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| Indian snakes.An elementary treatise o
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INDIAN SNAKES.

——01g{00——

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE

ON OPHIOLOGY -
WITH A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE SNAKES

FOUND IN INDIA

AND THE ADJOINING COUNTRIES.

BY

EDWARD NICHOLSON,

Surgeon, Army Medical Department.

SECOND EDITION.

DANS :
HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO.
1874.

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY HIGGINBOTHAM AND C0.,
165, MOUNT ROAD.

PREFACE.

THE First Edition of this treatise was published under the .
disadvantageous circumstances of my being stationed in
Burma at the time. Since my return to the Madras Pre-
sidency I have had but little leisure for collecting further
materials and I had expected that some abler hand than
mine would have taken up the subject. But as my very
elementary treatise remains the only Manual of Indian
Ophiology available, I have determined to diminish as much
as possible the imperfections of my first attempt at famili-
arizing English residents in India with an interesting
branch of zoology, and at clearing away the haze of fiction
which still obscures it. In carrying out this purpose I have
been seconded by the enterprise of the publishers; the
remainder of the first edition has been withdrawn in order
to make way for the present revised issue. ,

Whilst I have endeavoured to render. this treatise as
complete as possible for non-scientific readers, those desirous
of studying the subject thoroughly will, I hope, find it an
efficient introduction to the zoological and medical literature
of the subject. The student should certainly follow up this
introduction to Dr. GuNTHER’s splendid work on the
Reptiles of British India, and, if desirous of extending his
information, he may consult with advantage the following
books :—Professor OwEn’s Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology of Vertebrates, (first volume) ; SCHLEGEL’s Essat
sur la Physionomie des Serpents, (La Haye, 1837) ; GERARD
Krerrr’s Snakes of Australia, (Sydney and London, 1869) ;

PREFACE.

Major BreDDomE’s papers in the Madras Journal of Medical
Science; Mr. THEOBALD’s papers in the Journal of the
Linnean Society and that of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
In the latter Society’s Journal and in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History a mass of ophiological infor-
mation is scattered. I cannot omit to mention RUSSELL’s
Account of Indian Serpents, 1796; however antique. and
unfitted for the guidance of the student, it will always be of
interest as the work of a pioneer in Indian zoology.

The First Edition of this Manual was sadly deficient in
illustrations. This has been repaired by the addition of
plates, which in every case reproduce drawings taken by me
from specimens or dissections. As illustrative of the physio-
logical part and aiding in the recognition of the principal
kinds of snakes, I trust that ney will be found to answer
their purpose. ;

EN,
BANGALORE, April 1874.

CONTENTS.

een eee

Paas.
INTRODUCTION.
Place in the Animal kingdom.........scsscccessen aK Uh Bercenase VII
Part I.—PaystoLoey.
CHAPTER I.—The Skeleton........ccccsecccssscesseensceassseescensensnece 1
II.—The Mouth and Teeth of harmless snakes ......... 5
II1.—The Mouth and Teeth of venomous snakes ...... 9
TV.—Intternal organs.....cccccscscsssessccccssenssseasessscvennes 19
V.=The Senses siciasssdesaesisscucsdsdvvesscvavvaisiasvestes 23
Vi.—The Integuments ..........cccccsccsesssssseensseseanecees 24
Parr II.—C.assiFIcaTIon.
Cuarprter I.—Principles ........ JatubeSuvsccavesetioes dedcgebeeagriadecs'cgs 36
IJ.—Diagnosis of an unknown snake and method of
Aeseripti on ecccevesserceveouwiwscavesscievetevieives 44
III.—Descriptive Catalogue of Indian snakes............ 46
Part III.—Natura History.
Cuaprer I.—The Snake at liberty ......ccccccssusceessseeseeseseseees 125
TL.—The Serpentarium ...ccccscessscerssseevceecenseesensoees 131
TIE ThE ‘MusGuiisiscisesesesnsctucttevetaccacsnecssvsncusebecse 139
IV.—Snake-poison and antidotes ......cccccescssseeeveeees 144
V.—Schemes of extermination .......cccccsccseenseseeeaeees 161
VI.—Snake mythology. ..c.cccssssessescsccessrerrsetseesersenes 165
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE ......... 177

An Index of Anglo-Indian, Hindustani, Tamil and Burmese
names Will be found at Page sisccrssecorrseseetesescnesneeres siaienwas 8133.

INTRODUCTION.

PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KIncGDom.

Sus-KINGDOM.— VERTEBRATA.
Section (Huxley). Class. Order,
Ichthyopsida.. { ire
I—CaHELoniA, Tortoises.
Il.—Opuipia, Snakes.
(Reptilia.g I] —Lacertinra, Lizards.

Sauropsida. ...... IV.—CRocopiL1A, Crocodiles.*

and five extinct orders.

- Aves.
Mammalia. ~ Mammalia.

The division of zoology, which treats of reptiles, is called
herpetology ; the sub-division Gener” to snakes only is
called ophiology.

Snakes may be thus defined :—

Reptiles of very elongate body, without limbs or with
rudimentary hind limbs scarcely visible from without ; pro-
gressing by means of abdominal plates moved by numerous
ribs. The jaws, especially the lower, capable of extensive
movement and great expansion; both jaws and palate
generally bearing teeth. The external ear absent. The
eye unprotected by eyelids. The integument scaly, and
the epidermis cast at frequent intervals.

Some kinds of snakes possess perforated or grooved teeth
conveying a poisonous salivary secretion into the system of
animals bitten by them.

* Crocodiles differ from lizards by possessing a sternum or breast
bone.

Plate I

ORDER OF THE PLATES.

... to face page

104
106
110
124

PART I—PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.—TuweE SKELETON.

THE bony parts of the snake consist of a skull,a long
vertebral column and ribs. The vertebra are very numerous,
varying from about 120 to upwards of 400 in the body ;
those of the tail number from 4 or 5 in some burrowing
snakes to as many as 200 in certain tree snakes, in no case
exceeding the dorsal vertebree in number.* The vertebra,
Plate I, figs. 2 and 3, are proccelous, 7. ¢., the bodies are articu-
lated by ball and socket joints, the socket being in front
of the body; the movement of each joint is limited by
other minor joints between the adjacent ‘apophyses’ (or
protuberances) of each pair of vertebre ; but, as a whole, the
vertebral column is capable of extensive motion in every
direction. Of the numerous apophyses the most obvious
are the posterior or ‘ neural’ spine and the anterior spine or
‘hypapophysis.’ The neural spines are most prominent in
some venomous ‘snakes; in Bungarus fasciatus they are
unusually large and are firmly connected with the skin.
The anterior spines are susceptible of a peculiar modifica-
tion; in the genera Elachistodon (India) and Dasypeltis
(Africa) those of the cervical vertebrae penetrate the gullet
and act as pharyngeal teeth; several of them are tipped
with dental crust.

* There may possibly be exceptions. I have found a specimen of
the common green tree-snake to have 172 dorsal and 169 caudal
vertebra, the tail being four-tenths of the entire length.

2

All the cervical and dorsal vertebree,* excepting the first.
two of the former, support ribs. Each pair of ribs rakes
backwards, and then bending towards the median line
terminates in two cartilaginous filaments attached to the
ventral ‘scute’ or shield. The ‘ hcemal’ arch is incomplete,
the pair of ribs being connected anteriorly by integumen-
tary tissue only. The ventral shield connected with each
pair of ribs is an organ of locomotion, and the numerous
shields arranged in clincher work act as legs when alter-

nately raised and depressed by the muscles of the ribs. The
snake uses these organs in different ways; when moving
slowly a vermicular action along the ribs causes the ventral
shields to catch the ground in succession and the means of
progress is nearly imperceptible; but rapid movement is
effected by the alternate contraction of a part of the
muscles of either side throwing the body into an § form ;
at each curve one side of the ventral shields holding the
ground while the other side advances. These movements
are not done with any visible alternation, but in a progres-
sive and undulating manner of considerable gracefulness.
When turning round slowly, the movement becomes a kind
of counter-marching, where every pair of ribs has to come
up to the pivot point before proceeding in the opposite
direction. In case of alarm, these movements become more
sudden, the snake throws itself into sharp curves, and a
jerking motion of the body changes the ordinary imper-
ceptible gliding motion into a rapid series of wriggles.
Obstacles to other animals are rather favourable to the pro-
gress of snakes; whilst they are powerless on a smooth surface,
roughness aids them considerably ; a stone, a root or a twig
becomes a fulcrum for the anterior parts of the body, and
brings the posterior parts rapidly up, so that the ground

* There is no real distinction between dorsal and cervical vertebra,
the latter term is not, therefore, to be taken in a strict anatomical
sense.

3

most favourable for the snake to pursue or retreat is the
least favourable to his prey or his pursuers.

Ina few genera of venomous snakes, Naga (the cobra)
and Ophiophagus (the hamadryad) especially, the cervical
ribs are elongated and capable of erection from their usual
supine state so much as to stretch the skin of the neck into
a broad flat disk.

Three families of Indian snakes, Tortricide, Pythonide,
Erycide, have rudimentary hindlimbs. Each limb consists
of a claw or spur protruding from a groove on either side
of the anus, and internally of two small bones, which may
be called the tibia and the tarsus. These relics of a former
stage of development can hardly be of any use for progres-
sion ; it has been thought that they were of use as auxiliary
sexual organs, and this opinion is strengthened by the fact
that in Gongylophis conicus one of the Lrycide, I find that
the male alone is provided with them. In five adult females
which I dissected there was no trace of them; the only
adult male specimen I have is well-spurred.

The skull is elongated and of somewhat oval shape, being
rounded behind the jaws and tapering at the muzzle. Its
broadest part is just behind the eye, where it expands above
on either side to form the postfrontal bone the posterior
bony ring of the orbit; the anterior. limit of the orbit is
formed by a similar bony process, the prefrontal bone, and
it is bounded below by the maxillary and by the palate
bone. This part of the head is nearly entirely occupied by
the orbital cavities, which in the median line are only
separated by the descending plates of the frontal bones.

The bones of the ophidian skull, exclusive of the maxillary
and mandibular arches, I shall merely mention, leaving
the comparative anatomist to study them in the pages of
Owen.

4

Basioccipital, exoccipitals, and super-

occipital, 3 forming the walls
Basisphenoid and presphenoid, ali- | of the skull.
sphenoids, : J

Mastoids, 1.*
Parietal, 2.

Frontals, 8, postfrontals, 4, prefrontals and lacrymals, 5.
Vomer, nasals, 6, and turbinals ¢.
The maxillary arch is composed of the following bones :—

The premaxillary, 7, a small bone wedged in the nasal
interspace and, except in the Pythonide, not bearing teeth.

The maaillaries, 8, one on each side, of very variable
shape. :

The palatines, 9, one on each side,-lie parallel to the
maxillaries between them; they bear teeth except in
Oligodon and some earth snakes.

The pterygoid, 10, and ectopterygoid, 11, of each side form
a {shaped bone (the ectopterygoid being represented
by the thin stroke) they abut against the posterior
extremities of the palatine and maxillary respectively, com-
municating motion to them. The pterygoid bears teeth
continuously with the palatine row; its posterior end is
loosely connected with the tympano-mandibular joint.

The mandibular arch comprises the following :

The mandibles or lower jaw bones, 12, connected at the
chin by the geneial muscles and skin only. Each mandible
is composed of two principal parts, the articular posteriorly
and the dentary in front ; these are connected by a wedge-
shaped suture at the back of the row of teeth. The articular

* The figures refer to Plate I, figs. 1 and 2,

Figs. 1&2. Skull of Ptyas mucosus,

be] my by

0g” 09" 0g"

\ AN
>> La
ate: Se
UY %
buck. trom, “othe . ee rs ; ee
Rees haya re

(Colubride), harmless.
1 (Right fig.) Skull from above.
(Left fig.) Ay below.
2 Skull from the side; views of a vertebra.
Skull of Bungarus fasciatus, (Zlapide), venomous.
» Naga Tripudians, (Elapide), venomous.
» Daboia elegans, (Viperide), venomous.

é

5

portion bears a deep cavity for the insertion of the temporal
muscles ; in the vipers a thin plate rises on the inner side of
this cavity. Close toits posterior end the mandible articulates
with the tympanic bone, 13. In the harmless snakes this is
short and stout, in the venomous snakes it becomes long
and slender. Its upper extremity is suspended from the
mastoid, a partly detached bone of the skull.

Owing to the loose connection of the mandibles at the
chin, and to there being three joints connecting successively
the mandible, the tympanic and the mastoid’ to the skull,
the lower jaws have an extensive range of motion both per-
pendicularly and horizontally, and are also toa certain
extent independent of one another. The maxillary and
palatine of either side being also loosely connected to the
base of the skull are capable of being pushed forward or
retracted by the pterygoid bones, themselves loosely attached
posteriorly. Each of the four half-jaws being then capable
of independent motion a snake is able to advance them one
at a time, the prey he is swallowing being securely held by
the other three. Also, the action of the pterygoid bones
being to push forward the maxillary and palatine, if
either of these be fixed at one point, the to and fro motion
will become converted into a circular motion with the point
of attachment as a centre. This is the principle on which
the poison-fang is erected in venomous snakes.

CHAPTER IL—THe Mouth AND TEETH OF HARMLESS
SNAKES.

The gape of the mouth is very considerable and, owing

‘to the multiplication of joints between the skull and the

mandibles, the upper and lower jaws can be separated until
they form nearly a straight line. The mouth is never
opened except for the purpose of seizing prey or in defence

‘ orsometimes in yawning, after food or drink; a chink in

6

the rostral shield permits the slender-forked tongue. to dart
in and out with a rapid quivering motion. On separating
the upper and lower jaws, one cannot fail to be struck with
the exact fit of these two parts. Every relief on one surface
fits into a corresponding depression on the other surface, and
accurate apposition of every part is obtained. The roof of
the mouth is divided into three parts by the four rows of
teeth (Plate II.) These three depressions receive the three
prominences of the lower jaw, on each side the mandi-
bular teeth, in the middle the windpipe. The prehensile
apparatus is thus composed, on each side, of a row of lower
teeth fitting between two rows of upper teeth; the middle
space being occupied by the windpipe, or rather its upper
extremity, the larynx. This, however, only occupies the
two posterior thirds of the middle space, as the anterior
third is occupied, above by the nasal fossee the floor of
which forms a low fore-palate, below by the sheath of the
tongue. The posterior aperture of the nasal fosse is there-
fore just in front of the aperture of the larynx (the glottis)
and air passes in a straight course from the nostrils to the
windpipe. Beneath the skin of the lips, especially at the
angle of the upper jaw, are numerous small salivary glands,
but their orifices are too small to be detected.

The salivary glands extend along the dentary portions of
both jaws and transude their contents through small orifices
within the mucous fold surrounding each tooth.* They are
usually four in number on each side, the maxillary, mandi-
bular, lacrymal, and nasal, but their size and disposition
vary considerably. The latter two supply the palatine and
pterygoid teeth with saliva, but the lacrymal, according to
Cloquet, furnishes also the small quantity of lubricating
fluid required between the eyeball and is epidermal covering.

Every Indian snake, except the genus Oligodon and some

* Such is my impression both from dissection and from analogy.

PLATE II,

NSS a

Mouth and tecth of harmless snakes.

Ptyas mucosus ; gape of the jaws.
superficial dissection of the jaws; the dotted parts are

” ”
salivary glands.
» a deep dissection.
” ” ” ” showing palate and pterygoid regions,

Passerita mycterizans.
Simotes bicatenatus.

r _1 a ae a Wee ea
on.

ae

of the small burrowing snakes, has six rows of teeth. Of
these, two are on the maxillaries (and occasionally on their
posterior continuations the ectopterygoids), two run parallel
to these along their inner side, on the pterygo-palatine lines
of bones; the other two are the mandibular teeth in the
lower jaw.

The pterygopalatine row of teeth is always the longest,
the maxillary row is shorter. The former row may contain
from ten to thirty teeth, the latter from five to twenty or
more; the mandibular row is nearly equal in number to the
maxillary.

It is by no means easy to determine the number of teeth
possessed by a snake owing to their non-permanent charac-
ter and to the difficulty in distinguishing the new from
the old.

Some snakes have teeth of equal or nearly equal size
(isodont) whilst in other kinds the teeth are irregular, or
gradually increase or decrease from before hindwards. A
very common form of dentition is for the teeth to increase
gradually and to terminate by a long tooth at the hinder
end of the maxilla (coryphodont.)

These teeth are all directed more or less backwards, and
oppose a formidable obstacle to any resistance on the part
of prey once seized; they are composed of a horny sub-
stance impregnated with bone-earth, formed originally on a
vascular centre, hollow in structure, and in the form of an
elongated cone, curved backwards at the base.

Each tooth springs from a dental matrix in the bone,
protected externally by a mucous envelope; the greater
portion of the tooth is concealed by this envelope which is
however sufficiently loose to offer no resistance to the use of
the teeth. Inside this fold will be found a number of other

8

teeth ina more or less advanced state, each of which will
in its turn become fixed to the bone, by the successive shed-

ding of its predecessors.

The jaws are moved by the following muscles :

Action.
J. Masseter (superficial temporal) a Flexor of the mandible.
2. Temporal (deep) 0 ......seereeeeeee do.
3. Posttemporal €........:scscceeseeeeees do.
4. Tympano-mandibular d............ Extensor of the mandible.
5. Costo and neuro-mandibular ¢ ..- do.
6. Ectopterygoid,/ ........c.cccseeceees Depressor of the maxillary.
7. Entopterygoid, 9 ....ccsecccesseeerees do.
8. Postfrontopterygoid, A ............ Erector of the maxillary.
9. Presphenopterygoid, 7 ............ do.
10. Presphenopalatine, 7 ...........066 Depressor of the maxillary.
11. Presphenovomerine, & ............ Depressor of the premaxillary
12. Intermandibulary, / ............... Attractor of the mandibles.
13. Masto-tympanic ......ccccsecceeeeeee Levator tympanici and ex-
tensor of the mandible.
14. Basispheno-tympanic............0. Depressor tympanici and at-
tractor of the mandible.
15, Trachelo-tympanic ...........000.. Extensor of the mandible.

Besides the primary actions given above, these muscles
have secondary actions in the attraction and devarication
of the mandibles, &c.

No written description of these muscles will convey such
a good idea of their situation and action as the figures in
Plates II, III and IV. I would only make a few remarks
on those which cannot well be figured. The prespheno-
vomerine is a thin tendinous muscle passing along the roof
of the mouth. The masto-tympanic is by no means easy
of discovery, and the basispheno-tympanic is, as a rule, only
to be found in venomous snakes. The muscle which I have
given as trachelo-tympanic is the trachelo-mastoid of Owen,
but as I always find it inserted into the tympanic, I prefer
the former name.

9

On removing the skin from the cheek and lips of a harm-
less snake the first structure to be observed is the long
ligament leading from the back of the maxillary to the
tympano-mandibular articulation ; this ligament is in reality
formed by a thickening of the fascia covering the temporal
muscles. These muscles are the superficial and posterior
temporal muscles and the tympano-mandibular ; on removing
them the deep temporal is seen, its two heads divided by the
maxillary nerve. The large lacrymal gland is also exposed
on removal of the superficial muscles.

The maxillary is suspended posteriorly by the jugal
ligament (a structure corresponding perhaps to the zygoma
in man) to the postfrontal bone ; in venomous snakes this
ligament becomes of considerable importance. The muscles
of the palato-pterygoid region are covered by the rugate
mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx ; on removing
this, we expose the muscles, and also, between the palatine
and maxillary rows of teeth, the floor of the orbit; in this
space the maxillary vessels are seen.

CHAPTER ITIl—TxHE MovutyH AnD TEETH OF VENOMOUS
SNAKES.

To the disciple of Darwin the modifications we are about
to study have been developed by. natural selection. Several
harmless snakes have long simple fangs for the purpose of
holding tough-skinned prey, others, including nearly all the
tree-snakes, have grooved fangs, though, as far as we know,
without any modification in the quality of the saliva. With
these facts before us, and with the-knowledge that in
some animals the saliva becomes poisonous under certain
conditions, there can be little difficulty in accounting for
the development of the most perfect poison-apparatus.
Neither in the fangs, in their mucous envelopes, in their

2.

¢

10

erector muscles, in the poison gland, is there any new or
special organ; in each case there is a clearly marked grada-
tion of development.*

Roughly speaking there are four stages in the develop-
ment of poison apparatus :—

1°. The presence of grooved fangs in snakes which are
either unprovided with poisonous saliva or whose venomous
quality is so slight that its effect has not been observed.
(Nearly all the tree-snakes; the fresh water snakes.)

2°. The possession of a salivary gland secreting poison
and of a grooved tooth in front of the other maxillary teeth.
Little modification in the shape or mobility of the maxillary.
(The Sea snakes Hydrophide, and the Elapide of Aus-
tralia).

3°. The maxillary is shortened, it contains one fang witha
perfect canal, and often one or two simple teeth behind the
fang. It possesses a degree of mobility sufficient to raise the
fang from a semi-erect to a nearly perfectly erect position ;
the angle moved through being less than 45°. (The Indian
Elapide). |

4°. The maxilla is higher than it is long, and contains
only one tooth, a fang several times its own length. It is very

* T am well aware that my opinion is by no means general ; indeed
I may say that I have not seen it mentioned by other naturalists ;
but this I ascribe to the maze of errors in which our ideas on snakes
have so long been enveloped, to the fascination which the marvellous
still has, and the few opportunities possessed by European zootomists
for investigating the subject. I earnestly beg the medical profession
in India to study. this subject by dissection of different snakes ; there
is a distressing absence of information and our text books of com-
parative Anatomy are all but silent on these points to which the
hypothesis of Darwin gives especial importance.

+ These snakes have by some naturalists been classed as the
section Suspecta between the sections Jnnocua and Venenosa,

11

mobile and, when pushed forward by the ectopterygoid, the
fang usually lying supine becomes perfectly erect, the angle
moved through being little short of 90°. (The Viperinc).

These stages of development are far from being abrupt ;

- when the fauna of Australia is taken into consideration,

we find steps between them, both as regards development
of maxillary and fangs,and degree of venomous quality.

The poison apparatus is best studied in the large and
well developed examples afforded by the cobra and the
chain-viper. On examining the mouth of the cobra, dis-
sections of which are given in Plate III, the peculiarities to
be remarked are—the gingival envelope of the fang, the
depression in the lower lip for the reception of the fang
when the mouth is shut, and the absence of any teeth
(except a rudimentary one) behind the fang. Slit up this
gingival fold and the fang will then be exposed; it will be
seen to be fixed in very much the same position as a dog’s
fang, though curving more backwards, and to fit into a
depression in the lower lip. Now dissect the skin off the
cheek of the cobra, from the nostril in front to the angle
of the mouth behind. A large flask-shaped gland will be
exposed on the cheek, extending for half an inch or more
behind the eye; it is continued by a duct along the lower
edge of the orbit as far forwards as the nostril; a dense
fibrous sheath covers the gland and forms:a point of attach-
ment to fibres of the temporal muscles. Cut through the
duct at its beginning, just behind the eye, and a canal of
very small calibre will be seen in its axis; pass a fine
bristle down the canal, and by careful manipulation this
probe will be seen to go to the end of the maxilla, turn down-
wards over it, and enter the mouth inside the gingival
envelope of the fang, and in front of an orifice in the base
of the fang. This examination requires careful dissecting

12

and skilful manipulation in the Elapide, but in the vipers
the arrangement is on a larger scale and much easier of

demonstration.

If wenow dissect away the soft parts and expose the
maxillary, we shall see a great modification in its form com-
pared with the normal type. It barely reaches as far back
as the hinder part of the orbit, its shortness being compen-
sated by increased length of the ectopterygoid. A short
tooth is found at its hinder part, but this is rarely percep-
tible until dissected down to, and appears to be rudimentary.
The shape of the maxillary resembles that of a comma ~
the open space protected by the thin curved part being
occupied by the matrix of the fang ; the thick part in front
bears the fang. This part of the bone is thick and wide, and
it bears, side by side, depressions for two fangs; one, the
outer socket, is generally occupied by the fang in use, the
other by the fang in course of growth. When the fang in use
has only recently set it may be found to occupy the inner
socket, whilst the outer socket, from which the old fang has
just fallen is vacant, and remains so until the new fang has
worked its way outwards. Sometimes these two fangs are
found perfect at the same time, then one of them, generally
the outer or old fang, will be loose. This occurs at the time
of casting the skin, and I have several times removed the old
fangs easily with the finger and thumb or a small forceps.

The fang is slightly curved backwards and inserted at an
angle so as to form a hook in the jaw. It is in shape like
a short elephant-tusk and does not exceed 28-hundredths
of an inch in the longest specimen I have seen. In struc-
ture it differs from other teeth in having, when fixed, two
orifices communicating with the interior. The pulp cavity
is atrophied, and in front of it there is a complete canal.
Both orifices of this canal are in front, the upper close to
and forming part of the base, the lower at a distance from

PLATE III,

Fig.6. Poison fang of the cobra,
a. Back view.
a. » part of the outer
layer removed.
b, Front view.

Anatomy of the jaws of the cobra.

Fig. 1. Gape of the jaws.

Fig. 2. Superficial muscles and poison gland. c. Section, enlarged.

Fig. 3. Deep muscles, the glands removed. Fig. 7. Poison fang of the Daboia
Fig. 4. Palate and pterygoid muscles. viper.

Base of the skull.

i>)
oF
ot

18

the point equal to about one-tenth of the length of the
fang; a groove connects the orifices, or rather did connect
them during the growth of the fang, at which time the
canal, originally open in its entire length, became closed.
The canal only occupies the front of the fang; the hinder
part is a bony column giving considerable strength to the
structure.

In the Viperine snakes a transition takes place, gradu-
ally culminating in the most perfect form of poison-
‘apparatus, viz. along fang usually lying supine along the
jaw, but capable of full erection The genus Trime-
surus is not nearly so complete as this, the fang is long,
but the erection imperfect; the maxillary consists of an
open shell communicating with the exterior of the cheek and
forming the pit characteristic of the crotaline snakes. But
it is in Daboia that we see the perfection of mechanism ;
on removal of the skin covering the cheek, we come at once
across the strong jugal ligament lying below the eye; it
binds the upper part of the maxillary to the prefrontal and
postfrontal bones, thus affording a fulcrum for the action
of the erectile apparatus. The maxilla is found to be con-
siderably modified in form; it is no longer placed below the
orbit, this position is occupied by the elongated ecto-_
pterygoid, whilst the maxillary, only one-fifth of an inch long
(in a large Dabowa) but double that in height, is placed at
the end of this bone like a hammer-head at the end of its
handle.

Imagine a hammer-head with the claw downwards (repre-
senting the fang,) and hinged at its junction with the handle
(the ectopterygoid bone). Now if the top of the hammer-
head be fixed by a ligament to a fulerum, protrusion or
retraction of the handle will cause the claw to be either
erected or depressed. ;

The muscles by which the ectopterygoid bone is thus

14

moved forwards in order to erect the maxillary and fang are
the same as those which move the ectopterygoid and maxil-
lary bones in harmless snakes while swallowing their prey.
The action is principally effected by the postfrontopterygoid
and presphenopterygoid muscles (f and 7 in the plates) and
these are antagonized by the ectopterygoid, entopterygoid
and presphenopalatine muscles, f, g and 7.

In the vipers the fang is much longer than in the cobra
and other Elapida, but its length has been greatly exagge-
rated, as it rarely exceeds half an inch in the largest species.
It is however so long that it cannot, as in the Hlapide, be
received semi-erect into a pit in the lower lip; hence the
necessity for its complete depression when the mouth is
shut. This is effected by the aid of a slip of the ecto-
pterygoid muscle passing to the mucous envelope. The
tube of the fang is also of larger calibre and the poison duct
is plainly seen to open into the mouth just in front
of the basal orifice; the duct winds round a groove in the
surface of the maxillary, (Plate IV) and a bristle passed along
its canal, from behind forwards, will be seen to pass out by
the orifice at the base of the mucous envelope of the fang.

The mechanism of the bite of a poisonous snake may
differ somewhat in the viperine families from that usual
with the Elapidw. The cobra bites just as a dog does, the
re-curved position of the fangs rendering a slip impos-
sible; whilst the vipers, though biting also, are able to strike
sideways with their long erected fangs. In either case the
effect is the same, though a bite will be much more effectual
than a mere prick without any counterpressure from the
lower jaw. The mucous envelope of the fang is mechani-
cally puckered up, and by its contraction forces the poison-
ous saliva, as it issues from the duct, to flow into the canal
of the fang by its basal orifice.

Muscular pressure and
spasmodic. action of the gland cause an ejection of poison

Dabvia elegans, (Viperide),

Fig.

Fig.

2)
a.

3.

PLATE IV.

Dissectionsg of the head.

“it ee ae
Ss peel

a. Skin and part of gingival envelope removed.
b. Poison gland exposed.
c. Lacrymal gland exposed.

Deep dissection.
Palate and pterygoid muscles.

Fies. 4.5 & 6, Skull from above, below, and left xide.

15

into the fang and through it into the wound. But if there
be no obstacle to pucker up «the mucous envelope, then the
poisonous saliva finds its way into the mouth just like the
saliva of the other glands, running down the inside of the
gingival fold along the outer surface of the fang. Ihave
seen the saliva ejected by an enraged cobra in quantities
which could not have passed through the fang, for experi-
ments enable me to affirm that a cobra could not inject
through the fang with more force than would be necessary
to expel one drop (a minim) in three seconds, so fine is the
inferior orifice of the fang. A viper, however, could inject
the same quantity in half a second, and fluid may be forced
through its fang in a fine stream, whilst small single drop-
lets can alone be ejected from the cobra’s fang.

The poison of the venomous snakes is secreted by the
large parotid gland. But a curious observation has been
made by Mayer and corroborated by Mr. Stolicska of the
Indian Geological Survey, that a species of Callophis (C.
intestinalis) has supplementary poison glands in the
thoracic cavity ; they extend one-third down the body, keep-
ing close to the gullet on the ventral side, and reach as far
as the heart where they are thicker than above. Iam not
aware, however, of any experiments as to the character of
the secretion furnished by this gland. I suspect it is a
salivary gland to the gullet.

There is no difficulty in forcing a venomous snake to yield
the poison accumulated in the parotid glands. Pressure on
the glands while the fangs are erected over the edge ofa
watch-glass will cause a flow of the saliva, generally in large
drops from between the fang and the mucous envelope,
more rarely in a fine jet from the apical orifice of the
fang. This is a viscous yellowish fluid, of faintly acid
re-action ; exposed to the air it dries rapidly, the film cracking
all over and thus separating into yellow crystals not unlike

16

those of santonine. The crystalline form is only apparent,
it is analogous to that of the various pharmaceutical citrates
of iron, which though uncrystallizable appear to be crystal-
line from the solution having been evaporated on glass plates.

A recently captured cobra will yield from six to twenty
grains weight of poison, the quantity being greatest in wet
weather ; the crystalline residue is from twenty to sixty-six
per cent.on the fluid poison. The following extremes and
average were obtained in the course of some hundreds of
experiments :

A cobra gave 8 grains of poison, yielding 1°6 grains residue.

Do. 7 do. 4°7 do.
Do. 22 do. 66 do.
Average quantities 6 do. 2 do.

When being. brushed off the watch-glass on which it was
dried, the fine particles of dried poison have a pungent
action on the nostrils; the taste is slightly bitter and causes
an increase of saliva having a feel of frothy soapiness. I
have never found any ill effects from tasting it or from the
action on the nostrils ; but if any gets into the eye it causes
a painful inflammation which however soon passes off.

The properties of this substance will be given more fully
in Part III, Chapter IV.

Before concluding this part of my subject, I may give
an account of the structure of the poison fang, prefacing it

with the description givén by the first odontographer of the
age, Professor Owen.*

“A true idea of the structure ofa poison fang will be
formed by supposing the crown of a simple tooth, as that ofa
boa, to be pressed flat and its edges to be then bent towards
each other and soldered together so as to form a hollow’
cylinder, or rather cone, open at both ends. * * * * * he
duct which conveys the poison, though it runs through the

* Anatomy of Vertebrates, Vol. I, p. 397.

17

centre of a great part of the tooth, is really on the outside
of the tooth, the canal in which it is lodged and protected
being formed by a longitudinal inflection of the dentinal
parietes of the pulp-cavity. This inflection commences a
little beyond the base of the tooth, where its nature is
readily appreciated, as the poison duct there rests in a slight
groove or longitudinal indentation on the convex side of
the fang; as it proceeds it sinks deeper into the substance
of the tooth, and the sides of the groove meet and seem to
coalesce so that the trace of the inflected fold ceases, in
some species, to be perceptible to the naked eye; and the
fang appears, as it is commonly described, to be perforated by
the duct of the poison-gland. In the Hydrophis the groove
remains permanently open. From the position of the
poison-canal it follows that the transverse section of the
tooth varies in form at different parts of the tooth: at the
base it is oblong, with a large pulp-cavity of a correspond-
ing form, with an entering notch at the anterior surface;
further on, the transverse section presents the form of a
horse-shoe, and the pulp-cavity that of a crescent, the horns
of which extend into the sides of the deep cavity of the
poison-fang: a little beyond this part the section of the
tooth itself is crescentie, with the horns obtuse and in con-
tact, so as to circumscribe the poison-canal; and along the
whole of the middle four-sixths of the tooth the sec-
tion * * * shows the dentine of the fang inclosing the
poison-canal, and having its own centre or pulp-canal in
the form of a crescentic fissure situated close to the concave
border of the inflected surface of the tooth. The pulp-
cavity disappears, and the poison-canal again resumes the
form of a groove near the apex of the fang and terminates
on the anterior surface in an elongated fissure.”

On one point this description is somewhat imperfect and,
I may venture to say, unsatisfactory ; it speaks of “a canal

in which it [the poison duct] is lodged and protected” and
3

18

further on, Professor Owen says “ the inflected surface of the
tooth can be exposed to no other pressure than that of the
turgescent duct with which it is in contact.” Now, accord-
ing to my observation, the poison duct ends at the bottom of
the mucous envelope of the tooth and between its orifice
and the basal orifice of the tooth there is no continuity ;
the two orifices are in apposition and, at the moment of a
bite, the saliva, having no other exit, passes through the
fang-canal. A continuous canal could not’ exist when we
consider that it would be broken at the first shedding of the
fang and there is no ground for supposing any peculiar
reparative powers inherent in thisduct. No explanation on
this point is given in Professor Owen’s account of the
development of the fang.

“Tn the posterior part of the large mucous sheath of the
poison-fang, the successors of this tooth are always to be
found in different stages of development; the pulp is at
first a simple papilla and when it has sunk into the gum,
the succeeding portion presents a depression along its
inferior surface, as it lies horizontally, with the apex
directed backward; the capsule adheres to this inflected
surface of the pulp and the base of the groove of the loose
growing poison-fang is brought into the same relation with
the duct of the poison-gland as the displaced fang which has
-been severed from the duct.” This description of the growth
of the fang is perfectly correct.

I may add that the inflected part of the capsule lining
the cavity of the poison-fang appears to play a great part in
its nutrition; while the pulp-cavity becomes obsolete (or
nearly so) from the apex backwards as fast as the fang grows,
the capsule remains vascular until the fang is nearly perfect.
The more highly developed the fang, the greater this
nutritive function of the capsule appears tobe. Thus, in the
cobra, the pulp-cavity is visible for more than half-way

19

down the full-grown fang, whilst in the Daboia this cavity
disappears very quickly, and is only marked by the darker
appearance of the centre of the tooth. In fact the remains
of the obliterated cavity are just traceable along the posterior
wall of the canal and only appear plainly below the termina-
tion of the latter.

The structure of the poison-fang can be studied in
the imperfect fangs often met with in the cobra; .it
frequently happens that the fang is found divested of a part
of the outer wall of the pulp-cavity, so that the wall of the
poison-canal is seen nearly isolated from the outer part of
the fang except at the base.

CHAPTER IV.—INTERNAL ORGANS.

The cavity, thoracic and abdominal in one, of snakes may
be divided into four parts, of nearly equal length. The
first part contains the windpipe, gullet, heart and lungs,
the second contains the liver, the third contains the stomach
with the pancreas, spleen; gall-bladder and small intestine,
the fourth contains the large intestine and the urino-
genital organs. See Plate V.

In front of the windpipe lies the sheath of the tongue ;
to the lower extremity of the sheath is attached the point
of the long Y shaped hyoid bone; the upper parts of this
slender bone being acted on by the geniohyoid muscle
and the sheath itself by the genioglossal muscle, the tongue
is jerked up and protruded.

The windpipe has numerous incomplete cartilaginous
rings in its structure. The lungs consist of a lacework of
air-cells lining the walls of large air cavities spread out
along the back of the abdominal cavity from the heart to
the liver. Their shape and extent vary considerably; they
are most extensive in the sea-snakes, a kind naturally

20

requiring a large supply of air to be able to stay long under
water. In most snakes there is but one lung, the other
being atrophied. They breathe at considerable intervals ;
and many kinds can remain under water for nearly half
an hour at a time. During the intervals between each
inspiration, respiratory movements of the ribs will be
observed ; the lungs acting as reservoirs of air, these move-
ments are for the purpose of changing the air in the cells of
the lung-tissue. The air breathed by the nostrils passes
through the ¢rachea or windpipe, the upper part of which
lies on the floor of the mouth and is closed by two
cartilages. The vertical slit between them forming the
glottis is just opposite the inner orifice of the nostrils when
the mouth is shut ; itis the rapid expulsion of air through
the glottis which produces the hiss of some snakes when
they are angry (the noise, is something between a hiss and
the spit of an angry cat).

The heart is situated at about one-sixth of the distance
down the body. It is composed of one ventricle incom-
pletely divided, and of two auricles (atria). The division
of the ventricle is sufficient to enable the pulmonary and
the systemic circulation to be carried on in very much the
same way as in the higher classes of vertebrata.

