficult, however, to remove all the cream by
this means.

If the conditions are such that cool water can be constantly
circulated around the pans containing the milk, the tempera-
ture can easily be made to go below 60° F., and the creaming
process is facilitated. When such conditions are present, the
depth of the milk in the pans can safely be increased to about
6 inches. Under the most favorable conditions about .5%
fat will remain in the skimmed milk.

Deep-setting System.—This system is undoubtedly the best
method of gravity creaming When properly carried on the

A fat can be removed so completely that
no more than .2°, of fat remains in
the skimmed milk. It consists of put-
ting milk into deep cans (ordinary four-
gallon shotgun cans are usually em-
ployed) immediately after the milk
has been drawn from the cow. Then
it is put into cold water, and generally
cooled down to, and maintained at, a
Fig, 69.—Cooley creamer temperature of about 55° I’. The

and elevator. i . F
cream will rise in about twenty-four
hours. Better results can be obtained if the water is cooled
down to about 40° with the use of ice-water.

One reason why this system is in use so much, even in
creamery localities is that the cream obtained is nearly always
of a good quality. The farmer knows that unless the milk
be cooled quickly, and maintained at a low temperature, the
cream will not rise freely. For this reason the milk is syste-
matically and thoroughly cooled, which is one of the great
essentials in order to check the growth of the ferments in milk

SM

ee =

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 125

and keep the milk in good condition. In many parts of the
eastern United States, the deep-setting system is in general
use. A special form of can is used. The can is simply an
ordinary four-gallon can, about 8 inches in diameter and 20
inches deep. It has a glass on one side near the bottom or near
the top, which allows the reading of the thickness of the layer
of cream. On each side of the glass is a graduated scale, which
gives the reading in inches. In case the cream is being sold
to a creamery, the hauler comes along, notes the depth of the
layer of cream, and records the number of inches of cream
opposite the patron’s name. At the end of the month, or
whenever the time for payment comes, the money is appor-
tioned according to the number of inches of cream delivered
by each of the patrons. No test for fat is made. This is what
is known as the ‘Cooley system,” and is used quite extensively
in the East, especially in Massachusetts.

While cream usually arrives at the creamery in a fair con-
dition, there is the objection that the cream is always thin. It
seldom contains any more than 18 or 20% of fat.

No good explanation has yet been given why cream in a
deep layer of milk at 40° F. should rise more quickly and more
completely than in a thin layer at a higher temperature.
* Arnold seeks to explain it by saying: “ Water is a better
conductor of heat than fat; hence when the temperature of
the milk varies either up or down, the water in the milk feels
the effect of the heat or cold sooner than the fat in the cream
does. Therefore the cream is always a little behind the water
in swelling with heat or shrinking with cold, thus diminishing
the difference between the specific gravity of the milk and
cream when the temperature is rising, and increasing it when
the temperature is falling.”

This explanation is, according to Babcock,f not satisfactory.
He says: ‘“‘ Though it is true that water is a better conductor
of heat than fat, the small size of the fat-globules renders it

* American Dairying, p. 210.
7 Wisconsin Experiment Station, Bull. 18, p. 24.

126 BUTTER-MAKING.

impossible that under any circumstances there can be more
than a small fraction of a degree of difference between the
temperature of the fat and that of the milk serum. More-
over, with the limits of temperature practical for a creamery,
(90° to 40° F.), the coefficient of expansion of butter-fat is.
more than three times as great as that of water, so that in
order to maintain the same relative difference in their specific
gravities when the temperature is falling, the milk serum must
cool nearly three times as quickly as the fat. In other words,
when the milk serum has cooled from 90° to 40°, or 50° F.,
the fat-glabules should have lost less than 17°, and should
still have a temperature of over 70° F., a difference between
the temperature of milk serum and fat of more than 33°. Such
a condition is manifestly impossible, but no less difference
than this would cause the fat to become relatively heavier
than at first, and would operate against the creaming.”

A low temperature increases the viscosity of the milk,
and consequently it would seem that the resistant force of
the fat-globules in their upward passage through the milk
serum would be increased, and thus retard the creaming.
Babcock maintains that fibrin is partially precipitated when
milk is allowed to stand at a medium high temperature. The
fibrin, when precipitated, forms a fine network of threads
permeating the milk in all directions, similar to the network
of fibrin in coagulated blood. It is possible to conceive that
such a network would interfere with the rising of the fat-glob-
ules, at comparatively high temperatures. The reason that
fat-globules will rise more quickly and more completely in the
deep-setting system than in the shallow-pan system, might
be explained on this fibrin theory were it not for the fact that
experiments conducted at the Cornell Experiment Station
show that the setting and cooling of milk may be delayed
long enough for this fibrin to form, without any effect upon
the separation when set and cooled.

Probable Explanation.—It is a well known fact in physics
that most liquids, when present in the form of drops, increase

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 127

their surface tension when the temperature is lowered. Owing
to this increase in surface tension, the liquid drops unite together
at a low temperature much more rapidly than they do at a
high temperature. For instance, two drops of molten iron
unite much more readily just previous to solidifying than
they do while the temperature is higher, and the liquid more
fluid. As the fat in milk is present in the form of small liquid
globules, as mentioned previously, it seems probable that
these fat-globules might have properties similar to those of
the liquid mentioned above, and behave similarly in the milk,
when set at low temperatures, in accordance with the deep
setting method. If the fat-globules act in accordance with
this theory, it seems probable that there is no real membrane,
other than that resulting from surface tension, enveloping
each fat-globule. If there were such a membrane, composed
of albuminoid chiefly, then undoubtedly the fat-globules would
not assume this property.

With such a deep layer of milk the lower most fat-globules
must evidently encounter a great many other globules as
they rise. If the physical force mentioned does not facilitate
the process of uniting the globules, they would partly unite
without it. The more they unite in small bunches, or masses,
the greater would be the tendency for them to rise, as explained
previously, and more of the smaller fat-globules would be
carried along. The bottom globules would tend to partly
unite and form a filter, which passes up through the milk
by the buoyant force, or force of levity.

If this latter explanation holds true, then more of the milk
constituents would be present in the cream from the deep-
setting system than in the cream from the shallow-pan system.
By comparing the cream raised by the shallow-pan system
with that raised by the deep-setting system, before the cream
has been removed from the milk, it will be noticed that the
cream raised by the shallow-pan svstem appears to be much
yellower than is that raised by the deep-setting system. This
condition can only be due to the fact that the surface cream,

128 BUTTER-MAKING.

raised by the shallow-pan system, contains more pure fat.
The fat, as it rises, does not have the same opportunity of
uniting with so many other globules, owing to the comparatively
shallow layer it has to pass through, and the temperature is
not low enough to facilitate the uniting of the globules; that
is, providing the fat-globules act the same as most other liquids
at lower temperatures.

Water-dilution Cream (Hydraulic)—When milk is diluted
with water, the fat or cream rises much more rapidly and
completely to the surface than it would in its undiluted form.
A creaming-can is based upon this principle, and it was expected
to combine quickness, efficiency, and simplicity. The sepa-
rator consists simply of a tin can into which the milk is poured
and then diluted with cold water. In a few hours the cream
rises to the surface. Arrangements are usually made so that
the skim-milk can be drawn off from the bottom of the can.
While the diluted form of the milk apparently causes the
creaming to be more efficiently and quickly done, it can readily
be seen that in order to have a skimming efficiency equal to
other methods of skimming, it must leave only about half as
much fat, because the milk is diluted with about an equal
volume of water. If the water-diluted skimmed milk contains
.2% fat, then the same skim-milk in the undiluted form would
contain .4 per cent fat.

The water-dilution method of skimming practically spoils
skimmed milk for feeding purposes. Skimmed milk which
contains a fourth or a half of water, has been robbed of its
essential relish to the calf, and it becomes necessary for the
calf to consume too much volume in order to get the required
amount of nourishment.

This water-dilution system also gives more volume to
handle. If farm dairying were conducted on a large scale,
the method would not be practicable.

Another objection is that the cream which results from
this dilution method is seldom of good quality. Most well-
water contains a multitude of micro-organisms which, when

SEPARATION OF CREAM, 129

added to the milk, produce putrefactive and undesirable results.
Much well-water also is tainted to a greater or lesser degree.
Especially is this so with water from shallow wells. Butter
made from cream which has been diluted with water usually
has a flattish poor flavor.

The efficiency of separation of diluted and undiluted milk
is reported by Wing * to be as follows:

Diluted with 25% warm water set at 60° F. (39 trials), 0.77%
fat in skim-milk;

Undiluted, set at 60° F....... (30 trials), 1.00% fat in skim-milk

Undiluted, set at 40° F....... (26 trials), 0.299% ‘* ‘ ee

CENTRIFUGAL CREAMING.

In the separation of cream by centrifugal machines, the
same principle is used as in the gravity system of separation.
The only difference is that in the centrifugal method the force
which separates the cream from the milk is generated by
artificial methods, and acts in a horizontal direction; in the
gravity system the force which separates the cream from the
milk is only that which results from the difference in the specific
gravity of the cream and the skimmed milk, and the force
acts in a vertical direction. The force generated in the sepa-
rator is several hundred times greater than the natural force
in the gravity method. For this reason the cream separates
almost instantaneously after the milk has entered the separator
and is exposed to the centrifugal force.

Advantages.—The centrifugal separator has several advan-
tages over the gravity method, which are apparent without
detailed elaboration. In the first place, the range of tem-
perature and condition of the milk at which the cream can be
successfully separated is much greater than that for successful
separation by the gravity method. Second, a much better
quality of cream can be obtained by the centrifugal system,

* Milk and Its Products, p. 105.

130 BUTTER-MAKING.

as the separation can be done before the milk gets old, while
by the gravity method the time required for efficient separation
is so long that the cream deteriorates more or less before it is
removed from the milk. Third, by the centrifugal method the
thickness of the cream can be regulated to suit requirements,
while by the gravity method the thickest cream that can be
obtained is about 20%. Fourth, by the centrifugal method
many impurities and undesirable germs are removed, while in
the gravity method the exposure to open air more or less
impure is likely to contaminate the milk with taints, and also
allows the germs to fall into it. Fifth, by the centrifugal method
the skimmed milk is left in an unadulterated condition. The
milk can be skimmed soon after milking, or after it has been
delivered to the creamery, and thus be in the best possible
condition for feeding purposes. Sixth, the centrifugal method
permits of a more thorough separation of the fat. Butter-fat,
as a rule, is too expensive to feed, when good and much cheaper
substitutes can be had.

History of Centrifugal Separators——The first centrifugal
separator was a very simple one. It consisted of buckets
hanging on the ends of arms, or on the periphery of a rotating
horizontal flat wheel which swung on a central axis. The milk
was placed in the buckets and whirled for a time, and then
the machine (if we may call it such) was stopped, and the
cream removed in the same way as in the gravity system.
This method of separation, according to J. H. Monrad,* had
its origin in 1864. As early as 1859 Professor Fuchs of Carls-
ruhe, Germany, suggested testing the richness of milk by swing-
ing tubes holding the samples of milk. In 1864 Prandtl, a
brewer of Munich, separated milk by such a device. In 1870
Rey. F. H. Bond, of Northport, Massachusetts, worked out a
method of separation which consisted of two small glass jars
attached to a spindle making 200 revolutions per minute. By
one hour’s whirling the cream came to the top.

* Dairy Messenger, Oct., 1892, p. 109.

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 131

In 1875 Prandtl exhibited at Frankfort-on-the-Main a con-
tinuous separator, which did not at the time attract much
attention, due chiefly to the excessive amount of power needed
to overcome the resistant force of the air. In 1876 a Danish
engineer named Winstrup succeeded in improving the old
bucket method. In 1877 Lefeldt and Lentch offered for sale
four continuous separators with different capacities (from 110
to 600 pounds of milk per hour). During that year also the
first practical centrifugal creamery was established at Kiel,
Germany. In 1877 Houston and Thompson of Philadelphia
filed a patent for the continuous method of separation of cream

Fic. 70.—First centrifugal separator. (From Dairy Messenger.)

from milk. The patent was allowed in 1891. In March, 1877,
Lefeldt and Lentch invented a separator similar in construction
to the hollow bowl—a more recent type. This machine did not
revolve at so rapid a rate as our modern machines do, nor
did it have arrangements for continuous inflow and discharge.
It was intermittent in its work, and it was necessary to stop
at intervals to remove the cream and skimmed milk. 1879
was the year which marked the greatest advancement toward
the perfection of modern separators. The appearance of the
Danish Weston, invented in Denmark, and the De Laval, in-
vented in Sweden during that year, marked a great advance-

182 BUTTER-MAKING.

ment. in the separation of cream from milk. This led to con-
tinuous milk and cream discharges, and consequently also to
the continuous inflow of whole milk. These machines were
of the hollow-bowl construction.

Modern Separators.—Since the year when the Danish Weston
and the De Laval machines were invented, many different
types of separators with different contrivances within the bowl
have been put upon the market. Baron Bechtelsheim, of
Munich, is given the credit of having discovered that certain

Fic. 71.—The United States separator.

contrivances on the inside of the machine increase the efficiency
and capacity of skimming. This discovery was made, accord-
ing to J. H. Monrad,* in 1890. This invention was bought by
the De Laval Company.

,. The principal part of practically all the separators is a bowl
rotating in a vertical position, with or without contrivances
inside. the bowl. Machines having a bowl rotating in a hori-
zontal position are, so far as the authors know, not in use at
the present time. Such a machine was once manufactured at
Hamburg, Germany, and was called ‘‘Peterson’s Centrifugal

* Dairy Messenger, Jan. 1892, p. 9.

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 133

Machine.” Another German machine, called ‘The Page,” was
also manufactured in the horizontal bowl style.
From the above it will be noticed that four separate steps
are recognizable in the evolution and improvement of separators:
1. Revolving Bucket Centrifuge;
2. Intermittent Hollow Bow1;
3. Continuous Hollow Bowl;

4. Continuous Separator with contrivances within the
Bowl.

Fic. 72.—The Simplex separator.

The science and practice of separation of milk and cream
have seemingly reached a high state of efficiency. It seems
almost improbable, considering the many new improved sepa-
rators on the market that any other great improvement could
be made which would add a separate stage to the improve-
ment of our best centrifugal milk separators of to-day.

Classification of Separators.—Owing to the many different
standard types of separators now on the market, it is impossible
to describe each one in detail. For this reason the classifi-

134 BUTTER-MAKING.

cation appearing below has been made. There are undoubtedly
many other types, especially in foreign countries, with which
the writers are not familiar, and which are not mentioned here.
The following classification will, in some measure, illustrate
the different makes of separators on the market to-day:

J De Laval (old style).
Hollow bowl... | Sharples.
Omega.
Cause milk to | Empire.
pass in thin } Davis.

Farm sep- sheets vertical- | United States.
arators. ly in bowl. National.
| Reid.
: Dairy Queen.
nes De Laval

Cause milk to | Peerless.
separate into | | wea.
almost hori-4{ Westphalia

zontal thin | (Cleveland).
i Se sheets. Towa.
: Internat. Cream
* Harvester.

( Improved Danish Weston (Reid).
Hollow bowl | Sharples (old style).
De Laval (old style).

ror: Cause milk to | United States.
sean pass in thin | Simplex.
L tors. sheets _ verti- { Sharples (new

cally in bowl. style).

Contrivances in
bowl.

separate in al- | De Laval.
| most horizon- | Springer.
L tal sheets. 3

Cause milk P|

Many of these separators which cause the milk to pass
up and down in vertical sheets have the bowl contrivances
corrugated, and perforated with holes so that the skim-milk
and cream assume also a partly horizontal direction.

Process of Separation.—From the illustrations, the structure
of the more common types of separator bowls is readily
understood. The whole milk may be made to enter at the
bottom or top of the bowl when revolving. In the Sharples,
the milk enters at the bottom. The more common way
is to have the whole milk enter at the top. As the
milk enters the bowl and is exposed to the centrifugal force,

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 135

it immediately begins to separate into three distinct layers.
The centrifugal force acting in a horizontal direction forces
the heaviest portions of the milk and the precipitated albu-
minoids, ash, filth, and a multitude of germs over next to

Fic. 74.—The Sharples separator.

the wall of the separator bowl, and into a solid and more or
less gelatinous layer, which is known as the “ separator slime.”
In very impure milk this substance is so plentiful that it is
likely to clog the separator in a very short time, and before
much separation is accomplished it is necessary to clean out
the bowl. The second layer is the skim-milk, while the cream,
being the lightest, is forced to the center of the bowl and forms
the third portion mentioned. There is no distinct line of
demarcation between the layers of skimmed milk and cream.
They overlap each other and form a sort of zone, rather than
a sharp separation. The richest cream is nearest the center
of the bowl, and gets thinner toward the outer portion of the
bowl; consequently, by turning the outlet for the cream, or
cream-screw, nearer the center of the bowl, the cream is increased

136 BUTTER-MAKING.

inrichness. Turning it away from the center causes the cream
to be thinner. The skimmed milk that is forced clear to the
circumference of the bowl contains the least fat, and con-
sequently the skimmed milk is always first removed from this
portion of the bowl. Usually the skim milk outlet is brought
in towards the center of the bowl at one end through tubes
extending from the circumference of the bowl. If this were
not done, some difficulty would be involved in arranging a

Fic. 75.—Showing “butter extractor” Fia. 76.—Showing cross-section of
attached to De Laval separator. The De Laval separator bowl.
butter extractor is not known to be
in use now.

receiving-pan for the discharged skim-milk. If the skim-
milk were discharged near the circumference of the bowl, it
would come out with a heavy force. Also, if the outlet for the
skimmed milk were near the circumference of the bowl, a
great deal more power would be required to run the machine.
As the skimmed milk passes through the' tubes towards the
center it gives up its force. The nearer the skimmed-milk
outlet can be brought to the center of the bowl, the easier
will the machine run.

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 137

The size of the skimmed-milk outlet is usually made so
that it bears a certain relation to the size of inlet, size of bowl,
and to the speed of the machine. Most skimmed-milk outlets
are mace so as to clischarge from .4 to about .9 or a little more,
of the whole milk that enters the bowl. The remainder is
the cream, which is forced to the center of the bowl and dis-
charged through the cream outlet.

Reuative AmMouNT aND RicHNESS OF MILK AND CREAM
OBTAINED.

The conditions which affect the relative amount of cream
may be said to be as follows:

1. Regulation of the cream or skimmed-milk screw.

2. Rate of inflow to the bowl.

3. Speed of the machine.

4. Temperature of the milk.

1. Regulation of the Cream or Skimmed-milk Screw.—All
modern machines, so far as known, have a device by which
the relative amount of skimmed milk and cream can be con-
trolled, and consequently the richness of the cream. Some
machines have this device in the form of a cream-screw, and
others as a skim-milk screw. The cream-screw in most of
the machines has a hole on one side of it through which the
cream is discharged. If this screw is turned so as to make
the hole nearer the center, then the cream will be richer and
less in quantity. If turned away from the center, then more
and thinner cream will be discharged. In some machines there
is a skim-milk screw which serves the same purpose. The
method then of regulating the relative amount of cream and
skimmed milk works in just the opposite direction; that is,
when thicker cream and less of it is wanted, then the milk-screw
is turned so as to bring the skimmed-milk outlet nearer the
circumference of the bowl. This gives more skimmed milk
and consequently less cream. If thinner and more cream is
wanted, then the screw is turned in. This causes more milk
to flow out through the cream outlet. The Reid hand separator

138 BUTTER-MAKING.

is an example of this latter class. These two methods of regu-
lating the thickness and amount of cream are the most common.
It cannot be done while the machine is in motion. By some
this is considered a drawback.

Other separators have a device whereby the amount of
cream can be regulated while the machine is in motion. For
instance, on the improved Danish Weston, there is a screw
attached to the skim-milk discharge-tube, by turning which
the end or point of the tube can be made to be closer or farther
away from the center, thus regulating the relative amount
of cream and skimmed milk, and the thickness of the cream.

2. Rate of Inflow.—The rate of inflow of milk to the sepa-
rator has a large influence on the relative amount of cream
and skimmed milk. The greater the inflow to the separator,
the more and thinner cream will be obtained, and with a dimin-
ished inflow the less and thicker cream is obtained. This is
due to the fact that at a given velocity of the machine the
skim-milk discharge remains practically constant. So, if
more milk is turned on, the only place where the discharge
can increase is through the cream outlet; and if the inlet is
diminished, the cream will diminish until a certain time, when
the amount of milk, which runs into the machine, equals the
amount discharged through the skim-milk outlet, and then
there will be little or no cream. This is aptly illustrated
by Wing: “If the milk is turned into the bowl at such a
rate that .8 escapes through the skim-milk outlet, we shall
have .8 skim-milk and .2 cream. If, now, we reduce the rate
of inflow by .1, we shall get just as much skimmed milk as
before, but only half as much cream; or, if the inflow is increased
.1, we shall get the same amount of skimmed milk and one
and a half times as much cream.” The completeness of sepa-
ration will be the same so long as the separator is run within
the range of its capacity.

3. Speed.—The speed of the separator influences the rela-
tive amount of the cream and skimmed milk only in so far
as an increase in the speed of the bowl increases the capacity

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 139

of the skim-milk outlet, due to a more rapid discharge
through the skim-milk outlet. The slower the bowl re-
volves the less skimmed milk will be discharged, and conse-
quently, if the inlet is constant, more and thinner cream will
be the result. It should be stated in connection with this
that the efficiency of skimming depends to a large extent
upon the speed, and if attempts are made to increase the amount
of cream and decrease the percentage of fat in it, by lowering
the speed, an abnormal amount of fat will be left in the skimmed
milk.

4. Temperature.—The temperature of milk usually does not
influence the relative amount of milk and cream very much.
The higher the temperature the more fluid the milk becomes,
and consequently, all other conditions being the same, slightly
more milk will run through at a high temperature than is the
case with a lower temperature. This increase will show itself
chiefly in the amount of cream, as the higher temperature
has a greater relative effect upon the cream than it has upon
the milk. By increasing the temperature of the milk, slightly
more and thinner cream is obtained.

ConpiTIons AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS.

1. Manner of Heating Milk.—Owing to the fact that fat-
globules rapidly change their shape and property by exposing
them to heat and excessive agitation, it is essential that care
should be taken in heating milk previous to skimming. When
fat-globules are heated they become more liquid, and if stirred
very much the clusters of fat-globules break up more rapidly.
The individual globules, if stirred violently, will break or sub-
divide into several small ones. The higher the temperature
of the milk, the more fluid the milk becomes, and the easier
the separation. If milk is stirred violently, the individual fat-
globules break up into smaller ones, which are separated from
milk with difficulty. The following table * illustrates what

* Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis.

140 BUTTER-MAKING.

effect the different degrees of agitation of milk has upon the
efficiency of separation:

Av. Fat
No. of Per Cent
Experi- in

ments. Skim-
milk.
Milk heated in vat, not pumped................... 0000 eee 10. ~—«..117
Milk heated in Pasteurizer, 200 revolutions of agitator perminute 8 .115
oe im ims oe 250 ce oe ce ce ce 3 118
ce bc ce ce 300 oe ce oe oe ce 8 .134
a3 es oe “ce 350 ce “ce oe ce ce iy 143
“ec ce “ce ims 400 ce ce ce ce ce 7 .198
zs oe oe oc 500 ia ce oe ce ce 4 225
Milk pumped by the turbine pump at 122° F................ 3.129
ee i ote as ois BO OE GA Hirata ts 2g geet es 3 .119
ae ‘« with the pump, effective at 122°................ 3.117
we ENT alee a Oe GA ac sie sete ain se tg 3 115

In the above experiments the diameter of the agitator in
the Pasteurizer was 14 inches. The speed at the periphery,
at 250 revolutions per minute, was 5 feet per second.

It will be seen from the above table that the higher the
speed of the agitator, the greater the difficulty in getting a
complete separation. Besides the speed of the agitator in
the heating apparatus, undoubtedly the shape of the Pas-
teurizer is a factor in determining the efficiency of the
subsequent separation. For instance, the milk in most hori-
zontal Pasteurizers is, even at low speed, exposed to con-
siderable agitation.

If the milk is suddenly heated from a low temperature to
about 80° or 90° F. and then skimmed, the heating does not
facilitate the skimming process very much. It is essential
that the milk should be exposed to this temperature for a
considerable time. The fat-globules do not warm as rapidly
as the milk-serum. This diminishes the difference between the
specific gravity of the two substances, consequently complete-
ness of separation becomes more difficult. If milk is heated
to a high temperature, say, for instance, 170° F., then the
separation will be sufficiently complete without exposing the
milk for any length of time to that temperature.

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 141

Machines are now made, and are on the market, which will
bring the milk, or the fat-globules in the milk, into such a
condition that they cannot be separated from the milk. The
process is called “homogenization.’’ It consists of bringing
the milk under certain pressure, and then forcing it out through
a special valve. This relief, through this special valve, causes
the fat-globules to divide up into very minute ones. They
divide up to such an extent that they cannot be separated
from the milk by gravity methods, and it is impossible to get
a complete separation by centrifugal methods. Homogeniza-
tion of milk is carried on to some extent in Europe. The
process practically insures uniform quality to the milk patrons
in the distribution of milk in cities, and secures a more uniform
consistency of the product.

2. Condition of the Milk.—In order to get complete separation,
and keep the separator in good running order, it is essential
that the milk should be in as good physical condition as possible.
Coagulated, slimy, or otherwise viscous milk separates with
difficulty. When such milk is on hand it should not be mixed
with the milk that is in good condition, as it might tend to coag-
ulate more of the good milk, and the coagulated or slimy lumps
are likely to clog the separator. Such milk should be left
until all the good milk has been separated. Then, if the coagu-
lated or slimy milk is thoroughly stirred so as to reduce the
lumpiness of it, it may be run through the separator success-
fully. It is a good plan not to feed the separator quite so
heavily when this quality of milk is being run through. By
shutting off the inlet a little, it will usually run through without
clogging. Milk containing impurities in suspension should be
thoroughly strained previous to separation.

Overfeeding the Separator—When a separator is being
overfed with milk there is a tendency for the machine to do
less complete work. This is due to the fact that the more
milk is being fed into the separator the less time it will be
exposed to the centrifugal force. It is impossible to underfeed
the separator as well. As has been mentioned before, the

142 BUTTER-MAKING.

inlet can be closed to such an extent as to cause nearly all the
discharge to take place through the skim-milk tube.

As a rule when the machine has been set so as to allow the
milk to flow in at a certain rate, it will continue to admit prac-
tically the same amount of milk all through the skimming
period. Among the conditions which may alter the rate of
inflow to some extent, are the amount of heat and the change
of pressure, due to different amounts of milk in the receiving-
vat. Temperature will slightly affect the rate of inflow. The
higher the temperature, all other conditions being the same,
the more milk will pass through the inlet.

3. Speed.—All modern machines have a device by which their
speed can be determined. Most speed indicators consist of a
little wheel, which, when pushed up against the spindle of the
separator while running, turns around and permits the calcu-
lation of the speed of the separator. If the wheel on the speed-
indicator turns 10 revolutions during ten seconds, the machine
would turn 1000 times during the same time. During one
minute the separator will run six times as many revolutions,
or 6000, as ten seconds is one-sixth of a minute. Most speed-
indicators are so adjusted as to turn one revolution for every
100 revolutions of the machine. The higher the speed, the
more thorough is the separation. Nearly all machines are
balanced to do the best work at a certain definite speed, varying
with different machines, and indicated in the directions for
operating. It is essential that the machine should be brought
up to speed gradually, and no milk be allowed to flow through
it until after it has acquired its full speed.

During the run, all machines are likely to vary more or less
in speed, owing to different causes. Pulleys are likely to slip
on the shaft, and belts are likely to become loose, and thus
cause variations in the speed. The steam pressure is likely
to get low, and cause all of the machinery in the creamery to
run more slowly. This cause, however, is not a very common
one where belt separators are used. If the engine has an auto-

SEPARATION OF CREAM, 148

matic governor on it, the speed is usually quite uniform. Where
steam-turbine machines are used, the speed of the machine is
more likely to vary with the different amounts of steam pressure
on the boiler. With turbine separators it is very essential to
keep an even steam pressure. Some turbine separators have
a safety-valve attached to prevent too high speed.

The reason why the prevention of a variation in speed is so
essential is that a slight variation in the speed has a compara-
tively large effect upon reducing or increasing the centrifugal
force. The centrifugal foree generated in a machine varies
according to the diameter of the bowl, and according to the
speed of the machine. The greater the diameter of the bowl,
the less speed of velocity is required in order to get a certain
force. The centrifugal force varies in direct proportion to the
diameter of the bowl; that is, if the diameter of the bowl be
doubled, then at the same speed, the centrifugal force has been
doubled. The centrifugal force varies in quadratic proportion
to the speed of the machine; that is, if the speed of the sepa-
rator is doubled, the centrifugal force is increased four times.
From this it will be seen that speed is a great factor in deter-
mining the centrifugal force generated. It is not a good plan
to have the diameter of the bowl too large, for the following
reasons: A large bowl is more likely to be thrown out of balance;
it is harder to keep on the bearings; and it is heavier and more
unhandy to handle. For these reasons it is better to lessen the
diameter of the bowl and increase the speed. This, of course,
is true only to a certain limit.

Steadiness in Running.—Smooth running of a separator is
one of the first essentials. If a machine runs roughly, there
will not be good separation, and it is dangerous to run it. The
bowl itself is likely to jump out, or burst. The causes for
unsteadiness in running are many. It may be due to a bent
or sprung spindle; the machine not standing level; changing
covers to bowls; using clamps which do not fit the bowl cover;
unclean, worn-out bearings; condition of the bowl, and con-
trivances inside the bowl; and dented and rusty bowls. Occa-

144 BUTTER-MAKING.

sionally it happens that a machine is run backwards. This is
likely to cause the cover of the bowl to run off.

Thickness of Cream.—The efficiency of skimming depends
to some extent upon the thickness of the cream skimmed.
Most separators, however, will skim within quite a wide range
as to thickness. The richness of cream usually skimmed by
separators is about from 25% to 50%. Most separators, how-
ever, will do good skimming even if the cream contains as high
as 60% fat. This, however, should be considered to be about the
maximum, in order to get the best results from a separator.

Slush in Bowl.—As has been mentioned before, there is
always a thick, slimy substance which adheres to the bowl-
wall. The composition of separator-slime is, according to
Fleischmann, as follows:

VWVISTET ok Pile ea ated Goce ails canine aren 67.3
ENG ne Bei Pe Rear ea Da ah Oh fad nd de 1.1
Caseous matter.......... .............. 25.9
Other organic substances. . 2.1
Ash. ... 3.6

100.0

At the center of the bowl, or along the axis which runs
perpendicular in the bowl, there is always considerable cream.
It is practically impossible to get all the cream out of the bowl,
even if it is flushed with much water. The amount of slush
varies somewhat with the different kinds of separators. For
this reason, it is essential that it should be taken into con-
sideration when the comparative efficiency of skimming of
different separators is considered. When the test extends over
a comparatively long period, and the milk skimmed amounts
to several thousand pounds, then the bowl-slush does not affect
the conditions for comparative results very much; but when
the test is short, and only a hundred pounds of milk, or a similar
amount, is skimmed, then the amount of fat left in the bowl-
slush will have considerable influence upon deciding which one
is the most efficient machine.

SEPARATION OF CREAM. 145

General Remarks.—In order to keep the separator in good
running order, it must receive care. The belt should not be
too tight, nor too loose. If too tight it is likely to bind, heat,
and set the bearings of the separator. If too loose it is likely
to slp, and to wear out more quickly. The machine should be
well oiled. It is better to use a trifle too much oil than not
enough. If a bearing is once heated, the machine will never
run as well again.

The bowl should be handled with great care. Bowls, or
parts belonging to the bowl, can be kept from rusting by boiling
them in water, or by steaming them thoroughly after they
have been cleaned. If scalding-hot water is used before the
milky portion has been washed off, the albuminoids will be
scalded on to such a degree that it is difficult to get them off.
This applies to all dairy and creamery utensils. Hot water
is said to be best in which to dip tin or iron-ware after washing
in order to keep them from rusting. If the bowl, pail, or
whatever utensil it may be, is turned over to drain after being
dipped in hot water, the heat taken up by the utensil will in a
short time perfectly dry the apparatus. If the bowl is steamed,
it should be heated thoroughly to make it dry quickly.

If the milk supply gets short during the run, and it is neces-
sary to run the machine without feeding milk, then the machine
should always be flushed with luke-warm water. This will, in
a measure, prevent clogging. Scalding-hot water should never
be used for flushing the separator. The cream and skimmed-
milk tubes should be carefully cleaned, with the special wire
provided for that purpose, each time the machine is washed.
The contrivances on the inside of the bowl should also be
handled with care so as not to injure them in any way. They
should be treated with hot water, as mentioned above, in order
to keep them from rusting.

When the bowl is not to be used for some time, it should
be oiled well so as to prevent it from rusting. It is easier to
oil a separator bowl than it is to scour the rust off later on.

CHAPTER XII.
FARM SEPARATORS.

Tue conditions affecting the efficiency of skimming and
the relative amount of cream and skim-milk described under
“Creamery Separation’ apply to farm separators as well. The
conditions under which the farm separators are operated war-
rant a few separate remarks on this subject.

Introduction of Farm Separators——Small, or hand, separa-
tors, have been manufactured for a good many years. It is,
however, not until comparatively recent years that they have
been numerous enough to be of commercial importance. The
people in the Central West (Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri,
Minnesota, and Illinois) have been most prominent in intro-
ducing farm separators. In the year 1894 hand separators
were introduced in Iowa, but it was not until 1898 that they
gained sufficient foothold to be of commercial importance.
According to the Iowa Dairy Commissioner’s report of 1898,
there were then only 904 farm separators in the state of Iowa.
Now, in 1904, there are more than 17,000 separators. Glancing
over the statistics it will be seen that the rate of increase in
hand separators during the years intervening between 1898
and 1904 has been uniform and rapid. This proves that the
dairy business is still in a transitional period, and the intro-
duction of hand separators still on the increase. Such a time
in any industry is always accompanied by more or less incon-
venience, difficulty, and dissatisfaction. To receive a part of
the butter-fat in the form of cream, and the other part in the
form of milk, is undesirable. Under such a system it is always

difficult to get milk or cream routes organized; proper sampling
146

FARM SEPARATORS. 147

becomes more or less difficult, and the quality of butter is
harder to control.

Reasons for Introducing Farm Separators.—It requires an
investment of about $100 to purchase a hand separator.

Fie. 77.—The Omega hand separator.

Most of the butter made from hand-separator cream is of poor
quality. Still, in the face of this, separators have rapidly -u
creased. It may be concluded that there must be some good
reasons why farmers are continuing to invest in farm separators.
There are undoubtedly many reasons why farmers prefer hand

148 BUTTER-MAKING.

separators; reasons which are, to a large extent, confined to
local conditions. Only a few of the chief and general reasons can
be given here:

(1) The farmer is able to skim the milk at once after it
has been drawn, thereby enabling him to feed the milk while

i AT aye

Fic. 78.—The Iowa hand separator. Fic. 79——The De Laval hand separator
(Baby No. 1).

it is in a warm, sweet, unadulterated condition. If he hauled
the milk to the creamery, the skimmed milk would be likely
to come back in a sour and curdled condition, and at times
watery. (In a well-conducted creamery these latter conditions
do not exist.)

(2) The high cost of hauling in many instances makes it
almost impossible to get the milk to the creamery. Even if
the roads are good, the distance to the creamery is frequently
so great that it is impossible to get haulers, nor is it practical
for every farmer to haul his own milk every day. Especially
is this so during the busy season of the year. In the fall,
when milk is scarce, it is almost impossible for the hauler to

FARM SEPARATORS. 149

get enough milk to make it profitable. In many cases it is
necessary to pay an excessive price for hauling milk.

When cream routes are established instead of milk routes,
one hauler can usually cover as much territory as three could

Fie. 80.—Sinayilone hand separator and the different parts of bowl.

under the milk system. Two thousand pounds of milk, testing
4% and containing 80 pounds of fat, would represent approx-
imately a load of milk. At 12 cents per 100 pounds, this
would mean a cost of $2.40 for getting that much milk

150 BUTTER-MAKING.

hauled. If the same amount of butter-fat were hauled in the
form of cream, it could be gathered for about 14 cents per
pound of fat, or the cost of hauling in this particular case
would be $1.20. Under the milk system it would be neces-
sary to haul the milk to the creamery every day, while
under the cream system it is usually gathered every other
day in the summer, and every three days in the winter. It
is usually considered that there is a saving of about 14 to 2

Fig. 81.—Sharples separator and parts of bowl.

cents per pound of butter-fat in hauling, by making use of the
cream system instead of the milk system. This, of course,
would vary according to local conditions.

3. The use of hand-separators makes farmers more inde-
pendent than they are under the whole-milk system. They
are not compelled to support their local creamery unless they
deemit advisable. They can ship their cream to any place that
they may choose. If the butter from the hand-separator cream
is going to be of as good quality as that made by the whole-
milk system, the cream should be delivered as often as possible.
Every day is preferable to every other day. In case frequent

FARM SEPARATORS. 15k

delivery is made, then it becomes quite essential for the farmer
to patronize the local creamery, as very few farmers keep suffi-
cient cows to get enough cream to pay them to ship by rail

i i
Hl

eu

Fria. 82.—The National hand separator and parts of bowl.

every day. Usually it does not cost much more to ship a
can full of cream than it does to ship it half or three-quarters

full.

152 BUTTER-MAKING.

Objections to Farm Separators.—Under the present manner
of carrying on the hand-separator system, the quality of butter
manufactured from the cream shipped into the central plants
is much poorer than that made from whole milk. This is
not due to ) ony fault of the system, but to the poor care which
the separator and cream receive. The sepa-
rator on the farm is frequently kept in an
unsuitable place. Often it is located in the
barn. If the milk is separated in such a
place it will absorb odors and undesirable
taints. The cream is seldom taken care of
properly after it is separated. The separators
often are not cleaned well. A separator can-
not be kept in good condition by simply
flushing out the bowl] with cold water at the
end of each separation. It must be taken
Fic. 83.—De Laval apart at the close of each skimming; have all

hand separator. the parts washed thoroughly in luke-warm
water, and then scalded. The time and power it requires to
skim the milk and to care for the milk is in many instances
considered objectionable to the system.

Thickness of Cream.—The thickness of cream which most
butter-makers at central plants prefer is cream containing
about 30 to 40% of fat. Such cream is not thick enough
to cause any inconvenience in sampling and weighing. It can
be diluted with a good starter and ripened without getting it
so thin as to produce unfavorable conditions for churning.
By some it is deemed advisable to skim even thicker than this,
up to 50°¢. Cream containing this much fat, however, is
difficult to handle especially in winter, during cold weather. It
gets so stiff that it is difficult to pour, and there is also danger
of losing more or less cream through its adhering to the sides of
the cans.

A thick cream is advisable from the farmer’s standpoint.
The thicker the cream is, the more skim-milk he will retain
on the farm for feeding purposes. It can also readily be seen

FARM SEPARATORS. 153

that if thin cream is skimmed greater can capacity is necessary,
and the express charges will be heavier than if the thicker
cream were skimmed. Rich cream does not sour so rapidly
as does thin cream.

| im

a |

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| il

Fic. 85.—Empire hand separator.

The thickness of cream can be readily ascertained by the
use of a Babcock test, which every farmer should have in his
possession. A whole outfit for testing fat in cream or milk

154 BUTTER-MAKING.

can be had for about $8.00 from any creamery supply-house.
By the use of such a test, the farmer can test his cream and

Fic. 86.—Peerless hand separator and cross-section of bowl.
skimmed milk. He can also test the milk of each individual
cow in the herd, thereby ascertaining which ones are profitable.

Fic. 87.—Agos hand tester.

By the use of such a test on the farm, the farmer can test his
cream daily, and compare results with those from the creamery,

FARM SEPARATORS. 155

thereby enabling him to detect any mistake which may happen
at the creamery.

Power for Farm Separators.—Hand-power is often men-

Fig. 88.—The Dairy Queen hand separator. Fie. 89.—Scales.

tioned as an objection to farm separators. When a considerable
quantity of milk is to be skimmed, it is certainly hard work
to skim with hand-power. Windmills could not well be used

i oe
wer

Fig. 90.—Tread-power attached to United States hand separator.

as they do not give uniform speed. The power must be steady
and uniform. Farm separators are often run with tread-
power. This kind of power is very applicable, and does not cost

156 BUTTER-MAKING.

ig igi _ —)

20% 25% 30 % 40%

Fic. 91.—Showing the height to which cream free from air-bubbles must be
raised in a pipette to get 18 grams of cream. It shows that to measure
cream in a pipette is inaccurate in cream testing. (lowa State Dairy
Com. Report, 1903.)

FARM SEPARATORS.

157

anything after the tread-power has once been purchased. The
power can be supplied by using different kinds of animals.

Fic. 92.—Showing how the internal bowl devices of Westphalia hand sepa-
rator are washed. (N. Y. Produce Review and American Creamery.)

Sheep, goats, dogs, and bulls are used for this purpose. The
process usually does not last very long, and it is not considered

heavy work. Steam is good power, but
it is hardly ever obtainable on the farm.
Small gasoline-engines are also used very
successfully.

The machine should always run smoothly
in order to get efficient skimming. It should
never be stopped and started with a jerk.
Start it slowly and there will be less dan-
ger of breaking any of the gearing parts.
The bowl and inside parts should be kept
from rusting as described previously on
page 145. The bearings should be well
oiled. It is a good plan to have an extra

Fic. 93.—Davis hand
separator.

bearing or two on hand, so that if one happens to wear

158 BUTTER-MAKING.

out another one can be put in. The bearings should be
cleaned at intervals. When kerosene is occasionally used on
the hearings they do not need to be cleaned so often, because

Fie. 94.—Dairy utensils in the battered condition of the can on left and
with tin off in many places inside, cannot be kept clean and should be
discarded. (Kansas State Board of Agriculture Report No. 87, 1903.)

it keeps them from gumming. The machine should be turned
at the proper speed, as indicated in the directions. A thicker
cream will result from rapid turning; consequently more
skimmed milk will be obtained. Slow turning causes ineffi-
cient skimming and thinner cream.

Care of Cream on the Farm.—The first step in the produc-
tion of good cream is clean milking. This can only be accom-
plished when barn, cows, and utensils are clean. It is a good

6¢T CTI ‘FS ‘INel) “Bury a1ojoq sieppn saoo Suruvoy;

160 BUTTER-MAKING.

plan to dampen a cloth, and wipe off the cow’s udder and sides
each time previous to milking. The milker should never
wet his hands while milking. Dust should not be stirred up
in the barn during milking, as the dust particles carry with
them a large number of undesirable germs. When these settle
in milk they are likely to produce taints. If cloth, strainers
are used they should be kept scrupulously clean. It is advis-
able not to use them at all, as good sanitary wire-gauze strainers
are inexpensive.

Progeny ofa
single germ in ©
twelve hours

Fig. 95.—Showing the effect of cooling milk on the growth of bacteria. The
beneficial results of early chilling are readily apparent. (From Bul. 62,
Wis.)

If these conditions are complied with, and the separator
is kept in a good clean condition, the milk will have compara-
tively few germs in it. Some germs, however, will enter the
milk, and in order to keep them from developing, it is essential
to cool the cream or milk immediately. Low temperature
retards and practically prevents the development of germ life.
It is a well-known fact that when milk is kept cool, it will
remain sweet much longer than if kept at a high temperature.
Never mix two milkings or skimmings unless both are well
cooled first. In order to cool cream quickly, it should be
stirred during cooling. The ordinary four-gallon shot-gun cans
are good and suitable for keeping milk and cream. They have
a large cooling surface in proportion to their cubical content.

FARM SEPARATORS. 161

The milk or cream should be cooled as low as the water will
cool it. It is well to cool it even lower than this if ice is ob-
tainable. In keeping milk, the temperature should never go

Fic. 97.—The condition of the cow shown in this cut is favorable for the
accumulation of loose dirt. (Bul. 84, III.)

above 60° F. Cooling to 50° F., if it can be accomplished, is
much more desirable for keeping milk or cream in good condi-

tion.

162 BUTTER-MAKING.

If considerable milk is handled, it is well to provide a milk-
house. it should be built large enough to contain the sepa-
rator, water-tank, and other utensils necessary for home butter-

Fig. 98.—A clean cow. The dirt cannot adhere to this cow to so great an
extent as to the one shown in Fig. 97. (Bul. 84, Ill.)

making, such as a churn and butter-worker. There should be
plenty of windows on all sides to give good ventilation. The
water-tank should be connected directly with the well, so that

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FARM SEPARATORS. 167

the water can be pumped directly to the tank holding the milk
and cream. From this place the water can be run out into
the stock-tank. This arrangement allows the milk to be kept
at the lowest possible temperature.

It is Just as essential to cool the milk during the winter
as it is during the summer. By pumping water through this tank
practically all the time, the water in the tank will be kept from
freezing. It is well to keep the surface of the water higher

Fie. 103.—The average weight of dirt which falls from muddy udders dur-
ing milking is ninety times as great as that which falls from the same
udder after washing, and when udders are slightly soiled it is twenty-
two times as great. (Bul. 84, Ill.)

than the surface of the milk in the can. This will prevent the
milk from freezing so easily. If the cold is too severe, a tank-
heater can easily be secured which will moderate the tem-
perature a trifle.

Disposition of the Cream.—There are two ways of disposing
of cream on the farm: (1) selling it to creameries or other
parties, and (2) making it into butter on the farm. The former
method is usually the most advantageous. Creameries, as a
rule, are better equipped to control the quality of butter. The
price per pound of butter-fat is usually about 2 cents below
“New York Extras.” A few of the best co-operative cream-
eries are able to pay more than that.

168

Ill.)

it

(Bul. 9

vilway station.

Fie. 104.—Milk- and cream-cans at the r

FARM SEPARATORS. 169

Shipping of Cream.—If cream is sent or shipped to cream-
eries and central plants, it is essential that it be delivered as
frequently as possible, and that it be delivered in cans which
will help keep it in good condition. If cream is to be shipped
any great distance and be exposed to the sun, it is advisable to
use special jacketed cans, which retard the transmission of
heat. It is a good plan to cover the cans with a wet sack
ve cloth during the summer, and the use of a dry sack on

Fic. 105.—The Buhl milk and cream can. Fig. 106.—A barrel churn.

the outside in the winter often prevents the cream from
freezing.

Making Butteron the Farm.—If cream is kept in good
condition and proper skill is applied, the best of butter can
be made on the farm. Theoretically, better butter can be
made on the farm than at the creamery, because all conditions
can be controlled better. This is not so in creameries. One
can of bad cream mixed with a quantity of good cream is likely
to contaminate and injure the whole lot. The cream which
is to be made into butter on the farm should be ripened, or
soured, properly before it is churned. In creameries, starters

170 BUTTER-MAKING.

are used to set up a quick and desirable fermentation in the
cream. Conditions are usually such on the farm that it is not

(a>

Fig. 107.—The Davis swing-churn., Fie. 108.—Sanitary glass milk-
bottle and cap for same.

convenient and practical to use a starter. In the summer the
cream can be lifted out of the cold water the morning previous

Fic. 109.—Skinner butter-worker.

to churning, and it will sour during the day. In the evening,
or when it has soured, it can be set back into the water to cool.
The next morning it is ready for churning. In the winter the
creain can be soured by warming it up or keeping it in a warm
place. If some good sour milk is on hand, it might be added,

FARM SEPARATORS. 171

and the cream will sour much quicker. It is very essential that
the cream can be cooled to a low temperature (50° I.) and left

Fic. 111.—The Cherry jacketed
cream can.

