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New York
State College of Agriculture

At Cornell University
Ithaca, N.Y.

» Library

Cornell University Library

QL 751.A41
iA
3 1924 002 894 487

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mann

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002894487

ORIGINAL FOREST AND PRAIRIE AREA IN ILLINOIS
(AFTER BRENDEL AND BARROWS )

BULLETIN

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE LABORATORY

oF

NATURAL HISTORY

URBANA, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Pu.D., L.L.D.,
DIRECTOR

Vou. XI. SEPTEMBER, 1915 ARTICLE II.

AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF PRAIRIE AND FOREST
INVERTEBRATES

BY

CHARLES C. ADAMS, Pu.D.
rr &

CONTENTS

Pace
eden SO bea see Asoo ee sas ate eek emia Saas 33
General description of the region and location of the ecological stations 35
I General i 35
IL. The ecological stations 33
Description of the prairie habitats and animals 40-56
I. Prairie area north of 40
L Colony of swamp 41
2, Colony of wild rye, Elymus 43
3. Wet area of 44.
4. Come-flower and rosin-weed A 48

5. Colomy of blue stem (Andropogon) and drop-seed (Sporobulus),
ee bordered by swamp milkweed, od
IL Prairie area near 52
TL Prairie area east of Charleston, Station ITI 35
Description of the forest habitats and animals 56-66
L. The Bates woods, Station IV 36
2. The upland oak-hickory forest, Station IV, @ 37

3. Embarras valley amd ravine slopes, forested by the oak-hickory
association, i 39

4. Lowland or ““second bottom,’ red cak-elm-sugar maple wood-
land association, Station IV, ¢..........-.-.....--.2eeeeees 62
5. Supplementary collections from the Bates woods, Station IV... . &
6. Small temporary stream in the south ravine, Station IV, d...... cy
General characteristics of the gross environment. .................. 66-102
L Topography and soils of the State... - 66
2. Climatic conditions ................. 67
3. Climatic centers of imflmemee .......- 2... ee ee eee 9
4. Relative humidity and evaporating power of the air............ 7
5. Temperature relations in the opem and im forests.............. 83
6. Soil moisture and its relation to vegetation. .............--..-- 86
7. Ventilation of Jand habitats... .............. 0002. e eee eee eee 38
8. The tree trumk as a habitat... .. 2.2.2.2 eee ees 91
9. Prairie and forest vegetation and animal life................. 91
10. Sourees and réle of water used by prairie and forest animals... . 98
Animal associations of the prairie and the forest... -.... 22.0... 2.2.2... 055 102-158
TL. Introdwetion ....... 2.2.2... 02.202 e ee eee eee ee eens ee enees 102
IL The prairie association... ........ 22.2... 22+ cence eee eee ee eee 103
L Swamp Irie association... . 2.2.2.2... eee eee eee eee eens 103
2. The cottonwood commumity. 2... 2... 2... eee eee eee eee 105
3. Swamp-grass association... .... 2.2... 2-2... eee ees 107
4, Low prairie association. .... ~~... 2.2.2... 6. eee eee eee 108
5. Upland prairie association. ...............- 2.0.2... ee ee eee 109
6. The Solidago commumity............-..--- 20. eee eee eens 109
7. Dry prairie grass association. ...............--......66- 111
8 A milkweed commumity.............-.....-...0-005- 112
Tit. Relation of prairie animals to their environment... ........... 113
1. The black soil prairie commumity................. 2.00.62. 80s 1144
2. The prairie vegetation commumity........................5-- nn7
4. Interrelations within the prairie association. .................. ns

IV. The forest associations.........ccsccsce cece vere en seen sree eeeaeee 122
Ve Ptrodweti ony, s cascddoves anya oeeststavordsia a chidina s iar ate areutiaiald Wa Weetaio are 122

2. Dry upland (Quercus and Carya) forest association............ 124

3. Artificial glade community in lowland forest.........-...e.0+5 125

4, Humid lowland (hard maple and red oak) forest association.... 126

5. Animal association of a temporary stream.......-...eeee-eeee 127

V. Relation of the deciduous forest invertebrates to their environment.... 128
1. Forest soil community. ........ cc cece cece cence cence rcersces 129

2. The forest fungus community...........cceeeee rece cee eeees 135

3. The forest undergrowth community...........cceeeeeeeeeeaee 138

4, The forest crown community..........ccceeeececceseeccevens 139

5. The tree-trunk community............ iE LESS RINNE TO RR 142

6. The decaying wood community......... cece ec ce eee eeeeeeee 148

7. Interrelations within the forest association.................5+ - 157

Eeologically annotated list :— :

I, Prairie invertebratesic: ccceciieesdse coder eteawa needs aeeen deere ee 158-201
TI, Forest invertebrates. ........ ccc sees sce e eee reece sneer eeetteees 201-238

BID HO BPA PHY © sees: :cssicack. x evanahnie des “shi dean wien de sgnas re lag ogee ae “td 60 ve: Nara ara oda tahesens 239-264

Articie I.—An Ecological Study of Prairie and Forest Inverte-
brates. By CuariEs C. Apams, Pu.D.

INTRODUCTORY

In four generations a true wilderness has been transformed into
the present prosperous State of Illinois. This transformation has been
so complete that in many parts of the state nearly all of the plant and
animal life of the original prairie and forest has been completely ex-
terminated. Between the degree of change which has taken place in
any given area and the suitability of that area for agriculture there has
been an almost direct relation. Fortunately, however, for the preser-
vation of prairie and forest animals, the state is not homogeneous,
some areas being too hilly, rocky, or sandy for prosperous agriculture.

The character and mode of transformation which has taken place
in the past is instructive in several particulars because it serves to
guide our anticipations as to the future of our fauna. The forested
southern part of the state (see frontispiece) was first invaded by trap-
pers and hunters, who began the extermination of the larger animals.
These invaders were in turn followed by others who, with the round
of the season, were hunters or farmers, and continued this exterminat-
ing process, particularly in the clearings, which began to replace the
forest. These pioneers, men of little wealth, possessed a combination
of mental and economic habits which was the result of life in a for-
ested country, and naturally they settled in those places most like their
former homes—within the forest or near the forest margin. From
these settlements they looked out upon the prairies as vast wastes to
be dreaded and avoided. As a result of this attitude toward the prai-
ries, it required some time, even a new generation, some economic
pressure, and a change of habits before the prairies were settled. Mean-
while the northern part of the state was yet a wilderness; but through
the influence of the Great Lakes, as a route of communication with
the populous East, a rapid invasion of settlers set in from that direc-
tion. Though these settlers also came from a wooded country, they
were more wealthy, settled upon a very fertile soil which was favorably
located with regard to eastward communication, and they therefore
progressed more rapidly than the less favored, more isolated southern
invaders on the poorer soil; consequently they spread from the forest

34

to the prairie more rapidly than did the settlers in the South. There
thus developed two active centers of influence, each of which trans-
formed the primeval conditions in the same manner and in the same
direction toward an environment suitable for man.

The forests and the upland prairie were first changed. ‘Then the
fertile wet prairie was drained, so that today it has largely become
either the hilly and rocky areas that survive as forests or the low
periodically flooded tracts, and the undesirable sand areas which simi-
larly preserve patches of sand prairie. All the changes are more
rapid and complete upon fertile soil than upon the poorer soils in the
southern part of the state.

Such considerations as these will aid one in estimating the probable
tate of future changes in different parts of the state, and will serve to
show in what parts there is urgent need of local studies if ecological
records are to be made before extinction of some forms is complete.

A study has been made with the idea of reporting upon represen-
tative patches of prairie and forest in a manner which would aid others
in making similar local studies, and would at the same time preserve
some records of the present condition of the prairie and forest. When
this work was planned, we had no general or comprehensive discussion
of the conditions of life upon the prairie and in the forest. For this
reason a general summary of these conditions and a sketch of the gen-
eral principles involved are given, so that the reader may gain some
conception of the relation of the local.problems to those of a broader
and more general character.

A section for this report was prepared giving general directions
for making such local studies, but later it was decided to publish this

‘ separately, in somewhat extended form, as a “Guide to the Study of
Animal Ecology.”* ‘This volume should be regarded as intimately re-
lated to this paper, and this report should at the same time be consid-
ered as a concrete example of the procedure suggested in that “Guide”
for ecological surveys. It will be observed that the study of the
Charleston area here referred to has been conducted in much the same
way as was my cooperative study of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, en-
titled “An Ecological Survey of Isle Royale, Lake Superior” (’09),
although certain aspects have been elaborated here which, for lack of
time, were not treated there. The time devoted to the study of the
Charleston area was also limited, but in the preparation of the report
upon it use has been made of many years’ experience and a general
knowledge of the prairie and forest. Without such a background

*The Macmillan Co. 1913.

35

much greater caution would have been necessary in discussing many
phases of the problem.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study of the Charleston area was carried, out with the coop-
eration of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, through
its director, Prof. Stephen A. Forbes, and with the further coopera-
tion of Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson, of the East-
ern Illinois State Normal School, located at Charleston. Personally I
am indebted to Professor Forbes for the opportunity of taking part in
this study as the State Laboratory representative, and for the aid he
has given in the illustration of the report. To Professor Transeau I
am particularly indebted for the plant determinations, for lists of the
plants, and for evaporation data. To Professor Hankinson I am
under especial obligation for many specimens, which materially added
to my lists, and for a large number of photographs. I am indebted
likewise to my associates in this study for their hearty cooperation
throughout the progress of the work.

For the determination of entomological specimens I am indebted
primarily to Mr. C. A. Hart, Systematic Entomologist of the State
Laboratory of Natural History, who named most of the insects col-
lected. For the names of certain flies I am indebted to Mr. J. R. Mal-
loch, of this Laboratory. Others who have determined specimens are
as follows: N. Banks (Phalangiida), J. H. Emerton (spiders), R. V.
Chamberlain (myriapods), F. C. Baker (Mollusca), Dr. W. T. M.
Forbes (lepidopterous larve), Dr. M. C. Tanquary (ants), Dr. M. T.
Cook (plant galls), J. J. Davis (Aphidide), and Dr. A. E. Ortmann
(crawfishes collected by T. L. Hankinson). I am indebted to the U.
S. Geological Survey for photographs. Acknowledgments for illus-
trations are made under text figures and in explanations of plates.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION AND LOCATION
OF THE ECOLOGICAL STATIONS

I, General DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION

The town of Charleston, Coles county, Illinois, in the vicinity of
which these ecologic studies were made, is situated on the Shelbyville
moraine which bounds the southern extension of the older Wisconsin
ice-sheet. ‘To the south of this moraine lie the poorer soils which char-
acterize so much of southern IIlinois; to the north, upon the older Wis-
consin drift, are some of the most productive soils found in the upper

36

Mississippi Valley. The economic, sociologic, political, and historical
significance of the difference in the soils of these regions is funda-
mental to any adequate understandng of man’s response to his ecolog-
ical environment within this area. Some of the results of this differ-
ence have long been known, but it is only in recent years that their
general bearing has been adequately interpreted in terms of the en-
vironment. Hubbard (’04) was the first, I believe, to show the sig-
nificance of this difference in soils and its influence upon local eco-
nomic problems. That such an important influence should affect one
animal (man) and not others seems very doubtful, and yet in only one
other case do we know that the lower animals respond to this ecologic
influence. Forbes (’o7b) has shown that certain kinds of fish found
in streams on the fertile soils are wanting in streams on the poorer
soil. To what degree the land fauna and the native vegetation respond
to this distinction is not known, as this subject has not been irvesti-
gated except agriculturally. Here, then, is a factor in the physical
surroundings which should be reckoned with in any comprehensive
study of the biotiq environment. In this portion of the state, on ac-
count of the differences in the soil, the physical environment is prob-
ably more favorable to certain organisms and less. favorable to others,
‘and consequently, to a certain degree, the environment selects, or fa-
vors, some organisms. Through their activities and through other
agencies of dispersal, the animals along the borders between the two
soil types transgress these boundaries, and are therefore forced to
respond to the new conditions and to adjust themselves, if possible.
But the soil is not the only environmental influence which has pro-
duced an unstable zone or tension line in this area. A second factor is
the difference in the vegetation—the difference between the forest and
the prairie. In all probability, Coles county was at one time all prairie,
but the Kaskaskia and Embarras rivers, as they cut their valleys
through the moraine and developed their bottoms, have led forests
within the morainic border from farther south. The forests about
Charleston have extended from the Wabash River bottoms. On account
of the southerly flow of the Embarras through this county, the forest
and prairie tension line is about at right angles to that produced by the
differences in the soil. The forests have tended to spread east and west
from the streams and to encroach upon the prairie, and thus to restrict
its area more and more. The fundamental significance of the tension
between the forest and the prairie has long been known within the
state. It influenced its economic, social, political, and historic develop-
ment as much as any other single factor during its early settlement.
And just as Hubbard (’04) has shown the influence of soil upon man

37

within the state, so also has Barrows (’10) shown the influence of the
forests and prairie upon the state’s development. While the influencé
of the soil upon the animal life of the state is not so well known or es-
tablished, the influence of prairie and forest upon the animals is univer-
sally recognized, even though the subject has been given relatively
little study by naturalists.

A third leading agency is the influence of man, who has trans-
formed the prairie and forest to make his own habitat. There are thus
recognized in the Charleston region three primary environmental in-
fluences: first, the relative fertility of the soil (this depending on the
geological history) ; second, the kind of vegetable covering, whether
prairie or forest (this probably depending largely on climatic condi-
tions) ; and third, the agency of man. The general background of the
Charleston region, then, ecologically considered, depends on the com-
bined influence of five primary and secondary agencies, four of which
we may call natural and one artificial. All these are different in kind
and so independent that they tend toward different equilibria or dif-
ferent systems of unity. Two of these are due to differences in the
soil, two others to the character of the vegetation (whether prairie or
forest), and the fifth, or artificial one, is due to man. Though the
present report does not undertake to include all the problems centered
here, as any complete study would, it is desirable to see the relation of
our special study to the general problems of the region as a whole.

The undulating plain about Charleston, formed as a terminal mo-
raine, is broken along the small streams by ravines, which have cut a
few hundred feet below the general level of the region as they ap-
proached the larger drainage lines. The main drainage feature is the
Embarras River, which flows southwest about two to three miles east
of Charleston, in a narrow valley partly cut in rock. The wooded
areas are mainly near the streams; the remainder of the area is under
intensive cultivation.

During the preliminary examination of the region, which was made
to aid in selecting representative areag for study, it soon became evi-
dent that the only samples of prairie which could give any adequate
idea of the original conditions were those found along the different
railway rights-of-way. Other situations, vastly inferior to these and
yet a valuable aid in the determination of the original boundaries of
the prairies, were the small patches or strips along the country roads.
Most of the patches of prairie along the railway tracks represent the
“black soil” type of prairie, which is extensively developed in this part
of the state upon the “brown silt loam” soil” (see Hopkins and Pettit,
’08 : 224-231). Much of the region studied was originally wet prairie

38

(which, es: Since Tem: drained), but some of the higher ground,
formed by the undulation of the surface and surrounded by the black
soil, is lighter im color and is well draimed. ‘Thus im the black soil areas
there are both wet and well-drained tracts, and corresponding differ-
ences im the habitats.

The originally wooded and the present wooded areas east of
Charleston, in the vicinity of the Embarras River, are in a region quite
different from the prairie both im topography amd im soil, Here the re-
fief Zé tiach mote pronounced, fim arciend of both the piticimity of the
river and the greater development of the diraimage limes, which have cut
a few hundred feet below the general level of the country. ‘The tribu-
tary valleys and ravines are mumerous and steep-sided, and im general
are wooded, the density varying with the amount of clearimg done.
Most of the soil of the wooded areas and along the bluffs is distinctly

in color tham that of the black soil prairie, amd is
“gray silt loam ” (Hopkins and Pettit, 08 : 238-242), though along the
and the riwer bottom the soils are mixed im character.

IL. Tar Ecotoacan Sraroxs

In the study of am area or am amimal association of any comsidera-
ble size two methods are available. Onme is to examine as much of the
area as is possible and secure data from a very wide range of condi-
tions. ‘This method is useful in obtaiming the general or broad featmres
of a region or am association, though to a corresponding degree it must
ignore local imfimences and details, and by it most of the previous stud-
ies mpon prairie animals hawe been made. It seemed, therefore, that m
the present study a somewhat more intensive method was desirable,

particularly im view of the fact that the extinction of prairie and for-
est is rapidly progressing. ‘The method followed was to examime a
large area im order to select a represemtative sample, and wpom the
basis of this sample to make as intensive a study as time and circmm-
stamoes would permit. ‘Tis method has the advantage of making it
possible to preserve at least some record of the local details; amd at the
same time, to the depree that the selected area is a true sample, it also
gives the results a much wider application.

The prairie samples examined were all along the rights-of-way,
amd the forest was a secomd-growth woods om the bottoms and bhuff
of the Eimbarras River, om a farm belonging, at that time, to Mir. J. 1
Bates. Practically all of the observations here reported mpom were
made durimg Ampgust, 1910. The forest is a modified ome, but tt ap-
pears to hawe been cut over so gradually that its comtimmity as a forest
habitat was mot completely imtenrmpted, although the cuttimg has prob-

rection inthe member ore aqclicidiar oe ee ore
corest.

The different localities or regions examined are, for brevity and
Precision, indicated by Roman mumerals; the particular minor condi-
tions, situations, or habitats, by italic letters. An effort has been made
to indicate the location of the place studied with enough precision to
enable students to re-examine the habitats at amy future time (PL I).
Se a re eee eee meas ose aed oe
ing the places studied. Had similar photographic records been
made fifty years ago, they would have been of much value and imter-
est to us im this study, im much the same way as fifty years hence this
report will form a part of the very limited record of the conditions
found at the presemt time.

List of Ecological Stations, Charleston, Minois, August, 1910

Station L Prairie along the right-of-way of the Toledo, St. Louis and
Western, or ““Clover Leaf’ B. B., between one and two miles north
of Charleston: Section 2, Township 12 N., Range 9 B., amd 8. 35,

T. 13 N., 8.9 BE. (PLL)
a Cond or Slough Grass (Sporting) and Wild Bye (Elymus) Asso-
ciation. At mile-post marked ““Toledo 318 miles and St. Louis 133

b. Couch Grass (Agropyrom smithii) Association. The distance of
two telegraph poles north of Station I, a, and west of the railway
truck: $2, T. 12 BE. B.9 EB.

ce. Wild Bye (Elymus) Association. East and north of the ““Yand
Limits”’ sigm: $2, 'T. 12 NL, B.9 B. (PL UO, Fig. 1.)

dé Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias imcaraata) Association. North of
first east-and-west enoss-road north of Charleston; east of railway
track: § 35, T. 13 N., B.9 BE. A wet area. (PL Ii, Fig. 2; Pl. Til,
Fig. 1.)

€. Coneflower (Lepachys pinnata) and Bosin-weed (Silphium tere-
binthinacewm) Association. Just north of the preeedimg Station ;
east of railway tradk: 8.35, T. 13 N, B.9 BE. (PL V.)

f- Couch Grass (Agropyrom smithii) Association. West of railway
track: $35, T. 13 N.,, B.9 EB. Moist area.

GQ Prairie Grass (Andropogon furcatus and A. virgimicus and Spo-
robalus eryptendrus) Association, bordered. by Swamp Milkweed.
(Asdlepias imewrnata) and Mountain Mint (Pycmanthemum flex-

40

uosum). This formed the north boundary of the area studied:
S. 35, T.13 N., R.9 E. (PI. III, Fig. 2; Pl. IV, Fig. 1 and 2.)

Station II. Prairie area west of Loxa, Illinois. Right-of-way along the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, or ‘‘Big Four,”’
R. R.: Sections 10 and 11, Township 12 N., Range 8 E.
a. From one half mile west of Loxa west to near Anderson Road, to
telegraph pole No. 12330: S.11, T.12 N., R.8 E. (Pl. VI. and
VIL.)

b. Prairie at Shea’s: 8.17, T.12 N., R.8 E.
c. Cord Grass (Spartina) Association. East of Shea’s: 8.17, T.12
N., R.8 E.

Station III. Prairie east of Charleston. Right of way along the C. C. C.
& St. L. R. R.: 8.12, T.12 N., R.9 E.; 8.5, 6, and 7, T.12 N.,
R.10 E.

a. Rosin-weed (Silphium terebinthinaceum) Association. Just west
of the place where the Ashmore Road crosses the Big Four track;
about one mile east of Charleston: 8.12, T.12 N., R.9 E.

b. Blue Stem (Andropogon) and Rosin-weed (Silphium terebinthina-
ceum) Association. Three fourths of a mile east of the crossing of
the Ashmore Road and the Big Four track: 8.6 and 5, T.12'N.,
R.10 E. An area which grades from prairie into transitional for-
est conditions. (Pl. VIIT and IX.)

Station IV. Bates Woods. On the east bluffs and bottom of the Embar-
ras River, north of where the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and
St. Louis, or Big Four, R. R. crosses the river. On the farm of
J. I. Bates: 8.5, T.12 N., R.10 E. (Pl. X, Fig. 1; Pl. XI, XII,
and XIII.)

a. Upland Oak-Hickory Association (Quercus alba and Q. velutina,
and Carya alba, C. glabra, and C. ovata.) Second-growth forest.
(Pl. XII and XTII.)

b. Embarras Valley and Ravine Slopes, with Oak-Hickory Associa-
tion.

c. Red Oak (Quercus rubra), Elm (Ulmus americana), and Sugar
Maple (Acer saccharum) Association. Lowland or ‘‘second bot-
tom,’’ Embarras Valley. (Pl. XIV; XV; and XVI, Fig. 1 and 2.)

d. Small streamlet in South Ravine. This formed the southern bor-
der of the area examined. A temporary stream. (Pl. XVII, Fig.
1 and 2.)

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRAIRIE HABITATS AND ANIMALS
J. Prarie Area NortH of CHARLESTON, StTaTION I

This area includes patches or islands of prairie vegetation oc-
curring along the right-of-way of the Toledo, St. Louis and West-

41

ern, or “Clover Leaf,” Railway, north of Charleston. The south-
ern border began just beyond the area of numerous side tracks and ex-
tended north of the first east and west cross-road for a distance of
about one mile, to the place where the right-of-way is much narrowed
and fenced off for cultivation. This is a strip of land through the level
black soil area, which was originally composed of dry and wet prairie.
The higher portions have a lighter colored soil, and the lower parts
have the black and often wet soil which characterized the original
swamp or wet prairie. The railway embankment and the side drain-
age ditches have favored the perpetuation of patches or strips of these
wet habitats ; the excavations for the road-bed, on the other hand, have
accelerated drainage of the higher grounds. The soil taken from these
cuts and heaped up on the sides of the tracks reinforces the surface
relief noticeably in a region which is so nearly level. Through the
depressions fillings have been made in building the railway embank-
ment, and as a result the drainage has been interfered with in some
places.

The disturbances brought about by railway construction and main-
tenance have greatly modified the original conditions, so that the
prairie vegetation persists usually only in.very irregular areas, some-
times reaching a maximum length equal to the combined. distance be-
tween three or four consecutive telegraph poles—these poles are gen-
erally about 200 feet apart. In breadth the area is usually less than
the space between the ditch bordering and parallel to the road-bed or
embankment and the adjacent fence which bounds the right-of-way, or
about 40 feet. This entire right-of-way is about roo feet wide. In
addition to these changes in the physical conditions, a large number of
weeds not native to the prairie have been introduced, opportunities for
this introduction being favorable, as railways traverse the entire area.
In general, attention was devoted solely to the areas or colonies of
prairie vegetation and their associated invertebrate animals, the areas
of non-prairie vegetation being ignored, not as unworthy of study, but
because the vanishing prairie colonies required all the time available.

t. Colony of Swamp Grasses (Spartina and Elymus), Station I, a

This colony of slough grass (Spartina michauxiana) and wild rye
(Elymus) is located a short distance north of the “Clover Leaf” switch
tracks and just south of the telegraph pole marked “Toledo 318 miles
and St. Louis 133 miles.” The length of this colony was about 40

aces.
: During August, 1910, it was dry, but probably in the spring and
early summer, rains make this area a habitat for swamp grasses.

42

Though it was an almost pure stand of slough grass, with this were
mixed a few plants of wild rye (Elymus virginicus submuticus and E.
canadensis). ‘These grasses reach a height of about four feet. The
ground was very hard and dry, and there were large cracks in it.

A single collection of animals was made here, No. 179.

Common Names Scientific Names
Common Garden Spider Argiope aurantia
Ambush Spider Misumena aleatoria
Differential Grasshopper, adult
and nymphs Melanoplus differentialis
Red-legged Grasshopper, adult
and nymphs Melanoplus femur-rubrum
Texan Katydid Scudderia texensis
Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimum vulgare, adult, and
nymphs of vulgare or glaberri-
mum.
Dorsal-striped Grasshopper Xiphidium strictum
Black-horned Meadow Cricket Cicanthus nigricornis
Four-spotted White Cricket Cicanthus quadripunctatus
Ground-beetle Leptotrachelus dorsalis
Sciomyzid fly Tetanocera plumosa

The basic food-supply in such a habitat is of course the grasses, and
this fact fully accounts for the presence of large numbers of individ-
uals which feed upon grasses, as do the Orthoptera in general. But
the Orthoptera listed are not exclusively vegetable feeders, for Forbes
(’05: 147) has shown that Xiphidium strictum feeds mainly upon in-
sects, chiefly plant-lice,as well as upon vegetable tissues, including fun-
gi and pollen; Orchelimum vulgare (p. 144), largely upon plant-lice
and other insects; and Cicanthus quadripunctatus (p. 220), upon plant
tissues, pollen, fungi, and plant-lice. These observations were based
upon a study of the contents of the digestive tract. The food of the
sciomyzid fly is unknown. The garden spider lives exclusively upon ani-
mal food; and being abundant, it must exert considerable influence
upon other small animals. It not only destroys animals for its food, but
many others are ensnared in its web and thus killed. In one of the
webs I found a large differential grasshopper. The rank growth of
vegetation furnishes the necessary support for the webs of this spider.

Some of the insects, as Melanoplus differentialis and M. femur-
rubrum, oviposit in the soil, but others—Scudderia texensis, Xiphid-
ium strictum, Orchelimum vulgare, and Cicanthus—deposit their

43

eggs in stems of plants or under the leaf-sheaths of grasses (Forbes,

"05: 143, 145, 148, 216). The mode of oviposition in these Orthop-
tera raises the question whether or not they are able to pass their com-
plete life cycle within this habitat. Are the species which oviposit in
the soil able to endure submergence during the wet season of the year,
or must they each year re-invade this habitat from the more favorable
adjacent regions? The sciomyzid fly is a regular inhabitant of such
situations, for an allied species, Tetanocera pictipes Loew, has been
found by Needham (’o1: 580) to be aquatic, breeding on colonies of
bur reed (Sparganium), and Shelford (’13a: 188, 284) also finds
plumosa in wet places.

The flower spider, Misumena, captures its prey direct, frequenting
flowers where its prey comes to sip nectar,

With more perfect drainage the character of this habitat wouid
change; a more varied growth of vegetation would probably devel-
op; and the relative abundance of the various kinds of animals would
also change. The present imperfect drainage is more favorable to the
accumulation of vegetable debris than if the habitat was connected
with a stream which could float it away. The periodical drying hastens
decay, and the deep cracks in the soil become burial places for various
kinds of organic debris.

2. Colony of Wild Rye, Elymus virginicus submuticus, Station I, c*

Wild rye is a swamp grass. This colony was located about half a
mile north of the colony of slough grass (Station I, a) and about 222
feet south of the first east and west cross-road north of Charleston.
For a general view of this grassy habitat see Figure 1, Plate II. In
length this habitat extends about one third the distance between two
consecutive telegraph poles, or about 65 feet. The conditions of the
habitat are in general similar to those in the colony of Spartina. The
black soil was very dry and much cracked when examined, late in Au-
gust. Though a few plants of Asclepias sullivantii grew here among
the grass, it was a dense, almost pure stand of wild rye, which reached
a height of about three and a half feet.

Only a very few collections were made here, and these were for
the sole purpose of determining the general composition of the asso-
ciation.

These collections, Nos. 153, 180, and 181, were as follows:

*Animals were not ead at Station I, 6, and therefore the location will not be
discussed here.

44

Common Garden Spider Argiope aurantia No. 153
Differential Grasshopper Melanoplus differentialis
Red-legged Grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum No. 180
Dorsal-striped Grasshopper Xiphidium strictum No. 180
Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimum vulgare, adult,

and nymphs of vulgare

or glaberrimum No. 180
Texan Katydid Scudderia texensis No. 181

These are all abundant species. O. vulgare, by its persistent fid-
dling, is noticeable in all such grass spots during hot sunny weather.
A live differential grasshopper was found in the web of the garden
spider. A comparison of the two colonies of swamp grasses, Spartina
and Elymus, will probably help to give one a general idea of the kind
of invertebrates which were abundant in the original swamip-grass
area of this vicinity. It will be noticed that grass and grass eaters are
the dominant species, and that upon these a smaller number of preda-
ceous animals depend. The characteristic species are the Orithoptera
and the garden spider. This spider, on account of its predaceous hab-
its, is able to live in a great variety of open situations, but does not
normally live in dense woodlands.

3. Wet Area of Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), Station I, d

This colony of swamp milkweed was about one eighth of a mile
north of the east and west cross-road. This flat, poorly drained black-
soil area, about 80 feet long, was wet throughout August, crawfish
holes being abundant (Pl. IITA, fig. 2; Pl. IIIB, figs. 1, 2). To
the east, beyond the boundary fence, in the adjoining corn field, stood
a pool of water surrounded by a zone of yellowish weakened corn,
visited occasionally by a few shore birds. Along the east side of the
newly formed railway embankment (PI. III, fig. 1) is a shallow
trench containing water and a growth of young willows (Salix) and
cottonwoods (Populus deltoides), also blue flags (Iris versicolor),
bulrush (Scirpus), and sedge (Carex). The characteristic plants
over this area were the abundant swamp milkweed (Asclepias incar-
nata, Pl. ILIA, fig. 1) and Bidens. A few plants of water horehound
(Lycopus) and dogbane (Apocynum medium) were present, and many
individuals of a low plant with a winged stem (Lythrum alatum).

The collections (Nos. 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 32, 37, 45, 156, and
157) of animals taken here were as follows:

Pond snail
Prairie Crawfish
Garden Spider

45

Galba umbilicata 18
Cambarus gracilis —
Argiope aurantia —_

Ambush Spider Misumena aleatoria 157
Chigger Trombidium sp. —
Nine-spot Dragon-fly Labellula pulchella _—
Stink-bug Euschistus variolarius 12
Small Milkweed-bug Lygeus kalmii 12
Large Milkweed-bug Oncopeltus fasciatus I
Ambush Bug Phymata fasciata 12
Tarnished Plant-bug Lygus pratensis 12
Soldier-beetle Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus 156
Black Flower-beetle_ Euphoria sepulchralis 156
Four-eyed Milkweed-beetle Tetraopes tetraophthalmus 12
Milkweed-beetle Tetraopes femoratus (?) I
Leaf-beetle Diabrotica atripennis I
Dogbane Beetle Chrysochus auratus 14
Celery Butterfly Papilio polyxenes 15, 45
Philodice Butterfly Eurymus philodice 12
Idalia Butterfly Argynnis idalia 33
Milkweed Butterfly Anosia plexippus —
Honeysuckle Sphinx Hemaris diffinis 32
Giant Mosquito Psorophora ciliata 13
Giant Fly Mydas clavatus 12
Honey-bee Apis mellifera —_
Pennsylvania Bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus 155
Bumblebee Bombus fraternus 12
Bumblebee Bombus separatus 12, 157
Carpenter-bee Xylocopa virginica 1,156
Rusty Digger-wasp Chlorion ichneumoneum I2

The soft, wet, black soil contained large numbers of crawfish holes,

and from several of them T. L. Hankinson dug specimens of Cambarus
gracilis. Frogs (Rana) were seen but none were secured. A Caro-
lina rail was flushed from the ditch along the track, and on the mar-
gins of the water in the adjacent corn field Mr. Hankinson recognized
some shore birds. The dragon-fly Libellula pulchella was abundant on
the wing and resting on the vegetation, and two examples were found
in the webs of Argiope aurantia. No nymphs were found, but doubt-
less eggs were laid by some of the numerous adults. It was interest-
ing to observe the fresh burrows of the crawfish which had traversed
the fresh firm yellow clay of the recently reinforced railway embank-

46

ment (shown im Pl. Ul, fig. 2) and appeared upon its surface. ‘The
occurrence hereof 4 swall anal. Calbucecadsirata, is of imterest. A
very large species of mosquito with conspicuously banded legs, Psoro-
phora ciliata, was found here. Though these aquatics and the ground
fonms did not receive much attemtion, they are representative of wet
places.

The presence of certain plamts im this habitat has determined. the
occurrence of several species of animals. ‘Thus the dogbame Apocy-
mm medium accounts for the brilliamtly colored leaf-beetle Chry-
sochus auratus, which feeds wpon its leaves and roots. But the most
conspicuous feature of this habitat in August is the wariety of imsects
which are attracted by the flowers of the swamp milkweed. ‘These
flowers may be regarded as so much imsect pasture. A few butterflies
were observed, Papiho polyxemes beimg fownd im am Argiope web; amd.
om the flowers of the swamp milkweed were Papilio cresphomtes, Ewry-
mus philodice, Argyumis idaha, Anosia plesippus, and the honeysuckle

were the homey-bee (Apis mellifera) and the common rusty digger-
wasp (Chlorion ichmeumoncum). Others were the carpenter-bee
(Xylocopa virgimca) and the bumblebees Bombus fratermus and sep-
aratus. On the flowers of the thistle (Cirsium) near this station, Bom-
bus pemmsyloomicus was also talsem lpr met ney om as
was taken om the flowers of the swamp milkweed. Beetles from these

flowers were the spotted milkweed-beetles (Tetraopes tetraophthalmus
amd femoratus?) the flower-bectle Euphoria sepulchralis, and, tate
im August, great mumbers of the soldier-beetle Chanliogmathus penm-

Syommicus.. The HemiptreSoond ae pally characterise di

Lyoens katecd) aul Dyes peatensic Soil other imsects were present
om the millweeds, preying mot wpom tie plamt, but mpom its guests.
These were tie aminch img (Plymata fascioia) and the ambush

sects of this Inalbittat att this seasom. Amother abundant amimall was tie
chigger, a larval mite of the genus Trombidionn, wihich is brushed from.
the vegetation by one’s amms and legs. “"Mhese inrittating pests were so
abumdamt that to worl with comfort im tins regiom it was mecessaury
to ponsicr one's chutes and badly wat! Soeezs of seteienc ‘These
young sixlegwed mutes are supposed to prey mpom imsents, as do the
adults. Acoording to Chittenden (06:4) diggers are most abum-
damt im damp places and forest margims, amd amomg shrubs, grass,

47

and herbage. “The adults are knowm to eat plamt-lice, small caterpil-
lars, and grasshoppers’ eggs. ‘This mite is thus am importamt preda-
cross aneaher of the acsoeation. The dragunfiies are swell kurwss 30
feed wpom small insects, which they capture om the wing, and om ac-
coumt of thenr abundance they are imfimential imsects here.

An examimation of the list of ammmals secured at this station
shows that there is comsiderable diversity im the conditions under which
their breeding takes place. Indeed the breeding habits amd places are
almost as diverse as are the feedimg relations. ‘Thus the smail Galbo
breeds im the water ; amd the crawfish, Cambarus gracilis, lives as a tur-
rower except for a brief period im sprimg, whem it is foumd im streams.
It ts distimetly a subterrameam species. “The gardem spider, im the fall,
leaves its epps im its web. "The life instory of the amitush spider is mot
kmowm. Itt seems probable that the sexes meet mpom flowers, amd as
the flowers fade they migrate to fresh omes—a respomse which Ham-
cock has observed ("11 : 182-186) im the allied species Miswmena
vote. "The ambush bug, whem found om flowers, is im a large momber
of cases copullatimg, but where the eggs are laid amd the youmg dewel-
oped is mnkmowm to me. “Mhougih this bug also must migrate with the
fading of the flowers, after the halbit of Miswmenm, it is wimged amd
does mot have to go “om foot” as the spider probably does. Whem dis-
thurfbed these fbmgs do mot as a rule seek to escape by flight, amd it is mot
wolikely that they often crawl from ome flower to amother whem tihe
diistamee is short. “Mhe soldiertheetle is similar to the ambush bog im

tipo
stems of the plamts om wich they live. "Nhe larva of the millkweed
beetles hore imito the roots and stems of plamts; the doghame beetile has
siomilaor halts. Of the butiterfiies, Amoma was observed copulatimg om
thhe willows, ome sex witin the wimgs spread, the fore ones overlappimg

The egws of the mosquito are laid mear the surface of tie watter. “Mhe
ihomeytbee andl mmiblledbees are social, amd the breedimg amd care of
the young are quite different firom those of the other ammmals found
sinrapeleumnipnar Xylocopa outs the mest for its brood im solid wood,

winain is ding itm tthe grrommdl, with warioms grasshoppers; mpom tihese tire
egy its land amd the young larva feeds. ‘This wasp probally did mot
Tbreed! itm this mmotst thalbitadt. “he wet substtratiomm there ts profbalbly w-
faworablle for tthe breedimg of those Orthopiera winch deposit thhenr
epys im tthe soll.

48

4. Cone-flower and Rosin-weed Colony, Station I, e

This station was continuous with and just north of the swamp
milkweed area (Station I,d) just described. The surface of the
ground sloped gently upward toward the north, but none of it was free
from crawfish holes, and the ground-water level was not far below.
The soil is very dark in color.

The general appearance of this habitat is shown in Plate V. The
large-leaved plants are Silphium terebinthinaceum, and the heads of
the numerous cone-flowers (Lepachys pinnata) show as black points in
the picture. The cone-flower was the dominant plant at this time.
There were a few scattered plants of Silphium integrifolium and of
wild lettuce (Lactuca canadensis). At the time the collecting was done
in this area Silphium was not in blossom, and all the flower-collecting
was from Lepachys.

The collections of animals taken here (Nos. 8, 40, and 158) are
as follows:

Crawfish Cambarus sp. (Burrows observed)

Garden Spider Argiope aurantia 40
Sordid Grasshopper Encoptolophus sordidus 158
Differential Grasshopper Melanoplus differentialis 40
Red-legged Grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum 40
Texan Katydid Scudderia texensis 40
Dorsal-striped Grasshopper Xiphidium strictum 40
Black-horned Meadow Cricket Gicanthus nigricornis 40
Membracid bug Campylenchia curvata 40
Jassid Platymetopius frontalis 40
Lygeid Ligyrocoris sylvestris 40
Ambush Bug Phymata fasciata 40
Chrysomelid beetle Nodonota convexa 40
Southern Corn Root-worm Diabrotica 12-punctata 40

Beetle

Robber-fly Asilide _
Trypetid fly Euaresta equalis 40
Eucerid bee Melissodes bimaculata 8
Eucerid bee Melissodes obliqua 8
Nomadid bee Epeolus concolor 8
Social wasp Polistes sp. —

Collection No. 40 was made by sweeping the vegetation with an in-
sect net. No. 8 is a collection made from the flowers of Lepachys pin-
nata. The nest of Polistes was across the railway track. from this
station. The abundance of Melissodes obliqua and of the pretty

49

Epeolus concolor on the flowers of Lepachys indicates the attractive
power of this plant. The coarser plants furnish support for the webs
of Argiope, the flowers serve as drinking cups in which Phymata lies
in ambush; and the varied vegetation affords food for the numerous
Orthoptera. The proximity of ground-water accounts for the pres-
ence of Cambarus, and an adjacent corn field explains the presence
of Diabrotica. A robber-fly (Asilide) was seen but not captured. It is
interesting to see Melissodes obliqua as it hurries round and round the
heads of cone-flowers and sweeps up the great masses of yellow poilen.
The hind pair of legs, when loaded with pollen, have nearly the bulk
of the abdomen. Robertson (’94; 468) says that this is the most
abundant visitor to the cone-flower, and more abundant on this flower
than on any other.

It is probable that the conditions within this habitat were suitable.
for the breeding of most of the species listed. Huaresta equalis has
been bred from the seed pods of the cocklebur (Xanthium) and prob-
ably came from the adjacent corn field. It is most likely on flowers
that the strepsipterid parasitic insects find many of their hosts (Pierce
‘og b: 116). These insects are found on the following prairie insects:
Polistes, Odynerus, Chlorion ichneumoneum, C. pennsylvanicum, and
C. atratum. Robertson (’10) records many important observations on
the hosts of Illinois Strepsiptera.

5. Colony of Blue Stem (Andropogon) and Drop-seed (Sporobolus),
bordered by Swamp Milkweed, Station I, g*

This colony formed the extreme northern part of the prairie area
examined along the “Clover Leaf” track. It extended along the track
for a distance of about 200 feet. The area is level black soil prairie.
Its general appearance and location are indicated in Figure 2, Plate
II, and in Figure 2, Plate III, photographs taken at the time of our
study, and in Figure 2, Plate IV, a photograph taken by T. L. Hankin-
son April 23, 1911. This latter view clearly shows the character of the
drainage during the spring wet season. During the late summer, the
dry season, the ditch along the railway track concentrates the drainage
so that a colony of swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) and small
willows flourish in it. Upon the well-drained part of this area there is
a rather rich growth of Andropogon furcatus, A. virginicus, and
Sporobolus cryptandrus, and many plants of the dogbane Apocynum
medium and a few plants of Asclepias sullivantii. This was the larg-
est and best colony of the upland prairie grasses seen along the Clover
Leaf tracks; and yet when it is compared with the patches of such

*No collections were made at Station I, f.

50

grass east of Charleston (Station III) it is a meager colony. Just

south of this grassy colony was a large one of the mountain mint.

Pycnanthemum flexuosum. This is shown in Figure 1, Plate IV.
The collections of animals (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 19, 28a, 36, 39, 44,

157, and 159) are as follows:

Pond snail

Crawfish

Harvest-man

Garden Spider

Ambush Spider
Red-tailed Dragon-fly
Nine-spot Dragon-fly
Prairie Ant-lion
Lace-wing Fly
Grasshopper

Sordid Grasshopper
Differential Grasshopper
Red-legged Grasshopper
Texan Katydid
Meadow Grasshopper
Cone-nosed Katydid
Four-spotted White Cricket
Stink-bug

Small Milkweed-bug
Large Milkweed-bug
Rapacious Soldier-bug
Ambush Bug

Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle
Rhipiphorid beetle
Bill-bug

Milkweed Butterfly
Giant Mosquito
Mycetophilid fly

Giant Bee-fly
Vertebrated Robber-fly
Honey-bee

Bumblebee

Bumblebee

Eucerid bee

Nomadid bee
Leaf-cutting bee

Rusty Digger-wasp
Myzinid wasp

Physa gyrina 19
Cambarus sp. _
Liobunum politum? 7
Argiope aurantia 6, 39
Misumena aleatoria 6, 157, 159
Sympetrum rubicundulum 7
Libellula pulchella —
Brachynemurus abdominalis 36
Chrysopa oculata 44
Syrbula admirabilis 3
Encoptolophus sordidus 44
Melanoplus differentialis 39
Melanoplus femur-rubrum 3, 39
Scudderia texensis 2, 44
Orchelimum vulgare —, 3
Conocephalus sp. 159
CEcanthus 4-punctatus 3
Euschistus variolarius 39
Lygeus kalmii 1,6
Oncopeltus fasciatus I
Stnea diadema ‘)
Phymata fasciata I
Tetraopes tetraophthaimus I
Rhipiphorus dimidiatus 6
Sphenophorus venatus 39
Danais archippus —
Psorophora ciliata 44
Sciara sp. 6
Exoprosopa fasciata 6
Promachus vertebratus 39, 44
Apis mellifica I
Bombus fraternus I
Bombus separatus I
Melissodes bimaculata 6
Epeolus concolor 6
Megachile mendica I
Chlorion ichneumoneum I
Myzine sexcincta 1, 6

51

Physa and Cambarus were found among the milkweeds on account
of the wet ground, and the presence of the giant mosquito was prob-
ably due to the same condition. The majority of the other animals
were attracted to this habitat by the milkweed, particularly by its flow-
ers. Among these were the milkweed bugs and beetles, the milkweed
butterfly, the honey-bee, and the rusty digger-wasp. The dense growth
of the milkweeds does not appear to be so favorable to the garden:
spider as is the more open and irregular growth of vegetation else-
where. The ambush spider frequented the milkweed flowers for prey
and also the flower masses of the mountain mint, on which it was in
active competition with the ambush bug and the rapacious soldier-bug,
which have similar food habits. ‘The mountain mint, whose flowers
are frequented by the predaceous animals just mentioned, is also vis-
ited by rhipiphorid beetles, the bee-fly (Exoprosopa fasciata), the bees
Melissodes bimaculata and Epeolus concolor, and the myzinid wasp
Myzine sexcincta. ‘The prairie grasses were frequented by a large
variety of Orthoptera, which showed a decided preference for them,
their abundance being evident in the list. The wide-ranging predators
and parasites, such as Liobunum, Labellula, Sympetrum, Chrysopa,
Brachynemurus, Promachus, Chlorion, and Myzine, probably forage
over extensive areas compared with the relatively sedentary kinds,
such as Misumena, Argiope, Phymata, and Sinea. Phymata was cap-
tured on a milkweed flower with a honey-bee; Promachus vertebratus
was taken on a grass stem with a stink-bug (Euschistus variolarius) ;
and Misumena aleatoria was taken with a large, nearly mature female
nymph of Conocephalus.

The conditions which permit an animal to breed in a habitat have
an important influence upon the character of its population. It is evi-
dent that many of the animals taken do not breed here. Some of the
relatively sedentary kinds, such as Physa, Cambarus, and Argiope, and
probably Misumena, do not cover long distances. Good examples of
the wider ranging forms are Sympetrum, Libellula, Danais, Proma-
chus, Apis, Bombus, and Chlorion. Several of the animals, as the
snails, crawfish, and the dragon-flies, require an aquatic habitat.
Chrysopa places its eggs among colonies of plant-lice, and Brachyne-
murus probably spends its larval life in dry or sandy places, feeding
upon ants and other small insects, as do other ant-lions. Several of
the Orthoptera deposit their eggs in the soil; and some of the locustids,
among grasses and herbaceous stems. Others are found copulating
upon the plants on which the young feed, as Tetraopes, Chrysochus,
Lygeus, and Oncopeltus; and still others copulate in the flowers
mainly, as Phymata. It is probable that on the flowers some of the para-

52

sitic species find their hosts, as Pierce (’04) has shown to be the case
in the rhipiphorid genus Myodites. Rhiptphorus is probably parasitic.

6. Supplementary Collections from Station I

In addition to the specimens given in the preceding lists for Statio
I there are others, general collections from this area, which should b
listed for this prairie. For details concerning each species of the fol
lowing consult the annotated list.

Garden Spider

Ambush Spider

Chigger

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper
Coreid bug

Ambush Bug

Ladybird

Leaf-beetle

Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle
Old-fashioned Potato Beetle
Margined Blister-beetle
Black Blister-beetle
Snout-beetle

Snout-beetle

Giant Bee-fly

American Syrphid
Tachinid fly

Bumblebee

False Bumblebee

Eucerid bee

Short Leaf-cutting Bee
Halictid bee

Halictid bee

Stizid wasp

Rusty Digger-wasp

Harris Digger-wasp
Digger-wasp

Solitary wasp

Argiope aurantia
Misumena aleatoria
Trombidium sp.
Xiphidium strictum
Harmostes reflexulus
Phymata fasciata
Hippodamia parenthesis
Trirhabda tomentosa
Tetraopes 4-ophthalmus
Epicauta vittata

Epicauta marginata
Epicauta pennsylvanica
Centrinus penicellus
Centrinus scutellum-album
Exoprosopa fasciata
Syrphus americanus
Trichopoda ruficauda
Bombus separatus
Psithyrus variabilis
Melissodes obliqua
Megachile brevis
Halictus fasciatus
Halictus virescens
Stigus brevipennis
Chlorion ichneumonenm
Chlorion harrisi
Ammophila nigricans
Odynerus vagus

Hankinson
Hankinson

Hankinson
Hankinson
26, 152

41
Hankinson
24, 31

II

38

22

22

24, 48
Hankinson
26

23

35, Hankinson

II. Pratrtz ArEA NEAR Loxa, ILLINOIS, Station II

This station includes patches of prairie along the Cleveland, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago and St. Louis (Big Four) railroad right-of-way be-
tween Charleston and Mattoon, Ill, and about one mile west of

53

the small station of Loxa. Along this track the telegraph-pole num-
bers were used in locating our substations. This is a rather level black
soil area, originally poorly drained and wet, but now considerably
modified by the ditching and grading occasioned by railway construc-
tion and maintenance. The changes have been similar to those on the
prairie north of Charleston, but the ditching has been a few feet deeper
and the embankment is higher. The most abundant and characteristic
kinds of vegetation are the tall prairie grasses—blue stem (Andropo-
gon furcatus), drop-seed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), and beard grass
(Andropogon virginicus)—a rosin-weed (Silphium laciniatum), the
flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata), wild lettuce (Lactuca can-
adensis), rattlesnake-master (Eryngium yuccifolium), and beggar-- -
ticks (Desmodium). Many other kinds of plants were also present.
The general appearance of this habitat is shown in plates VI and VII.

Our collections from this prairie (Nos. 47-57 and 176-178) are as

follows:
Garden Spider Argiope aurantia 49, 179
Ambush Spider Misumena aleatoria 47, 178
Sordid Grasshopper Encoptolophus sordidus 48
Two-lined Grasshopper Melanoplus bivittatus 55
Differential Grasshopper Melanoplus differentialis 48
Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimum vulgare 178
Lance-tailed Grasshopper Xiphidium attenuatum 48
Dorsal-striped Grasshopper Xiphidium strictum 48, 50, 57
Stink-bug Euschistus variolarius 50, 52, 178
Ambush Bug Phymata fasciata

48, 52, 54, 55, 57, 178
Dusky Leaf-bug Adelphocoris rapidus 55
Soldier-beetle Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus 178
Southern Corn Root-worm —_ Diabrotica 12-punctata 55
Margined Blister-beetle Epicauta marginata 48
Black Blister-beetle Epicauta pennsylvanica 48, 178
Rhipiphorid beetle Rhipiphorus dimidiatus 52
Rhipiphorid beetle Rhipiphorus limbatus 178
Snout-beetle Rhynchites eneus 48
Thoe Butterfly Chrysophanes thoe 55
Dogbane Caterpillar Ammalo eglenensis or tenera 53
Giant Bee-fly Exoprosopa fasciata 47, 57, 176

Robber-fly Deromyia sp. 51
Vertebrated Robber-fly Promachus vertebratus 56
Corn Syrphid Mesogramma politum 177
Syrphid fly Allograpta obliqua 177

54

Tachinid fly Cistogaster immaculata
Pennsylvania Bumblebee Bombus a a 50, 52, 55, 176
False Bumblebee Psithyrus variabilis
Eucerid bee Melissodes bimaculata “3
Nomadid bee Epeolus concolor 48, 52
Halictid bee Hoalictus obscurus 55
Halictid bee Halictus fasciatus 48, 52
Black Digger-wasp Chlorion atratum 55
Pennsylvania Digger-wasp Chlorion pennsylvamcum 55
Myzinid wasp Myzine sexcincia 52, 55
Ant Formica pallide-fulva schaufussi
tncerta 52

The general conditions of this prairie appear to have been less dis-
turbed than at Station I; at least the prairie vegetation is more exten-
sive and uniform. The change in the vegetation is apparently greater
than the change in the kinds of animals. Their feeding and breeding
relations appear to be much like those at the prairie stations previously
discussed.

In the flowers of the cup-leaved rosin-weed (Silphium tntegri-
folium) was found a giant bee-fly (Exoprosopa fasciata) which had.
been captured by the ambush spider (Misumene aleatoria), and on
webs in colonies of this same plant the garden spider (Argiope auran-
tia) was observed, with a grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis) en-
tangled in the web. From the flowers of this Silphium the following
insects were taken: Epicauta marginata and E. pennsylvanica, Rhyn-
chites eneus, Phymata fasciata, Encoptolophus sordidus, Melanoplus
differentialis (nymph), Xiphidium strictum (adult and nymph), X.
attenuatum, Melissodes bimaculata and obliqua, Epeolus concolor, and
Halictus fasciatus. ‘The margined blister-beetle (Epicauta marginata)
was found both upon the flowers and the leaves of the plant. On the
flowers of the purple prairie clover (Petalostemum purpureum), Bom
bus pennsylvanicus, Xiphidium strictum, and Euschistus variolarius
were taken. Collection 176 was taken from the flowers of Liatris
scariosa, and Nos. 55 and 178 from the flowers of Eryngium yucci-
folium.

Swarms of the small corn syrphid, Mesogramma politum, were
present, on one day settling by dozens on my hands and clothes, where
they were easily grasped by the wing. It had been a warm day, and
this swarming was in the sunshine at about 4:30 p.m. The flies came
from a large corn field a few feet away.

35

TH. Prams Arca Easr or Cnartesron, Sration IT

This prairie area is about two miles east of Charleston along the
“Big Four” railway track. ‘There were two colonies here. One, sub-
station a, was on low black-soil prairie just west of the first morth and
south road crossing the railway track east of Charleston. This was
largely a colony of the large-leaved rosin-weed, Silthium terebinthi-
naceum. ‘The second colony, substation b, was a mile and a half di-
rectly east of substation a, and half a mile east of the second north and.
south road east of Charleston.

Substation or “station” a was originally far out upon the black soil
prairie; b, on the other hand, is of special interest because it was origi-
nally wooded, has been cleared and maintained as a railroad right-of-
way, and contains today, therefore, a practically unique mixture of for-
ca and geditio peaitscad gaitale war Hie pate Wade deaceciteag:
The soil, lighter in color than the black soil prairie, is representative of
the wooded regions. This colony has every appearance of a cleared
forest area invaded by prairie organisms.

The animals at station a were not studied, and ihe only record is
that of the black blister-beetle, Epicauta pennsylvanica (No. 119),
which was abundant on the flowers of Silphium terzbinthinaceum.

At station 6 excavation was necessary to lower the road-bed, and
upon the disturbed soil thus thrown up along the track the prairie veg-
etation had become established. The general appearance of this region
is shown in plates VIII and IX. Here grew large quantities of rosin-
weed (Silphium terebinthinaceum) and blue stem (Andropogon) ; in
places upon high ground, indeed, this prairie grass was
Associated with it was the flowering spurge, Euphorbia corollata, as
seen' in Plate VIII. The forest near by is shown in the background.
This same forest and grass area is shown in the background and mid-
dle of Plate IX, and in the foreground of the same picture is shown
the mixture of prairie and forest plants. Here are hickory sprouts,
crab-apple, grape, sumac, and smilax, intermingled with Silphium,
blue stem, and Lactuca canadensis. Not all of these appear in the
photograph, but they were present in some parts of the colony.

The collections here (Nos. 58-62 and 175) are as follows:

Leather-colored Grasshopper § Schistocera alutacea 590
Black-horned Meadow Cricket Gcanthus nigricornis 62
Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimum vulgare 175
Soldier-beetle Chauliognathus pennsylvamcus 175
Spotted Grape-beetle Pelidnota punctata 58
Black Blister-beetle Epicauta pennsylvamica

(Sta. I,a) 119

56

Cabbage Butterfly Pontia rape 61
Vertebrated Robber-fly Promachus vertebratus 62
Pennsylvania Bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus 175
Impatient Bumblebee Bombus impaitens 175
Bumblebee Bombus auricomus 175
(Rose-gall) Rhodites nebulosus 60

No animals were taken here which were dependent upon the sumac,
hickory, crab-apple, or smilax. Pelidnota lives upon the grape, and
grapes are primarily woodland or forest-margin rather than prairie
plants. Schistocerca is also probably a marginal species. On the flow-
ers of Silphium terebinthinaceum were taken Orchelimum vulgare,
Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, and Bombus pennsylvanicus, auri-
comus, and impatiens.

The persistence of woodland vegetation in this locality, in spite
of the repeated mowings and burnings, shows that it has much vigor,
and would, if undisturbed, in a few years shade out the prairie vege-
tation and restore the dominance of the forest. With such a change in
the vegetation there would of course be a corresponding change in the
animals.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST HABITATS AND ANIMALS
1. The Bates Woods, Station IV

The Bates woodland area is located about three and a half miles
northeast of Charleston on the farm that was owned by Mr. J. I. Bates,
and consists of about 160 acres. It includes a bottom-land area near
the Embarras River, and extends up the valley slope on to the upland.
It is isolated from the trees bordering the river (Pl. X, fig. 1) by a
narrow clearing, and from those on the northeast, north, and north-
west by another clearing (Pl. XI); on the south and southwest it is
continuous with partially cleared areas, which extend south to the Big
Four railway track.

The river bottom-land is undulating and rises rather gradually
toward the base of the bluffs. The bluff line is irregular on account of
the ravines which have been etched in it, the largest of which forms
the southern boundary of the region examined. The upland is rela-
tively level. The soils on the bottom are darker colored, except in
places near the base of the bluff, and at the mouths of the ravines
where the upland soil has been washed down. The upland soil is pre-
sumably the “light gray silt loam” of the State Soil Survey (Moultrie
County Soils, Ill. Exper. Sta. Soil Rep., 1911, No. 2, p. 23). All of

57

the area examined was well drained, and all was forested. The region
is not homogeneous physically or in its vegetation, and for this reason
the area is divided into substations in order that the influences of the
local conditions within the forest might be preserved, and their indi-
viduality recognized.

2. The Upland Oak-Hickory Forest, Station IV,a

The general appearance of this forest is shown in plates XII and
XIII. This is an open second-growth forest composed of oaks and
hickories—such as white oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Q. velutina),
shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata), bitternut (C. cordiformis), pignut
(C. glabra), and scattered individual trees of red oak (Q. rubra), wal-
nut (Juglans nigra), and mulberry (Morus rubra). The shrubs are
sassafras (Sassafras variifolium), sumac (Rhus glabra), Virginia
creeper (Psedera quinquefolia), poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron),
rose (Rosa), raspberry (Rubus), moonseed (Menispermum cana-
dense), and tree seedlings. The average diameter of the largest trees
is 8-10 inches. Most of the small growth consists of the sprouts from
stumps, and many of these are 2-3 inches in diameter. ‘The forest
crown is not complete, and as a consequence there are more or less open
patches in which most of the herbaceous growth is found, such as
horse mint (Monarda bradburiana), pennyroyal (Hedeoma pule-
gioides), everlasting (Antennaria plantaginifolia), tick-trefoil (Des-
modium nudiflorum), and other, less abundant kinds. Even a plant
quite characteristic of the prairie, the dogbane Apocynum, was found
here in one of the open glades.

The forest floor has an unequal covering of dead leaves, largely
oak, most of which lie in the low vegetation and in slight depressions.
Occasionally there is but little cover and the light-colored soil is ex-
posed. There are few stumps and logs in this part of the forest, and
no thick layer of vegetable mold, so that one would not expect to find
any animals which normally frequent moist soil and vegetable debris.
As this is a second-growth forest it lacks the conditions which abound
in an original growth, where are old, dead and decaying trees, and
numerous decaying logs and stumps. In this respect the woods is not
fully representative of an original upland forest on well-drained bluff
land.

The relative evaporating power of the air of this substation was 54
per cent. of that of the standard instrument in the open garden at the
Normal School, a fact which indicates a relative evaporation com-
parable to that of the ordinary black-soil prairie; in producing this con-
dition, the glade-like, open character of this forest is undoubtedly
an important factor.

58

The characteristics of this habitat may be summed up as follows:
upland, open, relatively dry second-growth oak-hickory forest, with
little undergrowth of shrubs and herbs, and with a small amount of
litter and humus; soil dry and firm; and few decaying stumps and tree

trunks.

The collections of animals made here (Nos. 64-67, 69, 71, 74-83,
88, 91-93, 102, 103, 107, 109, 118, 120-123, 127, 135, 136, 142, 145,
147, 150, 151, 162, 163, 166, 169, 170, 171, and 183) are as follows:

Land snail
Predaceous snail
Land snail

Carolina slug

Land snail
Harvest-spider
Harvest-spider

Stout Harvest-spider
Island Spider
White-triangle Spider
Rugose Spider
Ground Spider
White Ant

Ant-lion

Dog-day Harvest-fly
Periodical Cicada
Forest Walking-stick
Grouse Locust

Short-winged Grouse Locust

Green Short-winged
Grasshopper
Sprinkled Grasshopper
Boll’s Grasshopper
Lesser Grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Forked Katydid
Angle-winged Katydid
Common Katydid
Meadow Grasshopper
Meadow Grasshopper
Striped Cricket
Spotted Cricket
Woodland Cricket

Polygyra albolabris QI
Circinaria concava 71
Zonitoides arborea 71
Philomycus carolinensis 71
Pyramidula perspectiva 71, 88
Liobunum vittatum 82, 123
Liobunum ventricosum 123b
Liobunum grande 82
Epeira insularis 70
Epeira verrucosa 70
Acrosoma rugosa 70, 147
Lycosa sp. 142, 150

Termes flavipes 72, 76, 79
Myrmeleonide (Forest border) 183
Cicada linnei 162

Tibicen septendecim —_
Diapheromera femorata 64, 93
Tettigidea lateralis 109
Tettigidea parvipennis 122
Dichromorpha viridis

67, 92, 93, 121, 123
Chloealtis conspersa 67, 93, 122
Spharagemon boll 67, 150
Melanoplus atlanis
Melanoplus amplectens 67
Melanoplus obovatipennis 93
Scudderia furcata 109
Microcentrum laurifolium 135
Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus 145
Orchelimum cuticulare 67, 93
Xiphidium nemorale 93, 103
Nemobius fasciatus 67, 93, 122
Nemobius maculatus 122

Apithus agitator 93

Woodland Tiger-beetle

Caterpillar-hunter
Carabid beetle
Ladybird
Splendid Dung-beetle
Dogbane Beetle
Tenebrionid larva
Philenor Butterfly
Turnus Butterfly
Troilus Butterfly
Sphingid larva
Arctiid moth
Notodontid moth
Notodontid moth
Notodontid moth
Geometrid moth
Gelechiid moth

(Cecidomyiid gall)
(Cecidomyiid gall)
(Cecidomyiid gall)
Syrphid fly

Corn Syrphid

Vespa-like Syrphid
Pigeon Tremex

(Oak Bullet-gally
(White Oak Club-gall)
(Oak Wool-gall)
Formicid ant
Formicid ant
Formicid ant

Mutillid ant

Short Caterpillar-wasp

59

Cicindela unipunctata 136
Calosoma scrutator 64
Galerita janus 171
Coccinelliide 81
Geotrupes splendidus 120
Chrysochus auratus 103
Meracantha contractea 83
Papilio philenor 69, 166
Papilio turnus —
Papilio troilus 163
Cressonia juglandis 102
Halisidota tessellaris 168
Datana angus 65, 162
Nadata gibbosa 169
Heterocampa gutiivitta? 127
Eustroma diversilineata 163

Ypsolophus ligulellus?
76, 78, Hankinson

Cecidomyia holotricha 107, 170
Cecidomyia tubicola’ 107
Cecidomyia caryecola 107, 170
Chrysotoxum ventricosum 163

Mesogramma politum
76, 78, Hankinson

Milesia ornata 103
Tremex columba 66
Holcaspis globulus 170
Andricus clavula 170
Andricus lana 170
Cremastogaster lineolata 118
Aphenogaster fulva 74-80
Formica fusca subsericea 163
Spherophthalma I5I
Ammophila abbreviata 127

3. Embarras Valley and Ravine Slopes, forested by ihe Oak-Hickory
Association, Station IV,b

This station included the slope of the valley from the river bottom
(Station IV, c) to the upland forest (Station IV, a) and the side of
the south ravine, the bottom of which forms Station IV, d. This sub-
station is not as homogeneous physically as the upland or lowland for-
est, because the part along the south ravine is relatively open, is well
drained, and has a south exposure, and the southeast slope to the low-

60

land forest on the other hand, is well wooded and shaded, and much
more humid. The substation also has a considerable amount of litter,
leaves, and humus. This region may be considered as transitional be-
tween the upland and lowland forest, but it represents, not one but two
transitional stages, the south slope approaching the upland forest type,
and the southeast slope approaching that of the lowland forest.
Thus, if one walked from the upland forest down the slope of the
south ravine, and eastward to the southeast valley slope to the bottom-
land forest, he would traverse all the main degrees of conditions found
at Station IV.

The forest cover consists primarily of the following trees: white
oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Q. velutina), walnut (Juglans nigra),
pignut (Carya glabra), and, in smaller numbers, mulberry (Morus
rubra), red oak (Quercus rubra), shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata),
bitternut (C. cordiformis) ; and of the following shrubs: redbud (Cer-
dis canadensis), sassafras (Sassafras variifolium), moonseed (Menis-
permum canadense), five-leaved ivy (Psedera quinquefolia), grape
(Vitis cinerea), prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum), and sumac
(Rhus glabra), the latter growing in large colonies on the open south
ravine-slope. On the more moist and shaded southeast slope lived the
clearweed (Pilea pumila), a plant quite characteristic of moist deep-
shaded woods. Thus sumac and clearweed may be considered as in-
dex plants to the physical conditions in different parts of these two
slopes, one shaded and the other rather open.

The atmometer, located on the upper part of the south ravine slope,
gave a relative humidity of 31 per cent. of the standard in the garden
of the Normal School. It will be recalled that in the upland forest
(Station IV,a) the atmometer gave 54 per cent., the comparison
showing how much less the evaporating power of the air is on the
south ravine slope than it is in the upland forest. The relative evap-
oration was not determined for the southeast slopes, but the presence
of Pilea clearly indicates that it is less than on the south ravine slope,
where the instrument was located. On the lower parts of the valley
slope, where this substation grades into the lowland, the layers of dead
matted leaves and humus reached to a considerable depth, and looked
as if they had been pressed down by drifting snows. Such places were
found to contain very few animals.

This habitat is characterized by a sloping surface, by relative open-
ness on the ravine side and dense shade on the valley slope, by rela-
tively humid air, by second-growth forest somewhat transitional be-
tween that of the uplands (Station IV, a) and the river bottoms (Sta-
tion IV, c), by a relatively large amount of shrubbery, by considerable

61

humus and litter, by moist soil, and by more logs and stumps than are

in the upland forest.

