i tisie — Se : j hia “4 a Vesey / Aa ara Gon rte He AN ES TE ARMY Tera ia ie iss, ee ENG se pie a Aye e RO ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HomE ECoNoMICS AT CoRNELL UNIVERSITY ‘ornell University Libra phidia taprobanica; or, The snakes of Ce Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002872756 OPHIDIA TAPROBANICA OR THE SNAKES OF CEYLON. NOTICE. Tuts publication is issued from the Colombo Museum, and copies can be obtained by applying to the Director, Colombo Museum. JOSEPH PEARSON, Editor. COLOMBO : H. R. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON, 1921. 4 OPHIDIA TAPROBANICA OR THE SNAKES OF CEYLON. By FRANK WALL, C.M.G., Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society of London, Honorary Correspondent of the Zoological Survey of India, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Colonel, Indian Medical Service. Author of ‘‘ The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of Our British Indian Dominions (including Ceylon).” COLOMBO : H. R. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON, THIS WORK IS DEDICATED IN AFFECTIONATE REMEMBRANCE TO MY FATHER, THE LATE GEORGE WALL (1820 To 1894). RECIPIENT OF THE COBDEN GOLD MEDAL FOR PHILANTHROPY, FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON, WHO DEVOTED MANY LEISURE HOURS OF A LONG AND BUSY LIFE TO THE INTERESTS OF CEYLON. FOR MANY YEARS MEMBER OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF CEYLON. VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE CEYLON BRANCH OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, CHAIRMAN OF THE PLANTERS’ ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON, MEMBER OF THE MUNICIPAL COUNCIL OF COLOMBO. OBITUARY NOTICE OF 'THE LATE GEORGE WALL. é (Extract from the “ Ceylon Independent,” Saturday, December 22, 1894.) GEORGE WALL is dead. What a depth of meaning is con- tained in those words can only be appreciated by those who, like him, have become as it were a part of Ceylon itself. The name of George Wall was a household word in Ceylon, and by his death a landmark is removed, a link connecting the present with the past. He was a monument of energy, perseverance, and unswerving loyalty.to those in authority, and made for himself a name which has become written in imperishable letters in the history of the Colony. The Government of Ceylon has lost one who was at once a trusty ally and a determined opponent, one who had the courage of his convic- tions, and who maintained them at times against overwhelming odds, one who was never afraid to speak his mind and to do what he believed to be his duty whether it was on the side of the Government or on the side of the people. The public of Ceylon have lost a true and faithful champion, a patriot to the backbone ; the world of Science and Literature has lost a bright and shining light, and we a gentle master, a ready counsellor, and a true friend. To attempt to write an adequate obituary of George Wall would be to attempt to record the history of Ceylon. He was born in the early days of British Government in this Island, he came out to it when it and he were in their prime, he grew { si.) up with it as it were side by side, shared in its sorrows and its joys, and has died at a time when it is once more regaining a stability, with which he has had much to do, and now, after devoting his life to the land of his adoption, he has returned to his native land, only to die, fortunately however, surrounded by the members of his family. It is a history that we of a younger generation would do well to ponder over. A life devoted to the country in which he lived, a life of devotion, alike when in affluence and poverty, in health or in sickness. Of this phase of his character we are, perhaps, better able to speak than any one else. For six years he laboured as Editor of this journal, and the longer we had an opportunity of witnessing his indomitable courage and energy, his deep erudition, and the brilliancy of his marvellous intellect, the more were we bound to respect him. Nothing but the most serious illness would keep him away from his desk at office, and it was only under the most pressing orders of his doctors, and the earnest persuasion of his colleagues, that he was induced, eighteen months ago, to go up to Nuwara Eliya, where it was hoped that the invigorating climate would give him a longer lease of life. Even while in the hills he directed and controlled the policy of the paper he loved so well while it was being published 130 miles away, and the amount of work he got through in that lonely cottage in the sanitarium cannot be appreciated by any one more than it was by the staff of this paper. As regularly as the postman made his appearance, there came a budget of manuscript from Mr. Wall, invariably accompanied by a letter full of the most valuable advice and encouragement, occasionally blended With a kindly-put criticism, which was always deserved. Never was there a firmer or kindlier head of a department. His vast experience in life had taught him a knowledge of the ways of men and things that he well knew how to use: We hardly as yet realize the loss we have sustained, neither we fancy can Ceylon itsclf, As a public man George Wall was unique. There were, of course, times when his opinions and his advocacy of them were not appreciated as he would have liked them to have been, but even his opponents could not but admire his pluck and the determined way in which he fought. ( vu) Tn, controversy, as in everything else, he was a gentleman to the backbone, and even in the heat of debate he treated his opponents with an old-time courtesy which even they could not fail to appreciate. His arguments were always sound, he never adopted them unless he could quote chapter and verse in their support, and he had a way of putting them forcibly and to the point. The Government often looked to him for counsel and advice—successive Governors have been com- pelled to acknowledge his great ability in the solution of political difficulties—and the graceful courtesy Sir Arthur Havelock paid him, by calling on him, in full state, to inquire as to his condition, when lying, as it was thought, hopelessly ill at Dr. Kynsey’s residence, was evidence of the respect entertained for him by the highest gentleman in the land. George Wall was born in England inthe year 1820. Eighteen years later he entered the great engineering firm, presided over by Sir (then Mr.) Joseph Whitworth. Here he showed such application to work and ability that within eight years he was made a junior partner. Considerations of health soon after compelled him to seek a kindlier climate than that of England, and he came to Ceylon in 1846 to manage a group of estates belonging to the Ceylon Plantations Company. For some years he resided in Kandy, and in 1854 the firm of Geo. Wall & Co. came into existence in Colombo, his partners at that time being, we believe, Messrs. Harvey and Mackenzie. The coffee enterprise was then at the height of its prosperity, and for a very long time Geo. Wall & Co. enjoyed a most pros- perous career. .Our readers will remember how with the failure of coffee came the downfall of that remarkable house. At the present time, however, we have to do with the man himself, the master mind which for so many years directed, not only the great business which bore his name, but also, to a very great extent, public opinion in Ceylon. At a recent memorable gathering in Kandy Mr. Wall was described as the founder of the Planters’ Association. This he no doubt was, and for some years he enjoyed the distinction of being Chairman of that august body. This was followed by a seat in the Legislative Council, a position he filled with the most conspicuous success, bringing to bear on all his work ( viii ) that remarkable ability which ever characterized him. Then came the great League, when Mr. Wall—“‘ Granite Wall” as Lorenz used to call him—together with Lorenz himself, Sir Harry (then Mr.) Dias, and all the Unofficial Members of Council, resigned in a body, leaving Sir Hercules Robinson, the then Governor, in a sore state of perplexity. This was many years ago, but though frequently invited, Mr. Wall never again accepted a seat at the Legislative Board, although always ready to give the Government the benefit of his experience and matured wisdom on matters affecting the welfare of the country. The story of the *‘ League ”’ is such an important one, and the part played in it by Mr. Wall so characteristic of the man, that we purpose in another issue to give ag full a description of the agitation as the facts at our disposal will allow. We could not possibly do justice to it in this brief sketch. In 1868 there was a serious rice famine, and it was mainly through Mr. Wall's endeavours that arrangements were made for distributions of rice amongst the starving population. It was at his own mills—Bloemendah]—that these distributions took place. It may give an idea of the size of these mills, which were built under Mr. Wall’s direction, when we say that there were daily employed there at that time upwards of six hundred hands. It is not generally remembered that Colombo owes its Breakwater in a great measure to him. It was, we believe, intended to build the Breakwater at Galle, but, mainly through Mr. Wall’s opposition, it was eventually constructed here. In the agitation for a Northern Arm and Dry Dock, Mr. Wall’s powerful pen had doubtless very great weight with Government. In the matter of the Paddy Tax he laboured long, and with the most conspicuous success. Thanks to the warm advocacy of Sir Arthur Havelock, Mr. Wall's arguments were favourably listened to, and the poor goryas and villagers of Ceylon have much reason to be proud of him who pleaded their cause so well, not only in Ceylon, but in England, and who, alas, has lived only to see the fulfilment of his wishes, and but little of the henefits which the welcome abolition is destined to bring ( i) about. His one other pet scheme was that of flood outlet from the Kelani Valley. Nothing short of a book could do justice to the many things the veteran colonist did tor his adopted country, a brief newspaper article is incapable of embracing them, they were somany. Many we were thankful to say he saw fulfilled, others he would have seen had he lived. It was a life spent m the service of his country, and it might be truly said that he died practically in harness, still striving after that which would do good to his fellowmen. As a public orator, Mr. Wall always commanded attention, and even to the end he was always ready and an interesting speaker. His last public appearance was in April last at a dinner given in honour of one of the proprietors of this journal, who was then about to depart for England, and to whom the news, on his arrival in the Island a few weeks ago, of the serious illness of his old friend and trusted ally came as a great shock. In February last he was present at the complimentary dinner given at Kandy to Sir (then Mr.) J. J. Grinlinton on his return, from Chicago, when Mr. Wall replied to the toast of ‘The father and founder of the Planters’ Association.” As an after-dinner speaker he was always brimming over with humour. It is not generally known that even in his straightened circumstances Mr. Wall was charitable to a degree. No deserving charity list was without his name, and the quiet way in which he dispensed other charities is only known by those who enjoyed the most intimate acquaintance with him. Mr. Wall was a most enthusiastic bimetallist, and his frequent articles on the monetary question have been regarded as some of the most able that have appeared either here or in England. In politics he was conservative, but at the same time held very strong views on the advantages of free trade, and for his advocacy of the cause received the Gold Medal of the Cobden Club, a most exclusive honour. Mr. Wall was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vice-President of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, and also a Fellow of the Linnean Society. ° 6(6)20 ( x ) We have written but little about his literary abilities. Of them we cannot think without feeling the greatness of him we have lost. Still the public of Ceylon are the best judges, and they know as well as we the weight of that powerful pen, that marvellous intellect, that wonderful knowledge which made him such a giant amongst men. To us he was always the Grand Old Man, as such he will ever be remembered, and when we think of the brilliant mind that has passed from us, we cannot but remember those particularly applicable words :— He was a man, take him for all in all, We shall not look upon his like again. His life was gentle, and the elements, So mix’d in him, that Nature might stand up And say to all the world : ‘“‘ This was a man.” PREFACE. In presenting this work to the public the author hopes to achieve more than one object. The volume. was at first contemplated as a memorial to his father, the late George Wall. With this idea uppermost in his mind he has endeavoured to fill what’ he believes to be a long-felt want. The book, it is hoped, will appeal specially to the field naturalist and student, and is written in as light a vein as possible consistent with a scientific work. The remarks on the identification of snakes and the keys and synopses to aid their recognition, he trusts, will be found simple and lucid enough to engage the attention of the naturalist, and enlist more workers in this admittedly difficult field of natural history research. By collecting within one cover the scattered writings of previous authors and notes from various sources, it is further hoped that the volume may be found useful to the scientist already versed in ophiology. It is not usual in a work of this nature to incorporate matters which are purely medical, but the author departs from this custom in the hope that the medical practitioner may find within these pages useful information concerning ophitoxemia and its treatment. Very little has been written about the snakes of Ceylon, and that little has been mostly descriptive and very incom- plete. Kelaart, for instance, in his ‘‘ Prodromus Faune Zeylanice ”’ (1852), devotes four pages to the subject, and very briefly refers to four species. Gunther’s work on the Reptiles of British India appeared in 1864, and included descriptions of many of the Ceylon snakes, with an occasional remark on habits, food, &c. Ferguson in 1877 published a pamphlet for private circulation, which is little more than a list of the snakes known up to that time to inhabit the Island. Haly published a list on very similar lines in 1886, and another in 1891. Boulenger’s “Fauna of British India: Reptilia ( xii) and Batrachia,” published in 1890, includes the Ceylon snakes, but is entirely descriptive. The same remark applies to the same author's ‘‘ Catalogue of Snakes in the British Museam,” which was completed in 1896. Since then Aber- cromby wrote a small treatise entitled ‘“‘“The Snakes of Ceylon ” (1910), which is incomplete as a list, and very brief in its remarks. There are, however, many valuable obser- vations about some of the species which I have made use of in the present work. Since ‘Spolia Zeylanica’”’ appeared many have contributed notes to that Journal, which I have incorporated into my volume. Among those who have furnished the most valuable information, Mr. E. E. Green must be mentioned first. His notes have been excellent. Dr. Willey, Mr. Pearless, Mr. Abercromby, and others have written occasional notes to the same Journal, which have supplemented our knowledge of some of the species. The reader of these pages will soon discover that our knowledge of many of the species referred to is fragmentary or even nil, and he will be in a position to know where he can furnish information that will enable a later author to compile a better and more comprebensive work. The present volume will justify its existence if this result alone is achieved. There is still much to be known about the poisonous snakes of Ceylon, and it is hoped that the Government Medical Staff may contribute to our knowledge by reporting cases on the casualty form drawn up by me on page xxii. No volume on the snakes of Ceylon can be considered complete without the inclusion of the marine forms. Situated as the Island is at the point of the peninsula of India, it is reasonable to expect that the sea snakes known from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal would be met with around its shores. Accordingly I have treated the subject on this supposition, and included all the sea snakes known from Indian coasts, from the Persian Gulf to Tenasserim. Many of the species referred to have not yet been actually recorded from the coasts of Ceylon, but I think it will be admitted, thai there hax not been up to date at all a thorough survey of the circumjacent waters, (| xiii) A hilly country like Ceylon is to be regarded from the z00-geographical point of view as an archipelago. Many snakes inhabiting upland regions have a very restricted habitat, neither ascending nor descending beyond certain limits. Many of the elevated ranges and peaks whose lower slopes merge into the low-country are just as effectually isolated as if they were surrounded by the sea, and thus form zoological islands. The field naturalist from this remark will see how important it is to attach a record of habitat and altitude to the specimens he collects. It would be natural to suppose that the denizens of the low-country are distributed throughout that area, seeing that there are no natural barriers to obstruct their wanderings. As far as is known, however, one snake, viz., the saw-scaled viper (Hchis carinatus), occurs only in the northern part of the Island, and it is possible, when more records are available, that other species may similarly be found to be restricted in their habitat, dependent on rainfall, geological, and other conditions. From available records many of the hill species appear to be very local, apart from inhabiting a restricted belt of elevation. [ think it extremely probable that many more hill snakes remain to be discovered in peaks and ranges that have up to now escaped special exploration. How little the Island has been explored is illustrated by my having discovered during my two months’ visit to Ceylon two new species (viz., Rhinophis drummond-hayt and R. porrectus), a specimen of the Indian Krait (Bungarus ceruleus), only recorded three times before, and a specimen of the gamma tree snake (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus), the occurrence of which in Ceylon has been doubted, since the only mention of it is by Ferguson in 1877! Iam extremely indebted to Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay for placing his collection at my disposal and for much information, I had the pleasure of paying him a short visit, which proved to he quite an event in my life. I found his bungalow a veritable museum, stocked with specimens of every kind. He has devoted his attention more possibly to the snakes of Ceylon than to any other branch of Natural History, and I had the rare opportunity of examining many hundreds of specimens collected by him. Mr. Drummond-Hay is one of those rare ( xr) naturalists, who shuns rather than sceks the limelight, and consequently has never essayed to publish the results of his own observations. It has been my privilege to obtain first hand from him most valuable information regarding Ceylon snakes. In the matter of distribution especially, it is no exaggeration to say that his information surpasses that of all other records taken together. As this isan important matter, it is worth recording the field of his observations, which is as follows :—From January to May, 1897, Hapugastenne estate, Ratnapura District ; from May, 1897, to October, 1903, Hopewell estate, Balangoda district (3,000 to 4,200 feet) ; from October, 1903, to September, 1904, Punagalla estate, Yatiyantota district (below 3,000 feet) ; from September, 1904, to June, 1906, Warwick estate, New Galway district (5,000 to 6,000 feet); from June, 1906, to March, 1913, Galatura estate, Ratnapura District (500 to 1,000 feet); and from March, 1913, to March, 1920, Warwick estate, New Galway district (5,000 to 6,000 feet). Mr. E. E. Green, who is so well known in Ceylon, deserves my gratitude for giving me valuable information that has never appeared in print, and for giving me some extremely valuable Ceylon specimens. ~ Lastly, I am much indebted to Dr. Joseph Pearson, for giving me access to the collection in the Colombo Museum, and to Mr. Gerard A. Joseph for giving me many valuable specimens. The vernacular names given by natives to snakes in Ceylon are most unreliable, as they are in India, and it is most difficult to be certain what name is correct for even common species. It will be noticed that I employ but one ¢ in the termination of specific titles where many adopt a double 7. My authority for so doing is Professor Edward Meyrick (Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, Vol. XX., p. 534), who wrote as follows: ‘‘ As to the Latinizing of proper names, I think the position is as follows: The termination of a family name in Rome was ius, because the name was an adjective ; Cesar’s family name was Julius, because he belonged to the Gens Julia, the Julian family. A personal name, however, would be treated as a substantive, and made Latin by the simplest 2 practicable alteration, such as the addition of us, if no acknowledged Latin form already exists. Hence the family names Brown and Smith should be Brownius and Smithius ; but (and from the point of view of scientific species names this is the important fact) the genitives of names ending in zus should properly be written to end in 7 only, not ini ; thus, the genitive of Caius is Cai, of Smithius Smithi, and as this is the case usually in question, the matter seems to be resolved thereby.” Finally, the author would gratefully weleome any obser- vations or information any of his readers may be disposed to offer him, and especially specimens of the rarer species. Should the volume ever deserve a second edition, the infor- mation so acquired would be added with acknowledgments. The collector should realize that the value of any specimen is greatly enhanced by a record of its locality and date of capture. A piece of paper with these entries written in ordinary lead pencil should be attached to each specimen. Letters or specimens sent to the Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society, 6 Apollo St., Bombay, would be forwarded. ( xvii) GLOSSARY. Aglyphous .. (Gr. “a” without, “‘glypho” I carve) implies without any fangs. ~ *Anisodont .. (Gr, “anisos”? unequal, “odous” tooth.) Teeth of irregular length, *Anododont .. (Gr. “a” without, ‘‘nodos” a toothless space, and ‘“odous” tooth.) An un- interrupted series of teeth, Canthus or Canthus rostralis .. (Gr. “kanthos” the corner of the eye.) A ridge from the eyebrow along the top of the snout. Carinate .. (Lat. ‘carina ” the keel of a ship.) A ridge along certain scales, like the midrib on the under side of a leaf. Compressed .. (Lat. “compressus’”’ pressed together.) Applied to the body when flattened later- ally, as in the salmon. {+Coryphodont .. (Gr. “ korypha ” the summit, and ‘ odous ” tooth.) Increasing in length from before backwards. Cranterian .. (Gr. ‘‘ kranteres ’? the wisdom teeth.) Used to denote the teeth behind the gap when present at the back of the maxilla. Cuneate .. (Lat. “‘ cuneus ’’ a wedge) wedge-shaped. Depressed .. (Lat. ‘“depressus ’? sunk down.) Applied to the body when flattened from above down- wards, as in the crocodile or toad. Diacranterian .. (Gr. ‘“‘dia’’ apart, and ‘‘kranteres’’ the wisdom teeth.) Applied to teeth in the maxilla in which the last two or three are separated by a gap from the foregoing array. Not to be confused with oinododont. * In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to denote many variations of form and disposition. The writer, therefore, suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk. + Originally applied by Owen to denote teeth with the cusps raised, as in certain extinct animals that lived in the Eocene period. Subse- quently used by Dumeril and Bibron for teeth of snakes which increase in size from before backwards. 4 ; 6(6)20 (| xviii) *Dinododont .. (Gr, ‘‘ dis’? double, ‘‘nodos” a toothless spaco, and ‘‘ odous ” teeth.) Applied to a set of teeth with two edentulous spaces. Ectozoa .. (Gr. “ektos outside, ‘zoon” animal.) Applied to parasites that infest the epi- dermis of animals. Edentulous .. (Lat. “fe” = without, ‘“‘dens’’ tooth.) Applied to parts of the jaws without teeth. Emarginate .. (Lat. “Sc” out of, “margo ” the border.) Applied to a gap in the margin, such as a guard clips out of a ticket. Entozoa .. (Gr. ‘“fentos ’? within, ‘‘zoon” animal.) Used for parasites that infest the internal cavities or organs of animals. Exovation .. (Lat. “ex ” out, “ovum ” egg.) The act of hatching. Hematozoa .. (Gr. ‘haima ” blood, “ zoon” animal.) Parasites that live in the blood. Imbricate .. (Lat. “‘imbrex ” a tile.) Overlapping like the tiles on a roof. It is to be noted, however, that the scales in snakes overlap in a contrary direction to tiles on a roof. Tsodont .. (Gr. “isos”? equal, ‘‘odous’’? tooth.) Applied to teeth that are sub-equal in length. Tsomorphous .. (Gr. “isos” equal, “ morphe” form.) Similar in shape. Juxtaposed .. (Lat. “Juxta ” by the side of, ‘‘pono” I place.) Side by side like the tiles on a floor. *Kumatodont .. (Gr. “‘kuma ” wavs, ‘odous” tooth.) A set of teoth reducing in length anteriorly and posteriorly. Lepidosis .. (Gr. “lepis” scale.) The shield and scale vesture of a snake. Mandible .. The lower jaw. Maxilla .. The upper jaw. Nuchal .. (Gr. “nucha” nape.) The back of the neck. *Oinododont .. (Gr. “oinos’’ one, “nodos ”’ a toothless space, “odous” tooth.) With a single gap anywhere in the dental array, except behind. (See diacranterian.) * In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to denote many variations of form and disposition. The writer, therefore, suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk. Opisthoglyphous . . Palatine Proteroglyphous .. Pterygoid Rectiform *Scaphiodont Serrate Syncranterian Syndrome ° Tylotose . (Gr. “syn” . (Gr. “tulotos ’? knobbed.) (xix ) (Gr. “ opisthe ” behind, “ glypho ” I carve.) Applied to the maxilla that bears fangs posteriorly. . The tooth-bearing bone at the front of the roof of the mouth, (Gr. “ proteros ” in front, “ glypho ” I carve, ) Applied to the maxilla with fangs ante- riorly. . The tooth-bearing bone behind the palatine. . (Lat. “rectus” straight, “forma” shape.) Applied to scales that are not oblique. . (Gr, “‘skaphe ”? a boat, “ odous” tooth.) Decreasing in length from befcre back- wards. This type of dentition when seen in the lower jaw reminds one cf the shape of the bows of a ship. . (Latin ‘serra’? a saw.) Toothed like a saw. (Gr. ‘“‘syn”’ together, ‘‘ kranteres ” the wisdom teeth.) Applied to teeth that have no toothless gap near the bacls of the maxilla. (As opposed to diacranterian.) together, ‘‘dromos ”’ a running. A combination of characters. Usually applied medically, but may be conveniently used zoologically. With a boss or swelling, * In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to denote many variations of form and disposition. The writer, therefore, suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk. (| xxi ) EXPLANATION OF THE ABBREVIATIONS FOR LEPIDOSIS USED IN THE FIGURES. ier .. Anal. . Anterior sublin- guals. .. Costals. . Caudal] shield. . Cuneate. . Frontal. . Internasals. .. Interparietal. .. Loreal. .. Mental. .. Nasals. . Ocular. . Parietals. . Postoculars. . Postparietal. . Preoculars. Prf. . Prefrontal. Prp. . Preparictal. PS . Postericr sublin- guals, R. . Rostral. 8. .. Supraocular. SL . Supraloreal. Spe. . Supracaudals. Su. .. Subocular. Sub. . Subeaudals. T, .. Temporals. Ult. .. Ultimate costals. Ven. . Ventrals. | Ver. . Vertebrals. Arabic numerals. Supralabials. Roman numerals. Infralabials. 6(6)20 ( xxi ) CASUALTY RETURN OF SNAKE-BITE. Station : Sex: Age :—————_ Date and hour of bite : Hour of admission : Part bitten : ‘ Species of snake :——-—— Result :———_——._ If fatal, method of death, syncope or asphyxia : : Time elapsed since bite : Symptoms : Local :— (a) Pain: (b) Swelling : (c) Sanious oozing : (d) Appearance of when cut into: (e) Characters due to mocha. ca] causes :— tissues Genera] :— (a) Consciousness :——-—-—. (b) Respiration : (c) Syncope, pallor : Warmth and acne of skin : Pulse : Vomiting :—— : Onset of weakness :——-—_. (4d) Paralysis, onset of weak- ness : Sequence ; Drooping head : Drooping eyelids : Articulation :—-- ——. Phonation : Deglutition :—-—-——. Salivation :——.~ —., (e) Heemorrhages : (f) Other sympton Treatment :————. SNAKES OF CEYLON. ERRATA. With the exception of the sub-family Hydrophiine, which I have revised, I have adopted in this work the nomenclature used in Boulenger’s Catalogue, 1893 to 1896. Since this book was written I have been engaged writing a hand list of the Indian snakes, and I find that in some cases the generic and specific names used by Boulenger do not appear to be valid. The follow- ing corrections are, therefore, called for :— Page 89: For “ TROPIDONOTUS ” read “* NATRIX.” Page 102: For ‘“‘ AMPHTESMA ” read ‘“‘ RHABDOPHIS.”’ Page 146: For ‘“‘ LYCODON ” read ‘“‘ OPHITES.” Page 171: For “ ZAOCYS ” read ‘‘ PTYAS.”’ Page 233: For “‘ O. subgriseus ”’ read ‘“‘ O. teeniolatus.”’ Page 250: For ‘“ ABLABES,” read ‘“‘ LIOPELTIS.” Page 255: For ‘“‘ CERBERUS ” read ‘“ HURRIA.” Page 285: For ‘“‘ DIPSADOMORPHUS ” read *‘ BOIGA.” Page 344: For ‘“‘ ATURIA” read ** MICROMASTOPHIS Gen. Nov.” Page 368: For “* CHITULIA ” read ‘“ ATURIA.”’ Page 390): For “ PRASSCUTATA ” read ‘‘ THALASSOPHIS.”’ will soon discover how important the shielding of the head is in identification. The first thing to do is to lay the specimen on its back and search for the opening of the cloaca, a transverse slit in the posterior part of its length. This demarcates the end of the body and the commencement of the tail. The body and tail should then be measured and noted. The shields on the belly (ventrals) should then be coynted and 6 6(6)20 (| xxii ) CASUALTY RETURN OF SNAKE-BITE. SNAKES OF CEYLON. THE IDENTIFICATION OF A SNAKE. ASSUMING a snake to be dead, its identification is in most cases an easy matter. The inquirer, however, must be prepared to handle his specimen and critically examine it. His powers of observation must be directed to various features upon which the classification of snakes is based, most of which concern the scales and shields which cover the various regions of the specimen. The word “shield” is used to denote the large plate-like epidermal divisions one sees on the heads of colubrines and on the underparts of most snakes, “scale ” being reserved for the small divisions such as one sees on the upper part of the body and tail. In order to study these properly the student must equip himself with a high-power watchmaker’s lens and a pair of fine pointed compasses. The watchmaker’s lens is recommended because it permits the use of both hands during the manipulation of the specimen, and it must be remembered that during use both eyes are kept open, if the lens is to be easily retained in the eye. The compasses are necessary, because all measurements referred to have been arrived at by their use, and because the relative breadths and lengths of shields without measurement are often very deceptive. The collector should try to secure his specimens without damaging the lepidosis of the head, for he will soon discover how important the shielding of the head is in identification. The first thing to do is to lay the specimen on its back and search for the opening of the cloaca, a transverse slit in the posterior part of its length. This demarcates the end of the body and the commencement of the tail. The body and tail should then be measured and noted. The shields on the belly (ventrals) should then be counted and 6 6(6)20 2 SNAKES OF CEYLON. their breadth noted, the shield before the anus (anal) examined to see if it is entire or divided, and the shields beneath the tail (subcaudals) examined to see if they are entire or divided and then counted. It is best to begin at the tip and count to the anus, so that the smallest shields are dealt with while the eye is fresh to the work, instead of when strained and tired. The necessity of the lens to the observer will at once become apparent. All these things noted, attention should then pass to the scales over the back (the costals or simply “scales ”’). These should be counted from one side of the ventrals to the other in three situations, viz., two heads- lengths behind the head, midbody, and two heads-lengths before the vent; their relative breadth and length noted ; and whether the vertebral or median row is enlarged or not ; and any other details. After this the head shields should be studied, each in detail, and noted. These and other details will readily be grasped by reference to the various figures which follow, the scales and shields in which are all lettered. It is advisable first of all to place your specimen in the family to which it belongs, and this can be done by studying the keys below. It must be borne in mind that the keys are based on the characters of normal specimens. Many individuals, however, show some aberration or other. This fact, the variation of individuals, indeed is one of the essential bases upon which the Darwinian doctrine of evolution rests. KEY TO FAMILIES. For Indian Species. TAIL ROUND IN SECTION. Families. (A) Ventrals not enlarged (see fig. 3). Anal divided into 3 or 4 (see fig. 3). Costals broader than long (see fig. 3). Eye beneath shields. Pupil round (see fig. 2). (a) Costals in 16 to 36 rows at midbody Typhlopide (b) Costals in 14 rows at midbody .. * Glauconiide * Not represented in Ceylon. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 3 TAIL ROUND IN SECTION. Families. (B) Ventrals enlarged, but not twice last costal row (see fig. 11), Anal divided into two ; twice breadth of ventrals (see fig. 11). Costals broader than long. (a) Supralabialsfour .. .. Uropeltide (6) Supralabials six .. .. Ilysiide (C) Ventrals 2 to 24 times breadth of last costal row (see fig. 17). Anal as broad as ven- trals (see fig. 17). Costals broader than long. Eye mobile, surrounded by many shields. Pupil vertical. (a) Costals in 15 rows at midbody __..*Xenopeltidz (b) Costals more than 40 rows at mid- body .. Boide (D) Ventrals more than three times as broad as last costal row. Anal as broad as ven- trals. Costals as long or longer than broad. Eye mobile, surrounded by many shields. (a) No mental groove. .Three pairs of large asymmetrical sublinguals. Pupil vertical .*Amblycephalidze (6) A mental groove. "Two pairs of sub- linguals (see fig. 20). Pupilvariable (except Chersydrust ) .. Colubride (ex- cept Hydro- phiine) (c) A mental groove. One pair of sub- linguals (see fig. 91). Pupilvariable Viperidze TAIL COMPRESSED INTO A FIN .. Sub-family Hy- ' drophiine of Colubride For Ceylon Species. Ventrals not enlarged .. Typhlopide Ventrals enlarged : — Last costal row 3? breadth of ventrals. Anal twice ornearly: twice breadth of ventrals :— Eye in a single shield .. Uropeltide Eye surrounded by shields .. Tlystidee Last costal row $ breadth of ventrals. Anal as broad as ventrals a .. Boide Last costal row one-third or less the breadth of the ventrals. Anal as broad as ventrals:— Two pairs of sublinguals .. Colubride One pair of sublinguals .. Viperide * Not represented in Ceylon. } Chersydrus has no ventral shields developed, its costals broader than long, no mental groove, and no sublinguals. 4 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Family TYPHLOPIDEZ. (Named from the type Genus T'yphlops.) General Characters.—This family includes the most diminu- tive of ophidian forms, many of which in their adult form attain to only 150 mm. (6 inches) or less. It includes also the most degenerate forms. Head broad, and evenly rounded ; snout short without a canthus, terminating in a broadly rounded, or rarely in a beaked extremity. Eyes situated beneath one or more shields, small, purblind. Nostril lateral or inferior, and small. Mouth small, and situated beneath the snout. Neck not evident. Body slender, or robust ; short, moderate, or elongate ; cylindrical, and of even calibre through- out. Its scales are highly polished, and thus do not favour the adhesion of soil to their surface. Belly rounded. Tail very short, conical, and in many ending in a small, acute spine directed downwards, and backwards. Identification Known by the costals being broader than long, the ventrals which are not enlarged, and the presence of four supralabial shields. Habits.—Subterrestrial. They burrow nimbly. Locomo- tion above ground is good, but on a smooth surface little or no progress is made, despite much muscular effort. They are extremely defenceless creatures, that only escape annibilation from a host of rapacious foes by having adapted themselves to a subterranean existence. As far as is known all are oviparous, Food.-—The larva, pupz, and imagines of ants, and similar insects, Poison.—They are not poisonous. Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields, of a type and character peculiar to this family. Costals —Broader than long, broadly rounded posteriorly ; rectiform, smooth, and highly polished. In from 16 to 36 rows. Ventrals : Not enlarged, and therefore usually counted with the costals, thereby making the rows an even number. Anal: Absent, replaced by three or four scales. Subcaudals : Not different from the supracaudals. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 5 Dentition.— Maxillary : Transverse ; number of teeth 4 or 5; markedly scaphiodont. Palatine: edentulous. Pterygoid : edentulous. Mandibular : edentulous. Distribution.—South Europe; South Asia ; Africa; Australia ; Tropical America. The family includes three genera. Only one of these is represented in India, including Ceylon, viz., Typhlops. Genus TYPHLOPS. (Greek “‘ tuphlos ”’ blind, ‘‘ ops ”’ eye.) General Charaeters.