<iarona a0sY = 2
Fie. 110.—Milk or cream can Fie. 112.—The Jersey can-brush.
with agitator.

at this temperature for at least two hours before it is churned;
otherwise the butter is likely to be greasy and salvy. Color
and salt to suit the market and season. .\bout three-fourths
to one ounce of salt to one pound of butter usually gives good
results.

If a local trade can be secured, it is not necessary to pack
it into tubs. [Earthen jars are good to keep butter in. If no
local trade can be secured, and it is essential to ship the butter,
20- or 30-pound tubs should be used. If a good quality and

172 BUTTER-MAKING.

constant supply of butter can be secured throughout the whole
year, it is an easy matter to find an excellent market for butter
at hotels or good restaurants. (For a more detailed discus-
sion of butter-making, see Chaps. XVI and XVII.) Putting up
butter in prints and wrapping them in parchment paper which
bears the maker’s name usually increases its value.

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CHAPTER NIfl.

PASTEURIZATION.

Definition.—The word pasteurization has its derivation from
Pasteur, a French scientist. Pasteurization consists in heat-
ing milk somewhere between 140° F. and 212° F. This kills
practically all germs in a vegetative state. Since most of them
are in a vegetative condition, the process kills almost all the
organisms, The heating is followed by rapid cooling. ‘‘Sterili-
zation” is a word which is some times used incorrectly in con-
nection with pasteurization. Sterilization means that milk or
any other substance has been heated so often or to such a high
temperature as to entirely destroy every living micro-organism
present. In order to get a substance thoroughly sterilized
without heating under pressure, it is essential that it be heated
about thirty minutes on each of three or more successive days.
Pasteurization in the dairy industry was introduced by Pro-
fessor Storch of the Royal Experiment Station, Copenhagen,
Denmark.

Methods of Pasteurization.—

(1) Intermittent.
(2) Continuous.

1. Intermittent pasteurization is usually accomplished in
vats or cans. It is used nearly exclusively when pasteurization
is practiced on a small scale, such as preparation of starters
in creameries, pasteurizing cream and milk on the farm, ete.
Intermittent pasteurization is as efficient, and undoubtedly more
so, than the continuous method. The substance pasteurized
is usually exposed to the high temperature a longer time than

it would be by the intermittent system. In the continuous
173

174 BUTTER-MAKING.

method of pasteurization the substance pasteurized is exposed
only to a sudden temporary heat.

The intermittent process of pasteurization tends to drive
off more of the undesirable taints present in the milk or cream.
This is especially true when stirred occasionally. If heated too
long the cooked flavor is likely to be more pronounced than
when the intermittent system is used. If exposed very long

Back Pressure Valve
Skim Milk Inlet

_——— 2

al il

: Skim Milk Tank

i
tO

Exhanst Steam

&
=

Fic. 115.—Scheme for pasteurizing skim-milk by the use of exhaust-steam
direct. (Creamery Journal, by W. P. McConnell, Minn.)

to the high temperature and stirred excessively during the
intermittent pasteurization, the butter-fat tends to melt and
run together, and show itself on the top of the cream in the
form of an oily layer.

2. The continuous method of pasteurization is more practical
for large amounts of milk or cream. It is used almost without
exception in pasteurizing cream, whole milk, and skim-milk
at creameries. Neither one of the two systems destroys spores.
The intermittent system is the most effective because both

PASTEURIZATION. 175

time and temperature are under control. Various pasteuriz-
ing machines are in use, and it is not within the province of
this work to recommend any machine. A few words in regard
to the principles which affect proper pasteurization will serve
a better purpose.

SELECTION OF PASTEURIZERS.

Improper pasteurization is worse than none at all. If
pasteurization is done at all, it is essential that it be properly
accomplished.

There are two things to be sought when purchasing a pas-
teurizer; viz., (1) durability and capacity, and (2) economic
efficiency.

1, Durability and Capacity——The structure of most pas-
teurizing machines is simple and substantial. They do not
wear out like a complex piece of machinery. It is essential
that the machine be strongly made. Heating-walls and other
portions should be made heavy enough to be consistent with
its use, and of a substance which will conduct heat rapidly.
Nearly all the types of pasteurizers are made in different sizes
to suit the demands.

2. Economic Efficiency.—Obtaining efficient pasteurization
economically is the most important question. It is important
in this connection because it depends upon so many conditions
which the operator has under control. The degree of con-
ductivity of heating-surface during operation, may in one sense
include most of the essential factors which affect pasteurization.
This in turn depends upon a number of conditions which are as
follows:

(1) Kind of material from which the heating-surface is
manufactured,

(2) Degree of adhesiveness of milk or cream on heating-
surface.

(3) Thickness of layer of condensed steam, on steam side of
heating-surface.

(4) Difference in temperature on each side of heating-surface.

176 BUTTER-MAKING.

(5) Proper utilization of steam: turned into the pasteurizer.

(1) Heating-surface.—tIt is a well known fact that some
metals will conduct heat better than others. The relative heat
conductivity of the two substances used chiefly for pasteurizers
viz., copper and tin, is .918 and .145 respectively. This
means that copper will conduct heat nearly seven times faster
than tin of the same thickness.

yee

Fig. 116.—The Reid pasteurizer.

In connection with this it should be mentioned that stability
and durability of the substance must also be taken into con-
sideration. A heating-surface made from copper may be nearly
seven times as thick as that made fiom tin, and still transmit
as much heat as the tin surface. From this it can be seen that
a heating wall made from copper can be increased slightly in
thickness, and thus aid in stability, without affecting the degree
of heat conductivity of the wall very much. The heating-
surface must be strong enough to withstand a slight steam pres-
sure, otherwise the heating wall is likely to collapse or cave
in in case of slight variation in the steam pressure. It is not

PASTEURIZATION., 177

an uncommon occurrence to have the heating wall of a pasteur-
izer burst. This could be prevented by connecting a safety, or
pressure, valve, to the pasteurizer.

(2) Degree of Adhesiveness.— Roughness, due to either
defects in the metal itself, or to milk or cream being burned
on the heating-surface, is a serious defect. Such a condition

Fie. 117—The Simplex regenerative pasteurizer (apart).

causes particles of milk or cream to move very slowly over the
heating-surface; it tends to roll in much the same way as
drops of liquids do when caused to flow over a slanting dry
rough surface. As a consequence more and more casein will
adhere. The thicker the layer of foreign matter is on the
heating-surface, the greater the difficulty in getting the greatest
efficiency from the pasteurizer.

It is important that the milk or cream be forced over the
heating-surface with greater rapidity than could result from
its own gravity. On heaters or pasteurizers, where milk flows

178 BUTTER-MAKING.

over the heating-surface only by force of its own gravity, a
heavy layer of curd usually adheres. This is due to the fact
that certain portions of the milk are exposed to the excessive
heating too long, while if caused to move rapidly it does not
remain in contact with one portion of the heating-surface long
enough to cause it to adhere to so great an extent.

Fic. 118.—The Simplex regenerative pasteurizer (assembled),

The condition of the milk or cream has some influence upon
the degree of adhesiveness of curd on the heating-surface.
Sour and coagulated milk adheres or burns on to a greater
extent than does milk or cream in good condition. This is
evidently due to the lesser fluidity of the sour milk, and, as a
consequence, it does not move over the heating-surface so
rapidly, and therefore burns on. Milk which contains a great
deal of air or scum also adheres to the heating-surface much

PASTEURIZATION. 179

more readily than milk containing less air. If pumps are used
for pumping the milk, it is well to admit as little air into the
milk as possible. This can be accomplished by keeping plenty
of milk in the tank which feeds the pump, or by having a float
which will close the inlet to the pasteurizer as soon as the tank
is emptied. If the speed of the agitator in the pasteurizer
is great enough, the scum is forced towards the center. For

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Fic. 119.—The Jensen pasteurizer.

some time it was thought that only the best sweet milk could
be pasteurized by the intermittent process of pasteurization.
It is well known that when a sample of milk reaches a certain
degree of acidity it coagulates upon heating. It was thought
that by the continuous method of pasteurization this would
interfere with getting proper results. Experiment, however,
shows that the coagulated sour cream and milk can be suc-
cessfully pasteurized, but it is still a fact that the better con-
dition the milk or cream is in, the easier it can be pasteurized

180 BUTTER-MAKING.

and the better the results are. If pasteurization is not prop-
erly conducted, often the sour milk and cream coagulate and
get very lumpy. This takes place chiefly when pasteurization
is attempted at a comparatively low temperature, at a slow
rate of speed of the agitator in the pasteurizer, and when there
is about from .8% to .4% acidity in the cream or milk. Sour
thin cream—less than 28% fat—does not pasteurize successfully.

In case there is any danger of sliminess taking place during
pasteurization, the heat should be applied as quickly as possible.
Only a thin layer of cream
should be exposed to the
heating-surface at one time.
Flashy, quick heat tends to
prevent this slimy condition.
The speed of the stirrer should
be increased, if possible, when
such cream is being pasteur-
ized.

By greasing the inside of
L y the pasteurizer, or the heat-
Fia. 120.—The Miller pasteurizer. | Ing-surface, a trifle previous

to pasteurization, the burning-
on can be prevented in part. The casein that adheres can
be more easily removed than if no grease were used.

(3) Thickness of Layer of Condensed Steam —At first glance
one might come to the conclusion that the small amount of
steam which is constantly being condensed upon and adhering
to the steam side of the heating-xurface is not sufficient to
cause any difference in the efficiency of the pasteurizer. Ex-
periments conducted by Dr. Storch of the Royal Experiment
Station, Copenhagen, Denmark, show that this condensed steam
greatly resists the transmittance of heat. The comparative
heat conductivity of water and copper is .0016 and .9 respec-
tively, as found by Dr. Storch. It will thus be seen that copper
is 600 times as good a conductor of heat as water is. This would
mean that a quiet layer of water 3 millimeters in thickness

PASTEURIZATION, 181

would have the same resistance to heat as a layer of copper
2 meters in thickness. Consequently a very thin layer of water
or condensed steam on the sides of the heating-wall would
greatly interfere with the economic efficiency of a pasteurizer.

In order to overcome this difficulty drip-rings were circled
round the drum of the pasteurizer at intervals on the steam side
of the heating-surface. The first rings put around the pasteurizer
were narrow smooth bands. These did not give entire satisfac-
tion, as the condensed water from the top rings would drip on
the edge of the lower ones, and cause the water to splatter over
the side of the heating-wall. Another kind of ring was then in-
vented, which
was thin, nar-
row, and saw-
teeth-like in &
shape. These
rings were fast-
ened to the
heating-wall at
preper — inter-
vals at an angle
of 45° The
rings were so
arranged that
the crops of condensed water escaping from the end of each saw
tooth would fall in the hollow between the teeth in the lower rings
and thus prevent any splattering of the water against the heating-
wall. These contrivances greatly increased the efficiency—as high
as 48% —and the capacity of the pasteurizer experimented upon.

(4) Difference in Temperature on Each Side of the Heating-
surjace.—The difference in the temperature on each side of the
heating-surface has a great effect upon the rapidity with which
the heat passes through the wall. The iower the temperature
is on the milk side the more rapidly does the heat pass through;
and the higher the temperature of the milk is, the pressure on
the steam side being the same, the more slowly the heat passes
through the heating-wall. This would at first lead us to be-

The Farrington pasteurizer.

182 BUTTER-MAKING.

lieve that the last few degrees the milk is being heated are the
most expensive; but if the steam is properly guarded from
being condensed, or wasted, it does not cost any more to heat
the milk the last few degrees than it does to heat the first degrees.
While the temperature on the milk side ix low, much more
steam is consumed, and it is also used more rapidly. During
the last heating of the milk or cream Jess steam is being con-
densed and the condensing proceeds more slowly.

When the temperature on the steam side is 220° F. and on
the milk side is 40° F. during the same time, twice as much
heat will pass through the heating wall as if the temperature
of the milk side were 130° F. In the first case the difference
in temperature on both sides would be: 220 —40=180° F. In
the second instance it would be: 220—130=90°. F.

(5) Proper Utilization of Steam Turned into the Pasteurizer.
—The cost of pasteurization will evidently vary under different
conditions and with different kinds of pasteurizers. In order
to reduce the cost of pasteurization to the minimum, it is
essential that all steam turned into the pasteurizer be properly
utilized. The pastcurizer, as well a3 the steam-pipes, should
be properly insulated in order to prevent unnecessary conden-
sation of steam. According to experiments carried on by
Dr. Storch, all steam contains more or less air. By making
a device on the pasteurizer for the escape of this air better
results were obtained. By the use of such a vent it was made
possible to heat 1890 pounds of water from 52° F: to 185° F.,
while without this air device, and with the same amount of
heat, only 1467 pounds of water were heated. That is, by
this device he made a gain of 30% in the heating efficiency
of the pasteurizer. The contrivance used was simply a pipe
attached to the bottom of the pasteurizer and extending down
below the pasteurizer about 2 feet, then turned or bent, and
brought up vertically a few inches above the bottom of the
pasteurizer. The mouth of the pipe was then turned over,
This pipe accomplishes two purposes. It removes condensed
water from the pasteurizer, and also the accumulated air. It

PASTEURIZATION. 183

is also essential that the pasteurizer should not leak. All the
steam turned into the pasteurizer should be condensed before it
is allowed to escape.

The Cost of Pasteurization.—Dr. Storch in his 48rd report of
the Royal Agricultural [Experiment Station, at Copenhagen,
Denmark, reports that it requires 80 pounds of steam to heat
1000 Danish pounds of nuilk from 40° C. to 85°C. This would
be equivalent under American conditions to about 90 pounds of
steam to pasteurize 1000 pounds of milk from 90° I’. to 185° F.

According to good authority it takes 1 pound of lump coal
to produce 6 pounds of steam. Calculating from this, it will
take 15 pounds of coal to produce 90 pounds of steam. If
coal costs $4.00 per ton, the cost of 15 pounds of coal would
be 3 cents. If the nulk tests 3.6%, fat, and calculated on
one-sixth overrun, the 1000 pounds of milk would produce
about 42 pounds of butter. The cost of pasteurizing the milk
producing 42 pounds of butter is then 3 cents, and the cost
of pasteurization per pound of butter would be .07 of a cent.

‘vaking into consideration the cost of cooling, and counting
on about .03 of a cent for leaks involved during the process,
the cost of pasteurizing per pound of butter would be about
.l of a cent. As arule, the major portion of the cooling is done
with water, which at most creameries costs little or nothing.
Tor this reason the cost of cooling has been omitted.

Advancement of Pasteurization—During the last few years
pasteurization has gained favor with the American creamery
operators. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that if the best
product is to be manufactured it is absolutely essential that the
operator have complete control of the fermentations in the
cream or milk. This control of the fermentation can best be
accomplished by the process of pasteurization. Pasteurization
has been gaining favor with the creamery operators owing to
its own merits. The Danish Government compelled the pas-
teurization of milk or cream as a safeguard against tuberculosis.
It was found not only that the system was efficient in this
respect, but also that it produced a more uniform product, with

184 BUTTER-MAKING.

better keeping qualities. At the present time nearly all of the
central plants are pasteurizing their cream to a greater or less
extent.

Advantages of Pasteurization—The advantages of pasteur-
ization are many, but the chief-ones are as follows:

(1) It enables the butter-maker to produce a uniform
quality of butter. If most of the germs are destroyed by
pasteurization, and a pure culture added to the cream, the
ferments added will be in full control. If nothing but a desir-
able kind of germ is added, it follows that the product will be
uniform in quality In this way practically the same results
can be obtained from day to day.

(2) It eliminates many of the undesirable taints in the milk.
Especially is this effect noticeable during the fall, when cows
are liable to eat weeds that taint the milk. No matter how
well milk has been taken care of, it usually contains taints
which, when pasteurized will be partially eliminated from the
milk,

(3) It destroys most of the germs. This is important
for two reasons. It destroys most of the germs which effect
the quality of the butter, and it also destroys the pathogenic
germs, thus preventing the spread of diseases, such as tuber-
culosis, typhoid fever, ete.

(4) The butter-maker can control the fermentation in cream
much more easily when pasteurization is employed. It has
been demonstrated that the quality of the butter depends
in large measure upon the kind of fermentation. When the
fermentation in the cream is thoroughly controlled, a better
quality of butter can be produced. When the milk is in first-
class condition, fully as good butter can be produced without
the use of pasteurization, but it does not keep so well. Milk
inay appear to be in good condition, and yet at the same time
contain germs which are detrimental to the quality of the
butter.

It is at the present time a matter of dispute whether milk
and cream in a really sour and poor condition is benefited

PASTEURIZATION. 185

much by pasteurization. The flavor of the butter made from
such pasteurized cream is usually not improved very much.
However, the keeping quality of butter made from poor cream
pasteurized is usually better than if no pasteurization had been
employed. If the inferior quality of cream and milk can be
pasteurized, neutralized with an alkali, such as powdered chalk
or bicarbcnate of soda, then inoculated with a desirable species
of bacteria and re-ripened, the quality of butter can be im-
proved several points. But experiments carried on at the
Towa Experiment Station indicate that the improvement in the
quality of butter is not very permanent. Immediately after it
has been made there is a very distinct improvement in the
quality of the butter from such cream, sometimes as much as
five points. But for some reason butter from cream that has
been neutralized in such a way does not seem to keep well.
Some days after its manufacture it begins to lose decidedly in
flavor and to assume a very rank condition. For this reason
this method of treating poor cream has not been generally
advocated. The deterioration that takes place in such butter
after standing seems to be due to chemical changes rather
than to biological changes. The butter referred to was kept
in a refrigerator at a temperature of about 50° F.; if the rancid
flavors were due to the growth of micro-organisms, they should
not reveal themselves in so short a time.

(5) Pasteurization increases the keeping quality of butter.
This is one of the greatest advantages of employing pasteuriza-
tion in butter-making. The advantage of keeping butter from
the time of large supply and small prices to the time of small
supply and higher prices, makes pasteurization in butter-making
of vital importance in improving the keeping qualities of butter.
Butter made from good pasteurized cream and washed in pas-
teurized water will keep about twice as long as butter made
from the same kind of cream not pasteurized and washed in
unpasteurized water.

(6) If milk is pasteurized previous to skimming, closer
skimming can be obtained than if the milk were heated to a

186 BUTTER-MAKING,

comparatively low temperature. The reason for this has been
previously explained.

Disadvantages of Pasteurization.—The cost and additional
trouble involved in pasteurizing are undoubtedly the chief
disadvantages that could be brought up against pasteurization.
As was calculated above, the cost of pasteurization, after the
pasteurizer has once been purchased, is only .1 of a cent per
pound of butter. This cost would be reduced considerably
if the cream only were pasteurized, and increased if the cream
and skim-milk were pasteurized in separate machines. The

Score ae ak eek eit ee Ro ne ee el hen ot eae ek an Score
96 96
94 94
2 lps — 92
90 ae 90
88 ime ne 88
86 | Nea 86
84 | enh | , 84
82 SS | 82
80 a 80
fi 78
i ‘ 76
a4 a 4

Fic. 121.—Comparison of deterioration of butter made from pasteurized
cream and wash-water to that made from unpasteurized cream and
water, illustrated graphically. (Bul. 71, Iowa.)

initial cost of the pasteurizer is the great mountain to over-
come in the introduction of pasteurization in creameries.

When pasteurization is employed in butter-making, it is
absolutely essential that the greatest degree of skill and in-
telligence be applied. If care is not taken pasteurization is
likely to produce a poorer quality of butter than is the case
when no pasteurization is employed. Especially is this true
when sour or abnormal cream and milk are being pasteurized,
and little or no starter is used.

CHAPTER XIV.
CREAM-RIPENING.

Definition.— By cream-ripening we mean the treatment
cream receives fron the time it is put into the ripening-vat
until it is put into the churn; and also the chemical, biological,
and physical changes cream undergoes during the same time.

OnJECTS OF RIPENING.

(1) To Produce Flavor and Aroma.—The chief object of
cream-ripening is to secure the desirable and delicate flavor
and aroma which are so characteristic of good butter. These
flavoring substances, so far as known, can only be produced by a
process of fermentation. It is a well known fact that the best
flavor in butter is obtained when the cream assumes a clean,
pure, acid taste during the ripening. For this reason, it is
essential to have the acid-producing germs predominate during
the cream ripening; all other germs should if possible be
excluded or suppressed.

It has not yet been proved that any one particular species
of bacteria is responsible for the production of the flavors, but it
is agreed by all that the flavoring substances developed during
the ripening of cream are decomposition products of bacterial
growth, and that the types producing the lactic acid are the
most desirable ones to have present. There are a great many
bacteria in milk and cream which will produce acid. Over one
hundred species have been studied and described. There seems,
however, to be 2 comparatively few of those which produce

the best results.
187

188 BUTTER-MAKING.

It seems that during cream-ripening the development of
acid, aroma, and flavor go hand in hand. This does not neces-
sarily indicate that they are produced by the same cause. It
is possible that the flavor and aroma substances are chemically
produced from the various by-products of the germs.

Bacteriologists do not agree as to what species of bacteria
is responsible for the high quality of flavor and aroma of butter.
Conn * claims that the germs which act upon the nitrogenous

Fic. 122.—The McAreavy cream- Fic. 123——The Miller cream-ripening
ripening vat. vat.

matter of milk are associated with the. lactic-acid-producing
bacteria in the production of desirable butter flavors. Weig-
man asserts that the best results are obtained when a variety
of species work together in the cream. He has isolated a single
species of germ which produced alcohol and lactie acid as
by-products, and which, according to experimental evidence
deduced by him, is capable of producing the delicate butter
flavors. Freudenrich has also studied a species of germ which
produced alcohol and lactic acid as by-products, and was able
to produce the characteristic butter flavors. Eckles has studied
this question of flavor production during cream-ripening. He
comes to the conclusion that the flavor and aroma substances

* Storr Station, Conn,

CREAM RIPENING. 189

developed during cream-ripening may be produced by a variety
of acid-producing bacteria. He asserts that of the species
tried the most common milk-souring organism (Bacterium lac-
tarvi) gave the most satisfactory results as a culture for ripen-
ing cream. Storch, who has perhaps studied this question
more than any one else, maintains that the germs producing
lactic acid are essential to good cream-ripening, and that the
flavor and aroma products are the results of the joint action of
a great many species of lactic-acid-producing germs. Tiemann *
finds that an addition of a small amount of hydrochloric acid
to the cream does not produce the characteristic flavor, and in-

Fig. 124.—The Wizard cream-ripening vat.

dicates that the process of fermentation is necessary to get
the proper flavors. Dean, of the Ontario Agricultural College,
has recently reported that the flavoring substances can be
developed in the starter, then added to the cream. The re-
sulting butter has as good or a trifle better flavor than that
which undergoes a process of fermentation by ripening in the
usual way.

From the investigations quoted above it will be seen that
there is some doubt yet as to the specific origin of the flavor
and aroma substances developed during cream-ripening. It
is also not known for certain just what those flavoring sub-

* Milch-Zeitung, Vol. 13, p. 701.

190 BUTTER-MAKING.

stances are. They are evidently volatile, ether-like compounds,
which are produced by bacterial growth during the ripening
process. Few years ago it was thought that these flavoring
substances were due entirely to the oxidation process, and
that in order to get these flavors in butter it was necessary to
expose the cream to pure air during the ripening. It has now
been proved that air might be excluded from the cream-vat,
and still good results be obtained. This does not, however,
demonstrate that oxygen is not essential for the best results in
cream-ripening. All cream contains more or less oxygen in
solution. It has been thought that the oxygen that cream
holds in solution may favor the growth of the desirable germs
in cream, and that as soon as this has been utilized, conditions
may become unfavorable for the desirable germs and favorable
for the undesirable germs.

Practically, all the investigators agree that the flavor and
aroma substances which are characteristic of butter and which
are developed in ripening cream, are due to bacterial growth,
and that the germs producing lactic acid are the most desirable
ones. We quote the following instances to show what effect
some species of bacteria may have upon the quality of butter,
when present in the cream:

e Score on Flavor, Selling Price,

Number. Species Used for Starter. 45 Perfect. per ‘Bounds
1 Bacterium lactarii. .......... 39 $.20
2 Bacillus subtillis... 0.0.2.2... 31 14

These two samples of butter were made from the same
kind of cream which was pasteurized and inoculated with
starters from the different germs as indicated in the table.*
The butter ripened with Bacillus subtillis sold for 6 cents
per pound less than the other, a difference of nearly one-third
in value, due to the character of fermentation in the cream
during ripening. Therefore in developing the proper fiavors in

* Bul. 40, lowa Experiment Station.

CREAM-RIPENING. 191

butter, it is very essential that the undesirable germs be ex-
cluded or suppressed and that the conditions for the develop-
ment of the desirable typical acid ferments in the cream be
made as favorable as possible. The undesirable ferments may,
as a whole, be said to be those which act upon the nitrogenous
matter, or those which cause ordinary decay. They very likely
come froin filia in the barn, milking utensils, unclean milkers,

Fic. 125.—The new Jensen cream-ripening vat. (Peerless.)

and unclean and dusty barns. Abnormal fermentations of
cream, such as ropy, bitter, chromogenic fermentations, etc.,
are of course undesirable ferments. For kinds and classifica-
tion of germs in milk, see Chapter IV on Bacteria, and Chapter V
on Abnormal Milk.

(2) To Increase Churnability of Cream.—-Cream-ripening
is not essential in order to complete the churning process, but
ripened cream will churn more easily and more completely than
unripened cream, under the same conditions. This is due to a

192 BUTTER-MAKING.

lessening viscosity of the cream. The ripening process causes
the cream to become thicker but less viscous. Undoubtedly
the acid developed during the ripening process tends to cut
the membrane supposed to surround the fat-globules. The
reduced viscosity of the cream renders it easier for the globules
to move and unite in the serum when exposed to agitation in
the churn. It is possible to churn ripened cream in a thinner
state and at a lower temperature than unripened cream.
Cream which has been ripened to a normal degree of acidity,
also allows of a more complete churning than unripened cream.

Fig. 126.—The Boyd cream-ripening vat.

If cream is properly ripened, and churned at a medium low '
temperature, it is possible to churn so that the buttermilk con-
tains only about .1% of fat by the Babcock test; while if sweet
cream is being churned under the same conditions, the butter-
milk will contain more than this. This is undoubtedly due to
the fact that in sweet cream the viscosity is so great that it
prevents the minute fat-globules from uniting when agitated
in the churn, while in sour milk the viscosity has been largely
removed. Sour cream is thicker than ripe cream, but less
viscous. This facilitates the coalescence of the fat-globules
when exposed to agitation.

(3) To Increase the Keeping Quality of Butter.—It has been
demonstrated by several investigators that the keeping quality
of butter depends chiefly upon the number and kinds of germs
present in the butter after its manufacture. In order, there-

CREAM-RIPENING. 193

fore, to produce butter with good keeping qualities it becomes
essential to exclude or suppress all germs which deteriorate
butter. It is not of so great importance to exclude germs
which do not injure the keeping quality of butter. The germs
that produce lactic acid do not cause direct deterioration
cf butter. This has been demonstrated by Jensen.*

When cream has been properly ripened, it is practically a

Fig. 127.—The old Jensen cream-ripening vat.

pure culture of lactic-acid-producing germs, while sweet un-
pasteurized cream contains a bacterial flora, consisting of a
great many types of desirable and undesirable germs. It
should be mentioned in connection with this, that it is only
properly ripened cream that contains with any certainty, a
preponderance of germs producing lactic acid. If the cream
is over-ripe, the undesirable bacteria may also gain the ascen-

* Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz.

194 BUTTER-MAKING.

dency of the desirable. When such overripened cream is
churned, these undesirable germs are transmitted to the butter,
and cause deterioration. If the butter is churned from properly
ripened cream, and at the proper ripening stage, and the butter
washed in purified water, very few undesirable germs are trans-
mitted to the butter, and, as a consequence, it keeps better.

Ripening Temperature of Cream.—lIn practice, the ripening
temperature of cream varies within wide limits. Some makers
prefer to ripen cream at a temperature of about 80° F., others
ripen at about 70° F., and still others prefer to ripen at a tem-
perature between 60° and 70° F. Undoubtedly, the conditions
in the creamery will to some extent govern the ripening tem-
perature. Up to a certain limit the higher the temperature,
the quicker the ripening process. In some instances, it is
desirable to ripen and cool cream in a few hours, and then
churn the same day. Under such conditions a comparatively
high ripening temperature ix undoubtedly preferable, as the
cream will sour more quickly at such a temperature. Un-
doubtedly good butter can be made at any of the temperatures
mentioned above, but when we are to decide which temperature
is the best, we are, through experimental evidence, forced to
come to the conclusion that a ripening temperature between
60° and 70° F. gives the best results.

When cream is ripened at a high temperature it needs to be
cooled very little previous to ripening. Milk is usually sepa-
rated at a little above 80° F., and if the starter is added imme-
diately after separation, it will ripen in a very short time.
If ripened at a lower temperature, a longer time will be re-
quired to develop the same amount of acid, and hence with a
prolonged ripening period more attention is necessary. The
Danish butter-makers ripen their cream at a comparatively
low temperature, usually between 60° and 65° F., and obtain
the best results.

The germs producing lactic acid grow within a wide range
of temperature; viz.: from about 50° to 100° F. The extreme
temperatures are not favorable to the greatest possible growth.

CREAM R!PENING. 195

The optimum temperature, or the temperature at which tney
grow best is, according to Russell, from 90° to 95° F. At this
temperature the germs which cause undesirable results also grow
most rapidly in creain. Cream contains germs both of the
desiarble and the undesirable type. At a comparatively low
temperature (between 60° and 70° F.) the greatest relative
growth of the desirable germs is produced. Bactericlogisis aiso

Fic. 128.—Cream-ripening room in the Model Creamery at the
World’s Exposition, St. Louis, Mo.

tell us that the casein ferments as a rule thrive better at a
lower temperature than do the lactic-acid ferments at the same
temperature. This, keeping in mind that better results are
obtained by ripening at lower temperatures (60° to 70° F.),
seems to indicate that the flavoring substances are not formed
entirely by the action of certain germs producing lactic acid,
but that the flavoring substances are probably due to the
joint action of several species. Lactic acid itself does not have

196 BUTTER-MAKING.

the desired characteristic flavor of good butter, yet we know
that these flavoring substances are direct products, or accompani-
ments, of the development of lactic acid.

Cream ripened at a low temperature does not sour very
rapidly; the germs do not grow at a very rapid rate. The
desired degree of acidity is approached very slowly, and as a re-
sult the fermentation may be checked almost at once when
the desired degree of acidity has been reached, and the chance
for getting overripened cream is reduced to its minimum.
If the cream is ripened at a high temperature, there is greater
danger of getting overripened cream.

Extreme and rapid changes of temperature should be avoided
as much as possible. The more uniform the temperature can
be kept, if suitable for proper ripening, the better the results.
Accordingly, the ripening-vats used in this country are practi-
cally all jacketed, which permits the operator to regulate at
will the temperature of the water in the jacket surrounding the
cream.

Amount of Starter to Add to Cream.—The amount of
starter to add to cream will vary according to the temperature
of the cream, and to the length of time required for ripening.
If cream is to be ripened quickly, then a large starter should
be added. Good results can be obtained by adding starter to
the extent of 50% of the cream to be ripened. This much,
however, is usually not satisfactory, as it so reduces the thick-
ness of the cream as to render it more difficult to churn. It
increases the amount of serum which will form the buttermilk
when churned. The more buttermilk, the greater will be the
loss of fat in churning. On this account it is desirable not to
add any more starter than will give cream a proper thickness
(from 30% to 35% fat) and at the same time supply enough
desirable germs to gain the upper hand of, and to suppress the
undesirable germs already present.

It is important to skim the cream thick enough to permit
the use of an amount of starter equal to from 8% to 20% of
the cream to be ripened. This, under average conditions, will

CREAM-RIPENING. 197

produce desirable results, providing the starter is of the proper
kind. A poor starter is worse than none at all.

It is a good plan to pour the starter into the ripening-vat
before the cream is separated. Some also practice skimming a
heavy cream and then add some good morning milk to it.

Before the starter is added all precautions possible should
be taken in order to prevent the entrance of undesirable germs
into the cream. The top layer of the starter should be skimmed
off; and the very bottom portion of the starter should not be
emptied into the cream-vat either, as it usually contains some
of the sediments from the milk. It is essential that the starter
should be thoroughly stirred previous to adding it to the cream,
otherwise lumps of curd are likely to trouble during the re-
mainder of the process of manufacture. The curd, if not
properly emulsified previous to adding it to the cream, is likely
to show itself in the butter in the form of white specks. This
stirring of the starter can be brought about most satisfactorily
by pouring it back and forth from one can into another, until
the body of the starter assumes a uniform, not lumpy, con-
sistency. The cans used for this purpose must be carefully
cleaned and scalded previous to using them. Dippers and
stirrers of any kind should always be thoroughly sterilized
previous to using them in starters. The stirrer or dipper used
should have solid handles. This makes cleaning easier.

Stirring of Cream During Ripening.—As soon as the starter
has been brought into a proper condition it is added to the
cream. If necessary it should be strained before adding. The
cream should then be thoroughly stirred. If cream is not
thoroughly mixed with the starter, the ripening will not be uni-
form. If allowed to stand quietly, the cream soon separates
into two distinct layers. The fat, by reason of its being lighter
than the rest of the constituents, soon forces its way to the
surface, and incorporates with it a considerable amount of
casein. But the bottom layer will be similar to skim-milk;
for, being better mixed with the starter, the lactic-acid fer-
mentation proceeds more rapidly in this milky or bottom layer,

198 BUTTER-MAKING.

and thus prevents the fat which is at the surface from coming
in direct contact with the flavoring substances formed at the
bottom. If the surface layer of fat and casein were exposed
to favorable conditions, the point might be made that the sur-
face exposure is more desirable than if the fat were in « state
of perfect emulsion with the rest of the constituents of cream.
But such is not the case. The layer of fat and curdled casein,
when allowed to form at the surface, is likely to be contami-
nated with putrefactive organisms. Especially is this so if
the cream is allowed to stand in such a condition very long
in a warm ill-ventilated room. If the constituents of cream
are kept well mixed by stirring, the lactic acid checks the
development of putrefactive germs, which may accumulate at
the surface; the cream is ripened more evenly, and the flavor-
ing substances have the best facilities of coming in contact
with and being absorbed by the fat.

The authors have noticed that high-scoring contest butter
is usually made from cream which has been stirred judiciously
at intervals. The most notable prize winners have stayed up
with their cream all night, or part of the night, to watch the
ripening process, and to stir the cream occasionally. It would
not be practical to advise this method, but cream should re-
ceive a judicious amount of stirring at intervals during the day,
and if it is allowed to stand over night, it should be stirred
the last thing in the evening before retiring.

Natural anp ArtTiricraL RIPENING.

Cream-ripening as a whole, as practiced to-day, may be
divided into two groups: viz., (1) Natural, and (2) Artificial.

Natural.—Natural cream-ripening consists in letting the
raw cream stand at a certain temperature until it is sour, then
cooling it to the churning temperature. This method used to
be practiced nearly altogether, but now experimental and
practical evidence prove that this is not the method by which
the best butter can be produced. Natural ripening may, or

CREAM-RIPENING. 199

may not, produce good results. It has been termed by some
“chance ripening.’”’” At certain seasons of the year conditions
are favorable for natural ripening, while at other seasons con-
ditions are very unfavorable. It was stated before that putre-
factive organisms, or those germs causing ordinary decay, are
undesirable species of bacteria to have present in the cream.
During the late spring and early summer months, when the
cows are first put on pasture, the conditions are favorable for
the preponderance of the desirable germs; during the winter,
when necessarily the cows and the milk are subject to stable
conditions to a greater extent, the conditions are favorable for
the ascendency of the undesirable germs. Eckles has found
that during the winter about three-fourths of the bacteria in
milk consists of these undesirable germs. If these are present
in the milk, a proportionate part will be transferred to the
cream. When such cream is allowed to ripen or ferment in a
natural way, the undesirable gernis are likely to gain the ascen-
dency. As the conditions which govern the degree of con-
tamination of the milk and cream vary during the different
days of the different months and different seasons of the year,
this natural ripening is not to be depended on for obtaining
a good uniform quality of butter, even though at times good
results may be obtained from natural ripening. A maker who
wishes to make a high, uniform grade of butter should not
depend upon natural cream-ripening.

Artificial Ripening.—- By artificial ripening we mean (1)
ripening of raw cream to which sufficient starter has been
added to contro] the kind of fermentation; (2) ripening of cream
in which the germs have been destroyed by pasteurization,
and to which a starter has been added in order to introduce
the desirable ferments.

(1) Either of these methods is preferable to natural cream-
ripening. The first method has been the most common in the
past, but the latter method promises to give results which
will warrant every butter-maker in adopting it as a permanent
method in butter-making. Jf cream has been handled under

200 BUTTER-MAKING.

conditions which are favorable for the introduction of desirable
germs, and is otherwise in good condition, the best results can
be obtained by ripening such cream without pasteurizing it.
It is asserted that when all conditions are ideal,—the starter
good, and the cream good,—then a higher flavored butter can
be produced by this method than if the cream were pasteurized ;
but the keeping quality of the butter is not so good as that
produced from pasteurized cream. The same objection that
was made to natural ripening can be made to the artificial
ripening of raw cream. If the butter-maker at the creamery
has full control of all the conditions governing the quality of
butter, and if the milk is received at the creamery in an ideal
condition, then this method of ripening is commendable. But
at creameries where milk is at times delivered from one hundred
or more different patrons, some of the milk is likely to come
in in an unfavorable condition. The poor milk is likely to
contaminate all the remainder of the cream, and objectionable
fermentative products are likely to develop in the cream-vat.

When this method of ripening is practiced the starter should
be added to the cream as soon as possible. Jn fact, this rule
applies to all methods of cream-ripening where a starter is used.
It is preferable to add the starter to the cream-vat before the
skimming is begun. In this way the lactic-acid germs in the
starter get a chance to work in the cream immediately after
it is skimmed, and, for this reason, are more likely to suppress
the undesirable types of ferments present.

2. The second method, that of pasteurization, is without
any question the ideal way of manufacturing butter. It has
been advocated in a theoretical way for several years in this
country, but only within recent years has this method of
ripening cream been deemed sufficiently meritorious to warrant
its adoption. It is, however, rapidly gaining in favor. The
method consists in heating the cream on a continuous pastuerizer
from 155° to 190° F. A temperature of about 180° F. is the
one usually employed. It is said that a temperature of 140°
to 150° F. destroys practically all the germs producing lactic

CREAM-RIPENING. 201

acid. Some undesirable germs also, in a vegetative stage, are
not destroyed at this temperature. For this reason cream
should be heated to about 180° F. At this temperature, the
germs causing tuberculosis are destroyed. It isin order to com-
bat this disease that the Danish Government compels all cream
to be pasteurized before it is made into butter, and also all of
the skim-milk before it is returned to the farmer. The germs
causing tuberculosis are destroyed at a lower temperature than
this (180° F.), provided they are exposed to the temperature for
some time. In creameries the intermittent method of pasteur-
ization isused. In this method the time of exposure to the heat
is short, and consequently a higher temperature is necessary.

By heating milk to such a temperature practically all of the
germs, desirable and undesirable, are destroyed with the ex-
ception of those that are present in the spore form. If this
cream is inoculated with the desirable germs, then theoretically
and practically, good uniform results should be obtained.

It was mentioned above that the spore-bearing bacteria were
not destroyed by the degree of heating to which cream is ex-
posed. If the cream is allowed to stand any length of time at
a favorable temperature without a starter in it, these spores
will develop and cause undesirable results. If pasteurized
cream is allowed to ripen naturally, a very bitter flavor usually
develops. In order to overcome this undesirable fermentation,
it is essential that the starter should be added as soon as possible
after the cream has been cooled down to the desirable ripening
temperature. It should be remembered that this starter should
never be added to the cream while it is still hot, as the lactic-
acid-producing germs in the starter would then be destroyed.

Ripening Cream When Churning is Done Once Every Other
Day.—At certain seasons of the year the milk delivered to the
creamery is not sufficient in quantity to produce enough cream
so that it is worth while to churn every day. Many makers
profitably utilize their time by churning only every other day.
The question then comes, how may the cream be preserved in
the best possible condition? Some prefer to cool the cream to

202 BUTITER-MAKING.

a low temperature (50° F.) immediately after it has been
skimmed or received, then allowing it to stand until the next
day. The second day’s cream is then poured in with the first
day’s cream, the starter added, and the ripening process com-
pleted. Others prefer to add the starter to the first batch of
cream immediately after it has been skimmed, then ripen it
almost to the normal degree of acidity, and cool to about 50° F.
The next day the new cream is skimmed into this already
ripe cream, stirred thoroughly, and the ripening process com-
pleted. The latter method, if done properly, has given the hest
satisfaction. When cream is ripened according to the method
first described, undesirable fermentations are likely to gain
ascendency. As has been mentioned before, the undesirable
germs grow better at a lower temperature than do the bacteria
producing lactic acid. When the next day’s cream is skimmed
into this, the undesirable ferments may preponderate to such
an extent that the desirable germs cannot overcome or suppress
them during the remainder of the ripening process, According
to the latter method, the first day’s cream is ripened as usual.
When the next day’s cream is skimmed into this, the first lot
of cream acts as a starter. The lactic acid present inhibits
the growth of other undesirable species, and consequently
better results are obtained by this method.

This latter method of holding cream is recommended when
cream is to be held for any length of time, such as over Sunday,
or when the creamery is run only every other day, and the
churning done once or twice per week. If possible, and all
the other conditions consistent, it is better to ripen the cream
and churn it the day it is delivered than it is to hold the cream
over for several days before it is churned. Butter will always
keep better than cream, under any conditions.

MIXING oF CREAM.

With the introduction of hand-separators the quality of
cream received at creameries varies considerably. The ques-
tion then arises, should the different quantities of cream be

CREAM-RIPENING. 203.

mixed, or should they be treated separately according to
quality, and made up into several grades of butter? Theoret-
ically the grading of cream into two or three, or even four,
grades can be argued to be correct and proper, yet in creameries
where only a comparatively small amount of cream is handled,
it usually does not pay to grade very much. In a very large
plant where as much as 50,000 pounds of butter is made per
day, there is no question that a system of grading cream pays.
Several large central plants are now grading their cream into
three or four grades successfully. In smaller plants, however,
it is not as a rule advisable to make more than two grades,
the first grade to include all good and fair cream, and the
second grade to include the very poorest. Usually in the
comparatively small creamery plants, the quality of cream can
be better controlled, and consequently less grading is necessary,
while in a large plant the creamery manager has but little con-
trol over the conditions governing the quality of the cream.

The chief conditions that determine whether different
qualities of cream should be mixed, might be said to depend
upon:

(1) The quality of the cream.

(2) The kind of market for the butter.

(3) The amount of hand-separator cream compared with
the amount of good quality cream, usually sepa-
rated from the milk at the creamery.

(4) The general creamery conditions.

1. Quality of Cream.—The difficulty of grading cream is met
with chiefly in comparatively small creameries where part of
the intake is cream and another part milk. The cream that.
is separated from the milk at the factory is usually in an ex-
cellent condition, while the cream delivered from hand sepa-
rators, or raised by any of the gravity methods, is usually of a
poor quality. If the cream delivered to the creamery is in
just as good condition as that obtained from whole milk skimmed
at the factory, then there is no danger in mixing the two kinds

204 BUTTER-MAKING.

of cream. If it comes in a poor condition, such as hand-
separator cream usually does, then the poorest cream should
be ripened by itself. Some maintain that the mixing of the
two kinds of cream is favorable, because, if the hand-separator
cream were churned separately, it would produce butter which
is very poor in quality, while, on the other hand, if the two
were mixed a better quality as a whole would be obtained.
This is undoubtedly true; but evidently if the quality of
butter from the hand-separator cream was raised, that from
the whole milk was lowered, so that the quality of butter re-
ceived from both was poorer than that which would have been
obtained from the whole milk if kept separate.

2. Kind of Market.—If a creamery operator is working
strictly for quality, and the butter is sold on that basis, it
certainly would not be a good plan to mix the poor cream
with the better cream. On the other hand, if the butter is
sold on the market with no attempt to establish a reputation,
no further aim than to get as much as possible out of the present
supply, then it might pay. By mixing the two it might be
possible to raise the quality so as to bring all of it on the market
at a trifle above “Creamery Extras”; while if the cream from
the whole milk were kept separate, perhaps no greater price
could be obtained for the butter produced from this better
cream. If the butter from the poor hand-separator cream
were placed on the market by itself, evidently it would not
command the same price as that made from the whole milk,
or the mixed lot either. As has been stated before, the mixing
of poor cream with a good quality of milk, skim-milk, or whole
milk, and stirring the mixture thoroughly improves the quality
of the butter in a marked degree.

3. Amount of Cream.—If only a small amount of hand-
separator cream is being received, then usually it will not pay
to carry it through by itself. By experience the authors have
found that the best way to dispose of a comparatively small
amount, providing it is not too sour, is to empty it into a
receiving-vat with the milk, and stir it well, re-skim it and

CREAM-RIPENING. 205

pasteurize all the cream, add a starter, and ripen in the usua
way. If the cream is sour, and there is a danger of souring
the remainder of the milk, or clogging the separator, it is ad-
visable to add it directly to the cream-vat. The sourness of
the cream is not so dangerous if the flavor is clean. If it is
very unclean, and not sour, the mixing with the whole milk,
the separation, and pasteurization will eliminate a great many
of the undesirable flavors and check the activity of a larce
portion of the undesirable germs present. When the starter
is again added and ripened, a good quality of butter is ob-
tained. If a comparatively large amount of cream in poor
condition is received, then it is advisable to retain it by itself.

4. General Creamery Conditions.—Occasionally it happens
that a creamery is not properly equipped with vats, so as to
enable an operator to handle two lots of cream. Where one
man has to do all the work, one churning is about all he can
accomplish daily, besides attending to the remainder of the
work. Under such conditions it is doubtful whether it will
pay to purchase additional vats and hire additional help, in
order to keep poor hand-separator cream separate from the
remainder, through the different steps of manufacture. Since
the butter is not sold strictly on its merits, there would, as a
rule, be no profit for the average small creamery to grade the
cream, on account of the additional labor and apparatus re-
quired. If a high quality of butter is the supreme aim of the
creamery operator, then it becomes very essential that the poor
cream be kept separate.

EXAMINING AND TESTING CREAM FoR AcIpITy DURING
RIPENING.

As has been stated before, the best flavor in butter is pro-
duced when cream is ripened to the proper degree of acidity.
If it is ripened too much, or overripened, the butter will assume
a high flavor and strong aroma, while if not ripened high enough,
it will be a little flattish with less aroma. Many makers depend

206 BUTTER-MAKING.

upon the taste and smell, and the appearance of the cream,
to decide when the cream has been ripened to the desired
degree of acidity. Makers with a great deal of experience are
able to tell quite accurately by the appearance of the cream
and its taste and smell when it has been properly ripened.
Well-ripened cream gets an apparently granular and glistening
condition. It has a pleasant, mild acid taste, and a good
clean sourish aroma.

As the flavor of properly ripened cream will vary somewhat
according to the different degrees of richness of the cream, it
is very easy to be deceived by the
senses. For this reason it is advisable
to use a special test with which to
measure the amount of acid developed
in the cream. There are two acid tests
in general use now in creameries, viz.,
‘“‘Mann’s Test” and the “ Farrington
Test.”

Mann’s Test.—Mann’s test consists
of measuring the acid in the cream
yby means of an alkali of a definite
known strength. The kind of alkali
used is usually a .1 normal solution of
caustic potash (KOH) or soda (Na.OH).