The collections of animals made at this substation (Nos. 68, 84, 85,
87, 89, 90, 94, 100, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, III, 124, 125, 131, 132,

133, 140, 149, 161, 164, 165, 166, and 168) are as follows:

Land snail

Land snail

Land snail

Land snail

Carolina Slug

Land snail

Milliped

Milliped

Stout Harvest-spider

White Ant

Woodland Cockroach

Green Short-winged
Grasshopper

Boll’s Grasshopper

Scudder’s Grasshopper

Woodland Cricket

Caterpillar-hunter

Wireworm

Horned Passalus

Tenebrionid larva

Troilus Butterfly

Philenor Butterfly

Lyczenid butterfly

American Silkworm

Hickory Horned-devil

Arctiid caterpillar

Rotten-log Caterpillar

Notodontid

Notodontid larva

Geometrid

Slug Caterpillar

Pigeon Tremex

(Acorn Plum-gall)

Old-fashioned Ant

Tennessee Ant

Formicid ant

Polygyra clausa

Vitrea indentata

Vitrea rhoadsi
Zonitoides arborea
Philomycus carolinensis
Pyramidula perspectiva
Cleidogona cesioannulata
Polydesmus sp.
Liobunum grande
Termes flavipes
Ischnoptera sp.
Dichromorpha viridis

Spharagemon boll
Melanoplus scudderi
Apithes agitator
Calosoma scrutator
Melanotus sp.
Passalus cornutus
Meracantha contracta
Papilio troilus
Papilio philenor
Everes comyntas
Telea polyphemus
Citheromia regalis
Halisidota tessellaris
Scolecocampa liburna
Datana angusit
Nadata gibbosa
Caberodes confusaria
Cochlidion or Lithacodes
Tremex columba
Amphibolips prunus
Stigmatomma pallipes
Aphenogaster tennesseensis
Myrmica rubra scabrinodis
schnecki

100,

68,
163,

62

Carpenter-ant Camponotus herculeanus penn-
sylvanicus 84, 85

Rusty Carpenter-ant Camponotus herculeanus penn-
sylvanicus ferrugineus 90

Short Caterpillar-wasp Ammophila abbreviata 124

4. Lowland or “Second Bottom,’ Red Oak-Elm-Sugar Maple Wood-
land Association, Station IV, ¢

This station includes the part of the forest located upon the upper
or higher part of the river bottom. This area is sometimes called the
“second bottom” because it is above the present flood-plain. The gen-
eral position of the forest is shown in Figure 1, Plate X. The fringe
of willows along the river bank is shown at a, the flood-plain area is
cleared at b; the substation forest is at c; and part of the forest of the
valley slope is seen at d. Other views of this station are shown in
plates XIV, XV, and XVI (figures 1 and 2). The general slope is
toward the river; minor inequalities are due to the action of the tem-
porary streams which are etching into the uplands and depositing their
burdens of debris at the mouths of the ravines. Soil, leaves, and other
organic debris are washed from the upland, the ravines, and the val-
ley slopes, and are deposited upon the bottoms, forming low alluvial
fans, which have been built up in successive layers or sorted again and
again as the temporary streams have wandered over the surface of
the fan on account of the overloading and. deposition which filled up
their channels. In this manner the soil in general is not only supplied
with moisture, drained from the upland, but the various soils are both
mixed as successive layers of organic debris are buried by storms and
also mulched by the large amount of this debris which is washed and
blown to the lowland. No springs were found upon the southeast
valley slope, but in the south ravine pools of water were present dur-
ing August, 1910, when my observations were made.

The forest, characterized by hard maple (Acer saccharum), red
oak (Quercus rubra), and elm (Ulmus americana), forms a dense
canopy which shuts out the light and winds, thus conserving the mois-
ture which falls and drains into it, and making conditions very favor-
able to a rich mesophytic hardwood forest. That the relative humid-
ity is high is shown by the moisture found in the humus of the forest
floor, and, further, not only by the presence of clearweed (Pilea pu-
mila) and the nettle Laportea canadensis, which characterize such
moist shady woods, but also by the presence of the scorpion-flies (Bit-
tacus). These organisms are permanent residents where such condi-

63

ditions prevail, and their presence is as clearly indicative of certain
physical conditions as that of aquatic animals. would be indicative of
other physical conditions. In addition to these evidences we have
the readings of our atmometer, which showed the evaporating power
of the air to be 26 per cent. of the standard in the garden at the Normal
School. This shows that the relative evaporation is very low, .and
that conditions for the preservation of the moisture which falls and
drains into this area are very favorable. The general character of this
forest is shown in plates XIV, XV, and XVI, Figure 1.

The vegetational cover on the lowland is quite different in its com-
position from that on the upland. This is shown mainly by the pres-
ence of the elm (Ulmus americana), hard maple (Acer saccharum),
and red oak (Quercus rubra), and secondarily, by the presence, in
smaller numbers, of the black cherry (Prunus serotina), slippery elm
(Ulmus fulva), shingle oak{ (Quercus imbricaria), and the Kentucky
coffee-tree (Gymnocladus dioica). Other trees present are walnut
(Juglans nigra), mulberry (Morus rubra), and bitternut (Carya cor-
diformis). The shrubs and.vines are gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati),
prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum), redbud (Cercis canadensis),
buck-brush (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), green brier (Smilax),
five-leaved ivy (Psedera quinquefolia), moonseed (Mentspermum
canadense), bittersweet( Celastrus scandens), and grape (Vitis cine-
rea). ‘The characteristic herbaceous vegetation is nettle (Laportea
canadensis), clearweed (Pilea pumila), bellflower (Campanula ameri-
cana), Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata), tick trefoil (Desmodium
grandiflorum), Actinomeris alternifolia, maiden hair fern (Adiantum
pedatum), beech fern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera), the rattlesnake
fern (Botrychium virginianum), and Galium circesans and G., tri-
folium.

Although the forest is generally dense and therefore deeply shaded,
there are some places which are comparatively open. Attention, how-
ever was devoted mainly to the denser parts. At one place, near the
base of the eastern slope of the valley, a few trees had been cut within
a few years, and in this glade the conditions and plants and animals
were different from those in the dense forest. (See Pl. XVI, figs. 1
and 2.

ids habitat may be characterized as follows: lowland densely cov-
ered by sugar maple-red oak forest (climax mesophytic) ; very humid
air; a moist soil; relatively few shrubs; herbaceous plants—nettles and
clearweed—characteristic of damp, shady, rich woods; and considera-
ble litter and humus in places.

64

The collections of animals made here (Nos. 113, 114, 116, II7,
137-139, 141, 143, 144, 173, 182, and 184) are as follows, the itali-
cised numbers designating collections from the glade:

Predaceous Snail

Land snail

Slug eggs

Alternate Snail

Milliped

Ambush Spider

Tent Epeirid

Three-lined Epeirid
Spined Spider

Rugose Spider

Ground Spider
Cherry-leaf Gall-mite
Clear-winged Scorpion-fly
Leaf-hopper

Pentatomid

Coreid

Spined Stilt-bug
Short-winged Grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Scudder’s Grasshopper
Round-winged Katydid
Nebraska Cone-nose
Meadow Grasshopper
Meadow Grasshopper
Meadow Grasshopper
Striped Cricket
Elaterid larva
Elaterid
Black-tipped Calopteron
Reticulate Calopteron
Horned Fungus-beetle
Common Skipper
Imperial Moth (larva)
Noctuid moth

Asilid fly

Vespa-like syrphid
Long-sting

Black Longtail
Cocoanut Ant

Circinaria concava
Vitrea indentata
Philomycus (?) eggs
Pyramidula alternata
Callipus lactarius
Misumena aleatoria
Epeira domiciliorum
Epeira trivittata
Acrosoma spinea
Acrosoma rugosa
Lycosa scutulata
Acarus serotine
Bittacus stigmaterus
Aulacizes irrorata
Hymenarcys nervosa
Acanthocerus galeator
Jalysus spinosus
Dichromorpha viridis
Melanoplus amplectens
Melanoplus gracilis
Melanoplus scudderi
Amblycorypha rotundifolia
Conocephalus nebrascensis
Orchelimum cuticulare
Orchelimum glaberrimum
Xiphidium nemorale
Nemobius fasciatus
Corymbites sp.
Asaphes memnonius
Calopteron terminale
Calopteron reticulatum
Boletotherus bifurcus
Epargyreus tityrus
Basilona imperialis
Autographa precationis
Deromyia discolor
Milesia ornata
Thalessa lunator
Pelecinus polyturator
Tapinoma sessile

Lig,
iy,

143,

II7,

113
113
114
173
113
184
173
138
172
172
I44
116
141
143
113
182
117
143
143
143
I17
143
117
I43
143
143
143
113
113
173
143
173
173
106
143
117
184
I43
143
139

65

5. Supplementary Collections from the Bates Woods, Station IV

Tent Epeirid
White-triangle Spider
Spined Spider

Rugose Spider

Mealy Flata
Leaf-hopper
Pentatomid bug
Pentatomid bug —
Tarnished Plant-bug
Coreid bug

Coreid bug

Rapacious Soldier-bug
Acridiid grasshopper
Pennsylvania Firefly
Margined Soldier-beetle
Soldier-beetle
Chrysomelid beetle
Clubbed Tortoise-beetle
Portlandia Butterfly
Eurytus Butterfly
Gelechiid moth.
(Hairy Midge-gall)

Corn Syrphid Fly
(Horned-knot Oak-gall)
(Oak Wool-gall)
Ichneumon Wasp
Formicid ant

Rusty Carpenter-ant

Spider Wasp

Epeira domiciliorum
Epeira verrucosa
Acrosoma spinea
Acrosoma rugosa’
Ormenis pruinosa
Gypona pectoralis
Euschistus fissilis
Mormidea lugens
Lygus pratensis
Alydus quinquespinosus
Acanthoceros galeator
Sinea diadema
Melanoplus obovatipennis
Photuris pennsylvanica

Chauliognathus marginatus

Telephorus sp.
Cryptocephalus mutabilis
Coptocycla clavata
Enodia portlandia

Cissia eurytus
Ypsolophus ligulellus
Cecidomyia holotricha

167

126

148

126
Hankinson
Hankinson
124
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
124
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
Hankinson
63
Hankinson
Hankinson

(Near collection No. 96)

Mesogramma politum
Andricus cornigerus
Andricus lana
Trogus obsidianator
Aphenogaster fulva

Hankinson
(Near 96)
(Near 96)
Hankinson

125

Camponotus herculeanus penn-

sylvanicus ferrugineus
Psammochares ethiops

97
Hankinson

6. Small Temporary Stream in the South Ravine, Station IV, d

This small temporary stream in a ravine formed the southern
boundary of the area examined (Pl. XVII, figs. 1 and 2). At the sea-
son of our examination it was a series of small disconnected pools.
Very little attention was devoted to the collection and study of its life.
Most of the collections were secured by T. L. Hankinson. A few aquat-

ic animals were collected here.

In a small pool were taken numerous

specimens of the creek chub (Semotilus atromaculaius), and one stone-

66

roller (Campostoma anomalum). Frogs, toads, and salamanders were
also taken in the vicinity by Mr. Hankinson, who dug from their bur-
rows specimens of Cambarus diogenes, and also secured immunis and
propinquus. On the surface of the pools were numerous specimens
of a water-strider, Gerris remigis. The forest cover is undoubtedly an
important factor in the preservation of such pools, as it controls the
evaporating power of the air.

Mr. Hankinson tells me that during the summer of 1912 this tem-
porary stream was completely dry, and that no fish have been taken
from it since the earlier collection mentioned above. From the mouth
of the ravine across the bottom to the river it is only a few hundred
feet, and in time of heavy or prolonged rains these pools are in direct
communication with the river. Such a stream is an excellent example
of an early stage in the development of the stream habitat, and shows
its precarious character, and the liability to frequent extermination
of these pioneer aquatic animals which invade it in its early stages.
This -applies particularly to those animals which have no method of
tiding over dry periods. On the other hand, those animals which live
in the pools, those parts of temporary streams which persist longest
between showers, have better chances of survival, particularly bur-
rowing animals, like the crawfish and its associates. It seems prob-
able that crawfish burrows harbor a varied population; not only the
crawfish leeches (Branchiobdellide) but also the eggs of certain Cor-
ixide (Forbes, ’76: 4-5; 778, p. 820; Abbott, 12) may almost cover
the body of some crawfishes. By means of this burrow ground-water
is reached, and a subterranean pool is formed. For ihe elaboration of
the stream series see Adams (’01) and Shelford (’11 and 13a).

This temporary stream shows how, by the process of erosion, the
upland forest area is changed into ravine slopes, and, later, even into
the bed of a temporary stream. Thus progresses the endless transfor-
mation of the habitat.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROSS
“ENVIRONMENT

1. Topography and Soils of the State

Illinois lies at the bottom of a large basin. This is indicated in
part by the fact that so many large rivers flow toward it. The mean
elevation of the state is about 600 feet, and about a third of it lies be-
tween 600 and 700 feet above sea-level. Except Kentucky, the bor-
dering states are from 200 to 500 feet higher. Iowa and Wisconsin
are considerably higher, so that winds from the north and northwest

67

reach the state coming down grade. Taken as a whole the land sur-
face is a tilted plain sloping from the extreme northern part—where a
few elevations exceed a thousand feet—toward the south, bowed in
the central part by a broad crescentic undulation caused by a glacial
moraine, and then declining gradually to the lowland north of the
Ozark Ridge, near the extreme southern part of the state. This east
and west ridge occasionally exceeds 1,000 feet, but its average height
is between 700 and 800 feet. It is very narrow, only about 10 miles in
average width, and rises about 300 feet above the surrounding low-
land (Leverett, ’96, ’99). South of this ridge lie the bottoms of the
Ohio River. The largest river within the state is the Illinois.

The soils of the state are largely of glacial origin. Even the un-
glaciated extreme northwestern part and the Ozark Ridge region have
a surface layer of wind-blown loess. In some places considerable sand
was assorted by glacial water, forming extensive tracts of sandy soil,
and locally dune areas are active. Along the larger streams there are
extensive strips of swamp and bottom-land soils. The remaining soils,
which characterize most of the state, were either produced mainly by
the Iowan or Illinoian ice-sheets, as in the case of the relatively poorer
soils, or by the Wisconsin sheet, which formed the foundation for the
better soil. The dark-colored prairie soils are due to organic debris.
Coffey (’12: 42) has said: “Whether this accumulation of humus is
due to lime alone or to the lack of leaching, of which its presence is an
indication, has not been definitely determined. Neither do we know
whether it is due to chemical or bacteriological action; most probably
the latter, an alkaline medium being necessary for the growth of those
bacteria or other microorganism which cause this form of decomposi-
tion.””*

2. Climatic Conditions

The climatic features of a region are generally conceded to have a
fundamental influence upon its life. The controlling influences upon
climate are elevation above sea-level, latitude, relation to large bodies
of water—generally the sea—and the prevailing winds. The eleva-
tion and relief of Illinois have but a slight influence. In latitude
Illinois is practically bisected by the parallel 3934° in the north tem-
perate zone. This position influences the seasons and the amount of
heat received from the sun. The sea is far distant, but the Great
‘Lakes are near by, and proximity to the interior of a large continent

*Consult Hopkins and Pettit (’08) and the County Soil Reports of the State
Soil Survey for a'detailed account of the chemical conditions of Illinois soils.

The bacterial, algal, and animal population have hardly been noticed by stu-
dents of Illinois soils. :

68

brings the state within that influence. And, finally, it lies in the zone
of the prevailing westerly winds, and directly across the path of one
of the main storm tracks, along which travel in rapid alternation the
highs and lows which cause rapid changes of temperature, wind, and
precipitation, and thus produce the extremely variable weather condi-
tions.

The state is 385 miles long, and as latitude has much influence
upon climate, the climate of Illinois differs considerably in the extreme
north and south. This is clearly shown in the average annual tempera-
ture, which in the northern part is 48.9° F., in the central part is
52.70°, and in the southern part is 55.9° (Mosier, ’03). These aver-
ages probably. closely approximate the soil temperatures for these re-
‘gions. The average date of the last killing frost in the northern part
is April 29; in the central part, April 22; and in the southern part,
April 12. The average date of the first killing frost for the northern
part is October 9, central part, October 11, and the southern part is
October 18 (Henry). The growing season for vegetation in the
northern half of the state averages from 150 to 175 days and for the
southern half from 175 to 200 days (Whitson and Baker, 12: 28).
The precipitation shows similar ‘differences, increasing from north to
south. The annual average for the northern part is 33.48 inches, in-
creasing to 38.01 in the central and to 42.10 inches in the southern
part (Mosier, 03:62). Mosier has shown that the Ozark Ridge,
with an average elevation of about 800 feet, condenses the moisture
on its south slope so that it has a precipitation of 7.15 inches more
than do the counties just north of the ridge. This same humid area
appears to extend up the Wabash Valley to Crawford county, and
gives the valley counties a rainfall 3 inches in excess of the adjacent
counties to the west. The average annual rainfall for the state is
37.39 inches—nearly one third of it during April, May, and June,
and if July is included, more than half. The heaviest precipitation,
8.23 inches, is in May and June.

As previously mentioned, the state lies in the zone of prevailing
westerly winds and across the path of storms. These have a dominant
influence upon the direction of the winds. In the northern part of the
state, they are, by a slight advantage, southerly—a tendency which
progressively increases toward the south, for in the central part the
southerly winds reach 55 per cent., and in the southern part 62 per
cent. During the winter the northwest winds predominate throughout
the state, to a marked degree in the central part, where they reach
60 per cent., and where also the velocity is greatest, reaching an av-
erage of 10.3 miles an hour. The velocity of the wind for the entire

69

state is highest during spring. During the summer, the southwest
winds predominate in the northern and central parts, and in the south-
ern part 82 per cent. of the winds are southerly. The velocity of the
wind is least during the summer, and the greatest stagnation occurs
in August. During autumn there is a falling off of the southerly
winds and an increased velocity as winter conditions develop. The
transition in the fall is in marked contrast with the vigor of the
spring transition. The cooler seasons are more strongly influenced
by northerly winds, and the warmer seasons by southerly winds.

3. Climatic Centers of Influence

In the preceding section the average conditions of temperature,
precipitation, and the direction and velocity of the winds have been
summarized, but little effort was made to indicate the mode of opera-
tion of the determining factors which produce and maintain these aver-
age conditions. It is often true that the main factors which explain
the conditions seen in some restricted locality can not be found within
it because the local sample is only a very small part of a much larger
problem. Thus no one attempts to find an explanation of the through-
flowing upper Mississippi system within the state of Illinois; a larger
unit of study is necessary. The region examined must extend to the
headwaters. So, also, with most of the climatic features of Illinois;
their approximate sources must be sought elsewhere. Let us there-
fore consider some of the broader features which influence the climate
of North America, particularly that of the eastern part.

The climates of the world have been divided into two main kinds,
depending primarily upon the controlling influence of temperature.
This is due to the relative specific heat of land and water, that of water
being about four times that of land. The sea, which covers three
fourths of the earth’s surface, is thus an immense reservoir of heat,
which is taken up and given off slowly, at a rate one fourth that of the
land. It is therefore relatively equable. The northern hemisphere
contains the largest amount of land, and is therefore less under the
control of the sea than the southern hemisphere; yet the sea’s influence
is very powerful, particularly near the shore. The large land masses,
on the other hand, on account of their lower specific heat, receive and
give off heat more rapidly to the air above. For this reason the tem-
perature changes, as between day and night or summer and winter,
are much more rapid and much more extreme over land than over
the sea. A climate dominated by the equable sea is oceanic; that
dominated by the changeable lands is continental. [Illinois lies far

70

from the sea and is therefore strongly influenced by continental con-
ditions. To what degree is the marine influence shown?
Meteorologists (cf. Fassig, ’99) have come to look upon the large
areas of permanent high and low barometric pressure as among the
most important factors in climatic control. There are five of these
powerful “centers'of action” which influence our North American
climate (Fig. 1), and four of these are at sea. A pair of Jows are in
the far north, one in the north Pacific near Alaska, the other in the

80 60° 40

Fig. 1. Diagram showing the positions of the relatively stable areas of high and
low barometic pressure, and indicating their influences upon the evaporating power of
the air and upon the climate in general.

north Atlantic south of Greenland. A pair of highs are farther south,
one in the Pacific between California and the Hawaiian Islands, and
the other centering in the Atlantic near the Azores. The highs and
lows in each ocean seem to be paired and to have some reciprocal rela-
tion. The fifth center of action is upon the land. It is a high baromet-
ric area in the Mackenzie basin of Canada, where it becomes a pow-
erful center‘of influence through winter and spring, but with the prog-
ress of summer conditions weakens, and through the accumulation of
continental heat becomes converted into a Jow, thus there is a complete
seasonal inversion on the continent.

These large highs and lows, although relatively permanent, are con-
tinually changing in intensity and position. The highs are regions of
descending, diverging, warming, and drying air, producing clearing
and clear air on their western side, but the reverse on their eastern side.

71

The lows are regions of ascending, converging, cooling air, with in-
creasing moisture and clouds on their western side, but are the re-
verse on their eastern side (Moore, ’10: 153). ‘These same character-
istics apply to the small highs and lows which we are accustomed to
see on the daily weather maps.

If, now, we consider these large centers of action, such considera-
tion will do much toward giving us a graphic idea of our climate. Dur-
ing the winter, because of the small amount of heat received in the
Mackenzie basin, the temperature becomes very low, and a powerful
high barometric area is formed; then the descending air blowing from
the eastern part of this high, or from small highs originating from the
larger one, produce the cold winters and cold waves in winter which
characterize the northeastern United States. If, however, the Atlantic
high wanders on the eastern coast of the United States in winter, the
western part of this high, with its descending, diverging, warming, and
drying air, produces a mild winter. The climate of the eastern United
States is thus, in the cold season, under the alternate invasion of these
two powerful centers of action. During the warm season the conti-
nental winter high is replaced by a low, due to the accumulating warm
continental temperatures which thus have produced an inversion or
seasonal overturning. But the Atlantic high is permanent and exerts
its influence continuously. If the western part of this high encroaches
upon the eastern United States during the summer, with its descend-
ing, drying, and clear air, it may produce drouth, this depending, of
course, on its degree of development. The continental low of sum-
mer, with the drying influence of its eastern side, has a similar ten-
dency. Thus the character of the summer is determined, to an im-
portant degree, by the interplay and relative balance between these two
warming and drying centers. The activity of these centers has a pow-
erful influence upon the moisture-bearing winds, which influence hu-
midity and evaporation in Illinois, and in the eastern United States.

4. Relative Humidity and Evaporating Power of the Air

We are now in a position to examine the facts of relative humidity
and the relative evaporating power of the air in the eastern United
States. The relative aridity on the plains east of the Rocky Moun-
tains is due primarily to the removal of moisture from the prevailing
westerlies in their passage from the Pacific over the various western
mountain ranges which extend across their path, combined with the
excessive summer heating of the continental mass. Here, then, is the
influence of the continental summer low. Farther east the Atlantic
high tends to supplement the continental low and to cause the Gulf

72

winds to brings moisture inland,* and the Great Lakes region adds its
uota.

: In the storm-track zone, where stagnation of the air is due largely
to the balance existing between the continental low and the oceanic
high, the aridity of the plains extends the farthest east, and as an arid
peninsula it crosses Illinois, giving during August a relative humidity
to the prairie area of 60-70 per cent. of saturation (Johnson, ’07).
The reality of the arid peninsula across Illinois is further shown by
the rainfall-evaporation ratios computed and mapped by Transeau
(’o5). These ratios were determined by dividing the mean annual
rainfall at each place by the total mean annual evaporation. These
mapped percentages show that the prairie region is closely bounded
by the region with an evaporation ratio of between 60 and 70 per
cent. of the rainfall received. These conditions furnish a general
background or perspective for a profitable consideration of the local
and more detailed studies which have been made of the relative evap-
orating power of the air in different plant and animal habitats.

For our purpose it is not necessary to consider the history of meth-
ods of measuring relative evaporation. ‘This measurement may be
made by evaporating water in open pans or by the porous porcelain-cup
method. Such cups have been devised by several students, but a modi-
fied form of the Livingston atmometer has been mainly used by plant
ecologists, and this was the kind we used at Charleston. Transeau
(’08) was the first to use such an instrument and to show its value in
studying the relation of intensity-of evaporation to plant societies.
His work on Long Island, N. Y., showed very clearly that evaporation
in open places was much greater than in dense forests. These obser-
vations were enough to show that evaporation is a factor related to the
physical conditions of life upon the prairie and in the forest, and there-
fore in our cooperative study of the Charleston area in 1910 relative
evaporation was made a special feature in the study of representative
environments, in order to determine its relation to both the plants and
the animals. So far as is known this is the only study yet made in
which these determinations have been recorded from the same places
where the animals have been studied. Since our data were secured,
several papers have been published on relative evaporation in different
sorts of habitats in this state and in northern Indiana by plant ecolo-
gists Fuller (’11, ’12a, ’12b), McNutt and Fuller (’12), Fuller, Locke,

*Zon (’13) has recently asserted that the moisture from the sea does not
-make a single overland flight inland, but rather is largely precipitated near the
sea, is evaporated and carried farther inland, is precipitated again, and this
process repeated again and again, so that its inland flight is a vertical revolv-
ing eycle of precipitation and evaporation. If this contention is valid, evapo-

ration from the land is a much more important climatic factor than it is usually
thought to be.

73

and McNutt (’14), Sherff (’12, ’13a, ’13b), and Gleason and Gates
(12). Shelford (’12, ’13a, ’13b, “14a), utilizing the evaporation
data of the plant ecologists, has applied the same to animal associa-
tions also, and he has further tested some of these ideas experiment-
ally in the laboratory. In Ohio, Dachnowski (’11) and Dickey (’09)
have made records of data obtained by the use of the porous cup, and
in Iowa Shimek (’10, ’11) has used the open-pan method. Mention
should also be made of Yapp’s observations (’09) on a marsh in Eng-
land. A very important summary of evaporation records, in the open
and in forests, is given by Harrington (’93). The effect of wind-
breaks upon evaporation has been studied by Bates (’11) and Card
(97). Finally, mention should be made of Hesselman’s studies of
relative humidity in forest glades in Sweden (’04).

Our records from the Charleston region will be given first, and then
their significance will be discussed. The unglazed porcelain cups, with
a water reservoir, were placed so that the tops of the cups were about
six inches above the soil in the habitats examined, and at weekly in-
tervals the water loss was measured. The instruments were in opera-
tion simultaneously, so that the results are comparable. The standard
instrument was located in the open exposed garden of the Eastern
Illinois Normal School at Charleston, which was considered as unity,
or 100 per cent. For further details as to the conditions where the
atmometers were located consult the description of the stations and
the photographs.

An examination of the diagram (Fig. 2) will show that although
‘based upon a limited amount of data (for less than a month, from

10 20 30 40 50 60 70, 80 90 i00

Intensity of evaporation..........+.

Standard, open garden, Normal School
Sta. III, b. Mixed prairie and young forest
Sta. II, a. Grassy area, Panicum

Sta. II, uw. Grassy area, Huphorbia

Sta. IV, w. Upland, open woods

Sta. III, a. Silphium on Diack soil

Sta. II, a. Colony of 8. laciniatum

Sta. IV, b. Ravine slope, open woods

Sta. IV,c. Dense climax forest cover

Fie. 2, Diagram of the relative evaporation in different prairie and forest
habitats, showing the great reduction in evaporation with the development of a closed
forest canopy of a climax forest; Charleston, Illinois.

74

August 19 to September 22) the facts are in harmony with similar
studies elsewhere covering a much longer period, so that there is valid
reason for confidence in them. The standard instrument was located,
as already mentioned, in an open, exposed cultivated garden, where the
intensity of evaporation was very high. The black soil prairie areas,
Stations II and III, a, have an average of 56.1 per.cent.—a condition
much like that in the grassy-Euphorbia prairie at Loxa (Station II, a)
—or a little more than half that of the standard instrument. The dry
upland area of mixed prairie and young forest, on gray silt loam (Sta-
tion III, b), has an intensity of 80 per cent. This is in the region of
the most extensive grassy prairie about Charleston; the general ap-
pearance of the region is shown in Plate XIII. A surprising feature
of the table is the evaporation in the open-crowned upland oak-hickory
woods (Station IV, a). In this forest perhaps two thirds to three
fourths of the ground was shaded, and it was very well drained. The
evaporation here reached 54.2 per cent., being very near that of the
average of the black soil prairie (56.1 per cent.). I had anticipated
much less evaporation than on the prairie, a position more intermedi-
ate between the prairie and the lowland forest, or about 42 per cent.
(cf. Harvey, 14:95). The ravine slope (Station IV, b), although
somewhat open, has 31.5 per cent.—a very low rate of evaporation—
and is remarkably close to that of the densely crowned lowland for-
est (Station IV, c), at 26.9 per cent. The decline, however, in the
intensity of evaporation with the degree of completeness of the for-

Per cent. of standard............+-+ 0 20 40 60 80 (00 120

Sta.11. Salt marsh outer margin

Sta. 3. Gravel slide, open

Sta. 1. Carnegie garden, standard

Sta. 9 and 10. Upper beach

Sta. 12. Salt marsh, inner margin

Sta. 2. Garden, high level

Sta. 4. Gravel slide, partly invaded i

Sta. 5. Forest, open I

Sta. 13. Fresh-water marsh

Sta. 6. Forest, typical mesophytic

Sta. 7. Forest, ravine type

Sta. 8. Forest swamp type

Fic. 3. Diagram of the relative intensity of evaporation in the lowest stratum
of different kinds of habitats, Long Island, N. Y. (After Transeau.)

75

est crown, is strikingly shown in passing from the open upland
woods, at 54.2 per cent., to the ravine slope at 31.5 per cent., and on
to the lowland forest at 26.9 per cent.

A comparison of these results with those secured by Transeau
(08) on Long Island, is instructive. His standard instrument was
also in an open garden (Fig. 3), comparable with the Charleston
standard. A gravel slide, partly invaded by plants, had an evaporation
of 60 per cent., comparable with the open prairie at Charleston; the
open forest, 50 per cent., comparable with the upland open Bates
woods at 54.2 per cent.; and the mesophytic forest, 33 per cent., com-
parable with the ravine and lowland places in the Bates woods at 31.5
and 26.9 per cent. respectively.

Association
Blowout (basin) 1.56
Blowout (slide) 1.27
Bunchgrass (Leptoloma consoc.) 1.18
Bunchgrass (Eragrostis trichodes con.) 1.04
Standard 1.00
Beach 0.93
Quercus velutina woods 0.66
Quercus velutina 0.55
Willows (Acer part) 0.56
Willows (Salix part) 0.44
Mixed forest (margin) 0.36
Mixed forest (center) 0.29

Fia. 4. Relative intensity of evaporation in different kinds of habitats on sandy
soil, Havana, Illinois. (After Gleason and Gates.)

Another series of relative evaporation observations was made by
Gleason and Gates (’12) on sandy soils at Havana, Illinois. As their
methods were similar to those used at Charleston, useful comparisons
may again be made. The standard instrument was in an open area
comparable to the garden at Charleston. An examination of Figure 4,
summarizing the results of their study, shows that upon the grass-
covered sand prairie (bunch-grass) the evaporation was about 110 per
cent., that in open black oak (Q. velutina) woods (on sand) it was
about 60 per cent., and that in a denser hickory-black-oak-hackberry
mixed forest (somewhat open) it was about 31 per cent. There is thus
a close general correspondence between the conditions at Havana and.
Charleston, although the evaporation upon sand prairie appears to be
relatively much greater than upon the black-soil prairie.

Fuller (’11) and McNutt and Fuller (’12) have made comparative
studies in different kinds of forest in northern Illinois and in northern

76

Indiana. Their results are combined and summarized in Figure 5.
This diagram shows the relative evaporation near the surface of the
soil, the standard of comparison being the evaporation im a maple-
beech climax forest, where evaporation is relatively low. The aver-
age daily amount, in c.c., shows that there is a progressive increase in
evaporation as follows: 8.1 c.c. in a maple-beech forest, 9.35 c.c. in
the oak-hickory upland forest, 10.3 c.c. in an oak dune forest, 11.3 c.c.
in a pine dune forest, and an increase to 21.1 c.c., on the cottonwood
dunes. This expressed on a percentage basis is, in inverse order, re-
spectively 260 per cent. in the cottonwoods, 140 per cent. in the pines,
127 per cent. in the oak dunes, 115 per cent. in the oak-hickory for-
est, and 100 per cent. in the maple-beech forest.

20.40 ~~ 60 @0 100 (120 (140 (160180200 -22Q_ 240260 280

Intensity of evaporation
Sta. A. Cottonwood dunes
Sta. B. Pine dune

Sta. C. Oak dune
Sta. D. Oak-hickory

Sta. E. Maple-beach forest % Standard

Fic. 5. Diagram showing the relative rate of evaporation in different kinds of
forest in northern Illinois and Indiana. [Data from Fuller (’11) and McNutt and
Fuller (’12).]

Shimek (’10, ’11) has made valuable observations on the relative
rate of evaporation on the prairie of western Iowa. He used the open-
pan method in four representative habitats. His results show very
clearly that the rate of evaporation is much greater in exposed places
than where there is shelter from the sun and wind. I have put his
data in a form comparable with those which have just been discussed
(Fig. 6), and have made the cleared field area, Station 4, the standard
of comparison, as it more nearly approaches the standard used at
Charleston and by others. Station 3 is on a high bluff, exposed to the

Intensity of evaporation...........+ . 204060 800012040160 180-200

Sta. 3. Open, much exposed prairie
vegetation

Sta. 1. Open, exposed slope of bluff,
prairie

Sta. 4. Open, cleared area, partly pro-

ected Standard

Sta. 2. Bur-oak grove, protected

Fic. 6. Diagram of relative evaporation in prairie and forest habitats, in western
Iowa. (Data from Shimek.)

77

west and south winds, and, as might be expected, it has an excessive
evaporation—184 per cent. Station 1, also covered by prairie vegeta-
tion, and exposed to west and southwest winds but sheltered from
winds from the south and southeast, also shows a very high evapora-
tion—132 percent. Station 4, which was made the standard, had been
cleared of forest, and was an open place protected by a ridge. Station
2 was apparently a dense grove composed of bur oak, basswood, elm,
and ash, with considerable undergrowth. Here the rate of evapora-
tion dropped considerably—to 36 per cent. The general character of
this forest calls to mind the denser oak forests on sand at Havana,
Illinois. An important feature of these observations is that they were
made far out upon the “prairie”, bordering the plains, most other
studies on relative evaporation having been made much farther east.
In Ohio, Dachnowski (’11) and Dickey (’09) have recorded the
relative evaporation of the air, using a campus lawn as unity. In the
central grass-like area of a cranberry bog the evaporation was 69.2
per cent., and in the marginal maple-alder forest it was 51.2 per cent.
Harrington (’93: 96-102), in summarizing European studies on
the relative evaporation (with a water-surface as standard) in the
open and in German forests shows that the “annual evaporation in the
woods is 44 per cent. of that in the fields.” Compared with evapora-
tion in the open, that under deciduous trees is 41 per cent., and that
under conifers is 45 per cent.—a difference most marked in the sum-
mer. Ebermeyer’s Austrian observations (I. c. :99) show that the
“evaporation from a bare soil wet is about the same as that from a
water surface,” both in the open and in the forest. A saturated soil
under forest litter gives an evaporation of only 13 per cent. of that
of a free-water surface in the open. Harrington (l.c.: 100) con-
cludes that “About seven-eighths of the evaporation from the forest
is cut off by the woods and litter together.” Sherff (’13a, ’13b) has
shown that in the Skokie Marsh, north of Chicago, the absolute
amount of evaporation near the soil was less at the center of a Phrag-
mites swamp than at its margin (Fig. 7), that a swamp meadow
Intensity of evaporation.........-.0+ 2040, 6080100120.

160200

Sta. D. White oak-ash forest

Sta. B. Phragmites swamp, margin

Sta. OC. Swamp meadow Standard

Sta. A. Phragmites swamp, center

Fig. 7. Diagram of relative evaporation in Skokie Marsh area, near Chicago,
at 10 inches (25 cm.) above the soil. Recaleulated. (Adapted from Sherff.)

78

was in an intermediate position, and that in an adjacent white oak-ash
forest evaporation was about twice as much as in the swamp meadow.
Sherff used as standard the forest (D). This gave him for the center
of the swamp (A) 38 per cent., for the swamp meadow (C) 54 per
cent., and for the outer swamp margin (B) 105 per cent. In Figure
7, I have used his swamp meadow as 100 per cent., and by recalcula-
tion this gives the forest (D) 185 per cent., for the swamp margin (B)
105 per cent., and for the center of the swamp (A) 70 per cent. These
figures indicate a concentric arrangement of the conditions of evap-
oration about the swamp.

Intensity of evaporation........e+e04) 10.20. 30 40 s0 60 70 80 901000
1907: 7
Sta. A. Above vegetation. 4 feet, 6
inches above soil
Sta. B. Middle of vegetation. 2 feet,
2 inches above soil
Sta. C. Lower vegetation. 5 inches
above soil

1007,|

1908:
Sta. A. Above vegetation. 5 feet, 6
inches above soil
Sta. B. Middle of vegetation. 2 feet,
2 inches above soil

Sta. C. Lower vegetation. 5 inches
above soil

100%

Fie. 8. Diagram showing the relative evaporation at different vertical levels in
a marsh in England, the evaporation in the lower layers of the vegetation being much
greater than in the upper strata or in the air above it. (Data from Yapp.)

Thus far, attention has been devoted solely to the horizontal differ-
ences in evaporation. There are also important vertical ones, vary-
ing above the surface of the substratum. Important observations on
this subject have been made, by a porous-cup method, in an open
grassy marsh in England, by Yapp (’09). ‘The vegetation grew to a
height of two to five feet. From his data the accompanying diagrams
(Figs. 8, 8a) have been prepared. This shows that when the stand-
ard was made the rate of evaporation above the general level of the
vegetation, within the grass layer evaporation was reduced from about
one half (Sta. B, 1908, 56.2 per cent.) to one third (Sta. B, 1907,
32.8 per cent.) at 2 feet 2 inches above the soil; and that at 5 inches
above the soil it was reduced to between one fourteenth (Sta. C, 1907,
6.6) and one seventh (Sta. C, 1908, 14.7) of that above the vegeta-
tion. Yapp (1. c.: 298) concludes from his studies that “In general,
the results of the evaporation experiments show that the lower strata
of the vegetation possess an atmosphere which is continually very much

79

more humid than that of the upper strata, and farther, that the higher
and denser the vegetation the greater these differences are.” This is
shown in Fig. 8a.

Intensity of evaporation............. Jo_ 20, 304050 S60 70 S80 S90 ~s100

Sta. A. 60 inches above ground, above
vegetation 100%

Sta. B. 12 inches above ground among
vegetation 7%

Sta. C. 3 inches above ground, among
vegetation Pm

Fic, 8a. Diagram showing the relative evaporation at different vertical levels in
a marsh in England, the evaporation in the lower layers of the vegetation being much
greater than in the upper strata or in the air above it. (Data from Yapp.)

In America only a few records have been made on vertical gra-
dients in evaporation, two of these in marsh areas, one in Ohio by
Dachnowski (’11), and the other near Chicago by Sherff (’13a, ’13b).
The Ohio observations, made upon a small island in a lake, in a cran-
berry-sphagnum bog, show that the rate of evaporation above the vege-
tation is much greater than among it, and that this diminishes as the
soil is approached, these results agreeing with those obtained by Yapp.
Sherff’s observations were made in Skokie Marsh, north of Chicago,
and show that the relative evaporation also varies with different kinds
of swamp vegetation. From his data a diagram has been made (Fig.
9) in which the rate of evaporation in the upper part of the reeds

Intensity of evaporation..........+6+ to 20 30 40 SO 60 70 60 90 100
Phragmites
Sta. A. Within vegetation, 198 em. (77 100%
inches) above soil. Standard.
Sta. B. Within vegetation, 107 cm. (42 703

inches) above soil

Sta. O. Within vegetation, 25 cm. (10
inches) above soil

53)

Sta. D. At soil surface 33%

Typha

Sta. A. Within vegetation, 175 cm. (69
inches) above soil

Sta. B. Within vegetation, 107 em. (42
inches) above soil

Sta. C. Within vegetation, 25 cm. (10
7 inches) above soil

Sta. D. At soil surface

Fia. 9. Diagram of relative evaporation at different vertical levels above the soil
within the vegetation of Skokie Marsh. (Adapted from Sherff.)

80

(Phragmites) at 77 inches is taken as 100 per cent. or the standard.
Lower down, at 42 inches, the rate is 70 per cent., at 10 inches, 53 per
cent., and at the surface, 33 per cent. Among the cattails (Typha), in
the upper part of the vegetation, at 69 inches evaporation was 85 per
cent.; at 42 inches it was 36 per cent.; at 10 inches, 20 per cent.; and
at the surface, 8.5 per cent. These results show that at successively
lower levels in the vegetation the rate of evaporation is greatly re-
duced. They tend also to confirm the results of Yapp and Dachnow- °
ski. It seems, then, fair to conclude that the rate of evaporation above
the swamp vegetation increases rapidly with downward progression,
and probably with upward progression also. A vegetable layer, com-
parable to the mulching of straw used by gardeners, thus acts as a pow-
erful conserver of moisture. There are great differences within a few
vertical feet in the open; what is the condition within the forest ?

Intensity of evaporation.............

Sta. A. Maple-beech forest. 6 feet (2 m.)
above soil

Sta. B. Maple-beech forest. 10 inches
(25 cm.) above soil

Sta. O. Maple-beech forest. On slope of
ravine 30 feet deep (10 m.)
13.3 feet (4 m.) below general
surface.

Fig. 10. Diagram showing the relative evaporation in a beech-maple woods, six
feet above the soil (A), near the surface of the soil (B), and in a ravine (C).
[Adapted from Fuller (’12).]

The character of vertical differences in evaporation within the for-
est has not been given as much attention as the similar changes in the
open; but attention has already been called to the moisture-conserving
effect of a forest litter, the evaporating rate in one instance being only
13 per cent. when compared with that from a water surface in the open.
McNutt and Fuller (’12) have shown that grazing in an oak-hickory
forest changed the average daily rate of evaporation for 189 days
from 9.89 c.c., in the ungrazed forest, to 12.74 c.c., in the grazed for-
est, at Palos Park, Ill. There are thus, within the forest, changes in
evaporation with differences both in the ground cover and in the litter
on the forest floor which correspond to the change in the vegetation in
open places.

Vertical differences in evaporation have been tested in a maple-
beech-forest in northern Indiana by Fuller (’12b), who used the po-
rous-cup method. His results have been summarized in Figure 10.
This diagram shows that the evaporation at six feet above the surface
is nearly twice as much as that at 10 inches above the surface, and

81

that in a ravine, 13.3 feet (4 m.) below, it was 80 per cent. of that 10
inches above the surface. The relative seasonal activity from May to
November is shown in Figure 11. This diagram shows that after the
leaves appear the highest evaporation takes place in July. This is
probably the critical season for some animals.

MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST | SEPTEMBER | OCTOBER
a
20 s
N \
NZ
\
1
+l b
iB
c IN
{ NI i
ie we
A NON \
alll N \
VA ] eT ON a
5 STAM Pp
ei?
NW + —+—J

F1¢. 11. Diagram showing the average daily rate of evaporation in beech-maple
forest, six feet above soil (a), near the surface of soil (b), and in a ravine (ce).
(From Fuller.)

In the forest, Libernau (Harrington, ’93: 34) found that the “rela-
tive humidity increases and decreases with the absolute humidity,
whereas it is known in general, and also at the Station in the open
country, that these two climatic elements are inverse. This is ac-
counted for by the fact that the forest is a source of atmospheric
aqueous vapor as well as of cooling.” (L. c. : 104: “The absolute
humidity decreases in the forest from the soil upwards. The rate of
decrease is usually the greatest under the trees and the least at the level
of the foliage. The rate above the trees is intermediate between the
other two. ‘This rate is least in the late hours of the night, when it
may be zero. It increases with the increase of the temperature of the
air, becoming greatest in the midday hours, when, under exception-
ally favorable circumstances, it may make a difference of 10 per cent.

82

or even more. Occasionally, in high winds, the absolute humidity is
greater over the trees. Over the field station the daily progress of ab-
solute humidity was about the same as in the forest, but the maximum
difference was only about half as great. The absolute humidity in and
above the forest is greater than that over the open fields, and there is
some trace of an increase of this difference to the time of maximum.”

A greater relative humidity has been found over evergreen trees
than over deciduous trees, which is slight (1.c.: 104), but the psy-
chrometer was close to the evergreens and farther above the decidu-
ous ones.

Intensity of evaporation.............

Sta. A. 20 rods (330 ft.) from wind-
break, 25 to 40 feet high.
Standard

Sta. B. 12 rods (198 ft.) from wind-
break

Sta.C. 3 vods (49.5 ft.) from wind-
break

(July 15-Sept 15] 62 days, Lincoln, Neb

Fig. 12. Diagram showing relative retardation of evaporation by a windbreak,
Lincoln, Nebraska. [Adapted from Card (’97).]

The border of the Illinois forest and prairie was characterized by
tongues and isolated groves of forest and by glades. The forest had
the same kind of influence as windbreaks upon the leeward areas and
glades, and therefore the influence of windbreaks upon the evaporating
power of the air is of interest. Card (’97) made a valuable study of
this series of problems at Lincoln, Nebraska. The influence of wind-
breaks upon evaporation is summarized in Figure 12. This diagram
shows that leeward of a close windbreak ranging from 25 to 40 feet
in height, the rate of evaporation in terms of the standard (A), which
was 330 feet leeward, was 91 per cent. at a distance of 198 feet (B),
and 71 per cent. at 49.5 feet (C), thus showing a marked reduction
with proximity to the windbreak. These observations covered 62 days.

Nearer to Illinois, similar though very limited observations were
made in central Wisconsin by King (’95) which agree with Card’s
on the retardation of evaporation by windbreaks. His results are
shown graphically in Figure 13.

Recently Bates (’11) has made an elaborate study of the effects of
windbreaks upon light, soil, moisture, velocity of wind, evaporation,
humidity, and temperature. His results confirm those just given and
give additional facts which, however, with one exception, will not be
mentioned. The paper itself should be consulted. This investigation
by Bates shows that in proportion to the perfection of the windbreak

83

a quiet, stagnant air strip is formed to the leeward, and that this fa-
vors excessive heating during clear days and low temperatures on clear
nights. Years ago Harrington (’93: 119) suggested this idea and
called attention to the close relation existing between the leeward con-
ditions of windbreaks and forest glades. The glade climate is more
rigorous, or extreme, than that upon plains (I.c.: 19, 84-88, 119).
Such a climate is thus a bit more “continental” during the spring, sum-

Intensity of evaporation.............

Distance from windbreak 12 inches high:
Sta. F. 500 feet leeward. Standard

Sta. E. 400 feet leeward
Sta. D. 300 feet leeward
Sta. C. 200 feet leeward
Sta. B. 100 feet leeward

Sta. A. 20 feet leeward

Fie. 13. Diagram showing the relative evaporation, May 31, at different dis-
tances leeward of a windbreak, Almond, Wis. [Adapted from King (’95).]

mer, and autumn. These glades are very hot in the early afternoon
_ and cool on clear nights, and the air is relatively stagnant; as Harring-
ton says, it is “lee for winds from all directions.” The center of a
dense forest may thus possess physical conditions quite different from
those of the glade forest margin or in the open. Beginning with the
relatively stable conditions within a forest toward its margin, the diur-
nal temperature variations are much more extreme (Harrington,
1. c.: 89) “to a distance of a score or so of rods where it reaches a max-
imum. The amplitude is greater in glades. Hence the extremes of
temperature are exaggerated just outside the forest.” The annual soil
temperatures of a glade are intermediate between that of the forest and
the plain. The forest margin is thus seen to possess many of the char-
acteristics of the glade, for its climate is somewhat more extreme than
that in the open, far from the forest.

5. Temperature Relations in the Open and in Forests

The temperature relations in open and forested regions are often
very different. The density of the vegetable covering in the open and
in the forests varies much and may have considerable influence upon
animals. Yapp (’09) observed that the marsh vegetation in England

84

caused marked vertical differences in temperature in the vegetational
stratum. He summarizes these results as follows (p. 309): “The
temperature results show that the highest layers of the vegetation pos-
sess a greater diurnal range of temperature than either the free air
above or the lower layers of the vegetation. Regularly, especially in
clear weather, both the higher day and the lowest night temperatures
were recorded in this position.”

Dachnowski (’12: 292-297) studied the temperature conditions in
a cranberry bog substratum in central Ohio. He found that at a time
when ice formed from 8 to 15 inches thick on the adjacent lake, in the
bog it was only 3 to 5 inches thick, and there were small patches where
it did not form at all. Ata depth of 3 inches in the peat the tempera-
ture ranged from 33° to 77° F. (.5 -25.0° C.). In the bordering
maple-alder zone, at 3 inches depth it ranged from 33° to 72° F. (.5°-
22.0 C.). His observations indicate that the temperature relations
within the maple-alder zone are more stable than those in the open
central area.

Cox (’10) has also shown that the character of the vegetation in
Wisconsin cranberry bogs has much influence upon temperature rela-
tions in this habitat.

It seems very probable that similar conditions hold over prairie
vegetation, but I do not know of any observations on this point. We
are all familiar with the common practice of gardeners of using a mulch
of straw to retard temperature changes under it; prairie vegetation
must have a similar influence. (Cf. Bouyoucos, ’13: 160.)

The relative air temperatures within and without the forest show
a distinct tendency to reduce the maxima and minima, and to lower
the mean annual temperature. Harrington (’93:53) concludes,
therefore, that “the forest moderates (by reducing the extremes) and
cools (by reducing the maxima more than the minima) the tempera-
ture of the air within it. The moderating influence is decidedly greater
than the cooling effect.” ‘These effects are not uniform, but are much
more marked in the summer, and Harrington further says: “The cool-
ing effect tends to disappear in winter. The moderating effect is the
most important one and it is the most characteristic” (p. 56).

The temperature relations within the forest crown show that in
general the effects are similar to those found at an elevation of about
5 feet. The maxima are lowered, the minima are elevated, and there
is a cooling effect. The differences are most pronounced during the
summer, and the temperatures are intermediate in position between
‘those at the five-foot level and those in the open (l.c.:66). Ata
height of 24 feet, deciduous trees showed a marked summer cooling

85

effect, while evergreens showed much less, though they are much more
uniform for 9 months of the year. Again, he says: “In summer the
average gradient under trees is about +2°; that is, it grows warmer
as we ascend at the rate of two degrees per 100 feet (31 m.). Out-
side in the general average it grows colder by about a quarter of a de-
gree.” This warmer air above the cooler in the forest favors its sta-
bility or relative stagnation, although as a whole the forest air is cool-
er and heavier than the surrounding air and tends to flow outward.
‘The forest thus tends to produce a miniature or incipient barometric
high. In conclusion Harrington (p. 72) states that “The surface of ,
the surface of the forest is, meteorologically, much like the surface of
the meadow or cornfield. The isothermal surface above it in sun-
shine is a surface of maximum temperature, as is the surface of a
meadow or cornfield. From this surface the temperature decreases in
both directions.” In the case of a beech forest the warm diurnal layer
above the forest crown was only 6.5 feet thick (p. 34).

The conditions above the forest are thus representative of the at-
mospheric conditions above dense vegetation in general, and are in per-
fect harmony with Yapp’s observations upon the temperature above a
marsh (’09: 309), quoted on a previous page, to the effect that tem-
perature changes are extreme here, and greater than in the free
air above or in the lower layers among the vegetation. The forest is
thus to be considered as a thick layer of vegetation in its influence upon
meteorological conditions. ‘The conditions above the forest, there-
fore, exemplify a general law.

In general terms, the temperature of the soil below the zone of
seasonal influence is that of the mean annual temperature for a given
locality. The surface zone, however, varies with the season. Har-
rington (’93) has summarized the German observations on the rela-
tive soil temperatures in the open and in the forest. In the following
quotation the minus sign indicates a forest temperature less than a cor-
responding observation in the open. These temperatures were taken
about 5 feet above the soil. He says (p. 43): “The average of the
seventeen stations (representing about two hundred years of observa-
tions) should give us good and significant results. It shows for the
surface—2°.s9, for a depth of 6 inches (152 mm.)—1°.87, and for
a depth of 4 feet (1.22 m.)—2°.02. The influence of the forest
on the soil, then, is a cooling one, on the average, and for central
Europe the cooling amounts to about two and a half degrees for the
surface. The cooling is due to several causes: The first is the shade;
the foliage, trunks, branches, and twigs cut off much of the sun’s
heat, absorb and utilize it in vegetative processes, or in evaporation, or
reflect it away into space. Thus the surface soil in the forest receives

86

less heat than the surface of the fields. The same screen acts, how-
ever, in the reverse direction by preventing radiation to the sky, thus
retaining more of the heat than do the open fields. The balance of
these two processes, it seems from observation, is in favor of the first
and the average result is a cooling one... .. . The differences of
temperature at the depth of 6 inches (152 mm.) are more than half a
degree less than at the surface. In this is to be seen the specific effect
of the forest litter; it adds a covering to that possessed by the sur-
face, so that while the deeper layer is cooled as much by the protec-
tion from the sun’s rays as is the surface, it is not cooled so much by
radiation of heat to the sky. Its temperature is, consequently, rela-
tively higher, and approximates somewhat more the field tempera-
tures.”

“The forest soil is warmer than that of the open fields in winter,
but cooler in the other seasons, and the total cooling is much greater
than the warming one... ... The forest, therefore, not only cools
the soil, but also moderates the extremes of temperature” (p. 46).

The character of the forest, whether evergreen or deciduous, in-
fluences the temperature conditions of the soil, as is seen by a com-
parison of these conditions in the forest and in the open. The two kinds
of forest are much alike in winter; during the spring the soil warms
up more rapidly under conifers. Temperature variations are slightly
greater under deciduous trees.

6. Soil Moisture and its Relation to Vegetation

The moisture in the soil is derived largely from precipitation, but
part of it, in some localities, comes directly from the adjacent deeper.
soils or rocks, and thus only indirectly from precipitation. As Illinois
lies at the bottom of a large basin, there must be some subsurface flow
from the adjacent higher regions, but to what extent is not known.
McGee (’13a:177) estimates that the general ground-water level—
the level at which the soil becomes saturated—has, since settlement, de-
clined 10.6 feet in Illinois. This decline is not limited to drained re-
gions but is a general condition. In addition to these changes of level
there are seasonal fluctuations. Sherff (’13a: 583) observed in Skokie
Marsh that the water-table was at or above the surface in May, then
declined until early September, and then rose rapidly to the surface by
the middle of October. The wet prairie at Charleston has undergone
just such changes as these; the ground-water level has been lowered
and there are marked seasonal changes.

Harvey (’14) has recently shown that the soil of Eryngium-Sil-
phium prairie at Chicago contains a large amount of water during

87

April and until late in May; that the moisture falls and is low during
July and August, with a mean of 24 per cent. of saturation for these
months; but that in October the soil is again at or near the point of
saturation.

The blanket of humid air which accumulates under a cover of vege-
tation, retards evaporation and conserves soil moisture. The denser
the vegetation the more marked is its influence. The litter—the or-
ganic debris in an early stage of decomposition—on the forest floor
has the same tendency, and has even a greater water capacity than the
soil itself. On the other hand, a forest is a powerful desiccator; as
Zon (’13:71) has recently put it: “A soil with a living vegetative
cover loses moisture, both through direct evaporation and absorption
by its vegetation, much faster than bare, moist soil and still more than
a free water surface. The more developed the vegetative cover the
faster is the moisture extracted from the soil and given off into the air.
The forest in this respect is the greatest desiccator of water in the
ground.” This drying effect is shown particularly near the surface
of the soil, where roots are abundant and where drouth is so marked
that it may prevent the growth of young plants here (cf. Zon and
Graves, “11: 17-18).

Warming (’09:45) says: “It may be noted that, according to
Ototozky, the level of ground-water invariably sinks in the vicinity of
forest, and always lies higher in an adjoining steppe than in a forest;
forest consumes water.”

McNutt and Fuller (12) have made a study of the amount of soil
moisture at, 3 inches (7.5 cm.) and at Io inches (25 cm.) below the
surface in an oak-hickory forest, at Palos Park, Illinois. They found
that the percentage of water to the dry weight of the soil at the 3-inch
level averaged 18.9 per cent. and at 10 inches was 12.5 per cent. of the
dry weight of the soil. The greater moisture near the surface is due
to the humus present in this layer. The grazed part of the forest
possessed less soil moisture, and shows the conserving effect of vege-
tation. (Cf. also Fuller ’14.)

The artificial control of soil moisture is well shown by the effect of
windbreaks. Card (’97) studied the moisture content of the soil to
leeward of a windbreak and found that in general there is a “de-
crease in the per cent. of water as the distance from the windbreak
increases.”’ As the physical conditions leeward of windbreaks are
similar in many respects to those in forest glades and forest margins,
it is very probable that the conditions of soil moisture also will be very
similar in these places.

88

7. Ventilation of Land Habitats

The preceding account of the temperature, humidity, and evapo-
rating conditions in various habitats forms a necessary basis for an un-
derstanding of the processes of ventilation or atmospheric change in
land habitats. The differences in pressure due to the different densi-
ties of cool and warm air and to the friction and retardation of mov-
ing air currents, determine to an important degree the composition
of the air in many habitats. In such an unstable medium as air,
changes take place very rapidly through diffusion, and through this
constant process of adjustment there is a tendency to level off all local
differences. These are naturally best preserved where diffusion cur-
rents are least developed—in the most stagnant or stable atmospheric
conditions; therefore any factor which retards an air current and pro-
duces eddies, or slow diffusion, will favor local differentiation of
the air.

We have seen that any vegetable cover retards air currents, so that
the air within the vegetation becomes different from the faster moving
air above it. The accumulation of humidity at different levels above
the soil within the vegetation, clearly shows this. The denser the vege-
tation-the more completely are the lower strata shut off and, to a cor-
responding degree, stagnant and subject’ to the local conditions. Two
factors have an important influence upon these conditions: the charac-
ter of the cover itself, and the character of the substratum. If both
of these are mineral rather than organic, in general comparatively
little local influence is to be expected, although in some localities CO,
escapes from the earth and on account of its density may linger in de-
pressions and thus kill animals (Mearns ’03). Generally, however,
the organic materials are of most importance both as a cover and asa
substratum, and are often the source of carbon dioxide. Living vege-
tation may also add oxygen to such stagnant air, but the main source of
it is the free air itself. The forest litter, on account of its imperfect
stage of decay, consumes oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide; in the
humus below it, shut off even more from free access to air, the carbon
dioxide is relatively more abundant and the oxygen relatively less so
or absent; and in the deeper mineral soil the amount of carbon
dioxide is relatively less on account of the absence of organic debris,
and a small amount of oxygen is present.

The aeration of the soil is influenced to a large degree by its poros-
ity; the looser it is, the freer the circulation. Buckingham (’04) has
shown that “the speed of diffusion of air and carbonic acid through
these soils was not greatly dependent upon texture and structure, but
was determined in the main by the porosity of the soil. . . . the

89

rate of diffusion was approximately proportional to the square of the
porosity . . . . the escape of carbonic acid from the soil and
its replacement by oxygen take place by diffusion, and are determined
by the conditions which affect diffusion, and are sensibly independent
of the variations of the outside barometric pressure.”

In the upper, better ventilated, moist, neutral or alkaline layers of
vegetable debris decomposition is brought about mainly by the agency
of fungi; but in the deeper, poorly ventilated acid layers, lacking oxy-
gen, bacteria are the active agents (cf. Transeau, ’05, 06). The
higher the temperature the more rapid the circulation, and on this ac-
count ventilation in the open is relatively more rapid than in the cooler
woodlands. The black soil prairies are thus favorable to a higher tem-
perature and better ventilation. Dry soil, according to Hilgard
(706: 279) contains from 35 to 50 per cent. its volume of air, and in
moist or wet soils this space is replaced by water. Thus the condi-
tions which influence the amount of water present have a very im-
portant influence upon aeration. As water is drained from the soil, air
takes its place; so drainage and the flow of water through the soil facil-
itate ventilation. The part of the soil containing air is thus above the
water-table; and as this level fluctuates with the season and from year
to year the lower boundary of this stratum is migratory. Hilgard
states that cultivated garden soil contains much more air than uncul-
tivated forest soil, Warming (’09: 43) says that the “production of
acid humus in the forest leads to an exclusion of the air.” If lime is
present, such an acid condition can not arise.

While the source of oxygen in the soil is the air, the reverse is the
case with carbon dioxide. The surface layers of the soil, among
dense vegetation, constitute an area of concentration of carbon
dioxide. Because this is more soluble than other gases, it is found
in rain water, according to Geikie, in a proportion 30 to 40 times
greater than in the air. Rains thus assist in the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the soil. This concentration is well shown by the
following table by Baussungault and Lewy (Van Hise, ’04: 474).

CoO, in
Character of soil air 10,000 parts
by weight
1. Sandy subsoil of forest 38
2. Loamy subsoil of forest 124
3. Surface soil of forest 130
4. Surface soil of vineyard 146
5. Pasture soil 270
6. Rich in humus 543

90

The amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is by weight about
4.5 parts in 10,000. The amount in the air is, as Van Hise says, “‘in-
significant in comparison with the amount in soils in regions of luxu-
riant vegetation. In such regions the carbon dioxide is from thirty to
more than one hundred times more abundant than in the atmosphere.”
This carbonic acid in the presence of bases, sodium, potassium, cal-
cium, and magnesium compounds, forms carbonates and bicarbonates.
This is the process of carbonation—one of the most important proc-
esses of change in surface soils.

In view of the dominance of CO, in soils we may anticipate that
many of the animals living in them possess some of the characteristics
of the plants, bacteria, fungi, etc., which are active in such soils. The
anaerobic forms live without free oxygen; others live only where oxy-
gen is present. The animals which thrive in the soil are likely to be
those which tolerate a large amount of CO, and are able to use a rela-
tively small amount of oxygen, at least for considerable intervals, as
when the soil is wet during prolonged rains. This is a subject to
which reference will be made later. :

The air is the main source of oxygen, and from the air it diffuses
into the soil; thus the process of equilibration is constantly in progress.
Carbonic acid, also present in the air, is washed down by rain and
concentrated in the soil, where it is increased by the decay of organic
debris and by respiring animals to such an extent that it exists under
pressure and diffuses into the air, thus contributing to the air. In the
soil, then, the process of decarbomization is of great importance to
animal life, and must not be neglected. The optimum soil habitat is
therefore determined, to a very important degree, by the proper ratio
or balance between the amount of available oxygen and the amount of
carbon dioxide which can be endured without injury. The excessive
accumulation of carbon dioxide, an animal waste product, is compar-
able to the accumulation of plant toxins which may increase in the
soil to such a degree as to inhibit plant growth. Such substances
must be removed from the soil, or changed in it to harmless com-
pounds, or plants and animals can not continue to live in certain
places. I have used the term ventilation to cover both the oxygena-
tion and decarbonization of land habitats, and the same principles
are applicable to life in fresh-water habitats.

We have just seen how atmospheric ventilation favors the removal
of certain injurious waste products from the air and soil. In addition
to gaseous waste products there are also liquids and solid kinds which
may be equally harmful in a habitat. These are known to exist in con-
fined liquids, as in aquaria (Colton, ’08; Woodruff, ’12), where they

91

interfere with the welfare of the animals present, and it is probable
that they also exist in soils. The older naturalists elaborated the idea
that if organisms were not such active agents in the destruction or
transformation of plant and animal bodies such remains would soon
encumber the earth. Thus organisms themselves are among the most
active agents in influencing directly and indirectly the ventilation of
animal habitats.

8. The Tree Trunk as a Habitat

A living tree trunk is composed of wood, sap (moisture), and
bark, all of which are relatively poor conductors of heat. When the
trunks are cooled, as in winter, they are slow in warming, not only
because of poor conduction but also because of the slow circulation of
sap, which is derived from the cool ground-water. As the season
progresses, the trunks warm up, this process being retarded in part by
the shade and the cool forest conditions; and in the fall, radiation of
the heat accumulated also takes place slowly. The tree trunk therefore
changes its temperature slowly, as does the soil. The animals which
live within wood thus live in a relatively cool and stable environment.
In living trees the humidity is relatively high, as it may also be in
fallen, decaying logs. Relatively dry logs, before progress of decay,
on the other hand, form a relatively dry and uniform habitat. (Cf.
on the temperature of trees: Harrington, ’93, pp. 72-75; Packard,
’90, p. 23; and Jones, Edson, and Morse, ’03, pp. 97-100.)

9. Prairie and Forest Vegetation and Animal Life

The dependence of animals upon plants for food is one of the most
fundamental animal relations. It is a world-wide relation, but its
mode of operations varies greatly in different environments. For ex-
ample, many years ago, Brooks gave us a graphic picture of the réle
of marine vegetation in the economy of marine animals. In the sea
there are no forests or grasslands, and no corresponding animals as-
sociated with these conditions, as on land; but in the sea great numbers
of minute plants float, and upon these feed an immense number of
small crustaceans and other small animals. These small creatures
occur in such large numbers that at times the sea is a sort of gruel
which sedentary and stationary kinds may appropriate by simply al-
lowing the sea to flow into their mouths. The food here circulates in
their environmental medium, as plant foods do in the soil and air. This
condition has made it possible for vast numbers of plant-like animals
to grow over the sea floor as plants do over rocks and plains. The
living meadows of animals thus furnish pasture for a host of preda-

92 ;

ceous kinds; and upon these still others prey, so that flesh-eating ani-
mals make up the most conspicuous classes of marine animals. Quite
otherwise are the conditions on land, where no air current carries food
to the hungry mouths of animals. Plants with roots in the soil and
stems in the air are able, however, to secure their food from the cir-
culating medium, but being themselves fixed, they are easy prey to
animals—both the sedentary kinds, which live in or upon the plant tis-
sues, and the active wandering kinds, which forage over large areas.
The predaceous animals, either by active mind or body, must secure
their food from the plant-feeding kinds. The great expanses of grass-
land and forest tend to be devastated by a vast army of: animals which
far outnumber the predaceous kinds. The conditions of life, there-
fore, found upon grassland areas, like the prairie, and in the forest,
are to the farthest possible extent removed from those found in the
sea. ‘This, then, is one of the most fundamental contrasts in the con-
ditions of existence encountered by animals.

These considerations naturally raise the question to what extent
and in what particular manner does land vegetation influence animal
life? Does a change in the vegetation as great as that between the for-
est and the prairie have a marked influence upon animals? In the
Charleston region we have just such a difference in the vegetation.