The stomach appears to be merely the distended part of .
the gullet; there is little difference perceptible between
them. The combined organ is well lubricated by the
secretions of the jaws and its own proper secretions and
is capable of great distension. Digestion appears to go on
principally at the lower end, where that part of the animal
which was swallowed first passes into a state of solution and
the rest gradually comes down as the space becomes vacant.
The intestinal canal, very little convoluted, occupies the
hinder half of the abdomen; the mesentery is plentifully
loaded with fat, which becomes a reserve of nutriment for

21

the long fasts which snakes often undergo. The liver lies
alongside of the gullet and stomach; it isa long organ, in
two longitudinal lobes, of the usual hepatic colour and.
texture ; it reaches upwards nearly as high as the heart,
and terminates below opposite the middle of the stomach.
The gall-bladder, with the other digestive glands, is situated
a little further down, at the lower end of the stomach. The
end of the bowel opens into a short cloaca, the common
passage of the intestinal canal of the ureter and of the
ovarian or spermatic ducts, according to sex.

Just behind the end of the intestine is a little prominence
in the mucous membrane of the cloaca. Below this are the
urethral, above it the ovarian or spermatic orifices.

The testes are two elongate white vesicular organs, not
unlike full-grown silkworms in appearance. The spermatic
ducts, of tortuous structure, descend close along side of the
kidneys and thence accompany the ureters. The kidneys
are elongate multilobular organs situated nearer to the vent.
These four genito-urinary glands alternate, the right testis
and kidney being each higher than the same organ of the
left side.

In the female the ovaries when unimpregnated are found
in the position corresponding to that of the testes; each
consists of a series of colourless vesicles lying behind the
intestines. When eggs are mature the ovary extends often
more than half-way up the body quite effacing the intestine.
The number of eggs found may vary from 5 or 6 to 30 and
upwards. When the number is small I have generally
found one ovary unoccupied.

The male snake has a double organ of copulation lodged
in the tail (which is generally longest in males); when
protruded by pressure from behind forwards it is seen in the
form of two highly vascular protuberances armed with

22

spines, emerging each from a depression at the side of and
behind the anus. No canal passes through these, the
spermatic ducts terminating some distance within the cloaca.

Nearly all these organs are liable to be infested with
entozoa. The mouth, lungs, and digestive canal bear little
red round worms of several kinds ; but Tropidonotus quin-
cunciatus is remarkable for having its cellular tissue and
abdominal cavity inhabited by numbers of small tape-worms
about 6 inches in length. I believe that they are developed
from cysts in frogs and fishes. Both kinds of entozoa per-
meate the muscular tissues; I have found them emerging
from under the skin of the tail, both in the abovementioned
snake and in a tree-snake.*

Perhaps this Chapter will be the most fitting place for a
short notice of the monstrosities met with in this order of
vertebrates. By far the commonest monstrosity is the
possession of a double head, each head being perfectly
formed and the two placed side by side. These double-
headed snakes are by no means uncommon; they have been
met with in America, Australia and Europe, they do not,
however, appear to survive their birth long, the specimens to
be found in museums being of small size.

There is a young two-headed Tropidonotus quincunciatus
in the Madras Museum, its origin is unknown, as I found it
amongst a large number of snakes accumulated in the store-
rooms of the Museum. This monstrosity is, apparently,
rather common amongst the sea-snakes. It is possible that
a double-headed snake originated the fable of Ananden
the thousand-headed naga, and his humbler representative
the Sesha or seven-headed naga so often represented in
Hindoo religious art.

* Snakes are externally troubled with the dog-tick. This parasite
gets between the scales and fastens on to the skin.

Basar, 5 5
Rae iat : :
scar ST AS ta : SAH

pale tran =

Set c at yy
& Sev es ‘

ae ees:

ANS MEREE Seo Fae

ree

Fig. 1. Internal organs of Tropidonotus quincunciatus, female.
Fig. 2. Lower abdominal organs of a tree-snake, male; the intestinal fat is
drawn aside.

23

CHAPTER V.—TuHE SeEnszs.

Sight appears to be the only sense which is well developed
in snakes, at least according to the conventional standard.
The scaly tegument can hardly be endowed with much
sensibility ; from their habit of swallowing food whole, it is
probable that their taste cannot be very delicate ; the nasal
cavities are but little provided with expansions of mucous
membrane; and hearing cannot be an important sense con-
sidering the rudimentary state of the external ear. The
only remaining portion of this organ is a subcutaneous
capsule attached to the tympanic bone; from this a long
slender bone, the stapes,* conducts any vibrations of air
that may have penetrated the scales and muscles of the head
to the expansion of the auditory nerve. There is no external
orifice or tympanum.

The eye is well developed in those snakes which live above
ground, although it varies in size and adaptation according
to the mode of life which it is destined to serve. It is
covered by a transparent layer of epidermis, which is cast
along with that of the general integument. It is unprovided
with eyelids, and is moved to a slight extent by the usual
muscles. The pupil varies in shape and size; in most
snakes it is round, but it is elliptical and erect in the
Lycodontide, the Pythonide, the Viperina and some of the
tree-snakes; and in one family of the latter it is elliptical
and horizontal.

* The stapes is not readily found as it is a mere filament of elastic
bone projecting backwards towards the tympano-mandibular joint,
lying deep below the tympanic muscles. See Plate IV, fig. 6.

+ Of the three families of colubrine tree-snakes the Dendrophide
have a round pupil, the Dryiophide a horizontally elliptical pupil,
the Dipsadide an erect pupil. Itis doubtful whether an elliptical
pupil is a sign of specially nocturnal habits. I may mention that Mr.
Gerard Krefft considers it is; he calls the Australian Dendrophide
‘the day tree-snakes’ and the Dipsadide ‘the night tree-snakes.’
All snakes are more or less nocturnal animals.

24

The iris is often tinged with various colours, yellow and
green being frequent ; in Lycodon, it is so black that the
shape of the pupil is most difficult to see.

In the Typhlopide, the eye is hardly visible at all, being
very minute and covered by the lateral head-shields.

The tongue is probably a tactile organ; and in some
snakes there is a prolongation of the snout apparently acting
as an organ of feeling (Passerita, Herpeton).

CHAPTER VI.—TuHE INTEGUMENTS.

The skin of snakes is a smooth soft tissue, generally
white, sometimes coloured, giving off numerous scales
(squame) which are generally contiguous and often im-
bricate or overlapping one another to some extent. In
snakes which can expand the neck this skin is seen dotted
over with separate scales at some distance from one another.
In most viperine snakes the scales are dull, stiff and suffi-
ciently imbricate to make a rustling noise if the skin is
crumpled; in the burrowing snakes, a cuirass of smooth
polished scales leaves hardly any interval visible; in the
sea-snakes, the scales become tuberculated. In most snakes
the skin is shown between the interstices of the scales
during the respiratory movements.

On the lower parts of the body the scales become broad
(in the higher types), expanding into ventral shields (seute)
and, beyond the anus, into subcaudal shields (scutell@).

On the head a few snakes, Erycide, Acrochordide
Viperide and others, have scales like on the rest of the
upper parts, but the majority have the head covered with
plates (non-imbricate shields) varying but little from a
normal pattern, and, when varying, doing so with sufficient
regularity to form characteristic distinctions,

25

The squamous covering of these three regions, the upper
parts, the lower parts and the head, afford together such a
large proportion of the characters used in classification that
they require attentive study.

We have already seen that each pair of ribs supports and
moves a ventral shield; to each also appertains a corres-
ponding transverse row of scales. The ribs not being fixed
at aright angle to the vertebral column, but raking more
or less backwards, the transverse row of scales corresponding
to each pair is inclined backwards in a similar manner. If
this incline is at an angle of 45°, the rows of scales will be
crossed by lines at an equal angle in the opposite direction ;
the scales will be of a rhombic or lozenge shape, and the
rows capable of being counted in two cross directions at
about equal angles of inclination. But if the ribs be inclined
ata slight angle to the spine, then the scales will be more
nearly square; whilst an excessive incline causes them to
be rhomboidal or elliptic, and the rows to be more or less
longitudinally inclined. In the neck of the cobra, for
instance, the ribs lie down like the ribs of an umbrella, the
scales are consequently arranged in such acutely inclined
rows as to become quite linear and imbricate; when
the snake raises the ribs, expanding the skin of the
neck into what custom calls the hood, the scales are
seen dotted like long grains of linseed on the stretched
surface.

The number of scales in each transverse series is variable
but very regular. The extreme range is from 12 to 100 or
thereabouts, but 13 to 25 is the range in the great majority
of snakes. A number above 31 is only found in the Hrycide,
Pythonide, Acrochordide some of the Homalopside and
Hydrophide. In conjunction with other characters, the
number of scales in each transverse series, or, as.it is com-

4

26

mouly called, the number of rows (longitudinal)* of scales
isa valuable distinctive character, as it is comparatively
rare that individuals of the same species should have a
different number of rows.

{n Part II it will be seen that the number of rows of
scales is generally the first element in the diagnosis of species.
When the physiognomy of a snake does not indicate its
family the collector begins at once to count the number of
scales in a transverse series along the course of a pair of
ribs; but in the tree-snakes and some others it will be
found more convenient to count across the ribs.

This number is nearly always odd, the vertebral row
being azygos, and often of a different shape; in only two
genera (Zaocys and Peltopelor) is there a double row of
vertebral scales, and, consequently, an even number in the
transverse series. An even number of scales consequent on
the doubling of the vertebral may be present as an anomaly
in individual snakes. I have a Dipsas gokool with 22 rows
of scales instead of 21. The number of rows should be
counted ata distance from the head equal to about one
quarter of the length of the body, as the number on the neck
exceeds the normal number by two or more; the number
settles down at a point varying from the tenth to the
thirtieth ventral shield and remains constant for at least
half-way down the body; then, sooner or later, the scales
begin to diminish, always in uneven number, down to the
root of the tail. There several rows may be observed with-
out corresponding ventrals, three or four being rudimentary
or deficient where the anal orifice is covered by its large
shield. The number of scales on the tail is nearly always
even, beginning with about ten and diminishing by pairs to
four or two.

* The number of transverse series is not counted ; the number of

ventral shields is, practically, more constant and is stated instead, at
least in the snakes with ventral shields,

27

In some snakes the number of rows of scales settles down
very soon to the normal number which continues: till very
near the tail, in other snakes barely four-tenths of the trunk
is occupied by the normal number. Thus, in Bungarus
fasciatus and the genus Callophis, the number of rows
settles down, at about the tenth ventral, to the normal
number 15, and remains at that quite down to the vent;

' but’ the more common arrangement is shown in the following
diagram, dividing into tenths the body of a snake with 19
rows of scales :—

Tenths. Head. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tail.
No. of rows. 21 19 19 19 19 19 17 17 1715 10 8 6 4

We have seen that the scales may be more or less over-
lapping or imbricate ; another important character is the
presence or absence of a raised keel along the centre of each
scale. This keel is very capricious in its presence or
absence, and does not correspond to the habits of the snake.
It is found in ground-snakes, in water-snakes, and in tree-
snakes, indifferently, and in each of these groups, the
snakes with smooth scales appear to progress just as well as
those with keels. The viperine snakes have generally
strongly keeled scales. These keels are generally most
marked on the dorsal rows, they become faint towards the
abdomen, and rarely appear on the outer row of scales.
This row is generally of larger size than the others. In the
Erycide, the keels on the caudal rows of scales are so
strongly marked as to form sharp longitudinal ridges; and
as they rake backwards like the teeth of a ratchet-wheel,
they would apparently be of great use as aids to progression
in burrowing.

The presence of an opposite feature—grooves—is fre-
quently noted ; they are far from obvious, and are best seen
by letting the light glance off the scales; they are then
visible as one or two minute gougings at the apex.

28

The ventral shields are narrow at their first appearance
between the chin shields; the first one or two are often
bifid, and as many as ten to twenty rows of ordinary scales
often intervene before they begin. (All the scales which
intervene between the last pair of geneial shields, and the
first undivided ventral are called gular scales). The ventrals
are absent, rudimentary or narrow in the burrowing snakes,
the grovelling snakes, the pythons and the sea-snakes,
whilst they are most developed in tree-snakes and others
of active habits. In these latter they become broad, turned
up at the sides, and often have on each side a lateral keel
so well developed as nearly to divide them into three
sections. The last of the ventral series is the anal shield ;
it is generally bifid, and this character, when it occurs, is
very regular. Still more regular is the single or double
condition of the subcaudal shields, scutelle ; they are gene-
rally double, being divided down the centre by a zigzag line.

To this rule the following are exceptions :—

Families. Genera.
Calamaride ......... ( Aspidura,
\ Haplocercus.
Lycodontide@ ......... Cercaspis.
Amblycephalide ... Amblycephalus.
Eryoide ccass wissevears rye, ;
Gongylophis.
Bungarus,
Elapidee vicccccsccssees Megerophis, ;
Ophiophagus, \ eneenly Coll
Viper Diaisecvig vies Echis.

In Ophiophagus, and occasionally in Naga, the last few
ventrals may be double, though the anal is always single.

The number of ventrals and subcaudals corresponds close-
ly with that of the vertebre. The number is variable, not

29

only in different species, but in individuals of the same
species ; yet it isa valuable diagnostic mark. In some species
the number of ventrals does not vary more than five per
cent., in others it is very variable. Thus Tropidonotus
quincunciatus has very constantly either 137 or 145
ventrals, whilst 7. stolatus has from 121 to 161. The genus
Ablabes is most irregular in this respect, the species having
from 122 to 245 ventrals. And the genus Tragops, a
well-defined genus of tree-snakes, consists of three species
having respectively about 151, 190 and 220 ventrals. The
number of subcaudals is very variable, it is generally greater
in males than in females owing to the increased length of
the tail in the former sex.

The tail ends in a single shield. In most snakes this
shield is not remarkably developed, but in the Uropeltide
it becomes a broad disk either naked or covered with keeled
seales, and in Plectrwrus it ends in a forfical bispinous
shield. In some snakes with rather short tails, it may be
found quite pointed, sufficiently so to prick the skin slightly
if roughly handled. The Crotalide have this point well
developed, though the tail is not provided with the rattling
appendages peculiar to some American genera of the family.
It is remarkable however that the Indian Crotalide have
a habit of vibrating the tail when excited, and if it strikes
against any hard substance a slight noise is produced.

In the sea-snakes the tail is compressed laterally forming
a vertical fin like that of an eel.

The extremity of the tail is liable to accidental mutilation,
and it frequently happens, in consequence, that the number
of subcaudals is found much below the regular number.*

* The Indians have a fable that the cobra loses an inch of its tail
each time that it bites aman. Stumpiness of tail is not however
confined to this snake and amongst the less agile species a large

30

The head is covered either with scales like on the rest of
the body, or with large plates of regular form, or with various
gradations between these two classes of covering.

In the greater number of vipers, there is no trace of the
verularshielded crown possessed by the majority of snakes,
the head being scaly like the rest of the body; the Hrycide
and Acrochordide have also scaly heads; the burrowing
snakes have an incomplete shielded covering. In two snakes
of very opposite habits, the head-covering is composed of
large scales simulating the arrangement of shields; Xeno-
peltis unicolor, a burrowing snake, and Peltopelor macro-
lepis, a tree-viper, both solitary species of their genus,
have large triangular scales occupying with considerable
regularity the place of the head-shields ; in the latter snake
they may indeed be said to be shields simulating scales.
The lowest family of snakes, the Typhlopide, is distinguished
by a type of head-shielding quite different from that found
in other families ; these ‘ blind’ snakes have become degraded
by an entirely subterranean life. The normal arrangement
of head-shields, about to be described, is sketched out in
the skinks, a family of lizards of Ophidian appearance, from
which the snake-class has evidently developed.

The head-shields appear to have formed round a central
shield, the vertical, which is of a shape departing but little
from that of a pentagonal heraldic shield, base in front,
apex behind. It sometimes becomes bell-shaped by the
rounding of the posterior angles or hexagonal by the
addition of a salient angle in the base-line. Behind this
are the two occtpitals, large, elongated, and either rounded

proportion are found to be deficient in'this member. I have seen
several cobras with as little as two inches left of tails which should
have been nine inches in length. Itis probable that this mutilation
is caused by a mungoos biting off the tail of a snake which has fled
into a hole not quite large enough to shelter his whole length.

31

or truncated behind. In front of the vertical are two pairs
of shields, the posterior frontals more or less square, and
the anterior frontals of similar form, but smaller and liable
to encroachment in front and at the sides. On either side
of the vertical are the two supraciliaries, of regular and
crescentic shape, shading the eyes. They complete the oval
of the crown, covering the space between the postfrontal
and prefrontal bones.

These four pairs of shields with their centre, the vertical;
form the crown; the other shields are on the sides of the
face.

The muzzle is covered by a convex triangular shield, the
rostral, which often extends up a little way between the
anterior frontals ; it is broad at its base with a slight chink
in the middle for the exit of the tongue without the mouth
being opened.

Behind the rostral on either side are two series of shields,
one above the other; the lower series is that of the labials,
(upper) varying ordinarily from five to nine in number, and
increasing in size from before hindward. One or more of
them enter the orbit when there is no subocular. In the
Pythonide, the labials and rostral are indented with deep
pits in the shape of a comma.

The shields between the labials and the crown on either
side are the nasals, the loreal, the oculars, and the tem-
porals. The nasal is sometimes single, being pierced by the
nostril, but more frequently there are two nasals with the
nostril between them. In the water-snakes, Homalopside
and Hydrophide, where the nostrils are superior, the nasals
of either side are often contiguous, excluding the anterior
frontals from contact with the rostral.

The loreal (frenale) is absent in the venomous snakes ;
and in some harmless snakes, the Calamaride, Tetragono-
soma, Xenopeltis and several genera of tree-snakes it is

32

either absent or merged into the neighbouring shields.
But in the harmless snakes it is present, as a rule, and in
some it is double or triple (Ptyas, Zaocys.) Sometimes
it wedges itself between the preoculars into the orbit ; and
conversely a preocular sometimes wedges it out from contact
with the labials. This irregularity is frequently found in
Tropidonotus plumbicolor.

The preoculars (or preorbitals) are variable in number ;
one or two is the usual number ; the upper is generally the
larger and often reaches on to the crown, and more rarely
as far as the vertical; the lower is smaller and often seems
to be a fragment of a lower labial. The postoculars
number usually from one to three, and extend lower down
than the preoculars. The lower border of the orbit is
sometimes occupied by a subocular, but this completion of
the orbital ring is rare (Zamenis, certain Homalopside and
Amblycephalide) ;* the rule is for one or more labials to
enter the orbit.

Behind the postoculars are the temporals, variable in
number, shape, and arrangement. They are counted back-
wards in vertical rows ; thus “2 + 2 + 3 temporals” means
that behind the postoculars are two shields, one over the
other, then two more, similarly placed, and lastly a set of
three. They sometimes have to be counted thus ? +
this verges on total irregularity.

i;
2?

These temporals are often irregular as they are transi-
tional to ordinary scales. In one snake (Ophiophagus) the
temporals join in a complete ring round the occipitals by
the addition of two large shields behind them. This some-
times occurs in the cobra, a snake to which Ophiophagus
is closely related.

* T have observed this once in a cobra’; it was an aberrant
specimen in other respects. See note to Naga, Part III.

PLATE VI.

00 Occypitals, wun. Nasals.
vo Fer tecad. é hereal.
5.8 Supraclaries. ao Frecceular.

t

pet. Losterior trontals. Puo.tostocuburs, 3. :
% 3 : : eo a : e
ar_Anlerwr fontals. tog Labrals 9,the 4 "enlering Che. vr bil,
?. Foalral. (os Lemporcts 2+2, ti bhes specimen: lhey

are 2+ Blo means trregular. ‘

104 Lower Labials
mm’ Mental. ,
gaag Gulur shetds.
gen. Geneal scutes.
ve First venbral shield, ~

2. Llyas WUMCOSULE .

ee a ae

Lhe lereat re EL, Lyes Criple and: there arc 2 precenlars 2.0 /

TyrEs of THE HEAD-SHIELDING IN COLUBRINE SNAKES.

33

The shields covering the lower jaw are also regularly
arranged. In front, corresponding to the rostral above, is a
single shield, the mental, and from it the lower labials go
backwards, edging the lip on either side. The pair of first
labials nearly always meet in the median line behind the
mental, but the other lower labials, are separated by two
pairs of longitudinally disposed geneial shields one behind
the other. The geneials of either side are separated by a
tolerably deep mental groove in all but the lower types.
One or more pairs of scales (gular scales) usually intervene
between the geneials and the first ventral shield.

The shields above described are found in most of the
higher types of snakes. Their place is sometimes filled by
scales especially in the lower types, but a redundancy of
shields is rarer; the multiple shields may be increased or
diminished in number, but the intercalation of abnormal
shields is not often met with. Zamenis diadema and the
Pythonide offer almost the only examples of redundant
shields on the crown. Sub-division of shields often occurs,
but very rarely is the character constant ; it is usually an in-
dividual aberrance to be commonly found in certain species.

The colour of the integument is generally resident in the
scales, although it frequently happens either that the true
skin partakes of the colour of the scales or that the scales
show between their edges the ground colour of the skin
beneath. This skin is usually white, but black cross-bands
on it are not uncommon, as also reticulated patterns in
yellow, red, or pale blue. The two latter colours come
and go in the same manner as the colours of a turkey’s
wattles, and they are often interchangeable in the same
individual, e.g. Tropidonotus stolatus. The scaly coat has
generally a ground-colour of olive brown in various shades
and tints. Other colours also commonly occur, black, brown,
yellow, green, white and more rarely red and blue. Green

~

3]

34

is the usual.colour of tree-snakes; it is very delicate, and
rapidly passes through changes from tender green to bronze
and blue. In afew cases the colours are dead, but generally
they are shining, even iridescent in certain lights, and afford
a beautiful play of colours.

The patterns in which these colours are arranged are
often very difficult to describe, and it is by no means easy
to imagine the actual pattern and colours of a snake from
a verbal or written description liowever accurate. The
entrance of an interstitial pattern from the skin below, the
secondary patterns produced’ by dark tinged margins to the
scales, and the play of colours in different lights, sorely. tax
the word-painter’s power of description.

The patterns are formed by stripes and by series of dots, of
ring-spots, of ocelli.or of other shaped marks in a longitudinal
or in a transverse direction, orin both. The longitudinal lines
may cross the transverse lines or vice versd, and the points
of crossing may be marked by a different colour. Cross-
bars are often ocellate, that is, including eyes in their course,
and a fasciolated pattern is common; it consists of cross-
bars of variegated colour produced by darker or lighter
tips to certain series of scales. It frequently happens that
cross-patterns are unsymmetrical, the bars of either side
not meeting exactly. at the median line.

Cross-markings rarely extend all round the body, except
in a few snakes encircled by rings ; generally the under-parts
are of a different pattern, plain, mottled, banded, or spotted.
The throat is also of a different colour, lighter, often yellow.
The head is sometimes marked with fillets, and streaks
frequently pass downwards or obliquely backwards from the
eye to the throat. Collars are very common, either > shaped
(point forward) or < shaped (point backward).

The exact period at which snakes cast their skins is very
variable, but about two months appears to be the average

35

interval between each cast. At the approach of the casting,
the colours of the snake become somewhat dull, anda white
film is seen over the surface of the eye. When the skin,
or rather the epidermis (for it is the colourless scarf skin
which separates, like in human beings after an attack of
scarlet fever) is ready to be cast, the snake rubs the skin
back from his nose and chin, and seeks some projecting
point such as would be afforded by a split bamboo, some
stiff thatch, or a heap of stones, on which to catch the
loose skin; perhaps adhesion is aided by the application of
glutinous saliva; anyhow the snake manages to stick the
loose skin of the nose and chin to some convenient object,
and then proceeds #0 peel himself out of his epidermis
which of course remains inside out like an eel’s skin after
the involuntary exit of its tenant—with this difference,
that the snake has had numerous opportunities, denied to
the eel, of becoming used to the process. The cast skins
are beautiful objects, there is often not a break in them
from nose to tip. The epidermal covering of the eye comes
off along with the rest of the skin, and every scale, every
keel is distinctly marked ; colour alone is absent,* but even
without it the kind of snake to whom the skin belonged
can often be identified They are very delicate and
fragile, and are liable to destruction by mites unless kept
shut up along with camphor. The cast skin of a Ptyas
mucosus, 9 feet long, weighs 130 grains or a little over a
quarter of an ounce.

* The pattern of the Python and of some Dipsadide is visible in
their cast skins.

+ When I was stationed at Kamptee in 1868, the house I occupied,
jointly with a brother-officer, also gave shelter to a cobra and a pair
of Bungarus arcuatus, I never saw them, but easily identified them
by the skins they periodically cast. The cobra lived on my friend’s
side of the house, the other snakes lived in a hole in the wall under
my dressing table.

36

PART [I—CLASSIFICATION.

CHAPTER I.—PRINCIPLEs.

THE following synopsis of the families of Indian snakes
with their sub-divisions is here presented in order to give
a general idea of the system of classification in use, before
entering into the details of the Descriptive Catalogue :

ORDER. OPHIDIA.
First Sus-orper. HARMLESS COLUBRINE SNAKES.

(Serpentes colubriformes non-venenati.)

A. SNAKES OF LOW TYPE. VENTRAL SHIELDS ABSENT OR
NARROW. HEAD SHIELDING DEFECTIVE OR ABNORMAL.

Fam. I. Typatorip#. Blind Snakes. Genera.

Small and quite cylindrical, resembling at noe
first sight earth-worms rather than snakes. Onychocephatua,
Eyes rudimentary, no ventral shields, forepart
of the head covered with shields of a peculiar
type. Rudimentary hind limbs, hidden. Bur-
rowing snakes, rarely appearing above ground.

Fam. I. Tortricipz. Short-tailed Earth snakes.
Body cylindrical ; tail very short, conical, “yiindrophis.
Eye small. Head shielded, but only one pair
of frontals; ventral shields beginning to appear.
‘Palatine teeth; Median groove at the chin.
Rudimentary hind limbs visible. Burrowing
snakes, occasionally found above ground.

37

Fam. TI. Pytuonipz. Pythons.

Body very thick; head depressed, abnor- Python.
mally shielded. Labial shields pitted. Ventrals
very narrow, 240 or more. Scales smooth, 65
or more. Rudimentary hind limbs visible.

Fam. IV. Eryciwe Sand Snakes.

Body thick, tail very short, narrow ventrals, Gongylophs.
"ta
numerous rows of scales. Crown of the head ive.
scaled. Rudimentary hind limbs generally

present,

Fam. V. AcRocHORDIDZ, Wart Snakes.

Head small; eye small; nostrils superior, 4¢7ochordus.
Chersydrus.
Entirely eovered with small tubercular or
spiny scales, no ventrals or subcaudals. Tran-
sitional to the sea-snakes.

Fam. VI. URope,tipz. Rough-tailed Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical ; head short, conical ; tail Bhnophis.
Cropeltis.

very short, ending ina rough or scaly disk, 5 saaet
generally obliquely truncated. Head shielded, Mesanophidium.
but only one pair of frontals ; ventral shields

apparent. No palatine teeth. Burrowing

snakes, living at some distance under ground,

Fam. VII. XENopetTIDa. Iridescent Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical ; tail short, tapering ; head Xenopeitis.
flat, depressed, covered with large triangular
shield-like scales. Burrowing snakes transi-
tional to the more highly developed families.

38

B. SNAKES OF INTERMEDIATE TYPE. VENTRAL SHIELDS
FAIRLY DEVELOPED. HEAD-SHIELDING DEFECTIVE OR
ABNORMAL,

Fam. VIII. CaLaMaripz&. Grovelling Snakes.
Body cylindrical; head small; tail short, pe

tapering. Eye small; ventral and subcaudal ne

shields well developed ; head shielded, but with Aspidura.
‘aplecercus ¢ 3
one or more shields absent (generally one or or 4 new genera.
more anterior frontals, and the loreal). Small
snakes, living on the surface, under trees,
stones, &c.
Fam. TX. Homatopsip&. River Snakes.

Body cylindrical ; tail moderate, compressed Sethe

toria.

at the root. Ventrals rather narrow. Nostrils Cerberus.
Hypsirhina.

superior, provided with a fleshy valvule. Fania.
Homalopsis.

Head-shields often irregular, anterior frontals Hipistes,
encroached on by the large nasals. The last peti
tooth is transitional between a tooth and a
poison-fang. Rarely found far from the water.
Fam. X. AMBLYCEPHALIDE. Blunt-headed Snakes.
Body compressed, slender ; head short and Amblycephaius.
thick. Often a complete orbital ring of shields.
Cleft of the mouth small, lower jaw not expan-
sible, no mental groove.

C. SNAKES OF HIGH TYPE. VENTRAL SHIELDS FULLY
DEVELOPED. HEAD-SHIELDING NORMAL.*
Fam. XI. Oxicopontipa. Filleted Ground Snakes.
Head normally shielded, with peculiar mark- rec boned
ings. Teeth few in number, in one genus no
palatines.

* With a few exceptions in the genera Ablabes, Atretium and
Zamenis, of the family Colubridz, the crown and orbital shields are
always normal in the families of this section,

39

Fam. XII. Lycopoytipz. Harmless-fanged Snakes.

Head depressed ; snout. spatulate and flat. cA som
etragonosoma.
Eye small, generally with vertical pupil. A Teeranbosaen
. ‘ Aes.
large fang in front of the maxillary and mandi- Cercaspis.

ble, but not grooved or hollow.

Fam. XT. Cornvsripva.

This family comprises all those harmless
snakes which do not present any striking cha-
racter, are fair and moderate in their propor-
tions, and have none of the qualities necessary
for their admission into other families. ‘Their
head-shields are normal, with the exception
of a few species on the debatable ground
betwixt this family and the Calamaride ; they
have not the compressed and slender body of
the tree-snakes, yet some of them climb and
have a green coloration; they have not the
superior nostrils and aquatic build of the true
fresh-water snakes, yet some of them are am-
phibious. They are divided into the following
groups :—

Group I—CcRONELLINA. Ground Colubers.

Of small size, with smooth scales; in some Adlabes.
s Cyclophis.
genera aberrant species approach the Calama- samara
—— ieee ‘ymphophidium,
rid in imperfect head-shielding. Blachistodon,
Or OneuUa.

Group. I1—CoLusrina. Agile Colubers.

P : : Coluber.
Attain a large size. Their scales are keeled, Glaphis.

they are active enough to climb and swim on ete

oceasions, and are swift in their movements ee
ERCLAPNIS .

along the ground. Zamenis.

40
Group IIl—Dryapina. Bush Colubers.

Their compressed body, numerous ventrals Then io
(200 or more), and general green coloration
show that they are transitional to the families

of true tree-snakes.

Group IV.—Natricina. Amphibious Colubers.

2 . . 7
These lead off to the river-snakes; their Tee eenrne:
nostrils are often superior; their scales are Xenochrophis.

Prymnomiodon,
always more or less keeled ; the ventrals con- Cadmus.

siderably less than 200; long teeth at the back
of the maxillary.

Fam. XIV. DENDRoPpHIDZ. Tree Snakes.

Body slender, snout rather long but rounded Pretenae
fairly ; eye moderate or large with round Dendrophis.

Oh
pupil. Ventrals broad with two lateral keels. rysopelea,

Fam. XV. Drytopsipz. Long-nosed Tree Snakes.

Body excessively slender ; head narrow with ce oartag a
the rostral shield developed into a snout often Pane
of some length. Eye moderate with horizon-

tal pupil.

Fam. XVI. Dipsapip%. Broad-headed Tree Snakes.

Body slender, much compressed. Head very Dipsas.
distinct from the neck, short and broad. Eye
moderate, with vertical pupil.

Fam. XVII. Psammopyips#. Desert Snakes.

A class of snakes resembling the tree-snakes Psamm ophis.
F . ‘ 7 sammodynastes.
in their form, but of terrestial habits. Body
slender, head very distinct from the neck, head-
shields normal.

41

Seconp Sus-oRDER. VENOMOUS COLUBRINE
SNAKES.

(Serpentes colubriformes venenati.)

Snakes in which the front of the mawillary is furnished
with a short poison-fang always more or less erect.
Fam. XVIII. Evapipa. Venomous Colubrine Land

Snakes.

Land-snakes. Head normally shielded, but ris bs i
\phiophagus.
no loreal. Bungarus.
Xenurelaps.
Megerophis.
Callophis.

Fam. X1X. Hyproppipz. Sea-Snakes.

Tail compressed into a paddle. Head-shields Zaturus.

ipysurus.
tolerably regular, nasals generally contiguous. ane
yptus.
Ventrals narrow or none. Scales tubercular Hydrophis.
Enhydrina.
and dull. Eye small; nostrils superior. Pelamis.

THIRD SUB-ORDER. VIPERINE SNAKES.
(Serpentes viperini.)
Snakes with along poison-fang, capable of complete
depression.

Fam. XX. Crotauipz. Crotali or Pit-Vipers.

Broad thick head, very distinct from the ieee ii
neck, and generally scaly or imperfectly eeeline,
shielded. A deep pit between the eye and the Hypnite.

nostrijs, corresponding to the antrum maaille.

Fam. XXI. Vireripaz. Vzpers.
Broad thick head, scaly. No facial pit. aa

The order in which I have arranged these families differs
somewhat from that adopted by Giinther ; the improvement,
if any, is very slight, for it is difficult, especially when the
Indian genera are alone considered, to arrange the families

6

42

in groups which will show the affinities of the families which
compose them. But the present arrangement is less dis-
onant from the order of development shown by the families
when compared with the primitive lacertilian type, and it
renders diagnosis of an unknown snake easier than when
the families are arranged in entirely empirical order. I
imagine that the process by which development has taken
place must have been somewhat on the system shown
below, and I have no doubt that a consideration of general
ophiology and not that of India alone, would fill up many
hiatus at present evident.

43

eeprdopqd dy,

eepreqdood|qury—epruoyy4g—

— exprodiq—

—W CIO Lyon
eepryyedorn —

pe ee

epl[spoIg—epiiedi,—leprreureyeg 9 —epryyuopooAyT “prpropoouy

eprpesdiq—eprydomumvsg— vurpeuo109—|—vuto11ye $—eepisdopemoy—eprydorpApy

|
eeprqdorpueq—veurpeArqa—euriqnjoy '—epryuoposi[o

| |
eptydoapuegy epider

‘WAIOIULIOY, Aprunf oy Aq poquasaudas odhy yourbrso ay mouf yuawdozanap fo suayog

.

44

CHAPTER IL—D1sGNosIs OF AN UNKNOWN SNAKE

AND METHOD OF DESCRIPTION.

The student of Ophiology should take some common and
well-known snake such as Ptyas mucosus and practise
making the description of it with a view to familiarize him-
self with the various characters. He should also practise
drawing the head-shields; to do this correctly, he must
begin by drawing the vertical, and then gradually build up
the other shields round it; to draw a snake full length in a
natural attitude isa difficult task to any but a cunning
limner ; but an exact representation of the head and neck is
possible to any one who will take a little trouble about it.
Colouring the drawing accurately is far from an easy task,
and requires some study of the natural process by which
the colours have become blended.

When an unknown snake is required to be identified, the
first step is to determine the family to which it belongs.
This can be done readily by means of the synopsis given
in the preceding Chapter. If the snake be found to belong
to the harmless Sub-order its place in the three Sections into
which I have divided the families should be first determined
after which the diagnosis of family, genus and species can
be completed by reference to the Descriptive Catalogue
further on. Ifit does not appear to belong to any of the
species described, an accurate description should be drawn
up, while the specimen is fresh, for future reference in
case it should turn out to have been hitherto undescribed.

It is necessary to lay down a system of description for
snakes in general which will prevent useless details. being
given and direct the attention to the important points.
Accurate description may be given very neatly in Latin ; we
must try and imitate in English the conciseness of the more

45

classical description. The following scheme ‘will give an
idea of the way in which the description should be arranged.

Date Place
Length ; tail . Sex
Scales rows; smooth, keeled, or with apical grooves ;

imbricate ? rounded, oval, linear, rhombic or rhomboidal ‘
vertebrals enlarged? at what distance in tenths of length
the number diminishes.

Ventrals, number ; broad or narrow (in proportion to the
circumference); keeled? turned up at the sides? Anal,
single or bifid. Subcaudals, number ; single or double.

Head, distinct from neck? high, flat, broad, narrow;
snout acute, obtuse; eye large, small, moderate; pupil
round, erect, horizontal ; iris, colour.

Head shields, normal ? note peculiarities of crown shields ;
loreal present, absent, single or multiple; nasal single or
multiple, position of nostril. Preoculars, number, does the
upper one reach to the crown—to the vertical? (Subocular),
Labials, number, how many enter the orbit, peculiarities ;
temporals, number, arrangement. Lower jaw—labials,
number, first pair not contiguous? geneials, number of
pairs ; gular scales, number.

Ground colour.

Longitudinal pattern. Stripes or streaks, number, breadth,
position (vertebral, dorsal, lateral). Series of spots, of ring-
spots, size, margins, disposition.

Transverse pattern. Cross-bars or cross-bands, sagittal,
fasciolated, quincuncial, decussating, ocellated, margined ;
series of rings (number).

Interstitial colouring.

46

Belly and ventral row of scales, throat, subcaudals—
ground colour, plain, marbled, marbling, striped, spotted, &c.

Head, ground colour; cross-bands, fillets, > or < mark-
ings ; postocular, subocular or nuchal streaks.

Teeth, number (fixed), equal, increasing, decreasing ; any
longer teeth before or behind ; separated by any: interval ;
palatine teeth.

CHAPTER ITI.—DEscriprivE CATALOGUE.

In the following catalogue I have considerably abbre-
viated the full description, giving in most cases only the
colour and the distinctive features. In the more common
kinds of snakes, such as are ordinarily met with, this
description is somewhat enlarged in order to admit of
their more ready recognition, whilst in those of which only
one or two specimens exist in museums,I have givena
description just sufficient to show the specific differences,
but yet full enough, I hope, to cause their recognition as
rarities in case they should be perchance met with.

I have given.the descriptions as succinctly as possible,
and to avoid any mistake I may remind the reader that the
lateral halves of a snake being symmetrical, I have, as a
rule, described only one side. If I say that a snake has a
vertebral, a dorsal and a lateral stripe, it must be understood
that on each side of the single vertebral stripe there is a
dorsal and a lateral stripe.