Mann’s acid. test. In. Lhese solutions can be made up very
stead af the ecg cheaply or pout from the supply-
large bottle, as shown in houses. Mann’s test is based upon mea-
Fig. 131 and 130. suring out 50 ¢.c. of cream by means
of a pipette. A few drops of an indicator (phenolphthalein)
is added. This indicator gives a red color in an alkaline solu-
tion, and no color in an acid solution. The .1 normal alkali
is poured into a burette, and the solution allowed to run into
the 50 c.c. of cream and stirred thoroughly until it begins to
turn pink in color. At this point it is neutral. The number
of cubic centimeters of alkali required to neutralize the acid
in 50 c.c. of cream indicates the number of degrees of acid.

CREAM-RIPENING. 207

For instance, if it required 32 ¢c.c. of a tenth normal alkali
to neutralize the acid in 50 c.c. of cream, the acidity of the
cream would be 32°.

(1 ¢.c. of N/10 alkali= 1° Mann’s Test.)

Mann’s test reading can be converted so as to express the
results in percentage similar to the Farrington test. As 1 ¢.c.

Fic. 130.— Arrangement Fie. 131.

for keeping alkali for

the Mann’s test. Z
of the .1 normal alkali neutralizes .009 grams of pure lactic
acid, 32 ¢.c., as in the above case, would neutralize 32 times .009.
This would give the amount of acid, calculated in terms of
lactic acid, present in the 50 c.c. of cream. This product

208 BUTTER-MAKING.

divided by the 50, and multiplied by 100, would give the per-
centage of the acid present.

Farrington Test—The same principle is involved in the
Farrington test. The alkali is put up in small tablets, already
containing the indicator. These tablets contain a definite
amount of alkali, and are represented as retaining their strength.
However, they lose their strength if they are exposed to the
atmosphere. The amount of alkali embodied in each tablet is
such that when five of them are taken into a graduated cylin-
der, the cylinder filled up with distilled water to the 97-c.c.

Fic. 132.—Apparatus for the Farrington acid test.

mark, and the tablets thoroughly dissolved in water, a solution
is obtained, each cubic centimeter of which represents .01 of
1% of acid, providing 17.6 c.c. of cream is taken. The tablets
can be made up of different strengths for the use of different-
sized pipettes, but as the 17.6-c.c. pipette is the one which is
used in the ordinary Babcock test, directions are given for the
use of that pipette only. For a more detailed description of
the acid tests see ‘‘ Milk Testing,” by Farrington and Woll.
Amount of Acid to Develop.—The amount of acid to develop
in cream depends upon the amount of fat present in the cream,
and to some extent upon the market on which the butter is

CREA M-RIPENING., 209

to be sold. Some markets require higher flavored butter than
others. Practically all markets, especially in this country,
demand butter which has a comparatively rich creamy flavor,
with a nice clean butter aroma.

It was found at the Iowa Experiment Station, from a large
number of experiments, that cream containing 30% fat gave
the best results, that is, showed the highest flavor when ripened
to 37 degrees, Mann’s test. It has also been demonstrated that
acid is developed only in the serum portion of the cream. This
would bring the cream-ripening process down to a question of
proportion, as the fat is practically neutral. By subtracting the
30% fat we have 70% serum. This would equal .53 degree
of acid to each per cent of serum. Thus, 70% serum multiplied
by .53 would give us 37.1 degrees, Mann’s test. For instance,
if we take 40% fat, we would have 60% serum, and this
multiplied by .53 would give us 31.8 degrees to ripen to. With
thin cream of 20% we would have 80% serum, which would
equal 42.4 degrees to ripen to.

We would not recommend following the above formula to
the extreme with thin cream. For 20% cream 42 degrees
would be sufficiently high to ripen to, even with exception-
ally good cream. When the flavor of the eream is not
good it is not desirabie to ripen to quite as high a degree of
acidity.

Another formula which has worked very satisfactorily in the
Dairy Department at Iowa State College, and which does not
give as high a degree of acidity, is as follows: Subtract the
per cent of fat found in cream and divide the serum by two,
and the quotient will be the degree to ripen to. For instance,
30% cream giving 70% serum would give 35 degrees to
ripen to.

210 BUTTER-MAKING.

CHEMICAL, PHysicaL, AND BroLocicaL CHANGES.

Physical Changes.—Al] the changes in cream during ripening
are very complex, and the causes of them are not well under-
stood. The chief cause of the ripening process, as it normally
occurs, is the action of micro-organisms. As has been stated
before, the germs producing lactic acid are the most numerous.
These germs continue to gain the ascendency in the cream
during the ripening until cream is almost a pure culture of
lactic-acid-producing germs. Accompanying this growth, the
sugar present in the cream is broken up into lactic acid and
several other by-products which will be mentioned later.

These different by-products have certain physical effects
upon the body of the cream. The acid developed causes
the cream to coagulate and become thick. As the ripening
process is carried on the appearance of the cream changes some-
what. It becomes thick, granular, and glistening in appear-
ance. Undoubtedly the film of casein, or whatever the envelop-
ment may be, surrounding the fat-globules, is loosened or cut.

Biological Changes.—Cream when put into the ripening-vat
usually contains a very large variety of bacteria. Which
species predominates at that time depends upon the care and
treatment of the cream previous to the ripening stage. In
pasteurized cream practically all the germs present are of the
spore-producing kind, and unless conditions are favorable for
the development of the spores, these will be suppressed by the
germs added with the starter. During the first few hours of
the ripening process there is a gradual growth of all the germs
present. It is said that in sweet cream the lactic acid germs
are comparatively few in number, but under favorable conditions
these grow so much more rapidly in number than any of the
others, that in a short time they become more numerous than
all the other germs. The by-product lactic acid is unfavorable
for the growth of nearly all the undesirable varieties of germs.
Practically all these germs are suppressed in their development,

CREAM-RIPENING 211

so that when cream is ripened properly, it contains few other
germs besides those which produce lactic acid.

From the above it will be seen that there are practically two
overlapping periods in the bacterial changes during the ripening
of the cream, and especially is this so in the ripening of raw
cream. The first includes the period when all the different
varieties of germs grow, and the second includes the period
when only the lactic-acid-producing germs grow. It is, there-
fore, maintained that before the churning takes place the
ripening of cream should be carried on to such an extent that
the lactic-acid germs only predominate. Dr. Storch, who has
made a detailed study of this, asserts that milk and cream
both have a rather undesirable flavor at the beginning of its
ripening period, while in the latter stage of the ripening period
it takes on a pleasant, clean, acid taste.

The number of germs, and the relative number of acid-pro-
ducing germs in the cream when ripened, is as shown in the
following table: *

Per
i Number Aci Ber Number Non-

Date ees Number per c.c. per c.c. Peat acid pentitn noe

acid.
Feb. 11 | Fine 280,000,000 257,000,000 | 92 22,400,000 8
JP ABE APOGEE. « \lay seu Sere eee nt als Relay decrees Hata We aly ala wat scene ca 19
«« 30 | Excellent | 3,002,000,000 | 2,851,190,000 | 95 {150,810,000 5

Aug. 11 | Good 1,107,000,000 | 1,012,072,200 | 91.5] 94,928,800 8.5

Sep. 3 Fair 1,027,000,000 955,110,000 | 93 71.890.000 7
a 5 | Good 2,007 958,000 | 1,827,370,000 | 91 |180,588,000 9
Oct. 28 ne 392,958,000 385,098,840 | 98 7,859,160 2
fc 30 SS 393,700,000 381,889,000 | 97 11,811,000 3

Eekles found that when good-flavored cream is ready for
churning the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter varies
from 380,000,000 to 3,000,000,000. Of this number the acid-
producing bacteria constitute from 91% to 98%.

Chemical Changes.—The changes in cream during the process

* Bul. 40, Iowa Experiment Station.

212 BUTTER-MA KING.

of ripening are not due to any instability of the components
of cream, nor are they attributed to any of the enzymes.
Galactase is a pre-existing enzyme in milk; consequently it
would be present in cream, but present only to a very small
extent. If it were possible to exclude from the cream all the
different kinds of bacteria, ripening would not take place.
At least it would proceed at a much slower rate than the
ordinary rate of change in the ripening of cream ; this proves
that the solids of cream are chemically stable and that the
enzymes or unorganized ferments play only a secondary part
in bringing about the different changes in cream ripening.
There are two classes of solids in cream which are decom-
posed chiefly during ripening: viz., (1) Albuminoids, and (2)
Sugar.

1. Most authorities maintain that bacteria are unable to
feed on, or to decompose directly any substance which is not
present in the form of a solution. As casein is not normally
present in a solution in milk, the pre-existing enzymes or
bacterial by-products must cause the first decomposition of
casein before the germs are able to utilize it. The by-products
resulting from the casein ferments are many, and very com-
plex. According to Russell * albumoses, leucin, peptone,
tyrosin, and ammonia are formed. Freudenrich claims that in
addition to these butyric acid is a by-product. Besides these
substances, gases such as carbonic gas, marsh-gas, and nitrogen
are formed. Whether all these by-products are formed directly
or indirectly or both, no one knows for certain.

The typical ferments seem to act similarly upon the casein
in milk. They produce first a rennet-like ferment, which
curdles the milk. After it has been curdled, the curd is digested
or peptonized by the action of some enzyme. The casein in a
sample of milk containing a preponderance of casein ferments
will in a few weeks, or even less time, disappear entirely. Ap-
parently the milk has been transformed into whey. This
particular ferment is called casease by Duclaux. Conn calls

* Dairy Bacteriology.

CREAM-RIPENING. 213

it a tryptic ferment, because it is similar in its action to the
trypsin produced by the digesting glands. The putrefactive
germs ordinarily act upon the nitrogenous matter of cream,
as described above.

2. The milk-sugar in cream is present in a perfect solution,
and consequently it is thought that bacteria are able to utilize
it as food directly. The typical lactic-acid-producing germs
cause the milk-sugar to split up into lactic acid chiefly, accord-
ing to the following equation:

Cy2H22011 +H20 = 4C'3H60O3.

Milk-sugar. Lactic acid.

There are a number of germs which are able to produce
lactic acid from milk-sugar, but practically all of them, so far
as known, produce other by-products besides the lactic acid.
Some germs produce much lactic acid and a small amount of
other by-products, while other germs produce little lactic acid
and large amounts of several other by-products. Some of them
break up the milk-sugar and change it into lactic acid and car-
bonic gas. Other species produce lactic acid and alcohol.
This latter species Grottenfelt claims to be closely associated
with the production of flavoring substances in butter. Different.
kinds of gases, such as nitrogen, hydrogen, carbonic-acid gas,
and marsh-gas are also formed.

It is doubtful whether there are any germs which are able
to transform milk-sugar entirely into lactic acid. If such were
the case, 1 gram of milk-sugar would produce 1 gram of lactic
acid. According * to some experiments carried on by one of
the authors, .§ of a gram was the maximum amount of acid
developed from 1 gram of milk-sugar, and .5% is the average
amount of acid developed from 1 gram of milk-sugar. In the
experiments, efforts were made to have the typical lactic-acid
ferments present inthe cream. The following table may prove
of some interest:

* Chemical Changes during Cream Ripening. (Thesis I. S. C.)

214 BUTTER-MAKING.

Cream I.
Sugar. Acid. gee.

lst ripening period.......... .1% produced 04% 33%
2d mM Ee gat Sea cai teas wl s .06 .35

Cream TT.
1st ripening period.......... .1% produced 08% 58%
2d we Se Tad aentaths neces wl sa .06 -64
3d “ OO eee tae beS wl ee .045 .82

Cream ITI.
1st ripening period.......... .1% produced 051% 58%
2d ts Be Sectss HES 2h hoe wl es .050 -63
3d “ aa ee ee a ee al ee .016 .68
Average of 8.experiments. . . wl Wy 05+

Conn states that the lactie acid produced in cream during
ripening is not always of the same kind. Some species of
bacteria produce the kind which turns the plane of polarization
to the left; other species produce the kind which turn it to
the right, and still other species produce the so-called inactive
lactic acid. The most common are those which produce acid
that turns the plane of polarization to the right.

The souring of cream, according to Conn, is not due to the
development of lactic acid alone. Two kinds are produced,
(1) fixed, and (2) volatile. The fixed acids appear to be chiefly,
if not wholly, lactic acid, and the volatile are chiefly acetic and
formic acids. The fixed acids are produced in the greatest
proportion.

In the table quoted above, it will be seen that during the
first ripening period of sample 3, .1% sugar produced .051% of
acid, while during the last or third ripening stage .1% of sugar
produced .016°% of acid, being only about one-third of that
produced during the first ripening period. The same is true
in experiment II, where three separate analyses were made of
the cream. It is difficult to account for the constant decrease
of lactic acid in proportion to the sugar decomposed in the
advanced stage of the ripening period. Is it the lactic acid
already present that decomposes into other products when so
much acid is formed? Or do the bacteria continue to decom-
pose the sugar, but the by-products being of a different nature?

CREAM-RIPENING. 215

Or do certain species of bacteria cease to act, and are other
species, which produce less lactic acid and more gaseous prod-
ucts, able to perpetuate their growth and bring about the
results observed? The results are probably due to a com-
bination of the different actions just mentioned, but the most
likely theory is that conditions for the growth of other species
of bacteria become more favorable, and other by-products
than lactic acid are formed, products that cause the undesirable
rancid flavors in over-ripened cream.

Butyric acid also results from the decomposition of cream
constituents during ripening. The origin of the butyric acid
formed during ripening is, however, not well known. Freuden-
reich says it is the residue resulting from the breaking down of
casein and milk-sugar in various ways, and therefore he classes
the butyric ferments in the same group as the casein ferments.

Butyric acid in overripened cream is by some authorities
considered to be a direct product from an excessive amount of
lactic acid. Each molecule of lactic acid breaks up into butyric
acid, carbonic-acid gas, and hydrogen, according to the follow-
ing equation:

Carbonic-
acid gas,

2C3sH603 = CsH7COoH + 2CO2 + Hea.

Lactic acid. Butyric acid. Hydrogen.

It is questionable whether this reaction ever occurs in the
ripening of cream.

Butyric acid also results from the decomposition of butyrin,
through the action of bacteria, and causes the molecules of fat
to split up into butyric acid and glycerine, according to the
following equation:

Butyrin (fat). Water. Glycerine. Butyric acid.
[ CsHCOs [ OH

C3Hs5 | CsH7COz + 3H20 = C3Hs5 { OH + 3C3H7CO2H
| CgH,COz | OH

CHAPTER XV.
STARTERS.

Definition—By the term starter, in cream-ripening, we
understand a medium containing a preponderance of desirable
germs present in a virulent condition.

History.—The use of starters in the dairy industry dates
back a great many years. The fact that starters helped in the
manufacture of dairy products was recognized years ago by
practical men even before scientists recommended the use of
pure cultures. In European dairy countries the use of the
buttermilk borrowed from a neighboring factory to add to the
cream in order to overcome abnormal conditions, was a common
occurrence. In Holland, sour whey borrowed from some other
factory was used to overcome gassy fermentation in cheese-
making. While the reasons for this were not well understood,
the underlying principle was involved, viz., that of overcoming
the undesirable fermentation by adding ferments of an an-
tagonistic kind.

The introduction of pure cultures, or commercial starters,
for cream-ripening dates back to 1890, by Professor Storch.
He recommended their use in creameries in Denmark. Starters
were used in that country for a time successfully, and since
then starters have been introduced and extensively used in
this country, as well as in practically all European countries.

Classification of Starters—Generally speaking, the different
kinds of starters are included under the names (1) Natural,
and (2) Commercial. The latter is prepared from a pure
culture of bacteria obtained from the laboratory. The former,
or natural, include a great many kinds of dairy products which

216

STARTERS. 217

are supposed to contain a preponderance of those germs which
are involved in the production of desirable flavors in butter.
Buttermilk, sour cream, whey, and sour whole or skim-milk,
are classed under this heading. While all these may be termed
natural starters, and at certain times the use of any one of
them may produce better results than if no starter at all were
used, it is not safe to rely upon these to bring about better
results than could be obtained without the use of starters,
because these products are likely to be contaminated in a large
degree with undesirable germs.

Preparation of Natural Starters—-The best natural starter
is usually obtained by selecting a number of different samples
of the best milk coming into the creamery, into cleaned sterile
glass jars. The samples are allowed to stand until sour at
about 70° F. The sample which coagulates into a smooth uni-
form curd, and has a pleasant acid taste and smell is selected
and used as a mother-starter. When inoculated into a large
quantity of selected pasteurized skim-milk, cooled to and kept
at a temperature of about 70° F. until it begins to coagulate,
it will usually produce a starter which is equal, and often
superior, to a commercial starter.

Commercial Starters, or Pure Cultures——Experiments have
amply proved that certain species of bacteria are chiefly re-
sponsible for the butter flavors developed in cream during
ripening. This fact has given rise to the use of pure cultures
prepared in a commercial way. These pure cultures contain,
in a virulent condition, the germs which produce the desirable
flavors and aroma. The cultures are put up in laboratories
specially provided for this kind of work. The germs are iso-
lated and inoculated into a medium which is suitable to their
growth. Some laboratories inoculate them into a liquid medium,
others into a powder medium. The liquid medium consists
usually of sterilized bouillon, or milk. The powder medium
consists chiefly of milk-sugar. The cultures that are put up
in the liquid form will not keep so long, and it is not safe to use
them after they are about nine days old. The cultures which

218 BUTTER-MAKING.

are put up in powder form have the advantage that they can
be kept for a much longer time and still retain their vitality.
Both kinds as a rule are good while they are fresh. We give
below a list of the commercial cultures with which the authors
are familiar:

8. C. Keith, | Lactic Acid Culture.
Charlestown, } Duplex Culture (ee
Mass. J) Boston Butter Culture
O. Douglas, | Boston Butter Culture }
Boston, Duplex Culture | Liquid.
Mass. J Lactic Acid Culture
ae Uae | Eriesson’s Butter Cul- | iquid,
: Minn. i ture j
Ameri- ‘
en Hansen’s, |
Little Falls, [ae Ferment Powder.
Park Davis&Co., ] This culture is put up
ca ae Detroit, i Flavorone | in tablet and cap-
Sirians Mich. | sule forms.
Conn's Culture, — ]
Storr Station, | Bacillus 41 Liquid.
Conn.
Blauenfeldt & oe : P
Tvede, Copen- | ak i tic Acid Powder.
hagen, Den. J Chere
Hjort & Fog’s — |
: Lab’t Cul. | .
Foreign Copenbieein. + Lactic.
Den.
S. P. Storm,
Tillitze, Naks- | Starter.
kov, Den.

Preparation of Commercial Starters.—<All of the starters
mentioned above have been tested and are known to produce
good results. The first step in the preparation of a mother-
starter (starterline) is to prepare preferably a glass jar or
bottle by thoroughly cleaning and sterilizing it. Glass jars are
used in preference to any other vessel, because if they are un-
clean in any way, it will show through the glass. Secondly,
there are no seams and no places on the inside which will cor-

STARTERS. 219

rode, and in that way retain unnoticeable dirt. Mason jars
and sampling bottles are suitable. The kind of bottle which
is used for marketing milk gives very good results.

The second step consists in selecting suitable milk. The
milk must be in as pure and sweet a condition as possible. A
good starter can be produced from either whole or skim-milk.
Skim-milk, however, is preferable to whole milk. The mis-
take of selecting whole milk for starters has often been made.
The mother-starter prepared from whole milk usually has a
more pleasant, mild, rich taste, due to the fact that it contains
more fat than the starter made from skim-milk. The mother
starter prepared from good skim-milk is preferable, and safer
to rely upon. Efforts should be made towards separating the
starter milk before the rest of the milk has been run through.
If not separated till late during the run of the day, the separator
is filled with slime and bowl-slush, which are likely to con-
taminate the starter milk. At some creameries, the separation
of the starter milk is accomplished with a small hand sepa-
rator. This, however, is not convenient or practicable at most
creameries. The milk for the starter can be selected and run
through the power separator during the beginning of the run.
It is well not to use the very first nulk which passes through
the separator, asit would be likely to contain a greater number
of undesirable germs.

The milk which has been selected for the mother-starter,
or starterline, is then pasteurized. The pasteurization is best
accomplished by the intermittent method. If considerable
milk is to be pasteurized it is best to make use of a clean,
sterilized can. If only a small portion is to be pasteurized,
just enough for the mother-starter, the milk can be put di-
rectly into the jars. The jar half full is about the proper amount
of milk to use. The directions sent with some pure cultures
recommend as much as half a gallon or a whole gallon of milk.
As a rule better results are obtained if only about a pint of
milk is taken. If the milk for the mother-starter is pasteurized
in the glass bottles or jars, then it is advisable to set the bottles

220 BUTTER-MAKING.

containing the milk into cold water,—covering the jar so as
to prevent outside contamination,—-and then heat up the
water gradually. Care should be taken not to insert these
bottles suddenly into scalding hot water, or to let the steam
strike them, for either is likely to crack the bottles. Care
should be taken also to exclude water from milk used for
starters. It is advisable to heat this milk, for the starterline,
as high as possible in scalding water, say up to about 200° F.
The sample may assume a cooked taste, but this will soon
disappear after the starter has been carried on a few days.
The milk should be left at this high temperature for about ten
or fifteen minutes. A longer time does no harm, Then the_
milk is gradually cooled to about 80° F. This high temperature
is desirable, because the germs present in the commercial cul-
ture may be somewhat dormant. This high temperature would
tend to revive them more quickly than a lower temperature.
Great care should always be taken to cool the milk previous to
inoculating it with the pure culture, otherwise the germs present
in the pure culture will be destroyed.

Inoculation.—The next step is to inoculate the prepared
milk with the pure culture obtained from the laboratory. The
bottle which contains the pure culture is carefully opened, then
the bottle containing the culture is turned over and emptied
into the pasteurized milk. The bottle should be held down
closely to the mouth of the jar containing the sterile milk, in
order to prevent too much contamination from the air. Then
the milk containing the pure culture is thoroughly stirred and
set away in a room where the temperature is about 70° F.
This will gradually cool the milk from 80° to 70° F., and in
about twenty to forty hours the milk will sour and coagulate.
Germs in nearly all of the liquid cultures are rather slow in
acting upon the milk, undoubtedly due to the dormancy of the
germs, and to a comparatively few of them being present in
the pure culture. When the powdered cultures are used, a
little more care is essential to get the powder thoroughly min-
gled with the milk. It is a trifle more difficult to get the

STARTERS. 221

powder thoroughly mixed with the milk than it is to get the
liquid cultures mixed. If anything is used with which to stir
the sample, it should be sterilized before coming in contact
with the milk. This applies in the preparation of all cultures.
In testing or sampling the mother-starters, nothing should be
allowed to come in contact with it unless it has previously been
thoroughly sterilized. The powder cultures are usually more
vigorous in their effect than most of the liquid cultures now
on the market. The powder cultures usually coagulate the
sample in about twenty-four hours, and if the operator is used
to handling the liquid cultures, he should watch the mother-
starters prepared from powder cultures, so that they do not
get overripe. It is very essential that the starters do not get
overripe. The time when the germs are most numerous and
most active in the starter is about the time when the sample
coagulates. As soon as this stage has been reached, or just
previous to coagulation, the starter should be cooled down to
at least 50° F., or lower if possible This prevents any further
growth of germs and the sample can be kept a short time
without injury.

Directions usually accompany each of the cultures, but the
above will be found to produce good results with all of those
mentioned in the above outline.

By inoculating from 2% to 5% or more of the mother-
starter into a large sample of pasteurized milk, any desired
amount of starter can be prepared. In selecting this amount
of milk, as much care as possible should be taken in order to
select the best kind of milk, and keep it from being contaminated.
When this large sample of starter is at the proper stage of
coagulation, it should be used at once, or else cooled down to
about 50° F. The amount of mother-starter with which to
inoculate the large sample of starter may vary a little with-
out any bad effects. If the large sample of starter is to be
ready for use in a short time, a larger portion of the mother-
starter can be used for inoculation. If the temperature at
which the starter is set and the amount of mother-starter used

222 BUTTER-MAKING.

for inoculation are the same from day to day, the starter will
be ripe at nearly the same hour every day, and, consequently,
more uniform ripening results can be obtained. The notice-
able coagulation of the starter when skim-milk is used will
usually take place when there is about .6% of acidity. A
slight coagulation will take place when there is about .5% of
acidity, but it is hardly noticeable. The coagulation-point may
vary with different samples of milk.

If a mother-starter is to be kept any length of time it
should be inoculated into a sample of good fresh pasteurized
milk about every other day. If a mother-starter, or starter
of any kind, is allowed to stand too long at a low temperature,
the desirable germs will become dormant, and some undesirable
gerins will gradually gain a foothold. It is a good plan to
carry any mother-starter along for two or three days before it
is used to inoculate a large sample of milk. When the mother-
starter is first prepared it sometimes contains an undesirable
taste and smell from the medium in which the germs were
put up at the laboratory. This smell and taste is eliminated
by carrying it on two or three days previous to its use.

While the starter, or mother-starter, is in the stage of
ripening it should occasionally be gently stirred. As soon as
coagulation of the milk begins, then starters of any kind should
never be stirred. If a sample of coagulated milk is stirred
before it is ready for use, it is more likely to ‘‘ whey off.”

Length of Time a Starter Can be Carried.—In this country,
even if special precautions are taken, it seems almost im-
possible to carry on a starter for more than four weeks without
having undesirable ferments enter. The length of time a starter
can be carried undoubtedly depends upon conditions, and the
care with which it has been handled. When a starter is properly
prepared, cooled gradually before coagulation, and not overri-
pened, it will contain a smooth soft curd, and retain its mild acid
flavor for at least a month. The Danes, who use starters in
butter-making more regularly than any other people, are able to
carry a starter along for six months or more without renewing it.

STARTERS, 223

It is a good plan to keep at least two different kinds of
starter by carrying them on from day to day in small quart
jars. Then if one should happen to ‘‘go off,’ the other one
can be used instead.

Poor Starters. — Many unsuccessful results from the use of
starters for cream-ripening have been reported. The failure
can be traced to the improper use of starters. If starters are
good they will never bring about poorer results than are ob-
tained without the use of them. Owing to the fact that it is
difficult to keep the same starter in a good condition very
long, many starters are used which develop abnormal fermenta-
tions in cream. A slightly acid, somewhat bitter taste, and a
slimy condition of the starter are defects which are very com-
mon. These conditions seem to be brought about chiefly by
overripening it at a high temperature, and keeping it a long
time at a low temperature before using it. Slmy fermenta-
tion is very common in starters which have been carried on
for a time, Whenever this slimy ferment develops in the
starter it can be noticed in the cream and starter both, by the
acid not developing so rapidly as when the proper acid-pro-
ducing ferment is present. It seems almost impossible to
develop any more than about .5% of acidity in 30% cream;
while if the proper ferment were present, about .7°% could be
developed. A decrease in the quality of butter accompanies
the development of this ferment in the cream.

Whenever it is found that a starter is not in as good condi-
tion as it ought to be, it should not be used, as a poor starter
is worse than none at all. The buttermilk from the previous
cream can sometimes be used advantageously until a new
starter can be prepared.

Underripening and Overripening of Starters. — The effect
of overripening starters has already been mentioned under the
“Preparation of Mother-starters.’”’ The question of under-
ripening starters is also of importance. It is a well-known fact
that just about the time when the milk begins to turn sour,
that is, when the sourness can just be recognized by the taste,

224 BUTTER-MAKING.

it has a rather disagreeable flavor. After more acid develops
the undesirable flavor largely disappears, and the milk assumes
a clean, desirable acid taste. The reasons for this has recently
been accounted for by Storch, the well-known authority on
starters. He claims that this disagreeable flavor is due to the
action of undesirable organisms, during the first souring stage.
As the souring progresses these germs are subdued and grad-
ually crowded out by the desirable acid-producing types.

In the preparation of a starter the probabilities are that
some of these undesirable types of germs are present. At least
it is safer to go on the assumption that they are present. This
makes the underripening of starters just as important to guard
against as overripening.

Amount of Starter to Use.—The amount of starter will vary
under different conditions. It may vary from none at all the
as much as 50% of the cream to be ripened. The quality of
cream is one of the factors that needs to be considered. Raw
cream and old cream each require a large starter, especially if
the cream is thick enough so as to permit of being reduced in
thickness. Good pasteurized cream does not need a larger
starter than about 10°% of the cream to be ripened.

The amount of starter to use also depends somewhat upon
the general creamery conditions. In some creameries all the
cream is received in a very sour and poor condition, and facili-
ties for getting milk for preparation of starters are often very
poor. Under such conditions it is questionable whether it
would be profitable to use starters at all. The amount of
starter to use chiefly depends upon the degree of rapidity of
ripening desired, and upon the temperature of the cream. If it
is desirable to ripen quickly, then a comparatively large starter
(15% to 25%) should be added, and the ripening temperature
should be comparatively high (about 80° F.). If slow ripening
is desired, then less starter can be used. Enough, however, should
be used to control the fermentation in the cream (about 10%,
to 15%), and the ripening temperature may be lower, between
60° and 70° F. More starter should be used in the winter.

STARTERS. 225

Use of Starter-cans—In the past, ordinary tin shot-gun
cans have chiefly been used for the preparation of starters,
and have given good results. Many makers still use such cans
in preference to recently invented starter-cans.

Fie. 133.—The Victor Fie. 134.—Emily’s perfection
starter-can. starter-can.

The earliest starter-cans were made of light material and did
not last long. These defects, however, have largely been done
away with, and the use of starter-cans certainly is an improve-
ment over the old method of preparing the starters in several
smaller cans.

These starter-cans are jacketed, so that the temperature can
be controlled by using hot or cold water, or ice, as demanded,
in the jacket. All of the starter-cans have an agitator, which
is operated with a belt.

CHAPTER XVI.
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER.

Definition.—By churning we understand the agitation of
cream to such an extent as to bring the fat-globules together
into masses of butter of such size as to enable the maker to
separate them from the butternulk.

The agitation may be brought about in several different

in skin bags.

ways, and by different shaped devices, which are called churns.
The methods of churning, like the process of separation, began
with primitive methods. The ancients churned their milk,
without separation, in bags made from the skins of animals.
The next step in advance was to place milk or cream in bottles

or jars, and then to shake them. This latter method of churn-
226

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 227

ing cream in bottles is yet in use in many of the smaller house-
holds of Europe, where the amount of cream is limited to a
small quantity donated by cow-owners. The next step toward
churning on a large scale was to get a large wooden box or
barrel run by power or by hand. The churns which are in use
at the present’ time in American butter-factories are termed
“eombined churns.” They are so arranged as to admit of
churning, washing, salting, and working without removing the
butter from the churn. This style of churn is now being in-
troduced into Europe. Owing to their superior worth they will
soon be in general use there as well as here. They keep flies
away from the butter during fly time; the temperature of the
butter can be controlled in the churn, and the handling of the
butter during salting and working is obviated.

ConpiTIONS AFFECTING THE CHURNABILITY OF CREAM.

Temperature.—The teniperature of cream is one of the most
influential factors in determining the churnability of cream.

Fic. 137.—The Dairy Queen combined churn.

The higher the temperature of the cream, the sooner the churn-
ing process will be completed. Too high a churning tempera-
ture, however, is not desirable. It causes the butter to come
in soft lumps instead of in a flaky granular form. This is
deleterious to the quality of the bucter. It causes, first, a greasy
texture of the butter, and, secondly, it causes the incorporation

228 BUTTER-M AKING.

in the butter of too much buttermilk. This buttermilk contains
sugar, curd, and water, which, when present together in butter,
are likely to sour and in other ways deteriorate the butter.
Curd and sugar should be excluded from butter as much as
possible, in order to eliminate food for bacteria which may be
present. An excess of curd is also favorable for the forma-
tion of mottles.*

Too low a temperature is also undesirable, although it is

Fie. 138.—The Victor combined churn.

better to have the temperature a little low rather than too high.
When the churning temperature is too low, difficult churning
is likely to occur. Cream at a low temperature becomes more
viscous. On agitation in the churn such cream if it is very
thick will adhere to the sides of the churn and rotate with it
without agitating; consequently no churning will take place.
Too low a temperature brings the butter in such a firm condi-
tion that it takes up salt with difficulty, and when this hard
butter is being worked, a large portion of the water in the

* Bul. No. 263, Geneva, N. Y.

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 229

butter is expressed, and the overrun will be lessened to a great
extent without increasing the commercial value of the butter.
The degree of hardness of the fat in the cream is the govern-
ing factor in deciding the churning temperature. The churn-
ing temperature will vary a great deal in different localities.
The hardness of the fat depends upon (1) the season of the year;
(2) the individuality of cow; (3) the stage of lactation period;

Fig. 139.—The Squeezer combined churn.

and (4) the kind of food fed to the cows. All these factors
influence the melting-point of butter-fat. The higher the
melting-point of butter-fat is, the higher the churning tempera-
ture, and the lower the melting-point of the fat, the lower the
churning temperature.

1. During the spring the cows yield milk containing a larger
proportion of soft fats; consequently the churning tempera-
ture is always lower in the spring than in the fall or winter.
During winter, when the cows are fed on dry food chiefly, the
harder fats increase in quantity, and consequently a higher
churning temperature is necessary during that time.

2. Some animals produce milk containing a larger proportion
of softer fats than do other animals. It is said that the differ-
ence in this respect is more marked in certain breeds. It is
maintained that the cows of the Jersey breed produce milk con-
taining a larger proportion of the softer fats than do any of the
other breeds.

3. The period of lactation also affects the melting-point of
butter-fat. When a cow is fresh she yields a larger proportion

230 BUTTER-MAKING.

of the soft fats than she does later on in the lactation period.
With this increase in the proportion of the hard fats in the
advancement of the lactation period, the fat-globules become
smaller. This, together with the increased hardness of the fat,
causes difficult churning at times. It can readily be seen that
the larger the fat-globules are the greater are the chances for
these globules to strike each other during agitation in the
churning process.

4. The nature of the food fed affects the melting-point of
butter to a considerable extent. Cotton-seed and its by-

Fie. 140.—The Disbrow combined churn.

products have been demonstrated thoroughly by several investi-
gators to cause butter to become hard. When a large amount
of cottonseed is fed, the butter assumes a crumbly, tallowy,
hard condition; while linseed meal, and practically all succulent
foods tend to decrease the melting-point of butter-fat.
According to the above it can be concluded that the churning
temperature may vary between wide limits, but the average
‘desirable churning temperature under normal conditions is

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 231

between 50° and 60° F. Any conditions which tend to harden
the butter-fat will require a comparatively high churning tem-
perature; and any conditions tending to soften the butter-fat
will require a lowering of the churning temperature. The
lower the temperature at which the churning can be success-
fully accomplished, the more complete will be the churning;
that is, the less fat will remain in the buttermilk.

Fig. 141.—The Simplex combined churn, with worker detached.

Richness of Cream.—The amount of fat in the cream affects
the churnability of it considerably. The richer the cream the
sooner will be the completion of the churning, that is, providing
the cream is not rich enough to be so thick as to cause the cream
to adhere to the inside of the churn and thus escape being
agitated. If rich cream is churned at a high temperature the
butter will come in a remarkably short time, providing all other

232 BUTTER-MAKING.

conditions are favorable. Thin cream churns much more slowly,
and can be churned at a higher temperature than thick cream,
without injuring the quality of the butter. When rich cream
is churned at a high temperature, and the butter comes in a
short time (about ten minutes), the butter will usually be greasy
in body, and will contain a great deal of buttermilk, which will
be more or less difficult to remove on washing. When thick
cream is being churned, the butter does not break in the form
of small round granules, as it does when thin cream is churned.

When thick cream is churned at as high a temperature as is
consistent with getting a good texture, the best results are
obtained. In the first place, rich cream produces less butter-
miuk, consequently less fat will be lost in the buttermilk. This
would tend to increase the overrun. Secondly, the breaking
of the butter at the end of the churning will be such as to
cause the granules to appear large and flaky, rather than small
round granules. The more flaky granules of butter will retain

Fic. 142.—The Simplex churn with worker attached.

more moisture than the small, harder granules under the same
treatment. Experiments show that when different. thicknesses
of cream (thin cream containing on an average 22% of fat,
and thick cream 36% of fat) are churned, there is a difference
of about 3% in the moisture-content of the butter. The

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 233

average churning temperatures of cream and wash-water in these
experiments were 56° and 53° F. respectively.

When thick cream is churned, and the temperature is
moderately high, it is almost impossible to churn the butter
into granules. This condition causes butter from thick cream
to contain more moisture than butter from thin cream.

Amount of Cream in Churn.—When the churn is about one-
third full, the greatest degree of agitation is obtained, and con-

Ha Ce
—

SS a eee

Fic. 143.—Danish churns and frame for holding them.

sequently a quicker churning. If a small amount of cream is
being churned, it is often difficult to gather the butter properly.
Tf the cream is thin, the granulesare thrown about in such a
way that they are gathered with difficulty. If the cream is
thick, the small amount of cream will adhere to the inside of the
churn, and in that way delay the completion of the churning.
It is a common opinion that less overrun is obtained from

234 BUTTER-MAKING.

a small churning than from a large churning. It is safe to say
that if it were possible to maintain all conditions alike, especially
as to temperature and degree of churning, there would be no
difference in the moisture-content of the butter made from
churnings of different sizes. When there is only a small amount
in the churn, the atmospheric temperature is likely to raise or
lower the temperature of the cream. If the atmosphere is
warm, then the butter from the small churning is more likely
to be soft. A small amount of cream in the churn is also more
likely to be overchurned than a larger amount of cream. These
two factors would tend to increase the amount of water in the
butter. In mixing the salt with a comparatively large amount
of butter, less working is necessary. Much of the butter is
mixed in the churn without going through the workers, and con-
sequently less moisture will be expressed from the butter. With
the same number of revolutions of the churn the butter from
the small churning is worked correspondingly more than the
butter from a larger churning. Medium firm butter, to a cer-
tain limit, loses about .2% of moisture for every revolution that
it is overworked in the absence of water.

Degree of Ripeness.—The riper the cream is, all other con-
ditions being the same, the easier it will churn. Sweet cream
is viscous, and consequently the fat-globules will not unite as
readily. The acid developed in the cream seems to cut or
reduce the viscosity of the cream, although it causes it to become
thicker in its consistency. Cream in an advanced stage of
ripening is brittle, so to speak. That is, if a sample of the
properly soured cream is poured from a dipper it will not string
but break off in lumps.

If very thin cream is overripened, the curd is coagulated.
When this thickly coagulated cream is churned, the solid curd
breaks up into small curdy lumps. These small lumps of curd
are likely to incorporate themselves in the body of the butter
and injure its quality, and also its keeping quality. If thin
cream has been overripened, it should be strained well, and
care should be taken not to churn it to such a degree as to

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 235

unite the granules into lumps before the churn is stopped. By
stopping the churn while the butter is in a granular form, the
most of these curdy specks can be separated from the butter
by copious washing. Some specks are likely to remain in the
butter when the cream is in such a condition, but by following
the above plan enough of the specks can be removed from the
butter so that it will not injure its commercial quality. The
degree of ripeness of cream does not have any effect upon the

Fic. 144.—The churn-room in Trifolium Creamery, Denmark.

composition of the butter, except in increasing the curd con-
tent, as mentioued.

Nature of Agitation The nature and degree of agitation of
cream affect the churnability considerably. Many different
kinds of churns are on the market at the present time. The ro-
tary druni-churns, now used almost universally in this country,
are claimed to give the greatest degree of agitation; that is,
providing the churn revolves at a proper rate of speed. If

236 BUTTER-MAKING.

the speed is so great as to cause the cream to be influenced by
the centrifugal force generated, rotating it with the churn,
then no agitation will take place. Consequently the churning
process will be delayed, if not entirely prevented. If the
speed of the churn is too slow, the degree of agitation of
the cream will not be at its maximum, as the cream will tend
to remain at the lowest portion of the churn without being
agitated.

In the old-fashioned dash-churn the cream was not exposed
to much agitation. In Europe the upright barrel-churn with
rotary stirrers inside is mostly used. It takes longer to churn
in this churn than in American churns. However, it gives good
satisfaction.

The proper speed of the combined churn,—that is, the speed
at which the greatest degree of agitation is brought about,—
cannot be given here, as it varies with the different diameters
of the churns. The directions given with the churns from the
manufacturing companies should be followed. So far as known
the quality and composition of butter obtained from churning
at a low speed, and at a rapid speed, do not vary.

Size of Fat-globules.—Cream containing large fat-globules
churns more quickly than cream containing small globules. A
more exhaustive churning can also be obtained from cream
containing mostly large globules. It is, however, impossible
to obtain cream which does not contain any of the small globules.
The minute globules are always difficult to remove from the
serum, whether it be in the churning or in the separation. In
the churning there is a certain force which always tends to hold
the globules in place. This force acts in a correspondingly
greater degree upon the small globules. They are held in
position and move only when the cream is exposed to agitation.
Cream containing larger globules allows them to escape from
their position with greater ease than does cream containing
the minute globules. The globules which are not removed from
the buttermilk during the churning process are largely of the
small type.

LEZ ‘uodaI() “purpqwog ‘AlouIval,) pooma[ZUP] UL WooL-WINYJ—'GFL “DLT

238 BUTTER-MAKING.

Straining of Cream.—-Before the cream is transferred from
the ripening-vat to the churn it should be strained through a
fine perforated tin strainer. This can be conveniently done
during the changing of the cream from the ripening-vat to the
churn. Special strainers are now manufactured which can
be hooked onto the churn, and the cream can run directly from
the ripening-vat through the strainer into the churn. This
straining of the cream separates all the lumps which are
likely toappear. It also separates any other coarse impurities
which may be present. If these impurities were not sepa-
rated they would probably be embodied in the butter and
cause an unsightly appearance. They would also be likely to
injure the keeping quality of the butter, but this would depend,
of course, upon the character of the impurities.

Fig. 146.—Cream and milk strainer.

Color.—In ordev to maintain a uniform color in the butter
during the different seasons, it is essential that some artificial
color be added at certain times. During the latter part of
May and the fore part of June the butter has a rich yellow
color, which is accepted as the standard color of butter. This
is often referred to as the ‘‘ June color.”

There are several different butter-colors on the market, for
which special merits are claimed. All the colors, so far as
known, are efficient in imparting color to the butter without
materially coloring the buttermilk. A good butter-color should
be a substance which does not impart a bad smell or taste to
the butter. It should possess strong coloring properties, so
that very little of it would have to be added in order to
impart the desirable color. It should not be injurious to health,

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 239

Some colors are prepared from the fruit of the annato tree,
which grows in the East Indies and South America. The flesh
of this fruit is dissolved in some oil, such as sesame or hemp.

Before any of the proper commercial butter-colors were put
upon the market, extracts of carrots, marigold, saffron, and
annato were used. The yolk of eggs has also been used to
some extent. It is said that carrot-juice is the most healthful
butter-color.

The amount of color to add depends upon the market
requirements, and upon the season of the year. As was men-
tioned before, in June little or no color should be added. As
the summer season advances the amount of color added can be
gradually increased. During winter, while the cows are on
dry feed, the maximum amount of color is generally used. Color
requirements of the butter vary considerably at the same season
of the year. American markets demand a higher color than
European markets. The northern markets desire a light straw
color, while the southern markets want a deeper color, almost
an orange color. The Jewish trade requires uncolored butter.
In some of the European countries no color is used. The
English market, which is the greatest butter market in the
world, demands butter that has a very light straw color. The
main object in coloring butter is to maintain a uniform color
during the different seasons of the year. The amount of color
to add during the different seasons will usually vary between
none to a trifle over two ounces for every 100 pounds of fat.

The color should be added to the cream before the churn
has been started. If this has not been done, the butter can be
colored by mixing the color with the salt. The salt should
then be well distributed and worked into the butter until the
body of the butter assumes a uniform color. The chief ob-
jection to this method is, that it is difficult to work in the color
thoroughly without injuring the butter.

When to Stop the Churning.— Different makers have various
ways of ascertaining when the churning process has been com-
pleted. Some determine the proper churning stage by the size

240 BUTTER-MAKING.

of granules. Others by the height at which the butter floats
in the buttermilk. Others again depend upon the appearance
of the buttermilk. It is well to let all of these factors influence
the operator in deciding when the churn should be stopped.
Any one of these factors may not be sufficient indication to
insure the proper time to stop.

The size of the granules is the most common factor that
determines the time when the churn should be stopped. It
has been a general rule in the past to stop the churning when
the granules are a little larger than wheat-kernels. As a rule
it is safer to carry the churning on a little further until the
granules increase to the size of corn-kernels, irregular and
flaky inshape. At this stage the buttermilk will usually appear
bluish in color, and the butter is raised above the buttermilk
a considerable distance. When the butter is churned to too
small granules, many of them will go through the strainer into
the buttermilk, and cause a considerable loss. When butter
in such shape 1s washed in medium-co!d wash-water, the granules
continue to remain in a separate state. When salt is added,
the moisture is extracted from them, and the water is likely
to be caught in holes and crevices during the working and
cause leaky butter. If the churning is carried on a little further,
the granules will not escape into the buttermilk. The churn-
ing is more complete, and the moisture will be incorporated in
a better condition.

Overchurning should be avoided as much as underchurning.
If butter is overchurned in the buttermilk, it will retain a
large amount of the buttermilk, which will be very difficult
to remove by washing. Overchurning butter, especially at a
medium-high temperature, is very effective in increasing the
moisture-content of butter, and should be guarded against for
that reason. Butter containing more than 16°% water is not
permissible on the American market.

When cream is in a poor condition it should not be over-
churned, as the incorporation of buttermilk produces a very
rank and unclean flavor in the butter. Cream in such condi-

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 241

tion also contains many undesirable germs, which, when in-
corporated into the butter, will cause it to deteriorate to a great
extent. When the cream is in poor condition, the churn should
be stopped as early as is consistent with the completeness of
churning. The buttermilk should be removed and the butter
washed thoroughly in good clean and pure wash-water. If

1 2 3 4 5

Fie. 147.—Butter from 1 lb. of fat in cylinders, showing the effect. of differ-
ent percentages of water upon quantity. The water-content of these
samples ranges between 8% and 19%.

the wash-water is added while the butter is in this granular
condition, the buttermilk can be very effectively removed.
If one washing is not sufficient, wash three or four times. In
such a case the temperature should be low. If the temperature
of the wash-water is high, and the butter is washed excessively,
it will contain too much moisture when it is finished, and is
likely to be salvy. By washing with water at a low temperature
the butter will not incorporate so much water. What it does

242

BUTTER-MAKING.

Fie. 148.—Butter sample, Fie. 149.—Butter sample,
15.61% water. 15.31% water.

Fie. 159.—Butter sample, 13.37% water; leaky, 2% brine.

Microscopical views showing condition of water in butter. Fig. 148 shows that

the water has been incorporated in the form of very minute particles.
Storch found from nine million to sixteen million water particles per
cubic millimeter. Such butter appears dry and a little dull. Fig. 149
shows the water incorporated in medium-small particles. There was
on an average three and three-fifths millions of water particles per cubic
millimeter in such butter. Fig. 150 shows condition of water in leaky
butter. Storch found about two and one-half million water particles
per cubic millimeter in butter having such a body. (Views by
Storch.)

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 243

incorporate in excess, will, as a rule, be expressed during the
working of the butter—a result due to its firmness.

If the attempt is made to incorporate water by working
the butter in water after the salt has been added, while the
butter is in a hard, granular condition, it will usually appear
leaky.