Many years ago Bates pointed out repeatedly in his “The Natural-
ist on the River Amazons” that the animals of that densely forested
region were to a marked degree distinctly arboreal and “adapted” toa
forest life. In most densely forested regions like conditions probably
prevail, and to a corresponding degree open lands harbor animals
equally characteristic and as truly terrestrial in habits. The contrast
between the conditions of life in the open and in the forest is one of
the most fundamental environmental conditions upon land. The sig-
nificance of this contrast seems to have been realized only in part. The
prairies or grasslands are representative of only one kind of open;
they are caused by many kinds of factors limiting the extension of
forests. Open places are formed by lakes, ponds, and swamps; by the
avenues through forests formed by different kinds of streams, as
brooks, creeks, and rivers; by the small amount of soil on rock sur-
faces; and by still other kinds of limiting influences, such as the sea,
severe climate, and altitude. Among almost all of the major taxo-
nomic groups of land animals is seen the independent origin and pres-
ervation of animals suited for life in the forest; this clearly points to
the extensive influence and antiquity of this environment. The same
is true of animals living in the open. But to assume that it is solely
the kinds of forest trees serving as food for animals, or the cor-
responding kinds of vegetation in the open, which determines whether

93

an animal lives in the open or in the forest, would be unwarranted in
the light of the preceding discussion of the effect of vegetation upon
air temperatures, winds, humidity, relative evaporating power of the
air, and corresponding changes in the soil. Animal life is’ most
abundant in a narrow vertical layer above the earth’s surface, by far
the most of it is within a few inches or feet of the surface; and above
the level of the forest-crown it diminishes with great rapidity. Be-
low the surface of the soil the same general law holds; most of the
ground animals are within the first few inches of soil, only a small
number extending a few feet below the surface, and those found at
greater depths being indeed very few. The rate of decline is many
times more rapid below the surface than it is above it. There is, then,
above and below the surface a rapid and progressive attentuation of
the favorable conditions for animals and plants, and the animals do
not establish thriving communities far from those physical conditions
which are also favorable to vegetation. Animals are dependent upon
plants for food, but both are dependent upon a certain complex of
physical conditions near the surface of the earth.

It is well to recall at this point how the influence of the climate and
the vegetation exemplify certain general laws which operate in all hab-
itats. The differentiation of habitats upon the earth is primarily due
to temperature and the specific heat relations of the earth, which re-
sult in the several media—gases, liquids, and solids. With a higher
temperature all would be gas, and with a lower one all would be solidi-
fied. The present intermediate conditions, therefore, permit the pres-
ent differentiation. ‘These media are further differentiated by tem-
perature about as follows: Since the source of solar energy, heat, and
light, and the oxygen supply, are above the surface of the earth, the
vertical attenuation of these influences is one of the most striking
peculiarities of animal habitats, both in water (where the causes have
long been recognized) and upon land. Any covering of the earth,
even the surface layer of vegetation, soil and water, tends to shut off
heat, light, and oxygen. At the same time such a layer tends to shut
in those influences which originate primarily in or below it. Thus car-
bonic acid originating under the cover, by organic decay, breathing
animals, or bacteria, or washed in by the rain, tends to be shut in.
Furthermore, heat once reaching here, either in water or on land, tends
toward slow radiation. ‘Thus we may look upon the surface layer as a
partition which is under pressure from both sides, and through which
constant interchange is in progress, as the process of dynamic equili-
bration operates. .

94

This attenuation of intensities, above and below the surface, pro-
duces vertical layers of relatively equal strength or pressure. Thus
the attenuation of temperature in gases (air) and in liquids (water)
causes different densities in air and in water which modify to an im-
portant degree the physical and chemical conditions in these media.
This results in their stratification: when the heavier layers are below,
stability is the tendency; and when the reverse order obtains, a
change takes place toward the stable condition. With stratification,
flowage tends to occur within the strata, and to be horizontal rather
than vertical; additional pressure is therefore necessary to cause the
vertical currents or circulation under such conditions. This is why
carbonic acid accumulates in the soil and in small deep lakes abound-
ing in organic debris, this accumulation being largely due, in both
cases, to the slow rate of exchange caused by the stratification pro-
duced by differences in density. This same relative stagnation is a
primary factor in the vertical differences in the relative evaporating
power of the air within a vegetable layer of the prairie or the forest.
Though on the prairie the vegetational layer is generally but a few
inches or a few feet thick, in the forest it is about eighty feet, or
more, thick; and the forest thus influences atmospheric conditions
solely as a thick layer of vegetation.

Differences, then, in the character, structure, or composition of the
surface of the substratum are of fundamental importance in under-
standing its relative influence upon animals. Primarily these differ-
ences are due to temperature, secondarily to temperature in combina-
tion with moisture; and they result in the relative humidity and the
relative evaporating power of the air. The most important difference
in the surface layer in the Charleston region is that of prairie and for-
est, and therefore the main features of these habitats will now be sum-
marized. It should not be overlooked that conditions on the prairie are
likely to be quite representative of open places in general, though they
will probably be somewhat unrepresentative in the case of open places
having wet or extremely dry substrata. It is also true that the condi-
tions produced by the forest are comparable, in some degree, with
those due to the influence of an elevation.

95

SUMMARY oF ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE DECIDUOUS FoREST
—TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND EVAPORATION—DURING THE GROWING SEASON

Above the Vegetation

Prairie Forest
In sun, maximum heated stratum. Above crown, in sun, maximum heated
Cooler above and below this stratum. stratum, A thin layer. Cooler above
Absolute humidity less than in or over and below this stratum.
forest. Absolute humidity greater than.in the
open.

Among the Vegetation

Prairie Forest
Temperature lower and higher than in Temperature moderated—not as low or
the forest—more extreme. as high as on the prairie.
Temperature lower toward the soil, and Temperature lower toward the soil, and
warmer than in the forest. cooler than in the open.
Absolute humidity progressively increases Absolute humidity progressively increases
toward the soil. toward the soil.
Relative evaporation decreases toward the Relative evaporation decreases toward the
soil; greater than in the forest. soil; less than in the open.
In the Soil
Prairie Forest
Temperature averaging warmer than Temperature cooler on the average and
forest, warmer near surface in sum- in summer, and warmer in winter, near
mer, and cooler in winter. Warmer in the surface, than in the open. Cooler
sun and cooler at night than in forest. in sun and warmer at night than in
the open.
Temperature progressively more stable Temperature progressively more stable
downward. Soil moisture increases downward. Soil moisture, below the
downward. surface layer, increases downward.

The conditions on the prairie and in the forest may be graphically
shown as in the following diagrams, Figure 14 showing the tempera-
ture relations, and Figure 15 showing the relative evaporating power
of the. air.

96

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98

10. Sources and Réle of Water used by
Prairie and Forest Animals

The bodies of animals contain a very large proportion of water—
from 60 to 95 per cent. Growing animals in particular require water
in relatively large amounts. Practically all foods gain entrance into the
body in aqueous solutions, and are transported by water to all parts;
and by the same means, the waste products, with the exception of the
excretion of carbonic acid, are removed. The methods by which aquatic
animals secure water are relatively simple, because they live in a
liquid medium ; but the conditions upon land are quite different. Here
osmotic pressure does not operate as in water, and the air varies from
saturation to a very dry condition. This dryness tends to cause strong
evaporation from animals living in such a medium, and a proper bal-
ance between intake and water-loss is one of the most potent influences
in the life of land animals. In this relation lies the importance of the
sources of water available to them. These sources are as follows:
with the food, by drinking, from the atmosphere, and by metabolism.
The loss is by excretion and evaporation, the relative humidity and the
evaporating power of the air being, therefore, important considera-
tions. The loss of water is retarded in many ways. Some animals
possess a relatively impermeable skin, or a covering, as hair or feath-
ers, which retards air currents and evaporation through the skin, just
as a cover of vegetation retards soil evaporation. Other animals con-
serve their moisture by modes of behavior, being active mainly during
the cooler night, thus escaping the excessive evaporation of the heated
day; and still others live in burrows in the soil, where the humidity is
higher than in the air. Many animals can live only where the air is
humid. There is thus an almost endless series of conditions relating
animals to the supply and loss of water.

On account of the herbivorous food habits of so many animals a
large number secure much water with the juicy vegetation eaten, and
others from nectar or from the sap drawn or escaping from plants.
The predaceous animals secure a large amount of water from the fluids
of the animals they devour or the juices sucked from their bodies, as
in the case of certain Hemiptera and some parasites. In addition to
the fluids derived from plants and animals, many animals also drink’
water, some in small amounts and others in large quantities. Innu-
merable observations have been made by naturalists on the drinking
habits of animals, but I know of no general discussion of this subject,
and particularly of none from the standpoint of the variation of their
behavior in this respect in different environments. But the sources
of water mentioned are not the only ones available to animals, although

99

they are the most obvious, and familiar to us. An important addi-
tional source is that formed within the body of the animal by the proc-
esses of respiration and dehydration; this is metabolic water. The
relation of this source to others and to water-loss has recently been
summarized in an important paper by Babcock (’12:87, 88, 89-90,
QI, 160, 161, 171-172, 174-175, 175-176, 181). The following quo-
tations from this paper will serve to give a concise statement of the
general principles involved in this important process. He says (pp.
87-88): ‘There are, however, particular stages in the life history of
both plants and animals in which metabolic water is sufficient for all
purposes for considerable periods of time... ... This is also true
in the case of hibernating animals that receive no water from external
sources for several months, although water is constantly lost through
respiration and the various excretions. In addition many varieties of
insects such as the clothes moths, the grain weevils, the dry wood bor-
ers, etc., are capable of subsisting, during all stages of development,
upon air-dried food materials containing less than ten per cent water ;
in these cases, nearly all of the water required is metabolic. . . . Many
organisms also, when deprived of free oxygen, are capable of main-
taining for a short time, certain of the respiratory functions, and de-
riving energy from food material and from tissues by breaking up the
molecular structure into new forms of a lower order. This is known
as intramolecular respiration, and like direct respiration, results in the
production of both water and carbon dioxide.” (Pp. 89-90): “The
substances oxidized by both plants and animals, to supply vital energy,
consist of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. All of these substances
contain hydrogen, and their complete oxidation produces a quantity
of water equal to nine times the weight of hydrogen present in the orig-
inal substances. . . . Most of the the fats yield more than their weight
of water, while proteins, when completely oxidized, give from 60 to
65 per cent of water... . . . Animals, however, are unable to utilize
the final products of protein metabolism which are in most cases
poisonous and must be removed from the tissues by excretion in vari-
ous forms, the principal of which are urea, uric acid, and am-
monia. . . . . The amount of metabolic water formed by oxidation
during any period is proportional to the rate of respiration... ....
(Page 91): “With parasitic plants, and with animals, which derive all
of their organic nutrients from chlorophyl producing plants, im-
bibed water is not so essential to life; with these the chief function
of imbibed water is to aid in the removal of waste products, the
metabolic water being in most cases sufficient for transferring nutri-
ents and for replacing the ordinary losses incurred by respiration
and evaporation.” . . . . . (Page 160): “Another and more im-

100

portant difference is the inability of animals to resynthesize the or-
ganic waste products of respiration into substances that may be
again utilized as nutrients. . . . . This is especially the case with the
soluble products arising from protein metabolism. With most animals
these nitrogenous products are excreted in solution through the kid-
neys, chiefly as urea, but birds, reptiles, and all insects excrete most
of the nitrogenous waste matter as uric acid, or its ammonia salt, which
being practically insoluble in the body fluids, is voided in a solid con-
dition.” (Page 61): “The need for water is much less for ani-
mals that excrete uric acid than for those that excrete urea, since
uric acid, being practically insoluble in the the body fluids, is not so
poisonous as urea and is voided solid with a minmum loss of water.
Many animals that excrete uric acid instead of urea never have access
to water and subsist in every stage of their development upon air dried
food which usually contains less than 10 per cent water. The most
striking illustrations of this kind are found among insects such. as the
clothes moths, the grain weevils, the dry wood borers, the bee moths,
etc. The larve of these insects contain a high per cent of water, and
the mature forms, in spite of the development of wings which are rela-
tively dry, rarely contain less than 50 per cent of water.” (Pp. 171-
172): “Serpents and other reptiles that live in arid regions and rarely
if ever have access to water, except that contained in their food, are
said by Vauquelin to excrete all of the waste nitrogen as salts of uric
acid. The same is true of birds that live on desert islands where only
salt water is available. It is essential that animals of these types should
produce as much metabolic water as possible from the assimilated food,
and the waste of water through the excretions should be reduced to a
minimum. Since the food is largely protein both of these ends are at-
tained by the excretion of uric acid which, as already stated, contains
the least hydrogen of any nitrogenous substance excreted by animals so
that the maximum amount of metabolic water has been derived from
the food consumed.” (Pp. 174-175): “There are many animals that
are able to go long periods without having access to water except that
contained in their food, iri which water usually amounts to less than
20 per cent of total weight, and the metabolic water derived from oxi-
dation of organic nutrients. A notable example of this is the prairie
dog which thrives in semi-arid regions. ‘These small animals feed
upon the native herbage which for months at a time is as dry as hay.
It has been surmised that the burrows in which they live extend to
underground water courses, but this does not seem likely since in many
of these regions wells must be sunk hundreds of feet before water is
reached. It is more probable that they depend chiefly upon metabolic
water. They feed mostly at night when the temperature is low and

a

101

during the hottest hours of day remain in their burrows where the air
is more nearly saturated with moisture and evaporation is relatively
small.” (Pp. 175-176): “An application of these principles would
undoubtedly serve to prolong life, when suitable water for drinking
is not available. In such cases the food should consist of carbohy--
drates and fats. Proteins should not be used... . . The water re-
quired for preventing uremic poisoning under these conditions is small
and if the relative humidity of the surrounding air is high enough to
prevent rapid evaporation of water from the body, the metabolic water
arising from the oxidation of nutrients may be ample for the purpose.”
(Page 181): “Metabolic water derived from the oxidation of organic
nutrients would probably be sufficient for all animal needs were it not
for the elimination of poisonous substances resulting from protein de-
generation.” |

The preceding quotation brings out very clearly the harmful effects
of an accumulation of uric acid upon the animal. This is only a special
case illustrating a general law, for except water the main end products
of metabolism are acid. There is thus a constant tendency for acid to
accumulate, as Henderson (’13a: 158-159; see also ’13b) has said:
“This tendency toward acidity of reaction and the accumulation of acid
in the body is one of the inevitable characteristics of metabolism; the
constant resistance of the organism one of the fundamental regulatory
processes. Now it comes about through the carbonate equilbrium that
the stronger acids, as soon as they are formed, and wherever they are
formed, normally find an ample supply of bicarbonates at their dis-
posal, and accordingly react as follows . . . . The free carbonic acid
then passes out through the lungs, and the salt is excreted in the urine.”

Recently Shelford (’13b, see also ’14a) has summarized the phys-
iological effects of water-loss by evaporation and other methods. It
is probable that the carbonic acid excretion is retarded by drying, and
that by this means irritability may be increased.

It is not simply loss of water, but loss beyond certain limits that
interferes with the life of animals. Thus loss is not an unmixed evil,
because, in addition to removing excretions, evaporation is an impor-
tant factor in the control of temperature within the bodies of animals.
Loss of water also tends to concentrate the body fluids, and when this
loss brings about a relatively dry condition, such tissues are in a con-
dition which is favorable for the endurance of relatively extreme low
or high temperature (Davenport, 97: 256-2 58), and even dryness
(see references, Adams, ’13: 98-99). This is a reason why it is dif-
ficult to distinguish, in nature, between the effects of aridity and tem-
perature extremes, and hence arise the puzzling interpretations of con-

102

tinental climates. These extreme conditions are characteristic of many
habitats.

It is readily seen how the general principles just summarized apply
to the land animals of the prairie. Many of these are active during the
day, live in the bare exposed places, or near the level of the vegetation,
where evaporation is greatest and water-loss is correspondingly large,
and feed upon the dry haylike vegetation. Others remain among the
humid layers of the vegetation or in the moist soil, and feed upon
juicy plants and other moist food. Predaceous and parasitic animals,
deriving their moisture from their prey, occupy both the dry and humid
situations. These are representative cases, between which there are a
large number of intergradations.

In the forest, where evaporation is more retarded than in the open,
a large number of animals live in the forest crown, at the forest mar-
gin, in glades, and in wood, of all degrees of dryness, and eat food
varying similarly from juicy leaves to dry wood. On the other hand,
some live in moist logs, among damp humus, or in the soil, and feed
upon dripping fungi or soggy wood. Many of these animals possess
little resistance to drying.

The optimum for prairie and forest animals thus involves a
dynamic balance between the intake of water and its loss by evapora-
tion and excretion.

ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS OF THE PRAIRIE,
AND THE FOREST |

I. INTRODUCTION

In an earlier chapter of this paper the habitats and animals found
at the different stations were discussed, and in the preceding section
the general characteristics of the physical and vegetational environ-
ment of the prairie and forest have been described and summarized.
Weare now in a better position to consider the relations of the inverte-
brates, not only to their physical environment, but also to the vege-
tation, and, furthermore the relations which these animals bear to one
another. We wish also to consider both the prairie and the forest as
separate units, and to see how the animals are related to their physical
and biological environment. As previously stated, the special locali-
ties studied were described by stations both to give a precise and con-
crete idea of the prairie and its animals, as now existing in a limited
area, and also to preserve as much of the local color as the data would
permit. I wish now to reexamine these animals from another stand-
point, that of the animal association as a unit. The prairie as a whole

103

is not homogeneous from this point of view; it is a mosaic composed
of anumber of minor social communities. Each of these smaller units,
however, is fairly homogeneous throughout.

Our present knowledge of these minor associations is imperfect,
and for this reason they are arranged in an order approximating that
which we might reasonably expect to be produced if the initial stage
were made to begin with a poorly or imperfectly drained area and to
advance progressively with corresponding vegetational changes, toward
a more perfect condition of drainage. Upon the prairie a perfect series
would include every stage from lakes, ponds, and swamps to well-
drained dry prairie. But cultivation and drainage have obliterated so
much, that now only very imperfect remnants exist in the vicinity of
Charleston. Although the sequence followed therefore does not in-
clude all stages of the process it is approximately genetic.

There are three essential features in every animal association, or
community; certain physical conditions; certain kinds of vegetation,
which also modify the physical conditions; and representative kinds of
animals. Occasionally an effort is made to divorce these, to separate
organisms from their normal habitat, but such an effort is deceptive,
for no organism can live for any considerable period without a normal
environment.

I have not attempted to treat these associations with equal fullness.
In the sections devoted to the description of the stations it was possi-
ble in some cases, on account of the uniform character of a station, to
describe the animal association rather fully. In such instances the
detailed account is not repeated. In other cases I have elaborated the
community relations more fully here than elsewhere. The descriptions
of the stations and the associations, and the annotated lists, are in-
tended to be mutually supplementary.

II. THe Prairie ASSOCIATIONS
1. Swamp Prairie Association

The swamp prairie community lives in a habitat characterized by
shallow water, which stands approximately throughout the growing
season of the vegetation. The soil is black, and rich in vegetable de-
bris. The characteristic plants are bulrush (Scirpus), flags (Iris),
swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), beggar-ticks (Bidens), and
young growths both of willow (Salix) and cottonwood (Populus del-
toides). The abundant growth of vegetation and the wet soil are con-
ditions favorable for the production and accumulation of organic de-
bris, which tends to fill the depressions and to supplement the inwash

104

from the surrounding slopes. At the same time, burrowing animals,
particularly the crawfish, also bury debris and work over the soil. In
the Charleston area this community was developed at Station I, d, and
in part at I, g.

The representative animals of this community are those living in
the water, such as the prairie crawfish, Cambarus gracilis (PI.
XXXVI), the snail Galba umbilicata, and such insects as the nine-
spot dragon-fly, Libellula pulchella (Pl. XXXVIII, fig. 2), and the
giant mosquito, Psorophora ciliata, whose immature stages are spent
in the water. In addition to these are other representative species
whose presence is, to an important degree, conditioned by the pres-
ence of certain kinds of vegetation—such species, for example, as
those which feed upon the dogbane (Apocynum), the brilliantly col-
ored beetle Chrysochus auratus; upon milkweed, the milkweed bugs
Lygeus kalmit and Oncopeltus fasciatus (Pl. XL, figs. 1 and 3), and
the milkweed beetle Tetraopes,; and, finally, the rather varied series of
flower visitors feeding upon pollen or nectar, such as the soldier-beetle
(Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus), Euphoria sepulchralis, and several
species of butterflies, moths, bees and wasps, including the honey-bee,
bumblebees, and carpenter-bee (Xylocopa virginica), and the common
rusty digger-wasp (Chlorionichneumoneum). Visiting the same flow-
ers, but of predaceous habit, were found the ambush spider (Misumena
aleatoria) and the ambush bug (Phymata fasciata). Small insects
were preyed upon by the dragon-flies (Libellula pulchella), and the
‘dragon-flies in turn were entangled in the webs of the garden spider
(Argiope aurantia).

No animals were taken on the flags, but Needham (’00) has made
an important study of the population inhabitating flags at Lake Forest,
Illinois, and shows that it is an extensive one. He gives an excellent
example showing how the injury by one insect paves the way for a
train or succession of others. For example: the ortalid fly Chetopsis
enea Wied. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 1), bores into the stem of the buds and
causes them to decay (Cf. Forbes, ’05, p. 164; Walton, Ent. News,
Vol. 19, p. 298. 1908). This condition affords a favorable habitat for
a pomace-fly (Drosophila phalerata Meig.*), an oscinid (Oscinis
coxendix Fitch, Plate XVIII, figures 3 and 4), a beetle, parasitic
Hymenoptera, and, after the decaying buds were overgrown by fungus
threads, the bibionid fly Scatopse pulicaria Loew. This paper by Need-
ham is one of the very few in which the population of a plant has been
studied as a biotic community. Forbes (’90, pp. 68-69; 02, p. 444)
has shown that snout-beetles (Sphenophorus ochreus Lec., Plate

*Mr. J. BR. Malloch infornts me that D. phalerata is not an American species.

105

XVIII, figures 5, 6, and 7) breed in root-bulbs of Scirpus, and that
these beetles eat the leaves of Phragmites. Webster (’90, pp 52-55)
observed these beetles feeding on the leaves of Scirpus and the larve
feeding on its roots. I have found great numbers of these beetles cast
up.on the beach of Lake Michigan. Evidently they breed in the
swamps about the lake, fall into it when on the wing, and are washed
ashore.

2. The Cottonwood Community

Ordinarily we are accustomed to think of the prairie as treeless,
and yet one large tree was relatively abundant upon the original prairie
of Illinois, particularly upon wet prairie, or, when pools were present,
even upon the uplands. This was the cottonwood, Populus deltoides.
These trees were often important landmarks when isolated; and today
the large trees or their stumps are important guides in determining the
former extent of the prairie. In the region studied there were no large
mature cottonwoods, although saplings were present, but north of
Charleston in the adjacent fields mature trees were found. They grow
normally at the margins of wet places, as about prairie ponds and
swamps, or along the small ill-defined moist sags and small prairie
brooks. This tree is usually solitary or in irregular scattered rows
when along streams, and does not, as a rule, form clumps. or’ groves.
This relatively isolated habit may be a factor in the comparatively
small number of invertebrates which are associated with it, or at least
in the amount of serious injury which they do to these trees upon the
prairie. Many of the larger trees are mutilated, or even destroyed by
lightning (Cf. Plummer, ’12), and such injury favors entrance of in-
sects on account of the rupturing of the thick bark.

The galls on the leaves and twigs of the trees often attract atten-
tion. A large irregular gall on the ends of the twigs becomes conspic-
uous in winter. This is formed by the vagabond gall-louse, Pemphigus
oestlundi Ckll. (Pl. XIX, fig. 1) (vagabundus Walsh, Ent. News,
Vol. 17, p. 34. 1906). I have found these galls abundant upon the
prairie at Bloomington, II]. At this same locality I found a large
bullet-like gall at the junction of the petiole and the leaf—that of Pem-
phigus populicaulis Fitch (Pl. XIX, fig. 2), and at Urbana, Ill, on
other large prairie cottonwoods, a somewhat similar gall, on the side
of the petioles, caused by P. populi-transversus Riley (Pl. XIX, fig. 3).
I have also taken large caterpillars of the genus Apatela on leaves of
cottonwood, and September 3, at Urbana, upon its cultivated form, the
Carolina poplar, 4. populi Riley (Pl. XX, fig. 6). These caterpillars
have bodies covered by yellow hair penciled with black. At dusk
swarms of May-beetles (Lachnosterna) can be seen and heard feeding

106

among the leaves of the cottonwood and the Carolina poplar. It is
noteworthy that I have made these observations at Urbana, Illinois,
upon cottonwoods growing upon what was originally prairie.

Forbes (’07a) has shown, as the result of extensive collections of
May-beetles from trees, that they have a decided preference for Caro-
lina poplar (p. 456) and willow. This same paper also contains im-
portant observations on the nocturnal flights to and from the forest,
from the normal habitat of the grubs, and from the daytime abode of
the beetles in the open fields. Wolcott (’14) has recently emphasized
the point that the grubs live only in open places in proximity to wood-
land where the beetles can secure food. These observations show very
clearly that May-beetles are animals primarily of the prairie or forest
margin, and probably lived upon the original prairie, scattered, where
cottonwoods or willows grew. A glance at the map of the prairie and
forest (frontispiece) shows that the marginal area was very extensive,
and must have furnished an optimum habitat for these beetles. This is
a good illustration of the fact that the cottonwood exerted an influence
upon the prairie far beyond its shadow.

In some localities another beetle (Melasoma scripta Fabr.) feeds
upon the leaves of the cottonwood, and may become a serious pest to
poplars and willows, but I have not seen this species abundant on iso-
lated mature trees upon the prairie. I have taken these beetles (July
2) under cottonwoods at Bloomington, Il. Packard (’90, pp. 426-
474) has published a list of the insects known to feed upon Populus.

Willows (Salix) are frequently associated with the cottonwoods
upon the prairie, but, in marked contrast with these, they generally
grow in colonies and are eaten by a great variety of insects. Packard
(790, pp. 557-600) lists 186 species of insects on them, and Chitten-
den (’04, p. 63) extends the number to 380 species. Of course in any
given locality the number of species found will be relatively small, and
the number is further limited by the environmental conditions—
whether the land is upland or low and flooded. The degree of ‘prox-
imity of willows and cottonwood is likely to influence the relative
abundance of the insects feeding upon these trees, since a large number
of insects which feed upon willow also feed upon the cottonwood. Col-
onies of willow are thus likely to become sources of infestation for
the cottonwood; this relation, however, is a mutual one. Walsh (’64)
and Heindel (’05) have published very interesting studies of the com-
munity life of the insect galls on Illinois willows. Cockerell (’97, pp.
770-771) has listed the scale insects found upon willows and poplars.

107

3. Swamp-grass Association

The prairie swamp-grasses, slough grass (Spartina), and wild rye
(Elymus) were growing in relatively pure stands or colonies in de-
pressions which were dry in the late summer. The prolonged wetness
of the habitat and the dominance of the few kinds of grasses are char-
acteristic features of the environment of this association. These con-
ditions were found at Station I, a and c, north of Charleston. As these
stations were rather homogeneous and have already been discussed
somewhat fully, only a summary will be given here.

On account of the grassy vegetation the abundance of Orthoptera
is not surprising. Representative species are Melanoplus differen-
tialis, M. femur-rubrum, Scudderia texensis, Orchelimum vulgare,
Xiphidium strictum, CEcanthus nigricornis, and Gi. quadripunctatus.
Other representative animals are Argiope aurantia and the swamp fly
Tetanocera plumosa. The list of species is probably very incomplete ;
during the wet season there are undoubtedly a number of aquatics;
furthermore, there are still other species which feed upon Spartina and
Elymus, particularly some Hemiptera, and stem-inhabiting Hymenop-
tera, and certain Diptera. Thus Webster (’03a, pp. 10-13, 26, 32, 38)
has recorded a number of chalcids of the genus Jsosoma which live
in the stems of Elymus virginicus and canadensis. In this same paper
he discusses their parasitic and predaceous enemies (pp. 22, 27, 33).
A fly also breeds in Elymus, the greater wheat stem-maggot, Mer-
omyza americana Fitch (Pl. XX, figs. 1-5), as recorded by Fletcher
(1. c., p. 48). This species is of economic importance, having spread
from grasses to the cultivated grains. It has been studied in Illinois
by Forbes (’84). He found a fly parasite of this species, and Webster
reports a mite preying on it. Webster (l. c., p. 53) reports another
fly, Oscinis carbonaria Loew, bred from Elymus by Fletcher.

In another paper Webster (’03b) has published a list of insects in-
habiting the stems of E. canadensis and virginicus. Osborn and Ball
(‘97b, pp. 619, 622; 97a) have discussed the life histories of certain
grass-feeding Jasside which feed upon Elymus. Osborn (’92, p. 129)
records a plant-louse, Myzocallis, from Elymus canadensis in Iowa,
and a species of leaf-hopper has been recorded by Osborn and Ball
(’97b, p. 615') from Spartina. On the same plant, Osborn and Sirrine
(’94, p. 897) record a plant-louse on the roots. In a list of the plant-
lice of the world and their food plants Patch (712) lists a few from
Spartina. This same list includes (pp. 191-206) many grasses an
the associated aphids, those on Elymus on page 196. .

108

4. Low Prairie Association

The moist black soil prairie, a degree removed from the wet or
swamp condition, with ground water in the spring relatively near the
surface, is fairly well characterized by the rosin-weed (Silphium), par-
ticularly S. terebinthinaceum. Other plants likely to be associated with
S. terebinthinaceum are Silphium laciniatum and S. integrifolium,
Eryngium yuccifolium, Lepachys pinnata, and, to a less degree, Lac-
tuca canadensis.

In the Charleston area this condition is represented by Station I, a,
north of the town, and Station III, a, and in part b, east of the town.
The proximity of ground water is shown at Station I, e, by the pres-,
ence of crawfish burrows, probably those of Cambarus gracilis. At
Station III the proximity of water was also evident where S. terebin-
thinaceum was most abundant in the railway ditches. Such perennial
plants are indicative of the physical conditions for a period of years,
and are thus a fairly reliable index of average conditions—much more
so than the annuals.

It is difficult to decide which kinds of animals are characteristic of
this kind of prairie. Provisionally I am inclined to consider the fol-
lowing as being so: Cambarus gracilis; Argiope aurantia; the grass-
hoppers Encoptolophus sordidus, Melanoplus differentialis, M. femur-
rubrum, Scudderia texensis, and Xiphidium strictum; Gicanthus nigri-
cornis; Phymata fasciata; and asilids. The presence of Lepachys was
clearly an important factor in determining the presence of Melissodes
obliqua and Epeolus concolor. At Station III, b, east of Charleston,
Epicauta pennsylvanica and Bombus pennsylvanicus, auricomus, and
impatiens were taken on the flowers of Silphinm terebinthinaceum.

Robertson (’94, pp. 463-464; ’96b, pp 176-177) has published lists
of insect visitors to the flowers of Silphium and Lepachys (’94, pp.
468-469), at Carlinville, Ill. Recently Shelford (13a, p. 298) has
published a long list of animals inhabiting Silphium prairie near Chi-
cago. Forbes (’g0, p. 75) has reported the snout-beetle Rhynchites
hirtus Fabr. as feeding upon Silphium integrifolium.

In a colony of prairie vegetation at Seymour, IIl., which included
much Silphium and Eryngium, the following insects were taken Octo-
ber 7 from the ball-like flower clusters of Eryngium yuccifolium: the
bugs Lygeus kalmii, Thyanta custator Fabr., Euschistus variolarius,
and Trichopepla semivittata Say (No. 539, C. C. A.), the last named
in large numbers, the nymphs in several sizes as well as the adults, a
fact which suggests that both may hibernate upon the prairie. Rob-
ertson (’89, pp. 455-456) has summarized his collections of insects
from Eryngium and on Euphorbia corollata (’96a, pp. 74-75).

109

Upon remnants of prairie vegetation growing at Urbana, Illinois,
I have found several kinds of insects centered about a wild lettuce,
Lactuca canadensis. Upon the upper, tender parts of this plant, the
plant-louse Macrosiphum rudbeckie Fitch, thrives late in the fall, in
very large numbers. Some seasons nearly every plant is infested. The
lice become so abundant upon these tender parts that the entire stem
for a distance of a few inches is completely covered. They migrate
upward with the growth of the stem and keep on the fresh, tender
parts. Among the plant-lice, and running about on the stem of the
plant, attending ants abound; eggs, larve, and adults of lace-wing flies
(Chrysopa) also abound; and several species of coccinellids, syrphid
larve, and a variety of small parasitic Hymenoptera are present.

5. Upland Prairie Association

The well-drained prairie, a degree removed from the permanently
moist prairie, is fairly well represented by the physical and biological
conditions in which Euphorbia corollata, Apocynum medium, and
Lactuca canadensis, are the representative plants. The plant ecologist
would consider the conditions favorable to mesophytic plants. In the
Charleston region these conditions are approximated at Station II,
where drainage has doubtless changed the area from a somewhat
moist, to its present well-drained, condition. :

Representative animals of this community are as follows: Argiope
aurantia, Misumena aleatoria, Encoptolophus sordidus, Melanoplus
bivittatus, M. differentialis, Orchelimum vulgare, Xibhidium strictum,
Euschistus variolarius, Phymata fasciata, Chauliognathus pennsylvan-
icus, Epicauta marginata and E. pennsylvanica, Rhipiphorus dimidia-
tus and R. limbatus, Ammalo, Exoprosopa fasciata, Promachus verte-
bratus, Bombus pennsylvanicus, and Myzine sexcincta.

On dry prairie at Mayview, Ill., September 26, I found the plant-
louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch on the leaves and stems of the dogbane
(Apocynum) and the lice attended by the ant Formica fusca L. A
beetle, Languria mozardi Latr., whose larva is a stem-borer, inhabits
Lactuca canadensis. Its life history and habits have been discussed
by Folsom (’o9, pp. 178-184).

6. The Solidago Community

A common community in the late summer and early fall is centered
about the goldenrod (Solidago). This plant was ‘not abundant or in
blossom at any of the stations studied in detail, but it grew in small
widely scattered colonies or clumps. Observations were made in two

110

colonies, north of Charleston, both west of Station I, a, andI,g. The
collections made (Nos. 20, 26, 42, 43) are as follows:

Ambush Bug Phymata fasciata 20, 26
Stink-bug Euschistus variolarius 26
Black Blister-beetle Epicauta pennsylvanica 26
Noctuid moth Spragueia leo 20, 26
Conopid fly Physocephala sagittaria 26
Empidid fly Empis clausa 43
Halictid bee Halictus fasciatus 26
Myzinid wasp Myzine sexcincta 20, 26
Ant Formica fusca subsericea 20

It is important to know that these collections from Solidago were
made just as the flowers were beginning to blossom. Collections a few
weeks later would probably have given many more kinds. It should
be noted, too, that all these plants were far out upon the prairie and
far from woodlands—a factor which may influence to some extent
the kinds of visitors. As a rule the lists which have been published
state little or nothing at all as to the conditions in which the plants
were growing. If this factor is neglected, the presence of some vis-
itors remains puzzling. Thus on some goldenrods the locust beetle,
Cyllene robinie, is abundant; but this is conditioned in part by the
proximity of the yellow locust, which is absent on the Charleston
prairie.

Phymata was found copulating upon the flower, and with an em-
pidid fly, Empis clausa (No. 43), in its grasp. Two kinds of galls
formed by insects were found on this plant: one formed by the fly
Cecidomyia solidaginis (No. 43), which forms a rosette of leaves;
and the other the spindle-like stem-gall, formed by a small caterpillar,
Gnorimoschema gallesolidaginis (No. 7462 Hankinson). September
20 the moth Scepsis fulvicollis Hiibn. was found in goldenrod flowers
near Station I,a. Its larva feeds on grass. A large noctuid larva,
Cucullia asteroides Guen., was found in a mass of flowers. As the day
was cloudy and cool, Scepsis was resting or sleeping on the flower
masses, as were also the black wasp Chlorion atratum Lep., and Pol-
istes—both the light form variatus Cress., and the darker one, pallipes
Lep. On October 23, 1893, I found the curculionid Centrinophus
helvinus Casey (det. H. F. Wickham) on goldenrod at Bloomington,
Tl.

Needham (’98, pp. 29-40) has given a good popular account of
the insects associated with goldenrod, and Riley (’93, pp. 85-87) has
published an extensive list and given a number of observations on their
food habits.

111

Pierce (’04, pp. 173-188) has published a long list of bees found
visiting Solidago in Nebraska. He also mentions the following beetles:
Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, Nemognatha immaculata and N.
Sparsa, Zonitis bilineata, Epicauta pennsylvanica, and Myodites soli-
daginis Pierce. Mvyodites is a rhipiphorid beetle which appears to lay
its eggs upon Solidago. Here the larva develops, and from here, by
attaching itself to different flower visitors, it is carried to their nests.
The nesting sites are often populated by several kinds of insects, a
social community, and thus the larva is thought to be carried in close
proximity to the bee Epinomia, upon which it is parasitic. This bee
does not visit Solidago, but frequents the sunflower (Helianthus), and
thus is only infested at the nest (see also Canadian Entomologist, Vol.
XXIV, 1902, p. 394). This is a good example of the complex rela-
tions existing among the animals of the prairie. Robertson (’94, p.
455) found Myodites fasciatus Say on Solidago at Carlinville, Ill, and
he also lists (1. c. pp. 454-458) many species of insects which he found
on different species of goldenrod. As Epinomia is not known from
Illinois it is probable that some other bee is host for Myodites.

7. Dry Prairie Grass Association

The dry prairie grass association includes those animals which live
on the driest of the black soil prairie among the tall prairie grasses
Andropogon and Sporobolus. Upon the original prairie this was
probably a relatively stable habitat.

About Charleston these grassy habitats occupied only very small
areas north of the town, at Station I, g (in part), and Station III, b
(in part).

Representative animals of this community are the following: Argi-
ope aurantia, Brachynemurus abdominalis, Chrysopa oculata, Syrbula
admirabilis, Encoptolophus sordidus, Melanoplus differentialis, M.
femur-rubrum, Scudderia texensis, Orchelimum vulgare, Conocepha-
lus, Gicanthus nigricornis and CG. 4-punctatus, Euschistus variolarius,
Sinea diadema, Phymata fasciata, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus,
Tetraopes tetraophthalmus, Rhipiphorus dimidiatus, Exoprosopa fas-
ciata, Promachus vertebratus, Bombus pennsylvanicus, auricomus, tm-
patiens, fraternus, and separatus, Melissodes bimaculata, and Myzine
Ssexcincta.

Probably a number of insects breed in the roots and stems of An-
dropogon and Sporobolus, but none were secured.

Although Elymus has contributed many insect pests to cultivated
grains, it seems that Andropogon has not, if we except the chinch-bug
(Blissus leucopterus Say). This insect was not related to Andrepo-

112

gon as Isosoma is to Elymus, but this and other prairie grasses which
grow in bunches or stools evidently formed the optimum hibernating
quarters of these pests when they lived upon the original prairie
(Fitch, ’56, p. 283; Marlatt, ’94a; Schwarz, ’05) and upon the sea-
shore. Osborn and Ball (’97a and ’97b) have listed several grass-
feeding Jasside from Andropogon and Sporobolus. Osborn and Sir-
rine (’94, p. 897) found a plant-louse on the roots of Andropogon,
and Patch (12, p. 191) lists Schizoneura corni Fabr. on A. furcatus.

8. A Milkweed Community

Bordering the gravelly ballast along the rails north of Charleston at
Station I'( Pl. II, fig. 2) may be seen a large-leaved plant, the common
milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). This plant flourishes along the track
in many places, and wherever it was found there tended to appear a
small but very well-defined animal community. To determine the com-
position of this social community, a few collections were made at vari-
ous points within Station I. That this milkweed is the hub of this
microcosm is clearly shown by the fact that no similar association was
found grouped around any other plant in the area, not even about the
other milkweeds, A. sullivantti, or A. incarnata. The collections are
numbered as follows: Nos. 27-30, 33, 34, and 154.

The terminal young and tender leaves of the plant are often densely
covered with the plant-louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch (Nos. 28, 29),
and these lice are attended by the workers of the ant Formica fusca
subsericea Say (Nos. 30, 154). On another plant no plant-lice are
recorded, but upon it were found their common enemy, the nine-
spotted ladybird, Coccinella 9-notata,; two species of ants (Formica
pallide-fulva schaufussi incerta, and Myrmica rubra scabrinodis sabu-
leti); besides, running about on the leaves, the pretty, metallic, long-
legged flies Pstlopus sipho (No. 27). They run with a singular rapid
glide, stop suddenly for a moment, and then continue their rapid pace.
Certain flies of this family are said to be predaceous, but I have never
seen Psilopus capture any small animal. On the same plant just men-
tioned a small bug, Harmostes reflexulus, was also taken; and in the
flowers of this plant were hundreds of a small dark-colored empidid
fly, Empis clausa (No. 27). Two other animals were found on this
plant; Zonitis bilineata Say (No. 33), and a jumping spider (attid),
which had in its jaws what appeared to be the remains of the beetle
Diabrotica 12-punctata (No. 34). Contrary to my usual experience,
these plants did not abound with milkweed beetles (Tetraopes) or with
the common milkweed bugs (Lygeus kalmii and Oncopeltus fascia-
tus), which are usually numerous. The proximity of the fragrant

a

113

blossom of Asclepias incarnata may explain this paucity at this time
and place. The milkweed butterfly, Anosia plexippus, is of course a
member of this community.

W. Hamilton Gibson (’oo, pp. 227-237) has discussed, in a very
interesting manner, the relations of this plant to its insect pollinators,
and calls attention to the variety of insects which are entrapped and
killed by its flowers. He also points out that the dogbane (Apocy-
num) has a similar habit.

Robertson, our leading American authority on the relations of
flowers and insects, has published extensive lists of the flower visitors,
not only of A. syriaca (cornuti) but of other Illinois milkweeds
(Bot. Gaz., Vol. XI, pp. 262~269; Vol. XII, pp. 207-216, 244-250;
and Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. V, No. 3, pp. 569-577).

III. ReEwation or Prairie ANIMALS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The relation of prairie animals to the major features of their phys-
ical and biotic environment presents several facts of unusual interest.
On account of the relatively heavy precipitation during June, the slight
topographic relief of the region, and its imperfect drainage, unusually
large areas of the original black soil prairie are wet or swampy. Cer-
tain animals are able to tide over this early, unfavorable wet-summer
period because they are not fully roused from their winter inactivity;
others, in their immature stages of development, require less food than
later; still others survive by migration to the drier uplands. At the
same time, other animals, preferring moist or wet habitats, flourish,
and then decline in numbers as the season advances. Toward August,
on account of the eastward migration of the continental peninsula of
aridity and intense evaporation, those animals whose activity is re-
tarded by the earlier wet season find the conditions progressively more
favorable, and thrive and grow accordingly. This is the acme of the
season for dry-prairie animals, and great numbers of slowly maturing
composite plants now make the landscape yellow with their flowers.
The Orthoptera are now mature, and when flushed, or, when not
flushed, by their sounds, are noticeable. That these conditions cause
these animals to thrive, is only too evident during exceptionally dry
seasons, when the ordinary August drouth begins in July and extends
into September.

In the conditions just indicated, the imperfect drainage, the wet
season followed by the dry, we are touching closely upon the real causes
of the prairie. Yet to me it seems fruitless to search for the cause of
the Illinois prairie; the causes are probably multiple. In the midst of
the Great Plains, the “short grass country’ the causes of grass-land

114

may be relatively few, because the dominating conditions are so thor-
oughly established and extreme. But near the eastern margin of this
dominance, upon the prairies—the “long grass country”—the number
of limiting factors increases greatly, and even a relatively trivial local
influence is able to overcome the slight momentum which this domi-
nance possesses. In Illinois, then, the causes of the prairie biota, men-
tioning only the larger groups of influences, seem to be as follows: a,
a sandy character of the soil, resulting in sand prairie; 6, loam and
good drainage, resulting in black soil prairie; c, very imperfect drain-
age, resulting in wet prairie. A shallow soil underlaid by rock might
also produce prairie, but I have not seen any large area of this kind in
Illinois.

We have, then, in the wetness and the dryness cf the prairie two
of the important controlling influences upon the prairie associations.
On the prairie aquatic animals may thrive, particularly those which
develop early and mature rapidly, and possess some power to resist
or tide over the dry season, either as adults of non-aquatic habits by
estivation, or in some resistant immature stage. We can see how
aquatic animals, in this manner, are capable of enduring these extreme
conditions and remain numerous upon the prairie. Where crawfish
holes are abundant, many small aquatic animals are able to utilize them
and thus escape drying. Crawfish holes should be examined during
dry seasons with this idea in mind. On the other hand, the prairie
is inhabited by many animals which can not endure much moisture, and
live best in conditions of moderate or extreme dryness. These are the
kinds which find their optimum during the driest part of the season,
and in very dry years. When there is an abundance of moisture, some
of these, for example the chinch-bug, are particularly susceptible to
disease. The maximum development of this arid type as seen on the
Illinois sand prairie has been studied by Hart (’07); more recently by
one of my students, Vestal (’13b, 14); and about Chicago and north-
ern Indiana by Shelford (’13a). An examination of the lists of sand
invertebrates given by Hart (1. c., pp. 230-257) and Vestal Cc 13b,
pp. 14-60), in comparison with those for the black soil prairie at
Charleston, will show many differences, not only in kinds but also in
their relative abundance. Some allowance must also be made for the
fact that the animals of the black soil prairie are not as fully pre-
served as those of the sand areas.

t. The Black Soil Prairie Community

The soil population of both sand and black soil prairie has never
received thorough study, although observations from the sand areas

115

have been recorded by Hart, and his observations amplified by Vestal.
In the black soil area many observations have been made by Forbes
(94) on the life histories and habits of certain species of economic
importance, particularly those injuring.corn and grasses in the soil. In
his studies are included many insects, such as elaterid larve, aphids,
ants, and white-grubs. The physical conditions of life here yet await
careful investigation.

A very large number of the animals living on and above the sur-
face of the soil spend a part of their lives within it. Thus among the
Orthoptera, the acridiids lay their eggs in the soil—this is probably
true of most of the beetles; and even the parasitic animals often spend
most of their life in the soil with their hosts. This is true also of the
wasps and a great number of hibernating animals, and of a large num-
ber of grass-inhabiting, and other, Lepidoptera. Such characteristic
flies as the asilids and bombyliids spend much of their life in the soil,
as do many other flies, at least during their pupal period. It is very
probable that upon the original prairie a large number of noctuid and
crambid moths and tipulid and elaterid larve inhabitated the prairie
sod, and with them, of course, were associated their enemies—preda-
ceous beetles, and parasitic flies and Hymenoptera. For an account of
grass-feeding crambids Felt (’94) and Fernald (’96) should be con-
sulted.

The stage of development, structure, and behavior of soil-inhabit-
ing animals are often quite different from those living above the sur-
face. Some kinds, as pupz or adults, have spines or setz, which enable
them to wriggle in the soil, as, for example, do the pupal asilids or the
adults of Myzine and Tiphia. Locomotion in such a dense medium
is attended by many difficulties, and it is not surprising that animals
living here have peculiarities of structure and behavior, and that a
large number are relatively sedentary.

In the discussion of the ventilation of habitats, attention was called
to the fact that soil-inhabiting animals probably possessed considera-
ble resistance to an abundance of CO, and to a lack of oxygen. We
are all familiar with the abundance of earthworms, Lumbricus and its
allies, crawling upon the surface and entrapped upon our walks and
pavements after prolonged rains. In these cases the saturation of the
soil has driven out the air. Apparently the earthworms are relatively
less resistant to the lack of oxygen than many other soil animals, for
they come to the surface in a much more marked degree. Since earth-
worms live in burrows, have an easy route to the surface, and are pos-
sessed of good powers of locomotion, they contrast strikingly with
many other sedentary soil animals. Bunge (’88, p. 566) found that
earthworms were able to survive one day in an oxygen-free liquid.

116

Cameron (’13, p. 190) speaks of the resistance to drowning of elaterid
larve as follows: “I myself have kept specimens of the larve of -
Agriotes lineatus, our commonest wireworm, in water for as long as
six days without their being drowned, but those which were thus
treated for a period of seven or eight days did not generally recover
from the deleterious effects of immersion. Leather-jackets and sur-
face caterpillars submitted to the same treatment succumbed in a much
shorter time, one to two days for the caterpillars, depending on their
state of development—much shorter time than this for very young
‘forms—and from one to three days in the case of leather-jackets, the
latter being in all cases fully mature.”

Dr. R. D. Glasgow informs me that it is probable that the soil-
inhabiting white-grubs, Lachnosterna, may be able to close their spira-
cles when the soil is saturated and thus resist drowning, as in the case
of the European Melolontha (Cf. Henneguy, ’o4, p. 105; Packard, ’98,
p. 442). With this closure of the spiracles there is probably corre-
lated a power to resist a lack of oxygen and an excess of CO,. In any
case, this is a subject worthy of experimental investigation. Cam-
eron (’13, pp. 197-199) has called attention to the marked resistance
to a lack of oxygen found in muscid (dipterous) larve; they endure
submersion for long periods and recover rapidly. He says (l. c., p.
198): “A faculty of resistance and power of adaptability to adverse
circumstances is of peculiar advantage to the insect inhabitants of the
soil, which, owing to the varying climates and atmospheric conditions,
are often subjected to the most severe extremes of heat and cold, wet
and drouth. The more sluggish maggots of Diptera have a greater
plasticity than the active larve of predaceous Coleoptera. On consid-
ering these two orders by themselves, amongst Diptera the larve of
Muscide have a greater power of resistance generally than the larve
of Nematocerous and Brachypterous families, whilst among Coleop-
tera the grubs of Rhynchophora are not so easily affected as those of
Carabide and Staphylinide and other active families. This is just
what we might expect, seeing that nature, which has deprived Dipter-
ous maggots and Weevil grubs of legs that they might readily escape
danger, has compensated them to some extent by endowing them with
a greater power of resistance to adverse conditions.”

Upon the black soil prairie the snout-beetles Sphenophorus
abounded in the roots of swamp plants, where they were particularly
liable to submersion with varying rainfall. It is, however, possible that
this resistance may he entirely independent of the footless condition.

The optimum soil conditions for insects have thus been summa-
rized by Cameron (’13, p. 198) as follows: “Soils that are of a light
and open texture are, as we have already seen, the ones most fre-
quented by soil insects, all other conditions, such as those of food, being

117

equal... ... A porous subsoil is also conducive to the well-being of
insect life, in that the rain can quickly penetrate, and, as it passes
through, air is drawn into the more superficial layers in order to take
its place. Hence a reason why soil insects are only rarely found in the
deeper subsoil ; for the increased amount of moisture, together with the
decrease in aeration, is decidedly detrimental to their activities.”

The density, moisture, solutions, and ventilation of the soil, its
fresh and decaying vegetation, make conditions possible both for a
population consisting of vegetable feeders and, preying largely upon
them, a series of predaceous and parasitic associates.

It is desirable that the prairie ground fauna should be made the ob-
ject of special investigation, particularly from the standpoint of soil
solutions, moisture content, ventilation, humus content, and the in-
fluence of the living vegetation. For this reason several papers are
here mentioned which will be valuable in such a study. Diem (’03)
has made an elaborate quantitative study of the ground fauna of the
Alps. He studied a variety of conditions, including pasture, meadows,
and coniferous forest soils. He describes his methods of study and
gives many references to the literature. Other papers which should be
studied in this connection are by Dendy (’95), Cameron (’13), Motter
(98), and particularly those by Holdhaus (’10, ’11a, ’11b). Banta’s
(’07) paper on cave animals will also prove valuable because of the
close relation of cave animals to those living in the smaller openings in
ordinary soil.

Near the soil surface, among the stools of grass and on the ground,
vegetable litter is most abundant, and humidity is high, evaporation
slow, and the temperature lower and also more equable than higher
up. It is in this layer that a vast number of animals hibernate; and
in it also many, active at night, are hidden during the day. In this
layer live the animals which feed largely on organic debris. Bumble-
bees often build their nests at this level, or in depressions in the ground.
Some of our species of Bombus may nest deep in the soil and ventilate
the nest by vibrating their wings, as do certain European species (Sla-
den, ’12, pp. 47-49). This is a very interesting response to a subter-
ranean life and merits investigation.

2. The Prairie Vegetation Community

Above the surface of the soil, among the vegetation, quite another
environment exists. ‘This varies greatly not only with the character of
the substratum but also with the character and density of the prairie
vegetation. The fertility of the black soil, and the rapidity with which
it is occupied by vegetation, makes areas of bare soil of short duration.

118

The prevailing condition is therefore one of dense vegetation. I know
of no detailed study of the amount of life which develops in this layer
of prairie vegetation. For this reason certain observations made in
meadows and pastures are of interest. McAtee (’07) examined a
grassy meadow and the surface of the soil for bird food, and a corre-
sponding area of four square feet of a forest floor. He concluded that
the population in a meadow is much more dense than that in a forest.
This conclusion, however, is not valid, as Banks (’07) has pointed out,
because the two areas are not strictly comparable ecologically. In the
meadow life is concentrated near the surface; in the forest it is
largely in the trees and not on the forest floor. Clearly the ecologically
comparable areas of the open and the forest are their subsurface soils,
the surface soil and the layer of vegetation, and the space above the
vegetational layer. As previously pointed out in this paper, the forest
should be looked upon as a very thick layer of vegetation. Another
estimate of the population of pasture vegetation has been made by
Osborn (’90, pp. 20-23). This is a rough estimate, but it shows that
there were about one million Jasside present per acre. He further
estimated that that the amount of vegetation per acre eaten by insects
amounted to about one half of that eaten by a cow. This example aids
one in understanding how it was possible for the insects of the origi-
nal prairie to influence the amount of food available for the buffalo,
particularly during dry seasons when there was limited grass growth,
and when grasshoppers throve in large numbers. In this layer of vege-
tation, in addition to the general feeders, eating almost any kind of
vegetation, there is a rather extensive population which has a restricted
diet, feeding upon a single food plant, or on only a few species. There
are a number of cases where, though an insect has several food plants,
all, or nearly all, belong to the same plant association, and often have
much the same geographic range. A good example of this among
prairie animals is the case of the plant-louse Macrosiphum rudbeckie
Fitch, which lives on a variety of prairie plants; as Vernonia, Solidago,
Bidens, Ambrosia, Cirsium, Silphium, and Lactuca (Cf. Hunter, ’o1,
p. 116). The beetle Chrysochus and the bugs Lygeus kalmii and On-
copeltus fasciatus are often found on Asclepias and Apocynum; Aphis
asclepiadis lives on Asclepias and on Euphorbia. Though pollen- and
nectar-feeding insects often forage over many kinds of plants, some
of them have clearly defined preferences, almost amounting to limita-
tion to a single food plant. Thus the bee Melissodes obliqua seeks
pollen largely from Lepachys pinnata, and the Pennsylvania soldier-
beetle, though very abundant on flowers, is not numerous in corn
fields even when pollen is excessively abundant.

119

Many kinds of insects are recorded as “sleeping” among rank
growths of vegetation and on flowers. In such places cn cloudy or cool
days, late in the evening or in the early morning, insects are found at
rest and in a sluggish or torpid condition. The cause of this behavior
is not known. They may be “sleeping,” or they may only have been
trapped there by a lowering of the temperature, as at sundown, when
their activity slowed down and they came to a rest on the last flower
visited. In this connection it should be recalled that it is near the gen-
eral level of the surface of the vegetation that the most extreme tem-
peratures are found,—the most warmth in the sun and the greatest
coolness at night. This is the main zone also of flowers visited by in-
sects.

In this same layer of vegetation is found the usual grouping of
vegetable feeders, scavengers, predators, and parasites. As the nectar-
drinkers visit the flowers, certain predators spring upon them, just as
the large members of the cat family seize their prey at the margins of
streams and lakes when the herbivores come to drink. Other preda-
ceous insects such as the wasps, robber-flies and dragon-flies, live
active lives and seek their prey on the wing.

Above the general surface of the prairie vegetation no inverte-
brates live permanently, unless the parasites, external and internal,
of the swifts and swallows can be so considered. Winged forms fre-
quent this region during flights in which they find food and mates.
Spiders, by their cottony “balloons,” utilize the winds and are thus
transported. All of these are transients, and not permanent inhabi-
tants of the open area.

3. Interrelations within the Prairie Association

In concluding this discussion of the conditions of life on the prairie,
we may profitably consider some parts of the network of interrelations
which bind together the animals and the environment. As the kinds of
animals and the number of factors involved are so numerous, only a
few selected animals will be considered. In this choice I have not lim-
ited myself solely to the kinds taken at Charleston, but have utilized
common and well known prairie animals. As representatives of the
soil-inhabiting forms the white-grubs and May-beetles (Lachnos-
terna) and the corn-field ant (Lasius niger americanus) have been
chosen; as representatives of those which live above the surface and
mainly among the vegetation the differential grasshopper and Bom-
bus have been chosen; and as representatives of the active predators
and parasites, Promachus, Chlorion, Tiphia, and the parasitic fungi
Empusa and Cordyceps. Statement of the available supply of water

120.

and oxygen, the temperature, etc., is omitted for simplicity, not
because these matters are unimportant. Some of the main features
of these interrelations are summarized in the following diagram, Fig-
ure 16. This shows that the white-grubs living in the soil and devour-
ing the roots of plants are preyed upon in turn by an aggressive fun-
gus (Cordyceps) and by a wasp (Tiphia)—an external parasite; and
that Tiphia is parasitized in turn by Exoprosopa and by the larva of
the small beetle Rhipiphorus. The adult May-beetles feed upon the
leaves of trees, and although many show a decided preference for trees
living in the open, as the cottonwood and willows, others feed largely
upon forest trees. Thus the prairie animals exert a direct influence
upon the forest community as well as upon the prairie. The differ-
ential grasshopper feeds upon the vegetation, and jumps or flies into
the webs of Argiope, where it may be killed even if it should not be
eaten. The eggs which this grasshopper lays in the soil are devoured
by the larvee of Chauliognathus and Epicauta, and the adults are killed
by the fungus Empusa, or mutilated by the mite Trombidium—an ex-
ternal parasite (Pl. XXI, figs. 1 and 2). The rusty digger-wasp,
Chlorion ichneumoneum, feeds upon the nectar and pollen of flowers,
and provisions its burrows in the ground for its larva with grasshop-
pers (Orchelimum); this larva, again, is probably devoured by the
small parasitic fly Metopia. The larve of the soldier-beetle Chauliog-
nathus are predaceous, and eat other larve; thus they influence many
species; the adults frequent flowers as pollen-feeders. Although
Epicauta devours eggs of grasshoppers during its larval stage it feeds
upon vegetation in the adult stage. The larve of Bombus live upon
nectar and pollen supplied them by the female or worker, and the adult
is also a nectar- and pollen-feeder, Bombus thus being solely sustained
by vegetation. They are preyed upon by a host of predaceous enemies,
as Phymata and Promachus; and parasites, including the flies Fron-
tina, Brachycoma, probably Conops, and the false bumblebee (Psithy-
rus); their nests, moreover, form a habitation for a great variety of
insects, mites, and other animals too numerous to be put in the dia-
gram. ‘These bees, then, on account of their large size, their large col-
onies, and the large amount of concentrated food which they amass at
the nest, combine to make themselves attractive to a great number of
animals, and become the hub of a busy microcosm, an extensive com-
munity of mutually interrelated kinds.

The root-louse of grass, Schizoneura panicola Thos. (Forbes, ’94,
pp. 85-93), through the attention of several kinds of ants, Lasius niger
americanus Emery, L. flavus De G., L. interjectus Mayr, and Formica
schaufussi Mayr, is cared for from the egg to the adult stage; these
ants keep the plant-lice on fresh roots from which they suck their food.

121

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In return the ants secure honeydew and wax from the lice. A closely
related aphid, Schizoneura corni Fabr. lives from “September until
June on the dogwood (Cornus), and from June until September on the
roots of certain grasses” (Forbes, l.c., p. 89). This insect, upon the
original prairie, was probably an inhabitant of the forest margin, or
lived near moist places where dogwoods abounded. (‘This point should
be determined at some favorable locality.) In such a complex, inter-
woven community as that of the prairie it is immaterial where one
takes up the thread of relations, for if followed carefully without
interruption it will lead one about, from one animal to another suc-
cessively, until the intimate life of every animal and plant in the com-
munity has been reached, and influenced to some extent. Thus the
animals living in the soil, at the surface, and among the vegetation are
bound together, not only by their changes of habitats, as when a sub-
terranean maggot matures and becomes a flower fly, but also by their
movetnents, as when an active wasp or grasshopper burrows in the
soil, so that there is a complex interpenetration of relations which ex-
tends to all depths, to all horizontal relations, and binds together the
entire social community.

In this discussion only the invertebrates have been considered, but
this phase of the subject should not be concluded without emphasiz-
ing the fact that all the organisms of a region form a single biotic com-
munity, each member of which is related to all the others and to the
physical environment.

IV. THe Forest ASSOCIATIONS
I. Iniroduction

In a study of forest animals their relation to the physical and vege-
tational environment must be kept constantly in mind, in order that
their progressive changes may be clearly understood. If the woodland
animals and associations are considered broadly, it is possible to study
the progressive transformation of the habitats and associations by
agencies which erode the land and thus develop the drainage, and to
combine with this a study of the successive changes in the vegetation
(including vegetable products). In the Charleston region this trans-
formation includes the progressive invasion of the prairie by the for-
est. From this standpoint it is also possible to arrange the forest as-
sociations in a genetic series.

There is little doubt that this entire region was once treeless or
prairie, that in time the forest invaded it, mainly or almost exclusively
along the streams. Even at the time of settlement the forests had not
spread far from the larger streams; but by normal forest extension and

128

drainage development the prairie was encroached upon and restricted.
The trees farthest from the streams, speaking in general terms, may be
looked upon as the pioneer guard of the extending forest. Such trees
are oaks and hickories of various kinds, which are hardy and able to
live on wet, acid, or very dry soils, as, for example, the shingle oak
(Quercus imbricaria) and post oak (Q. michauxii=minor). In the
Charleston area all such forest remnants are so closely pastured that
they were not studied ; therefore our series is incomplete. The upland
forest in the Bates woods (Station IV, a) may be considered some-
what representative of a second stage in forest development. This,
however, is not a primeval condition, but one which has been modified
by man; for example, the mature trees have been removed. It is, how-
ever, clearly an oak-hickory forest.

A third stage in forest development is found upon the bottom,
nearer the river, the most favorable habitat for tree growth in the re-
gion, where the red oak (Quercus rubra) and hard maple (Acer
saccharum) form a dense, humid shady forest—a climax mesophytic
forest. With these changes in the vegetation there have been corre-
sponding changes in the physical environment. ‘The relatively open
oak-hickory forests are dry, both in the air and in the ground; they
are well lighted; they are warmer and cooler relatively ; and they have
soil which contains less litter and humus. Fallen trees and stumps
decay more slowly on account of the dry environment. As the open
woods become closed by the development of a dense forest crown,
these conditions are changed in important ways: the woods become
progressively darker, more stable in temperature, more humid in air
and soil; the litter and humus increase; and all wood decays more
rapidly both on account of the moisture, fungi, etc., and the activity of
animals. The earlier stages in forest development result in the com-
bination of glade and grove—islands of open, and islands of trees—but
with the extension of the forest by its encroachment upon the glades
the forest crown becomes complete and continuous, and a climax for-
est has become established. These relations show what kind of factors
must be considered in striving to group forest habitats in a develop-
mental series.

The forest associations are here considered in the same sequence
as that given in the description of the forest stations, and for this
reason the discussion will be brief, being mainly intended to give a
uniform treatment to all the animal communities studied about
Charleston. A more general discussion of the ecological relations of
our common forest invertebrates follows.

124

2. Dry Upland (Quercus and Carya) Forest Association

The upland oak-hickory forest community is upon high well-
drained land. It is bordered by a ravine and a valley, so that the pre-
cipitation drains away rapidly. The soil, in contrast with that of the
black soil prairie, is a gray loam, containing little organic debris.
Through clearing, the woods have become relatively open, so that the
sunny spots are rather numerous. The characteristic vegetation con-
sists of oaks and hickories, such as white oak (Quercus alba), black
oak (Q. velutina), shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata), pignut (C. gla-
bra); and of rose, raspberry, sassafras (Sassafras varitfolium), sumac
(Rhus glabra), young trees, horsemint (Monarda) everlasting (An-
tennaria) and tick-trefoil (Desmodium). The conditions are those
a ee IV, a, the upland Bates woods, and the open ravine slopes,

Representative animals of this community, including numerous
ground-inhabiting Orthoptera—many of the acridiids being short-
winged forms—are Dichromorpha viridis, Chloealtis conspersa,
Spharagemon bolli, Melanoplus atlanis, amplectens, obovatipennis,
and scudderi, Scudderia furcata, Microcentrum laurifolium, Orcheh-
mum cuticulare, Xiphidium nemorale, Nemobius fasciatus and macu-
latus, Apithus agitator, Cicindela unipunctata, Calosoma scruta-
tor, Chrysochus auratus (on dogbane in an open area), Myrmeleoni-
de, and Spherophihalma. Several species of butterflies were seen on
the wing in the sunny openings. A number of cecidomyid and cyni-
pid galls on oaks and hickories are more characteristic of the upland
forest than of the lowland forest on account of paucity or absence
of white and black oaks and hickories upon the bottoms. Other
upland plants determine in a similar manner the presence of other
animals.

As a forest develops, upon what has previously been a treeless
tract, and as wood therefore becomes an available animal habitat, a
very complex factor is added to the environment. Not only is a log
food for certain animals, but also, if it lies upon the ground, it affords
conditions favorable for still others. It tends to conserve moisture
under it, and as it decays and disintegrates, fungi grow upon and in it;
hence other food is produced for animals which are not eaters of wood.
As decay progresses, furthermore, the log itself readily absorbs and re-
tains moisture, thus giving to some animals within it a habitat with
atmospheric conditions of relatively high humidity, in which land mol-
lusks, diplopods, etc., thrive. Such conditions furnish an important
factor in the extensive range of certain animals throughout several
kinds of forest; for though the kinds of trees may change, nevertheless

125

when once the log habitat is developed certain animals are able to per-
sist. Nor is the log the only factor of this character in the forest;
the moist soil, abounding in vegetable debris, has a similar influence;
and besides, when once a dense canopy is developed the retarded evap-
oration and the shade, with the accompanying reduction in heat rays,
have a marked influence. The presence of logs and vegetable
debris upon the forest floor determines to a very important degree
the presence of the land mollusks, diplopods, Termes, Galerita janus,
and Meracantha contracta; it determines, upon the slopes (Station
IV, b,), the presence of Ischnoptera, Melanotus, Passalus cornutus,
and Scolecocampa liburna.,; and it probably determines, too, many of
the ants on the upland and on the forest slopes. Among the forest
shrubby growth and tree trunks Epeira verrucosa and Acrosoma
rugosa (and probably spinea) spread their webs and appear to thrive
only in deep shady; woods. A large number of butterflies and moths
feed upon the foliage of forest trees, being thus distinctly arboreal, as
are also Cicada (nymph, subterranean), Diapheromera, Calosoma
scrutator (predaceous), Tremex columba (and its parasite Thalessa
lunator), and Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus. Geotrupes splendidus is a
ground scavenger. The presence of Ammophila abbreviata is due to
the presence of numerous caterpillars on the foliage.

3. Artificial Glade Community in Lowland Forest

In the dense humid lowland forest of the Bates woods (Station
IV,c) a small open area has been formed by cutting; an artificial
glade, as contrasted with a natural open forest. This may be consid-
ered an experimental glade. Although it is on the river bottom and
completely surrounded by a dense forest community, it is clearly not
related to that community, but rather to the open upland forest, and
for this reason is here interposed between the discussion of the upland
and lowland associations.