—Diminutive snakes, with few excep- tions exceeding 8 or 9 inches in length. Head rounded, in a few species beaked; about as broad as the body. Eyes distinct or indistinct, lying beneath shields, which thus protect them from injury when the snake is burrowing. Nostrils lateral or inferior, slit-like. Body cylindrical ; short or elongate; of even calibre throughout ; covered with highly polished scales, the purpose of which appears to be to prevent becoming clogged with the earth into which they burrow. Tail very short, with or without a terminal spine. Habits.—The species live for the most part beneath the surface soil. The snout is used in burrowing, and during this operation the little spine at the end of the tail is pushed into the ground, and serves as a sort of fulcrum. The snout being in most species broadly rounded does not appear to be well adapted for burrowing, and unless the soil is loose this cannot be accomplished. The species whose snouts end in a beak do not appear to me to be any better equipped for burrowing, judging from results. Some of the species have been observed to exhibit a gre- garious habit, and have been found in colonies in decaying wood. A rotting log offers great attraction on account of the beetle and other insect larve and pupe developing therein. It may, too, prove additionally attractive from the warmth generated by the process of decay. Such an environment may 6 SNAKES OF CEYLON. also serve the purpose of bringing the sexes together for matrimonial relationship. Vision is more or less obtuse at the best, but becomes more and more obscured as a period of desquamation approaches, from scratches sustained during burrowing operations. They are extremely defenceless reptiles. The mouth lies beneath the snout, and could not inflict an injury to any but the smallest creatures, apart from the fact that there are no opposable teeth with which to bite. Food.—They live on worms, grubs, and insects in the various stages of their metamorphoses. Breeding.—As far as is known they are oviparous. In the case of the Burmese species diardi, I ascertained that very minute embryos are in process of development before the eggs are discharged. Poison.—All are non-poisonous. Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields, having a form and disposition peculiar to the genus. The scales on the body are very highly polished, and this appears to be a special adaptation to prevent the adhesion of earth to them. Owing to this polish it is very difficult to see the outlines of the scales unless viewed in reflected light. The scales, too, have a dark, subterminal zone, which seems to indicate their borders, but which in reality does not. The diminutive size of the creatures, combined with these two other conditions, make it extremely difficult, without practice, to count the scales, or to see the characters for which one is specially looking. Distribution.—South Europe ; South Asia ; Africa ; Tropical America ; Australia. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me that he has never had any single Typhlops brought in to him. His coolies bring in the cecilian Icthyophis glutinosus frequently, and also elongate lizards, such as some Lygosomata, and even worms. From this it would appear that the Ceylon T'yphlops are exclusively low-country snakes. About one hundred species are known, of which about eighteen are Indian and three occur in Ceylon, viz., mirus, braminus, and leucomelas. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 7 Synopsis of chief characters in the Lepidosis of species of Typhlops. mirus. braminus. leucomelas Snout rounded .. Yes .. Yes .. Yes Breadth of rostral to head.. 4 4 .. 4 Nasals :—- Suture above nostril com- plete-.. .. Yes .. Yes .. Yes Suture below nostril to .. 2nd lab.. Preoc .. 2nd lab Meeting behind rostral .. Yes .. No .. No Labials :— Touching preocular .. None .. 2nd & 3rd.. 2nd & 3rd Touching ocular .. 4th .. 8rd & dth .. 3rd & 4th Subocular .. One .. None .. None Temporals. . ao 2 oe .. 2or3 Costal rows .. 18 ex 20 #5 22 Caudal spine .. No .. Yes .. Yes TYPHLOPS MIRUS Jan. (Latin “ mirus ” wonderful, possibly on account of its diminutiveness.) Jan’s Ceylon Typhlops (or Blind Snake). Synonymy.—Nil. History.—Described by Jan in 1860. General Characters.—Only about five inches long in its adult state. Head of the same calibre as the body. Snout rounded. Eyes indistinct or invisible. Nostrils antero-lateral. Body rather elongate, its diameter being about 1/37 to 1/60 the total length. Tail conical with no spine. Identification (for Ceylon).—The costals in 18 rows will indicate the species. Colouration.—Brown dorsally, snout and lower parts yellowish. Habits and Breeding.—Nothing known. Growth.— Maximum length : Up to 140 mm. (54 inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : About half the breadth of the head. Prefrontal, frontal, and interparietal: Subequal; rather broader than the dorsal scales. Supraocular, preparietal, and postparietal : Subequal ; rather broader than the dorsal scales. Supraoculars and prepartetals : Subequal ; rather broader than the dorsal scales. Postparietal: Usually subequal to the preparietal, sometimes broken up into two. Nasals : Some- times in contact behind the rostral; usually not; quite 8 SNAKES OF CEYLON. divided ; the upper suture from the nostril about half the lower which passes to the 2nd supralabial. Procular : Well developed; widely separated from the 2nd _ supralabial. Ocular: Well developed. Subocular ; Present ; touching the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th supralabials. Temporals: Two. Supra- labials : Four. Costals : In 18 rows in the whole body. Fie. 1.—Typhlops mirus, (After Gunther. ) SNAKES OF CEYLON, 9 Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon. (6) Local: Haly has recorded it from Colombo, and in the Indian Museum there are three from Peradeniya, Apparently an uncommon snake, I have examined five specimens. TYPHLOPS BRAMINUS (Daudin). (Latinized form of Brahmin, in allusion to its brown colouration.) Russell's Typhlops (or Blind Snake). Sinhalese : ‘‘ Depat-naya’”’ (two-headed snake), Tamil : “Manallay pambu” (earth snake); “sevi pambu ” * (ear snake) ; ‘ pooran ”’ * (centipede). Synonymy.—Hryx braminus, Tortrix russellit, Argyrophis truncatus, A. bramicus, Onychocephalus capensis, Ophthal- midium tenue, Typhlops inconspicuus, T'. tenuis, T'. pammeces, T. reutert, T. lenzi, T. ewproctus. History.—First introduced to scientific notice by Russell in 1796. It is figured on Plate XLIII. of bis first volume. General Characters.—It is less than 7 inches long in its adult state. Head of the same calibre as the body ; snout rounded. Eye distinct, lying beneath the ocular and supraocular shields. Nostrils lateral. Body moderately elongate ; its diameter 1 /35 to 1/55 the total length. Tail ending in a spine. Identification (for Ceylon) —The costals in 20 rows will suffice to identify it. Colouration.— Three varieties have been described. (a) typicus (Daudin)—Brown or blackish-brown dorsally, rather lighter ventrally. Snout, anal region, and end of tail whitish. Much the commonest variety. * According to Dr. J. R. Henderson these two names are used by the Tamils of Madras. Both names are applied to it under the supposition that they enter the human ear, like the centipedeis supposed to do. q 6(6)20 10 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (b) arenicola (Annandale).—In this each scale on the back is faintly tinged with buff, those on the head being faintly vermiculated with the same hue. In life it is a pale flesh colour, Belly white. Dr. Annandale met with this in South India. (c) I have met with specimens of a uniform pale gray hue, and with the eyes invisible. This may be due to impending desquamation, and in that case does not deserve recognition as a variety. I acquired specimens from Assam. Habits.—The common blind snake is not often seen by Europeans, or if seen is not recognized as a snake, its size and general appearance allowing it to pass for an earthworm. It spends most of its life beneath the surface soil, through which it burrows nimbly, and is often brought to light by the cooly’s hoe, or the ryot’s plough. It is likely to be met with by the amateur gardener in and about his pots, in the heap of leaf mould, or in the soil freshly turned over by the trowel. It not infrequently secretes itself beneath stones or débris. After heavy rains it is not infrequently seen on the ground by those who can recognize it, after being swamped out of its subter- ranean burrows. On such occasions it is met with singly, but it has been occasionally discovered in large colonies inhabiting rotten wood. It is an active little creature, making vigorous attempts to escape if dislodged from its hiding place. When handled it shows its resentment by vehement struggles, and is most difficult to hold owing to the high polish of its scales. When its struggles have quieted down, it presses the little spine with which its tail is endowed into the hand, anchoring itself as it were, and from the purchase so derived wriggles about rest- lessly in all directions, pushing its nose about, and insinuating itself forcibly between the clefts of one’s fingers. Above ground, its progress is smooth and active, and in water it swims well. Under excitement it protrudes the tongue like other snakes. This is almost certainly the species which some years ago invaded the water supply in Calcutta, many specimens finding their way into the pipes of distribution. Much surprise and SNAKES OF CEYLON. ll consternation were evinced by timid residents when a living specimen appeared through the tap supply. It sometimes invades houses in considerable numbers from the garden or pot plants. Captain Stevenson, I.M.S., told me that in Mamipur it is extremely common in houses. He has found three in a single evening wriggling about the floor when he was dressing for dinner, and one subaltern in his regiment collected about one hundred in his house in about a month. Food.—Most of those that I have dissected have had full stomachs, and the contents when investigated proved to be the larve, pup, and imagines of ants, and probably beetles, and other insects. Dr. Annandale discovered one in the burrow eaten by a caterpillar in a stalk of sugar cane. The caterpillar had vacated or, perhaps, had been eaten by the snake, and subsequently in captivity the snake was observed to eat the caterpillar droppings. Foes.—It is very frequently preyed upon by young kraits (B. ceruleus). Lhaverecovered many inthismanner. Fowls and other birds will readily eat them. Breeding.—The brahminy snake is believed to be oviparous, but J am not aware of any certain evidence in this direction. All the gravid females I have known were in Assam, and these, eight in number, were collected in the hot weather from April to July. In length they ranged between’ 152 to 162 mm. (6 inches and 63 inches). Six of these were brought to me on the same day by the same boy, who had evidently unearthed a colony, and only one male was brought with them. The eggs, which whilst in the abdomen resemble grains of cooked rice, varied from 2 to 7 in number, the largest measuring ° 13 mm. by 4 mm. (18/32 by 5/32 of an inch). Growth : (2) Maturity—My smallest gravid female was 152 mm. (6 inches). (b) Maximum Length —It grows to about 150 to 170 mm, (6 to 6% inches). Parasites : Hntozoa—The nematode worm Kallicephalus willeyi has been found infesting the stomach by Von Linstow. Lepidosis.—Rostral : About one-third the breadth of the head opposite the eyes, not reaching as far back as the eyes. 12 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Prefrontal, frontal, and interparietals: Subequal. Supra- oculars, preparietals, and postparietals : Subequal, or the last broadest. Nasals: Not in contact behind the rostral; quite divided ; the suture above the nostril much longer than that below ; the suture below the nostril extending to the preocular. Preoculars and oculars: Subequal. Suboculars: Absent. Temporals: One. Supralabials : Four ; 2nd and 3rd touching the preocular, 3rd and 4th touching the ocular. (Fig. 2.) Prf Fie. 2.—Typhlops braminus. (X circa 6 diametres.) SNAKES OF CEYLON. 13 Costals: In 20 rows in the whole body. Anal: Not differentiated. (Fig. 3.) Fic. 3.—Anal region of Typhlops braminus. (Xx 5.) Dentition.—The head is too diminutive to favow the preparation of a skull. Distribution : (a) General—South Asia; Islands of the Indian Ocean, 7.e., Ceylon, Cocos, Andamans, Mauritius, Madagascar, Comoros ; Africa south of the Equator. (6) Local.—It is a denizen of the low-country, but ascends to an elevation of at least 3,000 feet. It is very abundant in India and Ceylon. TYPHLOPS LEUCOMELAS Boulenger. (Greek “‘leukos ”’ white, and “ melas ” black, implying pied.) The Pied Typhlops (or Blind Snake). Synonymy.— Nil. History.—Described by Boulenger in 1890. General Characters.—Less than 6 inches long in its adult state. Head of the same calibre as the body, snout rounded. Eyes distinct ; lying beneath the ocular shield. Nostrils lateral. Body short, its diametre being 1/23 to 1/32 the total length. Tail ending in a spine directed backwards and down- wards. Identification (for Ceylou).—The costals in 22 rows will suffice to indicate the species. Colouration.—Blackish-brown dorsally, pure white ventrally (Boulenger). The one in the Colombo Museum is light brown dorsally, paler brown beneath. Habits and Breeding.—Nothing known. 14 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Growth.— Mazimum Length : 130 mm. (5} inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : About one-third the breadth of the head opposite the eyes; extending as far back as the eyes. Prefrontal, frontal, and interparietal : Progressively decreasing in breadth. Supraoculars and preparietals: Subequal. Post- parietals: Two; small. Nasals - Not in contact behind the rostral; quite divided; the upper suture more than twice the lower; the lower suture passing to the 2nd supralabial. Przoculars and oculars: Subequal. Suboculars : Absent. Temporals: Two. Supralabials : Four ; 2nd and 3rd touching the preocular, 3rd and 4th touching the ocular. (Fig. 4.) Fic. 4.—Typhlops leucomelas. (After Boulcnger.) (xX cirea 6 diametres,) SNAKES OF CEYLON. 15 Costals: In 22 rows in the whole length. Anal: Not differentiated. Distribution,—(a) General : Only known from Ceylon. (b) Local: Apparently very rare. Until recently only one specimen was known, which was acquired by Colonel Beddome on Haycock mountain, near Galle, at 2,000 feet elevation. I found one in the Colombo Museum without history measuring 626 mm. (22 inches). Family GLAUCONIIDA, Not represented in Ceylon, Family ILYSIIDA, (Named after the type Genus Ilysia.) General Characters.—Small snakes not exceeding about 24 feet in length. Head moderately depressed, as broad as body, cuneate in profile. Snout longish, without canthus, broadly rounded anteriorly. Eye small with round or verti- cally elliptic pupil ; in a single shield, or surrounded by many shields. Nostril small in a single shield. Chin with or without a mental groove. Neck not constricted. Body cylindrical, stout, of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded. Tail very short, conical. Vestiges of a hind limb, which are visible as small claw-like appendages on each side of the vent, Identification.—Last costal row about two-thirds the breadth of the ventrals. Anal nearly twice the breadth of the ventrals. Habits.—Subterrestrial, burrowing nimbly ; movements above the soil laboured. Dulland lethargic. Diurnal. Food.—Eels and snakes (Malcolm-Smith). Breeding.—Viviparous as far as known. Poison.—Non-poisonous. Lepidosis.—Rostral ; Touches four shields. Nasals: In contact behind rostral. Internasals: Absent. Prefrontals : Two. Frontal : Present. Supraoculars : Present. Parietals : Present or absent. Loreal: Absent. Przoculars : Absent. Postoculars : Present or absent. Temporals: Present, 16 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Supralabials : Four to six; one or two touching the eye except in Ilysia, Sublinguals: Two pairs. Infralabials : Three ; none touching the posterior sublinguals. Costals : In midbody, Broader than long, broadly rounded posteriorly, rectiform, smooth. The vertebral row smallest, about two-thirds the breadth of the ultimate. Ultimate and one or two rows above progressively decreasing in breadth. Ultimate. Breadth of scales one and a half times their length, and two-thirds that of the ventrals. In 19 to 21 rows at midbody. Ventrals: Enlarged but narrow. Anal: Entire or divided ; nearly twice the breadth of the ventrals in Cylin- drophis. Subcaudals : Entire or divided, less than 15. Dentition.—Premazillary : Teeth present in Ilysia, absent in others. Mazillary: 9 to 12; slightly kumatodont. Palatine : 6 or 7; isodont. Pterygoid . 6 to 9; scaphiodont. Mandibular : 9 to 12; slightly kumatodont. Distribution.—South Asia; Tropical South America, The family comprises three genera: Ilysia, peculiar to South America ; Anomalochilus, peculiar to Sumatra ; and Cylin- drophis, known from Ceylon, Indo-China, and Malaysia. Genus CYLINDROPHIS. (Greek ‘‘ kulindros ’’ a cylinder, “‘ ophis ” snake.) General Characters.—Small snakes growing to about 23 feet. Head broad and depressed. Snout moderately long, broadly rounded, without canthus, Eye very small, with vertically elliptic pupil. Nostril small, situated on the outer side of the nasal shield. Chin with a mental groove. Body cylindrical, moderately elongate, stout. Belly rounded. Tail very short and conical, ending in a subacute point, : Identification.—Costals in 19 or 21 rows at midbody, ventrals less than twice the breadth of the last costal row, and the eye surrounded by five shields, taken together will establish the Genus in Ceylon, Habits.— Very little is known of their habits, except that they burrow and live mainly beneath the soil. Flower makes remarks on C. rufus, the species found in Burnia,. Indo-China, and the Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago, which might SNAKES OF CEYLON. 17 apply to the Ceylon species if looked for: “‘ At ordinary times this snake is fairly cylindrical in section, and uses its tail in progression, putting the sharp tip against the ground, and pushing its body forward from it; but it has the power of depressing the body, when its appearance is very singular ; the neck and anterior part of the body are but slightly com- pressed, but posteriorly it is very much so. Consequently, when seen from above the outline of the snake is much that of a seasnake seen from the side, When touched or worried it will not attempt to strike or bite, but keeps its head flat on the ground, usually hidden under the folds of the body ; its tail, however, it raises off the ground, and holds aloft curved over backwards in the most extraordinary manner, so that any casual observer would imagine the tail was the head, and think the snake to be threatening to strike. Sometimes the tail, is not curved over, but held in the manner most snakes hold their heads when advancing.” Food.—Dr. Malcolm-Smith, speaking of the Burmese and Indo-China species rufus, says it feeds on eels, and other snakes, “its appetite is gargantuan. It seems to prefer a meal at least as large as itself, if not larger, and the manner in which it can pack its food away and appear but little bigger afterwards is extraordinary. One I had in captivity, itself 400 mm. in length, overcame, and devoured a keel back (Tropidonotus piscator) of 500 mm. (20 inches), the latter snake being well known for its activity and aggressiveness. Another was found having just swallowed a water-snake (Homalopsis buccata), the former 780 mm. long and the latter 925 mm. ‘Two other specimens were caught in the water in the act of swallowing eels, their prey on each occasion being several inches longer than themselves.” IT am not aware of any special observations with regard to the diet of maculatus, nor are there any records showing that it haunts marshy land. Breeding.—The Ceylon species maculatus is viviparous, Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches four shields. Nasals : In con- tact behind the rostral. Internasals: Absent. Prefrontals : A pair. Frontal : Sukequal to the supraoculars in length and breadth. Parictals: As long as or longer than the frontal. 8 6(6)20 18 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Loreal: Absent. Preoculars: Absent. Postoculars: One. Temporals: One. Supralabials: Six; the 3rd and 4th touching the eye. Sublinguals: Two pairs. Infralabials : Three. Costals : Broader than long ; broadly-rounded posteriorly ; rectiform ; smooth, Vertebrals not enlarged. Last four rows subequal and broader than the rest. Ultimate row about four-fifths the breadth of the ventrals. In 19 or 21 rows at midbody. Ventrals: Feebly enlarged. Anal: Divided ; one and a half times the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals : Divided or some entire ; numbering from 4 to 10. Dentition.— Maxillary : Anododont, feebly kumatodont, Palatine : Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Pterygoid : Ano- dodont, scaphiodont. Mandibular: Anododont, kumato- dont. Distribution.—Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Malay Penin- sula, and Archipelago to Celebes. There are three species only, one of which occurs in Ceylon, viz., maculatus. CYLINDROPHIS MACULATUS (Linné), (Latin “ maculatus ” spotted.) Linné’s Cylindrophis (or Barth Snake). Singhalese : ‘‘ Depat-naya ” (two-headed snake). Synonymy.—Anguis maculata, A. decussata, Tortriz maculatus, Ilysia maculata. History.— Described and christened by Carl Linné as far back as 1754. General Characters.—A small snake growing to about 2}feet. Head broad, but not so broad as the body, depressed ; wedge-shaped seen in profile. Snout moderate in length, broadly rounded terminally ; without canthus. Eye very small with a vertically elliptic pupil. Nostril small, round, directed upwards; situated on the outer side of the nasal shield. Chin with a mental groove. Neck stout, not constricted. Body very stout ; cylindrical; moderately elongate. Belly rounded. Tail very short, conical, ending in a subacute point. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 19 Habits.—(a) Haunts: A burrowing snake that lives be- neath the soil. (6) Disposition : A very placid snake that exhibits no sign of temper. Haly says : ‘‘Placed on a table it makes no attempt to escape, but lies with its head beneath its lowest coil, and its tail spread out so as to resemble the head of a cobra, which it imitates in its motions. If irritated for some time it finally ejects from the anus a few drops of a yellow acrid liquid.” I think the secretion alluded to is from the anal glands which open on each side of the roof of the cloaca. (c) Progression : Above the soil its progression is hampered, and slow. Food.—I know of no observations in this direction. Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction : Abercromby was the first to show that it is viviparous in habit, and I am in a position to confirm this observation. (6) Season: Abercromby’s gravid specimen was captured on April 1. (c) Period of Gestation : Not known. Growth.—(a) The Young: The young are retained until they attain a very unusual degree of development. In a gravid specimen of mine, I found two foetuses measuring 127 to 137 mm. (5 and 53 inches). The former was a male, and the latter a female. Abercromby’s gravid female con- tained three embryos. A recently born specimen measured 127 mm. (6 inches). (b) Maturity: My dam just alluded to measure 272 mm. (102 inches). If this species grows as rapidly as other snakes, and doubles its length in the first year of life, this specimen must have been only one year old. (c) Maximum Length : My largest specimen was 622 mm. (2 feet and 4 an inch) in length. Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches four shields; projected back- wards to separate half the length of the nasals. Nasals : In contact behind the rostral. Prefrontals: As long as the frontal ; touching the nasals, 2nd and 3rd supraoculars, eye, and supraocular, Frontal : Touches six shields ; the fronto- supraocular sutures about twice the length of the fronto- parietals. Supraoculars : As long as the frontal but reaching 30 SNAKES Of CEYLON. further back, as broad as the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Purictals ; Longer than the frontal. Preocular: None. Postocular: One. Temporal: One; nearly as long as the supraocular. Supralabials : Six ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasal, 3rd and 4th the eye, and the 4th and 5th the temporal. Sublinguals: Two pairs, anterior larger, and in contact with three infralabials ; posterior hardly enlarged, separated from the 3rd infralabial by one scale. Infralabials : Three, 3rd largest and in contact with three scales behind, (Fig. 5.) Fic. 5.—Cylindrophis maculatus. (Life size.) SNAKES OF CEYLON. 21 Costals : Broader than long, broadly rounded posteriorly ; rectiform ; smooth and glossy. Vertebral and the next row subequal; next four rows rather larger ; lowest five rows subequal, and largest. Ultimate row about four-fifths the breadth of the ventrals. In 19 rows two heads-lengths be- hind the head, 21 in midbody, (or 19) and 19 two heads- lengths before the vent ; the increase in rows occurs about six heads-lengths behind the head where a new row appears above the 4th from the ventrals; the reduction in rows posteriorly occurs about three heads-lengths before the vent, and is due to the confluence of the 5th and 6th rows above the ventrals. Ventrals : 185 to 212; very little broader ; than the ultimate row. Anal: Divided; one and a half times as broad as the ventrals. Subcaudals: 4 to 6; divided or some entire. (Fig. 6.) Fic. 6.—Anal region uf Cylindrophis maculatus. Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Maxillary - 9. Palatine: 7. Pterygoid: 5 to 7. Mandibular: 11. Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon. (b) Local: A resident of the Plains. Has been found up to about 1,700 feet elevation. A very common snake. Family UROPELTIDA. (Named after the type Genus Uropeltis.) General Charaeters (for Ceylon Species)—Small snakes from 1 to 2 feet in length. Head very small. Snout rounded, subacute or acute, without canthus, Eye very small, and situated in an ocular shield. Nostril small, situated in a single 22 SNAKES OF CEYLON. shield. Mental grooveabsent.* Neck and anterior body much swollen, and knuckled. Body cylindrical ; short, moderate, or long. Belly rounded. Tail very short, ending in a peculiar shield upon the characters of which the genera are based. Identification.—The small head and swollen knuckled neck and forebody immediately attract attention, and the pecubar tail will further tend to indicate the family. The costals are broader than long, the breadth of the last row about two- thirds the ventrals, and the anal shield is twice or almost twice the breadth of the ventrals. Further the eye being situated in a single shield will proclaim the family. Habits.—Subterrestrial. All are burrowing snakes that live for choice beneath the soil. The snout is used for burrowing, and not being very well adapted for this purpose a loose soil is chosen as quarters. On the surface they move slowly, and with apparent difficulty, and they are so defenceless that they fall an easy prey to any rapacious mammal, bird, or reptile. They are very timid reptiles that make no attempt to bite when handled. Food.—All those I know subsist upon earthworms exclu- sively, and one rarely finds a specimen that has not fared sumptuously, or without the intestine and cloaca being dis- tended with semiliquid mud derived from their victims. Breeding.—All those whose habits I know are viviparous. Poison.—They are non-poisonous. Lepidosis.—The arrangement of the head shields is peculiar to the family. Rostral: Short, moderate, or long, usually compressed, and sometimes more or less keeled above ; touch- ing four or six shields. Nasals: Single; sometimes meeting behind the rostral. Internasals ; Absent. Prefrontals : Two. Frontal: Present. Supraoculars : Absent. Parietals: Two. Loreal: Absent. Prweoculars: Absent. Postoculars : Absent. Temporals: Absent. Supralabials: Four. Sublinguals : Absent. Infralabials : Three or four. Costals : At midbody all the rows are rectiform, broader than long, and with broadly rounded posterior borders; smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged ; the breadth of the scales about four-fifths that * Except in Welanophidium, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 23 of the ultimate row. Last five or six rows gradually increasing in breadth. Ultimate row two-thirds to three-fourths the breadth of the ventrals. In 17 to 21 rows. Ventrals: En- larged but narrow. Anal: Divided ; twice or nearly twice the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals: Variable ; entire or divided; few in number. Caudal shield : Enlarged and peculiar in shape. Dentition.— Maxillary : 3 to 8; anododont, scaphiodont. Palatine: None. Pterygoid: None. Mandibular: 4 to 11; anododont, scaphiodont. Distribution.—Southern India and Ceylon, mostly confined to Hills. Key to Uropeltide. (For Ceylon Species.) Caudal shield as in fig. 8 .. Uropeltis grandis. Caudal shield as in fig. 10 .. Silybura melanogaster. Caudal shield as in fig. 12 .. Rhinophis. (A) Caudal shield as long as shielded part of head. (a) Rostra! twice length of frontal— Ventrals 236 to 246 .. R. punctatus Ventrals 281 .. BR. porrectus (b) Rostral distinctly longer than frontal— Ventrals 153 to 172 .. R. planiceps Ventrals 178 to 204 .. R. trevelyanus Ventrals 214 to 223 .. R. oxyrhynchus (B} Gaudal shield much shorter than shielded part of head— (a) Ventrals 148 to 168 .. RB. blythi (6) Ventrals 173 to 191 .. BR. drummondhayi Genus UROPELTIS. (Greek “ oura ”’ tail, ‘‘ pelte ”’ shield, in allusion to the curious terminal caudal shield.) General Characters.—A small snake growing to 14 feet. Snout rounded. Eye less than half the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Nostril small, in the antero-inferior quadrant of the nasal shield. Body short, stout, cylindrical, swollen, and knuckled anteriorly. Tail truncate, 24 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Identification.—The peculiar character of the terminal caudal shield (see fig. 8) will establish the genus. Lepidosis.—Rostral. - Touching four shields ; not keeled, length rather shorter than the frontal, about one-third the shielded part of thehead. Nasals: Meeting behind the rostral. Frontal : Longer than broad ; equal to or rather longer than the parietals. (Fig. 7.) Fic. 7.—Uropeltis grandis. (x 2.) Costals: Last four or five rows progressively increasing in breadth. Anal: Twice the breadth of the ventrals. Sub- enudals ; Variable. Caudal shield: Nearly as long as the SNAKES OF CEYLON. 25 shielded part of the head; studded with conical tubercles radiating from a blunt conical process in the lower central part of the shield. (Fig. 8.) Fic. 8.—Uropeltis grandis showing top of the tail. (x 13.) Dentition.— Mawillary : Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Palatine: None. Pterygoid: None. Mandibular: Anododont, feebly kumatodont. (Fig. 9.) Fic, 9.—Jaws of Uropeltis grandis, (a) Maxilla. (b) Mandible. ° Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, There is only one species, viz., grandis. 9 6(6)20 26 SNAKES OF CEYLON. UROPELTIS GRANDIS Kelaart, (Latin “‘ grandis ’’ large ; evidently meaning by comparison with its close allies.) Kelaart’s Uropeltis (or Earth Snake.) Synonymy.—Uropeltis philippinus, 11 saffragamus, U. paradalis, Pseudo-Typhlops philippinus. History.— Described by Kelaart in 1853. General Characters.—As detailed under the genus. The diameter of the body is about 1/20 the total length, Identification.—Easily recognized at once by the terminal caudal shield which is peculiar to this snake. (See fig. 8.) Colouration—Nearly uniform brown or blackish dorsally ; lighter ventrally. When looked into closely the scales are seen to be dark basally, where overlapped by the preceding scales. Habits.—Nothing known. Food.—Mr. Green observed one picking grubs out of cow dung. Breeding.—Nothing known. Growth.—(a) Early Life |My smallest: specimen was 140 mm, (54 inches) long. (b) Maaimum Length. 460 mm, (1 foot 6 inches long). Lepidosis.—As detailed under the genus. Costals Two heads-lengths behind the head 21; shortly behind this the 4th and 5th rows above the ventrals blend, and the rows then remain 19 to the vent, Ventra/s 129 to 147. Subecaudals : 6 to 9. Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Maxillary : 7. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid. Edentulous, Mandibular : 8. Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon, (b) Local: Apparently very local and a hill snake. Has been recorded from Matura, Kandy, Mxtara. Badulla, and Uva District. Apparently uncommon or very local. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he has never acquired a specimen, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 27 yenus SILYBURA. (Greek “silubon ” thistle, ‘“ oura ’’ tail, in allusion to the spines at the tail tip.) General Characters.—Small snakes ranging between 1 and 2 feet. Head small; snout pointed, obtusely pointed, or bluntly rounded, Eye in the ocular shield. Nostrils small, round, pierced in the anterior-inferior quadrant of the nasal shield. Chin with no mental groove. Neck stout. Body short to moderate, stout, cylindrical. Belly rounded. Tail cylindrical or compressed basally, convex above, or with a flattened disc. Identification.— The terminal caudal shield is of a character peculiar to the genus. (See fig. 10.) Habits.—Subterrestrial. Sluggish. Very gentle. Food.—Seem to subsist entirely on worms. Breeding.—The method of reproduction is in many Indian species viviparous. Poison.—Not poisonous. Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches four or six shields. Nasals : Meeting or nearly meeting behind the rostral. Internasals : None. Prefronials: Present. Frontal: Present. Supra- oculars * None. Parietals : Present ; as long as, or slightly longer than the frontal. Loreal: None. Ocular: A large shield containing the eye. Temporal: None. Supralabials : Four; lst and 2nd touching the nasal, 2nd and 3rd the prefrontal, and 3rd and 4th the ocular. Sublinguals : None. Costals : Broader than long ; broadly rounded posteriorly ; rectiform ; smooth ; vertebrals not enlarged ; last three or four rows enlarged ; ultimate row two-thirds to three-fourths the breadth of the ventrals. Ventrals: Enlarged but narrow. Anal; Divided ; twice the breadth of the ventrals. Supra- caudals ; Strongly keeled ; forming an oval disc in many of the 28 SNAKES OF CEYLON. species. Subcauduls : Divided ; 5 to 15 in number. Caudal shield: Enlarged; with two small spines placed on a transverse ridge. (Figs. 10 and 11.) Fra, 10.—Upper part of tail of Silybura. (x 2.) Fie. 11.—Anal region of Silybura. Dentition.— From the skulls of five species in my collection. Maxillary: Anododont, kumatodont. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous. Mandibular: Anododont, kumata- dont. Distribution.— Hills of Southern India and Ceylon. The genus contains twenty-two species, of which one only occurs in Ceylon ; viz., melanogaster. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 29 SILYBURA MELANOGASTER (Gray). (Greek “‘ melanos ”’ black, ‘ gaster ” belly.) Gray's Silybura (or Harth Snake), Synohymy.—Mytilia melanogaster, Plectrurus ceylonicus, Rhinophis melanogaster, R. blythi. History.—Described by Gray in 1858. General Characters.—Head small ; snout pointed. Eye less than half the length of the ocular shield. Neck and anterior body swollen and knuckled. Body cylindrical, short, robust, especially so in the adult. Belly rounded. Tail short, cylin- drical, or slightly compressed. Identifieation.—The terminal caudal shield will differentiate it from all other Ceylon snakes. Colouration.—Dark brown dorsally, with yellow mottling on the sides, often forming a more or less confluent, irregular band. Black ventrally. In the young the dorsal scales are dark brown centrally, bordered with yellowish. Habits.—Have not been remarked upon. Food.—Nothing specially noted. Breeding.—Nothing known. Growth.—(a) HarlyLife: Theyoungare from 90to 100 mm. (34 to 4 inches) in length. (6) Maximum Length: 270 mm. (103 inches). Lepidosis.— Rostral: Touches six shields; not keeled; as long as the frontal, two-fifths the shielded part of the head. Nasals : Entirely separated by the rostral. Frontal : Longer than broad, longer than the parietals. Costals : Two heads- lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals: 141 to 166. Subcaudals: 6 to 10. Supracaudals : Strongly carinate on the flattened disc. Caudal shield : Enlarged ; deeper than broad; ending in a transverse ridge, with two small spines placed side by side. Dentition.—I have no skull. Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon. (6) Local: It is a hill snake, which is apparently very local. Colonel Beddonne pronounced it very common without speci- fying the altitude or district where he made this observation. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he has never met with it. 30 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Genus RHINOPHIS. (Greek “‘rhis ” nose. ‘“‘ ophis ’ snake. referring to the pointed snout.) General Characters.—Small snakes mostly about 1 foot, some nearly 2 feet in length. Head very small. Snout more or less acutely pointed. Eye small to very small. situated in an ocular shield. Nostril pierced in the antero-inferior quadrant of an entire nasal shield. Chin with no mental groove. Neck and fore body swollen and knuckled. Body cylindrical, short, moderate. or elongate. Belly rounded. Tail very short, obtusely conical. Identification.—Easily recognized by the peculiar enlarged shield at the end of the tail, which ix rough from minute spinose processes. (See fig. 13.) Habits.—All are earth burrowers living beneath the soil. The acutely-pointed snout is not specially adapted for burrow- ing, and it is therefore only in loose soil that it can effect progression. The swollen neck and fore body are due to a remarkable muscular development, by which the snake is enabled to push its way through the soil. They are all extremely defenceless reptiles that fall an easy prey to rap- torial mammals and birds and other snakes of ophiophagous habits. They never attempt to bite. no matter how great the provocation. Food.—All those whose diet has been ascertained feed on earthworms and they eat voraciously. Hardly a specimen is found that has not fragments of worms in the stomach, and none without the intestinal tract loaded with semi-liquid mud derived from the worms apon which they subsist. Breeding.