If cream is in a good condition, overchurning to a small
extent does not produce any bad results. The germs which
are present in pure and well-ripened cream are not deleterious
to the keeping quality of the butter. The amount of butter-
milk incorporated in the butter is not sufficient to cause any
bad effects upon its quality. If the cream is in proper condi-
tion it is difficult to incorporate any more than 3% of curd
into the butter. While overchurning is not to be recommended,
if it is at any time desirable, it should be done in the wash-
water rather than in the buttermilk.

Churning Mixed, Sweet, and Sour Cream.—When two lots of
cream are to be churned, one sweet and the other sour, they
should be churned separately. If the two lots of cream are
mixed together, the sour cream churns more quickly than the
sweet cream. As a consequence the churn is likely to be
stopped before the fat from the sweet cream has been com-
pletely separated from the serum.

At some of the creameries conditions are such that the
operator may be tempted to mix the two lots of cream. Where
sweet cream arrives at the creamery just previous to churning
time, it is advisable not to mix the sweet cream with the sour.
It is, as a rule, better to carry the sweet cream over to the
next churning, or, if necessary, churn it separately.

Difficult Churning.—-Difficult churnings in creameries are
not very common. In farm butter-making it is more frequent.
Especially is this so in the fall. At this time the cows are
usually well advanced in the period of lactation, and early in
the winter they are often fed on food which causes hard butter-
fat, as described under “Effect of Food upon Fat.” In the
fall or early winter, a large portion of the milk is usually obtained

244 BUTTER-MAKING.

from strippers, or cows almost dried up. Such milk contains a
large portion of the small fat-globules. Difficult churning
resulting from such conditions can usually be remedied by
ripening to a higher degree of acidity and churning the cream
at a higher temperature.

Complaints are occasionally heard of difficult churning
which cannot be remedied bv such treatment. Sometimes
cream froths, and will not agitate in the churn. Such a frothy
condition has in some cases been found to oecur even though
the cream may seem to be in an ideal condition for churning.
It is believed by some, notably Hertz, that such a condition in
the cream is brought about by a disease of the cow. Weigman
has studied and isolated a ferment which caused a soapy condi-
tion of milk and cream. It is possible that such exceedingly
difficult cases in churning may be due to a disease of the cow,
and it may also be due to certain ferments that produce a soapy
condition of the cream.

If thick cream at a very low temperature is put into the
churn, it sometimes produces difficult churning. When such
cream is first agitated in the churn it incorporates considerable
air. This air, together with the various gases developed at a
low temperature does not readily escape. The viscosity of
it is so great that it will not release the air present. As a
consequence it assumes a stiff consistency, much the same as
the beaten white of an egg. If cream froths in the churn as
mentioned, a little warm water thrown on the outside of the
churn will often start the agitation of the cream within. If
a combined churn is used the rollers may be put in gear, and
the churn revolved in slow gear. This will often start the
cream to agitate. If these two remedies are not sufficient, a
little water, luke-warm if necessary, may be added directly to the
cream. By letting the churn stand a short time, the cream will
usually condense into a liquid form again, and many times the
churning process can then be completed. This latter method, how-
over, usually requires more time than can be profitably spared.
If the churning difficulty is of aserious nature the remedies are:

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 245,

(1) If produced by a certain cow, or herd, find out whether
it is produced by a fermentative process, or by other abnormal
conditions of the cow.

(2) Change the food of the cow. A succulent food will
usually cause the cow to secrete more milk, and of a different
nature.

(3) If produced by a ferment, endeavor to control the fer-
mentation as previously described.

(4) Ripen the cream to a higher degree of acidity.

(5) Skim thicker cream and churn at a higher tempera-
ture.

The last three methods will cure most cases of difficult
churnings.

Keeping Churn Sweet.—It has been mentioned before that
butter absorbs foreign odors very readily. If the churn is not
kept in a pure, sweet condition, the butter will be exposed to
the undesirable odors and its commercial quality will be im-
paired. The best butter cannot be produced in a foul-smelling
churn. As churns often are not used every day, they very
readily assume this impure condition, and it is essential that
special care be taken in keeping them clean.

The best mcthod of keeping churns in good condition is to
rinse the churn in two sets of water at the end of each churn-
ing. The first rinsing should be made with lukewarm water,
the second with scalding hot water. Some prefer to turn the
churn over with mouth down. Others prefer to allow the
cover-hole to turn up. When the churn is turned with the
cover-hole down, the remaining steam on the inside of the
churn will not escape. It will condense inside of the churn,
and cause the churn to remain in a damp condition over night
or even longer. By turning the churn with the cover-hole up
the dust and other impurities, if present, are likely to settle
into the churn. A good way is to turn the churn over so that
the cover-hole points to one side. The churn should be thor-
oughly drained first, otherwise some water will remain in the
bottom of the churn. When the churn is left with the cover-

246 BUTTER-MAKING.

hole at one side, the steam can escape, and the heat absorbed
from the wash-water will dry the churn thoroughly. Many
makers rinse the churn only once and use scalding hot water.
This method is likely to scald the remaining curd on to the
wood; secondly, one rinsing is not enough to insure a clean churn.
The first rinsing with lukewarm water removes the major por-
tion of the buttermilk and brine, and to a certain extent warms
the wood of the churn, so that when the second rinsing with
scalding hot water is completed, the churn has been thoroughly
scalded. In addition, the churn is clean, and no food left, on
which for germs to thrive. The churn is also left warm, and in
that condition will dry quickly.

Some makers prefer to keep the churn in a good condition
by sprinkling salt on the inside after washing. This is not to
be recommended, as all churns contain more or less iron-ware
on the inside. Salt, while a good germicide, causes the forma-
tion of rust on all iron with which it comes in contact. After
a time this rust will scale off to a certain extent and become
incorporated with the butter.

If the churn is treated daily in the manner described above
and then at the end of the week treated with slacked lime, the
churn can be kept in a good sweet condition. The lime should
be freshly slacked and in a liquid condition when put in the
churn. A pailful or two of this fluid will be sufficient for each
churn. By rotating the churn a few times the lime will be
spread all over the inside of the churn. Let the churn remain
in this condition until ready for use again. When ready for
use, put in some warm water, and the lime will readily come
off. But if it has been allowed to remain in the churn too
long, it will form a lime carbonate, and will be more difficult
to remove.

Time is one of the best disinfectants and deodorizers that
can be used in a creamery. Some of the best butter-makers
use it every day on all the wooden utensils, such as on butter-
workers, churns, etc. Lime can be used more advantageously

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 247

in American creameries than it is to-day. Many creameries
would be in a much sweeter and purer condition if they were
given a good coat of whitewash on the inside once a month.
Refrigerators, wooden utensils, and rooms of any kind can be
kept in a good sweet and pure condition by whitewashing or
sprinkling a little lime on them.

WasHING or BUTTER.

Purpose of Washing.—The chief object of washing butter is
to remove as much buttermilk as possible. The more impure
the cream is, the greater is the importance of getting the butter
thoroughly washed. In the winter, when it is cold, and the
cream is in good condition, some makers do not wash the
butter at all. But this is not a safe method. The removal
of the buttermilk constituents should be as complete as con-
ditions will permit.

Temperature of Wash-water.—The temperature of wash-
water should be as nearly like that of the cream when churned
as 1s consistent with the other conditions. Extreme and rapid
changes in temperature should always be avoided. Occasionally
it is necessary to use water that is colder than the cream. At
other times it is necessary to use wash-water at a higher tem-
perature than that of the cream. If the butter churns soft,
do not use ice-cold wash-water to chill the butter, as it has a
tendency to give buttera tallowy appearance. Neither should
hard butter be quickly softened by using wash-water at a very
high temperature, as it is likely to cause the butter to assume
a greasy and slushy texture. If it is necessary to change the
degree of hardness of the butter, change it gradually by using
water at a moderate temperature and allowing the butter to
be in contact with it a longer time without agitating it much.

Unless the butter is of very poor quality, excessive washing
should be avoided. Cold water is said to absorb a considerable
portion of the flavoring substances. If the quality of the
butter is poor, many of the undesirable flavors and odors are re-

248 BUTTER-MAKING.

moved by excessive washing; while if the butter has a fine, rich
flavor, it should be retained, and not extracted by washing
the butter more than is needed. No definite temperature can
be given, as the temperature of wash-water must vary accord-
ing to the hardness of the butter when churned.

If the temperature of the wash-water is too high, and the
churning in the wash-water is continued a very long time, much
water will be incorporated in the butter. If the butter is quite
firm in the first place, and the temperature of the wash-water
is not above 60° F., there is not much danger of getting too
much water in the butter. Rapid changes in the degree of
hardness of the butter in the presence of water are conducive
to a high moisture-content. Very soft butter chilled in very
cold water, and hard butter softened in very warm wash-water
are two conditions which should be avoided.

Kind of Wash-water to Use.——In the washing of butter,
it is very essential that water used should be the best obtain-
able. The creamery water-supply is evidently much _ better
now than it was years ago. Pond-wells and shallow wells are
gradually passing out of existence, but there are yet many
shallow wells from which water is drawn for creamery purposes.
Water from wells may appear to be pure, and yet contain
germs which are deleterious to dairy products, and especially
to the keeping quality of butter. That water of average purity
contains such germs has been demonstrated in this country,
as well as in foreign countries. Shallow well-water contains
on an average about 15,000 germs per cubic centimeter, but
Miquel has found that a rapid power of multiplication charac-
terizes the bacteria in pure spring-water, while in impure water
the multiplication is slower. Water containing only this many
germs is, as a rule, considered very pure. Most creameries,
however, pump their water into a tank overhead in the creamery,
where it is contaminated with bacteria and impurities of different
kinds.

Shallow wells are usually surrounded with conditions which
do not guarantee a creamery pure water during the different

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 249

seasons of the year. In the spring, when rains are frequent
and heavy, unwholesome surface-water is likely to seep in
through the sides. Such wells may also serve as traps for
small animals. The presence of an animal in the well is sure

TA

Gy:

re

Loi

Fie, 151.—The shallow barnyard well with privy-vault and manure heaps
neat by. The water is likely to be contaminated from these any time.
(Farmer’s Bul. No. 43, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

to cause undesirable odors and a multitude of undesirable and
putrefactive organisms.

Water from deeply drilled wells, even if it is pure in so far
asits germ-content is concerned, is in many cases turbid and
sandy, and needs to go through a process of purification as much
as does the shallow well-water.

250 BUTTER-MAKING.

Metuops or Puriryinc WaSH-WATER.

There are two practical and effective methods of purifying
wash-water, viz., (1) Filtration, and (2) Pasteurization. Which
of these two methods is the most practicable and the most
effective in the creamery depends upon the conditions and
upon the quality of the water. In the case of water from deep
wells, which contains little or no organic matter, but at the
same time is infested with undesirable germs, pasteurization
is perhaps more expedient. Filtration, if the same degree of
thoroughness is to be reached as in pasteurization, is a com-
paratively slow process. Pasteurization of wash-water is a
trifle more expensive than filtration. Wash-water can be
pasteurized at the same time that the churning is being done,
thus economizing in time and fuel. Pasteurization is quite
effective in rendering the water germ-free, but it is not so
effective in removing any organic matter or other tangible
impurities which may be present. If the creamery does not
already have a pasteurizer, filtration can be employed very
profitably, and under average conditions it will perhaps give
the best results.

Filtration —Filtration is inexpensive, and is a very efficient
method of purifying wash-water. It seems strange that bacteria
can be removed from water by passing through layers of sand,
gravel, coke, and charcoal, but such is the case. Filtration
is applicable to all kinds of water; even if the water appears
pure, it is well to filter it. Fewer germs and fewer varieties
of micro-organisms are apparently found in deep well-water
than is the case in water from surface-wells; hence the ferments
which are present will have a free field for developing in the
absence of competing forms. If a sample of water which is
rich in micro-organisms is violently shaken with a certain amount
of charcoal, coke, chalk, or similar substances, and then left
for a time to settle, the pure layer of water at the top will be
almost entirely free from germs, and in some cases entirely

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 251

sterile. It used to be thought by older German investigators
that these different filtering substances had almost miraculous
power of removing organisms from water.

The factors which are to be considered in successful filtra-
tion are:

(1) Storage capacity for unfiltered water.

(2) Construction of filter-beds.

(3) Rate of filtration.

(4) Renewal of filter-beds.

(1) Concerning the storage capacity, nearly all creameries
have storage-tanks overhead in the creamery; so far as that
is concerned, however, filtration can be successfully carried on
continuously as well as intermittently.

(2) The construction of the filter-bed used in the experi-
ment carried on at the Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa,
is as shown in Fig. 153. The approximate proportionate
depth of each layer in the bed is as follows, beginning at
the bottom:

Two inches small flint stones; 22 inches fine sand; 12
inches fine coke; 9 inches charcoal; 2 inches fine stone or coarse
gravel. The layer of fine sand should not be less than 15 inches.
It has been asserted that a few pieces of old iron mixed in
the filter-bed are beneficial. Alum, lime, and copperas have
been recommended for clarifying and deodorizing very impure
water. Asthese substances are soluble they should not be used
in filter-beds, which are intended for the filtration of water
for potable purposes. The filtering-can was made from 22
galvanized iron. The height of can is 48 inches; diameter,
18 inches. The bottom of the can is slanting towards the
faucet, or opening. Thus no water is permitted to stand on
the bottom and afford opportunities for germs to accumulate.
On the inside are three plates. One lies horizontally, near the
bottom, and upon it the filtering-material rests. Another lies
on the top of the fine sand. Both of these plates were per-
forated with many small holes. Near the top is placed a
concave plate with a hole near the center. This plate directs

252 BUTTER-MAKING.

all the water to the center of the filter-bed, and thus the water
gets the full benefit of the filtering process. The total cost of
this filtering-can when complete was $11.11.

eS

SGT PAR teri ne

CVS RS
Rofo RFS
INCRE

arses ,

ie

Coke

Fine sand

Gravel

4 SS ee

Fic. 152. Fig. 153.

Fic. 152.—Filter-can: 1, overflow; 2, inlet of tap-water; 3, outlet of filtered
water.

Fig. 153.—Cross-section of filter-bed and can: 1, overflow; 2, inlet; 3, out-
let of filtered water; 4, perforated galvanized-iron plate; 5, perforated
galvanized-iron plate; 6, concave galvanized-iron plate with hole in
center.

(3) The rate of filtration is necessarily governed by the
depth of the filter-bed, the character of the material used, and
its fineness. The water passes through the charcoal, coke,
and gravel quite rapidly, yet the substances are very strong
barriers to the passage of micro-organisms. The sand layer
does not admit of so rapid filtration. Fine sand, however, is
one of the best filtering substances that can be had. The rate
of filtration can be regulated by increasing or decreasing the

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 253

depth of the fine-sand layer. In a general way, the slower the
rate of filtration is, the more thorough it is; and, vice versa, the
more rapid the rate of filtration, the more incomplete is the
removal of the bacteria. If the filter-bed is constructed as
described above, the rate of filtration will be about 18 gallons
per hour, and about 96% of all the germs present will be removed,
together with the impurities present in suspension.

(4) The filter used at the Iowa Experiment Station was in
constant use for about three months, without having been
changed. At the end of this time it did as efficient work as
at any previous time. The length of time a filter-bed can be
used without being changed depends upon the purity of the
water to be filtered, and also upon which kind of filtration is
used, the continuous or the intermittent. The more impure
the water which has to be filtered, the oftener the filter-bed
should be changed. Whenever the rate of filtration is decreased
to such an extent as to make the process impracticable, the
filter-bed should be taken out and cleaned. If the water
to be filtered is of average purity, a change of the filtering-mate-
rial once every four months is ordinarily sufficient, no matter
whether continuous or intermittent filtration is used. A
filter-bed may do efficient work even a longer time than this.
The same filtering-material can be used again providing it is
thoroughly washed previous to replacing it in the filtering-can.

Kinds of Filtration—The two kinds of filtration in use are
(1) Continuous, and (2) Intermittent.

By the continuous method of filtration the inflow of water
into the can is constant during night and day. The stream of
water admitted into the filter-can is sufficient to cause the
surface of the filter-bed to be covered with water all the time.
This method excludes all oxygen from the filter-bed, except
that which is in solution in the water.

During the process of filtration a slimy coat is deposited
on the fine sand. This seems to be the real agent absolutely
necessary in order to eliminate bacteria by a process of filtra-
tion. A filter-bed without this slimy deposit on it simply takes

254 BUTTER-MAKING.

out the coarse organic and inorganic matter held in suspension,
without removing the bacteria. If some bacteria are removed
with the matter held in suspension, others are carried along
from the filter-bed. Owing to this, a new filter-bed must be
kept in operation a few days before the filtered water can be
considered pure and ready for use. The following table illus-
trates how the germ-content of water is decreased as the process
of filtration is carried on during the first few days:

Filtered Unfiltered

Water, Tap-water,

Germs per Germs per
c. &. ee,
No.1. Taken when filter-bed was first used......... 20,000 107
cee Me ee a had worked 1 day... .. 860 118
we Be ie we wr i oD GAYS. 324 370 96
ce 4, “é oe oe ce ce 5 ct nent aciad Ag 5A
ce 5 oe oe “ec é oe 4 ce eieee ts 3 73
ee 6 ce “e ce ce be 9 ce son's de 5 89

It will be seen from the table that during the first three
days the filter-bed was in use the filtered water contained more
germs than the unfiltered. Good results were not obtained
until the seventh day. In order to be on the safe side it is
best to expose the filter-bed to continuous filtration for about
nine days before the water is used.

The slimy coat referred to above is formed by certain germs.
These germs then constitute the real agent of filtration. In
order for these micro-organisms to do efficient work oxygen
is essential. Well-water of average purity contains enough
oxygen in solution without employing an intermittent process of
filtration, and consequently for creamery purposes the von-
tinuous method of filtration is to be recommended.

Intermittent.—The intermittent process of filtration is used
where comparatively impure water is being purified, such as
in purifying water for large cities. If the continuous process
of filtration were employed in such instances, the filtered
water would not be free from germs, due to the fact that impure
river-water does not carry enough oxygen in solution to supply
the germs which form the real filtering agency.

CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 255

If the intermittent process is used, the first water filtered
after the intervening period should not be used. During the
intermission, or during the time that the water is shut off,
germs develop and come through the filter-bed with the water
that is filtered.

Advantages of Purifying Wash-water for Butter—The chief
advantage of purifying wash-water for butter is that the keeping
quality of the butter is improved, and if the proper skill and
care have been applied in the other steps of manufacture, a pure
sanitary product is obtained. The sanitary efficiency reached
by purifying the wash-water constitutes no small consideration.
Germs producing contagious diseases are thus checked from
spreading.

CHAPTER XVII.
SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER.

Objects of Salting —-The chief objects of salting are: (1)
to impart a desirable flavor; (2) to increase the keeping quality
of butter; and (3) to facilitate the removal of buttermilk.

Amount of Salt to Use to Produce Proper Flavor.—The proper
amount of salt to use in order to impart a desirable flavor
depends chiefly upon the market. Some consumers prefer a
medium high salt-content in butter; others, again, like butter
which contains very little salt. The English market demands
rather light-salted butter. In fact, this is the case with prac-
tically all European markets. American markets, as a rule,
demand comparatively high-salted butter, as much as will
properly dissolve in the butter. Parisian markets and some
markets in southern Germany require no salt in it at all. The
salt-content of butter may vary between nothing and 4%.
Butter containing as much as 4% salt is, as a rule, too highly
salted. When it contains this much salt, part of the salt is
usually present in an undissolved condition. Those who like
good butter prefer butter that contains the salt thoroughly
dissolved and well distributed.

The amount of salt to be added should be based upon the
least variable factor. Some creamerymen measure the amount
of salt according to the amount of cream in the churn. While
the box-churn and Mason butter-worker were being used, many
makers preferred to weigh the butter as it was transferred from
the churn to the worker. The method mostly in use now, and to
be recommended, is to base the amount of salt upon the number

of pounds of fat. The amount of salt to use per pound of fat
256

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 257

varies, therefore, according to the conditions mentioned below,
and also according to local conditions. Usually from half
an ounce to one and a half ounces of salt per pound of butter-
fat is most suitable. In whole-milk creameries the salt is
often estimated per hundredweight or per thousand pounds of
milk.

To get the butter salted uniformly from day to day is very
important, as a small variation in the salt-content has a greater
effect upon the quality of butter than has a small variation
in any of the other butter constituents. A variation of 1%
to 2% in the salt-content can very easily be detected by the
consumer, while that much variation in any one of the other
constituents could not be readily noticed.

The conditions upon which the proper amount of salt
depend are: First, the amount and condition of moisture in
the butter at the time the salt is added. If there is a great
deal of loose moisture in the butter, more salt is necessary.
This is due to the fact that the salt will go into solution in the
water and be expressed during working. Secondly, it depends
upon the amount of working the butter receives, and at what
time the bulk of working is done, after the salt has been added.
Tf the butter is medium firm, moisture in the form of brine
is being expressed during the working. Consequently, the more
butter is worked, up to a certain limit, the more brine is being
expressed, and the more salt should be added to the butter.
Thirdly, the amount of salt to add depends also upon the size
of the butter granules at the time the salt is being added, and
the hardness and softness of the butter. If the granules are
very small and quite hard, they take salt with difficulty. The
salt attracts also more moisture from these small granules than
from larger ones, which will escape in the form of brine.
If the butter is present in a rather soft, lumpy condition at
the time the salt is added, and there is no water in the churn,
very little salt is wasted in the form of brine, consequently
less salt is necessary in the first place.

It is undoubtedly due to these facts that the salt-content

258 BUTTER-MAKING,

and the condition of salt in butter vary so much at the different
creameries; they even vary considerably from one churning
to another at the same creamery. If conditions are uniform
in the creamery from day to day, the amount of salt to add
to butter, and the amount of salt retained in the butter when
finished, will be comparatively uniform.

It should be mentioned in this connection that butter made
from very good cream should not be salted too heavily. Butter
made from a rather poor quality of cream may be salted corre-
spondingly heavier. This is due to the fact that the heavy
salty taste covers some of the undesirable flavors in the butter.
If the butter-flavors are good, they should not be hidden by
a heavy salty taste. If the butter-flavors are poor, then it
may be policy to partially cover them up with a medium-heavy
salty flavor.

Effects of Salt upon Keeping Properties.—That salt is anti-
septic is no longer a doubt. It has been domonstrated in
laboratory work with butter that the growth of certain germs,
isolated from butter, can be completely checked by the add!-
tion of a certain amount of salt to the medium in which they
are inoculated. Bouska* found that a yeast isolated from
butter showed luxuriant growth in a medium containing 2%
of salt in forty-eight hours, and only a trace in 4%% of salt.
The same germ showed only a trace of growth in a 6% salt
medium after five days.

The ordinary bread-mould, Penicilliwm glaucum, was iso-
lated from butter and showed noticeable growth in a 9% salt
medium in two days, and only a trace in a 10% solution during
the same time. <A spore-bearing bacillus isolated from butter
produced only a trace of growth in a 4°; salt medium. No
growth occurred at all in a medium containing 6% of salt.
Another gas-producing organism was also isolated from butter
and only a weakened growth was produced in a medium con-
taining 4% of salt.

* Towa Ex. Sta., Bul. 80.

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 259

If it were practicable and consistent with the demand of the
consumers, so far as the keeping properties of butter is con-
cerned, it would be advisable to salt butter as highly as 6%.
This much salt would tend to a large extent to check deterio-
ration of the butter due to bacterial growth.

That salt promotes the keeping quality of butter has also
been demonstrated in a practical way during the Iowa Iduca-
tional Contest in 1903. Fifty samples of butter containing 245%
or more of salt were scored off in New York, on an average,
2.38 points, while the remaining 171 samples containing less
than 25% salt were scored off 3.54 points on an average; a
difference in favor of the keeping quality of high-salted butter
of 1.16 points. Most American markets demand a salt-content
of about 23° in the finished product.

Salt Facilitates the Removal of Buttermilk.—That salt
facilitates the removal of buttermilk can easily be demon-
strated by observing the escape of buttermilk from the butter
immediately after the salt has been added and mixed with the
butter. The first effect of salt when added to the butter is to
precipitate the curd in the buttermilk. This precipitation is
greater when a large amount of salt is added than when only
a small amount is added. The precipitation of the casein in
the buttermilk sets free the remainder of the buttermilk con-
stituents; that is, when the casein is precipitated, the whey
part assumes a more fluid condition and escapes, and the butter
retains a portion of the curd. Owing to this action of the
salt, it is essential that the butter should be as completely
washed as possible, as otherwise it will retain an excessive
amount of curd. The butter acts in a manner somewhat
similar to a filter in removing a part of the curd from the other
buttermilk constituents.

Salt in Relation to Water in Butter— Experiment has dem-
onstrated that pure fat is not a salt-dissolving substance.
Owing to this fact the only salt-dissolving substance in butter
is water. As water will hold only a certain amount of salt
in solution, it becomes evident that the amount of salt which

260 BUTTER-MAKING.

can be properly incorporated in butter depends upon the amount
of moisture present.

The amount of salt which water will ho'd in solution at
different temperatures varies somewhat according to differ-
ent investigators. According to Gerlach * water will dissolve
35.94% salt at 58° F. This is approximately the temperature
at which salt is worked into butter. Theoretically, butter
containing 15% of water should be able to properly dissolve
5.4% of salt. Butter containing 13% of water should be able

Fig. 154.—Action of salt solutions of different strength on the proteids of
buttermilk. (Bul. 263, Gen., N. Y.)

to properly dissolve 4.68% of salt, and butter containing 10%
of water should be able to dissolve properly 3.6% of salt, ete.
According to experiments conducted at the Iowa Experiment
Station the maximum per cent of pure salt (NaCl) that could
be properly dissolved in water of butter containing 16.92%
of moisture, when worked 18 revolutions at intervals during
two hours, was 16.57%. When butter was worked the same
number of revolutions at intervals, and was allowed to dissolve

* Kemiker-Kalender, p. 219.

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 261

only one hour, the amount of pure salt (NaCl) that was dissolved
in the water of the butter containing 11.58% moisture was
14.09%. This undoubtedly will vary with different brands
of salt.

It will thus be seen that the property of water to take up
salt is seemingly lessened when the water is present in a state
of minute division, as it is in butter. In the first instance
quoted the butter completely dissolved about 2.7°% of pure

Fic. 155.—Volumes of the same weight of salt of various brands.
(Bul. 74, Wis.)

salt; and in the second instance it dissolved only ahout 2%
during one hour.

Condition of Salt when Added.—The condition of salt when
added is a very important question to consider in order to get
enough salt properly incorporated. ‘the amount of influence
which the quality of the salt has upon flavor has recently been
a subject of attractive interest, for many of our best butter-
judges have made the charge that certain undesirable flavors
in butter can be traced to the use of a poor quality of salt.
This assumed effect upon the quality of the butter can only
be remedied by stopping the use of impure salt. The chief
undesirable and impure constituent present in salt is magne-

262 BUTTER-MAKING.

sium chloride. It is known positively that the presence of this
substance in salt, even to a small extent, imparts a bitter flavor
to butter. Salt containing a large amount of this and other
impurities also absorbs moisture from the air more readily
than does pure salt. According * to analysis of the best dairy
salt in use in Denmark, the composition is as follows:

Pure salitie-: sasuke takes ees weak! OT AO
Magnesium chloride..................... 18
GY PsUitice 2 oes Pacinne tea eee ees .05
Sodium sulphate............. 00.00.0000 21
Wier sacs waldo ee Aa Sed ati cred),

100.00

The purest American dairy salt has the following composi-
tion: T

Pure salt (NaCl). ....................... 99.18
Magnesium chloride (MgClo)... 2.2.22... .05
Gypsum (calcium sulphate, CaSO4)........ 54
Calcium chloride (CaClg)............0.... 19
Insoluble matter... cccucew eng ae eas na .03
MOIStUTe: sineninneb We ea sae aw eae eam eee Stee .O1

100.00

In order to judge the quality of salt the butter-maker
cannot rely on the chemical analysis for a detection of im-
purities, but must judge the quality from its appearance,
flavor, and odor. Good dairy salt does not have a dark-bluish,
coarse, granulated appearance, but a clean, white, silky look,
and should dissolve quickly. Salt should be kept in a clean
dry place free from odor.

* Boggild, Maolkeribruget, Denmark.
t Bul. No. 74, Wis., by F. W. Woll.

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 263

Gritty Butter.—‘‘Gritty butter’’ is a familiar phrase used
by expert butter-scorers to indicate that part of the salt. is
present in an undissolved condition. To most consumers this
condition of the salt in butter is objectionable. When properly
incorporated, salt should be present in the form of a solution
in the butter. The gritty condition of the salt in butter may
be due to (1) poor condition of the salt before it is added to
the butter; (2) adding so much salt that it cannot be dis-
solved by the water in the butter. The maximum amount
of salt that butter will dissolve depends upon the amount of
moisture present. The maximum amount of moisture per-
missible in butter, as limited by law, is 16%. The condition
of the water in butter prevents the water from being saturated
with salt during the comparatively short time allowed for salt
to dissolve during the manufacture of butter. (3) Insufficient
working. If the butter is not worked enough to distribute
the salt evenly, some portion of the butter will contain more
than the other portions. The portion that contains the excess
of salt does not have enough moisture to dissolve the salt;
while if the salt had been evenly distributed in the butter, all
the salt would have been properly dissolved. When gritty
butter is caused by insufficient working, it usually mottles.

Mottled Butter.—Mottled butter is butter which is uneven
in color. This unevenness in color may be due to several
different causes. It may be due to specks of curd (speckled
butter), and it’ may be due to certain organisms (dappled
butter). These causes of mottled butter are not very com-
mon in factories where the manufacture of butter is properly
carried on.

The most common fault of mottled butter is the improper
incorporation of salt and the presence of an excessive amount
of buttermilk. Mottled butter caused in this way is com-
mon. It would be of much commercial importance if it were
possible to prevent its occurrence. In case all the water
had been saturated with salt, and there is still undissolved
salt left, then the granular or undissolved salt will cause no

264 BUTTER-MAKING.

mottles. The most important thing to observe in order to
prevent mottles is: (1) to have the buttermilk well washed
out; (2) to have the salt thoroughly dissolved; and (3) to
have the brine properly distributed.

Recent work by Drs. Van Slyke and Hart show that if the
proteids are thoroughly washed from the butter, mottles cannot
be produced, no matter how unevenly the salt is distributed.
Complete removal of the buttermilk by washing is one of the
essentials in order to prevent mottles in butter.

The mottles caused by improper incorporation of salt assume
two different forms, viz., mottles proper, and wavy butter.
As has been mentioned before, the mottles result from un-
dissolved salt. Whenever there is undissolved granular salt
present, the moisture is attracted and the color deepened at
that particular place. In case the water has already been
saturated with salt, there is no danger of mottles, no matter
how much gritty salt is present.

Wavy butter is caused by an uneven distribution of the
brine. If a little salt is added to the butter and dissolved
without working the butter sufficiently, the salt will go into
solution in certain portions of the water. This water contain-
ing the greatest amount of salt will produce a high color in
certain portions of the butter, while the portion containing
water with less salt will have a lighter color, thus causing
streaks in the butter.

In case butter has become mottled on standing, the mottles
can be entirely eradicated by reworking the butter. Though
some of the moisture is lost during this reworking process,
it is usually advisable to rework the butter rather than to
place it on the market in a badly mottled condition. The
mottles should, however, be prevented rather than cured.
This can be done by sufficient working while the butter is in
proper condition, and at the proper time.

Brine-salting.—Brine-salting is not as a rule practiced in
creameries. It is too expensive a method of salting, and also
too laborious. By salting butter with brine it is hardly possible

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 265

to get in salt enough to suit the American butter markets,
2% being about the maximum amount of salt that can be
incorporated by the brine method.

In some instances, brine-salting has been recommended. If
a light mild taste is desired, the brine method may give good
results. The greatest advantages of brine-salting are that
mottles in butter are practically avoided, and that the over-
run is usually increased a trifle. Especially is this so if the
temperature of the brine is medium high when added to the
butter. In order to get enough salt (2%) into the butter by
the brine method, it is necessary to churn it considerably in
the brine and to use two sets of brine. When brine is first
added the butter already contains considerable water. This
water practically has to be replaced by brine. This is difficult
to do, especially if the butter has been overchurned a trifle.

By churning the butter in the first set of brine, the brine
will soon become diluted to such an extent that it will impart
but little saltiness to the butter. For this reason this first
set of brine should be removed and another one added. Then
churn again in this brine. This last set of brine will have
very little curd in it, and can be saved until the following day
and then used as the first set of brine. This first set of brine
may be used each day for soaking tubs.

It is essential to leave the brine on the butter for from five
to fifteen minutes. Churning excessively in the brine, espe-
cially if butter is medium soft, will cause too much water to
be incorporated in the butter. After the butter has been ex-
posed to the second set of brine the proper length of time, it
should be drawn off and the butter worked in the usual manner.
Less working is usually given to butter which has been salted
by the brine method. It should be worked enough to dis-
tribute the brine evenly in the butter, and to bring the butter
into a compact form. If the butter salted by the brine method
is not worked sufficiently, it will after standing become streaky
in color.

266 BUITER-MAKING.

Workina or Burrer.

Objects.—The objects of working butter are:

(1) To distribute the salt and brine evenly in the butter.
The number of revolutions in the churn necessary to accom-
plish this will vary somewhat according to the conditions of
the butter, and according to the kind of butter-workers em-
ployed. If the butter is of medium firmness, about 12 revolu-
tions in the Victor Combined Churn will usually distribute the
salt properly, providing the working is well distributed over the
working period. It used to be, and is still, the practice in
creameries to add the salt while the butter is in a hard granular
condition, and then rotate the churn several times in slow gear
without putting the workers in gear. This is done in order
to mix the salt thoroughly without working. Then it is allowed
to stand for five or ten minutes, then worked about four revolu-
tions and allowed to stand a little while again, then the working
is completed bv allowing the churn to revolve four or five times
more, or as many as is deemed necessary to bring the butter into
proper condition.

It has, however, been demonstrated that it is not advisabie
to add the salt while the butter is in this hard granular form.
The butter should be united into larger irregular granules before
the salt is added. If the salt is added to the butter in a more
or less gathered condition, then the workers should be put in
gear at once, for otherwise the salt will be scattered on the
inside of the churn. Butter can be worked three or four revolu-
tions an: then allowed to stand until the salt is almost dissolved,
at which time the working can be completed by revolving
the churn four or five revolutions more. Some prefer to work
a little more than ten revolutions in order to be sure that the
salt has been evenly distributed.

If the Disbrow churn is being used, it is necessary to work
the butter a greater number of revolutions than that recom-
mended when the Victor churn is used. In the Victor churn

SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 267

the butter is virtually worked twice at every revolution, while
in the Disbrow churn the butter is only worked once for about
three-quarters of a revolution. From sixteen to twenty revolu-
tions of the Disbrow churn usually mixes the salt with the butter
properly. It is impossible to state exactly the number of revo-
lutions butter should be worked, as it varies according to differ-
ent conditions.

(2) Working the butter is done in order to bring it into a
compact form. When butter is soft it usually gathers, but

Fic. 156.—The table butter-worker.

if it is present in the firm granular condition, which condition
results from churning thin cream and washing the butter in
cold water, it is more or less difficult to get the little granules
together. More working is necessary when the butter is in
such a condition.

(3) The working of butter is also done in order to express
an excessive amount of buttermilk or water. By adding salt

268 BUTTER-MAKING.

and then working the butter, the excess of buttermilk is largely
eliminated. Especially is this so when the butter is in a medium
firm condition. Working is also effective in removing water
from the butter.

In the manufacture of process butter, excessive working
while the butter is in a firm condition is now resorted to.
Before the national law, which limits the moisture content of
butter to 16%, went into effect, process butter usually con-
taine| more than 16% water; but now the moisture-content
of this kind of butter is largely controlled by working it in the
absence of water while it is in a firm condition.

CHAPTER XVIII.
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER.

Kind of Package to Use——For creamery purposes the 60-
pound ash tubs are customarily used. The package, of course,
varies according to different markets. In case that butter is
made on a small scale, such as on the farm, earthen crocks give
good satisfaction. There is no other package that gives so
good results as the earthen jars, when viewed from a stand-
point of good keeping quality of the butter. The objec-
tion to earthen jars or crocks is that they are heavy and easily
broken during transportation. It is undoubtedly on this
account that earthenware is not used more for the packing of
butter.

There are two kinds of tubs chiefly used in creameries, viz.,
the ash tub, and the spruce tubs. These tubs are made in
different sizes, 10-lb., 20-lb., 30-lb., and 60-lb. The 60-lb.
ash tub is used nearly altogether in creameries that pack butter
on a large seale. When smaller amounts of butter are being
packed, usually the smaller spruce tubs are employed. Square
boxes are used also to some extent. They are used more in
some of the Eastern States, but very little in the West and
Central West.

During the fall and winter when the milk-supply is rather
low, many creameries print all the butter. Most of the com-
mission firms will pay about a cent more per pound for butter
when it is put up in pound prints and wrapped neatly in parch-
ment paper. The wrapper should bear the name of the manu-

facturer or the name of the creamery. If the quality of the
269

0LZ Cuey ‘eyodoy “op Araurvaig pequoutuog) *1034nq Buryped pue ZurumyQ— LET ‘O91J

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 271

butter is good, it will take but a short time for the consumers
to become familiar with that particular brand. It is essential,
however, to consider the cost of printing the butter and the
losses in printing. Some little waste of butter accompanies
the printing process. Besides this, if the butter is firm, as it
usually is in order to have the prints assume the proper shape,
there is a loss of some moisture.

Preparation of Tubs.—If tubs are stored in a damp room,
they are likely to mould in a short time. Occasionally tubs
are in a mouldy condition when they come from the factory
or creamery supply-house. The mould that forms on the inside
of the tub when standing in a damp place is very conspicuous.
In many instances the tubs are also cracked. This is due
chiefly to the tubs becoming dry, and in some instances is due
to the use of imperfect material in the manufacture of the tub.
Butter-tubs should not be made from damp, unseasoned, and
partly decayed wood, as they are likely to impart to the butter
more of the woody odors than do those made from sound,
well-matured wood.

In order to kill all the moulds which may be present in the
tub, and to close the cracks, so as to make the tub practically
air-tight, it is essential that the tub should undergo some process
of preparation before the butter is packed into it. There is a
single substance which will destroy the germs, moulds, and also
close smaller openings in the tubs, viz., a saturated solution of
brine. As a rule this gives good results. The day previous to
the packing of the butter, the tubs should be filled with satu-
rated brine, and allowed to stand and soak until the following
day. The paper-linings and circles should also be soaked in
the same brine before they are used. It is a good plan to have
the brine lukewarm, although cold brine will answer the pur-
pose. Just previous to using, pour out the brine, wash the tubs
thoroughly, then scald them, by putting them into scalding-
hot water or over a steam-jet. Cool off the tubs by filling them
with cold water; when cooled, pour out the water, line them,
and they are ready for use. The covers should be on while they

272 BUTTER-MAKING.

are soaking. This prevents the tubs from warping and getting
out of shape.

By soaking the tubs in brine and scalding as above, if
thoroughly done, there is little danger of getting moulds in
the butter. Some recommend the soaking of the tubs in brine
only, without scalding; others recommend the scalding without
soaking in brine. The chief difficulty with scalding the tubs

.

Fic. 159.—Bradley
butter-boxes.

without soaking is that when wooden tubs are exposed to such
sudden heat they usually warp. The hoops are also likely to
burst, and if this method is employed alone, many of the tubs
will be rendered valueless owing to the bursting of the hoops.
Tf the tub is gradually soaked in brine first, heat may be applied
afterwards with little or no injury to the tub. Owing to the
many complaints of mouldy butter, especially during the
summer, several other methods of preparing tubs have been
recommended. In following out the above method many makers

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 273

omit to use concentrated brine. If the brine is weak, then, of
course, it will have little or no effect upon the moulds; but
if the brine is saturated, the wood will become saturated with
brine and prevent the growth of mould during the trans-
portation of the butter. Moulds usually start to grow on the
inside of the tub, next to the butter.

Some of the other methods recommended for the prepara-
tion of tubs are: (1) Paraffining. This is accomplished by
melting the paraffin, then using a soft brush with which to
spread the liquid paraffin all over the inside of the tub. After
the liquid paraffin has been applied and cooled, it will solidify,
and a thin Jayer of paraffin will cover the inside of the tub.
(2) The second method is to soak the tubs in brine containing
from 27% to 8% of formalin (40°% formaldehyde solution) ;
about three ounces of formalin to each gallon of brine is about
the proper proportion.

Special efforts should be made towards having the package
appear as neat as possible. They should be clean, and the cover
should fit well. After the tub has been washel, lined, and
otherwise prepared, it should be weighed, and the weight of the
tub marked on the outside.

Packing of Butter.—The packing of butter should be con-
ducted under as favorable conditions as possible. Before mak-
ing use of the butter-ladles they should be sealded and then
cooled off in cold water. This prevents the butter from sticking
to them, and also cleanses them from dust and germs which
may have lodged on them. When the butter is being transferred
from the churn into the tub, it should be firmly packed. That
is, there should be no holes near the bottom and sides of the
butter in the tub. When the butter arrives on the market
it is sometimes turned out of the tub (stripped). If it has
not been firmly packed, the butter will be filled with holes
on the sides and show an unattractive appearance. Besides
this, if there are any holes in the butter, the moisture and air
will gather there. This gathered brine at time causes a change
in color on the surface of the butter to which the brine was

274 BUTTER-MAKING.

exposed. The tubs should be well filled. Any open spaces
left in the butter permit the circulation of air, and the butter
is more likely to absorb the woody odors from the tub.

Folded.
Fic. 161.—Butter cartons.

Fic. 169.—The Eureka hand
butter-printer.

In the preparation of the tubs, many of these woody odors
are eliminated, but it is impossible to remove all of them. The
heat when applied to the tub opens up the pores of the wood
and causes the volatile woody odors to pass off with the escaping
steam. When the wood is removed from the influence of the
steam, the pores again close, or contract, and in that way most
of the woody odors are remove, at least from the inner surface
of the tub. The remaining woody odors should not be allowed
to circulate inwardly through the butter by allowing empty
spaces inside the tub. The top surface of the butter can
be made to appear smooth and full by filling the tub a little
more than full of butter, and then cutting the excessive amount
of butter off with a string. The extra butter can then be rolled
off, and the top appear perfectly smooth and full.

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER, 275

The surface of the tubs should be neatly finished by pleating
the lining of the tub over onto the top of the butter. The
lining should not be allowed to lap over any more than about
an inch. A cloth circle should then be neatly put on. A

Fic. 162.—Tub-fasteners; common tins.

handful of salt sprinkled on the top of this circle is advisable.
A little water may be sprinkled on to cause the salt to become
wet. Some butter-makers prefer an additional paper circle
on top of the salt again.

Fic. 163.—Tub-fasteners; tin and tack combined.

Packing Butter for Exhibition Purposes.—-In case butter is
to be opened and scored several times, it is advisable to use paper
circles instead of cloth circles. Cloth circles give a much better
appearance when the tubs are not to be opened often, but they

Fic. 164—Tub-fasteners; riveted.

are difficult to readjust after they have been taken out of post
tion, while the paper circle can be taken off and replaced as
often as desired. This applies especially to butter entered
for scoring contests, where the keeping quality of butter has
to be tested also. Twenty-pound ash tubs are generally used
for exhibition purposes. Ash tubs take a little better finish

276 BUTTER-MAKING.

than do spruce tubs. Sandpapering the tubs on the outside
gives a nice appearance. A fine-appearing tub may count con-
siderably when the final decision is rendered. In order to keep
the tub in a clean and good condition during transit special
precautions should be taken by the sender. A good way of
preparing a tub is to tack the address on the cover, wrap the
tub well in paper, and fasten the paper by wrapping a string
around the tub a few times. Drive no more nails in the tub
than is necessary. Three tins are sufficient to fasten the
cover to the tub. The tin fasteners should be placed equal
distances apart. After the paper has been wrapped around

Fic. 165.—The Lafayette lever butter-printer.

the tub the whole should be burlapped. These burlaps can
be obtained with the tubs from any of the creamery supply-
houses. The tub should then be labeled, and it is ready for
shipment.

Another good way of preparing a tub for shipment is to
pack the 20-pound tub into a 60-pound tub. Fill the space
between the small and the large tub with paper. This is con-
sidered by many to be the best method of shipping butter for
contests, as the paper, packed in on the sides of the tub, pre-
vents the heat from penetrating. In cold weather it also pre-
vents the butter from freezing, at least in a measure.

Storing Butter in Creameries——The temperature of the
room in which the butter is being stored should be as low
as conditions will permit. A temperature of 50° F. or below
is favorable to the keeping quality of the butter. Usually the

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 277

butter is kept at the creamery for from half a week to a whole
week. It is advisable to ship as often as is considered con-
sistent with the amounts of butter handled. The refrigerator
in which the butter is kept at the creamery should be kept
as pure and dry as possible. Damp places are always con-
ducive to the growth of germs, especially moulds. Vegetables
or foods of other kinds should not be allowed in the refrigerator

Fic. 166.—The engine-room of Littleton Creamery Co. (Creamery Journal.)

with the butter, as they are likely to impart foreign flavors to
the butter. Mechanical refrigeration and cooling with ice are
the best cooling facilities. In case it should happen that it is
impossible to obtain ice, water can be utilized for this purpose.
The water used in the creamery can be made to run through
a galvanized-iron tank. This tank is properly placed in the
butter storing-room, or refrigerator, so as to allow as much
cooling-surface in the butter-room as possible. This method

278 BUTTER-MAKING.

will not cool the room as effectively as ice, but in the absence
of ice this is better than no cooling at all.

Cost of Producing One Pound of Butter.—The cost of pro-
ducing 2 pound of butter varies at different creameries. Up
to a certain limit, the more butter that is being produced at

Vent

Hh

VN rrp...

Wig
Ys;
YY, yi 4

A Dead Air Space

Row of Tile Outlets

Fie. 167.—Cross-section of a sewage-disposal tank. (Wallace’s Farmer.)

one place the less will be the cost of production, that is, pro-
viding the ecreameries are otherwise equally well managed.
The Iowa State Dairy Commissioner has investigated this

Ground

Waste Water from Cream Vats and Starter Can

Creamery

Air Inlet
D

1 f
© Manhole

Sewerage Le, eee van

ge

Dian

>
\\ Disehar

\_ Discharge

Fie. 168.—Septic tank for creamery sewage disposal. (By Prof. J. Michels.)
The tank should be located in the ground with the top within a foot or
two of the surface. It may be constructed of planks. Brick, stone, or
concrete is preferable for durability. The tank should be built air-
tight except in two places, D and E.

question and finds that the cost of production varies from

1.2 cents to 6 cents per pound. According to the reports sub-

mitted to the office of the State Dairy Commissioner, the

highest cost of production comes from a co-operative creamery
that makes a little less than 30,000 pounds of butter per year.

The lowest cost of production is submitted by a co-operative

279

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER.

uw *
OFFICE S |
9 \
RECEIVING 2) I
76x 11" Lee ‘ :
ms 2 |
fe)
a 0 :
3 |
oO
STORE ROOM - 3
GUTTER 8
7'3° : : 3
‘ i Soo
3X 11 s 2 SLOPE ff 4 me
a 5
a 3 |
S = oe 1
2 °
“ou 2 |
COLD STORAGE ‘ oi |
, a | 5S |
fh a) 23x 30'9 3 8
5 a |
o|
“a |
|
Vs
PLATFORM
Whe aio! FLOOR PLAN

Fie. 169.—Plan of a creamery. Scale, /’=1’. Floor plan. (Bul. 53, Montana.)