First SUB-ORDER. HARMLESS ‘COLUBRINE SNAKES.

Famity I—TYPHLOPIDA.

Of small size ; body cylindrical, thicker behind; tail not
longer than the breadth of the head, ending in a minute
spine. Body covered with equal scales, no ventrals. Head

47

covered with shields of a peculiar type. The rostral is
prolonged backward ; on either side of it, are four labials
and four large shields, the nasal, the fronto-nasal, the
preocular, the ocular; behind it, are some small frontal and
supraciliary shields. The eye is rudimentary, often quite
invisible through the ocular shields. Mouth very inferior,
jaws hardly dilatable, no mental groove, a few maxillary
teeth only. Rudiments of hind limbs, not visible being
hidden beneath the skin.

TYPHLINA, Wagler.

Rostral large, rounded in front; no preocular ; nostril
inferior.

T. Lingata, Bove.

Scales 22. Transverse rows, 405. Length 18 in., diame-
ter #; (of length.) Reddish olive with numerous brown
lines ; snout and belly yellow.

Straits.*

TYPHLOPS, Dumeéril and Bibron.

Rostral large, rounded in front ; nostril lateral.

T. niaRo-ALBuS, D. and B.
Scales 26. Transverse rows, 326-353. Length 14 in,
diameter ;. Bluish black, belly yellowish.
Straits.

T. HORSFIELDU, Gray. Plate VII, fig. 1.

Similar to the preceding, but nasal and fronto-nasal united
above, and colour shading more gradually below. In Burma,
I have found a snake with the character of this species, but
colour pearl-grey above, white below.

* When the Straits are mentioned as a habitat, they include
the Malayan Zoological province generally.

48

T. BOTHRIORHYNCHUS, Giinther.
Scales 24. Diameter ;,. Four sutural grooves in the
lower part of the snout. Uniform brownish olive.
Penang.
T. STRIOLATUS, Feters.

Scales 24. Each scale with a yellow, posteriorly black-
edged, cross-streak.

Bengal.

T. SIAMENSIS, Gthr.

Scales 22. Diameter ;4. Greyish olive, yellowish below.

T. BRAMINUS, Daudin.
Scales 20. Diameter 7. Fronto-nasal not in contact
with labials. Brown, paler below.
T. PAMMECES, Gthr. Plate VII, fig. 2.
Similar to the preceding. Diameter ,‘.
Madras.
T. MrIRUS, Jan.

Scales 18. Diameter ,1. A subocular present. Brown
with yellow snout.

Ceylon,

ONYCHOCEPHALUS, D. and B.
Nostril inferior. Rostral with an anterior trenchant edge.

QO. acutus, D. and B.

Seales 28-29. Longitudinal rows, 500. Diameter ee
Light bronze, each dorsal scale has a pale centre;

yellowish below.
South of India.

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
‘Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.

PLATE VII.

Typhlops horsfieldii.

T. pammeces.

Rhinophis sanguineus, with a view of the tail from one side.
Do. do. above.

Do. do. one side.

Silybura ocellata.
Plectrurus perrotetii.

‘Geophis imicrocephalus.

49

Famity I] —TORTRICID.

Body cylindrical ; depressed rounded head not distinct
from neck; tail very short, conical, its end smooth.
Rudiments of hind limbs visible. Scales smooth, polished;
ventral row little larger than the others. .Head shielded, but
only one pair of frontals ; six labials. Eye small. Cleft of
the mouth moderate ; palatine teeth; mental groove.

CYLINDROPHIS, Wagler.

Nasals single, contiguous. Occipitals small. Frontal
enters the orbit.

C. RuFus, Laurentius.

Width between the eyes greater than the length of snout.
Scales 19-21. Ventrals 184-200, sube. 6-9. Brown; belly
has irregular white cross-bands extending up the sides.

Burma and Straits.

C. macuLatus, Linnceus.

Width between the eyes equal to the length of snout.
Scales 21. Ventrals 186-196, sube. 5 or 6. Brown, with a
network of black lines and cross-bands. White below.
Ceylon.

eee

Faminiy IIL—PYTHONIDA.

Body rounded ; head distinct from the neck ; snout long,
rounded. Eye moderate, pupil erect. Head shielded. Some
of the labials pitted. Scales numerous, smooth. Ventrals
narrow. Rudimentary hind limbs visible. Premaxillary
teeth present.

PYTHON, Daudin.

Body stout; grows to a large size. Occipitals rucimen-
tary; forepart of the crown with intercalated shields.
Rostral and. labials pitted. Anal entire. Ventrals very
narrow.

7

50

P. rEvicuLatus, Schneider. The Malayan Python. Plate

VIII, fig. 3. ,

Seales about 75. Ventrals 300-330, sube. 82-102. Two
or three pairs of shields intercalated between the vertical
and posterior frontals. Labials about 15 (7)* first 4 pitted,
Brown with an irregular vertebral chain of black rings, from
each of which depends a black bar enclosing a white ocellus.
A thin black line prolonged along the median line of the
head ; postorbital streak. Grows to 10 feet and upwards ;
probably 20 feet is the maximum ; tail one-eighth.

Burma, Straits.

P. moturus, L. The Indian Python. Plate VIII, figs. 1 & 2.

Seales about 65. Ventrals 242-262, subc. 60-72. Inter-
calated crown shields. Labials about 12, first 2 pitted.. A
subocular sometimes present. The pattern consists of three
rows of quadrangular brown spots (one median), separated
by narrow buff lines ; or it may be considered as brown with
longitudinal dorsal butf stripes, and irregular transverse
bands above and below. A brown spot formed by a buff or
yellow > offset of the reticulations occupies the nee Size
about the same as the preceding.

Tndia, Burma.

Nore.—I think that the exaggeration of travellers as to the length
of these snakes arises from the disproportionate thickness of adult
specimens. When in Rangoon I kept a Python molurus which in the
middle was fully as thick as a stout man’s arm ; and a person deriv-
ing his ideas of proportion from large Colubridz would naturally :
suppose, on seeing a snake of this thickness either coiled up or moving
through the jungle, that it must be at least 20 feet long; yet it was
in reality only 9 feet long, very little longer than a dhdman of an inch
and a half in diameter. The capacity of these creatures’ jaws is also
exaggerated. The above-mentioned individual had a throat only
wide enough to take in a fish of about 8 inches long; so that it is
probable that his prey when at liberty consisted rather of rats and
birds than of goats or deer.

* (7) means that the seventh labial enters the orbit.

f PLATE VIII,

Fig. 1. Python molurus, one-sixteenth of life-size.
Fig. 2. 78 - head of young specimen (5 feet), full-size.

Fig. 3. P. reticulatus, ss ‘3 full-size.

51
FAMILY IV.—ERYCIDA.

Body moderate, rounded; tail very short ; head with a
broad snout, Eye small with vertical pupil. Head scaled.
Scales small in numerous rows. Ventrals narrow, sub-
caudals single. "Rudimentary hind limbs visible, as in the
Python, but only in the male.

GONGYLOPHIS, Wagler.

Head flat, oblong, scarcely distinct. Scales keeled. Chin
scaled, without mental groove.

G. conicus, Schneider. The Red Sand-Snake. Plate IX, fig. 3.

Seales 41-53. Ventrals 168-186, sube. 17-23. Small
labials, 15, a rostral and two small frontals are the only
head-shields ; the orbit is surrounded by scales. Grey with
an irregular vertebral chain formed by dorsal coalescing
rows:of reddish brown blotches; telly white. Grows to
3 feet, of which the tail 1} inches.

Common in Southern India.

CURSORIA, Gray.
Similar to the preceding genus, but with smooth scales.

C. ELEGANS, Gray.

Scales 36. A solitary museum specimen.

ERYX, D. and B.

Head hardly distinct, snout obtusely conical, with a
sharp transverse edge. Scales keeled, but much less than
in Gongylophis. A mental groove.

E. Jonni, Russell. The Black Sand-Snake. Plate IX, fig. 4.
Seales 50-65. Ventrals 189-209, sube. 19-36. Similar to
Gongylophis but the scales are much smoother and the tail
more cylindrical. Dark olive above and below with
numerous black blotches or unsymmetrical cross-bars.

52

It is by mutilating the stumpy tail of this snake that
exhibtors of double-headed snakes manufacture their speci-
mens. Grows to four feet, of which tail one-twelfth.
Much less common than Gongylophis.

Famity V.—ACROCHORDIDA.

Body moderate, rounded, or slightly compressed ; tail
short; head small, not distinct. Eye small. Nostrils
superior. Head scaled. Scales small wart-like, tubercular,
or spiny. No ventrals.

ACROCHORDUS, Hornstedt.
Tail slightly compressed, without any fold of skin below.
Each scale with a triangular keel, ending in a spine.

A, JAVANICUS, Hornstede.
Nasals simple, contiguous. The mouth hasa bull-dog |

arrangement of the lips, there being a central notch above,
and a notch below on either side, with corresponding pro-
tuberances. Brown with large confluent dark spots. This
extraordinary snake grows to 8 feet, is quite terrestial (and
even frugivorous) though of pelagic appearance and vivipar-
ous.

Java, Straits.

CHERSYDRUS, Cuvier.

Tail compressed, and expanded by a fold of skin running
along the lower side. Each scale with a short tubercular
keel.

C. GRANULATUS, Schneider.

Scales above a hundred. Only the ventral scales are
spiny; otherwise like Acrochordus. Dark grey above,
yellowish below, each colour sending out short alternate
cross-bands. Aquatic.

Rivers and coasts of Burma and the Straits.

PLATE IX.

licus.

Lycodon an

1A
2. Xenopel

Fig. 3.

’

1

Fig.

lor,
Gongylophis conicus, half natural size.

§ UNICO

ti

1g

F

do.

do.

Fig. 4. Erya johnii,

53

Famity VI—UROPELTID.

Body cylindrical, with a short narrow head not distinct
from the neck; tail very short, truncated, terminating in a
rough naked disk or covered with keeled scales.

Scales round, polished; ventral row scarcely larger than,
the others.

One pair of frontals; four labials. Eye very small.
Maxillary and mandibular teeth, no palatine; generally no
mental groove.

RHINOPHIS, Hemprich.

Tail cylindrical, covered with smooth scales and ending
in a convex, scaleless, rough shield. Head conical; supra-
ciliary and postocular confluent; nasals separated by the
rostral. Scales 17-19. Ventrals 150-228 ; subcaudals 4-10.
Length 10-14 inches.

Ceylon.

R. oxyruyncuus, Schneider.
Rostral nearly half as long as head, keeled above. Nearly
uniform brown.

R. punctatus, Miiller.
Similar to the preceding. Yellowish with black scale-
dots.

R. PHILIPPINUS, Cuvier, (PLANICEPS, Peters.)
Rostral shield not half as long as head, and without keel.
Short. Uniform blackish olive.

R. TREVELYANUS, Kelaazt.
Similar to the preceding. Black, with white triangular
lateral spots ; belly white, black spotted.

R. sancurnevs, Beddome. Plate VII, fig. 3.

Similar to the preceding ; rostral shorter. Black above;
belly with lateral searlet streak ; caudal shield black with
yellow streak and red margin.

54

R. BLYTHII, Kelaart.
Caudal shield small, not half size of head, sometimes
keeled.
Common in Ceylon.
R. PULNEYENSIS, Beddome.
Snout obtuse; caudal shield very small. Brown with
yellow lateral band and spots.

UROPELTIS, Cuvier.

Head conical; nasals contiguous ; supraciliary and post-
ocular confluent. Tail cylindrical, obliquely truncated as
if severed by a knife; the disk flat, rough, scaleless.

U. aranovis, Kelaart.
Scales 98-21. Ventrals 138-148, subc. 7-8 bifid. Length
20 inches. Brown with occasional white or yellow spots.

Ceylon.
SILYBURA, Gray, Peters.

Head conical; nasals contiguous ; supraciliary and post-
ocular confluent. Tail subcylindrical, the scales on its wpper
side are shield-like and keeled, forming a flattish disk ending
in a horny bi-spinous scale. Length 6-14 inches.

Hills of South of India.

S. MACROLEPIS, Peters.
Seales 15. Ventrals 137. Black, with an irregular lateral
yellowish stripe.

S. BEDDOMI, thr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 178. Rostral longer than the vertical,
slightly keeled. Brown, lateral and ventral white dots;
short yellow lateral stripe ; vent and tip yellow.

S. ocELLATA, Beddome. Plate VII, fig. 4.

Scales 17, Ventrals 200. Rostral shorter than the vertical.
Olive or brown, with numerous transverse series of four
yellow, black-edged ocelli.

Or
Or

S. ELLIOTI, Gray.
Scales 17. Ventrals 143-168. Rostral shorter than the

vertical. Brown, short yellow lateral streak, yellow caudal
ring.

S. BICATENATA, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 135. Rostral very short, vertical,
rhombic. Black above and below, with yellow dorsal scale
dots, and yellow lateral stripe.

S. sHortTtuI, Beddome.

Scales 17. Ventrals 139, twice’ as broad as other scales.
Fourth Jabial longer than high. Black with irregular white
scales ; yellow lateral stripe and caudal ring.

S. BREVIS, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 122. Body short. Brown, yellowish
below, subcaudals black with white lateral line.

S. canarica, Beddome.

Scales 15. Ventrals 154. Caudal disk laterally com-
pressed as in Plectrurus and, as in it also, ending in two
spines one above the other. Variable colour; brownish

with yellow anterior markings, yellow below.
Hills of South Canara. ©

PLECTRURUS, D. and B.

Head conical; nasals contiguous; supraciliary and post-
ocular distinct. Posterior part of tail compressed, covered
with keeled scales and ending in ahorny scale with two
points one above the other.

P. perRotetu, D. and B. Plate VII, fig. 5.

Scales 15, sometimes irregular. Ventrals 147-161, subc.
10-12. Uniform brown. Length 10-12 inches.
Nilgiris,

56

P. guntuert, Beddome.
Similar. Purple, yellow below; with lateral yellow trian-
gular markings. —
Nilgiris.
MELANOPHIDIUM, Giinther.

Snout rather obtuse; nasals contiguous; supraciliary and
postocular confluent. A mental groove. Tail slightly,
compressed, ending ina very small, smooth, horny point
slightly turned upwards.

M. WYNADENSE, Beddome.

Scales 15 or 17. Ventrals 180, thrice as broad as the
other scales. Black, belly black and white behind.

M. BiLingatum, Beddome.

Scales 15. Beautifully iridescent, with yellow lateral
streak the whole length. Length 8 inches.
Peria peak, Wynd.

M. punctatum, Beddome.
Scales 15. Ventrals 186-191, sube. 15-17. Iridescent,
three lateral black lines ; belly whitish. Length 18 inches,
Travancore,

Famity VIIL—XENOPELTID”.

Body cylindrical and stout; tail short, tapering; head
depressed, not distinct from the neck, rounded. Scales large
and polished. Ventrals narrow, the outer row of scales
enlarged to nearly half their size. Head-shields of scale-
like appearance. Eye small. Teeth small and very numerous.

XENOPELTIS, Reinwarde.

Head-shields simulating scales; preocular large; no
loreal, Scales 15. Anal and subcaudals bifid.

57

X. uNIcoLor, Reinw. The wridescent Earth-Snake. Plate

IX, fig. 2.

Ventrals 180, sube. 20-30. Behind the triangular vertical
are other similarly shaped large scales. Colour brown, with
remarkable iridescent effects; below white or yellowish.
Grows to upwards of 3 feet, tail one-twelfth.

Common in Burma and the Straits, where it replaces
the larger Calamaride and the Erycide.

Famity VIII—CALAMARID.

Body more or less cylindrical; head short, not distinct
from the neck; tail short, tapering. Scales 13-17 rows.
‘Ventral shields well developed, generally less than 200, anal
generally entire; subcaudals single or double. Eye small
with round pupil. Normal number of head-shields always
reduced by absence or confluence of one or more, generally
the anterior frontals or loreal. Mental groove. Palatine
teeth present. Length 12-24 inches.

CALAMARIA, Boie.

Nostril in a single nasal. Loreal none, merged in the
frontal; 1 preocular, 1 postocular. Only one pair of
frontals, 4 or 5 labials. Scales 13, smooth. Subcaudals
double.

C. stamEnsis, Gthr.
Ventrals 1'79-190, sube. 12-20. Labials 4. Brown, with

7-11 black lines ; black collar with white or yellow edges;
belly white, brown-spotted.
Burma, Siam.

C. quapRimacuLata, D. and B.
Ventrals 136-145, sube. 13. Labials 4. Similar to pre-
ceding ; 2 pairs of white caudal, spots.
Java, Burma.

58

C. ALBIVENTER, Gray.

Ventrals 160-166, sube. 16. Labials 5. First pair lower
labials not in contact as usual. Brown, with white (red ?)
stripes and belly.

Penang.

C. NIGRO-ALBA, Githr.
Ventrals 147-166, sube. 25-80. Labials 5. Upper parts
black, belly white.
Penang.

CO. LEUCOCEPHALA, D. and B.
Ventrals 136, sube. 37. Similar, but head white.

C, catenata, Blyth.

MACROCALAMUS, Giinther.

Nostril between the nasal and the first labial. Loreal
nonep merged in the frontal; 1 preocular, 1 postocular ;
only one pair of frontals ; 8 labials. Scales 18, smooth,
Anal entire, subcaudals double.

M. LATERALIS, Gthr.

Ventrals 118, subc. 20. Brown; lateral, dark, white-dotted
line.

A solitary museum specimen.
OXYCALAMUS, Ginther.

Head narrow, pointed. Two pairs of frontals ; loreal
merged in postfrontal; 1 preocular, 1 postocular ; 5 labials,
Scales 15, smooth ; subcaudals double.

O. Lonaiceps, Cantor.
Ventrals 131, sube. 26. Uniform brownish black.
Penang. A solitary museum specimen.

GEOPHIS, Wagler.
Two pavrs of frontals, nostril between two nasals ; 1 or 2
postoculars ; preocular and loreal confluent. Scales 13-17,
smooth, anal entire, subcaudals double.

59

G. MICROCEPHALUS, Gihr. (Platypteryx perrotetit ? D.and B.) -
Plate VII, fig. 6.

Scales 18. Ventrals 144-148, sube. 16-30. Dark brown ;
lower scales and ventrals white-edged ; yellow buccal streak ;
brown below. Grows to 2 feet, tail one-twentieth.

Madras (?) Nilgiris.
ASPIDURA, Wagler.

One anterior frontal ; loreal merged in the frontal; 2
postocular, 1 preocular (sometimes merged in the frontal,)

5 or 6 labials, two small nasals. Scales 15-17, smooth, those

near the vent sometimes keeled ; anal and swbcaudals entire.
Length 14-16 inches.
Ceylon.

A. BRACHYORRHOS, Bote.

Scales 17. Ventrals 148-154, subc. 30. Preocular distinct.
Yellow olive with two dark lateral stripes; vertebral
series of white dots. Belly white.

A. cCoPlr, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 128, subc. 34. Preocular merged in
postfrontal; 3 pairs of gular shields. Brown with dorsal
row of black spots; belly white, marbled.

A solitary museum specimen.

A. TRACHYPROCTA, Cope.

Scales 15. Ventrals 128-144, sube. 10-23. Preocular very
small; postfrontal enters the orbit. Brown with a verte-
bral and two dorsal rows of dark spots.

HAPLOCERCUS, Giinther.

One anterior frontal ; loreal merged in the frontal; 2
postoculars, 1 preocular; 7 labials; two very small nasals,
Seales 17, keeled ; anal and subcaudals entire.

H. CEYLONENSIS, Gthr.
Ventrals 208, sube, 45. Brown with vertebral narrow

60

black stripe, and dorsal row of black spots; white black-
edged neck-streak ; belly yellowish.
Ceylon.
NEW CALAMARIDA.

Mr. Theobald has made two new genera of Calamaride
for two aberrant specimens, a third new genus for an
aberrant Ablabes and he restores Giinther’s abandoned
genus Trachischiwm for Ablabes fuscus.

Falconeria gen. nov. (Theobald).
Seales 17, keeled. One anterior frontal; postfrontal enters
the orbit ; labials 5. Anal and subcaudals double. Loreal
present. F. bengalensis.

Blythia gen. nov. (Theobald).

Scales 18, smooth. Two pairs of frontals. Loreal and
preocular none, both merged in postfrontal. Anal and
subcaudals bifid.

B. reticulata, formerly Calamaria reticulata, Blyth.
Grotea gen. nov. (Theobald).
Proposed for Ablabes bicolor.

Famity IX —HOMALOPSID 2.

Body cylindrical ; head thick, not very distinct from the
neck ; tail moderate, compressed at the root. Scales often
strongly keeled; ventrals rather narrow, anal bifid. Eye
small, prominent, Nostril superior, small, valvulated ; nasals
large, encroaching on the size of the anterior frontals (which
are often confluent). Head-shields generally tend to deviate
from the normal arrangement. The last tooth is transi-
tional between an ordinary tooth and a fang, but there is
no evidence that the salivais poisonous, They live in rivers
and estuaries, rarely coming to land.

61
FORDONIA, Gray.

Head shielded, nostril superior in a single nasal. Ante-
rior frontal single, small, in contact with rostral. Five
labials. Scales smooth, 25-29.

F. uNIcoLor, Gray. Plate X, fig. 2.

Seales 25-27. Ventrals 140-156, sube. 26-37. Labials 5
(3). No loreal (in my specimen). Brown; belly and outer
scales whitish.

Straits, Burma.

F. BicoLor, Theobald.
Labials 5 (5). Yellowish grey, dark spotted; sides and
belly white.
Rangoon.

CANTORIA, Girard.

Head shielded ; anterior frontal single, in contact with
rostral. Eye very small. Orbital circle complete. Five
labials. Scales 19, smooth.

C. ELONGATA, Gthr.
Ventrals 278, sube. 84. Reddish violet, with cross-bands
of white dots; whitish below.
Straits.

C. DAYANA, Stolicska.

Ventrals 286, sube. 56. Anterior frontal almost linear.
Vertical large six-sided ; 2 postoculars the lowest also sub-
ocular; Dull yellow with brodd blue-black cross-bands,
yellow anterior fillet ; yellow below.

Amherst.

CERBERUS, Cuvier.

Occiput scaly. Anterior frontals two, small; nasals two,
large, contiguous ; orbital circle conyplete ; posterior labials
divided transversely. Cleft of the mouth turned up behind.
Scales strongly keeled, 21-25.

62

C. RHYNCHOPS, Schneider. Plate X, fig. 1.

Seales 23-25. Ventrals 132-148, subc. 54-62. Vertical
broken up; labials 9-10. Dark ash, with darker cross-
bands posteriorly ; under-parts whitish with marbled ash

cross-bands.

Common in East Indian estuaries. It often goes some
distance from the water; I have a specimen which was
brought half-alive to me, having been just caught in a com-
pound nearly two miles from the Rangoon river.

HYPSIRHINA, Wagler.

Head shielded; a single anterior frontal, nasals half-
divided, large, contiguous. Seven or eight labials. Scales
smooth, 19-23.

H. PLUMBEA, Boie.

Short and thick. Scales 19. Ventrals 120-131, sube.
29-44. Greyish olive, often with vertebral row of black
spots ; outer scales and belly yellowish, with black median
subcaudal line.

Straits, China.

H. enuypris, Schneider, Plate X, fig. 3.

Of very variable form, the male said to be slender, the
female stout. with ogival snout. My specimen has a sharp
triangular head, slender and very elongate neck ; posterior
part very stout, tail very thin. Scales 21. Ventrals 159-166,
sube. 54-69. Colour variable, that of my specimen is as
follows :—Plumbeous, with posterior dorsal light line ; lower
parts and outer scales whitish, with salmon-coloured stripe
along the second row of scales, dark stripe along median
and lateral line of ventrals.

Rivers and irrigated fields in Burma and Siam.

H. sacoru, Peters.
Scales 21. Ventrals 128, subc. 66. Brownish grey above,

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Cerberus rhyncops. Fig. 4. Gerarda bicolor.
Fig. 2. Fordonia unicolor. Fig. 5. Hydrophis cyanocineta.
Fig. 3. Hypsirhina enhydris. Fig. 6. Enhydrina bengalensis.

65

belly and four outer rows of scales blackish with a yellow
lateral stripe and white median ventral stripe.

Siam. A solitary specimen.
H. BENNETTII, Gray.

Seales 21. Ventrals 160, sube. 50. Anterior frontal small,
does not touch the loreal. Brownish grey with transverse
series of black spots; belly and three outer scales white;
each ventral with median and lateral black spots.

China. :
H. CHINENSIS, Gray.

Scales 23. Ventrals 150, sube. 45. Anterior frontal as
large as a posterior frontal. Blackish ash with small black
spots; belly and outer scales whitish, with black lateral
band.

FERANIA, Gray.

Head short, body stout, head shielded. Nasals large,
single, contiguous. Two small anterior frontals. Scales
smooth, 27.

F. sIEBoxpil, Schlegel.

‘Ventrals 147-156, subc. 48-55. White with about 32
(vertebral) large, brown, black ‘edged spots; small dorsal _
triangular spots in the intervals. Head brown with two
diverging white lines.

Bengal, Straits.
HOMALOPSIS, Gray.

Head flat, triangular; body stout. Head shielded;
anterior frontal single; nasals single, contiguous. Orbital
‘circle complete. Posterior labials transversely divided. Cleft
of mouth turned upwards behind. Scales 37-47, keeled.

H. succata, L.

Ventrals 160-171, subc. ‘70-84. Brown with about 30
narrow white cross-bands. Belly and outer scales white ;
head markings.

Burma, Straits.

64

HIPISTES, Gray.

Head short; neck slender; tail stout, tapering. Head
shielded ; anterior frontal single, in contact with the rostral ;
nasals semi-divided. Scales smooth, 39; ventrals narrow,
with sharp lateral keel.

H. nyprinus, Cantor.
Ventrals 153-161, sube. 34. Occipitals multiple. Greenish
yellow, with about 48 black cross-bars.
Straits. Semi-pelagic.

GERARDA, Gray.

G. BICOLOR, Gray.
A snake caught at Rangoon is believed by Mr. Theobald
to belong to this reputed West Indian genus.

My own specimen I at first thought to be a new Cala-
maria, though of amphibious appearance, as it was found in
a dusty street of Rangoon. Plate X, fig. 4.

Ventrals 156, sube. 18. Scales 17. Anterior frontal
single, elongate, convex-ended, concave-sided. Nostrils
superior, in a single shield slightly split. Shining lead
colour above, white below.

HERPETON, Lacépéde.

Snout ends in two flexible cylindrical tentacles. Head
shielded; two small anterior frontals ; nasals single, conti-
guous. Orbital ring complete. Scales 37, keeled. Ventrals
narrow with lateral keel.

H. Trenracutatum, Lacépéde.

Ventrals 133-136. Brown with 3 dorsal stripes ;. the
uppermost connected with its fellow by cross-bars ; belly
yellowish with dark lateral stripes.

Siam.

65

FamMiLy X.—AMBLYCEPHALID AZ.

Body and tail slender, strongly compressed ; head thick
large, very distinct. Eye moderate with vertical pupil.
Nostril in a single nasal; rostral very high. Head-shields
often increased above the normal number. Cleft of the
mouth smaller within than without ; lower jaw not expan-
sible; chin shields unsymmetrical, no mental groove.
Scales generally smooth , 13-15. Maxillary small, with few
and small teeth ; other teeth strong.

AMBLYCEPHALUS, Wagler.

Head short, thick, high, with convex lips. Crown shields
have often small shields intercalated; several loreals; a
complete orbital ring. Scales 13, smooth, elongate ; verte-
brals large, hexagonal. Anal and subcaudals entire. Teeth
few ; a long anterior palatine and mandibulary tooth.

A. Boa, Kuhl.

Ventrals 152-170, sube. 88-112. Loreals 3, one above the
other. Purplish, marbled and dotted with brown; cheeks
and lips carnation, with vertical subocular streak. Grows
to 3 feet.

Straits. Climbs, and lives on insects.

PAREAS, Wagler.
Cleft of mouth very short. Crown shields regular. Scales
15, generally smooth ; vertebrals larger. Anal entire, sub-
caudals bifid. Nasal generally simple.

P. carinatus, Reinwardt.

~ Ventrals 160-174, subc. 52-74, Resembles Amblycephalus

in its tumid lips and complete orbital ring. Greyish brown,

with reticulated black cross-bands ; black post-orbital streak.
Java, Cochin-China.

P. MONTICOLUS, Cantor.
Ventrals 194, sube’ 87. Loreal none, replaced by a large
9

66

preocular ; orbital ring of shields incomplete below. Brown,
with black nuchal ring and Y shaped cross-bars.
Assam.

P. Lavis, Kuhl.

Ventrals 150-164, subc. 34-46. Loreal none, replaced by
the preocular. Two labials enter the orbit. Brown, marbled
with black in irregular cross-bands; belly brown, or white
with blackish lateral spots.

Java, Cochin-China, Khasya Hills.

P. MAcULARIUS, Blyth.

Resembles P. carinatus in its complete orbital circle and
general appearance. The young and adult differ in colour,
and itis said in the disposition and shape of the head-
shields. Ochrey brown, with traces of cross-bands. In the
young, rich reddish brown with fasciolated cross-markings
in white and claret colour ; white collar, mottled with claret-
red ; belly brown, spotted and mottled.

Martaban.

P, mopeEstus, Theobald.

A band-like subocular. Posterior frontal enters the orbit,
Median scales faintly keeled. Uniform brown, pale yellowish
below.

Rangoon.

Famity XI—OLIGODONTIDA.

Body subeylindrical, with a short head not distinct from
the neck, tail moderate or short. Scales smooth, rounded,
15-21. Ventrals of moderate breadth, rarely above 200,
generally much fewer; subcaudals double. Eye moderate
pupil round. Head-shields normal.* Teeth few, increasing;
no palatine teethin Oligodon. Head nearly always swith
symmetrical > markings; belly often with square sym-
metrical dark spots on the ventrals.

* Ina few species of Oligodon there is no loreal,

67

OLIGODON, Bove.

Nostril between two partly confluent nasals. One pre-
ocular, one or two postoculars. Rostral produced backwards.
Scales 15-17. Length 10-20 inches. No palatine teeth.

O. suncrRisEus, D. and B. Plate XI, fig. 1.

Scales 15. Ventrals 180-202, subc. 48-54. Labials 7
(3 and 4).* Brown with numerous narrow dark fasciolated
cross lines, crossed by a vertebral and dorsal whitish
stripe ; belly white ; head-markings. Grows to 18 inches,
tail one-seventh.

South of India, Anamullies ; rather common.

O. sPILONOTUS, Géthr.

Scales 15. Ventrals 155-162, subc. 50. Labials 7 (3 & 4).
Vertebral series of about 17 brown 8-shaped spots, with
alternate thin cross lines; belly white ; head-markings.

South of India.

O. ELLIOTI, Gihr.

Scales 15. Ventrals 156-169, sube. 30-45. Labials 7 (3
and 4), Vertebral series of about 37 large rhombic black
spots giving off cross streaks, or of dark fasciolated cross-
streaks; belly white; head-markings. Allied to O. sub-

“ griseus.
South of India.
O. suppunctatTus, D. and B.

8 labials (4, 5 and 6). Grey with vertebral series of
round black white-edged spots; belly white with lateral
black dots ; head-markings.

Western Coast.
O. SPINIPUNCTATUS, Jan.

Scales 17. Ventrals 193, subc. 62. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6).
Similar to the preceding, but no ventral dots.

A solitary museum specimen.

* (3 and 4) means that the 3rd and 4th labials enter the orbit.

68

O. FASCIATUS, Gthr.

Seales 15. Ventrals 180, sube. 40. Labials 7 (3 and 4).
Brown; about 27 broad black-edged cross-bands; a
narrow vertebral stripe; belly white with small brown
spots ; head-markings indistinct.

South of India.
O. suBLInEatus, D. and B.

Scales 15. Ventrals 150, subc. 32. Labials 7 (3 and 4).
Brown, with dorsal series of brown white-edged spots ;
belly with 3 punctulated brown streaks.

Common in Ceylon.
O. AFFINIS, Gthr.

Seales 17. Ventrals 134, sube. 25. Loreal none. Labials
7 (3 and 4). Brownish grey, with short thin black cross-
bars, belly white with square black (ventral) spots ; head-
markings with longitudinal streak. :

Anamullies.
O. TEMPLETONII, Gthr.

Scales 15. Ventrals 135, sube. 31. Labials 7 (3 and 4)
5th and 7th contiguous below. Brown, with light vertebral
band, and about 18 dark cross-bands, belly white, square
spots.

Ceylon.

O. MopEsTUS, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 158, sube. 41. Anal single. Labials
6 (3). Loreal none, one postocular. Brown, with posterior
light vertebral stripe; light collar, belly white with square
black spots ; head-marking obscure.
Ceylon (?) Solitary museum specimen.

O. DORSALIS, Gray.

Scales 15. Ventrals 168-1738, subc. 40-60. Labials 7
(3 and 4). Brown, punctulated with black ; yellow vertebral
stripe bordered with black spots; black dorsal line ; belly
white, with square black spots which often coalesce.

PLATH XT.

‘Fig..1. Oligodon ellioti
Fig. 2. Simotes russellit.
Fig. 3. S. cruentatus; C, under part of the tail.

Fig. 4. 8. bicatenatus ; C, ventrals,

69

O. BREVICAUDA, Gthr.

Scales 15. Ventrals 172, sube. 30. Only one pair of
frontals ; rostral reaching far backwards. Labials 7 (8 & 4).
Loreal none. Greyish violet; posterior whitish vertebral
stripe, bordered with black spots; black lateral stripe.
Belly same colour, with square black spots; head-markings
distinct.

Anamullies. Solitary museum specimen.

SIMOTES, D. and B.

Anterior frontals short, transverse ; rostral produced back-
wards between them; nostril between two nasals. Scales .
smooth, 17-21 rows. Ventrals often have a slight lateral
keel’ Head-markings of the family always present.
Palatine teeth. Generally 7 labials (3 and 4). Found in
India, but more common in Burma, Siam, &. Generally
larger than Oligodon.

S. venustus, Jerdon.

Scales 17. Ventrals 142-145, subc. 31-35. Anal bifid.
Brown, with 3 rows of round black yellow-edged spotss
belly white with square black spots ; head-markings.

Western Coast.

S. RUSSELLII, Daudin. Plate XI, fig. 2.

Scales 17. Ventrals 160-190, sube. 47-56. Anal bifid.
Brown, with 20 to 30 broad black, slightly white-edged,
cross-bands ; belly white; head-markings very distinct; a
black fillet through the eyes; a> rising from the throat,
the point on the vertical, the first cross-band forming
another = behind it. Grows to 2 feet, tail one-seventh.

India, Ceylon ; common.

S. Brnotatus, D. and B.

Seales 17. Ventrals 181, sube. 41. Anal bifid. Rhombic
black-edged spots on each side of vertebral line, smaller spots
in the intervals; belly white ; three anguls r head-markings.

Western Coast. /

H
i,

i

70

S, ALBIVENTER, Gthr.
Seales 17. Ventrals 179, sube. 45. Anal bifid. Loreal
none. Brown above, white below, subocular spot.

Ceylon.

S. sianaTus, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 149-157, sube. 47-59. Anal entire.
Brown, with about 15 white cross-bands, the middle of each
wide and pointing forwards.

S. CINEREUS, Gihr.
Scales 17. Ventrals165. Anal entire. Labials 8 (4&5).
Grey above, white below.
Cambodia.

S. SWINHONIS, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 158-168, sube. 35-39. Anal entire.
Reddish olive with indistinct dark reticulated cross-bands
white below.

China.

S. tanratus, Gthr.

Scales 17. Ventrals 150-166, sube. 30-44. Anal entire.
Brownish olive, brown vertebral stripe inclosing a light
median line; black spot on root of tail, another on tip ; belly
white with square black spots.

Siam.

8. cRUENTATUS, Theobald. Plate XI, fig. 3. The Coral-tail
Snake.

Seales 17. Ventrals about 163,sube. 36. Anal entire
or bifid. Olive brown; dark vertebral stripe, sometimes
enclosing a lighter stripe; lateral thin stripe; belly greenish
yellow with square blue-black spots; subcaudals coral-red
with black spot at the root and near the tip. Punctulated
head-markings, often not unlike a mask. In the young,
there are the superior tail-marks of the preceding species.

Common in Burma.

71

S. TRILINEATUS, D. and B.
Seales 17. Ventrals 145,sube. 54. Analentire. Brown,
with a vertebral yellow stripe and a dorsal white stripe.

8S. PUNCTULATUS, Gray.

Scales 19. Ventrals 180-202, subc. 52-62. Anal entire.
Brown, with about 20 light, black-edged cross-bands or pairs
of spots; belly with square spots. Head whitish, with the
usual head-markings. Grows to upwards of two feet in
length.

Himalayas.

8. BICATENATUS, Gthr. Plate XI, fig. 4.

Scales 19. Ventrals 161-180, subc. 36-47. Anal entire,
slight ventral keel. Labials 6, 7, or 8. Of stout habit.
Light reddish brown, with three darker stripes ; the verte-
bral stripe encloses a light median line and extends on the
vertical, separating two oblique head-markings that converge
from the dorsal stripes. Fillet across the eyes. Belly
white or fawn with alternate square spots. Grows to 24 feet.

Common in Burma.

S. ALBOcINCTUS, Cantor.
Scales 19. Ventrals 175-181, sube. 47-65. Anal entire.
Brown, with about 18 white, dark-edged cross-bands, narrow

black cross-bands alternating; belly white or spotted;
usual head-markings.
Assam.

S. FASCIOLATUS, Gthr.

Scales 21. Ventrals 163, sube. 42. Anal entire. Yellowish,
with black irregular cross-bands ; light dorsal stripe, median
white line on tail; belly white ; usual head-markings,

Cochin-China, |
S. COCHINCHINENSIS, Gthr.
Scales 21. Ventrals 216, sube. 47. Anal entire. Grey,

with about 12 black cross-bands; belly white; head-
marking black,

S. TRINOTATUS, D. and B.

Seales 21. Ventrals 183-189, sube. 49-51. Anal entire.
Brown, with three series of dark, black-edged spots ; belly
yellow with square black spots ; head-markings indistinct.