—All whose habits are known are viviparous. and they are not prolific, usually producing from two to six young at a time. Lepidosis.— Rostral : Usually more or less compressed. sometimes keéled above. Nasals Completcly separated by the rostral; touching the Ist and 2nd_ supralabials. Prefrontals: Touching the 2nd and 3rd_ supralabials. SNAKES OF CRKYLON. 31 Frontals ; Variable in length. Parietals. Variable in length. Ocular: Contains the eye; touching the 3rd and 4th supralabials. Supraoculars: Absent. Loreal: Absent. Pre- oculars, postoculars, and temporals: Absent. Supralabials : Four ; progressively increasing in size from before backwards. Costals : Broader than long, subequal except the ultimate row, which is broader than the rest, broadly rounded poster- iorly ; smooth. In from 21 to 19 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, two less, 7.¢., 19 to 17 at midbody and to the vent. The rows reduce anteriorly by a fusion of the 4th and 5th rows above the ventrals. Ventrals: About four-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row of scales; narrow, so that three or four rows of scales can be seen each side when the specimen is laid on its back. Anal: Divided ; fully twice the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals: 3 to 10; mostly divided, some usually entire. Caudal shield : Enlarged and peculiar in shape, covered with minute spinose processes ; as long or nearly as long as the shielded part of the head. (Fig. 12.) Fie. 12. —Upper part of tail of Rhinophis. Dentition.—From five speciesin my collection. Maaillary : Anododont, kumatodont. Palatine : Edentulous. Pterygoid Edentulous. Mandibular : Anododont, scaphiodont. Distribution.—South India and Ceylon, mostly confined to the hills. There are nine species, seven of which are peculiar to Ceylon, Two of these are now described for the first time, viz, drummond-hayi and porrectus. 32 SNAKES OF CEYLON. RHINOPHIS OXYRHYNCHUS (Schneider). (Greek “ oxus ” sharp, ““rhynchos”’ snout.) Schneider's Rhinophis (or Karth Snake). Synonymy.—-Typhlops oxyrhynchus, Depatnaya lankadivana. Mytilia unimaculata, History.—Described and christened by Schneider in 1801. General Characters.—The largest of the genus growing to 22 inches. Head small, snout very acute. keeled above. Eye very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body moderately long, its diameter at midbody being about one thirty-fifth to one fortieth the total length. Tail short. - Identification.—The caudal shield about as long as the shielded part of the head, rostral longer than the frontal, and ventrals less than 230 if taken together will denote the species. Colouration—Head dark brown without marks. Body scales dark brown, the basal part darkest. and with lighter margins. The ventral rows are outlined with whitish. A few quite white ventral patches before the anus. Habits.—Kelaart says it frequents ant hills. and may be found as deep as 2 or 3 feet beneath the soil. Food.—Nothing known. Growth.— Maximum Length: A very fine male (?) specimen in the Colombo Museum measures 573 mim. (224 inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : Sharply keeled above, length greater than frontal, about half the shielded part of the head. Frontal : About as broad as long, as long as the parietals. Costals: Two heads-lengths behind the head 21 or 19, mid- body 19 or 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 19 or 17. All rows subequal except the ultimate, which is rather the broadest. Ventrals ; 211 to 227. Subcaudals : 5 to 7. Caudal shield; About as long as the shielded part of the head. Dentition.—I have no skull. SNAKES OF CEYLON, 33 Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon. (b) Local: Reported by Kelaart common at Trincomalee. The single specimen in the Colombo Museum I found labelled Uropeltis grandis. This may be the specimen referred to by Ferguson from Mullaittivu. RAINOPHIS PUNCTATUS Muller. (Latin “punctatus” literally pricked, implies minutely spotted.) Muller’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake), Synonymy.— Pseudo-Typhlops oxyrhynchus. History.— Described and christened by Muller in 1832. General Characters.—Grows to about 15inches. Head very small. Snout acutely pointed, sharply keeled above. Eye very small, being about one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body rather long. its diameter at midbody being about one forty-seventh to one fortv-ninth the total length. Tail short. Identification —The caudal shield about half the length of the shielded part of the head, rostral longer than the frontal, and from 236 to 246 ventrals if taken together will establish the species. Colouration.—The head blackish-brown with no marks. Body scales dark brown centrally, whitish marginally. The eighth row from the ventrals is wholly whitish. Habits.— Nothing known. Food.—Nothing known. Breeding.— Nothing known. Growth.— Maximum Length: 390 mm. (154 inches). Lepidosis—Rostral: With a sharp keel above; length greater than the frontal, about half the shielded part of the head. Frontal: As broad as long, as long as the parietals. 10 6(6)20 34 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals: 236 to 246. Subcaudals : 5 to 7. Caudal shield. About as long as the shielded part of the head. Fre, 13,—Rhinophis punctatus. (x B) Dentition.—I have no skull. Distribution.—(«) General : Peculiar to Ceylon, (6) Local: Apparently rare. There are four in the British Museum, two of which are from Peradeniya. Not represented in the Colombo Museum. SNAKES OF CEYLON. BO RHINOPHIS PORRECTUS Spec. nov. (Latin “‘ porrectus ” stretched.) Willey’s Rhinophis (or Barth Snake). Synonymy.—Rhinophis punctatus (Willey. Spol. Zeylan., Vol. I., 1903, pp. 88 and 89), History.— The type specimen was captured by Dr. Willey in 1903 and confused by him with R. punctatus (Muller). General Characters.—A small species growing to 14 inches. Head very small. Snout acute with sharp keel above. Eye very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body very elongate, its diameter at midbody about one seventy-sixth the total length. Tail short. Identification Most easily recognized by the very numerous ventral shields which number 28] in the “ type.” Colouration.—Head. blackish-brown without markings, tip of snout dull orange. A narrow blackish-brown vertebral line passes from the nape to the supra-anal region, occupying the median part of the vertebral row. The outer part of the vertebral, the whole of the next row, and the edge of the seventh from the ventrals are whitish. The contiguous halves of the seventh and sixth rows from the ventrals are blackish- brown, All the remaining rows are blackish-brown with whitish margins. Caudal shield dull orange with a subter- minal dark band. Habits.— Nothing known. Food.—Nothing known. Breeding.— Nothing known. Growth.—Maximum Length : 355 mm. (14 inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : Sharply keeled above, length fully twice the frontal, more than half the shielded part of the head. Frontal: As broad as long, decidedly shorter than the parietals. 36 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. All rows subequal except the ultimate, which is slightly the broadest. Ventrals : 281; about four-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row. Anal: Divided ; twice as broad asthe ventrals. Subcaudals : 6. Caudal shield : Three-fourths to four-fifths the shielded part of the head. Dentition.—I have no skull. Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon. (6) Local : Known from a single specimen in the Colombo Museum, encountered by Willey on the road between Puttalam and Chilaw. Hence apparently a Low-country species. RHINOPHIS PLANICEPS Peters. (Latin “ planus ” flat,’ ceps ” head.) Peters’s Rhinophis (or arth Snake). Synonymy.—T'yphlops phiippinus, Rhinophis philippinus. History.—Described by Cuvier under the name Typhlops philippinus in 1829, under the belief that the type came from the Philippine Islands. Peters in 1861 referred to it under the same title, and described another species as R. planiceps, which subsequent writers could not dissociate from the former. As Cuvier’s name is misleading, it has been dropped in favour of that given by Peters. General Characters—Grows to about 11 inches. Head very small. Snout acute, obtusely keeled above. Eye very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body short, its diameter at midbody about one twenty-fourth to one thirty-fourth the totallength. Tailshort. Identification.—-The caudal shield as long as shielded part of head, the rostral longer than the frontal, frontal as broad as long, and ventrals 180 or Jess will differentiate this from the other species. Colouration.—Head dark purplish-black without marks. Body dark purplish-black with a series of irregularly ovate, or subtriangular, vertical, whitish spots most conspicuous anteriorly. The ventrals and the scales of the lowest four or SNAKES OF CEYLON. 37 five rows each side outlined with white. Anal region, side of tail, and caudal shield whitish. No dark horseshoe on caudal shield. Habits.—Very gentle and disinclined to bite. Food.—The stomachs of many investigated by me contained nothing but earthworms, and the intestines and cloaca were distended with semi-liquid mud from the same source. Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of thirty-two adults in Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection sexed by me, nineteen proved to be males and thirteen females. Males have relatively longer tails, and more numerous subcaudals. The sexes appear to grow to about the same length. The longest male examined was 252 mm. (10 inches), and the longest female 240 mm. (9% inches). (6) Method of Reproduction: I found eggs containing embryos in such a stage of development as to leave no doubt that the species is viviparous. (c) Season: As no dates were available, no light could be thrown upon this matter. (d) The Brood: The two gravid females dissected by me each contained two embryos. Growth.—(a) The Young: When born the young are evidently about 90 to 95 mm. (3% to 32 inches) long. I have measured post-natal specimens as small as 90 mm. (3% inches). (b) Early Life: The growth cannot be followed as no dates were availabie. (c) Maturity: The gravid females were 182 and 196 mm. (74 and 7% inches) long. If this snake grows at the same rate as the majority of snakes, and doubles its length in the first year of life, these measurements indicate that it is sexually mature when a year old. (d) Maximum Length: The longest male I have examined was 252 mm. (10 inches) and the longest female 240 mm. (98 inches). Gunther, however, records one 420 mm. (163 inches), sex not specified. Lepidosis.— Rostral : Obtusely keeled above ; length longer than the frontal, less than half the shielded part of the head. Frontal : As broad as long, as long as the parietals. 38 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Costals Two heads-lengths behind head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before vent 17. Ventrals: 161 to 182 ($ 161 to 176, 9 168 to 182) (152 Boulenger). Subcaudals : 3 to 6 (3 4 to 6. 293 to 4). Caudal shield: About as long as the shielded part of the head. Dentition—From one skull in my collection. Maxillary - 6? to 7? Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid: Edentulous. Mandibular ; 87 Distribution.—(a) (feneral : Peculiar to Ceylon. (b) Local: Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is a common snake in the Ratnagiri. Balangoda, and Yatiyantota Districts in hills below about 3,000 feet elevation. Twenty-two in the Colombo Museum labelled frevelyanus from the Bulatota estate, Rakwana District, Province of Sabaragamuwa, are planice ps. RuINOPHIS TREVELYANUS (Kelaart) (named in honour of Mr. Trevelyan). Trevelyan’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake). Synonymy.—Depatnaya trevelyana, Aytilia gerrardi, Rhino- phus homole prs. History.— Described and christened by Kelaart in 1853. General Characters—Grows to about 11 inches. Head small. Snout acute, keeled above. Eye very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body short ; the diameter at midbody about one twenty-sixth to one- thirtieth the total length. Tail very short. Identification.—The caudal shield as long ax the shielded part of the head, rostral longer than frontal, and ventrals 188 to 204 will distinguish this from the other species. Habits.— Gunther says it has been found 3 or + feet beneath the soil. Food.—The many | examined had taken nothing but carth- worms. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 39 Breeding.—(a) The Sexes ; Out of a series of thirty-four in Mr. Drummond-Havy’s collection, nine were males and twenty- five females. Males have slightly longer tails. Females attain to a somewhat greater length. (b) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous in habit. I found many gravid and extracted foetuses from 85 to 90 mm. in length (33 to 33 inches). (c) Season : Not known, as no dates were available. (d) The Brood: The eight gravid females examined hy me contained from two to four eggs or sacs. It was noticed that the longest dams were the most prolific. Growth.—(v) The Young: At birth the young are about 87 mm. (34 inches), for the male foetuses measuring 85 to 90 mm. had not extruded claspers. The smallest post-natal specimen measured 113 mm. (43 inches). (b) Early Life: Lack of dates made it impossible to follow the early growth. (c) Maturity : The smallest prospective mother measured 194 mm. (72 inches). If this species doubles its length in the first year of life as so many snakes do, it is producing young when only one year old. (d) Maximum Length: The longest male I have seen was 225 mm. (9 inches), and the longest female 250 mm. (10 inches). Boulenger gives the extreme measurement as 275 mm. (11 inches) without specifying the sex. . Lepidosis.—Rostral: Keeled above; longer than the frontal, less than half the shielded part of the head. Frontal. As broad or almost as broad as long, as long as the parietals. Cestals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals : 188 to 204 (f$ 188 to 193, Q@ 191 to 204). Subcaudals: 2 to 5 ($ 5, 92 to 3). Caudal shield : As long as the shielded part of the head. Dentition.— From two skulls in my collection. Maxillary . 5 to 6. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous. Mandibular : 7? Distribution.—(a) General - Peculiar to Ceylon. 40 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (b) Local: Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is a common snake in the low hills of the Balangoda, Ratnagiri, and Yatiyan- tota Districts below about 3,000 feet. All the specimens in the Colombo Museum (twenty-three) labelled trevelyanus, except one, proved to be R. planiceps. RHINOPHIS BLYTHI Kelaart. (Named in honour of Mr. Blyth.) Blyth’s Rhinophis (or Harth Snake). Synonymy.—l/ytilia lempletoni. History.— Described and christened by Kelaart in 1853. General Characters.—A small snake growing to about 14 inches. Head small. Snout acute, not keeled above. Eye Jess than half the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body short: its diameter at midbody about one twenty-second to one thirty-second the total length. Tail short. Identification.—The caudal shield much shorter than the shielded part of the head, with ventrals ranging between 148 and 168 will differentiate this from its allies. Colouration.—Head blackish-brown above, with a more or less distinct, narrow, white \/ with its apex on the rostral, and the limbs confluent with a vertical, white, lateral spot on the neck. Body blackish-brown above, with a series of whitish, vertical, or sub-triangular, lateral spots most conspicuous anteriorly, the most antcrior sometimes meeting over the neck. These are sometimes confluent to form an irregular lateral stripe. Belly dappled with blackish-brown and white, many scales being margined with white. Anal region whitish. Tail with a basal white band incomplete dorsally. Habits —Lives like the other species beneath the soil. Very inoffensive, never attempting to bite. Food.—Those I have investigated had eaten nothing but earthworms. It seems to feed voraciously on this fare, and the intestines in consequence are found loaded with semi- liquid mud. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 41 Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Of seventy-two specimens in Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection examined by me, thirty-two proved to be males and forty females. The sexes, as a rule, grow to about the same length, but the largest specimen proved to be a female. The tail is somewhat longer in males. (b) Method of Reproduction: The species is viviparous. I have seen many gravid females near term, and there is a specimen in the Colombo Museum preserved in the act of parturition, about 55 mm. (24 inches) of a youngster protruding from the cloaca. (c) Season: There are unfortunately no dates available for Mr. Drummond-Hay’s specimens. The parturient dam above alluded to was killed at Hatton in August, 1912. (d) The Brood: This is apparently the most prolific of the species of this genus, the brood varying from three to six. On one occasion I have found three, on three occasions five, and once six. The smallest mothers are the least productive as I so frequently find with snakes. Growth.—(a) The Young: The longest unborn young I have measured were 88 and 94 mm. (34 and 3? inches). I have seen post-natal specimens that measured 100 mm. (4 inches). (b) Early Life : I have not been able to follow the growth for lack of dates. (c) Maturity : The smallest of six gravid females was 225 mm. (9 inches), If as is probable this species grows like other snakes, and doubles its length in the first year of life, the species is propagating when about one year old. (d) Maximum Length : Most adults of both sexes are about 275 mm. (11 inches) long. The largest I have measured was a female 368 mm. (144 inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : Not keeled above ; length equal to that of the frontal, about two-fifths the shielded part of the head. Frontal : Longer than broad, longer than the parietals. Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals : 148 to 168 ll 6(6)20 42 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (d 148 to 155, 2 159 to 168). Subcaudals : 3 to 9 ($ 5to 9,93 to 5). Caudal shield: About two-thirds the shielded part of the head. Fie, 14.—Rhinophis blythi. (xX 3.) Dentition From one skull in my collection. Mazillary : 6. Palatine. Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous. Man- dibular ; 10. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 43 Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon. (6) Local : Apparently the commonest of the Ceylon Rhino- phids. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it was very common at Hopewell estate, Balangoda District, between about 3,000 and 4,200 feet. It has been recorded from Punduloya and Hatton. RHINOPHIS DRUMMONDHAYI Spec. nov. (Named in honour of Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay by the Author.) Drummond-Hay’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake). Synonymy.—Nil. History.x—On examining Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection, I found nine examples of a.snake which is new to science. I also extracted one similar specimen from the stomach of a Ceylon Krait (Bungarus ceylonicus), and another probably of this species from another Ceylon Krait. General Characters.—A small species very similar to planiceps and trevelyanus and growing to similar proportions. Headsmall. Snout acute, hardly compressed, with no keel above. Eye small, less than half the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body short; its diameter at midbody about one twenty-fifth to one thirty-fifth the total length. Identification. The caudal shield much shorter than the shielded part of the head, and ventrals ranging between 173 to 191 will indicate the species. Colouration.—Head dark brown with no marks. The scales on the body are brown dorsally, margined with blackish- brown, except anteriorly, where the scales are variegated with whitish streaks. No lateral whitish spots. Ventrally beauti- fully dappled brown and whitish. Anal region whitish. Tail blackish above and below, with a whitish lateral stripe ending subterminally. Habits.— Nothing special noted. 44 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Food.—The stomachs of several investigated by me contained earthworms, and the intestine and cloaca were distended with semi-liquid mud from the worms ingested. Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Of thirteen specimens examined, four proved to be males and nine females. The sexes appear to grow to much the same length, but the largest was a female. In males the tail is rather longer. (6) Method of Reproduction ; It is viviparous in habit. (c) Season : Not known, no dates being available. _ (d) The Brood: From two to five young are produced at a time. Growth.—(a) The Young : The exact length at birth could not be ascertained from the specimens available. (6) Early Life : Not known, no dates being on record. (c) Maturity: The smallest of four gravid females was 280 mm. (114 inches). (d) Maximum Length: The longest male was 298 mm. (112 inches), and the longest female 330 mm. (13 inches). Lepidosis.—Rostral : But slightly compressed ; not keeled above ; length equals frontal, about two-fifths the shielded part of the head. Nasals : Completely separated hy the rostral ; touching the Ist and 2nd supralabials. Prefrontals : Touching the 2nd and 3rd supralabials. Frontal: As broad as long, length equals parietals. Supralabials : Four. Costals : Two heads-lengths behind head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before vent 17. All rows subequal except the ultimate, where the scales are broadest. Ventrals + 173 to 191 ($ 173 to 180, 2 181 to 191) ; about four-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row. Anal: Divided ; fully twice the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals : 4 to 7 ($ 5 to 7, 24 to 6) ; usually divided, some frequently entire. Caudal shield : Much shorter than the shielded part of the head. Dentition.—F rom two skulls in mycollection. Muazxillary: 7. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid: Edentulous. d/andibular : 8. Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon. (b) Local : Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is fairly common on Lennock estate in the centre of the Uva Patnas at about 4,000 to 4,200 feet. One specimen from Mr. Ormiston was killed on Kalupahani estate, Haldummulle District, about 3,000 feet. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 45 Family BOIDA. (Named after the type Genus Boa.*) General Charaeters.—This family includes the largest snakes that are known, such as the Pythons, the Boas, and the Ana- conda. The head is more or less depressed, the snout rather jong, without canthus, and broadly rounded anteriorly. The eye is small with a vertical pupil. The nostril is placed rather high on the side of the snout between two or three shields. The chin may reveal a mental groove or not. The body is massive, attenuating towards the neck and_ posteriorly. Rudimentary hind limbs are present, the extremities of which are visible as claw-like processes on either side of the vent. Those I have dissected out consist of two bones, the analogues of the femur, and tibia of mammals. The former is not articulated to any pelvic bone, but lies completely free. The tibia is articulated to the femur. The belly is rounded. The tail is short, and prehensile in many of the species. Identification.—The costals are longer than broad, and the scales in the last row about half the breadth of the ventrals. The anal is as broad as the ventrals. Habits. They are subterrestrial, terrestrial, or semi-aquatic. Very sluggish by nature, they do not pursue their prey, but conceal themselves, some by burrowing, some in water, and others in trees, and rely on their victims coming within their grasp. Once the victim is seized, life is quickly exterminated * (From Boa one of the genera of the family. Boa is derived from Latin “bos” a cow, and is based on the old fable that some, or one, of the species sucked the milk from cows.) Linné (1738 to 1783) says that Pliny (23 to 79 a.p.) mentions the story of the boa sucking the milk from cows. Topsell in his ‘‘ Historie of Serpents” (1608) says: “The Latines called it (Boa constrictor ?) “boa” or “bova” because by sucking cowe’s milke it so encreaseth, that in the end it destroyeth all manner of herds, eattell, and regions.’’ Cordante, too, says : “The Boas serpent which Italy doth breede Men say, uppon the milke of cowes doth feede.”’ 46 SNAKES OF CEYLON. by constriction. Their movements are slow ; in fact, in some progression cannot be called anything but a crawl. The reason for this appears to be that the ribs are excessively bowed to permit of the attachment of their extremities to the sides of the very narrow ventral shields. The effect is that a very narrow “ foot” sustains the massive weight of the body, and militates against active progression. Breeding.—Some are viviparous others oviparous. Food.—Mammals chiefly, but birds and reptiles are also taken. Poison.__Not poisonous. Lepidosis.—Ditferent in the two sub-families (q. v.) Dentition.—Different in the two sub-families. Distribution South Eastern Europe, Central and South Asia, Africa, Australia, Western North America, Central and South America, and West Indies. The family is divided into two sub-families, Pythonine and Boine. Sub-family Pythonine, Genus PYTHON. (Named from the fabled monster of Grecian mythology killed by Apollo in the Pythian Vale near Mount Parnassus.*) General Characters.—Large snakes attaining to 10 and 15 feet or more. Head nearly as broad as the body, depressed. Snout long, broadly rounded, and without any canthus. Eye moderate with vertical pupil. Nostril large, placed high on * Milton refers to the fable in the following lines :—- oe but still greatest he the midst Now dragon grown, larger than whom the sun Engendered in the Pythian Vale on slime Huge Python ; and his power no less he seemed Above the rest still to retain.” (Paradise Lost, Book X., line 528, et. seq.) SNAKES OF CEYLON. 47 the snout. Chin with a mental groove. Neck fairly evident. Body cylindrical, massive. Belly rounded. Terminations of the concealed rudimentary limbs seen as small claw-like processes on each side of the vent. Tail short, prehensile. Identification.—Costal rows more than sixty in midbody. Ventrals about twice the breadth of the last costal row. Anal entire ; as broad as the ventrals. Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal, subaquatic, sluggish. Move- ments slow. Food.—Omnivorous, showing some partiality to a mamma- lian fare. Breeding.—Oviparous except regius, which is viviparous. Poison.—Non-poisonous. aaa Lepidosis (Indian Species).—Rostral : Touches six shields ; with a wedge-shaped pit on each side. Internasals : A pair. Prefrontals ; A pair ; separated from the frontal and supra- oculars by a series of small scales. Frontals: A pair. Supra- oculars : Present. Parietals : Absent. Nasals : Three; the anterior largest. Loreals : Many,small. Preoculars : Three or four. Postoculars : Three or four. Temporals : Replaced by small scales. Supralabials : Eleven to fourteen ; first two or three with cuneate pits ; two touching the eye. Sublinguals: Absent ; replaced by small scales. IJnfralabials : Many ; a few of the anterior and posterior with roundish pits. Costals : At midbody. Longer than broad dorsally ; recti- form ; smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged, about one-seventh the breadth of the last row. Antepenultimate row about ag broad as long. Penultimate row broader than long. Ultimate row broadest, and about half the breadth of the ventrals. In 60 to 75 rows in midbody. Ventrals : Enlarged ; 242 to 330. Anal: Entire; as broad as the ventrals. Subcaudals : Divided ; 61 to 102. Dentition.—Premazillary: 4. Maxillary: 16 to 19; scaphiodont. Palatine: 6 or 7; scaphiodont. Pterygoid : 8 to 10; feebly scaphiodont. Mandibular: 16 to 19; scaphiodont. Distribution.—Tropical and South Africa, South Eastern Asia, Papuasia, Australia. The genus includes nine species, of which one, viz., molurus, occurs in Ceylon. 48 SNAKES OF CEYLON. PytTHON MOLURUS Linné. (Greek ‘‘ molouros” some kind of snake, the identity of which is now uncertain.) The Indian Python. Tamil : “ periya pambu ” (large snake), “‘ malai pambu ” (hill snake), “ kaloodai viriyan”’ (ass viper). - Sinhalese : ‘* pimbera ’’* (Ferguson). Synonymy.—Coluber molurus, Boa ordinata, B. cinerea, B. castanea, B. albicans, B. orbicutata, Python bora, P. tégris, P. ordinatus, P. bivittatus. History.—The snake depicted in 1734 by Seba on Plate XXXVI, fig. 1, of his “ Thesaurus’ appears to be this species. It is said to be from India, but its name “ ninti polonga ” indicates Ceylon. Our oldest zoologists used “ India’? in a very inexact manner. It was described by Linné in 1766. Subsequently Russell in 1796 figured it no less than four times in his first volume. (Plates XXII, XXIII, XXIV., and XX XIX.) Identifieation—There are over 60 rows of costals at midbody. This alone will identify the snake. In addition, the python presents curious depressions on the rostral, and the two first labials, which are seen in no other Ceylon snake. Colouration.—On the head the marks vary a good deal with age, and in all individuals vary much according to whether * According to the famous John Ray the word anaconda is Sinhalese, and not South American as one might suppose. His friend Dr. Tancred Robinson gave him a catalogue of the Indian snakes he had noted in the Leyden Museum. No. 8 on this list read as follows :—‘ 8 serpens indicus bubalinus anacondaia zeylonibus, idest bubalorum aliorumque jumentorum membra conterens.”” Yule says he can find no mention of the name anaconda in old South Amorican literature, and suggests that it is derived from the Sinhalese ‘“anai” elephant, and ‘ kondra” which vanquished, Iam told that the Tamil is ‘‘ anai’’ elephant, and ‘* kolra ”? killer. SNAKES OF CEYLON 49 desquamation has been recently completed, or is impending. The ground colour is grayish, whitish, or yellowish in adults, and often a very pretty shade of pink, in the young especially. There is a dark streak from the nostril to the eye in the young, which often is completely obliterated in later life. Behind the eye at all ages is a conspicuous, dark, oblique band to the gape, and a more or less conspicuous patch below the eye tending to become obscure with age. On the front part of the lower lip there is often some fine mottling. On the back of the head and the nape is a large lance-shaped mark bisected in the median line, but this often fades so much anteriorly in adults that the similitude to a lance is more or less effaced. The light bisecting band, together with similar light bands, one of which passes over each eyebrow—especially distinct in the young—are very suggestive of the “ dasira”’ mark of the Tamils. Dorsally the body is grayish or yellowish, and bears a series of large, somewhat roughly-quadrate patches, extending from the neck on to the tail. These patches, which are centrally much the same colour as the ground, are well defined out- wardly, and broadly outlined with black or blackish, and it is here that those lovely bluish and amethystine hues are seen in certain lights which show off the snake to such advantage, and which many an artist in the Royal Academy has tried, with varying degrees of success, to depict. Outside this median series of marks is another small series of a similar character, and outside this again a third sometimes, much less regular and smaller, and mixed up with a coarse mottling extending into the flanks. The underparts are dirty-whitish, or faintly yellow. Seen in the sun’s rays the iridescent effects on the dorsal patches defy alike the author’s powers of des- cription and the painter’s art of reproduction. Virgil’s* description, however, of the snake that encircled the tomb of * « Scarce had he said when from the shrined base a slippery snake trailed huge seven coils, in each seven folds; and circling tranquilly the tomb slid o’er the altar; dark blue streaks its back lit up, its scales a sheen of spotted gold as (when the sun shines opposite) the bow darts from the clouds a thousand varied hues.’’ Aeneid Lib. V. line 84, et seq. 12 6(6)20 50 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Anchises, and which Kennedy has so graphically rendered in English verse as follows, leaves no doubt, but that it is a python that is indicated, and as likely as not our Indian species molurus :-— Habits.—(a) Haunts For the most part the Indian python is a jungle inhabitant. It may be met with in the interior of the densest forest tracts, or in sparser forest growth such as that which clothes the rocky slopes of many low hills. Where jungle is not available it most usually attaches itself to rivers and jheels, especially the former. In jungle areas it is frequently observed in trees and at times at some considerable elevation aloft. It climbs stealthily and well, and having established itself in the branches secretes itself so well that it is no infrequent event for a monkey to come within striking distance, and forfeit its life. By means of its prehensile tail it is capable of suspending itself from branches, nearly all of its body remaining free, and there is no doubt that many an incautious animal comes within reach, and is victimized. Mr. Sharpe, D.S.P., in the Fyzabad District, told me in 1906 that he once climbed up into a banyan tree in dense jungle with his shikari, who told him that at that season, when the fruit was ripening, many animals, especially deer, visited these trees to eat the fallen fruit. After having been quiet for some time, he noticed close to him a movement in what he had up till then taken to be an aerial root, but which on closer inspection proved to be a python suspended by its tail, and evidently established there for the same purpose that had actuated the sportsman. I have heard of pythons quartering themselves in hollow trees, and frequenting those on which egrets and night herons roost, to which at night the snake stealthily crept and successfully took toll. In water this snake is quite at home, in fact it might be considered semi-aquatic in habit. It swims deftly and strongly, when its inclination prompts such activity, but is often to be observed partially or wholly submerged near the bank of a river, or jheel. As in captivity, it will lie for hours showing nothing but the tip of its snout, which is pushed out to raise the nostrils above the surface, and permit breathing. it can remain beneath the water entirely for many minutes. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 51 Colonel Fife Cookson* says that observations were made at Regent’s park, which showed that it could keep entirely submerged for half an hour. I asked the attendant at Cross’s Menagerie in Liverpool some years ago to make special observations in this direction, and he told me later that one kept its head below the water for 11 minutes, and remained above 9 minutes subsequently before again retiring below. Another kept below 12 minutes, and another 15 minutes. Tf only partially submerged in water in its native haunts, it keeps so still that any part of the body exposed is likely to be taken for a’ branch or root. My informant at Cross’s Menagerie also told me that one kept*in its bath from Wednesday till Sunday of one week, and often the sloughing period is passed in their tanks, from which the snake emerges resplendent in its new attire. Occasionally the python has been reported at sea, but it is probable that it has drifted thence on a log, or in the current of a flooded river. It shows no special affection for the sea. (6) Disposition ; Our Indian python is one of the most lethargic of snakes, and as such an uninteresting creature in the vivarium. In captivity it passes the day in lazy apathy, sometimes lying upon, or partially encircling, the branch usually put into its cage, sometimes convoluted into a heap on the floor, or as frequently reclining partially or wholly immersed in its bath of water. In any of these attitudes it is familiar enough to every one who has visited the reptile house in our various zoological gardens. It is wont to lie for hours together without a movement in spite of the stream of specta- tors peering into its cage, and their repeated attempts, usually in vain,.to rouse it to activity by drumming upon the glass, flourishing handkerchiefs, and other objects before it. This apathy many might suppose the outcome of a familiarity which breeds contempt, even in animals that are naturally of a fierce disposition, but even in its natural haunts it seems to behave in very much the same way, exhibiting little if any * Tiger shooting in the Doon and Ulwar, p. 31. 52 SNAKES OF CEYLON. timidity, rarely rousing itself seriously to escape, and even when attacked making no attempt to avenge offence or injury. It thus becomes an easy victim to those who seek to kill it, or an easy capture to those of a more courageous and venture- some spirit. Even the female that shows such unremitting devotion to her parental duty of incubation will suffer herself to be captured with her brood of eggs with little or no remonstrance. In Travancore in 1903 a 15-foot dam, with eggs as it proved on the verge of hatching, allowed herself to be boxed, and conveyed to Trivandrum without offering any resistance. Similarly, in Balrampur, Mr. Oakes told me that two large pythons, one a dam incubating eggs, were easily captured alive ang brought in from the jungle, the female continuing her duties and successfully hatching out her eggs Six-to eight-foot pythons have several times been brought in to me found basking on a log, or in a boat on the river. These seemingly allowed themsclves to be captured by a couple of coolies with little or no attempt at escape,, though nothing could have been casier than one wriggle and a plunge into the water. Father Dreckman met with one just under 20 pounds in weight when walking with a friend in jungle. It was seen leisurely crossing their path. His friend went for its tail. while Father Dreckman negotiated the head, expecting a hard struggle, but except for an ineffectual snap at his face, the snake allowed its neck to be seized, and its head to be thrust into a bag, into which the rest of its body was unceremoniously huddled without remonstrance. Its size, beauty, and placid disposition make it a welcome addition to the snake charmer’s stock-in-trade, so that scarcely a member of the fraternity is without one. It is therefore in India a very familiar creature to everyone. The juggler produces his specimen with some ostentation from a bag or basket, secking to impress the onlookers, and he trades upon the spectators’ natural fears, for if one comes forward too close to inspect the creature, it is more than likely that the owner affects the greatest alarm for his safety. as though to foster the belief already prevalentin the assembled throng, that it is to him, and him only, that the snake is a peacefully inclined and harmless creature. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 53 (c) Strength: It seems very strange that a creature possess- ing such a massive and muscular body, and such gigantic strength that it can overpower a leopard with ease, does not show a more aggressive spirit. Few people who have not handled a python in life can have any conception of the strength at its command. A brother of mine in the Straits told me he had several times measured large pythons in life, and that it takes as many coolies as one can put in the length of the snake to hold it, and even then they were unable to straighten it properly. Buckland* relates an incident which happened off the Coast of Ceylon, where a python effected its * footing’? on a ship lying at anchor. When captured it encircled a water butt on deck, and compressed this so violently that the staves were contracted so as to allow the middle hoops to fall on to the deck ! (d) Striking posture: The habit of constricting is charac- teristic of the whole family—boas and pythons alike. The snake, roused to activity by the sight of food, advances towards its prey often with quivering tail, and makes a sudden dash at it with open jaws, which are no sooner closed upon its victim than it throws a coil or two—according to the size of the quarry—round it, holding it as in a vice until its struggles have completely ceased, when it relaxes its embrace and proceeds to swallow it, almost always beginning at the head. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell says : ““ There appears to be no special attempt to crush the prey, to suffocate it, or to break its bones.” I certainly agree that there is no attempt to crush with the intention of breaking bones, and so making the mass more easy to deal with, but if the victim is not suffocated how is it killed? My belief is that the vigour of the embrace is such that the victim’s chest is incapable of expansion, and asphyxia results, or what amounts to the same thing the heart cannot beat against the pressure to which it is subjected. (e) Nocturnal or diurnal: In spite of its cat-like pupil the python is very much on the alert during the day-time, and very frequently when encountered in its native haunts is * Curiosites of Natural History, p. 182. 54 SNAKES OF CEYLON. found in the act of swallowing some animal captured in broad daylight. On the other hand, it is frequently on the move at night, for on many occasions, where it has entered a poultry run, its depredations have been committed under cover of darkness. (f) Hibernation The python in all parts of India where there is an attempt at a cold season hibernates, retiring for some months to any convenient retreat, a hollow tree, or hole in a bank. or, in the hills, any natural crypt or cave of convenient size. In Dibrugarh once [ found one in February beneath a log on the banks of the Brahmaputra. It was extremely som- nolent. Sometimes one hears of several congregating in the same retreat. In the Pioneer (February 19, 1906) is an account of six pythons being discovered in a cavity in the bank of a stream in Mysore. One after another was seized and dragged out, and all ranged between 10 and 12 feet in length. I have also read of a similar occurrence in the Himalayas, though I cannot now lay my hands on the refer- ence. A python was observed in a cave, and the raconteur with his Gurkha orderlies succeeded in extricating several, three or four, if I can rely on my memory. It seems to me remarkable that in Southern India the python does not hibernate in the Plains, at least Colonel Dawson tells me it does not in Travancore, and Dr. J. R. Henderson says it does not in Madras in captivity, yet in Bombay, which can lay no better claim to a cold season, a specimen caged in the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms hibernated for some months. Phipson made some very interesting observations on this specimen at this period. Between December 2] and April 13, a period of 113 days, the snake refused food, and remained in a very sluggish, sleepy condition. It was noticed that its temperature fell from 82° F. (which had previously been the normal) to 73°. Two rats eaten on December 21 were retained undigested until February 28, when they were disgorged. On ordinary occasions in the hot weather it had been recorded that a similar meal took about eight days to digest. Desquamation during these months of lowered vitality did not occur, an SNAKES OF CEYLON 55 interval of nearly seven months elapsing between the slough- ing periods, though in the rest of the year this process was observed four times. (g) Progression: The progress of a python may be sin gular. All snakes known to me move only by a series of lateral undulations, so that their bodies assume S-shaped curves. The python can also progress with the body extended and perfectly straight. During progress wave-like move- ments of the ribs can be seen beneath the skin, following one another in quick succession, and reminding one of the action of the legs of a centipede. Progress of this character is verv slow, in fact cannot be called anything but a crawl, and the body oscillates slightly from side to side. It also moves by lateral undulations like other snakes but only slowly. The slow and laboured locomotion I believe to be due to the very narrow ventral shields. The extremities of the ribs being inserted into the edges of the ventrals causes these bones to be very much bowed. As a result, the middle two- fourths of the body breadth supports the whole of the massive body weight, leaving one-fourth overlapping each side. I have been assured by some observers that the python can, when so inclined, move as expeditiously as other snakes. Personally I have never witnessed this. (hk) Hissing : I have heard captive specimens in the hands of jugglers utter a low sibilant hiss. (i) Sloughing : Many observations have been made in various quarters on this function, which appears to depend upon the general state of health and vital activities of the snake. I have already remarked upon the great reduction in temperature observed by Phipson in a python in the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms during the period of hibernation, and, with the vitality reduced to such a low ebb that the snake was incapable of digesting its food, it is not surprising that there was a coincident abeyance in the desquamative process during this period. Specimens in Madras and Travancore desquamated during the whole year, and appear not to have hibernated. In India the python sloughs five or six times annually as will be seen from the following table of records :— 56 SNAKES OF CEYLON. x wont al a = B 8dh & £8 2 2B. am §g89 oe E SES ee as Be gkeeeees sR i BEA Bea BORS =I = ee Rs 7 = “Ame | | peak terre i ‘aun | | 11 Cees ‘hem | | [1A ae ae qudy = | bal | | io j | aie; | fe qeetiee ‘Areniqay | | [cea | | [Peck | ‘Arenuse | \ hs] fee all ee a “10quI909(T i = is | | [ | aS | | . ne Paes ‘TeqmuaaoNy | | [RA Pha pha raqowgQ | | I 1 | ee | sseqtuaydeg 5 | Lob s | | |= ie aentay | 8 a (fists? Anes | || Sh ‘Sune | | {del eee oes ‘SeW 5 | It | ieee ee dy | = ej abi ‘ren | | |} | Bet de ok alaes i~ Ne} [I-~Lo ANAM S wonvaomo § BBE FETGETT jomeax 2 13 fee SaAANAS B z RBS SRRSESS ps ei a aeaeotoSe epistola * Date uncertain. SNAKES OF CRYLON. 57° Food.—The python, as the following remarks will testify, is practically omnivorous. It feeds on mammals, birds, and reptiles indiscriminately, but seems to prefer mammals of relatively large proportions. Its courage and power may be estimated by the fact that it has been known to overcome and devour a full-grown leopard (Feliz pardus), sustaining but trivial injuries in the encounter. Thus Major Begbie related the circumstances leading to the death of a python by coolies, which subsequent dissection showed had eaten a leopard measuring 4 feet 2 inches from nose to rump. The snake was 18 feet long, and except for seven claw cuts appeared to have escaped unhurt. Encounters with tigers also occur, but in the only instances known to me, the snake had the worst of it. Whether it was the aggressor in these contests it is impossible to know. Mr. Inverarity* after killing a tiger found some 2 feet 3 inches of the tail end of a python in the stomach. Another proof of a similar encounter is through Professor Von Linstow,t who found a tape-worm taken from the intestine of a tiger killed in the United Provinces was of a species known to inhabit the python, which it must previously have eaten. Many are the records of its having eaten deer. Jerdon } mentions one having eaten a cheetah (Cérvus axis). Dr. Elmes told me that he saw a hog deer (C. porcinus) cut out of a python killed by a neighbour, and the horns he thought must have been fully a foot long. The 18-footer that Mr. Harry had killed on his estate in Assam had swallowed a barking deer (C. muntjac), whose horns were 4 inches or more long. Mr. Copeland had a 15-foot snake killed on his estate while I was in Assam, which was proved to have swallowed a hog deer. The Rev. Castets, 8.J., wrote to me of a sambur fawn (C. unicolcr) being devoured whilst the dam stood by helpless. Tennent mentions a chevrotain (Tragulus meminna) being eaten by one in Ceylon. Colonel Channer recorded one that had killed a langur monkey which lay in its coils at the time * Vol. X., p. 69. + The Field, December 21, 1907. $ Journ. Bom. N. H. Soc., Vol. XVI., p. 520. 13 6(6)20 58 SNAKES OF CEYLON of encounter. The snake proved to be 12 feet 10 inches long. . The attendant at Cross’s Menagerie in Liverpool told me that one of their pythons got loose, and ate a monkey with the collar and chain that were attached to it, on which account probably it disgorged its meal some two days later. In the Pioneer of July 13, 1907, an 18-foot python killed at Raj Shahi was found to have eaten a jackal (Canis aureus). In the Philosophical Transactions,* a gentleman is reported to have found a snake on an island near Bombay lying dead with the quills of a porcupine (Hystrix leucura) sticking out through its ribs. We may assume that the snake was a python, as no other Indian species could swallow such an animal. Ihave also seen masses of porcupine quills that had passed in the dung of pythons. These softened by the digestive juices had been matted into masses which were hard to unravel, the quills having regained their rigidity after drying. In the Field of December 21, 1907, Mr. Thwaites relates having seen a python in Ceylon spring at a hare (Lepus nigri- collis) that was racing by. Ferguson reports an 8-footer at Quilon that had killed a kid. Birds are frequently preyed upon by this snake. Mr. Thwaites mentions a peacock in the coils of a python in Ceylon, and Colonel Evans knew one in Burma eat a pheasant (Gennzeus lineatus). One, when I was in Dibrugarh, was killed in the act of swallowing a chicken. Mr. Staunton killed one in Assam that had swallowed three of his ducks, and another made an unwelcome visit to Dr. Elmes’s fowl- house, accounting for five ducks, four fowls, and one pigeon of his stock, all of which had been swallowed, giving the. snake a beaded appearance. Dr. Elmes shot another which he saw lying in a bhil (lake), and found the following in its stomach :—Two large and two small water rats, and two or three toads. Reptiles sometimes furnish the repast. Mr. Millard records one in the Bombay Natural History Society's rooms swallowing a monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis), a rat, and two frogs in quick succession. In its native jungles * Vol, XLITT., 1744. p. 271, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 59 it sometimes comes into conflict with other large snakes, for Mr. Donaghey told me that, coming back to camp one day in Burma, his coolies produced two snakes which they said they had discovered fighting, and which they killed. These proved to be a Python molurus and a hamadryad (Naia bungarus). They reported that the python had closed its jaws on the hamadryad and secured it fast. I saw and examined the two skins. The hamadryad measured 10 feet 33 inches and the python 7 feet 11 inches. In the former skin, at the junction of the middle and the posterior thirds, was a rent 3} inches long, corresponding to the python’s grasp. It is impossible, of course, to surmise which was the aggressor in the fight, but the python, though smaller, was giving @ good account of itself. The most curious mea! that I have had reported to me was a double handful of earthworms, and a handful of the berry called by natives “‘jaman”’ (Hugenia jambolana). My infor- mant was Mr. J. H. Mitchell, a planter in Assam. In captivity the python usually eats heartily and frequent- ly, accepting anything that is offered, as the following annual bills of fare will show : Phipson says one in Bombay ate 23 rats, 3 hens, 3 crows, and 1 kestrel. One in Madras* ate 82 jerboas, but would not touch house rats; another ate 59 jerboas, 8 squirrels, and 2 quails; a third accounted for 37 rats, 21 squirrels, and 3 quails. In Travancore one ate a spotted deer and 11 fowls; another 1 nilghai fawn, 1 hare, 1 rabbit, 13 fowls, and 1 pond heron; a third ate 14 fowls and 1 crown pigeon; a fourth 2 dogs, 2 hare wallabies, 2 bandicoots, and 54 fowls; a fifth 4 bandicoots, 19 fowls, and 1 spotted dove ; and a sixth 1 hare wallaby, 1 bandicoot, and 15 fowls. It not infrequently happens that where two are caged together both strike at the same animal, and begin to swallow from opposite ends till their noses meet, when if one does not relinquish its hold, one gets its jaws over the other and swal- lows its mate. This happened once in Regent’s Park and * Kindly communicated to me by Dr. J. R. Henderson. } For this information I am indebted to Colonel F. W. Dawson, 60 SNAKES OF CEYLON. once in the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms when both struck at the same partridge, and similar occurrences have been reported in other Institutions where snakes are kept. The young which hatched out in Travancore are reported to have eaten the rats offered to them. One sometimes hears of human beings being swallowed by pythons, but though I have collected several instances of other large snakes overcoming men, I have no authentic instance of this snake doing so, but it is amply capable of overpowering the strongest man. A young European told me once in Hong Kong that he had witnessed, as a boy, with his brothers a large snake (almost certainly a molurus) swallow a Chinese baby on Stone Cutter’s Island in the harbour. The mother left the child while engaged in some work, and the boys were afraid to encounter so formidable a snake. Major Sealy of the 4th Gurkhas tells me that a reliable old Gurkha Officer told him that once when officiating at afuneral pyre, a python emerged from the water hard by, seized the corpse, and made off with it. Usually in captivity live animals have until recently been given to the snakes in various Zoological gardens, but now that it is known that pythons, among other snakes, will accept dead food, the order has changed. The fact that they would eat dead animals was noted fifteen years ago by Ferguson, who says: “They will eat a dead rat, or rabbit, just as readily as a live one.’ He further states that in these circumstances it makes no attempt to constrict, but proceeds to swallow at once. In Regent’s Park for some years now, many of the snakes have been fed entirely on dead animals. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, who paid special attention to this, says it was not noticed that it made any difference whether the food was freshly killed, warm, or bleeding, or if dead forsome time. It was noticed that in many cases the prey was not taken until night, and this was particularly the case when pythons took large animals like goats. He further states that the pythons showed their readiness to feed by special restlessness and activity, often leaving the tanks in which they have been lying previously, and that they are specially alert when they hear movements in the passage behind their cages, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 61 or when the back doors are moved, and in the words of the keeper ‘“ they are asking for food.’’* In swallowing a small animal the mouth is widely opened, and the jaws fixed beyond the head of the victim, which is easily engulfed. Prior to the actual seizure of the head, the python plays about over it with quivering tongue. It does not slaver over it as is commonly supposed, but the saliva flowing freely under the stimulus of food, wets that part which has been received in the mouth, so that if the victim has been disadvantageously seized, and the snake rejects it to make a second attempt, the part of the quarry previously ingested is coated with saliva. When the animal is large, the snake seizing the head strives to fix its teeth as far back as possible over the victim, when, having got a firm purchase, the jaws—six in all, and all movable—work alternately over the head, one or more ata time relaxing their hold to be pushed further forward and obtain an extended purchase, while the others retain the hold already gained. The process is sometimes a tardy one, and if so the snake is frequently observed to protrude its wind- pipe, so that an inch or even two may be seen beyond the mouth, beneath the mass that is engaged within the jaws. This extension of the glottis is, however, not a peculiarity confined to the python, for it has been noticed in several other snakes, colubrines and vipers. It is popularly supposed that after a large meal the python lies torpid, in a condition of satiety, until digestion has far advanced. I very much doubt if this is the true explanation of the disinclination of the snake to move in such circum- stances, a disinclination even greater than it displays at other times. I think it is much more likely that in many cases the snake is so distended that it is afraid to move on account of internal injuries it may receive in the attempt. Undoubtedly, accidents do occur which must end fatally. In the case already referred to where a dead snake was found with the quills of a porcupine it had devoured penetrating its flanks between the ribs, it is probable that the * Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, P.Z.S., 1907, p. 785, et seq. 62 SNAKES OF CEYLON. injuries were received whilst moving before the quills had softened under the influence of the digestive function. A python already referred to, which was killed by Mr. Cope- land's coolies in Assam, refused to move from its refuge in the jungle though surrounded by a howling mob of coolies. After some time, the sustained apathy it exhibited stimulated the courage of the men, who advanced by degrees nearer and nearer till they actually probed it with sticks and bamboos, and made the situation so untenable that the snake was forced to bestir itself. In trying to get away the horns of a hog deer, which it had swallowed, penetrated its flanks. It was finally despatched, and measured 15 feet. The horns of the deer were about 7 or 8 inches long. Such accidents are not very uncommon in snakes of all kinds—from overdis- tension, or from mechanical causes, the beaks of birds, claws of various animals, &c.—and I have collected quite a number of incidents of the kind. The old traveller’s stories of pythons, boas, &c., swallowing stags is not borne out by modern observations. I doubt if a python ever kills any deer with horns it is not capable of swallowing. If it does, then sooner or later it has to relin- quish its victim. The old books that led one to believe that the stag was swallowed up to its antlers, which projected from the mouth, and remained 77 situ till the head rotted off certainly misled us. The only way in which the body could be retained and the head rejected would be by a slow decom- position (not a digestive process) separating the head at the neck joint, a process that would probably take several weeks to accomplish, and would exhaust even a python’s patience. The body of a stag in such a position would not reach the stomach, and would not be subjected to any digestive action, for the saliva is inert to animal tissues. Further, I doubt whether the lung could fulfil its function satisfactorily, even with the small oxygen requirements of a snake, when sub- jected to the great and continued pressure of a carcass like a stag’s. The digestive powers of a python depend naturally on its general health. Phipson found that in the hot weather in captivity small creatures like rats and crows were completely SNAKES OF CEYLON. 63 digested in about 8 days. McLeod* mentions a goat with horns being swallowed, that took three weeks to digest. In a vigorous snake every part of the animal swallowed is completely digested, except epithelial structures, such as hair, feathers, quills, teeth, the beak and claws, the scales of reptiles, the cornea, or, in snakes, the disc before the eye which is the analogue of the eyelids in other animals. If the dung is inspected, these structures will be found massed together, and often retaining in a wonderful degree the relationship occupied in the animal ingested. In sickly snakes, or in those whose vitality is impaired and when hibernation is approaching, bones will be found passed in a more or less imperfectly digested state. In the excrement also may be seen circular spaces which are believed to be casts from the snake’s intes- tine. Similar spaces were observed in the fossilized dung of the old reptilian monsters—icthyosaurus and plesiosaurus— by Buckland, who remarks upon them in his Bridgewater Treatise. Mr. Kinnear tells me they are frequently asked by visitors to the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms if pythons reject the horns of deer and stags eaten. I cannot speak positively upon this point, which, however, is one that could easily be demonstrated in any vivarium using goats as victims. I have never heard it suggested that they disgorge the horns, but this is one of the many points touched upon in this paper, about which I feel many of our readers could give more satisfactory information than my limited experience permits me to dilate upon. I believe, however, that the horns like other epithelial appendages are passed intact in the dung. Though we have shown that the python as a rule feeds well in captivity, sometimes it will refuse food for long periods, and without suffering perceptibly. Ferguson records one that fasted for over a year in the Trivandrum gardens, but changed its skin more than once, and always looked glossy and in perfect health. After this fast it ate a white rat, and later again two more. * The Voyage of H, M, §, “‘ Alceste,”’ 64 SNAKES OF CEYLON, Thirst.—It is evidently a thirsty reptile, and, in consequence, probably is often impelled towards water for this reason. The dam in Paris in 1841, after accomplishing her maternal duties and successfully launching forth her brood, drank eagerly, swallowing some two tumblerfuls of water, and the young too were observed to slake their thirsts. In drinking it does not fill the mouth, and throw back the head like birds, nor does it protrude the tongue and lap, but puts its mouth to the water, and imbibes like a mammal, the gulping move- ments of the throat being plainly visible. Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: I know of no difference in the sexes, except that in the male the claw-like terminations of the rudimentary hind limb are relatively larger than in the female. It is not known whether one sex attains to a greater length than the other. (6) Method of Reproduction: The python is oviparous, and many brooding dams have been reported upon. In all cases the dam has shown great solicitude for the fate of her eggs. After deposition the female coils herself around them, and has been observed so in captivity, and in a state of nature. As far as J am aware she appears to be generally alone during this period. I have only once heard of her mate being seen anywhere near her. I have several records of pythons found lying up with eggs in jungle and being killed, and with one exception no mention has been made of another snake being found close at hand. The eggs are laid sometimes more or less in the open, the dam proving rather a conspicuous object to the shikari. Sometimes the female retires into a hole in a tree, beneath a fallen tree, or in a termite’s nest, one in the latter situation having been found near Colombo some years ago. Several interesting observations have been made during the period of incubation. The dam’s temperature during the event, which happened in Regent’s Park in 1881, was recorded several times, and compared with that of a male in an adjoining cage. It was always rather higher being about 1°4° to 3° Fahrenheit in excess of the male.* In this case the female having once settled herself around the eggs *P, ZS. 1881, p. 960. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 65 remained there for six weeks without taking food, only leaving the eggs once for a few hours. In Paris, too, in 1841 it was reported that the dam refused food and drink during the whole period which lasted 58 days. Her task accomplished, it was noted that she took little or no notice of the young brood. (c) Season: From what is known of the period of gesta- tion, and the season when eggs are deposited, the mating season is in December, January, and February, the coldest months of the year, when we know that the python, at any rate in Northern India, is hibernating. We have already seen the effect on the vitality of the snake during this period, which is reduced to the extent that the body heat is sensibly diminished, and the capability for digestion lost. In the circumstances it is most remarkable that the inclination for sexual indulgence is retained, and yet this conclusion is in perfect agreement with that observed by me in other snakes that hibernate. One must assume that pythons retire in pairs, and that the female is gravid when the term of hiber- nation is spent. In Paris, 1841, the pair that mated were observed “‘in copula” several times during the month of January and February, and eggs were deposited in May, i.e., the season when eggs are laid in India. Mr. V. A. Herbert, LF.S., told me he once encountered two pythons coiled together in the Terai on May 2, which he believed were “in copula,” and which he shot. The eggs are deposited in the months of March, April, May, and June in India. A gravid female containing large eggs was killed at Pasyala in Ceylon on August 2, 1918. (d) Period of Gestation: Some three or four months elapse from the act of mating to the deposition of the eggs. (e) Period of Incubation : Though several pythons have laid eggs in captivity in various Institutions, the eggs have frequently been sterile, or when fertile, for some cause have failed to hatch. In Paris, however, in 1841 the incubation was brought to a successful conclusion, the period being fifty-eight days. The 15 eggs were laid on May 6, and on 14 6(6)20 66 SNAKES OF CEYLON. July 3 eight hatchlings emerged out of the 9 fertile eggs. (Gunther, Rept. Brit. Ind., p. 330.) I have seen it stated elsewhere on the authority of Dumeril that one hatched on July 3, and eight more during the next four days. Of 57 eggs deposited in Calcutta on April 11, 46 proved fertile, and hatched out between June 5 and 10, 7.e., 56 to 61 days later. In the event reported by Mr. D’Abreu, 16 eggs were deposited in 7 hours. (f) Number of Eggs in a Clutch: Records from various sources show that from 8 to 107 eggs are deposited at one laying. This python is therefore the most prolific snake known to me. (g) The Eggs: The eggs are like goose eggs, but soft shelled, the egg investment when emptied being like white kid. The poles are equally domed, and the eggs in a brood vary somewhat in their dimensions. Mr. D’Abreu reported the measurements of six that were deposited in the Nagpur Museum, as 85 to 95 mm. (3°4 to 3:8 inches) in length, and 56 to 64 mm. (2:2 to 2-5 mm.) in breadth. Sterile eggs of the same clutch were 55 to 78 mm. (2:2 to 3:1 inches) in length and 48 to 64 mm. (1:8 to 2:5 inches) in breadth. Two in the Indian Museum measured by me were 85 mm. (3°4 inches) long and 59 mm. (2 inches) broad. Sixteen eggs extracted from a large prospective dam, and preserved in the Colombo Museum, I found to be 88 to 106 mm. (34 to 4} inches) long, and 54 to 62 mm. (24 to 24 inches) broad. Two of these eggs that 1 opened contained no trace of an embryo. The weight of one of the Colombo clutch was just 5 ounces. One of the eggs deposited in Calcutta was 53 ounces, and Mr. [Abreu reported that one of his eggs weighed 6} ounces. Growth.—(«) Before Hatching: Mr. D’Abreu on cutting open an egg after deposition found an embryo within, about 3 inches long, with bud-like processes on each side of the cloacal aperture, representing the rudimentary hind limb, and relatively much larger than the indications of these structures in adults. After the eggs had been incuhated for + SNAKES OF CEYLON. 67 forty-nine days, an embryo was found within measuring 14} inches in length. Eggs deposited in Regent’s Park were found, after six weeks incubation, to contain embryos about 11 inches long. (6) Length of Hatchling: The young that hatched from eggs deposited in Calcutta measured about 2 feet. Other hatchlings from eggs acquired in Travancore were reported to average 2 feet 5 inches. The weight of the Calcutta hatchlings proved to be 4 ounces 2 drachms. (c) Harly Life: The Travancore brood grew 11 inches in 4 months. and it would appear from this that growth in early life is more rapid than later, for Pollock states that a specimen he had that was 12 feet long. when acquired grew about 3 feet in two years. (d) Maturity: The youngest sexually mature specimens I know of are those that mated at Nagpur. The female measured 2,590 mm. (8 feet 6 inches), and the male 1,725 mm. (5 feet 8 inches). A dam shot on her eggs in April near Colombo was 11 feet long. The specimen in Regent’s Park was 12 feet long when she deposited eggs. After sexual maturity growth continues for many years. In captivity specimens rarely grow longer than 12 feet. A specimen in captivity in Travancore for 12} years was only 94 feet long when it died. (e) Maximum Length ; It is difficult to say with certainty to what length the python may attain. It seems probable that many of the great lengths given by travellers and sports- men were guessed at, and the snake not actually measured. The creature is very thick relatively to its length, perhaps three or four times the girth of a Russell’s viper of similar length, and five or six times that of a dhaman (Zaocys mucosus). If a python’s length were judged from its girth, the estimate would grossly exceed the real measurement. Dr. J. R. Henderson showed me the skin of a python in the Madras Museum in 1917, which measured after death 16 feet, though during life its length had been estimated at 26 feet. I very much suspect that this was the specimen alluded to by Abercromby as 27 feet in length. (Snakes of Ceylon, p. 65.) 68 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Specimens of 18 feet are not very uncommon, as will be seen from the following records, and there is little doubt that it exceeds 20 feet. In the Bombay Natural History Journal* Ferguson records an 18 footer from the Ashambu hills, and Major Begbief one of a similar length killed near Baksa Duars. Other specimens of like proportions have been recorded by the late D. Ferguson in Ceylon, and in the Pioneer from Rajshai (Rajapur).§ I saw the skin of a speci- men of the same length in the possession of Mr. A. M. Harry in Assam. Mr. Prince of the King’s Own Shropshire Light Infantry shot a female in the United Provinces in 1906, which measured 18 feet 3 inches. In Land and Water (August 10, 1866 or 1867 7) one is mentioned from Mussoorie of 18 feet Y inches. Tennent|| refers to a specimen brought him in Ceylon that taped 19 feet. Another reported of a similar length was encountered by Captain George and Mr. Delmege when shooting in Ceylon. This way captured and brought to Colombo, and exhibited in 1885, when I saw it. Jerdon saw a 19 foot specimen killed in Travancore, and Dr. Elmes told me of one he shot in Assam (N. Lakhimpur District) of the same size. A specimen measuring 19 feet 2 inches in our Society’s collection, shot by the late Maharajah of Cooch Behar in Assam, was originally reported in this Journal ** as a Malayan python (P. reticulatus). Captain Percival tt} savs he saw one in Ceylon 22 feet long, and the specimen mentioned by John Ray, and stated by him to be in the Leyden Museum was, he states, 25 feet (I have not been able to get con- firmation of this from Leyden, but notice that Dumeril and Bibron refer to one in that Institution 20 feet). Elliottt * Vol. X., p. 69. } Vol. XVIL, p. 1lu21. { Rept. Funna, Ceylon, p. 22. § July 3, 1907. || Nat. His. of Ceylon, II., p. 153. { Journ. Ass. Soc., Bengal, X-X1L., p. 526. ** Rept. Brit. Ass., 1877, Trans., p. 115. tt} The Island of Ceylon, 1806, p. 311. tt Vol. XILL, p. 718. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 69 claims that it grows to a length of 30 feet, and if this opinion were confirmed I think India could lay claim to the two largest species of the genus, for reticulatus is also reported to attain to a length of 30 feet. Within quite recent times (1905) a specimen of the latter in the possession of Mr. John Hagenbeck was, as far as could be ascertained, in life 28 feet. The African species sebz is also a very large reptile which is recorded up to 23 feet. The weight of a python is remarkable, the specimen of molurus killed by the Maharajah of Cooch Behar, which measured over 19 feet, scaled 200 pounds (over 14 stone). Mr. John Hagenbeck’s reticulated python just alluded to weighed 250 pounds. (f) Longevity: Very few records have been made on this interesting matter. Gunther, however, mentions a python attaining the age of 19 years in Regent’s Park. It was four years old when acquired, and lived a further period of fifteen years in captivity. Parasites.—(a) Ectozoa: Ticks frequently infest the python, fixing themselves into the skin between the scales. Aypo- nomma gervaisi is the commonest of these. (6) Entozoa: (1) A cestode or tapeworm (Bothridium pythonis) may be found in great numbers in the intestine (duodenum). They are sometimes free, sometimes attached to the mucous membrane. Shipley found these in a specimen from Neligatta, Ceylon. (2) A cestode (Solenophorus megacephalus) also inhabits the intestine. Von Linstow found this once in the intestine of a tiger proving that it had recently devoured a python. (3) A nematode or round worm (Ascaris attenuata) was found by Von Linstow in the intestine of this python. (4) A nematode dubiously referred by Shipley to Ascaris rubicunda was taken from the lung of a Ceylon specimen. (5) A linguatulid (Porocephalus moniliformis) was found by Shipley in the lung of a Ceylon python. It has 28 to 30 annuli on the body. 70 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Another species (P. armillatus) with 22 rings has been found in two African pythons, viz., regiws and sebe. The adult parasites infest these snakes taking up their habitat in the lung. Ova are discharged, and probably infect the food or drinking water of the intermediary hosts (man, tiger, leopard, giraffe, mandrill, aardwolf, and hedgehog). The ova hatch inside these animals, reach their larval stage only, and become encysted in the liver, mesentery, and lungs. When an intermediary host is eaten—there may be many more than those enumerated above—the larval form reaches its furthest development, taking up its habitat in the lung of the snake, and the cycle of development is repeated. (Fig. 15.) Fie, 15. —Porecephalus armillatus. (Life size.) (After Sambon.) These intestinal parasites are most detrimental to the health of their hosts, and in some cases cause death. Fergu- son says once all the pythons in one of the cages in the Trivandrum gardens died, and on post-mortem examination they were found to be infested with nematodes that had perforated the walls of the stomach and intestines. (c) Hematozoa: Sambon discovered a blood parasite (Hemogregarina pocockt) inhabiting the red blood cells of this python. SNAKES OF CEYLON. ve Lepidosis.—Rostral : With two depressions, broader than high, in contact with six shields. Internasals: Two. Pre- frontals : Two; separated from the frontal by a row of scales. Frontals: Two. Supraoculars: As long as the frontal. Parietals: Replaced by scales. Nasals: Large, divided. Loreals: Many. Preoculars: Two or _ three. Postoculars: Three. Suboculars: Many. Swupralabials : Eleven to thirteen ; the anterior two with depressions ; the. Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, one sometimes touching the eye, but in some a complete row of suboculars separates all supralabials from the eye. Infralabials : Fifteen to twenty, some of the anterior and posterior with depressions. Sublin- guals: Absent. (Fig. 16.) Nostril Fie. 16.—Python molurus. R. The rostral showing pits; 1, 2, the Ist and 2nd supralabials showing pits, Costals: In midbody. Longer than broad. rectiform, smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged, the breadth of the scales about three-fourths their length, one-third or less than a third the ultimate row. Ultimate and three rows above enlarged, broader than long, progressively increasing in breadth ; the breadth of the scales in the ultimate row nearly twice their length, about half the breadth of the ventrals. In 60 to 75 rows. Ventrals ; Enlarged, narrow, without keels, 242 to 265 72 SNAKES OF CEYLON. in number. Anal: Entire ; as broad as last ventrals. Sub- caudals : 60 to 72; divided. (Fig. 17.) Fie. 17.