New York State Callege of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. UY. Library Cornell University Library “wii Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002908873 BOOKS WRITTEN BY CHARLES S. PLUMB A BiocrapuicaL DirEcToRY of AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL SCIENTISTS. Edited and published at Knoxville, Tenn., 1889; pp. 100; flexible cloth. The supply of this work is exhausted. Inp1an Corn CULTURE Chicago: The Breeders’ Gazette Print, 1895. Cloth; pp. 243; figs. 63. LitrLe SKETCHES or Famous BEEF CaTTLE Columbus, Ohio: Published by the author, 1904. Cloth; pp. 99. Typrs AND BrEeeEps or Farm ANIMALS Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. Completely revised, 1920. Cloth; pp. 820; figs. 365. A Partiau Inpex To ANIMAL HusBanpry LITERATURE Columbus, Ohio; Published by the author, 1911. Cloth; pp. 94. BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY oe St. Paul, Minnesota: The Webb Publishing Co., 1912. Cloth; pp. 393; figs. 217. Jupeing Farm ANIMALS New York: Orange Judd Co., 1916. Cloth; pp. 590; figs. 299. Frontispiece. This group consists of the champion judges in the boys’ and girls’ live stock clubs of Ohio in 1921. They won the championships at the Ohio State University, about 700 being in competition. From such Jads much may be expected in the future, for the boys of to-day are to be the stockmen of to-morrow. A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS BY Charles S. Plumb Professor of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agriculture of the Ohio State University. Author of ‘‘Types and Breeds of Farm Animals,” “Judging Farm Animals,” ‘Beginnings in Animal Husbandry,” etc. Ch The Webb Publishing Company St. Paul, Minnesota 1922 COPYRIGHT 1922 CHARLES 8. PLUMB Wed Made in U.S. A. FOREWORD During the past decade the subject of agricultural edu- cation for our secondary schools and colleges has received much attention. Prior to this period a number of general texts on agriculture for schools, elementary in character, pre- pared by men trained in general science or classics, were published. These texts had a limited distribution, partly because of lack of interest in the subject by teachers and pupils, and partly because of the methods of presentation. These authors saw no way of handling the subject, except- ing by a more or less stereotyped style, in which chemistry, or some natural science, furnished the reasoning basis. The establishment of agricultural colleges, equipped with farms, and working laboratories of greenhouses, orchards, gardens, field crops, and stables with their contents of farm animals and utensils, paved the way to a new and interest- ing treatment of agricultural subjects. The introduction of popular short winter courses about 1890, was the first im- portant step in this direction. Simple laboratory exercises in dairying, horticulture, and live-stock judging, appealed to students, and added much to the popularity of the in- struction. As an outgrowth of these has come the great popular movement in America in behalf of agricultural edu- cation. Not only the colleges, but many secondary schools have adopted agricultural courses, and some have been equipped with farms and laboratories, where the students are taught the relationship of principles to farm practice. The evolution in agricultural education has been asso- ciated with the development of texts that have covered a wide range of instruction, and which have supplied a vital interest quite lacking in most of the books published prior to the year 1900. In fact, we have a new agricultural litera- 5 6 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ture, the direct outgrowth of recent methods of education in the agricultural college, as well as the investigations of our experiment stations. To meet what was regarded as a real need in sec- ondary schools and short courses, in 1912 the author pre- pared a book entitled “Beginnings in Animal Husbandry,” the first text of its kind in this field of education, prepared for students below college grade. The reception given this volume by educators was very gratifying to the author. In the passing years, however, much new material has accum- ulated, and courses of study have been introduced that were not generally given in 1912, and for which no provisions were made in “Beginnings in Animal Husbandry.” The author has, therefore, seen fit to prepare a new text, that should more fully meet present needs. It not only discusses the feeding, care, and management of animals with some detail, as applied to horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, but considers other subjects of present-day importance. These include community breeding, something about wool, boys’ and girls’ live-stock clubs, co-operative live-stock shipping, and culling the poultry flock. It also contains besides these, all the more important matter relative to breeding, the breeds, and judging, as set forth in the first. text. “Begin- nings in Animal Husbandry” consisted of 28 chapters, includ- ing 393 pages and 217 illustrations, while the present text contains 44 chapters, 540 pages and 256 illustrations. In conclusion the author would quote the final sentence of the Foreword in “Beginnings in Animal Husbandry”’: “It is his earnest hope that such lessons as either teacher or pupil shall find within these pages, may result in a desire for yet wider knowledge of and a more sympathetic interest in, farm animals.” Ohio State University CuarLes 8. Plums Columbus, Ohio June 1, 1922. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLII. XLIV, TABLE OF CONTENTS Tue IMpoRTANCE OF Farm ANIMALS Herepity: Irs MEANING AND INFLUENCE SELECTION AND Its IMPORTANCE . PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS ComMunITY BREEDING oF Farm ANIMALS THE CoMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS THE Process oF DIGESTION . FEEDING STANDARDS: THEIR ORIGIN AND Use CALCULATING FEEDING RaTIONs CoarsE FEEDS orn ROUGHAGE CONCENTRATED FEEDS . Jupcine Farm ANIMALS ANIMAL TYPE AND ITs IMPORTANCE Tue BreEps oF HorssEs THE Pornts oF THE Horse JUDGING THE HorsE FEEDING THE HorsE Tue Care or Horses BreEEDS oF BEEF CATTLE Jupeine Breer CATTLE Freepine Beer CatTtLe Some Factors INFLUENCING BEEF PRODUCTION BreeEbDs oF Datry CATTLE Jupeine Darry CATTLE Factors INFLUENCING MILK Propuction Frrepine Dairy CATTLE 3 Sometuine ABout WooL Tue BREEDS OF SHEEP Tue JUDGING OF SHEEP FEEDING SHEEP Tue Care oF SHEEP THE BREEDS OF SWINE JUDGING SWINE FEEDING SWINE THE CarE OF SWINE Boys’ AnD Girts’ LIvE- -Stock Cups CoopERATIVE Live Stock SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY Jupcina Pouttry anD PouLTRY Propucts CuLLING THE PouLtry FLock Egces AND INCUBATION Tue FEEDING OF POULTRY . Tue Pouttry House AND EQuipMENT APPENDIX ; - : . ; INDEX 100 125 138 144 164 183 197 208 217 233 245 255 269 288 300 310 322 333 356 367 379 389 404 418 430 440 450 459 473 483 491 503 515 537 541 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER I THE IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS The study of domestic animals may be considered both a pleasure and a duty—a pleasure, because of the natural- born interest man feels in all animals; and a duty on account of the service horses, cattle, sheep, and swine play in the Figure 1.—Hereford bull, Avondale, champion at the 1914 Royal Agricultural porleny nome England, exhibited by King George V. Photograph by the author. world’s affairs. Between many people, and even nations, and their domestic animals, we find an affectionate, sympa- thetic relationship. The people of Great Britain, the world’s leading stockmen, from the King and Queen to the humblest laborer, show a keen and kindly interest in everything 9 10 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS relating to farm live stock. One of the most interesting sights to be seen in Europe is the annual show of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, where live stock is made the leading feature, and where vast throngs of people go to inspect and talk over the animals and watch the judges at their work. The average Britisher is a lover of animals, and expresses a common, inherited sentiment. This dis- position on the part of a people develops the finer, more sympathetic qualities, and broadens and strengthens char- acter. In the same way, the boy or girl who shows a devo- tion to the animal given to his or her care becomes more sympathetic and broader minded, and is rendered more resourceful and capable. From another point of view, ani- mals play a most important part on account of their uses for food and labor. The study of animals as relating to farm economy and the markets of the world becomes, there- fore, a most important matter. The commercial importance of the live stock industry is so great that only a brief reference can be made to it here. One is unable to comprehend the magnitude of the figures which relate to either numbers or values of farm animals. According to the report of the United States Census, on January 1, 1920, the farm animals in this country made the following showing in numbers. Class of Live Stock Number OTSCS Yen astel Can ae nies water Rune Satara lah onrad Ve Oavinntees sae F 21,848,000 INIIIES Siries Moretti Los R Nt i Sue AN a EAD beatin a nee 5,829,000 MICH COW eeriticedi arn nesiato balan Urey suae meio ncn ineyaae, BOSO2 O00 Otherrcat tle ty ways: ee cones anche eee eet See ait ei 48,031,000 MEE B gard Pesiui sie tiaiatntss vaste seh. oe tah, ech Peper Sete cts ous eat 35,435,000 IS WALL op caiecet eth en enh ni TIN ie a an ERA dhe et ng Ph or 62,007,000 194,042,000 By these figures we see that we had in 1920 about 195 million animals on our farms, a number far too big to comprehend. The significant thing is simply to realize the vastness of our live-stock industry, and the enormous sum of *Includes beef cattle of various kinds and oxen. IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 11 money here invested, besides the value of the animals them- selves. The greatest live-stock producing section of the country includes the states of New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The two states of most importance in numbers of each kind of live stock in the United States in 1920 are as follows: Horses... .. { Towa first, with... 0.2.0.0... 0c eee 1,386,000 hea Nebraska second, with................ 1,322,000 <“ Mules..... Texas first; Wits. tc. h ake sese sae 849,000 “ Georgia second, with................0. 407,000 “ Milch cows { Wisconsin first, with.................. 2,763,000 “ New York second, with............... 2,081,000 <“ Other cattle{ Texas first, with................0..005 4,768,000 <“ Towa second, with. ................005 3,048,000 “ Sheep...... Texas first, within. s.jikaee conc oneanas 2,552,000 “ California second, with................ 2,400,000 “ Swine...... Towa first; withscs sane. oe eager ee oes 7,864,000 “ \ Illinois second, with.................-. 4,640,000 “ We see from the above that Iowa. ranks first with num- bers of horses and swine, Texas with mules, sheep and other cattle, and Wisconsin with milch cows. The two states, however, that have the greatest numbers of superior farm animals of the different kinds are Iowa and Illinois. The importance of our live stock may also be seen from another point of view in connection with our local markets. The city of Chicago is the largest live-stock market in the world. The Union Stock Yards of that city cover 500 acres, and received in 1920 a total of 1534 millions of farm animals, valued at over 665 millions of dollars. Nearly 268,000 car loads of live stock were received in these yards in 1920. This is equal to about 734 cars a day, which, at an average length of 36 feet to a car, would make one solid train of live stock about 5 miles long. There are 300 miles of railway in and about the yards to handle all this great traffic. Some 100,000 people live about the yards and get their daily incomes from them. Here are immense hk A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS slaughter houses and meat-packing plants from which meats are shipped to all parts of the world. The Union Stock Yards and packing houses are noted features of the great city of Chicago and are daily visited by tourists from all over America and many other countries. In 1920 there were 1,897 slaughtering and meat-packing plants in the United States, in which were killed and prepared for food, under the supervision of United States inspectors, over 65 millions of farm animals. These figures are given simply to show the importance of the live-stock trade and the part it must play in American agriculture. Figure 2.—A view in the Kansas City Stock Yards. Photograph by the author. The first use of animals by man dates back to the days when there was no civilization, when no written records were made, and the people lived as ignorant savages. It was in prehistoric times, when the only implements used were very crude ones made by hand, of stone, iron or copper. That animals lived with man in these prehistoric days, we know, because the bones of man and those of horses, cattle, and other animals have been found mingled together in the remains of prehistoric villages in Europe, As man ascended IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 13 in the scale of civilization, we find that animals became more and more associated with him in his daily life. The oldest historical works make frequent reference to farm animals. In consulting the Bible, one will find in the Book of Genesis, dating back over 2,000 years before Christ, repeated refer- ence to herdsmen and horses and asses, cattle, sheep, and goats. In fact, these people of early days were farmers, and depended largely on their live stock. The importance of domestic animals to man is to be seen in several ways. There are some features of special interest to the student; namely, (a) the use of animals for clothing, (b) for food, (c) for labor, and (d) in relation to maintaining soil fertility. Each of these is of sufficient importance to justify special consideration. The use of animals for clothing refers to the skin, hair, and wool or other hairy covering. Earliest man is supposed to have used the skins of animals for clothing, especially in the cooler regions or during the colder seasons of the year. For thousands of years people have woven cloth from wool and the hair of camels and goats. At the present day the making of cloth from wool is a great industry in differ- ent parts of the world. Millions of sheep even now have their chief value in the wool that they produce. The lead- ing industry of a number of English and American towns and cities is the converting of wool into clothing; so we find in them great mills employing thousands of people. The use of animals for food is of first importance. It is for this purpose that cattle, sheep, and swine have been domesticated; and the final end of all farm animals except the horse, ass, and mule, must be for human food. Meat is a concentrated food, rich in the substances that give strong physical development. It is said that the meat-eating na- tions rule the world; and, when we realize that the people of North America, Great Britain, France, and Germany are the greatest consumers of this food, we are inclined to be- 14 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS lieve the statement to be true. The average person in the United States eats about 150 pounds of meat a year. With a population in excess of one hundred million people, it can be easily understood that an enormous number of animals must be slaughtered for food each year. There is also another important source of food from ani- mals, that of milk and its products. Cattle have been so improved since domestication began, that to-day we have cows producing remarkable yields of milk. A yield of 5,000 pounds of milk a year is very common; a large number of cows have produced 10,000 pounds; a yield of 15,000 pounds of milk in a year from a single animal is no longer remark- able. Milk is a very nutritious liquid food, and supplies a place in human diet unequaled by any other substance. From milk is manufactured cheese, a valuable food that in Europe very generally takes the place of meat among the laboring classes. Butter, also a product of milk, is so greatly in demand that thousands of creameries engage in its pro- duction. In 1920, there were over twenty million cows and heifers kept in the United States, primarily for milk. Ten states had over one million dairy cows each. The use of animals for labor no doubt dates from pre- historic days when man subdued the horse. With the culti- vation of the fields, both cattle and horses became beasts of burden and laborers in the fields. Cattle are commonly used for labor in parts of Europe, even dairy cows some- times being employed to draw loads. Oxen were much used in pioneer days for draft work in America, but have been generally discarded on account of their slowness, yet even to-day they may be seen serving in place of horses in some parts of our country. In the pioneer settlement of America, the ox team proved a very important means of transporta- tion through the forests and across the wide western prairies. The great endurance, steady habits, and ease of keep, make the ox a favorite with the pioneer. IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 15 In countries other than our own, where railways do not exist, the transportation of freight must be done by animals or on the shoulders of men. In many countries the people use the backs of animals for this purpose. In northern Africa, the camel is known as ‘“‘the ship of the desert,” for on its back is carried both man and freight from the interior to the coast. In parts of Asia, the elephant becomes a mighty beast of burden, performing wonderful draft service. The little donkey, regarded in America as simply a play- Figure 3.—An ox team in Washington State. Photograph by Bert C. Thomas. thing for children, is widely used over the world as a burden bearer of the most steady and dependable sort. Thus it is seen that domestic animals, even to-day, play a very important part in moving merchandise and per- forming labor. Although the motor-truck has become an important medium for transporting freight in our towns and 16 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS cities, largely replacing the horse in this service, still the work horse, and especially the one suited for heavy draft, is here in constant demand. The tractor is well adapted to certain farm operations, supplanting the horse, but this ani- mal is yet indispensable for many purposes on our farms, and will always be an important part of farm equipment. Professor T. F. Hunt states* that in England it is estimated that two horses will cultivate 80 acres of light and sandy soil or 60 acres of heavy, or clay, soil. In the United States, it appears that one horse or mule of working age is kept for every 30 acres of improved land; but in level prairie sec- tions far more service than this indicates is expected. The use of domestic animals in maintaining soil fertil- ity has long been recognized as of great importance. The earliest writers on agriculture, who lived just prior to the Christian era, about two thousand years ago, wrote more or less of the value of manures in keeping the soil fertile. The farmer of those days learned from experience that, if he took a crop from the land one year, the next harvest fron the same soil would be smaller unless manure was used to replace the fertility removed in the crop. Thus we see that twenty centuries ago the farmer learned that he must replace fertility in his soil if he expected to reap abundant harvests. To secure this necessary fertility, he used the manure provided by farm animals; and much was written about the value of the excrement from different kinds of animals, and the preservation of manures. In very recent times, artificial fertilizers have come into extensive use. But, in spite of this fact, the natural ma- nures of animals have been absolutely necessary to keep up the fertility of the soil of most regions where high-class farming is practiced. There are lands in Europe to-day, said to have been cultivated for 2,000 years, that grow great crops, made possible by the use of animal manures. This statement may be accepted as a fact, that, except in the case *Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Vol. III, 1908, p. 11. IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 17 of some great river valleys, like the N ile, which are enriched by annual overflow, no agricultural region has continued to grow abundant harvests without the aid of manure from domestic animals. Each year the wheat fields of Canada and the corn fields of the Mississippi Valley yield in reduced amounts per acre, unless fertility replaces that removed by the crop. Experience has also shown that, where farmers keep the most live stock, there the crops are most abundant and the people most prosperous. We purchase commercial fertilizers to restore fertility to the soil; but these lack one thing of great importance found in stable manures, and that is vegetable matter, which is as necessary to the soil as is the chemical nutriment. The rotted manure in the soil makes it more porous and mellow and permits the entrance of air and the growth of roots through it more freely than where no vegetable mould is present. Interesting experiments conducted for more than eeventy continuous years on the same land, in England, at Rothamsted Experiment Station, showed that wheat grown on unmanured land yielded just about 12 bushels per acre, while a yield of about 40 bushels occurred where stable ma- nure was used. A ton of average stable manure is regarded as containing about $2.50 worth of plant food. Professor Roberts has figured* that the average value of the manure produced by a cow each day is 8 cents, while that of a horse is worth about a half cent less. The value of stable ma- nure, however, depends upon the feed the animal gets. Feed rich in grain makes a more valuable manure than that from hay only, and so will return more fertility to the soil. The animal is a machine for changing coarse into fine material. The ideal kind of farming combines the growing of grass and grain and the feeding of these to the animals of the farm. These raw crops are thus converted into con- centrated and high priced products, as represented in meat, milk, butter, cheese, or breeding stock.. A large percentage *Bulletin 56, Cornell University Experiment Station. 2 4 18 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS of the food consumed returns to the farm to keep up its fertility. Some forms of stock farming remove but very little of the actual soil fertility. One reason why dairy- cattle farming meets with so much favor is because of the small amount of fertility sold from the farm in milk or butter. Professor Vivian states* that the fertilizing value of a ton of butter is but 44 cents, and that 5,000 pounds of milk contain but $4.89 worth of fertility. As much as 80 or 85 per cent of the value of the food or crop becomes animal excrement, and which under a progressive system of agriculture is returned to the soil for its upbuilding. When, as in case of dairy-cattle farming, much more grain is fed than is grown on the farm, then the land steadily improves in its producing capacity. The best examples of intelligent general farming are to be found where herds and flocks are kept as important features of a well-balanced farm system. Where the special business is stock farming, then the final product in its concentrated form will yield far more important and profitable returns in the long run than will any other method. One hundred acres of grain shipped a thousand miles require a large expenditure of labor and money, while this same crop, in the form of a con- centrated product like butter or meat, may be transported at relatively much less expense. Live stock farming is adapted to the cheaper and rougher lands. Much land that might not be used for other pur- poses can be devoted to pasturing farm animals. The grass on the hills is usually finer and sweeter than on the lowlands. In various parts of the world where the land is naturally poor or of a rough character, stock farming is an important industry. In fact, no other kind of farming is so well adapted to these conditions. On the Cheviot Hills of Scot- land, the principal industry is that of sheep raising, grass and sheep being the two crops. In Switzerland, high up on the mountain sides are pastures which annually furnish feed *First Principles of Soil Fertility, 1908, p. 120-121. IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 19 for many dairy cows. On the rough, cheap hillsides of New England, dairy cattle are the most important source of income to the farmer. On the high, grassy hills of eastern Ohio, western Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, are to be found the largest flocks of sheep in this country east of the Missouri river.- In the Southwest and far West of the United States, on the cheaper rolling or broken lands, will be found extensive herds and flocks. In the Northwest, among the cut-over lands that have been deprived of their timber Figure 4.