Straits.

S. AMABILIS, Gthr.

S. THEOBALDI, Gthr. are also recorded. Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist., 1868.

Mr. Theobald bas made species S. obscwrus and S. crassus
of two solitary museum specimens, but they appear to be
aberrant varieties of S. bicatenatus. (J. A. S., 1868.) Indeed,
nearly all the species of this genus may be referred to two
types, S. bicatenatus and S. russelli.

Famity XII—LYCODONTIDA.

Body moderate or slender, head distinct, moderate, with
depressed and elongate snout. Eye small, generally with
vertical pupil. Head-shields regular. A large fang (harm-
less) in front, both in the upper and lower jaws.

These snakes are a degraded family of Colubride.

LYCODON, D. and B.

Body rather flattened, head distinct, depressed, with flat
spatulate snout. Scales 17, smooth. Pupil erect.

L, auticus, L. The Lycodon. Plate XI, fig. 1 and la.
Ventrals 183-209, sube. 57-77. Anal bifid. Antocular
reaches the vertical.

Eye small and beady; so black that it is nearly impos-
sible to distinguish the pupil. Colour chocolate brown with
numerous white or yellowish cross-bands decussating later-
ally ; the first forms a broad collar; belly very transparent
white with interstitial flesh colour, Length 1-2 feet.

73

A common snake both in India and in Burma; it is often
found climbing the angle of the jamb of a door, or about

dark places in godowns. It is of uncanny appearance, but
is perfectly harmless.

The coloration is variable in shade, sometimes approach-
ing that of a light coloured Bungarus arcuatus; but the
decussation of the cross-bars and the beady appearance of
the eyes distinguishes it at once. In old specimens the
cross-bars sometimes disappear.

L. LAOENSIS, Gthr.
Ventrals 185, subc. 68. Snout shorter and posterior .
frontals much shorter than in the preceding. Black with
white cross-bands.
Siam.

L. striatus, Shaw.

Ventrals 167-174, subc. 46-48. Preocular does not reach
the vertical; posterior frontal short; otherwise much like
L. aulicus.

South of India, Anamullays.

L. ANAMALLENSIS, Gthr.
Ventrals 202, sube. 74. Anal entire. Two loreals. Greyish
brown with white brown-edged cross-bars.
A solitary specimen.

L. RUFOZONATUS, Cantor.

Ventrals 200, sube. 72. Loreal enters the orbit. Anal
entire. Crimson, dotted and cross-banded with brown;
head-shields marked with yellow; brown post orbital
streak. Stout, above 3 feet.

China.

TETRAGONOSOMA, Giinther.

Head-shields regular; loreal none. Scales smooth, 17,
Ventrals above 200, angulated. Anal entire.

10

74

T. EFFRENE, Cantor.
Ventrals 215-228, sube. 72-101. Black above and below,
with complete buff rings, and buff labial streak.
Solitary museum specimen from Penang.

T. ATROPURPUREUM, Cantor.
Ventrals 257, subc. 91. Purple, marbled with black and
white.
Solitary museum specimen from Tenasserim.

LEPTORHYTAON, Giinther.

Loreal present; nasal single, pierced ‘by the nostril.
Scales 17, smooth. Anal bifid.

L. JARA, Shaw.
Ventrals 167-175, subc. 56-63. Brown, each scale with
two white dots ; generally a white collar; belly white.
Assam, Ganjam, Anamullays.

OPHITES, Wagler.

Loreal present ; preocular sometimes absent. Seales 17,
keeled. Anal bifid.

O. SUBCINCTUS, Bote.

Ventrals 198-221, sube. 69-82. Loreal enters the orbit,
re-placing the preocular. Black, with whitish eross-bands
and collar.

Straits.

O. ALBoFuScUS, D. and B.
Ventrals 256, sube. 204 (tail 4). Preocular present. Light

reddish, with broad brown cross-bands; reddish white
collar.

Straits,

CERCASPIS, Wagler.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals angulated; sub-
caudals entire,

75

©. carinata, Kuhl.
Ventrals 188-193, sube. 53-60. Black, completely encircled
by white rings.:
Ceylon.

C. TRAVANcORICA, Beddome.
Like Lycodon striatus, but with entire subcaudals.

Fami.y XIIIL.—COLUBRID&.

This family is a general refuge for snakes with none of
the characters necessary for their allotment to the other
families. Their head-shields are normal, they have not the
exceptional dentition and head-markings of the Oligodon-
tide, they have no trace of fangs, they have not the com-
pressed and slender body of the tree-snakes, nor the hydro-
‘phidian build of the true fresh-water snakes. Nevertheless,
several genera lead off to other families. Some of the group
Coronellina (grovelling colubers) are hardly removed from
the Calamaridz, the group Dryadina (bush colubers) lead
off to the tree-snakes, and the group Natricina (water
colubers) are a transition towards the Homalopside. The
other group, Colubrina, although ground-snakes, are exceed-
ingly agile, and able to swim and climb with facility ; they
are the highest type of the Sub-order of harmless snakes.
Eye moderate or large, pupil round.

Group IL—CORONELLINA.

Colubrine snakes of small size with smooth scales ; some

genera approach the Calamaridz in imperfection of the
head-shields.

ABLABES, D. and B., Gthr.
Body rather slender ; head moderate, more or less distinct
from the neck ; tail moderate. Head-shields normal except
in A. fuscus and bicolor. Nostril between 2 nasals; 1 loreal ;

76

1 or 2 preoculars, 2 postoculars. Scales 13-17 smooth,
ventrals 122to 245, anal and subcaudals double. Teeth
normal, numerous, small, equal. Length 12-24 inches,

A. BALIODIRUS, Bote.

Scales 13. Ventrals 122-132, sube. 65-72, labials 7 (3 & 4).
Brown, with anterior dorsal series of black, white ocellated
spots ; belly pearl colour.

Straits.

A. TENUICERS, Blyth,

Seales 18. Ventrals 137, subc. 39. Labials 6 (3 and 4).
Scales about the vent and root of the tail are keeled.
Blackish ash, belly white.

Himalayas.

A. Fuscus, Blyth.

Seales 18. Ventrals 154-161, sube. 34-42. Labials 6
(3 and 4). Scales about+the vent and root of the tail are
keeled in the male. Posterior. frontals united into one
shield, (whence Giinther at first allotted this to a new
genus of Calamaride, under the name of Trachischiwm
fuscum). Black above, whitish below.

Himalayas.

A. RAPPII, Gthr. |
Scales 15. Ventrals 191-198, sube. 60. Labials 6 (8 & 4),
Black above, white below; when young, grey with black
bars and collar.
Himalayas.

A. BICOLOR, Blyth.

Scales 17. Ventrals 210-221, sube. 75-80. Labials 6
(3). Frontals united into two transverse plates (whence
Mr. Theobald makes this a genus of Calamaride and has
named it Grotea bicolor). Brown above, white below.

Assam.

77

A. OLIVACEUS, Beddome.

Scales 17. Ventrals 224, sube. 75. Labials 5 (3). Dark
greenish olive, paler below; four dorsal series of small
black dots.

Nilgiris.

A. saGITTaRIus, Cantor.

Seales 17. Ventrals 216-245, sube. 57-70. Labials 7
(3 and 4). Reddish or greyish olive; blackish dorsal line,
beneath which the colour darkens; vertebral series of dots ;
head brown; dark collar edged with yellow ; belly yellowish,
with a blue lateral line and ventral dots.

Penang, Bengal.

A. HUMBERTI, Jan.

Scales 17. Ventrals 175, sube. 55. Lahbials 10 (4, 5 & 6)
7th and 9th contiguous below. Reddish olive; punctulated
dorsal line, beneath which the colour darkens ; vertebral
series of black yellow-edged dots; black, yellow-edged
collar ; belly white, dotted.

South of India, Ceylon.

A. COLLARIS, Gray.

Scales 17. Ventrals 177, sube. 102. Tail nearly one-
third. Labials 10 (4, 5 and 6). Greyish brown, with
anterior vertebral series of black dots; broad black collar
with posterior yellow edge, produced forwards to the eyes ;
belly white, dotted.

Himalayas.

A. MELANOCEPHALUS, Gray.

Scales 17. Ventrals 152, sube. 65. Labials 10 (4,5 & 6)
7th and 9th contiguous below. Light. brown, with two
anterior white stripes commencing from a black collar, and
interrupted by square black spots; belly white, spotted ;
head brown, lips yellow. Tail one-third (?).

78

A. NICOBARIENSIS, Stolicska.

Scales 17. Ventrals 189, sube. 87. Loreal confluent with
posterior nasal; labials 7 (3 and 4). Similar to A. melano-
cephalus, but the lateral spots are smaller and more
numerous.

Nicobars..

A. scriptus, Blyth, an aberrant specimen of A. baliodirus.

The genus Ablabes approaches the Calamaride in the
tendency of the frontal and cheek shields to fuse. Hence
ingenious zoologists can make out of aberrant species, new
genera enough to immortalize the names of all their friends-
I confess to a wish that the Greek lexicon were not so
neglected in the nomenclature of genera; specific names are
quite sufficient for any amount of mutual admiration.

CYCLOPHIS, Gunther.

Body slender, tail moderate or long, head rather distinct
from the neck. Head-shields normal, but only one nasal,
pierced by the nostril. Scales 15, smooth. Anal bifid. Eye
moderate.

C. Magor, Gthr.
Head narrow, not very distinct. Ventrals 175, sube. 78.

Uniform green, paler below.
China.

C. FRENATUS, Gthr.

Head distinct from the slender neck, broad with short
snout. Ventrals 165, subc. 95. Olive with 3 anterior
dorsal black stripes, the lateral pair are zigzag; yellowish
below. .

Afghanistan ; Khasi hills.

C. RUBRIVENTER, Jerdon.

Ventrals 127-185, subc. 33-38. Nasal split. Two post-
oculars. Brown with pale lateral band from eye to tip of
tail; below this a mottled brown and yellow band; throat
yellow, belly red.

79

C. CALAMARIA, Gthr.

Head scarcely distinct, with obtuse snout. Ventrals
129-138, subc. 50-83. Loreal fused in the long single nasal.
. Frontals broad and short. Labials 7 (3 and 4). Preocular
single. Light olive, with a reticulated pattern formed by a
black edge to each scale. This reticulation forms two thick
dorsal and two thin lateral lines; alternate with these are
five white lines (on each side). Belly white. Grows to
about 12 inches, tail one-fourth.

Ceylon and South of India.

C. NASALIS, Gthr.
Ventrals 149, sube. 77. A variety of the preceding, with
the preocular divided in two.
C. MONTICOLA, Cantor.
Ventrals 125, sube. 44. Brown with yellow collay.
A solitary museum specimen.

Mr. Theobald makes a genus Chlorophis for a Cyclophis
with two nasals.

Chlorophis Oldhami. Labials 8 increasing, (4 and 5).
Uniform bronze-brown.

ODONTOMUS, D. and B.

Body slender, strongly compressed ; head moderate,
distinct from the neck. Ventrals above 200, angularly bent
at the sides. Scales 13-15 smooth. Head-shields regular;
nostrils in a half-divided nasal. Eye moderate.

O. nympHa, Daudin.

Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals 234-243, subc. 82-87.
Labials 8 (3 and 4). White, with about 38 brown cross-
bands.

South of India.
O. SEMIFASCIATUS, Gthr.
Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals 232, subc. 84. Labials

7 (3 and 4), White with about 50 broad dark-brown cross-
bands,

80

O. GRACILIS, Gthr.

Seales 15. Ventrals 234, sube. 81. Anal entire. Labials
8 (3 and 4). About 38 broad black cross-bands ; intervals
white, marbled with brown.

South of India.

NYMPHOPHIDIUM, Giinther.

»

Only differing from the preceding genus by the three
last teeth being strong and trenchant.

N. MacuLatoum, Gthr.

Scales 15. Ventrals 244, sube. 107. Anal entire. Loreal
long, enters the orbit. Light brown, with a dorsal series of
large brown spots ; lateral series of dots, belly white.

ELACHISTODON, Reinhardt.

A genus distinguished by the possession of gular teeth
formed by the projection of the anterior vertebral spines
into the gullet. The genus is sometimes grouped with an
African genus possessing similar characteristics to form a
family of the Dasypeltide. The necessity of this is somewhat
doubtful, considering that the genus Nymphophidium has a
commencement of this gular set of teeth in the “ two obtusely
conical prominences on the base of the skull, one behind the
other, not covered by the mucous membrane of the mouth.”
—(Giinther).

E. WESTERMANNI, Reinhardt.

Scales 15. Ventrals 217, subc. 59. Anal single. Two
nasals; loreal long, enters the orbit; 7 labials (3 and 4).
Teeth few, small. Brown; yellow vertebral stripe; yellow
line from the snout along the crown to the angle of the
mouth; yellow sagittal collar ; yellow below.

The only known specimen was obtained at Rungpore,
It was 31 inches long. Described by Reinhardt.

81
CORONELLA, Giinther.

A genus of doubtful occurrence in India. C. levis was
discovered in England a few years ago.*

C. ORIENTALIS, Gthr.

* Scales 17. Ventrals 163, subc. 65. Last maxillary tooth
strong. Greyish brown, with 2 dark dorsal stripes, confluent
posteriorly ; narrow white collar ; belly white, black spotted.

Group Il.—COLUBRINA.

‘Snakes of moderate or large size and active habits, with
scales in 15 or more rows, and generally more or less keeled.
Head-shields generally regular. Eye moderate or large.

COLUBER, Giinther.

Body rounded, of moderate proportions ; tail one-fifth or
less. Head-shields regular, crown shields large; 1 preocular.
Scales smooth or feebly keeled in 19 or more rows. Anal
bifid. Teeth equal. Peculiar head-markings.

C. RUFODORSATUS, Cantor.

Scales 21. Ventrals 174-178, subc. 50-52. Anterior frontals
pointed. Brownish grey with 4 series of irregular brown
spots confluent posteriorly into stripes. Head with 3 black
=> bands.

China.

C, MANDARINUS, Cantor.

Seales 23. Ventrals 222, sube. 62. Scarlet, with a series
of about 44 dorsal, black, yellow-centred, rhombic spots;
head with serpiginous black fillets.

China.

C. PORPHYRACEUS, Cantor.
Scales 19. Ventrals 189-211, sube. 56-70. Olive, with

* Increasing the English snakes to three—the viper Pelias berus,
the ringed snake Tropidonotus natriz, and Coronella levis,
11

82.

about 22 dark cross-bands, and posterior dorsal stripe ; head
with 3 black streaks, one median, the others postocular.
Assam.

C. pictus, Carlyle ; C. NUTHALLI, Theobald. .

Scales 23. Vertical and supraciliaries large. Labials 9
(5 and 6). Reddish grey with four anterior dorsal series of
rhomboidal black ocellated spots; posteriorly four dorsal
dark bands with white intervals. Oval black postocular
spot.

The snake obscurely described by Blyth as Platyceps
semifasciatus is here placed by Mr. Theobald and more fully
described :—

C. SEMIFASCIATUS, Blyth.

Scales 19. Ventrals 187. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Occipitals
very large; vertical with very concave sides. Pale olive
grey, with anterior dark cross-bands and alternate dark
spots, fading posteriorly. mark on occipitals; belly
white.

Subathoo.

ELAPHIS, D. and B.

Body elongate and compressed, head distinct from neck.
Tail moderate. Scales 23-25 keeled. Ventrals 200 or more,
plain or slightly keeled; anal bifid. Eye moderate, pupil
round. Head-shields regular; 2 nasals; 2 preoculars.
Maxillary teeth equal.

Central Asia and China.

E. DionE, Pallas.

Brown or olive, speckled with red; dorsal series of black
rings, vertebral and dorsal black stripes ; head with brown
oblique cross-bands.

E. SAUROMATES, Pallas. .
Broad black cross-bands with yellow intervals. Head
and belly often yellow with black markings,

PLATH Xr.

Fig.1. Ptyas mucosus.

Fig. 2. P. horros.

Fig. 3. Zaocys fuscus.

Fig. 4. Compsosoma radiatum, half-size; 4a ig natural size.

83

E. TENIURUS, Cope.
Olive, with black interrupted dorsal stripe and caudal
black stripe inferiorly margined with white.

COMPSOSOMA, D. and B.

Body elongate, compressed, head narrow, snout long, tail
moderate. Eye moderate. Scales 19-23 keeled. Ventrals
above 200. Anal generally entire. Head-shields normal;

generally 1 preocular; 2 nasals. Teeth numerous, equal.
Of large size.

C. RADIATUM, Reinwardt. Plate XII, fig. 4. The red dhaman.
Seales 19, middle rows strongly keeled. Ventrals 222-248,
sube. 67-95. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6).

Preocular and loreal have a rough porous appearance.
Frontals square. Iris golden. Colour bright chestnut, dark-
ening posteriorly ; three anterior black dorsal stripes, the
upper broad, the middle interrupted, the outer interstitial.
From the eye radiate three black streaks, one down, one
downwards and backwards, one horizontally along the occi-
pitals joining a broad black nuchal band. This snake puffs
out its throat vertically and rises like a cobra, showing the
beautiful interstitial pattern of the neck, and looking aslant.
Hence known by the Burmese as the side-looking snake
(gnan zow). Grows to six feet, tail one-fifth.

Common in Burma.

C. MELANURUM, Schlegel. .

Seales 19. Labials 9 (4,5 and 6). Brown anteriorly,
black posteriorly; anterior yellow black-edged vertebral
stripe; three inferior ocular streaks; belly yellow, black
posteriorly.

Java and Archipelago.

C. RETICULARE, Cantor,
Scales 21 (or 19) rows. Anal entire. Labials 8 (4,5 & 6).
Brown, behind black; with whitish cross-bands, sometimes

84

reticulated ; belly yellow marbled with black. The head-
shields have a tendency to coalesce.
Assam.

C. HopGSONn, Gthr.
Scales 28. Anal bifid. Labials 8 (4, 5 and 6). Brownish
olive; black interstitially,
Himalayas.

A new species C. semifasciatum has been described, but
as it was very young (being only 114 inches long) its’
position is somewhat doubtful.

Scales 19 with apical grooves. Ventrals 211, sube. 119.
Anal bifid. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Olive grey, with numerous
short broad transverse bands interrupted laterally, alternate
lateral spots, all disappearing at the posterior two-thirds.
Head brownish with dark occipital markings. Belly whitish
spotted.

Simla.

CYNOPHIS, Gray.

Body slender and compressed ; head narrow, snout elon-
gate ; tail moderate ; scales 25-27, with slight keels or apical
grooves. Ventrals above 200; anal entire. Eye moderate.
Head-shields regular, two nasals, one preocular.

C. HELENA, Daudin.. Plate XIII, fig. 2.

Scales 27, slightly keeled. Reddish olive, with about 30
anterior reticulated black cross-bands, each enclosing 3 white
ocelli on either side ; between the cross-bars is a reticulated
lavender pattern; the whole principally interstitial, fading
posteriorly into a broad lateral brown stripe; neck with 2
black throat stripes; black postocular streak. Grows to
upwards of 3 feet, tail one-fifth.

Ceylon, South of India.

C. MALABARICUS, Jerdon.
This species differs from the preceding principally in its

85

smaller size, more pronounced ocellate cross-bars (connected
by curved ventral lines) and having only 25 rows of scales.
The throat streaks have a white interval, and between the
two pairs is a black qf mark.

Malabar and Anamullays.

This beautiful genus is closely allied to Compsosoma ; it
belongs to South India, the later being a Malayan genus.

PTYAS, Fitzinger.

Body elongate, somewhat compressed ; tail one-fifth to
one-third ; head distinct fromneck. .Eye moderate or large,
well sheltered: by supraciliaries. Head-shields regular ; two
preoculars, the upper reaching to the crown; two or three
loreals, 2 nasals. Scales 15-17, smooth or slightly keeled.
Anal bifid. Maxillary teeth about 12, increasing. Of large
size.

P. mucosus, L. The (stout) dhdman.* Plate XJI, fig. 1.

Scales 17, the middle rows keeled towards the tail ;
ventrals 196-208, subc. 108-134. Head rather short and
broad ; 3 loreals, more rarely two ; all shields, especially the
8 labials, with black margins. Brownish or yellowish olive,
with interstitial skin-colouring of yellow and black; scales
with black tips forming a fasciolation posteriorly and often
a reticulated pattern on the tail; belly greenish or yellowish
white. It is very common in India, less soin Burma. It
is fierce and intractable. My largest specimen was 7} feet
(tail 2 feet) girth 54 inches; but I have a cast skin, found
by Lieutenant Kensington, R. E.,, at Kolar, which measures
9 feet 1 inch.

When young this snake often has a delicate green colour,
unlike the adult.

P. xorros, Rein. The slender dhdman.* Plate XII, fig. 2.
Scales 15, smooth, with apical grooves ; ventrals 176-184,

* For Indian synonyms, see Part IIT.

86

sube, 138-147. (I have seen subcaudals 57 only). Slender
neck, narrow head; eye large; loreals 2, rarely 3; colour
uniform brown olive; no black margins to head-shields,
slightly to the caudal scales. Grows to 6-7 feet. My largest
specimen was 6 feet 9 inches, (tail 2 feet.)

Common in Burma, rare in India.

XENELAPHIS, Giinther.

Body elongate, not compressed ; tail long; head distinct,
rather short. Head-shields regular, 2 preoculars. Scales
17, smooth, the vertebrals large, six-sided. Anal bifid. Teeth
numerous, sub-equal.

X., HEXAHONOTUS, Cantor.

Ventrals 191-197, sube. 148-179. Loreal long, wedged
between the preoculars. Labials 8 (4). Brown with anterior
faint black cross-bands; belly yellowish.

Burma, Straits.

ZAMENIS, Wagler.

Body and tail elongate ; head distinct, flat ; eye moderate.
Head-shields have a tendency to divide, the temporals
to be small and scale-like; the gular scales are numerous.
There are 2 preoculars, 2 postoculars, suboculars often
present. Scales smooth or slightly keeled. Ventrals 200
or more, anal generally bifid. Teeth numerous, the last
generally largest, and separated by an interval.

Z. DIADEMA, Schlegel.

Scales 29, keeled. Ventrals 237, sube. 110, anal entire. Four
small shields transversely intercalated between the vertical
and the frontals; 3 or 4 loreals; labials 14; orbital ring
completed by 4 or 5 suboculars. Yellowish olive, with verte-
bral line of round brown spots, and a lateral brown stripe.
Brown fillets, and head-spots.

Sindh,

PLATE XTIiq.

;

ei
ORs
ee ARS

Fig. 1. Zamenis fasciolatus. .
Fig. 2. Cynophis helena.
Fig. 3. Psammodynastas pulverulentus.

87
Z. CLIFFORDI.

Scales 29, smooth. Ventrals 222-236, subc. 74-80. Anal
entire. No intercalated crown shields. Quincuncial pattern
formed by four rows of elongate spots, the central pair
coalescing.

Africa ; found in collections from Aden.

Z. VENTRIMACULATUS, Gray.

Scales 19, smooth. Ventrals 205-220, sube. 90-102, anal
bifid. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Occipitals truncated with small
semi-circular post occipitals. Yellowish olive, with black
cross-bars, and black head-markings; belly yellowish, later-
ally dotted.

South-Western Asia, found in collections from Aden.

Z. GRACILIS, Gthr.

Seales 21, smooth. Ventrals 219, sube. 120, anal bifid.
Labials 9 (5 and 6) the fourth gives off the preocular.
Yellowish olive, with vertebral row of large round black
spots, becoming short cross-bars posteriorly; black fillets ;
belly yellow, laterally dotted.

“Deccan, Sindh.

Z. FASCIOLATUS, Shaw. Plate XIII, fig. 1.

Scales 21-23, apical grooves. Ventrals 201-229, sube.
73-95, anal bifid. Labials 8 (4 and 5). Yellowish reddish or
olive brown, with anterior, narrow, white and dark fascio-
lated cross-bars ; belly yellowish.

South of India. Common in Mysore and as far West
as Coimbatore. A specimen is recorded from Mergui.

Group ITI—DRYADINA.

The compressed body of these snakes, their agility, their
numerous ventral shields, and green colour, show that they

lead off to the true tree-snakes, whilst their head-shields are
those of the Colwbride.

88

ZAOCYS, Cope.

Body elongate and compressed, tail moderate; head very
distinct, high. Eye large. Scales 14-16, the median series
sometimes keeled. Ventrals about 200, anal bifid. Head-
shields regular; supraciliaries large, convex; 2 preoculars,
the upper large and high. Loreal often multiple.

Z. CARINATUS, Gthr.

Scales 16, the 2 median rows keeled ; ventrals 209, subc.
110. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Loreals 3. Anteriorly brownish
olive, with reticulated white cross-bands; posteriorly black,
with 2 lateral series of white spots. Grows to 10 feet.

Borneo.

Z. Fuscus, Gthr. Plate XII, fig. 3.

This snake, hitherto assigned to Borneo, is, according to
the opinion of Dr. Giinther, the same as a snake found by
Mr. Vinton in the jungle near Rangoon, and to which I
intended to have given the name of Z. fasciolatus. The
following is its description :-—

Scales 16, the 2 median rows faintly keeled. Ventrals
210, sube. 128. Head oblong, high ; gape wide; eye very
large and prominent; pupil round, iris dark green. Loreals
3. Labials 9 (5 and 6), the sixth extending high behind
the orbit. Dark green, with narrow fasciolated cross-bands
of lighter and darker colour, and yellow vertebral spot on
each; posteriorly the cross-bands merge into a general
greenish black with 2 lateral rows of yellow spots; under-
‘parts nearly black; head dark green, with an appearance
of bloom, throat white, yellow orbital circle.

Z. DHUMNADES, Cantor.

Scales 14 or 16, the 2 median rows keeled. Ventrals
189-199, sube. 92-98. Loreal single. Greenish anteriorly,
with a yellow, black-edged vertebral stripe; posteriorly
black ; indistinct black lateral stripe.

China.

89

Z. NIGROMARGINATUS, Blyth.

Scales 16, elongate and pointed, the 4 median rows keeled,
others with apical grooves. Ventrals 193, sube.126. Green
above, paler below, with 2 posterior broad black stripes.

Himalayas.

HERPETOREAS, Génther.

Body slender, compressed; head elongate, rounded in
front. Eye moderate. Scales elongate, 17 or 19 ; ventrals
bent up at the sides, above 200; anal bifid. One preocular,
head-shields regular. Last tooth the longest.

H. SIEBoLpIl, Gthr.

Scales 19, slightly keeled. Ventrals 216, subc. 90. Loreal
single. Labials 8 (8,4 and 5). Greenish brown, belly yel-
lowish.

. Himalayas. A solitary museum specimen.

An ill-deseribed snake called Coluber prasinus by Mr.
Blyth, perhaps belongs to the above species. There is some
reason to consider that the genus isa refuge for aberrant
young specimens of Péyas mucosus. I named three such
specimens of this snake Herpetodryas prasinus, and did
not see my mistake for a long time, though its possibility
was pointed out to me by Dr. Giinther.

Group IV.—NATRICINA.

These snakes lead off to the Homalopside; they are
ground-snakes, but many of them frequent the water, and
have the nostrils rather superior. Scales always more or
less keeled ; ventrals considerably less than 200, anal bifid.

TROPIDONOTUS, Kuhl.

Body rather stout, head distinct from the neck, gape wide.
Eye moderate. Scales generally 17-19, keeled, especially
towards the tail, Teeth numerous, increasing.

12

90

T. QUINCUNCIATUS, Schlegel. The Checkered Snake. Plate
XIV, fig. 1
Seales 19, keeled. Ventrals 129-149, with the subcaudals
often 187 + 85 or 145 + 77, the total not being far from 222.
Tail often much shortened in females. Loreal rhombic; 1
preocular, 3 postoculars, labials 9 (4 & 5); anterior frontals
form a triangle. Crown narrow.

Variety a. Olive brown, with black checkers formed by
6 alternating rows of square black spots; belly cream-
coloured with lateral black ventral margins; 2 black streaks
go backward from the orbit.

Variety b. The outer row of checkers alone distinct ;
they are high, intervals red ; ventrals tinged with red, black
nuchal streak ; 2 black post-orbital streaks.

Very common throughout the East Indies ; variety b in
its most marked form is peculiar to Burma. An inter-
mediate form is variety @ with the ground colour bright
yellow. Generally speaking, those individuals which live
nearly entirely in the water have a tendency to brighter
colours. Grows to four feet; my largest specimen (Banga-
lore) was 51 inches, of which the tail 12 inches.

T. ANNULARIS, Hallowel.

Scales 19. Ventrals 158, sube. 54. Upper parts plum-
beous; lower parts red with about 40 black cross-bars,
extending up the sides.

China.

T. TRIANGULIGERUS, Reinw.

Scales 19. Ventrals 140-148, sube. 70-90. Labials 9
(4,5 &6). Dark brown, reddish anteriorly, with lateral
triangular black spots, apex resting on the ventrals.

Straits,

(The remaining snakes of this genus have the last tooth enlarged
and enveloped in a well-marked gingival fold.]

PLATE XIv.

EP me wn a PreK he:
Sao Garret eae PERI S

Ti dial

‘Fig. 1. Tropidonotus quincunciatus.
Fig. 2. 7. punctulatus.
Fig. 3. Atretium schistosum.

91

T. MACROPHTHALMUS, Gthr.

Scalés 19, nmerous on the neck, which is dilatable, like
that of the cobra. Ventrals 162, sube. 78. Eye large. Dark
brown dark vertebral spots and an indistinct > collar ; belly
with anterior square spots.

Himalayas.

T. DORSALIS, Gthr.
Scales 17. Ventrals 143, sube. 52. Eye large. Resembles
the preceding species.
China.

T. Macrops, Blyth.

Scales 17. Ventrals 164, sube. 13. Eye very large. Dull
red, with a vertebral series of yellow spots and black lateral
spots ; variable,

Darijiling.

(The following species have the last tooth enlarged and separated
by a distinct interval.]
T. PLATYCEPS, Blyth.

Scales 19, feebly keeled. Ventrals 173-186, sube. 90-96,
Brown, with a pale dorsal stripe ; a red and a black lateral
ventral stripe; black or yellow postocular streak ; variable.

Himalayas.

T. SUBMINIATUS, Reinw. Plate XV, figs. 3 & 4.

Scales 19, keeled. Ventrals 142-168, subc. 61-88. Light
brown, with an interstitial colouring of bright red on the
neck, of black and yellow on the rest of the body; yellow >
collar; head green, cheeks pink, green and black double
post-orbital streak, throat yellow. When young it resem-
bles 7. stolatus with yellow collar. |

Burma, Assam, Straits.
T. HIMALAYANUS, Gthr.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 171, subc. 85.
Brownish olive, with dorsal series of transverse yellow spots ;
yellow collar and throat.

92

T. ANGUSTICERS, Blyth.

Scales 17. Ventrals 167-172, subc. 57-67. 2-4 antoculars,
4-5 postoculars. Head narrow. Dark, spotted uniformly
with black.

Assam, Burma.

T. stotatus, L. The Chameleon Snake. Plate XV, fig. 1.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 121-161, subc. 50-79.
Labials 8 (3, 4and 5). Brown with numerous cross-bands
of black, the intervals having an interstitial colouring of
red, or of pale blue, or of both, the red prevailing in the first
four or five intervals. These bars are crossed by a dorsal
light brown stripe, the point of intersection of the black bars
being still lighter. Belly white with lateral black dots on
alternate ventrals; throat yellow; black marks on the
labials.

This snake only shows these beautiful colours when
excited ; at other times it is brown with a light dorsal stripe.
Grows to 2% feet, tail one-fifth. The gentlest of snakes.

Very common in India and Burma.

A variety common in Madras has 121-130 ventrals;
and the first one or two bars at such wide intervals as to
form sagittal collars. The Burmese variety has about 150
ventrals. The varieties found in Malabar and Burma show
the finest play of interstitial colours.

T. MONTICOLA, Jerdon.

Scales 19. Ventrals 142, sube. 82. Green, with about 28
black cross-bands, crossed by a green dorsal stripe ; white
spots at the intersection ; white inter-orbital fillet with two
white spots in front.

Wynad.

T. JUNCEUS, Cantor.
Scales 19. Ventrals 154, sube. 86, Greyish olive, with

93

a dorsal row of round white spots; belly white with lateral

dots. Throat yellow; > yellow collar.
Straits.

T. CEYLONENSIS, Gthr.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 137, sube. 60. Brown-
ish olive, with about 20 unsymmetrical cross-bands, each
enclosing a lateral yellow ocellus, black post-orbital streak.

T. BEDDOMII, Gthr.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 146,sube. 70. Labials
9 (4,5 and 6). Brown, with dorsal transverse orange bars ;

nuchal yellow cross-bar, and yellow black-edged post-orbital
streak.

Nilgiris.

T. nicRocinctus, Blyth.

Scales 17. Ventrals 160, sube. 81. Olive grey, passing
into green near the head, with about 50 narrow black cross-
bands and nuchal black band preceded by a pale or red
collar; belly grey, darkening posteriorly.

Burma.

T. FLAVIPUNCTATUS, Hallowel.

Scales 17. Ventrals 128, subc. 78. Uniform dusky yellow,
spotted with yellow above and with black below; black
nuchal band, and two black post-orbital streaks,

China.

T. ZEBRINUS, Blyth.
_. Scales 15. Ventrals 137, subc. 96. Plumbeous, spotted
and cross-banded with black; labials with triangular black
spot at their junction above ; nuchal band.
Tenasserim.

T. TIGRINUS, Bote.
Scales 19. Ventrals 152-168, sube. 62-80. Olive, with a
vertebral and a dorsal row of square black spots, reddish

94

lateral intervals anteriorly ; belly black-spotted ; black post-
orbital markings.

China.
T. LEUCOMELAS, Gthr.

Seales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 129, subc. 61. Black
above, white below, with about 23 narrow white rings rising
across the back; head greenish olive, with black collar,
yellow-edged posteriorly.

Straits.
T, PLUMBICOLOR, Cantor. The green ground-snake. Plate

XV, fig. 2.

Scales 25 (23-27), strongly keeled. Ventrals 150-162,
sube. 35-47. The loreal sometimes wedges itself between
the preoculars, entering the orbit; and conversely the lower
preocular sometimes pushes in between the loreal and the
labials. Bright green; a broad yellow black-margined >
collar; narrow black cross-bars with alternate black spots
and, frequently, alternate white interstitial cross-lines. These
beautiful colours are said to fade in the adult (hence 7.
plumbicolor, Cantor instead of Xenodon viridis the name
given by Duméril and Bibron); but in Bangalore, where
the snake is very common I have not observed this change.
My largest specimen, 28 inches long (tail 34 inches) was
bright green only the interstitial colours beginning to fade.
Belly white.

Southern India, and as far north as Nagpore.

T. PUNCTULATUS, Gthr. Plate XIV, fig. 2.

Scales 17, obtusely keeled. Ventrals 140-156, sube. 68-83.
Tail compressed at the root. Upper parts either jet black,
or (in old specimens) brown irregularly spotted with white ;
belly and outer 2 rows of scales white, with a zigzag black
or brown line along the junction of the ventrals and outer
scales ; labials white; subcaudals have a black posterior
margin. Grows to 30 inches.

Burma.

PLATE XY.

ave

ae

Ne

ms;

CALNE

Abi ay

I
&
8
S
2
8
a.
8 8
S
Sy
eK
Ss
8-8 sg
foes
ee
ak
RB
ri ol od
tb 80 of
OD OD bf
Fa ey &

95

T: mortont, Theobald.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Dark brown, with dark
vertebral stripe and interrupted cross-bars of yellow or
white spots.

A solitary museum specimen, source unknown.

T. STRIOLATUS, Blyth.

Scales 19. Labials 8 (8 and 4), postoculars 3 or 4, Colour
pale olive brown, a dark patch below the eye, a dark leaden
stripe extending from behind the eye all down the side,
-with a second narrower one, below it, through the second
row of scales. Belly white, no spots.

A solitary specimen from the Andamans.

T. natriz is the common harmless snake of England.

ATRETIUM, Cope.

A Tropidonotus distinguished by having the anterior
frontals united into one broad triangular shield (in contact
with the rostral). Other head-shields regular. Scales 19,
short, rhombic, keeled. Ventrals broad, anal bifid. Teeth
numerous, increasing.

A. scuistosum, Daud. Plate XIV, fig. 3.

Ventrals 146-150, subc. 67-82. Dark slate-colour with
interstitial crimson dorsal stripe ; lips, outer 14 row of scales
and belly yellow, throat yellow, thin long black post-orbital
stripe.

Grows to 2 feet, tail one-fourth. South of India, Ceylon.

Giinther states,on the authority of Cope, that this is a
fierce snake dilating its neck laterally when about to attack.
My experience is far from confirming this. I have kept
several specimens which were very gentle; they were
sociable and fond of climbing on the necks of two young
cobras who were at constant enmity and addicted to standing
facing one another in a menacing manner. _

XENOCHROPHIS, Giinther.
A Tropidonotus with the middle teeth longest, and with

96

the nostril in the upper part of a single shield. Scales 19,
keeled. Anal bifid.

X. CERASOGASTER, Cantor.

Ventrals 141-149, sube. 60-69. Shields of the crown elon-
gate. Labials 9 (4). Brown, with lighter dorsal stripe or
dorsal series of dark spots; belly purple, marbled; bright
yellow lateral line beginning at the snout.

Bengal, Assam, Straits.
PRYMNOMIODON, Cope.

A Tropidonotus with minute teeth much enlarged ante-
riorly. Head-shields normal. Scales 19, keeled.

P. CHALCEUS, Cope.

Ventrals 152. Green. A solitary museum specimen.
Siam.

CADMUS.

A genus made by Mr. Theobald for a Tropidonotus of
stout form, with 27 rows of smooth scales. Rostral large ~
and penetrating between the small anterior frontals.
Labials 7 (4).