The glade was about 25 feet in diameter; only on the north side,
where the sun had the best access, had brush (sassafras) made much
progress in closing the borders of this open area. It was therefore in
direct communication with the dense surrounding lowland forest.
Such a small glade permitted direct sunlight on the ground only dur-
ing the middle hours of the day, and it was during this time that ani-
mal life was most active. On account of the dense shade of the sur-
rounding forest there was little undergrowth, but in parts of the glade
there was a dense growth which covered the ground. It was com-
posed of grasses, large masses or colonies of Eupatorium calestinum
in flower, Actinomeris alternifolia, with wood nettle (Laportea cana-

126

densis), and clearweed (Pilea pumila) surviving as relics of the low-
land forest vegetation.

Representative animals of this community are the following: Mi-
sumena aleatoria, Lycosa scutulata, Epeira domiciliorum, Aulacizes
trrorata, Jalysus spinosus, Dichromorpha viridis, Melanoplus amplec-
tens, gracilis, and scudderi, Amblycorypha rotundifolia, Conoceph-
alus nebrascensis, Orchelimum cuticulare and glaberrimum, Xiphidium
nemorale, Nemobius fasciatus, Acanthocerus galeator, Autographa
precationis, Epargyreus tityrus (larva on sassafras), Deromyia dis-
color, Milesia ornata, and, apparently as wanderers from the forest,
Calopteron reticulatum, Thalessa lunator, and Pelecinus polyturator.

4. Humid Lowland (Hard Maple and Red Oak)
Forest Association

This lowland forest community is upon a well-drained but moist
slope of the valley of the Embarras River. The soil is damp, and con-
tains a large amount of vegetable debris. The forest canopy is com-
plete, and the forest is relatively dark. Representative trees are the
hard maple (Acer saccharum), red oak (Quercus rubra), and the elm
(Ulmus americana) ; the herbaceous plants are nettle (Laportea cana-
densis) and the clearweed (Pilea pumila).

Representative animals are the various forest mollusks, Epeira tri-
vittata, Acrosoma spinea and rugosa, Acarus serotine, Bittacus stig-
materus (and probably strigosus and apicalis), Asaphes memnonius,
Calopteron terminale, probably Thalessa lunator, Pelecinus polytura-
tor, and Tapinoma sessile and ather ants. Boletotherus bifurcus is
dependent upon the shelf-fungus Polyporus, which grows most abun-
dantly on decaying stumps and logs in moist woods. The species of
Bittacus are as representative of shady, moist woods as are the nettle
Laportea and the clearweed (Pilea). Such an insect as Bittacus might
live in the park-like groves of an open forest, but its optimum habitat
is in the dense climax forest. Perhaps the most striking contrast be-
tween the open and closed shady forest is due to the absence of nu-
merous Orthoptera which are generally abundant in open grassy places.
That these forms are able to thrive on the bottoms when the proper
conditions are present is seen by their abundance in the glade in the
lowland forest. In the uplands also, Papilio and Polygonia frequent
the open spaces, but in the shady lowland forest the slow, low-flying
Enodia and Cissia are the characteristic butterflies seen on wing.

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[5. Animal Association of a Temporary Stream]

The prairie animal communities were arranged in an order to aid
in looking upon the prairie habitats as so many different degrees or
stages in the progress of drainage development, this being a dominant
physical environmental factor upon the prairie. Similarly, the forest
communities are easily arranged in a developmental sequence depend-
ent upon the combined influence of the progress of erosion and drain-
age and the advance of forest upon the prairie. Thus the prairie and
forest are given an orderly sequence, and the only remaining important
habitat, in the region examined, is that of the stream series.

Very little time was devoted to the study of the stream animals,
and mention of it is made here mainly because of this opportunity to
show the harmony and continuity of treatment which it is possible to
give to all the habitats and communities of a limited forested region.

This small temporary stream formed the southern boundary of the
area which was studied in the Bates woods. It formed Station IV, e,
and is an early stage in stream development. To understand just what
this means it is necessary to consider the processes which have been in
operation and which have reached the present stage of stream develop-
ment. This stream flows in a steep-sided ravine cut in the unconsoli-
dated glacial deposits which form the sides of the Embarras valley, a
ravine between 75 and 100 feet deep when it enters the valley, which
narrows rapidly, turns to the northwest, and soon ascends to the sur-
face of the upland oak-hickory forest. The upper parts and head end
of the ravine are dry, except during rains and soon after; but the lower
part may retain water in the basins fof a number of days after rains.

The same conditions which we now find at the head of this ravine
once existed at the edge of the valley. That is, at one time there was
no ravine in this region. As the rainfall from the uplands flowed over
the edge of the valley it started a small gully; this, once formed, be-
came the trail for waters of other rains, each shower tending to cut
the ravine deeper and wider and to advance it into the upland. This
process has continued until now the head of the ravine has cut back
about one half of a mile. The unconsolidated debris is not composed
of homogeneous materials, and has therefore been washed away more
rapidly at some places than at others. In this manner pools have
formed where less resistant materials were, and between these pools,
over more resistant gravel or stone, miniature cascades or rapids have
been formed, the tendency thus being towards an alternation of pools
and cascades. In these pools Mr. T. L. Hankinson took a number of
vertebrates, and upon the surface of the pools were many water-stri-
ders, Gerris remigis. From the burrows along the margin of the

128

stream Mr. Hankinson secured Cambarus diogenes. ‘Thus by the
growth of this ravine a new community is developing at this place—
that of a temporary stream.

In time such a stream will cut down to ground-water level, the
pools will become permanent, and a constant current will be main-
tained between the pools, and a permanent stream will become estab-
lished. The manner in which this ravine and stream grow, at the
expense of the upland forest, is an indication of how the upland for-
est may be changed and by degrees become converted into a lowland
forest and even into an aquatic habitat.

VY. RELATION oF THE DEcIDUOUS Forest INVERTEBRATES TO THEIR
ENVIRONMENT

We have seen that the forest should be looked upon as a thick
layer of vegetation in its effect upon the physical conditions which in-
fluence animal life. This thick layer is of relatively slow growth, and
in its early stage it is composed of shrubs and young trees. But “as
the vertical extent of the forest increases and the forest crown mi-
grates upward, the intervening trunk, bark and branch habitat... .
enlarges and the leaf-eating inhabitants of the forest crown rise up-
ward. This crown fauna retains or rather continues some of the char-
acteristics found at the marginal zone, with which it retains direct con-
tinuity” (Adams, ’og, p. 162). In addition to this vertical upward mi-

.gration of the forest crown, the forest also tends to spread laterally,
by arms or peninsulas of forest, which expand upon the open, or by
the excentric growth of groves,ywhich in time fuse and form a contin-
uous forest. The original forest margin and adjacent prairie was
characterized by “groves”, as they were commonly called by the early
settlers, and also by more or less open woods or “oak openings,” which
are the homologs of the open oak forests yet found on the Illinois
sand areas. This interdigitation of forest and prairie produced penin-
sulas of forest extending into the prairie, peninsulas of prairie ex-
tending into the forest, islands of prairie surrounded by forest, and
islands of forest surrounded by prairie. Where the forest was advanc-
ing, the open places or glades are to be considered as prairie relics;
and when the prairie was for any reason encroaching on the forest the
forest is to be considered the relic. The glade and the grove are thus
comparable communities, and are to be considered as relics or pio-
neers according to the direction of advance of the local association.
The development of adequate drainage and all that is associated with
this process, the character of the soil, the extension or retreat of the.
forest, the changes in composition of the forest, and the kinds of

129

animals composing the communities are the dominating influences in
the woodland environments. In the Charleston area the soils are loam,
and therefore sand need not be considered. The forests are of two
main types, the oak-hickory of the uplands and the red oak-maple
of the lowland. At present the forests are declining; in fact, the low-
land Bates forest has been converted into a corn field since these
studies were made.

The kinds of animals present in the woods are strikingly different
from those of the prairie, as is seen almost at a glance, and as is quite
clear by a comparison of the annotated lists of the prairie and forest
animals. Prolonged study will probably serve to enhance this differ-
ence. A small number are found both in the forest and upon the
prairie, but this is the marked exception. Furthermore, the open oak-
hickory woods, and the glade-like clearing which furnishes an open
habitat within the woods, contained a vast majority of the animals
found common to the prairie and the forest. ' These animals are to be
looked upon as pioneers (or relics) of the prairie, and are not to be
confused with the dense forest inhabitants. On a previous page atten-
tion was called to the vast importance of the marked discontinuity
which exists between the kinds of animals living in the open and in the
forest. This distinction is so marked as to merit comparison with the
contrast existing between land and fresh-water animals. Possibly
on land it ranks second only to this in its fundamental character. When
the same kind of animal lives both in the open and in the forest, it
often behaves differently in the two situations. It is significant that it
required more than a generation for the southern woodland human
pioneers of Illinois to change their behavior sufficiently for life on the
prairie. Undoubtedly there are many examples of just such changes
in behavior.

1. Forest Soil Community

The animals of our woodland soils have not been specially investi-
gated. Many observations on the life histories of soil invertebrates
have been recorded, but not as much is known of them as of prairie
soil animals because of the smaller numbers which attack cultivated
crops. Undoubtedly the native underground inhabitants of raspber-
ries, currants, blackberries, and other wild shrubs have continued to
thrive on the cultivated kinds (see Webster ’93 for a paper on rasp-
berry and blackberry insects), and the same is true of the crab-apples
and the haws. Few subterranean animals, however, inhabiting these
shrubs and trees of the forest have been studied in detail, with the
notable exception of the periodical cicada. It is very probable that a
number of animals which lived in the prairie soil continue to do so in

130

the forest glades; and many ground-inhabiting Orthoptera in the for-
est oviposit in the soil as do their congeners on the prairie. On Isle
Royale, Michigan, I found that the carabid beetles which lived in the
openings were likely to extend into the coniferous forest in the humus
layer, which corresponds to this habitat in the open, and this is prob-
ably true to some degree in Illinois forests.

In the denser forest, in marked contrast with the prairie, there is
generally a large amount of litter on the forest floor. The prairie soils
are dark, but the surface contains a relatively smaller amount of or-
ganic materials comparable to forest litter. In the forest, however,
though the sub-surface soil is relatively light in color, the surface con-
tains much fresh and partially decayed organic debris.

McAtee (’07) has made a careful count of all the invertebrates
found upon an area of four square feet of the forest floor, at or near
the surface. This is the only quantitative study made of our forest
soil animals known to me. His observations were made during the
hibernating season.

Representative plant-feeding ground animals are the two cicadas
linnei and septendecim, which suck sap from the roots of trees. Their
underground enemies seem to be largely mites. The arboreal habit of
the adults subjects them to many enemies. The periodical cicada, as
the result of subterranean life, in the moist soil, displays little resist-
ance to drying, and when exposed to the air soon shrivels, as shown
by Marlatt (’07, p. 123). When conditions in the soil are unfavorable
(1. c., p. 96) as the period of emergence approaches, some individuals
respond by building a mud tube, similar to the crawfish chimneys,
which are closed with a plug of mud. That saturated ground seems
to be an unfavorable condition at this stage suggests that resistance
to the lack of oxygen decreases as the insect matures. Most of the
nymphs of this species live within less than two feet of the surface,
though some rather inconclusive observations indicate that the
nymphs have a wonderful resistance to submergence, as is shown
by the following quotation from Marlatt (’07, p. 125): “A
curious feature in connection with the underground life of
this insect is the apparent ability to survive without injury in
soil which may have been flooded for a considerable period. Doctor
Smith records a case of this kind where a gentleman in Louisiana in
January, 1818, built a milldam, thus overflowing some land. In March
of the following year the water was drawn off and ‘in removing a hard
bed of pipe clay that had been covered with water all of this time some
6 feet deep the locusts were found in a fine healthy state, ready to make
their appearance above ground, that being the regular year of their
appearance.’ Another case almost exactly similar is reported by Mr.

131

Barlow. In this instance the building of a dam resulted in the sub-
merging of the ground about an oak tree during several months of
every summer, ultimately resulting in the death of the tree. This went
on for several years, until the dam was washed away ina freshet, when
digging beneath the tree led to the discovery of the cicada larve in
apparently healthy condition from 12 to 18 inches below the natural
surface of the ground. In both of these instances the ground may
have been nearly impervious, so that the water did not reach the insects
nor entirely kill all of the root growth in the submerged soil.”

The roots of plants, and particularly those of trees, penetrate rather
deeply into the soil, but finally die, leaving a large amount of organic
substance in the soil. As the large roots decay, animals are able
through the tunnels made to penetrate rather deeply and to find organic
food, in the shape of wood and fungi. Motter (98, p. 225) performed
an interesting experiment which shows that wood buried three feet
below the surface and dug up after two or three months contained
spiders, mites, Thysanura, psocids, a beetle, and flies. Although this
wood was buried in a cemetery, it is not unlikely that woodland soils
commonly have such a fauna. Davenport (’03, pp. 22-23) has tabu-
lated the habitats of many Collembola and shows that many species live
in damp soil, in sand, under bark, under stones, in caves, etc.—condi-
tions corresponding to the soil habitat. These insects are very sensi-
tive to moisture, and some are able to resist submergence in sea water
from twelve to sixteen hours per day. Davenport says (page 17):
“During all but about six to eight hours of the day these air-breathers
are below the surface of the sand, during which time they must take in
relatively little oxygen.” During certain seasons, when the soil is sat-
urated, such resistance must be of great value to its possessor. I know
of no extensive observations or experiments on the resistance of these
soil animals to carbonic acid, to the lack of oxygen, or to various com-
binations of these conditions.

That the soil conditions in glades and forests are different has
already been pointed out. We have below a good example of the
response of a forest animal to an artificial glade or clearing. A num-
ber of observations have also been made on the hastened rate of emer-
gence of the periodical cicada where the soil has been abnormally
warm, as in a hothouse (Schwarz, ’90a, p. 230), or where the ground
has been warmed by flues (Marlatt, ’07, p. 90), or where a forest has
been burned, and possibly the heat from the fire in combination with
its greater absorption of heat after the fire, has caused the cicadas to
emerge (Marlatt, ’07, p. 94). In a forest glade, made by clearing,
Schwarz (’90a) found the cicadas emerging when none were found
in the surrounding woods. Concerning this discovery he remarks:

132

“Now, a clearing made in the midst of a dense forest forms a natural
hothouse, the soil receiving much more warmth on such places than in
the shady woods. We should thus not wonder to see the Cicada ap-
pear earlier on such cleared spaces than in the woods.” ‘There is there-
fore reason to expect the season to be more advanced in glades than
in the ‘surrounding woods.

The peculiar fossorial fore legs of the cicada nymphs are marked
structural features associated with the subterranean habitat. Very
naturally, too, cleaning reactions are correlated with such a burrower,
whose legs become begrimed with the soil.

Near the surface of the soil the variety of animal life is greatly in-
creased. Not only forms which inhabit the soil-regularly are present,
but many live here for short periods as adults or during some imma-
ture stage. It is not possible to draw a sharp line between the soil
community, the humus layer community, and the community of the
decayed and solid wood for these reasons: the slightly decomposed
organic debris on the surface is progressively renewed by leaves,
stems, branches, and animal remains, and is transformed below into
the humus layer; this also grades upward by all degrees, through
decaying wood into solid wood, and on to the living trees. The acid-
ity of leaves during the early stages of decay and their alkalinity at
an advanced stage is a fact of great importance, as has been shown
by Coville (’14). This suggests the paucity or absence of animals
in dense matted layers of decaying leaves.

In considering the animals that live on or near the surface of
the soil in Bates woods, certain species seem more characteristic of
rather bare mineral soils, others are more representative of open
oak-hickory woods, and still others are representative of much
humus. The acridiid locusts found in these woods, such as Chloealtts
conspersa and Melanoplus amplectens, are woodland rather than
prairie in their haunts, and are commonly found near the bare soil and
oviposit init. Here live the woodland cricket Apithus, the tiger-beetle
Cicindela unipunctata, the scavenger Geotrupes splendidus, the mutillid
ant Spherophthalma, the wasp Psammochares aethiops and Lycosa,;
and Ammophila abbreviata buries its eggs here in the soil.

Among the loose litter harvest spiders (Liobunum) were found
running about, although they are not confined to these conditions, for,
like Calosoma scrutator, they climb trees. The crickets Nemobius
found here seem to avoid bare soil. The larva of the beetle Mera-
cantha contracta was found among decaying leaves.

The animals living in the humus layer of the soil, and in the much
advanced stages of decayed wood, are not wholly identical, because in
the humus layer roots of living plants and fungi are so often available

133

for food. On the other hand, many of the inhabitants of decayed logs,
as snails and slugs, use the log as a retreat and sally forth at night and
during moist weather to devour vegetation. Rotten wood also con-
tains many fungi affording fresh, living plant tissue.

Representative animals of the forest litter, especially of its humus
layer, appear to be certain millipeds, as Callipus and Cleidogona. Cook
(’11b, p. 451) has said of them: “Nearly all the members of the group
have essentially the same habits and live in clearly similar environ-
ments. They pass their lives buried in the humus layer of the soil or
among the dead leaves or other decaying vegetable matter that fur-
nishes them food.” Elsewhere he says (’11Ic, p. 625): “In nature at
large the millipeds have a share in the beneficial work of reducing dead
plant material to humus. Prussic acid and other corrosive secretions
may aid in the precipitation of colloidal substances in the humus, in
addition to the protection that they give by rendering the millipeds dis-
tasteful to birds and other animals that otherwise might feed upon
them. The precipitation of colloids enables the millipeds to keep their
bodies clean and protects them against the clogging of their spiracles.”
Diem (’03, pp. 383-386) gives a good summary of the habitats and
foods of certain European diplopods. I am inclined to consider the
layer of litter as the habitat of the immature panorpid Bittacus, of
which three species were found in the Bates woods. The adults fly
about among the low vegetation much after the manner of the Tipul-
de, with which they are easily confused when on the wing. It is prob-
able that the larva of Panorpa confusa West. has habits similar to
those of Bittacus. I have taken the adult of this species but once—at
Bloomington, Illinois, August 23, 1892, in dense damp woods. The
larvee of Panorpa are predaceous, and this is probably true of Bit-
tacus. The ant Stigmatomma pallipes is another representative of
this community (cf. Wheeler, ’05, p. 373), as are probably also a
number of tipulid larve.

The animals of the humus layer appear to live much more active
lives than those deeper in the soil. This activity in itself allows them
a chance to secure the necessary supply of oxygen, which tends to be
deficient among the decaying vegetation; at the same time, moreover,
their movements must aid in the ventilation of the soil. It is of inter-
est to observe that millipeds abound in a habitat relatively deficient in
oxygen, abounding in carbonic acid, and are producers of prussic acid
(HCN), whose physiologic effect is to inhibit oxidation and nutrition.
Roth (Diem, ’03, p. 385) submerged some diplopods in water from six
to eight hours and they survived. (For the marked resistance of ge-
ophiloids, see Ent. News, 24:121.) In nature they must often
meet with such conditions in the soil. One of the most abundant kinds

134

of myriapods in the debris on the forest floor is Spirobolus marginatus
Say, taken in Urbana, IIl., in the Brownfield woods October 15, 18,
and May 23 (many specimens), and in the Cottonwood forest October
8 and 13; at White Heath, III., May 26; at Riverside, Ill., August 23;
at Tonica, Ill., in September; and at Bloomington, Ill. This is the
common large brown diplopod, our largest myriapod. Another large
and abundant species is Fontaria virginiensis Dru. This is largely
brown dorsally, with marginal triangular yellow spots, yellow below.
A chilopod, Bothropolys multidentatus Newp., was taken in the
Brownfield woods October 18; and in woods at Monticello, IIl., in June
(M. Waddell), with Otocryptops sexspinosus Say. In the Brownfield
woods it was taken October 15 and 18; and here also Polydesmus ser-
ratus Say was taken May 23. Callipus lactarius Say was taken in the
Cottonwood forest previously mentioned, October 8 from decayed logs,
and in the Brownfield woods October 15, associated with Scytonotus
granulatus Say and the chilopod Lithobius voracior Chamb. (No. 491,
C. C. A.). These predaceous kinds must be considered, important
members of the humus and rotten-log communities, and are somewhat
comparable to the predaceous clerid beetles upon the living tree trunks
in their influence upon the community. They are, however, very sensi-
tive to moisture and live in a humid atmosphere among damp debris.
Shelford (’13b) has shown that Fontaria corrugata Wood is very
sensitve to moisture. M-yriapoda are infested by a number of gre-
garine parasites (Ellis, ’13, pp. 287-288).

The following statement by Coville (’14, p. 337) is of much in-
terest: “The importance of myriapods, however, as contributing to
the formation of leafmold has not been adequately recognized. In
the canyon of the Potomac River, above Washington, on the steeper
talus slopes, especially those facing northward, the formation of alka-
line leafmold is in active progress). . . . Here during all the
warm weather the fallen leaves of the mixed hardwood forest are
occupied by an army of myriapods, the largest and most abundant
being a species known as Spirobolus marginatus. . . . Onone
occasion a thousand were picked up by Mr. H. S. Barber on an area
10 by 100 feet, without disturbing the leaves. On another occasion
an area 4 by 20 feet yielded 320 of these myriapods, the leaf litter in
this area being carefully searched. Everywhere are evidences of the
activity of these animals in the deposits of ground-up leaves and rot-
ten wood. Careful measurements of the work of the animals in cap-
tivity show that the excrement of the adults amounts to about half
a cubic centimeter each per day. It is estimated on the basis of the
moist weight of the material that these animals are contributing each

135

year to the formation of leafmold at the rate of more than 2 tons
per acre.”

The burrows of earthworms aid in the ventilation of the soil and in
carrying down into it vegetable debris, as Darwin long ago observed.
In the blackened decayed leaves at Urbana, Ill., on November 18, I
_ found enchytreid worms abundant, and in the adjacent soil, below a
decayed log, a Diplocardia (No. 547, C. C. A.).

In the Brownfield woods at Urbana, among the dead leaves and in
logs during the cool season hibernating females of the white-faced hor-
net, Vespa maculata Linn. (Pl. XXI, fig. 3) are often found. Females
were taken from among leaves or in decayed wood October 8, and 12
(in rotten wood), October 15 (No. 491, C. C. A.), and November 9.
The Bloomington records of hibernating females are April 23 and
October 18. In such situations two ichneumons have been taken in the
Brownfield woods: Hoplismenus morulus Say on November 14, and
Ichneumon cincticornis Cress., November 9; also the two ground-
beetles Anisodactylus interstitialis Say and Lebia grandis Hentz (PI.
XXI, fig. 4) on October 18; and Ceuthophilus sp., Lebia grandis, Ga-
lerita janus, the larva of Meracantha contracta, and the large black
predaceous bug Melanolestes picipes H. S. (Pl. XXII, figs. 1 and 2)
October 12, under bark and under logs. Melanolestes was also found
in the Cottonwood forest November 14, with the “slender-necked bug,”
Myodocha. serripes Oliv. (Pl. XXII, fig. 3). These examples show
how during the hibernating season many animals are to be expected
here which at other seasons live in other habitats. Vespa is arboreal,
as shown by the large nests seen in these woods.

Baker (’11, p. 149) has listed many mollusks found under fallen
logs and under bark in the forest of southern Michigan. As various
scavengers thrive in this zone, eating not only the vegetable debris, but
also the animals which die in it or fall upon it, the digestive peculiari-
ties of these animals are in part a response to the conditions of this
habitat: The animal carcasses which fall to the ground are compar-
able to the similar slowly falling remains which tend to accumulate
upon the bottom of bodies of standing water. The student of this
community will find of interest Dendy’s (’95) paper on animals in
the soil, under stones and bark.

2. The Forest Fungus Community

Many fungi grow up through the humus layer and are food for a
great number of animals. Still other fungi grow only on and in wood. I
will not now attempt to emphasize this difference. The fleshy fungi are
very short-lived at the surface, and soon decay or are devoured by
various animals. A large number, if not most, of our land Mollusca

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devour them. On a stump in the upland Bates woods Zonttoides
arborea, Pyramidula perspectiva, and Philomycus carolinensis were
found upon a felt-like growth of fungi; it is to be remembered, too,
that with the other snails lives the snail Circtnaria which preys upon
them. At the time the Bates woods was examined, it was rather dry,
so that fungi were not abundant. No millipeds were found on fungi,
but Cook (’11b, p. 625) states that “The mouth parts of millipeds are
not adapted for biting or chewing, but are equipped with minute scrap-
ers and combs for collecting soft, decaying materials. Dead or dying
tissues are preferred. The only living plants that are regularly eaten
by millipeds are the fleshy fungi. Some of the native millipeds in the
vicinity of Washington, District of Columbia, feed to a considerable
extent upon the local species of Amanita, Russula, and Lactarius.
Damage is sometimes done to other plants when millipeds gain access
to wounded surfaces of roots or cuttings.” A horned fungus beetle,
Boletotherus bifurcus, living on Polyporus on stumps, was found in the
Bates woods.

‘At Urbana, Ill, in a dense maple-basswood forest (Brownfield)
November 14 I took a very large number of the small mycetophagid
beetle Triphyllus humeralis Kby. (No. 545, C. C. A.) on a shelf-
fungus, Polyporus tomentosus Fries, growing on a much decayed log.
On the under side of this same kind of fungus numerous tipulid flies
were found, some individuals evidently ovipositing. These were deter-
mined by Mr. J. R. Malloch as belonging to the genus Trichocera.
These are flies which thrive in the far north, as in Greenland. One
species, brumalis Fitch (Lintner’s Second Report, p. 243) is found
common in forests in the winter season, and even when the tempera-
ture is below freezing they are on wing. Such northern forms are
likely to be active in winter or vernal farther south. On another shelf-
fungus, Dedalia sp. taken at Urbana, IIl., I found numerous speci-
mens of Arrhenoplita bicornis Oliv. (Pl. XXIII, fig. 2). This is a
small greenish tenebrionid in which the males have two large horns on
the head. I have the following woodland fungus-beetles taken at
Bloomington, Illinois: Endomychide—Aphorista vittata Fabr., April
14 (A. B. Wolcott) ; Erotylide—Tritoma thoracica Say, June 23 (on
fungi) and July 26; T. biguttata Say (Sept. 21), Megalodacne fasciata
Fabr., March 7 (A. B. Wolcott) ; Nitidulide—Phenolia grossa Fabr.
(July 26), Pallodes pallidus Beauv., July 2 (on gilled fungus) ; Myce-
tophagide—M ycetophagus bipustulatus Mels. (April-27), M. puncta-
tus Say April 18, and June 23 (on fungi) ; Tenebrionide—Platydema
ruficorne Sturm. March 13 and June 23 (on fungi), Diaperis maculata
Oliv. (Aydni Fabr.) (Pl. XXIII, fig. 1) July 26; Melandryide—
Eustrophus bicolor Say, June 23 (on fungi), and E. tomentosus Say,

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June 23 (on fungi). In the Brownfield woods at Urbana, Ill., Penthe
obliquata Fabr. and P. pimelia Fabr. were taken under logs October
15 (No. 491, C. C. A.). Ulke (’o2, p. 53) says. “Penthe, on fungi
growing on logs and stumps.” Cratoparis lunatus Fabr. (Anthribide)
was taken April 5 and 23, Bloomington, IIl., and August at Havana,
Illinois. Figures of some of these fungus-beetles are given in Felt’s
report (’06, pp. 494-498).

The general animal population of fungi is so extensive, including
mites, sow-bugs, myriapods, and mollusks, in addition to insects, that
no attempt will be made to summarize it here. The student of Illinois
fungus animals will find Moffat’s paper (’09) on the Hymenomycetes
of the Chicago region very helpful. (Cf. von Schrenk and Spauld-
ing, ’o9g.) A few references to zoological papers will aid the student
who wishes to give more attention to this interesting and increasingly
important economic subject, and a short list follows.

Busck (’02). Mushroom pests.

Hubbard (’92). Insects in Polyporus volvatus Peck; and (’97)

: on the ambrosia beetles.

Johannsen (10-12). Mycetophilide.

Malloch (12). Phoride in fungi.

Popenoe (712). Mushroom pests.

Patch (’12). Aphids on fungi, page 179.

Ulke (02). Notes on food habits of fungus-beetles, of which
there are many families, including Silphide, Staphylinide,
Endomychide, Erotylide, Mycetophagide, Nitidulide, Scar-
abeide, Tenebrionide, Melandryide, Scolytide, etc.

Jager (’74, I, pp. 245-246) and Moller (67, pp. 59-60) have given
short lists of the German fungus insects.

The subject of fungus insects can not be dismissed without special
mention of the ambrosia beetles of the family Scolytide. These small
beetles have been studied by Hubbard (’97), who showed that they
rear fungi in their tunnels in wood, these fungi furnishing nourish-
ment to the larve and beetles. Each beetle seems to grow its own kind
of fungus. They belong to the following genera: Platypus, Xyleb-
orus, Corthylus, Monarthrum, Xyloteres, and Gnathotrichus. The
beetles of the genus Corthylus live in a variety of hardwood trees,
including maple, sassafras, dogwood, etc., and attack living trees. The
ambrosia beetles are thus dependent upon fungi growing in the trees.
They furnish a very striking example of a mutually dependent asso-
ciational relationship. Hopkins (’99, ’93a, ’93b) has published much
valuable data on the life history, habitats, and enemies of these beetles.
A study of them as a biotic community would be very interesting and

138

valuable, since such a good foundation has already been built by Hub-
bard and Hopkins.

3. The Forest Undergrowth Community

Above the soil, in the layer of herbaceous and shrubby vegeta-
tion in the Bates woods, lives a considerably different assemblage of
animals from that in the soil. Running about over this vegetation, or
resting on it, are found the harvest-spiders, and in webs spread between
trees and shrubs are found Epeira insularis and verrucosa, and Acro-
soma spinea and rugosa.

In the Cottonwood forest at Urbana, cutting has made rather open
spaces so that there is considerable undergrowth, including much spice
bush (Benzoin); among these bushes two spiders thrive, Epeira in-
sularis Hentz and £. domiciliorum Hentz. The leaf-footed bug, Lep-
toglossus oppositus Say (Pl. XXII, fig. 4) also abounded on these
plants. Insularis is also in the Brownfield woods. The jumping
spider Phidippus audax Hentz, and Acrosoma rugosa were also taken
in the Cottonwood forest. Ina dense shady flood-plain forest at Mun-
cie, Illinois, Acrosoma rugosa and Epeira verrucosa and labyrinthica
were taken August 3. The harvest-spiders Liobunum are largely
animal scavengers, but the true spiders are of course strictly pre-
daceous. The location of the spider-webs, near the ground, attests
the flight of insects upon which they depend for food. The numerous
snails feed to a large degree upon the herbaceous plants of this lower
layer, as do plant-feeding Hemiptera and the grass-eating Lepidoptera,
including the woodland butterflies Enodia and Cissia, other Lepidop-
tera, and Everes, Autographa, Polygonia, and, possibly the katydid
Amblycorypha. In the shrub layer Epeira domiciliorum, folded
among leaves, is a characteristic animal. It seems to thrive best in
more open woods than those in which Acrosoma abounds. Nettles
(Laportea) and clearweed (Pilea) were not searched for animals,
but were undoubtedly inhabited by a number of kinds. The same is
true of the shrubs. Young trees in this layer appear less liable to
attack by gall-producing insects than larger trees are.

The following insects feed upon woodland shrubs, and were taken
at Bloomington: Cerambycide—Liopus alpha Say, June 18 (bred
from sumac by Felt, ’06, p. 482), and taken by me on elm during
June; Liopus fascicularis Harr. (xanthoxyli Shimer), June, re-
corded as from prickly ash, Zanthoxylum (Packard, ’g0, p. 659) ; and
Molorchus bimaculatus Say, copulating April 17, reported from dog-
wood, redbud, twigs of maple and hickory, (1. c., ’90, p. 293, 424).
The curculionid Conotrachelus seniculus Lec., was taken October 10,
1891, from the inside of a very ripe papaw at Bloomington; another

139

specimen was captured during August at Havana, “Il. Felt (06, p.
582) records seniculus as from hickory and butternut. Attelabus
rhois Boh. was taken July 4, on hazelnut, at Bloomington. It is re-
corded from sumac, dogwood, alder, and oak.

For lists of Coccide living on woodland (and other) shrubs see
Cockerell (’97).

4. The Forest Crown Community

Instead of next turning to the animals of decayed wood on the
forest floor, I wish to begin at the other end of a series, with the ani-
mals of the living tree, and then to follow an order which passes pro-
gressively through enfeebled, dying, fermenting, seasoned, and solid
wood to all stages of its decay. The decay of a fallen trunk commonly
begins with the sap-wood, thus loosening the bark, and extends in-
ward until the whole becomes soft or is changed to brown powdered
wood, which gradually changes to humus. This is a series of progres-
sive humification, and, speaking in general terms, follows the course
through which all forests tend to pass; although fire, flood, and ani-
mals, including man, divert much wood from such a fate.

To investigate such a series fully is far beyond the scope of the
Charleston studies, and yet our material, supplemented to some de-
gree, may serve at least to outline one. The difficulties of studying
the animals of the forest crown are serious, and so far as known to
me no comprehensive work on this community has been done in this
country. Many members of it have been studied individually, but
the animals have not been studied as a community. About the
woodland insects a vast fund of facts has been accumulated in the
study of the economic problems of shade, fruit, and forest trees;
furthermore, investigations have shown that among the invertebrates
insects have a controlling or dominating influence in the forest. But
the relations of the other forest invertebrates to the forest crown have
received very little attenion from our students.

The animals of the forest crown, and particularly those of the
foliage, are more exposed to changes of temperature, moisture, wind,
and evaporation than those below the crown and protected by it. With-
in the crown there are, in fact, an upper, exposed part, and the lower,
protected part. Many of the animals of the forest crown live rela-
tively free from the influence of the substratum, as other animals in
the open water are similarly free from the influence of the bottom.
Others divide their time, part of it being spent in or on the earth, and
a part of it in the trees. Conditions of poor ventilation, darkness,
density of medium, relative stability, excess of moisture, and cor-
responding conditions in the soil, are here replaced by conditions of

140

good ventilation, intense light, and changing and a relatively dry
medium. The problems involved in these conditions vary accordingly.

The relative scarcity of mollusks and myriapods in trees is in
marked contrast with their abundance in habitats in proximity to
the soil. In the Bates woods the cherry-leaf gall-mite, Acarus, is
arboreal, but spiders are almost entirely absent. The walking-stick,
Diapheromera, is arboreal in part, but its eggs fall to the earth and
hatch there. The Severins (’10) have shown that the emergence of
walking-sticks from the eggs is influenced to a very marked degree by
moisture, dryness being distinctly injurious and moisture favorable.
The molting of the young animals seems similarly dependent upon
moisture, and may be prevented by keeping them in a “well-aerated
breeding-cage” (Severins, ’I1c). This is another clear case of a
forest animal sensitive to moisture. To the fact that there is greater
moisture near the soil are therefore related the egg-laying habits and
the development of the immature insect, a development in’ marked
contrast with that of the strictly arboreal katydids. Of the katy-
dids, Microcentrum and Cyrtophyllus are distinctly arboreal through-
out life, as the eggs are attached to the twigs, and they are relatively
independent of the ground. Curiously the Bates woods specimen of
Cyrtophyllus was taken among low sprouts. Amblycorypha, how-
ever, lives near the ground, The cicadas are distinctly arboreal dur-
ing the imago stage. The larve of Papilio turnus and cresphontes,
Epargyreus tityrus, Cressonia juglandis (and parasite), Telea, Cith-
eronia, Basilona, Halisidota, Datana, Nadata, Heterocampa, Eus-
troma, Ypsolophus, and the slug caterpillar are all arboreal. Many
of these pupate on the branches or among the leaves and do not de-
scend to the earth. The sphingid Cressonia, however, pupates in the
soil. There is a marked tendency for the Lepidoptera to be com-
pletely arboreal. Even noctuid caterpillars such as Peridroma saucia
and its allies, which live during the day on the ground, climb trees
at night (Packard, ’90, p. 173; Slingerland, ’95). Many of the
gall-flies are limited to certain kinds of trees and are arboreal, as, for
example, the several species of Cecidomyia found in the Bates woods.
The same is true of certain cynipid gall-makers, such as Holcaspis,
Amphibolips, and Andricus. It will be seen that the above-listed
kinds are largely defoliators and leaf-gall producers. Ammophila is
a predator. Trogus and the small hymenopters (cocoons) on Cres-
sonia are parasitic.

Among the animals which live for a considerable part of their
lives in or on the soil and a part in the trees, are the two cicadas,
Calosoma, Cressonia, Ammophila, and certain ants, although no special
observations were made to learn to what degree the ants patrolled the

141

trees. The relatively large number of caterpillars present suggests
that in this woods they were attended by a large number of parasitic
flies and parasitic Hymenoptera in addition to predaceous insects.
The twig-pruners, Elaphidion, are referred to here because they be-
long to the crown commuity for at least a part of their lives. For
a summary of our knowledge of these beetles reference should be
made to Chittenden (’98 and ’10,) and to Forbes (’11, pp. 50-53),
who gives a summary of their injury to oaks and hickories in Illi-
nois: The oak pruner, Elaphidion villosum Fabr. (Pl. XXIII, figs.
3 and 4) was taken by me at-Bloomington July 3. It is injurious to
hickory, maple, and other trees. The normal duration of the life
cycle appears to be one year, but in dry wood this period may be pro-
longed to four or more years (Hamilton, ’87; Chittenden, ’10, p.
5)—another example of the prolongation of life in dry wood. Mr.
W. P. Flint informs me that Oncideres cingulatus Say.is a common
Illinois beetle, which girdles hickory branches, and that in the dead
fallen branch its larva develops. It is reported from hickory and
basswood by Hopkins (’93b: 198.)

Additional defoliators of trees taken at Bloomington include
Macrobasis unicolor Kby. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2), taken June 27 on the
Kentucky coffee-tree, Gymnocladus. Other specimens were taken
June 4 and 12. Hamilton (Can. Ent., Vol. 21, p. 103) also records
this as defoliating locust. The larve of the curculionid Conotrache-
lus elegans Say, taken September 5, is recorded as feeding on the
leaves of hickory. The imbricated snout-beetle, Epicerus imbrica-
tus Say (Pl. XXIII, fig. 1), was taken June 4, and, copulating,
June 27, at Bloomington. It has been recorded feeding upon the
leaves of wild cherry, plum, gooseberry, etc.

The nut-weevils may be properly considered as members of the
crown population. Of these Balaninus nasicus Say was taken August
1 (on papaw) at Bloomington, and during September at Chicago.
This is recorded as from acorns, hazelnuts, and hickory-nuts. Bal-.
aninus uniformis Lec. was taken August 20, 21, and September 21
at Bloomington. ‘This, too, is recorded as from acorns, as also is
B. carye Horn, taken August 27. Miss Murtfeldt (’94) has ob-
served B. reniformis ovipositing in acorns and has described the
process. This weevil is associated and in competition with the acorn
codling-caterpillar, Melissopus latiferreana Walsm. These two in-
sects pave the way for a small caterpillar of the genus Gelechia, and
for a second caterpillar, the larva of the acorn moth, Blastobasis
glandulella Riley, which feeds on the refuse within the acorn, and is
thus a scavenger. The debris of the predecessors is an essential for ©
the one that follows. Hamilton (’90) has given a good account of

142

the habits of Balaninus (Cf. Chittenden, ’08). On a previous page
mention is made of the habit of the May-beetles (Lachnosterna) de-
foliating oaks.

The invertebrate animals of the forest crown are largely insects,
and for this reason some of the treatises on forest insects, and on cer-
tain families of Lepidoptera, make excellent manuals for this as-
semblage. Thus Packard’s “Forest Insects” (’90) and his mono-
graphs on the arboreal bombycine moths (’95; ’05; 14) are very
essential. In his “Forest Insects” the various kinds of insects are
grouped according to the kind of tree and the part of the tree which
they inhabit, and thus one can readily find what is given concerning
those living upon or in the foliage, buds, fruits, twigs, etc. A some-
what similar arrangement is found in Felt’s “Insects Affecting Park
and Woodland Trees” (’05, 06). The crown community varies with
the kind of trees composing it, as many kinds feed upon a relatively
small number of food plants, on allied kinds of plants, or on those of
members of the same plant association. The herbivorous species are
influenced in variety and abundance by the kind of vegetation; their
predaceous and parasitic associates, however, are only indirectly in-
fluenced in this manner.

5. The Tree-Trunk Community

In an earlier section attention was called to the equable conditions
in tree trunks, and to the available moisture in the food of wood-
eating insects. The outer growing part of the tree contains the great-
est amount of water, insoluble starch, soluble sugar, and other food
materials; the heart-wood, on the other hand, is dead and contains
only a small amount of water (see Roth, ’95, p. 29). In view of these
relations it is but natural that the outer parts of living trunks should
be subject to attack by more animals than are the drier and less nour-
ishing inner parts. We should expect that young animals would thrive
best in the layers of the outer, moister wood, not only on account of
the softer wood being less difficult to chew,. but also on account of
its greater nutriment and the larger supply of water in these layers.
The inner parts are thus protected not only by the outer layers, but
also by the general inability of many animals to digest dry wood.
Many of the insects which live in wood, particularly in dry wood, re-
quire several years to attain maturity. This gradual rate of develop-
ment seems to be due in part to the slowness with which metabolic
water is produced by the growing larve. There are many cases re-
corded in which developing larve have apparently been delayed in
maturing for many years by living indoors and in dry wood. Weis-
mann (’91, p. 48) has published an interesting case of Buprestis splen-

148

dens which emerged from a desk which had been in use for thirty
years. He suggests that such prolonged lives are a-kind of starvation
sleep analogous to winter sleep. McNeil (’86) records that the beetle
Eburia quadrigeminata (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 5) emerged from a door-
step in a house which had been built nineteen or twenty years, and
Packard (’90, pp. 687-688) records the emergence of the wood-
boring beetle Monohammus confusor Kby., which came out of a piece
of pine furniture which had been in use “for fully fifteen years.”
Felt (05, p. 267) states that instances are recorded of Chion cinctus
(Pl. XXVIII, fig. 2) emerging from wood several years after the
furniture had been manufactured. The prolongation of the life cycle
of Elaphidion villosum (Pl. XXIII, figs. 3 and 4) in dry wood is
another case bearing upon this point. Other similar cases are known
which show that larval life is greatly prolonged in dry wood, or that
the adult in such conditions lives for many years. In such cases it is
not known just when the adult transformed. e

Animals which live in living bark and living wood are in some
cases, with regard to moisture and to air, subject to peculiar conditions
brought about by the sap of the tree. In the case of hardwoods the
sap is watery, and in conifers the pitch or turpentine is gummy and
easily mires feeble insects, or suffocates them. Why is it that in hard-
woods, such as maple and box elder, all wood- and bark-boring in-
sects are not flooded in their burrows and drowned by the flow of sap
in the spring? I do not know how many factors are involved in this
problem. The gummy exudation on peach and cherry trees is evi-
dence of the influence of insects upon the flow of sap. Where sap
flows from trees many insects, particularly flies and Lepidoptera, are
attracted to and feed upon this fluid. Felt and Joutel (’04, p. 17)
state that the grubs of some members of the beetle genus Saperda
feed upon the sap, but they do not give the evidence for their opinion.

In the coniferous trees the flow of pitch has a marked influence
upon the bark-inhabiting scolytids. Hopkins (’99, pp. 404) says of
the pair of Dendroctonus frontalts, which work together to establish
the brood, that “In this operation in healthy living bark filled with
turpentine, it is necessary for one of the beetles to move back and
forth in the burrow continually in order to keep it open and push back
and dispose of the borings and inflowing turpentine. . . . From
the time they penetrate the outer layer of living bark there must nec-
essarily be an incessant struggle with the sticky, resinous mass which
is constantly flowing into the burrow and threatening to overcome
them.” ‘The larva of another bark-beetle, D. terebrans, is able to live
in this sap. Thus Hopkins (lc. p. 418) says: “This social brood
chamber is often extended down towards or even into the bark of the

144

roots in such a manner as to hold the turpentine flowing into it. Thus
the larve are often completely submerged in the viscid substance,
which does not appear to interfere with their progress.” There are
thus marked differences in these beetles in their response to sap. As
a result of utilization of the knowledge of this difference, the larve
sensitive to an excess of sap may be killed in trees by diverting a large
amount of it into the infested bark. This plan was proposed and
practised by Robert on conifers as quoted by Packard (’90, pp. 29-
30); and by Hopkins (’99, p. 391) for the elm. By “cutting narrow
strips of bark from the trunks of infested elms, the Scolytids were
either killed or driven out by the increased vigor of the tree and the
greater flow of sap which it is well known will result from this treat-
ment.”

The trunk of a tree is of such a substantial nature that it can not
be destroyed at once by animals. Such durability furnishes an oppor-
tunity to see how one kind of insect prepares the way for attack by
others, as is shown by the following examples. The elm borer, Sa-
perda tridentata Oliv. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4), invades weakened
trees, and it is followed (Felt, ’05, p. 70) by the weevils Magdalis
armicollis Say (Pl. XXV, figs. 1 and 2) and M. barbita Say, Neo-
clytus erythrocephalus Fabr., and, as a parasite of Saperda, Melano-
bracon simplex Cress., and Bracon agrili Ashm., which is a parasite
of Neoclytus (1. c., p. 73). Four other insects have been found as-
sociated with Magdalis barbita (1. c., p. 74). Xylotrechus colonus
Fabr. (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 6) appears to be able to kill hickory, and
from such wood many insects have been reared by Felt (’05, p. 261).
Felt and Joutel (’04, p. 18) state that in hickories dying from injury
by Scolytus quadrispinosus Say (Pl. XXV, fig. 3) the beetle Saperda
discoidea Fabr. follows, living under the bark.

The absence of woodland Cerambycide, Scolytide, and Bupresti-
de in the Charleston collections eliminates the most important and
largest variety of insect inhabitants of tree trunks.* In addition to
the beetles which invade trunks, the large boring caterpillar, Prio-
noxystus robinie (cf. Packard ’90, p. 53), and the horntail larva,
Tremex columba, are able to do much injury. The caterpillar can

*I visited the Bates woods on June 8, 1914, and found a number of insects
in a recently cleared part of the upland area about a stump of a black oak (Q.
velutina). Running about in the sun on the top of the stump was Chrysobothris fem-
orata Fabr., near the stump was a cerambycid, Stenosphenus notatus Oliv., and on
the bark, shaded by a vigorous growth of suckers, were the cockroach Ischnoptera
inequalis Sauss.-Zehnt., the tenebrionid beetle Meracantha contracta Beauv., and the
otiorhynchid Pandeletejus hilaris Hbst. About the base of the stump was a large
funnel-shaped spider-web beneath which and in its meshes were remains of the fol-

lowing insects: Chion cinctus (cerambycid), Meracantha contracta, Chrysobothris
femorata (several specimens), an Agrilus, Passalus cornutus, and Lachnosterna.

145

kill living trees, but the horntail, generally follows injury of some
kind. Within the tree trunk there is not the safety from enemies
which one might anticipate. A large number of wood-inhabiting im-
mature insects are footless, and have relatively small powers of loco-
motion. Their burrows are relatively small, so that when an enemy
once gains admission it can easily secure the owner. Tree trunks
infested with horntails often have.a large number of females of Tha-
lessa on them. I have caught them literally by the handful in such
places. Many other parasitic Hymenoptera are easily taken upon
trees infested by boring larve if watched carefully during the warm
parts of the day. Schwarz (’82) has called attention to a number
of beetles which live in the burrows of wood-boring insects. ‘These
burrows may be invaded, not only while yet inhabited by their mak-
ers, but also after their abandonment. To find an insect in a burrow
is therefore not proof that the insect made it. A predaceous larva
which is reported to destroy bark- and wood-boring larve is Alaus
oculatus L. (Pl. XVI, figs. 1, 2, and 4). I have taken this larva in
the woods at White Heath, IIl., May 26, and the beetle at Savanna,
Ill., May 30. The beetle was taken at Bloomington, Ill., March 23
(A. B. Wolcott); in its hibernating cell in a rotten log in the Cot-
tonwood forest October 8 (No. 489, C. C. A.); and—an immature
larva—in the Brownfield woods May 23, Urbana, Ill. Both the larva
and the beetle hibernate in logs. Hopkins (’04, p. 42) says of the
larva: “As a larva [it] preys upon numerous species of bark and
wood-boring insects in deciduous trees.” Currie (’05, p. 102) says:
“The larve prey upon and do much toward preventing the increase of
several of the destructive flat-headed borers (Buprestide) in decidu-
ous trees.” Snyder (’10, p. 8) reports the larva of Alaus sp. “espe-
cially injurious” to decayed poles, and Lugger (’99, p. 130) states
that they live largely upon insects found in decayed wood. Evi-
dently the food habits of these larva need investigation. Probably
other predaceous elaterid and trogositid larve live in our trees.
Other predaceous beetles on trees are the following, taken at Bloom-
ington: Chariessa pilosa Forst., July 3, Clerus quadriguttatus Oliv.
(Pl. XXVI, fig. 3) June 15, and Cymatodera balteata Lec., July and
August 17. Hopkins (’93b, p. 187) reports that Chariessa pilosa
(Pl. XXVI, fig. 6) is found under bark of walnut, and was taken
in a dead grape-vine, and reports also that it is predaceous. Felt
(’06, p. 504) figures this species and reports it on trees infested
with borers.

The locust borer, Cyllene robinie Forst. (Pl. XXVII, figs. 1 and
2), is a common insect in many localities, and the beetle is frequently
taken upon Solidago in the fall. The beetle was taken at Blooming-

146

ton September 14 and October 2 (A. B. Wolcott), and on the prairie
at St. Joseph, IIl., on flowers, September 26 (No. 310, C.C.A.).
Hopkins (’06, p. 8) has shown that although the larve begin devel-
opment only in living wood, they are able to complete it in dry dead
wood, but in this case such conditions hasten development.

The apple borer Saperda candida Fabr. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 4) was
taken in the woods at Bloomington July 4. In the original forests it
probably bored in the wild crab apples and the haws (Crategus). S.
tridentata Oliv., the elm borer, was also taken at Bloomington. This
is a serious pest to elms, and paves the way for Magdalis and Neocly-
tus. Mr. W. P. Flint informs me that Saperda vestita Say is com-
mon throughout the state in the live bark of linden, and that Sino-ry-
lon basilare Say lives mainly in weakened trees and in living wood.
He also tells me that Goes debilis Lec., G. tigrina DeG., and G. pul-
verulentus Hald., live in a variety of living trees.

The flat-headed apple-tree borer, Chrysobothris femorata Fabr.
(Pl. XXVI, fig. 5), is known to attack the bark of enfeebled trees
and logs and stumps of oak, hickory, maple, basswood, and apple
(Hopkins, ’93b, p. 183). The beetles were taken June 13, 25, 30,
and August 11, at Bloomington. Leptostylus aculiferus Say (PI.
XXVIII, fig. 1) was taken April 17 in the same locality. Hopkins
(’93b, p. 196) reports this insect infesting dying and dead maple- and
apple-trees. The larvae mine in the inner bark. Beutenmiiller (’96,
p. 79) states that it breeds under the bark of oak. The curculionid
Cryptorhynchus parochus Hbst., is reported by Hopkins (’04, p. 34)
to mine as a larva in “the inner bark and sapwood of weakened and
recently dead walnut.” It is also reported. from butternut. Thirteen
specimens of this species were taken at Bloomington April 17. The
larve of Romaleum atomarium Dru. live in stumps and logs of re-
cently dead oak (Hopkins, ’04, p. 36), and are reported also from
hackberry. The beetles were taken July 25 and August 8 at Bloom-
ington. Romaleum rufulum Hald. was taken at Charleston June 17.
This is reported from oak. The larve of Chion cinctus Dru. (PI.
XXVIII, fig. 2) are reported by Hopkins (’04, p. 36) to “mine the
inner bark and bore into the wood of trunk and branches of dying
and recently dead hickory, chestnut, oak, etc.” This beetle was taken
at Urbana, and at Bloomington July 12. The larve probably con-
tinue to live in the seasoned wood, as the beetles are recorded as
emerging from dry wood some years after furniture or lumber was
manufactured.

Certain species of insects live mainly in dead, though solid and
seasoned, wood, before decay causes any important changes; some
begin work in the living wood and continue in the dead wood; and

147

others begin in dead wood and continue there after it begins to de-
cay. Among the beetles which live in dead wood the hickory borer,
Cyllene carye Gahan (pictus Auct.) is representative. This beetle
closely resembles the locust borer, but it appears in the spring and
early summer, rather than in the fall as does robinie. I have taken
cary@ at Bloomington April 20, 30, May 20, and June 20, and at
Urbana May 16. The larve bore in dead branches and small trees of
hickory and mulberry, according to Hopkins (’93b, p. 194). Xylo-
trechus colonus Fabr. (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 6) lives in the bark and
wood of dying and dead timber of oak, hickory, elm, and ash (Hop-
kins, ’93, p. 194). My Bloomington records of it are May 9, June
14, 25, and July 1 and 20. Eburia quadrigeminata Say (Pl. XXVIII,
fig. 5) is a borer in ash and honey-locust (Packard, ’90, pp. 541—-
542), and has been taken on beech and elm (Hopkins, ’93b, p. 193)
and in hickory. Bloomington records of it are July, August I (on
papaw), and August 28. Elsewhere mention has been made of its
long life in dry wood. Elaphidion mucronatum Fabr. has been re-
corded by Chittenden (’98, p. 42) as emerging from dry wood as fol-
lows: ‘There is a divisional note on its having bred February 8,
1889, from a piece of dogwood (Cornus) which had been stored in
a carpenter shop some years to be used for hammer handles. The
larvzee had worked principally under the bark where they produced
large and irregular channels, entering, when nearly full grown, the
solid wood, in which they transformed.” It also lives in healthy liv-
ing wood. The larve of Arhopalus fulminans Fabr. is reported to
live in the inner bark and sap-wood of oak. This was taken during
May at Bloomington, and Dicerca lurida Linn., a hickory borer, was
taken at Chicago August 8 and at Bloomington June 13.

The oak pruner, Elaphidion villosum Fabr. girdles hickory
branches, which fall to the ground. From seasoned wood thus
formed Hamilton (’87) reared from branches one half to one inch
in diameter, the following beetles: “Clytanthus ruricola and albo-
fasciatus, Neoclytus luscus and erythrocephalus, Stenosphenus no-
tatus, etc.” Such seasoned wood is particularly liable to attack,
according to Hopkins (’o09, p. 66), by beetles of the family Lyctide
(cf. Kraus and Hopkins, ’11). In such wood, too, white ants
(Termes) and carpenter-ants (Camponotus) will make extensive ex-
cavations. The northern brenthid, Eupsalis minuta Dru., (PI.
XXVIII, figs. 3 and 4) occasionally lives in living weakened trees,
but is generally in dead wood. Hopkins (’93b, p. 207) records it as
from oak, elm, and beech, and Packard (’90, p. 69) as from white
oak. I have taken it at Bloomington June 15, 25 (copulating), and
July 2. Neoclytus luscus Fabr., a hickory and ash borer, was taken

146

there October 15. The larve of Neoclytus erythrocephalus Fabr.
(Pl. XXVIII, fig. 4) are associated in dead elms with Magdalis
(Packard, ’90, p. 228; Felt, ’05, p. 70), and appear to follow injury
by Saperda tridentata. In hickory, Neoclytus has been found as-
sociated with Xylotrechus colonus Fabr., Chrysobothris femorata
Fahr., Catogenus rufus Fabr., and Tremex and Thalessa (Felt, 05,
p. 261). The cucujid Catogenus rufus was taken at Springfield July
20 by A. B. Wolcott. Liopus variegatus Hald., taken at Blooming-
ton June 11 and July 22, is reported under the bark and from several
kinds of trees. The cerambycid Smodicum cucujiforme Say is also
reported from under bark, and was taken July 6 at Bloomington.
Calloides nobilis Say, reported from oak stumps and hickory, was
taken at Chicago in June. From oak also Purpuricenus humeralis
Fabr. is reported. This was taken at Chicago, and June 9 at Bloom-
ington. The rare lymexylid, Lymexylon sericeum Harr., “a borer
in old oak wood,” was taken at Bloomington July 2. The larva of
the flat-headed borer Dicerca divaricata Say bores in the dead and
rotten wood of maple, cherry, etc. The beetles were taken May 9
and June 3 at Bloomington. Other wood borers whose records for
Bloomington should be given, are as follows: Leptura proxima Say,
a maple borer, June 13; Dorcaschema wild Uhler, an Osage-orange
and mulberry borer, June 19; Criocephalus obsoletus Rand, July 14;
and Oberea tripunctata Swed., whose larve breed in twigs of cotton-
wood and blackberry, June 13 (Blatchley, ’10, p. 1092).

6. The Decaying Wood Community

Thoroughly dry wood, or that submerged in water and thus shut
away from the air, remains sound for an indefinite period. In the
decay of wood, a certain amount of moisture, air, a favorable tem-
perature, fungi, and insects, are the main agents and conditions.
The fungi growing on wood remove the starch, sugar, and other
food materials, or they may dissolve the wood itself. This process
of course changes the character of the wood so that animals able to
derive sustenance from the solid wood now find it unsuitable for
their purpose; and still other kinds, on the other hand, unable to
eat the solid wood, are now able to feed upon the softened product.

The rate of decay of trees varies greatly. The yellow locust (Ro-
binia) red cedar (Juniperus), mulberry (Morus), and hardy catalpa
(Catalpa) are very resistant. This catalpa is reported by von Schrenk
(02, p. 50) to serve as a railway tie for eighteen years and remain
sound; as fence posts it has served from twenty-three to thirty-eight
years. Large stumps of white oak and walnut are also very durable.

149

On the other hand, cottonwood (Populus), basswood (Tilia), and
silver maple (Acer saccharinum) decay rather rapidly. I have found
little definite information on the rate of decay of our trees. The
most definite information I have found concerning the durabil-
ity of wood in contact with the soil is in a study of fence posts
by Crumley (’10). He shows that heartwood is particularly liable
to decay (1. c., pp. 613-614). He gives (pp. 634-635) the following
scale of durability, beginning with the most durable; Osage orange,
yellow locust, red cedar (woodland grown), mulberry, white ‘cedar,
catalpa, chestnut, oak, and black ash. The following have poor dura-
bility: honey-locust, sassafras, black walnut (young trees; old trees
are durable), butternut, and elm. Red cedar growing “in the open
is about the same as oak in durability.”” These observations aid in
giving some idea of the relative rate of decay of logs and stumps in
contact with the soil. In the West, Knapp (’12, p. 7) has shown
that the upper part of the bole of fire-killed Douglas fir “deteriorates
more rapidly than the lower part because of the larger proportion
of sapwood. . . . Down timber is less subject to insect attacks than
standing timber but decays more rapidly.” Hopkins (’09, p. 128)
publishes a photograph of an Engelmann spruce forest, at an eleva-
tion of 10,000 feet on Pike’s Peak, which was killed about 1853-56,
about fifty years previously; there were, however, still preserved on.
the trunks, the markings of ‘the beetles which killed the trees. The
rate of decay in warm moist regions is relatively more rapid than
that in cool and dry regions.

As wood decays it loses the characteristics which distinguish the
living and solid trees. For this reason we anticipate that animals
showing a preference for different kinds of trees are more charac-
teristic of the living and sound wood, and decline in numbers as
disintegration progresses, being replaced by the kinds which live in
and upon decaying wood. There is thus with the decay of wood a
progressive increase in the kinds of animals characteristic of humus.
This is true in general terms, for certain animals even show a pref-
erence for certain kinds of decayed wood, while others are general
feeders upon almost any kind of such wood. Hamilton (’85, p. 48)
has observed that “Cucujus clavipes feeds on locust, maple, sycamore,
wild cherry, hickory, white oak, elm; Clinidium sculptile on spruce,
hemlock, tamarack, black oak, hickory, chestnut, ash, gum, poplar,
birch; Synchroa punctata on all species of oak, hickory, apple, cherry,
mulberry, Osage orange, chestnut ; Dendroides canadensis on nearly
everything.” ; ,

The decay of wood begins when moisture and fungi are able
to gain entrance, as at some point of injury—an insect burrow, a

150

broken branch, a fire scar near the soil, etc.—and spreads from such
source. The time of year, and the method by which a tree is killed
will often have an important influence upon the kind of invasion by
animals. A tree which is killed and remains standing is not so liable
to rapid decay as one which lies upon the ground and becomes moist.
It is readily seen that there are a vast number of causes which oper-
ate to produce all degrees of decaying wood. A fallen hardwood
trunk and its stump are liable to begin decaying at the sap-wood
layer, just under the bark. The bark loosens; and moisture, fungi,
and animals mutually hasten each others’ activities, and the processes
of disintegration. Under such bark, in the Bates woods, were found
the following: queens of the carpenter-ants (Camponotus) estab-
lishing their colonies; the flat-bodied larve of Pyrochroa, the large
Carolina slug (Philomycus); the beetle Passalus cornutus; white
ants (Termes flavipes); the rotten-log caterpillar (Scolecocampa
liburna); the snails Zonitoides arborea and Pyramidula perspectiva;
Polydesmus, Galerita janus, and a Melanotus larva. These are fairly
representative kinds of animals of the log community at this stage
of development. It will be noted that the ants, the white ants, and
Galerita are predaceous, but that the remainder are probably sus-
tained largely by rotten wood, herbaceous plants, and fungi. With
the progressive radiate (when beginning within) or convergent (when
beginning without) growth of decay this animal community migrates
into the log or stump as its favorable habitat increases in area and
thickness. When this process has made considerable advance and
the log has become soft, the animals which began at the surface or
within are able to penetrate the entire log. This may be considered
an intermediate stage in the transformation of the log to humus.
This biotic community, composed of fungi and animals, commonly
begins its work at the surface (most frequently, in the case of fallen
trees, on the under side where the log touches the ground) and moves
progressively inward, transforming the log as it goes. In its wake
there follows a later stage of the transformation—the dark-colored
humus layer, composed of decayed wood, the dead bodies of animals,
and their excrement. The large number of years involved in such
a transformation makes it possible for many kinds of animals to find
this sort of habitat,—just as old artificial ponds are more fully stocked
with animals than newly excavated ones. Slowly developing ani-
mals are thus able to live here, the conditions prevailing being at the
other extreme from those suited to a life in the ephemeral fungi.
As a fallen or standing trunk dries out, particularly upon the up-
per surface, if fallen, the bark often curls, cracks, and loosens from
the wood. In such a situation in the Cottonwood forest at Urbana,

151

the spider Corirachne versicolor Keys. was taken by me March 23.
At times such places are relatively dry, and in them I have frequently
found, in large numbers, the tenebrionid beetle Nyctobates pennsyl-
vanica DeG. This species was taken at Bloomington March 9 and
June 15. A similar-appearing relative, with enlarged femora, Meri-
nus levis Oliv., was taken June 15 and July 29. When Nyctobates
is placed in a corked vial it proceeds to chew the cork (which is about
of the firmness of the bark and wood in which it lives) and makes a
fine sawdust. Nyctobates was taken by me November 18 under loose
dry bark of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) in the Cottonwood
forest (No. 549, C.C.A.). The March and November records of
this species clearly indicate that the beetle hibernates in the wood.
Scotobates calcaratus Fabr. and Xylopinus saperdioides Oliv. are
other tenebrionids which live under bark. I have taken Scotobates
at Bloomington June 29 and July 2, and Xylopinus June 29, July 2
and 26. The cucujid beetle Brontes dubius Fabr. was taken at Bloom-
ington March 9, April 5, July 25, 26, and September 21, and Cucujus
clavipes Fabr. (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 8), whose larvee Smith reports to
be predatory, was taken March 6. Hopkins (’93b, p. 177) reports
both of these beetles from the bark of dead deciduous trees. Town-
send (’86, p. 66) reports both under the bark of decayed basswood,
and Packard (’90, p. 223) records clavipes from under oak bark.
Another common beetle, a spondylid, Parandra brunnea Fabr. (PI.
XXIX, figs. 1, 2, and 5), I have taken from decayed wood at Bloom-
ington. - The larve, pupz, and beetles were found in rotten wood
July 23, and the beetles also on July 25, 26, and August 6. Hart
(11, p. 68) calls this the heart-wood borer on account of its methods
of boring in this part of several kinds of deciduous trees. It burrows
largely in rotten, and, also, according to Mr. W. P. Flint, in sound,
walnut heart-wood. In recent years Snyder (’11, p. 4) reports much
injury by it to telephone poles. He says: “The insect attacks poles
that are perfectly sound, but will work where the wood is decayed;
it will not, however, work in wood that is ‘sobby’ (wet rot), or in
very ‘doty’ (punky) wood.” As this injury is near the ground, the
invasion is probably begun in rotten wood by the young larva and ex-
tended later into the firm wood. This same author (’10, pp. 7-8)
lists several other insects associated in poles with Parandra. Clearly
this beetle is an inhabitant of wood in the early stages of decay. It
apparently does not kill trees, nor remain to the last in the log with
Passalus, but occupies an intermediate position. This is a repre-
sentative of a class of insects whose ecology has been rather slighted
in the past because of the economic conditions which permitted the
neglect of insects which were not supposed to be of much importance.

152

But with increased economic efficiency this class of insects which
hasten the decay of wood will receive more attention. Mr. W. P.
Flint informs me that in the southern part of Illinois the white ants
(Termes flavipes) and the ant Cremastogaster lineolata are very
active in decaying wood. Other inhabitants of damp rotten wood,
logs, and roots, are the larve of the large scarabeid Xyloryctes saty-
rus Fabr. I have taken them at Urbana, IIl., October 1, 12, and 15
in the Brownfield woods, and in the Cottonwood forest October 8.
Smith (’10, p. 321) reports the larva feeding in the roots of ash, and
Walsh (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 9, p. 287. 1863), from
the roots of grass. Osmoderma scabra Beauv. (Pl. XXIX, fig. 4)
was taken at Bloomington, Ill, July 26, and O. eremicola Knoch
(Pl. XXIX, fig. 3) in June at Bloomington, and at Springfield, IIL,
in July by A. B. Wolcott. The larve of both these species are known
to live in decaying wood; the adults are found under the bark, and
according to Packard (’90, p. 283) in heart-wood. Prionus imbni-
cornis L. (Pl. XXIX, fig. 6) lives under bark and in decaying wood.
One individual was taken at Bloomington July 22. Orthosoma
brunneum Forst., another species with larval habits similar to Prionus,
was taken at the same place during July. It lives in a great variety
of decaying wood. The larve of the common rose flower-beetle,
Trichius piger Fabr. (Pl. XXIX, fig. 7), taken by me June 16, 18,
19, 22, 25, and July 7, and at Savanna, IIl., May 30, live, accord-
ing to Smith (’I10, p. 322), in “old oak stumps.” ‘The larve of
Lucanus dama Thunb. (Pl. XXXI, figs. 1 and 2) live in decaying
wood. The beetle was taken June 30, in July, and August 1 under
wood. The beetles of Dorcus parallelus Say were taken May 12,
July 25, and August 6. Ceruchus piceus Web. was taken April 5,
and one taken July 25 was covered with white fungus threads. The
larva of Dorcus and Ceruchus feed mainly or solely in rotten wood.
On Plate XXX the larva of Meracantha contracta is seen in its bur-
row in decayed wood. ‘hese insects from decayed wood are among
the most common of woodland insects.