—Fat cattle on Ohio hills. Photograph by the author. by the lumbermen, dairy cattle and dairymen are. being developed on a greater scale than elsewhere in America. In fact, the farmer generally plans on the use of his cheaper, poorer lands as pasture for stock. Rightly handled, these lands in most cases greatly increase in producing capacity and value. Inasmuch as live stock also finds an appropriate place on the more fertile and level farms, we must recognize the fact that animals are adapted to gieater extremes of soil and land conditions than are the staple crops. Thus ani- mals in a world-wide sense become subjects of great impor- tance and interest. The class of people handling livestock, as a rule, repre- sents the more intelligent and progressive farmers of the 20 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS community. Their homes and farm buildings indicate com- fort and prosperity, when compared with what one sees on farms where live stock is not a part of the system of manage- ment. There is a pride in the ownership of a fine herd that creates a desire on the part of the owner to improve and beautify his home. Thus he becomes interested in com- munity welfare, and often renders service of a public nature that is much to his credit. The most beautiful and attrac- tive farm homes one sees in traveling through England and Scotland, are occupied by men who are owners of fine flocks and herds. In the United States the same condition pre- vails, whether we are in the blue-grass region of Kentucky, or the wide prairies of Illinois and Iowa, or the alfalfa fields of Kansas and Colorado. Should we not, therefore, do all we can to create an interest in farm animals, and thus develop a higher class of citizenship amongst us? DO YOU KNOW What people are especially interested in live stock? How many farms animals we have in the United States? What states lead in numbers of each kind of live stock? How many car loads of stock enter Chicago market daily? When man first domesticated animals? How much meat we eat per capita a year? What cattle are used for labor? How live stock is related to farm fertility? What a ton of stable manure is worth? How the animal resembles a machine? SO ONS SURO — CHAPTER II HEREDITY: ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE The word heredity has long been used by scientific men when discussing the important subject of breeding animals and plants. As commonly defined, it means the reproduc- tion in the offspring of the characteristics of the parents. It means more than that, however, because the parentage of an animal or plant extends further back than one generation. The degree or extent that characteristics may be inherited from parents, grandparents, and more distant generations, can not be absolutely determined. Yet, that animals and plants do inherit from other generations than the parents, is a matter of common knowledge. In fact, everything found in the animal, whether physical or mental, excepting cer- tain diseases, has been transmitted through previous genera- tions. We know that under average conditions there is a certain degree of resemblance between an animal and its various ancestors. Yet there are conditions which greatly affect heredity. Writing on ‘‘the complex nature of hered- ity,” Davenport says:* ‘The most disconcerting principle in all improvement operations lies back of the obvious fact that the offspring is not like the parent. Having two parents, he could not of course be like them both. The fact is, how- ever, that for the most part he is not like either one of them, nor yet is he like the two combined. The most that can be said is that the offspring resembles his parents, and that all his characters are to be found somewhere in his parentage.” The persistence of heredity is a most important factor in its influence on the offspring. The older and better established the family, the more uniform and certain is the transmission. We say that an animal, family, breed, or *Domesticated Animals and Plants, 1910, p. 154. 21 22 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS race that transmits its special characteristics with much certainty, is prepotent. This word suggests power, and really means superior influence. Wild animals and birds represent the purest and most prepotent breeding. They live and develop under conditions that are most natural and uniform, thus resulting in the least change. One wild fox differs but little from other wild foxes of the same kind in form, color, and mental traits. In the opinion of scientists they must have had these characters for a great length of time. The same conclusion applies to any other one species, the product of wild conditions. The most prepotent domestic animals are those that have been bred pure for long generations. A breed like Hereford cattle, the family relationship of which can be traced back for a hundred years, represents a comparatively well-estab- lished type and character. In a herd of these cattle we should expect to find the typical horn and head, the blocky form, the red body and white face, brisket, tail, and feet color so universally known. We have examples, however, of old breeds that have not been developed by great con- structive breeders, and consequently a lack of individual excellence among a great number of the animals is found. The importance of heredity in stock breeding has long been recognized. The men who have been most noted in the development of each of the great breeds have agreed that the saying, “like produces like,” contains much truth. In fact, in breeding operations they have placed a premium on prepotency and uniformity of character. Bates, the great Shorthorn breeder, was a stickler for type and character. The same may be said of any other man who has become celebrated as a breeder of superior animals. If a man wishes to produce race horses, he must use race-horse blood, in which speed has been the important feature. Great records are being made among dairy cattle to-day, and certain families are noted producers. In studying the history of HEREDITY: MEANING AND INFLUENCE 2 Co the development of the modern dairy cow, one will find that the inheritance of milk or butter-fat production is a great prepotent feature. This prepotency is illustrated in a strik- ing manner in the ancestry of the Holstein-Fricsian cow De Kol Creamelle. She produced 780.4 pounds of milk in a week, her daughter Creamelle Vale 750.2 pounds, her granddaughter Dutchland Colantha Vale 765.3 pounds, and her great granddaughter Dutchland Pietertje Vale 750 pounds in a week, a remarkable series of records. Anyone Figure 5.—Hereford bull, Disturber 12th, owned by Ferguson Brothers of Minnesota. Photograph from the owners. who attempts to establish and develop a herd without being guided by our present-day knowledge of the influence of heredity will certainly fail in his breeding operations. The importance of an ideal in breeding can not be over- estimated. Men who have done much to assist in developing breeds and have become famous in this work are com- monly called ‘‘constructive breeders.” In the upbuilding of the Shorthorn, the Colling Brothers, Bates, the Booths, and 24 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Cruickshank were all known as great constructive breeders. These men had their ideals or standards, and bred up to them as closely as possible. Two men start out with herds of cattle of equal merit. One man has ideals of what he should do. He carefully studies his cattle and the laws of heredity, and secks constantly to improve his herd. At the end of 25 years he has a fine herd, that is a marked improve- ment over his foundation stock, and from which he derives much praiseworthy fame and substantial profit. The other man has no ideals or policy. He is satisfied with things as he receives them, he does not study his business, and, as might have been expected, his stock becomes inferior and unprofitable, he gets in debt, and ends possibly in bank- ruptcy. One man is a benefit to his community, the other is not; yet each had an equal chance at the start. Certain useful and valuable forms of inheritance exist among the improved types and breeds of farm animals, and the perpetuation of these qualities is most important, if one is to make a success of breeding. Some of these forms that directly concern the stockman are the following: (1) Color markings. One of the most important features of breed identification is the color. Some breeds possess a solid, uniform color, as the red of the Red Polled cattle, the black of the Aberdeen-Angus, the white of the Chester White and Large Yorkshire pigs, and the red of the Duroc-Jersey. Fach breed has its standard color or colors, and anything varying from this, as a rule, causes disqualification. (2) Milk production. The Holstein-Friesian breed is noted for the large milk flow of the cows. No other breed of cows equals these in heavy flow of milk, and no feature does more to make the Holstein-Friesian famous than that of milk production. (3) Fecundity is especially a hereditary character. Shrop- shire sheep have been noted for many years for the large percentage of twins dropped by the ewes. The Large York- HEREDITY: MEANING AND INFLUENCE 25 shire and the Tamworth breeds of hogs are famous for the large litters farrowed by the sows, while of the lard-type breeds the Duroc-Jersey is prominent in this respect. (4) Temperament. As a rule, animals of a heavy, fleshy type are more phlegmatic and less nervous than those of more muscular build. Draft horses, beef cattle, mutton sheep, and lard hogs all show to a certain extent this relation- ship of form to temperament. (5) Speed is a striking feature of the horse of light and muscular conformation. A study of the pedigrees of run- ning horses prominent to-day will in many cases show lines Figure 6.—Holstein Friesian cow Prilly 40082 at 13 years old, on the left, and her three daughters Beauty Pietertje, Cleopatra Gelsches, and Eliza Pietertje, all great producers. Photograph from their owner, H. A. Moyer. of descent from the Darley Arabian, with long lists of cele- brated racers in between, covering the period of over a century. In the same way, the record of inherited speed of the American trotter may be traced in a most interesting way from the present back to about 1822, when Bellfounder, the sire of the dam of Hambletonian 10, by many regarded as the most noted speed sire in the history of America, was imported to this country from England. 26 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Peculiar or interesting characters are also transmitted from one generation to another. We are usually most im- pressed with the commonest things in animal inheritance, yet there are remarkable characteristics that are well worth attention, and such as demand consideration from the thoughtful stockman. Usually these are valued as breed features, yet in themselves they have no useful attributes. Some examples of these are the following: The solid hoof in the hog is a rare occurrence, except with one breed, the Mule Foot. This characteristic is of no special value, but it has been made the subject of much publicity, and many persons from curiosity have purchased specimens of Mule Foot hogs. A pug-nosed, dished face is a distinct feature of the Small Yorkshire breed of swine. Often these pigs are bred so that the lower jaw projects with an upward curve beyond the short, dished upper jaw, seriously affecting ease of eating. Berkshire breeders in America in late years have also had a tendency to breed these very short, turned-up faces. Such heads are monstrosities, in the same class with those of bull dogs and Boston terriers. Five toes on each foot are found on the Houdan and Dorking breeds of chickens. This num- ber of toes commonly occurs on all good specimens of these two varieties of well-known European fowls, although four is the usual number with other breeds. Latent hereditary characters exist in all animal life. By these are meant characteristics that are not visible in any form in one or more generations, yet have occurred in the past, and may again appear at some time in the future. During the past, students of heredity have called such occur- rences ‘‘atavism,’’ while stockmen have been in the habit of referring to them as ‘‘throwing back,” or ‘‘breeding back.” For example, we have a case of a family of Aberdeen-Angus cattle, which is a black breed. Very unexpectedly a red calf is dropped in a herd where not a red animal has been known. Yet a careful study of the history of this herd will HEREDITY: MEANING AND INFLUENCE 27 show that at a previous period there was a red ancestor. This red color was really hereditary, but lay dormant, or latent, as it is termed, for some generations, and then cropped out. The stockman usually calls this a “sport.” Scientists speak of it as a “mutation.” The important point, how- ever, is that this character really was inherited from gen- eration to generation, but did not appear until certain con- ditions were favorable. Many similar cases might be cited that have caused much comment among stockmen. In this connection, it may be noted that mutation occurs less fre- quently with old, well-established breeds than with those Figure 7.—A good example of fecundity, a Duroc-Jersey sow and litter of 14 pigs. Photograph from Ohio Experiment Station. not so old and less under natural than under artificial con- ditions. It is also important to remember that sometimes mutation results in valuable variations from the parent type. Instances have occurred where intelligent breeders have recognized the value of such a “‘sport,’’ and have succeeded in reproducing it through successive generations, until it became a fixed breed feature. More than one hornless breed of cattle and sheep have been founded by the unexpected appearance of a polled animal in a horned herd. This anomaly applies especially to Polled Jersey, Polled Hereford, 28 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS and Polled Shorthorn cattle, each of which breeds is now championed by a registry association for promoting the hornless head. Variation in animal character is to be seen on every hand. No two animals are exactly alike. In a family of the same parentage we find marked differences. Within our intimate acquaintance, we are often impressed with the striking dif- ferences between members of the same family. Among our domestic animals differences also exist in no small degree, although our attention may not be attracted by them in the same manner as in the human family. Yet variation is a common occurrence in all life. It is due to this very fact that man has been able to improve and develop our farm animals to their present stage of perfection. Animal life is plastic and more or less susceptible to the influence of artificial conditions which man more or less controls. Food, habits, surroundings, the care of man, all affect the develop- ment of the dumb beast in a notable manner. It should be the business of the stockman to study these conditions and use them to the material improvement of his own herd. IF YOU INHERIT A GOOD MEMORY, YOU SHOULD KNOW The meaning of the word heredity. Under what conditions prepotency is best seen. Why a knowledge of heredity is important in stock breeding. What is meant by constructive breeders. The value of color markings in breed inheritance. The relation of conformation and inherited speed. Some peculiar forms of heredity. The possible value of mutation. What conditions influence variation. FIND EXAMPLES OF INTERESTING CASES OF HEREDITY 10. Report on the best examples of heredity extending over at least two generations, in which very similar characters appear. 11. What is the most prepotent animal in the neighborhood, and why? 12. Report on any herd showing high ideals of the owner. 13. Interesting cases of fecundity among brood sows are not difficult to find. Look some up and report upon them. 14. What is the most interesting and peculiar case of heredity within your knowledge? 15. Find a case of atavism worth reporting. £0.00 ST Sue Co bo r= CHAPTER III SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE The principle of selection involves some method by which one or more animals are selected for specific purposes. The scientist recognizes two great classes of selection, one, natural; the other, artificial. Natural selection is the process in operation among wild animals by which individuals choose or select their mates. Force is an important medium under such circumstances. A good example of the application of natural selection is found with the deer. The males fight among themselves to determine which shall be master of the herd, and the strongest, most masterful secures the leadership. This is what is sometimes termed ‘the survival of the fittest.” Among all wild animals a similar method of selection exists to a more or less degree. This system weeds out the weakly, inferior animals and promotes the vitality of the race. Refer- ring to this subject, Henry Drummond states:* ‘The object of the survival of the fittest is to produce fitness, and it does so, both negatively and positively. In the first place it produces fitness by killing off the unfit. Without the rigorous weeding out of the imperfect the progress of the world had not been possible. If fit and unfit indiscriminately had been allowed to live and reproduce their kind, every improvement which any individual might acquire would be degraded to the common level in the course of a few genera- tions. Progress can start only by one or two individuals’ shooting ahead of their species, and their life gain can be conserved only by their being shut off from their species or by their species being shut off from them.” Again he says: “If a given number must die, that number must be singled *The Ascent of Man. 29 30 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS out upon some principle, and we can not quarrel with the principle in physical nature which condemns to death the worst.” Natural selection, therefore, represents a progres- sive development, with each succeeding generation some- what stronger and better bred for meeting the requirements of existence. An especially interesting phase of natural selection is, that through it the species is developed so as to be best adapted to its purpose and condition of living. Artificial selection involves the introduction of man. He controls the matter of selection, and thereby is able to cause the animal to vary more or less from the parent type. In the earliest times, no doubt man exercised some control over the animals that he found useful, and caused changes in Figure 8.—The first prize Shorthorn herd, Ringmaster at_head, the result of a policy in selection. Photograph from The Farmer. their development. Thus man’s ability to affect the pur- pose and value of dumb animals must have appeared evident to him long ago. The famous sculptures of Egypt and Nineveh, dating back thousands of years, show that domestic animals at that time must have been improved by man through the practice of selection. The Bible has been repeatedly quoted by writers on heredity, to show that the influence of selection was recognized prior to the time of Christ, as expressed in Genesis. Early writers like Plato, Pliny, and Columella, all refer to the improvement of live stock by selection. All through the intervening centuries up SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 31 to the present time, interesting references occur in history of the seeking of animal improvement through selection. Methodical selection is a term used by Darwin to express the more systematic artificial process. In his most interest- ing work on ‘Animals and Plants Under Domestication,” he presents much evidence to show the practical application of selection, and especially how by a methodical, carefully- planned system, remarkable results have been secured. Referring to this method, Darwin says: ‘Few persons, except breeders, are aware of the systematic care taken in selecting animals, and of the necessity of having a clear and almost prophetic vision into futurity. Lord Spencer’s skill and judgment were well-known; and he writes: ‘It is, therefore, very desirable, before any man commences to breed either cattle or sheep, that he should make up his mind to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, and steadily pursue this object.’ Lord Somerville, in speaking of the marvelous improvement of the New Leicester sheep, effected by Bakewell and his successors, says: ‘It would seem as if they had drawn a perfect form, and then given it life.’ ” In connection with the practice of selection, it is impor- tant that the breeder keep in view certain things, if he is to be successful in accomplishing his purpose. He must place a premium on vigor or constitution, on digestive capacity, on superior quality, on conformation or a proper relation- ship of all the parts to the whole, and on the strong develop- ment of the particular thing desired, such as wool, milk, speed, ete., according to the class of animals. A policy in selection is essential. Whether one is to breed one kind of live stock or another, one should not only have carefully considered plans, but should hold to them. One of the great reasons for non-success on the part of many breeders is the lack of a definite, well-founded policy. A man starts to breeding beef cattle, and after a time concludes he prefers a dairy breed; so he disposes of his beef stock. 32 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Thus years of effort may be upset in a few days. More than one man in a vainglorious way has stated that he has tried all the breeds of this or that kind of stock, and that he knows all about them. Such a statement is evidence of superficial knowledge and policy, and that he will never amount to anything as a breeder. Intelligent selection requires severe culling of the herd. Men improve the average of the herd through the removal of the more undesirable animals. Some persons, however, find it difficult to do so, on the plea that they can not afford it, or that the misfit will do for the present. Yet the more uniform the excellence of the animals in a group, the more profitable the results to be secured. George A. Brown refers* to a practice followed in many parts of Australia, of employing an expert to cull and select the breeding animals in Merino stud flocks. Comment is made that, when the expert really understands his business, this plan has its advantages. A young stockman, by closely watch- ing the methods of the expert, will gain a better insight into the business of selection for stud breeding than he could by any other means. Selection as a means of securing desirable characters is one of the most easily applied practices. It is common to find certain recognized weaknesses or defects within a herd. It may be shown, for example, in a heavy, plain shoulder, or a weak, narrow back or an inferior hind quarter. The necessary thing to do under such circumstances is, first, to secure a sire that is especially strong where the females are weak; and, secondly, to dispose as rapidly as possible of the animals that possess these deficiencies in the most striking degree. In the most progressive live-stock communities, high-class breeding stock is greatly valued. In fact, we have no way of accurately measuring the value of a great, pre- potent sire. It is understood by those familiar with many British flocks and herds that the best breeding animals can *Studies in Stock Breeding, 1902, page 354, SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 33 not be purchased; they are not for sale. It is an old story that Edwin Hammond refused an enormous sum for the famous Merino ram Gold Drop, his reason being that he could not afford to sell his best ram at any price. Brown states that on one occasion a wealthy Tasmanian sheep breeder offered one of the most skillful island stud owners $500 each for the pick of a score of ewes from his stud, and the offer was refused. These animals transmitted most valu- able qualities to future generations, in no uncertain manner, the perpetuation of which qualities was of vital impor- tance to the owner. At the present time a great and increasing interest is shown in dairy cattle, and the marked improvement in pro- ducing capacity in many herds is evident through the use of sires that come from dams and families notable for milk or butter-fat records. Suppose a man desires to purchase a bull. Would it not be a fine investment to secure one from ancestry that would result in a herd of cows that would yield 400 pounds of butter-fat, each, per year, as compared with a sire producing cows giving only 200 pounds? Think of the difference in the final gain to the man and to the breed! One thing should be kept in mind in the effort to secure and hold desirable qualities, and that is not to breed with a nar- row, one-sided policy, remembering that the greatest general perfection of form and function should always be the final object of the breeder. Selection and environment have much in common. By environment is meant the conditions of climate, soil, shelter, ete. In very recent years the word “genetics” has come into use, and will no doubt become more common in the future. It refers to breeding scientifically, depending upon hereditary transmission, without regard to environment. When starting in the business of breeding, it is very generally