C. cunerrormis, Theobald.
Olive brown, with two dorsal rows of black spots.
A solitary museum specimen.

Famity XIV.—DENDROPHID&.

Body and tail either much compressed or very slender ;
head rather long, flat, and distinct from the slender neck ;
snout moderate or long, rounded. Eye moderate or large,
pupil round. Head-shields normal ; scales much imbricate ;
ventrals with two keels; anal bifid.

GONYOSOMA, Wagler.
Body long, compressed, head moderate. Loreal some-

times absent, preocular one. Scales generally smooth. Ven-
trals above 200,

97

G. OXYCEPHALUM, Bote.

Scales 25, elongate, with a pair of apical grooves. Ven-
trals 236-263, sube. 1388-149. Labials about 11 (2). Green,
paler below; dark labial line; tail brown, with yellow
anterior ring. Length 5-7 feet.

Tenasserim and the Straits.

G. GRAMINEUM, Gthr.

Scales 19, with apical grooves. Ventrals 203, subc. 100.
Labials 9 (4,5 and 6). Green, paler below ; tail reddish. I
have a specimen, source unknown, corresponding closely to
the type description. The only material difference is that
the anal is single. Ventrals 208, subc. 105. Length 14
inches.

Khasya hills.

G. FRENATUM, Gray.
Scales 19, the dorsals faintly keeled. Ventrals 203,
sube. 120. No loreal. Green, paler below, black labial

stripe.
Khasya hills. <A solitary specimen.

PHYLLOPHIS.
Body and tail elongate, much compressed. Head-shields
normal ; two preoculars; nasal single, nostril in the centre.
Scales 23, keeled. Ventrals above 200.

P. cARINATUS, Gthr.
Ventrals 223, sube. 97. Greenish olive; dark nuchal

spots, and vertebral dots, whitish below.
China ; rare.
DENDROPHIS, Bove.
Body and tail very elongate, slender, compressed. Lye
large. Head-shields regular. Scales 13-15, smooth, imbri-
cate, the vertebral series large, polygonal. Ventrals nearly

square at the keels.
13

98

D. victus, Gmelin. The blue tree-snake. Plate XVI, fig. 1.

Scales 15. Ventrals 160-187, sube. 87-156, Eye moderate
(or large when young). Colour rather variable; either
deep blue, with a bright yellow lateral stripe, ventrals
yellowish, with a lateral spot at regular intervals (Malabar)
or, bronze with blue margins to the scales under the imbri-
cation, yellow belly and outer scales, with dark lateral
stripe from eye to vent. (Burma). Grows to 4 feet, tail
one-third. , .

Common in India and Burma.

D. CAUDOLINEATUS, Gray.

Scales 13. Ventrals 183-188, sube. 105-110. Bronze, with
black lateral stripe, two dorsal posterior stripes, superior and
inferior median caudal stripe.

CHRYSOPELEA, Bore.

Body and tail slender and elongate ; head elongate, snout
rounded. Head-shields regular. Scales 15-17, smooth,
rhombic. Ventral keels sharp, with a notch at the hind
margin.

C. ornata, Shaw. The golden tree-snake. Plate XVI, fig. 2.
Scales 17. Ventrals 180-236, subc. 96-147. Head black,
with yellow punctulated cross-bands; body black, with a
flowered pattern formed by bright yellow dots on each scale,
or with yellow punctulated cross-bars. Grows to 4 feet, tail
one-fourth.
More common, I think, in Burma than in India,

C. RUBESCENS, Gray. j
Scales 15. Ventrals 187-225, sube. 108-146. Purple,

dotted with brown and black spots; head with brown
stripes.

Straits.

Dendrophis pictus, (the head from a young specimen).
Chrysopelea ornata.

Passerita nycterizans.

Tragops prasinus.

Dipsas gokool.

Dz multimaculata.

99
Famity XV.—DRYIOPHID&.

Body and tail excessively slender; snout much elongated
and tapering. Eye moderate, with horizontal pupil. Head-
shields normal, nostril in a single nasal. Scales 15-17,
narrow, much imbricate; the vertebral series large, fan-

shaped. Ventrals broad, not much keeled. Anal bifid. Tail
often nearly as long as the body.

TROPIDOCOCOYX, Giinther.

Snout tapering, but without any appendage. Loreal none.
Both frontals come down low and concave.

T. PERROTETI, D. and B.

Scales 15, smooth, last dorsals sometimes keeled. Ventrals
140-143, subce. 66-82. Grass-green ; yellow lateral stripe ;
belly yellowish.

Nilgiris, where it replaces Passerita mycterizans.

TRAGOPS, Wagler.

Snout very long, but without any appendage. Loreal
present, its region concave. Scales 15.

T. PRASINUS, Reinw. The buff tree-snake. Plate XVI, fig. 4.
Ventrals 212-234, sube, 176-203. Colour variable, some-
times greev, with white lateral stripe; a not uncommon
variety is light ochre, belly white, with a lateral ochre stripe,
under the tail yellow, with white lateral stripe. It also _
oceurs of a pure white, with interstitial black markings.
Bengal, Burma, where it replaces Passerita mycterizans.

T. DISPAR, Gthr.
Ventrals 151, sube. 100. Males bright green, females
bronze-coloured ; black interstitial skin ; yellow lateral stripe.
Anamullays.

100

T. FRONTICINCTUS, Gthr.

Ventrals 190, subc. 140. Rostral small, nasals elongate,
contiguous. Grass-green or bronze, with black yellow-edged
lateral stripe.

Swamps in Arakan.

PASSERITA, Gray.
Snout very long, ending in a flexible appendage ; no
loreal; preocular region concave. Head-shields regular.
Scales 15.

'

P. MYCTERIZANS, L. The common green tree-snake. Plate
XVI, fig. 5.
Ventrals 172-188, subc. 140-166. Grass-green, with yellow

lateral stripe; paler below ; black and white cross-hands, on

the interstitial skin. This is the most common tree-snake,
and is sometimes called the “eye-snake,” in consequence of
an idea prevalent amongst otherwise sane Englishmen that

it isin the habit of hanging by the tail from a branch of a

tree for the purpose of hitting passers-by in the eye. It is

rare in Burma and hilly parts. Grows to 6 feet in length,
the tail being four-tenths.

P. PURPURASCENS, Gthr.
Ventrals 194, sube. 154. Brownish grey, marbled with
purple and dotted with brown.
Ceylon.

FamIty XVIL—DIPSADIDA.

Tree-snakes with vertical pupil, short broad head, very
distinct from neck, body compressed, elongate. Head-shields
regular. Scales smooth, imbricate, the vertebral series
enlarged. Anal entire. Last tooth elongate and grooved ; the
front tooth also elongate sometimes.

‘101

DIPSAS.
D. cynopon, Cuvier.

Scales 23. Ventrals 275-287, subc. 141-162. Anterior
palatine and mandibulary teeth enlarged. Brown; dotted
with black, and with rhombic black cross-bands; or reddish
olive, with a vertebral series of large black ocellate spots.

Burma, Straits.

D. FoRSTENI, D. and B.

Scales 25-27. Ventrals 260-275, sube. 106-131. Teeth
as in the preceding. Brownish olive, with black fasciolated
cross-bands ; median and lateral black head stripes.

Anamullays; very rare.

[The anterior palatine and mandibulary teeth of the following
species are but little enlarged if at all.]

D. Booes, Gthr.

Scales 21. Ventrals 265, subc. 160. Eye very large.
Reddish olive, spotted with black and brown in transverse
and longitudinal bands; belly marbled with purple.

Bengal, Straits ; rare.

D. DENDROPHILA, Reinw.

Scales 21. Ventrals 211-229, sube. 90-112. Black, irides-
cent, with numerous narrow yellow cross-bands ; throat
yellow ; belly black, or marbled with black.

Straits.

D. BUBALINA, Klein.
Seales 21. Ventrals 249-252. Green above, greenish
olive below ; black interstitial skin.
China or Assam; rare.

D. MULTIMACULATA, Schlegel. The Burmese brown tree-snake,
Plate XVI, fig. 6.
Scales 19, sometimes 17. Ventrals 202-245, sube. 80-106.
Dark fawn, with a numerous dorsal series of round dark
spots with black and white margin; the spots often have

102

black pendants and alternating small dots; head with a
black => and post-orbital streak ; or with a broad arrow
enclosing a large round spot; belly white mottled with
fawn. Grows to above 8 feet, tail nearly one-fifth.

Burma, Straits, China. In Burma it appears to replace
D. gokool.

D. TRIGONATA, Schneider.

Seales 21. Ventrals 235-269, subc. 79-102. The preocular
reaches nearly or quite to the vertical. Yellowish or greyish
olive, with dark brown quincuncially sagittal cross-bars.
Head mottled, with occipital spots and post-orbital streak ;
belly white, with lateral brown dots.

Common in India. Grows to 4 feet.

D. muntirasciata, Blyth.
A variety of the preceding.

A solitary museum specimen.

D. GoKooL, Gray. The common brown tree-snake. Plate
XVI fig. 5.

Scales 21, vertebrals enlarged. Ventrals 211-231, sube.
78-85. Preocular does not reach the crown. Yellowish or
greyish brown, with a series of irregular buff vertebral dots,
from the sides of each of which drops a black fasciolated Y
mark ; belly yellowish, with black lateral dots ; the head has
a large brown } mark, divided by a yellow >. Grows to
3 feet, tail one-sixth. .

Common in Southern India.

Much confusion has existed between D. gokool and D.
trigonata. The former is distinguished by the lower pre-
ocular, peculiar and decided head-markings, fewer ventrals
and the fasciolated shading forming the posterior arms of
the Y dorsal marks. It is the more common of the two.

103

D. CEYLONENSIS, Gthr.
Scales 19. Ventrals 220 + 108. Grey, with black verte-

bral spots, each emitting a down-streak ; black head blotch
and post-orbital streak.

Appears to be the Ceylon variety of D. gokool or
trigonata.

Famity XVII—PSAMMOPHID!.

Body and tail generally elongate, head very distinct, with
the loreal region very concave. Eye moderate, pupil round
or vertical. Head-shields normal; loreal present; posterior
frontals rounded or angulated behind ; supraciliaries promi-
nent. Anterior teeth longest, the last grooved.

Ground snakes approaching the Dipsadidee in form, with
ventrals much less than 200.

PSAMMOPHIS, Bove.

Body and tail elongate; long and rather pointed snout.
Vertical long and narrow; loreal elongate. Pupil round.
Scales smooth, 15-19. Anal bifid.

P. conDANARUS, Merrem.

Scales 17, lanceolate, with minute apical groove. Ventrals
176-182, sube. 80-90. Nasals generally double, sometimes
single. Buff or light brown, with a dorsal and a lateral
mottled black-edged stripe; belly yellowish, with a very
thin lateral black stripe, sometimes a supra and an infra
orbital yellow streak from nose to neck.

India, Burma; rare.

PSAMMODYNASTES, Giinther.

Body and tail rather stout; snout short, vertical long,
anterior frontals very small, nasal single, pierced by the
nostril. Pupil erect. Scales 17, short, rhombic, smooth.
Anal entire.

104

P, PULVERULENTUS, Bote. Plate XIII, fig. 3.

Ventrals 146-167, sube. 50-59. Head long, crown flat,
snout obtuse. The second or third tooth long and enveloped
in a large mucous envelope so as to simulate a poison-fang.
Labials 8 (3, 4 & 5), the first 3 high. General appearance
and colour not unlike a short, narrow-headed Dipsas. Light
brown, mottled; when young a black vertebral stripe, with
an edging of black and white spots ; this disappears with age ;
belly and sides yellow with a median and two lateral rows
of brown mottling or lines; throat white, mottled; «{ mark
on head.

I caught one specimen while it was swimming across the
Rangoon lake. Adult length 1 foot, tail one-fifth.
Assam, Burma, Straits.

SECOND SUB-ORDER—VENOMOUS COLUBRINE
SNAKES.

Famity X VIII—ELAPIDA.

Body moderate, tail rather short. Head-shields normal,
but no loreal. Eye small or moderate, with round pupil.
An erect poison-fang in front of the maxilla there being
one or more simple teeth behind.

NAGA* (Nasa, Lawrentius).

Anterior ribs elongate, erectile, dilating the skin of the
neck. Head short and rounded. One rudimentary tooth
behind the poison-fang. Ventrals less than 200.f Anal entire.

* Usually written Vaja; as the word is probably derived from
nagam. I prefer to write'it Maga.

+ In a bleached specimen which I found in the Madras Museum
stores, there are 209 ventrals and only 21 rows of scales both on the
body and the neck. It hasalso a fourth postocular completing the
orbital circle. I have not made a new genus for it.

PLATE XVII.

Naga tripudians, the cobra.

105

N. TRIPUDIANS,* Merrem. The Cobra.

Scales 21-23 on the four-tenths of the body below the
first tenth or expansive portion, but as many as 33 on the
broadest portion of the cervical disk. The preocular and
the anterior frontal are somewhat fan-shaped, the posterior
angle of the latter resting on the broad part of the former.
There are two distinct varieties of this snake, if not two
species.

Variety a. The Binocellate Cobra. The Spectacled Cobra.
Gokurra of Bengal. Plate XVII.

Scales 23. They are 31-33 at the ocelli, 25 at the black
posterior edge of the hood. Ventrals 184-197, subc. 53-69.
The neck is marked between the 10th and 17th transverse
series of scales with a white, black-edged ¢ or < enclosing
at either extremity a black ocellus. This pattern is entirely
on the steel-brown skin, and is only seen when the cervical
disk is expanded; then the scales are distant from one
another like grains of linseed symmetrically arranged in
rows; at other times the scales are imbricate and conceal
the pattern. The general colour varies from light olive, or
even buff, to dark brown; this colour is entirely on the
scales, the interstitial skin being white, occasionally with
dark cross-bands. A common variety has numerous narrow
light cross-bars, generally in pairs. Under-parts ash or
dark mottled ; anteriorly a lateral black spot corresponding
to the position of the ocellus on the neck; two or three
series of ventrals between the 15th and 30th are very dark,
nearly black. The colours are variable in shade, but they
merely mark ‘caste’ as the Indians say, and a dozen
different castes can be made out of a large ‘bag’ of cobras

* Tripudiate, v. i. to dance on the toe (Hyde Clarke’s English
Dictionary.) Ex. “tripudiapt matrons’—(Saturday Review.) French
zoologists, who translate literally the Latin names of animals, call
this snake Naje baladine.

14

106

brought in for reward. As a rule the cobras found on the
coast are much lighter than those of inland districts.

This binocellate variety is found in the South of India
and on the coast generally. I found two specimens in
Burma; but, from their fangs being absent and the fang
matrices cicatrized, they had evidently been imported by
jugglers and had escaped. My largest specimen is 5 feet
8 inches long. There are few English residents in India
who cannot vouch to having seen specimens of 6 feet and
upwards; but the application of a foot-rule has a very
dwarfing effect on snakes of great apparent length.*

Variety b. (6 of Giinther). Naga monocellata? The Mono-
cellate Cobra. Kiotia of Bengal. Plate XVIII, fig. 2.

Scales 21; they are 25-27 at the ocellus. Ventrals
185-191, sube. 53-59. Instead of spectacles, this variety
bears a plain white ocellus, with black centre and margin.
The colours are very much the same as in the other variety,
but generally darker. This one does not grow to so large a
size; I have only once seen a specimen above 4 feet 6
inches ; and the tail is rather shorter, one-seventh instead of
one-sixth. It is the cobra of Burma, but is found also in
Bengal and the Central Provinces.

OPHIOPHAGUS, Giinther.

The neck is dilatable, but to’a less extent than in Naga.
Occipitals surrounded posteriorly by three pairs of large

* Out of 1,200 cobras brought to me at Bangalore for the Govern-
ment reward, there were only four which exceeded 5 feet 6 inches in
Iength. These were respectively—a male 5 feet 64 inches—a male
5 feet 7$ inches—a female 5 feet 8 inches (tail 12 inches), weighing
2} Ibs.—a male 5 feet 6% inches, weighing 3 lbs. The first three
were perfect, the last hada rather stumpy tail; reconstructing it,
from the number of subcaudals, I found that had not the cobra met
with some accident he might have been 2 inches longer, which would
have brought his length up to 5 feet 8% inches.

PLATE XVIII.

Fig.1. Ophiophagus elaps.

Fig. 2. Naga tripudians var. monocellata.

107

shields, the two anterior being temporals. Scales smooth,
large, 15 rows. Ventrals above 200.

O. ELAPS, Schlegel. The Hamadryad. Plate XVIII.

Scales 15; on the hood there are about 19. Ventrals
215-262, subc. 80-100; about the first ten subcaudals are
entire, and sometimes the last few ventrals are two-rowed.
There are two varieties distinguished by the Burmans, the
dusky gnan bok and the banded gnan hwa. The former is
of general brownish olive colour. The latter is yellow, with
about 50 bands formed by black interstitial skin and black
margins to the scales, the latter increasing until towards the
tail the colour becomes black, with yellow bands, lower
parts yellow, posteriorly black. The young snake is jet
black, with bright yellow bands ; in addition there are three
yellow bands on the head, one through the occipitals, one
through the vertical behind the eyes, and one through the
anterior frontals ; the two posterior of these consisting of a
large yellow spot on each shield.

This snake grows to 12 feet in length; when at bay its
head stands about two feet off the ground. From its large
size it is much less manageable than the cobra, but Burman
jugglers make it go through much the same performance.
It will eat other snakes, and there appears to be enmity
between it and the cobra, the latter (I am credibly informed)
attacking it with fatal effect. When watching its eggs it is
very savage, and will drive away by hostile demonstration,
or even pursuit, any passers-by ; at other times it is peace-
able enough. It is found in the jungles of Cuttack and
Burma, and in the Anamullays.

BUNGARUS, Daudin.

Tail short, head small, hardly distinct from the neck, the
skin of which is not dilatable. Eye small. Scales 15, smooth,
the vertebrals large and heaagonal. Ventrals above 200

108

Anal and subcaudals entire. One of two teeth behind the
poison-fang.

B. ca#ruieus, Schneider. B. ancuatus, D. and B. The

Indian Bungarus. Plate XIX, fig. 1.

Ventrals 201-221, sube. 38-56. Upper parts jet black;
lower parts white, throwing white arches over the back.
(Hence B. arcuatus is a far preferable name, as there is not
the slightest cerulean colour about the snake), The first
arch is generally an incomplete collar, the next three are
single ; then they divide into pairs, of which there are about
30. This normal pattern is subject, to variation ; sometimes
the arches remain single, and in one variety are incomplete.
This snake grows to about 4 feet long, but is rarely found
above 2 feet, tail one-eighth; young specimens are very
handsome. It is found in most parts of India, but is rare
in Burma, where it is replaced by the following :—

B. rascratus, Schneider. The Malayan Bungarus. Plate

XIX, figs. 2 & 2a.

Ventrals 200-233, subc. 23-37. Tail very short and
stumpy, even swollen at the tip. Body of triangular section ;
spinous processes of vertebrae very prominent. Black, with
about 20 yellow cross-bands completely encircling the body
and tail. Head black, with a yellow > converging upwards
from the throat. Grows to above 6 feet long. Common in
Burma; specimens are found along the coast of Chittagong
and Orissa.*

B. CEYLONICUS, Gthr.

Similar to the first species, but with complete black rings
and narrow white intervals.

* The Malayan fauna creeps up the Chittagong coast and down the
Coromandel coast. Thus specimens of Ophiophagus and Bungarus
fasciatus are found as far south as Ganjam and the Naga monocellata

has spread into Bengal and the Central Provinces. The converse
invasion is rare.

109

B. SEMIFASCIATUS, Kuhl.

Also similar to B. ceruleus, but the tail has complete
black rings round it.
China.

XENURELAPS, Gthr.
Similar to Bungarus, but with double subcaudals.

X. BUNGAROIDES, Cantor.

Seales 15. Ventrals 224-237, sube. 44-46. Black, with
narrow white cross-bands directed forward; white bands on
the head; belly white, with irregular cross-bands, or red,
with black spots.

Assam and Khasi Hills.

MEGAROPHIS, Gray.
Form similar to Bungarus, but with 13 rows of scales, the
vertebrals large, hexagonal. Anal and anterior subcaudals
entire.

M. FLAVIcEps, Reinhardt.

Ventrals 209-226, sube. 88-52. Black, with a-vertebral line
and zigzag lateral stripe, white anteriorly, red posteriorly ;
head and neck red ; belly red, sometimes black anteriorly.

Straits.

CALLOPHIS,* Gray.

Body very long and slender; head short, obtuse, not dis-
tinct from the neck; tail short. Scales 13, vertebrals not
enlarged ; anal generally bifid; swbhcaudals bifid.

C. sivircatus, Bote.

Ventrals 248-284, subc. 38-50. Head, belly and tail, red ;
body black, with a lateral zigzag white blue-margined stripe.
Upwards of 4 feet in length.

Straits. :

* Formerly Exaps but this name is now restricted to the American
section of the genus, '

110

C. INTESTINALIS, Lawr.
Ventrals 223-271, sube. 24-26. A red black-edged verte-

bral stripe; a buff, black-edged lateral stripe. Belly alternate
pale yellow and black.
India, Straits.

C. graciuis, Gray.

Ventrals 238-311, sube. 21-28. Grey, a brown vertebral
line, with small button-like swellings ; a white, black-centred,
and black-margined lateral stripe; between these stripes is
a series of black, white-edged spots ; belly pale yellow, with
black ecross-bands; tail red below, with an anterior and
posterior black, white-edged ring.

Straits.

C. PENTALINEATUS, Beddome.
Cherry red, with 5 black stripes; neck black ; head with
black markings, belly red. Very thin, 3 feet long.
Travancore hills.

C, MACCLELLANDII, Reinh.

Ventrals 196-224, sube. 25-34. Head black, with a yellow
fillet ; body reddish brown, with black vertebral line ; belly
yellow, with variable black pattern.

Assam.

C. ANNULARIS, Gthr. Plate XIX, fig. 3.

Ventrals 208-234, sube. 27-33. Head black, with a yellow
fillet ; body reddish brown, surrounded by about 40 narrow
black rings, often interrupted ; on the belly these are doubled
by alternate ventral cross-bars.

Malabar ? .
C. TRIMACULATUS, Daudin.

Ventrals 245-274, subc. 30-35. Brown; head and neck
black, with yellow spots; belly red; an anterior’ and _pos-
terior caudal ring, the two connected below by black spots.

Tenasserim (and Malabar ?)

of
PLATE XIX.

PESTLE OS
teeteee! x Meee
50

Fig. 1. Bungarus arcuatus, (coeruleus).
Fig. 2. B. fasciatus, one-sixth natural size; 2a, natyral size.
Fig. 3. Callophis annularis.

111

C. MACULICEPS, Gthr.

Ventrals 205-247, sube. 24-82. Brown ; $ black lines run

from the snout to join a broad black collar ; belly red; tail
black-ringed.

Straits.

C. NIGRESCENS, Gthr.
Ventrals 232-247, subc. 33-45; anal generally entire.
Upper parts blackish, lower parts red; head marbled with

black ; a black eq collar; a black, yellow-edged dorsal line.
Anamullays.

FamiLty XIX.—HYDROPHID&.

Body cylindrical, compressed posteriorly ; tail strongly
compressed, forming a vertical fin. Head-shields pretty
regular, but no loreal, and usually only a single pair of
frontals ; nasals generally contiguous. In most genera there
are no ventrals. Scales generally tubercular and dull. All
provided with a poison-fang, followed by 3 or 4 ordinary
teeth. Eye very small.

PLATURUS, Latreille.

Head-shields normal; 2 pairs of frontals, nostrils lateral,
nasals not contiguous. Scales smooth, ventrals well developed,
anal bifid ; subcaudals present.

P. scutatus, Laur.

Scales 21-23. Ventrals 213-241. Generally an azygos
shield ‘between the posterior frontals. Black rings, head
yellow, with black postocular stripe and median stripe.

P, FISCHERI, Jan.

Scales 19. Ventrals 232-241. No azygos shield. About
30 black rings, and median head stripe.

112
AIPYSURUS, Lacépéde.

Body not much compressed; the ventrals are well deve-
loped, and have a sharp median keel. Head-shields gener-
ally divided; one pair of frontals; nasals contiguous.
Scales smooth, subcaudals broad, entire.

Belongs to the Polynesian fauna.

A. ANGUILLZFoRMIS, Schmidt.
Scales 17. Ventrals 142. Brown, with yellow cross-
bands.

A. La&vIs, Lacép.
Scales 21. Ventrals 151-154.

A. Fuscus, Tschudi.
Scales 19. Ventrals 157-166. Brown.

DISTEIRA, Lacépéde.

A pair of anterior frontals between the nasals. Scales
imbricate ; ventrals very small, with double keel.

D. poxrata, Lacép.
Scales 39-41. Ventrals 234. Brown cross-bands.
A solitary museum specimen.

ACALYPTUS, D. and B.

Crown scaled ; a pair of frontals, nasals contiguous ; no
ventrals.

A. SUPERCILIOSUS, D. and B.
Rare ; found in the Pacific.

HYDROPHIS, Daudin (sp.)

Head short, shielded. One pair of frontals, nasals conti-
guous. Scales generally tubercular. Ventrals rudimentary
or absent. (They are said to be ‘ broad, purely in a com-
parative sense.)

113

This extensive genus comprises by far the greater number
of the sea-snakes met with. The range of these animals
being unlimited by the circumstances which confine land-
snakes to particular localities, it may fairly be said that
every sea-snake of the Indian and Pacific oceans may be
found on the East Indian coasts ; therefore these individuals
not actually found on these coasts are still included in the
East Indian fauna. I may here mention that 6 to 7 feet is
the adult size of the largest of the species at present known.
Their colour is generally buff or dirty white, with black or

dull sea-blue cross-bands. One species is represented in
Plate X.

Their classification is by no means complete and any
description of them can hardly be satisfactory. I recommend
persons desiring to study them (and they offer a fine field
for study) to refer to the detailed description in Giinther’s
Reptiles of India; here I shall content myself with quoting
his synopsis of the species :

1. Scales more or less distinctly imbricate.

A Scales large, in not more than 17 longitudinal series
round the neck: Kerilia, Gray.

Head short ~ ZH. jerdonii.

B Scales snuck imbricate, rather small, in 48 ta 47 series
round the neck ; ventral shields split into two:
Hydrus, (Shaw), Gray.

Body stout ... rn Bats shy sax Se Sia keasti.

C Scales in 23 to 38 series round the neck ; head not very
small; anterior part of the body (neck) not, or moderately
slender: Hydrophis, (Daud.), Gthr.

Head rather short and broad, neck and body
of moderate length One postocular. Belly
with only a few ventral shields. HL. major.
15

114

Head of moderate size and width ; neck and
body not elongate. One postocular. Ventrals
broad, 310.

Head of moderate size and width; neck and
body of moderate length. Two postoculars.
Ventrals broad, 317; scales with a short keel;
terminal scale of the tail very large.

Head rather small; neck and body some-
what elongate. One postocular ; scales strongly
keeled. Ventrals not much larger than the
adjoining scales.

Head of moderate size and width ; neck and
body somewhat elongate. Two postoculars ;
scales strongly keeled, the keel of each scale
with two tubercular prominences.

Head of moderate size and width ; neck and
body somewhat elongate. One postocular.
Back with a series of round black spots,
alternating with black cross-bands.

Head of moderate size and width; neck and
body rather elongate. Two postoculars ; scales
faintly keeled. Ventrals broad, 320-426 ; ter-
minal scale of the tail small or of moderate
size.

Head rather small and short, neck and body
elongate. One postocular; 27 series of scales
round the neck. Ventrals twice as large as the
adjoining scales. Trunk with 60 broad black
rings, nearly suppressing the eround-colour.

Head rather smal] and narrow; neck slender.
Two postoculars ; 23 series of scales round the
neck. Ventrals not twice as large as the
adjoining scales. Trunk with 41 cross-bands,

A. robusta.

» belcheri.

9» c@rulescens.

aspera.

a

oy Spiralis.

a» cyanocineta,

3) melanosoma,

yy» subcineta.

115

Head small; neck slender. Two post-
oculars ; 27 to 29 series ofscales round the
neck, Ventrals not twice as broad as the
adjoining scales. . Trunk with from 43 to 61
black-rings, not tapering on the sides. H. nigrocineta,

Head rather small; neck slender. Two
postoculars ; 28 series of scales round the neck,
ventrals more than twice as broad as the
adjoining series. Trunk with from 42 to 48
cross-bands. .

>» elegans.
Head rather small; neck slender. One
postocular ; 33 to 35 series of scales round the
neck ; vertical short. »» torguata.

D Head very small ; neck eaceedingly slender :
‘Liopala, (Gray), Gthr.

The length of the thin part of the body is
more than one-third of the total. One post-
ocular; 31 to 83 series of scales round the neck.
Trunk encircled by from 59 to 67 blackish

rings. »» chloria,

The length of the thin part of the body is
one-third of the total. One postocular ; 31 to
33 series of scales round the neck. Trunk
with from 48 to 58 blackish cross-bands
extending to the middle of the side. » lindsay.

Two postoculars ; 26 to 28 series of scales
round the neck. Ventrals 876. Trunk with
from 60 to 64 rhombic blackish cross-bars ;
sides and belly not banded. 5» atriceps.

116

One postocular; 23 series of scales round
the neck. Trunk with 38 broad black cross-
bands, confluent on thé back and belly. H. latifasciata.

One postocular; 19 to 23 series of scales
round the neck. Trunk with from 53 to 59
complete blackish rings. wy coronata.

Two postoculars; 33 series of scales round
the neck. Trunk with 62 blackish rings. a ddedemns

2. Scales not imbricate, placed side by side.

A Head very small; neck exceedingly slender :
Microcephalophis, (Less.), Gray.

One postocular. Ventral shields 228-249,
those on the hinder half of the body split into

two. a gracilis.

Two postoculars. Ventral shields 316, all
undivided. » fasciata,

One postocular. Ventral shields 412-440,
those on the hinder half of the body split
into two. » cantoris.

B Head of moderate size; anterior part of the body not,
or moderately, elongate: Thalassophis, (Schmidt), @thr.

Head narrow, elongate ; body rather slender.
Two postoculars. Ventral shields twice as
broad as the adjoining scales, 350 in number. ,, lapemoides.

Head narrow, elongate; body rather slender.
Two postoculars. Ventral shields twice as
broad as the adjoining scales, 271 in number.
Scales keeled, >» longiceps.

117

Head narrow, elongate; body rather slender.
One postocular. Ventral shields distinct, only
the interior being twice as broad as the adjoin-
ing series, 398 in number.

Head rather narrow and produced ; body
somewhat elongate. Two postoculars. Ventral
shields twice as broad as the adjoining scales,
252-260 in number, scales with a central
tubercle. The first upper temporal shield
much longer than high.

Head rather thick and short, body of mode-
rate length. Two postoculars. Ventral shields
nearly twice as broad as the adjoining scales,
253-258 in number. The first upper temporal
shield is not much longer than high; 35 or 87
series of scales round the neck.

Head and body of moderate width and length.
Two postoculars ; nasal shields longer than
broad. Ventrals more than twice as broad as
the scales, 258 in number. The first upper
temporal shield longer than high; 28 series of
scales round the neck.

Head of moderate size and width; body of
moderate length. Two postoculars; nasal
shields as broad posteriorly as they are long;
anterior ventral shields broad.

Head rather short; body moderately stout.
Two postoculars. Ventrals distinct, but not
twice as broad as the adjoining series. Back
and sides with large round spots, each with a
lighter centre.

H. stricticollis,

3, ornata.

», elliott.

3» pachycercus.

») viperina.

9 o¢ellata,

118

Head short and thick; body rather stout;
shields of the snout irregular. Two post-
oculars ; scales with astrong white keel. Ven-
trals bicarinate, not larger than the adjoining
scales. HH. anomala.

Head short and thick; body stout. One
postocular. Ventral shields nearly twice as
broad as the scales of the adjoining series. »» curta,

Head short and thick; body stout. One
postocular. No distinct ventral shields. Trunk
with from 41 to 43 blackish cross-bands, not
exceeding downwards to the belly. pp dandinielit,

Head short and thick; body stout. One
postocular. No distinct ventral shields. Trunk
encircled by from 29 to 34 (37) black rings. —,, doreata.

The following species have lately been added to the
genus :—

H, fayreriana.
HI. tuberculata.
HI. crassicollis.
H. stewartir.
HY. nigra.

ENHYDRINA, Gray.

Differs from Hydrophis in having a deep notch in the
lower jaw.

E, BENGALENSIS or VALAKADYEN, Gray. Plate X, fig. 6.
The rostral is lobulated and fits into the deep mental
notch. Scales 48-50.
Common on the Burman coast.

119

E. SCHISTOSA (?)
Wider gape, longerhead, shields less granular. Scales 58-60.

PELAMIS, Daudin (sp.)
Head flat, with long spatulate snout, a pair of frontals,
nasals contiguous; no ventrals.

P. Bicotor, Schneider.
Black above, light brown below, with a yellow lateral
band. Each scale sometimes impressed in the middle.

THIRD SUB-ORDER.— VIPERINE SNAKES.

Famity XX—CROTALIDZ.

Body stout, tail moderate or short. Head broad, sub-
triangular, generally scaly or imperfectly shielded. A deep
pit on the side of the snout corresponding to the cavity of
the maxilla. Eye moderate, with erect pupil. Poison-fang
long, no simple teeth behind it.

TRIMESURUS, Gray. (TRIMERESURUS, Giinther.)
Head shielded only in the supraciliary and rostral regions.
Body and head covered with more or less keeled scales ; 17-27
rows. Anal entire, subcaudals double.

T. GRAMINEUS, Shaw. Plate XX, fig. 3.

In this and the following five species the second labial
forms the front of the facial pit. The small supranasals are
separated by a small azygos shield. Scales 19-21. Ven-
trals 158-170, sube. 58-71. Grass green, belly paler, yellow
lateral stripe.

Burma, Straits, China, Assam.

T. ERYTHRURUS, Cantor.

Seales 21. Ventrals 150-164, sube. 54-70. Supranasals
contiguous. Same colour as the preceding, tail red or ruddy,
lips often white.

Bengal, Burma, China.

120

T, CARINATUS, Gray.
Seales 23-25. Ventrals 161-167, sube. 45-68. Head scales

small, strongly keeled ; supranasals not contiguous. Grass-
green, paler below, 2 or without a white lateral stripe,
tail often reddish, belly often white. Grows to about 3 feet
long, tail one-fifth or less.

Burma, Assam.

I consider that the above three species are merely varie-
ties of a species. J. viridis, the green tree-viper. Their
colour is delicate and variable; the keeled scales, the reddish
tail, and the side stripe may be present or absent in either
of these varicties.

T. MUTABILIS, Stolicska.

Scales 21. Ventrals 156-167, sube. 48-62. Reddish brown,
with numerous greenish white cross-bands and two longitu-
dinal lateral stripes of the same colour.

Andamans, Nicobars.

T. canToris, Blyth.

Seales 29. Ventrals 174-184, sube. 55-76. Green, with
alternating (quincuncial) series of dark spots; often a lateral
white line, greenish or white below; tail prehensile, com-
pressed.

Andamans, Nicobars.

T. PURPUREUS, Gray.

Scales 25-27. Ventrals 162-171, sube. 65-70. Dull reddish
brown, pale green on the sides, yellow lateral stripe, ven-
trals and subcaudals marked with brown.

Straits.
T. ANAMALLENSIS, Gthr.

Scales 21, more or less keeled. Ventrals 148-158, subc.
49-55. Supranasals generally separated. Yellowish green,
with vertebral series of rhombic black spots variegated with
yellow. Head marbled with black, post-orbital streak.

Anamullays, Wynaad.

121

T, MONTICOLA, Gthr.

Scales 23, slightly keeled. Ventrals 137-141, sube. 41.
Dark ash or brown, alternating dorsal series of black spots ;
sides black-spotted, yellow post-orbital streak; yellow <
mark on the neck, belly mottled brown.

Himalayas.

T. convictus, Stolicska,

Scales 21, keeled. Ventrals 132, sube. 29. Hardly
different from 7. monticola ; e mark on the neck,
Straits.

T. STRIGATUS, Gray. The brown tree-viper.

Scales 21, keeled. Ventrals 136-142. The second labial
does not form the front of the facial pit. No supranasals.
Brown, with large irregular mottled dark spots and white
angular — mark on the neck.

Nilgiris, Coimbatore. Formerly Trigonocephalus ae
riensis.

T. WAGLERI, Schlegel.

Seales 23-25. Ventrals 139-150, sube. 42-53. The
second labial does not form the front of the facial pit. Head
seales keeled. Variable in colour ; when young, green
with short, reddish buff cross-bars ; the adult is black, with
about 35 yellow cross-bands ; yellow post-orbital streak.

Straits. Formerly Trigonocephalus sumatranus.

T. TRIGONOCEPHALUS, Merrem.

Scales 17-19. Ventrals 147-152, sube. 57-63. The ante-
anal is notched or divided. Green, with black vertebral
stripe emitting alternate cross-bars ; black post-orbital and
head streaks ; pale green below.

Ceylon.
16

122

T. MUCROSQUAMATUS, Cantor.
Ventrals 219, sube. 91. Brownish grey, with black ring-

spots.
Assam. A solitary museum specimen.

T. ANDERSONI and T. opscurus are noted by Mr.
Theobald, but they would appear to be varieties of 7. pur-
pureus and of T. wagleri, respectively.

PELTOPELOR, Géiinther.

Head covered with large shield-like imbricate scales.
Body scales 12, large, keeled.

P. macRouepis, Beddome. Plate XX, fig. 4.

Ventrals 134-138, subc. 53-56. The large head scales
are arranged very much like shields, there being a vertical
and frontals. Uniform green, paler below, with yellow side
streak.

Anamullays, Nilgiris.

CALLOSELASMA, Cope.

Head normally shielded. Scales 21, smooth. Tail ends in
a long spine.