In concluding this part on insects of rotten wood the following
papers should be mentioned, which will be of assistance to one pur-
suing this subject: Townsend (’86), on beetles in decaying bass-
wood; Packard (’90, pp. 222-223), on insects of decaying oak, (1. c.,
pp. 283-284) in decaying elm, (p. 424) in decaying maple, and (p.
612) in hackberry; Felt (’06, pp. 484-494) on insects in decaying
wood and bark of deciduous trees; and Shelford (’13a, pp. 245-247)
on insects of decaying beech. Dury (Ent. News, Vol. 19, pp. 388-
389, 1908) states that he took over three hundred species of beetles

153

from a much decayed log; unfortunately, however, he does not pub-
lish the list.

Some of the animals which invade the log in its earliest stages
of decay continue to hold possession throughout the transformation.
Thus Passalus arrives early, as soon as the bark begins to loosen,
and remains to a late stage in the process—when the log or stump
can easily be kicked to pieces. The rotten log caterpillar Scolecocampa
has a somewhat similar history in the log. When a log reaches such
a condition that it looks like brown meal, and is nearly level with the
surface of the ground, it may during the summer become so dry that
it affords a favorable haunt for myrmeleonid larvae; probably the
ant-lion of Myrmeleon immaculatus DeG., a woodland species.

In the foregoing manner the tree trunk decays and naturally sinks
lower and lower, the woody fibers disappear, the debris becomes
darker in color, the autumn leaves, twigs, and other litter of the
forest gradually add layer to layer, and finally the remains of the
log become blended with the humus of the forest floor. Thus is com-
pleted one of the most important cycles of transformation to be found
in the forest habitat. The following diagram, Figure 17, has been
prepared to show the general train or succession of insects correspond-
ing to these changes in the conditions in trees.

It will simplify this discussion of changes in the animal associa-
tions, caused either by changes in the character of the forest trees or
by changes in the woodland vegetable products, to state concisely the
main general factors involved in these changes. To explain zoological
facts it is often necessary to utilize the products of the allied sciences,
and the student may even be forced to make some investigations for
himself in these fields, because these sciences may not have especially
treated his specific problems. All relations become of zoological sig-
nificance, however, when they bear upon a zoological problem. The
major group of causes or processes which operate in such a way as to
initiate changes in forests may be grouped provisionally as follows.

1. Geological-and physiographic processes: crustal movements
of the earth, as earthquakes; the wearing down or erosion of the
land, as the mowing down of forests by landslides.

2. Climatic processes: wind storms, tornadoes, ice and sleet
storms, etc., which injure trees and destroy forests; lightning and
fires,—in brief, any climatic factor which is able to injure or kill
trees.

3. ‘The processes of competition and succession of forest vege-
tation; based upon plant activities, as when an oak-hickory forest
is followed by a red oak-hard maple forest, or when fungi kill trees.
These causes are largely botanical problems.

154

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4. Destruction of trees by animals: the processes of defolia-
tion, borings in branches, bark, trunk, or roots, and the girdling of
trees. Fires started by man, depending on the degree of destruction,
cause new cycles of succession. Both beavers and man build dams,
flood areas, and thus kill trees.

5. Combinations of physical and organic processes; the flood-
ing of river bottoms by driftwood rafts which become converted into
dams and thus submerge large areas.

Since it is most usual for these causes to act, not singly but in
various combinations, and since they also vary greatly in their degrees
of influence, their operation is extremely complex. The drowning of
the forests along the Mississippi River through the sinking of the
land by the New Madrid earthquake, is a good example, showing how
a large tract of forest may be killed and much dead and decayed wood
formed, as has been shown by Fuller (’12)—(Plate XXXII). Tarr
and Martin (’12) have shown how destructive to forests the earth-
quakes are in Alaska. The influence of the New Madrid earthquake
upon animal life has not been investigated, but it is not too late even
today, after more than one hundred years, to make important studies
on this subject. On the other hand, the processes of erosion operate
more continuously than the periodic earthquakes, and tend to degrade
the land, lower the water-level, and to change the habitats in swamp
and other forests.

The results of climatic influences are seen in the amount of injury
done by sleet, which, weighing down the branches, breaks many of
them and leaves the fractured stubs as favorable points for attack
by fungi and insects. Webb (’09) has shown that when a tornado
passed through Mississippi and Louisiana the felled pine forests were
from one to three miles wide. Practically all of this timber became
infested with the larve of Monohammus titillator Fabr. After a
severe frost in Florida the dead wood of the orange-trees became in-
fested by wood-boring larve, which spread from this wood to the
enfeebled living wood, as Hubbard (Howard, ’95) observed. Light-
ning (Plummer, ’12) kills and maims many trees, producing dead
wood, and through fires started in the same manner much more dam-
age is done. Hopkins (’o9) considers that much of the injury at-
tributed to fire is primarily due to insects which made the dead and -
dry fuel for the destructive fire work.

That competition among trees weakens some of them is well
known. ‘This weakening makes them more susceptible to attack by
fungi and insects. In a forest where the shade-enduring trees can
shade out all competitors, the shrubs and trees which are intolerant
show just such a lack of resistance. As an example of this process

156

the following case may be cited: Mr. W. P. Flint informs me that
he has observed that shaded, suppressed white oaks in southern IIli-
nois are much more heavily infested by the bark-louse Aspidiotus
obscurus Comstock, and by the beetle Phymatodes varius Say than
are the vigorous trees.

Trees may be injured and killed by animals in many ways, as by
defoliating them, boring in the twigs, trunk, or roots, and by the de-
struction of the bark and sap-wood of the trunk. Of injuries caused
by insects the work of defoliators of hardwoods is one of the most
conspicuous kinds. Repeated defoliation of elms by the elm leaf-
beetle Galerucella luteola Mill. will, according to Felt (’05, p. 61),
so weaken a tree that Tremex columba finds suitable food in its dis-
eased and dying substance. With T'reme-x present its parasite Thalessa
also arrives. The maple borer, Plagionotus speciosus Say, may also
weaken a tree and pave the way for Tremex and Thalessa. A study
of the after effects of the prominent defoliators of shade and forest
trees, such as the fall web-worm (Hyphaniria cunea), the white-
marked tussock-moth (Hemerocampa leucostigma, Plate XXXI, figs.
3, 4 and 5), the bag-worm (Thyridopteryx ephemereformis), the
larch saw-fly (Nematus erichsonii), the gypsy moth (Porthetria
dispar), and the brown-tailed moth (Euproctis chrysorrhea), would
doubtless throw much light upon the details of successions caused by
insects. I have not been able to learn that this subject has been studied
carefully in this country. Such injuries are clearly not limited to
hardwoods, for many similar observations have been made in conif-
erous forests. Hewitt (’12, p. 20) has listed some of the beetles
which follow the defoliation of larches by the larch saw-fly. Hop-
kins (’o1, pp. 26-27) found that the spruces of New England were
being killed by the bark-beetle Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopkins;
that following the damage done came other beetles, such as Polyg-
raphus rufipenms Kby., which attacks the weakened tops of the
trees, following the attack of its predecessors on the trunk or base;
and that also, following Dendroctonus, came Tetropium cinnamop-
terum Kby., which mines in the dead trees. The yellow pines of the
West are killed by the bark-beetle Dendroctonus ponderosa, and this
is followed by many kinds of insects which live on the decaying bark
and wood, as Hopkins (’02, pp. 10-16) has shown. He also states
(’o9, p. 68) that in the Appalachian Mountains Dendroctonus fronta-
lis Zimm. killed a large part of the trees in an area “aggregating over
75,000 square miles.” Such examples of multiple attack show the
complexity of the causes influencing forest life. When the great
amount of influence which insects are able to exert and do exert upon
forests is considered, the question is raised as to what may be their

157

influence in determining the kind of trees that compose what the
plant ecologists (Cowles and others) consider the climax forest of
eastern North America—the maple-beech forest. It has long been
known (Packard, ’90, p. 515) that the beech has remarkably few in-
sect enemies, perhaps about fifty species being recorded. Its associate,
the hard maple (Acer saccharum), has many more, and the oaks and
hickories, which are largely absent from the climax forest and char-
acterize the changing stages preceding the climax, are preyed upon
by more insects than any other of our trees, their number possibly
equaling the sum total of all the other forest-tree insects.

A good example of the combined influence of physical and organic
factors is seen in the huge rafts of driftwood which have accumulated
in the Red River of Louisiana and Arkansas (Veatch, ’06)—(Pls.
XXX and XXXIV)—on such an extensive scale that hundreds of
acres of the bottoms were flooded and the forests killed, producing
vast quantities of dead and decaying wood. With the opening of
the drainage canal, connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois River,
the bottoms were so flooded that willows, maples, cottonwoods, etc.,
on the lowest ground were killed along the river for many miles, and
presented a view similar to that shown on Plate XXXV._ In this
manner vast quantities of dead and decaying wood have been made
available as food and habitat for wood-inhabiting invertebrates.

7. Interrelations within the Forest Association

The dependence of the animal upon the physical and organic en-
vironment is primarily a phase of the problem of maintenance. In
the forest these relations are so intricate, and involve the lives of so
many kinds of animals, that a forest, like the prairie, must be looked
upon as a mosaic composed of a vast number of smaller animal, or
biotic communities, each one not only interrelated at many angles
within itself, but similarly connected with the other communities of
the forest. Walsh (’64, pp. 549-550) has given us a graphic ac-
count, not of the forest as a_whole but of one of its smallest units—
those which he found clustered about the galls of willow trees, the
willow leaf-gall community. He says:

“Nothing gives us a better idea of the prodigious exuberance of
Insect Life, and of the manner in which one insect is often dependent
upon another for its very existence, than to count up the species which
haunt, either habitually or occasionally, one of these Willow-galls,
and live either upon the substance of the gall itself or upon the bodies
of other insects that live upon the substance of the gall. In the single
gall S [alicis]. brassicoides n. sp. there dwell the Cecidomyia which

158

is the maker of the gall—four inquilinous Cecidomyia—an inquilinous
saw-fly (Hymenoptera)—five distinct species of Microlepidoptera,
some feeding on the external leaves of the gall, and some burrowing
into the heart of the cabbage, but scarcely ever penetrating into the
central cell, so as to destroy the larva that provides them with food
and lodging—two or three Coleoptera—a Psocus (Pseudoneuroptera)
—a Heteropterous insect found in several other willow-galls—an
Aphis which is also found on the leaves of the willow, but pecu-
liarly affects this gall—and preying on the Aphides the larva of
a Chrysopa (Neuroptera) and the larva of a Syrphide (Diptera)—
besides four or five species of Chalcidide, one Braconide Ichneumon
(Hymenoptera) and one Tachinide (Diptera), which prey on the
Cecidomyia and the Microlepidoptera—making altogether about two
dozen distinct species and representing every one of the eight Or-
ders. . . . If this one little gall and the insect that produces it
were swept out of existence, how the whole world of insects would
be convulsed as by an earthquake! How many species would be com-
pelled to resort for food to other sources, thereby grievously disar-
ranging the due balance of Insect Life! How many others would
probably perish from off the face of the earth, or be greatly reduced
in numbers! Yet to the eye of the common observer this gall is noth-
ing but an unmeaning mass of leaves, of the origin and history of
which he knows nothing and cares nothing!”

With this conception of a community in mind it is only necessary
to refer to the following diagram (Fig. 18) to see how immaterial
it is as to where one begins to take up this thread of interrelations,
for sooner or later every animal and plant in the association will have
to be passed in review and its influence recognized as a response to
its conditions of life.

ECOLOGICALLY ANNOTATED LIST
I. Prarrre INVERTEBRATES

An exhaustive study of the animal ecology of a region or an as-
sociation must be based upon a thorough investigation of the ecolog-
ical relations of the individual animals composing it. An ideal an-
notated list in an ecological paper should, therefore, include for each
species a complete account of its life history, its behavior, its physi-
ology, and the structural features which would in any way contribute
to an understanding of the response of the animal to its organic and
inorganic environment. At present we have no such knowledge of
the animals of ‘any locality or of any complex association of animals.

159

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In a preliminary study, like the present one, it is desirable to record
rather fully the observations made in the region studied, because
we have so few descriptions of the conditions of life on our prairies.
An effort has been made to give for each species the date of obser-
vation or collection, the locality or “station’’ where found, observa-
tions on habits and life history, and the field numbers of the speci-
mens secured. These numbers illustrate how observations may be
accumulated, upon a large number of individuals, without the ob-
server's being familiar with them, or even knowing their scientific
names.

It is really surprising how little is recorded about some of the
commonest animals of the prairie and forest in zoological literature.
Other animals, particularly’ those of economic importance, are
treated rather fully, but generally with little relation to their natural
environment. In this list it has been considered desirable not to
give an extended account of each kind of animal, but to refer to
some of the most important literature concerning it, so that one may
gain some general idea of the ecological potentialities of each kind of
animal.

MOLLUSCA

PHyspz
Physa gyrina Say.

Three half-grown young and an adult shell were taken among
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, g), Aug. 11 (No. 19).
All show distinct varices; the last one formed on the adult shell is
very distinct. These scars mark a period of rest or slow growth
which was probably due to hibernation or the drying-up of the
swamp. Physa, as a rule, can not endure such extreme desiccation as
can Lymnea, and to that degree is indicative of a more permanent
water supply. Our specimens were all dead, but some of them so
recently that fly maggots came from them.

LYMN2ZIDA

Galba umbilicata (C. B. Adams).

A single specimen of this small snail was taken among swamp
milkweeds (Sta. I,d) Aug. 11 (No. 18). Mr. F. C. Baker, who de-
termined the specimen, writes me that this is the first record of this
species for Illinois. Baker remarks (’11, p. 240) that this species is
“abundant in still water in sheltered borders of rivers, in small
brooks, ditches, and streams, and in shallow overflows, Clings to
dead leaves or other submerged debris, or crawls over the muddy

161

bottom of its habitat, in shallow water. Associated with Galba
obrussa, Aplexa hypnorum, and the small planorbes (Baker). In
ditches and brooks in pastures (True). Common in damp places
and in ditches along roads where water collects only in rainy weather
(Nylander ).”

Our specimen was taken where the water was very shallow (only
a few inches deep) and overgrown with vegetation. This species ap-
pears to be a strictly shallow-water marginal form, and has consider-
able power of enduring desiccation.

CRUSTACEA
ASTACIDA

Cambarus gracilis Bundy. Burrowing Prairie Crawfish. (Pl. XXXVI.)

The prairie crawfish was abundant at Sta. I, d, on the wet parts
of the prairie. T. L. Hankinson dug some specimens from their
holes, which proved to be of this species. Specimens were captured
Apr. 23, 1911, and Aug. 9, 1910 (No. 7442).

Crawfish burrows were observed to traverse the dense yellow
clay with which the railway embankment had been built over a
swampy place at Sta. I,d. Burrows were also observed at Sta. I, e,
among the colony of Stlphium terebinthinaceum and Lepachys pin-
nata, and also at Station I, g.

I have found the characteristic claw of this species on wet prairie
along the railway track at Mayview, Ill. At this time, September 26,
1912, burrows with fresh earth were numerous, far from any stream.
(No. 482, C. C. A.)

Cambarus diogenes Girard. Diogenes Crawfish.

Crawfish of this species were taken by T. L. Hankinson at Sta.
I, d (No. 8047A). The presence of this chimney builder at this sta-
tion suggests that the numerous chimneys shown in Figure 2, Plate
IIIB are in part the work of this species though they are in part also
the work of gracilis.

ARACHNIDA
PHALANGIIDA
PHALANGIDA

Liobunum politum Weed. Polished Harvest-spider. (Pl. XXXVII,
fig. 3.

Two small phalangiids, both probably of this species, were found

under moist wood upon the prairie (Sta. I,g) Aug. 8. Concerning

162

these specimens, Mr. Nathan Banks writes me that they are “young,
not fully colored, but probably Liobunum politum Weed.”

Weed (’91) reports that this rather rare species occurs in fields
and forests, and is seldom found about buildings. He has found it
among river driftwood, and says (’92a, p. 267): “It sometimes oc-
curs under boards in fields, and is often swept from grass and low
herbage.’’ When disturbed it emits, as do others of its family, a
liquid with a pungent odor. Weed (’91) has made some observa-
tions on its breeding habits. He notes that in confinement it ate
plant-lice.

L. formosum Wood was taken by me upon the lodged drift-
wood of a small brook on the border of a forest at White Heath,
Ill, May 4, 1911. (No. 505, C.C.A.) This species, according to
Weed (’89, p. 92), hibernates as an adult.

ARANEIDA
EPerDz

Argiope aurantia Lucas (=riparia Hentz). Common Garden Spider.
(Pl. XXXVII, figs. 1 and 2.)

This is very abundant, and the most conspicuous spider on the
prairie. Found among the prairie grasses (Sta. I, g) Aug. 8 and 12
(Nos. 6 and 39); in its web among goldenrod, Solidago (Sta. 1),
Aug. 12 (No. 26); among the swamp grasses (Sta, I,a) Aug. 28
(No. 179); and among Elymus (Sta. 1,c) Aug. 24 (No. 153);
from sweepings made in the colony of Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, e)
Aug. 12 (No. 40); and on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No.
49), Aug. 27 (No. 178), and Aug. 28 (No. 179); in an open
area in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 93);
and in an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22
(No. 143). In its webs in the swamp-milkweed colony (Sta. I, d)
Aug. 9 the large dragon-fly Libellula pulehella Drury was found en-
trapped; a grasshopper, Melanoplus differentialis Thomas, was also
found entrapped (Sta. I,a) Aug. 28 (No. 179); and a large butter-
fly, Papilio polyxenes Fabr., was discovered (Sta. I, d) Aug. 12 (No.
45).

The openness of an area rather than its prairie character appears
to determine the habitat of this spider. This is evidenced by its
presence in open spaces within the forest. It flourishes in gardens
for similar reasons. Years ago I found this species very abundant
in the late summer and fall at Bloomington, IIl., in an asparagus bed,
after the plants had been allowed to grow up and form a rank mass

‘163

of. vegetation. This species has received considerable study.
McCook (’90) and Porter (’06) record many observations on this
species. Howard (’92b) has discussed its hymenopterous parasites
and those of some other spiders.

No specimens of Argiope transversa Emerton, the transversely
black-and-yellow-banded relative of aurantia, were observed at
Charleston, although they are fairly abundant in colonies of prairie
vegetation near Urbana, e. g. at Mayview, IIl:, Sept. 26, and on Nov.
26, 1911. I have seen this species only among colonies of prairie
vegetation along railway rights-of-way.

THOMISIDA 4

Misumena aleatoria Hentz. Ambush Spider.

' This crab-like flower spider was abundant upon flowers: on the
mountain mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I,g), Aug. 8 (No.
6); on the mint, (Sta. I) with a giant bee-fly, Exoprosopa fasciata
Macq., Aug. 12 (No. 31); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. I1) with the
same kind of fly, Aug. 13 (No. 47); on the prairie (Sta. I, g) on the
flower of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata, Aug. 24 (No.
157) with a male bumblebee, Bombus separatus Cress.; on Andropo-
gon (Sta. I, g) with a large immature female of Conocephalus, Aug.
24 (No. i159); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) on flowers of Eryn-
gium yuccifolium, Aug. 27 (No. 178); in the colony of Elymus
(Sta. I, a) Aug. 28 (No. 179); and in the open glade of the low-
land Bates woods (Sta. IV,c) on the flowers of Eupatorium celes-
tinum, with a very large syrphid fly, Milesia ornata Fabr. (=virgin-
iensis Drury), Aug. 26 (No. 184). These insects captured by the
spiders vary from about five to ten times the size of their captor. There
is considerable variation of color in this series of spiders,

It would be well worth while for some one to make a special
study of this spider, and give us an account of its methods of cap-
turing food and finding fresh flowers, with a full account of its life
history. McCook (’90, Vol. 2, pp. 367-369) gives some informa-
tion about the habits of an allied species of spider, but the account is
meager. Some observations on the breeding habits of this species
have been made by Montgomery (’o9g, p. 562); and Pearse (’I1)
has recently published the results of an interesting study of the rela-
tion between the color of these spiders and the color of the flowers
they frequent. He concludes that althouch this spider may change
its color slowly (from yellow to white), it does not do so with
rapidity or in such a way as to match its surroundings, and, further,
that it does not seek an environment or a flower colored like itself.

164

He finds, however, that on white flowers, white spiders occur gen-
erally, that on yellow flowers, yellow spiders occur, and also that
upon flowers of colors other than white and yellow, such as purple,
pink, and blue (p. 93), white spiders predominate.

ATTIDA
Phidippus sp.

This jumping spider was taken Aug. 12 (No. 34) on the common
milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, along the railway tracks (near Sta.
T, a), and when captured had in its jaws fragments of what seemed
to be Diabrotica 12-punctata Oliv.; but as the fragments were lost
during the process of capture, this determination was not made
certain.

ACARINA
TROMBIDIIDAL

Trombidium sp. Harvest-mites. Chiggers. (Pl. XXI, figs. 1 and 2.)

These are the immature six-legged stage of a mite or mites which
when mature have eight legs. The young are parasitic on insects
(Banks, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., Vol. 28, pp. 31-32, 1904); -the
adults prey upon plant-lice and caterpillars; one species also eats
locusts’ eggs.

These mites were very abundant on the prairie north of Charles-
ton (Sta. I), and became such a pest that relief had to be sought,
in a liberal application of flowers of sulphur to our legs and arms,
as is recommended by Chittenden (’06).

INSECTA

ODONATA
LIBELLULIDA

Sympetrum rubicundulum Say. Red-tailed Dragon-fly.

This dragon-fly was taken in the prairie grass zone (Sta. I, g)
Aug. 8 (No. 4.) It is one of our commonest kinds. The nymphs
live in small bodies of standing water. The adults forage for small
insects in open places, along hedge rows, and in open forest glades.
For the habitats of dragon-fly nymphs, reference should be made
te Needham (Bull. 68, N. Y. State Mus., p. 275. 1903). William-
son (00, pp. 235-236) has observed robber-flies carrying this species,
and has found this and other species of dragon-flies in the webs of
the spider Argiope.

165

pep oe Drury. Nine-spot Dragon-fly. (Pl. XXXVIII,
if, 2,

Individuals were abundant in both colonies of swamp milkweeds
(Sta. I, d and g) and several were seen entrapped in webs of Argiope
aurantia (Sta. I,d) Aug. 9. This is one of the most abundant of
our large dragon-flies. It frequents small bodies of water and slug-
gish pond-like streams. Williamson has taken it also in the webs of
Argiope. ‘This large powerful insect is able to do considerable dam-
age to a spider-web and then make its escape. Among the milk-
weeds (Sta. I,d) an individual was seen by T. L. Hankinson to
escape from a web. This dragon-fly, like most of its kind, captures
small insects on wing; one kind, however, is reported to have dug a
cricket out of the ground (Psyche, Vol. V, p. 364. 1890).

NEUROPTERA
MyYRMELEONIDZ

Brachynemurus abdominalis Say. Adult Ant-lion.

A single specimen was taken along the railway track north of
Charleston (near Sta. I,g) Aug. 12 (No. 36). This is a species
which frequents dry habitats. The larva is unknown, but is prob-
ably predaceous—as other ant-lion larve are and as the adult is sup-
posed to be.

Two adult females were taken July 19 and 20, 1907, at Cincin-
nati, Ohio, in my room, to which they were attracted by the electric
light. Another female was taken Aug. 8, 1901, at Gate City, Vir-
ginia (near Big Moccasin Gap). Determined by R. P. Currie.

CHRYSOPIDA

Chrysopa oculata Say. Lacewing. (Pl. XX XVIII, fig. 1.)

A single specimen of this insect was taken among prairie grasses
(Sta. I,g) Aug. 12 (No. 44). The larve feed upon plant-lice, and
the adults are also considered predaceous. Howard (Proc. Ent.
Soc., Wash., Vol. 2, pp. 123-125. 1893) has given a list of their
numerous hymenopterous parasites. Mr. T. L. Hankinson captured
one also (Sta. I) July 3, 1911 (No. 7665). Fitch (’56) published
many observations on the members of this genus; and Marlatt (’94a)
has written on the life history of this species.

166

ORTHOPTERA

AcrIpupz
Syrbula admirabilis Uhler.

One specimen of this grasshopper was found in the tall prairie
grasses blue-stem Andropogon and Panicum (Sta. I, g) Aug. 8 (No.
3). Morse (’04, p. 29) says this species frequents “open country”
and is “common in upland fields amid Andropogon and other coarse
grasses.”

Encoptolophus sordidus Burm. Sordid Grasshopper. (Pl. XXXIX,
fig. 1.) ;

One nymph of this species was taken in the prairie-grass colony
north of Charleston (Station I, g) Aug. 12 (No. 44); another (No.
158) on Aug. 24 in the colony of Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, e); and
an adult (No. 48) Aug. 13 at Loxa (Sta. II, a) from the flowers of
Silphium integrifolium.

This is a species characteristic of dry open places, where the
vegetation is low. The peculiar snapping sound made by the male
when on wing is quite characteristic. (Cf. Hancock, ’11, pp. 372-

373-)

Dissosteira carolina Linn. Carolina Grasshopper. (Pl. XXXIX,
fig. 4.)

A very reddish specimen of this species was taken in a cleared
bottom forest at River View Park, about three miles southeast of
Charleston, Aug. 19 (No. 95). Many specimens were observed in
the pasture above the “Rocks,” on the Embarras River about three
miles east of Charleston. These individuals exhibited to a marked
degree the hovering, undulating flight which is so characteristic of
this species during the hot days of summer and early autumn. Town-
send (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 1, pp. 266-267. 1890) has made
interesting observations on this habit, and finds that it is mostly the
males which participate in this courting ceremony, as he considers it.
There appears to be more or less of a gathering of individuals when
one of the locusts performs. There were perhaps half a dozen per-
forming in the colony observed at the “Rocks.” Townsend (Can.
Ent., Vol. 16, pp. 167-168. 1884) has considered this flight as re-
lated to breeding. Some one might study this subject with profit,
and determine its meaning. Poulton’s paper “On the Courtship of
certain Acridiide” (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, Pt. II, pp. 233-
252) might prove helpful in this connection.

This species seems to have been influenced by man to a marked
degree. Its original habitat appears to have been natural bare spots,

167

such as sandy beaches, banks of streams, sand-bars, and burned
areas. In a humid forested area such places are usually in isolated
patches, or in more or less continuous strips as along shores; but
- since the activities of man produce large cleared areas and bare
spots, such as roads, railways, and gardens, the favorable area of
habitat for this species has been vastly increased. Consult Han-
cock (’II, pp. 340-347) for observations on the habits of this
species.

Schistocerca alutacea Harr. Leather-colored Grasshopper. (Pl.
XXXIX, fig. 3.) :

One specimen of this large grasshopper was taken east of
Charleston, on the prairie which grades into the forest (Sta. ITI, a)
Aug. 15 (No. 59). Morse (’04, p. 39) and Hart (’06, p. 79) rec-
ognize that this species lives among a rank growth of vegetation
and brush. In general the local conditions are open or transitional,
and may be compared to those of a shrubby forest margin, and not
to those of the distant open prairie or to conditions within the for-
est. (Cf. Hancock, ’11, pp. 366-370.)

Melanoplus bivittatus Say. ‘Two-striped Grasshopper. (Pl. XL.
fig. 3.)

This grasshopper was taken from flowers of the rattlesnake-
master, Eryngium yuccifolium, on the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 55). It is a little surprising that it was so rare this
season on the prairie areas examined, as it is usually a common
species. Hancock (’11, pp. 356-359) has discussed this grasshopper.

Melanoplus differentialis Thomas. Differential Grasshopper. (PI.
XXXIX, fig. 5, and Pl. XL, fig. 1.)

This species was generally common in open areas, especially on
the prairie, but was also found in open places in the forest. It was
very abundant in the colonies of swamp prairie grasses, Spartina
and Elymus (Sta. I,a), Aug. 28 (No. 179); in the upland prairie
grasses, as Andropogon and Panicum (Sta. I, g), Aug. 12 (No. 39);
and in colonies of Lepachys (Sta. I,e) Aug. 12 (No. 40); also at
Loxa on Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II, a) Aug. 13 (No. 48).

This must be considered as one of the most common and char-
acteristic of prairie animals. Notwithstanding the destruction of
the original prairie, its habitat has been perpetuated, particularly
upon waste and neglected areas, such as fence rows, roadsides, rail-
way rights-of-way, and vacant city lots.

168

Melanoplus femur-rubrum DeG. Red-legged Grasshopper. (PI.
XXXIX, fig. 2.)

This species also is one of the most common and generally dis-
tributed insects upon open areas. It was found among the prairie
grasses Andropogon and Sporobolus (Sta. I. g) Aug. 8 and 12 (Nos.
3 and 39); in the Lepachys colony (Sta. I,e¢) Aug. 12 (No. 40);
and in Elymus and Spartina (Sta. I, a and c) Aug. 24 and 28
(Nos. 153, 179, and 180). As Hart (’06, p. 8r) has remarked, it
is common in cultivated areas. Cultivation appears to be distinctly
favorable to it; differentialis, on the other hand, seems to thrive best
in waste places. :

Locustipa

Scudderia texensis Sauss.-Pict. Texan Katydid.

This is the common and characteristic katydid of the prairie
areas. It was found (Sta. I, g) among the tall swamp milkweeds
Aug. 8 (No. 2); in the tall blue-stem Andropogon and in Panicum
Aug. 12 (No. 44); in the Lepachys colony (Sta. I, e) Aug. 12 (No.
40); and among the swamp prairie grasses Spartina and Elymus
(Sta. I,@ and c) Aug. 28 (Nos. 179 and 180). Consult Hancock,
*II, pp. 330-331, for the life history of this species.

Conocephalus sp., nymph.
A large female nymph was secured on blue-stem Andropogon

(Sta. I,g) Aug. 24 (No. 159), having been captured by a crab-
spider, Misumena aleatoria Hentz.

Orchelimum vulgare Harr. Common Meadow Grasshopper. (PI.
XL, figs. 2 and 4.)

This grasshopper was taken east of Charleston on the flowers of
broad-leaved rosin-weed, Silphium terebinthinaceum (Sta. III), Aug.
26 (No. 175); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 27; on the flow-
ers of rattlesnake-master, Eryngium yuccifolium (No. 178); and
on the prairie north of Charleston from the colony of wild rye,
Elymus (Sta. I, a), Aug. 28 (No. 179). A squeaking individual
(No. 180) captured here confirmed observations made in other
places—particularly in the tall prairie grasses Andropogon and
Sporobolus (Sta. I, g), where the first specimen (No. 3) was taken
Aug. 8. Nymphs, very probably of this species, were also in the
prairie grasses Andropogon and Sporobolus (Sta. I,g) Aug. 8 (No.
3); and Aug. 28 (Nos. 179 and 180) in the swamp grasses Elymus
and Spartina (Sta. I,a,c). This species is preeminently a tall-grass
frequenter, whose penetrating zeeing during the sunny hours serves
to locate grass plots and low, rank weedy growths.

169

Blatchley (’03, p. 384) has observed the species feeding on small
moths, and once saw an individual on goldenrod eating a soldier-
beetle, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus DeG. Forbes (’05, p. 144)
reports that its food consists mainly of plant-lice, and leaves of grass,
fungus spores, and pollen. It is thus evident that it eats both animal
and vegetable food.

me attenuatum Scudd. Lance-tailed Grasshopper. (Pl. XL,
g. 7-)

On the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II), on flowers of the arrow-leaved
rosin-weed, Silphium integrifolium, a single individual of this species
was found Aug. 13 (No. 48).

According to Blatchley (’03, pp. 380-381) it frequents the coarse
vegetation bordering wet places. He also states that the eggs are
placed between the stems and leaves of “tall rank grasses.”

Xiphidium strictum Scudd. Dorsal-striped Grasshopper. (Pl. XL,
fig. 6.)

This prairie species was taken on prairie clover, Petalostemum
(Sta. I, >), Aug. 11 (No. 21); in sweepings among the cone-flower,
Lepachys pinnata (Sta. 1,¢), Aug. 20 (No. 40); on the mountain
mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35); on P.
flexuosum or P. pilosum (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 57); among the
swamp grasses Elymus and Spartina (Sta. I,a and c) Aug. 28 (Nos.
179, 180) ; on the Loxa prairie on Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II)
Aug. 13 (No. 48); and on purple prairie clover, Petalostemum pur-
pureum (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 50).

Forbes (’05, p. 147) gives its food as plant-lice, fungi, pollen
and, larsely, other vegetable tissues. He also states that it frequents
the “drier slopes in woods and weedy grounds” (p. 148).

’ GRYLLIDA

GEcanthus nigricornis Walk. Black-horned Meadow Cricket. (PI.
XL, fig. 5, Pl. XLI, figs. 1 and 2.)

This prairie cricket was taken in sweepings from the cone-flower
(Lepachys pinnata) colony (Sta. I,e) Aug. 12 (No. 40); on the
transitional prairie east of Charleston (Sta. HI, b) Aug. 15 (No.
62); and from the swamp cord-grass, Spartina (Sta. I,a), Aug. 28
(No. 179).

Blatchley (’03, p. 451) says: “In August and September, nearly
every stalk of goldenrod and wild sunflower along roadsides, in open
fields or in fence corners, will have from one to a half dozen of these
insects upon its flowers or branches. It is also especially abundant

170

upon the tall weeds and bushes along the borders of lakes and ponds,
and in ‘sloughs and damp ravines.”

Blatchley (l.c., p. 452) made some incomplete observations on
the peculiar courting habits of this species, a subject which has been
elaborated by Hancock (’05). Hancock also describes the method
of oviposition. The female first gnaws the plant stem; then bores a
hole and deposits an egg; and next, again gnaws the stem. The eggs
are laid in stems of blackberry, goldenrod, and horseweed (Leptilon),.

Houghton (Ent. News, Vol. 15, pp. 57-61. 1904) has published
interesting observations on the carnivorous habits of nymphs of
G. niveus DeG. Cf. Parrott and Fulton, ’14.

Ashmead (Insect Life, Vol. 7, 241. 1894) reports that G. nigri-
cornis (fasciatus) is preyed upon by the wasp Chlorion harrisi Fernald
(Isodontia philadelphica St. Farg.).

CGicanthus quadripunctatus Beut. Four-spotted White Cricket.

This prairie species was found among the tall prairie grasses
blue-stem Andropogon and Panicum (Sta. I,g) Aug. 8 (No. 3);
and among the colony of cord grass, Spartina (Sta. I,a), Aug. 28
(No. 179). ; ;

Blatchley (’03, p. 453) reports it on “shrubbery and weeds in
fence-rows and gardens; and along roadsides.” ‘This indicates how
a prairie species adjusts itself to the conditions produced by man.
Parrott (Journ. Econom. Ent., Vol. 4, pp. 216-218. 1911) gives
figures of the eggs of this species and describes its method of ovipo-
sition in raspberry stems.

HEMIPTERA
Cicappz

Cicada dorsata Say. Prairie Cicada.

Although this species was not taken at Charleston, a single speci-
men (No. 185) was captured at Vera, Fayette county, Ill., Septem-
ber 1, on a giant stool of blue-stem Andropogon. Osborn (Proc.
Iowa Acad. Sci., Vol. 3, p. 194. 1896) reported one specimen from
Iowa; Woodworth, (Psyche, Vol. 5, p. 68. 1888) says: “On the
prairies, Illinois to Texas”; and MacGillivray (Can. Ent., Vol. 33, p.
81. 1901) adds Missouri, Colorado, and New Mexico.

_ MEMBRACIDE
Campylenchia curvata Fabr.
This bug was taken in sweepings made in the colony of cone-
flower, Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 12 (No. 40).

171

JassIDz
Platymetopius frontalis Van D.
This leaf-hopper was taken in sweepings in the cone-flower col-
ony (Sta. I,¢) Aug. 12 (No. 40). '

APHIDIDA

Microparsus variabilis Patch.

This plant-louse infests the leaves of the Canadian tick-trefoil,
Desmodium canadense, and causes the leaves to curl. Quite a colony
of these plants found infested (near Sta. I, f) Aug. 24, were stunted
and deformed by these plant-lice (No. 160). Consult Patch (Ent.
News, Vol. 20, pp. 337-341. 1909) for a description of the insect
and a plate showing the injury which it causes; also Williams (Univ.
Studies, Univ. Neb., Vol. 10, p. 76, 1910) and Davis (ibid., Vol. 11,
p. 28. 1912).

Aphis asclepiadis Fitch. Milkweed Plant-louse.

Plant-lice of this species were abundant upon the younger ter-
minal leaves of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, along the
railway track north of Charleston (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (Nos. 28, 29,
and 154). Associated with them were workers of the ants Formica
fusca Linn. var. subsericea Say (Nos. 28, 29, and 154) and For-
mica fusca Linn. (No. 28). Ona milkweed plant which lacked the
plant-lice were found associated another ant, Formica pallide-fulva
Latr., subsp. schaufussi Mayr, var. incerta Emery, and the metallic-
colored fly Psilopus sipho Say.

At Urbana, Ill, a very abundant plant-louse on wild lettuce,
Lactuca canadensis, is Macrosiphum rudbeckie Fitch (det. by J. J.
Davis). The upper, tender branches of these plants are in the fall
covered with vast numbers of these lice, both wingless and winged.
That this species feeds upon a number of other prairie plants is a
point of much interest because of their distinctly prairie character.
It is reported from Vernonia, Solidago, Bidens, Ambrosia, Cirsium,
Silphium, and Cacalia (Thomas, Eighth Rep. State Ent. Ill., p. 190.
1879).

PENTATOMIDA:

Euschistus variolarius Beauv. (Pl. XLI, fig. 3.)

This common plant-sucking bug was taken on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I,d), Aug. 9 (No. 12);
from the blue-stem Andropogon colony (Sta. I,g), where a large
robber-fly, Promachus vertebratus, was taken astride a grass stem
with one of these bugs in its grasp Aug. 12 (No. 39); at Station

172

I by T. L. Hankinson, July 3, 1911 (No. 7665) ; on the Loxa prairie
(Sta. II), with insects from flowers of the purple prairie clover,
Petalostemum purpureum, Aug. 13 (No. 50); and on flowers of the
mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum or P. flexruosum (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 52). Consult Forbes (’05, pp. 195, 261) for a sum-
mary of its life history, and references to literature. It feeds upon
a great variety of plants (Olsen, in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 20,
Pp. 53. 1912) and on soft-bodied insects.

Stiretrus anchorago Fabr. (Pl. XLI, fig. 5.)

This highly colored bug was taken, Aug. 23 (No. 146), not
upon the prairie proper but at the margin of the Bates woods (near
Sta. IV,a), where the clearing had been so complete that only
sprouts and young trees occurred, associated with many plants which
frequent open, sunny places, such as ironweed (Vernonia) and
Pycnanthemum pilosum.

This bug sometimes feeds upon the larve of the imported as-
paragus beetle, Crioceris asparagi (Chittenden, Circ. No. 102, Bur.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 6. 1908). This circular contains figures
of the nymph and adult. Olsen reports it as feeding upon cater-
pillars and beetle larve and on the plants Asclepias and Rhus (Jour.
N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 20, pp. 55, 56. 1912).

THYREOCORIDA

Thyreocoris pulicarius Germ. Flea Negro-bug. (Pl. XLII, fig. 2.)

This negro-bug was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, Solidago
(near Sta. I,a), Aug. 12 (No. 26). Forbes and Hart (’oo, Pp. 100)
state that this insect abounds on Bidens, a plant which grew in great
abundance near the goldenrod referred to. Taken (Sta. I) by T. L.
Hankinson July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

Lycans
Ligyrocoris sylvestris Linn.
This insect was taken while sweeping vegetation in the cone-
flower (Lepachys) colony (Sta. I, e) Aug. 12 (No. 40).

Lygeus kalmii Stal. Small Milkweed Bug. (Pl. XLII, fig. 1.)

This is one of the commonest insects found upon milkweeds of
the prairie. Specimens were taken on the flowers of the swamp
milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, g), Aug. 8 (No. 1); on flow-
ers of the mountain mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I, 9g),
Aug. 8 (No. 6); and on swamp milkweeds (Sta. I,d) Aug. 9
(No. 12).

173

This is another common insect about which very little is known.
Its food plants and life history are worthy of study. I have taken
this species from Mar. 20 (adult, 1894) to Nov. 4.-(adult, 1893) at
Bloomington, Ill.; at Havana, IIl., during August; and at Chicago
June 8 (1902). That it probably hibernates in the adult stage is
shown by the fact that I captured an adult as early as Mar. 22 at
Urbana, Ill. This bug, like the squash-bug (Anasa), may have
an active migratory period in the fall, and only those individuals
survive the winter which happen to be in favorable places when the
cold weather sets in. I have captured this bug in the dense Brown-
field woods (Urbana), where it was crawling on a log Oct. 12 (No.
312, C.C.A.). Hart (’07, p. 237) records it from Asclepias cornuti
ae syriaca) at Havana in the sand area, and:also from Teheran,
Illinois.

Oncopeltus fasciatus Dall. Large Milkweed Bug. (Pl. XLII, fig. 3.)

This large red plant-bug I took but once—on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I,g), Aug. 8 (No. 1);
T. L. Hankinson, however, captured another specimen (Sta. I) July
3, 1911 (No. 7665).

I have found it in years past abundant on prairie colonies of
niilkweed at Bloomington, Ill., from June into September, and at
Havana and Chicago during August. On Sept. 26, at Mayview, IIl.,
along the railway among prairie plants this plant-bug was found on
dogbane (Apocynum). <A pale yellow color may replace the red.

CoREIDA
Harmostes reflexulus Say.
This bug was found in flowers of Asclepias syriaca along the
railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27).

REDUVIO—Da

Sinea diadema Fabr. Rapacious Soldier-bug. (Pl. XLI, fig. 4.)

One specimen of this bug was taken from the flowers of the
mountain mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum, in the prairie grass col-
ony (Sta. I,g), Aug. 8 (No. 6). I took it at St. Joseph, Ill, in a
colony of prairie vegetation along the railway track Sept. 26, 1911
(No. 495, C.C.A.).

This bug preys upon caterpillars and many other insects. The
little we know of its life history has been recorded by Ashmead (’95,
Insect Life, Vol. 7, p. 321); its predaceous habits, however, have
attracted considerable attention from economic entomologists. For

174

numerous references to this phase see Caudell, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc.,
1901, Vol. 9, p. 3. The young feed upon plant-lice.

PHYMATIDA

Phymata fasciata Gray (wolfi Stal). Ambush or Stinging Bug.
(Pl. XLII, fig. 4.)

This is one of the most abundant and characteristic of prairie
insects. It was taken from the flowers of the swamp milkweed,
Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, g), Aug. 8 (No. 1); among the same
flowers, at Station I,d, Aug. 9; on goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta.
I,a), Aug. 11 (No. 20); and again on goldenrod (Station I)
Aug. 12 (No. 43), in copula, and with an empidid fly in its clasp;
on flower of mountain mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I),
Aug. 11 (No. 24); from goldenrod (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 26);
in sweepings from the colony of Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I,e) Aug.
12 (No. 40); from the flowers of the mountain mint, P. flexuosum,
on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13, with a large beefly, Exopro-
sopa fasciata, in its clutches (No. 57); on the following flowers
(Sta. IT) Aug. 13—rosinweed, Silphium integrifolium (No. 48),
mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum and P. flexuosum (No. 52),
Culver’s-root, Veronica virginica (No. 54), and rattlesnake-master,
Eryngium yucctfolium (No. 55); in the partly cleared area north of
Bates woods (Sta. IV) in flowers of the mountain mint P. pilosum
Aug. 23 (No. 146); and on the Loxa prairie, at telegraph pole No.
12323 (Sta. II), on the flowers of rattlesnake-master Aug. 27 (No.
178).

At Mayview, IIl., in a colony of prairie vegetation, one speci-
men was taken by Miss Ruth Glasgow with the butterfly Pontia pro-
todice Sept. 26, 1912; a second had captured a dusky plant-bug,
Adelphocoris rapidus Say. At the same time and place Miss Grace
Glasgow took from a flower another bug with the bee-fly S‘parnopo-
lius fuluus Wied. This fly is parasitic on white-grubs, Lachnosterna
(Forbes, ’08, p. 161). Among prairie vegetation at St. Joseph, IIL,
Sept. 26, 1911, I took from a flower an ambush bug with a large
cutworm moth, Feltia subgothica Haw. (No. 302, C.C.A.). (PL.
XLIII, figs. 1 and 2.)

Packard (’73, p. 211) records that Phymata fasciata had been ob-
served feeding upon plant-lice on linden trees in Boston, and Walsh
(Amer. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 141. 1869) states that it feeds habitually
upon bees and wasps, and shows skill in avoiding their sting. Cook
(Bee-keeper’s Guide, ninth ed., pp. 323-324, 1883) reports that it
destroys plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, moths, bees, and

175

wasps. The ambush bug and the ambush spider (Misumena alea-
toria Hentz) are in active competition upon flowers for much the
same kind of food.

' Mirpz

sa eat rapidus Say. Dusky Leaf-bug. (Pl. XLII, figs. 5
and 6.)

This leaf-bug was taken from the flowers of the rattlesnake-
master, Eryngium yuccifolium (Sta. 11,a), Aug. 13 (No. 55). It
was taken in a colony of prairie vegetation at Mayview, IIl., Sept. 26,
1912, by Miss Ruth Glasgow, who found it captured by Phymata
fasciata. It feeds upon a large variety of plants.

Lygus pratensis Linn. Tarnished Plant-bug. (Pl. XLIII, figs. 3
and 4.)

This common plant-bug was taken, copulating, from the flowers
of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 9 (No.
12). It is a common fruit and garden pest. Consult Forbes (’05,
pp. 119, 263) for figures of this species and references to its life his-
tory and habits, and Crosby and Fernald (’14) for avery full account
of this species.

CoLEOPTERA

CaRraBIDz
Leptotrachelus dorsalis Fabr.

This ground-beetle was taken in the Spartina colony on the
prairie north of Charleston (Sta. I,a) Aug. 28 (No. 179). It is
supposed to be predaceous. Its life history is not known to the
writer. Blatchley (*10, p. 138) records it as from “low herbs in
open woods”, and Webster (’03b, p. 22) states that the larva of this
beetle destroys the larve of Jsosoma grande Riley in wheat fields.

Although no special effort was made to secure members of this
family of beetles from the prairie, where they must abound, it is sur-
prising that some members of the genus Harpalus were not so
abundant as to demand attention. More attention to the ground
fauna and less to that found on vegetation would doubtless have
given other results. Generally in this family the food habits are
predaceous, but there are exceptions, and these include kinds which
frequent open places. On September 25, 1900, the writer found
specimens of Harpalus caliginosus Fabr. feeding on the flowers or
seeds of ragweed, Ambrosia, which grew in a neglected field along
Holston River near Rogersville, Tenn., and at Rockford, Tenn., on
Sept. 25, 1901, similar observations were made upon Harpalus penn-
sylvanicus DeG. Many years ago Webster (80, p. 164) made simi-
lar observations on this species, and also found it eating wheat, timo-

176

thy seeds, the prairie grass Panicum crusgalli Linn., and even a small
beetle, [ps 4-gutiatus Fabr. He also observed H. caliginosus feed-
ing upon seeds of ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia. (See Forbes—
’80, pp. 156-157 and ’83a, pp. 45-46—for further’ observations upon
the food habits of the beetles of this genus.) Clarkson (Can. Ent.,
Vol. 17, p. 107, 1885) observed caliginosus feedirig upon ragweed
on Long Island; and Hamilton (Can. Ent., Vol. 20, p. 62, 1888) re-
cords similar observations for this beetle and for pennsylvanicus.
Both species are reported to injure strawberries. Coquillett (Insect
Life, Vol. 7, p. 228, 1894) observed caliginosus feeding upon a
grasshopper.

CoccINELLIDA

Hippodamia parenthesis Say. Parenthetical Ladybird.
This insect was taken only by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3,
1911 (No. 7665).

Coccinella novemnotata Hbst. Nine-spotted Ladybird. (Pi. XLIV,
fig. 2).

This insect was taken on the common milkweed, Asclepias syri-
aca, (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27). This species is another example of
one of the commonest insects to which so little attention has been
given that we really have no full account of its life history and ecol-
ogy. Many scattered observations have been made, but none are ex-
tensive. Forbes examined the stomach contents of five specimens
and found that they had eaten plant-lice, fungus spores, and a few

lichen spores (’80, pp. 157-159, and ’83a, pp. 53-54).
LaMPyrpé&

Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus DeG. Soldier-beetle. (PI. XLIII,
figs. 5 and 6.)

This is one of the most abundant beetles found on flowers in late
summer and fall, particularly upon goldenrods (Solidago), and
other composites. The first specimens were taken in a cleared area,
with much sprout growth and open patches, where the mountain mint
Pycnanthemum pilosum abounded, (near Sta. IV, a), Aug. 23 (No.
146). On the following day they were first found on the prairie—
copulating as usual—on the flowers of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias
incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 24 (No. 156.)

They were taken from the flowers of the broad-leaved rosin-
weed, Silphium terebinthinaceum, on the prairie east of Charleston
(Sta. III, b) Aug. 26 (No. 175), and on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II,

+ 177

Pole No. 12323) on the flowers of the rattlesnake-master, Eryngium
yucctfolium, Aug. 27 (No. 178).

According to Riley (Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 26r.
1880) the eggs of this species are deposited on the ground in irregu-
lar bunches. He quotes Hubbard, who says that the larve huddled
together when ready to moult, and that afterwards they became very
active. The insect passes the winter as a nearly mature larva, and
matures about August. The larve are known to eat beetle larve and
caterpillars; the adults feed upon nectar and pollen.

ScaRABZIDZ

slag sepulchralis Fabr. Black Flower-beetle. (Pl. XLIV,
g. 4.)

Only two specimens of this beetle were taken: one on the flowers
of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 24
(No. 156) ; the other from the flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum. in
the cleared area bordering the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug.
23 (No. 146). Blatchley (’10, p. 997) reports it at sap, on various
flowers, and especially on goldenrod; and Webster has found it eat-
ing into kernels of corn (Insect Life, Vol. 3, p. 159).

E. inda (Pl. XLIV, fig. 3) has been observed by Wheeler (’10a,
p. 384) to fly to an ants’ nest and bury itself; he suggests that it may
live in such nests. Schwarz (’gob, p. 245) considers the inda larve
abundant at Washington in nests of Formica integra. For the life his-
tory of this beetle see Chittenden (Bull. 19, N. S., Bur. Ent., U. S.

Dept. Agr., pp. 67-74. 1899).

Pelidnota punciata Linn. Spotted Grape Beetle. (PI. XLIII, fig. 5.)

Only one specimen of this beetle was taken. It was found upon
a prairie containing some forest relics, on a grape leaf (Sta. ITI, b)
Aug. 15 (No. 58). This insect is a forest or forest-margin insect; as is
indicated by the fact that the larva feeds upon the decaying roots
and stumps of oak and hickory. The adult devours leaves of the
grape and of the Virginia creeper (Cf. Riley, Third Rep. Insects
Mo., p. 78).

CERAMBYCIDZ

Tetraopes tetraophthalmus Forst. Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle.

This is one of the commonest insects in the prairie parts of Illi-
nois. Nevertheless, though almost every schoolboy who ever made
a collection of insects has it in his collection, very little is known of
its habits or life history.

178 “

At Charleston it was taken Aug. 8 on flowers of the swamp milk-
weed, Asclepias incarnata, at Sta. I,g (No. 1) and at Sta. I,d (No.
12); on the flowers of the mountain mint Pycnanthemum virgini-
anum (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35); and T. L. Hankinson took the
beetle (Sta. I) July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

Robertson (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. Vol. 5, p. 572. 1891)
states that this beetle and Epicauta vittata Fabr. gnaw the flowers of
the swamp milkweed; and in the same volume (p. 574) reports that
the rose-breasted grosbeak (Habia ludoviciana) cleared these beetles
from A. syriaca in his yard. Beutenmiiller (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc.,
Vol. 4, p. 81. 1896) says that the larva bores into the roots and lower
parts of the stems of Asclepias, and suggests that the other species
have similar habits.

Tetraopes femoratus Lec. (?) Milkweed Beetle.

A peculiar individual (No. 1) was taken Aug. 8 on the swamp
milkweed Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I,d). Mr. C. A. Hart, who de-
termined the specimen, remarks that it “is very remarkable—thorax
of femoratus, antenne and pattern nearest to 4-ophthalmus.”

o

CHRYSOMELIDA

Cryptocephalus venustus Fabr.

This leaf-beetle was taken from the flowers of prairie clover,
Petalostemum (Sta. I,b), Aug. 11 (No. 21). Blatchley (’10, p.
1123) states that it is found on the flowers of Erigeron in timothy
fields, on ironweed, and on wild sweet potato. Chittenden (’92,
p. 263) has observed the var. simplex Hald. on ragweed, Ambrosia
trifida, “dodging around the stem after the manner of a squirrel or
lizard on a tree-trunk. . . . . The insect is a polyphagous leaf-eater.”

Chrysochus auratus Fabr. Dogbane Beetle.

Only two specimens of this usually common metallic-green beetle
were seen and secured. One (No. 14) was taken Aug. 9 on the
dogbane or Indian hemp, Apocynum medium, growing among the
swamp milkweeds, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d); and the other on
dogbane in the upland part of Bates woods (Sta. IV, a), Aug. 20,
1910 (No. 103). Later, July 3, 1911, T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) also
secured this beetle (No. 7665). The food plant was abundant, but
the beetles appeared to be exceptionally rare. This is another widely
recognized but really little known insect. It is also found on the
leaves of milkweeds. Zabriskie (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 3, p.
192. 1895) describes the egg-capsules of this species, which he found
early in July on fence posts, near plants of the spreading dogbane,

179

Apocynum androsemifolium, and especially upon the under surface
of the leaves of this plant. A single egg is deposited within a conical
black mass, which is probably the excrement of the beetle. To this
note Beutenmiiller adds that “the larve, after hatching drop to the
ground and live on the roots of the plant.”

With so much of a clue, the complete life history of this species
ought to be worked out without much difficulty. Forbes once re-
ported this species injuring potato (Lintner, Fourth Report on the
Injurious and other Insects of the State of New York, p. 142).

Nodonota convexa Say.

This small leaf-beetle was taken in sweepings of vegetation in a
colony of the cone-flower, Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I,e), Aug. 12
(No. 40). Blatchley (’10, p. 1149) states that it occurs in low
places on ragweed, Ambrosia trifida. This cone-flower colony was
on rather low land containing crawfish holes.

Trirhabda tomentosa Linn.

This insect was taken at Station I by T. L. Hankinson July 3,
1g1r (No. 7665). It is common on Solidago. Schwarz (Am. Nat.,
Vol. 17, p. 1289. 1883) reports it as a defoliator of prickly ash
(Zanthoxylum).

Diabrotica 12-punctata Oliv. Southern Corn Root-worm. (PI.
XMLY, fig. 3).

This common corn pest was taken in sweepings of the vegetation
in a colony of Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, e) Aug. 12 (No. 40), and
T. L. Hankinson captured it (Sta. 1) July 3, 1911 (No. 7665). A
few feet away was a large corn field. It was also taken on the
flowers of Eryngium yuccifolium on the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II)
Aug. 13 (No. 55). Here also a field of corn stood only a few feet
away.

Diabrotica longicornis Say. Western Corn Root-worm. (Pl. XLV,
fig. 1.)

This beetle was found upon the flower-masses of the mountain
mint Pycnanthemum pilosum, growing in a forest clearing (near
Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23 (No. 146). It feeds upon the silk and pollen
cf corn, and probably on the corresponding parts of other plants.

Diabrotica atripennis Say.

One specimen of this beetle was taken on the flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I,d), Aug. 8 (No. 1).
Very little appears to be recorded on this species except that it feeds
upon the pollen and silk of corn, the pollen of composites, and the
blossoms of beans (Forbes, ’05, p. 189).

180

MELOIDzA

Zonitis bilineata Say. Two-lined Blister-beetle. (Pl. XLIV, fig. 1.)

This beetle was taken on the apical leaves of the common milk-
weed, Asclepias syriaca (Sta. 1), Aug. 12 (No. 33). Blatchley
(’10, p. 1356) records it as from the flowers of the wild rose.

Epicauta yittata Fabr. Old-fashioned Potato Beetle or Striped
Blister-beetle. (Pl. XLV, fig. 5.)
Several specimens were taken by T. L. Hankinson at Station I
July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

Epicauta marginata Lec. Margined Blister-beetle. (Pl. XLV, fig. 2.)
This beetle was taken at Station I by T. L. Hankinson only—July
3, 1911 (No. 7665) ; it was taken also from the leaves of the rosin-
weed, Silphium integrifolium, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. IT) Aug. 13
(No. 48); from an open ravine in Bates woods (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 22
(No. 124) ; and in the lowland glade (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).
For accounts of the common Illinois species of blister-beetles see
Forbes and Hart (’00, pp. 487-490, and Forbes, ’05, pp. II1I-114).

Epicauta pennsylvanica DeG. Black Blister-beetle.

This beetle was collected from flowers of goldenrod, Solidago
Sta. I,a), Aug. 12 (No. 26); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) from
flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphium integrifolium, Aug. 13 (No.
48); on flowers of Silphium terebinthinaceum (Sta. III a), Aug. 20
(No. 119); in the cleared margin of .Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a),
on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum Aug. 23 (No. 146); again on
goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta. I,a), Aug. 24 (No. 152); and from
the Loxa prairie on flowers of rattlesnake-master, Eryngium ‘yucci-
folium, (Sta. II,a) Aug. 27 (No. 178).

The larve of this and some other species of blister-beetles prey
upon locusts’ eggs. (Cf. Riley, First Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 293.
1878.) The beetle lays its own eggs in the vicinity of the locusts’
eggs.

RAIPIPHORIDE

Rhipiphorus dimidiatus Fabr.

Five specimens of this mordellid-looking little beetle were taken
on flowers of the mountain mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta.
I,g) Aug. 8 (No. 6); and three specimens on flowers of the moun-
tain mints P. flexuosum and P. pilosum on the Loxa prairie (Sta.
TI) Aug. 13 (No. 52). Blatchley (’10, p. 1366) reports it as from
the flowers of. P. linifolium Pursh.

181

These small beetles are black except the basal two-thirds of the
elytra, which are pale yellow. The larve are parasitic on wasps, as
has been shown by Chapman for the European species paradovxus
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol. 5, p. 191, and Vol. 6, p. 314.
1870). The larve undergo a very peculiar metamorphosis which is
related to their parasitic habit. It is desirable that the life histories
of the American species should be studied.

Ashmead (Psyche, Vol. 7, p. 77. 1894) reared this beetle from
the cells of the wasp Eumenes fraterna Say. Riley (Sixth Rep. Ins.
Mo., p. 125. 1874) states that he bred Rhipiphorus pectinatus Fabr.,
var. ventralis Fabr., from the cocoons of the wasp (Tiphia) which
preys upon the grubs of Lachnosterna. Melander and Brues (’03,
p. 26) found another member of the same family of beetles, Myo-
dites fasciatus Say, on wing over nests of Halictus. Pierce (04)
has made a valuable study of the ecology of Myodites solidaginis,
giving particular attention to its host, a bee (Epinomia triangulifera
Vachal). Pierce (I.c., p. 185) states that the tiger-beetle Cicindela
punctulata Fabr. is an active enemy of Epinomia and Myodites. I
have found this a very abundant beetle in open sunny places on bare
ground, as, for example, along a footpath through a timothy meadow
at Bloomington, Ill. Such situations are the favorite haunts of many
burrowing Hymenoptera.

Rhipiphorus limbatus Fabr.

A single specimen was taken on the flower of the rattlesnake-
master, Eryngium yuccifolium, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II, a) Aug.
27 (No. 178). This species is yellow, with black elytra, and a large
black spot on the dorsum of the prothorax. Blatchley (’10, p. 1367)
reports it from various composites. Robertson (Trans. St. Louis
Acad. Sci., Vol. 6, pp, 106, 107. 1892) reports this beetle from Car-
linville, Ill., on the flowers of several species of Pycnanthemum, and
(idem, Vol. 5, p. 571) he also records it from milkweeds (Asclepias).

RHAYNCHITIDA

Rhynchites eneus Boh.

This snout-beetle was taken on the prairie west of Loxa from
flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II), Aug.
13 (No. 48). It has been taken from other flowers (Pierce, ’07, p.
25r).

CALANDRIDZ
Sphenophorus venatus Say (placidus Say). (Pl. XLV, fig. 4.)

This “bill-bug” was taken from the colony of tall blue-stem An-

dropogon and foxtail, Panicum (Sta. Ig), Aug. 12 (No. 39).

162

Forbes (’03—22d Rep. State Ent. Ill_—p. 8) gives a summary of what
is known of this species. It is a corn pest, has been found widely
dispersed in Illinois, and hibernates as an adult beetle. A tachinid
fly has been bred from the larva of S. robustus Horn. (Coquillett,

’97, p. 18.)
CurRcULIONIDa

Centrinus penicellus Hbst.

This snout-beetle was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, Soli-
dago (near Sta. I,a), Aug. 12 (No. 26); another specimen was
taken from Sullivant’s milkweed, Asclepias' sullivantii (Sta. I), Aug.
12 (No. 41). Forbes and Hart (’00, p. 493) state that it has been
taken in the “latter part of July and August.” It injures beet leaves,
but its early life history is not known.

Centrinus scutellum-album Say.

This beetle was taken at Station I, July 3, 1911, by T. L. Hank-
inson (No. 7665). It has been taken from a number of flowers in
which it fed upon pollen (Pierce, ’07, p. 284). The larva of Cen-
trinus picumnus Hbst. has been found injuring Setaria (Webster, in
Insect Life, Vol. I, p. 374. 1889).

LEPIDOPTERA
PapPILionIpz

Papilio polyxenes Fabr. Celery Butterfly.

This common butterfly was taken on wing along the railway
track near the swamp milkweed .(Asclepias incarnata) colony (Sta.
I,d) Aug. 9 (No. 15), and from a web of the common garden
spider Argiope aurantia, among these milkweeds (No. 45). Chitten-
den (Bull. 82, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 20-24. 1909) gives
a brief account of this common species which feeds upon umbellifers.
Tt was very abundant on parsley in the J. I. Bates garden (near
Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 174).

PIERDA

Pontia rape Linn. Cabbage Butterfly. (Pl. XLVI, fig. 1.)

A mutilated specimen of this butterfly, which had been captured
by a robber-fly, was secured by E. N. Transeau (Sta. III, b, Aug. 15;
No. 61).

Eurymus philodice Godart.
This butterfly was taken on the flowers of Pycnanthemum pilo-
sum in a cleared area bordering the Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a)

183

Aug. 23 (No. 146); and on flowers of the swamp milkweed, A. in-
carnata (Sta. I,d), Aug. 9 (No. f2).

NyYMPHALD2

Argynnis idalia Drury. Idalia Butterfly.
This species was taken from the flowers of the swamp milkweed,
A. incarnata (Sta. I,d), Aug. 12 (No. 37).

Anosia plexippus L. Milkweed Butterfly. (Pl. XLVI, fig. 3.)

This common butterfly was abundant upon the prairie at Sta-
tion I. It was observed copulating on willows at Sta. I, d, Aug. 9,
and when on wing was able to carry its mate, whose wings were
folded. It was observed on flowers of the thistle Cirsium discolor
at Station I (No. 155).

LyYc2NIDz

Chrysophanus thoe Boisd. & Lec. hoe Butterfly.

This butterfly was taken on flowers of the rattlesnake-master,
Eryngium yuccifolium, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13
(No. 55).

The caterpillar feeds upon smartweeds (Polygonum) and dock
(Rumex), and also upon prickly ash, Zanthoxylum.

SPHINGIDA

Hemaris diffinis Boisd. Honeysuckle Sphinx.
This hawk-moth was taken upon flowers of the swamp milkweed,
A. incarnata (Sta. I,d), Aug. 12 (No. 32), and by T. L. Hankin-
son July 3, 1911, at Station I (No. 7655). This moth flies during
bright daylight. The caterpillar lives on bush honeysuckle, snow-
berry, and feverwort.
ARCTIIDE

Ammalo eglenensis Clem. or tenera Hubn.
This caterpillar was taken on dogbane, Apocynum medium, on
the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 53).
Eglenensis is reported to feed upon Asclepias tuberosa and
Apocynum.
Noctua

Rhodophora gaure Sm. and Abb.

This interesting larva was not taken at Charleston, but on the
prairie near Vera, Fayette county, Ill., on Gaura biennis Sept. 1
(No. 186). This specimen was determined by W. T. M. Forbes. It

184

is of interest that this larva, which is recorded from the “Southern
and Southwestern States” and Colorado, was found on the prairie
of Illinois. It is another example illustrating the southwestern and
western affinities and origin of many elements in the prairie fauna.
Mr. C. A. Hart inforrns me that he took the moth at a light Sept. 10
and 17, 1909, at Urbana, and that it was taken at Pekin, Ill, in August.

Spragueia leo Guen.

This little moth was taken once on the flowers of Solidago (near
Sta. I,a) Aug. 11 (No. 20); again, in a similar situation, Aug. 12
(No. 26); and a third time in the cleared area near the Bates woods
on the flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23
(No. 146, two specimens).

GELECHIDA

Gnorimoschema gallesolidaginis Riley. (Caterpillar Gall) (Pl. XLVI,

fig. 4.)

This common gall was taken by T. L. Hankinson on Solidago at
Sta. I, Aug. 8, 1910 (No. 7462).

Cf. Riley (First Rep. Ins. Mo., pp. 173-175. 1869) and Busck
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 25, pp. 824-825. 1903).

DIPTERA
CECIDOMYIDA

Cecidomyia solidaginis Loew. (Goldenrod Bunch Gall.) (PI.
XLVI, fig. 5.)
This gall was taken on Solidago Aug. 12 at Sta. I (No. 42),
and by T. L. Hankinson at Sta. I, on Aug. 8, 1910 (No. 7462).
This gall forms a rosette or terminal bunch of leaves on Solidago.

Cecidomyia sp.
A willow cone-gall was found Sept. 13 by T. L. Hankinson on
willows at Sta. I. (Cf. Heindel, ’os.)

CuLicDa

Psorophora ciliata Fabr. Giant Mosquito or Gallinipper.

This is our largest species of mosquito. It was taken among the
swamp milkweeds, Asclepias incarnaia (Sta. I,d), Aug. 10 (No.
33); and in the prairie grass colony (Sta. I, g) Aug. 12 (No. 44).
Both of these places were near moist or wet areas. Individuals were
not abundant, although the species is particularly adapted to living
where the moisture is variable. Morgan and Dupree (Bull. 40, Div.