regarded important that animals be selected that are suited to the special conditions under which they must live. While 2 2 34 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS it is true that domestic animals are adaptable, the different breeds are not equally so. Some, as, for example, the Shorthorn, seem to thrive under a wide range of conditions. Others are much less suited to change. Large, heavy ani- mals are better adapted to the lower-lying lands and richer pastures; while the lighter, smaller type thrives in the hill country, where herbage is not so abundant. There are cases where men have persistently held to a breed under adverse conditions, and have selected until an adjustment was reached between the animal and the climate and the breeder. Brown says that one of the great triumphs achieved by the husbandman, with the aid of selection, has been in stock- ing the ‘great thirst land of central Australia” with Merino sheep. When first taken to that country, they deteriorated greatly. The wool was reduced to less than half the original length, and became dry, very brittle, and open. Many sheep farmers gave up the attempt to produce the Merino as hopeless, but others persevered, and finally succeeded in producing sheep with fine forms and splendid fleeces. If one will carefully study breed distribution in America, it will be found that in some localities certain breeds are selected in preference to all others. For illustration, in the southern states Jersey cattle and Berkshire hogs are kept in preference to all other breeds. In warm climates a dark-skinned ani- mal suffers from the heat less, and consequently hogs and cattle with dark skins prevail. Wisdom would justify no other policy of selection. Feeding must also be recogmzed as an important factor in hereditary transmission. It is amply demonstrated that animals transferred from conditions of food scarcity to an environment of abundance through successive genera- tions take on an increase in size. The Shetland pony on its native isles, subject to cold and more or less starvation, is a smaller, more inferior animal than that of the same ancestry, but which has passed through several generations in the SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 35 prairie country of America, where food is most abundant. Men may buy fine animals for their herds; but, unless prop- erly fed and cared for, depreciation is sure to follow from generation to generation. Uniformity in type of foundation stock should be most carefully considered. It is a common method for young men starting herds, to buy females without regard to uniformity of type. The result is that herds thus begun do not attain the standing they should, because of variation in the off- spring, due to the lack of standards and of methodical selec- tion at the start. One might far better begin with three females of uniform type and excellence than with a much larger number of no uniformity. The final outcome with the three would certainly encourage observers to pursue a similar method. No great herd was ever developed where the breeder did not lay special emphasis on uniformity of type from the beginning. Rational selection is a thing greatly to be desired on the part of breeders. Too many persons are influenced in their selection by passing fads. In the past, men have insisted on maintaining herds of red Shorthorns or solid-colored Jerseys, allowing these fancy points to obscure more impor- tant ones. Hogs have been bred with such extreme dish of head as to make it impossible for them to eat in a natural way. Sheep have been bred with such heavy coverings of wool over the face as to prevent the use of the eyes. These features should never obscure the vision of the breeder. Rational selection requires putting a premium on constitu- tional vigor, size, and quality, and then wisely giving fancy characteristics of color, head, or covering of wool secondary -consideration. It is not meant that these features should be ignored. In fact, they serve in part as factors in breed identity, but so also do other things. Nothing is so essential as vigorous constitution, and rational selection would natur- ally place a premium on this. One may strike the happy 36 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS medium on fancy points without detriment to his herd, and at the same time preserve the desirable qualities, thereby attracting buyers. But what could be more unwise than to neglect constitution in order to maintain some special color character? Yet more than one breeder has been guilty in this respect, to the positive injury of his herd. A knowledge of breed character is requisite if one is to become an intelligent breeder. All our farm animals may be grouped into breeds, crosses, grades, or scrubs. Any improvement made must come through the breed, or pure- bred line. Our breeds are the outcome of systematic selection and improvement. Present-day standards are undoubt- edly higher than ever, and breeders demand more and more Figure 9.—Shropshire ewes heavily covered with wool. Ist prize pen Royal Society Show, England. Photograph from Sir William Cooper. merit in breed representatives. Thus it is highly important that the stockman should be quite familiar with the scale of points, moulding all the desirable qualities into an. ideal worthy of the breed, and then endeavor to produce animals that come nearest to that ideal. Such knowledge also calls for a keen discrimination in selecting the breeding stock by which the herd is maintained. The selection of the pedigree. One can not practice selection and ignore pedigree. Persons familiar with lines of family breeding recognize that more merit exists in some SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 37 than in others. The men who have been most successful as breeders have always refrained from purchasing animals the pedigrees of which showed undesirable ancestry. Auction sales of live stock bring out various interesting features, chief among which is the relatively higher price paid for animals of recognized satisfactory pedigree. While it is true that in the past many animals have sold at high prices, largely on the basis of pedigree and without merit otherwise, the fact remains that, as a general rule, a combination of individual excellence and meritorious pedigree brings the highest price. The man who combines the capable judge and wise interpreter of pedigree is qualified to select his animals and improve his herd to the best advantage. A SAMPLE SELECTION OF QUESTIONS ON SELECTION What is natural selection? What did Darwin say about methodical selection? What is the Australian method of culling and selecting sheep? How have great sires been valued by their owners? What is the relation of animal development to soil and climate? Why aim for uniformity of type in founding a herd? What is rational selection? Illustrate. How important is constitution? What part should pedigree play in buying breeding animals? SUGGESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATIONS IN SELECTION 10. Make a report on Charles Darwin as a student of selection. 11. What breeders that you know practice methodical selection? 12. Are there any sires in your county highly valued by their owners? If so, what are they, their value, and why so valued? : 13. Give local examples of dairy cows having official records of milk or butter-fat production. Are these the result of careful selec- tion? $0 90 NEP Su C9 BO CHAPTER IV PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE The pedigree of an animal shows the consecutive rela- tionship of an animal to its ancestors. Of some animals we say that they are pure-breds, while others are known as scrubs or mongrels. The pure-bred has a known pedigree, while the scrub has not. Men have developed herds of Figure 10.—Hereford grade steer, sired by pure-bred Hereford bull. Bred on the Texas range, fed at Ohio State University. Shows example of the influence of superior sire. Photograph by the author. animals of similar character and ancestry from which they uniformly reproduce the parent type, and have kept careful records of the breeding. Such animals form a breed. To be pure-bred, an animal must show in its pedigree that it traces back wholly within the blood lines from which the 38 PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 39 stock originated. If an animal is not pure-bred, it may combine in its pedigree widely differing blood lines that are more or less out of harmony with one another. A cross-bred animal has a sire of one breed, and a dam of another. As a rule, cross-breeding is very undesirable, and should be carried only one generation, and then for the production of feeding-stock only. Some lines of cross-breed- ing, however, have been popular for many years. In Scot- land what are known as blue-grays, famous for the quality of their beef, are crosses of white Shorthorns with black Galloways or Aberdeen-Angus. Another noted example of crossing breeds in Scotland is the mating of Border Leicester rams on Cheviot ewes, producing remarkably fine mutton. These two crosses are for meat production only, and extend but one generation. A grade animal, in the large majority of cases, has a pure- bred sire, but is out of a dam that is not pure-bred. One often hears the expression high grade, which means that the animal referred to is by a pure-bred sire, and out of a dam that contains much pure blood stock. A high grade herd of Herefords would consist of a collection of animals that started with just common or scrub breeding stock, but in which for some generations none but pure-bred males were used as sires. Thus a systematic improvement of the herd would be made. The degree of improvement may be ex- pressed as follows: Ist generation = Pure sire, serub dam. The offspring = '3 blood 2nd = l6 blood dam. fer = % 3rd “cc = 6é ce 34 “ “cc a 14 “ce 4th “ce = “ “ 1% “cc cc “cc “ pee BB “ee 5th “c =, “ “ 13 iz3 “cc “ “cc = x “ 6th “cc = “ “ ea cc “ “ ce = 83 “ Thus it can be seen that in time a herd may become practi- cally pure-bred, although one will not be able to register this high-grade stock in standard American breed registry asso- ciations. Yet all pedigrees really start from grade ancestry. 40 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The value of the pure-bred sire on our American farms is far greater than most people seem to realize. When breed- ing males are not pure-bred, there is no standard of merit in the mind of the breeder. He is like a ship at sea without \ Ist. Cross ) \3rd_Cross } 5th.Crosd )) Figure 11.—This chart at the left side shows the influence of the pure-bred sire in improving the blood through five generations, as compared with the grade sire on the right side. Published by United States Dept. of Agri- culture. a rudder or an architect without a plan. Herd improve- ment can best be secured through the use of pure-bred sires of merit. This necessity has long been understood in Europe, PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 41 but in America a very large percentage of our breeders use only grade or scrub sires, which fact explains why one sees so many inferior animals on American farms. Recognizing the great importance of this subject, many of the American” agricultural colleges and breed associations are doing every- thing possible to induce farmers to replace grades and scrubs with pure-breds. Surveys have been made in different parts of the country, to learn something of the number of pure- bred, grade, and scrub bulls in service. In Wisconsin breeders investigated the subject, and offered pure-bred bulls at especially low prices, in order to improve the live stock of the state. Asa result of this special campaign it is esti- mated that more than 1,600 pure-bred bulls replaced grades and scrubs in Wisconsin, and as many as 191 found places in one county. In some counties in the United States the people have shown great interest in this matter, and have got rid of nearly all the sires but pure-bred ones. The Iowa experiment station conducted an interesting breeding prob- lem to show improvement from the pure-bred sire. The station bought some very inferior scrub cows from a section of country where the people had never used pure-bred sires. The offspring of these by pure-bred sires, that is, the first cross, showed a great increase in milk production. In one case this amounted to 107 per cent milk and 112 per cent butter-fat. In the next generation, with 75 per cent pure- bred offspring, there was secured an increase of 194 per cent milk and 138 per cent fat over the original scrub cow parent. This experiment should be no surprise, because on every hand we see the wonderful influence of the pure-bred sire. In fact, whatever of merit we have in our herds and flocks to-day, we need not hesitate to say is due to the careful work of men who have used pure-breds only. The bracket form of constructing a pedigree shows the family relationship by means of a series of brackets, after the following manner. This is the most common form in use. 42 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Orion 11, 6539. {_Ohig'Anna 10068 Douroc-JERSEY Boar, Orion Chief 13333 | Mabel 22518 {ere teeso. In making this form of pedigree, the names of the males are at the top of each bracket, and the females at the bot- tom. This style may be extended from generation to genera- tion, the number of ancestors doubling each remove to the right. This pedigree shows that Orion Chief, a noted Duroc- Jersey, had Orion I for sire and Mabel for dam. Going back another generation, it will he noted that, in the line of male descent, his grandsire was Orion and his grandam, Ohio Anna. On the daim’s side, Longfellow is his grandsire and Agnes X, the grandam. If we now go back another generation, we have four great-grandsires and four great- grandams. This form of pedigree shows the complete ances- try, and is the only one generally used by stockmen in giving the breeding of an animal. One may find many examples of this form of pedigree in the sale catalogues of breeders of dairy cattle and swine. These publications of pedigrees may usually be obtained on application to advertisers of such sales in live-stock and agricultural journals. The ancestral line of the dam is another form of display- ing a pedigree. This may be illustrated by the following pedigree of the Shorthorn bull Villager. IMP. VILLAGER 295884. Roan; caluced March 1, 1906. Bred by C. H. Jolliffe, Darlington, England. Dams BREEDERS OF DAMS] SIRES BREEDERS OF SIRES Village Beau 295883 Wm. Duthie Rosy Cloud (Vol. 50E)....C. H. Jolliffe | Chorister 295882 Wm. Duthie Rosy aiwins fico ae sees bes C. H. Jolliffe | Misty Morning 153603 Wm. Duthie Rose Blossom... ........8. Campbell | Clan Alpine 130852 Messrs. Nelson Roselinity ais issn csincce ..S. Campbell | Gravesend 98361 A. Cruickshank Rosemary. ss occa sins ..S. Campbell | Banner Bearer 96034 Wm. Duthie Roan Rosebud. . ..S. Campbell | Borough Member 64872 J. Bowman Rosebud... . .S. Campbell | Sir Christopher (22895) R. Booth Rosebud Ist. . S. Campbell | Dipthong (17681) A. Cruickshank Rosebud. . 5S. Campbell | Scarlet Velvet (16916) A. Cruickshank Villager is of special interest to Shorthorn breeders, be- cause he is one of the most noted sires in the history of the PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 43 breed during the period between 1910 and 1920, being used during this time in very superior Ohio and Iowa herds. This form of pedigree shows the bull Villager to be sired by Village Beau, a bull bred by William Duthie, a noted Scotch breeder. Villager’s dam is Rosy Cloud. She was bred by C. H. Jolliffe, and her sire was Chorister, also bred by William Duthie. The grandam of Villager was Rosy Dawn; his great-grandam, Rose Blossom; his great-great- grandam, Roselinty; ete. This pedigree goes back ten gen- erations, emphasizing the ancestry of Villager on his mother’s side, with the sire of each female in this breeding. Except for the sire, the ancestry on that side of the pedigree is entirely left out, and with only a part of the breeding on the dam’s side given. While it is true that the dam’s pedigree is thus carried out much further than in the bracket form, what one should know most about is the near relationship all through, for at least four generations. A Shorthorn pedi- gree of this form shows to a more or less degree the tribe or family to which the animal belongs, which in this case is the Rosebud, which started in the herd of 8. Campbell, a famous breeder of Kinellar, Scotland. In reference to this pedigree, after the name of each male a number is given. This indi- cates his registry number in the Shorthorn herd-book. When written in parenthesis, it is the English Shorthorn herd-book number. Formerly only the herd-book volume and page was given for Shorthorn cows, but now the females registered in America are given numbers, as is customary with all other breeds. The line of female descent pedigree is not the best, and breeders generally should use the bracket form. The amount of ancestry shown in a pedigree naturally depends upon how far back it traces and its completeness from generation to generation. The following tabular state- ment is given by Davenport,* which shows in a rather strik- ing way the percentages of blood in a pedigree at different points for ten generations. *Principles of Breeding. E. Davenport, 1907, page 595. 44 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Relative intensity of blood lines and approximately relative influence of different generations and individuals for ten generations backwards. Influence of gen- | Influence of each Generation Number of aati individual backwards ancestors Per cent Per cent 1 2 50.00 25.00 2 4 25.00 6.25 3 8 12.5 1.56+ 4 16 6.25 0.39+ 5 32 3.125 0.10— 6 64 1.5625 0.024+ vi 128 0.78125 0.006 + 8 256 0.390625 0.001 -+ 9 512 0.1953125 0.0004— 10 1024 0.09765625 0.0001— Total 2046 99.90234375 —_ The statement set forth by this table shows how little influence is derived from one individual in the ancestry ten generations back. In fact, until recently a number of our live-stock associations promoting and registering pure-bred animals would accept for registry individuals that five gen- erations back showed impure blood. Yet the value of blood lines depends also on the character of the breeding. If the ancestry contains the names of animals of distinction within the same family lines, then it will mean much more to the breeder who understands pedigrees than it will if the inherit- ance shows no family names of value. The merit value of a pedigree is shown in the character of the records made by the different animals composing it. This phase of the pedigree receives very careful attention from the thoughtful breeder. Some of the most interesting examples of constructive breeding that have taken place in America in recent years, are clearly brought out in pedigrees where record of performance was ever kept in mind by the breeder. The following pedigree of Sophie’s Bertha, one of the great, Jersey cows of America, is an interesting illustra- tion of such constructive breeding. PEDIGREES Pogis.9 99th of H. F. Cham pian A.J.C. AND THEIR VALUE 45 H.F. Pogis 9th 55552.1 ‘Sire of 15. Ex-champion Jer- ) Figgis 76106 sey sire with 79 cows 19 Ibs. in R. of M., and 33 producing Sons. H. F. Pogis 40648 15 oz. j l } . H. F. Chief ae aie Sophie 19th i of H. F. a ne 7889 om a er Sire o: n of M. Soplite s Bertha fiotrnas ere oe distr champion Phil's Scituate é Mckee Seta ase Oa Agnes, — ex-cham- -distance cow, 163456 Exwcria Miumpiges: ) Piotr 1.00007 tbs. fp. teste 6.350 bs. A 22-quart cow. year-old—14,954. 2Ibs. J fat. . milk, 829.54 Ibs. fat: Torono 25204 13,242.8 lbs. milk, 771 H. F. Torono 60326. Sire of 19 Ibs. fat at 2 yrs. 2 mos.. Gold_ Medal bull tested cows. 16,102.1 Ibs. milk,’ \Lass 66th of H. F. Sire of 73 in R. of M.,{ Tormentor’ A Lass 875 1 Ibs. fat at 4 yrs- "271896 and 25 producing 9832 OOS raat eats Gold Medal cow.) 828. Rely shy oe sine sophie 's er york tha 2d—-13,393.4 Ibs. syey/d’s champion F,, Legros 2d ( Phylis 63409 milk, 691 Ibs. fat. 17,793 lbs. milk, “198171.. 910.60 Ibs. fat. She ‘was a very large and persistent ‘ H. F. Legros 198170 milker; her owner does no testing. In a study of the pedigree of a race horse, one should find therein the names of many animals with speed records to their credit. In the case of a dairy breed of cattle, then milk or butter-fat records may be given, as well as the records of offspring of sires and dams. With some breeds, a state- ment is affixed showing prizes won in the show ring. In cases of animals selling at high prices, these facts are also sometimes inserted in the pedigree. The important thing is to show at different points in the ancestry the richness of the pedigree in production. At the present day, one should have no difficulty in securing the pedigrees of pure-bred ani- mals that will give more or less specific information regard- ing performance on the part of individuals in the pedigree. The richer the ancestry in record-making achievement, the higher the price one usually pays for the animal purchased. A pedigree score card suggesting the relative importance of near and remote ancestors has been proposed by Prof. F. R. Marshall.* In this score card, 24 points are given the sire (12 for siring good stock, and 12 for individual merit), and 24 points are given the dam (10 for her record as a pro- ducer, and 14 for individual merit), with 4 points on similarity of type of sire and dam. The grandparents are given a total of 24 points, ranging from four to two points each for records *Breeding Farm Animals, 1911, page 110. 46 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS as producers, and individual merit. The great-grandparents are accorded one point each on production, individuality, and ancestry. This is an interesting score card, that may come into considerable use. The accuracy of the pedigree is of first importance. It may not be accurate for two reasons; first, because of errors in writing it, due to carelessness or otherwise; and, second, from dishonesty. Mistakes will occur among the most care- ful and conscientious. The published herd-books of registry associations have in the past contained many errors, although conditions now are greatly improved. Also honest men have copied from sale catalogues pedigrees that contained mistakes, and have republished these errors. The most unfortunate pedigree is the “doctored,” or crooked, one. Fraudulent pedigrees exist, and men have on more than one occasion been prohibited from doing business with registry associations on account of fraud. If guilty, the penitentiary is what they deserve. Integrity is the foundation on which the pure-bred live-stock business is based, and all premedi- tated cases of fraud should be regarded as of criminal character, and be punished accordingly. A study of pedigree is a necessity, if one is to become a successful breeder of pure-bred stock. There are several ways by which one may become familiar with pedigrees. Suppose one is to breed Jersey cattle. Then, if in the busi- ness in a serious way, one should try to secure the herd-books published by the American Jersey Cattle Club. These are the original source from which all Jersey pedigrees are made up in the United States. Bracketed pedigree blanks may be purchased from some of the larger associations registering live stock, and publishers of some of the special breed journals also supply them. With the herd-books at hand, and these blanks, one may, as a rule, trace out pedigrees without difficulty, after becoming acquainted with the method of doing so. PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 47 Sale catalogues should be saved by the breeder, for they will often be found valuable for reference, even though some of them are carelessly prepared. The register of- merit should also be kept for reference, so that information may be at hand regarding official records of production. One also should read the current literature regarding the breed. Some of the more important breeds are represented by special journals, which contain a large amount of information con- cerning animals of distinction. By these various methods one may accumulate much knowledge regarding pedigrees of animals. IN MAKING A STUDY OF THE PEDIGREE What does it show? What is a grade or high grade? Explain the bracket form and its value. What is meant by line of female descent? How many ancestors does one have in the fifth generation back? How important is the blood influence of an animal ten genera- tions back? What is merit value of pedigree? Describe a pedigree score card. Give two causes of inaccurate pedigrees? How can one become familiar with pedigrees? BRING TO THE CLASS The pedigree of an animal with which you are acquainted. An example of a bracketed pedigree. A sample of a Shorthorn pedigree. Pedigree showing merit, or performance of, (a) Dairy cattle (b) Race horses A sale catalogue showing prices paid for animals. A pedigree containing an error. DOIN CLOVIS CON i a tedont OO bo — DH CHAPTER V SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS A study of the principles of breeding should be made by the stockman who wishes to become eminent as a breeder. It is not necessary that one should dig deep into this sub- ject, but a knowledge and application of the elementary principles are essential. No great constructive breeder ever lived, who did not carefully apply the law that “like pro- duces like,” in the development of his herd. The student should keep in mind, therefore, no matter in what kind of stock he is interested, that these pages are intended to serve as a help in producing better and more profitable animals. In this connection there are certain things that may well be emphasized in starting out to build up a herd. Breed for a special purpose. The successful breeders of farm animals have always been specialists. The first thing to be considered is the purpose one has in mind. Some ani- mals, such as beef cattle or swine, are primarily for meat; others, as some breeds of dairy cattle, have their chief value in yielding milk; the draft horse is of little use except for hauling great loads; while Merino sheep are notable for wool production. If mindful of these things, and directing ener- gies rightly, one may not only secure fame as a breeder, but obtain wealth in the doing. A multitude of examples illus- trating the policies of successful stockmen with the different breeds of farm animals might be given to show the results secured through breeding for special purpose. Stick to a well planned policy. The breeders who have won the greatest success, have been persistent, and have not deserted the breed with which they began. One who endeavors to keep only a class of live stock that is selling at 48 SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 49 long prices, closing out during depressed values, generally fails. Every business, including that of live-stock produc- tion, passes through periods of prosperity and of depression. Sheep have far too often gone through extremes of values. For example in February, 1920, live lambs sold on the Chicago market for about 20 cents a pound. During the next ten months they steadily declined in value until they reached 1114 cents a pound in December. These great drops in prices are always accompanied by big losses, and thus, discouraged, many men go out of the business, disgusted. But here is just the time to stick. One will have no difficulty Figure 12.