—Anal region of Python molurus. Dentition.—Fromtwoskullsinmycollection. Premazxillary: 4, well-developed. Maxillary: 18 to 19; anododont, syn- eranterian, strongly scaphiodont. Palatine : 6 ; anododont, scaphiodont. Pterygoid : 8 to 10 ; anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular : 16 to 19; anododont, strongly scaphiodont. (Fig. 18.) Fic, 18.—Python molurus.’ A. Maxilla, B. Mandible. Cc. Premaxilla. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 73 Distribution.—(a) General ; Ceylon, and Peninsula India to the Himalayas. Eastwards through Assam, Burma, Indo- China, and South China. Westwards through the Punjab and Sind to the borders of Baluchistan.* (6) Local: Tt is a denizen of the plains, but ascends into hills, on rare occasions I believe up to about 6,000 feet, Sub-family Boinz. Lepidosis (for Indian Species).—Rostral: Broader than high, with or without a transverse ridge ; in contact with six shields. Only small scales on the crown. I[nternasals : A modified pair present in some. Nasals: Two. Supra- labials : Ten to fourteen, not pitted ; Ist and 2nd touch the nasals, none touch the eye, being separated from it by one to three rows of scales. Sublinguals : None. A mental groove in some species. Costals: Atmidbody. As long as broad, rectiform, smooth, or more or legs strongly keeled. Vertebrals not enlarged, the breadth of the scales subequal to their length, and about half that of the ultimate row. Ultimate row, and two or three above it smooth, broader than long, progressively increasing in breadth. Breadth of scales in the ultimate row about one and a half times their length, and half or less than half the breadth of the ventrals. In 36 to 65 rows. Ventrals : Enlarged, narrow, not ridged, numbering from 162 to 210, the last two or three trifid. Anal: Trifid, as broad as the ventrals. Subcaudals : Entire, numbering 15 to 53. Dentition.— Premazxillary: None. Maxillary: 9 to 1%, syncranterian, scaphiodont. Palatine: 3 to 6; scaphiodont. Pterygoid : 3 to 15; scaphiodont. Mandibular: 11 to 20; scaphiodont. Not represented in Ceylon. * In answer to my queries Mr. Cumming tells me the specimen in the Quetta Museum was killed in the Habb River between Sind and Baluchistan. 15 6(6)20 74 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Family XENOPELTIDA, Distribution.—Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, and Archipelago as far East as Java. Represented by a single genus which contains but one species, Not found in Ceylon. Family COLUBRIDA. (Named from the type genus Coluber.) General Characters.—Head small or moderate, narrow, moderate or broad. Snout short, moderate, or long, with or without canthus, pointed, narrowly or broadly obtuse. Eye small, moderate, or large, with round vertical or horizontal pupil. Nostril small, moderate, or large ; open or valvular ; lateral or superior, Neck not, slightly, or markedly con- stricted. Body cylindrical, compressed or depressed, slender, moderate, or robust. Belly rounded, angulate, or keeled. Tail short, moderate, or long ; cylindrical, slightly or highly compressed. Habits .—Terrestrial, arboreal, subaquatic, fluviatile, lacus- trine, or marine. Active. Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fishes; avine, reptilian, and batrachian eggs; worms. Breeding .—Oviparous or viviparous. Poison.—The majority are not poisonous, many are poisonous, and of these some very fatal to man. Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields of a form and disposition peculiar to the family, except in Chersydr us. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 75 Costals : Longer than broad, except in Chersydrus, keeled or smooth, with or without apical pits or facets, emarginate apically or not ; imbricate or juxtaposed. Arranged in from 13 to 47 rows at midbody. Ventrals: Narrow or broad, rounded or keeled. Anal: Entire or divided. Subcaudals : Entire or divided. : Dentition.—Mazilla : Aglyphous, opisthoglyphous, or proteroglyphous ; syncranterian or diacranterian ; isodont or anisodont; anododont, oinododont, or dinododont ; coryphodont, kumatodont, or scaphiodont. Palatine: Den- tulous and variable. Pterygoid: Dentulous and variable. Mandibular : Dentulous and variable. Distribution.—Over the whole world, except the Arctic regions and snow-clad Alpine tracts. The family is divided into three series— (A) Aglypha.—Maxilla without grooved or canaliculate fangs. (B) Opisthoglypha.—Maxilla with a pair of grooved fangs at the posterior extremity. (C) Proteroglypha.—Maxilla with a pair of canaliculate fangs at the anterior extremity. 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Series AGLYPHA. Sub-family 1.—Acrochordiine. (Named from the type genus Acrochordus.) General Characters (for Ceylon Species)—_Head moderate in size. Snout short, without canthus. Eye small, with verti- cally elliptic pupil. Nostrils superior, lying close together on the front of the snout. Neck not constricted. Body heavy, compressed ; very harsh to the touch on account of its rasp-like keels. Belly with a median ridge. Tail short, compressed, and prehensile. Identification.—Known by its very numerous scales (about 150 at midbody) which are broader than long, and juxtaposed ; and the superior, annular, closely-approximated nostrils. Habits.—Aquatic. Active. Food.—Fish. Breeding.—Viviparous. Poison.—Non-poisonous. Lepidosis.—As detailed under the species (q. v-) Dentition.— As detailed under the genus (q. v-) Distribution.—Coasts from north of Bombay to New Guinea. The Sub-family contains five genera, two of which are represented in India, and one only in Ceylon. Genus CHERSYDRUS. (Greek “chersos”’ dry land, and ‘“hudor’’ water; apparently christened under the belief that it is amphibious in habit.) General Characters.—Body heavy, compressed, attenuating anteriorly and posteriorly. Skin loose, harsh, and rasp-like. A raised ridge along the belly. Head moderate, depressed. Tail compressed. Eye small, inclined somewhat upwards ; pupil vertically elliptic. Nostrils large, round, closely approximated on the top of the snout, resembling the mouths of a double-barrelled gun. Identification.—The costal scales small, juxtaposed, broader than long, and exceeding one hundred at midbody will sufficiently indicate the genus. Habits.— Entirely marine. SNAKES OF CBYLON 79 Lepidosis.—Costals broader than long, small, numerous, and juxtaposed ; with claw-like keels; larger dorsally than ventrally. Ventrals longer than broad, curved, imbricate, in four or five series along a raised ridge. Head covered with granular scales, and no enlarged shields. Dentition— Maxillary: Anododont and feebly kumato- dont. Palatine: Anododont and scaphiodont. Pterygoid : Anododont and scaphiodont. Mandibular: Anododont and feebly kumatodont. Distribution.—The genus includes but one species which inhabits the coasts from Bombay to Indo-China, and the Malayan Archipelago to New Guinea. CHERSYDRUS GRANULATUS Schneider. (Latin: Adjectival form of “ granus ” grain, and “ ulus” diminutive, in allusion to the small] scales.) The Chersydrus or Rasp-Skinned Water Snake. History.—First referred to by Schneider in 1799. Synonymy.—Hydrus granulatus, Acrochordus fasciatus, Like other snakes it suffers from thirst, specially in the hot weather, and I daresay that many of its intrusions into bathrooms and its lodgmenut in catch-pits and wells may be accounted for in this manner. I saw one in the possession of a snakeman in Cannanore that dipped its head into a tin of water presented to it and drank greedily ; each gulp being plainly visible in the throat. Breeding.—-(a) The Sexes: The cobra seems to show a decided tendency to a social life. Many writers have remarked upon its habit of living in couples, and this is specially true during the breeding season. It appears, however, to seek society apart from sexual impulses, for on one occasion in Rangoon two were brought to me found coiled together bencath a stack of wood, and both proved to be females. On another occasion, also in Rangoon, a Burman dug out a hole where hic had seen a snake make good its excape. The result was the discovery of three cobras. Two ot these were males, and one a female which showed ovarian follicles, obviously fertilized and enlarged. ‘This leads one to ask the question SNAKES OF CEYLON, 473 does the cobra on occasion practise polyandry ? Mr, Fitz- gerald once told me that he saw three large snakes go into a hole in his compound within a few minutes. He had possessed himself of his gun, as speedily as possible, and shot-the third snake before it had quite disappeared, and this proved to be a cobra. He assumed the others to have been of the same species, but, unfortunately, did not verify his suspicions. I can discover no difference in the lepidosis of the sexes, nor in the relative lengths of the tails. There is no constant difference either in the ranges of ventrals and subcaudals. The male clasper is narrow and long and surmounted with very small claw-like tentacles. It is not bifid. Females appear to be more numerous than males in Bangalore, as Dr, Nicholson found 410 of the former, against 308 of the latter, in 718 cobras sexed by him. In Cannanore, however, I got eight males to a single female. In Chitral out of 18 sexed, Il were females and 7 males. In Fyzabad I collected 18 males to 15 females. {b) The Act of Mating : Colonel Dawson had captive cobras in Trivandrum which were observed “in copula ” in January. Mr. H. Hampton wrote to me of a pair he had in captivity in Burma that were observed in the act of mating at the end of March. Mr. Foulkes told me of a pair he found coupled in June at Rajamundry. The act of mating has been witnessed by Colonel Dawson and Mr. H. Hampton, to whom I am indebted for the following details: In Trivandrum the pair remained coupled from 11 a.m. until 4.20 p.m. on January 17. In Mr. Hampton’s vivarium coitus lasted intermittently for three days. He observed that the pair nodded their heads continually, and their bodies quivered. They did not take the slightest notice of anybody in front of their cage. They did not expand their hoods, neither did they wrap themselves around one another. Each turned the vent upwards and sideways to effect engage- ment. (c) Method of Reproduction: Eggs are produced by the cobra. (d) Season : Flower in Siam had a gravid female with eggs fit for discharge, judging from their measurements, in the 474, SNAKES OF CEYLON. month of January. Nicholson had several gravid females with eggs about an inch long in February at Bangalore, and I had one in a similar condition at Cannanore in the same month. Mr. E. E. Green also had a gravid female in Ceylon in February. Evans and I obtained gravid females in Rangoon in July and August, one specimen in July showing but little enlargement of the ovarian follicles. The usual months for the deposition of eggs are April and May. Four cobras laid eggs in the Parel Laboratory in April, and eight in May. Nicholson says that about Bangalore they are laid in May and early June. Mr. Phipson remarked that eggs are laid in the rains. Two eggs sent to me from our Society’s collection were deposited in June. Wall (A. J.) mentions eggs laid in July, and Hampton’s eggs were laid in the middle of August at Mogok, Burma. (e) Period of Gestation : The period of gestation is accurately known in Colonel Dawson’s case. Sixty-two days after coitus, 7.e., on March 20, cight eggs were deposited, the first at 8 A.M., six more almost immediately, and then after the lapse of half an hour the last. In Mr. Hampton’s case the mating was observed towards the end of March, and eggs were not deposited until the middle vf August, nearly five months. (f) Period of Incubation: Fayrer says, on the evidence of his snakemen, that the cobra incubates her eggs, and that they frequently dug out mother and brood. This is in accord- ance with the habits of other snakes, and receives direct confirmation from Colonel Dawson, who told me that at first his dam coiled herself among her eggs. The period of incu- bation has been ascertained at Parel. Eggs laid on May 12 hatched out on July 20, 7.e., in sixty-nine days. The period that elapses then between coition and the advent of the young is rather over four months. (g) The Eggs : From over a dozen records, I find that the usual number of eggs laid is 12 to 22. I find one record of 8, and the only record of over 22 is Mr. Hampton’s. In this case 45 eggs were deposited, 36 seemingly good, and 9 apparently infertile. SNAKES OF CEYLON. ATS The eggs are elongate white ovals, with soft shells and similar poles. The two sent me from the Bombay Natural History Society measure 49 X 28 mm. (a shade under 2 inches in length). The almost mature eggs extracted from the maternal abdomen by Flower measured 53 x 34mm. Eggs sent me from Parel vary much and are much smaller, and it occurs to me they may have been infertile. Two of these measured 41 x 20 mm. (13 x 2 of an inch), one 38 x 19 mm. (14 x 2 of an inch), one 32 x 20 mm. (14 x # of an inch), and a fifth 29 x 15 mm. (14 x of an inch). Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: Phipson reported young meas- uring 190 mm. (74 inches) long when emerging from the eggs, and Colonel Glen Liston had young only 178 mm. (7 inches) long at Parel when hatching. All other testimony at my command agrees in assigning to the hatchling a length of 250 to 280 mm. (10 to 11 inches). Assistant Surgeon Robertson told me the young he saw just hatched measured 280 mm. (11 inches). I measured one of those that hatched at Parel, which was bottled at once, and found it was 266 mm. (103 inches) long. Nicholson remarks that at birth they are less than 305 mm. (1 foot). Now, Colonel Bannerman extracted an embryo from an egg forty-three days after deposition, and found it taped 178 mm. (7inches). Another that was removed from an egg by me measured 228 mm. (9 inches), but it is not specified at what lapse of time after deposition. It would appear from these records that the artificial conditions in the vivarium are not conducive to the development of normal proportions. Thave had young cobras brought to me measuring 266 mm. (104 inches) in June at Cannanore, and 282, 317, and 325 mm. (114, 123, and 1223 inches) at Fyzabad in July. Nicholson remarked that out of 1,000 cobras brought to him in May to August, 1873, 230 were young of the season, measuring from 305 to 405 mm. (12 to 16 inches), and of 1,220 in the year, 50 were from eggs deposited. It seems to be a common belief that young cobras newly hatched are not poisonous. This is certainly a mistake, as 66 6(6)20 476 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Mr. Phipson reported that the young cobras that hatched out some years ago in our Society’s rooms killed a small Malay python (Python reticulatus), which was placed in their cage, a few days after they were born. They attacked it at once, biting it viciously across the back. (b) Early Life: Phipson, referring to the hatchlings that were 187 mm. (73 inches) when they emerged from the egg, says they grew an inch and a half in about two months, but, as these specimens appeared to have died of inanition having refused all food, one may be certain this underestimates the normal growth. Similarly, I have had specimens submitted to me from Parel which did not develop as cobras usually do in a state of nature. Four of these born on July 18, 1910, were consigned to spirit on November 2. I measured these, and found them 290, 305, 305, and 320 mm. (11%, 12, 12, and 122inches). A fifth specimen born on July 20, 1910, died on December 7, and I find it is 124 inches long. (c) Maturity : I have had no information of the length of gravid females. (2d) Maximum Length: The cobra, when adult, measures usually 1,370 to 1,675 mm. (from 43 to 54 feet). Larger speci- mens are rare, and 6-footers extremely rare. Dr. Nicholson, who for some time distributed the rewards for poisonous snakes on behalf of the Mysore Government, says that out of 1,200 specimens that passed through his hands at Bangalore, only tour exceeded 1.675 mm, (5 feet 6 inches), and the largest of these measured 1,728 mm.(5 feet 8inches). Ihave probably examined 500 cobras from various parts of Asia, between Baluchistan and Chitral to South China. I have only once seen a 6-footer, and this was sent to me by Mr. P. W. Mackin- non, and was killed in Dehra Dun. It taped 1,930 mm. (6 feet 4inches). Mr. H. Hampton, writing to me from Mogok, Ruby Mines, Burma, told me he had obtained a specimen of precisely similar length, which he had sent to the British Museum. He further stated that Mr. Boulenger, in acknowledging the specimen ,told him it was the largest received in that Institution, where there are upwards of seventy examples. Mr. Millard has told me of two specimens he has seen, one 1,830 mm. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 477 (6 feet) from Khandalla, and another 1,970 mm. (6 feet 54 inches), locality not specified. Mr. C, Bateman wrote to me in 1909 that he had killed one of the monocellate variety in the Jalpaiguri District that measured 1,970 mm. (6 feet 54 inches) unstretched. Writing to Mr. Millard in 1906, Mr. 8. M. Pearless said that the four largest examples he had killed at Badulla, Ceylon, measured respectively 1,805, 1,842, 1,980, and 2,095 mm. (5 feet 11 inches, 6 feet 4 inch, 6 feet 6 inches, and 6 feet 104 inches), and he believed specimens running to 2,135 mm. (7 feet) were on record. The Pioneer of February 12, 1908, contained an account of a large cobra, quoted from the Times of Ceylon. It appears that on January 31, 1908, Mr. Webster, whilst motoring Sir Thomas Lipton in Colombo, saw a crowd of natives collected on the road. These proved to be watching a hole in which a snake was partly visible. Mr. Webster, by means of a noose of rope, managed to extract the snake and kill it, and it was found to be a cobra of unusual length, which, when taped, measured 2,135 mm. (7 feet). The account further stated that a local taxidermist set up the specimen. On writing to Sir Thomas Lipton, he repeated this story to me and gave me permission to see the specimen in his residence at Ossidge. It is set up in the erect posture with open mouth, showing the fangs, I measured it and found it taped 2,020 mm. (6 feet 74 inches). The Bombay Natural History Society has recently acquired a specimen from Shamshirnagar 2,008 mm. (6 feet 7 inches) unskinned. Lyddeker* says one has been recorded 2,210 mm. (7 feet 3 inches) in length, but gives no details of the locality where it was found nor the authority who measured it. Foes.—In the Bombay Natural History Journalf I published a list of the enemies of snakes in their natural haunts, any of which I take it may include the cobra in their dietary. Among mammals, the mongoose has been conceded a special place as a destroyer of cobras. Personally, I always had the greatest difficulty to get my captive mongooses, and * Royal Nat. Hist., Reptilia and Fishes, p. 223. + Vol, XVI, p. 375. 478 SNAKES OF CEYLON. 1 have had three or four, to face my captive cobras, much less attack them. Mr. Stevens in Assam told me he once witnessed an encounter between a mongoose and a cobra. The snake managed to evade the carnivore in the tall grass, and was killed by Mr. Stevens. An interesting incident was reported to me by Mr. Reid, showing that some animals have an instinc- tive dread ot the cobra, or, perhaps, snakes in general, A herd of buffaloes that were standing, feeding out of a row of “nands,’”’ suddenly became very excited and broke loose, stamping and snorting, and to all appearances were terrified. On investigation ,a cobra was found close by, which was killed, one old cow when she saw it rushed upon its body and trampled it. This, by the way, is the method by which deer and pigs are reported to attack and destroy snakes. Gunther says the jungle fowl kills cobras, and this seems probable, as domestic fowls are known to kill and eat them ; an event of this kind happened before the eyes of the late Mr. P. W. MacKinnon in Mussoorie, his fowl! killing and then swallowing the snake with no ill-effects. Both Evans and Craddock have reported instances of the cobra being victimized by the king cobra (N. bungarus). Mr. Gleadow once wrote to me that he saw a large monitor lizard (Varanus, spec.) running off with a live snake, 3 or 4 feet long, in his jaws, which, when released, was shot and proved to be a cobra. 2? Freaks.—In the Indian Museum there is a double-headed cobra, an example of that rare condition, anterior dichotomy. Poison .—(a) The Gland : This organ, whichis really a salivary gland, and the analogue of the parotid gland in mammals, including man, consists of a body and a neck. The body is much the shape and size of an almond kernel, and consists of (1) a thick fibrous capsule or jacket, (2) the glandular or poison secreting substance proper, and (3) a duct running centrally in the long axis of the gland. The capsule gives off numerous fibrous septa, which pass into the glandular sub- stance and divide it into numerous chambers or pockets (the poison lakes of Bobeau). Each pocket is lined with poison secreting cells, and carries in its walls blood vessels, which convey the blood which the poison cells depend SNAKES OF CEYLON. 479 upon for their activity. After a period of activity, the pockets, which converge forwards and inwards towards the axis of the gland, become distended with poison, and this is poured into the central duct. At the posterior pole the gland ends in a downward projecting lobe. The fibrous capsule dips into the gland, just in tront of this lobe, to form a furrow for the attachment of an important muscle, the masseter. This muscle originates from the postfrontal bone and the ridges on the parietal, and is somewhat fan-shaped. Its fibres converge, and pass first backwards over the superior and internal surfaces of the gland, then downwards behind its posterior pole, and finally torwards to be attached to the furrow, or dimple in front of the lobe. The muscle, in fact, embraces a large part of the gland surface, and in contraction squeezes it much in the same way as the hand operates on a bicycle horn, the result being that poison is driven forwards into the duct to pour finally into the mouth. The neck of the gland consists of a sheath which is the direct continuation of the capsule surrounding the body, but is much thinner. Centrally is the poison duct, and intermediate between the sheath and the duct a series of mucous glands. These are placed at right angles to the axis of the duct, and discharge their mucous into that channel, where it mingles with the poison proper. In section the gland appears to the naked eye much like a sponge. (6) Physical Characters : Cobra venom,when freshly secreted, is a clear, amber-coloured, very viscid fluid, with a specific gravity of 1,050. It resembles olive oil in appearance and consistency, and soon solidifies into an amorphous brittle mass, fissuring in all directions, and losing from 60 to 75 per cent. of its weight in the process of drying. Lieut.-Colonel Glen Liston has very kindly weighed me a drop of fresh cobra venom in the balance at Parel Laboratory, and find it weighs approximately 35 mgms. Allowing a loss of 68 per cent. in drying, the residue of one drop would weigh 11 mgms. It is somewhat remarkable that a drop of olive oil, to which I have compared cobra venom in appearance and consistency, only weighs 6 mgms.in the same balance at Parel. 480 SNAKES OF CEYLON. When dry the poison retains its transparency and resembles gum or amber. In the dry state it keeps well and preserves its virulent character, according to Vincent Richards, for at least fifteen years. The same authority shows that, though there has been some difference of opinion among authorities, poison is acid when fresh, and this in spite of the fact that the normal reaction of the cobra’s mouth is alkaline. Lamb has confirmed these observations. After the lapse of some hours the venom becomes neutral. Dr. Nicholson says it is slightly bitter to the taste, and causes a feeling of frothy soapiness in the mouth, at the same time stimulating the flow of saliva. The same authority remarks that the dried particles have a pungent action upon the nostrils. Lamb describes the taste as very bitter and astringent. (c) Yteld : This, of course, varies with the size of the cobra, but even in specimens of similar length other factors affect the yield. Lamb says: “It is an observation of common occurrence in this laboratory (Parel) that a cobra newly caught will yield from 20 to 30 large drops of poison, while after he has been a captive for some time, this quantity will have diminished to from 6 to 10 drops and in time to nil.” Dr. Nicholson observed that the yield was more abundant in wet weather. Under the influence of anger, poison is secreted unduly copiously. Doubtless, age, health, and individual vitality also influence the quantity secreted. The venom in its fluid state is found to vary a good deal in concentration, a cobra’s yield is therefore calculated by the amount of solid residue left after drying. Cunningham’s average for nine cobras was 254 mgms. Lamb's for fourteen cobras 231, and Roger’s for two cobras 249 mgms. Lamb found that by provoking cobras, so as to make them bite viciously, the yield collected in glasses was considerably augmented, as compared with that collected by simple pres- sure over the glands, and amounted to an average of 373 mgms. for three cobras. Cunningham obtained from one cobra the enormous quantity of 725 mgms. The amount of solid, it will be seen, ranges between 200 and 726 mgms. in healthy adult cobras. Acton and Knowles have shown that SNAKES OF CEYLON. 48] the yield is very variable, and for fifty cobras,varying in length from 2 feet 10 inches to 5 feet 10 inches, ranged between 30-2 and 881°4 mgms. of desiccated poison. Further, that one snake, 4 feet 4 inches in length, furnished only 30:2 mgms., whilst a young one only 2 feet 10 inches in length furnished 31 mgms. Again, one cobra 4 feet 10 inches in length yielded 143:4 mgms., whilst another of exactly similar proportions yielded 706:6 mgms. The average yield for these fifty cobras was 317 mgms. (d) Amount injected at one Bite: Acton and Knowles estimate that the average discharge of venom at a bite is about 211 mgms. The variability of the amount injected is exemplified by many experiments on rats. Thus, no less than six rats bitten by cobras, varying in length from 2 feet 10 inches to 4 feet 8 inches, did not die as.a result, (e) Toaicity : Lamb has shown that even the dried product varies in its degree of toxicity, as he found the minimal lethal dose for rats was ‘07 mgms. with one sample, and -04 with another. Again, in Acton and Knowles’ experiments, they injected 2 mgms. of poison into fifty rats. As a result all succumbed, but where one died in 53 minutes, another did not die for 20 hours ! (f) Rapidity of Absorption: Blake found that a poison injected into the jugular vein reached the pulmonary circula- tion of a dog in from 4 to 6 seconds, and the cardiac circulation in 7 seconds. A poison injected into the same vein was distributed throughout the circulation in 9 seconds. It is this extreme rapidity of transmission in the blood stream that accounts for the fatal issue in experiments where a poisoned member is amputated or wound excised almost immediately after being bitten. Russell caused a cobra, after biting a dog twice, to inflict a wound in the leg of a pigeon, and amputated the member one minute later, but the bird died in two hours. On dissecting up the limb the extravasation, peculiar to the local action of snake poison, was observed half an inch above the punctures, and almost reached the point of amputation. 482 SNAKES OF CRYLON. Fayrer* (Expt. 3 of Serics 16) caused a cobra to bite a dog in a fold of skin in the groin. The wound was entirely excised “at once,” but death took place in 6 minutes! In another experiment (No. 13 of Series 15), the same authority repeated the same performance, the part being “‘ immediately ” excised (within 2 seconds). The animal died 2 hours and 35 minutes later. It appears probable that the initial absorption of the poison is far more speedy in the first few seconds (or minutes) than subsequently (7). Acton and Knowles have repeated these experiments, and find that if amputation is not accomplished within ten minutes of a lethal injection, the amount already absorbed will cause a fatal issue. (g) Lethal Dose for Man: It is a well-established fact that cobra venom may be swallowed in large quantities without producing any baneful results. Elliot gave a dog 10 drops— a dose sufficient to kill 10 dogs, if injected into the tissues— without producing any ill-effect. On another occasion he gave 20 drops to a goat with the same result. Fraser, by graduated doses internally, succeeded in giving a cat 1,000 times the lethal dose by injection bencath the skin. Calmette repeated the experiment, giving 1,000 times the lethal sub- cutaneous dose to a cat internally, without producing symptoms of poisoning. It is the access of the venom into the blood stream that constitutes its extreme danger to all animals. The lethal dose of the poison so introduced has been accurately ascertained for many animals by experiment, but in man must remain to some extent conjectural. Various estimates have been made, based on experiments on the lower animalss. Fraser’s estimate is 31 mgms., whilst Calmette madc it about 10 mgms. Lam), however, finding that *25 mgms. is approxi- mately the minimal lethal dose per kilogram weight in monkeys and postulating an equal degree of susceptibility in man, concludes that the dose for a man weighing 10 stone would be about 15 to 17-5 mgms. (or ‘0015 to -0017 grammes). If we * Thanatophidia of [India (1874), SNAKES OF CEYLON. 483 take Lamb’s estimate of the lethal dose for man, which is probably nearest the mark, and strike an average for the 25 cobras experimented with by Cunningham, Lamb, and Rogers, the average yield of which amounts to 240 mgms; we may state that an average cobra contains poison enough in its glands to kill fifteen men. An exceptional cobra may even contain sufficient poison to kill forty-five men! Acton and Knowles, by well-reasoned induction and a highly ingenious system of experiment, arrive at the same conclusion as Lamb, and place the lethal dose at 15 mgms. (or -0015 grammes) of dried poison. (h) Uncertainty of Effects: When one considers all these facts, viz., the extremely small quantity that constitutes a lethal dose in man, the number of lethal doses of venom available in a normal cobra, and the rapidity of absorption into the blood, it is extremely remarkable that any bitten subject can escape receiving his death warrant however trivial the injuries sustained. In spite of this, it is a well- established fact that a certain number of bitten subjects in which poison too has been indubitably injected do recover, and without treatment. Of course, it is obvious in these cases that the dose absorbed was a sublethal one. It seems to me very remarkable how variable are the results of a cobra bite as testified by experiment in the lower animals, Elliot* reports, on the authority of Surgeon-Major Browning, LM.S., that on one occasion “a healthy cobra bit a dog in two places with no results ; another bite from the same cobra on the same animal resulted in death.” Fayrerf records a parallel case. “ A mongoose and a full-sized cobra were put into a large wire cage at 1 p.m. The snake struck at the mongoose, and they grappled with each other frequently, and apparently the mongoose must have been bitten, as the snake held on to it about the neck and head. The next day at noon * Trans, Brit. Med., Assoc. 8. Ind, Br., 1895, p. 7. + Thanatophidia, p. 69, 67 6(6)20 484 SNAKES OF CEYLON. both were well.’”’ There had been two cobras with this mongoose during the night ‘‘ both equally fierce, striking each other and the mongoose, but the latter was not poisoned. He was scratched by the cobra rather severely on the head. But on being bitten in the thigh by the same cobra, when both were taken out of the cage, ‘ the mongoose succumbed to the poison very rapidly.” Again, Dr. Davy reports a case where “a cobra, 5 feet long, bit a hen, fixing its fangs in the skin covering the lower point of the left pectoral muscle, and keeping its hold about two or three seconds.’’ The hen died after eight hours. Compare with this Fayrer’s fowl that was bitten “by a large cobra in the thigh fell into convulsions immediately and died in 50 seconds.’ The literature on the cobra is full of similar conflicting results following its bite ; it is obvious that if such occur in lower animals during experiment, they will occur also in the human subjects bitten by accident. Speaking of this uncertainty, Fayrer says “snakes frequently strike, and even wound without poisoning.” There is abundant evidence to show that snakes like the cobra, which are known to be capable of delivering a mortal wound, frequently fail to do so, though they may inject poison in considerable quantity. Vincent Richard says : ‘“‘a man or an animal may he very seriously poisoned by a rattlesnake, or indeed by any snake, and yet recover under subjection to various or even no treatment.” Weir Mitchell cites an experiment with a dog, which he says “has especial value as showing how exceedingly grave may be the signs of poisoning, and yet how rapid and complete may be the rally and escape. At one stage the dog was lying on the floor, scarcely breathing, and nearly pulseless.” I could multiply instances “ad libitum.” So far as the human subject is concerned there are many cases of cobra bite recorded where no ill-effects were produced, or symptoms of varying severity not ending in death, though no treatment was attempted. Dr. Davy, after remarking that the effects of cobra bite “‘ vary a good deal according to circumstances not easy to calculate,” says : ““T have seen several men who have recovered from the bite SNAKES OF CEYLON. 485 of the hooded snake, and I have heard of two or three only to whom it has proved fatal.” Russell mentions a cooly woman whom he saw 10 hours after being bitten by a cobra. Para- lysis had advanced go far as to seriously affect her throat, and he had difficulty in getting her to swallow a Tanjore pill. She recovered completely. He mentions another case of a drunken Irishman who declared he was proof against any snake owing to his nationality, and put a cobra into his shirt before an assembled throng. The snake bit him severely in the breast, he suffered not only great pain locally, but serious constitu- tional effects, nevertheless he recovered. Dr. Nicholson records a case where two snakemen, under the influence of drink, got bitten by one of their cobras. As some time had elapsed when he saw them, he coloured some water pink with his dentifrice, which he gave them to allay their fears. Both recovered, though one had a swollen hand next day as a result of the accident. Calmette records another very interesting case where a man was profoundly under the influence of cobra poisoning following a bite, but who persistently refused antivenene which was to hand, took his chance, and recovered completely. These cases are most instructive, and serve to point two lessons. One is that however serious the symptoms arising from a cobra bite, there is always hope. The other lesson is that nobody is qualified to assume that any given treatment, adopted in a certain case, has been responsible for its favour- able issue. There can be no doubt that the failure to realize this latter truth has been responsible for the host of reputed antidotes, which have been vaunted from time to time since the days of Celsus, all of which have proved futile when subjected to scientific experiment. It is difficult to say what percentage of cases of cobra bite would not prove mortal. Dr. Davy, speaking of Ceylon cobras, says that recovery follows the bite as often as death. Jn the article on Snake Poisons in Allbutt’s system of medicine, Lamb and Martin say : “‘ the mortality in persons bitten by the larger snakes of India and South America would not, from the scanty records available, appear to be more than 30 per cent.” 486 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (j) Toxins : Chemical formula C,, Hy) Ojo (Faust) :— (1) Toxins operating on nerve cells— (a) A depressor that paralyses the respiratory centre (Brunton and Fayrer). (6) A depressor to the vasomotor centre (Lamb). (c) A depressor that paralyses centres in the bulb (A. J. Wall). (d) A depressor that paralyses the ends of nerves including the phrenic nerves (Brunton and Fayrer). (e) A destructive agent to cells generally in the spine and cord (Lamb and Hunter). (2) A direct stimulant to cardiac muscle (Brunton and Fayrer, through Elliot)— (a) Action on muscle or nerve endings. (6) Vago-inhibitory apparatus. (c) Vaso constriction of arterioles. (3) A vaso constrictor (Brunton and Fayrer). (4) Toxins affecting the constitution of the blood— (a) An antifibrin ferment that reduces clotting of blood (Brunton and Fayrer). (6) ‘‘ Hamolysin’’ destructive to red blood cells (Hilson, Ragotzi). (c) ‘‘ Leucolysin ” destructive to white blood cells (Flexner and Noguchi). (d) An antibactericidal principle that destroys the normal activity that blood exhibits towards the invasion of germs into the body (Flexner and Noguchi). (5) Toxins destructive to other cell elements— (a) “‘ Hemorrhagin ” destructive to the lining mem- brane of arterioles (Flexner). (6) Agents destructive to cells at the seat of injury. SNAKES OF OEYLON. 