C. RHODOSTOMA, Reinw.

Ventrals 138-156, sube. 36-54. A subocular present.
Reddish olive, dotted with brown; black vertebral line;
dorsal series of erect triangular black spots; flesh-coloured
streak from the snout above the eye; lips reddish olive.
Grows to 3 feet.

Siam, Java.

HALYS, Gray.

Head normally shielded. Scales 21-27 keeled. Tail ends
in a long spine.

123

H. BLomHorru, Bote.

Scales 21. Ventrals 186-150, sube. 48-56. Three large
temporals separated from the occipitals by scales, and conti-
guous to last 3 labials. Brown, with a dorsal series of large,
round dark spots; belly marbled brown.

Japan.

H. HIMALAYANUS, Gthr.

Scales 23. Ventrals 162-166, sube. 43-51. Temporals
separated from occipitals by scales, and confluent with the
last 3 labials. Sometimes an azygos shield before or behind
the vertical. Dark brown, with band-like spots ; black post-
orbital streak ; belly black, marbled with yellow.

H. ELLIOTI, Jerdon.

Scales 23. Ventrals 151-43. Green, white below.
Nilgiris.

HYPNALE, Fitzinger.

Snout covered with numerous small shields; crown with
the normal shields but triangular and scale-like. Scales 17,
keeled. Tail ends in a small conical scale.

H. nepa, Laur.

Ventrals 140-152, subc. 31-45. Brown, grey, or olive,
with a dorsal series of dark sagittal spots. Sides and
belly mottled with brown ; brown post-orbital streak, with
whitish upper margin.

Ceylon, Malabar, Anamullays.

Famity XXI.—VIPERID.
Body stout; tail short; head broad, scaled or imperfectly
shielded. No facial pit. Eye moderate with erect pupil.
Poison-fang very long, no simple teeth behind it.

124

DABOIA, Gray,

Nostril large, between 3 shields ; head completely scaled.
Body scales 29-31, much imbricate, strongly keeled.

D. ELEGANS, (RUSSELLII), Gray. The Chain-viper.* Plate

XX.

Ventrals 163-170, sube. 45-60. Grey, with 3 series of large
black white-edged ring-spots, the vertebral series often
irregular and confluent. In young specimens the spots
have a beautiful velvety lustre. A yellow > converges
towards the snout. Belly spotted with brown. Grows to
5 feet long, tail one-sixth.

South of India and Burma. The Indian Daboia is of

more brilliant coloration than the Burmese variety. More
common on the coasts than inland or above the ghats,

ECHIS, Merrem.

Head scaled ; a pair of very small frontals ; nostril small
in a single shield. Scales 25-29, strongly keeled, much
imbricate. The lateral rows of scales, except the outermost
two, point downwards and the keel on them consists of a
line of dots. Subcaudals single.

E. CARINATA, Schneider.

Ventrals 149-154, sube. 21-26. Grey to light brown, with
a vertebral series of white, brown-edged spots, below each
of which is a semi-circular white streak enclosing a brown
spot. The pattern is often less marked, consisting of a
chain of light arches on each side, connected in the median
line by a light spot. Broad brown > head-mark; belly
white, spotted. 1-1} foot, tail one-twelfth.

Not common, but widely spread.

* For Indian synonyms, see Part III.

PLATE XX.

|
/
}

Fig. 1.

Trimesurus gramineus.

Fig. 3. Daboia elegans.
Fig. 2. Peltopelor macrolepis.

Fig. 4. Echis carinata.

PART IJI—NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.—TuHe SNAKE AT LIBERTY.

WE have but little knowledge of the habits of snakes when
at liberty, owing to the difficulties attending the observation
of such animals in tropical climates ;* vigilant and patient,
they mostly remain during the day in a state of repose,
seeking their prey at those hours when most animals have
relaxed from their usual watchfulness and are at rest for the
night. Whether ground or tree-snakes, they remain patiently
in the same attitude until their prey approach, then, gently
gliding over the short distance which intervenes, they
pounce on the unsuspecting victim. The approach is so
imperceptible that doubtless a certain amount of curiosity
must often fix the attention of animals on perceiving the
snake for two or three seconds before they become aware of
their danger; but of fascination as it is called, there appears
to be none.

The habits of snakes are so retiring and so little apt to
attract attention, that they rarely obtrude themselves on our
notice. The only occasions on which we observe them are
when they imprudently venture near our habitations, or
when the eye of the sportsman is quartering the ground
anxiously for the first movement of game. At other times

* From the eagerness of people to look for the marvellous in all
that concerns snakes, the observations of non-scientific enquirers are
always open to suspicion. On this subject, the safest plan is to
believe nothing that you hear, and only half what you see yourself,
guarding carefully against the liability of your visual impressions
being influenced by your expectations and pre-conceived ideas.

126

they generally elude notice; unless a European has sharp
sight and habits of unconscious observation of what is going
on around him as he walks, he may live for ten years in
Indian stations without seeing ten live snakes otherwise than
in the hands of the juggler. My own experience is hardly
a fair criterion as I am very short-sighted ; I cannot, there-
fore, attach much importance to the fact that I do not once
a year come across a snake accidentally ; although, if I go
out snake-hunting, keeping a sharp look-out, I rarely fail
to bag a specimen of some sort. But cross-examination
of persons long resident in India leads me to conclude that
one snake per annum is a fair average estimate of the number
seen accidentally by Europeans living habitually in stations ;
sportmen, of course, have a much larger field of observation.

The rainy season is the time when snakes are most lively;
in the hot and dry weather they retire to cool and moist
places. Season does not, as far as I have observed, affect
the casting of the skin in Indian snakes; with regard to
the laying of eggs, its effect is variable. Young are pro-
duced once a year; the period between the impregnation of
the female and the birth of her young is uncertain, but it
would appear to be from four to five months. In the
majority of snakes the eggs are extruded after about three
months gestation, the development of the embryo taking
place, as in birds, in the period between laying and hatching.
But while most snakes are consequently oviparous, certain
of them do not extrude the eggs with the embryo unde-
veloped, but retain them until maturity more or less perfect.
Between the strictly oviparous snakes and the ovoviviparous
snakes which extrude the foetus perfectly developed, there
are various gradations. The name ‘ viper’ was applied
originally to all venomous snakes under the idea that this
class was distinguished by its viviparous habit; this has
been, however, proved to be quite erroneous, for though
most of the viperine snakes are viviparous so are many

127

harmless snakes, whilst the venomous colubrine snakes,
such as the cobra and the hamadryad, are perfectly
Oviparous. Amongst viviparous snakes may be mentioned
the sea and fresh-water snakes (at least most of the latter) ;
the new English snake Coronella levis and some tree-snakes
are also ovoviviparous. Mr. Theobald records a specimen
of Tragops fronticinctus containing “seven foetuses” each
one-sixth of its length.

The time of laying varies in different snakes, as will be
seen by the following examples :-—*

The cobra, at Bangalore, is impregnated about January ;
the eggs are hatched in May and up to the beginning of
June. As many as 19 young will be found in a brood.

A Python molurus in the Paris Zoological Gardens, was
impregnated in January and February, laid 15 eggs on May
6th, of which eight were hatched on July 3rd.—(Giinther.)
Piyas mucosus found containing 13 eggs, May, Bangalore.

Do. do. 9 do. do.

Do. 12 eggs hatched Sept. do.
Tropidonotus quincunciatus lays Jany. & Feby., Rangoon.
Tropidonotus stolatus found containing eggs, May do.

Do. do August, Bangalore.
Tropidonotus subminéatus do. Nov., Rangoon, (Theobald).
Tragops prasinus do. March, do. (Theobald).
Dipsas multimaculata do. July, do.

Hypsirhina enhydris do. March, do. (Theobald).
Trimesurus carinatus do. Dec., do. (Theobald).

The eggs are of the regular ellipsoid form of a silk cocoon,
the shell being of a tough parchment-like material. Ina
large Ptyas nvucosus they were two inches long and 1} inch
in the short diameter. The eggs are usually laid in a
hidden spot, such as a hollow tree, where some decomposing

* Tregret that the loss of a note-book containing the observa-

tions made during my stay in Burma prevents my giving more
complete information on this point.

128

vegetable substances will afford equable warmth with sufli-
cient moisture to prevent the egg drying up through its thin
covering. The eggs are frequently watched by the mother ;
some snakes (Pythonide) incubate their eggs, while the
hamadryad Ophiophagus,as I am informed on good authority,
makes a nest of ‘wild plantain’ shrubs which by their
rotting give off heat and moisture. With regard to the
incubation observed in the case of the python, I do not think
that much stress can be placed on this point, the heat
shown to be imparted to the eggs, though of some use
in temperate climates would be scarcely needful in the
natural climate of the snake. I have frequently observed
Tropidonotus quincunciatus, when it has laid eggs in
captivity, to lie on them apparently incubating them; but
I should not infer that it would do so when at liberty, and
moreover the eggs so incubated were all shrivelled up. The
same fate awaited all eggs which I have kept in sand or
sawdust, whether dry or moist; to hatch the eggs artificially
they should be placed in dung heap compost.

When the young snake is mature it makes its escape
from the shell by means worthy of attention. A tooth
is developed on the premaxillary for the purpose ;* it is flat
and horizontal, being used like a leather-knife ; with it the
snake makes several cuts in the end of the parchment shell
until, two cuts meeting, a valvular opening is formed ; by this
the young snake escapes. In many cases the young snake
retains for some time the remains of the navel string (the
vitelline duct), and the navel after closing is long visible as
a slit in three or four ventral shields at about the thirtieth
ventral from the vent; e.g., the young cobra. But Ptyas
mucosus emerges from the egg with the navel closed and no
trace of vitelline duct.

* This tooth falls off soon after the birth of the snake. It must be
remembered that in the lower types of snakes the Pythonide bear
teeth on the premaxillary.

129

It may be taken as arule that at birth the young snake is
about one-sixth of the adult length; the cobra, adult length
66 inches, is 11 inches at birth; the Ptyas, adult length
about 8 feet, is 154 inches long at birth. Young snakes.
grow rapidly during their first year, more than doubling in
length. Out of 1,000 cobras brought to me at Bangalore
between May and August, there were 230 young of the
season, from 12 to 16 inches long; above this length there
were one of 29 inches long and six between 30 and 36 inches ;
all the remainder were above three. feet long, mostly from
four to five feet. This great gap in the lengths found at the
same season shows 1° that the cobra produces young only
once a year and at about the same month, 2° that the young
measuring less than one foot at birth attain for the most
part a length of three feet by the next hatching season.

After the first year growth is slower ; Lenz, from observa-
tions on the indigenous snakes of Europe, concluded that
maturity is attained at the fourth year, («. ¢., three years of
age), when the snake begins to breed. Of the age to which
snakes attain, we know little; as they grow older they
increase, but slightly in length, but wax fat and heavy.*

' Snakes feed upon small animals of any description as long
as they are of proportionate size. Frogs are the principal
food of the large and middle-sized ground-snakes, toads do
not come amiss to them; rats, birds’ eggs, and mice are also

* “ A Python reticulatus lived in the menagerie of the Zoological
Society of London for fifteen years ; when brought’ to England it was
11 feet long, andin ten years ithad attained to a length of 21 feet,
after which no further growth could be observed. According to
observations made by Bibron on young rock-snakes born in the

‘Garden of Plants in Paris, this specimen would have been about four
years old at the time when it was 11 feet long.”—Giinther. It is
unfortunate that in the Zoological collections of our Indian cities
there is no serpentarium in which the snakes of India can be system-
atically observed,

17

130

favourite articles of food, whilst young birds, lizards, tree-
frogs and grasshoppers are the food of the tree-snakes. The
water-snakes live on fish,and the amphibious land-snakes,
such as Tropidonotus quincunciatus, catch the fish which
inhabit the mud of marshes and irrigated fields.* A large
python might possibly manage a kid, or a fawn of the smaller
species of deer, but the stories of their swallowing goats,
stags, men, and oxen are pure travellers’ tales. A full
grown cobra is very much distended when it has managed
to swallow a rat of half a pound weight, that is, about
one-fourth of its own weight. Many of the burrowing
snakes live on worms and insects, and some snakes actually
live on their brethren, at least on other snakes; they are
probably hard up for food at the time. There is no reason
why a snake should not swallow another snake nearly as
big as himself if he gets the chance ; I have seen two snakes
who had caught the same frog between them manceuvre
very cleverly when their noses met; the one who got his
head within the other's jaw would certainly have gone down
along with the frog if he had not freed himself from the frog
and the snake too by a sudden effort. When young, snakes
live on larve, flies, young geckoes and other lizards until they
are big enough to manage the usual prey of their species.

Snakes drink water freely ; I have frequently counted
above a hundred gulps of water go down before the drinker
was satisfied. I have never succeeded in inducing a snake
to drink milk, though, when water was afterwards offered, it
drank eagerly. The stories, ancient and modern, of snakes’
sucking cows’ teats and robbing dairies appear to be doubtful.

I am not altogether satisfied with the common account of
the manner in which some snakes (the Pythons) are said to
kill their prey, viz., by crushing it in their folds. The pres-
sure which the largest snake can exercise is very mild indeed,

* Piscibus atram
Improbus ingluviem ranisque loquacibus implet.— Virgil.

131

just sufficient to hold their prey if necessary and prevent it
escaping ; the only inconvenience of having a nine-foot
python or hamadryas coiled round one is that he is apt to
make a mess on one’s clothes. Neither do snakes lick their
crushed prey (‘ slaver it over’ is the term used in story and
simile) before swallowing it; if the prey is active, after
catching it with their teeth they throw a few folds round
it simply to prevent it from struggling, and then bolt it head
foremost just as they would a frog.

CHapTer I].—THE SERPENTARIUM.

The collector of snakes must study their habits if he
wishes to be successful in his search for specimens; and I
can only give a few indications as to the likely places for
them. Dry nullahs leading down to tanks are a good find
for amphibious snakes such as the Tropidonoti; tussocks
of grass in wet paddy-fields often afford shelter to the
ground vipers; the neighbourhood of houses is affected by
Lycodon; the old galleries of white ants’ nests are the refuge
of various kinds of snakes, cobras included ; the earth-snakes
are to be found under large stones, and the hollows of old
trees containing decaying vegetable matter are often chosen
by snakes as a nest for their eggs. The squeals of a frog
caught by a snake can never be forgotten if once heard, and
they often enable the collector to surprise a snake at his
meal, Snakes may often be captured while swimming, as
they are readily detected in the water.*

But the European in India can do little himself, beyond
keeping a sharp look-out whilst walking for exercise or
after game; by far the greater part of collections are made
by employing the patience and acuteness of Indians in this

* Most snakes take to the water readily, either to capture frogs, or
to cross over to some other spot. I captured a snake which rejoices
in the highly terrestial name of Psammodynastes pulverulentus, the
dusty king of the desert, while it was swimming across the Rangoon
lake,

132

laborious pursuit. In stations where a reward is given by
the authorities for every cobra that is killed, other snakes
will often be brought in, and an arrangement with the police
will bring these to any one willing to give a small reward.
Where public money is not devoted to this philanthropic
object the best way is to make generally known amongst
toddy-drawers, fishermen, grass-cutters and Indian camp-fol-
lowers in general, that a reward will be given for every snake
that is brought in, varying in amount according to the rarity
of the snake, whether it be in good condition, and alive or
dead. By giving an extra reward for live specimens, all
unnecessary destruction of the harmless common snakes will
be avoided ; and the attention of the snake-catchers can be
diverted from these kinds by having some specimens kept
for their inspection in the verandah ; live snakes or skins in
the case of the larger kinds, preserved specimens of the
smaller. Notice can thus be given that these kinds will
not obtain any reward.

I may here observe that Indians, those of the South at
least, to my certain knowledge know very little about any
snake but the cobra, have no names for any but three or
four, and can give nothing but erroneous information.

The Moors know nothing about snakes, not troubling
themselves about any branch of zoology unconnected with
sport; while the veneration of the Hindus being concen-
trated in the typical nagam they know little about any
other snake. Snake-charmers and jugglers tell a lot of
nonsense ; and low Indians wishing to show off their intelli-
gence before master, find little trouble in evolving from their
inner consciousness a name for any snake pointed out to
‘ them. They have perceived that it is a point of honour
with most Englishmen to have a name ready for every strange
beast, and they humour this weakness by having a name
ready for every snake, and also a wonderful account of the
deadly effects produced by its bite or by a blow of its tail.

135

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134

The terms viriyan, mandali, dnali, are used indistinctly
in Tamil and the kindred languages for any snake supposed
to be venomous; the etymology of the first term is obscure,
the others signify either a ringed or decorated pattern.

Water-snakes receive the prefix nir or jla to the above
names; a tree-snake may perhaps be distinguished as marwm
pambu. Burmans are often very intelligent in ophiology ; the
cobra, the hamadryad, the dhaman, the chain-viper, the
black-striped red dhaman Compsosoma, have all names in
the Burmese and Karen languages, and the people are well
acquainted with their habits.

Some snakes allow themselves to be caught without the
slightest attempt at resistance. The gentle Tropidonotus
stolatus, subminiatus, and plumbicolor allow themselves to
be taken up, and in dry weather the offer of a drink of
water will at once gain their hearts. But most snakes are
strongly opposed to being captured, and some show their
independence by snapping viciously. Tropidonotus quin-
cunciatus and Ptyas both fight for their freedom even at
the earliest age, and, though they resign themselves philoso-
phically to a domestic life, are always a little uncertain to
handle; their bite is, however, quite harmless, and not very
painful.

The collector need provide himself with no implements
beyond a bag and his walking-stick, which, if placed on the
neck of any snake, will permit of its being grasped without
trouble. If the specimen has to be carried any distance and
is too large to be stowed into a pocket,no bag being at .
hand, a piece of string to bind him to the stick will be
found useful, as holding a large snake by the tail is incon-
venient, and holding him by the neck becomes irksome,
especially in the case of a venomous kind. It must be
remembered that the great mobility of the maxillaries will
often enable a snake to turn round on your fingers when

135

you think he is quite secure ; therefore, take care to place
your finger and thumb on either side of the neck, never
above and below it.

A cobra standing at bay can be readily captured ; put the
end of a stick gently across his head and bear it down to the
ground by a firm and gradual pressure; he will not resist ;
then place the stick horizontally across his neck and take
him up. You must not dawdle about this; sharp is the
word in dealing with snakes, and they have as much respect
for firm and kind treatment as contempt for timidity and
irresolution. When, however, an active snake carries on a
running fight, the only way to capture him is to give him a
tap across the back sufficiently hard to take the go out of
him without injuring him. If you wish to capture your
specimen alive, err rather on the side of mercy and see how
gentle a blow will suffice to put him hors de combat. Even
if you want the snake for the museum and not for the
menagerie, it is still important to secure him with as little
injury as possible.

The juggler or snake-exhibitor keeps his snakes in flat
baskets of just sufficient size to hold a cobra when coiled up.
However convenient this basket may be for portability and
exhibition purposes, it is not suitable for other snakes than
the cobra, and it is only admissible as a temporary lodging.
The best habitation for snakes would doubtless be a verandah
fenced to a sufficient height with wire gauze; it might be
divided into compartments in order to separate snakes of
ophiophagous habits from the rest of the community, and be
provided with water and shrubs sufficiently to gratify the
desire for coolness and shade. Such a serpentarium would
enable interesting observations to be made on the habits of
snakes.* The floor should be strewn with sand; it would

* Observations regarding the casting of skin and teeth, the laying,
incubation and hatching of eggs, the oviparous or ovoviviparous
nature of various snakes are very much needed.

136

not often require renewal owing to the inoffensive nature
of the uric acid excreta of snakes.*

Next to the above arrangement, the best serpentarium
consists of wooden boxes, old wine eases, in which the wood
is replaced as much as possible by glass and wire gauze or
perforated zine. A flat-bottomed pan of water should always
be kept in the box, for not only do snakes drink freely, but
they also like the cool shade to be enjoyed by coiling them-
selves close round the pan. Ifa small pot of water be also
given them, some snakes will proceed to inhabit it. It will
not be uncommon to see half a dozen Tropidonotus quin-
cunciatus coiled down comfortably in the pot of water and
staying there for days together; a head coming up occa-
sionally to breathe, and sinking down again directly.

A few pieces of brick must also be provided in order to
facilitate the periodical casting of the skin ; failing these
convenient points of attachment, the skin will come off in
fragments instead of being cast in its integrity.

To take a snake out of the box, when he is not sufficiently
domesticated to be taken up with the hand, lift his body
with a hooked stick, and, as his tail glides over take hold
of it and deposit him on the floor or in a spare box. If you
wish to tame the snake, he must be taken out daily and
gradually accustomed to being handled; if you could
persuade him to drink milk, the offer of it would’ become a
great inducement to good behaviour. A cobra must always
be taken out daily and gradually tired out of his wildness,
but in the intervals of his performances he. should be left
alone and not worried. There is very little danger about
handling this snake, nerve is all that is required. I have

* Snake’s dung was, some years ago, of value ; about three shillings
per lb, was the price, if I remember right; it was used as a source of
uric acid for the manufacture of murexide, a brilliant purple dye.
This was shortly before the discovery of the aniline dyes.

137

very. little of it myself, and can never handle venomous
snakes with confidence; I have often envied: the nerve of a
friend in Rangoon, who, emboldened by the possession of a
fancied antidote in case of accident, handles cobras with
perfect freedom ; he puts his hand into a narrow-mouthed
basket containing several cobras, and picks out the one he
wants without the slightest objection on the part of the
snake beyond the usual hard swearing.

When the cobra is on the floor, squat down before him and
bring him to attention, if he is making tracks, by a smart
smack on the back; then, by a side-to-side movement of the
knees or gently moving in front of him a piece of chalk ora
rolled up handkerchief held in the left hand, he can be kept
steady for a long time, following your movements. If your
attention relaxes, he calms down and backs away; catch

‘hold of him by the tail or smack him on the back, and he
will come to attention again. Keep him occupied with an
object in front of him, and you may do anything to him;
place your right hand above his head, and you can bring
him flat to the ground, but without any attempt at resist-
ance. After he has stood up for some time, it is easy to
provoke a strike; this, however, is rarely done viciously,
and the injury inflicted is generally confined to his own
nose ; most captive cobras have their noses barked raw from
frequent hits against hard substances.

The country music played by snakes-charmers during the
cobra’s performance is, I need hardly say, quite superfluous,
and, from the very imperfect condition of the auditory
apparatus, it is highly probable that, far from enjoying music,
he has very little appreciation of sound. The Burmese put
him through the same performance without the aid of
music, and also without extracting the snake’s fangs, a
precaution generally taken by the Indian jugglers. These
men not only take out the fangs, but, aware of their repro-

18

138

duction, often cauterize the fang-matrix ; in some evidently
escaped cobras which I have in my collection, there is not
a, trace of fang or matrix.

A feast anda fast is more the custom of snakes than
frequent feeding; their prey is generally sufficiently large
to fafford their digestive organs exercise for several days,
and during this time they take their ease lying in wait for
another meal. The possibility of keeping snakes in captivity
entirely depends on their temper ; some snakes feed readily,
others are sulky and obstinately refuse food. Amongst the
latter are cobras; I do not know how they manage with
them in Zoological Gardens, but I have never seen a cobra
feed, and I think that, unless fed by force, he will starve
himself to death. The chain-viper Daboia is very sulky ;
if caught when in good case it will live for six months or
more without food or drink; but the cobra does not
survive its voluntary starvation for more than a month or
six weeks. Jugglers either feed their cobras by cramming
them with milk or curds, or else let them loose when the
lives of their captives are endangered; probably their
experience in snake-catching enables them to re-capture
their prisoners at a future time.

If a snake will not feed himself after being two or three
weeks in captivity, he must be fed. The most convenient
food for the purpose is fish; catch the snake by the neck,
the finger on one side, the thumb on the other; present the
head of a convenient-sized fish to him, he will easily be
induced to make a bite at it, then force it down his throat,
guiding the tail with a forceps when it comes within range
of the teeth. I need hardly say that the fish should not be
cooked, and need not be alive. If the snake, on being
released, throw up the fish,* you must begin again, and give

* A snake on being captured generally throws up any recently
indigested food, and some timid snakes must not be disturbed after
their meals lest their digestion be deranged in a similar way.

139

him two fish (on the chance of his retaining at least one)
and coax them gently down his gullet. Leaving the back-

fin untrimmed may also mechanically prevent the rejection
of the fish.

Most of the ground colubrine snakes feed freely in
captivity ; Ptyas mucosus especially is very eager at his
food,* and will bolt frogs of very large size. I feed these
kinds of snakes once a week; [ put two frogs per snake
into the boxes, and let them divide the total number
amongst themselves. Pythons need only be fed about once
a month; big frogs, chickens, or bandicoots are the best
food for them.

CHAPTER III.—TuHe Museum.

The collector will rarely be obliged to kill a snake for the
purpose of examination. He will generally have quite
enough snakes brought to him dead, and most snakes can
with very little trouble be identified while alive; he will
only have to kill snakes when they are quite new to him or
are rare specimens worthy of preservation. The best way
to kill a snake is to poison it or to asphyxiate it bya
narcotic vapour; interesting experiments may be made by
causing it to be bitten by venomous snakes, and an easy
and painless way of killing a small snake is to put it ina
sufficiently large bottle and pour in a few drops of chloroform.

* My attention was once drawn by the cries of four weaver-birds
( Ploceus baya) who were in a cage in my verandah. On going out I
found that a large Dhaman had lifted the lid of his box, carelessly
left unfastened, and had got out; but instead of making instant
use of his liberty, he could not resist the temptation offered by this
cage of birds; he insinuated himself between the bars, and was
bolting the second bird when I came to the rescue; he caught hold
of the third before I could secure him again.

140

If taken out directly insensibility is complete, the anesthesia
will remain for an hour or more, and then pass away with-
out injury to the snake ; but this temporary anesthesia
should, of course, be avoided. Another convenient way of
killing a snake without injury is by blowing into its mouth
a drop or two of the oil from a dirty tobacco pipe, or
administering a few drops of strong decoction of tobacco.
But the systematic collector will find that carbolic acid affords
the readiest mode of killing specimens for the museum. The
liquid should be passed down the throat of the snake by
means of a glass pipette about nine inches long. Twenty
drops thus administered will destroy a large cobra in a couple
of minutes. The snake is put to no apparent pain; it soon
shivers, becomes insensible and dies with paralytic symp-
toms.

When you have your dead specimen before you, you can
take down its description, diagnose it, draw or paint its
portrait (a plan strongly recommended to officers who are
disinclined to trail large bottles of specimens about the
country) or even photograph it; but photography is not, I
find, a very successful delineator of snakes, and it does not
give the slightest clue to the pattern of their coloration. The
only snakes which can be photographed successfully are
those with lustreless scales, suchas the Hydrophidw, some
Homalopside, and the Viperina.

Either the whole snake, or merely its skin, may be pre-
served ; of stuffing I do not speak; perhaps, on their arrival
in England some cunning taxidermist may be able to make
something better than a hideous sausage of your snake
skins,* but that is beyond the limits of my subject.

Snakes may be preserved entire by substituting glycerine
mixed with carbolic acid for the natural fluids of the body.

* Some sad examples of taxidermy applied to snake-skins may be
seen in the Madras Museum.

141

This process is, however, very troublesome, and I only use
it for small specimens and dissections; these keep perfectly
moist and fresh. One-eighth of carbolic acid added to the
glycerine is sufficient.

The other methods of preserving specimens are, either by
putting them bodily into spirit or other antiseptic fluid or
by preserving the skin only.

If spirit be used, it should be strong, about 40 degrees
over proof (sp. gr. 870). Brandy and arrack are not nearly

strong enough for the purpose. But considering that strong |

spirit is by no means easy to procure in India, that it
corrugates the tissues so as to render them difficult to
dissect, and that it weakens by evaporation thereby spoiling

the specimens, I prefer in all cases to use the following |

antiseptic fluid, namely, rum or arrack of the strength it is
usually made in India (20 to 30 under proof) to which I
add either 4 per cent. of carbolic acid or 2 per cent. of
earbolic acid and 1 per cent. of arsenic. The latter is the

best addition, but specimens preserved in this arsenical -

spirit should be dipped in water before being handled or
dissected, as the solution may blister the skin of the hand. -

If the snake is known by experience to be perishable in
spirit, it should be slit up and the whole of the interior
removed, otherwise a few incisions into the abdomen for
the purpose of removing any half-digested food and to let
the spirit penetrate everywhere will be sufficient, especially
in the case of small specimens. It should be removed to a
permanent location in fresh spirit after a week’s soaking in
the first or depdt bottle. Tree-snakes are particularly diffi-
cult of preservation, and, however great care be taken, their
beautiful colours generally fade, and their epidermis peels
off in a very annoying manner. Bright light is fatal to the
colours; the bottles should be kept covered up from the
light or a uniform dirty white will soon be the general

=

142
colour of the collection. Unless the stoppers of the bottles

fit very accurately, it is well to prevent weakening of the
spirit by sealing the stoppers with soft wax.

If you wish to show the teeth or poison apparatus of a
specimen, its mouth must be kept open with a gag before
putting it into spirit, as otherwise you will find it a matter
of no small difficulty to open the mouth after the muscles
have become rigidly fixed.

I think that the best collection is that where there are
two specimens of each snake, one in spirit, the other
consisting of the skin only; it is well to avail oneself of a
leisure day to dissect and skin a duplicate specimen instead
of simply popping it into a bottle.

Begin by dissecting the skin from off the head, taking
care not to cut further down than the subcutaneous tissue
if you want the head for subsequent dissection. Slit the
snake down from chin to tip with a pair of sharp scissors,
keeping carefully in the median line of the ventral shields ;
separate the skin carefully as far back as possible on each
side, and then take off the skin from the head downwards,
relieving the tension by frequent strokes of the knife on
the subcutaneous tissue. When you have skinned as far as
the vent, the skin must be carefully separated from its
anal attachments; and if it does not peel readily off the
tail, dissect it off rather than run the risk of breaking it.*

* The only snake whose body-skin comes off with difficulty is
Bungarus fasciatus ; the neural spines are so long and so firmly
attached to the vertebral row of scales, that each has to be separately
dissected out, no slight matter when two hundred have to be so
treated ; even then, button-holes will occasionally be made. In the
dhaman there is a most intimate union betwixt the tail and its skin ;
on coming to the tail, the skin must be dissected off, do not attempt
traction.

143

When the skin is removed, it must be pinned out with
the inner surface upwards on a board with a pin at every
3 or 4 ventrals, taking care to stretch the skin as evenly as
possible ; the subcutaneous and fatty tissue must then be
removed if the snake beat all of large size. The best way
to do this is to scrape from the cut edges of the ventral
shield towards the median line. When this is done, the
whole surface must be brushed over with a preservative
solution made by dissolving about half an ounce of corrosive
sublimate in a reputed pint bottle of spirit.*

This will coagulate any remaining subcutaneous tissues,
and will effectually preserve the skin against the attacks of
rats or insects. Do not get any on your nails, as it dyes
them a brown colour. Then complete the pinning out of
the skin with a pin to every one or two ventrals, according
to size, and let it dry in-doors until next day; it may then
be taken off the board and transferred to the collection.
Small thin skins may be gummed on to large sheets of
paper, the others are best kept between two boards, as they
otherwise curl up in the hot weather.

If it be desired to preserve the skeleton of a snake there
is no alternative between laboriously dissecting away all
the soft parts and obtaining the bones clean, but separate,
by means of maceration. After the skin, inside, and greater
part of the muscle has been removed, the snake should

* Corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) being often required
for these purposes, I may mention that it is procurable in the drug
bazaars under the name (Tamil) of Shavirwm. In Hindustani, the
name is stated to be Raskapir (meaning mercurial camphor) ; but
this name is frequently and more properly applied to a sulphate of
mercury. This substance is insoluble in spirit, and water changes it
into the insoluble yellow subsulphate (turpethum manerale) ; this
raskapir would have to be sublimed with common salt to change it
into bichloride of mercury. I have known many persons disappointed
at getting this substance when they wanted corrosive sublimate.

144

be placed in a pan of water kept, covered, in some place
where bad smells are of no consequence. The water should
be changed occasionally, and after about a month’s macera-
tion the bones will be obtained perfectly clean but entirely
separated; it is difficult even to save the skull from
separation into its component bones. It is said that placing
a dead snake in an ants’ nest will produce a perfectly clean
articulated skeleton, but this is hardly possible unless you
can ensure that ants and ants alone shall have access to
the specimen. I find that while ants are free enough with
things not intended for them, their predatory instincts are
hardly amenable to useful application.

CHAPTER IV.—SNAKE-POISON AND ANTIDOTES.

Ina preceding Chapter we have seen the structure of the
poison apparatus possessed by certain snakes and the
mechanism of its employment. A sketch of its effects is
required in order to complete the present brief account of
the subject.

When we take into consideration the entire series of
poisonous snakes, it will be seen that the toxic effect produced
by their bite varies considerably in degree and in quality.
For example, in the Australian genus Hoplocephalus the bite
of one species, H. curtus, is fatal to human life, whilst another
species, H. variegatus, can hardly kill the smallest quadruped,
and on man its bite only produces a violent headache which
may be averted by simply sucking the wound.* Amongst
Indian venomous snakes the Trimesurti, a genus akin to the
rattle-snakes of America are harmless against any but the
smallest animals though possessing a poison apparatus more
highly developed than that of the deadly Naga; the effect
too is different great swelling and some pain are the only

* Gerard Krefft, the Snakes of Australia, page 57.

145

sensations produced without any toxic symptoms, this
being just the contrary of the effect produced by the bite of
the latter snake. Nevertheless, if the bite be inflicted by
any snake of highly venomous character, the constitutional
effects appear to be much the same, that is to say, intense
depression of the vital powers followed by loss of conscious-

ness, convulsions and probably death. Bleeding from the
- mucous membranes of the mouth and alimentary canal is a-
frequent pathological feature. Experiments have always
been made on animals, and cases of snake bite from well
identified species come so very rarely under medical observa-
tion that our information is very incomplete.

The following is a sketch of it such as it is :-—

Naga tripudians, the cobra, possesses a poison fatal to all
vertebrate animals with the exception of a few other
venomous snakes; the harmless snakes mostly succumb to
its effect. It is hardly necessary to remark that a mongoos,
if fairly bitten by a cobra, most certainly dies. A fair bite
kills a dog in 5 to 60 minutes.* A man survives from two
to twelve or even twenty-four hours. If the bite isa fair
one, that is, made willingly and viciously by a vigorous
snake on a part uncovered by clothing, the quantity of
poison injected will almost certainly be sufficient to produce
fatal results unless active local measures are at once adopted.
Beyond a slight burning pain in the bitten part the patient
usually suffers but little.

It would appear from the following case, one of the few
extant in the records of white troops, that death may occur
in a healthy European after as little as two hours :—

“The death from a snake-bite occurred when the regiment

* One of Dr. Shortt’s experiments would seem to show that 4 grain
dry poison, equal to 4 drop of fresh poison, has no effect on a large
full grown dog, and that about 4 grain, equal to 14 drop of fresh
poison, is required.

19

146

was in camp for cholera. All the information I can elicit is
that the patient reported himself at 10 P. M., an hour after
the occurrence, and when the usual symptoms were rapidly
advancing, and died at 11 p.m. The blood on examination
was found to be dark and fluid; the wound was under
the right nipple ; and the snake was reputed to have been
a cobra,”—Annual Report of the 104th Regiment for 1862.*

Daboia elegans. Bites from this snake often occur in
Burma where it is rather common; I am informed that in
the Tharawadi district the Burmans when working in the
rice fields, wear stout boots in order to avoid unpleasant
consequences should they accidentally tread on one. It isa
sluggish snake, not easily provoked to bite. A case of death
from its bite occurred while I was in Burma in the person
of a strong gunner of the battery stationed at Thyetmyo.
The account which I received of the accident states that
“Soon after day break as he was entering the fowl-house,t
which is in close proximity to the barracks, he observed a
dark thick-set snake of about two and a half feet in length
[afterwards identified as a daboia] and that he took up a
piece of bamboo and began teasing it, whereupon the reptile
turned and bit him on the finger. The snake held on for a

* This case was the only one of the three Bengal deaths from
snake-bite amongst white troops during the period 1861-72 which I
was able to obtain. I succeeded in obtaining it through the kind
assistance of Surgeon-Major Gibbon, officiating Secretary to the
Inspector General B. M.8., Madras. The case is recorded in the
A. M. D. Bluebook for 1862 but with the remark “no particulars are
given.” The two other cases are not mentioned in the Bluebook for
the year. The only other case in India during the same period is
the Thyetmyo case recorded above.

+ Eggs are so dear in Burma that many soldiers keep fowls to
supply themselves and the officers with new laid eggs. The towl-house
is a small hut made of planks put roughly together, and a good deal
of rank vegetation usually springs up round it.

147

short time and it was with some little difficulty the man
shook it off*** The man came at once to hospital, beifig
advised by one of his comrades to do so, when on the way he
became very weak. The apothecary saw the patient on his
arrival at hospital. It is supposed that a lapse of 20 minutes
must have occurred from the time he received the bite until
he reached the hospital and nothing had been done mean-
while in the way of remedies. The Apothecary immediately
scarified the wounded finger freely, made the patient suck
the wound and administered ammonia.” For twelve hours
no prominent symptoms appeared beyond swelling of the
arm, restlessness and slight feverishness. Next morning he

was found in a state of collapse, soon became unconscious
and died 27 hours after the bite.

Bungarus arcuatus. Little is known about the effect
of the poison of this snake on man, for the snake is very
inoffensive and large specimens of it are rare ; out of 10,810
deaths by snake-bite registered in 1869 in Bengal and the
Provinces under the Supreme Government, 359 were ascrib-
ed to the ‘ krait.’ From experiments on animals it appears to
be as deadly as the cobra. A case of snake-bite admitted
into the Madras hospital in May 16th, 1871, the man having
been “ bitten by a snake the character of which he could
not recognize, on the dorsum of his left foot at 7 P. M. last
night’* is attributed by Dr. Shortt to this snake. The man
was admitted 9 hours after the accident, put on Dr. Shortt’s
potash treatment 17 hours after (when we may say that im-
mediate danger had passed) and recovered slowly from the
secondary consequences in four days. In the words of Dr.
Shortt, “This is the 8rd case of snake-bite cured by the
potash treatment, the two first were occasioned by cobras
and the present one by a Bungarus.”—(Madras Medical
Journal, May 1872.) The ground for the presumption that

* Dr. Paul’s Report, Madras Medical Journal, August 1871.