—'‘Keep a few good ones.”” Photograph by Prof. John W. Decker. in finding plenty of examples to demonstrate that the man who stays by his sheep through the years, whether prices are ‘good or bad, makes a good profit on his long time invest- ment and has a well established credit among his neighbors. Keep a few good animals, rather than many that are inferior. One may perhaps make money breeding ordinary individuals, but the right kind of reputation comes to a breeder through his best animals. A buyer, as a rule, will try to purchase the choicest stock. If the breeder sells 50 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS these, he will follow the worst possible policy. As has been suggested elsewhere, he would better cull out the undesir- able animals and rely on a smaller number of good ones to build up his herd. A group of uniformly good animals, whether grade or pure-bred, is always an attractive sight, and serves as an advertisement of the best kind. A motley herd, lacking character, is not attractive, and hurts the repu- tation of the breeder. Pay a premium for merit when purchasing animals. Many breeders buy inferior animals because they are cheap. From a breeding point of view, one should select animals that combine individual merit and pedigree. If there is anything in the laws of breeding that has been helpful in the past, it is the knowledge that like produces like. Each year in the history of a herd should mark improvement, which is quite impossible if one purchases beasts of an inferior character. The influence of a new animal in the herd is usually far-reaching for either good or bad. One should care- fully consider this, and be governed accordingly. Some of the most profitable breeding animals in history cost a high price. The Berkshire boar, Masterpiece, was purchased by Mr. W. 8. Corsa for $2,500, and proved to be a very profit- able animal at what was then a record-breaking price. Try to become a judge. If-one is to be a breeder, one should understand the relation of form to purpose, and should be able to select intelligently the right breeding stock. It is impossible to conceive of a man’s being a good breeder who is not capable of judging his own animals intelligently. There are many courses of instruction in our’ schools and colleges of to-day in which systematic training in judging may be secured. Good judgment in culling out the undesirable animals from the herd, and in the purchasing of new stock, is highly essential, whether for breeding or feeding purposes. Some practical feeders have the reputa- tion of shipping only good fat stock to the market, and buyers SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 51 are always on the lookout for animals fed by them, for which they are very willing to pay the top price of the day. Feed your animals well. One can not purchase high- class stock and keep them in good form and state of develop- ment, unless properly fed. Many persons buy animals in good condition, but neglect them after the animals come into their possession. Where men must buy feed, they too frequently neglect to give their new purchases enough to keep them in thrifty, healthy condition. Food is essential to maintain life and produce growth and vigor. It is a serious mistake to be niggardly in the use of feed. Further- more, no herd can do other than go backward, if the animals are not fed wisely. Young growing stock, starved and neg- lected, become inferior in development, and in due season naturally reproduce inferior offspring. A true stockman always enjoys seeing his animals eat, and realizes that some- thing is wrong if they do not show a hearty appetite. Do not be led astray by fads. Develop a herd that com- bines the useful and beautiful in the highest possible degree, for these two important features naturally go together. Leave out of consideration pedigrees that do not stand for merit. Remember that peculiarities of form often are of little real value, and that it is not wise to go to extremes in these things. Do not make color a vital object with those breeds in which variation in this respect occurs. Whether an Ayrshire cow is one fourth or three fourths white, or a Shorthorn red or roan, is a very superficial matter. General conformation, constitution, and producing capacity are the important subjects to consider rather than the color fad. Study your local conditions, and endeavor to learn with what class of live stock you will be most likely to succeed on your farm and with your surroundings. As a rule, it is best to keep the breed or kind of animals most common in the locality. One should know, however, that, as a rule, the heavier type of animals is native to low-lying, fertile coun- 52 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS tries. The largest British breeds were developed in the more level, fertile sections of England, while the smaller, more active breeds came to their own in the hill country or mountains. The farmer of New England should realize that his farm may not be suited to the same kind of live stock as a farm in Iowa. While for good reasons Merino sheep do remarkably well in Ohio, for climatic reasons they would not do so well in the far South. The markets are vitally impor- tant, and should influence one in directing breeding opera- tions. The abundance and kind of food also play their part. Compare the type of hog of the corn belt with the sort most popular in Canada, where wheat, oats and barley prevail. Become acquainted with the families or strains of the breed in which you are interested. It is important to know something of these. Those breeds that are represented by a large number of animals, include families of varying degrees of merit. These family traits may be regarded of much importance, and may greatly affect values. Prepotency, special forms of production, adaptability to certain condi- tions, temperament, etc., are features one or more of which are stronger in some families than in others. Old experienced breeders who are regarded as successful, consider carefully matters of this sort, and act accordingly. Cultivate the acquaintance of breeders. The man who would succeed in his business must gather information from every legitimate source. Knowledge is a matter of accu- mulation. We accumulate through observation and_per- sonal contact. We get inspiration from those who succeed. It is a fine thing to enjoy the friendship of men who are leaders in the line of business in which we ourselves are interested. Darwin, one of the greatest scientists, gathered a fund of most valuable information from the English stock- man and farmer, in whose acquaintance he took great pleas- ure. Thomas Bates, the noted English Shorthorn breeder, received much inspiration from his acquaintance with the SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 53 Colling Brothers, men who were doing much for these cattle while Bates was yet young. Furthermore, co-operate with your brother breeders in a generous way for the promotion and uplift of live-stock interests, whereby all will be bene- fited. Become a member of the local, state and national associations that promote the breed in which you are inter- ested, whenever possible attend the meetings of these organ- izations, and be known as a progressive among your fellows. The compensation that comes from this contact can not be estimated in money, for it is expressed in friendship, in help- ful service, and leads into the larger field of usefulness and efficiency to which every breeder with ideals should aspire. A private herd record should be kept by every stockman owning a breeding herd. Such a record should contain a list of the animals in the herd, giving their correct names and registry numbers, dates of birth, names of sires and dams, and of the men who bred them. A record should also be kept of all animals produced on the farm, with facts of their parentage. One may keep a card catalogue with a card for each animal, giving the essential facts. There are private herd-books especially arranged, providing blank spaces for the various facts of importance, that can be purchased at a reasonable price. If desired, one can prepare his own style of private herd-book. The records which go in such a book are most important, and all men engaged in breeding should feel it a duty to keep them with care. Methods of doing business with registry associations should be considered by the breeder. Each breed is repre- sented by an association of men who prescribe the methods of registry and transfer of animals of that breed. It is the business of the secretary to furnish breeders with blank forms which they may fill out and file with the association, whereby they may register their stock from time to time. The secre- tary also furnishes the required rules and regulations for doing business with the association. It is not necessary for 54 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS a person to be a member of an association for promoting and registering a breed, but it is desirable that he should be. As a rule, members of registry associations do business with it for about half the cost to outsiders; and if one registers many animals, one would soon cover the cost of membership, which varies with the breeds from $5 to $100. Ohto Silver Leay Ohio Popnotener — / oh io'a Silvert we. : 2BBIAT és pe evel Hep 22, 1313 a AMM Dyiffrd gjaoe £2, 3 Markings: Solid color; bisak tongue and aw. A ; byrolers Ohio state Uniavorsity, Colansus, ohio ; Choners Ohio State University é Saliy fer fd, Ae 2 iE Sa as ce et fa esr Figure 13.—A reduced size example of a registry certificate, as issued by the American Jersey Cattle Club, The identification of breeding stock on the farm is important. For this reason various methods are used to mark animals so that they can be identified. Metal ear tags, on which is stenciled the name or initials of the owner, with a number, are in common use. Such a tag is fastened in the ear, a hole being punched through which to pass a part of the tag. These tags are often torn out and lost, and so are not altogether popular. The tattooing of numbers within the ear, by means of a special needle and an indelible fluid, is also used to some extent. Hogs and sheep are com- monly identified by notches cut in the thinner edge of the SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 55 ear, although metal tags are also frequently used with these animals. The hoofs of horses are at times stenciled with num- bers, especially in case of importation. Sometimes the horns of cattle are marked in a similar way. On the ranges, cattle and horses are branded, and sheep are given marks with paint, by which owner- ship may be identified. Some of our breeds of dairy cattle, especially those of different body colors, are identified by the location of color marks on the body. For example, when applying for registry of a Holstein- Friesian, it is necessary Figure 14.—Branding numbers on the hoof f of a horse. Picture taken in France of a to trace on a diagram horse to be exported. Photograph by the showing the outline of See body form, the shape or outline of each black spot, or marking. A copy of these outlines is made on the certificate of registry, so that identification is made easy. Every breeder, as a matter of good policy, should have a system of individual identification of the animals in his herd. Literature relating to the breeds should be made use of by every one who owns pure-bred live stock. There are standard books sold by publishing houses, in which one may obtain a large amount of valuable information regarding the breeds. There are also current periodicals devoted exclu- sively to promoting the interests of particular breeds, which should be well supported by the breeders of the same. Each of the different breed associations registering pure-breds, publishes herd-books, in which will be found the names and numbers of registered animals, with information as to dates of birth, names of breeders and owners of sires and dams, etc. These books should be on the shelves of the stockman 56 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS who is a student of blood lines or pedigrees. Breed associa- tions also publish free literature concerning the breeds they are promoting, and as this is official, it is supposed to be accurate and desirable information. Real live-stock students should inform themselves, and it is to be regretted that there are many who know comparatively little about the history, development and breeding of their own herds. Figure 15.—Southdown stock rams in England, showing numbers stenciled on the backs. Photograph by the author. AS A MATTER OF GOOD BUSINESS What reasons can you give for an established policy? Give an example of paying a premium on merit. Has feed much to do with herd improvement? Ixplain the meaning of a live-stock “fad.” Why cultivate the acquaintance of breeders? What advantage is there in the private herd-book? Why be a member of a live-stock registry association? Specify three kinds of identification marks for live stock. What forms of literature are available for the stockman? FIVE INTERESTING THINGS TO DO Locate the man who has dealt in some one kind of live stock longer than anyone else in your section, and report on his methods, after making him a visit. Report on the most uniform herd within tive miles of school, giving facts of interest. Makeasample page for a private herd record and bring to class. Secureand bring to classsamples of application for entry blanks for registering and transferring animals of some one breed. Report on methods of marking animals for identification as used by stockmen in your neighborhood. CO CONTR Om ON S — e ee a i CHAPTER VI COMMUNITY BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS What is community breeding? In the origin and im- provement of the breeds of live stock, groups of people hav- ing certain things in common within limited areas have developed most of our breeds. A good example is found in the development of Hereford cattle in England. All the historical information we have shows that in the county of Hereford in England the farmers centuries ago kept a cer- tain class of cattle famous for beef production, that were very hardy and well-suited to maintaining themselves on grass lands. The people in this English county studied their local conditions, and during the years greatly improved their cat- tle, until they became satisfied they had the best breed for their community. Very naturally some breeders were more intelligent and more progressive than others, which fact was reflected in the class of animals they produced. These men found themselves working towards a common end, even though the effort was free from organization. Thus in time this community became famous for the excellence of its herds. In Europe we find many sections in each of which a certain breed has developed that has seemed to be especially fitted to the local conditions. Many British breeds are named after the counties in which they originated, as, for example, Berkshire swine, Shropshire sheep, Devon cattle, Aberdeen-Angus cattle, Yorkshire swine, ete. The importance of community breeding can hardly be overestimated, for it always represents improvement and progress in breed promotion. Co-operative breeding of farm animals has resulted from community breeding. The first co-operative movement for the systematic improvement and 57 58 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS promotion of a breed was probably with the people on the Island of Jersey, who in 1763, by legislative action, pro- hibited the bringing of other cattle to the island, unless for immediate slaughter. In 1833 the people on the island intro- duced the use of the scale of points whereby they might have a common standard for improving their cattle. In England through co-operative effort, as early as 1791, a book was published in which was given the names and. breeding of Thoroughbred horses, and in 1822 a herd-book for Shorthorn cattle was published. These first two books of the kind were the outgrowth of community breeding. Eventually co-operative community organization became a necessity in promoting the established breeds; otherwise there would have been no means of standardizing the breed and through well-planned supervision of protecting its purity. Community breeding of farm animals in the United States in an unorganized form perhaps first took place in Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in the breeding of Merino sheep. Sheep husbandry in those states between 1810 and 1870 became a great industry, and the Merino was the universal sheep. This result was due to the fact that this breed or type of sheep supplied the great demand for fine wool, while the wool from other sheep was at a disadvantage in the market. So famous did Vermont become as a Merino cen- ter, that in far away Australia, to which many of these sheep were exported, the shepherds supposed all Merinos from America were grown in that state, and they were known as “Vermont Merinos.” The first organized community breed- ing association in America was the Western Reserve Hol- stein-Friesian Association, organized at Burton, Ohio, in 1905. Later the name was changed to the Geauga County Holstein-Friesian Association. The purpose of this organ- ization was to extend the interest in cattle of this breed and promote its welfare by all proper means. In 1906 the Waukesha County (Wisconsin) Guernsey Breeders’ Associa- COMMUNITY BREEDING 59 tion organized, for promoting this breed of cattle. This association has had a remarkably successful career, and, largely due to its influence, Waukesha County has become the leading county in America for producing Guernseys, while Wisconsin has become the leading state in herds of this breed. Since the organization of these two community breeding associations many others have been started in America, so that now a great movement is taking place in important live-stock centers which must largely benefit individuals and local communities in which they exist. Figure 16.—Geauga County (Ohio) Holstein-Friesian Association on annual picnic at the Watt Farm. Photograph by the author. A well-planned method in breeding farm animals has not been customary with the American stockman. His herd more often than not consists of so-called representatives of more than one breed, and he develops it without plan or pur- ‘pose. The work he does as a breeder makes less efficient and valuable the live stock on the average American farm. One may travel the length and breadth of the United States ‘and find countless examples of destructive breeding of this sort. Operating against a host of such breeders of farm ani- mals is a comparatively small number of men who with 60 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS fixity of purpose strive to produce pure-bred animals along well-planned lines. Their herds and flocks are the salvation of the whole live-stock business. It is in groups of com- munity breeders that we find the people keenly interested in real merit, in efficiency of production, and in what we term constructive breeding. One breed is better for a community than many. It has been well-established in Europe for many years, and more recently in America, that in those sections where but one breed of a class of animals exists the community is enriched thereby. The buyer has a much better chance to select from many herds in such a community than he has where the herds are few and far between. Buyers have shipped large numbers of Holstein-Friesian cattle from Geauga County, Ohio, and Guernseys from Waukesha County, Wisconsin, because they could find them among the many herds in these counties. If there is but one herd in the community, then the choice is limited, and the expense of a visit does not justify the buyer. Only men with narrow visions see no advantage in many herds of one breed in the neighborhood. Community breeding stimulates prices and trade. In the locality where many herds or flocks of the same breed pre- vail, breeders take a keen personal interest in the different herds, and place a premium on animals of outstanding merit. Here one finds competition in purchase which naturally re- sults in stimulating prices and a greater activity in trade. Tn one of our best live-stock communities in America annual or semi-annual sales have been held for some years, and the demands in most if not all of these places has been for more animals, with a healthy increase in values. Community breeding promotes confidence in one another among the breeders. The primary purpose in breeding asso- clations is co-operation. Working together toward a com- mon end eliminates personal selfishness and jealousy. Sus- picion and jealousy have done much harm among farmers, COMMUNITY BREEDING 61 which is a sad but true statement. Co-operation is an evidence of faith in the good intentions or motives of those co-operating, and, therefore, is highly commended. This spirit is better today than ever before. Recognition comes to the man with the small herd in a community of interests, as would hardly be possible other- wise. In a well-established locality, where there are many herds, buyers secure lists of the breeders, and go about among Ohio Guernsey Breeders Association is consigning 75 Ohio’s Best Guernseys at Auction 75 Columbus, Ohio, June 15, 1920 A Golden Opportunity to Buy the Let’s Get Acquainted Come to the First Annual Sale of the Lucas County Holstein- Friesian Club on Thursday, Nov. 20, ‘19 At 10:30 A. M. Terminal Bldg., Cherry St., Toledo, Ohio 80 Head of Choice, High Class, Registered Holstein-Friesian Cattle will be sold to the highest bidder, without reserve. The _ consign- ments include cows, heifers, and bulls of the best breeding, and backed by men who stand behind every animal offered. ALL OVER SIX MONTHS _TUBERCULIN Cow that Produces the Golden Product Mar’s Noble Galaxy (68637) just fin- ished an A. R. record of 9,853.0 lbs. milk and 567.02 lbs. fat in the Roll of Honor Class E. E. milked twice a day under ordinary farm conditions. A Class leader. Chilmark Rival Antonnette (58644) Sired by Langwater Rival and out of a daughter of Imp. Mashers Galore, will complete her record by sale day with about 11,410 Ibs. milk and 5&0 Ibs. fat in C.C These excellent cows together with 73 others of equal merit promising high pro- duction even under average conditions are features of the Ohio Guernsey Breeders’ Association's first annual sale. CATALOGUES ON REQUEST OHIO GUERNSEY BREEDERS’ ASS’N. A. C. RAMSEYER, Sale Manager, Smithville, Ohio FRED W. ANDREWS & SON, Auctioneers New Philadelphia, O. TESTED. A. R._O. cows bred to 30-lb. bulls. Daughters and sons of A. R.O. cows. Some well bred serviceable young bulls, a lot of good young cows, and some choice yearlings and calves. Bet- ter plan to attend the sale. For information and catalog write, Keith C. Hoover, Sale Mgr.,West Toledo, 0 Col. D. L. Perry, Columbus, Ohio, Auctioneer. Figure 17.