280

BUTTER-M AKING.

creamery making nearly half a million pounds of butter from
whole milk exclusively. The approximate average cost of mak-
ing butter for the whole State of Iowa in the whole-milk cream-

eries is about 24 cents per pound.

As the creameries procluce

on an average about 150,000 pounds of butter per year, the
running expenses of the average creamery are approxiniately
$2350.00 per year.

The following table will show the variation in cost of pro-
duction per pound of butter:

Class.

Creamery Cost of Manufacturing a Pound of Butter.

Creameries making no more than 50,000 lbs. of
DUMHCRS csi aici eee Auep meee ead d eased os evs
Creameries making between 50,000 and 100,000
lbs ssOf DUR oases de alsicas naitmsa oe tagl'a- #40 ies poche
Creameries making between 100,000 and 150,000
lbs; Of butter cess os ges aa peed ced bs oroes FRRS
Creameries making between 150,000 and 200,000
AIDS; JOT TNC Ta ccs iene Aa RA. ak Bhan daca deed meee
Creameries making between 200,000 and 300,000
lbs:of butters «aac tan ty endn cen aluen ghee. eal

Average for the States co ¢xses waka sigs beak He ws
Average for classes 2 and 3.............000 0208

‘ oO.
Reported. |

44
98
55

——}

Cost,
Cents.
3.14
2.36
1.99
1.78
1.71
.28

99

pes

loto

CHAPTER NIX.

COMPOSITION OF BUTTER.

Burrer is composed of fat, water, proteids, milk-sugar,
ash, and salt. The milk-sugar and ash are present in butter
only to a very small extent. In the analysis of butter the
milk-sugar is usually included with the proteids (curd), and
the ash is reckoned in with the salt.

Storch gives the following average composition of butter:

From From
Fresh Cream. Ripened Cream.

Pativsieivdigatweede ese. 83.75 82.97
Wratten aetunarniiecantetednetcuys 13.03 13.78
Proteids (curd). ............ 64 84
Milk-sugar. 2.0... ..-.2.00. 35 39
aN SW aceusm oureciaracieest auertt Rach 14 16
OUTS tae eneeea ete ener aed 2.09 1.86

The average composition of butter as determined from the
analysis of 221 samples, representing 55 different creameries
in different parts of the State of Iowa, is as follows:

TRE srerseaecath tah 20s aka aol her fener hae hanes ak heiress 84

AVA TORS Sarna) teneahotter en bt eid eh crac teat 12.73
Url a2 6 aoe sos os RRA RSet eas 1.30
Salt and ash... oo... . ee eee eee eee 1.97

Errect oF Composition oF Burrer Upon QuaLiry.

The quality of cream or milk from which the butter has been
produced and the methods employed in the manufacture have

more effect upon the quality of butter than has the composi-
281

282 BUTTER-MAKING,

tion. A small variation in the components of butter affects
the quality very little, provided the butter has been properly
made, and the components properly incorporated. In the
same creamery the composition of butter varies according to
the season of the year, from day to day, and even from one
churning to another. According to the present methods of
manufacture, water, salt, and fat are the components most
likely to vary. Casein varies very little.

Curd and Sugar.—Occasionally the curd-content may go as
high as 4%. It rarely exceeds 2%, and seldom falls below .5
of 1%. A high ecurd-content will show itself in the butter in
the form of a milky brine, or in the form of white specks. If
there is less than 2% of curd present in the butter, the brine
shows no noticeable milkiness. More than that much curd
can, as a rule, be detected from the color of the brine.

If the casein or the curd has been incorporated in the form
of small lumps or specks, then abnormal amounts of curd
appear. When the sample of butter is taken for analysis, such
a speck of curd present in the sample raises the final curd-con-
tent to a comparatively high figure.

As has been mentioned before, the curd and milk-sugar are
incorporated from the buttermilk into the butter during the
churning. In manufacturing butter for storage, these sub-
stances should be excluded from the butter as thoroughly as
possible. The milk-sugar and albuminoids constitute the chief
food for bacterial growth. .As the deterioration of butter has
been clemonstrated to be due chiefly to the action of organisms,
it becomes essential to restrain their growth as much as possible
by excluding food necessary for their growth.

Salt.—In the chapter cliscussing the salting of butter, it was
mentioned that a small increase or decrease in the salt-content
of butter ean be recognized by most consumers, while the same
variation in the other constituents cannot be noticed so easily.
The average salt-content of butter is about 2°7. As the amount
of salt properly dissolved in butter depends upon the amount
of water present, the first important step in controlling the salt-

COMPOSITION OF BUTTER, 283

content is to have reasonable control of the water-content of
the butter. If there is no more than 16% of water present in
the butter, it is desirable to have as much salt in as the water
will dissolve within the time usually allotted for that purpose.
This much salt suits most of the
American butter markets. The
authors have analyzed commercial
butter containing more than 8%, salt.
The major portion of this was present
in an undissolved condition. Such
butter is called gritty, and is ob-
jected to by most consumers.

Salt acts as a preservative and
adds flavor to the butter, provided
it is in good condition. It is said
that the addition of salt has some
effects upon the body of the butter.
Richmond asserts that salty butter
loses more water on standing than
unsalted butter. This is undoubt-
edly due to the leaky condition which is brought about when
salt is added to butter while in a granular condition. Salt
attracts moisture. Unsalted butter would not be exposed to
this influence of the salt. When kept unsalted, butter usually
becomes cheesy in flavor in a short time, while salted butter
assumes entirely different characteristics.

Water.—The moisture-content of butter may vary between
6% and 16%. Frequently butter is found that contains more
than 16%, but this amount is in violation of the law. Butter
may contain as much as 18% of water, if properly incorporated,
without affecting its apparent commercial quality. Water is
present in a greater proportion than any other non-fat con-
stituent. Its variation is also greater than that of any other
constituent. The fat will, of course, vary with the water.
The more water there is present in the butter, the less fat there
will be, and the less water, the more fat. As butter is bought

Fic. 170.—Ice-crusher.

284 BUTTER-MAKING.

with the understanding that it is rich in fat, much objection has
been raised to butter containing an abnormal amount of water.
This objection by consumers is, of course, a just one. The
producers desire to incorporate as much water as is consistent
with good quality. Butter containing a high moisture-con-
tent, more than 18%, will appear dead and dull. It is sticky,
and when sampled with a trier it is next to impossible to draw a
full trier of butter. It shrivels and rolls on both sides of the trier’

Moisture affects butter in two principal ways, according to
the way in which is is incorporated: (1) By causing leaky
butter, and (2) by making the butter appear dull.

1. This leaky condition in commercial butter is very common.
It has been a common opinion among butter-judges that when-
ever water appears in large drops on the butter, and some-
what slushy when sampled, the butter contains too much
moisture. This, however, is not always the case, as butter will
not as a rule hold an excessive amount of moisture in that form.
Even U this leaky butter does not contain an excess of moisture,
it is a very undesirable condition, as most consumers object
to this apparent slushiness. As has been stated before, this
leaky condition is brought about chiefly by churning the butter
to small granules, washing the butter very little in cold water,
salting heavily, while butter granules are still small and firm,
and working the butter frequently in the presence of brine.
When moisture is properly incorporated in butter, it should
be present in exceedingly minute drops. In a fine state of
division it will not escape from the butter.

This leaky condition of moisture in butter may give a wrong
impression to consumers about its moisture-content. Major
Alvord, Chief of Dairy Division of U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, reports that a great many buyers on the English market
have the opinion that American butter contains an excess of
moisture. This conclusion evidently has been reached on
account of the water in American butter often appearing in
this leaky condition, as described above. In reality it is low
in its moisture-content.

COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. 285

2. The dull and dry appearing condition of butter may be
due (1) to the presence of an excess of moisture properly incor-
porated; (2) to the treatment the butter receives during manu-
facture. When the dull and dry appearance is due to moisture,
the water has been incorporated during the churning, or during
the washing process, through excessive churning or working

Fig. 171.—Rubber mop.

in the buttermilk or wash-water at a high temperature. The
dullness may also be brought about by overworking the butter.
If the butter has been overworked, as a rule, it contains little
moisture, though its appearance may be like that of butter
containing an excess.

The conditions which affect the moisture-content of butter
during its manufacture are:

(1) Temperature of cream and of wash-water. The higher
the temperature of these two substances, the more water will
be incorporated in the butter. When the temperature is too
high, the body of the butter is injured materially. The keeping
quality of the butter is also injured by having the temperature
of the cream too high. The buttermilk constituents are incor-
porated with the butter and cause it to deteriorate rapidly.

(2) The amount of churning in buttermilk and wash-water.
The more the butter is being churned or worked in the presence
of moisture, the more water the butter will contain. When the
temperature of buttermilk and wash-water is low, a small
amount of churning affects the moisture-content very little,
while if the temperature is high, great care should be taken
not to overchurn.

(3) Per cent of fat in cream. The thicker the cream the
more moisture there will be present in the butter. In order to

286 BUTTER-MAKING.

churn thick cream, a higher temperature is necessary. It is
difficult to stop the churn without overchurning a trifle. These
two conditions, thick cream and high temperature, are both
conducive to a higher moisture-content.

(4) Amount of work the butter receives. If the butter is
in a moderately firm condition, the more the butter is worked,
in the absence of water, the less moisture it will contain. If
the moisture is present in a leaky form as mentioned above, it
is expelled to a great extent by working. But if the moisture
is properly incorporated and the butter is not too firm, work-
ing has little effect upon changing the moisture-content of the
butter, providing there is no water present in the churn.

Several other factors, such as pasteurization of cream, full-
ness of churn, and character of fat in cream, all have a small
influence in governing the moisture-content of butter, but in
this summary it is sufficient to say that temperature, degree
of churning, and thickness of cream are the only conditions
which materially influence the moisture-content. If churning
is carried on to an excess, whether it be in the buttermilk or
in the wash-water, all other factors are subordinate and have
little or no influence in regulating the moisture-content of
butter. Low temperature is the chief factor that delays in-
corporation of moisture in excessive churning.

Fat—The English, the German, and the United States
governments have endeavored to protect consumers in regard
to the amount of nutriment in butter, by recommending 16%
of water as a Maximum limit. Such a ruling has worked suc-
cessfully now fer several years. Efforts have recently been
made in the United States to base by law the nutritive quality
of butter upon a certain minimum percentage of fat. The
minimum amount of fat recommended by the appointed com-
mittee of chemists is 82$%. A minimum standard of 823%
of fat in butter would be unintentionally violated, while a basis
of 80% fat in butter would be more consistent with the quality
of butter as manufactured.

CHAPTER XX.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER.

Burrer may be judged from a commercial and from an
individual standpoint. Individual judgments of the same
butter may vary considerably. It is important that the judge
should become familiar with the quality of butter as required
by our standard markets, and then judge the butter according
to the demands of the mass of the consumers, rather than
according to personal likes and dislikes. In order to become
a good butter-judge, it is essential that the senses of taste and
smell be acute. Even if one’s taste and smell are keen and sensi-
tive, considerable practice or experience is necessary. Almost
any one can tell a good sample of butter from a very poor one,
but when it comes to differentiate between two samples which
are nearly alike in quality, skill and experience are required.

The chief thing in scoring butter is to become thoroughly
familiar with the ideal flavor of butter; then by repeated
comparisons of different samples of butter to this one ideal
flavor, one will soon become efficient in grading the butter.

Standard for Judging.—In America the distinct qualities
which are noticed in butter are designated according to the
basis of points given below. It will be noticed that different
values are given to the different characteristics, according to
their relative importance. The score-card given below is used
commercially, and is based upon 100 as perfect:

ScorE-CARD.

Perfect. Score. Remarks.

288 BUTTER-MAKING.

At a recent conference of the Société Nationale de Laiterie,
held at Brussels, the following scale of points was suggested for
butter (Creamery Journal) :

OGOR: ti naweseserg ay cee eos Hea ee EGY aan Kagos s 5
CONOR. isle ares, eae See KoB 5

Reflection... .............-- 10

Work, .......+.5 Cleanliness...............-- 5
| Chemical analysis........... 10

| Firmnesss ss. 4 ge yack ek aes 13

Consistency. ... Spreading facility........... 12
j Interior structure........... 5

PUPIE Ys dhs sos dein danrt gy ciate pes ine 5

TRBEB 0p si4 anes | Taste and aroma........... 30
100

DENCH ey ana naka eae eee Dat Gionionaudss
Creamery 0. o Ga aah
Duttermeaken: vets oy-acaisstamidestay-g Mieane ware a Rees
Too high acids cise sanvee vos Hea es OY LS e sees e sateen eMet ie etes
SOUR ev cia ibs auswiedakaeateees LES ad egies anette Ania dndureeed
TICAtOG iis cunts cass sdk on sees a d-ausaliacdege dees Dirrate aa nie Gidaastaatetaat™ eumsthausetn wee
WROD nc2s.gciane whe da tinmdes tose aces PAV ates lense eee o Semen a eeadie
Tamed: ice ctanas macolwunee conan Dias sen Sates gitetinaner Biateara” “cas ask andigead
BALDY cers cna edie aes ain erage SW eran anise aaa PAO caren gy Peo aey | aie ay wees
Poor sewerage, dirty cans, etc........ ALO vst cies Gly ese as a: BAe RES
2 | WOMUELY ss ase ues og sesgy sees nee ne 2 Wey gyeu es SeSee~ Yee aeses
©. | Old mill. .o.. 448 skate os eee seats hice iitiniok mauroue: - sangeparilears
| IA greg has cpm wun aG oancaccmneess ta Teo iia contelis ewan ads
eid | aie ties ec aetas ack aun am taunctundt cere even EB oiiinean ected tt, Catt eacemecs
DUMIMICIYE saausu tate 26lb agate tn sana AHO © 2 etree son we enters Rae
Needs more acid...........--..22005 Le iestccieiciesie ere aatekates “gulag ed alate.
Poor Water OP UCOs a scsauriiek ae aah oe Ae Es ROLE SAE eeT ee “apa ad Bex
Hishy2.a3 ieee: ore ans pees nei oe AGweu erase sen) SEF ese
COW Vk dias ee eee eee Rhee y sa we eda se IA2-l0es.seeeeeeeet: Set p ease
Hine; High, Clean: cave cue ces ke eas SMR stead Mamie Ae ahaa
SeOre (PeHECt 45) <, auiddsue ay bad Hak wWiNA we dae ele ee blame wma eA Bus
Wells dad ¢setecas Gomme eee aes Wir neta ee mae sane ees aeete
SALA 5/5 hit algan cvgede cade gle Rbrsuss het Slee gyal ges nda Wed cose e GR BAER HS 4 ew oacee a
Greasy: o -:saceicdee dia ee ceisk aes Wis se WN Soe eas Eis a cadeadaawen
Oily. cs. dS xeee Saher s Be tan eee Se ee Ae ce Se wane Sse a dag, a hse ea neon
IE a LONG. eset a dcld- ns eles ecuee ste Sipe A SrieTaeenedOnias ¢ ReAmeente tad
be WCMCCSY, acne Cott e.aient lecibcad aug Rate subieeuees Bes SG blancs RC aie 5) C Seaton eezia
S | Toase DOCY a2.x shadinwa ating deeranae sila aan ney eee senaitins Dla aasehe Soni,
| Too much water.......0. 0 2.2.2.2 00- A eke steiia'h banaue nds Ee Hecieds
Not-enough water, ...accccwraes esas A os ahs 2 Span cakes SERIA AMAR Sow 4d 5
Water not well incorporated... ....... A ole gue We ee BEER ware sad Gea
MUKys 27 osiges WB eas ete a doard Sang obindk PMU EES wR TOE cause Sachi
PLING NVA ay eeecriens aps vara uuicoms kame nase Meuenie as Hasealunaraetaenh ee bixts poo acee oaprdes
SCO: CREMCEE 25x... c oe.nth peg gunine dey Gx Mahe ade Sedma ae Awana

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER.

Color

Too GH: tas eeant ess tarecs Was oy ac aed eaten aw Sees S
MOOI Gg Sits vend. 2 acaleeds eles athe bane Savane ai aneeiane gees
Notig00d-Shad@.ccci. scar acgthesdinsega sos gas koe sees
Fine, even, light straw colored. . . NS aE ee to pas
Score: (Perfect 15)... a wsdio ania Al sw pda wee semen Shean

Salt

Noo NiGh,-¢ inva ye khanna a en Oct, trpncecals goer eas ems
Toodight'ss cusses sie tnintint rach oeashaean Ove cedelscaup ees ee
6

Wide, -SWOOtliss esas celuies Jeaesanelved daveaduaatasayave
Score (Perfect 10)... 0.0... 0. cece cee cence tenes

Packing, Package, and Style

Tops not: neati. occ csc cers ey sea ca seaare yeas Leen
Too much salt on tops... 2.6.0.6... eee eee eee 7-8...
Pubs NOt fills. <a.veee4 Genk se acetal nee Rees dren (ree
Stroke tops off level; do not bevel.............. Cnenren
Fold paper liners under cloth circles, not on top..........
Not paper lined. 2.50.5 enccsapexd eerie reds eb teoee es
Liners poor rade. sisi eked See Me Haale eek ein eare coe
Too much brine. ..........0 0. eee eee eee 7-8....
Loosely packed... 2.2.6... 0c cece cece eee aee 7-8....
Tubsdirty:.ej0¢ cs heed ees es ares e ems eakes tess Tdusen
Tubs MUAY: xs. oe vad ais cased nag ee ne Tala ae ee = Oe etn ois
Tubs soaked too much... ............000 ee eee 7-83 23
PUPS MOU e.2 ¢ cam vba aor oep and secant ue nee saes renee
Dark-colored staves. .........00 0000 cece eee Ws seeiies
Not Elgin-style tubs. ...........--.2200- +e eee ee Tesiraceh
Tabs flMsyi ony cs eed ahve See ete een iee ees TL vanes
Broken hoops and covers... ......-.---+-++ eee Ores
Tares too light; 11 Ibs. wanted................. Srekays
Tares too heavy; 11 Ibs. wanted.............-. Bi dudes
Hooks or poor tin fasteners................---- Teeny
Fine, handsome. ........-. 0.000 e eee erence eee ees
Score (Perfect 5). ......- cee cece eee es

Total score (Perfect 100).......-.....--..-.000-

290 BUTTER-MAKING,

MANNER OF JUDGING.

Body.—After the trierful of butter has been drawn out,
the first thing to notice is the aroma, and the body or texture
of the butter. The butter on the outside should be examined
at once before it is affected by the temperature of the room.
Notice its color, whether it is even or uneven, low or high.
Determine by the appearance of the butter and the way it feels
to the palate whether it is greasy, tallowy, spongy, or sticky.
The amount of brine and condition of brine should also be
noted. These characteristics and their causes have been
previously discussed. Stroke the plug of butter with a knife
to observe the color closer. Squeeze it with the thumb to
ascertain the character of the body. The aroma of the butter
should also be noticed in connection with scoring the butter
on body or texture, as it is more pronounced immediately after
the trierful of butter has been drawn.

Flavor.—It is impossible to describe all the different flavors
found in butter. There are perhaps as many distinct butter
flavors as there are shades of colors. However, there are a
few flavors which stand out more prominent and are more
commonly met with than any of the others. Good butter
should possess a clean, mild, rich, creamy flavor, and should
have a delicate, mild, pleasant aroma. Some butter judges,
especially foreign judges, allow a separate number of points
for aroma of butter in the score-card. This has been sug-
gested in the United States also, owing to the fact that
butter may have little aroma and still have a good flavor.
Owing to this, it has been suggested that it would be better to
allow a certain number of points separately for aroma in the
score-card.

Flat flavor is noticeable in butter made from unripened
cream. If such butter is otherwise clean, little objection is
made to this kind of butter for ordinary commercial purposes.
The remedy is to ripen the cream a little higher with a proper
ferment. Rancid flavor is applied to butter which has an

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 291

undesirable, strong flavor. Rancid flavor is the most common
defect developing in butter on standing. Other flavors develop-
ing in butter are “turpentine,” “fishy,” “unclean,” “‘ feverish,”’
and ‘‘stale”’ flavors. In criticizing butter it is better to mark
at once the specific fault, rather than state that the butter
israncid. Cheesy flavor is another characteristic which is very
common in butter. This cheesy condition develops chiefly
in butter containing little or no salt. It is claimed to be due
to the decomposition of the proteid matter in the butter.
Weedy flavors are quite common in butter. They are due
mostly to the condition of milk previous to the manufacture
of the butter. The remedy is to take the cows away from the
pasture in which weeds of different kinds are growing, such as
garlic, wild onions, ete. Acid flavor is another common defect
found in butter. It is usually due to improper ripening of
cream. The term sour is used in its literal meaning in describing
butter which in reality is sour, though not very sour to the
taste; by the sense of smell, bowever, the sourness is readily
perceived. The usual cause of this sourness is an improper
removal of the buttermilk before the butter is packed. The
term sour is occasionally used to designate butter which has
been made from overripened cream. JF everish flavor is a
comparatively new term. Its significance seems to be of
importance. This flavor is very sickening. It is believed to
be due to the cow’s system being in an unhealthy condition.
This flavor is imparted to the butter when it is produced from
milk drawn from cows during sexual excitement. Diarrhcea
of the cows is claimed to produce the same effect. Stable
flavors are due to the improper and unclean conditions of the
barn. They are most common during the winter, when cows
are exposed to stable conditions.

Color.—The color should be bright and even. When a plug
of butter is drawn with a trier and is held up to the light, it
should not be cloudy and dense, but should be almost transparent
and bright. The chief fault found with the color of butter
is unevenness. It may be streaky, mottled, or it may be too

292 BUTTER-MAKING.

high or too low. The shade of color will vary according
to the different markets. The color preferred in our markets
is chiefly a high straw color. There has been a tendency re-
cently to recommend a comparatively high color in butter, in
order to distinguish it from oleo margarine. A reddish color,
however, should be guarded against, except when the market
demands it. If too much color is added, butter will assume
this hue, which is very undesirable.

Salt.—The amount of salt likewise depends upon the market,
and unless the salt-content is extremely high, or extremely
low, butter should not be criticized on account of the amount
of salt. The chief thing to consider in judging butter on its
salt-content is the condition of the salt. Notice whether it
has been thoroughly dissolved and evenly distributed.

Style.—The style is the appearance of the butter and package.
Whatever the shape of the package, the chief thing to consider
is that it is clean and neatly finished, as described in the para-
graph on “ Exhibition of Butter.”

CLASSIFICATION AND GRADES OF BuTTER.

The classification and grading of butter on the different
markets vary very little. As the New York market is the
great butter market in the United States, we quote the classi-
fication and grades of butter as outlined by the New York Mer-
cantile Exchange:

“CLASSIFICATION.
“1, Butter shall be classified as Creamery, Process, Factory,
Packing Stock, and Grease Butter.
“ DEFINITIONS.

“9, Creamery.—Butter offered under this classification
shall have been made in a creamery from cream separated at
the creamery or gathered from farmers.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 293

“3. Process.—Butter offered under this classification shall
be such as is made by melting butter, clarifying the fat there-
from and re-churning the same with fresh milk, cream, or
skim-milk, or other similar process.

“4, Factory.—Butter offered under this classification shall
be such as is collected in rolls, lumps, or in whole packages and
reworked by the dealer or shipper.

“5, Packing Stock.—Butter offered under this classification
shall be original farm made butter in rolls, lumps or otherwise,
without additional moisture or salt.

‘6, Grease Butter.—This shall comprise all classes of butter
grading below thirds, or of packing stock grading below No. 3,
as hereinafter specified, free from adulteration.

“GRADES,

“7, Creamery, process, and factory shall be graded as
Specials, Extras, Firsts, Seconds, and Thirds; and Packing
Stock shall be graded as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3.

Definition of Grades.

“8. Grades of butter must conform to the following re-
quirements in addition to the requirements of score as here-
inafter provided.

“9. Specials.—Shall comprise the highest grades of butter
obtainable in the season when offered, under the various classi-
fications. 90% shall conform to the following standard; the
balance shall not grade below Extras.

“‘ Flavor.—Must. be fine, sweet, clean, and fresh, if of cur-
rent make, and fine, sweet and clean, if held.

“ Body.—Must be firm and uniform.

“Color.—A light straw shade, even and uniform.

“ Salt—Medium salted.

“ Package.—Sound, good, uniform, and clean.

“Specials may also comprise such lots of Extras as, owing
to some particular and unusual qualification, are more de-
sirable than plain “extras” offered without any qualification.

294 BUTTER-MAKING.

“10, Extras.—Shall be a grade just below Specials and must
be fine butter for the season when made and offered, under

100

Specials

92 |}.
fara, Extras anes
91

eee Firsts ae eran
| ee ee Seconds: /-s=-2e2=-2-==5/

= S08 acme

Graphical illustration of the approximate relative amount of each of the
different grades of butter arriving on the New York market during the
summer season. It also shows the required score for each of the dif-
ferent grades. (From N. Y. Produce Review. )

the various classifications. 90% shall conform to the follow-
ing standard; the balance shall not grade below Firsts.

“ Flavor.—Must be sweet, clean, and fresh if of current
make and sweet and clean, if held.

‘‘ Body—Must be good and uniform.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 295

“Color.—A light straw shade, even and uniform.

“Salt-—Medium salted.

“ Package.—Sound, good, uniform, and clean.

“11. Firsts.—Shall be a grade just below Extras and must
be good butter for the season when made and offered, under
the various classifications. 90% shall conform to the follow-
ing standard; the balance shall not grade below Seconds.

“Flavor.—Must be good, sweet, and fresh if of current make
and good and sweet, if held.

“Color.—Reasonably uniform, neither very high nor very
light.

‘“Salt—May be reasonably high, light or medium.

‘“Package.—Good and uniform.

“12. Seconds.—Shall be a grade just below Firsts.

“ Flavor.—Must be reasonably good.

““Body.—If Creamery, must be solid boring. If Factory or
Process, must be 90% solid boring.

“Color.—Fairly uniform, but may be mottled.

“Salt—May be high, medium, or light.

‘“ Package.—Good.

“13. Thirds.—Shall be a grade below Seconds and may
consist of promiscuous ‘ots.

“Flavor.—May be off-flavored and strong on tops and
sides.

“Body.—Not required to draw a full trier.

“Color.—May be irregular or mottled.

“ Salt.—High, light, or irregular.

“Package-—Any kind of package mentioned at time of
sale.

“14, No. 1 Packing Stock.—Shall be sweet and sound,
packed in large, new, or good uniform second hand barrels,
having a wooden head in each end, or in new tubs, either to
be parchment paper lined. Barrels and tubs to be packed full.

“15. No. 2 Packing Stock.—Shall be reasonably sweet and
sound, and may be packed in promiscuous or different kinds of
barrels, tubs, or tierces, without being parchment paper lined,

296 BUTTER-MAKING,

and may be packed in either two-headed or cloth-covered
barrels.

“16. No. 3 Packing Stock.—Shall be a grade below No. 2,
and may be off-flavored, or strong; may be packed in any
kind or kinds of packages. Charges for inspection shall be
the same as the rules call for on other grades.

“Scoring, as Affecting Grades of Creamery Butter.

“17, In the inspection of creamery butter for grade, the
point system of scoring shall be used on the following basis:

“Flavor, for perfection.................... 45 points.
“Body, for perfection. ........... 0 ....... 25 points.
“Color, for perfection... ..... 0 ............ 15 points.
“Salt, for perfection.... ........... .... 10 points.
“Style, for perfection... ....... 2.0 .e 00. 5 points.
“Total, for perfection. ............... ... 100 points.

“18. The Butter Committee shall determine and prescribe
from time to time a range of scores covering two consecutive
full points, which shall be required for the grade of Extra
Creamery in addition to the other specific requirements men-
tioned in Rule 10. The required scores for Extra Creamery
shall be fixed with due consideration for the varying average
quality of the creamery butter obtainable from season to
season, and with a view of making this grade represent as
nearly as may be a uniform quality relatively to the quality
of the supply as a whole. The required range of scores so deter-
mined upon shall remain in force until changed by the Butter
Committee; such changes may be made at any time and shall
become effective on the day following authoritative announce-
ment from the caller’s desk and posting on the bulletins. All
creamery butter scoring higher than required for Extras, if
it meet the requirements mentioned in Rule 9, shall grade as
Creamery Specials; all creamery butter scoring lower than
required for Extras, but not more than four points lower,
if it meet the requirements mentioned in Rule 11, shall grade

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 297

as Creamery Firsts; all creamery butter scoring lower than
Creamery Firsts, but not more than five points lower, if it
meet the requirements mentioned in Rule 12, shall grade as
Creamery Seconds; all creamery butter scoring lower than
Creamery Seconds if it meets the requirements of Rule 13,
shall grade as Creamery Thirds.

“19. The Butter Committee shall cause to be posted in
a conspicuous place upon the bulletins of the Exchange, the
range of scores required for the various grades of creamery
butter currently in effect.

“90. Lines of fifty tubs or more of one straight mark and
invoice of Extra Creamery butter shall be a good delivery on a
contract for Creamery Specials, provided the guaranteed score
of the butter is mentioned when the goods are offered for
sale.

“Known Marks.

“91, Known marks shall comprise such butter as is known
to the trade under some particular mark or designation and
must grade as Extras or better if Creamery or Process, and as
Firsts or better if Factory in the season when offered, unless
otherwise specified. Known marks to be offered under the
call must previously have been registered in a book kept by
the Superintendent for that purpose. If Process, the factory
district number and state must be registered.

“Sales Under the Call.

‘99, Parties wishing to offer butter not described in the
foregoing classifications and grades, must specify its character.

“93, All butter offered under the Call shall be fresh made,
current receipts, and shall be in regular 60-pound ash tubs,
unless otherwise specified.

“94, No offer to buy or sell less than twenty-five tubs spot,
nor less than fifty tubs for future delivery, nor bids or offers
of a less fraction than te. per pound shall be entertained.

“95, Bids and offerings of not less than fifty tubs for future

298 BUTTER-MAKING,

delivery may be made for a period of ten days. The call for
futures shall take place immediately after the call for spot
delivery, and seller this afternoon. On all sales for future
delivery, a compulsory margin shall be deposited by each party
to the contract as specified in Rule 2 of the Executive Com-
mittee.

‘26. The first offer to buy or sell at a price shall be ac-
cepted before subsequent offers at the same figure are con-
sidered.

‘27. Offers may be withdrawn at any time before accept-
ance.

‘98. Offers to sell at a lower, or buy at a higher, price shall
vacate all previous bids and offerings.

“99. A transaction shall vacate all previous bids and
offerings.

“30. All differences as to offers, acceptances, withdrawals,
or irregular bids, shall be decided on the spot by the officer
conducting the call, subject to an appeal to the members present.
If an appeal is made, it shall be put promptly, and a majority
of the members present and voting shall settle the difference
finally.

‘31. The Superintendent shall have recorded daily, in a
book kept for the purpose, all sales under the call, and such
other sales on the floor as may be requested by the parties
thereto, and shall furnish certificates of sales to both seller and
buyer.

‘32. Spot sales shall be for spect cash, and butter sold for
future delivery shall be paid for when delivered, unless other-
wise agreed.

‘33. All deliveries shall be from the store of the seller,
providing it be in Manhattan Borough below Canal Street,
otherwise the goods must be placed within said limits.

‘34. All disputes must be settled while the goods are in
the seller’s possession.

“35. When spot sales are made, butter must be ready
for immediate delivery.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 299

“36. All goods tendered, inspector’s certificate attached,
shall be accompanied by such certificate, and be accepted by
the buyer unconditionally, provided all tubs are branded
according to Rule 64.

“37. If butter tendered has not been inspected and does
not appear to the buyer to be of the class and grade sold, the
seller shall be notified not later than 1 p.m. He may then
have it inspected, and if it proves not to fulfill the require-
ments of the sale, he may make a second delivery not later
than 3 P.M.

‘38. If a second tender is made and appears not of the
class and grade sold, the buyer must establish the quality by
an official inspection, for which he shall make application to
the Superintendent not later than 4 p.m. of the day of the
sale.

“When an inspection is made and shows the butter to be
of the class and grade sold, the buyer shall accept the same,
and pay for the inspection.

“39. In sales for ‘future delivery’ the delivery require-
ments as to time, inspection, etc., shall be the same as on the
spot sales on the date of delivery, but the rules governing
classification for grades in force at time of such sale shall
govern the quality of such deliveries.

“40. In sales ‘seller’s option’ the seller shall notify the
buyer of his intention to make delivery not later than 9 a.m.
on the day of delivery. If ‘buyer’s option,’ the buyer shall
notify the seller of his intention to call for delivery at least
twenty-four hours before 10 a.m. of the day delivery is de-
manded.

“41, On sales of Creamery of twenty-five tubs, delivery
may be of not more than two marks; on twenty-six to fifty
tubs, three marks; on fifty-one to one hundred tubs, marks
containing not less than twenty-five tubs each; on larger lots,
marks containing not less than fifty tubs each.

“492. On sales of Factory, or Process butter, delivery must
be of one mark, unless otherwise specified.

300 BUTTER-MAKING.

‘43, A carload shall consist of 300 tubs of one mark, unless
otherwise specified.

‘‘44. In case of failure to deliver a carload, settlement shall
be made on the basis of 300 tubs.

“45, An application to the Superintendent for an inspection
of goods in controversy, if made within the time allowed for
inspection, shall be deemed a compliance with these rules in
this respect.

“ Penalties.

‘“‘46. When an inspection of butter sold for spot delivery
shows the goods not to be of the class and grade sold, the seller
shall pay a penalty equal to 5% of the amount of the contract,
and the fee for inspection. If the official quotation for the
day exceeds the contract price, the seller shall also pay to the
buyer in the same way the difference between the contract
price, and the average official quotation.

“47. If butter purchased for future delivery be not de-
livered as per contract, the buyer shall promptly notify the
Superintendent in writing. At the next regular meeting of
the Exchange, an announcement of the same shall be made
by the Superintendent, who shall buy in the goods for account
of the seller, provided it can be done under the call at current
rates. If, however, the price demanded seems to him un-
reasonable, he shall not make the purchase, but shall refer
the matter to the Butter Committee, who shall determine the
difference between the contract price and the actual market
value on the date on which delivery should have been made,
and this amount, together with a penalty equal to 5% of the
amount of the contract, shall be paid by the seller.

“48. If butter, sold for future delivery, be not received
when properly tendered, the seller shall promptly notify the
Superintendent in writing. At the next regular meeting of
the Exchange, an announcement of the same shall be made
by the Superintendent, who shall scll out the goods, under
the call, for account of the buyer, and if the price obtained be

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER, 301

less than the contract price, the difference, together with a
penalty equal to 5% of the amount of the contract, shall be
paid by the buyer.

“49. Penalties and differences shall be paid to the Super-
intendent of the Exchange, and by him paid to those entitled
thereto.

“50. Any member holding a contract against another,
corresponding in respect to class, grade, and quantity of goods,
and date of delivery, with one held by the other against him,
may offset it against the latter by giving notice to the other
party, when both contracts shall be surrendered to the Super-
intendent of the Exchange and cancelled.

“51. All notices shall be in writing, and shall be considered
as properly served when left at the place of business of the
party for whom they are intended.

“Certificate of Sale.

“52. Certificates of sale must be accepted on contracts for
future delivery.

‘53. The party transferring a certificate of sale, shall imme-
diately notify the original seller of the transfer, and to whom
made. He shall also have it recorded on the books of the
Exchange, and shall thereupon be relieved of all responsibility
attaching to the same.

‘54. In case the party to a contract for future delivery, for
the fulfillment of which margin has been deposited with the
Superintendent, shall die, make an assignment, be absent from
the city,or otherwise be disabled, or refuse to perform any act
necessary for the proper adjustment or payment of such margin,
the matter shall be referred to the Finance Committee, as
provided in Section 33, Paragraph 6, of the By-Laws.

“Contracts.

“55. The following shall be the form of contract for all
sales of butter for future delivery:

302 BUTTER-MAKING.

“Contract for Future Delivery.

“This is to certify that the following sale and purchase
has been made by the respective signers hereto, under and
subject to the Rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange,
THIS wees ees jets Wucin ra Rae eA ea gear ee ee
COE ee etinaeard seen om ered ig potest 190 ..

Gnad 6: sass awe eek ore

PRICE, qicepevewlaattan biiat Boi tae s

eee eas atte Glace wha tte Se Seller.
ie Mater hen hie .. .Purchaser.

cee margins deposited with me this day by each

Parly NeratOls 1. ws Gepyac deen eekcs ie am dollars.
“$4 928) de ae es Upermtendent,
“New York, .. ..... 190

“Upon the reverse side of cach contract, shall be printed
the Rules governing such transactions. A proper book shall
be kept by the Superintendent of the Exchange, entitled
‘Butter Contracts,’ in which shall be recorded all contracts as
per foregoing form, duplicates of which shall be furnished to
both sellers and purchasers, who shall personally sign the
same at the time of depositing original margins. All contracts
shall be signed, and original margins deposited not later than
2 o'clock on the day following the sale.

‘56. When further margins are called for, same shall be
paid to, and receipted for, by endorsement upon the contract
by the Superintendent of the Exchange.

‘57. All transfers of contracts for future delivery must be

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 303

endorsed on the original contract, by the Superintendent. of
the Exchange, who shall promptly notify the other party in
interest, of such transfer.

“58. The following form of transfer shall be used:

“For value received, the within described contract is
assigned and transferred to..... 00.0220. oe cae
who hereby agrees to assume s the same, . wih all the conditions
and obligations thereof.

“*Tyated, New York....... F Ge pate

ree ee Bs hap .. .. .seller,

mega tae ee se anne = Buyer?

“Inspectors and Inspections.

“59. At the first meeting of the Butter Committce it shall
recommend to the President, for his appointment, subject to
the approval of the Executive Committee, such Inspectors
of Butter as may be required.

“60. Vacancies occurring in the office of Inspectors, shall
be filled in the manner inewhich the original appointment was
made.

“61. In case of absence or inability of the Inspectors,
temporary Inspectors may be appointed by the Butter Com-
mittee of the Exchange.

“62. Inspectors, before entering upon their duties, shall be
sworn to perform sail duties faithfully, and to be governed
by the rules herewith, as they shall be interpreted by the
Butter Committee, and to make such inspections as may be
directed by the Superintendent of the Exchange.

‘63. All applications for inspection must be made to =
Superintendent of the Exchange between the hours of 8
Am. and 5 p.m., who will direct the same—for maenibers .
the Exchange only—as soon as practicable, in the order
in which they are received, excepting that applications for
the inspection of butter which has been sold under the Call,
and is in controversy, shall be given precedence over other
applications.

304 BUTTER-MAKING.

“64, Inspectors shall brand on the top and side each pack-
age inspected, and when requested also on the side of each
remaining package in the lot or lots covered by the inspec-
tion.

‘65. Inspectors shall immediately after completing an in-
spection, make a certificate of the same in accordance with the
specification for grading contained in these rules, upon blanks
furnished for this purpose, under the direction of the Butter
Committee, which shall be countersigned by the Superin-
tendent, and promptly delivered to the party ordering the
inspection.

‘66. A Certificate of Inspection shall be good for two days
from date of same (including Sundays and holidays) provided
the holder of the goods takes proper care of the same.

“67. The Inspectors shall have recorded in a book provided
for the purpose, a detailed account of all inspections made
by them, stating date and hour of inspection, name, and address
of parties for whom inspection is made, place where inspection
is made, stencil number or other marks on goods, number of
tubs in lots, and number of tubs inspected. If lots contain
more than one shipment, the number of tubs in each shipment
shall be noted.

‘68. There shall be drawn as samples for inspection by the

Inspectors:

5 tubs from lots less than 25 of one mark and invoice.
8“ ff €* of 25 of one mark and invoice.

15 oe ims oe ce 50 << af be ce ime

20 oe oe ce ime 100 ‘‘ €¢ ce ce ce

35 ce ce te ia¢ 200 ‘‘ ce oe ce ce

50 ce in¢ ia¢ ae 300 ‘* te ine ce et

60 ee ing ce £¢. 500 ‘‘ oe “e ce es

and a like proportion of lots ranging between these figures,
and of larger lots.

“69. If butter runs irregular in quality, the Inspector shall
increase his sample to such an extent as he deems necessary
to secure a fair and just inspection.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER, 305

“70. A buyer or seller may have a larger percentage than
the above inspected, upon making application previous to the
inspection, and payment of 10c. per tub additional fecs.

“71. All complaints against the Butter Inspectors shall be
referred to the Butter Committee.

“72. Charges for inspection shall be as follows:

On lots not exceeding 10 tubs, 1 invoice... .. .80.50
Over 10 and not over 25 tubs, 1 invoice..... 0.75
ims 25 ce oe “e 50 img 1 Be . 1.00
ce 50 ine 6 as 100 ins 1 2k 1.50
ims 100 ins co Oe 200 a9 1 (a4 1.75
ce 200 ia C6 im 300 ims 1 ce 2.00

oe OO SE ee SEO SS ee pT SA ei, ae
3. Inspections shall be paid by the party ordering the
same, excepting where otherwise provided.

“74. At the first meeting of the Butter Committce, it
shall recommend to the President for appointment, subject
to the approval of the Executive Committce, a Butter Weigher,
who may appoint assistants as he may require them.

“75. The Butter Weigher shall receive his instructions
from the Butter Committee.

“76. The Butter Weigher and Assistants before entering
upon their duties shall be sworn to perform said duties faith-
fully, correctly, and in conformity with the customs of the
Butter Trade, as defined by the Butter Committee.

“77. The Butter Weigher shall make certificates in dupli-
cate of all lots of butter weighed by him, or his assistants,
and promptly deliver to the party ordering the weighing.

“78. Applications for weighing butter shall be made to
the Superintendent or Butter Weigher.

“79, Charges for weighing shall be as follows:

on
‘

On lots not over 25 tubs........0..... 3c. per tub
Over 25 and not over 50 tubs......... 24e. per tub
Pir gmt te) ee. AE III liar Sn te ot Bei, Wes ae

Testing 7 tubs or less... a2.¢7seeaees< Foe.

Overy GWbS)3 occ-oiswaeeeeepeaacdanes 10c. ‘* *

306 BUTTER-MAKING.

‘80. All complaints against the Butter Weigher, or Assist-
ants, shall be made to the Butter Committee.

“81. All former rules conflicting with the foregoing, are
hereby repealed.

“ Attention is Directed to the Following Executive Committee Rules,
and Section 33, Paragraph 6, of the By-Laws.

“Rule 2.—On all sales, or purchases of any merchandise
to arrive, or for future delivery, cach party to the contract
shall deposit an original margin with the Superintendent of
the Exchange of 10% on the contract price at the time of
purchase, or sale, and a further margin from time to time
to the extent of any variation in the market value from the
contract price; said margin to be deposited in such bank or
trust company as may have been designated by the Finance
Committee of the New York Mercantile Exchange. When
margins are called before 12 ., they must be deposited before
3 P.M. of the same day. If called after 12 m., they must be
deposited before 12 mM. of the following day; in case of failure
to deposit as above, the buyer or scller shall have the right
to cover his contract at discretion, for account of the party
failing to respond to the call for margin.

“Rule 7.—All merchandise purchased by sample shall be
considered sold unless the purchaser notify the seller within
twenty-four hours after reccipt of the same, that it is rejected
as not being up to sample. If a settlement cannot be agreed
on, the case shall be referred to the Trade Committee having
charge of the class of goods in question, who shall decide the
mattcr, and in the event of a decision against either buyer
or seller, the same penalties shall accrue as the Rules under
the Call provide for the kind of goods dealt in. The party
against whom the decision is given shall pay to each com-
mitteeman serving $2 for each case.

JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 307

Section 33, Paragraph 6, of the By-Laws.

“When the parties to a contract, on which margin has been
deposited through the instrumentality of the Superintendent,
as above set forth, cannot agree as to the distribution and
payment of such margin, or in case one or both of the con-
tracting parties die or make an assignment, or otherwise be-
come incapacitated, or refuse to perform promptly any act
necessary for the adjustment and payment of such margin,
the Finance Committee is hereby authorized and directed to
ascertain the person or persons to whom such margins should be
paid, and instruct the Superintendent to endorse the deposit
certificate for payment, or exchange it for other checks, to
correspond in amount with the Committee’s decision, drawn
to the order of the person or persons entitled thereto, and
deliver the same to said person or persons without unnecessary
delay; and in case, for any cause whatever, the said deposit
certificate is not immediately forthcoming, so that such en-
dorsement and distribution may be made, the Finance Committee
shall instruct the Superintendent to procure from the said
bank or trust company that issued it, a duplicate thereof,
as provided for in the original, and endorse it as he would
have endorsed the original if it had come into his possession.”

Export BUutTTer.

The observations of the authors have been that the reputa.
tion of the American butter is not all that is desirable on the
English market. Some American butter is good enough to
sell on an equality with Danish butter, and in some instances
it is palmed off for such. Much poor butter, however, has been
allowed to go onto the English market, and this has in some
measure ruined the reputation of our butter.

Butter for export purposes should be of the very best, and
made in such a way as to insure good keeping qualities.

The standing of the different kinds of butter, as observed
on the English market, were as follows:

308 BUTTER-MAKING.

(1) Fresh French Rolls.

(2) Danish Creamery.

(3) Irish Creamery.

(4) New Zealand.

(5) Canadian, Australian, Argentine, United States, and
Siberia.

For Storage Purposes.

(1) Danish.
(2) New Zealand.
(8) Siberia.

Fic. 172.—Shipping Russian butter from Siberia. (U.S. Govt. Bul.)

CHAPTER XNXI.

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES.

OnE of the most important things in connection with the
successful operation of a creamery is the control of tempera-
ture. This control of temperature is important in the sepa-
ration, pasteurization, ripening, churning processes, and in
the use and preparation of starters. Conditions are frequently
such that the raw as well as finished dairy products need to
be stored. If temperature or cold storage conditions are not
under control, dairy products will suffer in quality. Raw as
well as finished products are very perishable. They are best
when fresh. Strictly and generally speaking, dairy products
deteriorate with age. The nearer the producers of the raw
material, manufacturers, and consumers of the finished prod-
ucts can be brought together, the better it is. Conditions
cf commerce and trade are such that butter needs to be pre-
served for some time before it reaches the consumer.

The preservation of butter depends on the checking of
fermentations affecting the flavor of this product. This can
best be done by the use of a low temperature. There are
various ways by which low temperature may be obtained in
creameries. The system of refrigeration to be employed in a
given creamery should be determined by local conditions.

Cooling Systems:

1. By the use of natural ice.
2. By the use of mechanical refrigeration.
3. By the use of cold water alone.
1. Most local creameries, within the ice-freezing belt, make

use of natural ice. It is by far the most common method
309

310 BUTTER-MAKING,

of refrigeration employed in creameries, and undoubtedly, under
average local conditions, represents the most economic method
of obtaining low temperature. As a rule patrons have little
work to do during the winter and are willing to supply teams
and help for a few days while the ice is being put up. The
use of natural ice gives good satisfaction, especially when
good, pure ice can be had within a reasonable distance from
the creamery, and a proper and convenient place is provided
in which to store the ice.

2. Mechanical refrigeration is undoubtedly gaining favor
with creamery-men, as is evidenced by the increased number
of mechanical refrigerating-plants installed in various cream-
eries. The reasons for this increase are due in part, first to
centralization of creameries, second, to mild winters in certain
sections and consequently no natural ice, third, greater con-
venience if properly operated.