148

the snake was a Bungarus is that hemorrhage from the
mucous membranes was a prominent feature in the case.

Bungarus fasciatus is said by Dr. Fayrer to be some-
what less venomous than B.arcuatus. It is a much larger
snake; nothing is known about the effects of its bite on
man, as it belongs to the Malayan fauna and is very rare out
of Burma and Chittagong.

«

Ophiophagus elaps is so rare, even in Burma, that
accidents from it are not often recorded. According to the
available accounts it is as venomous asa cobra ;it is said that
an elephant bitten by it died in about three hours. Ihave
seen a Burman snake-catcher get bitten when playing
with one (fighting is the more correct expression as this
splendid snake was above 10 feet long and reared its
head at least a yard off the ground). He used his
ordinary remedy, chewing a dried vegetable pulp and
applying the quid to the wound and was none the worse
for the bite.* I may observe that this class of Burmans
are little affected by these accidents, and I believe thay
have a remedy against them. The nature of this I could
not find out; it is ascribed to the drug chewed, but I believe
that gradual inoculation of cobra-poison is the secret.f
This man, though quite careless about the bite of the cobra

* The snake was in perfect condition. I kept it for some time

but had to kill it on my departure from Burma ; its head is now in
my collection,

‘+t In the Madras Medical Journal for November 1870, I pointed
out the possibility of careful inoculation with the poison of a snake
being an antidote against the effects of a bite froma snake of the
same family. Since then, March to July 1871, Dr. Shortt appears to
have madelan experiment on this point. A dog was inoculated—on
18th March with one-sixth grain dry cobra-poison—on 13th May with
one-twelfth grains—on 18th May with one-seventh grain. No ill
effect was produced. On 4th July half grain was inoculated, and the

149

or the hamadryad, was very cautious in handling the
Daboia ; he considered that he was not proof against the
poison of that snake and said that a finger, the absence of
which I had observed, had been chopped off to save him
from the effects of a bite he had received in handling it.

The Callophides. Of the effects produced by the bite of
these snakes we know little or nothing. They are very small
and have such short fangs that fatal results are not much
to be feared. They are by no means common in India,

Sea-snakes. The Hydrophide are, as far as we know,
all venomous. A case is on record, where a sailor of a man-
of-war anchored at Madras, was bitten by a sea-snake 74
feet long while handling it. Two and a half hours after-
wards he was seized with black vomit and spasms of the
throat ; and he was dead in four hours after the bite.

These snakes are usually very inoffensive; though the
Indian coasts swarm with them it is extremely rare that
any accidents happen to the fishermen. Out of the water
they are blind and sluggish. In the following case, re-
corded by Dr. Fayrer, the person was bitten while bath-
ing, and curiously enough had not the slightest idea of
how his illness occurred until a Burman remarked that his
symptoms were those of the bite of a sea-snake. The case is
that of a ship Captain at Moulmain, who while bathing at
8p.M.-felt a bite which he thought was that of a crab.

dog died in 18% hours, the symptoms coming on slowly. But, as
Dr, Shortt observes, the experiment was irregularly carried out.

It may be asked why I do not make these experiments myself, The
reasons are 1° that I have a great dislike to anything like cruelty
to animals, 2° That in experiments on snake poison the slightest
approach to the discovery of an antidote appears to affect that part
of the brain in which phrenologists locate the faculty of judgment.
I do not wish to expose myself to the risk of this mental aberrance.

150

Up to 10 Pp. mM. he was quite well; in the night rigidity of
the muscles came on and at 4 A. M. vomiting. In the
morning at 8 o'clock, the bite, on the foot, was discovered ;
he had ‘Tigidity and spasms of the muscles all day. On the
next day he remained in the same state, at 6 P. M. spasms
set in and at 7 P. M. he died—49 hours after the bite.*

The treatment of the bite inflicted by the highly ven-
omous snakes is an unsatisfactory and a very unpleasant
subject to deal with, Amongst the medical men of India
and Australia who have made a speciality of snake-bite
and its treatment, several antidotes have been found and
used with great success by their respective inventors.
From the days of the Tanjore pill to the year 1873 the
story to be recorded is much the same. Numerous Medi-
cal men have found the external and internal administra-
tion of ammoniato bea specific; but experience on man
and experiment on animals have shown it to have little if
any effect. Dr. Halford, of Melbourne, proposed to inject
ammonia into the veins, and his treatment has been
adopted with great success by some Australian Medical
practitioners ; moribund persons rise at once, walk and eat.
Unfortunately there is another side to the question ; not in
a single case was there evidence that the snake was
of a deadly character, and it is well known that Austra-
lian venomous snakes have such short fangs that bush boots
or even ordinary cloth trousers are an efficient protection
against accident from them. Moreover the experiments of
Drs. Fayrer (Calcutta), Hilson (Bijnour) and Richards (Bala-
sore) on animals bitten by cobras show that the remedy
has not the slightest effect.

The treatment used by Dr. Shortt and which he claims
has cured the three men on whom it was used is the ad-

* Not 71 hours as stated by Dr. Fayrer, unless there be a mistake
in the dates.

151

ministration of potash internally and externally, by
draughts, enemata, fomentations, baths, &c. Suffice it to say,
that of the three cases thus treated, one was’ Dr. Shortt’s
own snake-catcher, the second was a pariah coachman
bitten in the evening by a snake which the man said
was a cobra, the third was the case attributed to the
bite of a Bungarus and to which I have already alluded.
In the first case the local treatment (incision and suction)
at once adopted appears to deserve more credit than the
antidotal treatment afterwards employed ; in the last two
cases the evidence is very unsatisfactory. Dr. Shortt considers
that potash neutralizes snake poison; brandy administered
along with it “roused the nervous system, excited the
circulation, and thus carried the potash into it as rapidly as
possible and enabled it to overtake the poison in the blood.”
—(Madras Medical Journal, May 1872). Unfortunately
for the theory as well as for the practice of the treatment it
does not succeed even in the hands of its inventor, for the
cobra-bitten dogs into the blood of which Dr. Shortt injected
potash died as surely as those into which he injected
ammonia or those he left alone. The only dog which
survived (and it had a narrow escape) was injected with
somewhat less than a grain of dry poison dissolved in two
drachms of water and then mixed with half a drachm of
solution of caustic potash.* Now we know that caustic
potash in tolerably concentrated solution destroys many
organic principles (such as that of hyoscyamus), so this
solitary exception is easily accounted for. A drachm of
Liquor potassee added to a draught containing hyoscyamus
would by destroying the narcotic prevent it from taking
effect, but there would be little chance indeed of draughts
containing Liquor potasse having any beneficial effect on a
patient who had taken an over-dose of hyoscyamus. It is

* Reports of Dr. Shortt’s public experiments, Madras Medical |
Journal, March, April, May, 1870.

152

evident that neutralization of the faintly acid cobra-poison
is quite ineffectual, for it is as readily neutralized by
ammonia as by potash; but as the former alkali has no
tendency to destroy it, cobra-poison mixed with Liquor
ammonie shows no diminution of activity whilst that
mixed with Liquor potasse may show an appreciable
diminution. If further proof were needful, I might mention
that the blood is sufficiently alkaline of itself to neuturalize
the acidity of any amount of cobra-poison.*

The last antidote proposed is to the effect that artificial
respiration and galvanism has been tried with success in dogs
affected by cobra-poison. This is evidently on the theory that
cobra-poison acts by paralyzing the respiratory muscles and
that artificial respiration will enable the patient to tide over
the crisis until the poison becomes naturally eliminated. This
idea, borrowed from Mr. Waterton’s experiments with the

* 1t may appear singular that a medical man should fall into the
error of supposing that the secretion of a salivary gland could consist
principally of an acid capable of being rendered inert by neutraliza-
tion with an alkali. But really what can we expect when we’ find
that Dr. Shortt’s notions on the gland and its secretion are so vague
that he imagines the former to be a little bag situated at the base of
the fang, capable of being removed not only without injury to the
snake but without any trace of the operation being visible except on
the closest scrutiny, and also capable of reproduction so perfectly
that the operation can be repeated once a month. (M. M. J., Nov.
1871, pages 346 and 347.) That this gentleman should have neglected
to prepare himself for his experiments by some study of ophiology
is so little credible that I quote the passages :—* Some [snake
charmers] go further and cut out that portion of the jaws which
contains the poison gland.”—“ My curiosity being excited, I examined
the mouth of the snake again more carefully, and found a small
cicatrix at the base and a little beyond the fang, and a more scruti-
nizing examination discovered to me that the entire poison gland
had been removed, although the fangs were left unmolested : and I
also learned that this operation of removing the poison gland is
resorted to once a month and that it was effected by an iron style.”

158

wourali poison, does not promise much ; indeed it has before
been tried without success. The wourali owes its toxic
_, effects to an alkaloid cwrarine producing muscular paralysis
by a specific action on the motor-nerves, whilst snake-poison
appears rather to act.as an animal ferment exciting diseased
action in the blood; the affection of the lungs is quite
secondary to that of the blood. The action of snake-poison
appears to be not ‘dissimilar in kind from that of mad-dog
poison; both are toxic principles residing in a natural
salivary secretion ; and the analogy will be more apparent if
it be remembered that hydrophobia has been produced in
man by the bite of a dog not apparently affected with rabies.*

My own opinion regarding the nature of snake-poison
may‘ be thus stated :—In certain’of the salivary glands of
snakes there is secreted a ferment analogous to the ptyaline
of the salivary glands of mammals. This ferment belongs
to the class of albuminoid substances in which several other
ferments are comprised, ptyaline, pancreatine, pepsine,
diastase, emulsine, &c., and like them its power is limited
(that is, it becomes exhausted when it has produced an
effect proportionate to the dose used, not being renewed at
the expense of the substance acted on as in the case of most
vegetable ferments). There are several kinds of it which

* Such cases are rare, but there is not the slightest doubt that they
occur. Since writing the above lines, I saw in the Lancet of 29th
March 1873, an account of a death from hydrophobia, in the person
of a medical practitioner in Jamaica; he had been bitten a few
months before by a pet dog, which was in perfect health at the time
of his death. Another case is recorded in the Madras Medical Journal
for March 1872. There is ample evidence that a dog free from any
symptom of rabies may secrete saliva producing hydrophobia when
inoculated in man; but there is no evidence to show whether the
secretion of the toxic saliva was spontaneous or consequent on the
bite of a dog either rabid or similarly affected. If it arose spontane-
ously, might not the property become hereditary ?

20

154

may be called elapine, viperine, crotaline, &e., accord-
ing to the snake by which it is produced. Its toxic effect
varies in each of these kinds and at present we have little
knowledge as to its mode of action. I am inclined to think
that, in the cobra-poison at least, the effect of the ferment
is to set up a diseased action in the blood rendering it
incapable of circulating through the lungs. Hence the
symptoms of death from asphyxia.

Considering that snake-poison can be obtained in consider-
able quantity and that it preserves its properties when dried,
one may reasonably be surprised that it has not been better
studied. Unfortunately sensationalism has invaded this
branch of medical inquiry and the prominence of the antidote
question has prevented the systematic examination of the
poison which would prepare the way for the discovery of the
antidote. There is no excuse for the neglect of systematic
examination of the subject in the course of empirical research
after a remedy, for this object,if attained, is by no means
so practically useful as would at first sight appear. One
might almost count on the ten fingers all the authentic
cases of venomous snake-bite which have occurred amongst
Europeans in India during the last half-century; and on
the five fingers all those attributable to accident only. With
the exception of the Army cases of which I shall presently

speak, I only know of one case where a European has been
bitten otherwise than through his own imprudence; he

recovered and the snake is said to have been acobra. Apart.
from the interest of the subject, when studied in a scientific
manner, I think that snake-poison experiments do harm by
keeping up a sensational excitement and by diverting medical
energies which would be far better employed in seeking a
remedy for diseases more obnoxious to Europeans in a week
than all the snake-bites of a century. Europeans do not need
antidotes, and the black population of India are out of their
reach. If all the real cases of deadly snake-bite which come

155

under medical observation in India were cured, the mortality
from this cause would not be reduced by one per cent.

The annual Indian mortality from snake-bite is stated to
be not far from 20,000.* This sounds alarming, but it must
be remembered that it occurs in a population of 251 millions,
nearly one-quarter that of the whole world. Reduced to
sober death-rates it signifies a mortality of 80 per million.
This number corresponds very fairly with the mortality from
the same cause in the Madras Presidency in which the
reported deaths from snake-bite are about 2,000 annually.

* In 1869 the deaths from snake-bite in Bengal and the Provinces
under the Supreme Government were reported to be as follows :—

Deaths. Population. Mortality per

million.
Bengal ... et “+ 6,219
Orissa... oe iss 350 60,000,000 111
Assam ... wis Sas 76
North-West Provinces... 1,995 28,350,000 70
Punjab ... as sis 755 17,100,000 44
Gule as as 1,205 10,800,000 1,
Central Provinces... 606 8,325,000 73
Burma ... sae ats 120 2,250,000 53

; 11,326 126,825,000 Average 88

. The population of the several provinces I have calculated by
deducting 10 per cent. from the numbers obtained in the census of
1872, as I find that the population of the Madras Presidency has in-
creased at the rate of about 3% per cent. annually since the last census.
In the document from which the number of deaths above given is
extracted, the total population is taken at 121 millions which gives
93 per million as the average death-rate from snake-bite. It will be
observed that the death-rate is least in Burma and in the Punjab ;
may this be from the manlier character of the people of these coun-
tries and from the absence of the domestic reasons for murder which‘
exist amongst the Hindoos? It is certain that Burma is more infested
with venomous snakes than any part of India, but a Burman would
not lie down and die as a soft-fibred Hindu might were he bitten by
a snake of slightly venomous character.

156

In 1869 they were 2,192 which, on a population of 26,600,000,
gives 82 per million.

Taking this rate for granted (although snake-bite covers
a multitude of suspicious deaths in the mofussil,) we must
still compare it with other causes of mortality; we thus
have for the Madras Presidency—
82 deaths by snake-bite, per million,
28 do. by wild beasts,
176 do. by drowning,
70 do. by other accidents,
17,400 do. from all diseases in a healthy
year,
(besides 300 to 8,500 do. from Cholera).

To give an instance of the purely sensational character
of the outery for the necessity of reducing the mortality
by snake-bite, I will quote the records of the British army
in India during the years 1860-71. In these twelve years
there were only four deaths by snake-bite but thirty-eight
from dog-bite. Taking the total strength for the twelve
years as a population of 717,592 Europeans for one year,
we find that the annual mortality amongst them from
snake-bite was at the rate of only 5°5 per million.* It is.
curious that whilst sensation has fixed on the mortality
from snake-bite, amounting to 82 per million in Indians,
and 54 per million in Europeans, nothing is said about the
53 deaths per million caused amongst Europeans by dog-
bite.+

* One of the four cases I have shown was from imprudence. (See
Appendix).

+ The perfect inefficacy of the war waged annually against the dog
population affords evidence of the hopelessness of attempting the
extermination of venomous snakes. Every town and village in
India is invested with dogs which are utterly useless, a great
nuisance and danger, and dependent entirely on man. Nothing

*

157

Though we are exposed to a horrible death, causing a
mortality amongst us ten times greater than that caused
by snake-bite, and perhaps twenty times greater if we
exclude accidents from imprudence, yet we take no heed
of the obvious and preventible danger, reserving all our
zeal for the comparatively insignificant and perfectly un-

preventible danger caused by the presence of snakes in the
land.

The time, thought, and money wasted on the chimerical
endeavour to reduce the mortality from snake-bite would
be better employed in diminishing the deaths from pre-
ventible disease. While it is authoritatively owned that
a million of lives could be annually saved by placing
quinine within reach of the whole Indian population, I
am ata loss to imagine how any one can obtain the ear of
Government to such a trifle as the mortality from snake-
bite. But the subject is a sensational one and there is
more rejoicing over a dubious case of cobra-bite recovered
than over a diminution of death-rate signifying a hundred
thousand lives saved. As long as Englishmen in India
wear their feet shod and their legs clothed the risk of
death from snake-bite is small indeed. I may thus exem-
plify it:—An Insurance Company could afford to pay
£1,000 in case of accidental death from snake-bite, for an
annual premium of one penny from each English person

would be easier than to exterminate the breed were the measure
vigorously carried out directly by destruction and indirectly by a
license-tax, yet any one can see that the rewards paid for dog-killing
are perfectly wasted and that the system is too often one of time
honoured peculation. If there is practically such difficulty in keeping
down the number of these animals, every. one of which is bred
amongst the habitations of men, how much more difficult must it be
to effect any appreciable diminution in the case of animals which
swarm in the country without attracting observation and are entirely
independent of man. ,

158

in India, As regards the Indian population, our philan-
thropy might, as I have before said, find better objects
than the mortality from a cause of which the sufferers do
not complain and which is practically unpreventible.

It may be asked, however, what is to be done in case a
servant is bitten by a venomous snake. Well, supposing
this very rare accident to occur (for the bitten man’s own
statement is not often worth much) the circulation of the
part bitten should be isolated as much as possible by a
string or twisted handkerchief tightly tied round it, the
wound laid open and vigorously sucked ; if it can be
cauterized at once either by a hot iron, the explosion of
gunpowder, a strong acid or alkali, this may be done—but
it is no use inflicting this painful treatment unless it can
be done immediately—which is practically all but impos-
sible. After this, let the patient take his chance, as it
is quite possible that the snake was not a venomous one or
that the patient did not receive a fatal dose of poison. He
may be perfectly certain that it was a cobra, or a kati
viriyan or amandali, &e., &c., &e., and yet it may have
been only adhaman or the harmless little Lycodon aulicus.
I never met an Indian who didn’t declare the latter snake
to be very deadly ; besides it is often very like Bungarus
arcuatus in coloration, and the length of its anterior
maxillary teeth might easily lead Europeans examining it
to believe that it possessed poison-fangs. From its habit
of lurking about dark places, it is often disturbed by
servants entering godowns and bath-rooms; the man treads
on it, feels that he is bitten, sees this snake scuttling away,
and then rushes out half-dead with fright, crying out that
he was bitten by a venomous snake. Every symptom of
really venomous snake-bite may come on; and in weak or
nervous subjects death might possibly occur. But in the
large majority of such cases remedies are applied, the patient
recovers, and the antidote used is in high repute.

159

In an average case of snake-bite the following points are
in favour of recovery :—

1° The person may have been bitten foeatigh clothing.
The penetration of a cobra’s fangs is hardly more
than one-eighth of an inch, never a quarter of an
inch, so that a very thin cloth will reduce the
depth considerably, perhaps sufficiently for the
apical orifice of the fang (which is nearly j, inch
above the point) to be scarcely beneath the sur-
face of the skin.*

2° The bite may have been a scratch rather than the
strong and vicious bite necessary for the injec-
tion of poison.

3° The snake may not have been of a venomous kind.
Unless the snake is produced and recognized as
a fairly grown specimen belonging to the kinds
fatal to human life, there is no certainty. The
statement of Indians is rarely worth anything.t

Of land-snakes, the cobra, the daboia and large specimens

of Bungarus arcuatus are practically the only Indian snakes

.dangerous to human life. In Burma the last mentioned
snake is replaced by B. fasciatus. fi

In anundoubted case of deadly-snake bite, I do not consider
that any good is done by other measures than the immediate
local treatment. There appears to be not the slightest use in

* Here is one fallacy of the Australian cures. The longest fanged
Australian snake has fangs about half the length of a cobra’s, so
that the penetration could never exceed one-eighth inch, and would
generally be about one-sixteenth ; the most flimsy cloth would in the
majority af cases prevent the bite taking effect.

+I have seen an intelligent Englishman, considered rather an
authority on snakes, declare that a Ptyas mucosus just brought to me
was a cobra; he even pointed out the poison-fangs.

160

the administration of stimulants; it is best to let the patient
lie quiet, giving him plenty of cooling drink such as lemon-
ade, soda water or effervescent draughts.

To illustrate how may chances there are in favour of the
bitten person, even when the snake is certainly venomous,
I may quote the following cases which occurred within the
last three months :

A kuruven who was in the habit of bringing cobras for
the Government reward, was bitten in the ball of the thumb
by a cobra whilst in the act of handing it to me. One fang
penetrated and the wound bled freely. By the time I could
dispose of the snake and get my instruments, at least three
minutes had elapsed. I tied a string round the base of the
thumb and with a sharp-pointed knife followed the track of
the fang down the wound, which had penetrated to its full
depth below the skin. I told him to suck the wound, which
he did in a very nonchalant manner. Not the slightest
symptoms appeared. In the meantime I took up the cobra,
which was in perfect condition, squeezed out the poison from
the glands and despatched it as usual. ‘By the time half an
hour had elapsed, the man got tired of sitting sucking his
thumb and went off. He has been perfectly well ever
since.

Two pariahs, who used to bring snakes, got drunk one
Sunday and were bitten whilst playing with the snakes they
were keeping to bring me on the morrow. They came to
me in great fright. One had two lacerated fang marks on
a finger, his hand being also swollen ; the other was slightly
scratched on the leg. The former had fastened a string
round the finger above the wound; the latter had done
nothing, the scratch being trifling. The seriously wounded
man wanted medicine; as the wounds were inflicted about
a quarter of an hour before, I did not see much use in inter-

161

ference, and as the man had a good quantity of arrack
inside of him I contented him by means of a draught of
water coloured pink with dentifrice lotion, and they soon
took their departure without any constitutional symptoms
appearing. The man’s hand was swollen when I saw him
next day. The cobra by which these men had been bitten,
and which they brought with them, was in perfect condition.

In these cases the cobras had evidently bitten without
injecting poison; I have no doubt that this happens
frequently and that many of the authentic recoveries
ascribed to antidotes are really due to the want of malice
on the part of the snake. Had I been an antidote enthusiast
I might have made some nice cases of cure out of these
accidents.

CHAPTER V:.—ScHEMES OF EXTERMINATION.

Ata time when Government is continually been urged
to undertake the extermination of the venomous snakes in
India, a few words on the subject may not be out of place.

The idea is, I consider, theoretically preposterous and
practically impossible of execution ; moreover, attempts to
carry it out result in the waste of public money sadly
needed for much more important sanitary objects.

The idea that Government is to spend large sums on pro-
teeting people from animals which a child can destroy by a
blow with a stick is preposterous. Rewards for the destruc-
tion of wild beasts one can understand, as the service
demands both courage and skill, but one cannot seriously
listen to a proposal the effect of which would be to turn
half the labourers of the country into snake-hunting loafers,
and to spend money which could be much more advan-
tageously employed.

21

162

The outcry against venomous snakes I have shewn to
be purely sensational, and the persons who raise it have
not the faintest idea of the waste of public money they are
urging on Government. A medical man who should know
better, writes, “is there no benevolent individual in this
Presidency who would give a few rupees to rescue the lives
of so many of our fellow-creatures so suddenly and rapidly
put out of existence ?”* and proposes to raise a subscription
fund, the interest of which should be expended for the
purpose of destroying noxious snakes (M. M. J., Feby. 1871).
One cannot but give credit to Dr. Shortt for wishing to
effect the destruction by voluntary subscription, however
much the proposal to wage warfare with Rs. 250 per annum
may remind one of the energetic old lady’s assault on the
Atlantic Ocean with her mop. The outery for the exter-
mination of venomous snakes is rarely so modest and, if
the system urged on Government were ever carried into
effect, the funds required would amount to many thousand
times as much as the above moderate estimate. But Indian
estimates are always small at first.

I will now give a few facts to show the utter absurdity
of these schemes and the waste of publie money caused by
the sensational outcry against the ravages of venomous
snakes.

In Bancoora, a small district of Lower Bengal, no less

* Dr. Shortt, who writes to the above effect, and says that a snake
which has bitten one person “is permitted to use its deadly fangs
on many more” (as if there were man-eating cobras going about) has
the sense to own that “even if an antidote sure and certain in its
effects as a remedy, be discovered, it would not save the lives of the
hundredth part of the people who are now killed by snake-poison ;”
that isto say, that not one Indian in a million would be on the
average benefited by the discovery (the mortality from reputed snake-
bite being, as we have seen, considerably under 100 per million
annually).

163

than 44,450 venomous (?) snakes were brought in for
reward between May 29th and December 7th, 1869. As
the reward was for the greater part of the time at the rate
of 4 annas a head, not less than Rupees 10,000 must have
been spent in this attempt at extermination. Let us now
make a little calculation; the district swept of snakes being
that immediately round the kucherry, could hardly have
been more than 100 square miles in extent but let us say 150
square miles; now supposing that this extermination were
earried out all over India, an extent of about 1,500,000
square miles, we should have 10,000 such areas each costing at
the rate of Rupees 17,000 per annum for snake extermination,
thus making a total item of 1,700 lacs of rupees in the annual
budget. I have estimated the snake-yielding area of
Bancoora very liberally ; supposing it to be only 15 miles,
a more probable extent, there would be 100,000 such
areas.

It may be objected that the Bancoora snakes could not
all have been venomous. Granted; they were probably not
so, but we cannot make a department of ophiologists to
superintend the disbursement of rewards, and must needs
confide it to the civil authorities: Supposing the rewards
were in every case to be disbursed by an officer versed in
ophiology and devoting his whole time gratuitously to the
extermination—then really venomous snakes would alone be
paid for; but the rates must, of course, be higher than when
any snake is accepted as venomous on the dictum of a
kucherry peon,* and from my experience in Bangalore I may
say that it could not be fixed at less than four annas. Now, in

* I found that in the Bangalore municipal snake extermination of
1871 about 5 per cent. of the snakes paid for were really venomous.
In the present year, the destruction was transferred to me by the
Mysore Government for experiment and report. Every snake re-
corded in Appendix B was examined and registered by me.

164

Bangalore, a station where Rupees 550 were spent in 1870
and Rupees 500 in 1871 on this very object, no less than
1,400 venomous snakes were brought in for reward (1,225
to myself) between Ist May and 30th September 1878.
In August they were brought in at an average of 32
daily, and the expenditure became so great that the reward
was reduced from 8 annas to 3 annas. Notwithstanding
this reduction, the venomous snakes still come in (at the
present date) though at a slower rate, and I have not the
slightest doubt that for years to come 2,000 cobras annually
could be produced by the 20 square miles comprising
Bangalore and the immediate neighbourhood. From obser-
vations on the numbers of cobras produced at each breeding
season and the small extent of the ground actually
hunted over in the destruction of the 1,400 cobras, I
estimate the cobra population of this station at 1,000 to each
square mile; Bangalore is, however, no worse off than the
average of other parts of India the only difference is that
the cobra is nearly the only venomous snake found in
Bangalore (See Appendix) while in coast stations venomous
snakes are generally more numerous and in greater variety.
Now with a venomous snake population which I may
fairly estimate at an average of 1,000 per square mile, four
times the human population, the cost of exterminating the
breed can be readily calculated. In these hard times a lac of
rupees cannot be thrown away ; hundred of lacs would have
to be spent before any diminution in the venomous snake
population could be appreciable. One slight compensation
might be found; a good deal of the money spent in rewards
would return to Government in the shape of duty on
spirituous liquors.

165
CHAPTER, VI}.—SNnAKE MYTHOLOGY.

In nearly every part of the world there exist legends show-
ing the wonder, fear, and veneration inspired by snakes. In
many instances the ophidian nature of the legend is hidden
by changes and overgrowths, but it can generally be traced
to the form it possessed in other times or countries. Most
of these legends are of distinctly Asiatic origin, evidently
carried by Aryan or Turanian emigrants to the countries
they peopled ; and nowhere can they be better studied than
in India where the habits of these races have changed com-
paratively but little. The Amravati sculptures show Tura-
nian (Dravidian) people worshipping the many-headed
naga, and Mr. Ferguson in his work on Tree and Serpent-
worship considers that this form of religion is essentially
Turanian and was abhorrent to the Aryan race. This, how-
ever, is more than doubtful. All that can be said with
certainty is that whilst the aboriginal and the Dravidian
races of India are strongly disposed to serpent-worship pure

-and simple, the veneration of the Aryan races for the serpent
is largely caused by its having become a phallic symbol
with them. In the early ages of man, serpents naturally
became endowed with supernatural attributes and shared
‘with the heavens and meteorological phenomena the awe of
the superstitious. The mysterious death caused by the
venomous kinds, their silent gliding motion, and the curious
periodical casting of the skin inspired probably the first feel-
ings of idolatrous worship and, exploited as these have been
by the priest-craft of all ages, uncivilized man still looks on
snakes with awe. whilst civilized man, often not less igno-
rant, regards them with fear and hatred.

Whether in consequence of occurrences similar to that
recorded in the story of Tiresias or simply from priestly

166

devices, the serpent early became connected with phallus-
worship and thus acquired still greater religious significance.
In the Mexican tradition of the serpent-mother of mankind,
in the Hebrew legend of the temptation of the first woman,
in the Karen story of her cohabiting with the python, in the
Sanskrit account of the churning of the ocean by means of
the eternal naga Ananden, we find the serpent occupying a
similar place in cosmogony and the origin of the human
race. This phallic symbolism of the serpent took consider-
able development and was adopted in nearly every religion
of antiquity. It was introduced, with many other heathen
symbols into christian rites, its phallic source being masked
by its significance of eternity, of the resurrection, &c.*

When by the ‘ decentralization’ of the attributes originally
belonging to the Hindu Trimiirti, each member of it, or
two of them at least, became invested with the powers of
creation, preservation and destruction formerly allotted
separately to the three members, we find the symbolical
serpent sharing in the multifariousness of functions and
appearing as a symbol of the three supreme attributes ; he
is a creator, a preserver,a destroyer. In the phallic form
of serpent-worship the creating and preserving attributes
are adored, and this worship widely spread in India is found
in other countries, even in Germany. Considered as a
destroyer, the serpent-demon inspires no less awe than the
serpent-creator and guardian obtains reverence. The monster
emerges from the waters to devour women, the night-dragon
tyrannizes over the earth and is slain by solar heroes. The
christian devil, bearing an Aryan name and an adaptation
of Siven’s tristil, ends in a serpent’s tail. In modern times,
especially in Kurope, where snakes are less common than
in Asia, the phallic form of serpent-worship is often dis-

* See the curious notes on this point in de Gubernatis’ Zoological
Mythology.

167

guised by its transference to fishes; the snake (anguis) is
replaced by the eel (anguilla), the twin-serpents of Mercury*
by the twin-fishes sacred to Venus.

Hindoo mythology constantly refers to the Nagas, a race
of beings intermediate between snakes and men and cor-
responding to the fallen angels of Semite mythology; they
have a king, the eternal serpent Ananden or Vasuki, also
called Nagendren, Sarpendren,+ &c., &c.; they live in a
world or Lokum of their own, the capital of which is
Bhogavati. The affinity of these Nagas to snakes, especially
to naga the cobra, is one practical reason of the respect
paid to snakes by Hindoos; for the Nagas, like fairies and
demons, are very malicious, though beneficient to those
who pay thei proper respect. An injury done to naga
the cobra would, in the mind of a good Hindoo, certainly
bring down on him the vengeance of the Nagas.

The apparent contradictions constantly met with in
Hindoo mythology owing to the decentralization of the
Trimirtic attributes extend also to the mythical snakes.
Thus Siven, in his destroying personation, wears a necklace
of nagas emblems of death; but as destruction is only
apparent and results in the re-appearance of force and matter
in new shapes, he is also a creative power and is adored
as such under the symbol of the lingam, with which the
snake in its phallic aspect is closely connected. Again,
Vishnu is called by many names significative of his reposing
on the great snake Ananden, whilst his vahwm (carrier)
Garuden, king of the birds, is known by names derived
from his enmity to snakes. The great snake Ananden or

* “Preller and Kuhn have already proved the phallical signification
of the caduceus (tripetélon) of Hermés, represented now with two
wings, now with two serpents,” (de Gubernatis, vol. ii, page 399).

+ With Sarpendren, King of serpents, compare Sapengro in the
Gipsy language.

168

Vasuki, sometimes represented as the supporter of the
world is said to have accompanied Vishnu in his avatars.
According to this view, Lakshmanen, Ramen’s brother, and
Balaramen, Krishnen’s brother, were both avatars of the
snake Ananden.

Krishnen when bathing in the Kavery river, was attacked
by a great snake named Ka4liyen, but he vanquished it and,
on its submitting, condemned it to exile.*

In Mysore there is everywhere to be found most distinct:
evidence of serpent-worship being of a phallic nature.
Nearly every tope of trees about Bangalore contains a group
of stones with figures of snakes sculptured on them ; most

people observing these would imagine them to be ‘samy-
stones, mere peace-offerings to demons. They are in reality
votive offerings set up under the following circumstances :—

A barren woman desirous of offspring bas three stones
carved and deposited with certain votive ceremonies in the
well of the house. Should her barrenness cease the stones
are taken up and placed with much ceremony (including
presents to priests) on a mound made-between a peepul
(Ficus religiosa) and a neem tree (Azadirachta indica) ; for
this purpose a young neem tree is generally planted near
a full grown peepul tree. The middle stone bears the
image of the goddess Balyama or Minachi (the fish-god-
dess) a personification of Parwadi, wife of Siven ;} the lower
half of her body is scaled and ends in a fish’s or serpents’

* This episode is often seen in temple sculptures, Krishnen
stands on the serpent’s head holding its tail in his uplifted hand.
In correct pictures Kaliyen is represented as a spotted water-snake.
But there is a story that the spectacles on the cobra’s neck are the
marks of Krishnen’s feet, and Hindu artists who accept this account
often make Krishnen stand on the cobra’s head as a pedestal.

+ According to some accounts Miniachi was an avatar of Ananden
who accompanied Vishnu in his fish-avatar as in the Ramen and
Krishnen avatars.

169

tail. One of the side stones is sculptured with the figure of
the sesha, a five or seven-headed cobra (a representative of
Ananden) the other bears the twin-serpents of Mercury’s
caduceus. On one of these figures, generally in the upper-
most of the rings formed by the entwined pair of snakes, is
the lingayoni, the combined generative emblem of both
sexes; and in another ring is a radiated circle which, I
imagine, represents a cluster of snake’s eggs.*

The legends on the subject of snakes, especially the naya,
are endless; the following basilisk-myth which I gathered
in Malabar, is an example out of a number.

When a cobra finds a pot of gold (the naga demons are
guardians of under ground treasures) he lies down on it and
guards it; the gold shrinks, and after many years concen-
trates itself into dust and a single luminous gem of immense
value called the mdnikkum. By this time the cobra has
also shrunk to a small size, he takes the manikkum in his
mouth and flies away to bathe, his track being shown by the
radiance of the gem. Shooting stars are thus. accounted
for. He goes to bathe in the north-sea. It is considered
unlucky to see him flying North, but lucky to see him
returning from that direction.

Sometimes this cobra is killed for the sake of the manik-
kum. To ascertain the value of the gem, gold is poured
over it; it floats on the surface of the gold until its full
value has been poured; it then sinks.

Some of the stories told about the sand-snakes Gongylo-
phis conicus and Eryx johnii appear to be connected with
asolar myth. These stories originate in the old idea of

* Compare de’ Gubernatis on the reverence in which snakes are
still held in some parts of Germany as domestic guardian genii,
bestowing welfare and fruitfulness on the family, especially its

female members,
22

170

the Amphisbena, a snake. supposed to wallx forwards and
backwards with equal facility ; its extremities were also
supposed to exchange functions every year, and it died
on producing its young. The ‘double-headed’ snake is
manufactured by snake-jugglers and exhibited to the
credulous, European or Indian.

The fiction of the ‘male cobra’ (Ptyas mvucosus) and the
many marvels told about venomous, or supposed venomous,
snakes do not demand any notice; as far asI have seen
their absurdity is not redeemed by any interesting circum-
stance of origin.

The reverence paid to the négam is dying out in India
with the decay of the Hindu religion, but it is still wide-
spread. It is considered a lucky thing if a cobra takes
up its abode in or near the house and the snake is pro-
pitiated by offerings of eggs and milk; if it does not
consume these, it yet appears to appreciate the feelings
which prompted their offer and to refrain from any injury
to the occupants of the house. It certainly does good by
keeping down the rats. Accidents sometimes happen from
a person treading in the dark on one of these half-tame
cobras, but they are by no means frequent, and the Indians
who do not regard the cobra with feelings of love at least
have sufficient respect for it not to wantonly incur the
vengeance of the serpent-demons by doing it harm.*

In Malabar the legend of Parasuramen teaches forbear-
ance towards the naga. According to the Kéralolpatti,
Parasuramen (an incarnation of Vishnu) standing on the
heights which then formed the coast of the Western sea,

* Of course I speak here of respectable Hindoos ; for amongst the
pariah castes and the aboriginal tribes commonly known as ‘jungle
people,’ there is no hesitation in killing a cobra for the sake - of the
reward. Butin the absence of this motive, even these people show
towards snakes the passive humanity usual to Indians.

171

threw his hatchet into the sea; it flew as far as Gokarnam,
and so far the sea receded, all along the coast. He then
rendered the land stable by foundations of gold and brought
in Brahmins from different countries; but the newly formed
land was so infested with snakes that the colonists would
not stay and returned to their own countries, leaving
Keérala to the Nagattanmar (nagas or naga-demons). Para-
suramen went in search of new colonists, and having brought
Arya Brahmans he divided the land into 64 gramams,
(parishes) and in each allotted a part to the snakes. , He
ordered that the snakes should be propitiated by pija and
regarded as household divinities, and this being done the
colonists were troubled by them no more.