185

Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 91. 1903) have concluded that all the eggs
do not hatch with the first rain after their deposition, but that hatch-
ing is completed with the alternation of wet and dry weather.

MyYcEToPHILIpz

Eugnoriste occidentalis Coq.

A single specimen of this small fly was taken on the flowers of
Solidago (Sta. 1) Aug. 12 (No. 26). The specimen was determined
by J. R. Malloch. It had been previously recorded from goldenrod
flowers by Aldrich (’05, p. 148).

Sciara sp.
_ These small flies were taken from the flowers of the mountain
mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I, g), Aug. 8 (No. 6).

BoMBYLODA

Exoprosopa fasciata Macq. :Giant Bee-fly.

This was one of the most abundant and characteristic insects of
the prairies and cleared areas, and belongs in the same class as the
red milkweed beetle (Tetraopes) and the milkweed bug, Lygcus kal-
mit. It was taken from flower masses of the mountain mint Pycnan-
themum flexuosum (Sta. I,g) Aug. 8 (No. 6); on the flowers of
Verbena stricta Vent. (near Sta. I,a) Aug. 11 (No. 23); again from
P. flexuosum (Sta. I) Aug. 11 (No. 24); and on the flowers of
Liatris scariosa (Sta. 11,a@) Aug. 27 (No. 176). T:wo specimens
had been captured by the flower spider Misumena aleatoria Hentz:
one on flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 47), the other on flowers of the mountain mint Pycnan-
themum flexuosum (Sta. 1) Aug. 12 (No. 31); and a third was cap-
tured by the ambush bug, Phymata fasciata Gray, on the flowers of
the mountain mint (Station IT) Aug. 13 (No. 57).

This was a very common species on the prairie patches at Bloom-
ington, Ill., July 26 to Aug. 23, and in pastures abounding in Verbena
at Kappa, Ill., and Havana, Ill., in August. Graenicher (10, pp. 94-
95) has listed several species of flowers from which this fly has been
taken. It is probable that it preys upon some wasps, since a related
species, E. fascipennis Say, has been bred from the cocoons of the
white-grub wasp, Tiphia (Forbes, ’08, p. 160).

Systechus vulgaris Loew.
In the cleared area bordering the Bates woods, on flowers of the
mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum (near Sta. IV, a), a specimen

186

of this bee-fly was taken Aug. 23 (No. 146). Graenicher (’10, p. 93)
has listed a variety of plants visited by this fly.

The habits of this species appear not to be known, but the larve
of an allied species, S. oreas O. S., preys upon the eggs of grasshoppers
(Riley, Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., pp. 262-268. 1880). Shel-
ford (’13c) has found that Spogostylum anale Say is a parasite on the
larva of Cicindela. <A related fly, Sparnopolius fulvus, is parasitic
on the grubs of Lachnosterna (Forbes, ’08, p. 161). Holmes (’13)
has shown the relation of light to the hovering flight of Bombylius.

Mypawa

Mydas clavatus Drury. Giant fly.

A single specimen of this giant fly was taken on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Station I,d), Aug. 9 (No.
12). I have taken this species at Chicago during July, and at Bloom-
ington, Ill., on June 29.

Harris (Insects Injurious to Vegetation, p. 607. 1869) describes
briefly the larva and pupa; and Washburn (Tenth Ann. Rep. State
Ent. Minn., Pl. II, fig. 15. 1905) gives a colored figure of the species.

The larve of this family live in decaying wood and prey upon
insects, and the adults are also predaceous (Hubbard ’85, p. 175).

Howard (Insect Book, p. 136) states that the larva of Mydas
fulvipes Walsh “lives in decaying sycamore trees and is probably
predatory on other insects living in such locations.” He also. states
that the adults are predaceous.

AsSILIDZ:
Deromyia sp.
This robber-fly was taken on the Loxa prairie (Sta. IT) Aug. 137
(No. 51).

The larvz of some members of this family feed upon rhubarb
roots (Harris, Ins. Inj. to Vegetation, p. 605. 1869), and others, as
Erax bastardi, are known to prey upon the eggs of grasshoppers
(Riley, First Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., pp. 303-304, 317. 1878).
Adults of several species of robber-flies feed upon grasshoppers;
others kill bees (Riley, Sec. Rep. Ins. Mo., pp. 121~124. 1870).

Promachus vertebratus Say. Vertebrated Robber-fly. (Pl. XLVI,
fig. 6.)

This is an abundant fly upon the prairie. A specimen was taken
on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 56); and on the prairie
east of Charleston (Sta. III, )) Aug. 15 (No. 62). Here a robber-
fly was seen with a cabbage butterfly, Pontia rape (No. 61) ; since the

187

fly escaped, however, the species is not known. Another was found
astride a grass stem (Sta. I, g) with the stink-bug Euschistus variola-
rius grasped in its legs Aug. 12 (No. 39). Aug. 12, among the prairie
grasses (Sta. I, g), a pair of these flies was taken copulating (No. 44).
Walsh (Am. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 140-141. 1869) states that Asilus preys
upon Polistes and Bombus, which it grasps by the head-end, to keep
out of the reach of the sting, from the bodies of which it sucks the
juices. It handles a harmless grasshopper very differently.

I have observed a large species of robber-fly at Havana, IIl., which
hung suspended from grass while devouring its prey; and Aldrich
(Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 2, p. 147. 1893) observed a robber-fly
suspended by its fore feet, apparently asleep, holding a large beetle.
Cook (Bee-keepers’ Guide, ninth ed., pp. 317-321. 1883) has seen a
species of robber-fly capture a tiger-beetle, Cicindela; many of these
flies furthermore prey upon the honey-bee. The introduction of this
bee into the prairie associciation must have had considerable influence
upon flower-frequenting insects, and especially upon the predaceous
kinds.

The capture of the cabbage butterfly by an asilid is another obser-
vation which Cook has recorded for Proctacanthus milberti Macq.
(Asilus missouriensis Riley). He says (1. c. p. 318) : “It has been ob-
served to kill cabbage butterflies by scores.” Wallis (Can. Ent., Vol.
45, Pp. 135. 1913) observed this fly capturing Cicindela. Punnett
(Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 7, pp. 13-15. 1910) has recently shown that in
Ceylon robber-flies are important enemies of large butterflies. Procta-
canthus milberti has been observed to prey upon locusts (Riley, First
U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 317. 1878). For an elaborate account of the
food and feeding habits of this family see Poulton, (’07). :

As very little is known of the breeding habits of the American
species, the observations of Hubbard on the oviposition of Mallophora
orcina Wied. (Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 262. 1880) are of
interest. He saw a female of this Florida species bury its abdomen in
the ground, where it deposited five or six eggs at a depth of half to
two thirds of an inch. The eggs hatched in a week. Erax lateralis
Macq. has been recorded as predaceous upon May-beetle larvz (Titus,
in Bull. 54, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 15-16). Titus gives fig-
ures of the larva and pupa.

DoLIcHOPODIDA

Psilopus sipho Say. Metallic Milkweed Fly. (Pl. XLVI, fig. 2.)
This pretty metallic-colored fly, observed by almost every field
student or collector, is one of our commonest insects. It runs rapidly

188

over the upper surface of the leaves of the common milkweed, Ascle-
pias syriaca, and is so nimble that it requires a little care to catch it. A
large number of the flies were secured from the common milkweed
along the railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27), and also on the
milkweeds infested with the plant-louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch. Al-
though some species of Dolichopodide are said to be predaceous, I
have never seen this species attack any insect.

The peculiar breeding habits of some of the members of this fam-
ily have been described by Aldrich (Am. Nat., Vol. 28, p. 35-37.

1894).
SyvrpHDa

Syrphus americanus Wied. (Pl. XLVII, figs. 3, 4, and 5.)

This fly was taken along the railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 9 (No.
11). Its hum when on wing sounded much like that of the small yel-
low-jacket, Vespa. Metcalf (’13, p. 55) found it feeding on aphids
infesting Phragmites.

Certain syrphid larve prey upon plant-lice, and the adults are
abundant on flowers, especially unbellifers, feeding on their nectar. For
good accounts of both larve and adults consult Williston (Bull. 31,
U.S. Nat. Mus., pp. 269-272. 1886) and Metcalf (13).

Mesogramma polttum Say. Corn Syrphid. (Pl. XLVII, figs. 1 and 2.)

This syrphid was found in great numbers on the Loxa prairie (Sta.
II) Aug. 27 (No. 177).

The larve are pollen feeders, as has been shown by an examination
of the contents of the alimentary canal (cf. Riley and Howard, Insect
Life, Vol. 1, p.6). Also consult Forbes (’ 05, p. 162), who figures the
species. Upon the original prairie the species probably fed on the pol-
len of various grasses or other plants.

Allograpta obliqua Say. (Pl. XLVII, figs. 6 and 7.)

This insect was taken on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) in company
with great numbers of Mesogramma politum Say, Aug. 27 (No. 177).
For figures of the larva, pupa, and adult see Washburn (Tenth Ann.
Rep. State Ent. Minn., p. 101. 1905) and Metcalf (’13, p. 58). It
feeds upon aphids.

ConoPipat
Physocephala sagittaria Say.

This insect was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, Solidago (Sta.
I), Aug. 12 (No. 26). Also taken on a small-flowered aster at Ur-
bana. Ill., Oct. 8. The larve of this family are parasitic on other
insects. There is a figure of an allied species on Plate XLVIII, fig-
ure I.

189

TACcHINIDE

Cistogaster immaculata Macq.

A single specimen of this fly was taken on the flower of rattlesnake-
master, Eryngium yuccifolium (Sta. 11) Aug. 13 (No. 58).

The larva is parasitic on lepidopterous larvee (Townsend, Psyche,
Vol. 6, p. 466. 193) ; and has been bred from the army-worm, Leucania
unipuncta Haw. Two undetermined species of tachinids were taken
by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. 1) July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

Trichopoda ruficauda V. d. W.

A single specimen of this fly was taken along the railway track
(Sta. 1) Aug. 12 (No. 38).

An allied species, T. pennipes Fabr., has been bred from the
squash-bug (Cook, Rep. Mich. State Board Agr., pp. 151-152. 1889),
and another, plumipes Fabr., has been bred from a grasshopper, Dis-
sosteira venusta Stal (Coquillett, ’97, p. 21).

Sciomyzp

Tetanocera plumosa Loew. (Pl. XLVIII, fig. 2.)

Taken in a colony of Spartina (Sta. I,a) Aug. 28 (No. 179).
This species is figured by Washburn (Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent.
Minn., p. 121. 1905). The larve of this family are aquatic. Need-
ham (Bull. 47, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 580-581, 592, Pl. 14. 1901)
describes and figures T. pictipes Loew. (Cf. Shelford, ’13a.)

TRYPETIDA
Euaresta equalis Loew.

This insect was taken in sweepings among a colony of the cone-
flower, Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, ¢), Aug. 12 (No. 40). Marlatt (Ent.
News, Vol. 1, p. 168) records the rearing of this fly from the seed-pod
of the cocklebur (Xanthium).

EMpImpIDA

Empis clausa Coq.

A specimen of this fly was taken from a pair of copulating ambush
bugs, Phymata fasciata, on the flowers of Solidago (Sta. I) Aug. 12
(No. 43), and great numbers, so many that they darkened the flowers
on which they rested, were seen upon Asclepias syriaca (Sta. 1) Aug.
12 (No. 27). The specimen was determined by J. R. Malloch.

McAtee (Ent. News, Vol. 20, pp. 359-361. 1909) gives an account
of the habits of Empidide, and Schwarz (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol.
20, pp. 146-147. 1893) states that one kind captures small flies, and

190

suspended by its foreleg, eats its prey. This position when eating is a
curious habit, independently acquired by several predaceous insects, as
Bittacus, Vespa, and certain Asilide.

Mr. Malloch has called my attention to British observations made
upon the peculiar habits of these flies. Thus Howlett (’07) has shown
that the male supplies the female with an insect for food during copu-
lation. These observations have been confirmed by Hamm (’08).
Poulton (’07) discusses the food habits of these flies in much detail.

HYMENOPTERA
CYNIPIDA

Rhodites nebulosus Bassett. (Rose Gall.)
This gall was taken on a wild rose, Rosa, in the mixed forest and
prairie colony east of Charleston (Sta. ITI, b) Aug. 15 (No. 60).

Braconia

An undetermined species was taken from the flowers of Pycnan-
themum pilosum in the cleared area with sprout growth bordering the
Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 146).

ForMicipz

Myrmica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. sabuleti Meinert.

This ant was found upon the prairie on flowers of the common
milkweed, Asclepias syriaca (Sta. 1), Aug. 12 (No. 27). It was asso-
ciated with Formica fusca subsericea Say and Formica pallide-fulva
schaufussi incerta Emery.

Wheeler (’05. pp. 374, 384) regards this as one of the heath ants,
which “inhabit rather poor, sandy or gravelly soil exposed to the sun
and covered with a sparse growth of weeds or grasses... ... It
nests in sandy or gravelly sunny places such as open pastures, road-
sides, etc.” These requirements are admirably met by the conditions
along the gravelly and sandy road-bed of the railway where the milk-
weeds flourish.

Formica fusca Linn., var. subsericea Say.

This ant was found on flowers of the goldenrod, Solidago (near
Sta. I,c), Aug. 11 (No. 20); on leaves of the common milkweed
(Asclepias syriaca) infested with the plant-louse Aphis asclepiadis
Fitch (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 30) and again Aug. 24 (No. 154); and
in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

According to Wheeler (’10a, p. 458) this ant is enslaved by For-
mica sanguinea Latr. and the following subspecies: aserva Forel, rubi-

191

cunda Emery, subnuda Emery, subintegra Emery, and puberula
Emery. Wheeler has seen Formica sanguinea “plunder a subsericea
nest nearly every day for a week or a fortnight.” In raiding a nest
the ants carry off the larve and pupz to their own nests, to serve as
slaves when matured.

Wheeler (1. c., p. 374) states that subsericea may live in a great
variety of situations—an unusual trait, but indicated in our collect-
ing by its presence in both forest and prairie.

Formica pallide-fulva Latr., subsp. schaufussi Mayr, var. incerta
Emery.

This common reddish ant was taken on the prairie from flowers
of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca (Sta. I), Aug. 12 (No.
27); and on the Loxa prairie from flowers of the mountain mint
Pycnanthemum pilosum or P. flexuosum (Sta. I1) Aug. 13 (No. 52).

This ant was associated on the milkweeds with Myrmica rubra
Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. sabuleti Meinert, and Formica
fusca subsericea Emery.

Wheeler (’05, pp. 373, 374) lists this species as frequenting glades,
“open sunny woods, clearings, or borders of woods,” and further adds
that the glade and field faunas are not separated by a sharp line, for
“Formica schaufussi, for example, seems to occur indifferently in
either station.” That open patches in woods or glades often contain
ants which also frequent open places, is thus in harmony with a gen-
eral rule for this association, not only in the case of animals but also
of plants, so that it applies to the entire biota of such situations.

Wheeler (10a, p. 393) lists a small wingless cricket, Myrmecophila
pergandei, as living with Formica pallide-fulva. These lick the sur-
faces of the ants, and seem to feed upon the products of the dry bath.

Wheeler says (’05, p. 400) that the food of schaufussi appears to
be “largely of the excrement of Aphides and the carcasses of insects.”

Wheeler (’04, pp. 347-348) states that the nests are usually found
under a stone, and that Formica difficilis Emery var. consocians
Wheeler is a temporary parasite upon incerta, but “only during the
incipient stages of colony formation” (p. 358). This is a temporary
parasitism of one colony upon another, during which the parasite mul-
tiplies and becomes strong enough, at the expense of its host, to estab-
lish a new independent colony. This is what Wheeler calls a “tem-
porary social parasite, a true cuckoo ant, which sponges on another
species only so long as necessary in order to gain a successful start
in life.’ Schwarz (’90b, p. 247) records several species of beetles as
living with schaufussi. Not only does this species suffer from tempo-
rary ant-parasites, but it may be enslaved by some form of Amazon-

192

ant, as Polyergus lucidus (Wheeler, ’10a, p. 482; Tanquary, ’11,
p. 302).
Moutitupsz
Spherophthalma sp. Velvet Ant.
This wasp was taken on the bare footpath at the margin of the
Bates upland woods (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23.(No. 151). It is prob-
ably parasitic in the nests of bees.

Myzinwz
Myzine sexcincta Fabr.

This black-and-yellow-banded wasp was very abundant on flowers.
It was taken Aug. 8 (Sta. I, g) on flowers of Asclepias incarnata (No.
1) and from Pycnanthemum flexuosum (No. 6); from the flowers of
goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta. I,a), Aug. 11 and 12 (Nos. 20 and
26); by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3, rg11 (No. 7665) ; on flow-
ers of Pycnanthemum (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 52); and from the
flowers of Eryngium yuccifolium (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55); and
from the cleared area bordering Bates woods (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23
(No. 146).

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, 8th ed. p. 177. 1883)
states that this wasp flies “low over hot sandy places.” This is one
of the species found by Banks (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 10, p. 210,
1902) to sleep in grass, and by Brues (idem, Vol. 11, p. 229. 1903)
resting during the day and night upon plants.

Scotmpz
Scolia bicincta Fabr,

This hirsute black wasp, with two yellow transverse dorsal bands
on the abdomen, is represented in our series by four specimens. Three
of these were taken on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum from the
clearing bordering the upland portion of the Bates woods (near Sta.
IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 146); the others, from.an open space in the up-
land forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163). I have also taken this
species at Bloomington, Ill., Aug. 23, 1892, and Aug. 25, 1896.

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, 8th ed., p. 176. 1883)
states that in Europe Scolia bicincta burrows sixteen inches in sand
banks, and that it probably stores its nest with grasshoppers. Riley
(First Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 319. 1878) states that species of
Scolia are known to have the habit of stinging grasshoppers and
digging nests, provisioning these with grasshoppers, on which they
lay eggs as does the wasp Chlorion cyaneum Dahlb. (C. ceruleum
Drury). (Cf. with Kohl, Ann. des K. K. naturhist. Hofmuseums, Bd.

193

5, pp. 121-122. 1890.) Forbes (’08, pp. 157-160) has found that
Tiphia is parasitic upon the grub of the May-beetles (Lachnosterna).
The wasp crawls into the ground in search of the larva, stings it, and
lays its eggs upon it. It is not unlikely that S‘colia has similar habits.

The sleeping habits of bicincta and some other Hymenoptera have
been described by Banks (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., vol. 10, pp. 127-130.
1902), Brues (idem, Vol. 11, pp. 228-230. 1903), and Bradley (Ann.
Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 1, pp. 127-130).

Scolia tricincta Fabr.

One specimen was taken—in the clearing bordering the Bates
woods on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23
(No. 146).

EuUMENDs

Odynerus vagus Sauss. Potter Mud-wasp.

An oval mud nest, about 18 mm. long and 10 mm. in diameter, was
found on a stem of dogbane, Apocynum medium (Sta. I), Aug. 12
(No. 46). The nest was placed in a vial; and later, a single wasp of
the above species came from an opening which was made at the point
where the mud cell was formerly attached to the plant.

This is a predatory wasp, which stores its nest with caterpillars
(Peckhams, in “Wasps, Social and Solitary,” pp. 94-95. 1905).

VESPIDAE

Polistes—probably variatus Cress.

A small nest was observed in a grassy area near Station I,e, but
was not secured. The adults feed the young with caterpillars and nec-
tar. See Enteman (Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. 61, pp. 339-351. 1902)
for an excellent account of the habits and life history of these social
wasps.

That these wasps will build their nests in an open area is of inter-
est, because the nests are so commonly found under eaves and on the
under side of roofs—situations which were originally lacking on the

rairie.
As Walsh stated, the social wasps do not store up food, because
“they feed their larve personally from day to day.”

PSAMMOCHARIDA

Priocnemoides unifasciatus Say (Priocnemis). Spider Wasp.
This wasp was taken in the cleared area bordering the Bates woods,
on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosum (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No.

146).

194

A specimen was taken Aug. 21 at Bloomington, Ill. The yellow
wings and antennz, and yellow subapical wing spot on the smoky
wings make this a conspicuous species. The family name Pompilide
was formerly used for these wasps.

SPHECIDA
Ammophila nigricans Dahlb.

A single specimen was taken from the flowers of Pycnanthemum
flexuosum (Sta. 1) Aug. 11 (No. 24).

This is a very common Illinois species. I have taken it at Bloom-
ington.from June 22 to September 9, at Havana during August, and
at Chicago, August 19 and 28. A specimen taken August 2 at Bloom-
ington, Ill., was digging in the ground when captured.

Chlorion ichneumoneum Linn. (Sphex ichneumonea Fabr.). Rusty
Digger-wasp. (PI. L, fig. 1.)

This insect, abundant on flowers of the swamp milkweed, Ascle-
pias incarnata, August 8, was taken on them at Sta. I, g, Aug. 8 (No.
1) and at Sta. I,d, Aug. 9 (No. 12); and on the mountain mint
Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. 1) Aug. 8 (No. 6). It was also
taken by T. L. Hankinson July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

This is a very common insect on flowers in central Illinois. I have
found it abundant at Chicago during August; at Bloomington, IIL,
from June 24 to Oct. 1; at Mayview on Sept. 26 in a colony of prairie
vegetation.

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, pp. 167-168. 1870) tells
how these wasps dig holes four to six inches deep in gravel walks, and
after capturing long-horned grasshoppers, Orchelimum vulgare or
O.“ gracile, and stinging and paralyzing them, proceed to bury them.
The egg is deposited on the locust before the soil is scraped in. (Cf.
Walsh, Am. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 126. 1869). For an excellent account of
the habits of this species consult the Peckhams, “Instincts and Habits
of the Solitary Wasps” (1898). See Fernald (’06) for the recent
synonymy.

Chlorion pennsylvanicum Linn. Pennsylvania Digger-wasp.

This wasp was taken on the flowers of Eryngium yuccifolium
(Sta. IT) Aug. 13 (No. 55). On Aug. 8, 1893, I captured a specimen
at Chicago. (Cf. Fernald, ’06, p. 405.)

Chlorion harrisi H. T. Fernald (Isodontia philadelphica Auct.). Har-
ris’s Digger-wasp.
One specimen of this wasp was taken on flowers of the mountain
mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. 1) Aug. 11 (No. 24).

° 195

I have also taken this species at Bloomington, Ill, Aug. 21 and
Sept. 7 and 11.

This wasp has been known in North Carolina to build its nests
in the funnel-like bases of the leaves of the pitcher-plant Sarraceniu
flava (Jones, Ent. News, Vol. 15, p. 17 and Pl. III. 1904), and
provisions its nest with Gicanthus. Ashmead (Insect Life, Vol. 7, p.
ue 1894) states that it “preys upon the cricket Gcanthus fasciatus

itch.”

Chlorion atratum Lepeletier (Priononysx atrata St. Farg. and Sphex
brunneipes Cress.). Black Digger-wasp.

This species was taken from the flowers of Eryngium yuccifolium
(Sta. IT) Aug. 13 (No. 55). I have also taken it at Havana, IIL,
during August, and at Bloomington, Ill, on September 3, 5, and 12.

In a colony of prairie vegetation near St. Joseph, IIl., when out
with a class on an ecological excursion, Sept. 26, 1911, I made some
interesting observations on this wasp. Along the Big Four railway
track between Mayview and St. Joseph, Ill, fresh sand and gravel
had very recently been placed upon the road-bed. In this fresh sand
we observed a large black wasp, Chlorion atratum, digging. The wasp
was about two thirds of her length in the hole when first observed,
and when captured later she was more than her length in the hole.
She would scratch out the sand so that it fell near the mouth of the
hole, and then come out and, standing over the pile, she would scrape
it far out of the way by rapid movements of her legs. Every now and
then she would come out of the hole with gravel in her jaws; several
of such samples were preserved. As the sand was loose the gravel
was of course not firmly imbedded. Of the small stones carried out
five of the largest range from one fourth to one half an inch in diam-
eter. In bulk each of these is larger than the thorax of the wasp.
Four small flies were seen to hover about the hole; some which alighted
on small stones near by were captured by a member of the party and
proved to be small tachinids (No. 309, C.C.A.), which Mr. J. R.
Malloch determined to be Metopia leucocephala Rossi. (Cf. Coquillett,
’97, p. 127.) Mr. Malloch also called my attention to recorded obser-
vations on other tachinid flies which inhabit the burrows of H:ymenop-
tera in Great Britain, and are parasitic in habit (Malloch, 09). Hamm
(’ogb) has described how one of these flies, Setulia grisea Mg., follows
the females of Cerceris as she provisions her burrow with weevils.
They were observed to enter and to come out of the burrow. Me-
lander and Brues (’03, pp. 9, 20) state that M. leucocephala infests
the bee Halictus by choosing “the moment when the incoming bee
pauses at her threshold quickly and quietly to oviposit on her pollen
mass and thus infect her offspring.” This fly has been reported to be

196

viviparous. Cf. Aldrich (’05, p. 476). The Peckhams (’98, p. 37) ob-
served a small fly at the burrows of Chlorion ichneumoneum. Brues
(Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 11, p. 228. 1903) has observed this species
near Chicago sleeping in sweet clover. (See also Bradley, in Ann. Ent.
Soc. Amer., Vol. 1. pp. 127-130. 1908.)

For the habits of this species see the Peckhams, “Instincts and
Habits of the Solitary Wasps,” pp. 171-173. This species provisions its
nest with the Carolina locust, Dissosteira carolina. Coquillett (Insect
Life, Vol. 7, p. 228, 1894) says that this species shows a preference for
Melanoplus femur-rubrum DeG. in provisioning its nest.

Stizipz

Stizus brevipennis Walsh. Digger-wasp.

A single specimen of this large wasp was taken on flowers of
Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35); another was
taken by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3, 1911 (No. 7665).

Walsh (Am. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 162. 1869) found this species on flow-
ers of the wild parsnip at Rock Island, Ill. An allied wasp, Sphecius
speciosus Drury, preys upon the cicada or dog-day harvest-fly, Cicada
pruinosa, on which it lays its egg and upon which its larva feeds. Con-
sult Riley (Insect Life, Vol. 4, pp. 248-252. 1891) for an excellent
account of this wasp. As Walsh infers, brevipennis and speciosus prob-
ably have similar habits. A tachinid fly, Senotainia trilineata V. d.
W., has been bred from the nest of speciosus (Coquillett, ’97, p. 20).

HavicTipa
Halictus obscurus Rob.
A single specimen was taken—on the Loxa prairie from the flow-
ers of Eryngium yuccifolium (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55).

Halictus fasciatus Nyl.

This bee was taken Aug. 13 on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) from
the flowers of Silphium integrifolium (No. 48) and from those of
Pycnanthemum flexuosum or P. pilosum (No. 52) ; and on goldenrod,
Solidago (Sta. 1), Aug. 12 (No. 26).

Halictus virescens Fabr.
A single male of this small bee, with metallic green head and
thorax, was taken on flowers of verbena (Sta. 1) Aug. 11 (No. 23).

; NomapDIpa
Epeolus concolor Rob.
This species was taken on the heads of the cone-flower, Lepachys
pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 8 (No. 8); very abundantly from flowers of

197

the mountain mint Pycnanthemum flexruosum (Sta. I, g) Aug. 8 (No.
6); from flowers of Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No.
48) ; and from flowers of Pycnanthemum flexuosum or pilosum (Sta.
IT) Aug. 13 (No. 52).

It is said to be “parasitic on the species of Colletes,” but Robertson
(’99, pp. 35, 37) does not accept this view, and Ashmead (Psyche, Vol.
7 PP. 41-42. 1894) states that Epeolus donatus Smith makes a nest
in the ground and provisions it with a honey-paste. He describes the
burrows, egg, and larva.

Robertson has published keys to the Carlinville (Ill.) species of
Epeolus (Can. Ent., Vol. 35, pp. 284-288. 1903).

EUcERIDA
Melissodes aurigenia Cress.
A single female of this species was taken from flowers of ver-
bena( near Sta. I,b) Aug. 11 (No. 23).
The homing behavior of this genus of bees has been studied by
Turner (Biol. Bull., Vol. 15, 247-258. 1908). He concludes that
memory is utilized.

Melissodes bimaculata St. Farg.

This bee was taken from the heads of the cone-flower, Lepachys
pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 8 (No. 8); abundantly from flowers of the
mountain mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I,g) Aug. 8
(No. 6); on the Loxa prairie on flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphium
integrifolium (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 48; and on the cleared margin
of the Bates woods on flowers of the mountain mint, P. pilosum (Sta.
IV, a), Aug. 22 (No. 146).

Some observations on the “sleeping habits” of this bee and of other
Hymenoptera have been made by Banks (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol.
10, pp. 209-214. 1902). Graenicher (’05, p. 164) has recorded ob-
servations on the habits of M. trinodis Rob. and also on its bee para-
site Triepeolus. Ashmead (Psyche, Vol. 7, p. 25. 1894) found the
burrows of bimaculata eight inches deep in the soil.

Melissodes desponsa Smith.
This bee was taken on the cleared margin of the Bates woods on
flowers of the mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum (near Sta.

IV, a) Aug. 22 (No. 146).

Melissodes obliqua Say.

This bee was found abundant upon flowers of the cone-flower, Le-
pachys pinnata (Sta. I, ¢), Aug. 8 (No. 8) ; it was taken from flowers
of the white mint, Pycnanthemum flecuosum (Sta. 1), Aug. 11 (No.

198

24); and a female was taken from the flowers of Silphium integri-
folium (Sta. 1) Aug. 13 (No. 48). According to Robertson (Trans.
Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 6, p. 468. 1894) this bee is the most abun-
dant bee visitor to the cone-flower, and it also shows a marked prefer-
ence for this plant.

MEGACHILIDE

Megachile mendica Cress. Leaf-cutting Bee.

A single specimen was taken on flowers of the swamp milkweed,
Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, g), Aug. 8 (No. 1).

The habits of our leaf-cutting bees have received little attention,
although the circular areas which they cut from rose leaves are a fa-
miliar sight. Putnam (Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 105-107. 1864)
describes the nests of Megachile centuncularis Linn., and Packard, one
of its hymenopterous parasites (idem, pp. 133-137).

Megachile brevis Say. Short Leaf-cutting Bee.

A single female was taken by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3,
1911 (No. 7665). This species is known to use plum leaves for its
nest. Its habits have been briefly described by Reed (Sec. Rep. Ent.
Soc. Ont., pp. 24-26. 1872; Can. Ent., Vol. 3, pp. 210-211. 1871).
The nest is formed of a leaf which is wrapped about the disks cut from
the leaves, and is not in the ground or in cavities in wood as is the case
with many species. Packard (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 5, p. 109-
111. 1897) describes and gives figures of the immature stages of what
is possibly M. centuncularis Linn. See also Packard (’73), Ashmead
(92), and Howard (’92a).

Some of the species of this genus are parasitized by bees of the
genera Stelis and Calioxys as has been shown by Graenicher (’05) ;
some also are parasitized by certain flies (Howard, in Proc. Ent. Soc.
Wash., Vol. 2, p. 248. 1893).

XYLOCOPID

Xylocopa virginica Drury. Carpenter-bee. (Pl. XLIX.)

Only four specimens of this bee were taken, and these were found
on flowers of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d),
Aug. 8 (No. 1) and 24, (No. 156).

The carpenter-bee has much the appearance of a large bumblebee.
The female cuts tunnels in wood to make a nest for the young Pack-
ard has described the larva (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 5, p. 113.
1897). The same author records observations by Angus on the boring
habits of this species (Our Common Insects, pp. 21-24. 1873). He
found the larva of a bee-fly, Anthrax sinuosa Wied., parasitic on the

199

larva of the carpenter-bee. Felt, (’05, Pl. 39, and ’06, p. 484) has
given figures of the nest and has briefly described it. The burrows are
made in the seasoned lumber of houses, in telegraph poles, and in simi-
lar situations. On the prairie at Charleston, fence posts, telegraph
poles, and railway ties constitute the supply of wood available for nest-
ing purposes. It thus appears probable that this bee was not particu-
larly abundant on the original prairie, far from the forests or cotton-
woods, for such nesting habits imply a supply of wood for the bur-
rows. The larva is said to feed upon pollen, on which the eggs are
placed.
Bomapz

Bombus pennsylvanicus DeG. Pennsylvania Bumblebee.

This species was taken on the Loxa prairie from flowers of the
purple prairie clover, Petalostemum purpureum (Sta. II), Aug. 13
(No. 50); on flowers of the mountain mint, Pycnanthemum pilosum
or P, flexuosum (Sta. Il) Aug. 13 (No. 52); on flowers of the rattle-
snake-master, Eryngium yucctfolium (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 553);
in an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22 (No.
143) ; on flowers of the thistle Cirsium discolor (near Sta. I, d) Aug.
24 (No. 155); from the flowers of the broad-leaved rosin-weed, Sil-
phium terebinthinaceum (Sta. III, b), Aug. 26 (No. 175); and on
the prairie west of Loxa on the flowers of the blazing star, Liatris
scariosa (Sta. II), Aug. 27 (No. 176).

Banks (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 10, p. 212. 1902) has recorded
this species as sleeping on flowers.

The following papers on the habits and life history of the bumble-
bees will aid in the study of these neglected insects :

Coville, Notes on Bumble-Bees. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 1, pp.
197-202. (1890)—Putnam, Notes on the Habits of some Species of
Bumble Bees. Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 988-104. (1864)—Packard
The Humble Bees of New England and their Parasites; with notices
of a new species of Anthophorabia, and a new genus of Proctotrupidz.
Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 107-140. (1865)—Marlatt, An Inge-
nious Method of Collecting Bombus and Apathus. Proc. Ent. Soc.
Wash., Vol. 1, p. 216. (1890)—Howard, The Insect Book, (1904),
pp. 12-16; and Sladen, The Humble-Bee (1912). Marlatt describes
the use of a jug of water in collecting bees from the nest. (This has
long been the common method of destroying these bees used by coun-
try boys and farmers of central Illinois. )

A very important systematic paper, which also contains much on
the life history and habits of the American Bombide has recently
been published by Franklin (’13).

200

A tachinid fly, Brachycoma davidsoni Coq. (Coquillett, ’97, p
10) has been bred from a larva of Bombus fervidus Fabr. The larva
of the syrphid fly Volucella lives as a scavenger in Bombus nests (Cf.
Metcalf, ’13, p. 68). The conopid flies Physocephala and Conops are
parasitic on Bombus. A nematode parasite, Spherularia bomb, in-
fests hibernating queens. It has been found in B. pennsylvanicus, fer-
vidus, and consimilis (Cf. Stiles ’95).

Bombus auricomus Rob.

Two males of this species were taken from flowers of the large-
leaved rosin-weed, Silphium terebinthinaceum, on the prairie area
east of Charleston (Sta. III, b), Aug. 26 (No. 175). This bumble-
bee was also taken by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. 1) July 3, 1911 (No.
7665). (Cf. Franklin, ’13, Pt. I, p. 413.)

Bombus impatiens Cress. Impatient Bumblebee.

A single female was taken from the flowers of the broad-leaved
rosin-weed, Silphium terebinthinaceum, east of Charleston (Sta.
III, 6), Aug. 26 (No. 175).

Bombus fraternus Smith.

Two females of this species were taken on flowers of the swamp
milkweed, Asclepias incarnata: one of them (No. 1) at Station I, g,
Aug. 8; and the other (No. 12) at Station I, d, Aug. 9.

Bombus separatus Cress.

This species was collected from the swamp milkweed, Asclepias
incarnata, as follows: Station I, g, Aug. 8 (No. 1) ; Station I, d, Aug.
9 (No. 12); Station I, d, Aug. 24 (No. 157)—the latter had been
captured by the flower spider Misumena aleatoria Hentz; and one
male from flowers of the horse mint, Monarda (Sta. I), Aug. 11
(No. 22).

Psithyrus variabilis Cress. False Bumblebee.

A single female was taken from the flowers of the horse mint,
Monarda (Sta. I), Aug. 11 (No. 22); and a male was taken on the
prairie west of Loxa from flowers of the blazing star, Liatris scar-
iosa (Sta. II), Aug. 27 (No. 176). These bees are parasitic in the
nests of Bombus. For an excellent account of the habits of the Brit-
ish species, Sladen (’12, pp. 59-72) should be consulted.

APIDE

Apis mellifera Linn. Honey-bee.
Workers of this species were extremely abundant on flowers of
the milkweed Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, and Sta. I,d,g) Aug. 8

201

(No. 1). Milkweed flowers play a double réle as food and enemy.
Robertson (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. 5, p. 573) states that
honey-bees are frequently found hanging dead from the flowers of
the common milkweed, A. syriaca, and Gibson (Harper’s Mag., Vol.
95, Pp. 519-520. 1897) has found many of them entrapped by this
milkweed. Bees are not the only insects captured by this insect trap,
for Gibson found gnats, crane-flies, bugs, wasps, beetles, and small
butterflies hanging from the flowers. He also found that the dogbane
Apocynum thus captures moths.

II. Forest INVERTEBRATES

MOLLUSCA
HELIcmz

Polygyra albolabris Say. (PI. LI, figs. 2 and 3.)

A single adult dead shell (No. 91) of this woodland species was
found in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a@). It is our largest species of
snail.

The natural history of our land-snails has received little attention,
but is worthy of careful study. The best account of the life history
and habits of this species is by Simpson (’or).

Polygyra clausa Say.

A single dead immature shell was taken under a small decayed limb
on the ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 164), associated with
many individuals of Pyramidula perspectiva, and one individual each
of Vitrea indentata and V. rhoadsi.

Shimek (’o1, p. 200) groups this species with those which frequent
“higher, more deeply shaded (often mossy and rocky) banks and
slopes, sometimes in deep woods.”

CIRCINARIDA

Circinaria concava Say. Predaceous Snail.

A large dead shell (No. 71) and several living specimens were
found in a decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a). A young
individual (No. 113), diameter 6 mm., was taken Aug. 20 among the
vegetable debris washed from a ravine and deposited as a low fan in
the lowland forest (Sta. IV,c). With it were associated Vitrea in-
dentata, and some kind of large snail eggs (No. 114). This is a car-
nivorous species.

202

ZONITIDE
Vitrea indentata Say.

One specimen (No. 113) was taken Aug. 20, among a mass of
drifted rotten wood and dead leaves deposited at the mouth of a ra-
vine in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c), in company with a young speci-
men of the carnivorous Circinaria concava, and another (No. 140),
on Aug. 22, under leaves at the base of a ravine slope (Sta. IV, b),
in woods so dense that there was very little herbaceous vegetation, but
a thick ground cover of leaves and vegetable mold. ‘The interesting
ant Stigmatomma pallipes, Myrmica rubra scabrinodis schencki, and
the larva of Meracantha contracta were found here. Specimens were
also taken Aug. 26 (No. 164) under a small decayed limb, on the
ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) in company with Vitrea rhoadsi, Polygyra
clausa, and Pyramidula perspectiva.

Vitrea rhoadsi Pilsbry.

This snail was taken under a small damp decayed limb on a
wooded ravine slope (Sta. IV,}) in company with V. indentata,
Pyramidula perspectiva, and Polygyra clausa (No. 64). Mr. F. C.
Baker informs me that this species has not previously been recorded
from Illinois.

Zonitoides arborea Say.

This snail was taken on a fungus which was growing on a de-
cayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 71),
in company with the mollusks Pyramidula perspectiva, Circinaria
concava, and Philomycus carolinensis, the ant Aphenogaster fulva,
and the white ant Termes flavipes. Also taken from a moist rotting
stump, on the slope of the valley (Sta. IV, b), Aug. 17 (No. 84),
in company with the snail P. perspectiva, the slug P. carolinensis,
newly established colonies of the ant Camponotus herculeanus penn-
sylvamicus, and the beetle Passalus cornutus.

This snail appears to be mainly a species of the woodland, where
it occurs under decaying wood and vegetable debris.

Motter (’98, p. 219) records this species from an old grave. This
suggests a subterranean habit. (Cf. Baker, ’11, p. 155.)

PHILOMYCIDA

Philomycus carolinensis Bosc. Carolina Slug.

Several young specimens of this slug (No. 71), about 5 mm. long
when contracted in alcohol, were found (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 in the
upland forest on a well rotted stump overgrown in part by a felt-like
fungous growth. The finding of these young slugs and the finding

203

elsewhere in the forest of eggs, possibly of this species (Nos. 86
and 114), is of special interest. On the forested ravine slope (Sta.
IV, b) in another decaying stump, in which the bark was loosened
and the sap-wood quite decayed, soft, large examples of this slug
were found in abundance Aug. 17 (No. 89). They were associated
with newly established colonies of the carpenter-ant Camponotus
herculeanus pennsylvanicus, and the horned Passalus, Passalus cor-
nutus (No. 85). The association of these three species is not an ac-
cident, but indicates clearly a certain stage in the decay of a log or
stump which is favorable to their development. Another colony
was found under the bark of an oak stump (Sta. IV, 6) in which
the sap-wood had decayed, but the remainder of which was solid
though discolored. A very large individual and several young slugs
ranging in length from about half an inch to an inch and a half were
found in a cavity under the bark Aug. 22 (No. 125).

A batch of eggs, found with specimens No. 89, and presumably
of this species, was taken Aug. 17 (No. 86). These eggs, pearl-
like translucent spheres, twenty-two in number, were in a small clus-
ter. The other lot of eggs (No. 114) was taken Aug. 20 among
dead leaves and rotten-wood drift at the mouth of a ravine in the
lowland forest (Sta. IV, c), where Vitrea indentata was taken (No.
113). The large size of these eggs, which even when shriveled in
alcohol are over 2 mm. in diameter, the paucity of other large pul-
monates throughout these woods, the abundance of Philomycus,
and the presence of small young at this season are indicative that
the eggs belong to this slug.

Little seems to be recorded concerning the life history of this
species or its habits. An individual kept by Binney (Bull. 28, U. S.
Nat. Mus., pp. 243-244. 1885) deposited thirty eggs June 30. These
hatched July 10 and grew very rapidly. Baker (’02, p. 203) states
that it ascends trees to a “height of over fifty feet, and is most fre-
quently found under bark which has become ‘started’.” He also
states that it is “solitary in habit.” My own observations of this
species confirm his statement as to its preference for wood in which
the sap-wood has decayed, but I have often found several specimens
in close proximity, as was the case with specimens No. 89.

ENDODONTIDE

Pyramidula alternata Say. Alternate Snail.
A single dead shell (No. 173) of this common species in forests,
was taken at the mouth of a ravine in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c).
This is generally a woodland species. At Mackinaw Dells, along

204

the Mackinaw bottoms in Woodford county, Ill, I have found large
numbers late in the fall hibernating in hollow trees about five feet
above the ground. A very large colony—perhaps several hundred
specimens—was once found some little distance from woods along a
moist railway embankment south of Bloomington, Ill. Baker (’o2,
p. 208) states that the eggs, from twenty to eighty, are laid early in
June and hatch in about thirty days..

Pyramidula perspectiva Say.

The decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) which was
overgrown with a layer of fungus (see under P. carolinensis) con-
tained Aug. 17, a very large number of young and adults of this
species (No. 71). The shell is distinguished by the large open um-
bilicus, which leaves the upper whorls exposed.

This is the most abundant mollusk in the forest. It was found
associated with Circinaria concava, Zonitoides arborea, and Phil-
omycus carolinensis. In small cavities in the wood encrusted with
the fungus, large numbers of P. perspectiva were found crowded to-
gether. Apparently this snail fed upon the fungus, the moist surface
possibly adding attractiveness. In this stump was a large nest of
the ant Aphenogaster fulva (No. 79) and one of white ants, Termes
flavipes (No. 72). P. perspectiva was also taken from a decaying
stump on the wooded ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 17 (No, 84) in
association with Zonitoides arborea, Philomycus carolinensis, the ant
Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus, and the beetle Passalus cor-
nutus,; under decayed logs in the upland oak forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug.
17 (No. 88); and under a small much-decayed limb on the wooded
ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 164) in company with Poly-
gyra clausa, Vitrea indentata, and Vitrea rhoadst.

Shimek (’o1, pp. 200, 202) says that this species is common on
shaded banks, under decaying logs, and lists it with those which fre-
quent “higher, more deeply shaded (often mossy and rocky) banks
and slopes, sometimes in deep woods.”

CRUSTACEA
ASTACIDA

Cambarus diogenes Girard. Diogenes Crawfish.

This crawfish was taken Aug. 17, 1911, in the south ravine (Sta.
IV, d), where Mr. Hankinson also took it in 1910 in the following
situations: from a pool in the stream Aug. 17; from burrows, with
chimneys, in the bed of the stream, Aug. 20; and from under flat
stones in the bed of this stream, three specimens, Aug. 22.

205

For detailed accounts of the ecological relations of this species
see Ortmann (’06) and Harris (’03).

Cambarus propinquus Girard. Neighborhood Crawfish.

This species also was taken from a small pool in the south ravine
(Sta. IV, d), Aug. 20, 1910, by Hankinson.

Consult Ortmann (’06) and Harris (’03).

Cambarus immunis Hagen. Immune Crawfish.

This species was taken from pools in the temporary stream (Sta.
IV,d) by Hankinson Aug. 17 and 20, 1910.

Consult Harris (’03).

MYRIAPODA

LYsIoPeTALIDA
Callipus lactarius Say.

This myriapod was taken among dead leaves and rotten wood in
the forest bottom at the mouth of a ravine (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20
(No. 113).

There is hardly a more neglected group of animals in Illinois than
the Myriapoda. The ecological relations of our American myriapods
offer a virgin field for study. A few observations upon the habitat
of the humus-inhabitating Texas species have been made by Cook
(Ila, pp. 147-150).

CRASPEDOSOMIDA
Cleidogona cesioannulata Wood.

This myriapod was taken under damp leaves on the lower slopes
of the lowland forest (Sta. IV,b) Aug. 22 (No. 140), associated
with the old-fashioned ant, Stigmatomma pallipes.

PoLyDESMID =

Folydesmus sp.

This myriapod was taken under the bark of an oak stump in the
early stages of decay—all sap-wood being honeycombed; the remain-
der solid though discolored—(Sta. IV. b) Aug. 22 (No. 125), asso-
ciated with Philomycus carolinensis.

ARACHNIDA
PHALANGIIDA
PHALANGIIDA:

Liobunum vittatum Say. Striped Harvest-spider.
One female was taken in the upland Bates forest, while running
about on the dry leaves lying around a decayed stump (Sta. IV, a)

206

Aug. 17 (No. 82), and two males were found in the same forest
Aug. 22 (No. 123).

Weed (89, p. 87) states that this species is very abundant on
rocky ledges in parts of southern Illinois. He is of the opinion that
the winter is passed in the egg stage, and maturity is reached in
July. The young prefer grass, low vegetation, and piles of rubbish,
but when mature are found in a “great variety of situations,” as in
the corn fields of the prairie parts of Illinois, in grasslands, among
brush, and in the forest (’92c, p. 1006).

Liobunum ventricosum Wood. (PI. LI, fig. 1.)

Three specimens of this “daddy-long-legs” were taken in the up-
land Bates forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 22 (No. 123b)

The young of this species hibernate, and maturity is reached
early in June (Weed, ’92b, p. 264). This is exceptional, as most
species of this group pass the winter in the egg stage. The food of
daddy-long-legs consists mainly of dead insects (Weed, ’89, p. 80).

Liobunum grande Say. Stout Harvest-spider.

This stout-bodied and short-legged species was found running
about on dry leaves in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No.
82); and in a damp ravine (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 20 (No. 111).

Consult Weed (’92b and ’93 )for descriptions and figures of this
species. Very little appears to be recorded about it.

ARANEIDA
EPERDZ

Epeira insularis Hentz. Island Epeirid. (Pl. LII, figs. 1, 2, and 3.)

This spider was taken from a web stretched between trees in the
upland forest (Sta. IV,a), Aug. 16 (No. 70).

McCook (’89, Vol. 1, pp.117, 118, 273, 330, 337; ’90, Vol. 2, pp.
20, 86-87, 208, 214, 289, 441, 453) records a number of interesting
observations on this spider. The Peckhams (’87) give an account ot
their observations on its senses.

Epeira domiciliorum Hentz. Tent Epeirid.

This spider was taken at the margin of the low, damp forest (Sta.
IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 137); from the margin of a large web among
the branches of trees in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No.
167); and, on the same date, from the glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c), folded in a sassafras leaf (No. 173).

I have found the species at the margin of its webs, in a leafy tent,
in dense woodlands near Urbana, Ill., in the Brownfield woods Oct.

207

18, and in the Cottonwood forest Oct. 13. It was abundant among
the leaves of a shrub—the spice-bush (Benzoin).

McCook (’89, Vol. 1, pp 78-79, 116, 255, 288, 330, and ’90, Vol.
2, pp. 86-88, 224, 334) records many observations on the habits of
this species, and, more recently, Porter (’06) has studied an allied
species.

Epeira trivittata Keys. Three-lined Spider. (Pl. LIII, figs. 1 and 2.)
A single specimen was taken on a web in the lowland forest (Sta.
IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 138).

Epeira verrucosa Hentz. White-triangle Spider. (PI. LIII, figs. 3
and 4.)

This species was taken from webs stretched between trees in the
forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 16 (No. 70); and again at the same Station
Aug. 22 (No. 126). The individuals taken were always at the center
of their webs.

The peculiar whitish, leaf-like triangular area on the dorsal sur-
face of the abdomen is a striking pecularity of this species. It is as-
sociated in habitat with Acrosoma spinea Hentz, and A. rugosa
Hentz. ,

Acrosoma spinea Hentz. Spined Spider. (Pl. LIV, figs. 1-5.)

From webs connecting trees in the damp lowland forest (Sta.
IV,c) this spider was taken Aug. 22 (No. 138) and Aug. 26 (No.
172); and another individual (No. 148) was taken Aug. 23 (Sta.
IV) from a small web on a low sassafras shrub within two feet of
the ground. It feigned death when placed in a vial, the hind legs
being closely applied to the abdomen, the others being folded against
the cephalothorax. The two large posterior spines on the abdomen
of this species make it conspicuous.

This is a representative forest-inhabiting species; its web and
those of rugosa, generally placed at about the height of a man’s head,
are often so abundant, at least during August, as to be bothersome
when one after another is swept from the trees by one’s face. Be-
cause of the tension of these threads few persons care to have them
accumulate on the face.

McCook (’89, Vol. 1, pp. 126-127) has recorded observations
on this species.

Acrosoma rugosa Hentz. (gracile Walck.). Rugose Spider.

This spider was taken from webs connecting trees and shrubs
in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 70) and Aug. 22 (No.
126); on a web in the forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 23 (No. 147), with
the apex of the ventral abdominal cone turned uppermost at the cen-

208

ter of the web; and from webs in the shady lowland forest (Sta.
IV,c) Aug. 26 (No. 172).

Montgomery (’03, pp. 119-120 and ’og) has made observations
on the breeding habits of this species, and McCook (’89, Vol. 1, pp.
64, 73, 125-127, 254, 338, and ’go, Vol. 2, pp. 285, 289, 375) describes
its webs and gives observations on its habits.

Lycospa
Lycosa scutulata Hentz.
A single immature specimen was taken from the low vegetation
in an open glade in the lowland part of the Bates woods (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No. 144).
For the breeding habits of this species see Montgomery (’03,
pp. 72-76).

Lycosa sp.; young.

This spider was taken in the upland woods (Sta. IV, a), running
upon the ground, Aug. 23 (No. 150). Another undetermined species
was taken in the pathway entering the upland forest from the cleared
area (Sta. IV,a). This spider was dug from a burrow about two
inches deep, in the solid clay of the pathway, Aug. 22 (No. 142).

ACARINA

ERIOPHYDA

Acarus seroting Beut. Cherry-leaf Gall-mite. (Pl. LV, fig. 1.)

This small mite was taken in the lowland portion of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 116). It forms a gall on the upper
side of the leaves of the wild cherry, Prunus serotina.

INSECTA

PLATYPTERA
TERMITIDA

Termes flavipes Koll. White Ant. Termite. (PI. LV, fig. 2.)

A small well-decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) was
found Aug. 17 to contain a colony of these termites in large num-
bers—mainly workers but also some soldiers (Nos. 72, 79). In close
proximity was a colony of the ant Aphenogaster fulva. Some of
these ants (Nos. 74-76) were observed to pick up termites and carry
them away as they do their own young when a nest is disturbed. A.

209

fulva is known to relish the termites as food. A second colony of ter-
mites (No. 125) was found Aug. 22 under the bark of an oak stump
(Sta. IV, 6), in the early stages of decay, when the sap-wood was
becoming honeycombed but the remainder of the wood was still solid.
The caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna was found in the same stump.

As white ants feed mainly upon woody and other vegetable ma-
terials, they are active agents in hastening the decay and destruction
of such substances, mainly in forested areas but also upon the prairie.

Two species have long been confused under the name of flavipes,
and as the newly recognized one, virgimicus Bks., may occur in ex-
treme southern Illinois, reference is made to it. (See Banks, Ent.
News, Vol. 18, pp. 392-393. 1907).

NEUROPTERA
MYRMELEONDA

An ant-lion was taken from its inverted funnel in the dust along
the path through the cleared area to the forest (near Sta. IV, a)
Aug. 29 (No. 183).

Although ant-lions are common in many localities and widely dis-
persed, little is really known of the ecology of the American species.
These insects reach their greatest abundance and diversity in the
arid regions of the west and southwest. In the eastern forested area
they are of much more local occurrence and are generally found in
the dust, particularly in sheltered places—as under an overhanging
cliff or even under the porches of houses, where the desirable protec-
tion from rain is afforded; or, often, in the woods, in the powdery
dust that marks the final stages in the decay of a log. The log as
an animal habitat has an interesting life history and a corresponding
succession of animals. On the decay of the sap-wood, Camponotus
and Philomycus are among the early invaders of the log; the ant-
lion, present in its dust, is one of the latest. It should be noted that
these isolated, dry, dusty places are the situations in the humid
area which most nearly approach the conditions which on the plains,
and particularly on the desert, are of nearly continuous geographic
extent.

MECAPTERA
PANORPIDA

Bittacus stigmaterus Say. Clear-winged Scorpion-fly.
The damp, shady lowland forest, with a ground cover composed
of nettles (Laportea canadensis) and clearweed (Pilea pumila),

210
would seem to furnish an ideal habitat for the genus Bittacus, but
only two specimens, a male and a female, were taken (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No, 141).

The young and adults of this genus are predaceous. Brauer and
Felt have described the habits of some of the adults. They capture
small flies and other insects with their legs as they hang suspended.
The use of the legs for suspension and for the manipulation of their
food recalls somewhat similar methods used by other predaceous
insects, such as robber-flies (Asilide) and hornets (Vespa). Bittacus
may copulate while thus suspended and eating, as described and fig-
ured by Brauer. Either the first or second, or both pairs of legs may
be used for suspension.

The larve are caterpillar-like, but in the case of our American
species none of them are known. The European species are preda-
ceous, and live upon the ground. According to Brauer a certain
amount of drying seems necessary to the hatching of the eggs. Some
species have been taken at light, where they preyed upon the congre-
gated insects. (See Hine, ’o1, p. 260, and Bull. No. 7, n.s., Div.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 86. 1897.) Papers by Brauer (’53, 755,
62, 63, ’71), Felt (’95), and others by Hine (98, ’o1), will be of the
greatest assistance to a student of this neglected group of insects.

Bittacus strigosus Hag. Spotted Crane-like Scorpion-fly.

This species was taken but once—June 28, 1911, by T. L. Han-
kinson in the Bates woods (No. 7678). It was abundant south of
Bloomington Aug. 22, 1895, where B. stigmaterus Say was also taken
July 16, 1896. These species are characteristic of dense woods.

Bittacus apicalis Uhler. Brown-tipped Scorpion-fly.

This insect was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates woods by T. L.
Hankinson (No. 7678). I have found this species very abundant in
dense shady woods south of Bloomington, Ill. The brown tips of
the wings make it easily identifiable.

ORTHOPTERA
BuattTipa

Ischnoptera sp.

This cockroach was found under leaves on the lower slopes of a
ravine (Sta. IV, b) leading to the lowland Aug. 22 (No. 140). Han-
cock (’11, pp. 416-418) discusses the habits and habitat of J. pennsyl-
vanica (Pl. LVI, figs. 4 and 5.)

211

PHASMIDZ:

Diapheromera femorata Say. Forest Walking-stick. (Pl. LVI, fig. 6.)

These insects were abundant in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) ;
the following observations were made on them. A fuscous male (No.
64) was taken Aug. 16 crawling on hickory. When disturbed it fell
to the ground and remained quiet. A female was taken at the base
of a tree in a resting position with the antenne closely applied and
stretched forward. On August 17 a nymph was taken in an open
area; Aug. 20 (No. 103), a large gray female; a copulating pair
(No. 134), in which the female was gray and the male fuscous; and,
finally, a small immature male (No. 163) in the before-mentioned
resting position, on hickory.

On the ravine slope (Sta. IV, b), memoranda are as follows:
Aug. 22 (No. 124a) three fuscous males, and a large gray female in
the resting position, and (No. 132), in copulation, a fuscous male
and a green female, the latter lacking the hind pair of legs. A green,
nearly mature nymph was taken in a wood-lot adjacent to the Bates
area Aug. 28 (No. 99). A large fuscous male was taken east of
Charleston on the Embarrass River at the “Rocks” Aug. 10 (No. 17).

This walking-stick is distinctly a forest-inhabiting insect, but we
have another, Bacunculus blatchleyi Caud., which frequents the
prairie, though it was not found about Charleston. Occasionally
femorata becomes of economic importance. Riley (Rep. U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1878, pp. 241-245) studied its life history and habits and found
that some predaceous bugs prey upon it. The Severins (Jour. Eco-
nomic Ent., Vol. 3, pp. 479-481. 1910) have shown experimentally
that the hatching of the eggs is facilitated by moisture. T. I,. Hank-
inson found a phasmid nymph, about an inch long, June 28, 1911, in
the woods (No. 7678).

The behavior of our species is worthy of more attention than it
has received. In such a study, reference should be made to a sugges-
tive paper by Stockard on the “Habits, Reactions and Mating In-
stinct of the ‘Walking-Stick’ Aplopus Mayeri’”’ (Pub. No. 103, Car-
negie Institution, pp. 43-59. 1908); or, if the color changes are
studied, Schleip’s paper on “Der Farbenwechsel von Dixippus moro-
sus (Phasmidae)” (Zool. Jahrb. Bd. 30, Abt. Allgem. Zool. u. Phy-
siol., pp. 45-132. 1910) should be consulted. Cf. Caudell, Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus., Vol. 26, pp. 863-885, 1903.

ACRIDIIDA

Tettigidea lateralis Say. (Pl. LVII, fig. 3.)
A grouse locust was found in the dry upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
on the ground Aug. 20 (No. 109).

212

Morse (’04, p. 16) states that this species has a preference for
“wet meadows and swales.”

Tettigidea parvipennis Morse. Short-winged Grouse Locust.

A single specimen was secured in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
on dry leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Hancock (’02, p. 149) found this species very abundant in moist,
dense woods.

Dichromorpha viridis Scudd. Short-winged Grasshopper. (Pl. LVII,
fig. 7.)

A green short-winged female was taken from the tall prairie
grass (Andropogon and Sporobolus) colony (Sta. I,g) Aug. 12
(No. 39). The following were taken from the upland forest (Sta.
IV,a): Aug. 16 (No. 67) on dry leaves, a nymph, a long-winged
male, and three short-winged females; Aug. 17 (No. 92) in an open
space, a copulating pair, both of which were brown and short-winged,
and a brown short-winged female (No. 93); Aug. 22 two more cop-
ulating pairs, one (No. 121) brown short-winged forms, the other
(No. 122) green short-winged individuals. In a glade in the low-
land forest where grasses, Eupatorium celestinum, and young sas-
safras abounded (Sta. IV,c), a nymph, a brown short-winged fe-
male, and three males, two brown and one green, were taken Aug.
20 (No. 117), and on Aug. 22 a green female nymph and green and
brown short-winged males (No. 143) ; and on the slopes of the valley
(Sta. IV,6) a green short-winged female was secured Aug. 20
(No. 110).

On account of the disparity in the size of the sexes—the males
being much smaller than the females—it is possible for copulating
females to jump about and carry the males with them, the pair No.
121 affording an example.

According to Morse (’04, p. 19, 32) this is a forest and thicket
species which also frequents “tangled herbaceous growths whenever
found.” In New England it frequents “grass fields on wet soil, near ,
the margins of ponds and streams; in the South and Central States
it is more commonly found in rank herbage along ditches and streams,
and in the edge of moist woodlands. Its haunts are thus intermediate
in character between those of a campestral and sylvan species, and
so likewise are the structural adaptations presented by it, a very large
proportion of the females being brachypterous.”’

It will be noted that the Charleston series is mainly from the
forest area, only one individual coming from the true (moist) prairie;
also that the forest, even the upland part, is in close proximity to a

213

humid lowland forest tract. Hancock (’11, pp. 297, 392-394) has
discussed the habitat of this species.

Chloealtis conspersa Harr. Sprinkled Grasshopper. (PI. LVII, fig. 6.)

This locust was taken from the ground, mainly among leaves, in
the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); in sunny open
places Aug. 17 (No. 93); and along a path through the forest among
dry leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Morse (’04, p. 19) considers this a forest, forest-margin, and
thicket species, and Hart (’06, p. 75) says it frequents “open woods
on ground encumbered with leaves, branches, and bushes.” Consult
Scudder (Final Report upon the Geology of New Hampshire, Vol.
I, pp. 371-372. 1874) for an account of the egg-laying habits of
this species; also Hancock (’11, pp. 347-351) for its habits.

Spharagemon bolli Scudd. Boll’s Grasshopper. (Pl. LVII, fig. 4.)

A male of this species was taken on the ground on leaves in the
upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); a dead female was
found clinging to the tip of a plant stem on the most open part of
the slope (Sta. IV, b) from the upland forest to the lowland Aug.
22 (No. 133); and a female was taken among leaves on the ground
in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 150). T. L. Hankin-
son found an adult and a nymph in the Bates woods June 28, 1911
(No. 7678). (Cf. Hancock, ’11, pp. 362-364.)

The positive heliotropism or negative geotropic response shown
in diseased grasshoppers is of interest. It may be caused either by a
fungous or bacterial disease. (Cf. Gillette, Bull. No. 6, n. s., Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 89-93. 1896.)

Morse (’04, p. 15) considers this an exceptional ground-inhabiting
or geophilous species since it is “an inhabitant of xerophytic forests as
well as of open fields, and in the Southern States is found quite as
often in the forest as on the open plain.”

Melanoplus differentialis Thomas. Differential Grasshopper.
Consult the list of prairie invertebrates, p. 167.

Melanoplus atlanis Riley. Lesser Grasshopper. (Pl. LVII, fig. 8.)

A single specimen was taken on the ground in the upland forest
(Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 67). The open character of parts of this
dry forest affords favorable conditions for this species.

Morse (’04, pp. 19, 42) considers this a characteristic species
of open country, but “likely to be found anywhere.” Hancock (’11,
pp. 415-416) has described the habitat of this species.

214

Melanoplus amplectens Scudd.

This locust and nymphs doubtfully regarded as of the same
species were taken from the ground, mainly among leaves, in the up-
land forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); other collections are as
follows: in the glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No.
117); on the open ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 22, a male (No.
124a) ; and on the same date, in the glade of the lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c), a nymph and an adult female (No. 143).

This is the largest of the short-winged locusts in the forest, and
an abundant species. Morse (’04, pp. 19, 50, Pl. 7) described its
haunts as in thickets, forest margins, open forests, and occasionally
in grassy clearings and fields.

Melanoplus gracilis Bruner.

Two males were found Aug. 20 in a glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV,c) where there was a luxuriant cover of vegetation, and
nettles and Eupatorium calestinum abounded; and Aug. 22, in the
same location, one female was found (No. 143).

The wings are very rudimentary in this species. Hart (’06, p.
82) describes its habitat as follows: “On tall grasses and weeds in
ravines and about marshes, masses of wild vines along railroads,
weedy growths in the beds of small streams, and in like situations.”
These conditions are found in open areas with an abundance of vege-
tation.

Melanoplus obovatipennis Blatch.

This small species, similar to scudderi, was found in the upland
forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 93). A nymph taken Aug. 22
from the forest (Sta. IV) is doubtfully regarded as of this species
(No. 124).

Hart (06, p. 81) gives the habitat of this species as “High
wooded hillsides throughout Ilinois.” Blatchley (’03, p. 308) states
that it frequents ““for the most part, high, dry, open woods, espe-
cially those in which beech and oak trees predominate.” He further
states that in a dry season it may be found associated with Dichro-
morpha viridis and Truxalis brevicornis “among the reeds and tall
rank grasses near the borders of marshes.”

Melanoplus scudderi Uhl. Scudder’s Grasshopper.

A single female was found in the open glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117); and a nymph taken Aug. 22
from the open ravine slope (Sta. IV, 6) is doubtfully referred to this
species (No. 124).

215

Hart (’06, p. 81) describes the habitat of this grasshopper as
“open woods and thickets, and along rail fences and roadsides.”
Species which now characterize our open, partly cleared woodlands,
in the primeval forest probably frequented forest margins, bluffs,
and the borders of streams, or open patches in woods where a tree
had fallen, and similar situations. With a thinning out of the for-
est (up to a certain degree) their habitat is increased in area, but
when by clearing the woods disappear, their habitat vanishes.

LocustTIp

Scudderia furcata Bruner. Forked Katydid. (Pl. LVII, fig. 5.)

One female was taken in an open area in the upland forest on
low shrubs (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 109). Another specimen was
taken near Vera, Fayette county, III., on a finely developed colony of
prairie vegetation among Andropogon, Sept. 1 (No. 185).

Blatchley (’03, p. 349) states that it is “most frequently seen on
the low bushes a trees about the margin of thickets and along
fence rows, but in the prairie country north [in Indiana] it frequents
coarse grasses and weeds.”

Amblycorypha rotundifolia Scudd. Round-winged Katydid. (PI.
LVII, fig. 2.)

A single female of this species was taken in the glade in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117); and also a freshly
emerged female (No. 143). Blatchley (’03, p. 352) states that this
is “more of a terrestrial species than oblongifolia, being often seen
on the ground, or on clumps of tall grass and weeds which grow in
damp ravines.” Hart (’06, p. 84) says that this species is found
“On grasses and weeds in damp ground.”

Microcentrum laurifolium Linn. Angle-winged Katydid. (Pl. LVII,

figs. 1 and 2.)

Males were found on hickory sprouts at the cleared margin of
the upland forest (near Sta. IV.a) Aug. 22 (No. 135). They
were chirping loudly, in the early afternoon, on sprouts less than
two feet high.

Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus Linn. Common Katydid. (Pl. LVIII,
fig. 1.)