Centralized creameries have so much more cooling to do
than a local creamery, that a mechanical refrigerating-plant
best serves their needs. Often centralized plants are located
in large cities where an ice-manufacturing plant and cold
storage plant may be run successfully in connection with
the creamery. Prof. Erf* has conducted some experiments
relative to the comparative cost of the two systems for creamery
use. The following table shows the results, and indicates the
comparative cost of cooling 100 pounds of butter to 30° F.,
including the cost of cooling the cream during manufacturing
processes. These figures are also based upon a run of 10,000
pounds of milk per day.

1. 2. 3. 4.
Natural-ice system... .. .. 20.le. 18.2c. 17.5¢. 17.1.
Mechanical refrigeration.. .. 17.8c. 17.1e. 16.9¢. 16.8c.

The different columns (1, 2, 3, 4) indicate different insulating
material used, which cannot here be elaborated upon, except
to say that it pays to insulate thoroughly.

* Creamery Journal,

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES, 311

The above results indicate that mechanical refrigeration
is a little the cheaper. The cost of mechanical refrigeration is
quite constant under different conditions, while the cost con-
nected with storing and using natural ice will vary greatly
according to different localities.

3. Under certain conditions, intentional or unintentional,
a creamery must be run without the use of ice, and without
mechanical refrigeration. In such a case cold water is a
necessity. One of the authors successfully operated a creamery
one season without any other cooling agent than water. The
winter season had been warm and no ice was obtained nor
was it obtainable at a reasonable cost. There was no room
in the creamery for a mechanical refrigerating-plant, and even
if there had been, no money was available with which to pur-
chase such cooling facilities. The only thing to do was to
close the creamery or cool with water.

The latter method was resorted to. The creamery was
fortunate in having an unlimited supply of pure cold water
coming from a mountain stream.

This water was made effective for cooling purposes by
directing a constant flow through a galvanized iron tank in
the refrigerator. The ice-box on the inside of the refrigerator
was removed, and a closed galvanized iron tank put in its place.
This tank was connected up with an inflow and overflow at
the top. A faucet for draining the tank was provided at the
bottom in one corner. The tank was made straight on the
side next to the wall, but sloping towards the wall on the side
facing the refrigerator room. This was done so as to allow
the dampness or sweat collecting on the outside to run down
the sides and be collected in a trough, which conveyed it to
the outside. A trap was connected with this outlet so as not
to let in warm air. Such an arrangement gave very good
satisfaction, though not so effective in cooling as ice.

The cream was cooled and kept cold by circulating a con-
stant stream of water through the vat-jackets. The tempera-
ture of the water was never above 50° F.

312 BUTTER-MAKING,

The butter was disposed of locally while fresh. In cream-
eries where it is necessary to hold butter any length of time,
this system is undoubtedly less satisfactory, but under above
mentioned conditions it gave good satisfaction.

The water-tank should never be made from wood, as wood
is a very poor conductor of heat. Heavy galvanized iron is
best.

jJatuRAL Ick SysTEM.

Kind of Ice-house-—When natural ice is stored, the first
consideration is a good ice-house conveniently located to the
creamery and refrigerator. When the creamery is first planned
and built the ice-house should at the same time be provided
for. The ice-house should preferably be adjacent to the re-
frigerator, so that the ice can be transferred directly from the
house into the cooler, thus obviating much loss of ice and
decreasing labor.

The various parts of the building embracing the many
details, will not here be enlarged upon, inasmuch as they can
be more advantagcously shown in plans. Students are referred
to the different views shown on pages 313-315, 317 and 318.*

As will be seen, the construction of the ice-house depends
to some extent upon the location and kind of refrigerator to
be used. There are at least two different ways of locating
the refrigerator in relation to ice-house: (1) Where the re-
frigerator is entirely separate from the icc-house, the ice to be
transferred and placed either overhead or on one side of the
refrigerator. (2) Where the refrigerator is combined with
the ice-house and the ice is not moved for cooling purposes.
This in turn may be arranged so as to have the ice storage
overhead or on one side of the refrigerator. The ice-house
needed in connection with this second method differs chiefly
from that of the first in that bettcr insulation is necessary
and no ice-packing material is used, except on top. This latter

* N, Y. Produce Review. Showing cooling facilities in Albert Lea
Creamery, Minn.

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES. 313

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COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES.

x 6'D, & M. Fencing,
— ; Waterproof Paper,
i ‘Surfaced Boards.

16 Surfaced Boards.
SSE pe e , Waterproof Paper,
1% 6D, & UW. Fencing, 16x 6'D, & M, Fencing,
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Fic, 175.—Construction detail of ice-house.

315

316 BUTTER-MAKING.

method of creamery refrigerators, even though more expensive,
is to be highly recommended, chiefly because labor is decreased,
and the low temperature is uniformly maintained.

Reasonable high ground affords a good location for an ice-
house. It is of importance that the ground should be thor-
oughly drained before building the ice-house. If the ground
is high, dry, and gravelly, perhaps no drainage is needed,
but under most conditions a drain should be run through the
bottom. This drain should not be very deep. If area to be
drained is so large that one drain will not carry off the water,
it is better to use two drains, rather than to have one deep one.

Size and Shape of Ice-house.—The plan of the ice-house
should be as nearly square as consistent with room. <A square
building, having a certain length of wall around it, will hold
more ice than an oblong building having an equal number
of feet of outside walls. The building should also be high in
proportion to width and length. This will tend to preserve
the ice as proportionately less top surface is exposed to the air.

The size of the building will vary according (1) to amount
of milk handled at the creamery, (2) whether ice is sold from
creamery, and (3) whether ice is used for any other purposes,
such as ice-cream freezing, cream shipping, etc. For creamery
uses, the only basis on which to estimate is the amount of
milk received.

For example, suppose a creamery is receiving 12,000 pounds
of milk daily. This milk will produce about 2000 pounds of
cream and about 600 pounds of butter. Suppose that the
cream needs to be cooled from 90° F. down to 40° F. or a range
of 50°F. One pound of ice will cool about 142 pounds of
water 1° F. Calculations are made with water as basis. The
results will thus be a little too high, but subsequent corrections
will be made. If one pound of ice will cool 142 pounds of
cream 1° F., it will require 50 pounds of ice to cool that amount
of cream 50° F. By calculation from these figures we find that
about 0.35 of a pound of ice is required to cool each pound
of cream 50° F. and for cooling 2000 pounds of cream it will

317

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES.

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it would take 168,000 pounds of ice per year.

heat of cream is only about 0.7, the final amount needed for
cooling the cream would be only 117,600 pounds, or about

59 tons.

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES., 319

The next consideration is the ice needed for cooling the
butter. Roughly speaking, there will be about 600 pounds of
butter. Suppose the butter needs to be cooled 30° F. Granting
that the specific heat of butter is the same as that of water,
it would require 30 pounds of ice to cool 142 pounds of butter
30° F. There will therefore be needed daily 126 pounds of
ice for cooling the butter. As the specific heat of butter is
only about 0.4, 51 pounds of ice are necessary daily. For eight
months 12,240 pounds will be needed. The amount of ice
needed in a refrigerator above that needed for cooling the
butter cannot be calculated. We may count on 25% radia-
tion and 25% as an allowance for cooling tubs and packages.
The total ice needed for cooling the butter will then be 24,480
pounds, or about 123 tons.

Counting on 20% loss incidental to transportation and
melting in the ice-house, 89 tons of ice are needed for cooling
the cream and butter the number of degrees mentioned above.

One cubic foot of ice at 32° F. weighs 57.5 pounds. If
1 cubic foot of ice weighs 57.5 pounds, 89 tons would occupy
a space equal to 3093 cubic feet, and would require an ice-
house of dimensions approximately as follows: 16 ft. high,
14 ft. wide, and 14 ft. long. These dimensions are given only
as examples. The height, width, and length may need to be
changed to conform with local conditions. One thing should
be kept in mind, it is always better to have an ice-house a little
too large rather than too small.

Filling the Ice-house.—The chief objects to be sought in
packing icc into an icehouse already properly constructed,
are: first, to exclude circulation of air through the mass of ice
and thus prevent melting; second, to pack it in such a manner
that it can easily be removed in whole blocks; third, to pack
it with such material that it will leave the ice as clean as is
consistent with other important sought objects.

The packing material which is most commonly used in the
central western States is sawdust. This is very efficient in
excluding air, lasting, and usually cheap, but soils the ice,

320 BUTTER-MAKING.

so that considerable water needs to be used with which to rinse
it. As a consequence of this latter, considerable ice is wasted.
Straw is used successfully. It leaves the ice much cleaner,
but is not so effective in preserving the ice. Shavings are
good, but as a rule are too expensive and not available. Some
use no packing material other than ice and snow. When the
blocks of ice are put into the ice-house, they are packed closely
together. A man with a hatchet chips the block of ice in
such a way as to fit them snugly together. The small cracks
are filled with fine ice and snow. The experience of the authors
is that, by this method, the blocks of ice are likely to solidly
freeze together, so the ice cannot be removed without break-
ing it up into irregular pieces. This is hard work, and con-
siderable ice is wasted.

Another method of filling ice-houses in successful use is
that of running a small layer of water into the building and
allowing it to freeze. The doors in the ice-house are opened
during a protractive period of cold weather. The bottom of
the ice-house is covered with building-paper. Water is run
on top of this and allowed to freeze until a layer of ice about
a foot in thickness has been obtained. Then another layer of
paper is made to cover the ice and more water flooded on
and frozen. This process is continued until the ice-house
is filled. The paper between the layers prevents the ice
from freezing into one solid mass, and facilitates the removal
of the ice.

When the ice is stored in an insulated house, combined
with the refrigerator, no packing material is used except on
the top of the ice. Shavings are good to pile on the top of ice
when the ice-house has been filled. They are clean and effective
in preserving the ice.

The cost of filling an ice-house with natural ice, obtainable
within a distance of about eight miles, will vary in different
localities, but may be said to range between $0.60 and $1.25
per ton. The creamery furnishes a man to pack it into the
ic2-house.

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES., 321

Source of Ice.—The ice for creamery use should be ob-
tained from as pure water as possible. A large running stream
is always better than a small polluted stream. Usually the
creamery can codperate with butchers, restaurants, hotel-
men, and other local ice-users in building a dam in a suitable
stream. The ice can also as a rule be harvested cheaper by
cooperation.

Some creameries have constructed ice-ponds near the icc-
house. If there is a clay or impervious bottom, this works
successfully and economically. The pond is filled and kept
filled from the creamery water-supply or from a tile drain inlet.
Care should be taken not to use stagnant water and water
in which weeds and other rubbish have been allowed to accu-
mulate. The pond should be deep enough so that the water
will not freeze to the bottom and produce dirty ice. The pond
should also be filled with water to overflowing when freezing
is begun, otherwise slush and snow are likely to accumulate
together with dust from the fields and roads, producing impure
ice.

The ice is best when frozen from the top down. A hole is
bored and kept open in the ice during the freezing process.
Through this opening the pond is supplied with water as rapidly
as it subsides. When the water is solidly up against the bottom
of the ice it will show in the opening or hole in the ice.

To construct an ice-pond on gravelly soil is useless, and to
pack such a pond with a sufficiently thick layer of clay to pre-
vent leakage of water is under most conditions, impracticable.

Usace or Ice in CooLtinc CREAM.

1. Directly.
2. Indirectly.

1. The cooling of cream in creameries by putting ice directly
into the cream has been much practiced in the past. The
method is yet used considerably, especially where the old
open vats are still in use. Some of these open vats are jacketed

322 BUTTER-MAKING.,

and some are not. Cream in unjacketed vats could not well
be cooled in any other way than by using ice directly in the
cream and stirring until cold. To keep cold any length of
time, considerable excess of ice needs to be used.

Such a method of cooling cream has its advantages as well
as disadvantages. The latter, however, clearly outweighs
the former.

The advantages are that the cream can be cooled in a very
short time, and it does not require any special investment
for up-to-date ripening-vats, nor special machinery for the
purpose of pumping the cooling medium.

The chief disadvantages are: First, impurities and un-
desirable germs are liable to be introduced, which would injure
the quality of the cream and otherwise work harm to the
quality and keeping property of the butter; second, the melt-
ing of the ice would dilute the cream. This would render
the cream less sour, impart a marked flat, insipid taste to the
cream and butter, and produce more buttermilk which, if it
contained a certain per cent fat, would mean a greater loss
of fat during the churning process.

The use of ice directly in the cream for cooling purposes
should not be resorted to unless it is necessary. With the
best quality of cream this method is still more unsatisfactory,
as it greatly lowers the quality of butter. With cream in
very poor condition previous to ripening, the chances for
lowering the quality of butter are not so ereat.

2. The cooling of cream with ice indirectly is by far the
best method. With the use of our up-to-date ripening-vats,
the cooling of cream is an easy matter. But where the creamery
is already in possession of a good open vat and the manage-
ment not disposed to discard it to install a new one, the ques-
tion is different.

Some open vats have a jacket and special open space at
one end for holding crushed ice. These vats will control and
hold temperature better than those with just a jacket around.
The cooling of cream on a large scale by circulating ice-water

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES, 323

through the jacket, at best, is a slow process. Usually too
slow to be effective and practical.

This cooling process is carried out by mixing the ice and
water together in a separate vat to which a rotary pump is
attached, forcing the water through the jacket and again
returned to the ice and water-tank to be cooled. The slow-
ness of this cooling process can in a measure be overcome by
mixing salt with the ice and water. This will cause the ice
to melt faster, and consequently cool the brine to a lower
degree of temperature than was possible to obtain with water
and ice.

In case it is desirable, a set of coils can be made which will
fit into the open vat. The inlet and outlet of these coils can
be connected up by means of rubber hose with the pipes con-
veying the brine to and from the ripener. The coils can be
made to move up and down, by means of a rope attached to
and leading from the coils through a pulley near the loft and
fastened to a small crank at the end of a shaft. When the
shaft turns the crank will also turn and cause the coils in the
vat to move up and down. In the absence of a special up-to-
date ripener, this manner of cooling works very satisfactorily.

A butter refrigerator containing a tank, as already de-
scribed, could be cooled by pumping brine through it in similar
manner, as described for cream cooling, except that no coils
are needed.

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.

Application of in Creameries.—Mechanical refrigeration has
been considered expensive and impracticable on a small scale
until within a few years. The science of producing cold arti-
ficially has been simplified and reduced to such a practical
basis that it is now used in many large as well as smaller
plants where formerly natural ice was used altogether. Where
at least 10,000 pounds of milk, or its equivalent in cream,
are received daily during the summer months, mechanical
refrigeration is considered practicable.

324 BUTTER-MAKING,

On another page a table of comparative cost of natural ice
and mechanical refrigeration is given. It was also stated in
that connection that the cost of mechanical refrigeration
would vary under different conditions. The chief factors
affecting the cost of mechanical refrigeration may be said to
be similar to those affecting the economic running of the re-
maining machinery, such as kind of fuel used, skill of fireman,
style and condition of boiler, proportion of boiler power to
work done, upon the correlative size of all machinery, upon
kind of insulation and care of cooling-rooms, and upon efh-
ciency of compressor and whole refrigerating system.

Chemicals Used for Mechanical Refrigeration—The most
common substances used in mechanical refrigeration are am-
monia and carbonic acid. A number of others are in use, but
from a creamery standpoint, these only are of importance.
Ammonia is used chiefly. It is efficient, cheap, and not so
dangerous to life and property as are some of the others.
Anhydrous ammonia has a boiling-point of 27° below zero
at atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of ammonia is also
great. Ammonia has great chemical stability, and is not
explosive in nature. Ammonia attacks copper and_ brass,
but has no effect upon iron and steel pipes. If ammonia
should escape through a leak into a room, the operator can
protect himself from the effects of the gas by breathing through
a wet sponge held in the mouth. Ammonia leaks may be
detected by holding a glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid
to the place where the leak may be. When ammonia comes
in contact with hydrochloric acid, white fumes are formed.

Carbonic acid is used considerably in Europe, and is chiefly
favored because the gas is not highly poisonous; in case of
leak it does not spoil contents of refrigerator, and it liquefies
at a high temperature (90° to 100° F.), and is therefore favored
in tropical climes.

Principles of Producing Cold Artificially.—The chief principle
involved in producing artificial cold is that when a substance
passes from a liquid into a gaseous state, a definite amount of

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES. 325:

latent heat is absorbed. When water in a kettle on the stove
begins to boil and passes off into steam, no higher temperature
can be reached. No matter how much heat is applied under
those same conditions, the temperature remains the same.
This extra heat is used in transforming the water into steam.
If this steam were confined, and that heat removed, by cooling,
the steam would again pass into a liquid state. We are familiar
with the coolness produced by rapid evaporation of perspira-
tion from the body. Mechanical refrigeration is virtually a
process of evaporation of the cooling media, during which
heat is absorbed and liquefaction of the cooling medium by
compression and cooling to remove that absorbed heat. To
increase the ability of the cooling medium to absorb heat it
is compressed and liquefied. So we might say that any com-
pression refrigerating system has three separate operations
necessary to form the complete cycle of mechanical refrigeration,
viz.:

1. Compression of the ammonia gas.

2. Condensation of the ammonia gas.

3. Expansion of the ammonia gas.

1. The machine which causes the compression of the am-
monia gas is called the compressor. In construction it is much
like a steam-engine. Small machines are single, but large
machines are double acting. Gas is drawn in, on the suction
stroke, compressed and discharged on the return stroke. The
pressure generated varies between 120 and 175 pounds per
square inch. During the compression heat is developed in
proportion to pressure exerted. The greater the pressure the
higher the temperature of the gas. Part of the heat of com-
pression is carried off by means of a continuous stream of
water running through a jacket around the cylinder.

2. From the compressor the gas is forced through the pipes
into the condensing coils, in which the warm compressed gas
is cooled still more. When sufficient heat has been removed
from this gas, it assumes a liquid condition and is ready to
expand into a gaseous form for the purpose of absorbing heat.

326 BUTTER-MAKING.

and producing cold. During the cooling and condensing pro-
cesses each pound of ammonia parts with about 560 units of
heat, which amount can again be absorbed when it expands into
gas at the lower pressure.

3. This liquefied gas, which is still under great pressure, is
then admitted through what is termed the expansion-valve.
This valve is especially constructed for that purpose, and has
only a very minute opening in it for the admission of the liquid
ammonia. On the expansion side the pressure is low (20
to 30 lbs.). As the liquid ammonia emerges from the high-
pressure side through the expansion-valve into the expansion
side, it forms a gas. This expanded gas may then be circulated
through coils for cooling purposes. From there it passes back
into the suction side of the compressor ready to go through
another similar cycle.

From the above description it will be seen that there are two
sides to the system, the expansion side and the compression
side. The compression side extends from the compressor to
the expansion-valve; the expansion side from the expansion-
valve to the suction side of the compressor, inclusive.

Transferring the Cold.—The methods of transferring the
cold to the different places in the building vary. There are
two systems, viz.:

1. Direct Expansion.
°. Brine System.

1. By the direct-expansion system the condensing-pipes
of the system are extended to the room or place at which the
cooling is to be done. An extended set of expansion coils then
convey the gas which absorbs the heat. A lower temperature
can be produced by this method than with the brine system.

2. In the brine system a large brine-tank is placed some-
where in the creamery at a place most convenient with respect
to cooling. This tank contains a strong solution of brine.
The chief reason why brine is used in preference to water is that
brine has a very low freezing-point. This will vary with
different degrees of saturation.

COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES,

327

Either one, sodium chloride (common salt), or calcium

chloride, may be used for brine.

The latter is considered

best chiefly because it is not so hard on the pipes and it keeps
the brine pipes cleaner than does a salt brine.
give properties of brine made from these two substances.

SHowInG Properties oF SOLUTION OF SALT.

(Chloride of Sodium.)

The tables

(SIEBLY).

Pounds H ecific F ‘ :
a Bale by] Salt er, |Beloretcr| por Gallgn Gravity at] Spgcitic | Freezing: | Freesing
Weight. | Gallon of | at go? F. | at aa" F.| 38) F. : Fahr. | Ceisius.
olution. 4°C.
1 0.084 4 8.40 1.007 0.992 30.5 -— 0.8
2 0.169 8 8.46 1.015 0.984 29.3 -—- 1.5
2.5 0.212 10 8.50 1.019 0.980 28.6 - 1.9
3 0.256 12 8.53 1.023 0.976 27.8 — 2.3
3.5 0.300 14 8.56 1.026 0.972 27.1 — 2.7
4 0.344 16 8.59 1.030 0.968 26.6 — 3.0
5 0.433 20 8.65 1.037 0.960 25.2 — 3.8
6 0.523 24 8.72 1.045 0.946 23.9 — 4.5
7 0.617 28 8.78 1.053 0.932 22.5 — 5.3
8 0.708 32 8.85 1.061 0.919 21.2 — 6.0
9 0.802 36 8.91 1.068 0.905 19.9 — 6.7
10 0.897 40 8.97 1.076 0.892 18.7 — 7.4
12 1.092 48 9.10 1.091 0.874 16.0 — 8.9
15 1.389 60 9.26 1.115 0.855 12.2 —11.0
20 1.928 80 9.64 1.155 0.829 6.1 —14.4
24 2.376 96 9.90 1.187 0.795 2 -17.1
25 2.488 100 9.97 1.196 0.783 0.5 —17.8
26 2.610 104 10.04 1.204 0.771 -1.1 —18.4

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

oF CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. (SIEBLY).

PeWelane,” | Specific Heat. | Sree Grane” [in Dearees Fane, | in Degrees Cale,
1 0.996 1.009 31 — 0.5
5 0.964 1.043 27.5 — 2.5
10 0.896 1.087 22 ee
15 0.860 1.134 15 — 9.6
20 0.834 1.182 5 —14.8
25 0.790 1.234 -8 =22.1

The expansion-coils pass through the brine-tank and cool
Special pumps force the cold brine through pipes
to the cream vat, cooling coils, ice-cream freezer, etc.

the brine.

328 BUTTER MAKING.

For creameries the brine system is the only practical sys-
tem. It is preferred because, first, cold can be stored in an
insulated brine-tank and used at will without running the com-
pressor. In case of a prolonged stoppage due to some accident
a brine made by a mixture of ice-water and salt could be
temporarily substituted; second, less ammonia is required to
charge the system; third, fewer couplings and less ammonia
pipes are necessary. This latter would decrease the danger
of ammonia leakage and cost of pipes.

CHAPTER XNII.
ECONOMIC OPERATION OF CREAMERY.

INASMUCH as it is impossible within the limited space in this
work to take up a detailed discussion of the various principles
and practices of operating boilers, engines, mechanical re-
frigerators, and other creamery machinery, only a few of the
chief factors common to creamery practice and effecting the
economic operation shall here be discussed. For more com-
plete information students are referred to works treating
specially of these phases.

Firing the Boiler—Much fuel can be wasted and saved ac-
cording to the completeness with which the combustion occurs.
This again depends upon the manner of firing, upon the regu-
lation of the draught, and upon the kind of boiler. The fire
on the grates should never be too thick nor should too much
coal be loaded on the fire at any one time. A thin, even fire
permits of a more complete combustion than when clinkers
and cinders are allowed to accumulate on bottom of fire, and
a heap of unburned coal on top. By this latter method of
firing, the grates are likely to be injured.

To get the most heat from the coal the draught should be
regulated. The combustible part of the coal is of two kinds:
first, the fixed carbon, and second, the volatile matter. The
former is the coke or the part of coal which is seen on the grates
as a mass of glowing fire. The latter consists of the gases
which pass off when a certain temperature is reached, and which,
when mixed with a certain amount of air at a given tem-

perature, will burn. The heavy black trail of smoke seen rising
B29

330 BUTTER-M AKING,

from chimneys is partially wasted coal. If the grates are
choked with a thick fire, no air can pass through, and the
volatile parts of coal pass off without being burned.

Burning Wood or Coal.—In some localities this question is
of minor importance, as conditions may be such that coal
only can be used. In other sections, where both are obtain-
able, it is of great importance. The following table* shows
figures obtained at five factories in Wisconsin where soft coal
was burned and five others where wood was used.

DariLty Fur, Usep at SEVERAL CREAMERIES.

Pounds of Milk Pounds of Cost of Coal |Estimated Cost
perBey | Beach | per "Tea” | per Bay.”
3500 500 $3.55 $0.90
8000 400 3.00 0.60
23000 1000 4.05 2.00
6000 300 3.50 0.50
5300 500 3.15 0.80
P Is of Milk 7 ;

“Skimmer ' cen a mee Price per Cord. ee
per Day. .
2000 t $1.25 $0.32
3400 + 2.25 0.37
6500 4 1.25 0.32
3800 + 2.25 j 0.37
4500 4 1.80 0.60

These are the best obtainable figures of comparison under
creamery conditions.

In connection with burning wood the dryness of it is an
important consideration. If the wood is wet its power of
producing heat is greatly lessened. A certain amount of heat
is used in evaporating the water in the wood. Air-dry wood
will contain from 12% to 25% water. The quality of coal
is another variable factor. In general, and from table below,
it might be said that 24 pounds of wood are equal to one pound
of lump coal.

* Farrington in Hoard’s Dairyman.

ECONOMIC OPERATION OF CREAMERY. 331

The following comparative table is given by Kent:

Hickory or hard maple, weight per cord 4500 lbs. = 1800 to 2000 lbs. of coal.

White oak oe SE 8 BBbO He = 1640 to ITS
Poplar, chestnut and cedar ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ 2350 ‘‘ = 940 to 1050 ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘°
Pine ee ee 2000 §* = 800 to 925 ff Ss fF

Whether a creamery can economically use slack or lump
coal is another question worth considering. Slack coal is used
very little in local creameries, first, because it is more difficult
to use in firing. Usually help is scarce, and coal which requires
less attention in firing than slack, is preferred. Second, slack
coal is subject to spontaneous combustion and likely to set
buildings afire. Some, if not all insurance companies, dis-
criminate against creameries using slack coal as fuel. Third,
special grates (rocking grates) are essential to get best results
from using slack. Fourth, slack coal is dirty and the dust
from it will lodge all over in the boiler and engine room.

Slack coal, where conditions are at all favorable for its use,
is, as a rule, cheap to burn. According to experimental data,
1 pound of slack coal will produce about 4 pounds of steam,
and 1 pound of lump coal will produce about 6 pounds of
steam. The price of the two will vary, but usually the rela-
tion is, slack coal, $1.25 per ton; lump coal, $3.25 per ton.
If 1 pound of lump coal produces 6 pounds of steam, a ton
will produce 12,000 pounds. If 1 pound of slack coal produces
4 pounds of steam, to produce 12,000 pounds will require
2992 pounds of slack coal, which would cost $1.87. The
difference in producing 12,000 pounds of steam in favor of
slack coal would then be $1.38.

Daily Weighing of Coal Used.—The advantage of daily
weighing of coal used in creameries cannot be too strongly
emphasized. That business phase of creamery work has been
much neglected in the past. If the coal used daily is not
weighed, a serious loss or leak may continue without detec-
tion. Firing the boiler is a daily occurrence, and if a small
loss occurs, the total loss at the end of the year would cut

short the profits.

332 BUTTER-MAKING.

The weighing can conveniently be done by fitting a box
similar to an enlarged flat-sided curd pail in shape on a pair
of platform scales. After the scale and box have been pur-
chased there are nc additional expenses and very little extra
labor required.

Cleaning the Boiler—The amount of coal used will vary
with several factors, viz.: cleanliness of flues, sediment in the
boiler, condition of fire, kind of boiler, steam leaks, pipe in-
sulation, etc. The two first factors are frequently neglected.
The flues should be cleaned every morning before the day’s
run. The inside of the boiler should be kept clean. Heavy
scale on the inside of the boiler and flues, and heavy sedi-
ments on the bottom of the boiler, should never be allowed to
accumulate. Some water naturally contains a large amount of
minerals and leaves a heavy deposit in the boiler. The oper-
ator should learn to know the condition of the water, and the
frequency of cleaning the inside of the boiler be governed
accordingly. One cleaning per month is sufficient with most
water. In some instances, one cleaning per week is necessary.

The collection of scale and sediment within the boiler affect
the economic operation in at least three ways: First, more
fucl is needed; second, the boiler itself is likely to warp; third,
foaming or priming of the boiler is likely to occur. If scale
clings to the flues when washed, it may be removed by putting
some sal-soda and water into the boiler and boil for several
hours. Some use a boiler compound for preventing scales.
This is not necessary, nor to be recommended except in extreme
cases of mineral water. The boiler should be frequently blown
off at low pressure.

Priming of Boilers.—When considerable water passes over
with the steam the boiler is said to be priming. This water
in the steam interferes with the running of the engine. So
much water in the steam fills the engine-cylinder and results
in broken piston or cylinder-head. The engine jerks and
thumps to such an extent that there is danger of breaking other
parts of the machinery.

ECONOMIC OPERATION OF CREAMERY. 333

The foaming or priming of boilers is due chiefly to:

. Too much water in the boiler.

. Working the boiler beyond its capacity.

. Allowing mud and minerals to accumulate in boiler.

. Using too much of certain boiler compounds.

. Some water naturally contains a large percentage of
certain minerals which are conducive to foaming.
The Injector.—The injector on the boiler frequently causes

the operator some annoyance by refusing to work. The common

causes of this are:

1. Too low boiler steam pressure.

2. Steam obtained from a pipe already supplying steam
for other purposes.

3. Leaks in suction pipe due to shortage of supply pipe
or holes in pipe.

4. Too hot supply water.

5. Seale in injector, preventing proper working of valves.

6. Steam containing too much water.

Oil-separators.—Considerable saving can be accomplished in
a creamery if the exhaust steam is utilized. This steam may
be used for pasteurizing the skim-milk, for heating the milk
previous to separation, for heating the creamery, and for heat-
ing the water for the boiler.

The exhaust steam contains considerable oil and should be
purified before it is used for any other purposes. Several
forms of these steam purifiers are on the market. They are
simple, inexpensive, and can be attached to the exhaust-pipe
of any engine.

All steam and water pipes should be carefully drained in
the winter to prevent freezing.

Belts, Pulley and Speed Calculation.—The length of a belt
may best be determined by measuring over the two pulleys
with a tape or a string.

To calculate the size of a drive pulley when the speed
of it is known, the diameter of the driver pulley is multiplied
by its speed, the product divided by the speed of the driven

aor wd

334 BUTTER-MAKING.

pulley, the quotient will be the diameter or size of the needed
pulley.

To calculate the speed of a driven pulley, multiply the
diameter by the speed of the driver pulley and divide the
product by the diameter of the driven pulley; the quotient
is the speed or number of revolutions per minute.

APPENDIX.

LEGAL STANDARDS FOR MILK—DAIRY LAWS.*

The following States and Territories, viz., Alabama, Arizona,
Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Texas, and
Wyoming, have established no legal standard.

The Dominion of Canada, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois,
Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Nebraska, Nevada,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Ten-
nessee, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia have general laws
prohibiting dilution, skimming, or other adulteration.

In other States the percentage standards are as follows:

Specific Total

Gravity. Solids. Fats.
Per Cent.
District of Columbia. ................00000 cece ee eee 12.5 3.5
GEOR IA odd ahd ats crces cit tees Hee vece Aisle osaliains urea aeeetenetes 12 3.5
LOW Bie far 6 HemtaRangue Site Gaede Ee AAU eects Rann ie RR cd Os 12.5 3
Main Ge caeeMee rea honest waite uit oh Uae: «pay Be dah et 12 3
Massachusetts (Apr. to Aug., inclusive)..... ........... 12 3
re (Sept. to Mar. Oe Nett tee egeeoRes 13 3.7
Michigans 236.03 cetnd centtet an Cee a wear aels 1.029-1.033 12.5 3
Minnesota: ¢ cesses Geter ke eee eee guy ee a Ween sak Se 13 3.5
New Hamipshire:. sonc.csce oda eh heten ade adauededad 13
IN GW CPSC Yai friacarh c iaintns aon! and. ovat oe dup nein ee aS aveee ae 12
New York: savcctcot ante tap degorecrieieet, AtereeSeaey 12 3
Ohio (May and June)...............00..02 cece eee eee 11.5 vats
‘« (July to April, inclusive)... ...........0 ......0000, 12 3
OremOn es aioe ache eee cA Sea aie MU LR ee Oeics Bok 12 3
Pennsylvania: tiv sccnswiau a eas ce ude ekee 1.029-1.033 12.5 3
Rhode: Wsland)..20 yjcceeet tug acneeiete eens ae ceadaeane 12 2.5
South: Carolinas so: sec0 c.g deka niede Beno Mage hee way 11.5 3
Vermont (May and June)... ..........000. cee eee eee 12
a (July to April, inclusive). ......... 0 .......00.. 12.5 ae
Washingtones scccc tac peu witinn pidemten ole dada ees 11 3
Wistonsines< coca ones oreo eee Seen Gh yesadohag sae 3

* From Wing in “ Milk and Its Products.”

+ Applies only to cities of the second and third classes.
335

336 METRIC SYSTEM.

METRIC SYSTEM.*

METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND TABLES
FOR THE CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEAS-
URES INTO CUSTOMARY UNITED STATES EQUIVALENTS
AND THE REVERSE.

In the metric system the meter is the base of all the weiglit=
and measures which it employs.

The meter was intended to be, and is very nearly, one t:n-
millionth part of the distance measured on a meridian of th:
earth from the equator to the pole, and equals about 39.37
inches or nearly 3 feet 32 inches.

The meter is the primary unit of length.

Upon the meter are based the following primary units: the
square meter, the are, the cubic meter or stere, the liter, and
the gram.

The square meter is the unit of measure for small surfaces ;
as the surface of a floor, table, ete.

The are is the unit of land measure; this is a square whose
side is 10 meters in length, and which contains 100 square
meters.

The cubic meter or stere is the unit of volume; this is a
cube whose edge is 1 meter in length.

The liter is the unit of capacity; this is the capacity of a
cube whose edge is one-tenth of a meter in length.

The gram is the unit of weight; this is the weight of dis-
tilled water contained in a cube whose edge is the one-hundredth
part of a meter; a gram is therefore the one-thousandth part
of a kilogram, and the one-millionth part of a metric ton.

* From The American Chamber of Commerce,

APPENDIX. 337

Measures or LENGTH.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in Use.
Myriameter........ 10,000 meters 6.2137 miles
Kilometer......... 1,000 meters .62137 mile, or 3,280 ft. 10 in.
Hectometer........ 100 meters 328 feet 1 inch
Dekameter........ 10 meters 393.7 inches
Meter............. 1 meter 39.37 inches
Decimeter......... .1 meter 3.937 inches
Centimeter........ .01 meter .3937 inch
Millimeter. ........ .001 meter .0394 inch

MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations

in Use.
Hectare. .......... 10,000 square meters 2.471 acres
ATO dct b oe dgsen 100 square meters 119.6 square yards
Centare........... 1 square meter 1,550 square inches

MeaAsuRES oF CaPACITY.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations
in Use.

Names. ee Cubic Measure. Dry Measure. Tactaiel or tvie
pes \ 1,000 1 cubic meter 1.308 cu. yds. 264.17 gals.
Hectoliter. 100 .1 cubie meter 2 bush. 3.35 pks.| 26.417 gals.
Dekaliter. 10 10 cu. decimeters | 9.08 quarts 2.6417 gals.
Liter. ...... 1 1 cu. decimeter .908 quart 1.0567 qts.
Deciliter.... Jl 1 cu. decimeter | 6.1022 cu. ins. 845 gill
Centiliter. .. .01 | 10 cu. centimeters | .6102 cu. in. 338 fl. oz.
Milliliter.... .001| 1 cu. centimeter .661 cu. in. .27 fl.dram

338

METRIC SYSTEM.

WEIGHTS.

Metric Denominations and Values. pe err at al
Weight of What
Names. Number of Quanity of Water at |Avoirdupois Weight.
e Maximum Density.

Metric ton......... 1,000,000 1 cubic meter 2204.6 pounds
Quintal........... 100,000 1 hectoliter 220.46 pounds
Myriagram........ 10,000 1 dekaliter 22.046 pounds
Kilogram or kilo. .. . 1,000 1 liter 2.2046 pounds
Hectogram. ..... 100 1 deciliter 3.5274 ounces
Dekagram......... 10 10 cubic centimeters .8527 ounce
Gram. ............ 1 1 cubic centimeter 15.432 grains
Decigram......... 1 .1 cubic centimeter 1.5432 grains
Centigram......... .01 | 10 cubic millimeters 1543 grain
Milligram.......... .001 | 1 cubic millimeter .0154 grain

CoMMON MEASURES AND WSIGHTS, WITH THEIR METRIC EQUIVALENTS.

The following are some of the Measures in common use, with their equiva-

lents in measures of the Metric System:

Monee: Equivalents. Common Measures. Equivalents.
1 inch 2.54 centimeters 1 cord 3.624 steres
1 foot .3048 meter 1 liquid quart -9465 liter
1 yard .9144 meter 1 gallon 3.86 liters
1 rod 5.029 meters 1 dry quart 1.101 liters
1 mile 1.6093 kilometers 1 peck 8.811 liters
1 square inch 6.452 sq. centimeters| 1 bushel 35.24 liters

1 square foot
1 square yard
1 square rod
1 acre

1 square mile
1 cubic inch
1 cubic foot
1 cubic yard

.0929 sq. meter
.8361 sq. meter

25.29 sq. meters

.4047 hectare

259 hectares
16.39 cu. centimeters

.02832 cu. meter
.7646 cu. meter

1 ounce av’d’p

1 pound av’d’p
1 ton (2000 lbs.)
1 ton (2240 lbs.)
1 grain troy

1 ounce troy

1 pound troy

28.35 grams
.4536 kilogram
.9072 metric ton
1.016 metric ton
.0648 gram
31.104 grams
3732 kilogram

APPENDIX.

339

TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF Metric WriGHTs AND MrAsurEs INTO Cus-
TOMARY UNITED STATES EQUIVALENTS AND THE REVERSE.

From the legal equivalents are deduced the following tables for convert-

ing United States weights and measures.

METRIC TO CUSTOMARY.

LinEAR MEASURE.

Meters = Inches.

Meters = Feet.

Meters = Yards.

Kilometers = Miles.

1= 39.37 1= 3.28087 1=1.093623 1=0.62137
2= 78.74 2= 6.56174 2=2.187246 2=1.24274
3=118.11 38= 9.84261 3 =3. 280869 3=1.86411
4=157.48 4=13.12348 4=4.374492 4=2.48548
5=196.85 5=16.40435 5=5.468175 5=3.10685
6 = 236. 22 6=19 68522 6 =6.561738 6=3.72822
7=275.59 7 =22.96609 7=7.655361 7=4.34959
8=314.96 8 = 26. 24696 8 =8.748984 8 =4.97096
9=354.33 9 = 29. 52783 9=9.842607 9 = 5.59233
CUSTOMARY TO METRIC,

LinEAR MEASURE.

inches = Centimeters.

Feet = Meters.

Meters = Yards.

Miles = Kilometers.

WOBNBWAPwWHe
bid daed af ted
NNER
NONaANONG
bo
RS

1=0.304798
2=0.609596
3 =0.914393

Hidde de ded

OONHD OP

0.914393
.828787
.743179
657574
.571966
486358
.400753
.315148
. 229537

ODBDNAWaPWWH

iobod it tba

DID OP why re

ODNONPWN

tidied dt toed

eee

PNR OWDDHWE

.60935
21869
82804
.43739
04674
. 65608
. 26543
.87478
.48412

340 METRIC SYSTEM.

Square Measure. Copic MEASURE.

ae
ob 3 g 2 Ei z : Z
ee 26 ef eg e228 ot=o8 e8=oe
Bs 5a B= Be Ba BA Be Be ae 25
wn Rn Nn n RQ n oO 1S) oO .S)
1=0.155 1=10.764 l= 1.196 1= 35.315 | 1=0.02832
2=0.310 2=21.528 2= 2.392 2= 70.631 | 2=0.05663
3=0.465 3 =32.292 3= 3.588 3=105.947 | 3=0.08495
4=0.620 4=43.055 4= 4.784 4=141.262 | 4=0.11326
5=0.775 5=53.819 5= 5.980 5=176.584 | 5=0.14158
6=0.930 6 =64. 583 6= 7.176 6=210.899 | 6=0.16990
7=1.085 7=75.347 7= 8.372 7 =247.209 | 7=0.19821
8=1.240 8=86.111 8= 9.568 8 = 282.525 | 8=0.22653
9=1.395 9=95.874 9=10.764 9=317.840 | 9=0.25484
Square Measure. Liquip Measure.
£ vs (oF ae ee z 3 g : 4
Se 6 | Be Serer Ee a ee 3 = a
n mn H QD N na oO & a [<7 a 1]
1= 6.452 | 1=0.09290} 1=0.836 1=0.338 | 1=1.0567| 1=0.26417
2=12.903 | 2=0.18581 | 2=1.672 2=0.676 | 2=2.1134|] 2=0.52834
3=19.354 | 3=0.27871 | 3=2.508 3=1.014 |3=3.1700} 3=0.79251
4=25.806 | 4=0.37161| 4=3 3-44 4=1.352 | 4=4.2267| 4=1.05668
5=32.257 | 5=0.46452] 5=4.181 5=1.691 | 5=5.2834] 5=1.32085
6 =38.709 | 6=0.55742| 6=5.017 6=2.029 | 6=6.3401] 6=1.58502
7=45.160 | 7=0.65032| 7=5.853 7=2.368 | 7=7.3968| 7=1.84919
8=51.612 | S=0.74823 | 8=6.689 8=2.706 | 8=8.4534} 8=2.11336
9=58 .063 | 9=0.83613 | 9=7.525 9=3.043 |9=9.5101} 9=2.37753
Dry Measure. Liquin Measure.
2 é gg
6 a x] 8 I 8 a a zg A
2-4 238 eae g = § ae:
é ae a 5 a SG 2 OS
Be Pg g <6 sae
l= 2.8375 | 1=0.35242 1= 2.957 1=0.94636 | 1= 3.78544
2= 5.6750 | 2=0.70485 2= 5.915 | 2=1.89272 | 2= 7.57088
3= 8.5125 | 3=1.05727 3= 8.872 | 3=2.83908 | 3=11.35632
4=11.3500 | 4=1.40969 4=11.830 | +=3.38544 | 4=15.14176
5=14.1875 | 5=1.76211 5=14.787 | 5=4.33180 | 5=18.92720
6=17.0250 | 6=2.11454 6=17.744 | 6=5.67816 | 6=22.71264
7=19.8625 | 7=2.46696 7=20.702 | 7=6.62452 | 7=26.49808
8=22.7000 | 8=2.81938 8=23.659 | 8=7.57088 | 8 =30. 28352
9=25.5375 | 9=3.17181 9=26.616 | 9=8.51724 | 9=34.06896

APPENDIX. 341

Weicnt (AVOIRDUPOIS).

a of, | 4. a oe

wip g B- &3y B= $83 Ce

zh 3 S 548 & 848 Ea 8S

o o in (e) ie] AY = faa)
1=0.1649 | t2735,974 1= 2.20462 1=0.9842
2=0 3086 2= 70.548 2= 4.40924 2=1.9684
3=0.4630 3=105.822 3= 6.61386 3=2.9526
4=0.6173 4=141.096 4= 8.81849 4=3 9368
5=0.7716 5 =176.370 5=11.02311 5=4.9210
6 =0.9259 6=211.644 =13.22773 6=5.9052
7=1.0803 7 =246.918 7 =15. 43235 7=6. 8894
8=1.2346 8 = 282.192 $=17. 63697 8 =7.8736
9 =1.3889 9=317.466 | 9=19.84159 9 =8 8578
|
3 3 a |

a = = e fil . :

2 1s Sia 4 264 E 2) 28
a7 a6 gaa” & ag! 2 0 ge! G6

o o 5 So] aa iva} ra] a

1= 6.4799 1= 28.3495 1=0.45359 1=1.0161
212.9598 2= 56.6991 2=0.90919 2=2 0321
3=19 4397 3= 85.0486 3=1.36078 3=3.0482
4=25.9196 4=113.3981 4=1.81437 4=4.0642
5 =32.3995 5=141.7476 5 =2.26798 5 =5.9803
6 =38.8793 6=170.0972 6=2.72156 6 =6.0963
7 =45.3592 7=198. 4467 7=3.17515 7=7.1124
8=51.8391 8 =226.7962 8 =3. 62874 8=8. 1284
9 =58.3190 9 =255.1457 9 = 4.08233 9=9 1445

II
il

INDEX.