—Samples of community advertising in agricultural journals. Community publicity does Each has his them and inspect their animals. not favor one breeder more than another. opportunity, and is not likely to be neglected. Expense of advertising in community herds is less than otherwise. Joint advertising is often engaged in under the supervision of the secretary, who attends to publicity work. Some associations publish booklets containing the names and 62 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS addresses of the breeders comprising them. One county horse association has published a beautifully illustrated pamphlet, giving fine pictures of prominent horses owned among the members, with a complete list of the officers and all others belonging to the organization. Some members of community associations unite in co-operative advertising in standard breed or live-stock journals, thus reducing indi- vidual cost for cach person. Following is an interesting example of community advertising as described in an article written by Mr. R. A. Hayne.* “At Lake Mills, Wisconsin, there is a most unusual sight, unusual in size and subject, visible a qu: irter of a mile away, and worth no doubt to both town ae county uncountable times what it cost. On the side of a large brick building right opposite the square and across the street from the town park, so plainly in sight that you can not go past or through the town without seeing it, is a huge painting of a Holstein cow in natural colors, and around her, also plainly visible at a distance, are the names of fourteen Holstein breeders and their locations. Who will say that Lake Mills did not act wisely in displaying such an advertise- ment instead of the famous trade mark of the amber fluid that made Milwaukee famous?” Fine herds and flocks bring fame to a community, and add to the value of the land, two important assets that should not be underestimated. This point has been brought out in a marked degree in many places, as, for example, the sacdle-horse industry in Kentucky and Missouri, the Perch- eron in Ohio and Illinois, the Guernsey in Wisconsin, the Aberdeen-Angus in Iowa, the Merino in Ohio, etc. More and more the public will learn of certain communities in America famous for their herds and flocks, where the oppor- tunities for purchase are more attractive than elsewhere. Community breeding encourages the interest of the young people, for where practiced we find the most progres- sive breeders, the very best examples of farm animals, and homes of comfort occupied by an intelligent, gentle people. In a community frequently visited by outside buyers who come to inspect the herds, the boys and girls learn to respect the importance of farm animals, and become deeply interested *National Stockman and Farmer, August 10, 1918. COMMUNITY BREEDING 63 in their development. The future of our live-stock industry is dependent upon the active, intelligent interest of the young people of to-day who are to be the stockmen of to-morrow. The methods of organizing community breeders’ associa- tions will vary according to conditions, but the process is not complicated or expensive. Five or six men may co-op- erate in a locali- ty, and agree to promote the breed they are handling, and help one another improve their herds and _ sell their surplus, with essentially no expense. They may not even have any written agreemen t Figure ee breeding ae ae the young among them- folks. Photograph by the author. selves. But, if many breeders co-operate, it may be a conven- ience to have constitution and by-laws, whereby they may fully understand just how they are related to each other. A common annual membership fee is one or two dollars, and an assessment is made for special advertising, for conducting a sale, or some similar purpose. In organizing it is customary to adopt a name, define the object of the association, provide for membership, establish dues, indicate the officers and their duties, making amendments, etc.,as occasion demands. Special provisions may be made for holding periodical sales, etc. Through the extension department of the agricultural college in any of our states one should secure all necessary assistance in organizing a community breeding associa- tion. 64 Sa of YN oan A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? How did our breeds of live stock originate? What important step took place in 1763 on Jersey Island? When did community breeding first become established in America? E In what two localities in the United States and when did organized community breeding begin? Who are doing most to improve our live-stock conditions? Do you think one breed is better for a community than two? If so why? What will overcome jealousy and suspicion among breeders? What did Mr. Hayne see in Wisconsin? How will community breeding influence young people on the farm? To what extent is organization necessary in community breeding? MAKE A COMMUNITY SURVEY, AND OBSERVE To what extent are mongrels and grades bred. If any community spirit in live-stock production prevails. If any one breed is pre-eminent. To what extent special advertising is attempted. How much the young people interest themselves in live stock. If buyers come in on account of superior opportunities for selection, CHAPTER VII THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS The plant as a source of food is of great interest to feeders of live stock. All our farm animals eat green plants with relish, just as a man enjoys celery. When plants are prop- erly dried and cured as hay, their value for feed is not thereby affected. All our grains are products of plants; and from these directly, or indirectly by milling, we obtain some of our most valuable feeds for farm animals. So the facts are that the plant, in one form or another, really furnishes our horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry with about all the food necessary for growth and production. The material of which plants are made is taken from both soil and air, but largely from the soil. Like animals, plants must have foad. Chemists say that all matter is com- posed of elements, about thirteen of which provide food for the plants. The names of some of these are common, such as iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. There are four others: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that are also impor- tant. Besides these, the plant needs potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, and silica. Most of these ele- ments are found in different combinations in the soil, more or less dissolved in the water. By means of its roots, the plant takes up the water and so carries this food through all its various parts. As this water or sap moves through the structure of the plant cells, the food in solution is used to promote growth. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are gases in the air. The first two of these unite to form carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas, which the plant breathes in through the pores of the leaves. This gas in the plant goes through a change, and the oxygen is breathed out, and 65 66 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS the carbon is left to be made up into the solid part of the plant which serves as the more bulky material of food. Nitrogen in the form of a compound is taken up by the plant through its roots; but plants of the legume group, such as the clovers, cowpeas or soy beans, aided by certain bac- teria, have the power of using the nitrogen in the soil atmos- phere. Nitrogen is a highly valued plant food, and the farmer often purchases it in fertilizer at a good price. These different elements unite with one or more others in the plant, and form combinations which are familiar to us under vari- ous names. Of these, the following are important when we come to consider the plant as food. Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is found in all plants, and even in very dry hay. To get the water entirely out of the plant, it must be driven out with artificial heat. The amount of water in plants differs greatly. Common timothy hay and red clover contain about 15 per cent, and ordinary corn meal has a similar amount. About 80 per cent of green pasture grass is water, and some of our roots, like the turnip, have 90 per cent. After the water is driven from the plant by heat, what is left is dry matter. The water in the plant is worth no more than any other water, its chief value being to carry food in solution through the plant from the root to the farthermost leaf. Ash, or mineral matter, of plants, we see, for example, in the ashes left from burned wood. When we burn a plant, . we destroy its form, and all that which burns and disappears we call organic matter. That which is left is ash, or inorganic matter. There is much difference in the amount of ash in plants. Green or very young plants contain the least, and old ones the most. Common corn fodder contains about 3 per cent of ash, alfalfa about 10 per cent, and some of the roots as little as 1 per cent. The ash in plants is of value for food, if not too abundant. Hogs raised on feeds contain- ing but little mineral matter, such as corn, for example, do COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 67 not have as good bone nor do they feed so well as when the corn 1s supplemented with other feeds containing more ash. Protein in the plant is a combination in which nitrogen, especially, plays a very important part, and is combined with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulphur. There are differ- ent forms of protein, but we do not need to concern ourselves about that fact here. This substance is not usually abundant all through the plant. Rough stalks contain but little. Prairie grass hay has about 8 per cent, red clover hay 13 per cent, alfalfa hay 15 per cent, cottonseed 19 per cent, and soy beans 36 per cent. The growing plant usually has its greatest amount of protein when in bloom. Seeds are richest in this substance, for as the plant matures it shifts the protein to some extent from stalk to seed. In some of our mills where seeds are crushed or otherwise treated and the hulls removed, the by-products produced are very rich in protein. Cottonseed meal and peanut meal are good examples. Protein, whether used to. feed plants or animals, is the highest priced food constituent the farmer can buy, when we consider the price he must pay on the market. Protein is expensive because it contains so much of the valu- able element, nitrogen. The carbohydrates are combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and contain no nitrogen. These are the most abundant of our food substances in plants. There are two kinds of carbohydrates, one known as nitrogen-free extract, consisting mostly of sugar, starch, and gums; the other called fiber or crude fiber, making up the woody part of the plant. Most of the fiber is cellulose, the material composing the walls of plant cells. The chemist may dissolve out the starch and the sugar from the plant cells; what is left is the fiber. The starch, sugar, and fiber are all carbohydrates, but the first two are much better for food, as they are very much more easily digested than the fiber. In general we see carbohydrates all about us in plants and plant products. 68 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The most of the stalk of corn, or any growing plant, consists of carbohydrates. Common rice and potatoes are rich in this substance. Many of our hays contain from 60 to 70 per cent. This is, therefore, the cheapest as well as the most common constituent of animal feeds. Animals can not sub- sist on carbohydrates alone, although they are very valuable as a source of heat and energy. The farmer must depend largely, ‘however, on materials rich in these substances to supply the great bulk of the feed for his stock. The fat in the plant is composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in different combinations from which we find them in the carbohydrates. Fat, or ether extract, as it is also called, is not usually abundant in plants. One to 3 per cent is the usual amount with many plants. The seeds ordinarily contain the most, some of these like cottonseed, soy beans, and flax having large quantities, so that it 1s extracted for commercial purposes, and the by-product rich in protein is sold as cake or meal. Fat is of special value in the food, as it furnishes the animal both heat and energy. The words roughage and concentrate are commonly used to-day by persons referring to feeding stuffs. When a farmer speaks of roughage, he means hay, corn fodder, or some coarse feed of that kind. By a concentrate, he means seeds that may be fed, or products made from them, such as bran, corn meal, oil meal, etc. Any form of feed for farm animals that does not contain a large amount of fiber, and is rich in protein or some form of nitrogen-free extract, such as starch as it occurs in the grain of rice, is usually regarded as a concentrate. Roots differ from roughages or concentrates in their general appearance, and, being succulent, contain a large amount of water, which often exceeds 90 per cent. Thus it may be seen they contain but little nutriment. On account of their composition in dry matter, and small amount of crude fiber, they are regarded by chemists as con- centrates rather than roughages. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 69 The following arrangement will show how the parts of the plant are related to one another: All feeding stuffs consist of | Water and Dry Matter | | | Ash, or Organic Matter Inorganic Matter | | | Protein Carbohydrates Fat, or Si Ether Extract. Nitrogen-Free Fiber Extract The material of which the animal is made is very similar to that used in building plant tissue. To begin with, the body of the animal is made up of water and dry matter. If the water is removed, dry matter is left. If this is burned entirely so that even the charcoal is destroyed, the organic part disappears and only ash is left. The organic matter, while made of chemical substances similar to those found in plants, consists mostly of protein and fat, with but little of the carbohydrates. The composition of the animal body may be well studied a little more in detail. Water in the animal body is found in the blood, and in ‘the fleshy and bony parts. The amount of water in the ani- mal depends upon age and condition. Young animals have rather watery bodies. The older an animal becomes, or the fatter it gets, the less water is found in the body. For example, a calf a week old may consist of 60 per cent water, while a fat cow four years old may be but 45 per cent water. It will be fairly accurate to say that about 50 per cent of the body of an animal under usual conditions is water. The mineral matter, or ash, in the animal is more or less 70 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS abundant, according to age and condition. Old animals always contain more than young ones, and those that are fat less than those that are lean. Usually we find a little over 3 pounds of ash for each 100 pounds of body weight. A fat, corn-fed hog, however, may be so short of ash in the body that the bone will hardly be strong enough to support its weight. The ash in the animal is made of the same sub- stances as that found in plants. The protein of the body is to be seen in the form of muscles, tendons, blood, nerves, the internal organs, hide, hair, horns, ete. Lean meat with no fat on it is protein, or nitrogenous material. The fatter the animal, the less the percentage of protein in the body’ In the entire body of a farm animal under usual conditions we find about 13 or 14 per cent protein. In the dressed carcass, ready to be sold for meat, we find about 17 per cent. The fat of the animal body is composed of carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, or of the same chemical substances as the fat of plants, but differing in combination. The amount of fat in the body depends much on how an animal has been fed. If we take a young growing pig, the body may contain only 25 per cent of fat, or even less, but a hog that has been well fattened and is ready for the butcher may contain over 40 per cent. Not often do we find less than 6 per cent of fat. in the body, or over 35 per cent. In the carcass ready for cutting up in the shop, we find about 20 per cent of fat, under usual conditions. ‘i Carbohydrates in the animal body are but contained in it, not a part of it, and so this substance can not be regarded as a constituent of animal flesh. Carbohydrates, however, exist in the body in two forms; one, glycogen, similar to starch in composition, found in the liver and muscles; and the other, /actose, or the sugar of milk, found in milk. Dex- trose, another form of sugar, is also found to a slight extent in the blood and tissues. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 71 The vitamines. Within the past few years a new sub- stance known as vitamines has received much attention from students of nutrition. Attention was first directed to this nutrient when it was shown that a disease of humans known as beriberi, caused by eating rice from which the husk had been removed, would not occur if the unpolished rice were eaten instead. Here was a new substance of nutrition. It was given the name of vitamine by Casimir Funk, who first investigated the subject. Other able scientists in America and Europe engaged in similar study, and it was finally agreed that there are three forms of vitamines, as follows: (1) Water-soluble vitamines, widely distribute in vege- table foods, in germs of seeds, in vegetables and fresh fruits, but which seem to be quite lacking in polished rice, patent flour, and bolted corn meal; Figure 19.—The effect of vitamines upon growth. The rat on the left was fed five per cent cottonseed oil, the one on the right one and one-half per cent of butter fat. Experiments by Dr. McCollum and _ others seem to show conclusively that there is no fat of plant origin that will take the place of butterfat in nutrition. Photograph from Wisconsin Experiment Station. (2) Fat-soluble vitamines, found most abundant in milk, butter, egg yolk, germs of seeds, leafy vegetables and cod- liver oil, but lacking in the body fat or muscles of animals, and in vegetable oils; and (3) Anti-scorbutic vitamines, that constituent of food which prevents the disease known as scurvy, especially found in oranges, lemons, potatoes and fresh fruits and vegetables. Cooking injures the vitamine value of this class of food. 72 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The remarkable thing about the vitamines is, that they have never been actually separated out and isolated by them- selves for study. Yet already a large amount of experi- mental feeding of human beings has clearly shown their existence and the important part they play in nutrition. Without question the vitamines influence the nutrition of farm animals. This fact has been brought out in feeding experiments on swine, notably by Prof. Evvard, of Iowa. In fact, we may assume that the vitamines in milk, green forage, and vegetables account in part for the great value credited to these substances by feeders of animals. Comparing plants and animals, we see that the plant obtains its food from the air and from the mineral matter in the soil, from which it develops a form made up of cells that are largely carbohydrates. The farm animal obtains its nutriment from the plant, from which is created a form, also composed of cells, but, in this case, of nitrogenous mate- rial. During the day the plant sucks in carbon dioxide from the air through its leaves, and holds the carbon, and gives off the oxygen. The animal, on the contrary, draws the air into the lungs, uses the oxygen from it, and then breathes out carbon dioxide. Thus we see that these two great groups of living matter, the plants and animals, are of vital importance to each other, and have much in common. Without the plant or its products the animal under ordinary conditions could not live; while by feeding on it the beast converts the vegetable substance into a yet more concen- trated and more valuable food material for men. A part of this vegetable substance, however, is not taken up by the animal body; but, following a softening and re- ducing process, is excreted as manure. This excretion, placed in contact with the roots of the plant, furnishes nutriment and stimulates increased production. Thus the plant furnishes nourishment to both the animal and vege- table kingdom. ee SO NOU Cre CoN: a COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1 REAL FOUNDATION QUESTIONS Name ten elements, tell where they occur and how taken up by plants. How abundant and useful is water in the plant? Discuss protein and its occurrence. Name two kinds of carbohydrates. Where in the plant is the fat most abundant? What is a concentrate? Give three examples. How much water is found in the animal body? Of what use is the mineral matter in the animal? What percentages of protein and fat are found in animals? Where are the carbohydrates found in the animal? What are the vitamines? THINGS EASILYFOUND. LOOK FOR THEM Specimens of elements. Organic and inorganic matter. Ashes of different kinds. The protein of plants and also of animals. Five kinds of fat. Roughage and concentrates. CHAPTER VIII THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION In order to understand how food is used in the body and the part it plays in maintaining life and producing results, it is necessary to discuss briefly the simpler features of diges- tion and more especially as applied to farm animals. The process of digestion begins with the mouth, where the food is broken up and softened. The fluid called saliva flows from small glands at the base of the tongue, and the mixing of this with the food in the mouth is called insaliva- tion. This fluid contains substances which act on the starch in the food and help change it to a form of sugar, so that it may be absorbed more readily. In swallowing, the food passes from the mouth through the esophagus, or gullet, into the stomach. The horse and hog have but one stomach, but cattle, sheep, and other animals that chew the cud, have four. The process of digestion, however, is similar in all stomachs. The cow chews a mouthful of grass very imper- fectly at first and swallows it into the paunch, which is the largest of the four stomachs. From here, after more or less mixing, the food is forced into a second and smaller stomach, called the honeycomb. After it has been churned about and softened in these two stomachs, the animal forces back into the mouth as frequently as desired a small amount of food called the “cud,” for further chewing. The cattleman calls this operation “‘chewing the cud.” After a bit the cud is re- turned, and by a special movement, passes into the many- plies, or small third stomach, from which it passes on into the fourth, or true, stomach. While in the true stomach the food is churned about and mixed with gastric juice, which contains a little acid. These juices act on the food, dissolv- 74 THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION Figure 20.—The stomach of the ox. The lower figure shows (a) the rumen, (b) the reticulum; (c) the omasum, anc (d) the abomasum, or true stomach. The upper figure shows by the dotted lines the direction of movement through the four sections. Reproduced from ‘‘Cattle and their Diseases,” published by the U, 8, Dept. of Agriculture. 