487 (k) Analysis of the Action of the Poxins— (1) (@) The “neurotoxin” paralysing the respiratory centre is the predominant agent in causing death. It is assisted by (1) (d), and slightly by (4) (8). (b) The effects of the “toxin” that depresses the vaso - motor centre are neutralized by the combined antagonistic action of (2)and (3). The result is that after breathing has ceased, artificiel respiration is capable of prolonging life for many hours. (c) This ‘‘ toxin,” operating on several centres in the bulb, evokes symptoms exactly similar to those seen in bulbar palsy, where lips, tongue, throat, and voice are paralysed. (d) Assists (1) (a) in the production of asphyxia. (e) The toxin “‘amyotrophin”’ destroys nerve cells generally, but its action is not seen in the human being, death being brought about by the more speedy action of (1) (a). When (1) (a)is insufficient to cause death, the dose of “‘ amyotrophin ” is too small to produce death, or even to seriously affect the bitten subject. (2) The cardiotonic element, by reinforcing the heart muscle, helps to preserve the blood pressure, and helps to counteract the effect of (1) (6) (3) The vaso-constrictor, by reducing the calibre of the blood vessels, raises blood pressure, and acts indirectly in reinforcing the heart. With (2) it completely counteracts the effect of (1) (0). (4) (a) The effect of the antifibrin ferment is seen in the reduction of clotting power in the blood, and this in conjunction with (5) (a) accounts for the hemor- vhages that may occur. (6) ‘“Hemolysin,” by destroying red blood cells, contri- butes to the asphyxia produced by (1) (a) aided by (1) (4). 488 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (c) Leucolysin”’ by destroying white blood cells, reduces the normal power of the system to resist microbic invasion of all sorts. (d) This aids the action of (4) (c), if indeed it is a separate entity. : (5) (a) ““Hemorrhagin,’ hy damaging the lining membrane of the arterioles, allows leakage of the vessel contents. It in conjunction with (4) (a) favours the occurrence of hemorrhages. (6) The local destruction of cells accounts for sloughing of the wounds, and leaves an ulcer when the dead tissues have separated. (1) Symptoms in Man—Local: The first, and perhaps invariable symptom, is pain, which is of a stinging or burning character out of all proportion to the mechanical injuries sustained. It comes on immediately and persists, perhaps lasting for hours. If pain is experienced only to the degree excited by ordinary pricks or scratches and is but transient, there is a justifiable presumption that poison has not been introduced. Coincident with the pain, and almost as speedy in its appearance, is swelling, which gradually increases until perhaps the whole limb is puffy. The third sign that venom has gained access to the wounds is the oozing of a blood-stained serum. Tf, on the other hand, the punctures are sealed with clot,as in ordinary wounds shortly after injury, there is every probability, if not actual certainty, that poison has failed to find entry into the tissues. The fourth cardinal sign is one which cannot be detected until the tissues in the site of the wound have been cut into, though it may be inferred if rapidly ensuing swelling has occurred, accompanied with the other signs the tissues assume a very characteristic appearance ; the parts become purplish centrally, the colour fading to scarlet and then pinkish, and a thin serum exudes. In one case, Wall (A. J.) found this purplish effusion, which is characteristic of the action of snake venom, within 30 seconds of the injection of the poison. When present, it is absolute SNAKES OF CEYLON. 489 proof of the absorption of venom ; if absent, it is probably equally good proof of the failure of the poison to have reached the tissues. How intensely irritant the venom is locally is apparent from the rapidity of the symptoms noted above, added to which is the fact that in many cases, where the bitten subject recovers, the tissues involved actually mortify, and are thrown off as a slough. Occasionally, one sees natives with withered limbs stated to be due to the effects of a snake bite. General: The constitutional effects are a gradual but rapidly advancing paralysis, due to the action of the poison on the brain and cord. Sooner or later the bitten subject complains of weakness in the legs, and is prompted to recline rather than walk or sit. This weakness creeps up the trunk, and affects the muscles of the neck, so that the head droops ; the muscles of the tongue, lips, and throat, so that speech becomes difficult, the lower lip falls away from the teeth, and allows the saliva to dribble, and swallowing becomes difficult or impossible. The eyelids too droop, giving a sleepy expression to the face. While these paralyses are waxing, the respiratory function becomes affected, breathing difficult, then laborious, and finally death from respiratory failure ends the scene. Among other toxic symptoms may be mentioned nausea or actual vomiting, and, not infrequently, hemorrhages from various orifices, as a result of the action of the poison on the blood, altering its composition, reducing its coagulability, and dissolving the red blood cells. An easy aid to remember the essential action of the poison is supplied in the word “ COBRA,” CO stands for COrd and BRA for BRAin, implying that it is the central nervous system that is in the main affected. Again ‘““C OBR” stand for Coagulation Of Blood Reduced, and the final A gives the mode of death, viz., by Asphyxia. (m) Illustrative Case: Cases of cobra toxemia are very seldom well reported, even by the medical profession, a great * deal being often left to the imagination. I will give one example that was excellently recorded by Dr. Hilson as 490 SNAKES OF CEYLON. follows : “On a night in June, at about half-past 12 o’clock, Dabu, a Hindu punkah cooly, was bitten on the shoulder by a cobra, whilst sleeping. On inspecting the wound, there were found over the prominence of the right deltoid muscle, and about three-quarters of an inch apart, two large drops of a clear serous-like fluid tinged with blood, which had apparently oozed from two small punctures, so minute that they could not be perceived by the naked eye. A burning pain was complained of in the neighbourhood of the bite, which rapidly increased in intensity, and extended so as to affect a circular portion of the integument of the size of an ordinary saucer ; and judging from the description given of it, it was very similar in character to that produced by the sting of a scorpion. At 12.45 a.m., or about a quarter of an hour after being bitten, he complained of a pain in his shoulder shooting toward his throat and chest, and said he was beginning to feel intoxicated ; but there was nothing in his appearance at this time to indicate that he was in any way under the influence of the poison. On the contrary, he was quite calm and collected, and answered all questions indifferently, at the same time that he was fully alive to the danger of his condition. The pupils were not dilated, and they contracted when exposed to the light of a candle ; his pulse was normal and there was no embarrassment of the respiration. About five minutes after, he began to lose control over the muscles of his legs, and staggered when left unsupported. At about 1 o’clock, the paralysis of the legs having increased, the lower jaw began to fall, and frothy and viscid saliva to ooze from the mouth. He also spoke indistinctly like a man under the influence of liquor. At 1.10 a.m. he began to moan, and shake his head frequently from side to side. The pulse was now somewhat accelerated, but was beating regularly. The respirations were also increased in frequency. He was unable to answer questions, but appeared to be quite conscious. His arm did not seem to be paralysed. He continued to moan and shake his head from side to side, as if trying to get rid of viscid mucus in his throat, The respirations were laboured, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 491 but not stertorous. The breathing gradually became slower, and finally ceased at 1.44 a.m., while the heart continued to beat for one minute longer.” (n) Interval before Death_—The interval that elapses between a cobra hite and the death thereby occasioned varies consider- ably. The shortest interval that I have any record of is half an hour. Fayrer reports one case that died in this short interval, the bitten subject being an adult man. The Pioneer of April 27, 1908, reported a European lady, Mrs. Cockely, succumbing to the bite of a cobra in half an hour. The wound was inflicted on the top of her toe, and the snake was killed there and then by her husband. More often the interval that elapses amounts to hours, from about two to six hours being perhaps usual. A woman, mentioned by Fayrer, died after eight hours, and other cases have been reported exceeding twenty-four hours. (0) Treatment recommended—Antivenene: This serum is the only known remedy for snake bite. The Kasauli product is curative for this toxemia and that of Russell’s viper. For a successful issue, it is necessary (1) to inject the serum as soon as possible, (2) to inject it intravenously, and (3) to inject 40 cc., and then be guided by results. If the symptoms are not observed to wane within half an hour, the dose should be repeated, or if the case is desperate, a second injection given without waiting so long. The antivenene now issued is reckoned to retain its virtue for two years at least, after which it should be rejected. If the serum is old, a larger dose than 40 cc. should be injected. Injections into the tissues are far less speedy in their action, and a double dose would probably be necessary. Although cobra venom does not directly depress the heart, other influences-are very likely to affect that organ in cases of cobra poisoning. Pain, fright, and cold are all powerful depressants to cardiac activity, and may seriously endanger life. Itis most essential, therefore, in treating cobra poisoning to look for any tendency to faintness, and treat this vigorously, as recommended under Bungarus ceruleus (page 448), Anti- venene of unquestionable activity, administered intravenously 68 6(6)20 492 SNAKES OF CEYLON. in adequate doses, cannot be expected to save a patient who is suffering from cardiac weakness due to non-toxic causes. A feeble or rapid pulse, with cold body surface, specially noticeable in the extremities, and a subnormal temperature are, though silent, vociferous appeals from an inarticulate subject for vigorous stimulation of the heart. Parasites.—(a) Ectozoa : A very common parasite to infest the cobra is the tick Aponomma lave variety paradoxum, which attaches itself between the scales. The adult is about the diameter of a lentil, flat, and of a dark plumbeous colour. T have also seen minute scarlet mites, apparently the same as those found on Oligodon sublineatus, which Professor Nuttall identified as larval forms, probably of a Gekobia. (b) Entozoa: Both nematode and cestode worms inhabit the stomach and intestine, the identity of which I have not been able to determine. (c) Hematozoa: Laveran mentions having found hemo- gregarines, viz., Hemogregarina naje, in the red blood cells. Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures are about half the rostro-internasals, and subequal to the rostro-labials. Jnternasals: The suture between them is about half to three-fifths that between the pretrontals, and half or less than half the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals : The suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontals ; touching the internasal, preocular, and supraocular. Frontal : The fronto-supraocular sutures are about twice the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: Longer than the frontal, about three-fourths the breadth of the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. MNasals : Subequal in depth. Preocular. Longer than deep; hardly reaching the top of the head; touching the internasal. Postoculars : Three ; subequal. Temporals : Lower as long as the supra- ocular. Supralabials: Seven; the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye; and the 5th and 6th the temporals. Sublinguals : The posterior subequal to the anterior ; completely separated by a single scale nearly as large ; touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. Infralabials : Five ; the 4th and 5th subequal, 5th nearly as long as the SNAKES OF ORYLON. 493 posterior sublinguals, and about twice as broad as those shields, touching two scales behind. COuneate: A small scale wedged in between the 4th and 5th infralabials, (Fig. 87.) Fic, 87.—Naia tripudians. (Life size.) Costals: Vertebrals and last three rows rectiform ; the intermediate rows oblique. Vertebrals, breadth half or 494 SNAKES OF CEYLON. legs than half their length, about half the breadth of the ultimate row. Oblique lateral rows, breadth less than half their length. Ultimate row, breadth nearly equalling their length. In 21 to 25 rows two heads-lengths behind the head ; 19 to 25 rows at midbody (23 to 25 in Ceylon specimens) ; and 15 to 13 two heads-lengths before the vent. The reduction at all the steps is due to the absorption of the 4th, 5th, or 6th row from the ventrals. Venétrals : 163 to 213 (170 to 200 in Ceylon specimens). Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: 52 to 75 (52 to 65 for Ceylon specimens). (Fig. 88.) Fie. 88,—Naia tripudians. (0) Anomaties—Postoculars: Rarely two. Supralabial : The third is rarely divided into an upper and a lower part. Cuneate : Rarely absent. Dentition.—Mazilla : Prenodal: in Chamber’s Encyclo- pedia the article on the cobra says that its fangs are not canaliculate, but grooved. Mr. Boulenger too, in his Catalogue. refers to the fangs as being grooved, and they are shown with a deficiency in the anterior wall in the figures in Fayrer’s and other works. This is most certainly not correct. The tact that there is an indistinct line on the anterior face ot the fang SNAKES OF CEYLON, 495 does not affect the question of its being canaliculate. The line referred to is a seam which marks the spot where the circumflexed walls of the canal meet and blend. There is a considerable opening at the base of this seam and a much smaller one near its point, where the poison finds exit. It is not generally known that it was this beautifully specialized instrument in the jaws of a poisonous snake that led a medical man to design the surgical instrument, used so freely in these days, in the form of the hypodermic needle. The cobra’s fang is relatively small compared with viperine fangs, and is a much more solid and stronger weapon. The length of my largest cobra fang is 7 mm., and was takea trom a large adult. The length ot the fangs in a 15-inch Echis in my collection is 5 mm., and those in a 3 feet 4 inch viper (Lrimeresurus anamallensis) are 13 mm. My largest hamadryad (N. bungarus), measuring 11 feet 5 inches, had fangs 10 mm. in length. There are usually two fully-operative fangs fixed in each maxilla, but these are shed singly at intervals, and from Fayrer’s experiments eighteen days was the shortest period that elapsed between drawing them and the fixation of a new one. (Fig. 89.) Fie. 89.—Maxilla of Naia tripudians. Compare with Fig. 92. Postnodal : A solitary tooth. Palatine: 6 to 8. Pterygoid: 11 to 15. Mandibular: 13 to 15. Distribution.--(a) General : It is represented by one or other of its many varieties in Ceylon and the Andamans ; throughout Peninsular India to the Himalayas. In the 496 SNAKES OF CEYLON. north-west it extends through Baluchistan to Transcaspia ; and in the no1th-east to Bengal and Assam. Further east it extends through Burma and Indo-China to Southern China and the Chusan islands and Formosa. The Malay Peninsula, and Malay Archipelago trom Sumatra to the Philippines. (6) Local : It is a snake of tbe plains, but may be met with in hills even up to an altitude of 6,000 feet. Tt ig a common snake everywhere. Genus CALLOPHIS. (Greek “ kallos ” beautiful, “‘ ophis ” snake, in allusion to their beautiful colouration.) General Characters—All the species are small, only growing to 24 feet or less. Head moderately depressed, moderately or very short. Snout moderately or very short, gently declivous, without canthus, and broadly rounded terminally. Eye small, with round pupil. Nostril moderately large, almost wholly contained in the anterior nasal ; occupying about the upper two-thirds of the suture. Neck not or but little apparent. Body moderately or very elongate, stout or slender, cylindrical, of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded, Tail short or very short, measuring from one- twelfth to one-sixteenth the total length. - Identification.—The costals in 13 rows in the whole body length taken with the 3rd supralabial touching the postnasal and the eye will indicate the genus. Habits.—Terrestrial. Diurnal. Very gentle by nature. Sluggish. Food.—Subsist mainly on other snakes. Poison.—Nothing known of the effect on man, Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches six shields. Internasals: A pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal: Touches six shields. Nasals ; Divided. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: Absent or SNAKES OF CEYLON, 497 present. Postoculars: One or two. Temporal: One, large. Supralabials : Six or seven. Sublinguals: Two subequal pairs. Infralabials : Four. Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, without apical pits or facets. Vertebrals not enlarged. Last two rows increasing in breadth. Last row broadest. Ventrals : Rounded. Anal: Divided. Swpracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals : Divided. Dentition.—Mazillary : Postnodal, 1 to 3; isodont (absent in macclellandi). Palatine: Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Pterygoid: Anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular: Ano donont, scaphiodont. Distribution —South-Eastern Asia. Five species have been described, of which one occurs in Ceylon, viz., trimaculatus. CALLOPHIS TRIMACULATUS (Daudin). (Greek “ treis ” three, and “ maculatus ” spotted.) The Slender Coral Snake. Synonymy.—Coluber melanurus, Vipera trimaculata, Elaps trimaculatus, H. melanurus. History.—First referred to by Russell in 1796, who also gave a very fair figure in his first volume (Plate VIIL.). Christened by Daudin in 1803. General Characters——A small snake, scarcely exceeding 1 foot in length. Head moderately depressed, moderately long. Snout moderately long, slightly declivous, without canthus, broadly rounded terminally. Eye rather small. Nostril moderately large; in the upper two-thirds of the suture between the nasals. Neck barely evident. Body very elongate, slender, of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded. Tail very short, being about one-sixteenth the total length. 498 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Identification.—Costals in 13 rows in the whole body length, six supralabials, the first three touching the nasals, constitute a syndrome peculiar to this species. Colouration.—Dorsally the colour is a uniform light chestnut as applied to a horse. Haly says golden gray. Each scale has a brown or blackish spot. The head and nape are black, and there are two well-defined whitish spots behind the parietal shields. The tail has a black band at the base, and another subterminally. These with the black head account for Daudin’s name trimaculatus. The ventrum in Haly’s specimen is described as rich mauve below the head, graduating to pale yellow, then orange, and finally crimson before the vent. Willey’s specimen agrees, except that it ‘lacks the mauve zone anteriorly. Beneath the tail the sub- caudals are pearly gray (Haly), pale bluish (Willey), between the two black bands. These beautiful colours fade almost at once in spirit. The snake bears a strong superficial resemblance to Oligodon sublineatus. Willey suggests that the two occipital spots may come into the category of “ false eves,” and, as such, may terrify its enemies and aid in its protection. Habits. Very little is known. Haly remarks that the specimen he captured ‘“‘ was making for the water with its tail curved over in such a way as to carry the crimson and black anal spot uppermost.” I have received confirmation of this curious action from Mr. C. E. C. Fischer, I.F.S. He encountered a specimen at Walayar, on the boundary between the Malabar and Coimbatore Districts of South India, and in forwarding me the snake, he wrote “ when disturbed it curled its tail upwards so as to expose the coral red anal shield and a few of the posterior ventral scales. The effect was very striking, and I presume was a demonstration meant to terrify orwarnme.’ Asimilar action was noted by Flower of another snake, viz., Cylindrophis rufus, a species not nearly related to the slender coral snake, but with a similar adornment of crimson heneath the tail. He remarked of this species ‘‘ when touched or worried it will not attempt to strike or bite, but keeps its head flat on the ground, usually hidden under the SNAKES OF CEYLON. 499 folds of its body ; its tazd, however, it raises off the ground and holds aloft curved over backwards in the most extraordinary manner, so that any casual observer would imagine the tail was the head, and think the snake to be threatening to strike.” D’ Abreu saysit appears to be avery timid snake. A captive specimen could not be induced to bite anything. When seized with the forceps it lashed out violently and finally wriggled itself into a knotty bunch. One in captivity always concealed itself in the loose earth in its cage. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me the specimen he encountered did not try to escape, but appeared most sluggish. Not knowing what it was, its manner so disarmed suspicion that he picked it up, and carried it about two miles in his hand. during this time it was quite quiet, and made no attempt to bite him. . Food.—Nothing known. As most of its near allies subsist on other snakes, this species is likely to exhibit similar tastes. Growth.—My largest specimen was 395 mm. (154 inches). Poison.—-Nothing is known as to its effects on any mammals, and the snake is too scarce for the poison to have been investigated as yet in the laboratory. Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures longer than the rostro-internasals, more than twice the rostro- labials. Internasals : The suture between them about three - fifths that between the prefrontals, and half or less than half the internaso-preefrontals. Prefrontals : The suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontals; touching the internasal, postnasal, preeocular,'and supraocular. Frontal : The fronto-supraocular sutures rather shorter than the frontal parietals, Swpraoculars: About two-thirds the length of the frontal, and about two-thirds the breadth of the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals : Subequal in depth, or the anterior rather deeper. Preocular : Barely reaching the top of the head. Postoculars ; Two ; subequal. Zemporal: As long as or rather longer than the supraocular. Supralabsals: Six; the lst, 2nd, and 3rd, touching the nagals ; 8rd and 4th the eye ; and the 5th and 6th the temporal; 6th longest, Subjinguals ; The posterior as 69 6(6)20 500 SNAKES OF CEYLON. long as the anterior, touching the 4th infralabial. Infra- labial: Four; 4th largest, about as long as the posterior- sublinguals, but twice as broad as those shields, and touching two scales behind. (Fig. 90.) Fie. 90.—Callophis trimaculatus. (x 3.) Costals : Vertebrals, breadth of scales about three-fourths their length, and about three-fourths those of the ultimate row. Last two rows gradually increasing in breadth. Ultimate row broadest, its scales about as broad as long. In 13 rows in the whole body length. Ventrals : 228 to 274 rounded. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : 24 to 36. Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Mazillary : Postnodal, 2 or 3. Palatine: 6 to 7. Pterygoid: 4 (?) to 6. Mandibular : 8 to 9. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 501 Distribution.—(a) General : Peninsular India, as far north as Bengal (Nerva, Russell), and Ceylon. (b) Local: Jerdon says “‘common in Burma.” It is certainly not common in that Province, nor do I believe that it occurs there at all. Its allies, maculiceps and macclellandt, are found there. In Ceylon Haly recorded one from Tissa- maharama (north-east of Hambantota) and another from Trincomalee. Willey found his specimen near Trincomalee, and I received one specimen from Mr. Green from Matale. Abercromby records two from Matale. One in the Colombo Museum is from Balangoda (Mr. Drummond-Hay’s specimen). It is a decidedly rare snake in India, and seemingly so in Ceylon. It is an inhabitant of the plains, but ascends into hills. It has been recorded by Beddome from the Anamallays, and I have had a specimen from Mahableshwar (4,500 feet). Family AMBLYCEPHALIDA. Represented in South America and South-East Asia, but not in Ceylon. Family VIPERIDA, ‘(Named from the type genus Vipera.) General Characters——Head moderate to large, and in some bears a scale-covered, horn-like, epithelial appendage on the eyebrow. Snout very short to moderate ; with or without a canthus ; some with a boss or a scale-clad, horn-like, epi- thelial appendage anteriorly. Some have a large opening between the eye and the nostril, viz., the loreal pit. Eye moderate, with vertical pupil. Nostril lateral; small, moderate, or large. Neck moderately or very markedly constricted. Body moderately robust to massive, cylin- drical, attenuating more or less from the middle in both directions. Belly rounded or keeled laterally. Tail short. Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal, or aquatic. Sluggish. Fierce when roused. Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish, centipedes. 302 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Breeding.—All whose habits are known are viviparous, except Causus rhombeatus, Trimeresurus mutus, T. monticola, and Ancistrodon rhodostoma. Poison.—All are poisonous. Many are fatal to man, but many others rarely, if ever, cause a fatal toxemia. Lepidosis.—The head in some is covered with large shields more or less after the Colubrine type. In others there are only small scales. Costals : Longer than broad ; all rectiform, or some oblique ; smooth or keeled; with or without apical facets. Vertebrals not enlarged or feebly enlarged. Ventrals: Broad, three times the breadth of the last costal row ; rounded or laterally keeled. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals- Entire or divided. Dentition (for Indian species).—Mawilla: With a pair of canaliculate fangs, and no other teeth. Palatine: Number 1 to 6; with or without edentulous spaces anteriorly and posteriorly (completely edentulous in Trimeresurus jerdoni). Pterygod: Number 5 to 19; scaphiodont. Mandibular : Number 10 to 19; scaphiodont. Distribution.—Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. There are thirteen genera arranged in two sub-families, Five are represented in Indian limits, and of these four occur in Ceylon. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF VIPERID. (For Ceylon Species.) (A) Costals in 17 rows at midbody. A loreal pit. (See Figs. 96 and 97)... Ancistrodon. (a) Slight boss on top of snout .. A, millardi. (6) A horn-like erect appendage on snout av .. A. hypnale. (B) Costals in 19 rows at midbody. A loreal pit. (See Fig. 98) .. Trimeresurus tri- gonocephalus. (C) Costals in 29 to 31 rows at midbody. No loreal pit. (See Figs. 91 and 93.) (a) Subcaudals divided .. Vipera russelli. (6) Subcaudals entire .. LEchis carinatus. SNAKES OF OBYLON. 503 Sub-family 1 Viperine. (Named from the type Genus Vipera.) Identification.—Without an opening (loreal pit) peneen the eye and nostril. Distribution .—Europe, Asia, Africa. Arranged in nine genera, of which three are represented in Indian limits, and two in Ceylon. Genus VIPERA. a4 bd 2? (Latin, said to be from “ vivus ” alive, and “ pario”’ I bring forth. The common European viper (V. berus) was known from remote times to produce its young viviparously.) General Characters (for Indian Species).—The species vary in length from 1} to 54 feet. Head flat, and subtriangular in shape. Snout rather short, with a more or less distinct canthus, obtusely rounded in front. In some it is sur- mounted by a horn-like, scale-covered, appendage. Eye moderate or small ; iris more or less adorned with gold speck- ling; pupil vertical. Nostril moderate to large; open ; lateral. Neck much constricted. Body robust, or even corpulent, attenuating towards the neck anteriorly and towards the vent. Belly rounded. Tail short, accounting for about one-seventh to one-fourteenth the total length. Identification The top of the head covered throughout with small scales, no loreal pit, and divided subcaudals will suffice to identify the genus among Ceylon snakes. Habits.—Sluggish in disposition, but fierce when roused, nocturnal, and some fatal to man. Food.—Feeds mainly on small mammals, but also eats birds, lizards, and batrachians. Breeding.—Viviparous. Poison.—Poisonous ; some fatal to man. Lepidosis.—Rostral: Well developed; in some species touching the nasals, in others not. Supraoculars: Large ; undivided or brokenup. WNasals: Entire ; variable in shape. 504 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Supralabials: Six to thirteen; the anterior one or two touching the nasals, none touching the eye, being separated from it by from one to three rows of scales. Sublinguals : One pair ; in contact with three or four infralabials. Infra- labials : Three or four. Costals. Longer than broad, rectiform; keeled ; with or without apical pits. Vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate row enlarged, its scales twice or more than iwice the breadth of the vertebrals. In 19 to 33 rows in midbody, often two less two heads-lengths behind the head, and from four to eight less two heads-lengths before the vent. Supracaudals ; In even rows. Ventrals : 120to0 180; rounded. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals ; 20 to 65; divided. Dentition (in Asiatic species) —Mazillary: Two canali- culate fangs placed side by side. Palatine: Anododont, isodont; with an edentulous space anteriorly, or posteriorly, or both. Pterygord: Anododont, isodont ; posterior half edentulous. Mandibular : Anododont, scaphiodont. Distribution.—There are ten species inhabiting Europe, Asia, North and Tropical Africa. Only one of these occurs in Ceylon, viz., V. russelli. VIPERA RUSSELLI (Shaw). (Named in honour of Patrick Russell.*) Russell’s Viper or the Daboia. “6 Sinhalese: “tic polonga”’ (spotted snake). Tamil “ kanardi viriyan’’ (spectacle snake). Synonymy.—C'oluber russellii, C. trinoculus, CU. trisertatus, Vipera elegans, Daboia clegans, D. russellit, D. pulchella, Echidna elegans, FE. russelli7. * This title commemorates the name and fame of Dr. Patrick Russell, a distinguished savant, and the pioneer of all snake research work in India, both in its zoological and toxicological aspects. He was born in Edinburgh in 1726, and came out to Indiain 1781. Four years later the Honourable the East India Company appointed him their naturalist. He is responsible for a monumental work on the Indian snakes, with excellent coloured plates, in two volumes, published in 1796 and 1801. ‘The association of his name with this common snake, renowned as much for the beauty of its colour and ornamentation, as for ha deadly character of its bite, is a fitting tribute to his classical work. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 505 History.—-First introduced to scientific notice by Russell who figured it in his first volume in 1796 (Plate VII.) and also in his second volume in 1801 (Plate XXXII). It received its official baptism from Shaw in 1803. General Characters.—Head flat, heavy, and triangular. The snout rather short, not declivous, with pronounced canthus, and broadly rounded anteriorly. Eye rather large, with an iris heavily speckled with gold, and a vertical pupil. Nostril relatively larger than in any other Indian snake, open. Neck very much constricted. Body massive, relatively stouter than in any other Indian snake, excepting the python ; cylindrica], attenuating to the neck and posteriorly to the vent. Belly rounded. Tail short, and about one-seventh the total length. Identification.—The following syndrome wil] fix its identity among Ceylon snakes: (1) 27 to 33 costal rows at midbody, (2) no large shields on the head, and (3) divided subcaudals. For want of attention to lepidosis several other snakes have been frequently mistaken for it, notably the large-spotted viper (Trimeresurus monticola), the common Himalayan viper (Ancistrodon himalayanus), the Royal snake (Zamenis diadema), the Argus cat snake (Dipsadomorphus multi- maculatus), Russell’s earth snake (Hryx conicus), and even the python (Python molurus). Colouration.—The ground colour is brown of varying shades, most specimens being a sandy hue. The markings vary much in detail and intensity as well asin hue. Sometimes they are so obscure as to attract little attention, and this is especially so just before desquamation. The sloughing prccess over, however, the same snake may reveal a definition of adornment and brilliancy of colour, which may renovate it as completely as a mess uniform transforms an officer when exchanged for his khaki. The head has a more or less distinct dark patch on each side behind, a dark streak sometimes picked out with white, pink, or buff, behind the eye, and a dark stripe from the eye to the lip. A conspicuous light line, sometimes white, buff, or pink, runs from above the gape, through the temporal region to the supercilium on to the ridge just referred to on 506 SNAKES OF CEYLON. the snout. These lines converge, and usually meet on the snout to form a V. The lips are white, whitish, or pink, variegated with spots, specks, or streaks. The dorsal adornment consists of a triple series of about 23 to 30 large ovate spots, forming a vertebral and two costal necklaces or chains. It is not infrequent to see some of these spots more or Jess confluent, in fact, it is rarely one sees a perfect rosary. The costal spots are frequently interrupted at their lower margins, and sometimes taper, reminding one of a baloon. Thave seen a specimen from Kotagiri (5,700 feet) in the Nilgiris in which the three series of spots are completely confluent into bands. The sinuous outlines of these bands indicate the number of spets, which, however, are broadly blended, in the entire length of the snake. It is the only one I have seen so marked. Each spot may be of uniform colour throughout, but more often exhibits a light central zone, similar to the ground colour, which merges into a deep Lincoln- green, purple, or black, around which again may be seen a narrow zone of buff or pure white, the latter especially en- hancing the beauty of the specimen. Mr. Millard tells me that about Bombay adult specimens do not have this white definition to the spots, and he is inclined to regard it as a distinct variety. I have satisfied myself that specimens are to be met with in most parts, including Bombay, with and without this white adornment. Tc begin with, I found in some hatchlings of the same brood, born in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Museum, and preserved in spirit, some individuals with and some without the white deline- ament. In a mother from Saugor, the spots had no light margins, though the single embryo had spots picked out with pale buff. The belly is white, whitish, or vellowish, with darkish semilunes distributed sparsely and disposed at the margins of the ventrals, especially in the anterior part of the body. Habits.—(a) Haunts: Tt may be met with almost anywhere, except, I believe, in dense jungle, but it prefers open country into which the sun can penetrate and shed its agreeable warmth. Here it lies quietly amongst the vegetation, in lazy apathy, apparently oblivious of its surroundings, but SNAKES OF CEYLON. 507 never, however, relaxing a vigil which has for its reward the capture of the incautious animal that strays within reach. In the evening it bestirs itself and roams abroad while darkness prevails. . Fayrer remarks on the authority of his snakeman that it will take to water, and Haly mentions one swimming in the middle of a backwater. These are exceptional instances. Tennent says that it will climb trees, and I can confirm this as a rare event. Its ungainly proportions, however, do not favour scansorial achievements. It is no uncommon event to find it in close proximity to and even in habitations, and its partiality to a murine diet sufficiently explains such intrusions. I remember one captured in Rangoon beneath the steps of the Cantonment Magistrate’s Court during the day where crowds of natives had assembled. Bassett-Smith mentions it as frequently coming into the precincts and into the Naval Hospital at Trincomalee, and Tennent says the Judge’s house at this same station became so infested with this species that the family had to quit. (b) Disposition: No observer can speak with greater authority than Fayrer, and he says of the Daboia: “In confinement it is sluggish, and does not readily strike, unless roused and irritated, when it bites with great force and determination. When disturbed it hisses fiercely, and when it strikes does so with much vigour.” This is entirely my own experience. It isa creature slow to wrath, contenting itself, under moderate provocation, with a loud sustained and warning hiss, reminding one of a leaking football] bladder. A good example of its disinclination to bite is related by Blanford : a friend of his once carrying one home, under the belief that it was a python, until undeceived by its biting and killing one of his dogs. It made no attempt to bite or injure him, though apparently he did not take any precautions in his manner of handling it. Again, Fayrer says he always duing his experiments had the greatest difficulty to get this snake to bite voluntarily. I can fully confirm this, frequently rats put into its cage remain there alive and unmolested for days. In making these remarks, however, I think one must expect many exceptions to this attitude of indifference. 