One male was taken in the partly cleared area bordering the for-
est (near Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23 (No. 145). Here, among stump
sprouts of hickory, oak, and young sassafras, about two to three
feet high, stood this male stridulating in the sun at 2:30 p. m., but
the note did not seem exactly normal, that is, as when heard at night.

216

This species is so distinctly arboreal and nocturnal that I was sur-
prised to find it stridulating during the day, and so near the ground.
I have camped for days in a grove where these insects made a great
din at night, but found none on the low vegetation or on the ground
(as at Kappa, Ill). Years ago a large colony flourished in Franklin
Park at Bloomington, Il.

Conocephalus nebrascensis Bruner. Nebraska Cone-nose.

A female was taken in the glade in the damp lowland forest (Sta.
IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117).

The female of this species has been observed to oviposit “between
the stem and root-leaves of Andropogon”, a typical prairie plant, but
little appears to be recorded of its habitat. A large nymph of this genus,
and probably of this species (No. 159), was taken on the prairie
grass Andropogon (Sta. I,g) Aug. 24. It had been captured by the
crab-spider Miswmena aleatoria Hentz (No. 159).

Orchelimum cuticulare Redt.

A specimen was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 16
(No. 67); another, from the open areas of the upland forest (Sta.
IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 93); and a third, from the glade in the damp
lowland forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 143). All of these were
males.

Orchelimum glaberrimum Burm.

This insect was found in abundance in the glade in the lowland
forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117), and a nymph was taken in
the same place Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The abundance of this species in this damp area, with its pro-
fusion of low vegetation, indicates that the conditions were fav-
orable.

Xiphidium nemorale Scudd.

Nymphs and adults were found in the glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117) and Aug. 22 (No. 143); in the
openings in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 93), and
Aug. 20 (No. 103).

Blatchley (’03, p. 374) states that it abounds along the “borders
of dry, upland woods, fence rows, and roadsides, where it delights to
rest on the low shrubs, blackberry bushes, or coarse weeds usually
growing in such localities.”

GrYLLIDZz

Nemobius fasciatus DeG. Striped Cricket. (Pl. LVIII, fig. 6.)
Nymphs of this species were found in the upland forest on the

217

ground (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); in the upland forest area
also, in an open place, was found a short-winged male Aug. 17 (No.
93); along a path in the upland forest, among dry leaves, a short-
winged female was taken Aug. 22 (No, 122); and an abundance of
short-winged males and females, and nymphs (No. 143) were found
Aug. 22 in the glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c).

This small cricket is generally abundant among the litter on the
forest floor.

Nemobius maculatus Blatch. Spotted Cricket.

A nymph was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) among
leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Blatchley (’03, p. 425) states “It is found in low open woods,
usually in the vicinity of or beneath logs”; Hart, (’06, p. 89) states
that it is found “About logs and dead wood in sparse woods and near
streams.”

Apithus agitator Uhl. Woodland Cricket.

A nymph was taken from the open area in the upland forest (Sta.
IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 93); another from an open ravine slope (Sta.
IV, b) Aug. 22 (No. 124). No adults were secured.

Blatchley (’03, pp. 458-459) records this species as from forests,
noting its preference for prickly ash. It is also recorded as from
grape-vines and dense shrubbery. The females deposit eggs in the
twigs of the white elm, Ulmus americana Linn.

HEMIPTERA
CicapIDz

Cicada linnet Grossb. (Cicada tibicen L.). Dog-day Harvest-fly.
Pl. LV, fig; 5.)

This insect was found at the cleared margin of the upland forest
(near Sta. IV, a) on low hickory sprouts Aug. 26 (No. 162).

It is said to require two years to mature. T. L. Hankinson re-
ports that Tibicen septendecim L,. (PI. LV, figs. 3 and and 4) was
found about Charleston in 1907, and branches scarred by the oviposit-
ing females were observed in the Bates forest (Sta. IV, a).

Felt (’05, pp. 237-238) describes the emergence of the adult
Tibicen from the nymph skin. For the recent synonymy see Smith
and Grossbeck (Ent. News, Vol. 18, pp. 116-129. 1907).

FuLcorpDa

Ormenis pruinosa Say (?). Mealy Flata. (Pl. LVI, figs. 1 and 2.)
This insect was taken by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911, in the

218

Bates woods (No. 7678). It,appears to feed upon a large variety of
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Its normal habitat is probably
in open woods or the forest margin. Swezey (’04, pp. 8-9) gives
full references to the life history of this insect and a list of the food
plants.

TETTIGONIELLIDA

Aulacizes irrorata Fabr. (Pl. LVI, fig. 3.)

A few specimens were taken, the collection data being as follows:
from an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No.
117); and from the smaller branches of sassafras bushes (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No. 143).

This insect is often taken on grapes, and in the South on cotton.
Sanderson (Bull. 57, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 58. 1906)
describes briefly the egg-laying habits and figures the adult insect.

Gypona pectoralis Spangb.
This species was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates woods (Sta.
IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678).

PENTATOMID:
Euschistus fissilis Uhl.

This bug was taken in Bates forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 22 (No.
124). It has been known to feed upon wheat (Webster, Rep. U. S.
Dept. Agr., 1885, p. 317). It also feeds upon corn, and on the moth
Aletia. It is parasitized by the proctotrypid Trissolcus euschisti
Ashm. (Olsen, in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 20, p. 52. 1912).

Mormidea lugens Fabr.
A nymph of this bug was taken by T. L. Hankinson in the Bates
woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 1911 (No. 7678).

Hymenarcys nervosa Say.

This insect was taken on the ground from among dead leaves and
decayed wood which had drifted to the mouth of a ravine in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 113). In the South this insect
feeds upon cotton.

Mirpz
Lygus pratensis Linn. Tarnished Plant-bug.

This bug was taken in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, IQII,
by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). See prairie list, page 175.

219

CorEIDz
Alydus quinquespinosus Say.
This bug was taken by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911, in the
Bates woods (No. 7678), and July 10 (No. 7693) on the under-
growth in the woods (Sta. IV).

Acanthocerus galeator (Euthoctha) Fabr. (Pl. LVI, fig. 8.)

Six large nymphs of this plant-bug were taken on the apical part
of a tall herb, Actinomeris alternifolia Linn., growing in the open
glade of the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c; Pl. XIV) Aug. 29 (No. 182).

This bug has been reported to suck the juice from the plum, and
it injures the tender parts of orange plants. Hubbard (Insects Af-
fecting the Orange, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., p. 163. 1885) gives
figures of the adult insect and describes briefly the eggs and young.
Forbes and Hart (’00, p. 445) have summarized the little that is
known of this insect.

Jalysus spinosus Say. Spined Stilt-bug. (Pl. LVI, fig. 7.)

This bug was found Aug. 20 in the open glade of the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c), where there was a luxuriant growth of herbaceous
vegetation (No. 117). It was also taken (Sta. IV) by T. L. Hank-
inson June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). Lugger reports it from oak woods.
It feeds upon plants.

GERRDZ

Gerris remigis Say. Water-strider. (PI. L, fig. 2.)

This water-strider was abundant in the pools of the small tem-
porary stream in the ravine bordering the southern part of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, d) Aug. 22 (No. 129).

It is an important enemy of mosquito larvze.

REDUVIDA

Sinea diadema Fabr. Rapacious Soldier-bug.

A nymph of this predaceous bug was captured by T. L. Hankin-
son in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). See
list of prairie animals, page 173.

CoLEOPTERA
CICINDELIDZ:

Cicindela unipunctata Fabr. Woodland Tiger-beetle.
One specimen of this tiger-beetle was taken along the path through
the cleared area as it entered the forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 22 (No.

136).

220

Tiger-beetles are generally most abundant in open places, but this
beetle seems to be a woodland species like the brilliantly colored C.
sexguttata Fabr. Wickham (’99, pp. 210-211) records unipunctata
from wooded areas. It is rare and difficult to catch, and is said to
be nocturnal in habit.

CARABIDAL

Calosoma scrutator Fabr. Caterpillar-hunter.

This common arboreal beetle was taken Aug. 16 (No. 64) in the
upland Bates wood (Sta. IV, a), where it attracted attention by the
rustling sound it made in crawling among the dry leaves on the
ground. Specimens of these beetles I could easily secure by remain-
ing quiet and listening for this rustling of the leaves. One specimen
was seen to crawl up the trunk of a small oak-tree, three or four inches
in diameter, for about seven feet. Another individual I took from
my neck. It may have fallen upon me from a tree, but more prob-
ably it climbed upon me as it does a tree. In woods adjacent to the
Bates forest, a caterpillar-hunter (No. 97) was found Aug. 20 with
what appeared to be the damp cast skin of some large bombycid larva,
which was also claimed by an ant, Camponotus herculeanus Linn.,
subsp. pennsylvanicus DeG., var. ferrugineus Fabr. On the ravine
slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 20 T. L. Hankinson captured one of these
beetles (No. 100) with a caterpillar about an inch long, which it had
partly mangled in the thoracic region with its formidable jaws. On
the upper slopes of the ravine (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 23 another beetle
(No. 149) was found on the ground under a hickory tree, eating a
Datana larva. Along this same rather open forested slope another
individual was observed to run from the ground up the trunk of a
small white oak (six or seven inches in diameter) for three or four
feet, and then to return to the ground. The climbing individuals ob-
served took a relatively straight course up the trunk, making no ef-
fort to climb in a spiral direction, and made the descent head fore-
most.

‘At Bloomington, Ill, while picking cherries I have taken the
beetle in trees. Although the arboreal habit is evidently very well
developed in this species, it is also very much at home on the ground.
The rapidity and apparent ease with which it ran over dry oak leaves
in the upland Bates woods surprised me.

The active foraging habits of this beetle are well shown by Her-
man’s observations (Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 21, p.
80. 1910) on its killing nestlings of the cardinal grosbeak (Cardin-
alis cardinalis) in bushes three feet from the ground. Harris (In-

221

sects Injurious to Vegetation, p. 470. 1869) states that it preys upon
canker-worms, both on the ground and by ascending trees.

Galerita janus Fabr.

A specimen was found under the bark of a decaying log in the
upland Bates forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 23 (No. 171). This common
beetle is frequently found in such situations, and seems to’ have a
preference for relatively damp places. I have taken the adult as
early as March 23 under bark of logs in the sap-wood stage of decay
at Urbana, Ill., where it was found associated with single dealated
females of Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus, Passalus cornu-
tus, pyrochroid larve, the caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna, and the
slug Philomycus carolinensis.

This species is a fairly common one. I found it abundant at
Bloomington, Ill., where it was taken April 15, May 1, and June 22.

The larva has been described by Hubbard (Psyche, Vol. 1, pp.

49-52. 1875).
CoccINELLIDA

A species of lady-beetle was found upon a fungus growing on a
stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 81). Asso-
ciated with the beetle on the fungus were large numbers of the snail
Pyramidula perspectiva.

ELATERIDA
Melanotus sp.

A larva belonging to this genus (No. 125) was found Aug. 22
under the bark of a decaying stump (Sta. IV. 6) in which the sap-
wood was destroyed, the remainder being sound though discolored.
It was associated with the slug Philomycus carolinensis and the
caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna.

Corymbites sp.

A larva belonging to this genus (No. 113) was found in drifted
leaves and dead wood at the mouth of a ravine in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c).

Asaphes memnonius Hbst.

This click-beetle was taken at the mouth of a ravine in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 113) in drift composed of
dead leaves and rotten wood.

LAMPYRIDE

Calopteron terminale Say. Black-tipped Calopteron.
This interesting beetle was taken in the damp lowland forest (Sta.

IV, c) Aug. 26 (No. 173).

222

This species has been mentioned as an instance of mimicry because
of its resemblance in shape and color-pattern to the syntomid moth
Lycomorpha pholus Drury. Both are found in damp shady woods.

Calopteron reticulatum Fabr. Reticulate Calopteron. (PI. LVIII,

fig. 4.)

A single specimen was taken—in the glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva and pupa of this species are described by Coquillett
(Can. Ent., Vol. 15, pp. 97-98. 1883). July 10 he found a pupa
“suspended by the hind end of its body beneath a log.”

Photuris pennsylvanica DeG. Pennsylvania Firefly. (Pl. LVIII,
fig. 3.)
This large firefly was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678).
McDermott (10, ’11) Knab (’05), and Mast (’12) should be
consulted for discussions on the natural history and ecology of our
fireflies. McDermott gives many observations on P. pennsylvanica.

Chauliognathus marginatus Fabr. Margined Soldier-beetle.

This predaceous beetle was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates
woods (Sta. IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). (Cf. Lintner,
Fourth Rep. Injurious and other Ins. N. Y., 1888, pp. 74-88.) This
is a predaceous species in the larval stage, feeding on immature in-
sects. The adults feed on pollen (Riley, in Fifth Rep. Ins. Mo., p.

154. 1873).

Telephorus sp.
This was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) by
T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). See T. bilineatus, Pl. XLIV, fig. 1.

LucanDa&

Passalus cornutus Fabr. Horned Passalus. (Pl. LVIII, fig. 5.)

This common woodland beetle was found under the bark of a
decaying stump on the slope of a ravine (Sta. IV,b) Aug. 17 (No.
85). One specimen, with a chestnut thorax and yellowish wings,
had just shed the pupal skin. Another, a fully matured specimen,
carried a large colony of mites. Ewing (Univ. Studies, Univ. IIL,
Vol. 3, p. 24. 1909) states that nymphs of uropod mites are often
attached to insects for transportation. It has generally been as-
sumed that they are parasitic.

This Passalus seems to be one of the most common insects found
in decaying logs and stumps. I have found it very abundant at

223

Bloomington, Ill. The beetles evidently hibernate, for I have taken
them at Urbana, IIl., as late as October 18, and as early in the spring
as March 23.

This beetle invades logs and stumps as soon as the sap-wood be-
gins to be well decayed, and evidently advances into the log with the
progress of decay. As it invades logs in the sap-wood stage of decay,
it is often associated with newly founded colonies of the ant Cam-
ponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus, pyrochroid larve, the slug Phil-
omycus carolinensis, and the caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna. For
physiological studies of cornutus see Schafer (Mich. Agr. Coll. Exper.
Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 11. 1911).

ScaRABAIDa

Geotrupes splendidus Fabr. Splendid Dung-beetle.

This dung-beetle was dug from a hole, an inch or so below the
surface, in the hard clay of the pathway near the margin of the for-
est bordering the cleared area (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 22 (No. 120). As
cattle and horses were pastured in this forest, its presence is readily
accounted for.

Pelidnota punctata Linn. Spotted Grape Beetle.

Only one specimen of this beetle was taken. It was found on a
grape leaf (Sta. III, b) Aug. 15 (No. 58). This insect is primarily
a forest or forest-margin insect. The larva feeds upon the decaying
roots and stumps of oak and hickory. The adult devours leaves of
the grape and of the Virginia creeper.

Many undetermined scarabeid larvae were found in a much-de-
cayed stump in the ravine near the small temporary stream (near
Sta: IV, d) Aug. 22 (No. 130).

CHRYSOMELIDA

Chrysochus auratus Fabr. Dogbane Beetle.

This characteristic species of the prairie (No. 103) was taken
Aug. 20 in an open place in the upland oak-hickory forest (Sta.
IV, a) on the dogbane Apocynum medium. See list of prairie inver-
tebrates, p. 178.

Cryptocephalus mutabilis Mels.

This leaf-beetle was taken June 28, 1911, in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). It has been reported on
Ceanothus, Viburnum, hazel, and oak by J. B. Smith. Evidently this
is a woodland beetle.

224

Coptocycla clavata Fabr. Clubbed Tortoise-beetle.

This leaf-beetle was taken in the south ravine of the Bates woods
(Sta. IV. b) by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). It
is known to injure the potato, tomato, eggplant, and bittersweet.
The larve and adults feed upon the same kinds of plants (Lintner,
Sixth Rep. Injurious and other Ins. N. Y., pp. 126-127. 1890).

TENEBRIONIDAS

Boletotherus bifurcus Fabr. Horned Fungus-beetle. (Pl. LIX, figs.
I, 2, and 3.)

This curious-looking beetle was found on the shelf-fungus Polyp-
orus in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 26 (No. 173).

I have found this species very abundant near Bloomington, TIL,
where at times it was difficult to find an example of Polyporus which
was not thoroughly honeycombed by the larvz of these beetles. A
single shelf has been found to contain several beetles. They were
generally discovered within galleries excavated within the fungus.
On July 11 in such a shelf I found larve and pupe in abundance.
Other dates of capture are June 3 and July 6. Riley and Howard (In-
sect Life, Vol. 3, p. 335. 1891) also report it from Polyporus. Fig-
ures of the larva and pupa are given by Packard (’83, p. 474) and
descriptions by Gissler (On coleopterous larve of the family Tene-
brionide, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., Vol. 1, pp. 85-88. 1878).

Meracantha contracta Beauv.

Larve of this beetle were taken under dry leaves in the upland
forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 17 (No. 83); and others from under damp
leaves at the base of the wooded slopes of a ravine leading to the low-
land forest (Sta. IV, }) Aug. 22 (No. 140). The latter larvee were
associated with the ant. Siigmatomma pallipes. These larve are
often confused with wireworms (Elateridae). ‘

I found the beetles occasionally in the forest at Bloomington, III,
June 13; and Aug. 1 on the papaw.

I have a specimen of this larva, in very rotten wood, showing
the sinuous larval boring (Pl. XXX), from the Brownfield woods,
Urbana, Ill. (March g; collector, D. M. Brumfiel). Wickham has
described and figured the larva (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 4, pp.
TIQ—121. 1896).

PyYRocHROIDz
Pyrochroa sp.

A single specimen of a larva belonging to the above family was

taken August 22 (No. 130) in the ravine (Sta. IV, b) from under

225

the bark of a decaying stump, in company with numerous scarabzid
larve. These larve are very characteristic animals—under bark
when decay has loosened it from the sap-wood. The accompanying
figure (Pl. LIX, fig. 4) shows the general appearance of this larva
and of an adult beetle. I found Dendroides canadensis Latr. fairly
abundant at Bloomington, Ill., July 25. Larve belonging to this
family have been taken in the Brownfield woods, Urbana, Ill., under
the bark of decaying trees. It is a representative animal species in
this habitat.

See Moody (Psyche, Vol. 3, p. 76. 1880) for descriptions of
pyrochroid larve.

LEPIDOPTERA
PAPILIONIDZ

Papilio philenor Linn. Philenor Butterfly. (Pl. LIX, fig. 5.)

The caterpillar was found crawling upon the ground in the up-
land forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 16 (No. 69). Aug. 26 a larva (No.
166) which had attached itself to the stem of a prickly ash (Sta.
IV, b), was just entering upon the pupal stage, but had not yet cast
the larval skin.

The larva feeds upon Dutchman’s pipe, Aristolochia—a plant
which was not observed in the forest.

Fapilio turnus Linn. Turnus Butterfly.

The butterfly was observed on wing Aug. 16 in the open glades
of the upland forest (Sta. IV, a).

The larva feeds upon Prunus and Liriodendron.

Papilio cresphontes Cram. Cresphontes Butterfly.

The butterfly was observed in the open spaces of the upland
forest on wing Aug. 16.

The larva feeds upon Zanthoxylum, Ptelea, Dictamnus, Citrus,
etc.

Papilio troilus Linn. Troilus Butterfly.

The butterfly was taken, on wing, from the open slope of the
south ravine (Sta. IV,b) Aug. 22 (No. 161); and in the upland
forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

The larva feeds upon sassafras and Laurus.

NyYMPHALIDZ

Polygonia interrogationis Fabr.

The butterfly was taken in the open glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117).

The larva feeds upon Humulus, Ulmus, and Urtica.

226

AGAPETIDA

Enodia portlandia Fabr. Portlandia Butterfly.

This woodland butterfly was taken in the Bates woods (Sta. IV)
Aug. 15 (No. 63) and on June 28, 1911 (No. 7678), by T. L. Han-
kinson.

The larva feeds upon grasses. Fiske (’01, pp. 33-34) gives a
good description of the haunts of this species. Years ago I found it
abundant near Bloomington (Orendorf Springs), Ill., in dense, damp,
shady woods. It is as characteristic of shade as most species are of
sunshine.

Cissia eurytus Fabr. Eurytus Butterfly.

This is also a woodland butterfly. It was taken in the Bates
woods by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). The larva
feeds upon grass.

LyYca&NIDz
Everes comyntas Gdt.

This small blue butterfly was taken on the open upper slopes of
the wooded south ravine in the Bates forest (Sta. IV, >) Aug. 22
(No. 161).

The larva feeds upon red clover and Desmodium.

HESPERIIDA *

Epargyreus tityrus Fabr. Common Skipper.

This caterpillar was found in the open. glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV,c), folded within a leaf of sassafras, Aug. 26 (No.
173)

I have taken this butterfly many times at Bloomington, IIl.; and
have found the larve folded in leaves of the yellow locust, Robinia,
upon which they had evidently been feeding.

SPHINGIDZ

Cressonia juglandis Sm. and Abb.

This caterpillar was taken on low branches of the shell-bark hick-
Ban Carya ovata, in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a@) Aug. 20 (No.
102).

The larva feeds upon walnut, ironwood, and hickory. Our speci-
men bore a large number of cocoons of a hymenopterous parasite.
When handled, this larva makes a peculiar squeaking sound (Bull.
54, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 80. 1905).

227

SaTuRNIDA

Telea polyphemus Cramer. American Silkworm. (PI. LIX, fig. 6.)
This caterpillar was taken on the ground, under hickories and
white oaks on the forested slopes to the valley (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26
(No. 163).
The larva feeds upon walnut, basswood, elm, maple, cherry, etc.

CERATOCAMPIDAL

Citheronia regalis Fabr. Royal Walnut Moth; Hickory Horned-devil
(larval name). (PI. LX, figs. 1 and 2.)

This larva was found on the valley slope (Sta. IV, b) on sumac
Aug. 16 (No. 68); and on walnut Aug. 20 (No. 108). This last
specimen was apparently fully mature.

The food plants of the larva are butternut, hickory, sycamore,
ash, and lilac. See Packard (’05, p. 130) for many figures and a
full description of this species.

Basilona imperialis Drury. Imperial Moth. (Pl. LXI, Fig. 1).

The larva of this species was found on the leaves of sassafras on
the forested slope to the lowland forest (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 20 (No.
106). It feeds upon a large number of forest trees including oak,
maple, wild cherry, walnut, hickory, and several conifers.

See Packard (’05, p. 125) for figures and full descriptions of

this species.
ARCTIDA

Halisidota tessellaris Sm. and Abb. (Pl. LXI, fig. 4.)

These caterpillars were taken on hickory on the wooded slope to
the lowland (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 163); and, again, abundantly
(No. 168), in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) on climbing buckwheat,
Polygonum convolvulus, which was entwined about a young walnut
or butternut. The yellow hairs and the tufts give this caterpillar a
striking appearance.

I have found moths of this species abundant at Bloomington, Ill.

The food plants are recorded as maple, oak, hazel, and button-
wood. Though larve were abundant upon leaves of the climbing
buckwheat, I did not observe them there eating it.

Noctua

Autographa precationis Guen.

The moth was taken in the open glade in the lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva feeds upon plantain, burdock, and dandelion.

228

Scolecocampa liburna Geyer. Rotten-log Caterpillar.

A single caterpillar (No. 125) was taken Aug. 22 upon the slope
of a wooded ravine (Sta. IV, b) under the bark of a stump in an
early stage of decay—the sap-wood honeycombed, but the remainder
solid though discolored. The larva, with its characteristic excrement,
was found in a cell excavated in the rotten sap-wood.

This is another species of animal which invades wood in the sap-
wood stage of decay and is so often associated with Philomycus
carolinensis, Passalus cornutus, and newly established colonies of
Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus. The larva winters in logs,
as is evidenced by the fact that I found it in such situations late in fall
and early in spring (March 23) at Urbana, Ill. The large quantity
of excrement often indicates the approximate location of the larva.
This larva has been described by Edwards and Elliot (Papilio, Vol.
3, p. 134. 1883). It has been found in chestnut, oak, and other kinds
of decaying logs. The moth is recorded in July. The pileated wood-
pecker, Phleotomus pileatus, has been known to eat this caterpillar
(Beal, in Bull. 37, Biol. Surv., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 34. 1911). Smith
(Ann. Rep. N. Jersey State Mus., 1909, p. 471. 1910) states that the
larva is found in “decaying cherry, hickory, oak and chestnut
stumps.”

NoTopoNTIDz
Datana angusii G. and R.

The caterpillar of this species was found on the valley slope (Sta.
IV. b) on bitternut hickory, Carya microcarpa, Aug. 20 (No. 104);
in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) on hickory Aug. 16 (No. 65); and
at the margin of this forest Aug. 26 (No. 162).

The food plants of the larva are walnut, hickory, linden, and birch.
Packard (’95, pp. 110-111) describes and gives figures of the larva
and adult.

Nadata gibbosa Sm. and Abb. (Pl. LXI, fig. 2.)

This larva was taken on white oak, Quercus alba, in a forested
ravine (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 19 (No. 94); on leaves of the white oak,
upon which it had heen feeding, in the upland forest (Sta. IV, @)
Aug. 26 (No. 169).

Packard (’95, pp. 142-146) gives figures of this species and
lists as food plants, oak, birch, and sugar plum. It is also reported
on maple.

Heterocampa guttivitta Walk (?). (Pl. LXI, figs. 3 and 5.)

This larva (No. 127) was captured Aug. 22 by a digger-
wasp, Ammophila abbreviata Fabr. which was found dragging it
along the ground in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a). See Packard

229

(’95, pp. 230-235) for an account of this forest-inhabiting larva.
The larva of guttivitia is known to feed upon red maple, oak, and
viburnum.

GEOMETRDZ

Eustroma diversilineata Hiibn. (P1. LXII, fig. 1.)

This span-worm moth was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
Aug 26 (No. 163).

Packard (Monogr. Geometrid Moths, p. 128. 1876) states that
the larva feeds upon grape and Psedera. ‘These are mainly forest
plants, and this is probably a woodland species.

Caberodes confusaria Hiibn.

This moth was taken near the upper slope of the south ravine in
open woods (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 22 (No. 161).
The larva feeds upon Trifolium.

CocHLDnDZz

Cochlidion or Lithacodes sp. Slug Caterpillar.
This curious larva was found on a stump on the wooded ravine
slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 165).

GELECHIDA

Ypsolophus ligulellus Hiibn. (?)

These small moths were taken in the upland woods (Sta. IV, a)
by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). The larva is reported
on apple, pear, and plum.

DIPTERA

CEcIDOMYIDA

Cecidomyia holotricha O. S. (Hairy Midge-gall.)

Abundant on the under side of hickory leaves (near Sta. IV)
Aug. 20 (No. 96) ; and on leaves of Carya ovata in the upland for-
est (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 26 (Nos. 107 and 170). These brownish,
hairy galls may cover large areas on the under side of some leaves.
See Cook ’05, p. 840, or Beutenmiiller ’04, p. 172.'

Cecidomyia tubicola O. S. (Hickory Tube-gall.)
Immature galls (No. 107) were found Aug. 20 in the upland
Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) on the lower side of leaves of Carya ovata.

230

Cecidomyta caryecola O. S. (Hickory Seed-gall.)

This gall was taken on Carya ovata leaves in the upland forest
(Sta. IV,a) Aug. 20 (No. 107); and Aug. 26 (No. 170). Many
galls are formed on hickory and other trees by plant-lice (Cf. Per-
gande, ’02).

ASILIDE
Deromyia discolor Loew.

This robber-fly was taken in an open area in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117). Williston (Kingsley’s Standard
Natural History, Vol. 2, pp. 418-419. 1884) states that most robber-
flies “rest upon the ground, and fly up when disturbed, with a quick
buzzing sound only to alight again a short distance ahead. All their
food, which consists wholly of other insects, is caught upon the
wing . . . . Other flies and Hymenoptera are usually their food,
but flying beetles, especially Cicindelide, are often caught, and they
have even been known to seize and carry off large dragonflies. Not
only will they feed upon other Asilide, but the female frequently
resents the caresses of her mate by eating him up, especially if he is
foolish enough to put himself in her power. In an instance the
writer observed, a female seized a pair of her own species, and thrust-
ing her proboscis into the thorax of the male, carried them both off
together. . . . . The larve live chiefly under ground or in rotten
wood, especially in places infested with grubs of beetles upon which
they will feed. The young larve will bore their way completely
within beetle larvee and remain enclosed until they have consumed
them. Many, however, are found where they evidently feed upon
rootlets or other vegetable substances. They undergo their trans-
formations in the ground. The pupz have the head provided with
tubercles, and on the abdominal segments there are also spiny pro-
tuberances and transverse rows of bristles, which aid the insects to
reach the surface when they are ready to escape as flies.” Mar-
latt (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 2, p. 82. 1893) observed D. dis-
color preying upon wasps of the genus Vespa. By seizing the head
of the wasp it avoids being stung.

Deromyta umbrinus Loew.

A specimen of this large robber-fly was taken in the south ravine
(Sta. IV, d) by T. L. Hankinson, with the eucerid bee Melissodes
perplexa Cresson in its grip, Aug. 22, 1910 (No. 7530).

231

SyrpHipz

Chrysotoxum ventricosum Loew.

This wasp-like fly was found resting on a leaf in the upland for-
est (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

Mesogramma politum Say. Corn Syrphid.
This fly was taken by T. L. Hankinson in the Bates woods (Sta.
IV) June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). See the prairie list, p. 188.

Milesia ornata Fabr. Vespa-like Syrphid.

This beautiful large syrphid was taken on dogbane in an open
space in the upland forest (Sta. IV,a) Aug. 20 (No. 103); in the
open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 143);
and on Aug. 26 (No. 184) on the flowers of Eupatorium celestinum
in the clutches of the flower spider Misumena aleatoria Hentz. It
was also taken in the Bates woods by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911
(No. 7678). Metcalf (’13, p. 73) quotes Verrall as follows con-
cerning the subfamily Milestine: “What little is known about the
metamorphism shows that many species live in rotten wood or about
the sap flowing from injured tree trunks.”

HYMENOPTERA
Siricipa

Tremex columba Linn. Horntail; Pigeon Tremex.

This species was taken on wing in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
Aug. 16 (No. 66); and on the open slope of a ravine (Sta. IV. b)
Aug. 22 (No. 132).

The larva bores in the trunks of trees, as oak, elm, sycamore, and
maple. Consult Packard (’90, pp. 379-381) for a description and
figure of the larva. The long-sting, Thalessa lunator, is an external
parasite upon this larva (see Riley, 88). I have taken normally
colored females at Bloomington, Ill, July 25, Sept. 29, and Oct. 8.
Two abnormally colored individuals were taken in September, one
of them almost, and the other (taken Sept. 29) completely lacking
the usual black markings. A female was taken at Milmine, III, in
October. Consult Bradley (’13) for a key to the varieties of this
species of Tremex.

An interesting feature in the ecological relations of this species
is the fact that it appears to frequent only weakened, diseased, and
dying trees, and these, not as a primary invader, but as a trailer,
following insects which have done previous injury to the trees.
Felt (’o5, p. 61) shows that in New York successive attacks of the

232

elm leaf-beetle, or injury by the sugar maple borer Plagionotus
spectosus Say, prepare the way for the horntail larva. Ecologically
considered, the leaf-beetle and the borer initiate a succession of in-
sect invasions into the tree trunk; Tremex follows, with its parasite
Thalessa; and these in turn lead the way for still others; thus a suc-
cession of insects is produced.

CynrrPDz

Holcaspis globulus Fitch. (Oak Bullet Gall.)

This gall was taken on white oak, Quercus alba, in the upland
forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 170).

Consult Cook (’05) and Beutenmiller (’04) for figures and de-
scriptions of various kinds of galls mentioned in this list.

Amphibolips confluens Harr. (Oak-apple or May-apple Gall.)

These galls were abundant upon the forest floor in the upland
Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) during August (No. 101). The galls grow
upon the leaves of several species of oaks (Quercus).

Amphibolips prunus Walsh. (Acorn Plum Gall.) (Pl. LXII, fig. 2.)

A single specimen of this gall was found on the slope of the south
ravine in Bates woods (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 22 (No. 131). Another
specimen came from the woods northeast of the Bates woods Aug.
20 (No. 96). It grows upon acorn cups.

Andricus clavula Bass. (White Oak Club Gall.) (PI. LXII, fig. 5.)

This gall, formed in the terminal bud, was common on white oak,
Quercus alba, in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No.
170).

Andricus cornigerus O. S. (Horned Knot Oak Gall.) (PI. LXII,
fig. 3.

This gall occurred in very large numbers on the branches of
shingle oak, Quercus imbricaria, in a forest just northeast of the
Bates woods, Aug. 20 (No. 96). The galls are old and apparently
decaying.

Andricus lana Fitch. (Oak Wool Gall.) (Pl. LXII, fig. 4.)

Two examples of this gall were found on leaves of white oak,
Quercus alba: one was taken near the Bates woods (Sta. IV) Aug.
20 (No. 96), and the other was found in the Bates woods (Sta. IV, a)
on the petiole of a leaf, Aug. 26 (No. 170).

Andricus seminator Harr. (Oak Seed-gall.) (Pl. LXIII, fig. 1.)
A single specimen of this gall was found upon Quercus. alba
(Sta. IV,a) Aug. 20 (No. 101). The cotton-like masses of this

233

gall are conspicuous. They may be tinged with red; when dry they
become brownish.

IcHNEUMONIDA

Thalessa lunator Fabr. Lunate Long-sting.

A female ichneumon of this species was found on a tree trunk in
the open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva feeds, as an external parasite, upon, the larva of the
horntail, Tremex columba, which was also found in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV). I found T. lunator, both males and females, abundant
on shade trees at Bloomington, Ill., October 1, 1892, and also took it
' July 26, 1895. Riley (’88) gives an excellent account of this species
accompanied by figures of the immature stages, and that of its host
as well.

Trogus obsidianator Brullé.

This black ichneumon with fulvous antenne was taken in the
Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 1911, by T. L. Hankinson (No.
7678). This wasp is known to be parasitic upon the larva of Papilio
polyxenes Fabr. (P. asterias—Insect Life, Vol. 1, p. 161) and
upon the caterpillar of Pyrrharctia isabella (?). This species has been
taken in central Illinois during June and July (Weed, Psyche, Vol. 5, p.
52). (See also Riley, in Amer. Ent., Vol. 3, p. 134. 1880.)

PELECINIDA

Pelecinus polyturator Drury. Black Longtail. (Pl. LXIII, fig. 2.)

This remarkable looking insect was found in the glade of the
lowland forest (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 20 (No. 117) and Aug. 22 (No.
143). Other females were seen in this forest.

I have also’ taken this species at Bloomington, Ill. At Evanston,
Ill., during July, 1910, this species was very abundant upon some
damp lawns. I have counted four or five females in sight at once.
They were often found upon blue-grass sod. The male of this
species is considered very rare. The only one which I ever captured
was taken July 29, 1910, at Evanston, Ill. The larva is parasitic
upon the grub of the May-beetle, Lachnosterna (Forbes, Eighteenth
Rep. State Ent. Ill, p. 124. 1894). It may also prey upon other
scarabseid larve inhabiting woodlands.

FormMicipz

Stigmatomma pallipes Hald. Old-fashioned Ant.
A single wingless queen and four pupe (No. 140) were taken
Aug. 22 near the base of a ravine slope (Sta. IV, >) in dense shaded

234

woods, almost devoid of herbaceous vegetation, but with a thick layer
of leaves, and other vegetable debris.

Wheeler (Biol. Bull., Vol. 2, pp. 56-69. 1901) considers this a
rather rare ant, although widely distributed over eastern North
America. It is subterranean in habit, and ‘‘does not come to the
surface even at night.” Contrary to the habits of must ants this
primitive species has retained the carnivorous habits of the ancestral
forms, and the young are fed on fragments of insects. They do not
feed one another, or the larve by regurgitation, as do the specialized
species of ants. They thus furnish us a glimpse at the ancient his-
tory of ants. Wheeler (’05, pp 374-375) states that this species oc-
curs only in “rich, rather damp woods, under stones, leaf mould,
or more rarely under or in rotten logs.”

A worker of Myrmica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var.
schencki Emery (No. 140) was taken from the same patch of leaves.

Cremastogaster lineolata Say. (Pl. LXII, fig. 6.)
This ant was taken only once—in the upland part of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 118). Large numbers of the ants
were found in an oak-apple gall (Amphibolips confluens Harr.)
lying on the forest floor. When I picked up the gall, many ants
came out and ran over my hand, biting vigorously.

This is essentially a ground and forest-inhabiting ant, which
forms nests in the soil, under stones, and in logs, stumps, etc. It
has the peculiar instinct to make a sort of temporary nest out of
debris to cover the aphids and coccids which it attends (Wheeler,
Bull. Am. Mus, Nat. Hist., Vol. 22, pp. 1-18. 1906).

Several carnivorous staphylinid beetles of the genus M. yrmedonia
have been taken in the nests of these ants (Wheeler, *10a, p. 382;
Schwarz, ’gob, p. 247).

Aphenogaster fulva Roger.

A well-rotted stump in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) was
found Aug. 17 to contain a moist, felt-like layer of some fungous
growth, and on this was a large colony of snails (No. 71). In an
adjacent part of this stump was a small colony of white ants, Termes
flavipes Koll. (No. 72). A colony of ants which was in close prox-
imity to the white ants, proved to be 4. fulva Roger. As the gal-
leries were exposed by cutting up the stump, these ants were seen to
pick up the termites and carry them away, just as they do their own
young on similar occasions. Five pairs—the ant and the termite
which it carried—were preserved (Nos. 74-76, and 78-79). One
of the termites lacks a head. All of them were workers. Larve
and naked pupe (No. 79) were abundant in this nest, and workers
(No. 80) were abundant about the stump. On Aug. 22 another

235.

colony of this ant (No. 125) was found under the bark of a decaying
oak stump (Sta. IV) in which the sap-wood was honeycombed, but
the remainder solid, though discolored.

Forel (Psyche, Vol. 9, p. 237. 1901) remarks that Aphenogas-
ter is “very fond of termites, and when one uncovers and scatters
about a nest of termites in a wood, they hasten to feast on the suc-
culent morsels.” These observations suggest the possible fate of
the captured termites; none of the ants were seen to eat them, how-
ever. In the absence of observations, the missing head mentioned
above may be variously accounted for.

This habit of carrying off termites has been observed in other
species of ants. Forbes (19th Rep. State Ent. Ill., p. 198. 1896) re-
ports that near Carterville, Mason county, Ill, Mr. John Marten
observed Formica schaufussi (=Formica pallide-fulva Linn., subsp.
schaufussi Mayr) to pick up and carry away the living termites
when its nest under a log in which termites abounded, was disturbed,
and McCook (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1879, p. 155) has ob-
served similar behavior in the case of the mound-building ant, For-
mica exsectoides Forel.

The histerid beetle Heterius blanchardi Schwarz has been found
in nests of this ant (Wheeler, ’10a, pp. 388, 389) ; and European ob-
servers have seen ants carrying and rolling them about. Consult
also Schwarz (’9ob, 247) for a list of beetles found with this ant.

Wheeler (’10a, p. 206) lists A. fulva as a glade species which in
the forests utilizes logs and branches as‘substitutes for stones. (See

Wheeler, ’05, pp. 372-373.)

Aphenogaster tennesseensis Mayr. Tennessee Ant.

A colony of this ant (No. 87) was taken Aug. 17 from a decaying
stump, situated on the slope (Sta. IV, >) from the upland forest to
the lowland on the river bottom.

According to Wheeler (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 20, 1904,
p. 362, and Vol. 21, 1905, p. 373) this species normally nests in dead
wood in rather open forests. He holds the opinion that the queen of
this species can not rear her own brood, and thus establish a new
colony, but must utilize a small or weak colony of the allied species
A. fulva Roger, which lives under stones. Thus the new colonies are
started under stones; later, when they become numerous, they are
found in rotten wood. This, Wheeler concludes, indicates that they
“migrate away from the fulva workers.” Tanquary (11) has per-
formed some interesting experiments which show that queens of
tennesseensis are adopted by colonies of other ants, a result which
seems to confirm Wheeler’s anticipation.

Schwarz (’9ob, p. 247) records two beetles found with this ant.

236

Formica fusca Linn., var. subsericea Say.
This ant was taken in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug.
26 (No. 163). See the list of prairie invertebrates, p. 190.

Myrmica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. schencki Emery.

This ant (No. 140) was found Aug. 22 under leaves in a small
ravine on a shady slope (Sta. IV. b) from the upland forest to the
valley bottoms. The soil under these leaves had been thoroughly tun-
neled by small mammals during the preceding winter, but recently the
leaves had not been disturbed. The soil was a mixture of sand, clay,
and vegetable debris, was moist, and contained few kinds of animals.
A single ant of this variety (No. 140) was taken while collecting spec-
imens of Stigmatomma pallipes.

This species is listed by Wheeler (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol.
21, p. 373. 1905) as a field ant which prefers to nest in grassy pas-
tures and lawns, in situations exposed to the sun. Our specimen
was, therefore, found in an unusual habitat.

Tapinoma sessile Say. Cocoanut Ant.

This cocoanut ant, so called because of the odor of the workers,
which has been compared to that of decayed cocoanuts, was found
in the lowland part of the Bates woods, at the base of the slope to
the bottoms (Sta. IV,c) Aug. 22 (No. 139). A large colony was
found among the surface layers of dry dead leaves; from it were se-
cured two queens, vast numbers of eggs, and also larve, pupa, and
workers.. Wheeler (’05, pp. 373, 389) states that this ant usually
nests in open sunny woods, the borders of woods, and under stones,
logs, etc.

Schwarz (’9ob, p. 247) records beetles as living with this ant.

Camponotus herculeanus Linn., subsp. pennsylvanicus DeG. Carpen-
ter Ant.

This species was taken from under the bark of a rotting: stump
among a dense second-growth, on the valley slope (Sta. IV, b) be-
tween the upland and the lowland forest Aug. 17 (No. 84). This
stump was in that stage of decay so often utilized by the large Caro-
lina slug, Philomycus carolinensis, and the horned Passalus beetle,
Passalus cornutus. ‘The colony was recently founded, for the dea-
lated female occupied a small cell excavated in the rotten sap-wood.
This colony consisted of four pupz and six larve of different sizes.
Another colony was taken in the same stump, from the rotted sap-
wood zone, in company with the snail Philomycus carolinensis and
some kind of pulmonate snail eggs. This colony was in a more ad-
vanced stage than the preceding, about a dozen larve, seven pup,

237

and two adult workers being present, and about half a dozen eggs
(No. 85).

Pricer (’08) has given an interesting account of the life history
and habits of this ant in Illinois. He states (p. 197) that the food
is largely the honeydew of plant-lice, but is supplemented by plant
juices and dead insects. He found a small staphylinid beetle, Xeno-
dusa cava, abundant in the nests.

I have found pennsylvanicus abundant at Bloomington, Ill, and
represented as follows: by a male June 29; by a winged female in
June; and by dealated females June 29 and July 2 and 25.

McCook (’83) has given an interesting account of the found-
ing of colonies of this ant. See also Wheeler, ’o6b, pp. 38-39, Plate
VII, and ’10b, pp. 335-338, for further information concerning it.

Camponotus herculeanus Linn., subsp. pennsylvanicus DeG., var.
ferrugineus Fabr.

This variety was taken a short distance to the northeast of the
Bates woods (Sta. FV) Aug. 20 (No. 97). Here the large ground-
beetle Calosoma scrutator was found running on the ground with
what appeared to be a bunch of greenish moss; a large reddish ant
also struggled for possession of the prize. Upon closer examination
it was found that the skin of some large lepidopterous larva was
the object desired. This skin, recently shed or moistened by a recent
rain, was a prize for both ferrugineus and Calosoma.

A dead wingless ferrugineus, covered with a fungus growth, was
found in a small cell excavated in the rotten wood of a decaying log
on the ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 17 (No. 90). Apparently this
female had died before her colony developed. (See Pricer, ’08;
Wheeler ’10b, pp. 338-339.)

I have found this form abundant at Bloomington, Ill. Winged
females were taken July 26, dealated ones on July 25 and 26, and
males June 29, and July 9 and 25. On July 21, 1892, several males
were taken at night, being attracted to a lamp located near a small
brook.

A very large colony, numbering thousands of individuals, was
found May 26, under a well-decayed log, in a forest at White Heath,
Ill. It contained winged males, females, and workers. The winged
forms were present in vast numbers. The far-advanced condition of
decay of the log was in marked contrast with that in which the initial
colonies are usually found. During the years of development of
such a large colony the progress of decay will naturally make some
changes in the habitat; reciprocally the ants will doubtless tend to
monopolize the logs to the exclusion of some other animals, and

238

also facilitate the decay of the log by their activities. There is an
“orderly sequence” of changes in the developing colony, and a simi-
lar orderly sequence of changes in the log habitat.

An ant colony in its development clearly illustrates the transfor-
mation from the individual to the associational phase of ecological
relations. Beginning with the fertilized female and her progeny,
the colony develops in size and in the division of labor among its
members; until, finally, by the possible addition of slaves, commen-
sals, parasites, and even predaceous enemies, the colony or associa-
tion is built up in an orderly sequence, and the organisms adjust
themselves to one another and to the environment in general.

MouTILLDA

Spherophthalma sp. Velvet Ant.
This stinging, wingless velvet ant was taken at the margin of the
forest near the cleared area (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 151).

PSAMMOCHARIDAG

Psammochares ethiops Cress. (Pompilus Fabr.)

This large black wasp was taken by T. L. Hankinson July 10,
Ig11, in the Bates woods (No. 7693). It probably stores its nest
with spiders.

SPHECIDZ

Ammophila abbreviata Fabr. Short Caterpillar Wasp.

This wasp was taken on the open ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug.
22 (No. 124). One example (No. 127) was running on the ground
in the upland forest (Sta. IV,@) with a quiescent bombycine cater-
pillar—probably Heterocampa guitivitta Walk.—in its grip.

I took this species of wasp at Bloomington, III., July 26. Its
copulating habits have been recorded, with figures, by Turner (’02).

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711. Nature sketches in temperate America. 451 pp. Chicago.

Harrington, M. W.

93. Review of forest meteorological observations: a study pre-
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Harris, J. A.
’03. An ecological catalogue of the crayfishes belonging to the
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’06. Descriptive synopsis of insect collections for distribution to
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’07. Zoological studies in the sand regions of the Illinois and
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249

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Henneguy, L. F.
704. Les Insectes: Morphologie—Reproduction, Embryogénie.
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"10. A new bird enemy. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist.,
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Hesselman, H.
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Hewitt, C. G.
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"10. Die Siebetechnik zum Aufsammeln der Terricolfauna (nebst
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250

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’93a. Catalogue of West Virginia Scolytide and their enemies.
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’93b. Catalogue of West Virginia forest and shade tree insects.
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‘99. Report on investigations to determine the cause of unhealthy

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’o2. Insect enemies of the pine in the Black Hills Forest Reserve.
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o4. Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forests and forest
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‘og. Barkbeetles of the genus Dendroctonus. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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Hopkins, C. G., Mosier, J. G., Pettit, J. H., and Readhimer, J. E.
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,

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’92b. ‘The hymenopterous parasites of spiders. Proc. Ent. Soc.
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251

’95._ A secondary effect of the Florida freeze. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
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Hubbard, G. D.

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Hubbard, H. G.
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Hunter, W. D.
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Jackson, C. F.
708. A synopsis of the genus Pemphigus, with notes on their
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Jager, G.
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Johnson, K. §.
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252

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’95. Destructive effect of winds on sandy soils and light sandy
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Knab, F.
‘o5. Observations on Lampyride. Can. Ent., 37: 238-239.
Knapp, J. B.

"12, Fire-killed Douglas fir: a study of its rate of deterioration,
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711. A revision of the powder-post beetles of the family Lycti-
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Leverett, F.

96. The water resources of Illinois. Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol.
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’99. The Illinois glacial lobe. Monogr. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol.
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Livingston, B. E.

’06. ‘The relation of desert plants to soil moisture and to evap-
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’99._ Beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to fruit-producing plants.
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’

7

253

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‘10. A note on the light-emission of some American Lampyride.
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11. Some further observations on the light-emission of Ameri-
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"13a. Wells and subsoil water. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils,
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McNeil, J.
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09. Miltogramma Germari, Mg., and Amaurosoma flavipes,
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‘94a. The hibernation of the chinch-bug. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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’94b. The pear-tree Psylla in Maryland. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div.
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?

7

254

Mearns, E. A.
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’04. Destructive beetles: a note on landscape gardening. Ent.

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13. The Syrphidae of Ohio. A biologic, economic, and syste-
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Moller, L.

67. Die Abhangigkeit der Insekten von ihrer Umgebung.

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’o9. The higher fungi of the Chicago region. Pt. I—The Hy-

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703. Studies'on the habits of spiders, particularly those of the
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Morgan, H. A., and Dupree, J. W.

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Morse, A. P.
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255

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’98. A contribution to the study of the fauna of the grave. A
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Murtfeldt, M. E.

’94.__ Acorn insects, primary and secondary. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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Needham, J. G.
’98. Outdoor studies: a reading book of nature study. 90 pp.
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Osborn, H., and Sirrine, F. A.
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,

a

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12. Food plant catalogue of the Aphidae of the world. Part I.

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"11. The influence of different color environments on the be-
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,

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Porter, J. P.
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’*72. Fourth annual report on the noxious, beneficial, and other
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’74. Sixth annual report on the noxious, beneficial, and other
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88. The habits of Thalessa and Tremex. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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’93. Catalogue of the exhibit of economic entomology at the
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Robertson, C.
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794. Flowers and insects—Rosaceae and Compositae. ‘Trans.
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Roth, F.

‘95. Timber: An elementary discussion of the characteristics
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Ruthven, A. G.

08. The faunal affinities of the prairie region of central North
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Schantz, H. L.

"11. Natural vegetation as an indicator of the capabilities of
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Schrenk, H. v.

’o2. The diseases of the hardy catalpa. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
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Schrenk, H. v., and Spaulding, P.
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259

Scudder, S. H.

’o1. Index to North American Orthoptera. Alphabetical index
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Severin, H. P., and Severin, H. C.

"10. The effect of moisture and dryness on the emergence from
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*t1c. A few suggestions on the care of the eggs and the rearing
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Shelford, V. E.

’*t1. Ecological succession. I. Stream fishes and the method of
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713b. The reactions of certain animals to gradients of evapo-
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,

’

260

13a. Vegetation of Skokie Marsh. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat.
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Shimek, B.
’o1. The loess of Iowa City and vicinity. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist.
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"10. Geology of Harrison and Monona counties. Ann. Rep.
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Sladen, F. W. L. ,

’12. The humble-bee: its life-history and how to domesticate it,
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Slingerland, M. V.

’95. Climbing cutworms in Western New York. Bull. Cornell

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‘oo. The rdle of insects in the forest. Ann. Rep. State Geol.

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10. The insects of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. N. J. State Mus.,

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Snyder, T. E.

’r0. Damage to chestnut telephone and telegraph poles by wood-
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"11. Damage to telephone and telegraph poles by wood-boring
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Stiles, C. W.
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"11. Experiments on the adoption of Lasius, Formica and Poly-
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Tarr, R. S., and Martin, L.
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Thomas, C.

’79. Eighth report of the state entomologist on the noxious and
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Townsend, C. H. T.
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Transeau, E. N.
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INDEX

A

Acanthocerus galeator, 64, 65, 126,
Acarina, 164, 208.
Acarus serotinz, 126, 140, 208.
Acer saccharinum, 149,
ee 42, 62, 63, 123, 126, 151,
157.
Acorn codling-caterpillar, 141.
moth, 141.
plum gall, 61, 232.
Acorns, 141,
Acridiide, 115, 166, 211.
Acrosoma, 138.
gracile, 207.
rugosa, 58, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138,
207.
spinea, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138, 207.
Actinomeris alternifolia, 63, 125, 219.
Adelphocoris rapidus, 53, 174, 175.
Adiantum pedatum, 63.
Agapetide, 226.
Agrilus, 144,
Agriotes lineatus, 116.
Agropyron smithii, 39.
Alaus, 145.
oculatus, 145.
Alder, 77, 84, 139.
Aletia, 218.
Allograpta obliqua, 53, 188.
Alydus quinquespinosus, 65, 219.
Amanita, 136.
Amazon-ant, 191.
Amblycorypha, 138, 140.
oblongifolia, 215.
rotundifolia, 64, 126, 215.
Ambrosia, 118, 171.
artemisiifolia, 176.
beetles, 137.
trifida, 178, 179.
Ambush bug, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53,
104, 174, 185, 189.
Ammalo, 109.
eglenensis, 53, 183.
tenera, 53, 183.
Ammophila, 140.
abbreviata, 59, 62, 125, 132, 159,
228, 238.
nigricans, 52, 194.

Amphibolips, 140.
confluens, 232, 234,
prunus, 61, 232.

Andricus, 140.
elavula, 59, 232.
cornigerus, 65, 232,
lana, 59, 65, 232.
seminator, 232.

Andropogon, 40, 49, 55, 111, 160, 163,

167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 181, 212,
215, 216.
furcatus, 39, 49, 53, 112.
virginicus, 39, 49, 53.
Anisodactylus interstitialis, 135.
Anosia plexippus, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51,
113, 183.

Ant, Amazon-, 191.

carpenter-, 62, 147, 150, 154,
236.

cocoanut, 64, 236,

corn-field, 119.

-lion, 58, 165, 209.
prairie, 50.

old-fashioned, 61, 233.

rusty carpenter-, 62, 65.

Tennessee, 61, 235.

velvet, 192, 238.

white, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152,
202, 204, 208, 234.

Antennaria, 124,
plantaginifolia, 57.

Anthrax sinuosa, 198.

Ants, 35, 125, 140, 171, 177.

Apatela, 105.
populi, 105.

Aphenogaster, 235.
fulva, 59, 65, 159, 202, 204,

234, 235,
tennesseensis, 61, 235.

Aphidide, 35,171. .

Aphids, 137, 188, 234.

Aphis, 158.
asclepiadis, 109, 112, 118, 171,

190.

Aphorista vittata, 136.

Apide, 200. :

Apis mellifera, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 200.

203,

154,

208,

188,

Apithus, 132.
agitator, 58, 61, 124, 217.
Aplexa hypnorum, 161.
Aplopus mayeri, 211.
Apocynum, 104, 109, 113, 118, 173,
183, 201.
androsemifolium, 179.
medium, 44, 45, 49, 57, 109, 178,
183, 193, 223.
Apple, 146, 149, 229.
Arachnida, 161, 205.
Araneida, 162, 206.
Arctiide, 183, 227.
Argiope, 120, 164, 165.
aurantia, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 104, 107, 108,
109, 111, 121, 162, 165, 182.
riparia, 162.
transversa, 163.
Argynnis idalia, 45, 146, 183.
Arhopalus fulminans, 147.
Aristolochia, 225,
Army-worm, 189.
Arrhenoplita bicornis, 136.
Artemisia, 175.
Asaphes memnonius, 64, 126, 221.
Asclepias, 118, 172, 178, 181.
cornuti, 118, 173.
inearnata, 39, 44, 49, 103, 112, 113,
160, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184,
186, 192, 194, 198, 200.
sullivantii, 43, 49, 112, 182.
syriaca, 112, 164, 171, 173, 176, 178,
180, 188, 189, 190, 191, 201.
tuberosa, 183.
Ash, 77, 78, 147, 149, 152, 227.
black, 149.
prickly, 60, 63, 138, 179, 183, 217,
225.

Asilide, 48, 49, 108, 115, 186, 190,
210, 230.
Asilus, 187.
missouriensis, 187.
Asparagus beetle, imported, 172.
Aspidiotus obseurus, 156.
Astacide, 161, 204.
Aster, 188.
Attelabus rhois, 139.
Attide, 164.
Aulacizes irrorata, 64, 126, 218.
Autographa, 138.
precationis, 64, 126, 227.

B
Bacteria, 89, 90.
Bacunculus blatchleyi, 211.

266

Bag-worm, 154, 156.
Balaninus, 142.
caryx, 141.
nasicus, 141.
reniformis, 141.
uniformis, 141.
Bark-beetle, hickory, 154.
Basilona, 140.
imperialis, 64, 227.
Basswood or linden, 77, 136, 141, 146,
149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228,
Beans, 179.
Beard grass, 53.
Bee, carpenter-, 45, 46, 104, 198, 199.
-fly, giant, 50, 52, 53, 185.
honey-, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187, 200.
leaf-cutting, 50, 198.
moths, 100.
short leaf-cutting, 52, 198.
Beech, 76, 80, 85, 147, 152, 157, 214.
Bees, 186, 192.
Beet, 182.
Beggar-ticks, 53, 103.
Bellflower, 63.
Benzoin, 138, 207.
Bidens, 44, 103, 118, 171, 172.
Bill-bugs, 50.
Birch, 149, 228.
Birds, 100.
Bittacus, 62, 126, 133, 190.
apicalis, 126, 210.
stigmaterus,.64, 126, 209, 210.
strigosus, 126, 210.
Bitternut, 57, 60, 63, 228.
Bittersweet, 63, 224.
Blackberry, 129, 148, 170, 216,
Blastobasis glandulella, 141.
Blattide, 210.
Blazing star, 199, 200..
Blissus leucopterus, 111.
Blister-beetle, black, 52, 58, 55, 180.
margined, 52, 53, 180.
striped, 180.
two-lined, 180.
Blister-beetles, 180.
Blue flag, 44, 103.
stem, 40, 53, 55, 166, 168, 169, 170,
171, 181.
Boletotherus, 159.
bifurcus, 64, 126, 136, 224.
Bombide, 199.
Bombus, 47, 51, 117, 119, 120, 121,
"187, 200.
auricomus, 56, 108, 111, 200.
consimilis, 200.
fervidus, 200.
fraternus, 45, 46, 50, 111, 200.

Bombus—continued,
impatiens, 56, 108, 111, 200.
pennsylvanicus, 45, 46, 54, 56, 108,
109, 111, 199.
oe 45, 46, 50, 52, 111, 163,

Bombycid, 220.

Bombyliide, 115, 185.

Bombylius, 186.

Borer, elm, 146, 154.
flat-headed apple-tree, 146.
heartwood, 154.
hickory, 147.
locust, 145, 154.
sugar-maple, 232.

Borers, wood, 99, 100.

Bothropolys multidentatus, 134.

Botrychium virginianum, 63.

Box elder, 143.

Brachycoma, 120.
davidsoni, 200.

Brachynemurus abdominalis, 50, 51,

111, 165.

Bracon agrili, 144, 159.

Braconide, 158, 190.

Branchiobdellide, 66.

Brenthid, northern, 147.

Brontes dubius, 151.

Brown-tailed moth, 156.

Buck-brush, 63.

Buckwheat, climbing, 227.

Buffalo, 118.

Bug, ambush, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53,

104, 174, 185, 189.
ehinch, 111, 114.
flea negro-, 172.
leaf-footed,' 138.
milkweed, see milkweed bug.
plant-, see plant-bug.
slender-necked, 135.
squash-, 189.
stinging, 174.
stink-, 50, 51, 187.

Bulrush, 44, 103.

Bumblebee, false, 52, 54, 120, 200.
impatient, 56, 200.
Pennsylvania, 45, 54, 56, 199.

Bumblebees, 47, 117.

Buprestide, 144, 145.

Buprestis splendens, 142.

Burdock, 227.

Bush honeysuckle, 183.

Butterflies, 187.

Butterfly, cabbage, 56, 182, 186.
celery, 45, 182.
cresphontes, 225.
eurytus, 65, 226.
idalia, 45, 183.

267

Butterfly—continued.
milkweed, 45, 50, 183.
philenor, 59, 61, 225.
philodice, 45.
portlandia, 65, 226.
thoe, 53, 183.
troilus, 59, 61, 225.
turnus, 59, 225.

Butternut, 139, 146, 149, 227.

Buttonwood, 227.

Cc

Caberodes confusaria, 61, 229.
Cacalia, 171.
Calandridz, 181.
Callipus, 133.
lactarius, 64, 134, 205.
Calloides nobilis, 148.
Calopteron, black-tipped, 64, 221.
reticulate, 64, 222.
reticulatum, 64, 126, 222.
terminale, 64, 126, 221.
Calosoma, 140.
scrutator, 59, 61, 124, 125, 132, 159,
220, 237.
Cambarus, 48, 50, 51.
diogenes, 66, 128, 161, 204.
gracilis, 45, 47, 48, 104, 108, 161.
immunis, 66, 205.
propinquus, 66, 205.
Campanula americana, 63.
Camponotus, 147, 150, 209.
herculeanus, 154.
pennsylvanicus, 62, 202, 204, 221,
223, 228, 236.
ferrugineus, 62, 65, 220, 237.
Campostoma anomalum, 66.
Campylenchia curvata, 48, 170.
Cankerworms, 221.
Carabide, 116, 130, 175, 221.
Cardinalis cardinalis, 220.
Carex, 44.
Carya, 124.
alba, 40.
cordiformis, 57, 60, 63.
glabra, 40, 57, 60.
microcarpa, 228.
ovata, 40, 57, 60, 124, 229, 230.
Catalpa, 148.
hardy, 148.
Caterpillar-hunter, 59, 61, 220.
carpenter, 154.
gall, 184.
rotten-log, 61, 150, 153, 154, 228.
slug, 61, 140, 229.
-wasp, short, 59, 62, 238.
Caterpillars, 164, 193.

Catogenus rufus, 148,
Cattails, 80.
Ceanothus, 223.
Cecidomyia, 140, 157, 158, 184.
caryecola, 59, 230.
holotricha, 59, 65, 229.
salicis-brassicoides, 157.
solidaginis, 110, 184.
tubicola, 59, 229.
Cecidomyiide, 124, 184, 229,
Cedar, red, 148.
white, 149.
Celastrus scandens, 63.
Centrinophus helvinus, 110.
Centrinus penicellus, 52, 182.
picumnus, 182.
seutellum-album, 52, 182.
Cerambycide, 144, 177.
Ceratocampide, 227.
Cerceris, 195.
Cercis canadensis, 60, 63.
Ceruchus piceus, 152.
Ceuthophilus, 135,
Chetopsis nea, 104.
Chaleidide, 158,
Chariessa pilosa, 145,
Chauliognathus, 120, 121.
marginatus, 65, 222.
pennsylvanicus, 45, 46, 47, 51, 53,
55, 56, 104, 109, 111, 169, 176.
Cherry, 143, 148, 149, 227, 228.
black, 63.
wild, 141, 149, 208, 227.
Chestnut, 146, 149, 228,
Chiggers, 45, 46, 52, 164.
Chinch-bug, 111, 114.
Chion cinctus, 143, 144, 146.
Chloealtis conspersa, 58, 124, 132,
213.
Chlorion, 119.
atratum, 49, 54, 110, 195.
ceruleum, 192.
eyaneum, 192.
harrisi, 52, 170, 194.
ichneumoneum, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50,
51, 52, 104, 120, 121, 194, 196,
pennsylvanicum, 49, 54, 194.
Chrysobothris femorata, 144, 146,
148.
Chrysochus, 118.
auratus, 45, 46, 47, 51, 59, 104, 124,
178, 223.
Chrysomelide, 178, 223.
Chrysopa, 109, 158.
oculata, 50, 51, 111, 165.
Chrysophanus thoe, 53, 183.
Chrysopide, 165.

268

Chrysotoxum ventricosum, 59, 231.
Chub, ereek, 65.
Cicada, 125.
dog-day, 58, 196, 217.
dorsata, 170.
linnei, 58, 130, 217.
periodical, 58, 129, 130, 131, 132.
prairie, 170.
pruinosa, 196.
tibicen, 217.
Cicadas, 140.
Cicadide, 170, 217.
Cicindela, 186, 187.
punctulata, 181.
sexguttata, 220.
unipunctata, 59, 124, 132, 219.
Cicindelide, 219, 230.
Circinaria concava, 58, 64, 136, 201.
202, 204.
Circinariide, 201.
Cirsium, 46, 118, 171.
discolor, 183, 199.
Cissia eurytus, 65, 126, 138, 159, 226.
Cistogaster immaculata, 54, 189,
Citheronia, 140.
regalis, 61, 227.
Citrus, 225.
Clearweed, 60, 62, 63, 126, 138, 209.
Cleidogona, 133.
cxsioannulata, 61, 205.
Cleride, 134.
Clerus quadriguttatus, 145.
Click-beetle, 221.
Clinidium sculptile, 149.
Clover, prairie, 169, 178.
purple prairie, 54, 169, 172, 199.
red, 226.
sweet, 196.
Clytanthus albofasciatus, 147.
turicola, 147.
Coccide, 139, 234.
Coccinella novemnotata, 112, 176.
Coccinellide, 5, 176, 221.
Cochlidiide, 229.
Cochlidion, 61, 229.
Cocklebur, 49, 189.
Cockroach, 210.
woodland, 61.
Celioxys, 198.
Coffee-tree, Kentucky, 63, 141.
Coleoptera, 116, 158, 175, 219.
Collembola, 131.
Colletes, 197.
Cone-flower, 39, 48, 49, 169, 170, 172,
179, 189, 196, 197, 198.
Cone-nose, Nebraska, 64, £16.
Conifers, 86, 143, 144, 227.

Conocephalus, 50, 51, 111, 163, 168.
nebrascensis, 64, 126, 216.
Conopide, 188.
Conops, 120, 200.
Conotrachelus elegans, 141.
seniculus, 138,
Coptocycla clavata, 65, 224.
Cord grass, 39, 40, 167, 170.
Cordyceps, 119, 120, 121.
Coreide, 173, 219.
Corirachne versicolor, 151.
Corixide, 66.
Corn, 85, 177, 179, 182, 218.
root-worm, southern, 48, 53, 179.
western, 179.
Cornus, 122, 147,
Corthylus, 137.
Corymbites, 64, 221.
Cotton, 218.
Cottonwood, 76, 103, 105, 106, 120,
121, 148, 149, 157.
Couch grass, 39.
Crab-apple, 55, 56, 129, 146.
Crab-spider, see Spider,
erab-, or flower.
Crambidae, 115.
Cranberry, 77, 79, 84.
Crane-flies, 201.
Craspedosomide, 205.
Crategus, 146.
Cratoparis lunatus, 137.
Crawfish, 35, 44, 66, 108, 114, 179.
burrowing prairie or prairie, 45,
104, 161.
Diogenes, 161, 204.
immune, 205.
leeches, 66.
neighborhood, 205.
prairie or burrowing prairie, 45,
104, 161.
Creek chub, 65.
Cremastogaster lineolata,
234,
Cressonia juglandis, 59, 140, 226.
Cricket, 165.
black-horned meadow, 42, 48, 55,
169.
four-spotted white, 42, 50, 170.
spotted, 58, 217.
striped, 58, 64, 216.
woodland, 58, 61, 132, 217.
Criocephalus obsoletus, 148.
Crioceris asparagi, 172.
Crustacea, 91, 162, 204, |
Cryptocephalvs mutabilis, 223.
venustus, 178.
simplex, 178.

ambush,

59, 152,

269

Cryptorhynchus parochus, 146.
Cucujus clavipes, 149, 151.
Cucullia asteroides, 110.
Culicide, 184.
Culver’s root, 174.
Curculionide, 182.
Currant, 129.
Cyllene caryx, 147.

pictus, 147.

robiniew, 110, 145, 147, 154.
Cymatodera balteata, 145.
Cynipide, 124, 190, 232.
Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus, 58, 125,

140, 159, 215,

D

Daddy-long-legs, 206.
Dedalia, 136.
Dandelion, 227.
Datana, 140, 159, 220.
angusii, 59, 61, 228.
Dendroctonus frontalis, 143, 156.
piceaperda, 156.
ponderosa, 156.
terebrans, 143.
Dendroides, 154.
canadensis, 149, 225.
Deromyia, 53, 186.
discolor, 64, 126, 230.
umbrinus, 230.
Desmodium, 53, 124, 226.
eanadense, 171.
grandiflorum, 63.
nudiflorum, 57.
Diabrotica atripennis, 45, 179.
12-punctata, 48, 49, 53, 112, 164,
179.
longicornis, 179.
Diaperis hydni, 136.
maculata, 136.
Diapheromera femorata, 58, 125, 140,
159, 211.
Dicerea divaricata, 148.
lurida, 147.
Dichromorpha viridis, 58, 61, 64, 124,
126, 212, 214.
Dictamnus, 225.
Digger-wasp, 52, 228.
black, 54, 194.
Harris’s, 52, 194.
- Pennsylvania, 54, 194,
tusty, 45, 46, 50, 52, 104; 120, 194.
Diplocardia, 135.
Diplopods, 124, 125, 133.
Diptera, 116, 184, 229,

Dissosteira carolina, 166, 196.
venusta, 189.