76 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ing and changing it so that it can pass through the walls of the digestive tract and be used in the body. From the stomach, by a peculiar wave-like motion, the food is forced at frequent intervals into the small intestines, where it is mixed with other fluids that aid digestion. The liver, which is the largest gland in the body, and the pancreas both pour fluids that aid digestion over the food as it moves along the way in the small intestine. Thus it will be seen that from the time it is taken into the mouth the food is constantly acted on and changed for use in the body. Most. of the food digested is absorbed from the small intestine but some passes on into the large one, where the last. changes take place. During this trip in the body the protein, carbohydrates, and fat are changed into different smaller and simpler particles. When ready to be absorbed, they are taken into the circulation by the blood and lymph, and carried all through the body. Left in the cells, these particles of protein, etc., which are called nutri- ents, serve their final purpose of building up the body or producing milk or energy. This process of digestion and absorption is rather complicated, and includes many changes that need not be mentioned here. The capacity of stomach and intestines is much greater than many persons realize. Careful study has been made of these organs of farm animals, and the following figures may be regarded as fairly accurate: COMBINED CAPACITY OF STOMACH AND INTESTINES. The 0X...............................337 quarts, or about 2 barrels ‘Phe horse waiaie dons capa cas aoe les a 224 quarts, or over 1 barrel ‘Phe Sheep ii ae eee ecco Stilt ceyvce 47 quarts, or about 12 gallons heh OG asa asa eiitee acy et eee 29 quarts, or about 7 gallons It is to be noticed that the ox, withits compound stomach, has almost twice the capacity of the horse, and the sheep, in proportion to size, has much more capacity than the hog. The intestines of the ox are about 187 feet long, while those of the horse are but 98, and those of the sheep are 107 feet THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION 7 long, compared with 77 feet in the hog. The facts brought out in these figures show that the horse and hog, with their simple stomachs, and smaller relative capacity, should be fed more concentrated, or more easily digested, food than the ox or the sheep. The food in the body is used to maintain or support life, to produce growth or energy or to promote certain other features, as milk, fat, or wool. On this account persons who feed live stock should regulate the kind and amount of food, if they desire to secure the most satisfactory results. The protein in the food during digestion is acted on by what are called digestive ferments. One of these, pepsin, assisted by a very small amount of hydrochloric acid attacks the protein in the stomach. The action of acid and pepsin changes the protein into two more soluble forms known as proteoses and peptones. These with any of the unchanged protein pass into the small intestine, where, by the aid of two other ferments, trypsin and erepsin, all is converted into a still more soluble form called amino acid. This latter passes through the walls of the intestines and into the blood, and thence throughout the body tissues. The animal can not take the protein in the plant and use it at once as body protein, but it must go through these changes in the digestive organs before it can be used. The protein in the food is changed to body protein, of which lean meat is the best example. To some extent it may also be changed into fat. Animals that depend entirely upon flesh for food can live on protein alone, if necessary. During starvation, the body loses a small but rather constant amount of protein. So we regard this substance especially valuable for building up the muscles, the hair, wool, internal organs, blood, and similar tissues that are closely related to the vital processes. The carbohydrates in the food are largely changed into sugar during digestion. Thus they are more easily absorbed into the body. There are different kinds of sugars, but that 78 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS in the food is converted into glucose. This sugar is then taken up by the circulation and carried to the liver, where it is again changed somewhat, and from here is distributed over the body as needed. The carbohydrates are largely used in the system to furnish the energy necessary in work, and to make fat.. Interesting experiments with animals show that more fat is stored in the body than can be sup- plied by the protein and fat in the food. Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York Experiment Station, proved that carbo- hydrates are used to form part of the fat in the milk of the cow. If animals are fed enough foods rich in digestible car- bohydrates, the fat in the body will not tend to diminish in amount. In other words, such foods protect or conserve the body fat. The carbohydrates are also regarded as great sources of heat and energy. This phase of the subject will be explained a little further on. Feeds containing plenty of carbohydrates cost less for the dry matter in them than any other feeds, and are valuable for filling the stomach. Sheep and oxen must be fed a quantity of roughage, as a filler, if they are to do well. The fat in the food undergoes no important change in the stomach, but in the small intestine, through action of the bile poured in from the liver, and the pancreatic juice, it is converted into glycerine and fatty acids. The alkali in the bile unites with the latter, forming a soap. In this changed form of glycerine and soap, the fat finds its way through the intestinal wall into very minute projections, known as vill, through which it enters into the Jacteals and thence on as a milky fluid known as chyle into the blood circulation near the shoulder. In this changed form the fat of the food be- comes a part of the body fat. The fat of the body is usually made from the fat and the carbohydrates of the feed, though it may be produced to a small extent from protein. There is usually but little fat in the roughages fed to stock The mineral matter in the food is taken up in the small THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION 79 intestine, and goes through no special digestive changes as with the other food substances. Mineral substances, such as lime and phosphorus, are regarded as of great importance in building up the body. Those foods that contain but little ash give poor results in feeding, unless the necessary mineral material is supplied. Years ago Professor W. A. Henry showed that hogs fed only corn had bone just about half as strong as hogs fed bone meal or hard-wood ashes with the corn. Farmers give ashes or coal to hogs because these ani- mals make a better development when so fed. Without the ash, the body is not given proper nutrition. Corn lacks ash. Figure 21—The influence of minerals on the development of swine. The pig on the left received a ration with sufficient minerals, the other was given a ration deficient in minerals. Note the difference in bone and growth. Photograph from Iowa Experiment Station. A hundred pounds of corn meal contains but a pound and a half of ash, while a hundred pounds of oats has more than twice that amount. All stockmen rate oats highly for pro- ducing hard, strong bone in growing animals. The legumes, such as clover and alfalfa, supply much needed mineral material in the food of farm animals and so their use should be generally advised, especially for cattle, sheep and swine. All food has a heat value, just as coal has. If burned, coal gives off heat; so does food. All heat comes from the sun, and is stored up in the plant, ready to be set free. The word calorie represents 4 measure of heat given off by food. One calorie equals the amount of heat required to 80 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4° F. The word therm is now being adopted as more convenient for use in referring to stock feeding. A therm equals 1,000 calories. If we raise 1,000 pounds of water 4° F, that measures a therm. While food is being digested in the body, heat is produced by the process. Some foods contain more heat than others. The difference will depend largely on the amount of fat con- tained. Scientific men consider that the heat values of pro- tein and carbohydrates are about alike, but that the heat value of fat is 214 times as great as either of these. This fact partly explains why the Eskimos in the cold North eat so much food that is nearly all fat, as the blubber of the whale. — Corn contains more fat than any of our other common grains, which fact accounts in part for its use as a winter feed for horses, and also is a reason why it should not be fed heavily to stock in sunmer in the warm season. Food has an energy value. When a substance is burned, the resulting energy furnishes power to do work. So it is understood that what we call a therm represents the energy or work necessary to raise 1,530 tons to a height of one foot. Part of the energy of the food, to be sure, is lost in the process of digestion, partly because not all the food is digested. But much of it is saved, and this is used to keep the engine of the body going. The horse that pulls the plow or hauls a load of hay gets his power from the stored-up energy in the food, which is set free in the body during oxida- tion in the process of digestion. The heat and energy value of food has been worked out by scientific men, by means of a calorimeter. This is a very strong, round, hollow steel tube. A sample of a food is placed in this and burned, and the amount of heat given off is measured. Another instrument, called the respiration calorimeter, also is used, in which a live animal is placed. With this the investigator can study the value of foods, and can make a complete record of just what becomes of all THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION 81 the energy produced. By means of the calorimeter, one measures the heat or energy used in labor, or thrown off from the body, or passed off as breath through the mouth. The application of this knowledge will be found in the next chapter. At the Pennsylvania and New Hampshire Experi- ment Stations there are respiration calorimeters made to hold the larger animals. In these there have been con- ducted very interesting experiments on the energy value of foods as fed to cattle under different conditions. The palatability, or taste, of food is regarded very im- portant in feeding animals. If the food is pleasing to the taste, the animal will digest it better, because the fluids used in digestion will flow more freely, and thus act more com- pletely on the food. Nice sweet hay is greatly relished, while that which is somewhat mouldy, or has not been properly ripened, or cured, will be poorly eaten or entirely refused. The animal that feeds best has a good appetite, and eats plentifully. A great Russian physiologist named Pawlow, who conducted extensive experiments relating to the effects of the appetite on the forming of the digestive fluids in dogs, learned that digestion, appetite, and palatability all go together. The use of water by the animal is very important. Water may keep the entire body in a healthy condition. The digestive fluids and blood need given amounts of water to do their work right, and water is needed to keep the intes- tines open and active, and to regulate body temperature. Experiments have shown that farm animals need a certain amount of water for every pound of dry matter eaten. For example, a horse or sheep needs from two to three pounds of water for each pound of dry matter consumed. With some foods more water is required than with others. The cow that eats corn silage will drink but little water compared with the one fed the dried plant or corn stover. The nutritive ratio is frequently referred to in discussing the use of rations in practical feeding. This term is used to 82 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS express the ratio of the digestible protein to the digestible non-protein substances in the food, or the combined car- bohydrates and fat to the protein. In order to compare these substances on an equal basis, they are reduced to the same heat valuation. Protein and the carbohydrates do have the same heat value, but a pound of fat is equivalent to about 214 pounds of either one of these. Consequently the chemist, in order to place them on an equal footing in heat value, multiplies the digestible fat by 214. The nutritive ratio is found by adding this to the amount of the carbo- hydrates, and then dividing the sum by the digestible pro- tein content. The following example will illustrate the method of finding the nutritive ratio: Oats contain 10.7 pounds of digestible protein, 50.3 pounds carbohydrates and 3.8 pounds fat. Then the ratio is worked out in this manner. 3.8 pounds fat x 24 = 8.55 =the carbohydrate equivalent of the fat. §0.3+8.55 =58.85 10.7) 58.85 ( 5.5 53. ot On 3 3 oo on Nutritive ratio, 1:5.5 The nutritive ratio is obtained in the same way for an entire ration, dividing the total amount of the digestible carbohydrates and fat by the total digestible protein. A nutritive ratio of 1:5.5 means that for each pound of digesti- ble protein to be found in the ration there are 5.5 pounds of carbohydrates or its equivalent. A narrow nutritive ratio is one in which the amount of carbohydrates and fat is not large in proportion to protein, such as 1:3, or 1:5; a moderate amount would be 1:8; while a wide ratio would be 1:12. Highly concentrated foods, such as tankage or oil meal, usually have narrow ratios; while coarse foods, like the common roughages, of which corn stover or timothy hay are good examples, have wide ratios. eri en —_ m © Ne DONNA THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION 83 DIGEST THESE QUESTIONS What is meant by “chewing the cud?” How is food taken into the circulation? What is the capacity of the stomach of the ox? What digestive fluids are present in the stomach? How are the carbohydrates changed in digestion? What is a ‘calorie’? a “‘therm’’? How can the energy value of food be shown? Describe the calorimeter. What has palatability of food to do with digestion? Explain the term ‘“‘nutritive ratio.” TAKE NOTE OF THESE THINGS How often does a cow chew the cud? Watch to see. If an opportunity occurs, measure the intestines of an animal that may be killed on the farm. Report. Get samples of what you consider palatable and unpalatable foods for stock. Figure out the nutritive ratio of three plants or other feed materials. CHAPTER IX FEEDING STANDARDS: THEIR ORIGIN AND USE The process of analyzing a feeding stuff takes place in chemical laboratories especially equipped for this work. The chemist secures a fair sample of the feed and grinds it in a mill to a powder as fine as flour. He then takes a small sample of this and analyzes it in the laboratory. He dries a weighed portion in an oven and finds just how much water it contains, and the percentage of dry matter. Then with ether he dissolves out the fat, (ether extract) and weighs this. With other chemicals he also separates out the protein, the nitrogen-free extract, and the fiber. Another sample of the feed he burns to learn how much ash or mineral matter remains. Thus the chemist is able to determine just how many pounds of each of these substances there are in a given amount of feed. This investigation of the chemical com- position is the first step taken by the chemist in studying the value of foods for animals. The amount of digestible nutrients in a food, the simple chemical analysis, however, did not show. Then there was another step forward by the chemist, whereby he learned just how much of the total protein, carbohydrates, and fat in a given food an animal digested. After analyzing a sample of the feed, as much of it was fed as the animal would eat in a given time. During the experiment, all the solid and liquid excrement passed off by the animal was collected, and samples of these were also analyzed. Having learned how much pro- tein, carbohydrates, and fat were lost in the manure, the chemist deducted these amounts from the total quantity con- sumed in the feed, and the difference was regarded as the amount digested by the animal. This method was not per- 84 FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 85 fect, but it was a great step in advance. It enabled chemists to figure out the amount of each nutrient digested under dif- ferent conditions, so that in time they were able to prepare for the use of farmers what is called “a table of digestible nutrients.” This table showed the total amount of dry mat- ter in 100 pounds of different kinds of feed, and also the number of pounds of digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat in every 100 pounds. In this table, for convenient refer- ence, foods of similar sorts are grouped by themselves. For example, roughage is all classed together, and this is divided into three groups: as dried roughage, fresh green roughage, and roots and tubers. Then the concentrates are arranged by themselves, and these are also divided into groups. The following is taken from a table of digestible nutrients, and is used here to illustrate what has just been explained. No attempt, however, is made below to group these feeds. Digestible nutrients in 2 Total dry 100 lbs. Nutri- Name of feed nate in Saba tive 100 Ibs. : Yarbohy- : ratio Protein | ~Grates Fat Alfalfa hay.......... 91.4 10.6 39.0 0.9 | 1:3.9 Timothy hay......... 88.4 3. 42.8 1.2 |1:15.2 Lespedezahay........ 88.2 8.6 41.1 11 |1:7.6 Cowpea hay....... 90.3 13.1 33.7 1.0 |1:2.7 Corn stover, mediumyiver| 81.0 2.1 42.4 0.7. |1:21.0 Red clover-green.... 26.2 27 13.0 0.6 11:5.3 Rape-green........-- 16.7 2.6 10.0 0.3 [1°41 Corn silage.......... 26.3 1.1 15.0 0.7 |1:15.1 Corn, dent..........- 89.5 7.5 67.8 4.6 |1:10.4 Oats ioe evens cere ares 90.8 9.7 52.1 3.8 |1:6.3 Wheat bran.......... 89.9 12.5 41.6 3.0 |1:3.9 Cottonseed meal-good 92.1 31.6 25.6 7.8 {1:14 Linseed meal o. p..... 90.9 30.2 32.6 6.7 1:1.6 Tankage-Over 60% protein} 92.6 S80 | cheesy 12.6 1:0.5 Skim milk-separator. . 9.9 3.6 5.1 0.2 11:15 This little table, which is made from a much longer one giving the digestible nutrients in about all the different kinds of food the American farmer is likely to feed,* shows that 100 pounds of alfalfa hay contains 91.4 pounds of dry matter. *Feeds and Feeding. Heury and Morrison, 1917. 86 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS In this 91.4 pounds, of the digestible material of use to an animal, we find 10.6 pounds of protein, 39 pounds of car- bohydrates, and nine tenths of a pound of fat. The nutritive ratio is also 1:3.9. Let us now look further and learn how such figures have a practical value to the feeder of animals. The kind and amount of food required by an animal very naturally depend on the class to which it belongs, its age, and use. No one would expect to feed a calf the same as a horse, or a sheep like a milch cow. Each must be fed so as to supply its needs as completely as possible. As might be expected, scientists were a long time getting the necessary information to enable men to understand how to feed so as to get the best results. What we know as feeding standards in the beginning were very simple and did not have any real value. The working out of useful standards began in Germany, and German chemists have done more than any one else to furnish us knowledge on this subject. The first plan attempted was to give meadow hay a fixed value, and then measure up other feeds with that as the standard. That plan originated about 1810. Some fifty years later, another German chemist sug- gested that animals be fed special amounts of protein, car- bohydrates, and fat, according to certain conditions. His plan was not good, however, because he did not take into account the digestibility of the food. He was able to analyze a food, but he knew nothing of how much of each nutrient the animal digested. At that time there was considerable information of the chemical composition of feeding stuffs, but the digestibility of the foods had not been figured out. Then about 1864, another German chemist, by the name of Wolff, proposed that animals be fed daily certain amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat, such as were actu- ally required by the animals. Wolff was able to make this proposal because he had conducted many feeding tests with different animals, and had learned much of the digestibility FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 87 of feeds. His studies resulted in what are now known as The Wolff feeding standards for farm animals. Two things were shown by this great scientist. One was the digestibility of the nutrients in different feeding stuffs, and the other was the amount of each of these required by farm animals under certain conditions. Wolff found that ani- mals that were doing no labor, that were not being fattened, neither gaining nor losing in weight, required only sufficient food to keep the body and the internal organs healthy and vigorous. Such an animal required what he called a main- tenance ration. A young animal needed a growing ration, and cattle intended for meat required a fattening ration. A cow producing a large amount of milk must be fed, first to supply the ordinary needs of the body, such as might be found in a maintenance ration, and, besides this, she must be fed still more to enable her to produce the milk of which the food is the source. The dry cow may be satisfied on a maintenance ration consisting of some form of roughage only, such as clover hay, for example; but, if she is yielding a good supply of milk, then rich concentrates must be fed, if the increased demands of milk production are to be met. The standards of Wolff were not entirely satisfactory to the Germans, so in 1896 Dr. Lehmann, of the Berlin Agri- cultural High School, introduced some improvements which became known as the Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards. Since Wolff first made known this most important dis- covery, many other chemists have experimented in the same field. Both European and American agricultural chemists have extensively studied the science of feeding, so that now we know much more than did the student or farmer in the days of Wolff. Animals have been carefully studied, and the invention of the respiration calorimeter has resulted in some wonderful investigations in the fields of chemistry and animal nutrition. The work of Wolff was that of a pioneer. For many years Americans relied on analyses of German 88 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS feeds, and made use of the standards that came to us from Europe. To-day we are able to use a table of digestible nutrients which is based on the composition of American feeds as studied by chemists of our own country. The Wolff standards as improved by Lehmann were introduced to America and for some years had extensive use. Wolff used 1,000 pounds as the standard of weight for animals, and assumed that a certain amount of dry matter, and of digesti- ble protein, carbohydrates, and fat, were needed for that weight under given conditions. The animals were classified in groups, as oxen, fattening cattle, milch cows, sheep, horses, etc. Then those in a group were classified according to their purpose; as, for example, horses into light, medium, and heavy work; and dairy cows in four classes, according to the amount of milk made per day. The following figures, taken from the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard, illustrate its arrange- ment: Pounds required daily for each 1,000 lbs. live weight. Dey Digestible nutrients Nutri- Kind of animal matter «| Carbohy- 7 tive Protein | “Grates Fat | ratio Horses, light work.... 20 1.5 9.5 0.4 | 1:7.0 Horses, medium work. 24 2.0 11.0 0.6 | 1:6.2 Horses, heavy work... 26 2.5 13.3 0.8 | 1:6.0 This table means, for instance, that a horse at light work weighing 1,000 pounds requires 20 pounds of dry matter daily, containing 114 pound of protein, 914 pounds of carbo- hydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, the ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:7. These exact standards of daily require- ments did not stand the test in American feeding operations, and our scientists sought to improve them. As a result of the studies of Professors W. A. Henry and F. B. Morrison, of Wisconsin University, new standards were introduced. Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. These investiga- tors recognized “that feeding standards are but approxima- FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 89 tions,” or, in other words, it is impossible to feed an animal in common practice to the exact fraction of a pound, and give neither too little nor too much food for body require- ments. So they adopted the plan of feeding within minimum and maximum quantities of dry matter, digestible crude pro- tein and total digestible nutrients. In explanation of their modified form of the Wolff-Lehmann standards, the authors write as follows:* “Since progressive feeders throughout the country now appreciate the significance of the nutritive ratio of a ration, the approximate upper and lower advisable limits of nutritive ratios for the different classes have been stated. To correspond with these standards, Appendix Table III contains a column showing the total digestible nutrients furnished in 100 pounds of each feed. Likewise so that one may see at a glance what feeds are high and which are low in protein, compared with carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio for each food has been comput- ed and given in the table. With these aids it is hoped that the standards presented may be of real assistance to students and feeders who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann method, while recognizing the results of later investi- gations in animal feeding.” The modified form of the Wolff-Lehmann standard, as applied to horses, compared with the table previously given in this chapter, is as follows: Feeding standards for horses, 1,000 lbs. live weight, modified Wolff-Lehmann. Dry Digestible Total Nutri- Kind of work matter crude digestible tive per day protein nutrients ratio Light..........] 15-22 lbs. | 1.1-1.4 lbs. | 10.0-13.1 Ibs. | 1:8.0-8.5 Medium....... 16-24 lbs. 1.4-1.7 lbs. 12.8-15.6 lbs. | 1:7.8-8.3 Heavy sccccccee. 18-26 lbs. | 2.0-2.2 Ibs. | 15.9-19.5 Ibs. | 1:7.0-8.0 By this we learn that a horse at medium work requires from 16 to 24 pounds of dry matter, from 1.4 to 1.7 pounds of protein, and from 12.8 to 15.6 pounds of digestible nutri- ents, with a nutritive ratio of 7.8 to 8.3. Compared with the old standards, we see that this ration provides a saving in protein, but allows for an increased use of total nutrients, with a somewhat wider nutritive ratio. The practical application of Wolff-Lehmann feeding stand- ards has been recognized on thousands of farms in America, *Feeds and Feeding, 1917. 