70 6(6)20 508 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Young specimens especially seem more on the alert, more easily alarmed, and are correspondingly more easily provoked to bite than many adults. The bite is sometimes inflicted by a snap, the creature relaxing its hold at once. On the other hand, it is not unusual for Russell’s viper to bite, and maintain a tenacious grasp for many seconds. Inthe case of a gunner who succumbed to the bite of this snake at Thayetmyo (Burma) in 1862, Nicholson mentions that it was with difficulty shaken off. Elliot mentions a dog bitten by one, dragging the snake many yards before disengaging it, and one might quote many more similar experiences. (c) Striking Posture: It will not strike till considerably irritated, when it hurls itself at the offending object with determined malice. I have known one spring with such a powerful muscular effort, that I believe it actually left the ground in its endeavour to strike me. (d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is decidedly nocturnal in habit. In the daytime, when encountered, it is generally found lying coiled in grass, but at night it is frequently met on the move crossing roads, and its intrusion into dwellings usually occurs under cover of darkness. (ce) Progression. Its movements are slow, and consistent with its corpulent habit. When disturbed, it prefers usually to maintain its ground, and frequently will contest the right of way with heaving sides and angry hiss. When it does retire, it does so in a leisurely manner befitting its dignity and figure. T have never seen one move faster than a crawl. (f) Hissing : The hiss once heard is not easily forgotten ; no other snake emits such a volume of sound, to the production of which two factors contribute. Firstly, the size of the lung which is developed to a degree commensurate with the remarkable body girth ; and, secondly, the large size of the nostril, for it is through this aperture that the sound is produced. In Bangalore I experimented with a large adult belonging to a snake catcher. Among his stock-in-trade he carried the familiar gourd pipe used by this fraternity. This was sealed up in places with cobbler’s wax which I removed, rendered pliable by heat, and packed into the daboia’s nostrils. SNAKES Of CEYLON. 509 This done the snake was unhanded and irritated. It was then noticed that the lung expanded with difficulty, and very imperfectly, and hissing was no longer feasible. (g) Sloughing: One caged in the Madras Museum des- quamated on June 16, July 31, October 6, and December 27. Mr. D’ Abreu tells me that one confined in the Nagpur Museum for 167 days only cast its skin once. Another in the same institution captured on September 7 exfoliated on September 10, on March 20, and June 28 of the following year. For some days before the period of ecdysis the snake is purblind, and, as a result, many specimens are killed or captured while so handicapped. : Food.—All my observations go to show that small mammals, and especially rats, constitute the main diet of the daboia, but it is not so bigoted in gastronomic matters as to be dis- dainful of other fare. Mr. E. E. Green found one that had eaten a green lizard (Calotes ophiomachus) as wellasarat. In captivity, Mr. Spence tells me, the specimens caged in Bombay feed better than any other species. One in the Madras Museum ate 5 squirrels and 27 rats in 1896. Another young specimen ate 5 squirrels, 2 rats, 67 mice, and 4 frogs during its captivity the same year. Mr. D’Abreu tells me a caged specimen at Nagpur ate rats, squirrels, mice, shrews, kittens, small birds, such as sparrows, owlets, and swifts, and also sometimes bloodsucker lizards (i.e. Calotes) and frogs. Some specimens do not feed well in captivity. Dr. Davy had one in captivity for 146 days that refused all food, and Fayrer had one that neither ate nor drank for a whole year, but still retained its vigour and poisonous activities. I know of no snake-eating tendencies in adults, but cannibalism seems a common offence among the young. Major Dawson writes to me that on one occasion when young daboias were born in the gardens at Trevandrum, ‘the young commenced to devour each other,”’ and on another occasion in the same place “one of the young swallowed one of its fellows, and in about a quarter of an hour disgorged it,” and both, at the time of writing, were alive and well. Father Dreckmann, too, told me of a similar experience among a brood in captivity ; he says “ when I inspected the young family one ‘morning, I found 510 SNAKES OF CEYLON. one of its members dead, and another one missing, and on examining the dead one I found the missing one inside him.” Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Females in India appear to be more numerous than males. Thus, out of 71 young born at Parel, the aggregate of two broods which were submitted to me, I found 25 were males and 46 females. In a Ceylon brood of 26, 12 were males, 13 females, and I damaged unsexable. From the same three broods it would appear that males are a trifle longer at birth than females. The bodies in the sexes are relatively of equal length, but the tails in males are relatively longer. The male claspers are bifid. The main stem is short, and the limbs are beset with large subcylindrical cartilaginous white processes distally ; the proximal part of the limbs and the stem being studded with minute recurved hooks. In the invaginated state the clasper tube is seen to bifurcate, and the two limbs to rejoin later. It is this peculiar condition which causes the extruded organ to be bifid. The secretion from the anal glands is custard-like, with an orange tinge. (6) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous in habit. Often unfertilized eggs are discharged at the same time as the young. At first the fertilized eggs are enveloped with the same soft white coriaceous investment that one sees in oviparous snakes. This envelope in course of time metamor- phoses, until, in the latter stages of pregnancy, it is converted into a delicate transparent membrane. Usually this mem- brane is ruptured within the mother, and the young escape alive, but it is not at all unusual for some of the sacs to be discharged as such, and the young are born in a caul, within which they frequently perish unless speedily liberated. This metamorphosis of the investment does not occur in unfertilized eggs, and this has given rise to reports that this viper is both oviparous and viviparous. The sacs containing the young in one instance measured 43 by 20 mm. (18 by ? of an inch). I found one sac 53 mm. (23% inches) in length. (c) Season: The sexes seek one another’s company for matrimonial intercourse during the months of December to May. A male killed at the end of December at Cannanore was reported to have been ‘‘in copula” when encountered. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 511 The female escaped. I have collected over thirty records from various sources, including my own notes, and find that females in various stages of pregnancy have been killed in every month of the year. Mr. Green killed a female in Ceylon in December containing small eggs. Mosse had a similar specimen in March at Guzerat. I had a similar specimen at Trichinopoly in April, and another in May. One killed in Ceylon on July 28, 1915, held 30 eggs rotund in form, and about 12 by 12 mm. (} by 4 an inch). Young in various stages of growth have been seen right up to November. The young are born from May on to November, much the most usual months being June and July. I have had many specimens less than 305 mm. (1 foot) long brought to me between May and September at various times. (d) Period of Gestation : This is definitely known to exceed six months. Bannerman reported that a female acquired on December 6, 1905, gave birth to her young on June 21, 1906, at Parel (over 197 days). Narayan Rao recorded the birth at Bangalore on June 8, 1917, of a brood. The dam in this case was acquired in the first week of December. Growth.—(a) The Young: When born the young measure from 200 to 280 mm. (7% to 11 inches). I believe the low measurements, sometimes recorded, are the result of the artificial conditions of life in the vivarium, and that in speci- mens living under natural conditions the progeny reaches a length of 250 to 280 mm. (10 to 11 inches) before birth. The two specimens submitted to me from Narayan Rao’s brood, where the dam had been over six months a captive, measured 200 and 212 mm. (7% and 8% inches). Members of the same brood vary a little in length. The 71 young born of two broods at Parel, and carefully examined by me, the males measured 230 to 260 mm. (9 to 10} inches), and the females 215 to 255 mm. (84 to 10 inches). When born the young show much more activity than adults. They strike out boldly at any offending object, and I have witnessed one attack and bite a mouse, which succumbed in a few seconds, showing that the poison is active from the time of birth. Similarly, Dr. Shortt saw a young daboia only 215 mm. (84 inches) long kill a young partridge weighing 93 512 SNAKES OF CEYLON. tolas in ten seconds. They frequently attack and swallow one another. They do not thrive for long in captivity, but very speedily die as a rule. This is one of the most prolific of the Indian snakes, only being equalled or surpassed in fecundity by the python (Python molurus) and the chequered keelback (Nerodia piscator). It frequently produces from thirty to forty young in one brood, and as many as sixty-two and sixty-three have been recorded. I once found only a single foetus, and I have several records from one to less than twenty. (b) Early Life: The growth is difficult to ascertain with certainty, as the season for the production of the young is so protracted. They probably double their length in the first year of life, and treble it by the end of the second year. (c) Maturity : The smallest gravid female in my notebooks was 1,015 mm. (3 feet 4 inches) long, and I think would be about 3 years old. (d) Maximum Length ; Specimens over 1,220 mm. (4 feet) are not uncommon, but over 1,525 mm. (5 feet) are rare. I measured a stuffed specimen once 1,600 mm. (5 feet 3 inches). Fenton has recorded one 1,640 mm. (5 feet 44 inches), and Brook-Fox two which taped 1,675 mmn. (5 feet 6 inches). Poison.—(a) The Fangs: These attain their maximum development in this the largest of the Indian vipers. I have one 16 mm. (over half an inch) measured with compasses from base to point, and the curve would probably account for another mm. This was from an average adult. There are two fixed side by side. In a depression at the back, as many as 5or 6 reserve fangs may be seen lying loosely in the mucous membrane, progressively diminishing in size from within outwards. When one of the fangs is shed, the reserve fang, best developed and lying nearest to it, becomes cemented in a few days into the jaw. The fang is tubular, being formed by the folding over of two lateral expansions of the tooth, which blend on its anterior face, in the major part of its length. A groove which is teebly discernible, but always present, marks the line of junction of these two expansions. At its base the expansions fail to meet, SNAKES OF CEYLON. 513 and the imperfect blending is marked by an aperture. The canal terminates near the point ot the tooth in a minute opening. The fangs in vipers are very mobile, or to speak more correctly, the maxille are, for the fangs are fitted into these bones. Russell’s viper, like other vipers, when it yawns, frequently rocks its maxille forwards and backwards. (0) The Glands : These sacs, compared with the cobra’s, are small and present a corrugated appearance unlike the smooth retort-shaped glands of the cobra. Wall (A. J.) mentions a supplementary gland in this viper, globular in form, which completely surrounds, and empties itself into the ducts draining the major sac. (c) Physical Characters : Lamb tells us that this venom is clear, with a small quantity of undissolved material in sus- pension. Its reaction is acid. The taste resembles gum acacia. In drying it cracks into longitudinal fissures, yielding needle-shaped fragments. The dried product retains its toxic properties indefinitely, and is readily soluble in water. (d) Yield: Acton and Knowles obtained 145 mgms. of the dried product from an adult 1,015 mm. (3 feet 4 inches) long. Elliot expressed eleven drops from the two glands of an adult. (e) Amount injected at one Bite : This has been estimated by Acton and Knowles as about 72 mgms. of the dessicated poison, which is considerably in excess of the lethal dose for man. (f) Toxicity : When swallowed daboia venom has no more deleterious effect on the system than cobra poison, but, of course, one must postulate a healthy and unbroken surface in the mouth and further passages. Elliot gave 11 drops to a goat, and a larger quantity to a dog, without noticing any ill- effects. Absorbed into the blood stream, Acton and Knowles find it is less than one-third as toxic as cobra venom to monkeys. (g) Lethal dose for Man: Acton and Knowles, postulating a-susceptibility in man equal to that of monkeys upon which they experimented, estimate the fatal dose for a man at 42 ammgms., or about four-sevenths the approximate dose delivered at one bite. 314 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (h) Uncertainty of Effects: As in the case of other poi- sonous snakes, it does not, in the least, follow that a serious bite will cause death if left untreated. There is abundant evidence to show that a percentage of cases, hard to determine, do not die even though the local injuries are such as to warrant the gravest apprehension. No more instructive record on this score is to be found in snake literature than that quoted by Elliot. He says: “I myself saw a large powerful daboia (3 feet 8inches long) strike fairly at a dog, hold it, shake it, and only let go when the dog had fled yelping several yards, dragging the snake along the ground. The part bitten was soft and fleshy, the bite was apparently a fair one, the glands of the snake, when dissected, though emptier than usual, both proved to contain poison. From one gland alone I obtained more poison than another daboia emitted through a leaf in a vigorous bite. Add to all this that there was a well-marked subcutaneous extravasation round the bite, and the case seems perfect . . + though it became rather ill, did not die. Hight days later the same animal was fairly struck by a vicious daboia (3 feet 4 inches long), the bite being almost instantaneous in its shortness, and this time the victim died in less than three hours.” Haly mentions a bite from this snake, from which the man suffered no ill-effects. (t) Toxins :-— (1) Toxins operating on nerve cells— («) A depressor paralysing the vasomotor centre (Rogers). (6) A depressor to nerve cells generally. (2) Agents affecting the constitution of the blood— (a) A fibrin ferment clotting the blood (Lamb). (5) An antifibrin ferment reducing the clotting power of blood (Cunningham, Lamb). (c) ““Hemolysin” destructive to red blood cells (Cunningham, Lamb). (¢) “ Leucolysin ”’ destructive to white blood cells (Cunningham). SNAKES OF CEYLON. 515 (3) “ Hemorrhagin” destructive to the lining membrane of blood vessels (Cunningham). (4) A depressor to cardiac muscle (Lamb). (5) A vaso-constrictor (Rogers), (6) ‘‘ Cytolysins ” destcuctive to (a) liver, kidney, and testis cells (Flexner and Noguchi), and (6) to tissue cells at the site of the wounds. (j) Analysis of toxic action— (1) (a) The depression of the vasomotor centre is seen in the reduction of blood pressure, and cardiac weakness culminating in early death. (6) The depression to nerve cells generally explains the great depression of spirits and reduced vitality in daboia poisoning. It is not sufficient to produce paralysis. (2) (a) In large doses blood clots firmly within the vessels, and convulsions, ending in death, occur almost immediately. The daboia cannot inject sufficient venom into the human subject to bring about this effect, which is only seen in relatively smallanimals injected with very large doses. (6) In moderate doses a contrary effect is produced in the blood, and this, in conjunction with (3), accounts for the hemorrhages which so frequently occur. , (c) ‘‘Hemolysin ” is potent in this venom and still further lowers the general vitality induced by (1) (6). It also has some effect in embarassing the, res- Ppiration. (d) Reduces the normal resistance to microbic invasion. (3) ““Hemorrhagin,” by damaging the lining membrane of the arterioles, favours leakage of the vessel --eontents. In conjunction with (2) (6) hemorrhages are frequently the result. = 6(6)20 516 SNAKES OF CEYLON. (4) In conjunction with 1 (a) this causes heart failure. (5) A vaso-constrictor has been demonstrated by Rogers. By reducing the calibre of the blood vessels, blood pressure would be raised and the heart reinforced. Any tendency towards such action appears to be nullified by a more potent element operating on the vasomotor centre, viz., 1 (a). (6) Causes sloughing locally with the formation of an ulcer. The venom is three to five times less potent than cobra venom according to Lamb. Its action upon the blood is as follows: A toxic body (hemolysin) destroys the red blood cells. whose function it is to carry oxygen to the various tissues. As a result all vital processes are lowered. Another toxic principle (antifibrin ferment) very profoundly alters the consistency of the blood, and reduces its clotting powers. The action of this latter principle is exactly that of citric, phosphoric, oxalic, and other acids, and is, probably like them. due to a precipitation of the calcium salts in the blood. This in itself does not account for the transudation that occurs ; but the fact that the lining membrane of the walls of the blood vessels themselves are damaged by another toxic element (hemorrhagin) renders them more permeable. The effect of these two toxins is seen in the great tendency to hemorrhages which are characteristic of the Viperine class of poisons. These hemorrhages may be visible or invisible, and the whole case may imitate scurvy or purpura, diseases mainly characterized by similar blood changes. It frequently happens that the fang punctures continue to bleed or discharge bloody serum, or having stopped, bleeding recommences some hours or even days later. There may be bloody discharges from any mucous orifice. Invisible hemorrhages* in the abdomen may cause pain, tenderness, and vomiting, recalling to the * These are specially well exemplified in the cases of Hchis poisoning referred to later. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 517 physician’s mind the identical state of affairs one sees in Henoch’s purpura. Similarly, there may be extravasations into joints, or other serous cavities, which may become painful and swollen, reminding one of another clinical con- dition, viz., arthritic purpura. Hemorrhages are apt to occur under the skin, producing port wine discolourations in the form of spots or patches of various sizes, or they may occur in muscles and other tissues, giving rise to painful and tender swellings. Death due to cardiac failure, induced by toxins (1) (a) and (4), or later on to exhaustion, may occur in from | to 14 days, or even longer. (k) Symptoms: Daboia poisoning may be taken as the type of Viperine toxemiz. Experimentally in animals three forms of toxemie are observed. It was observed by A. J. Wall, Fayrer, and others experi- menting on animals that when the dose of poison was large, rapid and violent convulsions were induced, resulting in death from asphyxia in a few seconds or minutes. Lamb was the first to correctly interpret these phenomena. He found that daboia venom contains a ferment that coagulates blood. This ferment is only operative in highly concentrated doses of poison. It causes clotting of blood inside the blood vessels, and to this is attributable the convulsive seizure and death from asphyxia. He further showed that the dose necessary is so large that it is very unlikely that this mode of death would ever be seen in the human subject. The other two forms of toxemiz, one acute the other sub- acute or chronic, are to be met with in the human subject. In the acute form there is general depression, in which the vital functions connected with both the heart and respiration are profoundly affected. The pulse becomes rapid and weak, and breathing rapid and irregular. General weakness of the muscular system is seen, and the mental activities may be reduced to the degree of unconsciousness. Nausea and vomiting are frequent, and the pupils become dilated and insensitive to light. The surface temperature is reduced, and 518 SNAKES OF CEYLON. the skin is cold and often bedewed with sweat. There are no paralyses such as we see in Colubrine toxemiz. Concurrently with these effects on the nervous system, others depending on the altered state of the blood are most likely to be exhibited, as bleedings from various mucous orifices, or beneath the skin, or invisible hemorrhages into serous cavities. The watery state of the blood may occasion cedema in dependent parts, or in organs, especially the lungs. Death from cardiac or respiratory failure may terminate this toxzmia, or these symptoms may decline, and the patient appear as if about to recover. A repetition of the above may occur, or recovery may pass on to the third form of toxemia. The sub-acute or chronic poisoning appears to be connected with the local state of the wounds, which, from the intensely virulent nature of the poison, are verv apt to be seen in a sloughing condition, favouring the development of septic germs. In the course of a few days, added to the general depression, emaciation sets in and anemia, which will depend in degree largely upon the extent of the hemorrhages. The enfeebled state of the system can oppose little resistance to the effects of invasion of any germs into the local wounds, and various forms of blood-poisoning, including tetanus. may result. Diarrhcea may occur, albumen appears in the urine, and the patient ultimately dies of exhaustion from hemor- rhages, or from blood-poisoning, the effects of invading germs that have gained entry into the local wounds. This state of affairs, however, need not necessarily prove fatal. Local Signs of Dabota Potisoning.* The local effects in dabvia poisoning are usually very severe. Eextravasations of blood are likely to occur in the neighbour- hood of the punctures, the various tissue cells are destroyed by the virulence of the poison, and a slough forms, which when separated leaves a deep ragged ulcer. * The signs are seen in most cases of Viperine poisoning, and to a less degree in Colubrine poisonings of every kind. SNAKES OF CEYLON. 519 (1) Pain: Where venom has been injected pain is an. almost certain symptom. It is burning or stinging in. character, often extremely acute, and it comes on immediately. It is possible that the stings of certain other creatures, such as scorpions, spiders, hornets, &c., might be as severe, and as rapidly produced ; but if pain is experienced only to the degree normally met with in ordinary wounds from mechanical agency, it is highly probable that poison has not been in- troduced. The pain due to the poison may be masked by that produced by surgical interference, that evoked by local remedies of a caustic nature, such as acids and permanganate of potash, and also that occasioned by ligatures which is usually very distressing. (2) Swelling: Snake venom is an extremely powerful local irritant, and as such causes swelling in the injured part almost at once, similar to that seen after the bite of a mos- quito. Swelling to an equal degree, and as rapidly manifested, might result from insect or scorpion stings. If, however, no trace of swelling accompanies the wound, there is good reason to consider that no poison has gained entry, and the longer the interval since the bite the greater the justification for assuming a non-venomized wound. (3) Bleeding: One of the chief effects of snake venom, whether Colubrine or Viperine in quality, is its power of reducing the coagulability of the blood, and this fact affords very valuable information as to whether or not venom has been introduced into a wound, since when it has gained entry a constant oozing of thin bloody serum results, which often continues for many hours. In a case recorded by Lamb and Hanna this continued for 24 hours. Iflacerations or punctures are seen sealed up with blood within a few minutes of the casualty, as in the case of ordinary wounds, there is very strong justification for believing that no poison has been injected. (4) Tissue Changes : Should the presence of any of the above local conditions call for local operative measures, the 520 SNAKES OF CEYLON. condition of the tissues as revealed by incision, will furnish confirmatory testimony of the entrance of snake poison, which, in the opinion of my namesake, A. J. Wall, is absolutely characteristic. He says the areolar tissue becomes purple in colour and infiltrated with coagulated purple blood-like fluid. This fades gradually to a pinkish colour, and this again to normal conditions as the site of the poisoned wounds are receded from. These changes are extremely rapidly produced, having been seen by this authority within 30 seconds of the entrance of the poison. To the surgeon this sign is invaluable. Its presence pro- claims the envenomed nature of the wound, and dictates a course of action completely different from that necessary in its absence. (5) Discolouration : A greenish or bluish tinge is fre- quently observed in the skin in the immediate neighbourhood of the punctures within a few minutes of the bite when venom has been introduced. Sometimes, indeed, the skin is purplish from severe subcutaneous bleeding. (6) Sloughing : The tissue cells in the vicinity of the wounds frequently die as a result of the powerful action of the poison. The result is the formation of a slough varying in extent to the dose of the poison injected. This dead matter under normal constitutional conditions offers an ideal pabulum for putrefactive germs to flourish. But in snake poisoning, among other things, it has been shown by Ewing, that the natural germicidal properties of blood are rendered inert, so that with the entry of germs there is a grave danger of another form of blood poisoning to be set up, and death may be the result of an intoxication from such germs. When the slough separates, a deep ulcer is left which takes some time to heal. (7) LUustrative Case :* A case of daboia poisoning, by W. R. Taylor, M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.P. (Lond.). 4 Appeared in the « Indian Medical Gazette’ for September, 1919, p. 337. SNAKES OF CEYLON, 521 Casualty Return, Station .. .. Insein, Lower Burma Sex . .. Male, Burman _ Age 8 .. 380 Date and hour of bite .. May 29, 1919, about 7 p.m. Hour of admission .. About9Pm. Part bitten .. Outer side of dorsum of left great toe at the base Species of snake .. Russell’s Viper, 36 inches without head Result .. .. Cure Symptoms, Local. (a) Pain .. Intense and immediate (6) Swelling .. Immediate (c) Sanious oozing .. Only after incision (d) Appearance of cut tissue .. Qidema and local discolouration over an area, the size of a 2-anna bit (e). Characters due to me- chanical causes .. One puncture only Symptoms, General. (a) Consciousness .. Stated to have been temporarily unconscious after reaching his house (6) Respiration .. Shallow and somewhat hurried (c) Syncope, Pallor .. Pallor marked, pulse 120, skin moist, cold, and clammy, vomit- ing set in before admission]and continued (see notes) (d) Paralysis .. Nil (e) Hemorrhage .. Vomiting of blood, subcutaneous hemorrhage (f) Other symptoms .. (See notes) (g) Treatment .. Antivenene (see notes). Clinical Notes. May 29, 1919.—The patient was an intelligent English- speaking Burman Christian, living about three miles from the hospital. He states that he was bitten about six furlongs from his house. His companion cut off the snake’s head, and 522 SNAKES OF CEYLON. the body was brought tome. The Russell’s viper is well known locally, and both men knew quite well what it was. The victim himself tied a ligature of cord round his leg, below the knee, and walked to his house. He was then brought to hospital, in a bullock-cart, by an old missionary lady of 80, who sat up with him all night, and mounted guard subsequently to ensure rejection of the innumerable offers of remedies and charms brought by his visitors. It was, therefore, at least two hours after the bite that I saw him. He was in very great pain, and the leg was much swollen up to the level of the cord. There was a small (2-anna bit size) area of discolouration around the puncture, but apart from a congested appearence, probably due to the ligature, no discolouration of the leg. He was sweating, but his skin and extremities were cold ; respiration shallow, 26~30 ; pulse 120, feeble. It was noticeable that in spite of the general condition and feeble pulse the superficial veins of the limbs were full. Pupils normal, and no sign of any paralysis. I immediately injected 20 cc. Kasauli antivenene intra- venously and 20 cc. subcutaneously under the skin of the abdomen. I then made a crucial incision over the puncture and applied permanganate crystals. I did not consider this procedure likely to be of benefit, and it certainly increased the pain, but it was obviously expected of me. The incisions were superficial and the tissues, except for the dark area mentioned, appeared to be merely cedematous. One cc. pituitrin was also given. Vomiting occurred twice shortly after admission, the vomit consisting of blood and mucus only, about 4-6 oz. of blood on each occasion. It had also occurred several times before admission. The ligature below the knee was then removed and a tourniquet applied above the knee, a brief interval being allowed without appreciable effect. Half an hour later, although the pain was just as severe, the general condition was improved and the pulse considerably stronger. At 10 P.M. the condition was distinctly good, and no further vomiting had occurred. The tourniquet was now relaxed, and relaxation having no effect it was removed altogether. At 11 p.m. although no new symptoms SNAKES OF CEYLON. 523 had appeared, I considered his condition distinctly worse than it had been an hour previously, and I therefore injected subcutaneously the remaining 20 cc. antivenene. Within half an hour his condition had again improved very consider- ably, and about midnight I left feeling satisfied that there was no immediate danger. Adrenalin was held in reserve for any further hemorrhagic symptoms, and calcium lactate, 30 grains, given by mouth and continued, t.d.s., to a total of 180 grains. May 30, 1919.—Morning, 14 hours after bite : Temperature 99°4°, pulse 120, general condition good, but pain still severe and patient had had no sleep. Local condition considerable oozing from incisions, soaking through a thick dressing. Foot somewhat discoloured, swelling extends above the knee, and is obviously increasing. Evening, 24 hours after bite: Temperature 99°6°, pulse 120, general condition good, still in great pain and restless, but no sign of onset of delirium or convulsions. Paraldehyde, one drachm, given. May, 31, 1919.—Morning, 36 hours after bite: General condition good and pain diminished, had a fair night. The leg and thigh are now enormous, and patches of subcutaneous hemorrhage are seen, especially where ligature and tourniquet were applied. On the tense swollen leg the patches of discolouration resemble post mortem staining. The patient’s condition subsequently gave rise to no anxiety, but the cedema extended over the lower part of the back and abdomen and discolouration appeared on the hip and gluteal regions. He was discharged on the 13th day, his leg being still much swollen. One other point of interest was noted by Mr. P. A. K. Chari, S.A.S. On the second day the patient begged for and was granted a cigarette, one inhalation from which was immedi- ately followed by definite faintness. The patient, however, was not convinced as to the cause, and later in the day repeated the experiment, under close observation and with the same result. 72 ’ 6(6)20 524 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Comments. The antivenene was supplied to me twelve months before use, with a note to the effect that it was then one year old, but had been keptin cold storage. Personally, I am convinced that the antivenene saved the patient’s life. It may, ot course, be argued that he did not receive a lethal dose, and perhaps the fact that only a single puncture was found tavours this view. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that a Russell’s viper of over 36 inches can, and usually does, inject a fatal dose. Moreover, the improvement which followed the injection of antivenene on each occasion was very marked and cannot be attributed to any other cause. Comments by Author. The report on this case is exceptionally valuable as the snake that inflicted the injury was killed and brought in. It was identified as a Russell’s viper by my old friend Colonel G. H. Evans, so there can be no doubt on this score. The fact that so severe a degree of syncope was observed within two hours of the bite, coupled with the recurrent hema- temeses which occurred even earlier, proves that a considerable dose of venom must have been discharged into the tissues. I believe it is very unusual for hemorrhages to appear so rapidly. I know of no case that proves the value of antivenene more conclusively. It is dubious if calcium had any action in this case, or if the cessation of hemorrhages was entirely due to the anti- venene. It seems to me unlikely, however, that antivenene can restore to the blood its lost clotting power or repair damage to the intima. This is a matter that could be demonstrated in the laboratory. It is an important point to clear up in the treatment of these cases. It is conceivable that leakage from vessels might continue after antivenene has neutralized the venom in circulation, and a case might still be lost unless agents like calcium and adrenalin are made use of (F.W,). SNAKES OF CEYLON. 525 (m) Interval before Death: This, of course, depends upon the dose injected. There are records of death following the bite in from 15 minutes to 14 days or more. Mr. Vernede told me of a cooly woman who was bitten by a large Russell’s viper, judged to be 5 teet long, on his estate in the Nilgiris in 1917. In ten minutes from the casualty she was brought in a comatose state for treatment, and within fifteen minutes of the accident was dead. It is difficult to say positively if this was to be attributed to the toxemia, or to fright acting upon the heart. However, Acton and Knowles* say, though exceedingly rare in the human subject, cases of pulmonary embolism do occur, and it is possible this fatality may have been due to this cause. Usually death from the acute form of poisoning, due to syncope or exhaustion from hemorrhages occurs in from a few hours to a few days. The chronic form, leading to septicemia, may cause death as late as two or three weeks after the casualty. (n) Treatment recommended: The one certain remedy is antivenene, and 40 cc. of this serum should be run into the veins as early as possible, and repeated if the symptoms do not abate within half an hour, or in extreme cases even less than that time. As syncope due to emotional causes is to be expected in all cases of ophitoxemia, this should be treated on the lines suggested under the treatment of cobra poisoning. It is to be noted that antivenene may successfully neutralize the poison in circulation and the case still be lost, if syncope due to emotional causes as well as to the toxemia is not vigorously treated. Bayliss’ fluid is specially to be advocated intra- venously until normal blood pressure is re-established. Ié consists of gum arabic 7 parts, sodium chloride -9 parts, and water 92°10 parts, and it must, of course, be sterilized. Again it is to be noted that hemorrhages must be controlled, and suitable remedies employed with this object. Antivenene may successfully achieve its purpose, and a case still be lost from hemorrhages. * Ind. Journal of Medical Research, 1914, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 95. 526 SNAKES OF CEYLON. The drug recommended is chloride of calcium (Ca Cl,)* which should be employed as follows. One grain of Ca Cl, to twenty minims of water should be injected deep into the gluteal muscles, and acts like a charm in various hemorrhages. Caution—The same injection hypodermically causes local gangrene and also considerable pain. This injection might be repeated once, but the fact that an injection of ten grains of the salt set up a terrible femoral thrombosis in one case, shows that the drug intramuscularly must be given with caution. Other remedies to which an appeal may be made are adrenalin and pituitary extract, both drugs specially suitable as they reinforce the heart, as well as control hemorrhage. The triple alliance then of antivenene, Bayliss’ fluid, and Ca Cl, are the measures upon which the greatest reliance should be placed. Parasites.—(a) Hntozoa: Von Linstow has identified a nematode or round worm (Kalicephalus willeyi) from the stomach, and cesophagus of Russell’s viper. I have frequently found smal] nematodes about half an inch long attached to the gastric mucous membrane which may prove to be the same parasite. Lepidosis.—T'ypical—Rostral: As broad as high; in contact with six shields; the rostro-nasal sutures longest. Supraoculars: Large; undivided. Nasals: Large; entire and peculiar in shape. A vertical pillar-shaped portion forms the anterior boundary of the nostril. This bifurcates above to receive the anterior extremity of a crescentic supranasal shield. The nostril lies between two fissures, one above and the other below, both of which nearly extend to the margin of the shield. Supralabials: Ten to twelve; 4th largest ; the lst touching the nasal, none touching the eye, being separated by two or three rows of subocular scales. Sublinguals : One * Vide * The Indian Medical Gazette ? tor June, 1919. 527 SNAKES OF CEYLON. pair; touching four or five infralabials. Infralabials + Fie. 91.—Vipera russelli. 6(6)20 566 SNAKES OF Bungarus, 154, 427, 435 B. ceruleus, xiii, 11, 76, 147, 184, 437, 450, 455, 491 B. ceylonicus, 43, 76, 162, 457, 456, 457 . candidus, 437 candidus, var. cxrulcus, 437 fasciatus, 112 sindanus, 535 walli, 441 bungarus (Naia), 59, 184, 471, 478, 495 ow B. B. B. B. exrulescens (Polydontognathus), 322, 323, 324, 375, 380, 408 ceruleus (Bungarus), xiii, 11, 76, 147, 184, 436, 437, 455, 491 calamaria (Ablabes), 76, 250, 251 C. sagittaria, 84 Callophis, 435, 496 C. trimaculatus, 76, 143, 248, 497, 500 Calotes, 130, 296, 509, 561 C. ophiomachus, 509 C. versicolor, 177, 179, 223, 225, 287, 295 Campanularia serrulata, 321 candidus (Bungarus), 437 Canis aureus, 58 cantoris (Microcephalophis), 323. 324, 325, 330, 337, 397, 421 carinatus (Cercaspis), 77, 162, 437, 452 carinatus (Echis), xiii, 502, 531. 