Dixippus morosus, 211.

Dock, 183.

Dogbane, 44, 49, 57, 104, 109, 113,
124, 173, 178, 183, 193, 201, 223,
231.

beetle, 45, 59, 178, 223.
spreading, 178.

Dogwood, 122, 137, 138, 139, 147.

Dolichopodide, 187, 188.

Dorcaschema wildii, 148.

Dorcus parallelus, 152.

Dragon-flies, 47, 119, 164, 165, 230.

Dragon-fly, nine-spot, 45, 50, 104, 165.
red-tailed, 50, 164.

Drop-seed, 49, 53.

Drosophila phalerata, 104.

Dung-beetle, splendid, 59.

Dutchman’s pipe, 225.

E

Earthworms, 115, 135.
Eburia quadrigeminata, 143, 147.
Eggplant, 224.
Elaphidion, 141, 159.
mucronatum, 147.
villosum, 141, 143, 147.
Elateride, 115, 145, 221, 224.
Elm, 40, 62, 63, 77, 126, 138, 144, 147,
148, 149, 152, 227, 231.
slippery, 63.
white, 40, 62, 217.
Elymus, 39, 41, 44, 107, 111, 162, 163,
167, 168, 169.
canadensis, 42, 109.
virginicus, 107.
submuticus, 42, 43.
Empidide, 174, 189.
Empis clausa, 110, 112, 189.
Empusa, 119, 120, 121.
Enchytreids, 135.
Encoptolophus sordidus, 48, 50, 53,
54, 108, 109, 111, 166.
Endodontide, 203.
Enodia portlandia, 65, 126, 138, 159,
226.
Epargyreus tityrus, 64, 126, 140, 226.
Epeira domiciliorum, 64, 65, 126, 138,
206.
insularis, 58, 138, 206.
labyrinthica, 138.
trivittata, 64, 126, 207.
verrucosa, 58, 65, 125, 138, 207.
Epeirid, island, 58, 206.
tent, 64, 65, 206.
three-lined, 64.

2

0

Epeiride, 162, 206.

Epeolus concolor, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54,
108, 196.

donatus, 197.
Epicerus imbricatus, 141.
Epicauta, 120.
marginata, 52, 53, 54, 109, 180.
pennsylvanica, 52, 53, 54, 55, 108,
109, 110, 111, 180.
vittata, 52, 178, 180.
Epinomia, 111, 181.
triangulifera, 181.
Erax bastardi, 186.
lateralis, 187.

Erigeron, 178.

Eriophyide, 208.

Eryngium yuccifolium, 53, 54, 86,
108, 163, 167, 168, 174, 175, 177,
179, 180, 181) 183, 189, 192, 194)
195, 196, 199.

Euaresta equalis, 48, 49, 189.

Eucerideg, 197.

Eugnoriste occidentalis, 185.

Eumenes fraterna, 181.

Eumenide, 193.

Eupatorium celestinum, 125, 163,
212, 214, 231.

Euphorbia, 74, 118,

corollata, 53, 55, 108, 109.

Euphoria inda, 177.

sepulchralis, 45, 46, 104, 177.

Euproctis chrysorrhea, 156.

Eupsalis minuta, 147, 159.

Eurymus philodice, 45, 46, 182.

Euschistus fissilis, 65, 218.

variolarius, 45, 50, 51, 53, 54, 108,
109, 110, 111, 171, 187,
Eustroma, 140,
diversilineata, 59, 229.
Eustrophus bicolor, 136.
tomentosus, 136.

Euthoetha galeator, 219.

Everes comyntas, 61, 138, 226.

Evergreens, 82, 85.

Everlasting, 57, 124,

Exoprosopa, 120.

fasciata, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 109, 111,
163, 174, 185.
fascipennis, 121, 185.

F

Feltia subgothica, 121, 174.

Fern, beech, 63.
maidenhair, 63.
rattlesnake, 63.

Feverwort, 183.

Fir, Douglas, 149.

Firefly, Pennsylvania, 65, 222.
Flag, blue, 44, 103, 104.
Flower-beetle, black, 45, 46, 177.
rose, 152.
Fontaria corrugata, 134.
virginiensis, 134.
Formica difficilis consocians, 191.
exsectoides, 235.
fusca, 109, 171.
subsericea, 59, 110, 112, 171, 190,
191, 236.
integra, 177.
pallide-fulva schaufussi, 235.
pallide-fulva schaufussi incerta,
54, 112, 171, 190, 191.
sanguinea, 190, 191.
aserva, 190.
puberula, 191.
rubicunda, 190.
subintegra, 191.
subnuda, 191.
schaufussi, 120, 191, 235.
Formicide, 190, 233.
Foxtail, 181.
Frogs, 45, 66.
Frontina, 120.
Fulgoride, 217.
Fungi, 102, 185, 137, 149, 159, 221.
shelf, 224.
Fungus-beetle, horned, 64, 224.
Fungus-beetles, 137.

G

Galba obrussa, 161.
umbilicata, 45, 46, 47, 104, 160.
Galerita janus, 59, 125, 135, 150, 221.
Galerucella luteola, 156.
Galium circezans, 63.
trifolium, 63.
Gall, acorn plum-, 61, 232.
caterpillar, 184.
-flies, 140.
goldenrod bunch, 184.
hairy midge, 65, 229.
hickory seed-, 230.
hickory tube-, 229.
horned knot oak-, 232.
-insects, 106.
-louse, vagabond, 105.
-mite, cherry-leaf, 64, 208.
oak-apple or May-apple, 232, 234.
oak bullet, 59, 232.
oak seed-, 232.
oak wool-, 59, 65, 232.
rose, 56, 190.
white oak club-, 59, 232.
willow cone,- 184.
willow leaf-, 158.

71

Gallinipper, 184.

Galls, 35.

Gaura biennis, 183.

Gelechia, 141.

Gelechiide, 184, 229.

Geometride, 229.

Geophiloids, 133.

lage aad splendidus, 59, 125, 132,

Gerride, 219.

Gerris remigis, 66, 127, 219.

Giant fly, 45, 46, 186.

Gnathotrichus, 137.

Gnorimoschema gallesolidaginis, 110,
184,

Goes debilis, 146.

pulverulentus, 146.
tigrina, 146, 154.

Goldenrod, 109, 110, 111, 162, 169,
170, 172, 174, 176, 177, 180, 182,
185, 188, 190, 192, 196.

bunch gall, 184,

Gooseberry, 63, 141.

Grape, 55, 56, 60, 63, 145, 177, 217
218, 223, 229,

-beetle, spotted, 55, 177, 223.

Grass, 42, 43, 51, 74, 78, 121, 152,
162, 166, 173, 212, 226,

beard, 53.

cord, 39, 40, 169, 170.

couch, 39,

-root-louse, 120.

slough, 39, 41, 42, 107.
Grasshopper, Boll’s, 58, 61, 213.

Carolina, 166, 196.

common meadow, 42, 44, 50, 53, 55,

?

58, 168.

differential, 42, 44, 48, 50, 53, 119,
167, 213.

dorsal-striped, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53,
169.

lance-tailed, 53, 169.
leather-colored, 55, 167.
lesser, 58, 213.
red-legged, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.
Scudder’s, 61, 64, 214.
short-winged, 58, 61, 64, 212.
sordid, 48, 50, 53, 166.
sprinkled, 58, 213.
two-striped or two-lined, 53, 167.
Grasshoppers or locusts, 47, 164, 180
186, 187, 192, 213.
Green brier, 63.
Gregarina, 134.
Grosbeak, rose-preasted, 178.
Grouse-locust, short-winged, 58, 212.
Grouse-locusts, 211.

s

Gryllide, 169, 216.
Gum, 149.
Gymunocladus, 141.
dioica, 63.
Gypona pectoralis, 65, 218.
Gypsy moth, 156.

H

Habia ludoviciana, 178,

Hackberry, 75, 146, 152.

Halictide, 196.

Halictus, 181, 195.

fasciatus, 52, 54, 110, 196.

obscurus, 54, 196.

virescens, 52, 196.
Halisidota, 140.

tessellaris, 59, 61, 227.
Harmostes reflexulus, 52, 112, 173.
Harpalus, 175.

ealiginosus, 175.

pennsylvanicus, 175.

Harvest-fly, dog-day, 58, 196, 217.

Harvest-mites, 164.

Harvest-spider, polished, 161,

stout, 58, 61, 206.
striped, 205.

Harvest-spiders, 132, 138.

Haw, 129, 146.

Hazel, 139, 141, 223, 227.

Hedeoma pulegioides, 57.

Helianthus, 111.

Helicide, 201.

Hemaris diffinis, 45, 46, 183.

Hemerocampa leucostigma, 154, 156.

Hemiptera, 98, 138, 170, 217.

Hemlock, 149.

Hesperiidaz, 226.

Heterius blanchardi, 235.

Heterocampa, 140, 159.

guttivitta, 59, 228, 238.

Heteroptera, 158.

Hickory, 40, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 74, 75,
76, 80, 87, 123, 124, 129, 138, 139,
141, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 157,
177, 211, 215, 217, 223, 226, 227,
228, 229, 230.

bark-beetle, 154.
bitternut, 57, 60, 63, 228.
-borer, 147,

horned-devil, 61, 227.
pignut, 57, 60, 124.
seed-gall, 230.

shagbark, 57, 60, 124.
shell-bark, 226.
tube-gall, 229.

272

Hippodamia parenthesis, 52, 176.
Holeaspis, 140.
globulus, 59, 232.
Honey-bee, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187,
200.
-locust, 147, 149.
Honeysuckle, bush, 183.
Hoplismenus morulus, 135.
Hornet, white-faced, 135.
Hornets, 210.
Horntail, 144, 154, 231, 233.
Horsemint, 57, 124, 200, 201.
Horseweed, 170.
Humulus, 225.
Hymenarcys nervosa, 64, 218,
Hymenomycetes, 137.
Hymenoptera, 115, 190, 231.
parasitic, 104, 109, 140, 141, 145,
163, 165, 198, 226.
Hyphantria cunea, 156.

I

Ichneumon cincticornis, 135.
Ichneumonidae, 233.
Imperial moth, 64, 227.
Indian hemp, 178.
tobacco, 63.
Insecta, 100, 164, 208.
Ips 4-guttatus, 176.
Tris, 103.
versicolor, 44.
Tronweed, 172, 178.
Ironwood, 226.
Ischnoptera, 61, 125, 210.
inequalis, 144,
pennsylvanica, 210.
Isodontia philadelphica, 170, 194.
Isosoma, 107.
grande, 175.
Ivy, five-leaved, or Virginia creeper,
57, 60, 63, 177, 223.
poison, 57.

J

Jalysus spinosus, 64, 126, 219.
Jassidw, 107, 112, 118, 171.
Juglans nicra, 57, 60, 63.
Juniperus, 148,
K
Katydid, angle-winged, 58, 215.
common, 58, 215,
cone-nosed, 50.
forked, 58, 215.
round-winged, 64, 215.
Texan, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.

Katydids, 140.
Kentucky coffee-tree, 63, 141.

L

Lacewing, 150, 165.
Lachnosterna, 105, 116, 121, 142, 144,
174, 181, 186, 193, 233.

Lactarius, 136.

Lactuca, 118.
canadensis, 48, 53, 55, 108, 109,

171.

Ladybird or lady-beetle, 52, 59, 221.
nine-spotted, 112, 176.
parenthetical, 176.

Lampyride, 176, 221.

Languria mozardi, 109.

Laportea canadensis, 62, 63, 125, 126,

138, 209.

Larch, 156.

Lasius flavus, 120.
interjectus, 120,
niger americanus, 119, 120, 121.

Laurus, 225.

Leaf-beetle, elm, 156, 232.

Leaf-bug, dusky, 53, 175.

Leaf-cutting bee, 50, 52, 198.

Leaf-footed bug, 138.

Leather-jackets, 116.

Lebia grandis, 135.

Lepachys, 108.
pinnata, 39, 48, 49, 108, 118, 161,

162, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172,
174, 179, 189, 196, 197.

Lepidoptera, 115, 138, 140, 182, 225.

Lepidopterous larve, 35, 47.

Leptilon, 170.

Leptoglossus oppositus, 138.

Leptostylus aculiferus, 146.

Leptotrachelus dorsalis, 42, 175.

Leptura proxima, 148.

Lettuce, wild, 48, 53, 109, 171.

Leucania unipuncta, 189.

Liatris scariosa, 54, 185, 199, 200.

Libellula pulehella, 45, 50, 51, 104,

162, 165.

Libellulide, 164.

Ligyrocoris sylvestris, 48, 172.

Lilac, 227,

Linden or basswood, 77, 136, 141, 146,

149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228,

Liobunum, 132, 138.
grande, 58, 61, 206.
politum, 50, 51, 161.
ventricosum, 58, 206.
vittatum, 58, 205.

Liopus alpha, 138.
fascicularis, 138, 159,
variegatus, 148.
xanthoxyli, 138.
Liriodendron, 225,
Lithacodes, 61.
Lithobius voracior, 134.
Lobelia inflata, 63.
Locust, 141, 149.
borer, 145, 154.
Carolina, 166, 196.
grouse-, see grouse-locust,
honey-, 147, 149,
yellow, 110, 148, 226.
Locustide, 51, 168, 215.
Locusts or grasshoppers, 47, 164, 180,
186, 187, 192, 213.
Long-sting, lunate, 64, 231, 233.
Long-tail, black, 64, 233.
Lucanider, 222.
Lucanus dama, 152.
Lumbricus, 115.
Lycenide, 183, 226.
Lycomorpha pholus, 222.
Lycopus, 44.
Lycosa, 58, 1382, 208.
scutulata, 64, 126, 208.
Lycoside, 208.
Lyctide, 147.
Lygeide, 172.
Lygeus kalmii, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104,
108, 112, 118, 172, 185.
Lygus pratensis, 45, 46, 65, 175, 218.
Lymexylon sericeum, 148.
Lymnea, 160.
Lymneide, 160,
Lysiopetalide, 205.
Lythrum alatum, 44.

M

Macrobasis unicolor, 141.

Macrosiphum rudbeckiz, 109, 118,
171.

Magdalis, 146, 148.

armicollis, 144, 154.
barbita, 144.

Mallophora orcina, 187.

Maple, 76, 77, 80, 84, 129, 136, 187,
138, 141, 143, 146, 148, 149, 152,
157, 227, 228, 231.

hard or sugar, 40, 62, 63, 123, 126,
151, 157.

red, 229.

silver, 149,

May-beetles, 106, 119, 142, 187, 193,
233. :

Meadow cricket, black-horned, 42,
“48, 55, 169.
-grasshopper, common, 42, 44, 50,
53, 55, 58, 168,

Mealy flata, 65, 217.

Mecaptera, 209.

Megachile brevis, 52, 198.
centuncularis, 198.
mendica, 50, 198.

Megachilide, 198.

Megalodacne fasciata, 136.

Melanobracon simplex, 144, 159.

Melanolestes picipes, 135.

Melanoplus amplectens, 58, 64, 124,

126, 132.

atlanis, 58, 124, 213.

bivittatus, 53, 109, 167.

differentialis, 42, 43, 48, 50, 53, 54,
107, 108, 109, 111, 121, 162, 167,
168, 213.

femur-rubrum, 42, 43, 48, 50, 107,
108, 111, 168, 196.

gracilis, 64, 126, 214.

obovatipennis, 58, 65, 124, 214.

scudderi, 61, 64, 124, 126, 214.

Melanotus, 61, 125, 150, 221.

Melasoma scripta, 106.

Melissodes aurigenia, 197.
pbimaculata, 48, 50, 51, 54, 111, 197.
desponsa, 197.
obliqua, 48, 49, 52, 54, 108, 118,

197.

perplexa, 230.
trinodis, 197.
Melissopus latiferreana, 141.
Meloide, 180.
Melolontha, 116.
Membracide, 170.
Menispermum canadense, 57, 60, 63.
Meracantha contracta, 59, 61, 125,
132, 185, 144, 152, 154, 202, 224.
Merinus levis, 151.
Meromyza americana, 107.
Mesogramma politum, 53, 54, 59, 65,
188

Metopia, 120, 121.
leucocephala, 195.
Microcentrum, 140.
laurifolium, 58, 124, 215.
Microlepidoptera, 158.
Microparsus variabilis, 171.
Midge-gall, hairy, 65, 229.
Milesia ornata, 59, 64, 126, 163, 231.
virginiensis, 163.
Milesiine, 231.
Milkweed, 104, 112, 118, 172, 173,
178, 181.

Milkweed—continued.
beetle, 46, 104, 185.
four-eyed, 45, 50, 52, 177.
bug, small, 45, 50, 104, 172, 185.
large, 45, 50, 104, 173.
bugs, 104.
common, 112, 164, 171, 176, 180,
188, 190, 191, 201.
-fly, metallic, 187.
Sullivant’s, 182.
swamp, 39, 44, 46, 49, 51, 103, 160,
162, 168, 165, 168, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 182,
183, 184, 186, 194, 198, 200.
Millipeds, 133, 136.
Mint, 163.
horse-, 57, 124, 200, 201.
mountain or white, 39, 50, 51, 163,
169, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179,
180, 185, 191, 194, 197, 199.

Miride, 175, 218.

Misumena aleatoria, 42, 43, 45, 46,
47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 64, 104,
109, 121, 126, 163, 168, 175, 185,
200, 216, 231.

vatia, 47.
Mites, 120, 130, 131, 137.
uropod, 222.

Mollusca, 35, 124, 125, 126, 135, 137,
140, 160, 201.

Molorchus bimaculatus, 138.

Monarda bradburiana, 57, 124, 200.

Monarthrum, 137. :

Monohammus confusor, 143.

titillator, 155.

Moonseed, 57, 60, 63.

Mormidea lugens, 65, 218.

Morus, 148.

tubra, 57, 60,°63.

Mosquito, giant, 45, 50, 51, 104, 184.

Mosquitoes, 219.

Moth, acorn, 141.

brown-tailed, 156.
gypsy, 156.
imperial, 64, 227.
royal walnut, 227.

Moths, 169.

clothes, 99, 100.

Mud-wasp, potter, 193.

Mulberry, 57, 60, 63, 147, 148, 149.

Muscide, 116.

Mushrooms, 137.

Mutillide, 192, 238.

Mycetophagus bipustulatus, 136.

punctatus, 136.

Mycetophilide, 137, 185.

Mydaide, 186.
Mydas clavatus, 45, 46, 186.
fulvipes, 186.
Myodites, 52, 181.
fasciatus, 111, 181.
solidaginis, 111, 181.
Myodocha serripes, 135.
Myriapoda, 35, 134, 137, 140, 205.
Myrmecophila pergandei, 191,
Myrmedonia, 234.
Myrmeleon, 154.
immaculatus, 153.

Myrmeleonide, 58, 124, 153, 165, 209.
Myrmica rubra scabrinodis sabuleti,
112, 190, 191.

rubra sceabrinodis
202, 234, 236.
Myzine, 115.
sexcincta, 50, 51, 54, 109, 110, 111,
192.
Myzinide, 192.
Myzocallis, 107.

schencki, 61,

N

Nadata gibbosa, 59, 61, 140, 228,
Negro-bug, flea, 172.
Nematus erichsonii, 156.
Nemobius, 132.
fasciatus, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.
maculatus, 58, 124, 217.
Nemognatha immaculata, 111,
sparsa, 111.
Neoclytus, 146, 148.
erythrocephalus, 144, 147, 148, 154,
159.

luseus, 147.

Nettle, wood, 62, 63, 125, 126, 138,
209, 214.

Neuroptera, 165, 209.
Noctuide, 115, 183, 227.
Nodonota convexa, 48, 179.
Nomadide, 196.
Notodontide, 228.
Nut-weevils, 141.
Nyctobates pennsylvanicus, 151.
Nymphalide, 183, 225.

0

Oak, 40, 57, 58, 59, 74, 76, 77, 80, 87,
123, 124, 128, 139, 141, 142, 146,
147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157, 177,
203, 205, 214, 215, 219, 220, 223,
227, 228, 229, 231, 232.

-apple gall, 232, 234.
black, 57, 60, 75, 144, 149.
bur, 77.

Oak—continued.
post, 123.
-pruner, 141, 147.
red, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126, 129.
shingle, 63, 123, 232.
white, 57, 60, 78, 124, 147, 148, 156,
227, 228, 232.
Oberea tripunctata, 148.
Odonata, 164.
Odynerus, 49.
vagus, 52, 193.
Ccanthus, 42, 195.
fasciatus, 195.
nigricornis, 42, 48, 55, 107, 108,
111, 169.
niveus, 170.
quadripunctatus, 42, 50, 107, 111,
170. -

Oncideres cingulatus, 141.
Oncopeltus fasciatus, 45, 46, 50, 51,
104, 112, 118, 173. ?
Orange, 155, 219.
Orchelimum, 120, 121.
cuticulare, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.
glaberrimum, 42, 44, 64, 126, 216.
gracile, 194.
vulgare, 42, 44, 50, 53, 55, 56, 107,
109, 111, 168, 194. -

Ormenis pruinosa, 65, 217.
Orthoptera, 42, 43, 44, 47, 49, 51, 107,
118, 124, 126, 130, 166, 210.

Orthosoma brunneum, 152.

Osage orange, 148, 149.

Oscinis carbonaria, 107.
coxendix, 104.

Osmoderma eremicola, 152.
scabra, 152.

Otocryptops sexspinosus, 134.

P

Pallodes pallidus, 136.
Pandeletejus hilaris, 144.
Panicum, 166, 167, 168, 170, 181.
erus-galli, 176.
Panorpa, 133.
confusa, 133.
Panorpidsy, 209.
Papaw, 138, 141, 147, 224,
Papilio, 126.
asterias, 233.
eresphontes, 46, 140, 225.
philenor, 59, 61, 225.
polyxenes, 45, 46, 162, 182, 233.
troilus, 59, 61, 225.
turnus, 59, 140, 225.
Papilionide, 182, 225.
Parandra brunnea, 151, 154,

Parsley, 182.
Parsnip, wild, 196.

Passalus cornutus, 125, 144, 150, 151,
153, 154, 159, 202, 203, 204, 221,

222, 228, 236.
horned, 61, 154, 203, 222, 236.
Peach, 143.
Pear, 229.
Pelecinide, 233.
Pelecinus polyturator, 64, 126, 233.
Pelidnota punctata, 55, 56, 177, 223.
Pemphigus oestlundi, 105.
populicaulis, 105.
populi-transversus, 105.
vagabundus, 105.
Pennyroyal, 57.
Pentatomide, 171, 218.
Penthe obliquata, 137.
pimelia, 137.
Peridroma saucia, 140.
Petalostemum, 169, 178.
purpureum, 54, 169, 172, 199.
Phalangiida, 35, 161, 205.
Phalangiide, 161; 205.
Phasmide, 211. ~
Phegopteris hexagonoptera, 63.
Phenolia grossa, 136.
Phidippus, 164,
audax, 138.
Philomycide, 202.

Philomycus carolinensis, 58, 61, 64,
136, 150, 202, 204, 205, 209, 221,

228, 236.
Phleotomus pileatus, 228.
Phoridag, 137.
Photuris pennsylvanica, 65, 222.
Phragmites, 77, 80, 105, 188.
Phymata, 120.

fasciata, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 104, 108, 109, 110, 111,

121, 174, 175, 185, 189.
wolffi. 174.
Phymatide, 174.
Phymatodes varius, 156.
Physa. gyrina, 50, 51, 160.
Physidex, 160.
Physocephala, 200.
sagittaria. 110, 188.
Pieride. 182.
Pigeon tremex, 59, 61, 231.
Pignut, 57. 60, 124.

Pilea pumila, 60. 62, 63, 126, 138, 209.

Pine. 76, 143. 155.
yellow, 156.
Pitcher-plant, 195.
Plagionotus sveciosus, 156, 232.
Planorbis, 161.

276

Plantain, 227.
Plant-bug, dusky, 174.
tarnished, 45, 65, 175, 218.
Plant-lice, 47, 51, 107, ‘162, 164, 165,
169, 174, 176, 188, 230.
Plant- -louse, milkweed, 171,
Aphis asclepiadis.
Platydema ruficorne, 136,
Platymetopius frontalis, 48, 171.
Platyptera, 208.
Platypus, 137.
Plum, 141, 198, 219, 229.
sugar, 228,
Polistes, 48, 49, 187.
pallipes, 110.
variatus, 110, 121, 193.
Polydesmide, 205.
Polydesmus, 61, 150, 205.
serratus, 134.
Polyergus lucidus, 192.
Polygonia, 126, 138.
interrogationis, 225.
Polygonum, 183.
convolvulus, 227.
Polygraphus rufipennis, 156.
Polygyra albolabris, 58, 201.
clausa, 61, 201, 202, 204.
Polyporus, 126, 136, 224.
tomentosus, 136.
volvatus, 137.
Pompilide, 194.
Pompilus ethiops, 238,
Pontia protodice, 174.
rape, 56, 182, 186.
Poplar, 106, 149.
Carolina, 105, 106.
Populus, 106.
deltoides, 44, 103, 105, 149.
Porthetria dispar, 156.
Potato, 179, 224.
-beetle, old-fashioned, 52, 180.
wild sweet, 178.
Prairie-dog, 100.
eae ash, 60, 63, 138, 179, 183, 217,
225,
Prioenemoides unifasciatus, 193.
Priocnemus unifasciatus, 193.
Priononyx atrata, 195.
Prionoxystus robinie, 144, 154.
Prionus imbricornis, 152.
Proctacanthus milberti, 187.
Promachus, 119, 120, 121.
vertebratus, 50, 51, 53, 56, 109,
111, 171, 186.
Prunus, 225.
serotina, 208.
Psammochares ethiops, 65,°132, 238.

See

Psammocharide, 193, 238.
Psedera, 229.
quinquefolia, 57, 60, 63.
Psilopus sipho, 112, 171, 187.
Psithyrus, 120.
variabilis, 52, 54, 200.
Psocids, 131.
Psocus, 158.
Psorophora ciliata, 45, 46, 47, 50, 104,
184.
Ptelea, 225.
Pulmonates, 236.
Purpuricenus humeralis, 148.
Pyenanthemum, 181, 192.
flexuosum, 39, 50, 163, 169, 172,
173, 174, 180, 185, 191, 192, 193,
194, 196, 197, 199.
linifolium, 180.
pilosum, 169, 172, 174, 176, 177, 179,
180, 182, 184, 185, 190, 191, 192,
193, 196, 197, 199.
virginianum, 178.
Pyramidula alternata, 64, 203.
perspectiva, 58, 61, 136, 150, 201,
202, 204, 221.
Pyrochroa, 150, 154, 224.
Pyrochroide, 221, 223, 224.
Pyrrharctia isabella, 233.

Q

Quercus, 124, 232.
alba, 40, 57, 60, 124, 228, 232.
imbricaria, 63, 123, 232.
michauxii 123.
minor, 123.
rubra, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126.
velutina, 40, 57, 60, 75, 124, 144.

R

Ragweed, 175, 178, 179.
Rail, Carolina, 45.
Rana, 45.
Raspberry, 57, 124, 129, 170.
Rattlesnake-master, 53, 167, 168, 174,
175, 177, 180, 181, 183, 189, 199.
Redbud, 60, 63, 138.
Reduviide, 173, 219.
Reptiles, 100.
Rhipiphoride, 180.
BRhipiphorus, 120, 121.
dimidiatus, 50, 51, 52, 53, 109, 111,
180.
limbatis, 53. 109, 181.
paradoxus, 181.
pectinatus ventralis, 181.

Rhodites nebulosus, 56, 190.
Rhodophora gaurex, 183.
Rhubarb, 186..
Rhus, 172.
glabra, 57, 60, 124.
toxicodendron, 57.
Rhynehites eneus, 53, 54, 181.
hirtus, 108.
Rhynchitide, 181.
Rhynchophora, 116.
Ribes cynosbati, 63.
Robber-fly, vertebrated, 50, 53, 56,
171, 186.
Robber-flies, 49, 119, 164, 182, 186,
187, 210, 230.
Robinia, 148, 226.
Romaleum atomarium, 146,
rufulum, 146,
Root-louse, grass, 120.
Rosa, 57, 190.
Rose, 57, 124, 198.
wild, 180, 190.
Rose-breasted grosbeak, 178.
Rosin-weed, 39, 40, 48, 53, 108, 174,
180, 181, 185, 197.
arrow-leaved, 169.
broad- or large-leaved, 55, 168, 176,
199, 200.
cup-leaved, 54.
Rotten-log caterpillar, 61, 150, 153,
154, 228.
Rubus, 57.
Rumex, 183.
Russula, 136.
Rye, wild, 39, 41, 42, 48, 107, 168.

Ss

Salamanders, 66.
Salix, 44, 103, 106.
Saperda, 143.
candida, 146.
discoidea, 144,
tridentata, 144, 146, 148, 154, 159.
vestita, 146.
Sarracenia flava, 195.
Sassafras, 57, 60, 124, 125, 126, 127,
149, 212, 215, 218, 225, 226, 227.
variifolium, 57, 60, 124.
Saturniide, 227.
Saw-fly, 158.
larch, 156.
Scale insects, 106.
Scarabeide, 177, 223, 225, 233.
Seatopse pulicaria, 104.
Scepsis fulvicollis, 110,
Schistocerca alutacea, 55, 56, 167.

Schizoneura corni, 112, 122,
panicola, 120, 121.
Sciara, 50, 185.
Sciomyzide, 42, 43, 189.
Scirpus, 44, 103, 105.
Scolecocampa liburna, 125, 150, 153,
154, 159, 209, 221, 223, 228.
Scolia, 192.
bicincta, 192.
tricincta, 193.
Scoliide, 192.
Seolytide, 137, 144.
_ Seolytus quadrispinosus, 144, 154,
159.

Scorpion flies, 62.
Scorpion-fly, brown-tipped, 210.
clear-winged, 64, 209.
spotted crane-like, 210.
Scotobates calearatus, 151.
Seudderia texensis, 42, 44, 48, 50,
107, 108, 111, 168.
Scytonotus granulatus, 134,
Sedge, 44.
Semotilus atromaculatus, 65.
Senotainia trilineata, 196.
Serpents, 100.
Setaria, 182.
Setulia grisea, 195.
Shelf-fungus, 224.
Silkworm, American, 61, 227.
Silphium, 86, 108, 118, 171.
integrifolium, 48, 54, 108, 166, 167,
169, 174, 180, 181, 185, 196, 197,
198.
laciniatum, 53, 108.
terebinthinaceum, 39, 40, 48, 55,
56, 108, 161, 168, 176, 180, 199,
200.
Sinea diadema, 50, 51, 65, 111, 173,
219.
Sinoxylon basilare, 146.
Siricide, 231.
Skipper, common, 64, 226.
Slug, Carolina, 58, 61, 150, 202, 236.
caterpillar, 61, 140, 229.
Slugs, 133.
Smartweed, 183.
Smilax, 55, 56, 63.
Smodicum cucujiforme, 148.
Snail, alternate, 64, 203.
predaceous, 58, 64, 201.
Snails, 133, 138, 160.
Snout-beetle, imbricated, 141.
Snowberry, 183.
Soldier-beetle, 45, 46, 53, 55, 104,
169, 176.
margined, 65, 222.

278

.

Soldier-beetle—continued.
Pennsylvania, 45, 46, 53, 55, 104,
118, 169, 176.
beetles, 120.
-bug, rapacious, 50, 51, 65, 173,
219.

Solidago, 109, 110, 111, 118, 145, 162,
171, 172, 174, 176, 179, 180, 182,
184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 192, 196.

Sow-bugs, 137.

Span-worm, 229.

Sparganium, 43.

Sparnopolius fulvus, 121, 174, 186.

Spartina, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 107, 167,
168, 169, 170, 175, 189.

michauxiana, 41.
Spherophthalma, 59, 124, 132, 192,
238.
Spherularia bombi, 200.
Sphagnum, 79.
Spharagemon bolli, 58, 61, 124, 213.
Sphecide, 194, 238.
Sphecius speciosus, 196.
Sphenophoruvs, 116.
ochreus, 104.
placidus, 181.
robustus, 182.
venatus, 181.

Sphex brunneipes, 195.
ichneumonea, 194.

Sphingide, 183, 226,

Sphinx, honeysuckle, 45, 46, 183.

Spice-bush, 138, 207.

Spider, ambush, crab-, or flower, 42,
43, 45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 53, 64, 104,
163, 168, 175, 200, 216, 231.

common garden, 42, 44, 45, 48, 50,
52, 53, 104, 162, 182.

ground, 58, 64.

harvest-, see harvest-spider.

island, 58.

jumping, 112, 138, 164.

tugose, 58, 64, 65, 207.

spined, 64, 65, 207.

three-lined, 207.

wasp, 65, 193.

white-triangle, 58, 65, 207.

Spiders, 119, 131, 138, 140, 238.

Spirobolus marginatus, 134.

Spogostylum anale, 186.

Sporobolus, 49, 111, 112, 168, 212.

eryptandrus, 39, 49, 53.
Spragueia leo, 110, 184.
Spruce, 149, 156.

Engelmann, 149.
Spurge, flowering, 53, 55.
Squash-bug, 189.

Staphylinide, 116.

Stelis, 198.

Stenosphenus notatus, 144, 147.

Stigmatomma pallipes, 61, 133, 202,
205, 224, 233, 236.

Stilt-bug, spined, 64, 219.

Stink-bug, 50, 51, 187.

Stiretrus anchorago, 172.

Stizide, 199.

Stizus brevipennis, 52, 196,

Stone-roller, 66.

Strawberry, 176.

Strepsiptera, 49.

es 55, 56, 57, 60, 124, 138, 139,
227,

Sunflower, 111.
wild, 169.
Sweet potato, wild, 178.
Sycamore, 149, 186, 227, 231.
Sympetrum rubicundulum, 50, 51,
164.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 63.
Synchroa punctata, 149.
Syrbula admirabilis, 50, 111, 166.
Syrphid, American, 52.
corn, 53, 59, 65, 188.
Vespa-like, 59, 64, 231.
‘Syrphide, 158, 188, 231.
Syrphus americanus, 52, 188, 231.
Systechus oreas, 186.
vulgaris, 185.

T

Tachinide, 158, 182, 189, 195.
Tamarack, 149. :
Tapinoma sessile, 64, 126, 236.
Telea, 140.
polyphemus, 61, 227.
Telephorus, 65, 222.
pilineatus, 222.
Tenebrionide, 224.
Termes, 125, 147.
flavipes, 58, 61, 150, 152, 154, 159,
202, 204, 208, 234.
virginicus, 209.
Termites, 208, 234.
Termitide, 208.
Tetanocera pictipes, 43, 189.
plumosa, 42, 43, 107, 189.
Tetraopes, 104, 112, 185.
femoratus, 45, 46, 47, 178.
tetraophthalmus, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51,
52, 111, 177, 178.
Tetropium cinnamopterum, 156.
Tettigidea lateralis, 58, 211.
parvipennis, 58, 212.
Tettigoniellide, 218.

279

Thalessa, 145, 148, 156.

lunator, 125, 126, 159, 231, 232, 233.
Thistle, 199.
Thomiside, 163.
Thyanta custator, 108.
Thyreocoride, 172.
Thyreocoris pulicarius, 172.
Thyridopteryx ephemereformis, 152,

154.

Thysanura, 131.
Tibicen septendecim, 58, 130, 217.
Tick-trefoil, 57, 63, 124.
Canadian, 171.
Tiger-beetle, woodland, 59, 219.
Tiger beetles, 132, 187, 220.
Tilia, 149.
Timothy, 175, 178.
Tiphia, 115, 119, 120, 121, 181, 185,
193.
Tipulide, 115, 133.
Toads, 66.
Tomato, 224.
Tortoise-beetle, clubbed, 65, 224.
Tremex columba, 59, 61, 125, 144,
148, 154, 156, 159, 231, 233.
Trichius piger, 152.
Trichocera, 136, 159.
brumalis, 136.
Trichopepla semivittata, 108.
Trichopoda pennipes, 189.
plumipes, 189.
ruficauda, 52, 189.
Triepeolus, 197.
Trifolium, 229.
Triphyllus humeralis, 136.
Trirhabda tomentosa, 52, 179.
Trissoleus euschisti, 218.
Tritoma biguttata, 136.
thoracica, 136.
Trogositids, 145.
Trogus, 140.
obsidianator, 65, 233,
Trombidiide, 164.
Trombidium, 45, 46, 52, 120, 121, 164.
Truxalis brevicornis, 214.
Trypetide, 189.
Twig-pruners, 141.

Tussock-moth, white-marked, 154,
156.
Typha, 80
U
Ulmus, 225.
americana, 40, 62, 63, 126, 217.
fulva, 63.

Umbellifers, 182, 188.
Uropod mites, 222.
Urtica, 225.

Vv

Verbena, 185, 196, 197.
stricta, 185.
Vernonia, 118, 171, 172.
Veronica virginica, 174.
Vespa, 135, 190, 210, 230.
maculata, 135,
Vespide, 193.
Viburnum, 223, 229.
Virginia creeper or five-leaved ivy, 57,
60, 63, 177, 223.
Vitis cinerea, 60, 63.
Vitrea indentata, 61, 64, 201, 202,
203, 204.
rhoadsi, 61, 201, 202, 204.
Volucella, 200.

Ww

Walking-stick, forest, 58, 140, 211.
Walnut, 57, 60, 63, 145, 146, 148, 151,
296, 227, 228.
black, 149.
moth, royal, 227.
Wasp, digger-, see digger-wasp.
potter mud-, 193.
solitary, 52.
spider, 65, 193.
white-grub, 185.
Wasps, 119, 181, 185.
Water horehound, 44.
-strider, 66, 127, 219.
Web-worm, fall, 156.
Weevils, 195.
grain, 99, 100.
nut-, 141.
Wheat, 175, 218.
-stem maggot, greater, 107.

280

White ant, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152, 154,
202, 204, 208, 234.
-grubs, 116, 119.
Willow, 44, 47, 49, 103, 106, 120, 121,
157, 158.
Wireworms, 224.
Woodpecker, pileated, 228,

x

Xanthium, 49, 189.

Xenodusa cava, 237.

Xiphidium attenuatum, 53, 54, 169.
nemorale, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.
strictum, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 107,

108, 109, 169.

Xyleborus, 137.

Xylocopa virginica, 45, 46, 47, 104,
198.

Xylocopide, 198.

Xylopinus saperdioides, 151.

Xyloryctes satyrus, 152.

Xyloteres, 137.

Xylotrechus colonus, 144, 147,

154.
undulatus, 154.

148,

Y
Ypsolophus, 140,
ligulellus, 59, 65, 229.

Z

Zanthoxylum, 60, 63, 138, 179,
225. 5

Zonitids, 202.

Zonitis bilineata, 111, 112, 180.

Zonitoides arborea, 58, 61, 136, 150,
202, 204.

183,

Pirate I

*SUOI}E}S [291 30[092 9} JO BOTZIO] SnJMoys dew

Z| se. ape
os i Os 4
|
‘|
pe.
me \
a yg
he. =a H
: _f posse ; AW meee
ar : r* es | ee Ea)
. ; AL elle e + 5 \ o>) | /
| ’ ~|. fifa 0
: T jo ; \ J tis Mes
ie |: ek |
ae 96 . Rowe se ze y
; te)
4 t a
e od
og | . Ss ne. 8 fe - Si ( =

PLATE II

Fig.1. Colony of swamp grass (E/ymus virginicus), Station I, c.

Fig. 2. General view, to the right of the railway track, from Station I, d, toward I, 9. On the
bare foreground are plants of Asclepias syriaca. (Photograph, T. L, Hankinson.)

PLATE III

Fig. 1. Swampy area with colony of swamp milkweed (Asc/epias incarnata), Station I, d.
(Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig. 2. General view of Station I, g, a colony of swamp milkweed (Asclepzas incarnata) ina
ditch parallel to the rails, and of blue stem (Andropogon) and drop-seed (Sporobolus). Photo-
graph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Pirate IIIA

Fig.1. Flowers of the swamp milkweed (Asclepias tncarnata) at Station I,d. These were the
favorite haunts of many flower-visiting insects. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig. 2. Crawfish chimney at Station I, ¢, Charleston, Ill. Probably formed by Cambarus gractlis
or diogenes. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

PiatE IIIB

Fig.1. Crawfish chimney at Station I, Charlesion, Ill. Probably formed by Cambarus gracilis or
diogenes. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig. 2. General view at Station I, d, showing numerous crawfish chimneys, probably formed by
Cambarus gracilis or diogenes. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

Pirate IV

Fig.1. Colony of mountain mint (Pycuanthemum flexuosum) at Station I,eg, The large
upturned leaves are those of Asclepias sullivantit. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

General view of Station I, g, April 23, 1911, showing the submerged condition. (Photograph
by T. L. Hantcinson.)

PLATE V

General view of Station I, ¢, showing a colony of Lepachys prnnata (the black dots on the flower
heads) and rosinweed (Si/phium terebinthinaceum) and Lactuca canadens?s. (Photograph, TI. L.
Hankinson.)

Pirate VI

Cuosuryuey TL Sydessojoyg) ‘7 ‘TT ones ST] ‘exory ye atsreid [10S-HIeTG OY} JO MOIA [VIQUDS)

PLate VII

(CuosuryueyR “yT VL Sydeisdojoqq)

*101}e}9T04 JO PUIY JUSIOWIP & Sarmogs ‘v ‘yy worjejS ‘ealeid exo’] 94} JO Mala JoqJONY

Prate VIII

Cuosuyuey "TL ‘ades80j0qq) ‘eqsoygug oie S1aMoY AWM aq} pue uOSOGoApupyy SYSSCIB YT, ‘9 ‘TI BONIS ‘UOISATIEYD JO JS" vaIe SSLID-O1CIg

Puate IX

Cuosuryoeg "TL ‘ydesasozoyg) *¢ ‘III WoONeTS ‘WoNeIasaa Ysa10F pure alareid Jo an} XIW YUM UO}SI[IEYD JO ISv9 BIAIY

PLATE X

Fig.1. General view of the Bates woods, Station IV, looking to the south, August, 1910.
(Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

Fig. 2. General view of the same area afterclearing. June 8, 1914. (Photograph, T. L.
Hankinson.)

PLATE XI

Cuosmyaeg vy

‘

ydeisojoyg)

“ps

AI HONkIS 0} Jade pe ‘spooma sayeg 20} 50 11ed pnejdn

94) Salep10g ware paivayo ayy,

PLATE XII

S,

laud area of the Bates woods, Station IV, a; a white oak-hickory forest, showing the undergrowth in the more open places.
,T. Ll. Hankinson.)

The up
(Photograph

PLATE XIII

(Photo-

The upland area of the Bates woods, Station IV, a, showing the small amount of undergrowth in the more densely shaded parts.

graph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Prats XIV

Cuosulyuey TL

‘

ydeisoiond)

‘apeys 10 Bursa [Tetus ew WOIF 18910} VY} OFT SBULHOO]

‘a ‘AJ UOTIRIS ‘Spoos SOVg OY} FO 18910} PULTMOT OAL

PLATE XV

(Photograph,

Interior view, showing absence of shrubbery.

inson.)

Lowland maple-basswood forest of the Bates woods, Station IV, c.

T. L. Hank

Puate XVI

Fig. 1. Margin of the artificial glade in the lowland forest of Bates woods, Station IV, c.
The ground cover is largely clearweed (Pé/ea). (Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

Fig. 2. Detail of vegetation in and at the margin of the artificial glade in the lowland Bates
forest, Station IV,c. See Plate XIV for another view of the glade. (Photograph, C.C. Adams )

PLate XVII

Fig. 1. General view of the ravine with temporary stream, which bounded the
Bates woods on the south, Station IV, d. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig. 2. A pool in the temporary stream in the south ravine, Bates woods, Station IV, d. (Photo-
graph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Puate XVIII

Stalk-maggot, Chetopsis enea: a, larva, b, puparium; c, adult.
Enlarged as indicated. (Howard, Ins. Life.)

Frit-fly, Oscinis coxendix, puparium. Enlarged. (Washburn,
Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

The same, larva. Enlarged. (Washburn, 1. ¢.)

“The same, adult. Enlarged. (Washburn, 1. c.)

Bill-bug, Sphenophorus ochreus, dorsal view. Enlarged 214
times.

The same, side view. Enlarged 214 times.

The same, larva, side view. Enlarged.

IPI,
A
T
E
XVII
I

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Puate XIX

Gall on Populus caused by Pemphigus oestlundi. ‘(Cook, Rep.
Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res.)

Poplar Leaf Gall-louse, Pemphigus populicaulis, and its gall:
a, incipient gall on under side of leaf; b, gall from the
upper side of the leaf; e, mature gall, showing aperture; d
and é, incipient double galls; f, wingless female; g, winged
insect—f and g enlarged as indicated. (Riley, Amer. Ent.)

Poplar transverse gall and louse, Pemphigus populi-transver-
sus: a, gall on Populus leaf; b, gall showing aperture; c,
winged female louse; d, antenna of winged female. En-
larged as indicated. (Riley.)

PLATE NIX

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Se Oe

PuaTE XX

The Wheat Bulb Worm, Meromyza americana, adult fly. Mag-
nified twelve diameters.

Larva of same. Magnified sixteen diameters.

Work of larva (a), larva (b), and pupa (c) of same. (Riley,
Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Pupa of same, dorsal view.

Pupa of same enclosed in puparium. Magnified thirty diameters.

Cottonwood Dagger Caterpillar, Apatela populi. (Riley, Rep.
State Ent. Mo.)

PLATE XX

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Puate XXT

Red Locust-mite, Trombidium locustarum: a, mature larva on
wing of locust; b, pupa; c, adult male; d, adult female; e,
pupal claw and thumb; f, pedal claw; g, one of the barbed
hairs; h, striations on the larval skin; c and d enlarged as
indicated. (Riley, Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm.)

The same: a, female with her eggs; b, newly hatched larva (nat-
ural size indicated by dot within the circle) ; e, egg; d and
e, empty ege-shells. (Riley, 1.c.)

White-faced Hornet, Vespa maculata. (J. B. Smith, Ins. of
N. J.)

Ground-beetle, Lebia grandis. (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State
Mus.)

Pirate XXI

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.

Puate XXII

Black Pirate, Melanolestes picipes, male. Enlarged. (Lugger,
Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

The same, female. Enlarged. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Myodocha serripes. Enlarged. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Leaf-footed Bug, Leptoglossus oppositus. (Chittenden, Bull.
Bur. Ent. U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

Pyate XXII

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.

PLATE XXIII

Diaperis maculata: a, larva; b, beetle; c, head of larva; d, leg
of larva; e, antenna of beetle. (Riley.)

Green Horned Fungus-beetle, Arrhenoplita bicornis. Enlarged.

; (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Twig-pruner, Elaphidion villosum, beetle. Enlarged.

The same, larva. Enlarged.

Piate XXIII

Fr sbi

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.

PuatE XXIV

Imbricated Snout-beetle, Epicwrus imbricatus: a, dorsal view of
beetle; b, side view of same; c, larva, dorsal view; d, side
view of same; e and f, egg and egg mass. (Chittenden,
Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Gray Blister-beetle, Macrobasis unicolor. Enlarged as indicated.
(Bruner, Bull. Nebr. Exp. Sia.)

The Elm Borer, Saperda tridentata, larva. Enlarged.

The same, beetle. Enlarged.

PLATE XXIV

foe)

PLaTE XXV

Fig. 1. Reddish Elm Snout-beetle, Magdalis armicollis: beetle, larva,
and pupa. Enlarged eight diameters.

Fig. 2. Burrow showing egg of Magdalis armicollis. Enlarged three
diameters.

Fig. 3. Hickory Bark-beetle, Scolytus 4-spinosus: 1 and 2, work; 3,
beetle, enlarged and natural size; 4, larva, side view, en-
larged and natural size; 5, pupa, ventral view, enlarged as
indicated; 6, Magdalis armicollis, punctuation of elytra.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

PLATE XXV

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

a

PLateE XXVI

Larva of Eyed Elater, Alaus oculatus.

Beetle of same. (After Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg.)

Clerid beetle, Clerus quadriguttautus. Enlarged. (After Felt,
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Larva of Eyed Elater, Alaus oculatus, oblique view, to show
apex of abdomen.

Flat-headed Apple-tree borer, Chrysobothris femorata: a,
larva; b, beetle; c, head of male beetle; d, ventral view of
pupa. (Chittenden, Cire. Bur. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.)

Clerid beetle, Chariessa pilosa (enlarged), with antenna of fe-
male. (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, Saperda candida: a, larva, side
view ; b, larva, dorsal view; c, beetle; d, pupa. (Chittenden,
Cire. Bur. Ent. U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

Pirate XXVI

Puate XXVIII

Fig. 1. Locust-borer, Cyllene robinie, adult: a, male; b, female. En-
larged as indicated. (Hopkins, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

Fig. 2. The same, pupa: a, ventral end; b, dorsal view. Enlarged as in-
dicated. (Hopkins, 1. e.)

PLATE XXVII

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

go IS

Puate XXVIII

Cerambycid beetle, Leptostylus aculiferus. (Blatchley, Coleopt.
of Ind.)

Banded Hickory Borer, Chion cinctus, adult.

Northern Brenthian, Hupsalis minuta, male. (After Felt, Mem.
N. Y. State Mus.)

The same, female. (After Felt, 1. c)

Twin-spotted Eburia, Kburia 4-geminata. (Blatchley, Coleopt.
of Ind.)

Rustic Borer, Xylotrechus colonus, adult. Enlarged.

Cerambycid beetle, Neoclytus erythrocephalus. Enlarged.

Red Cucujid, Cucujus clavipes: a, larva; b, beetle; c, apex of

~ larval abdomen (enlarged) ; d, head of larva; e, side view of

apex of larval abdomen. Larva and beetle enlarged as indi-
eated. (Riley.)

Pyare XXVITT

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Vig.

Fig.
Fig.

PLateE XXTX

Heart-wood Borer, Parandra brunnea, adult male. Enlarged.

The same: a, larva (enlarged as indicated) ; 6, side view of head-
end of larva; c, clypeus and labrum. (Snyder, Bull. Bur.
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Leather-beetle, Osmoderma eremicola. (After Harris, Ins. Inj.
Veg.)

Rough Leather-beetle, Osmoderma scabra. (After Harris, 1. c.)

Heart-wood Borer, Parandra brunnea, pupa, ventral view. En-
larged as indicated. (Snyder, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. 8. Dept.
Agr.)

Cerambycid beetle, Prionus imbricornis, male.

Rose Flower-beetle, Trichius piger: male (enlarged), and female
fore leg. (Chittenden, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. 8. Dept: Agr.)

7

PLATE XXX

Larva of the beetle Meracantha contracta in its burrow in much-decayed wood. (Photo-
graph, P. A. Glenn.)

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

SUP oe to

PLaTE XXXI

Pinching Bug, Lucanus dama. (Packard, Guide to Study of
Ins.)

The same: cocoon and side view of larva. (Packard, 1. c.)

White-marked Tussock-moth, Hemerocampa leucostigma, larva.

The same, male moth.

The same: wingless female moth and egg masses. (Britton, Rep.
State Ent. Conn.)

PLATE XXXI

PLATE XXXII

View of dead timber, much of it hardwood, Reelfoot Lake, Tenn., killed by sub-
mergence caused by the sinking of the land during the New Madrid earthquake in
1811 (cf. Fuller 12). (Photograph loaned by U.S. Geol. Survey.)

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PLATE

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PLATE XXXV

Trees killed along the shores of the illinois River by the permanent rise caused
by water from Lake Michigan. Nearthe upper end of Quiver Lake, Havana, IIl.,
August,1909. (Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

PLATE XXXVI

Prairie Crawfish, Cambarus gracilis: male (left), female (right), young (below P -
graph loaned by Nellie Rietz Taylor.) : ef a

Puare XXXVII
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Female Garden Spider, Argiope aurantia, in the middle of its
web. Natural size. (Emerton, Common Spiders.)

Fig. 2. Egg cocoon of same in marsh grass. Natural size. (Emerton,
Le.)

Fig. 3. Polished Harvest-spider, Liobunum politum, male. Natural size.
(Weed, Proce. U. S. Nat. Mus.)

PLaTE XXXVII

PLatE XXXVIII
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Lacewing, Chrysopa oculata: a, eae ; f, larva; c, tarsus of larva;
d, larva feeding upon an insect; e, egg-shell; f, adult lace-
wing; g, head of adult; h, adult, natural size. (Chittenden,
Bur. Ent. U. 8S. Dept. Agr:)

Fig. 2. Nine-spot Dragon-fly, Libellula pulchella, resting on swamp.
plants at Station I, d. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

PLATE XXXVIII

ftittintianerecns —

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

oo bo

oe

Puate XXXIX
Prairie Species

Sordid Grasshopper, Zncoptolophus sordidus, male. (Lugger,
Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Red-legged Grasshopper, Melanoplus femur-rubrum. (Riley.)

Leather-colored Grasshopper, Schistocerca alutacea. (Lugger,
1. ¢.)

Carolina Grasshopper, Dissosteira carolina. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Differential Grasshopper, Melanoplus dtfferentialis, male. (Lug-
ger, 1. c.)

PLATE XXXIX

Fig.
Fig.

Puate XL
Prairie Species

Differential Grasshopper, Melanoplus differentialis, female.
(Riley.)

Common Meadow Grasshopper, Orchelimum vulgare, female.
Enlarged as indicated. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp.
Sta.)

Two-striped Grasshopper, Melanoplus bivittatus, female.
(Riley.)

Common Meadow Grasshopper, Orchelimum vulgare, male. En-
larged as indicated. (Lugger, l. c.)

Meadow Cricket, @canthus, eggs and punctures: a, stem show-
ing punctures; b, twig split to show eggs; c, a single egg;
d, cap of egg enlarged. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper, Xiphidium strictum, female.

Lance-tail Grasshopper, Xiphidium attenuatum, female. En-
larged as indicated. (Lugger, 1. c.)

PLATE XL,

“I

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Pe co BS

Puate XLI
Prairie Species

Black-horned Meadow Cricket, @canthus nigricornis, female,
enlarged as indicated (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp.
Sta.) ; and basal joints of antennz of @. nigricornis (left)
and quadripunctatus (right) (after Hart, Ent. News).

The same, male. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Stink-bug, Huschistus variolarius.

Rapacious Soldier-bug, Sinea diadema. Enlarged as indicated.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Stiretrus anchorago: a, adult; b, nymph. (Riley, Bur, Eni.
U.S. Dept. Agr.)

PLATE XLI

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

gb

oe

Puatrt XLIT
Prairie Species

Small Milkweed Bug, Lygeus kalmu. Enlarged.

Flea Negro-bug, Thyreocoris pulicarius. Enlarged.

Large Milkweed Bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus. (Uhler, Standard
Nat. Hist.)

Ambush Bug, Phymata fasciata: a, dorsal view; b, side view;
c, front clasping leg; d, AueKiog beak. (Riley, Bur. Ent.
U.S. Dept. Agr.)

Dusky Leaf-bug, Adelphocoris ives nymph.

The same, adult.

PiLate XLII

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

SER oe

PuatE XLII
Prairie Species

Dingy Cutworm, Feltia subgothica, dorsal and lateral views.

Moth of same, with wings spread and with wings folded. (Riley,
Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Tarnished Plant-bug, Lygus pratensis.

Nymph of same.

Pennsylvania Soldier-beetle, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus:
a, larva; b, head of larva (enlarged) ; c, d, e, f, g, and h,
structural details of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Adult of same. (Riley, 1. ¢.)

Pirate XLII

Puate XLIV
Prairie Species

Two-lined Soldier-beetle, Telephorus bilineatus: a, larva; b,
head of larva; c, beetle. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Nine-spotted Ladybird, Coccinella novemnotata. (After Felt,
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Indian Cetonia, Euphoria inda: a, beetle; b, egg; c, young
larva; d, mature larva; e, pupa. About twice natural size.
(Chittenden, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Black Flower-beetle, Huphoria sepulchralis. Enlarged.

Spotted Grape Beetle, Pelidnota punctata: a, larva; b, pupa in
its cell; c, beetle; d, tip of larval abdomen; e, antenna of
larva; f, leg of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Prats XLIV

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

oo bo

oe

Puate XLV
Prairie Species

Western Corn Root-worm beetle, Diabrotica longicornis. En-
larged.

‘Margined Blister-beetle, Epicauta marginata.

Southern Corn Root-worm beetle, Diabrotica 12-punctata. En-
larged.

Bill-bug, Sphenophorus venatus.

Striped Blister-beetle, Epicauta vittata: a, female beetle; b,
eggs; c, young (triangulin) larva; d, second or caraboid
stage; e, contracted scarabeoid stage, natural size: f,
scarabeoid stage; g, coarctate larva, or winter stage.
Chittenden, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.; b-g, after
Riley, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci.)

PLATE XLV

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Puate XLVI
Prairie Species

Cabbage-worm Butterfly, Pontia rape, female. (Riley, Rep.
State Ent. Mo.)

Metallic Milkweed Fly, Psilopus sipho, male. Enlarged. (Wash-
burn, Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

Milkweed Butterfly larva, Anosia plecippus. (Riley, Rep. State
Ent. Mo.)

Caterpillar Gall, Gnorimoschema gallesolidaginis. (Cook, Rep.
Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res.)

Goldenrod Bunch Gall, formed by the midge Cecidomyia soli-
daginis. (Beutenmiiller, Amer. Mus. Journ.)

Vertebrated Robber-fly, Promachus vertebratus, male. (Wash-
burn, Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

Pirate XLVI

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

ae nes

See

Puate XLVII
Prairie Species

Corn Syrphid Fly, Mesogramma politum. Enlarged.

Larva of same. Enlarged. (Sanderson, Rep. Del. Exp. Sta.)

Syrphid fly, Syrphus americanus. (Metealf, Bull. Ohio Biol.
Surv.)

Puparium of same. (Metcalf, 1. c.)

Larva of same. (Metcalf, 1. c.)

Syrphid fly, Allograpta obliqua. (Metcalf, 1. c.)

Larva of same. (Metcalf, 1. c.)

PLAteE XLVII

Prats XLVIII
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Conopid fly, Physocephala tibialis, and side view of head.
(Washburn, Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

Fig. 2. Sciomyzid fly, Tetanocera plumosa, and profile of antenna.
(After Washburn, 1. c.)

Puate XLVIII

PLATE XLIX

Carpenter-bee, Xylocopa virginica: the vee and its tunnels in wood. (After Felt
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Puate L
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Rusty Digger-wasp, Chlorion ichneumoneum. (J. B. Smith, Ins.
of N. J.)

Fig. 2. Water-strider, Gerris remigis. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp.
Sta.)

Pirate L

Puate LI
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Harvest-spider, Liobunum ventricosum. (Weed, Proce. U. 8.
Nat. Mus.)

Fig. 2. Forest Snail, Polygyra albolabris, dorsal view. (Simpson.)

Fig. 3. The same, lateral view. (Simpson.)

Prate LI

Puate LIT
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Island Epeirid, Epeira insularis, male. (Emerton, Common
Spiders. ) :

Fig. 2. The same, female. Twice enlarged. (Emerton, 1. ¢.)

Fig. 3. Web of Epeira insularis, with nest above, among leaves. One
third natural size. (Emerton, I. ¢.)

Puate LII

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Priate LITT
Forest Species

Three-lined Epeirid, Hpeira trivittata, male. Enlarged four
times. (Emerton, Common Spiders.)

The same, female. Enlarged four times. (Emerton, 1. ¢.)

White-triangle Spider, Epeira verrucosa, male. Enlarged twice.
(Emerton, 1. ¢.)

The same, female. Enlarged twice. (Emerton, 1. c.)

Prate LIII

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.

Puate LIV
Forest Species

Rugose Spider, Acrosoma rugosa, female. Enlarged four times.
(Emerton, Common Spiders.)

Lycosid spider, Lycosa scutulata, female. Twice enlarged.
(Emerton, 1. ¢.) ,

Spined Spider, Acrosoma spinea, male. Enlarged four times.
(Emerton, 1. ¢.) ;

The same, female. Enlarged four times. (Emerton, I. c.)

Web of Spined Spider, Acrosoma spinea. (FEimerton, 1. c.)

Fig.

Fig.

Puate LV
Forest Species

Galls of Cherry-leaf Gall-mite, Acarus serotinw. (Beutenmiiller,
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.)

White Ant, Termes flavipes: a, queen; b, young of winged fe-
male; c, worker; d, soldier. All enlarged as indicated.
(After Marlatt, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Periodical Cicada, Tibicen septendecim. Young nymph, newly
hatched. Greatly enlarged. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn.
Exp. Sta.)

The same: A, male, typical form ‘(natural size) ; c. d, genital
hooks of same (enlarged) ; g, sounding apparatus; B, male
of small form (cassini), natural size; e, f, genital hooks
(enlarged). (Lugger, 1. c.)

Dog-day Harvest-fly, Cicada linnet, male. (Lugger, 1. ¢.)

Pirate LV

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

te

Puate LVI
Forest Species

Mealy Flata, Ormenis pruinosa. Enlarged as indicated. (Riley,
Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Eggs of same: a, form and arrangement of the eggs; b, inser-
tion in twig; c, row of eggs in twig. Enlarged. (Riley, 1. ¢.)

Leaf-hopper, Aulacizes irrorata. Much enlarged. (Sanderson,
Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Pennsylvania Cockroach, Ischnoptera pennsylvanica, male. En-
larged as indicated. (Blatchley, Rep. Ind. Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res.)

The same, female. (Blatchley, 1. c¢.)

Forest Walking-stick, -Diapheromera femorata, male. (Lugger,
Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Spined Stilt-bug, Jalysus spinosus. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Plant-bug, Acanthocerus galeator.

Prats LVI

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

3

~~

Piatt LVII
Forest Species

Common Katydid, Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus, male. (Lugger,
Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)
Round-winged Katydid, Amblycorypha rotundifolia; b, apex of
ovipositor (enlarged). (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)
Grouse Locust, Tettigidea lateralis. Enlarged as indicated.
(Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Boll’s Grasshopper, Spharagemon bolli, male. Enlarged as in-
dicated. (Lugger, l. c.)

Forked Katydid, Scudderia furcata, male. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Sprinkled Grasshopper, Chloealtis conspersa, female. (Lugger,
le.)

Short-winged Grasshopper, Dichromorpha viridis. Enlarged as
indicated. (Lugger, |. c.)

Lesser Grasshopper, Melanoplus atlanis, female. Enlarged as
indicated. (Lugger, 1. ¢.)

g LVII

PLat

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

go

Puate LVIII
Forest Species

Angle-winged Katydid, Microcentrum laurifolium, male.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Female of same, ovipositing. (Riley, i. ¢.)

Firefly, Photuris pennsylvanica: a, larva (enlarged as indi-
cated) ; b, leg of larva (enlarged) ; c, beetle. (J. B. Smith,
Ins. of N. J.)

Reticulate Calopteron, Calopteron reticulatum. (Blatchley, Co-
leopt. of Ind.)

Horned Passalus, Passalus cornutus: a, larva; b, pupa, from
side; c, beetle; d, ventral view of legs; e, rudimentary hind
leg of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Striped Cricket, Nemobius fasciatus, form vittatus, female.
(Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

PLAte LVIII

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Poo

oon

Puate LIX
Forest Species

Horned Fungus-beetle, Boletotherus lifurcus. Dorsal view of
male (enlarged). (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

The same, dorsal view of female (enlarged). (After Felt, 1. c.)

The same, side view of male (enlarged). (After Felt, 1. ¢.)

Dendroides canadensis: a, larva (enlarged as indicated) ; b,
pupa (enlarged as indicated) ; c, female beetle (enlarged as
indicated) ; d, enlarged anal fork of larva; f, antenna of
male (enlarged). (Le Baron, Rep. State Ent. Ill.)

Papilio philenor, caterpillar. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

American Silkworm Moth, Telea polyphemus. (After Felt,
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

PLate LIX

Puate LX
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Hickory Horned-devil, the larva of Citheronia regalis. (After
Packard, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.)

Fig. 2. Royal Walnut Moth, Citheronia regulis. (After Felt, Mem. N.
Y. State Mus.)

PLATE LX

s)

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

1.

2
3.

Op

Puate LXI
Forest Species

Imperial Moth, Basilona imperialis. (After Felt, Mem. N. Y.
State Mus.)

Nadata gibbosa, moth. (After Packard, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.)

Heterocampa guttivitta, male moth. (After Packard, Mem. Nat.
Acad. Sci.)

Halisidota tessellaris, moth.

Heterocampa guttivitta, female moth. (After Packard, Mem.
Nat. Acad. Sci.)

Puate LXI

Pirate LXII
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Spanworm moth, Lustroma diversilineata.

Fig. 2. Acorn Plum-gall, Amphibolips prunus. (Beutenmiiller, Amer.
Mus. Journ.)

Fig. 3. Horned Knot Oak-gall, Andricus cornigerus. (Beutenmiiller,
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.)

Fig. 4. Oak Wool-gall, Andricus lana. (Beutenmiiller, 1. c.)
Fig. 5. White Oak Club-gall, Andricus clavula. (Beutenmiiller, 1. ¢.)
Fig. 6 Ant. Cremastogaster lineolata, worker.

Pirate LXII

Puate LXIIT
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Oak Seed-gall, Andricus seminator. (Cook, Rep. Ind. Dept.
Geol. and Nat. Res.)

Fig. 2. Black Longtail, Pelecinus polyturator: a, male; b, female. (J. B.
Smith, Ins. of N. J.)

Pirate LNITIL

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