PAGE

Abnormal! milky ahsg ones anactas fa cuihn stews okey tudinal: 54

Acid, butyric, capric, caprylic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, stearic......... 14

carbonic, hydrochloric, phosphoric, sulphuric. .................. 18

CLUB Ganz cried fete shalteng ade ys-tSens sir Rah ashen tina Dee) Seed naa ts 2c Se 20

VACUA Gis sone ey Syd te led tas an te cette tend N ic headlty oe Ba Rater ond 213

SANCVIICs caw .siarue hein dgin aathed nee ee BON aR Ea need gee eS 99

SU PRUPIC a, dst ahd Meedyo.e Stein Ral ranthieRe ameee wan Ay ne te lacich ain dae 2 85

lestsisieaceaedawa sivadende ve Ue Perak eee yd soa yous 80, 208, 206

Acidity of mille: .0 gescuiss veo deee Magi tdeeush due be kaa nuaewen oe de 78

of ripened cream in relation to richness of cream... ........... 209

OR StATCCTS) a pactawcs te oeie Ades nk oa ee eae Menon Sere tate e SERRE 223

COSESHOR sad shernoe cess Laeats Sees Sore sa iawn Sard aetang vod a ween Nien 208

Adhesion:of mil kes.cngctsenis ink Retna sa L ES Bh eee e eal Galena ee 37

Al buriven jin mike oss eased 2a dase es giviecas Gk Foe KR hend Gacedbla s aUeaea ah eae 16

Albuminoids inamilky 4.555 cess sieve aswlyaccaadndees dentese anak vals 14

Alkali of various strengths for measuring acid in milk and cream. ...... 80

Amphoteric reaction of milk... ......... 0.00 e eee cee eee ees 32

ANILISeptiesia4 hou eres ete de tasted aie ge wee Tea ba a adlen 48

Babeock test: for tats oa.6 15 we pated Wee ERG Aa ne PELE Calan 84
causes and remedies for common defects in clear-

Ness Of fat Ny... ous tak ane haley ay wee wees Se 87

Bacteria in milk, aroma and flavor producing. ...............2.0eeeee 187

as a cause of deterioration of butter................. 11

Classification. Of, cu.a,< oe gesenad Ge Boehiwe dae wee Bs 50

conditions favoring development of... .............. 45

desirable and undesirable in cream ripening........... 189

number of, in milk. 2.0.0... ee eee 51

size and shape Of: 000s 00 sie adsee sane ee as dete ees 45

SOUPCES Ol ice gone siht ou Gaus edie eNotes turete emacs 52

unfavorable conditions for... ......... cece e eee eeeee 48

Biological changes in ripening cream............0.sesceeeeece eevee 210

Boiler, cleaning of, priming of........... 0.0... eee cece eee 332

firing with wood and coal..................0...02..00005. 330

344 INDEX,

PAGE

Breeds, composition of milk from various.............0.0.0e0000e- 68

Brine. for mechanical refrigeration............... 0.0.0.0 00s 327

properties of NaC] and CaCl............... 00.00.0000. .. 827

Brine, salting butter With... 0... ccc ccc cect ee eect eee ee eet eaeees 264

SOAKING TUDS Msg a.5-5-g: accu ten, Sai auacare wate a ib iia lots allaldv eoddarnd law ace 271

Butver, appearance Of:o. nic. caves coe dee came nae Sheed whee ewes 292

COlOT Oly. grt eee hag aie Wee a wnahnonahge ae ewe re ME AN 238, 291

COMpositioniol.. vavvawdauig bs 3s tence Shibiesy Beka ga unde aw 281

COst-Of MANUIACHUFING,. 34:6 ah le deca Paes Lacng gaeaeale dean eed 278
classification ard grades of, as outlined by N. Y. Mercantile Ex-

CHANGE. Heals os Sey axReaeieesola anaes petiok s lalawee ean ten 292

exportation fy. svuhvadiaerenio ass dese ne oe Gl deen ae eea} 307

AMLAV ORIOL ics fice i beast hea ice ico aero Hiss Da tuess Me PAA tates S 290

judging and erading Ol... Sod ane eos board DR RE ee 286

keeping in creameries............. 2.0.0.0 0 ee .276, 310, 313, 314

making of OM Garm. 2.5 gost once iden sh eae we tele ee eee Gace ones 169

mottled, causes and remedy... ...... 0.0... cece cee cee eee 263

packing Of. sack s.faae pat eio Acasa de Raut eaneee ah Aaa toke nates 271, 275

PRINNG-O8, gary aoa as ae aM pans eae ee dplgae ey ees es 274

rancid; and Gause Ofs..+c6 cites dow nc hee eh we Be pee ee 11

SAUIMESS Of, “pie ve Pilea He aun away eon RAG saw HESS owes wa eae 292

SUOMING IM: Creame ries: s wy cals da duets bales Siang lnk eee obae 276

texture or bod yiGbn. ois ct Sin sh die tab w aa ntonels ebans Suhr decades 290

Test for Water Iii. piece. 8b een ae ste peed oes We we aged & oak 87

washing, and kind of wash-water.............0.....00000000.% 247

WMOTKING Offs cca ccna tls aid usu ses Dawe e NOR Ae Sundin ead eae 266

Birtbermi le, eines econ sce aa eacisea! S mardi oewn ae we wate a aie a cya ea bale 227, 232, 247

BATE PIU, hepa sicerts attteer eak wea tla Wanda epagtcdan pleut punadhee a & OW thecee "Gdns Benoa ee 13:

Calculation of amount of salt to add to butter... .....0....0...00..000. 256

of average per cent fat... 2... ee cece eee eens 105

ofchurn yield) occis5 cede tenes da eae aed ouigek gine Se bade 109

of cream-raising coefficient........... 0.0.00... . cece eee ee 113

Of dividendsyis) oes cessed a euln HOG ceed ena etcniee Hee Ace abs 109

OP GVEITUMN g3c555 aie piesa aecanh Sores Se Rech eG, Ws doe Babe ONE Mes das 107

Of Solids milk 24504 alas Rh s se he bedemas aa eneye ene 35

of speed, pulleys, belts........ 0.0... 0c c cece e ee ee eee 331

Gans; Startersa ex oi pee be oe HEME on at SY sar ov nh aie ca hada a Baa eae 225

Care:Of Créam: ON Parise ic 2 incie dk Suse s a ek aed dw Se aes Aate aes, 158

Caseinin milk:,COnGIitION Of... i020 .a0eses seen Sears peed nce ews 15

Centrifugal separation of cream. .... 2.0... 0.0... c eee eee ee 129

Changes in milk and cream, chemical, physical, and biological.......... 210

Chemical changes in ripe and over-ripe cream..................... 218, 215

Churn, keeping in good condition..................... i Blenieie, pane dia dik 245

Churn yield, calculation of............. 0.000000. e cece 109

Churned milk, sampling... 0.2.2.0... 000 cece ccc e cece cc cee eee nneeuue 96

INDEX, 345

. PAGE
Churning, amount of cream for a........00 00.00 c cece cccececcececeee 233
conditions affecting............000. 0.0 cece cece eee ce ev eeee. 227

efi tON fi iis vets ened x Acta aie cody cisada bea gat whupnnd- dea oar atea 226

difficult, causes and remedy for..........0..0..eeceeeecees 243

Churning mixed, sweet, and sour cream.......0.cceccecccececccceces 243
nature of agitation for... 2.2.0... cece eee eee ences 235

richness of cream for... 00.00.0000. c ccc eevee ceeeeueees 231

straining of cream previous to. ............00.0 ce. 00 ween 238

WHEN: TOMStO Pe ciateas Gusher uaius parte han 'ychaws wbametien mimes areas £39
Crtticacid an: mikes oss tasnnaeusawasiouage sun wns causes tien oes 20
Coal, daily weighing of. 2.0.00... 00000 oan Bod
slack vs. lump-coal. 0... 0... cece eee uee 331
COLOR, DUG CEB ag eed ny aici al alaan nat aren aialle gate western eile Pela linden 238
Coloring matter in MilK.i. 6 oe ek ee ee eee ee seen ne 20, 31
Composite Samples. 6s Gveaaices da dbeae eae amnndalaiveteennseena 99
care and arrangement of. .................-...0.. 102

préservatives: fors ¢eudide decease ce eke eaain poke nes 99

sampling apparatus for... 0. .........00 0000 cece ee 94

Compositionof butter: 5.20052 Fk unl depen te des oe eran ean alee ae & 281
of colostrumiamilkycs aud ates atin Anes cucakn sa Ween BoEee 54

of dairy Saltss 223... aaah aa py toe the ee eae ha 262

of different kinds of milk. ........0.0. 000.0 cece eee eee 2

effect of, on quality of butter.......................008. 281

ofsalty milks. Geen ince tate nesse sia raG-pe sa Same dates 55

of separator slimes. y0855 cue nae wa clab ee ee ea eRe PETA Bea aes 144

of tuberculous milky... css cee sce eg epee se Ge tee ee dhe wen 62

Commercial starters... 61.6. cece eee teen nee 217
preparation and use of...........0.... 00. c eee eee 218

Continuous method of pasteurization. .. 6.2.2... eee eee 173
“Cooley”? method of cream separation. ..........600 00 eee 124
Cooling facilities, water, ice, mechanical refrigeration ........... 309
cost of natural ice-system vs. mechanical refrigeration ....... 310

SY SUCIUISR: 2 4148 id Sr, tiaras bhiady Syietin d fase Bigeay mae Aare Atenas Reece ane oe 309

Cows, average production Of... 0.0.06. 0 cece eee teenies 66
breeds Of saka idee nen ON TE Rae ERIN REM a sad es Tee das 68
costcof keepini@sid sia ansuawedens ee wna dee dok estes aac ale Sade boa 66

table showing profit and loss in keeping. .....-...-.+.....00005 67
Cream, acidity of, for churning......-... 0... 600. e eee eee eee eee 205
Care :of On fatitiy ss Guctted oboe ee Oe ee eR oe ese eee te ee et 158

effect of cleanliness on quality of... 0.6.0.0... 0. ee eee eee eens 159
grading Of... ..... 0. eee eee eee eee een ees 79
methods of disposing of... ...... 6.0022 e eee eee eee 167
mixing of different qualities. ........... 0.00. ee eee eee eee eee 202
pasteurization OL eile sash fo eRe RO el NE AT ies 173,

Of SOUT sae AE ER Sasa bee GE REP Rae 186

346 INDEX,

PAGE

Cream, Tipeping Of s..s2.0 soe nus GAs Hla Lae Zaeds Foe AR 187
SAME LIME OL shes vaye tie ase doarteate s soeineet duo Site oe opt sar naalalepenanels AGiedar a. wyatt 93
Specific heat Ofva sas eens gion ia seas Gl om tele awa bed aGeey WANES 38
Creamery sewage disposal. 0.0.0.0... 0 cece ccc eee eet e eens 278
plans: « aia seve wes ecley ev Hate ede sie eae 276

Deep-setting system of cream separation. ........ 0. cece cece eee ee aes 124
Difficult churning, causes and remedy.......... 0.00. s eee eeeeeeeeeeee 243
Dilution, effect of, on creaming ........ 00. eee ee eee eee eee tees 128
DISINFECHAM ES’. 3 ci5 sie C51 Bad Seg RES Sede CRE Mea A 6 bod CV Rama oh eee BE 48, 99, 246
Electricity, effect of, on germs in milk... ....... 2... cece eee eee eee 53
TEnzynoesnamilly: 344 can cirag Ha neg ue ee aken gee es Geechee od Mee aA Eh w 20
effect: of heat (One ois. daxivareece sexes aes eee sss 41

tests: fob uo eh abs aie erga Be ere eR oo wee Es 42

EX POLtS OF PULTE: coe ilicaiaedaciny Suabled caminei ade ewe haouingty meeanieds 296
Hattoriess plan. Ofyc 9 4 auxtee sed ee sabia wk Gaye alee ae ka a ew alee aa 279
Harrington’ tesbives sain sed apes 84 od tia oe Wes SSRN GER eo Dado 208
Prarteam: Diatte re oo dik seen iiss a dsb ls chee abe astarghaee aie eoeelare t drane won casera aula derd 286
BOTAN ie dos alls 8 Galan ah asthe mueae' lace gran ae Mate Wes BGS oa Balog Be eee, 5
ComPOsiion Ol. a tica wie yee Se Reg ENS HME Ae ete 13

CONGIION! Office ¢ coujh weddeys nas PRAT Ae ooh ede as eae 6

effects of environment....... 0.0... cece cece cece eee aes 76

OPES ON: pide se disc Adnan e miata a duaaeha mee aansee Balas 42

of various feeds on composition of................. 75

PY CONICS Oy. apn scream organ Ge Monga Wade sealed en Meek ees 8

BLY CErING: IMs nibs ccna stants sya Sanne and Ne Gal Moaanhoul tics 14
melting-point Of; . nec 8c csi ev erage essai dessins snwnssane 12

membrane enveloping fat globules. ...................... 9
microscopical appearance Of............. 000000000 cece 6
THOMAVOLOt Gy tie cps 526 ade tna cage ee 4 labs de mp cove Sain Shs alah EG 12

paying for, as compared with fat in cream................ 116

Separation Of. sacunsieset aa wteens Oe ee nae ee se we Mas ese nak 123

size of globuleSiiss. dss. ge een ge see Se0es ws aw dude ake e dme a 7

testing 1Ors. cuss aoa vanes Henk pee es hl ae mannds wp emeneaes 84

Volatiless ysis ered « chesnounaeaasayeact Wlnsaea ene tneeiy dadeceradalneee 11

Feeds, effects on milk. ..... 0.0.0... cece ccc cece cece een eeneeeue 75
Hermentsinin mille, coe aso eae ad bey oedema dg sad whedon econ 44
CLASSES: Of oii. dea dce anecy a s ey owe herd eis adeea lee a Bb Sv 44, 49

favorable and unfavorable condition for........... 45, 48

Fermentations, detection of ..... 0.0.6... 00. cece cece eee ee eens 56, 81
various kinds of... 6.0... 01. cece cece cece cease 44, 55

Filtration Of waters oi. cc doe y cbee saa AY seine eee eee oa wee ae ae 250

INDEX, at

PAGE

Firing the boiler... 2... ccc ccc cee cece eceece ceed 329
wood vs. coal, comparative cost of............0...0.-e ce ues 330
Flavors-of: butters < sis .csew ae wat ecdedcdsaaincaresa nea a Aare bk Sleek ee 290
OE TAM sb, sate centre W's aces a aga ale ag G76 We 'e a Ben ba eR Raa 18, 30, 40

‘Food for bacteniay asi :460 cia bg te athe eng See einen dave <Gineewins vedas 45
Formula for calculating churn yield...............0.. 0c cece cece ees 109
cream-raising coefficient...................00. 113

GiVadend since se denierd 4. tesla 4 pale dowel ayant Re anew 109

OVEIPUMS. i520 Gss4:5 adcaie ties aie Shere etacevara gues leon aag 6 107

SOlIdS IMMUN Ks ss hesaiied ves we eaeos aa wesw aces 35

Frozen milk, effects of freezing. ......... 0.0.0.0 c ccc cece eee cence 96
Galactase in-milk.:. oss pov aed oe eG eee La eee a 20
Gases in milk, eliminating. ..........0..00 000.000 ccc cece eee eeeeeue 20, 184
kinds and sources of............. 0000 c cece eee eee eee ee 18

Gerber fermentation test... 0.0... 0... c cece cece eens 81
Glassware for Babcock test... 0.0.0... cece cece eee eens 86
Grading milk and cream... 1.2.0.1 78
Gravity separation, different systems of..................000 00 eee eee 123
Gritty Putter css oa S54 CEASA SaaS Se SES ed ORE RTE A le bee 263
Heat, effects of, on properties of milk................-..0 000. eee 38, 82
Heating milk previous to skimming. ...........0...0 0000 e cece eee eee 118
Hegelund method of milking. ............. 00000000000 c cece eee e eee 71
Hydraulic method of separation. .......... 0.06 128
Hydrogen peroxide... 324 cecyiaw eo ade sas ie me tA geleres becuse eee 42
Ice-house, size, shape, plans of, methods of filling...............0.,. 312
Ice; source: of Usage Of 4516.4 aon eee cdo ead a bine Rae ala care Wedcmeslnd 321
Injector; Working Obs ...nsbcw ie ww dce rand dota PAG ag wes S ih edln dns 333
Intermittant method of pasteurization.......... 6... c cece eee eee eee ee 173
Judging and grading butter... 2.2.0... cece ene eee 286
Standard: fOr acids: sesdia cig eariuorn ase ee 286

Keeping property of butter. ...... 0000... 0c 192
effect of salt On... 0.0.0... eee eee eee eee 258

Lactation period, effect of, on milk and fat. ............ + eee e eee eee 74
Lactochrome in milk... . 00.00.00. ete cette ete nees 20
Lactometer, comparison of scales On. 2.1.1... eee e eee eet eee eens 34
USOsOfe. a. kenidad eudngaga wena etka Guides then Amedataa thane 32

Lecithin: in milks ag vc cas coneye tas connate be iasinat ese neelaawesen Meee 20
Lime, its use in creameries. .. 0.0.6.6 cece eee 245
Mammary gland, description of... 2.0.6.0... cece eee eee eee nena 22

inflammation of... ....... 000: e cece eee tee eee 30

348 INDEX.

PAGE
IMGMINSTOStis 2.5.4.2 cess tok G8 dt teahiet ands aaalm een RNR ahs Rae Recent bw ok 206
Mechanical refrigeration, application of..............0...00 0000005 323
chemicals used for, principles of .,......... 324
direct expansion, and brine system......... 326
Membrane enveloping fat globules... 20.0.0... 0.0 e cece eee e eee ee eee 9
Mercantile Exchange, N. Y., grades of butter................-00 0000. 292
Metric system of weights and measures.........-... 00000 c ee eeeeee 315
Mill; -abnomials «oie oeaws 3s okee s Gh er wale ea Bid ne apes Skid u le ae Hele ees 54
apportioning skimmed... ..cc45s.se2.% Ge ete eG ee Sed ems tee 97
DIOOd Vis etna BN ROE MS eR AS tab leo nuidusttin Leds cod Gua den dus ie suena biapetaan aes 56
blue and yelloWiyic ss pact ecard acai hee dpe ae ee Rates 54
classification: Of, p4xaisea ums esa ye Se neg ve vison ales we 4c eea oe 1
COMPOSIUON,, . ce tgs eure cease hes Rees Beat ee ete awe we 2
of, from different animals... .. 0.2.0... 0... e eee eee 2
GEANitiOM Ol. pa: age ng sais eee BRS REA TAC HE a NOK Meda edawe 1
effects of thunder-storms on souring of.......... 0.2.00. ee eee eee 53
fatiin: Skimmed: 4 date saoe gabe opie en diy aw tile ee CaN Sad BOSS 123
from barren and spayed COWS. ....... 0. cece cence eee tee eeees 61
PTACING Of6. 46 tint 3 438s Seaton ee eek erat ae ie eoin naan a BER 78
necessity of goods v.22 aaseewe aes tesa g Gigs a ae ou ne cage eee Sua 89
properties of, physical and chemical. ...................0000005 31
TOPYis os ees SA ge a ee Se Se elie ae Phe Ga eee 58
SAY es oe cc hedcae et pasar vhs taNe,tacindr Ibo aittl noveenls BOau ap area CA Ne 4 Sante ha este ena ager 55
SAMPING Ol sniisrn caine Aaelads Beate Ae nee ee eae eagle aaeas ee 93
frozen, churned, and sour................0.0.. 22, 96, 97
secretion of, conditions affecting..................0..00.00000, 28
Phe OTIES «si ee pu bees MaRS Oe EE Hans ab Wiel bu werden Bae 25

specilic: praviby OL 2 yaya seats Susie eves os bind elena ae wee oul 3
TOUR BOMGSSLOL csiusss eid bos Ged Sow adhe w eager oota wh wis wea mee Mi eae ecw eke 3
tuberculOUs-COWS toc a8 sais oark Lew aman seed iawdnowese ven vee 62
variation in quality of, and causes.................00.000cc0 eee 65
‘Milking, fréqueney Oly sais. coc cccuss chahbsa seuss ap ebee ese wnoudan 68
Hi OUEY Gl a uak seen ee ese 68 ML NRE OFA Keka Sek ee es 70
Milking-machine, power, hand, <nd foot....... ...........0.2.... 70-72
Mottles, causes of, in butter... 00... 0.0.00... 00 cece eee eee ee 263
KindsvOfs sour ds pew whew wd deca g adi se pala Mow eine da oe a ea 263
PRE VENUON Ol. sae ees Batali se bass aa eines dared BR eae ee eae 264
Natural starters, preparation of............... 0.000. c cece cece eee eee 217
New York Extras defined... ...... 0.0... 0. ccc ccc cece eee ee ee eecee 293
NorsWolatile fats) 04 ccu sea Seika slaw ee eae OG Aaa ae wlael Aw OA Reve es 12
Nucleinjindmilk: s vas 20 cy oases sere eee eee ks aced awk oe ais para aed 20
‘Oil Sépataton., 2.3 es eee ehY pS Fay ews aida Yao eee Seana 8 333
‘Olein, effect of variation of, on softness of butter........ 0...0.... 12

PAGE

Organized. ferMents: x. wis yg sea ge 20% Ga Oy Ruedas daduda nan ckesaans 44
Over=ripe Creams i029 evel eg okie dies a Qdee s Balhae ae ed Ea thomas 205, 215
Overrun, definition and calculation of.........0..0.0..0.0. 000 cece eee. 107
fACtOTS: FOVEMNING é isis sae Sieemnsie eeivlam eed yA Sema Oeauess wile 108

Packing butter, for exhibitions. ...........0.000 00000000. cece eee eeeee 275
kind and size of package............0.....00..c 0000. 270

preparation of tubs previous to. ...................4. 271

Palen yin ymca, @ 00s 22 tthe dats in oh ee Neder ain aren tinndls a adele dese daca aoalals aod 12
Pasteurization, advantages Of.........0.0..0 0.00 cece cece eee eeee 184
GOS OF ss Paseo asada aig adweasee Roneae ble ough ala id Suna soe 183

definition and methods of. ..............000..0 ccc eee 173
disadvantagesiol. 6 0. ssc sos on seer eho pees whan kant 186

factors to consider in........... 2.0.0.0 cece cece eee eee 175

OR SOUT Creamy: oi 4 cbc ae Sials Sig muddy dagen dow Aheachontuweaeacths sae 180

use of, direct steam in... 2.2.2... eee eee 174

Pasteurizer, durability and efficiency... ...............00000. cece eee 175
Paying for fat in cream as compared with fat in milk.................. 116
Physical: Changes Im crearity: io.) ois :y dc eed igs iug GaGa ake baa oe RIA oe 210
Proteids in milk, as a cause of mottles in butter... ...............2000. 264
TAMAS COR. sicicis, 4 wns ee artes He acnmrsed a athe deen emcee ele Ween 14
(uevenne.lactometer:. ..cinsee ei yay ede Pease w foie ei ee wukalans wna 33
Rancid butter, causes of... 0... kee ec ee reece ees ae, SL
Receiving milk and cream. ........ 00. eee eee eee 78
Refrigeration, artificial, natural ..........000..00. 0... 020... 309, 323
transferring cooling media............0 .0......... 326

Richness of cream from centrifugal separator... .......-0.0........000% 137
from gravity separation... 2.2.0.6... 0.0.2.2. cece eee 125

Ripening cream, artificial............. 00... 199
kinds of acids produced from..........-.......0005- 214

Natural taster seers edges sia sone goes sake 198

PUTPOSES:OF cgi kak Men haa ea eps DS a 187

stirring of cream during........... 0.0... eee eee eee 197

CEMPCTAlULes, vii deceweods apa TAs cabeay geared 194

testing cream for acidity during..................... 205

when churned every other day.................0.00. 201

Salting butter, amount of salt to use..... 2.0.6... eee eee eee 256
effects of, on keeping property of butter. .............. 258

PULPOSELOf sci ce eek Relat CRA Reb Mae teanee ceed eeaees 256

With bring. ¢, ssci wn ca Gey. aw eis deena nea ath ceale ond ec 264

Salt, as a cause of mottles.......000 0002 cee eee 263
composition of American and Danish........................0.. 262

condition of, when added to butter... 2.00... 0... cee eee ee 261

350 INDEX,

PAGE

Salt, effect of, on keeping property of butter...........-...5-5-+--- 258
of, on removal of buttermilk. ...........--.-... 02202-0000 259

in relation to water in butter............... 0020.00: c cee eee eee 259
undissolved,, in butter, «2.9: 000 se scoce seeds vaeveew eer poneas 263
Samples, Average. 25... cu saves Sey eke es ee Pree oe eee 104
COMPOSILEs <4 bes emia eee eT ae BO PE BEE EES Moe 99

Sam plings tubes ions. cusses ee dh oe ak oe Ne atid garda pale ean eee 94
Separation, advantages of centrifugal. ..........--. 000... sees ee eee 129
centrifugal)... i405 2<<4eeews seniyed oe Rae acetone a een ea 2 129
classification of centrifugal machines. .................... 133

conditions affecting completeness of..............-.....4. 139

effect of speed as compared with diameter on............. 143

factors governing richness of cream..................0... 137

TAN EY a watea to Dhicd gaae toe ams dead AM RS eee ES ays wae ne rev Sips 123

heating: Taille fOr, 2 jae. cahed owed did aeteerd gus saediale be tae 118

history and development of................ 0000022 eee aee 130

process of centrifugal... 24 a4 .2¢4et ve sees coer daede aes 134

results from different methods of..............-....0000. 129

Separator farm, introduction and development in Iowa................ 146
reasons for introducing. «0... eee eee eee 147

Separator slime, composition of. ........... 0... e eee eens 144
Sewage-disposal plants, cuts of. 0.0.00... 278
pcore-catds for butter sc .0s veseeanrdsey he ten SS os aoe es seo eee mitaaone 287
Shallow-panmeréaming: a syeyc eee eea daa ie oa edel bed daaameaes 123
Skimmed milk, apportioning. .............00. 0.00. c ec e eee eee ee 97
Standards, legal, ‘for Wilk, 5.00 slice gud gs em hea tas a Gadweandoa abeeabyees 314
SCENT A CL Ora a ates cs hus Pel aes hes suet te cee Ort eae asa ideas ai bk heaneeMte eae be 173
Statements: ammnnual 0 i ck nok ha hte wed & Ga gg he ow eae Sak eee psu nee 114
patrons” monthly tvs. asda see £44 nhs Ge sined eae acd ae 113

Starter: Canst aan he orn Hoes aes ric Meee ett tes oats bread heteieeeasey We oacanee eed 325
Starters, amount: tO. Use. f..y4.2 ky ad ie done eae hae RR BEE 196, 224
definition, history, and classification.................0...... 216
INOCUIAHON = cera seer searcher deep Gany becca a wie boa Bed ome 220
lengthvof time to Catryy gs ase eswna xy oH G82 OR owas nausea 222
over-ripening and under-ripening of......................... 223
PreParaioniOh 2: « paeeaee sds vee enor adkned Mad weer 217,214

Sugar and curd in butter. . 1.2.0... 0... ccc cee cee ne ee enue 282
PLAYA LU Kes Bored deed ge Sch aaah Se, Ga Sed etenccs eRe aaa pee Bsc daw su Avan ee 16
Streaked buttetscc:c04.6 quae 2. nena eeeing ck, Bid ees eee te Dae dad Gkisthaag a 263

Table showing amount of acid produced from a definite amount of sugar

I; CREAM, TIPEMING soca. 9 bon dG oae We ead aa ccenchawnee py: 214
effect of temperature on growth of bacteria............ 46
fat and total solids of milk from various breeds......... 68
number of acid- and non-acid-producing germs in ripe

CECA poe gaia ahs SIS 8 SY Ssh Nie y agra dad. deed OLE ew 211

INDEX, 351

PAGE

Taints in milk, eliminating............ Drie tonws ai Gee dacie we Peeierne 19, 40
BOUNCES Of. nee cokes Guess ones Sade ashe Ghouu sees 18

Temperature, churning. ... 0.2.0.0... 0. cece cece eee eee 227
Curation Of vase ats oes Bae hate ges teaea a ba gee laaele 118

effect of, on bacterial growth. .............0........... 46

for storing butter. 225 .4a+sciare Fee deeers ea ba econ dey 276
Pasteurization s yi eye eM ea dawe wage a gleaned 173,181

PIPCMINGS sositais eter e goa ead ace ase Bee nga adden uals Satie 194

BEPATATION ss .vas choy calico ghascrdona Waalhiw ean dren eens 118

WASHSWALEP. wco.. cise ts Weaaeek qavdsiuh ae ee Haas aula ets aealn 247

Wests acid :i.g Gris deen ad da osu Ge Gah Oi ae wave ee TAD he OS insane 80
POG goog ics ED alsin aes nae-aias eset Mkerwse iy Bak toe a mayne tae at ne ecetae Me hanaueats 84
Tests, fermentation. .........0.0 00000 cc ccc cee cee eee eeeas 81
pasteurized MIG 2 ose cus ale nde Re Male ode de ace mies GaSe uaa nlets 42

Total solids of milk, variation of... ...........00 000. c cece eee cence 3
Tubs, preparation and kinds of. ......... 0... eee cece eee aee 271
Udder, external appearance of. ... 0... cece eee cee eee 29
internal structure Of... 0.00.0... ccc cece eee cence eee 22
Unorganized fermentsii.% visisa secs $d sacle dee Moat. ca inaie dawaetiew ¥ 44
Urea invmilkycancy esse essen cab beagles ed (eee ee euin esis dae wee teens 20
Utensils; Cleaning, ::<0 asso wos soa tats Hae aceaes, waa ene Me Peas bake 146, 159
Variation of fat in milk, causes of. 1.2.2.0... 0.0 c cece eee eee ee 63
Miscogen, US6-0fj.s. 4s c9.¢ 2 sami keue Day ddGwedald ere damtehed sing bands 39
Viscosity of mille, saJigcicec ag epekod sete ia a 8e TASER ERE ae ee 37
TESLOTALION. Of 9h oo. ge duane nodes vccmenn tuhen ee aerenciier ss 39
Volatilesfatsisc:344.canemiara ree tee sane heen acies dae a4 bulla newin palewals 11
Washing butter, kind of wash-water for... 0.0.6... eee cece eee eens 248
purpose:Of.i,.ntess dias Hey eyes ye ew esas eee 247

WAtér 1h DUGCER sore d.nd nba yale tetlensra bieie a peapivdod LGM Aaaieveacasa na tuamoEN nares 241
CONGITION OL yay cdr Hee a ORAS OOS Bt 242

Water, in relation to salt in butter... 2.0... ee cece cece ee eee 259
methods of purifying. ........0. 0.0 c eee cette eee eee 250
WASCONSID CUrd LEB8ti c05- ay eat AG we OE Seren daca doe Bahar read eee aes 81
Working of butter, objects and effects Of. 6.2... 0. ccs eeeee eect eeeeee . 266
Wood, burning in creameries.......... 0.0000 ee 330

Working of butter, objects and effects of............0.......02.5. 266

DAIRYMAID AND BLUEBELL
CREAM SEPARATORS.

A Dairymaid or Bluebell cream separator will skim
so closely that there is scarcely a trace of butter fat left in the
skim-milk. Cleaning a Dairymaid or Biebell is an easy job,
for all parts are accessible; in fact these separators are unex-
celled, and no dairyman can profitably be without one. The
Dairymaid is a chain drive and the Bluebell is a gear drive
machine. Each machine is made in four sizes: 300, 400,
550 and 750 pounds capacity per hour.

Although the Dairymaid and Bluebell are easily operated by
hand, some dairymen prefer a mechanical power. About 1/16
horse power is all that is required for
operating the largest size Dairymaid or
Bluebell separator. A Tom Thumb one
horse power air-cooled gasoline engine
is an ideal power for this purpose, as the engine is small, compact,
and reliable; or a two or three horse power L.H.C. vertical gasoline
engine may be used, which will also be found suitable for other
jubs.

For full particulars concerning the Dairymaid and Bluebell
cream separators and I.H.C’. gasoline engines, see local dealer,
or write nearest general agent for catalog and booklet ‘‘ Develop-
ment of the Cream Separator.”

INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY OF AMERICA

(Incorporated)

CHICAGO, U.S. A.

BOOKS FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN

PUBLISHED BY

JOHN WILEY & SONS.

‘THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION,

With Special Reference to the Nutrition of Farm Animals, By Henry Prentiss
Armsby, Ph.D., Director of the Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Experiment
Station; Expert in Animal Nutrition, United States Department of Agriculture, 8vo,
vii + 614 pages, Cloth, $4.00.

MANUAL OF CAT’TLE-FEEDING,

A Treatise on the Laws of Animal Nutrition and the Chemistry of Feeding-stuffs in
their Application to the Feeding of Farm-animals. With Illustrations and an Appendix
of Useful Tables. By Henry P. Armsby, Ph.D., Director of the Pennsylvania State
College Agricultural Experiment Station. 12mo, x + 526 pages. Cloth, $1.75.

A HANDBOOK FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN.
By F. W. Woll, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin. With
the Assistance of well-known specialists. Fourth Edition, Revised. 16mo, xvi+ 488
pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50.

THE PRINCIPLES OF MODERN DAIRY PRACTICE,

From a Bacteriological Point of View. By Gésta Grotenfelt, President Mustiala
Agricultural College, Finland. Authorized American Edition by F. w. Woll, Assistant
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Third Edition, Re-
vised. 12mo, vi + 286 pages, 32 figures. Cloth, $2.00.

U.S. WINS

aoe 42 IN PREMIUMS

Hillside Dairy Farm,

East Ryrcate, Vt., October 1, 1906.

T am pleased to inform you that my butter
made from cream separated by the U. 8., won
the Dairy Sweepstakes at the Valley Fair,
Brattleboro, Vt., this veur. 1906 makes the
fifth time my butter has taken the Dairy
Sweepstakes at the Valley Fair.

During the past years I have received from
you as Special Premiums on U. 8. Butter,
$36.00, mostly $2 at a time; and from Fair
and Dairymen’s Associations I have receited
#396.42, and all on butter made with the
U.S. Separator, which produces cream in the
very best condition for making butter of the
highest quality.

Mrs. Carrig J. NELSON-SHACKFORD.

GRAND SWEEPSTAKES

STATE DAIRYMEN’S CONVENTIONS 1906-7
MAINE—98 NEW HAMPSHIRE—98 VERMONT —98%4

Conclusive proof that the U. S. delivers cream in the best condition for making
butter of the highest quality, But that’s not all. The U. S. gives you not only the
best cream but the most cream, Remember the U.S. still

Holds the World’s Record
for CLEAN SKIMMING

Our free cat-
alog shows as
well as tells
everything
about the con-

e
struction and ; ;
operation of the f ; f . IS THE
U. S. Yours

for the asking 4 ey. BEST

VERMONT FARM MACHINE CO., Bellows Falls, Vt.
_PROMPT DELIVERY. Eighteen Distributing Warehouses. NO DELAY

SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE

OF THE

PUBLICATIONS
JOHN WILEY & SONS,

New York.
Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limrrep,

ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.

Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are sold

at xet prices only. All books are bound -in cloth unless otherwise stated.

AGRICULTURE—HORTICULTURE—FORESTRY.

Armsby’s Principles of Animal Nutrition... 20.0.0... 0. cece ee nee ....8vo, $4
Budd and Hansen’s American Horticultural Manual:
Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement.............. ++,I2mo, I
Part II. Systematic Pomology............ cece ee eee eee ee eee 12mo, I
Elliott’s Engineering for Land Drainage........... Pslola-e Seaubiaiale «s-,sI2mM0, I
Practical Farm Drainage 2d Edition, Rewritten..... eeeeeeeeee, -12M0, I
Graves’s Forest Mensuration. ...............-0005 Hecarvasieacense rat w tee teed 8vo, 4
Green’s Principles of American Forestry... ............. ce eee eeeeens I2mo, I
Grotenfelt’s Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll)............ I2mo, 2
* Herrick’s Denatured or Industrial Alcohol................ eee eee 8vo, 4
Kemp and Waugh’s Landscape Gardening. New Edition, Rewritten. (In
Preparation. )
* McKay and Larsen’s Principles and Practice of Butter-making....... 8vo, T
Maynard’s Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration. ..... I2mo, I
Quaintance and Scott’s Insects and Diseases of Fruits. (In Preparation).
Sanderson’s Insects Injurious to Staple Crops. .............--000000e I2mo, T
* Schwarz’s Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forests.......... lessiaindaes a eee 12mo, I
Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils..................4- sate eitad eiatatel sn tagat 8vo, 2
Winton’s Microscopy of Vegetable Foods, . 1. 1... ccc eee eee eee e eee 8v0, 7
Woll’s Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.........+.5es+eee0+++-16M0, I
ARCHITECTURE,
Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings. ............. 0... cece eee ee 12mo, 2
Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads................ 4to, 5
Birkmire’s Architectural Iron and Steel... .............,0.. eta arene RreRene 8vo, 3
Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings................ 8vo, 2
Planning and Construction of American Theatres......... eee Res 8vo, 3
Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings............... 8vo, 3
Skeleton Construction in Buildings. ... 2.0.02... cee eee ee ee ene 8y0, 3
Briggs’s Modern American School Buildings.................-2-2000-5 8vo, 4
Byrne’s Inspection of Material and Wormanship Employed in Construction.
16mo, 3
Carpenter’s Heating and Ventilating of Buildings..................... 8vo, 4
* Corthell’s Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations............... I2mo, I

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Freitag’s Architectural Engineering. .........ccccccseccccesceecenss OVO
Fireproofing of Steel Buildings. ........ Higbee bs HAM Satin yo Sete SOV
French and Ives’s Stereotomy............... Was SERED MN SHE Reine SONOS
Gerhard’s Guide to Sanitary House-Inspection... ........+seee++++0+ZOM0,
* Modern Baths and Bath HouseS........seeeesscoceseeceres eae BVOs
Sanitation of Public Buildings «.sccccscavewrseercerenebanreer 12mo,
Theatre Fires and Panes, «occ cc cscs acne eee bewenees eee I2mo,

Holley and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes

Large 12mo,
Johnson’s Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods............ oeeee BVO,
Kellaway’s How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds. ............... 8vo,
Kidder’s Architects’ and Builders’ Pocket-book. ....... .16mo, mor.

Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles. .............ee ee eeeee 12mo,
Merrill’s Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses. ..-8V0,

Stones for Building and Decoration. ........... 0... cee e eee e eens 8vo,
Monckton’s Stair-building... 2.2.2.0... ee eee eee Cee eS Pa Re 4to,
Patton’s Practical Treatise on Foundations........... aes Se sarar@incerereie ih ade 8vo,
Peabody’s Naval Architecture..............005 lay ava ceca eoneus iia aa seas tasi 8vo,
Rice’s Concrete-block Manufacture .............ee00e Sipueegeere~ s 8vo,
Richey’s Handbook for Superintendents of Construction,......... 16mo, mor.

* Building Mechanics’ Ready Reference Book:
* Building Foreman’s Pocket Book and Ready Reference. (In
Preparation.)

* Carpenters’ and Woodworkers’ Edition............ 16mo, mor,
** Cement Workers and Plasterer’s Edition.......... 16mo, mor.
* Plumbers’, Steam-Filters’, and Tinners’ Edition. ...16mo, mor.
* Stone- and Brick-masons’ Edition................ 16mo, mor,
Sabin’s Howse Painting oo gas iesver severe eu ars ses ieee Rea esas 12mo,
Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish. .
Sheep,
Wilson's Ain Conditioning :0.0 tacseasi 2 tetaueusipa Adin mma aa eae r2mo, -

Worcester and Atkinson’s Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small Hospital.
I2mo,

ARMY AND NAVY.

Bernadou’s Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose
Mole Gile c2ic5 uve gto ps tt Seapets AeA cians 0.8 Soanets .I2mo,

Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion................ Sey cae .8v0,
Cloke’s Enlisted Specialist’s Examiner. (In Press.)

Gunner’s Examiner...
Craig's Azimuth. sci: csyduien es weeds eae eey

Crehore and Squier’s Polarizing Photo-chronograph................... 8vo,
* Davis’s Elements of Law.............0......000. 8v0,
* Treatise on the Military Law of United States................... 8vo,

Sheep,
De Brack’s Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr).................... 24mo, mor,
* Dudley’s Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial... Large I2mo,
Durand’s Resistance and Propulsion of Ships.....................000. 8vo,

2.

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* Dyer’s Handbook of Light Artillery. ...........cceeeccceccceeees -L2M0,

Eissler’s Modern High Explosives. ............. sede et eee Obs disvaseuitenstne 4a 8vo,
* Fiebeger’s Text-book on Field Fortification........... soee...Large I2mo,
Hamilton and Bond’s The Gunner’s Catechism ............ Sieg Ses te 18mo,
* Hoff’s Elerientary Naval Tactics.................. wales wea ateaee: 8vo,
Ingalls’s Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.............. eat 8vo,
* Lissak’s Ordnance and Gunnery........-.-.- eee cece cee e eee eens 8vo,
* Ludlow’s Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables................... 8vo,
* Lyons’s Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II.. 8vo, each,
* Mahan’s Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur)............. 8vo, half mor.
Manual for Courts-martial.... 0.0.0... eee e ne 16mo, mor.
* Mercur’s Attack of Fortified Places.................05 Wiauginretece aera 12mo,
* Elements of the Art of War... ..... eee ccc cence eee 8vo,
Metcalf’s Cost of Manufactures—And the Administration of Workshops. .8vo,
Nixon’s Adjutants’ Manual.......... 0... c cee cee cece tee eee
Peabody’s Naval Architecture

* Phelps’s Practical Marine Surveying. .......... 60. c cece eee e ee eens 8vo,
Putnam’s Nautical Charts. (In Press.)

Sharpe’s Art of Subsisting Armies in War...................... 18mo, mor.

* Tupes and Poole’s Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing.

24mo, leather,

* Weaver’s Military Explosives. .....0....0 0. cece eee eee e eee e eee eeee 8vo0,
Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene............... cece ceeeeeee 16mo,
ASSAYING.
Betis’s Lead Refining by Electrolysis. ............ 0.00: eee ccc eeeceues 8vo,
Fletcher’s Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
r6mo, mor.
Furman’s Manual of Practical Assaying. ........... 000.0. c cece eevee 8vo,
. Lodge’s Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments... .8vo,
Low’s Technical Methods of Ore Analysis.....................00005- 8vo,
Miller’s: Cyanide: Process... 45.4cacistass ds as pki ores Sma ge in wa bealals I2mo,
Manual-of Assayings,. jasc. Jeidiaigins sa nets wadesane od We bae sae Be eee I2mo,
“ Minet’s Production of Aluminum andits Industrial Use. (Waldo)...... I2mo,
O’Driscoli’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. ................005. 8vo,
Ricketts and Miller’s Notes on Assaying. ........... 0c cece e eee cece 8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc)... ................ 8vo,
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining............... 00.0200 00 8vo,
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. 2.0.2.0... 00. c ccc e cece ence reese eneee I2mo,
Cyanide Processes: iis 34¢c8 raemans a0 2 ehe eels seo Paen es Ee i2mo,
ASTRONOMY.
Comstock’s Field Astronomy for Engineers............ 0c ec see cee ees 8v0,
Crate S Az inti Chis goes aie 2 Joke F dudsachies eid Seed eanendh neste Btaasouca Siete hd auecauneeesa aed 4to,
Crandall’s Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares..................4. 8vo,
Doolittle’s Treatise on Practical Astronomy. .............0ce cece eeeee 8vo,
Gore’s Elements of Geodesy... 2.1... cece cece ee cee eee e eee eens 8vo,
Hayford’s Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy... ....... 0... eee ee eee ee 8Vvo,
Merriman’s Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy............... 8vo,
* Michie and Harlow’s Practical Astronomy. ......... 00... eee eee aeee 8vo,
Rust’s Ex-meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-Finding Tables. (In Press.)
* White’s Elementswf Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy ........ I2mo,

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CHEMISTRY.

* Abderhalden’s Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Ha!l and Defren)

8vo,

* Abegg’s Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (von Ende)........... 12mo,
Alexeyeff’s General Principles of Organic Syntheses. (Matthews)......... 8vo,
Allen’s Tables for tron Analysis. i... 6.60 scacsssceuy a 5 en tere aa hae eee 8vo,
Arnold’s Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel)............... Large 12mo,
Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford,
Meeting, 1906 ..........- tes Ne tices aavatelalana stoutiaeeciuatette at: moet 8vo,
cinestown Meeting, 1907......... seeees Bet ae heea eG ey seed eee 8vo,
Austen’s Notes for Chemical Students ......... 0.0 ce eee cece eee eee 12mo,

Baskerville’s Chemical Elements. (In Preparation.)
Bernadou’s Smokeless Powder.—Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose

TONG CUE 35 5istg:isnie wc Gigesveceraecoaliafcolente gi pea: ome: we 9 Fiancee a mene sana eae tele 12mo,
* Blanchard’s Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry................-.. 00005 12m0,
* Browning’s Introduction to the Rarer Elements..................... 8vo,
Brush and Penfield’s Manual of Determinative Mineralogy............. 8vo,
* Claassen’s Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe)................ 8vo,
Classen’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood).. .8vo,
Cohn’s Indicators and Test-papers.. ........ 2. eee eee ee eee lee eee I2mo,
Tests and Reagents. ...........2.000e0e Aub MRD Seo aLy Hos wat ot oust 8vo,
* Danneel’s Electrochemistry. (Merriam)................. ea I2mo,
Duhem’s Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess)................. 8vo,
Eakle’s Mineral Tables for the Determination of Minerals by their Physical
PROPOTULES ii. -4 bey can hctdh akg SAA 4S RDS EA GHONE HE IOS ORG 8vo,
Eissler’s Modern High Explosives. ......... 00... ccc ee cece eee cece eens 8vo,
Effront’s Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott) ................ 8yvo,
Erdmann’s Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap).... ....12mo,
* Fischer’s Physiology of Alimentation. .................... Large 12mo,
Fletcher’s Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
12mo, mor.
Fowler’s Sewage Works Analyses.......... 0.00 cece cece cutee eeee r2m9,
Fresenius’s Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells)..........8vo,
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells) 8vo,
Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn) 2 vols................. 8vo,
When Sold Separately, Vol. I, $6. Vol. II, $8.
Fuertes’s Water and Patlie Health... ..cc5cc ces eievere cera aware een I2mo,

* Getman’s Exercises in Physical Chemistry....
Gill’s Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers..................--.005.
* Gooch and Browning’s Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.

Large 12mo,

Grotenfelt’s Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll)............ I2mo,
Groth’s Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall)........ r2mo,
Hammarsten’s Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel)........8vo,
Hanausek’s Microscopy of Technical Products. Winton)................ 8v0,
* Haskins and Macleod’s Organic Chemistry. ....................... I2mo,
Helm’s Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan)............ I2mo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)...., ..16mo, mor.
* Herrick’s Denatured or Industrial Alcohol............. Bolas 8vo,
Hinds’s Inorganic Chemistry... 2... 0... ccc cece e eee c ccc eee e cease 8vo,
* Laboratory Manual for Students............................. I2mo,
* Holleman’s Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry for Beginners.
LRU escent ase mena ees eee aa ag Be MER ODS © don wre dogce coed I2mo,
Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper).................... 8vo,
Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott)............. 8vo,

Holley and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Vamishes.
Large 12mo,

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Hopkins’s Oil-chemists’ Handbook..................00005 haere sa ey. 8vo,
Iddings’s Rock Minerals... ..... 0... eee ce ete eee 8vo,
Jackson’s Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo,
Johannsen’s Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections...8vo,
Johnson’s Chemical Analysis of Special Steels. (In Preparation.)

Keen's Cast 160s os eas capecadsutieees $a eu tei ws
Ladd’s Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis.
andauer’s Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle)......... :
* Langworthy and Austen’s Occurrence of. ‘Alieniaiurn in Vegetable Prod-

ucts, Animal Products, and Natural Waters..............-... 8vo,
Lassar-Cohn’s Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in

Organic Chemistry. (Tingle)............. 00.00.00. ee euee Tt2mo,
Leach’s Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State

Controls. 6. oss nig esa er teas ares) e Date aaa epee eS

Loéb’s Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz)..............
Lodge’s Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. ...

Lunge’s Techno-chemical Analysis.
* McKay and Larsen’s Principles and Practice of Butter-m
Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles.................2..-00005
Mandel’s Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory ...................
* Martin’s Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe. .12mo,

Mason’s Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.).. ..12m0,
Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stan dpi
VO,
Matthews’s Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten.................... 8vo,
* Meyer’s Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle)..12mo,
Miller’s: Cyanide’ Processic.2 4... iw detain de oe de oaetee’s Mhde sag oak Sends I2mo,
Maniial of Asea yin ge ois jcssvecs ras caer eage ara emt a) AGieedehele Mara sound I2mo,
Minet’s Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo).....12mo0,
Mixter’s Elementary Text-book of Chemistry. ...................... I2mo,
Morgan’s Elements of Physical Chemistry...................--20.2.-. I2mo,
Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results............... I2mo,
* Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers................... I2mo,
Morse’s Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.............. 16mo, mor.
* Muir’s History of Chemical Theories and Laws.................... 8vo,
Mulliken’s General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds,
VOUT acne ci eee TR ARE . .Large 8vo,
O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. ..............--..-- 8vo,
Ostwald’s Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey)........12mo0,
ae ae =f Part Two. (Turnbull)....... 12mo,
* Palmer’s Practical Test Book of Chemistry................. 0.2.2. 12mo,
* Pauli’s Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicire. (Fischer). . .12m0,

* Penfield’s Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper,
Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of

Domestic Production. sic: cay cn secna ws veeher ese ateeesaeeas 8vo,
Pictet’s Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle).......... 8v0,
Poole’s Calorific Power of Fuels............ 0.0... eee 8vo,

Prescott and Winslow’s Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis. ..
* Reisig’s Guide to Piece-dyeing. . 0... 00... cece cece eee tees
Richards and Woodman’s Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint..8vo,
Ricketts and Miller’s Notes on Assaying. ............0-.eeeeeeeee .8vo,

Rideal’s Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.... . 8vo,
Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage... ............... 8v0,
Riggs’s Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory.............. 8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc)................4. 8va,
Ruddiman’s Incompatibilities in Prescriptions. ....................00. 8vo,
Whysin Pharmacy ic 5: cscs eat eed noe dais adie twa os I2mo,

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Ruer’s Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson) (In Preparation.)