535, 543 caudolineolatus (Dendrophis), 76. 218 Causus rhombeatus, 502 Cerberus, 255, 257, 259 C. rhyncops, 77, 256, 257, 261 Cercaspis, 162 C. carinatus, 77, 162, 164, 437, 452 Cervus axis, 57 C. muntjac, 57 C. porcinus, 57 C. unicolor, 57 ceylonicus (Bungaras), +43, 162, 436, 437, 451, 456, 457 ceylonicus (Oligodon subgriseus, var.), 240 ceylonensis (Amphiesma.), 77, 102, 103, 104 ceylonicus (Dipsadomorphus), 77, 278, 282, 283 ceylonicus (Harlocercus), 77, 142 Chersydrus, 3, 74, 75, 78 C. granulatus, 77, 79 76, CHYLON. Chitulia, 368 C. ornata, 323, 324, 369, 372, 416 chloris (Hydrophis), 339 chrysarga (Amphiesma), 102, 103 chrysochlora (Chrysopelea), 311 Chrysopelea, 234, 304, 305, 307, 308, 310, 311 C. chrysochlora, 311 C. ornata, 76, 179, 199, 224, 225, 805, 307, 311, 312, 314 Coluber, 74, 81, 195 C. helena, 77, 197, 202 C. nepa, 549 Colubride, 3, 74, 76, 84 colubrina (Laticauda), 323, 324, 431 Colubrine, 81 Conchoderma virgatum, hunteri, 321, 423 collaris (Polyodontophis), 296 condanarus (Psammophis), 535 conicus (Eryx), 505 constrictor (Boa), 45 copei (Aspidura), 77, 143, 204, 207 Var, Crocidura ceruleus, 441 Crotaline, 546 curtus (Lapemis), 320, 323, 324, 327, 410, 416 cyanocincta (Lioselasma), 323, 324, 348, 353, 355, 356, 361, 366, 367, 370, 392, 408 Cylindrophis, 16 C, rufus, 16, 498 dayanus (Hydrophis), 385 Danilewskya stolati, 123 Dendrelaphis, 214, 220, 223, 305 D. tristis, 76, 227, 225, 227, 228 Dendrophis, 274, 220, 223, 224. 234, 305, 311 D. bifrenalis, 76, 215, 217 D. caudolineolatus, 76, 218 D. effrenis, 76, 219 D. pictus, 199, 223, 224, 225, 311, 312 diadema (Dolichodira), 323, 324, 325, 340, 343 diadema (Zamenis), 505 diardi (Typhlops), 6 Dichelaspis grayi, 322 D. warwicki, 321, 424 Dipsadomorphine, 266 Dipsadomorphus, 266, 267, 282 D. beddomei, 77, 282 D. barnesi, 77, 283 D. ceylonensis, 77, 278, 282 D, forsteni, 77, 285 SNAKES OF CEYLON. D. multimaculatus, 505 D. trigonatus, xiii, 77, 269, 275, 276, 277, 471 Dipsas trigonata, 277 Distira, 316 Dolichodira, 339 D. diadema, 323, 324, 340 Draco tznipterus, 312 drummondhayi (Aspidura), 204, 213 drummondhayi (Rhinophis), xiii, 23, 43, 452 Dryocalamus, 165 D.nympha, 76, 166, 168 D. gracilis 76, 169 Dryophis, 289, 299, 311, 441 D. mycterizans, 76, 112, 223, 225, 291, 300, 301, 302, 303 D. pulverulentus, 76, 302 dubium (Xenodon) 241 76, Echides, 440 Echis, 46, 93, 495, 629 E. carinatus, xiii, 502, 537, 535, 543, 545, 546 effrenis (Dendrophis), 229 Elachistodontine, 315 Elapine, 434 Elaps, 434 ellioti (Hydrophis) 371 Enhydrina 400, 406 E. valakadyen, 320, 322. 323, 324, 401, 407, 416 Enhydris, 321 enhydris (Hypsirhina), 263 Eryx conicus, 505 E. johni, 536 Eugenia jambolana, 59 76, 219, fasciata (Aturia), 323, 324, 325, 344, 350, 366, 380 fasciatus (Bungarus), 112 fasciatus (Oligodon subgriseus, var.), 239, 241 fasciolatus (Zamenis), 77, 440, 460 fayreriana (Hydrophis), 419 Felix pardus, 57 flava (Naia), 466 flavipunctata (Nerodia piscator, var.), 92 forsteni (Dipsadomorphus), 281, 285 frenatus (Ablabes), 250 Funambulus palmarum, 175 fuscus (Dryophis mycterizans, var.), 293 191, 77, 567 Gecko verticillatus, 308, 312 Geckonide, 225, 273, 296, 311, 561 Gekobia, 159, 248, 492 Gennzeus lineatus, 58 Gerardia, 255, 257, 262 G. bicolor, 265 G. prevostiana, 77, 136, 262, 264, 265 Glauconiide, 2, 15 gedeffroyi (Chitulia}, 374 gracilis (Dryocalamus), 76, 166 gracilis (Microcephalophis), 323, 324, 325, 330, 345, 350, 353, 356, 411, 421 gramineus (Trimeresurus), 272 grandis (Uropeltis), 23, 24, 25, 26, 33 granulatus (Chersydrus), 77, 79 guentheri (Aspidura), 77, 204, 208 ' guttata (Hydrophis), 397, 400 hemachates (Sepedon), 466 Hemogregarina mirabilis, 99 H. naje, 492 H. pococki, 70 H. zamenis, 187, 313 Haliztus, 320 Haliastur indus, 321 Haplocercus, 142 H. ceylonensis, 77, 143, 145 hardwickei (Lapemis), 323, 324, 402, 416 helena (Coluber), 77, 197 Helicops, 102, 134 H. schistosus, 77, 135, 141, 263, 296 Hemibungarus, 179 Hemidactylus, 156, 311 H. coctzxi, 156 H. frenatus, 156 H. gleadovi, 179 hendersoni (Distira), 385 Heterakis anomala, 99 himalayana (Amphiesma), 126 himalayanus (Ancistrodon), 505 Homalopsine, 92, 94, 136, 254 Homalopsis buccator, 17 Hydrophiine, 3, 94, 315, 323, 324 ; Hydrophis, 315, 316, 321, 322 HA. ellioti, 371 H. guttatea, 397, 400 H. lindsayi, 346, 348 H. torquatus, 343 Hydrus, 420 H. major, 397 102, 568 H. platurus, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 397, £20, 425 hypnale (Ancistrodon), 212, 502, 548, 549, 553, 554, 555 Hypsirhina enhydris, 263 H. plumbea, 263 hypsirhinoides (Tyleria), 152 Hystrix leucura, 58 Ichthyophis glutinosa, 6 Ichthyosaurus, 63 Tlysia, 15, 16 Tlysiide, 3, 15 imbricata (Kerilia), 385 inornata (Chitulia ornata, var.), 362, 370, 374 Ixalus, 130 jayakari (Prescutata viperina, var.), 362, 370, 392 jerdoni (Kerilia), 323, 324, 386 johni (Eryx), 536 juglandifer (Oligodon albocinctus. var.), 24] Kalicephalus willeyi, 11. 99. 121. 201, 526 Kerilia, 386 K. imbricata, 385 K. jerdoni, 323, 324, 386. 388 lapemidoides (Lioselasma), 366 Lapemis, 409 L. curtus, 323, 324, 327, 470, 414, 416 L. hardwickei, 323, 324, 416, 418 Laticauda, £26 L. colubrina, 323, 324, 437, 433 L. laticaudata, 323, 324, 427, 429 latifasciatus (Hydrophis), 339 Lepas anserifera, 321, 423 L. tenuivalvata, 321, 424 Lepus nigricollis, 58 leucomelas (Typhlops), 6, 7, 13 lindsayi (Hydrophis), 346, 349 Lioselasma, 349 L. bitubereulata, 323, 324, 367 L. eyanocincta, 323, 324, 361, 364, 366, 370, 392, 408 Lioselasma lapemidoides, 366 L. mamillaris, 323, 324, 349, 352 L. spiralis, 323, 324, 353, 359 loreatus (Lapemis), 419 Lycodon, 146, 154. 162, 165 L. aulicus, 77, 151, 155, 156, 160, 161, 162, 437, 441. 452, 471 SNAKES OF CEYLON. L. striatus, 77, 147, 162, 437, 452 Lygosoma cyanellum, 156 Lygosomata, 6 Mabuia carinata, 148, 156, 167 M. dissimilis, 156, 179 macclellandi (Callophis), 501 maculatus (Cylindrophis), 17, 78 maculatus (Hydrus platurus, var.), 422 maculiceps (Callophis), 501 Macropophis, 90 Macropistodon, 102, 126 M. plumbicolor, 77, 126, 128, 132, 134, 139 M. rhodomelas, 147 magnimaculatus (Bungarus), 437 major (Ablabes), 250 major (Hydrus), 397 mamillaris (Lioselasma), 323, 324, 350 melanocephalus (Dipsadomorplius trigonatus, var.), 270 melanogaster (Silybura), 23 melanoleuca (Naia), 466 Melanomystax, 381 M. nigrocinctus, 323, 324, 382, 384 Melia azadirachta, 224 Membranipora hippopus, 321 Merops viridis, 533 Microhyla ornata, 111 Microcephalophis, 325 M. cantoris, 323, 324, 330, 421 M. gracilis, 323, 324, 325, 411, 421 Microtrombidia holosericeus, 131 Microtrombidium, 86 millardi (Ancistrodon), 502, 548, 549, 554, 557 mirus (Typhleps), 6, 7 modestus (Nerodia), 91 molurus (Python), 47, 48, 50, 59, 60, 69, 505 monticola (Amphiesma), 102 monticola, (Trimeresurus), 505, 528, 559 mucosus (Zaocys), 67, 76, 172. 186, 189, 190, 471 multicinctus (Bungarus), 437 multimaculatus (Dipsadomor. phus), 505 ; mutus (Trimeresurus), 502, 559 mycterizans (Dryophis,) 76, 112, 223, 225, 290, 291, 292, 300, 301 502, Naia, 435, 457 N. bungarus, 59, 184, 471, 478, 495 N. flava, 466 SNAKES OF CEYLON. N. melanoleuca, 466 N. nigricollis, 466 N. tripudians, 77, 458, 459, 493. 494, 495 natrix (Tropidonotus), 113 neglectus (Polypholophis), 324, 380 nepa (Coluber), 549 Nerodia, 90 N. piscator, 77, 91, 98, 100, 101, 103, 130, 296 nigra (Prescutata viperina, var.), 392 nigricollis (Naia), 466 nigrocincta (Amphiesma), 102 nigrocinctus (Melanomystax), 323, 324, 382 nympha (Dryocalamus), 76, 166, 169 323, obscurus (Porrecticollis), 328, 324. . 825, 335, 408 Oligodon, 229, 231, 232 O. arnensis, 77, 231, 287, 454 O. splendidus, 241 O. subgriseus, 76, 231, 239, 244 O. sublineatus, 76, 85, 200, 248, 492, 498 O. teniolatus, 239 O. templetoni, 76, 245 O. venustus, 241 . ‘oligozonatus (Lycodon aulicus, var.), 151, 152 Ophichthys boro., 319, 326, 356 O. orientalis, 319, 326, 356 Opisthoglypha, 75, 254 ornata (Chitulia), 323, 324, 392, 416 ornata (Chrysopelea), 76,179,199, 224, 225, 305, 307, 311, 312 Oxyglossus levis, 111 oxyrhynchus (Rhinophis), 23, 32 238, pallidus (Hydrus platurus), var., 422 pallidus (Zaocys mucosus), var., 173 phillipinus (Typhlops), 36 phipsoni (Lioselasma cyanocincta.), var., 362, 370 pictus (Dendrophis), 199, 221, 224, 225, 311, 312 piseator (Nerodia), 17, 77, 90, 91, 93, 94, 98, 100, 101, 103, 112, 115, 116, 130, 296 planiceps (Bhinophis), 23, 36, 38, 40, 43 , 569 ' Platurus, 316, 317, 318, 322, 426 platurus (Hydrus), 320, 321, 323, 324, 397, 420 latyceps (Amphiesma), 102, 296 Bistieeas sp., 322, 424 'P. krugeri, 322; P. ophiophilus, 322, 406 Plesiosaurus, 63 322, ‘plumbea (Hypsirhina), 263 Plumbago capensis, 106 plumbicolor (Macropisthodon), 77, 126, 127, 128, 132, 139 Polyodontognathus, 375 PR; ceerulescens, 322, 323, 324, 3765, 378 Polyodontophis, 82, 83 P. collaris, 296 P. subpunctatus, 77, 84, 86, 88 Polypholophis, 380 P. neglectus, 323, 324, 380 Porocephalus armillatus, 70 P. erotali, 98, 120 P. moniliformis, 69 P. pattoni, 187 Porrecticollis, 335 P. obscurus, 323, 335, 338, 408 porrectus (Rhinophis), xiii, 23, 31, 35 Prescutata viperina, 323, 324, 391, 394 prevostiana (Gerardia), 77, 136, 262 Proteroglypha, 75, 315 Psammophis condanarus, 179, 535 Pseudoxenodon, 102 Pterocercus, 99, 121 Ptychozoon homalocephalum, 312 pulverulentus (Dryophis), 76, 290, 292, 294 punctatus (Rhinophis), 23, 33, 34, 35 punctulatus (Nerodia), 90, 91 Pythoninez, 46 Python, 46 P. molurus, £8, 59, 71, 72, 505 P. reticulatus, 68, 476 quincunciata (Nerodia piscator, var.), 92 Rachiodontine, 254 Rana breviceps, 111 R. cyanophlyctis, 111 R. limnocharis, 94 R. tigrina, 111, 179, 184, 296, 470 rappl (Ablabes), 250 regius (Python), 47, 70 reticulatus (Python), 68, 69, 476 570 Rhacophorus leucomystax, 111 Rhinophis, 23, 31, 452 R. blythii, 23, 40, 42, 143 R. drummondhayi, xiii, 23, 31, 43, 452 R. oxyrhynchus, 23, 32 R. planiceps, 23, 36 R. porrectus, xiii, 23, 31, 35 R. punctatus. 23, 33, 34, 35 R. trevelyanus, 23, 38 R, sanguineus, 296 thodogaster (Dryophis mycteri- zans, var.), 293 rhodomelas (Macropisthodon), 471 rhodonotus (Dryophis mycteri- zans, var.), 293 thodostoma (Ancistrodon), 502, 547 rhombeatus (Causus), 502 rhynchops (Cerberus), 77, 256, 257 rufus (Cylindrophis), 16, 17, 498 russelli (Vipera), 328, 440, 502, 504, 527, 528 sagittarius (Polyodontophis), 87 senguineus (Rhinophis), 296 seb (Python), 69, 70 Sepedon hemachates, 466 schistosa (Hydrophis), 401 schistosus (Helicops), 77, 135, 139, 141, 263, 296 Seincide, 225, 273, 296 Scolopendre, 535 Silybura, 27, 28 S. melanogaster, 23 Silyburide, 296 Simotes, 471 S. venustus, 241 sindanus (Bungarus), 535 Solenophorus megacephalus, 69 spilonotus (Oligodon subgriseus), Var. 241 spiralis (Lioselasma), 320, 323, 324, 353, 370, 392 spiralis (Lioselasma spiralis, var.), 355, 362 Spirocheta tropidonoti, 122 splendidus (Oligodon), 241 stokesi (Astrotia), 323, 324, 331, | 396 stolata (Amphiesma), 102, 105, 111, 112, 113,114, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 130, 137, 296 striaticollis (Hydrophis), 341, 343 striatus (Lycodon), 77, 147, 437, 452 subgriseus (Oligodon). 239, 244 231, 76, SNAKES OF CEYLON. sublineatus (Oligodon), 76, 200, 231, 246, 248, 492, 498 subminiata (Amphiesma), 102, 126 subpunctatus (Polyodontophis), 77, 84, 86, 88, subobseurus (Hydrus var.), £22, 423 platurus, teniolatus (Oligodon), 239 Taphozous longimanus, 312 templetoni (Oligodon), 76, 245, 246 temporalis (Hydrophis), 356 tephrogaster (Dryophis mycteri- zans, var.), 293, 302 Termes redemanni, 248 tessellatus (Nerodia), 90, 91 Thamnobia cambayensis, 273 T. fulicata, 225 torquatus (Hydrophis), 343 tigrina (Amphiesma), 102 trachyprocta (Aspidura), 76, 204, 209, 213 Tragulus, 57 trevelyanus (Rhinophis), 23, 38, 40, 43 Triacanthus brevirostris, 336 Trichomastix, 299 Trichomonas, 299 trigonatus (Dipsadomorphus), xiii, 77, 269, 279, 471 trigonata (Dipsas), 277 trigonocephalus (Trimeresurus), 502, 560, 563 trimaculatus (Callophis), 76, 143, 248, 497 Trimeresurus, 558 T. anamallensis, 272, 495 T. gramimeus, 272 T. monticola, 502, 505, 528, 559 T. mutus, 502, 559 T. trigonocephalus, 502, 560, 563 Trionyx, 179 tripudians (Naia), 77, 458, 459, 493, 494, 495 tristis (Dendrelaphis), 225, 226, 227, 228, 229 Triticella pedicellata, 321 Tropidonotus, 89, 90, 102, 223 T. asperrimus, 91 T. natrix, 113 T. piscator, 17 Trypanosoma brucei, 122 T. evansi, 122 T. tropidonoti, 122 Typhlops, 4, 5, 6, 7, 225 T. braminus, 9, 12, 13, 441 i T. leucomelas, 73, 14 231, 76, 221, SNAKES OF CEYLON. T. philippinus, 36 Typhlopide, 2, 3, 4 typica (Chitulia ornata, var.), 370 typica (Helicops schistosus, var.), 136 typica (Lycodon aulicus, var.), 151 typica "ai viperina, var.), 391, 392 typicus (Dipsadomorphus trigona- tus, var.), 270. typicus (Dryophis mycterizans, var.), 292, 302 typicus (Oligodon subgriseus, var.), 239 typicus (Typhlops braminus, var.), 9 tytleri (Tropidonotus), 91 unicolor (Lycodon), 152 unicolor (Xenopeltis), 112 Uropeltida, 3, 23 Uropeltis, 23 U. grandis, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33 ursinii (Vipera), 531 valakadyen (Enhydrina), 320, 322, 323, 324, 401, 416 Varanus, 478 571 V. bengalensis, 58, 47] V. flavescens, 441 venningi (Nerodia), 90, 91 venustus (Simotes), 241 venustus (Oligodon), 241 Vipera, 501, 503 V. berus, 503 V. russelli, 328, 440, 502, 504, 527, 528 V. ursinii, 531 Viperide, 3, 501 viperina (Prescutata), 323, 324, 370, 391 Viperineg, 503 ce ‘ walli (Bungarus), 441 Xenochrophis, 102 Xenopeltis unicolor, 112 Xenopeltida, 3, 74, 84 xenura (Nerodia), 90, 91 Zamenis, 172, 190 Z. diadema, 505 Z. fasciolatus, 77, 191, 194, 440, 460 Zaocys, 171, 172, 190 Z. raucosus, 67, 76, 172, 186, 189 471 GENERAL INDEX. A, Abercromby, xii, 19, 67, 102, 104, 130, 134, 139, 140, 165, 184, 200, 221, 226, 227, 280, 284, 287, 460, 501, 550, 288, 299, 302, 554, 560, 562 Acton, 443, 444, 446, 480, 481, 482, 483, 525, 538, 539 Adrenalin, 448, 523, 526 Afghanistan, 190 Africa, 5, 6,13, 46,47, 82, 89, 91, 135, 191, 435, 456, 502, 530, 546 Ahara kukka, 105 Ajmere, 240 Akyab, 348 Alcock, 298 Alder, 321 Almora, 125, 175,179, 182, 198, 232, 233, 236, 240, 254, 451, 529 Alu polonga, 151 Ambewela, 558 America, 5, 6, 16, 46, 82, 84, 89, 91, 135, 191, 197, 435, 502, 548, 560 Anaconda, 45 Anamallay hills, 279, 302, 501 Anasigalla, 157 Andaman Islands, 13, $1, 96, 101, 125, 151, 162, 256, 262, 366, 373, 408, 426, 495, 528. Anderson, 392, 419. Aanandale, 10, 11,270, 282, 294, 318, 319, 321, 330, 331, 336, 337, 373, 380, 390, 406, 416, 423, 431 Antivenene, 454, 491, 525, 543 125, 170, 171, 522, 523, 572 Anuradhapura, 554 Apollo, 46 Arabian sea, xii Argus, catsaake, 505 Aripo, 461 Arni, 231, 232 Arrakan, 170 Ashambu hills, 68 Asia, 5, 11, 46, 47, 82, 84, 89, 125, 135, 147, 166, 172, 191, 197, 230. 251, 255, 435, 436, 456, 502, 530 546, 548, 560 Aspidura, the common, 209 Assam, 9, 11, 57, 58, 59, 62, 68. 73, 93,101, TO2, 112, 126, 162, 181, 202, 229, 315, 478, 496 Ass viper, 48 Australia, 5, 6, 47,82, 89, 91, 256, 269, 373, 426, 435 Avissawella, 208 134, 169, 289, B. Badulla, 26, 125, 134, 281, 477. 554, 562, 564 Baksa Dooars, 68, 254 Balangoda, xvi, 38, 39, 43, 105, 134, 142, 146, 162, 165, 208, 209, 214, 218, 219, 247,315, 457, 501, 564 Balatota, 38 Bale, 321 Balrampur, 52, 286 Balrampur Maharaja, 286 Baluchistan, 73, 245, 270, 367, 476, 496 Banded krait, 112, 435 Banded snake, 151, 197 Bandicoot, 59 Bandora, 422 Bangalore, 114, 119, 130, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 176, 181, 182, 199, 224, 254, 274, 299, 469, 470, 473, 474, 476, 508, 511 Bangkok, 307 Bannerman, Col., 441, 442, 475, 511, 536, 537 Bannu, 232, 233, 442 Barking deer, 57 Barnes’s catsnake, 283 Bassein river, 343 Bassett-Smith, 462, 507, 529 Bat, 312 Batavia, 548 Bateman, Mr. C., 477 365, 471, SNAKUS OF CEYLON. Bayliss’ fluid, 448, 525, 543 Beadon, Mr. C., 181, 225 Beddome, Col., 15, 29, 171, 282, 353, 360, 501 Beddome’s catsnake, 282 Begbie, Major, 57, 68 Behar, 232, 233, 529 ° Bengal, 245, 286, 289, 315, 415, 419, 420, 430, 434, 529 Bengal, Bay of, xii, 343, 353, 415, 419, 420, 430, 434, 496, 501 Berhampore (Orissa), 116, 148, 169 287 Berhampur, 137, 234 Bertram, Father, 8.J., 296 Bevan, Mr. Carlos, 207, 451 Bhim Tal], 102 Bibroh, xvii, 68,84, 231, 239, 241, 248, 285, 293, 302 Billet, 123 Blake, 481 Blanford, 95, 97, 170, 177, 192, 240, 258, 271, 297, 356, 507, 532 Bleeker, 349 Blind snake, 7, 9, 13, 225 Bloodsucker lizard, 223, 225 Blyth, 40, 91, 274, 437 Blyth’s rhinophis, 40 Boa, 45 Bobeau, Dr. G., poison lakes of 478 Boie, 152, 204, 355, 401, 466 Boie’s aspidura, 204 Bombay, 58, 78, 79, 80, 81, 107, 110, 153, 175, 176, 182, 199, 240, 241, 242, 265, 287, 297, 298, 346, 353, 356, 360, 362, 377, 379, 392, 395, 422, 506, 529 Borella cemetery, 225 Borneo, 283, 285, 343, 349, 416, 422 Boulenger, xi, 13, 38, 85, 87, 90, 91, 92, 102, 103, 126, 172, 190, 197, 213, 215, 221, 227, 231, 232, 239, 240, 241, 248, 265, 277, 280, 282, 284, 285, 293, 303, 306, 316, 323, 328, 330, 334, 343, 344, 346, 348, 356, 360, 366, 373, 374, 385, 386, 392, 393, 395, 397, 400, 401, 416, 431, 432, 437, 454, 476, 494, 531, 535 Boulenger’s dendrophis, 215 Brahmaputra, 54 Brahminy-kite, 321 Brahminy-lizard, 156 Bridal snake, 166, 169 Broach, 129, 130 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Broad banded seasnake, 349 Bronze back, 215, 218, 219, 221 Browning, Surgeon-Major, 483 Brugman’s seasnake, 353 Brunton, 486 Buckland, 53, 63 Buff-striped keelback, 105, 137 Bungarum, 435 Burma, 16, 17, 18, 58, 59, 73, 74, 81, 101, 102, 111, 114, 116, 117, 126, 157, 162, 182, 184, 190, 258, 260, 262, 265, 298, 307, 308, 312, | 313, 315, 330, 334, 336, 341, 343, 348, 360, 366, 370, 373, 379, 385, 390, 398, 402, 408, 471, 472, 473, 474, 476, 501, 508, 528, 529 C. Caius, Rev. J. F., 296 Calcutta, 10, 66, 67, 87, 142, 192, 349, 400, 402, 430, 451 Calmette, 406, 413, 482, 485 Cambay, gulf of, 265 Campbell, Sir J., 286, 287 Canara, 241 Candy, Mr., 536 Cannanore, 94,96, 97,110,112, 298, 472, 473, 474, 475, 510, 529 Cantor, 80, 84, 128, 137,176, 195, 258, 306, 307, 312, 330, 334, 339, 343, 348, 361, 380, 390, 409 Cantor’s seasnake, 330 Cape Comorin, 451 Carawala, 549 Castellani, 99 Castets, Rev. 8.J., 438 Cat fishes, 319 Catsnake, 471 Cato, 267 Celebes, 18, 102 Celsus, 485 Centipedes, 9, 55, 535 Ceylon keelback, 103 Ceylon krait, 151, 451 Ceylon pit viper, 560 Ceylon wolfsnake, 162 Chambers, Mr., 446 Channer, Col., 57 Chantaboon, 431 Chari, Mr. P. A. K., 523 Cheetah, 57 Chequered keelback, 91 Chersydrus, 79 Chevrotain, 57 79 118, 114, 115, 119, 125, 153, 157, 174, 179, 181, 182, 240, 243, 263, 265, 334, 339, 379, 403, 408, 415, 573 Chicken, 58, 59 Chilaw, 36 Chilka lake, 169, 336, 339 China, 73, 102, 125, 190, 315, 348, 349, 395, 430, 548 Chin hills, 126 Chitral, 182, 462, 473, 476 Chittagong, 334, 339, 343 Chittul, 361, 368 Chusan Islands, 496 Cobra, 176, 185, 193, 440, 446, 459, 525 Cochin hills, 554 Cocos Islands, 13 Coffee viper, 560 Coiled snake, 531 Colombo, viii, 64, 67, 89, 182, 183, 203, 207, 220, 223, 225,245, 262, 307, 357, 368, 398, 454, 477 Colubrine snake, 1738, 445 Comoro Islands, 13, 84 Cooch Behar, Maharaja of, 68, 69 Cookson, Col. Fife, 51 Coorg, 129 Cope, Mr. E., 207, 209 Copeland, 62 Cope’s aspidura, 207 Coral snake, the slender, 497 Cordante, 45 Coromandel, 142, 330, 343, 360, 365, 390, 395, 400, 402, 415 Craddock, Mr., 478 Crocodiles, 321 Crow, 59 Cuddapah, 170, 171 Cumming, Mr., 73 Cunningham, 480, 483, 514, 515 Cuvier, 36 D. Daboia, 440, 504 D’Abreu, 66, 94, 96, 97, 130, 131, 173, 193, 200, 273,499, 509 D’Albertis, 398 Daly, Mahon, 310 Dalzell, 321 Darjeeling, 125, 528 Darwin, Charles, 179, 322, 442 Daudin, 9,135,166, 197, 221, 335, 349, 350, 361, 366, 382, 401, 497, 498, 560 Daudin’s coluber, 197 Daudin’s seasnake, 382 Davy, Dr., 484, 485, 509, 549, 550, 551 Dawson, Col., 54, 56, 154, 439, 473, 474, 509 6(6) 20 574 Deccan, 242 Deer, 57, 62, 63 Deer, barking, 57 Deer, hog, 57 Deer, sambur, 57 Deer, spotted, 54 Dehra Dun, 240, +76 Delhi, 240, 270, 438, 440,461, 467, 529, 532, 534 Delmege, Mr., 6S Dennys, Major, 5384 Deolah, 240 Depatnaya, 918 Dhaman, 67, 172, 471 Dhikala, 240 Dias, Sir Harry, viii Dibrugarh, 54, 58, 96, 112, L116, L17, 119, 120, 157 Dillwin, 309 Dimbula, 457 Diyabariya, 257 Diyapolanga, 1 Diyatalawa, 213 lI, Dog, 59 Dog-faced water snake, 257 Donaghey, 59 Donaghy, 465 Dreckman, Father, 52, 95, 182, 183, 422, 441, 509 Drieberg, 299 Drummond-Hay, H. M., xiii, 6, 29, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 89, 93, 105, 134, 142, 143, 146,150, 152, 162, 163, 165, 169, 171,195, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214,218, 219, 229, 245, 247, 249, 289, 293, 303, 315, 451, 452, 499, 501, 562, 564 Drummond-Hay’s aspidura, 213, 238 Drummond-Hay’s rhinophis, 15, 175, Ducks, 58 Dumbara, 554 Dumeril, xvii, 66, 68S, 84,231, 239, 241, 248, 285, 293, 302 Dumeril’s oligodon, 248 Dunukarawala, 451 Dwane, 108 E. Ear snake, 9 Earth snake, 9,18, 26, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Earthworms, 22, 27,30, 37, 38, 40, 44, 59, 148, 204, 205, 210 Edoux, 262 Eels, 15, 17, 319 Egypt, lower, 230 Ehetulla, 225, 291 Elliot, 68, 171, 4(4, 405, 406, 412, 413,444, 445,462, 482, 483, 486, 508, 513, 514, 535 Ellore, 240, 532 Elmes, Dr., 57, 58, 68 England, 113 Escherich, Dr., Esgulla, 291 Evans, Col. Ge He 55, 110, I1l, 112, 114, 182, 298, 307, 312, 313, 330, 356, 366, 379, 383, 437, 471, 474, 478, 524 Ewing, 520 248 F. False Islands, 170 Fayrer, 363, 392,419, 430, 438, 440, 441, 469, 474, 482, 483, 484, 486, 491,494, 495, 507, 517, 529. 533, 534, 535 Ferguson, xi, xiii, 33, 48, 58, 60, 63, 68, 70, 104, 105, 107, 134, 137, 169, 179, 204, 208, 209, 228, 228, 220, 249, 257, 258,202, 390, 400, 451,459, 471, 47 546, 560 Fernando, H. F., 265 Fiji Islands, 430 Finn, 294 Fischer, Mr. C. E. C0, 408 Fitzgerald, 473 Flat snake, 349 Fletcher, 128, 130 Flexner, 486, 515 Flower, 16, 179, 258, 293, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 420, 430, 462, 471, 47%, 498 Formosa, 101, 125, 190, 400, 431, 496 Forsten, 285 Forsten’s catsnake, 285 Foulkes, Mr., 473 Fox, Mr. Brook, 446, 447, 471 Fraser, 404, 405, 406, 412, 413, 482, 539, 540 Frere, Major, 181, 471 Friendly Islands, 430 Frogs, 58, 94, 107, 108, 111, 112, 130, 156, 179, 184, 225, 226, 441, 530, 550 22M. SNAKES OF CEYLON. Fyzabad, 50, 96, 113, 114, 115, 136, 138, 139, 178, 181, 182, 234, 235, 272, 473, 475, 529 110, 119, 148, 192, 273, 111, 112, 120, 125, 157, 175, 193, 232, 438, 470, G. Galle, viii, 15, 218, 303, 554 Galatura estate, xiv, 89, 165, 289 Gamma snake, 269 Gamma tree snake, xiii Gampola, 454 Gangaruwa, 285 Ganges, 423, 529 Ganges basin, 142 Garandiya, 172 Garhwal district, 240 Gecko, 153, 158, 179, 225, 307 Gedi Paragoodoo, 440 George, Capt., 68 George, Mr. C. P., 471 , Gerard, 262 Gerard’s water snake, 136 Gervais, 262 Gibson, Lt., 466 Girard’s seakrait, 427 Gleadon, 154, 242, 440, 478 Gmelin, 221 Goa Ghats, 240 Goat, 60, 63 Gombert, Rev. E. M., 125 Gonda, 254 Gopalpore, 402 Grass-coiled snake, 531 Grass snake, 113 Grasshopper, 225 Gray, 29, 130, 321,322, 349, 369, 370, 374, 386, 396, 416, 419 Gray’s seasnake, 369 Gray’s Silybura, 29 Green-Armytage, Capt., 447 Green cobra, 129 Green, Mr. E. E., xii, xiv, 103, 105, 107, 112, 125, 147, 148, 149, 150, 154, 179, 199, 207, 221, 223, 225, 226, 246, 248, 279, 295, 296, 297, 298, 303, 452, 453, 460, 474, 501, 511, 550, 551, 561, 562, Green keelback, 128 Green viper, 560 Gregarines, 187 Qrinlinton, Sir J. J., ix Guindy, 536 80 366, 397, 101, 143, 156, 224, 294, 315, 509, 563 575 Gunn, 539, 540 Gunther, xi, 38, 103, 136, 138, 176, 180, 207, 239, 241, 242, 259, 272, 277, 306, 318, 320, 339, 340, 343, 350, 358, 371, 416, 417, 451, 561 Gunther’s aspidura, 208 Gunther’s calamaria, 251 Gunther’s catsnake, 278 Gunther’s dendrophis, 218 Gunther’s seasnake, 340 Gurkha, 233 Guzerat, 184, 271, 511 Gwadar, 271, 367 Gwalior, 195 66, 69, 80, 92, 143, 154, 169, 221, 232, 236, 245, 251, 252, 278, 282, 283, 322, 330, 331, 345, 348, 349, 398, 400, 404, 478, 535, 551, H. Habb river, 73 Hemogregarine, 123 Hagenbeck, John, 69, 220 Hainan, 125, 396 Haka, 126 Hakgala, 114, 125, 213, 529, 549, 558 Haldanda, 215, 218, 221 Haldummulla, 44, 277, 303, 457 Haly, vi, 9, 19, 89, 104, 105, 134, 142, 156, 165, 169, 171, 195, 203, 207, 219, 229, 249, 258, 262, 265, 277, 289, 308, 348, 408, 498, 507, 514, 529, 554, 564 Hamadryad, 59, 184, 495 Hambantota, 501 Hampton, Mr. H., 176, 178, 179, 467, 473, 476 Hanna, 579 Hardwicke, 416, 430 ‘ Hardwicke’s seasnake, 416 Hare, 58, 59 Harry, Mr. A. M., 57, 68 Hatton, 41, 43 Havelock, Sir Arthur, vii, viii Haycock mountain, 15 Henakandaya, 302 Henderson, Dr. J. R., 9, 54, 67, 80, 105, 167, 225, 319, 325, 326, 334, 344, 356, 357, 358, 395, 440, 441, 529 Henaratgoda, 289 Herbert, Mr. V. A., 65 Herb snake, 128 Herz, 396 | Hewissa, 247 6(6)20 576 Hill snake, 48 Hilson, Dr., 486, 489 Himalayas, 54, 73, 102, 125, 150, 162, 182, 189, 195, 202, 229, 232, 238, 251, 277, 289, 315, 451, 495, 528, 529 Hirst, Prof., 131 Hong Kong, 60, 125, 396, 409 Hoogly pattee, 401 Hoogly river, 339, 343 Hopewell, xiv, 43, 146, 162, 165, 208, 209, 214, 247, 250 Hopley, Miss, 177, 471, 536 Horana, 281, 289, 303 Horton Plains, 207 Hunter, 486 Hyderabad, 24) I. Ilagolla, 219 Tiysia, 15 Imlach, Dr., 539 Indian catsnake, 269 Indian python, 48 Indo-China, 16, 17, 18, 73, 74, 81, 101, 102, 162, £90, 315 Ingleby, Mr., 137, 138, 223, 225 J. Jackal, 58 Jaffna, 165, 169, 195, 451 Jalpaiguri district, 125, 477, 528 Jamrach, 348 Jan, 7 Jan’s Ceylon typhlops, 7 Japan, 251, 409, 420, 426, 548 Jask, 373 Java, 74, 101, 127, 190, 395, 396 Jerboa, 59 Jerdon, 68, 84, 239, 240, 241.370, 386, 392. 501, 535 Jerdon’s polyodont, 84 Jerdon’s seasnake, 38 Jhelum, 184 Jodhpore, 537 John, Rev., 185 John’s earth snake, 536 John’s seasnake, 325 Jones, Mr. Goring, +66 Joseph, Gerard A., xiv K. Kadel nagam, 353 Kadel pambu, 353 Kaladungi, 286 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Kala Shootur Sun, 335 Kallan, 440 Kaloodat viriyan, 48 Kalupahana, 277, 303 Kalupahana estate, 44, 457 Kalutara, 89, 289 Kanardi viriyan, 504 Kandy, vii, ix, 26, 125, 142, 205. 207, 213, 281, 283, 303. 554, 558, 564 Kankuthi pambu, 197, 291 Kanthalai, 315 Karachi, 334, 346, 348. 356, 360. 392, 395, 400 Karawala, 451 Kareen, 310 Karwar, 240, 334, 339, 370, 373, 395, 554 Kasauli, 406 Kashmir, 529 Kattu pambu, 197 Kattu viriyan, 151 Keelback, 17 Keelback, buff-striped, 105 Keelback, Ceylon, 103 Keelback, green, 1238 Keelback, olivaceous, 135 Kelaart, xi, 26, 38, 38, 40 Kelaart’s Uropeltis, 26 Kelani river, 265 Kelani Valley, 1x Kelsall, 178 Kemp, Mr., 332, 334, 370 Kennedy, 50 Kerril patte, 382 Kestrel, 59 Khandalla, 95, 240, 470 Khandesh, 240 Khasi Hills, 112, 126 Kil Kotagiri, 226, 229, 47] King cobra, +71 Kinlock, 296, 471 Kinnear, Mr., 63, 295, 297, 298, 466 Kite, brahminy, 321 Knowles, 443, 444, 446, 450. 481, 482. 483, 513, 525, 538, 539 Komberi mukan, 221. 291 Konkani, 193 Kopi viriyan, 560 Kotagiri, 506 Krait, xiii, 11, 43, 112, 179, 184, 437 Krait, Indian, £52, 453 Kuhl, 162 Kukri snake, 231, 239, 245, 248 Kunakatuwa, 549 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Kurram Garti, 233 Kurunegala, 303 Kynsey, Dr., vii L. Lacepede, 560 Lal Bagh, 137 Lamb, 405, 406, 444, 480, 481, 483, 485, 486, 513, 514, 515, 517, 519, 539 Lamprey, 326 Lancaster, 322 Laurenti, 459, 549 Laveran, 187, 313 Legislative Council, vii Leigh, Rev. C., 470, 472 Lennock estate (Uva), 44, 105, 213, 457 Le polonga, 285 Leopard, 57 Levinson, 321 Leymedilla, 204 Light, Col.. 131, 198 Lightfoot, 179 Linné, 1, 18, 45, 48, 151, 172, 291, 321, 421, 427, 431, 459 Linné’s Cylindrophis, 18 Linnés seasnake, 420 Lipton, Sir Thomas, 477 Liston, Lt.-Col. Glen, 441, 475, 479 Lizard, 166, 177, 179, 225, 226, 235, 241, 242, 530, 550 Lizard, brahminy, 156 Lizard, monitor, 58 Lloyd, 308, 432 Loo Choo Islands, 374, 409, 420, 428, 430, 431, 434 Lorenz, viii Lucas, 267 Lyddeker, 178 M. Mackinnon, Mr. P. W., 476, 478 Madagascar, 13, 84 Madras, 55, 59, 96, 114, 181, 240, 259, 297, 325, 330, 334, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 356, 357, 360, 365, 367, 370, 371, 373, 379, 386, 387, 390, 392, 395, 408, 411, 415, 421, 536 Madulkele, 554, 558 Madura, 226 Magrath, Lt.-Col., 233 Magwe, 529 Mahableshwar, 254, 501 577 Mahlaing, 529 Major, Lt.-Col., 537 Malabar, 81, 330, 348, 353, 360, 365, 379, 390, 392, 395, 400, 402, 415, 498, 546 Malacca, Straits of, 343, 385 Malai pambu, 48 Malay python, 476 Malay region, 15, 16, 17, 18, 74, 79, 81, 101, 102, 127, 162, 190, 230, 256, 262, 293, 307, 309, 312, 313, 315, 316, 330, 334, 344, 349, 360, 373, 374, 379, 389, 390, 395, 409, 415, 416, 420, 430, 496 Maleolm-Smith, 15, 17, 298, 307, 309, 312, 313, 390 Maldive Islands, 162 Mal karawala, 305 Manallay pambu, 9 Manbhum, 286, 289 Mandalay, 466 Manilla, 374 Manipur, 11 Mapila, 278, 285 Marmogoa Bay, 227, 334 Martin, 485, 539 Massena estate, 289 Matale, 165, 501, 562, 564 Matara, 26 Mathera, 375 Matheran, 241, 242 Matura, 26 Mauritius, 13 Mayaungmya, 385 Mayo-thit, 529 McClelland, 356 McDougall, 184 McGrigor, Sir J., 357 McLeod, 63 McMahon, Sir A. H., 532, 536 Mekran, 261, 400 Mergui, 330, 339, 361, 366, 379, 390, 396, 408, 416, 419 Merrem, 549 Merrem’s hump-nosed viper, 549 Merrem’s seasnake, 375 Mesopotamia, 546 Meyrick, Prof. Ed., xiv Mice, 153, 154, 441, 534, 550 Milagu kadiyan, 325, 344 Miller, Mr., 528 Millard, Mr. W.S8., 56, 58, 107, 108, 110, 112, 158, 154, 159, 175, 176, 179, 184, 198, 199, 272, 294, 295, 312, 313, 438, 439, 441, 471, 476, 477, 506, 529, 584, 535, 554 Millard’s hump-nosed viper, 554 Milton, 46 578 AMinerrh, 375 Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers, 53, 60, 61 Mitchell, Mr. J. H., 59 Mitchell, Weir, 484 Mites, 122, 131, 159, 248 Mogok, 474, 476 Mongoose, 176, 184 Monitor lizard, 53 Montgomery, Miss, 129, 130, 131, 199 Moragalla, 134, 281, 564 Mosse, 511 Moulmein, 259 Moungmya, 356, 360 Mountford, Mr., 535 Mount Lavinia, 393, 423 Mudu karawala, 197 Mullaittivu, 33, 546, 554 Muller, 33, 35 Muller’s rhinophis, 33 Multan, 536, 537 Murray, 112, 346, 348, 355, 363, 373, 379, 400 Muscat, 373, 392 Muskrat, 441 Mussoorie, 68, 478 Myitkyina, 184 Mysore, 54, 529, 546 N. Naga pambu, 459 Nagpur, 67, 94, 96, 130, 193, 200, 273 Nair, 297 Naini Tal, 286 Nalla pambu, 459 Nallamallay Hills, 181 Nanu-oya, 281, 554 Narayan Rao, 511 Naya, 459 Neboda, 89, 562, 564 Negombo, 289 Neligatta, 69 Nelliamputty Hills, 243 Nematode worms, 11, 201 Nepal, 232 Nerva, 501 Nuwara Eliya, 212, 213 New Galway, Xiv, 213 New Guinea, 78, 79, 81, 348, 373, 398, 408, 419, 430 w Zealand, 426 icholson, Dr., 107, 114, 176, 181, 182, 263, 440, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 480, 485, 508 Nicobars, 125, 162, 249, 256, 262, 422, 434, 528 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Nilghai fawn, 59 Nikkattan pambu, 105 Nikkatian kutty, 105 Nilgiri Hills, 96, 102, 130, 131, 182, 197, 200, 226, 229, 238, 242, 245, 251, 254,278, 279, 281, 287, 297, 298, 303, 506, 525, 529, 554 Noguchi, 486, 515 Nuttall, Prof., 159, 186, 200, 248 O. Oakes, Mr., 52 Oily snake, 437 Oligodon, the common, 231 Oligodon, Dumeril’s, 248 Oligodon, Templeton’s, 245 Oligodon, variegated, 239 Olivaceous keelback, 135, Orissa, 169, 171, 232, 334, 367, 392, 396, 419 Ormiston, 44, 277 Owen, xvii, 310, 321 Owston, 374, 409, 420, 428, 434 Py Pacha naga, 128 Pachay pambu, 291 Pachi viriyan, 560 Paddy tax, viii Pala polonga, 128, 560 Palliekellie, 134 Palnai hills, 125, 150, 529 Papuasia, 47, 255, 269, 365 Paralai, 125 Parel, 442, 471, 474, 475, 510,511, 536 Parke Davis & Co., Pituitary, 448 Parnassus, Mount of, 46 Pasyala, 65 Patani, 330, 374, 380 Patna, 193 Patton, 187 Peacock, 58 Pearless, Mr. 8. M., xii, 125, 134, 184, 279, 281, 477, 554, 562 Pearson, Dr. Joseph, xiv, 558 Pegu, 343, 360 Pelew Island, 262 Penang, 320, 330, 344, 348, 358, 361, 379, 380, 416, 434 Pepper biter, 325, 344 Peradeniya, 9, 34, 105, 150, 207, 226, 229, 247, 281, 283, 303, 457, 564 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Perak, 348, 380 Percival, Capt., 68 Periya pambu, 48 Persia, 150 Persiaa Gulf, xii, 315, 330, 344, 353, 360, 362, 373, 395, 408, 415, 422, 426 Peters, 36, 367, 374 Peters’s rhinophis, 36 Peters’s seasnake, 367 Pheasant, 58 Philibhit, 254 Philippines, 36, 81, 125, 162, 230, 256, 262, 266, 315, 374,419, 420, 430, 431, 458, 496 Phillips, Lort, 366 Phipson, 54, 55, 56, 59, 62, 265, 462, 467, 469, 471, 474, 476 Pied typhlops, 13 Pigeon, 58, 59 Pilsbury, 322 Pimbera, 48 Pinto, 404, 412 Pituitary extract, 526 Pliny, 45 Polmal karawala, 305 Pollock, 67 Polong-telissa, 549 Poona, 96, 242 Pooran, 9 Porcupine, 58 Potai pambu, 410 Prater, Mr., 80 Pratt, 184 Prevost, 262 Pridham, 224 Primrose, 112, 296 Pritchard, Lt., 184 Pul suratiat, 531 Pulney Hills, 245 Punagalla, xiv, 105, 142, 218, 303, 315, 457 Pundaluoya, 43, 146, 564 Punjab, 73, 150, 162, 232, 529, 535 Puri, 360, 390, 392, 395, 419, 421 Purneah, 245 Puttalam, 36, 89 Python, 45, 97, 505 Python, Malay, 476 Q. Quail, 59 Queensland, 255 Quetta, 536 Quilon, 58 579 Rabbit, 59, 60 Ragotzi, 486 Rajputana, 190 Raj Shahi, 58, 68 Rakwana district, 38 Ramboda, 146, 213 Ramri Islands, 434 Rangoon, 94, 95, 96, 97, 108, 110, 114, 116, 119, 126, 157, 174, 176, 180, 181, 182, 258, 259, 263, 308, 312, 313, 381, 386, 396, 461, 472, 507 Rasagalla, 303 Rasp-skinned water snake, 79 Rat, 59, 60, 177, 178, 535 Rat, water, 58 Ratnagiri district, 38, 40, 536, 539 Ratnapura, xiv, 89, 165, 247, 250, 303, 564 Ratsnake, the common, 172, 191, 313 Ray, John, 48, 68 Reed snake, 251 Reid, Mr., 233, 478 Reinhold, Capt. C. H., 541 Richards, Vincent, 312, 469, 480, 484 Robertson, Assistant Surgeon, 179, 313, 441, 475 Robertson, Miss, 187 Robinson, 48, 330, 380, 390, 416, 431 193, Robinson, Sir Hercules, vii Rogers, 298, 404, 405, 443, 444, 445, 483, 514, 515, 516, 539, 540 Round worm, 69, 121, 526 Royal snake, 505 Russell, 166, 172, 185, 191, 197, 198, 221, 231, 232, 234, 239, 240, 257, 269, 272, 291, 363, 375, 382, 383, 385, 404 Russell, Dr. Patrick, 9, 48, 92, 135, 147, 151, 305, 320, 326, 335, 349, 350, 353, 354, 361, 386, 390, 401, 437, 440, 459, 481, 485, 497, 501, 504, 505, 531 Russell’s earth snake, 505 Russell’s seasnake, 535 Russell’s typhlops, 9 Russell’s viper, 67, 97, 442, 491, 504, 535, 540, 544 580 8. Sabaragamuwa, Province of, 38 Sambon, 70 Sambur, 57 Sandoway Islands, 308, 373, 432, 434 Sandheads, 343 Sand snake, 535 Sarawak, 310 Saray pambu, 172 Satara, 241 Saugor, 273, 506 Saw-scaled viper, 531 Saw-tailed viper, xiii Schlegel, 92 Schmidt, 391 Schneider, 32, 79, 91, 92, 257, 269, 344, 345, 366, 431, 437, 531 Schneider’s rhinophis, 32 Schneider’s sea krait, 431 Schneider’s seasnake, 344 Sclater, 170, 380, 385, 396 Scolopendra, 530 Scorpions, 530, 535 Sealy, Major, 60 Seba, 48, 84, 231, 282, 305, 437, 451, 459, 549 Seba’s Dendrelaphis, 221 Seba’s Thesaurus, 221, 231 Senegambia, 191 Serpent eagles, 99, 184 Sevt pambu, 9 Shamshirnagar, 477 Shanghai, 409 Shark, 320 Sharp, Mr. D 8. P., 450 Shaw, 147, 191, 251, 305, 325, 326, 330, 353, 355, 375, 380, 411, 412, 413, 504, 505 Shaw’s seasnake, 410 Shaw’s wolfsnake, 147 Shaw’s Zamenisx, 191 Shelford, 309, 310, 311 Shell snake, 151 Shembaganur, 125, 240 Shiddil, 386 Shikarpur, 539 Shillong, 96, 97, 112, 114, 118, 126 Shipley, Prof., 69, 99 Shootur sun, 335 Shortt, Dr., 511 Shungu viriyan, 151 Siam, 310, 343, 348, 374, 387, 390. 431, 471, 473, 528 Siccawee, 409 Sigiriya, 281 Sinclair, Mr., 156 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Sind, 73, 101, 112, 125, 150, 190, 202, 261, 334, 373, 379, 451, 528 Sind krait, 535 Singapore, 400, 416 Skeat, 374, 390, 416 Skink, 85, 153, 167, 535 Smith, Major O. A., 535, 536 Smooth snake, 151 Society Islands, 430 Somaliland, 546 South Africa, 426 Spectacle snake, 504 Spence, Mr., 509 Spotted deer, 59 Spotted snake, 5C+ Squirrel, 59 Stag, 62, 63 Staunton, Mr., 58 Stejneger, 374, 409, 420, 420) Stephens, Prof., 187 Stevens, Mr., 478 Stevenson, Capt., 538 Still, John, 299 Stockholm, 421, 427 Stoliczka, 192, 193, 260, 306, 307, 529 Stokes, 396 Stokes’s seasnake, 396 Stone, Mr., 320, 358 Sumatra, 15, 315, 496, 528 Sumner, Capt., 233 Sunderbunds, 334, 339, 343, 348, 375, 385, 401 Suratti pambu, 531 Swatow, 396 Swayne, 289, 303 IMS, 11, HLA Tanni pambu, 91 Tape worm, 69, 99, 121 Tasmania, 430 Taylor, W. R., 520 Tel karawala, 151, 451 Templeton’s oligodon, 245 Templeton, Dr. R., 245 Tennant, 57, 68, 139, 140, 507, 529 Tenasserim, xii, 262, 315, 353, 360, 362, 366, 426 Terai, 65 Thatta pam, 349 Theobald, 114, 152, 438 Thurstan, Mr., 96 SNAKES OF CEYLON. Tnwaites, Mr., 58 Tie polonga, 504 Ticks, 122, 186, 200 Tiger, 57 Tissamaharama, 501 Toad, 58, 94, 107, 111, 112, 130, 179, 226 Tollys Nullah, 402, 430 Tonkin, 123 Topsell, 45 Tornier, 368 Tortoise, 179 Tranquebar, 390, 401 Transcaspia, 150, 190, 277, 496 Travancore, 52, 54, 55, 59, 60, 67, 68, 216, 218, 293, 373, 389, 422, 529 Tree snake, 305 Trevelyan, 38 Trevelyan’s rhinophis, 38 Trichinopoly, 222, 240, 274, 302, 438, 470, 471, 511, 533, 536 Trincomalee, 33, 169, 245, 462, 501, 507, 529 Trinket snake, 197 Trivandrum, 52, 56, 137, 218, 297, 298, 390, 440, 469, 471, 472, 473 Tuctoo, 308, 309, 312 Tuticorin, 240 Two-headed snake, 9, 18 gold and _ black, U. Udugama, 105, 219, 247 Unnritsar, 529 Utha surita, 147 Uva patnas, 26, 44, 105, 134, 213, 554 Vi, Valakadyen, 401 Vala panayan, 151 Variegated oligodon, 239 Vernede, Mr., 525 Veyangoda, 207, 303, 451, 554 Vidal, 539 Viper, European, 503 Viper, Himalayan, 505 Viper, large spotted, 505 Virgil, 49 Vizagapatam, 195, 198, 240, 353, 379 581 Vizianagram, 240 Von Linstow, Prof., 57, 69, 99, 121, 201, 526 W. Wadduwa, 303 Walayar, 498 Walker, Assistant Surgeon, 447 Wallaby, 59 Wall, A. J., 462, 463, 474, 486, 488, 513, 517, 520 Wall, Col., 107, 152, 221, 240, 241 282, 293, 437 Wall, George, v, xi Wall’s seasnake, 380 Waltair, 171 Wana cogli, 110 Wana kukroo, 110 Wana pambu, 110 Warde, N., 286, 287, 289 Warwick estate, xiv, 213 Water snake, 91 Watiya, 336, 385, 402 Webster, Mr., 477 Werner, Dr., 219 Werner’s dendrophis, 219 Western Ghats, 554 Western reed snake, 251 Weuda, 303 Weyvelwatte, 315 Whipsnake, common, 291 Whipsnake, brown speckled, 302 Whitworth, Sir Joseph, vii Willey, Dr., vii, 35, 36, 89, 99,121, 125, 126, 162, 169, 172, 197, 215, 277, 281, 285, 286, 289, 302, 305, 423, 451, 454, 457, 498, 501, 554 Willey’s rhinophis, 35 Wolfsnake, 153, 471 Wolfsnake, Ceylon, 162 Wolfsnake, common, 151 Wray, 380 Wynaad, 254, 554 Ys Yatiyantota, xiv, 38, 40, 105, 142, 218, 250, 303, 457, 564 Yennai panayan, 437 Y. viriyan, 437 Yettadi viriyan, 437 Young, Mr. L. C. H., 533 Yule, 48 Yunnan, 136, 142 CEYLON: PRINTED AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS, COLOMBO, Missing Page CONSERVATION ee et atom No furkkey cc hi cv ne phe re 2S ae Pat Ses Sees u es ies a ape