90 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS and to the great profit of those adopting them. Probably no class of people has studied the standard more carefully than feeders of dairy cattle, and it is among herds of this kind that we find Wolff-Lehmann standards most commonly used. It must be understood that one may not be able to feed one’s stock so as to follow the standard perfectly, but there is no trouble in using it in a practical way as a guide. One may without difficulty feed within the limitations of the standard. When the animal is fed about right, according to the stand- ard, then a balanced ration is being used, or one which, without waste, most perfectly meets the needs of the body. Many experiments have shown that the balanced ration can be relied upon for giving the best results. Energy value feeding standards have recently attracted attention. Kellner, a German, and Dr. H. P. Armsby, a noted American investigator of feeding animals, about 1908 proposed that the feeding value of foods be measured by their energy contents, as shown by the thers of net energy they supply. These men accounted for the loss of a part of the food energy by the animal in the mastication of its food, and in the operations of the internal organs, etc. The energy left after digestion they called the net energy and this was used by the animal for supplying special needs. Armsby has published a set of figures showing the dry matter, digestible protein, and net energy value in therms in some of the most common feeding stuffs. He has also prepared a maintenance ration standard, and one for growing cattle and sheep. The following is made up from the latter, to show how this energy standard is arranged. CATTLE Age Live weight Digestible protein Net energy value 3 mos. 275 \bs. 1.10 lb. 5.0 therms 12 mos. 650 lbs. 1.65 Th. 7.0 therms 24 mos. 1000 Ihs. 1.75 Ib. 8.0 therms This table shows that a calf three months old and weigh- ing about 275 pounds requires 1.1 pound of digestible pro- FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 91 tein per day, and that the total net energy in the ration will equal five therms. This new standard has hardly been long enough before the public to be well known, and has been used but little in practice but may grow in favor. Feeding standards for dairy cows have received quite a large amount of special study, especially by Professors T. L. Haecker, of Minnesota Experiment Station, F. W. Woll, first of Wisconsin and later of the California station, G. C. Humphrey, of Wisconsin station, E. 8. Savage, of Cornell University station in New York, and C. H. Eckles, of Mis- souri and Minnesota stations. Professor Haecker was the pioneer in this work, and, after many years of careful feeding of dairy cows, he concluded that the feed for a cow producing milk should be based not only on the daily yield of milk, but also on the amount of butter-fat the milk contained. The Haecker standard for dairy cows first assumes that with a standard weight of 1,000 pounds, the cow independ- ent of milk production requires a maintenance ration of 0.7 pound of crude protein, 7.0 pounds of carbohydrates and 0.1 pound of fat. Then for each 100 pounds live weight the cow exceeds or falls below 1,000 pounds, there is added or subtracted one tenth of the standard ration. The following is a part of the Haecker standard, given simply for illustration. Haecker’s Feeding Standard for a Dairy Cow. Daily allowance of digestible Conditions for support or Bue production Crude Carbohy- Fat protein drates Support for 1,000 pound cow. ...} 0.700 lb. 7.00 lbs. 0.100 lb. To the allowance for support add: ilk.| 0.047 “ 0.20 “ 0.017 “ ton = ee 10 Pe me ay 0.054 “ 0.24 “ 0.021 Ene cf 5.0 Oe ieemte 0.060 “‘ 0.28 “ 0.024 “ Prof. Savage has sought to improve this ration some- what, by increasing the protein requirements per pound of 92 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS milk from 18 to 20 per cent, for in his experiments he found a need for this increased protein over that adopted by Haecker. American standards, and especially those applied to milk production, are a great step in advance over the standards introduced from Germany. QUESTIONS ON KNOTTY THINGS How does a chemist analyze a feeding stuff? What is meant by digestible nutrients? How are feeding tables arranged? Trace the history of the feeding standards. Explain meaning of a maintenance ration. What standard of weight is used in feeding tables? Suppose an animal weighs more or less? Discuss the practical use of Wolff-Lehmann standards. What are the energy value feeding standards? How does the Haecker standard for dairy cows differ from the Wolff-Lehmann? 10. How did Savage try to improve the Haccker standard? OOD A SON OT CoN > CHAPTER X CALCULATING FEEDING RATIONS The selection of a feeding standard is the first thing necessary, when one plans to feed live stock on a scientific basis. The reader’s attention has been called to several dif- ferent standards, each of which has certain commendable features. The modified Wolff-Lehmann standard, however, is the one in most general use for horses, beef cattle, sheep and swine, and, in view of its simple application, is here recommended. For dairy cattle the Haecker standard as modified by Savage is especially good, and may be easily applied to a wide range of production. The method of calculating a ration is very simple, and can easily be put in practice by anyone who knows how to add, multiply, and subtract. There is nothing complicated about it. The fact that many farmers with only common school training figure out the rations for their stock, is evi- dence enough to support this statement. Many men feed- ing dairy cows study carefully the composition and cost of feeds, and then figure out the best rations available, that will agree as nearly as possible with the standard. THE MODIFIED WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARD The first step in calculating a ration is to find out the amounts of dry matter, digestible protein, total digestible nutrients, and the nutritive ratio in the ration one is feed- ing or is planning to feed. In this chapter, only the most common feeds used over much of the United States will be considered. We will go through the process of figuring out the ration for fattening a two-year-old steer weighing 1,200 pounds, during the first period of 50 to 60 days. (See feed- ing standard, Table B, Appendix.) According to the stand- 93 94 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ard, a steer weighing 1,000 pounds would require from 22.0 to 25.0 pounds of dry matter, 2.0 to 2.3 pounds of protein, 18.0 to 20.0 pounds of digestible nutrients, and with a nutri- tive ratio of 1:7.0 to 1:7.8. Multiplying these requirements for 1,000 by 1.2, in order to determine the amount needed for the 1,200-pound steer, we find that he will require 26.4 to 30.0 pounds of dry matter, 2.4 to 2.76 pounds of protein, and 21.6 to 24.0 pounds of digestible nutrients. Let us plan to feed this steer a daily ration of 10 pounds of alfalfa hay, 30 pounds of corn silage, 10 pounds of corn and cob meal, and 3 pounds of bran. To use a good system in the start- ing of the work, we will arrange the different parts in proper order for study, which is as follows: Ration for 1,200-pound Fattening Steer—First Period Dry Digesti- Total Feeds. me ble digestible matter | protein | nutrients Nutritive ratio Alfalfa hay, 10 lhs.. Corn silage, 30 Ibs.. Corn and cob meal, 10 Ibs. Bran; Belbsnschs wines The second step in calculating the ration will be to find out how much dry matter, digestible protein, and total digestible nutrients, occur in each of the amounts of these different feeds, and write these figures in the proper blank places in the table. Turning now to Table A in the Appen- dix, you will find shown the amount of dry matter and digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of a number of differ- ent feeding stuffs. The composition of each to be fed this steer can be easily found. Let us take alfalfa hay for our first calculation. ALFALFA HAY Dry matter Protein Total nutrients 100 lbs. contain 91.4 lbs. 10.6 lbs. 51.6 lbs. Then 10 lbs. contain 9.14 lbs. 1.06 lbs. 5.16 lbs. CALCULATING FEEDING RATIONS 95 Tiguring the corn silage next, we find that Dry matter Protein Total nutrients 100 lbs. contain 26.3 Ibs. 1.1 lb. 17.7 lbs. Then 30 lbs. contain 7.89 lbs. 0.33 lb. 5.31 lbs. Figuring the Corn and cob meal next, we find that Dry matter Protein Total nutrients 100 lbs. contain 89.6 lbs. 6.1 Ibs. 78.1 Ibs. Then 10 lbs. contain 8.96 lbs. 0.61 Ib. 7.81 lb. Coming last to bran, we learn that Dry matter Protein Total nutrients 100 lbs. contain 89.9 Ibs. 12.5 lbs. 60.9 lbs. Then 3 lbs. contain 2.70 lbs. 0.37 lb. 1.82 Ibs. If we have copied these figures as worked out, into the blank places arranged for them in the table on page 94, then we shall have the following, after we have added up the totals. Ration for 1,200-pound Fattening Steer—Partly Computed Digesti- Total sys Feeds mee ble digestible oe matter | protein | nutrients Fao Alfalfa hay, 10 Ibs......... 9.14 Ibs.} 1.06 lbs.) 5.16 Ibs. Corn silage, 30 Ibs......... 4:89 § 1-033 $6 (5.381. Corn and cob meal, 10 Ibs.. | 8.96 “ | 0.61 “| 7.81 “ Bran, 3 lbs............... 2.70 “10387 “| 182 “ Totaliccceccsen. | 28:69 ‘(2:37 20.10 “| 1:8.5 Wolff-Lehmann standard. .| 26.4-30 “ |2.4-2.76 “| 21.6-24 “| 1:7-1:7.8 A shortage of.... 0.03-0.39'| 1.5-3.9 “ The above table shows that the proposed ration, com- pared with the standard, is satisfactory in the amount of dry matter, but is from 0.03 to 0.39 Ib. short in digestible pro- tein, and lacks from 1.5 to 3.9 pounds of total digestible nutrients, with a slightly wider nutritive ratio than the standard calls for. The third step in computing the ration will be to correct or improve it so that it will compare favorably with the standard. Not much is really necessary to improve this ration, for the dry matter already supplied is properly adjusted, and there is but a small shortage in digestible pro- tein. We should, however, have at least a pound and a half 96 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS more digestible nutrients, and make the nutritive ratio cor- respond closer to the standard. We might use a small amount of some commercial feed stuff, to adjust this ration, but suppose we use a common home-grown product, and add three pounds of oats and note the result. Turning to the table of the composition of feeding stuffs, Table A, Ap- pendix, we find the following relating to oats. Oats Dry matter Digestible Total digestible protein nutrients 100 lbs. contain 90.3 Ibs. 9.7 lbs. 70.4 Ibs. Then 3 lbs. contain 2.72 lbs. .29 lbs. 2.11 Ibs. Adding this to the total in the original ration, we have the following: Dry _ | Digestible] Total dig.| Nutritive matter | protein | nutrients ratio Total original............ 28.69 Ibs.| 2.37 Ibs.| 20.10 Ibs. 1:8.5 3 Ibs. oats. .......... 22. S 5S emma Meu Pe Motal\s aire ee 31.41 “ | 266 “ |22.21 “| 1:8 Standard ipo alee: 26.4-30 “ |2.4-2.76 “ |21.6-24 “ | 1:7.1-7.8 Excess or deficit......... +1.41 “ | Balanced} Balanced This ration contains a slight excess of dry matter which is not at all serious, while it is actually balanced in its nutri- ents, and very nearly meets the nutritive ratio standard. We may, therefore, regard this ration properly calculated and corrected to suit the animal’s needs. It also has the advantage of consisting of feeds easily produced or obtained over much of this country. COMPUTING STANDARDS FOR DAIRY CATTLE The feeding standards for dairy cattle as previously stated, are based on the yield of milk as well as the weight of the animal. Haecker adopted a standard in which he first established a maintenance ration for the support of a 1,000-pound cow, consisting of 0.7 pound digestible protein, 7.0 pounds digestible carbohydrates and 0.1 pound digestible CALCULATING FEEDING RATIONS 97 fat. He then allowed certain amounts of these-nutrients in the ration, additional to that for maintenance, based on each pound of milk of definite butter-fat composition. The stand- ard proposed by Haecker was a great step forward, but some investigators after extensive trials came to the con- clusion that the nutrients recommended fell a trifle short of real requirements. Haecker’s table was changed slightly by Savage, who approved of the maintenance standard, but who increased the percentage of protein required, from 18 to 20 per cent. Savage also combined the total nutrients, instead of computing carbohydrates and fat separately. In their modified form of the Wolff-Lehmann standard, Henry and Morrison arrange for dairy cattle by adopting the quantities of protein given in both Haecker and Savage standards, as for example 0.054—0.065 digestible protein for milk with 4.0 per cent fat. In this case, Haecker recom- mends 0.054 pound protein to be fed for each pound of 4.0 per cent milk produced, while Savage recommends 0.065 pound. The person figuring out a ration for a dairy cow will do well to see that the feed contains enough protein to come within the variations of the standard and the ad- justment of this nutrient may well receive first consideration. There is no fixed standard for dry matter adopted in this case, but cows producing one pound of fat a day should receive from 21 to 25 pounds of dry matter for 1,000 pounds live weight. A reference to Table B, Appendix, will show the modi- fied Wolff-Lehmann standard given by Henry and Mor- rison.* The method of computing the amounts of dry matter, digestible protein and total digestible nutrients, applies the same in this case as in the example given with beef cattle. One must make a special computation, how- ever, to establish one’s standard, based on the number of pounds of milk daily, and its fat content, as previously stated. This is determined as follows: - *Feeds and Feeding, 1917. 4 98 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS As an example, we will take the case of a cow weighing 1,200 pounds, producing 30 pounds a day of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat. Digestible Total digestible A 1,000-pound cow requires for Broke RTOS maintenance.............. 0.70 Ib. 7.925 Ibs. A 1,200-pound cow requires for maintenance..............0.84 Ib. 9.510 lbs. If one pound of 4.0 per cent milk requires 0.054—0.065 pound protein, then 30 pounds would require 30 times 0.054 —0.065 which would be 1.62—1.95 pounds protein. If one pound of 4.0 per cent milk requires 0.346 pound digestive nutrients, then 30 pounds would require 30 times 0.346, or 10.38. Adding these to the maintenance ration, we find that the required standard would be: pjpestibie Thich dieesdible protein nutrients For maintenance 1,200-lb. dairy cow. .0.84 lb. 9.51 Ibs. To meet demands 30 lbs. 4.0% milk.. 1.62-1.95 lbs. 10.38 Ibs. Total required: «sa. c.c¢aeeiseaees 2.46-2.79 lbs. 19.89 Ibs. Thus we ascertain that a 1,200-pound cow producing 30 pounds of milk a day containing 4.0 per cent fat should receive daily a ration containing from 25 to 30 pounds of dry matter, 2.46 to 2.79 pounds of digestible protein, and 19.89 pounds total digestible nutrients, with a nutritive ratio from 1:7 to 1:8. The adjustment of rations to the standard is not usually difficult. An increase in dry matter and carbohydrates is easily secured with the hays or most of our common feed stuffs. Tfaration needs some adjustment in the protein, then some concentrate such as soy beans, cottonseed meal, lin- seed oil meal, or tankage may be selected. The cost of the feed is an important matter, and should be carefully con- sidered. Some feeding stuffs, like cottonseed meal, oil meal, or tankage, that are not common in all localities, are easily purchased and shipped in by freight, and may often be used with much advantage and profit. These are high-class con- CALCULATING FEEDING RATIONS 99 centrates, and are extensively purchased by feeders of stock in countries where but a comparatively sinall amount of feed is grown, as in England and Holland, for example. SOME RATION PROBLEMS 1. Given a 1,000-pound horse at medium work. He is fed 10 pounds oats, 10 pounds timothy hay, and 10 pounds ear corn a day. How does this agree with the Wolff-Lehmann standard? 2. A steer weighing 1,500 pounds, nearly fattened, consumes daily 20 pounds clover hay, 18 pounds corn-and-cob meal, and 5 pounds cottonseed meal. Is this ration satisfactory? 3. Make up a ration for a 500-pound brood sow, and figure out how it compares with the standard. 4. Feed 2 pounds alfalfa hay a day to a fattening sheep weighing 100 pounds. How much and what kind of grain will you feed to adjust the ration to standard? CHAPTER XI COARSE FEEDS, OR ROUGHAGE The coarse feeds, or roughage, include the grasses and legumes of different kinds, the cereals (as forage), straws, silage, roots, rape, cabbage, or any similar feeds, whether green or dried as hay. Anything of a bulky nature, consist- ing largely of crude fiber, of which an animal must eat con- siderable to obtain much nutriment, is a coarse feed. In the dried form, like hay or corn stover, the western farmer has been accustomed to refer to them as roughage. In some sections of our country, farmers have certain feeds that are more common than in other parts of the country. Farmers in the North, for example, look to red clover or timothy hay for standard roughage; in the South, cowpea hay or Japanese clover is common; while in Kansas and Colorado alfalfa is a standard. Some plants, however, are more commonly grown than others, and so will receive special attention in a brief way in this chapter. PASTURES, GREEN GRASSES AND HAYS The value of the grasses depends upon their develop- ment. When grass is young and very green, especially in spring, it contains a large percentage of water, and is greatly relished by stock. As it matures, the amount of protein and total nutriment increases. Usually we find the food con- stituents, especially protein, most digestible when the plant isin full bloom. After that period the stalk and leaves grow more woody and less nutritious. When left to develop long after blooming, neither the pasture nor the hay is eaten with great relish. In experiments at the Missouri station, the protein in timothy cut for hay was greatest when the plant was in full bloom, there being 147 pounds to the acre. When 100 COARSE FEEDS, OR ROUGHAGE 101 the seeds were formed, however, there was but 113 pounds of protein per acre, and this amount diminished to 92 pounds when the grass was cut for hay and the seeds were well rip- ened. The total digestible matter also fell off from 2,113 pounds per acre when the plant was in bloom, to 1,754 pounds when the stage of ripe seed was reached. This evidence suggests that the farmer should cut his grasses for hay before they become too mature. Kentucky blue grass, or June grass, is one of the most nutritious and best pasture grasses. It grows extensively in the United States east of the Mississippi, though sparsely Figure 20.—Shorthorn cows on blue-grass pasture. Photograph by the author. in the Gulf states. It thrives especially on soils having a limestone foundation, and will not do so well elsewhere. No other grass is more relished for spring pasture by grazing animals. The roots spread out near the surface of the ground and form a beautiful sod. In moist weather and under fair conditions, the grass furnishes an abundance of fine leaves, supplying splendid pasture. During the sum- mer, many pastures dry up and look as though dead, but fall rains revive them, and they again become green and vigor- ous. In some sections, stock is pastured on the dead blue 102 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS grass of winter, not much other feed being given, and with very good satisfaction. Kentucky blue grass is not usually valued for hay, but is known universally as a valuable pas- ture grass. The hay from this grass contains about 5 per cent of digestible protein, and 52 per cent of digestible nutri- ents when grown under average conditions. Timothy is a standard grass commonly grown on the heavier soils of the North. It is frequently used for pasture, and makes a highly valued hay for horses. As a pasture grass, timothy is not the best. It does not stand trampling as well as some others, having small bulbs at the ground, with fine roots just beneath them, which are injured by heavy pasturing. This grass is generally somewhat coarse; but, if it is thickly seeded, more plants grow to the acre, and as a result they are finer and more palatable. Timothy cut and cured immediately after the pollen falls from the blossom makes better hay than that from an earlier or older cutting. Under usual conditions, this is an excellent hay for horses, but not so well suited to cattle and sheep. Care should be taken to see that timothy hay is bright and free from dust. Timothy in full bloom contains about 3.5 per cent of digest- ible protein and 51 per cent of total digestible nutrients. Millet is grown in a number of varieties. Hungarian grass is the smallest form, and reaches a height usually of about two feet, with a single, small, bristly head. This makes very fair hay, containing about 5 per cent digest- ible protein. German millet is somewhat larger and coarser than Hungarian, and has a larger head, though of the same type. Both these millets may be sown in early summer, and under favorable conditions of heat and moisture they make a very rapid growth and furnish an abundant hay crop in a short season, usually maturing late in August or in Septem- ber. Millets are not generally used in pastures. When heavily seeded they make very good hay for cattle and sheep. Caution should be used in feeding this hay to COARSE FEEDS, OR ROUGHAGE 103 horses, as it is thought by some to cause kidney trouble if fed very heavily. The millets may be grown over much of the country. Redtop is a fine grass in appearance, and makes an excel- lent pasture. It is quite common in certain sections North and South, but is not generally abundant in the cooler grass- growing sections, probably doing better on the damper low- lands than elsewhere. It makes a very palatable and nutritious hay, with a chemical composition quite similar to Kentucky blue grass. Orchard grass is common in some sections in the north- eastern parts of the United States. It grows in tussocks, or bunches, so that the turf from this plant is somewhat uneven; hence it is not liked so well as some other grasses for pasture. It starts up early in spring, and has a strong, rather coarse growth, with hardly as smooth a stem as timo- Wye Te emer Cuile ae i amen Canon nutritious as timothy, ranking just below it. It may be grown to advantage with red clover, and often is, in the Middle West. It is best suited for horses and cattle, though it should be cut as hay before getting very ripe. While differing in size and growth from Kentucky blue grass, it has a similar composition in digestible protein and total digestible nutrients. Brome grass in recent years has received considerable attention in the Northwest, especially in the Dakotas and in Western Canada. Here it has become a very important cultivated grass, occupying a position similar to that of timothy in the northern corn belt, but which grass it excels 104 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS in contents of protein and total digestible nutrients. At the North Dakota station this was found to be the best grass for permanent pasture. It has the double merit of being palat- able, and of being suited to semi-arid regions. Bermuda grass in the South is a standard pasture. This plant grows a perfect network of roots near the surface, and covers the ground as with a mat. It is a very nutritious pasture plant, and has a most valuable place in southern agriculture. It will stand heavy pasturing, and may be used from March to November. If grown on rich soil, very heavy cuttings of hay may be expected. Bermuda hay contains over 4 per cent of digestible protein and about 43 per cent of carbohydrates, excelling in protein any other common grass. Sudan grass is one of the new grasses of this country, being introduced in 1909. It is a tall grass, having stems of the size of a common lead pencil, and is related to the cultivated sorghums. It is especially suited to the southern states and irrigated regions of the Southwest. As an annual grass it will grow in Kansas, but can not survive the winter of the North. It seems destined to take the place of Johnson grass in the South, because it is fully as productive, and does not have the root-spreading habit. In the far South four cuttings of hay have been made in a season, yielding over seven tons of hay per acre, and a record of nearly nine and one half tons per acre is reported from Chico, California, these heavy yields coming from irrigation. In feeding value this plant ranks somewhat superior to timothy. Mixed grasses are frequently sown for pasture in the northern states, timothy, redtop, orchard grass, and clover forming the usual combination. Prairie grass is usually a mixture, and somewhat resembles timothy in feeding value. THE CEREALS AS FORAGE Indian corn is perhaps the most common cultivated plant in American agriculture. Except on the arid lands, it thrives COARSE FEEDS, OR ROUGHAGE 105 from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf to Canada. It is the universal crop of the Mississippi Valley, and furn- ishes more food from an acre of ground than any other com- mon crop. It is keenly relished by horses, cattle, and sheep, both in the green state and as dried roughage. No other plant in summer furnishes so much succulent feed as Indian corn. Grown somewhat thickly, the stalks are finer than common, and give a large yield of either green fodder or dried forage that is quite completely eaten by cattle and horses. In the North, corn produces a smaller plant than in the South, and gives a smaller yield of forage. Very large, heavy stalks, such as are frequently seen in the corn belt, are not Figure 23.