When we find “legends of this kind interwoven with the
religion and history of the people it is not to be wondered
at that destruction of snakes is as unpopular with them as
it is popular with us. Snakes do us no appreciable harm
but the majority of English people hate them for religious
reasons as much as the Hindus venerate them for religious
reasons ; however, before we attempt to carry out our
fanatical or prejudiced hatred of them, it is well to see
whether such measures might not possibly be injudicious,
from a moral point of view, as well as impotent and wasteful
of public money. The Hindu religion is decaying from
contact with western civilization, the veneration for snakes
is dying out, and, before long, whenever these become
a decided nuisance, people will at once proceed to thin their
numbers without scruple and without the incitement of
reward. In the meantime let snakes be studied by the light
of science, free from the influence of legend and prejudice.

172
APPENDIX A.

Table showing the mortality from Snake-bite and from
Dog-bite amongst White troops in India in
the 12 years 1860-71.

k ; Deaths from Dog-bite.
Year. | Strength. ere ToraL.
Bengal. | Madras. |Bombay. P
1860 64,455 Siig 4 1 i. 2 7
1861 | 57,082 oe 1 a 1 2
1862 | 63,713 | 1 (Bengal) 3 1 2 6
1863 | 67,525 | 1( do. ) 2 1 : 3
1864 | 65,102 an 3 1 1 5
1865 62,589 2 2
1866 58,901 2 2
1867 | 56,896 | 1( do. ) 1 ds a 1
1868 | 52,887 | 1 (Madras)*} 1 ive Me I
1869 ; 55,988 me 1 ise as 1
1870 | 55,380 “ie a) 4 es 3
1871 | 56,974 oe 4 1 ie 5
Tovat| 717,592 4 26 6 6 38

* In Burma which is garrisoned from the Madras Presidency.

The total deaths from all causes (including deaths of Invalids on
the voyage home) amounted to 19,182 or 26'7 per thousand (26,700
per million) annually.

The deaths from snake-bite were atthe rate of 5} per million
annually.

The deaths from dog-bite were at the rate of 53 per million
annually,

173

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- 175
APPENDIX C.

List of common snakes fownd about BANGALORE and
RaNGoon.

Bancatorg, (Mysore).
Atretium schistosum.
Bungarus aporatien not common.
Cyclophis calamaria.
Cynophis helena.
Dipsas gokool.*
Dadoia elegans. !

not common.

Echis carinata,
Gongylophis conicus.
Lycodon aulicus.*
Naga tripudians.*
Oligodon subgriseus.
Ptyas mucosus.*
Passerita mycterizans.
Simotes russellic.
Tropidonotus quincunciatus.*

T. stolatus.*

T. plumbicolor.

Zamenis fasciolatus,*

Ranooon, (Pegu/).
Bungarus fasciatus.*

B. arcuatus, occurs, but rarely.
Compsosoma radiatum.
Chrysopelea ornata.

Dendrophas pictus.
Dipsas multimaculata.*

Daboia elegans.*

‘Homalopside, various.

Lycodon aulicus.
Naga monocellata.*
Ophiophagus elaps.
Python reticulatus.
P. molurus, occurs, but rarely.
Ptyas korros.*

P. mucosus, occurs, but rarely.
Psammodynastes pulverulentus,
Stmotes bicatenatus.

S. cruentatus.
Tropidonotus quincunciatus,*

T. stolatus.*

T. subminiatus.
Tragops prasinus.
Trimesurus carinatus, dc.*

XAenopeltis unicolor.

* Very common,

Ablabes baliodirus ....ss.ccsec cc secvaccoesencen cee soe sca senses eeseseve ces 76
rappii a atnle iso Scie fbW away oid a elerne Cede areas ies ine soe bw sya earcesroan:besmiedmea nee ab.
b1GOl OM pastases sss Seiecne Soetace Vaccaese ge inennmiceead eeeactean statety once ab.
OLLVACEUS +++ ee see cee ece see see cen tne nee senses eee cee cesses secon ses cea cae eas 77
sagittarius odassiue-svevaeileeaed inven eds eidenieaalugin ui wens veiivetuoaponinte cameras ab.
TUNA DER ED sss srs ove orsand ocnieaaseeecdussned stadauneecantaitonraceemes 0.
COU ATIS sesiis nse ns ssevaarasccneun nates oonypeeesan va dudereebransn ve beruemoet ab.
imelanoce phalus sscerecss sie sts covveadescaeceacecsemeceoadedaeeeuanasis ab.
DICODATICNSIS «ss sevsiaeaaisewevesseee secu estadceevanencaneiiae veers viens cas

Acalyptus superciliosus 00... .0ssecsccesceecencescee see sanens seu eaeseesee

ACHOCH OT Id Bis swnissinsayeas eons spe seis somnsrevnaearareneteee GGG OR soutien RSE ave 37,52

Acrochordus javanicus ....c.ssccsscscceserecestanseceasceessncestenseg ees 52

Aipysurus anguillaeformis ......cc.sccssceecensascerceecessseseereeereees 112

Aspidura brachyorrhos............ ii claitie asians aedises ceetwyevtaoindenaatiusdss 59
i AGO os sows ss dos veen cece coven ax saamacnins ns susie she Dacenvateureeeseceseye ab.
trachyprocta: sviciss.sccsseeesccisssiaeesscoseneeesavervvevevere aeenaeves ad.
Atretium schistosum, Plate XIV. .......cccssscessesscesssscsseceeseeee 95
Blythia reticulata .........cccsssseeeeeees deieewena i sisi ds asia eeaangeae cutee 60
Bungarus arcuatus (ceruleus), the Indian bungarus, Plate XIX. 108
fasciatus, the Malayan bungarus, Plate XIX ......css we 1D
ceylonicus ........ bsigapagdsisen va bates Gadapeveveseesacnadupesseanicacvetes ab.
semifasciatus ........... Nitric 109

Cadinus. sivaciiinsicisccietaraeis riiinarnnvawininTs 96

23

178

Calamaride w.criccresevevecee isteraaaweureapawennmdduasveadaantenntaniades bee
Galamarias -S1 aI CNSIS iiedee savesssaacicatiaresoewe guy einen rausledesmelecsirasinedsics
GACT Ma Calabar, wes ne sensi ncteeseune ooesougweeume sive cdeceeumeueanse
ALDI VENLCT? Secdecnossca canna sea teen adneeee eens tesiewonastieeen te caeedeaens,
MICTO=ANDG, ccawsiccensnesiecae desta cdievddenees caren meencessanmaasaass weal
Teucoce pala: «.issuteinsdsiens caureceaweae ck smasabeus eoncenies sepesoeine
CAPCOM TA gccecissidecae bans Gindscaegecee ase ai seee ceeevecewoeens caseesuntens
Callophis bivirgatus ...........0scescceee age ew av awvaeavea er oe deeeadeeeeens
IDCEStINGNIS: to svsececaedesavetseavee se eaetate sete ersveceaeertereteeeveress
PVA CIS: sissies ieeciealt oasdesheecdenedeadaneas dba blbledaeadsaasameueaientics
POritali nests 22 ec sis Aish ocdetebuewte test tacdoede tanleodesevacareeses
WMaCClel ANA ss os his ccs sespeaae wetdedenevaeiacsacserbeeeseenenceaet ss
annularis; Plate: XIX. sscesssavesivissassrvvseveenvsiesestenverescee
trumaculates -casecdscieevassansdacnsbiine yaraksveess eererteanawases sean

nigrescens
Calloselasma rhodostoma.......csscsscesscsscrsecvecseseseneecescescasceece

Cercaspis carinata .......0....scceeeecceeeeees Sesusuviwseenindeeas peseweee tee
travancorica

rt ee ee ee ee eee ree ers

Cheraydrus Granwlatyss oc cinssasseaienscevarcenensooternancsusacceduneiaenes
Chrysopelea ornata, the Golden tree-snake, Plate XVI ........... :

PUDESCOMS 555 cunke sesasceavassteancecerde unc gedsGeaagadeszeceangeaseees is
Coluber rufodorsatus

DUCHIS os sevedenice soduenis cade tues ob se vanetaeucas gossasaubessensieevenceasaa

Colubrina
Compsosoma radiatum, the Red dhaman, Plate XII

Me]ANULUM ........csecseeseessesceeceeren Jane aseincnucenahans Ve samataonte
reticulare

COO OS Ooo Senn nn nnn eS et he. eet er rt iid

OU BSORLL -Sebuistecis dee east na aenaey ie wry siiadseticclane sles eSaeweaay
Coronella orientalis
Coronellina sluscaiew eaupetee nea wGbd cenen aucaisniseuueeen weuseeaay demeeeees
CHOTA 2. anesi Sass cin BSc gaegan vi seae ine <vavadinye cea dasdauaeicetccieend ne
Cursoria elegans

Page.
38,57
57

ab.

58

179

Cyclophismajor: sic chi ics iudie atten 98
Prsen a bus we csevars teehee es aha ck cae vas ce dtedseeceeaiaevdeneteonchasneaiee ab.
PUDLIVENED sesvssivcssscene steven ssa ves ss sos snc tasedidevsavnva ced sadsioves ab.

Cylindrophis rufus +.....scceceeseeteesee see teetsetee sssesetesransenssees 49
maculatus ....6. wee. saijes ecueasavs docaearssniieeneianensaie’ 2b.

Cynophis helena, Plate XU . iciiinetien naremee "St
malabaricus .....-... i sianiysgaalhs ab.

Daboia elegans (ws, the Chain-aper, "Plate XX... wae 124

Dendrophide .. seveafvsauegeatees sbegaeveoversy, 40:96

Dendrophis pitas, the Blue trecsnae, Plate XVI. sees 98
caudolineatus «..-.. ++... sedpiv deaseneeqaueee’ ab.

Dipsadidee .....+++. bee peeecetel creates tinea ete bates oe. 40,100

Dipsas Cyn0don «+++ seeseecesseeree cee reeseeceecessetseeceecoessereeceesssnes LOL
FOLSEGINT: .-ceceaeiede Von deeiesa’sae: wyteetehpvalsusnce Pagh we custeosisswecvesivutes ab.
poops Pe ReReWareeeve siive Waslesaite o Nexseelbagiodeiees te csousesiseumecieascopectee ab.
Gendrophila .se-ssseeceeseetesces tee cencseeescenteeceetassasssrtescsstes OD,
bubalina -- sees : ae ab.
mulimacelate a Baja oes diesen Plate XVI... tb.
ETIGONALA -0e eevee censee ces see eee cencententesseeceteanseceveressrersneeneee — 10D
sonlettieciatn: laa teaeentes Seaxwecewes pisaueuss ab.
gokool, the Common — ireassncile, Plate XVI. we OD,
ceylonensis -.- ois einige eisahaie sina welsiea cise seis joe sinelapens ayacewersee 103

-Disteria doliata..-. Suess Sadie tns ies earsiieesineie mio: 112

Dyin wsereernereecnesen castes senseerennencee cee cereascnscestenlanseesenees 40,87

Drytophide cesta sancan cee seesneses cea canes coe seeee seeceerseqen as rescenees 40,99

CEcchis carimata scvsssscssssceesecsentessencesceetescesseetersessasssesssceeses 194

Blachistodon wWesterMmanni.cs....0.-cereeseeseecesseesee cee tee res cor sae tes 80

Ellaphis dione -.+s++-eeceeses eee see nee cee ee cee age cae see cee cee ten sae cen cee eas 82
GAULOMALECS 20sec cence secs cas ses cae ten ves settee cee nen ene eas cee cee cwa ses ab.
$ONIUTUS as seavdieences ver esessewanes ieeceeen sw eedeasesies tiswedace coe 83

OQUAGE: voecccvcccacoraseaavessevesssesaanoaneeseneperesiseusavsevearenuiantieea 41,104

._Enhydrina bengalensis, Plate X........sssesessessssneerenes ddphonssenaes 118
SCHISCOSA ceescsrecccesceeceeeoees ere (Actin aba caste lace Tis . 119

Erycidee seevevvees stessteereeeseeesconees BZ5L

-Eryx johnii, the Black sve cana Plate Ix... wcmvciases SL

Falconeria bengalensis......sesssssetescaeree senses see tae eee see sen cen tee aes 60

SFreramia SicbDoldil sc. cce ccs cee sen cee cee eeneee son tetegg (08 tee see sae see cesnee tae 63

Fordonia unicolor, Plate K.ses.+sesseecsscercer cee setae cer ue nee as nae eee 61
bicolor... ...... ++ sagaediuhs nallsoneGaaineees eatcaieetes 2b.

Geophis irene Plate VIL . wi ubiatde tag agaNaveuneen ves 59

‘

180

Gerarda bicolor, Plate X -

Gongylophis conicus, the Red sonb-onale Plate IX
Gonyosoma ad aa Sesiide dhedbaiteuiedevseainaauvess

gramineum.. d PSateade ya dewaedoesaceumedeaieans

EPeNAUM. sees: siesee ces evewsenis veviseaed casovevenconsersisenseesveyes
Halys Dlomhoff it «1. .scsccseeseecence ese cee cee cen seeceesenceecee cee sencne cas

Thimalayanus o-.-1.-ceseecee cae cee een cen sees

Haplocercus ceylonensis «......+. Seaviigice’s Duaaea@aicte tee eeaseeneeremseanes
Herpeton tentaculatum ......scsseereereeceeseers
Heerpetoreas sicboldii ......-.-:2esee cesses sce see see con seecoerenes
Hipistes hydrinus -ssssccsssseseeceneescee cee serene nen cae cee ees

Homalopside

Homalopsis Duccata.....ssecscscscescenses con ceeseecee cesses ceases cae tan tes

Hydrophis jerdonii ....21 cesses sonsee sea cee sereee

TNOJOL soe sec eeecescee cee cae cee cen snesae nee ran soe tae sesaen sen cesses soe nee see
PO DUS: <sserca ders sives seaivetign s Mlaswende ouasesues Deuieas vou steve esa gies
PelCherd «++ e+e veces ses cenvoeces cos see conten ves tee concen ten senses ces ee

aspera»

apiedlie.

cyanocincta, Plate x.
elAaNOSOMA «++ -ee ences reecen ces vne

SUDCINCER) cain ca theses eed deascenes svedsenns see sen araenease seers cn sentes
MIQVOCUNCLA ++ see see seecee gee see senses eee tenses ences ses cee cue en senses eas
CLELANS eeceereeree see cenceeceevee nen een cee tencee ones

torquata -....

CHIOVIS 0. 200 ses sec cee see car son eee see sen ens cae ceesons

ALLICEPS cee reeveesae ree ee

Tatifasclata vies. svedecscccacesdeesad ver tostaries

COLONNADE is caivsicte tee seviensinasieic dies Ved tee vosianwiousedeawerr cise de’ sessuibas

Cia eMMais sess siccsvessices sae coeses

QVACLLIS vee ee senses cee sen eee tances cen aee tenses cee tae cen eae cannon eae ens

fasciata ...

lapemoides s.seversscsrsrerserescerreecer sees

oem ween ree cee cee nee

Hydrophis longiceps..... cscs cesses ceases cesses cae sen tas sae sneees cae enenes
Stricticollis sia sever yecnieasncuoare soeesseoneeresiess sek eoanesennecantuss

OTNALA .0. ccc ces cas con cons

181

QL OGE ssi cos cacess wey sits tev aba a etuecaas ebausgiaibenernseneseunas
PACHY COLEUS: ceaiccc ives ccs scenssases teawes sseeess avicaeucseeswee ences

WAPOVIMN Ay sis Seba hoses bo Sead eae ous dem aseatewtaeess tanta ee 20.
OCellata ......cceccecceseseeeseeneess oe RGA ee eenuaaa eee uminecaneacceeraes a.
NOMAD A. sis sdeecicsevidaversasenaesss vac usuasasn oud voscssatuaveadinossaseos 118
CUPA sasie iss saeis ssaedcaneieueoempeacansoueanneeu eas edcieenaseiacateveree< 2b.
Ward WAG ows icie versus onnwcasaeisackesgsuiuivas vactedanweinmneaneteets ab.
TOT CAE 2 se ahi oa cvsecoauecealicges noes aeee cay eoaane Man tena ae eae ab,
PAY LORIAI A: dca ciel ace des sided tows cdeths dduden dovtecdsesesaunesesiaves dice 2b.
tuber cul atainsaccivseaeess cieewstiseacawexdeacebaencetssim es veasuateosrncs ab
~erassicollis ......... daw cinciaaraidbiralebeatae sis aialvenieince aaa satel emnemennreseae s ib,
IS LOWELL os ce snc sGawana anne ances ustissteaw mates wacelmsiduanapaneaeamseenees 1b.
MAPA ie See cerssdaiesnwwae asulvesesue odneninunaeauebawevesttsesnmeenisasenets ab.

Hypsirhina plumbea......ccccccccsessssssssssseseeteesensceesensseeeeeees

enhydris, Plate KX... .scsccssce consents csscseenecee see neeneeneecns ces

JARO tse cincssces seesvesesewaad devas'ssvaccdby ese cetieedves sewsda eh beens

bennettii

Oe cen eee neeesereeerecee seas sterereeere res eastsneoeseeneEneeeee

ChiIneNSIS..+.......eeseeeeee
Leptofhytaon jara.........0.
© LYCOMONHAGC ...revsscerrereveee

ee tec encees reer err errr errr reer er rey |

Seo enn nnn Pees eee cesernceeeenneres ene

Lycodon aulicus, the Lycodon, Plate XT .....sssscecsseseeseeeeree

laoensis
striatus

anamallensis ........0+6+

rufozonatus

Macrocalamus lateralis ...

‘Megerophis flaviceps

Melanophidium wynadense
Dilineatum ........ecceeee
punctatum ...... vidas

rere eee eee ere errr errr eee ee reer reer es
dente hewmen nae e seen e tear ee eeneeeseetonnnceee eee
Serre rr rre rere rr eer reer reer rere rere etter terry
PPPrereree errr rere rere ree reer rere terre er etre
Pereeeer errr errr errs rere ee reer ert eer terre ee

PPPEeVePeRrT ITIP rr terres irre rrr

Peeeeerrrrrr reer rr rrer errr ere rerreri errr rir ys

Semen ne nee ee eeneeenreesanenessaneneesenceesenees

Pewee eee a teen eneeenenessssenseu serene senee nee

Naga (Naja) tripudians, the Binocellate cobra, Plate XVI1......

monocellata, the Monocellate cobra, Plate XVIII

Natricina

Nymphophidium maculatum ..ss.ssccsesccerssseesesesseeseesseeres

Odontomus nympha........60
Semifasciatus ..socccccceees

QVACIISc.cscccssecnsrcnevsccecanescoegareerepenseesessereses

PITTI EE eee rerirr rrr rrrseny

ab.
ab.
105

182

Page.
Oligodonticdee ......sesesseessenssecsenseseerensenssaetenteeenanys Suseesiea 38,66
Oligodon subgriseus, Plate XI .....ssesesseseessessesseseenseeeeesenes 67
Afi CHIOEMA anasveusanncantranaisdstadeceumpueimastanriuadsescicaners > “ADs
GILL Obi,’ outer seadsagreles Seaweniasienanaedarene Pound snevec saver teabensenne menos ab,
SUbPUNCtAtUS ...cccscceesesesececeeeereeeeeseeeeeeanseneneeaeeaneenoeeee! ab.
SPIMipunctatus ...c.ccesssevcecceceseceeeeeceeceseeeeseeasaeneessererees ab.
FASCLAtUS .....cceccecceseetseeeeceneeeenetstsstsererteeseonoesecenaeuaees 68
SUDLMEAHUS a. cos inde scsseisesdearcaeaseceseusisetertoisiaeremarsernons 2b.
AERTS =< Soeacecavevaecatesiaxenanvauoasasieaeawaeein rueandaseaadedendaenes b-
templetonii.......ceseccesssesesessereeeeseeeeerseteenesensesteetes ab.
TOC OS TUS s ceisavtecevecgeleneseanteidete ueseivecseiictateveswsngemaveavosaeenes ab.
MOPSALIS: weaschiisraeccnieieteudceld castes soa coveiuaebede sb raiasraaseronaces 2b.
Drevicada ......cecceesseceetetcssnentetesseeerena tet eetenaeeaeee tan ees 69
Onychocephalus acutus «....+.+.0- siuetosnamisgers 48
Ophiophagus elaps, the Hamaaryed, Plate XVIII waaiiedivecesmesee. “LOZ
Ophites subcinctus ........+.. ae cab eaGthiedelnesncalbcmreens. 74
SIDOTQSCUS accnceveewes wavereis Hx orien aE ob erewns nin roN anne ab.
Oxycalanins longiceps .csisscscssvcvescassecsaresscccveecarvvecoavernousseee 58
Pareas Carinatus .......sescessscreseenes srdepmnewaveennedeaxsesnoarieesseens 65
TNONGICONMIS sy code scsneveaestea cde a acieecteiesebaneuepumaxdeverieatonsdeve ab.
TREVIBY -acchicdasunccass ia sadcasess sa tades sua Sencaa doaainsh seaeesaniabeamaane’ 66
MACULATIUS: sesssccee., wessussavevesavanxeanverseaeearvedes deeededeoeeets . 0
MOC GSEUB saen date cevuinansecnusnenoranaenccassnegeriecaiatneusecudeoacieslesia ab.
Passerita mycterizans, the Common green tree-snake, Plate XVI... 100°
PUPPUPASCANS sc cceside cbeAavewsvecstacodivans Ceveveenyhis cannes an ote ab.
Plats: DICOLOLy casssesssarocseaoetsdase aided vaccabagedaceavscdsascodeetosacs 119
Peltopelor macrolepis, Plate XX .....eeeecceccceeescceeeteensseeneeees 122
Phyllophis carinatus o0:0ccccssessesscsvcaied oestevesen aeredsevierla sees 97
Platurus SCUtatus wissdoscssnsaiterdvasinssiednsettvessedeieioes spdaseeederss lll

HSCHETL: sai viiecc maaan casaiceiGaeaslseataaaaidees Seaveenes montanes "9b.
(Platyceps semifasciatus). See Coluber semifasciatus,
(Platypteryx perroteti), See Geophis microcephalus.

Plectrurus perroteti, Plate VIT ........ccceeeecccsssesceeeeseeeerenee abe 55

BUNCNELL, (se ccaneveawssedeng sa cabars ietshek a. dievend ee gsaceteecsnmoaacaet’ 56
Prymnomiodon chalcews ............ccesseeseccceseeceeecenanaeeecescenaens 96
Psammodynastes pulverulentus, Plate XIII ..............ccceeeeee 104
PSUMIMOPhAMe: i sditccnciescisaabasa yeas diese Gitsivigaenisnsorsbehere datas 40,103
Psamamophis condamarus.......cccccccsccsceesvecsuvesseueesseaeesuuseeauns 103
Ptyas mucosus, the Dhaman, Plate XIT..........ccssseseeesssseeee 85

korros, the Slender dhdman, Plate XII......... BiavaReOvaaltees ab.

Page.

PUNTO tesa aca lie css iad ede Speedeaus 37,49
Python reticulatus, the alayan python, Plate VIL sprdebonthes 50
molurus, the Indian python, Plate VILL ....ccccccecccceveseee ab.
Rhinophis oxyrhynchus ..........c.ccccccsccesescsececesceseeseasceeseeces . 58
PUNCtALUS . visc.tecssseednacversiiwseameviareedeecrpereaesorees NR ab,
philippinus Seas sna bv cia celesinstn aulesichivian ue quewmuniecoeneieaeeacy ab.
trevelyanus... wists coAbe tag tart atecuved sae mcepraeeenke ab.
sanguineus, Flats VI. geliblaad )ayxeweeeeASRae veces an wshece’ ab.
blythii ... ‘ 54
palilevenitiains satin ssiuiswie sass vse’ etepnes iy sense cleaueannlen spa yeveetorneaniess 1b.
Silybura macrolepis ... Sietsueg Gaede bas voids atawnas Vegieahiess Suneeene'y a.
beddomii, Plate VIL. ida sassua daca dba tes a iegaibecevedsidiesieenteons ces ab.
OCCA tay is cand istie we esa tetoeec cm cceiccaven vad ovtosdsebn mhacsieess 1b.
ellioti. .....eeesceeeeeeee dala noeeb ns ach cay tay vege Voor tau BB
DlCabenata: eisai vw waie lege saacesuadoacMeomvebesas eocereiecovseiness ab.

BSUS CN ssi aa cy seca ence he Nae diel ho ab.
DPOVIS) ss csacdasecehviaucseaaneadaeervs ja de cain an eeeaiadian teedabrieesecaw’ 0b,

CAM ATICA: ails. ss teak es satdhshevduleveicecepiaeec coucewtesmesiesnRpsdss 4b,
Simotes Venustus ........s..scecececccscecssecesssscssesecesccecseceeceecenss 69
Tussellit; Plate XE ic..cisscsecccessresaeseinstitsanacsncvaannuesed errr ab.

Din Oba Hiss vssics cay. eacidi eoestuadctscwestesaciscasainasiiecbessaseem eves ab.
Albi v enter: aissviaaeeeccrweysgarvasind iisadenecusivevcsces casatevwasa caves 70
SIQNACUS <hccicceshiiu evades scaee cadecgaeaessigsaanss fa oath tea ty 4b.
CINELOUS viceu se neiacdawté ene recedes so cvenedaxenesdenbyibss coeceeoewavense ab,
swinhonis ne ab.
teeniatus - ee ab.
ehientats, the Comal: me ‘neat Plate XI tettestesterteeeeces OD,
ETULINCATUS -00 ec ceeses cee cee see vee iste 71
PUNCHUIAHS <2. -ewicscecsinveasesrsccnssaearedecdvevecsveresiTTe © ab.
bicatenatus, Plate JOD sess cssseeavianenssevunnacessevesanssenses ad.
ALDOCINCEUS-». .0e cee cee cee sneer Upsiemaadeatioas saber ndas lee adevbaineavetaar ab.
LASCIOLAGUS 5. esc cs secneasan sveceranepareednneiaicedesareivedaceseceratonsn ab.
COCHINCHINENSIS ......0seseeeseeeeeeees Uokesa dunk sSaaeas acenestioateadss ab.
PLING FAIS: oe sa.cswe da gctnesaesiessiiesetissetesalsence ee esaugeameseanaeaaee 72
AMADIS vis scceevescivecivess isu vess dvevesgaweieverarwvedsscieonseeavers 1b.
Theobald tiaraivsdvsesunsitaceuss tateiaa wre aetaeceavaie seve nee adeveceeeaes ab.
Tetragonosoma effrene..........cccsceceesceeseeeseneceeersaessenaseseeues 74
ALTOPULPULCUM ...c.-ceecceesecsecenceeececerseeesuenseneenseeeentenes ab.
DOPE a vicwseen chan aheetetanasdiaseiddseus oianbes siiscapeeieewsacesaene 36,49

(Trachischium fuscum), See Ablabes fuscus.

184

Page.
Tragops prasinus, the Buff tree-snake, Plate XVI... 99
Gispar ...scssssccessceeeeeereeseeeceeeeeeeeeseesseeesseeecteeeneteesnens 2b.
Fronticin cts ......sccsececevseeeseeeecenes eploisatewaldh datdaaeisue. enieanae 100
Trimesurus gramineus, the Green tree-viper, Plate XX... 119
erythrurus, do. Heese. 905
carinatus, C (rer . 120
mutabilis "4b.
cantoris ab,
PULPUTCUS -eeceeceecsecer cence see ceecen tae aee ces cae tae tee tes ces cesses gee ab.
apiaTiiall GHSIS-s<cssss.tacedac cassedscnsdvaven sasesieeads devnedanadeceenes ab,
MOntiColar c...0i...cceasarsccesseresensvesoaecdineceversevanweceneeveeees 121

COU VICES. erbateteReiwe eedacus saaaaCaa vate teen aceinecnaiaadenetens ab,
mutabilis ab,
strigatus, the Brow tree-vyper w.csccccccccccceceresssesseveessenes ab.
WAQICL Lig sdvvacessssvoeasveues 00 4400¥ Q0hdbetaNaedta deena es abondicatsaticnsed ab.
trigonocephalus ......cscsccecceseseeecceceeeeesseseeeseessseesersenssecs ab,
MMUCTOSQUAMALUS «oe cceeeereeeseneeseeneneeseetenecsteneeetenteneneree 122
OMGETSONT: weg aiscrnvevezecesnesecesogones sanind havens vad ouviecesgaitese ad se ab,
QDSCURUS sisus cgacthccavenes see edcewensctusaeevints aeevieseagacainactone a.

' — Propidococcyx perroteti ...ccsscccccceseessssssnseeeteceeeceessessersesees 99
Tropidonotus quincunciatus, the Checkered snake, Plate XIV... 90
ANTMIATIS): wiaeioossvs baeds'ce ve gisessvetbesveteansusve sae: uddbescousheasiwaees ab,
EPANFUNISEPUS:. sseices sores eA Gestes hedewewesasecdereeeidaeaeaes ab.
macrophthalmussi..sssiscacveosseesssvansvensvesssessesecdveccvestoaves 91
GOTSALIS sea sessbaaesaeaswsncueaees aa luaae inde roeuien otnesistonsvethe es. ses ab.
MACKOPS) so Zcsi algae sausedaptasnoatsvdadeneseneednca dean stan ansaglveuai ag as ab.
platyceps........ ges bre sbiaa'e iuehigd ae's teaieimalPaeeisie to veda eas de uaeanceeaey ab.
subminiatus, Plate KV.........ccccssccssssccesnsseuseseesscerenceeea ab.
Himalayanus, «ccsicasdacessedsvicecesmrseswesnasescdadeescdacevevenines ‘4b,
ANGUSLICEPSiewevsiaciansnasavexninssd eve taieaebssuseeeeiesiacieaieercdass 92
stolatus, the Chameleon anak, Plate XV. sedsid ender eceaany ab,
MONLICOLA:. codacevededy ate dedi sie wivsdeausmmeswenerdeenteAccev cites ab.
GUMCOUS. asiwis cavacanss <esistn ces tea peacedsereasncceeenes tier cduaige vacances ab.

COV LONSTSIS ie vist satis Say ve cetyasinay va ntevrvacavebecves Seeesaeecscwadinsia c 93
BEGG OM 5 oicis oi gadad sna sock gauebisheaadce duets anestetiearveinaiorccess ab,
Niprocin Cbs! ves. aseieeiie oo kdse vevecgusiaedsvsevsedovdseusvilleceeaaves 4b.
Hlavipunctatus wcvesivssceuisagssdevecseoncsctcesce vacecscoetesetceceves ab,
ZODTINUS ......cscerceseeeenes a Saas rn elaine aoe SA NSTETHE oa nee ac atone a.
TSVINUS 225s a iassadersashasicaiwaneseicouee ede Ter rer 1b.

Teticomed)as wiisiesiscceseserseens

185
ae Page.
Tropidonotus plumbicolor, the Green ground-snake, Plate XV. 94

punctulatus, Plate XIV ,....... a cinisue cuaavans oeaeiecteke sevnaneat 1b.
PMOUOUL, ‘np torecouinaennte eons tssaivagenvicased igsaneniGiaie “90
striolatus ,,...... daha cabana aVeretiets.deveaates Gales saaae veeieetese ab.
Py pling: Limerta 6 ssaseeussisisvssiieceesdonansnstens ideeuiesca ceuacieveutears . AD
Typhlopide ......cecccccececcses tes ia veewencoisadinasstan Me ietareoaus esta aaes 36,46
ey PIVOT HBA BES: pretetensi-cen vis ansaencvamneimgogentrietinnaninias . AD
horsfieldii, Plate VII o....cesssssesesseeses ssuseeeisnareaess seuces ib.
bothriorhynchus ,,,... Basisiphiiaatubatas iota tiehacaclabalas ww
Striolatus ......,..cscsseeens discectaceasesigvidavvasavecisuseiace wisn 008
siamensis , : ie ivgesuauieeaesty ab.
braminus .......... dad dauanemaicananeshaenseeldaiiedemanevensers ib.
pammeces, Plate VIL ese pace tasatoa a Gsibthecauetb iiss’ ab.
TOIPUS! 5550 says snadenuah taunestsncend se tmegcgtwecencad ed 2cab sey ieciads er ab
Tropelttdee....escccccecseseceeene bs scaucusaieceves ice teesr Sein eitess isaieeites 37,53
Uropeltis grandis ..,....ccsesccscecceseseseceetteecenertcessteesesanaeeaeeses 54
Wapevid eb: a ov ocvcsorarsorissscceve cavessiesragassocvacteccestsaanse’s ieetteveianes 415123
Kenelaphis hexahonotys ....ci.cvesecsisseesessscsesseerersseseseveen 86
Xenochrophis cerasogaster .,,...00 sesdvecdtoenee Risestectiesa sissies re 96
Kenopel sider ..rsceccccsscscccecsnncsansnccessscesscnsedecagstensensesaesneaees vee 37,56

Xenopeltis unicolor, The Iridescent earth- snake, Pinte iD. eae 57
Kenurelaps bungaroides ...sscsseecerccsrresseessseesssepseeerseen — LOD

ZAMeNIS GIAAOMA. ....K ove sisseaaensencessarsceesa verses cen cowaerennoon 86
ventrimaculatus . ..ccsacescrscnsceseseersceecencessepeeessecsuees 87
Cliffordii ....... cece Be cts eee a Seangevenwes iver erenNeNeRTT 2b.
QVACIIS sicsescccsscaresreresees sivaieiINGMOINES ia teenraneaweene i 40.
fasciolatus, Plate RIL csscvsesvasennccons iueibaiedwalisgbaeuvapanaaneoe ab.

Zaocys carinatus .....04. Sa avTWanaNRe TET Hew saiivnede sRenueisaadeedencuane 88
fuscus, Plate XII .......scscesesoes severed eens ssa hade sage ieiaiavedeue ab.
Ahumnades ......cccsevesererres fas Vast anr tnt ciaresendees ab,
DIQrOMATYINALUS ..ssseesssreeserreererereses tees variennnwn 88

*

CORRIGENDA.

Page 3. The Typhlopide should, strictly speaking, have been
included amongst the families possessing ‘rudimen-
tary hind limbs; but these organs, though présent,
are imperceptible except by dissection, whilst in the
three other families mentioned they are plainly visible.

4, The parietal and frontal bones should be included in the
bones forming the walls of the cranial cavity.

8, line 15. The reference letter & should apply to the basi.
sphenotympanic muscle.

16, line 9 from the bottom. For prefacing it with read prin-
cipally from.

72 and 181. The Lycodon is represented on Plate IX and not
Plate XI.

102, line 8 from the bottom. Omit the first ©.

133. ‘Cobra monila’ is perhaps a corruption of ‘ cobra manilha,
bracelet snake, (Dr. Shortt).

138, footnote. For indigested read ingested.
156, footnote. For invested read infested.
161, line 16. For been read being.

168, last line. For serpents’ read serpent’s.

POSTSCRIPT.

Note A.

Page 16. The poison of Daboia elegans shows a tendency .to
crystallization during drying much more marked than in the case of
cobra-poison. This snake being rare iti Mysore Thave had no oppor-
tunity of examining its poison while revising this manual.

Nore B.

Page 29. It will be observed, by reference to the ‘scheme of
development at page 43, that I have assigned to the Dipsadide a
place not far removed from the Orotalide. I have remarked that the
brown tree-snake Dipsas gokool, when angry, vibrates its tail in the
same way as the tree-vipers ; I have not noticed this action in the
other families of Colubrine tree-snakes.

Nore C.

Page 147. Hchis carinata is so small a snake that one might
naturally suppose its bite to be of little danger toman, Along with
some live specimens of this snake sent me from Arconum by Mr. H.
R. P. Carter, one of the Resident Engineers of the Madras Railway,
I received the following interesting note :—

“ My servant was bitten by one about a week ago when catching
it, He of course nearly died of fright, not of poison, but although
the snake only managed to strike and draw blood and not to seize or
bite, the thumb was numbed—and that the blood was affected was
curiously proved. The boy had cut. himself some days before on the
hand which was not bitten; the cut appeared tobe all right but two
days after being bitten a small artery burst which kept bleeding for
12 hours before I found it ont.”

Nore D.

Page 162. It would appear that in five districts of the Madras
Presidency—Nellore, Chingleput (and Madras), North Arcot, Bellary
anid Tanjore—comprising about one-fifth of the area of the Presidency
or about one-thirtieth that of British India, Rupees 1,57,290 were
expended during the year 1872 in two-anna rewards for snakes
destroyed.

188

: Nore E.

Page 173. Up to the end of February 1874, when the funds at my
disposal were expended, cobras continued to be brought in for reward.
From the 1st to the 26tha total of 168 were paid for. In the females
eggs were well developed, being about an inch long in most of those
examined. A month later, eggs were found of full size, but the foetus

hardly distinct.
Note F.

Page 171. The excuses made by Englishmen for the indiscrimi-
nate destruction of snakes may be divided into those of religion, of
disgust, and of philanthropy. Iam sorry to say that of these the
religious excuse is not uncommonly avowed. I have known persons
who fook as holy a relish in beating a snake to death as their grand."
fathers might have taken in drowning a witch. They considered
that they were fulfilling prophecy on a small scale.

The excuse that snakes are nasty, disgusting, or slimy reptiles is
an example of the force of prejudice and we know that “a good
sound prejudice is not to be contradicted by mere eyesight and
observation.”-—(Friends in Council). Its effects are well illustrative
of the following passage from Mr. Alexander Bain’s work on the
Emotions and the Will. “The enunciation of disgust is a favourite
exercise, ** * The objects thus -sought out need not offend the
senses in any way; if they can only furnish a slight pretext for
being nasty or unclean, it is enough for letting off the charged
battery of the powerful organ of disgust. If any class of living
beings should happen to provoke this out-burst, terrible is their fate.
No limits are set to the promptings for evil of this sentiment.”—
Chap. XV.

The philanthropic excuse, if meant in regard to the Indian popula-
tion, I would answer in the words of Dr. Johnson :—“ My dear friend,
clear your mind of cant. You may talkin this manner ; it is a mode of
talking in society ; but don’t think foolishly.” It meile4 in regard to
the European population the excuse is a very poor one. The person
who kills a snake on the chance of its being venomous, would exercise
his philanthropy to more purpose by shooting every dog that comes
across his path ; far we have seen that amongst white people in India
the chance of death by dog-bite.is ten times as great as that by
snake-bite, f

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