Sabin’s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish........ 8vo,
Salkowski’s Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff)...... 8vo,
Schimpf’s Essentials of Volumetric Analysis........... 000002 eeeees I2mo,
* ~~ Qualitative Chemical Analysis........... 000.0 cece cece ener euee 8vo,
Text-book of Volumetric Analysis. ............. :. cee cece eee eee I2mo,
Smith’s Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.... .......... 8vo,
Spencer’s Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers............. 16mo, mor,
Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses............. 16mo, mor,
Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils. ........ 0... ce cece cece ete eens 8vo,
* Tillman’s Descriptive General Chemistry.............--.-.e eee eeeen 8vo,
* Elementary Lessons in Heat.............. 0c ee see e reset ete e eee 8vo,
Treadwell’s Qualitative Analysis. (Hall)...........-cccccceeeueeeees 8vo,
Quantitative Analysis. (Hall)... 000. cccec eer seesaw nbadeas s 8vo,
Turneaure and Russell’s Public Water-supplies...........-...-2.20055 8vo,
Van Deventer’s Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood)....... I2mo,
Venable’s Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage...... 8vo,
Ward and Whipple’s Freshwater Biology. (In Press.)
Ware’s Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol.I............ Small 8vo,
oa se a a ah Wel Ui gacceccdsn Small8vo,
Washington’s Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.............. 8vo,
* Weaver’s Military Explosives... ........ 0.00. ccc cect ete eee 8vo,
Wells’s Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. ........... 8vo,
Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
Studentsi¢ vcca.c ace sconcaad stot eayeae ee See aide

Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic . .
Whipple’s Microscopy of Drinking-water. aevdniel painaact dwalemen eget hea
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. ........-. 00s eee eee cence reece

Cyanide: Processes. % v.24: sassy ad Oe aire Soe Go koe ae aveiw es eamibtoben
Winton’s Microscopy of Vegetable Foods... .......... 0.0.0 ec eee eee ee 8vo,

CIVIL ENGINEERING.

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BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEER-

ING. RAILWAY ENGINEERING.

Baker’s Engineers’ Surveying Instruments... ..............2...0... I2zmo,
Bixby’s Graphical Computing Table........-....... Paper 19} “ 244 inches.
Breed and Hosmer’s Principles and Practice of Surveying. 2 Volumes.

Vol. I. Elementary Surveying

-Vol. II. Higher Surveying................0.00 0000 cece eee aee
* Burr’s Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal .... 8vo,
Comstock’s Field Astronomy for Engineers................ ........ 8vo,
* Corthell’s Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations................ I2mo,
‘Crandall’s Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares .................. 8vo,
Davis’s Elevation and Stadia Tables............... 0c cc ceecceeeeaaee 8vo,
Elliott’s Engineering for Land Drainage... .........-...0ce-eeeeeae I2mo,

Practical Farm Drainage........... 0... cece cece nee ee eceeee I2mo,
*Fiebeger’s Treatise on Civil Engineering............. 00.02.00 cee ecee 8vo,
Flemer’s Phototopographic Methods and Instruments................. 8vo,
Folwell’s Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)................... 8vo,
Freitag’s Architectural Engineering......... atceslae eis panes eaten R-tree G 8vo,
French and Ives’s Stereotomy...........--..+-+ Mires se Sgainisverans ees 8vo,
Goodhue’s Municipal Improvements. ......... 0.00002. c eee cece ee I2mo,
Gore’s Elements of Geodesy. ... 6.0... ete eee eee cece eee 8vo,
* Hauch’s and Rice’s Tables of Quantities for Prelirinary Estimates ..12mo,
Hayford’s Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy... .................0.0000, 8vo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables. (Conversion Factors). ....... r6mo, mor.
Howe’s Retaining Walls for Earth. ......-..... sce ee ee eee eee ye I2mo,

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* Ives’s Adjustments of the Engineer’s Transit and Level.......... 16mo, Bds.

Ives and Hilts’s Problems in Surveying....................4.. z16mo, mor,
Johnson’s (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying.............. Small 8vo,
Johnson’s (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods. ........... 8vo,

Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt’s Purification of Sewage. (In Preparation.)
Laplace’s Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. ‘Truscott and Emory)

i2mo,
Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry. ........ 0.00. cece cee eee eee 8vo,

Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood)...........-...-. 8vo,
Merriman’s Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy............... 8vo,
Merriman and Brooks’s Handbook for Surveyors............... 16mo, mor.
Nugent’s Plane Surveying................ PETS Apielataaresed a Ova 8vo,
Ogden’s Sewer Construction. (In Press.)

SEWEr DESIG 50: a:hiah dis se NE shee gee Rite eas eas Sue ats I2mo,
Parsons’s Disposal of Municipal Refuse...........-..-0-.-0 00200005 8vo,
Patton’s Treatise on Civil] Engineering.................... 8vo, half leather,

Reed’s Topographical Drawing and Sketching ...................004. 4
Rideal’s Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.
Riemer’s Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele).. .8vo,

Siebert and Biggin’s Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry. .............. 8vo,
Smith’s Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan)............... 8vo,
Soper’s Air and Ventilation of Subways.............--.-.-05- Large 12mo,
‘Tracy’ s'Plané:Surveying : 0.46.5 ese dia Qh hw ao ws Og A eek 16mo, mor.
* Trautwine’s Civil Engineer’s Pocket-book.................... 16mo, mor.
Venable’s Garbage Crematories in America..................2-0005- 8vo,
Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage......... 8vo,
Wait’s Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.................. 8vo,
Sheep,

Law: of Contracts. i002. cisceecse cee saa ssew ee ba nee ee OTT 8vo,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
TECtULEN 6 Sid sivive'g ste nHancer ese Kee dann dP eldainla seabirds 8vo,

Sheep,

Warren’s Stereotomy—Probiems in Stone-cutting.................005- 8vo,

* Waterbury’s Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.
2% s% inches, mor.
Webb’s Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.
r6mo, mor.
Wilson’s (H. N.) Topographic Surveying ...................... .... RvO.
Wilson’s (W. L.) Elements of Railroad Track and Construction. (In Press.)

BRIDGES AND ROCEFS.

Boller’s Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .8vo,
Burr and Falk’s Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations
Du Bois’s Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I...,............... Small gto,
Foster’s Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges

Fowler’s Ordinary Foundations. ................. RAH rene: ae
French and Ives’sStereotomy............... oeraiatatie 43d rei) ocliie ions dos alee dy 8v0,
Greene’s Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone...............0000000-0.. 8vo,
Btidge THUsses. nck aaa ee ee ee eeoes eile iesdeesa) secjacaueceinse eraiaosniaeton 8vo,
8vo,

8vo,

8vo,

Howe’s Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel.............. 8vo,
Symmetrical Masonry Arches. 8vo,
Treatise on Arches: ies 66 es cca sisi ace acecneye e g-d arartsb ane eticaae ceed 8vo,
Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure’s Theory and Practice in the Designing of
Modern Framed Structures,.............00.. ccc eeeuee Small 4to,

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Merriman and Jacoby’s Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:

Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses............ 000000 ce cece eee 8vo,
ParecTL.. Graphic Sta ties. :5< diss sio-e desi sersiane.dusd doartueriocavesa doe we ave gnatovaneed 8vo,
Part TI. Bridge Design s.:...5. s200:4 604) bes cae neds ext aes 8vo,
Part IV:. Higher Structures: :6 0 acisiiin vase cole a eaeiea bas eee tinw ee S 8vo,
Morison’s Memphis Bridge........... 00.0. ce cece eee ee eeee Oblong 4to,
Sondericker’s Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.
8vo,

Waddell’s De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers...... 16mo, mor,
* Specifications for Steel Bridges. ..........-- 0 cece eee e reece ane I2mo,

Waddell and Harrington’s Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.)
Wright’s Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.,.........8V0,

HYDRAULICS,

Barnés’s Ice Formationy. i sie¢ cpg cee an teense s hed dedlbeesaas 8v0,
Bazin’s Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from

an Orifice. (Trautwine).. .8vo,
Bovey’s Treatise on Hydraulics......... 0.0... cece eee cece teens 8vo,
Church’s Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.

Oblong 4to, paper,

Bydrawlic Motors: ai ssh. astsulsetceles ncuiels sidins aloe wee naruirh aes 8vo,
Mechanics of Engineering. ............ 2.0. e cece eee cee tees 8vo,
Coffin’s Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.............. r6mo, mor.
Flather’s Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power............ I2mo,
Folwell’s Water-supply Engineering. ... arse ix KONO S

Frizell’s Water-power.............

Fuertes’s Water and Public Health.
Water-filtration Works. ......... 0.000 c ccc eee .. I2mo,
Ganguillet and Kutter’s General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in
Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine)......... 8vo,
Hazen’s Clean Water and How to Get [t..................... Large 12mo,
Filtration of Public Watez-supplies ..............0....0.0.. 8vo,
Hazlehurst’s Towers and Tanks fur Water-works. ........ ........... 8vo0,
Herschel’s 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal
COMA tSiscessteicisclactiniats myasthenia te aeietiem manatee wiotnala ha gee mae ys 8vo,
Hoyt and Grover’s River Discharge........ mitt besdnaretes aectac ate Maal helt 8vo,
Hubbard and Kiersted’s Water-works Management and Maintenance aise 8v0,
* Lyndon’s Development and Electrical Distribution of Wafer Power... 8vo,
Mason’s Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)

8vo,
Merriman’s Treatise on Hydraulics.............
* Michie’s Elements of Analytica] Mechanics. ............. Bvo,
* Molitor’s Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices . v0,
Schuyler’s Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-

SU PD Viva cis diate SoA na.n Sona e VeMa er Nba emres Maaetadelan & Large 8vo,
* Thomas and Watt’s Improvement of Rivers ....................... 4to,
Turneaure and Russel]’s Public Water-supplies...................... 8vo,
Wegmann’s Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Ed. enlarged ... ato,
Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895.......... ato,
Whipple’s Value of Pure Water..........
Williams and Hazen’s Hydraulic Tables. ..
Wilson’s Irrigation Engineering. ...- 0... 0s seer eee eee
Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover...........--...0404.
‘Wood’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics. ....................., .8vo,
Turbines. ...... gesacnnes alee ES EA iss ibaa iy wali Fen AS, Gatien boone 8vo,

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MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.

Baker’s Roads and Pavements. ...........e+0005 ain) Sveweaeee esas 8vo,
Treatise on Masonry Construction. ...6........2005 Mes Par leua aries nS 8vo.
Birkmire’s Architectural Iron and Steel...... 0.2... eee cee eee eee 8vo,
Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings.............. 8vo,
Black’s United States Public Works ................. 000000005 Oblong gto,
Bleininger’s Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation )
* Bovey’s Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.............. 8vo,
Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering....... 8vo,
Byrne’s Highway Construction. ........... 0.000200 cece eee ences 8vo,
Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.
16mo,
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering. ............ 0. cc eee ee ee eee eeeees 8vo,
Du Bois’s Mechanics of Engineering.
Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics.................000. Small 4to,
Vol. II. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and
THEOFY Of FleXures:.«.ocics.ecssece & a4. 208 sided uesia al dua onions MER EO mall 4to,
*Eckel’s Cements, Limes, and Plasters............0-0 0. cece cee eee vee 8vo,
Stone and Clay Products used in Engineering. (In Preparation.)
Fowler’s Ordinary Foundations............. 00-2 e cece ec eee teen eee 8vo,
Graves’s Forest: Menstiration. 6.60 icc ecieiecreiie te bee bien oe eed coaee 8vo,
Green’s Principles of American Forestry 12mo,

* Greene’s Structural Mechanics........... 00.0000 e cue eee eee eee 8vo,
Holly and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes

Large :2mo,
Jobnson’s (C, M.) Chemical Analysis of Special Steels. (In Preparation.)

Johnson’s (J. B.) Materials of Construction.................. . Large 8vo,
Reeep’s: Cast Irons tosess aici 5: dis Setiaiyeyaue@ dd acbsshstie, avasncd of osauirtales pared atgagaadavece ths 8vo,
Kidder’s Architects and Builders’ Pocket-book..................... 16mo,
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics, ........... 0... 0c cece eee eee eee 8vo,
Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles ... 1s ay wo T2IMoy
Martens’s Handbook on Testing Materials, (Henning) 2vols......... 8v0,
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics. ........... 0.0 ccc eect eee e eee eee eee 8vo,
Merrill’s Stones for Building and Decoration. ............-..-.-00005 8vo,
Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials. ..... 0... cece eee ee eee eee eee 8vo,
* Streseth of Materials acy ercescsuee ces aee ide sa Vee se awe eee rIzmo,
Metcalf’s Steel, A Manual for Steel-users. ......---- see e rere eee I2mo,
Morrison’s Highway Engineering.......... Rains er dbateuapstacd woe oa nat IAG 8vo,
Patton’s Practical Treatise on Foundations........-..----+seeeeeeeeee 8vo,
Rice’s Concrete Block Manufacture........6- 2s see e cece eee eee eee 8vo,
Richardson’s Modern Asphalt Pavements........-.. 6 sees eee ereeeee 8vo,
Richey’s Handbook for Superintendents of Construction. ......... 16mo, mor.
* Ries’s Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and, UseSinsc6c540c004esan 8vo,
Sabin’s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints ard Varnish........8¥0,
* Schwarz’s Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest «....ee.ee0 +
Snow’s Principal Species of WoO dis d tx ieidaaen wien ene sees
Spalding’s Hydraulic Cement. ........ +20 ee eer tener eee e teres ness
Text-book on Roads and Pavements........ ceneees fevers
Taylor and Thompson’s Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced...... 8vo,
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts SEP e eee Sabai 8vo,
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. .... 8vo,
Part WI. Iron and Steel. ......-. 22 eee eee te 8v0,
Part II. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents. .......---- sare erie Se ho ache HRB glee: &vo,
Tillson’s Street Pavements and Paving Materials. ............--..--55: 8vo,

inci i Concrete Construction... 8vo,
eaure and Maurer’s Principles of Reinforced C
sarees Manual of Instructions-for the Use of Students in Cement Labora-
tory Practice. (In Press.)

Wood’s (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on

the Preservation of Timber. :..cevsscevipanssanseeevanr snes 8vo,
Wood’s (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Stéel. occictsyeecGaweess oteewdarvew eta eeesees wibe eens d Svo,

RAILWAY ENGINEERING.

Andrews’s Handbook for Street Railway Engineers........3x5 inches, mor.

Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads............ ...4to,
Brooks’s Handbook of Street Railroad Location... .............- 16mo, mor.
Batt’s Civil Engineer’s Field-book. ..............4. aa abaco Saul 16mo, mor.
Crandall’s Railway and Other Earthwork Tables... ........-....-. ... BVO,

Transition: 'CULrVversicwssas cPiveraed BARR ease eee eA NE r6mo, mor,
* Crockett’s Methods for Earthwork Computations...................-.. 8vo,
Dawson’s ‘‘Engineering” and Electric Traction Pocket-book...... 16mo, mor.
Dredge’s History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).............- Paper,
Fisher’s Table of Cubic Yards... 1... 0... cece cece ee eee nee Cardboard,

Godwin’s Railroad Engineers’ Field-book and Explorers’ Guide... 16mo, mor,
Hudson’s Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-

DADE MACTIS) (6.5. wia-cus ie fe Packealinerse subg ol asic Se wis Hemansmisae.e a 8vo,

Ives and Hilts’s Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy
r16mo, mor.

Molitor and Beard’s Manual for Resident Engineers................. 16mo,
Nagle’s Fieid Manual for Railroad Engineers..... ie aio Bias Ueeeed 2 16mo, mor.
Philbrick’s Field Manual for Engineers. ............2.000000055 16mo, mor.

Raymond’s Railroad Engineering. 3 volumes.
Vol. I. Railroad Field Geometry. (In Preparation.)

Vol. II. Elements of Railroad Engineering.................... 8vo,

Vol. III. Railroad Engineer’s Field Book. (In Preparation.)
Searles’s Field Engineering. ........ 0.0... ccc ee ec eseceeeceenes 16mo, mor,
Railroad Spittal sie evi ee ye ot eee aetvtils, SG ase wee hm dae eee as 16mo, mor.
Taylor’s Prismoidal Formule and Barthwérle « sd RuBe eR pain a She Retcbe a 8vo,
*Trautwine’s Field Practice of Laying Out Ciculae Curves for Railroads.
12mo. mor.
* Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embank-
ments by the Aid of Diagrams. .............. 00.00 cee eeuaee 8vo,
Webb’s Economics of Railroad Construction.................. Large 12mo,
Railroad Construction. 2... 00... ccc cece cece cet e eee neees 16mo, mor.

Wellington’s Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.......Small 8vo,

DRAWING.

Barr’s Kinematics of Machinery. ..........cccecceeee esas cceeccuaeee 8vo,
* Bartlett’s Mechanica! Drawing. ... Sisco wit a wiueuler Queda Soa 8vo,
* “ se ce Abtidged Edo 4.4soy4 a vivsaeweeca ws 8vo,
Coolidge’s Manual of Drawing. ............ 0... cece cee e ee eece 8vo_ paper,
Coolidge and Freeman’s Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
TLC OLS cie-2 tit A arson ala ahs teeea ieee te go eat da saa ctn aes gokers Oblong 4to,
Durley’s Kinematics of Machines............. 0.0... ccc cee ee ence eeee 8vo,
Emch’s Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications........ 8vo,
Hill’s Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.............. 8vo,
Jamison’s Advanced Mechanica: Drawing.............. eect eee eens 8vo,
Elements of Mechanical Drawing...... $s ladaleibeialalg peep wio ORV cree ee on 8vo,

Jones’s Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery...................000. cere yeatete 8vo,
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts........... ++...8V0,
MacCord’s Elements of Descriptive Geometry......... ayers sa eeeees BVO,
Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism...........................8V0,
»Mechanical Drawing. ....... eee cece ecenes an Rinvesecaceree aes. es iteerecede oi tO;,
Velocity Diagrams, ... wees eeeeeuaee ah Hate ptgt alae: audios eye ety eS Rae vererenn 8vo,

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McLeod’s Descriptive Geometry................ ccc cece er eeeee Large 12mo,
* Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting............... Perey 8vo,
Industrial Drawing. (Thompson)...
Moyer’s Descriptive Geometry.
Reed’s Topographical Drawing and Sketching... ...............0000ee 4to,
Reid’s Course in Mechanical Drawing................000 00 cee eeeeeee 8vo,
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo,
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism... .......... 0... ccc cece ceuees
Schwamb and Merrill’s Elements of Mechanism... ...................
Smith’s (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing.
Smith (A. W.) and Marx’s Machine Design... .....................5..
* Titsworth’s Elements of Mechanical Drawing

Warren’s Drafting Instruments and Operations....................-
Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective. ......8vo,
Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.................. 8vo,
Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing..... I2mo,
General Problems of Shades and Shadows....................0.. 8vo,
Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and

Shadow cata he Raed Aa Rb ane da ea nied eee Bee 12mo,

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing..................0-- 12mo,
Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry...............000008- I2mo,
Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry. ......8vo,
Weisbach’s Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and
TVS 1 1 eyed Syed semen) cps dcemtce er 1S Sates decals Stu can eteee oh cords natant sa eA 8vo,

Wilson’s (H. M.) Topographic Surveying.............. 0.0 e cee e eee eee 8vo,

Wilson’s (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering. ... 0.0... cc cece eee eee eee 8vo,
Free-hand Perspectives... acs saidescd as saa weed d co See a we pes 8vo,

Woolf’s Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry............. Large 8vo,

ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.

* Abegg’s Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (von Ende).......... I2mo,
Andrews’s Hand-Book for Street Railway Engineering ....3 5 inches, mor.
Anthony and Brackett’s Text-book of Physics. (Magie)........ Large 12mo,
Anthony’s Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements. ...12mo,
Benjamin’s History of Electricity. ...... 0... cece cee eee eee 8vo,
Voltaic Cell... 0) anne de Aanatag secs CAEOe ia ASDEAE ROROR TAN ORS 8vo,
Betts’s Lead Refining and Electrolysis.................0...0-.00000- 8vo,
Classen’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood)..8vo,
* Collins’s Manual of Wireless Telegraphy..........-....0-0eeeeeeee I2mo,
Mor.

Crehore and Squier’s Polarizing Photo-chronograph..............02005 8vo,
* Danneel’s Electrochemistry. (Merriam).................2-0+20005 I2mo,
Dawson’s “Engineering” and Electric Traction Pocket-book .. ..16mo, mor.
Dolezalek’s Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (von Ende)
12mo,

Duhem’s Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess)...........20.0-- 8vo,
Flather’s Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power....... ....-I2M0,
Gilbert’s De Magnete. (Mottelay)......... 0... cece cee eee eee 8vo0,
* Hanchett’s Alternating Currents.........0 0 cece eee e cece ee eee eee 1I2mo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors).......... 16mo, mor,
* Hobart and Ellis’s High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery.......... 8vo,
Holman’s Precision of Measurements... 0.1... . 2. eee e eee eee ee eee 8vo,
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests....Large 8vo,

* Karapetoff’s Experimental Electrical Engineering..............+-++++ 8vo,
Kinzbrunner’s Testing of Continuous-current Machines.............4- 8vo,
Landauer’s Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle)..........- Has anbaera h@od ae we ome 8v0,
Le Chatelier’s High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard—Burgess)..12mo,
Léb’s Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz).............. 8vo,

* London’s Development and Electrical Distribntion of Water Fower ....8vo,

11

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* Lyons’s Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. 8vo, each,
* Michie’s Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light.......8vo,

Morgan’s Outline of the Theory of Solution and its Results........... 12mo0,
* Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers...........-....0005 I2mo,
Niaudet’s Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback)....12mo0,
* WNorris’s Introduction to the Study of Electrical PEEDCORHE nbatantadatawene 5 8vo,
* Parshall and Hobart’s Electric Machine Design. . : .4to, half mor.

Reagan’s Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and ‘Electric. ‘ew Edition.
Large 12mo
* Rosenberg’s Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee—Kinzbrunner). ...8vo,

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie’s Electrical Mechinery. Vol. I.............-. 8vo,
Schapper’s Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry ...... 12mo,
* Tillman’s Elementary Lessons in Heat... .... 0... cece cece eee eee eee 8vo,
Tory and Pitcher’s Manual of Laboratory Physics............. Large 12mo,
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining......... Pe ere 8vo,
LAW.
* Davis’s Elements ot Law... 0.0... cece eee eee e eens Sieteiese ees tran 8vo,
* Treatise on the Military Law of United States... .............0000- 8vo,
* Sheep,
* Dudley’s Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial ....Large 12mo,
Manual for Courts-martial.......... diud gl dled horas stl biaraijonk estan eacsacnaes r6mo, mor.
Wait’s Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence..... a iMaGtenoesreaingat 8vo,
Sheep,
Law of Contracts, see sajsparersteid eis crsiemian are nie Pehaerelaece ware RE 8vo,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
TEGUUTO Siow 2 uewaia antares japRe eRe ae ee ere frre. 8voc.
Sheep,
MATHEMATICS

Balcér’s Elliptic-FunctionsS seria bansiawainn cei lamin: ehedensaeee 8vo,
Briggs’s Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bécher)............ I2mo,
* Buchanan’s Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.......- .....-...e.00. 8vo,
Byerley’s Harmonic Functions.................. peibaerartapatun ate See siia Rena 8vo,
Chandler’s Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus................... 12mo,
Compton’s Manual of Logarithmic Computations................... r2mo,
* Dickson’s College Algebra.............-. 0000. c cece ee eee Large 12mo,
* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations ........ Large 12mo,
Emch’s Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications....... 8vo,

Fiske’s Functions of a Complex Variable ¥
Halsted’s Elementary Synthetic Geometry ....................,00005. 8vo,
Elements of Geometry ....... Gaifsn Shnieh Ste Casas eo ch s'awincestanaanecbcines Gh howe Ba A &vo,
=» ‘RationalliGeome tey in cutinecaiavala te laeahd moieetis aes cease ak 12mo,
Hyde’s Grassmann’s Space Analysis. .........0- 00: e ccc e cece ee aeeeue 8vo,

* Jonnson’s (J- B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper,
I00 copies,

* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches,
10 copies,

Johnson’s (W. W.) Abridged [ditions of Differential and Inte>ral Calculus
Large 12mo, r vol.

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates

eacirbiccgn tata. ds Was Acoelanels fy, 12mo,
Differential Equations 4s eceeo v's adnan & ee eae sieves worse . 8v0.
Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus ........... Large 12mo,
Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus....... ... Large 12mo,
2 Theoretical Mechanics.... ......... ised girnlans PEZMNOS
Theory of Errors and the “Method of Least Squares. av ariovantrliaheg en sat 12mo,
Treatise on Differential Calculus......................, Large 12mo,
Treatise on the Integral Calculus.............-........ Large 12mo,

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations..Large 12mo,

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Laplace’s Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory)..12mo,
* Ludlow and Bass’s Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other

T AD les hac hn. Seo al a rh A eeiedE IP Deh tna sees iene ent ES 8vo,
Trigonometry and Tables published separately.................. Each,
* Ludlow’s Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables.......... eo Resh ae tee 8vo,
Macfarlane’s Vector Analysis and Quaternions...............0eeeeee 8vo,
McMahon’s Hyperbolic Functions............ 0... cee eee es 8vo,
Manning’s Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and
SOGleS yes oS ions Sarg ee ae ah we Fh ee ee Para GE Ae Osh 12mo,
Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert
Si Widod War diis.g- 55.05 08.3.0scte usdia Ried od) oy abeeecionar ee .Octavo, each

No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith.
No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted.
No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper-
bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No 5. Harmonic Func-
tions, by William E. Byerly. No.6. Grassmann’s Space Analysis,
by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors,
by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions,
by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by
Wiiliam Woolsey Johnson. No. ro. The Solution of Equations,
by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable,
by Thomas S. Fiske.

Maurer’s Technical Mechanics... 12... ... ccs eee e eect e ee teeen neces 8vo,
Merriman’s Method of Least Squares. .......... ccc cece eect eee .8vo,
Solution of Equations ....... 2... ccc ccc e en eens 8vo,

Rice and Johnson’s Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.
Large 12mo,

Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus........... Large 12mo,
‘Smith’s History of Modern Mathematics ..............0000000eeceeee 8vo,
* Veblen and Lennes’s Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One

Varlableses : Siege se tu. cared ths Fad y Sean wand wanda cewiee Ba 8vo,

* Waterbury’s Vest Pocket Hand-Book of Mathematics for Engine rs.
2% 5% inches, mor.

‘Weld’s: Determinations: c:cs0.ccciedeincnieeseaa eta 6 ee tat eesa eyo es 8vo,
Wood’s Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry. ..........0 00. c cece ences 8vo,
Woodward’s Probability and Theory of Errors............ 0000-0 eee 8vo,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Bacon’s Forge Practice. vcs ea eee oe ee eae Seals Oe ease ew I2mo;
Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings. .................0000-0005- 12mo,
Barr’s Kinematics of Machinery. ...........-... 0c cece eee cece ee eee 8vo,
* Bartlett’s Mechanical Drawing... ....... 0. cece eee eects 8vo,
* “ 6 7 Abridged Edis iccc8 écavecew cea os apenas 8vo,
Renjamin’s Wrinkles and Recipes.............. 00.00 cece eee eee I2mo,
* Burr’s Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal...... 8vo,
Carpenter’s Experimental Engineering, 2.6.5 c.c0sc0ecereseieeneeeens 8vo,
Heating and Ventilating Buildings............. 0.0... ccc eee eeee 8vo,
Clerk’s Gas and Oil Engine... .... 2.0... cee ee cece ee eee eee Large 12mo,
Compton’s First Lessons in Metal Working ...................00005 r2mo,
Compton and De Groodt’s Speed Lathe............. 20. cece eee eee I2mo,
Coolidge’s Manual of Drawing... ........ 8vo, paper,
Coolidge and Freeman’s Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En-
ZINCCTS ses vivbades wees eaeans< See eee a neste rabid: Oblong 4to,
Cromwell’s Treatise on Belts and Pulleys............... A ia lecmie ees I2mo,
Treatise on Toothed Gearing. ..... anaasgisielathacrarsiass oe a ayeimentng Sa I2mo,
Durley’s Kinematics of Machines............ vasa Ql. (one te or aia og-aitecd Sena avec ee 8vo,

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Flather’s Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power,............ 12mo,
RODE DIG, oii aa eect ade wemio anne ne eee

Gill’s Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers. . . .

Goss’; Locomotive Sparks: «sis ccna sci danve au oes ea geaiieaious ss emer

Greene’s Pumping Machinery. (In Preparation.)

Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)... ..- ...16mo0, mor.
* Hobart and Ellis’s High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery.......... 8vo,
Hutton’s Gas Engine.
Jamison’s Advanced Mechanical Drawing......
Elements of Mechanical Drawing. ..............-0..00200005. &vo,

Jones’s Machine Design:

PartI. Kinematics of Machinery............0 2... c eee eee ees 8vo,

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.............-. 8vo,
Kent’s Mechanical Engineers’ Pocket-book................0008 16mo, mor.
Kerr’s Power and Power Transmission. ......... 00-00: cee eee eee eee 8vo,
Leonard’s Machine Shop Tools and Methods................ 000-000 ee 8vo,
* Lorenz’s Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean).. .8vo,
MacCord’s Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism. ...................-- 8vo,

Mechanical Drawing ss4is.zuiowane wits Aacduln an his Se uvtedene atelern sodas Ato,

Velocity Diagrams: 24.5 22casagess ge sevens eee etes Reseda eee 8vo,
MacFarland’s Standard Reduction Factors for Gases................4. 8vo,
Mahan’s Industrial Drawing. (Thompson)................000 cee eeee 8vo,
* Parshall and Hobart’s Electric Machine Design.....Small 4to, half leather,
Peele’s Compressed Air Plant for Mines.......................000005 8vo,
Poole’s Calorific Power Of Paels... anus sceueesec es eisuasyaueewserses 8vo,
* Porter’s Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 1882................... 8vo,
Reid’s Course in Mechanical Drawing....... Shad eigte sD hd Sletten eS 8vo,

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo,
Richard’s: Compressed Air a o.eecea oon doeveuiaiee se aeaininvendie da adres are ie ead 12mo,
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism... .............-0 0c cee ee eeee eee 8vo,
Schwamb and Merrill’s Elements of Mechanism... ...............0055 8vo,
Smith’s (O.) Press-working of Metals., ......... 00.00.00 cece ee ueeee 8vo,
Smith (A. W.) and Marx’s Machine Design......................2... 8vo,

Sorel’s Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines. (Woodward and Preston).
Large 12mo,

Thurston’s Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.

12mo,

Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work... 8vo,
Tillson’s Complete Automobile Instructor ............... 0000000005 16mo,
mor.

* Titsworth’s Elements of Mechanical Drawing................. Oblong 8vo,
Warren’s Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing............. 8vo,

* Waterbury’s Vest Pocket Hand Book of Mathematics for Engineers.
2% X 5% inches, mor.
Weisbach’s Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann—

WRC) oho oct aries od cessen lessee Sido dar ees ewe nd lyse) parse We SE Ay sal maha nara an 8vo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann—Klein).. .8vo,
W00d’S Turbines: .iccca cacitne iis ceidiien a oresiee ad veda aig ws ee hae 8vo,

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.

* Bovey’s Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures. ..........., 8vo,
Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering......... 8vo,
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering................. ccc ec ceceeceveee 8vo,
* Greene’s Structural Mechanics.................0.5 A bacioaateatonecia &vo,
Holley and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes.
Large 12mo,
Johnson’s Materials of Construction. .......0. 0. ee eee cece e eee e eens 8vo,
Keep’s Cast Iron..... 0 oe ee eee eee é ee ilestaraiale eee 8 YASS 8vo,
QLanza’s Applied Mechanics, 220.06 0ccs ssn ceeensvanevvesweseuesssewes 8vo,

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Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles.....................0. I2mo,

Martens’s Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning)................ 8vo,
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics... 046.5: ceee pun eec tema vanedvaness 8vo,
Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials............... ccc cceeccecceeeues 8vo,
* Strength of Materials . 0... 0... c ccc eee eee nneeenones I2mo,
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.................... ...12mo,
Sabin’s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish. . 8vo,
Smith’s Materials of Machines. .............. 00 cec cece cece eens 12mo,
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering. 3 vols., 8vo,
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy... 8vo,
Part, Tron and Steel o.ccie sce ernceewrcwevwavesas per eoary 8vo,
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituen t8iwcxeecsei os deuce dude vote ot alee e ees tase oh 8vo,

Wood’s (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics. ................... 8vo,
Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the
Preservation of Thaker. <<a sass scccaws bak gedsess er censees 8vo,

Wood’s (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Steelicicchiwedevienaaes Ebb Re ag dReNs Se eaR seta weting 8vo,

STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Berry’s Temperature-entropy Diagram................ cc cceeeeeenee I2mo,
Carnot’s Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston).......12mo,
Chase’s Art of Pattern Making. ............ . 00. ccc cece eee I2mo,
Creighton’s Steam-engine and other Heat-motors . 8vo,
Dawson’s “Engineering” and Electric Traction Dackel-kook space s0ii0: mor.
Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers...........0 00 eeeteeeeeeeeee 18mo,
Gebhardt’s Steam Power Plant Engineering. (In Press.)
Goss’s Locomotive Performance.... 0.2.0... cece etc eeeee eee ene 8vo,
Hemenway’s Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.......... I2mo,
Hutton’s Heat and Heat-engines. ....... 0... cee ccc cee cece eens 8vo,
Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants. ........ 00. 0c eeeceeeee 8vo,
Kent’s Steam boiler Economy.................

Kneass’s Practice and Theory of the Injector.
MacCord’s Slide-valves. ..............0..00005
Meyer’s Modern Locomotive Construction. ....
Moyer’s Steam Turbines. (In Press.)

Peabody’s Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator............../..... 1I2mo,
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors. ..... 8vo,
Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines...... 8vo,
Valve-gears for Steam-engines. ........ 0... cece eee tee eee ee 8vo,

Peabody and Miller’s Steam-boilers. ...... 0.20... 2 eee eee eee eee 8vo,

Pray’s Twenty Years with the Indicator.....................04. Large 8vo,

Pupin’s Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.

(Osterberg) 2 i5cc daote Sahel Ea eeiqmaeuds ee Rave enwet Bearer I2mo,

Reagan’s Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.

Large 12mo.

Sinclair’s Locomotive Engine Running and Management............. 12mo,
Smart’s Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice............... I2mo,
Snow’s Steam-boiler Practice... 1.0... . cee eee ee eee eee e near eee 8vo,
Spangler’s Notes on ThermoOd yhamiics sie. c6 6. 0.563 aceterg de capernd Ge spe Bed 12mo,
Valve-Gears> iscsi cok og seaaesiiacs foes hie ae Pata ie due 8vo,
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall’s Elements 0 Steam-engineering....... 8vo,
Thomas’s Steam-turbines.. 1.2.2.0... cee cee eee ...-8V0,
Thurston’s Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi-
cator and the Prony Brake. .. 2.2... ccc cece eee 8vo,

BANG! Dabless oa iy sie2 vinGued ane wie eed copa ot Bho chs adyent ola oe ald al Syaae 8vo,

Manual of Steam-boilers, their [esigns, Construction, and Operation..8vo,

15

Thurston’s Manual of the Steam-engine.............0eeeeeeee 2 vols., 8vo, 19
Part I. History, Structure, and Theory. ..... 8Bvo, 5

Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation........ ..8vo, 6
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice............. I2mo, I
Wehrenfenning’s Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water (Patterson) 8vo, 4
Weisbach’s Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois).............. 8vo, 5
Whitbham’s Steam-engine Design. ........ 0.0: eee ee ee eee eee 8vo, 5
Wood’s Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines...8vo, 4

MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED.

Church’s Mechanics of Engineering... ........ 000s cece reece ee reeves 8vo,
Notes and Examples in Mechanics........... 00sec cece ees ceeeee 8vo,
Dana’s Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. .12mo,

Du Bois’s Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
Wolk. Ts. -Mimema ties iii saci siscanerainle a aeaeve resus Syadess ea ieaaeeeeniios 8vo,

Vol. ID. ‘Statitsic cocina sage cm eewa siciesareal aha ea vane ap oibeoctn 8vo,
i i Small 4to,

4eGreene’s Structural Mechanics............ 0000s eee n reece eter renee 8vo,
James’s Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle.

Large 12mo,
* Johnson’s (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics..............20000ee00: I2mo,
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics. ..................040- ee
* Meaaiuak 's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics... ....-.....-00..
Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics ..12mo,
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics, .. .jctc0iac jected entry acneareaaneatas 8vo,
* Merriman’s Elements of Mechanics.............0ceceececeecerecs I2mo,
Mechanics: Of: Materials: 2s: .stesos,"csseaiahenesevensiy 0 wis le. arcienpiecorousls Gude 8vo,
* Michie’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics........ Pah ese lasses ee ak Bate 8vo,
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism... .......-.. 00. ccccccececcereces 8vo,
Sanborn’s Mechanics Problems.......... Large 12mo,
Schwamb and Merrill’s Elements of Mechanism... ..........020-00005 8vo,
Wood’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics. .......... Rvavauarsseviseacs .... Ovo,
Principles of Elementary Mechanics. ......-.....00eeeeeeseeess I2MO,
MEDICAL.
* Abderhalden’s Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and Defren)
8vo,
von Behring’s Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan)............... I2mo,
* Bolduan*¢ Immune Sera s..c.se sere ecnce nee aaa ee hei as saxo eE2ENg,
Davenport’s Statis.ical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia-
FTO S ice il pishsnnon aside eases souk inpaeth an Haeienanann ie Sheoaeageteh dat aa
Ehrlich’s Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan)..
* Wischer’s Physiology of Alimentation.................
de Fursac’s Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins)...... Large 12mo,
Hammarstea’s Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel)........8vo,
Jackson’s Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. ..8vo,
Lassar-Cohn’s Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz)..-.............. I2mo,
Mandel’s Hand Book for the Bic-Chemical Laboratory............... I2mo,
* Pauli’s Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer).....12mo,
? Pozzi-Escot’s Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn).......12mo,
Rostoski’s Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan)............ 002. eee eee eee 12mo,
Ruddiman’s Incompatibilities in Prescriptions...........,..e00.cee0. 8vo,
Whysin; Phatmaey. ges. 4 a4 nessa searts se Sesame ion & I2mo,
Salkowski’s Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. spas «... 8V0,
* Satterlee’s Outlines of Human Embryology .................5 wee T2M0y

Smith’s Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students..............-8V0»
16

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Steel’s Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog..............0e cece eeeeee 8vo,

% Whipple’s Typhoid Fever...................c000. siete aes Large 12mo,
Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene .......... 0.0 c cece cuca ceeeee 16mo,
© Personal Wye lemees csc cock isis wn dean amas ova baa ho Pe eaeoA LEME 12mo,

Worcester and Atkinson’s Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance,
and S$ ggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small

TAOORIIN ei od aga tech eA aed Ok dak BEY A Maas mais weed 12mo,
METALLURGY,

Betts’s Lead Refining by Electrolysis ............ 0... ccc ueceecevaeee 8vo,
Bolland’s Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used
in the Practice of Moulding.................. 00 ......0.. I2mo,

Tron FOuUng ers 3 Sechaba g 26 dee ede hohe nee An Same 12mo,

as st SUppleMentss 34.4. 2casncadacss oa maweanweeateans 12mo,
Douglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects.............. I2mo,
Goesel’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book............... r16mo, mor.
* Tles’s Lead-smelting ............. 00.0 c cece cece eee teenies I2mo,
Keep’s Castilron.c: saved eae hg facye ata eee gig Boe nah chmod 8vo,
Le Chatelier’s High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard—Burgess) 12mo,
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users......................... I2mo,
Miller’s Cyanide Process ........... 0c e cece cece ects ence ee neeeues I2mo,
Minet’s Production of Aluminium and its Industrial Use. (Waldo) ...12m0,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc).................. 8vo,

Ruer’s Elements of Meiallography. (Mathewson) (In Press.)
Smith’s Materials of Machines.......... 0.00... c cece eee

Thurston’s Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy . . .8v9,
Part TW Tron and Ste e@livci.os iacdascdiive jacangutdy hin G9 wale Say ews shed 8vo,
Part III, A Treatise on Ercsses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents: cain tic cuds row adoaiatad g abe Sa peels 8vo,
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper*Refining .............0.00-0.00 00% 8vo,
West’s American Foundry Practice ...........- 0. eee eee eee eee I2mo,
Mouldér’s' Text BOOK scieex cael 406 eed Ge BYE ea Gee SS I2mo,
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. .
Cyanide: Processes: ...d5. sdia sdasneveve cae @ A iceualaunes G+. Sande eee es I2mo,
MINERALOGY.
Barringer’s Descripti-n of Minerals of Commercial Vatue,..... Oblong, mor.
Boyd’s Resources of Southwest Virginia. ................0 00. cee eeeee 8vo,
Boyd’s Map of Southwest Virginia... ............... .Pocket-book form.
* Browning’s Introduction to the Rarer Elements. 7 bs Se gin bSiauecae eid 8vo,
Brush’s Manual of Determinative Mineraiogy. (Penfield). ee atS ctonarats devctpeioee 8vo,
Butler’s Pocket Hand-Book of Minerals. .
Chester’s Catalogue of Minerals... ........... 00: e cece ee ee eee
Cloth,
*Crane’s: Gold and Silvers vcs. acon odicaie cseeen sala caning Be Siyiere doers ae 8vo,
Dana’s First Appendix to Dana’s New ‘‘ System of Mineralogy..”’. . Large 8vo,
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.........--+. eect eee eee 12mo
Minerals and How to Study Them .............. eee eect eee I2mo,
System of Mineralogy. ........-0 eee eee e eee Large 8vo, half leather,
Text-book of Mineralogy. ....... 0.65. e cee e ete etree tees 8vo,
Pouglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects........... >. .12mo,
Eakle’s Mineral Tables. ........ 2000s cece c et eee tenet eet eee 8vo,
Stone and Clay Froducts Used in Engineering. (In Preparation.)
Ecleston’s Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms. ...--.---+eseeeeeeeee 8vo,
Goese]’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.. ..
Groth’s Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) . ... I2mo,

17

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PIddings’s Rock Minerals: « csicneous ees paeeer ey ey deeenoe duke eewer 8vo,
Johannsen’s Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. ....8vo,

* Martin’s Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.12mo,
Merrill’s Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses..........8V0,

Stones for Building and Decoration. ey hen pedemanisns tesee BVO)

* Penfield’s Notes on Determinative Mineralogy aad Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper,

Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of
Domestic Production.........-.eceeeececeeeeeeaeeaes widiereevouhate 8vo,

* Pirsson’s Rocks and Rock Minerals.............. asstionsi at ayelis ote ie sseeig T2EO,
* Richards’s Synopsis of Mineral Characters........... oe eeeee ee ZZ2M0, mor.

* Ries’s Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses..............+ +80,
* Tillman’s Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks. ...........+++8V0,

MINING.
* Beard’s Mine Gases and Explosions........... HERS RSI OSE Large I2mo,
Boyd’s Map of Southwest Virginia...............0.eee ee Pocket-book form.
Resources of Southwest Virginia..
* Crane’s Gold and Silver ........ cece eee e eee ne eee
Douglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects... ............ I2mo,.
Eissler’s Modern High Explosives. ......0....- 02 cess eee ee eee eee eens
Goesel’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book..,.
Ihlseng’s Manual of Mining.........
* Tles’s Lead-smelting........ c Z
Miller’si@yarnid 6; Pro€ 6S .ii5' ae Soses. 340 eS Se a gece wore steno acetiee rs of oD aA Nee
O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. ...............0000- 8vo,
Peele’s Compressed Air Plant for Mines .................. 00 cee eeveee 8vo,
Riemer’s Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele). ..8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc).................. 8vo,
* Weaver’s Military Explosives. .... 00... ccc cece cee ee eee eee eens 8vo,
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. ......... cece eee n eee reece etree Izmo,
Cyanide: Processesa a4 ss con ate a Kakubnk aint sidcponsce- aia Waeverehdiarearaace’ I2mo,
Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten ............ Izmo,
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation........... t2mo,

SANITARY SCIENCE.

Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford Meeting,

TO OO esis denciiene cesta Bde nap ates alt eae ae nek
Jamestown Meeting, 1907...........
* Bashore’s Outlines of Practical Sanitation.
Sanitation of a Country House............... eiaxelaintevs celiac sesineis
Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks.................. I2mo,
Folwell’s Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance)....... 8vo,
Water-supply Engineering. ....... 0... ccc ec cece ce cee eee aees 8vo,
Fowler’s Sewage Works Analyses... AOR eee eee Sohietiees ...I2m0,
Fuertes’s Water-filtration Works... c areas cere wlaececeiaens 12mo,
Water and Public Health.......... ies SOR eae ahaerereatavess I2mo,
Gerhard’s Guide to Sanitary House-inspection ..............00c0.005 16mo,
* Modern Baths and Bath Houses............. oy etcn fase oN rae: Savipuhateayitd 8vo,
Sanitation of Public Buildings...... evaihese bin acai eraeedein avert ai qu aionaits r2mo,
Hazen’s Clean Water and How to Get It........... 02. e eee eee Large 12mo,
Filtration of Public Water-supplies..............0...0..00000e 8vo,

Kinnicut, Winslow and Pratt’s Purification of Sewage. (In Press.)
Leach’s Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State

Mason’s Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological)...... I2mo,
Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) . .8vo,
18

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* Merriman’s Elements of Sanitary Engineering..............0000+4. .8V0O»
Ogden’s Sewer Design............ 00... cue eee eee peas ieeuees SE2M0,
Parsons’s Disposal of Municipal Refuse.............0.0e.eeeeee wee +80,
Prescott and Winslow’s Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-

ence to Sanitary Water Analysis...............0.e0ee000..12M0,
* Price’s Handbook on Sanitation. .

Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science..........

cere ...12m0,
Cost of Shéltet. css saascceaeyeuseisaaksancswa Widisre ia eee Teac 12mo,
* Richards and Williams’s Dietary Computers iene ede warda a es ibee sks 8vo,

Richards and Woodman’s Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-

GOS faack o Ba eed Sao ie Leek Kat RE aD AG ASR AAS 8vo,
Rideal’s Disinfection and the Preservation of Food, 8vo,
Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage................. 8vo,
Soper’s Air and Ventilation of Subways. ..............eeeeeee Large 12mo,
Turneaure and Russell’s Public Water-supplies. ...........00c0 eevee 8v0,
Venable’s Garbage Crematories in America............ 0. cece eee neces 8vo,
Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage........... .8vo,
Ward and Whipple’s Freshwater Biology. (In Press.)
Whipple’s Microscopy of Drinking-water... 0.1... .. ec eee ce eee eee 8vo,
& Typhod Fevet.is.ccakssscsicransewee see siebieniais Saks ...Large 12mo,
«Value of Pure Water. ...........2.. eee dene veesveceealearge T2M0,
Winslow‘s Bacterial Classification. (In Press.)
Winton’s Microscopy of Vegetable Foods......... EES RR ES oT
MISCELLANEOUS.
Emmons’s Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists..............000- -Large 8vo,
Ferrel’s Popular Treatise on the Winds. .......... 0.0 ce ceceeeaeeeeces 8vo,
Fitzgerald’s Boston Machmist............ ieee eas jes area ais at oases 18mo,
Gannett’s Statistical Abstract of the World. ................0 0.000 ee 24mo,
Haines’s American Railway Management. .............. ceeeeeeuee 1zmo,
** Hanusek’s The Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton)........... 8vo,

Ricketts’s History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1394.
Large 12mo,

Rotherham’s Emphasized New Testament... .........-.. pik doibe Large 8vo,
Standage’s Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc............ ..... I2mo,
Thome’s Structural and Physiological Botany. (Bennett)............. 16mo,
Westermaier’s Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider)............ 8vo,
Winslow’s Elements of Applied Microscopy...............0. wise 1279,

HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.

Green’s Elementary Hebrew Grammar......... ONG irae idahacws i2mo,
Gesenius’s Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the “old Testament Scr‘ptures,
(Tregelles) yee ciseacavowaeaeincw sy e's seoeeeee omall 4to, half mor,

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