—Cutting corn with a harvester which ties the corn in bundles. Photograph from Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. so desirable for feeding as those of more moderate size. About one third of the digestible food is found in the stalk, and two thirds in the ear. The complete cured plant and ear is commonly known as corn fodder, and after the ear is removed it is called corn stover. The dry stover, with the help of a little grain, is valuable for roughing stock through the winter, if much fattening is not desired. It is a bulky feed, and should not be fed heavily to animals from which much is expected. The plant contains the largest amount of nutriment when the kernels on the ear are beginning to glaze or harden, but it may be cut for feeding at any time 106 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS from the appearance of the silk to final ripening. Experi- ments have shown that an acre of field corn will yield a total of about three tons of digestible nutrients. Fodder left out in the shock during the winter is injured more or less in feed- ing value, losing in nutriment through mould and weather- ing. Oats do best in the cooler sections of the North, but so- called winter oats do well in the South. This crop may be pastured or cut and fed green when of sufficient maturity. In New England many farmers grow oats to cut and cure as hay when the grain is in the milk. Oat straw is one of the best, both in nutritive value and in being relished by stock. A combination of oats and Canada field peas, from equal amounts of seed sowed early in spring, makes a very desirable green crop for feeding in June and July. Rye has been much used both as fall and spring pasture. It mats up into a thick growth, and can be grazed with advantage to the grain yield if not pastured too long or too heavily, or it may be cut green and fed in the stable or feed lot. Many persons grow rye and turn stock on it to harvest it entirely. Hogs are frequently turned in, and they con- sume both stalk and grain. Dairy cattle should not be fed rye, except soon after milking, otherwise a strong and unpleasant odor in the plant will be likely to give a bad flavor to the milk. Rye straw is a very poor feed, having less than 1 per cent of protein and a great deal of fiber. Wheat and barley may be used after the same manner as rye, and have much the same value, though they are not pastured as advantageously as the rye. Barley makes a nice soft hay, and is relished by stock of all kinds. Of the cereal straws, barley ranks close to oats as one of the best. The sorghums represent a valuable group of forage plants, and are especially suited to the dry-farming lands of the West and Southwest. They will thrive under conditions of lack of moisture, when corn would not grow. There are COARSE FEEDS, OR ROUGHAGE 107 several varieties of sorghums, some of which are especially valuable for forage, notably Kafir, which has quite a leafy stem, and also yields well of seed. Some sorghums are valued for their sugar content, such as Amber cane, and this is more or less grown for feed in the upper Mississippi Val- ley. For forage, sorghum should be grown fairly close in rows wide enough for horse cultivation. The plant may be fed green or cut when the seed is ripe, and cured in shocks. THE LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND HAY Legumes, which include the clovers, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc., grow easily over much of the United States. They are valuable chiefly because of the large percentage of pro- tein they contain, and from the fact that they are highly relished by live stock. The lime in the legumes is also a valuable feature of these plants, for it is needed in building up the animal frame. The legumes have an extensive root development, and have the power of fixing the nitrogen of the air in the soil, through the agency of a kind of bacteria that are found especially in knots or nodules located on the roots. These nodules are rich in nitrogen, and, where legumes are grown, the land is increased in fertility and improved in texture. Red clover is extremely common in the Mississippi Val- ley. One hundred pounds of the dried hay contain about 714 pounds of digestible protein and 50 of total digestible nutrients. As a feed for cattle and shecp, it is regarded as excellent. Asa pasture it ranks high; and in the corn belt a combination of clover pasture in the late summer and fall, supplemented with ear corn, is a favorite ration for hogs. Brood sows and sheep do well on clover pasture. «1csac ced, .aeeen ne bs 5 Trot, rapid, straight, with long stride ............. 15 Total score.......... hte lg end Pee eae 100 | NAME: OR ANIMAL fis ones hastens Ha os Se BREED 3 w0dines S.h0040 ENGI (connotea OWNBR: 2 as naan dake 1A en ennui nt cra acd nttvens tore annasn ke eee ahah eana ALS aa ie State SCORED | BY cosh ctvcessct-c-sovanscince Seg eee es Gre Maes TOAD red content Ae nao arene ee Ge The body of the carriage horse will appear deep but not thick, and will at its best have a sleek, well-rounded appear- ance. By standing off at one side, the judge will get a bet- ter view of proportions, and the fullness of chest, and depth ‘of both front and hind flanks will be easily seen. A view from squarely in front will show the prominence of breast, 186 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS and the thickness and depth of body below the placing of neck, which should be smoothly blended into the body. There is quite a good deal of variation in the withers of driv- ing horses. They should not be very sharp, but fairly well muscled and not appear too prominent. Notice whether the back is strong and well carried, with the loins broad and not much depressed below the level of the croup. The well- turned carriage horse will show a fullness of body from various points of view. The greater speed he is capable of making, the more muscular and angular he will appear. This point is illustrated by comparing a carriage horse and a working trotter, each being about the same size, but used for a different purpose. The hind quarters of the carriage horse show power. As one stands at one side, the length of croup and its posi- tion are easily seen. A long, strong, high rather than low croup is desired, with the tail having a free, easy, and some- what high carriage. The length from the hips to the point of the hocks should be considerable. The distance from the hind flank diagonally across to the setting on of the tail also should be comparatively long. As one stands behind, one should be able to observe some thickness below the tail, where the hind legs merge together into the thick, muscular quarters. A driving horse is not likely to be too thick in the quarters. As one views the horse from behind, the legs should reach back, with the hocks separated about four inches, and the lower thighs showing a strong muscular development from both rear and side views. At the stifle joint, where the upper and lower thigh connect, fullness rather than depression should occur. The hocks should be inspected from the front, at one side, and from behind. It is important that they be clean, well- turned, and straight. Careful examination should be made of this part, for the hocks require much study. The occur- rence of bone and bog spavins here, and often a puffy condi- JUDGING THE HORSEKH 187 tion that is objectionable, may escape notice. A horse with weak or diseased hocks is a very undesirable animal to own. The legs of the horse must be inspected from in front and from one side. A true carriage, in any event, is impor- tant, Standing in front enables one to see the straightness of limb, and in a way that-.shows the relation of each leg to its mate. From this view we judge whether the ankles will interfere when the horse is in motion. Thus we see if a true gait is possible. From one side we note the position of the legs, to determine balance of action. If front and hind legs are tucked too much beneath the body, they are liable to come in contact with each other when in rapid action. If there is too much stretch and separation between the limbs in front and behind, then the action will lack power. In a natural pose at rest, the front legs will incline very slightly under the body, with the hind legs correspondingly extended behind. -The picture on page 171, illustrates the correct position. A foot inspection of the horse begins with the foot at rest and in a natural position. Thus one is able to note the form, the placing on the ground, shape of heel, and the upper condition of foot, with its relation to the pastern and to the fetlock joint. The foot, however, should be examined on its under side, and so must be raised for inspection. The fore foot is usually started easily by running the hand near- est the horse down the shoulder and arm to the back of the cannon, and pressing on the tendons with the ends of the fingers, raising the leg at the same time, using the other hand to catch hold of the hoof as it is raised by the horse. With one hand the hoof may be easily held, while with the other any accumulated material under the foot may be re- moved by the use of a small pick of some sort. One may then easily examine the lower part of the foot. The hind foot is examined somewhat differently. If wishing to inspect the left hind foot, the left hand is placed on the croup and 188 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS quietly slipped down over the thigh to the muscle just above the hock, where a firm pressure with the fingers is given. At the same time the right hand is placed upon the pastern, and the foot and leg firmly but quietly raised upward and backward, reaching away from the body. The hoof is thus brought in front of the examiner, with its lower surface facing to the rear, and at about knee height. No great effort should be made in raising the feet, for the horse will easily support himself on his three other limbs. Young horses re- Figure 62.—Showing correct method of holding front foot for examination. Photograph by the author. quire more patience than old ones in foot examination; but, after being shod a few times, a horse of good disposition may not be expected to give trouble. It is wise to move with care about the hind legs, especially directly behind, to avoid the chance of a kick. The study of action in the carriage horse is most im- portant. His market value largely depends upon his per- fection of movement. All carriage horses, and race horses JUDGING THE HORSE 189 in particular, are so shod as to regulate their action, if used by men who know the relation of form and weight of shoe to foot and leg movement. A fancy driver for a heavy carriage should show a snappy, stylish action, with the knees and hocks carried rather high and strong. A roadster or light race horse will show a longer, more powerful yet plainer gait, with not so high or short movement. When action is being inspected, the horse should first be led at a walk in a direct line toward and then away from the judge, who should care- fully note the trueness of movement of the limbs and the way the feet are carried. Next the horse should pass by at a walk, so that the inspection may be made from one side, to observe the free- dom of movement and flexing of the knees and hocks. The next step will be to require the horse to go and come at a gait faster than a walk, the judge assuming the same positions as before while the walking gait Tgue6e;—Shovias coroc: pestis fog bold was being studied. See- staph by the author. ing the horse at the walk and trot, or other rapid movement, will enable him to draw a conclusion as to the merits of the gait. As 20 points are credited to the action of the carriage horse on the score card, it may be seen that this feature is highly valued. Persons differ in their appreciation of action, and some are naturally much better judges than others. I, however, one will study the action from these three points of view, one will soon see how horses differ in this regard. 190 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS POINTS IN JUDGING DRAFT HORSES The method of judging the draft horse is essentially the same as that applied to the carriage horse. The purpose of the true draft horse, however, is different, and one must have in mind at all times draftiness and conformation. The following score card on page 192 is arranged for a study of the heavy type of horse, such as the Percheron, for example. [ Figure 64.—An example of a long, powerful stride in a light harness horsc. Notice but one foot is touching the ground. The general appearance of the draft horse is massive, exhibiting great power in drawing a load. Weight and con- formation, therefore, are two very important qualities neces- sary in draft form. The size must be large, and the nearer the weight to 1,800 or 2,000 pounds the better. Such a weight is associated with considerable height, and 1614 to 17 hands will measure the height of many of these big horses. An examination from any point of view will show this horse to be deep and thick, both at the ends and in the middle, with a compact, powerful body set on rather short legs. In the following part of this chapter are some details the stu- dent should keep in mind in this examination. JUDGING THE HORSE 191 Figure 65.—Judging horses. Study the action as the horse comes toward you, standing directly in front. Photograph from Purdue University. Figure 66.— Judging horses. Study the action as the horse leaves you, stand- ing directly behind. Photograph from Purdue University. Figure 67.—Judging horses. As the horse goes by at one side, note the knee and hock action. Photograph from Purdue University. 192 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS DRAFT HORSE SCORE CARD d Stu- Cor- Perfect dent’s | rected Scale of Points Scare score | score GENERAL APPEARANCE: Total points, 13. Nore HEIGHT. WEIN tics. 05 1600 Ibs., or more \ Form, low set, ssive in PrOpoOrtiony Sogn ea naeg G QuaLiry, showing refinement in head, clean bone and joints, fine skinvand hair. . 5 cis dacs bate bes es HEAD AND NECK: ‘Total points, 7. Heap: lean, medium size; forehead broad; eyes bright prominent, nostrils large; lips even; muzzle a ears medium size and well carrie sd; disposi- tion active and pleasant..................0405 a Neck, strongly muscled, carried high, not thick at Chat: SECT irises an aad Lictite a ane ok 2 FORE QUARTERS: Total points, 24. SHOULDERS, sloping, smooth, well set in back....... 2) Arms, short and wide; forearm, long, widely muscular 3 KNEES, wide in front, straight, deep through........ 2 > Cannons, short, inclined to be flat, lean........... FETLocgs, wide, straight; pasterns ‘oblique, strong. Feet, large, round, uniform; horn dense; frog large; heel wiclenin spine wshtek nme hae ast ane) oe AR 8 Leas, short, and carried in good form 4 BODY: Total points, 9. Cuest, deep, wide, low Back, ‘broad, short, level; ribs long, well sprung; loin WIGS, SCRON G4. 5 5.42 eh Gitea Aeoue gcastinia a aD areleme ees 6 UNDEREINE, Hanks: low. oo aide scssintedeacsraae sane 1 HIND QUARTERS: Total points, 37. TPS ISMOO this WAG, A> l exsene!eeste eek pits Das eh Kec 2 Crovp, long, level, wide; tail attached high........ 4 6 Tuicas, long, muscular; quarters heavily muscled; lower thighs wide, strong Hocks, wide, deep, clean cut, straight, we 8 Cannons, short, wide, strong : 2, Fetiocks, wide, straight; pasterns oblique, strong... 3 Psst, large, round, uniform; horn dense; frog large; heel wide nrente iaricaacann ned Aides arsine nae eee ae | Leas, short, carried in good form.................. Sia ACTION: Total points, 10. | Wann true; elastic, quick: <5 is sidus oe da heen pd , 6 TROT, active for weight, FORMATS 4g suckash 4d goed ad | 4 | Total score... eaten TS : | 100 | INGAS OE OF ANTMATE So Soa ad fae aia f-< REE Dig eure secre ate AGH. Gk s ONIN Rs tice age taht aes ig es ie cso Rey a Stated ae gue camanee eye eae i AAA estene a CONE D eB YCe. ox Aidaypeeasarnyaooneeseato eens sara eee ae DATE Miles parce Nine Bates eons The head and neck show considerable size, without the delicate chiseling of head of the lighter horse. The neck is heavily muscled and will not impress one as having as much length as seen in the carriage horse. The shoulders of the draft horse are usually less sloping than those of the lighter type, and are not laid back in quite as smoothly. The slower, more moderate draft action is associated with this upright form of shoulder. JUDGING THE HORSE 193 The cannon bone of the draft horse tends to be some- what thick and round in the front leg, and flat and deep in the hind leg. The leg at this point lacks the refinement so often seen in the carriage horse. Emphasis should be placed on this bone’s being short, comparatively flat, and deep from front to rear. A good big draft horse with plenty of bone may measure 10 inches around the front cannon. The pasterns of the draft horse often appear short and rather erect. To give the easiest movement, they should have fair length, and a slope of about 45 degrees. Some draft breeds have a longer pastern than others, as, for example, the Clydesdale, which is noted for length and springy character in this respect. A short, stubby pastern is very undesirable, and goes with a hard gait that pun- ishes the feet and causes trouble. The feet of the draft horse must show considerable size. The fore feet in particular should not look too small in proportion to the rest of the body, and it is well to emphasize the quality of the hoof. The feet of horses of this Pgure iS. jTudging the horse. “An type, especially those in front, — &@Ph by the author. are subject to severe strain, due to the great weight placed on them and the hard work on the road. This part should be most carefully examined. The old English saying, ‘No feet, no horse,” has no greater application than with the drafter. The hind quarters of the draft horse especially signify power. Great length and breadth of the croup, therefore, provide for thick, powerful muscles. As one looks at this part, one should be impressed with the power there avail- 7 194 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS able. A common feature of the draft horse at this point is steepness of croup. This is easily seen whether one stands at one side or looks from behind. We do not have much information on the difference in power between horses with steep croups and those having them more level, but it is generally agreed that the most beautiful conformation goes with the more level condition. The greater the length and the more heavy the muscling from the hips to the hock, the more powerful will be the croup conformation. The legs of the drafter should not appear too wide apart at either hock or knee. Too much spread is a greater indication of weakness than is closeness. The limbs should come down in a well- placed position, to stand slightly under each corner of the body, as it were. In viewing the horse from in front, one is inclined to look for too great width, such as goes with a stiff or clumsy gait. The action of the draft horse is studied in the same way as with the driver. More value, how- ever, is in this case given to the eae tea osing the horse. walk than to a faster gait. A Photograph: py: thecauthor. heavy draft horse is rarely re- quired to move faster than a walk. He should have a quick walk, however, and be able to move four miles an hour in a free, easy manner. Many heavy horses tend to carry the feet to one side somewhat when in motion, and, in the language of the horse market, “paddle” or “wing.” This tendency is in a measure due to the straight, open- topped shoulder, and while such action is not defective, it is not as smooth and attractive as when the feet are properly JUDGING THE HORSE 195 carried backward, with no side twist. When watching the horse in action, look for a strong, only moderately high knee and hock movement, but do not look for much speed. The heavy horse, however, inclines to drag his feet, a point the judge should carefully note. As one stands behind one should clearly see the glisten of the shoe as the foot is raised. There are as wide extremes in action among draft as among carriage horses, but not so much should be expected from the former as the latter. The horse with heavy body very naturally is unable to move with the lightness of step and activity shown by the horse that has no such weight to carry. The opportunities to study horses are frequent, either in town or country. If one will notice the horses that are constant- ly passing, much infor- mation of value will re- ward the observation. Comparisons may be re- peatedly made, for two- horse teams always fur- nish such a chance, while in many public places two or more horses are often to be seen standing side by side, interesting subjects for comparison. In every community will be found excellent horses Figure 70.—Judging horses. A _ powerful draft conformation from behind. The of their class that are well camera being nearer the hind legs than the es oho (nee eas Ses Bae long and out of proportion. otogra fro fed and cared for. The eye) ee graph from owners of such _ horses usually take a just pride in them, and are always pleased to show them to those who are interested. HODOMNOoBOwhe ee = mw Nw n i o A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS AS A JUDGE OF HORSES, WHAT . Features are given the most credit in the carriage horse score card? . Kind of head and neck should the carriage horse have? Is the relationship of body form to carriage horse type? Is the best method of inspecting the legs? . Manner of front foot examination is desirable? Kind of action will be shown by a fancy driver? . Important differences exist in carriage and draft-horse score cards? . Size is desirable in the draft horse? . Slope should the pastern of the draft horse have, and why? . Description can you give of the croup of the draft horse? . Importance should be given draft horse action? FOR OUTSIDE OBSERVATION AND STUDY . Make or get some score cards, and score a few of the horses at home or of the neighbors. . Get up a small horse show among the neighbors and have a judging contest. Interest the local horsemen. . Learn, if possible, who owns the best type of stallion in the community. Why is he best? . Report on the horse judging at some fair, if you have opportunity. CHAPTER XVIII FEEDING THE HORSE The use of the horse, in spite of the automobile, is very general in both town and country. He is suited to do many things for which the motor is not fitted. He is a more economical producer of power in short hauls than is the motor, and he is as necessary as ever on the hill farms and where small areas are cultivated. According to the 1920 census we had in the United States some 20 million horses and over 5 million mules. These horses had a farm value of $2,000,000,000, and the mules were valued at half a billion dollars, so we may see that the production of the horse in America is a great industry. Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, Kan- sas, and Texas in 1920 were the leading horse-producing states, and in the order given, with Iowa having about a million and a third. Texas is the leading mule-producing state, with Georgia, Missouri, and Tennessee ranking after. The use of the mule is steadily growing in favor in the United States. The feeding of so many horses and mules involves great expense, and, to be intelligently done, requires careful study of the requirements of each animal. The work of the horse and what he can accomplish de- pends upon his weight, his muscular development, and his endurance. What is known as horse-power, is the power necessary to raise 33,000 pounds at the rate of one foot a minute against gravity. The real measure of horse-power is based on the unit of a foot-pound, shown in the power manifested in raising a pound one foot. The horse works in different ways, no matter what his type, weight or size. These various forms of work are well expressed as follows by Henry and Morrison:* *Foeds and Feeding, 1917. 197 198 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS “His work usually consists of a more or less complex combination of the following simple kinds: “(1) Locomotion, or traveling along a level course without — a load; “(2) Raising the body, with or without a load, against the force of gravity in ascending a grade; “(3) Carrying a load, draft, or hauling a load. “A horse drawing a load up a hill combines all these types. He is (1) advancing and at the same time (2) rais- ing his body. Likewise, he is (3) carrying the harness and (4) hauling the load. In descending the hill, the horse will be called upon to perform even a fifth type of labor, bracing himself to prevent too rapid a descent.” Feeding standards for the horse have been in use fcr a long time, and, on the basis of what has already been stated, the necessity for different standards is very apparent. Here weight and work are the two vital factors. The following is the modified Wolff-Lehmann standard for horses, as given by Henry and Morrison.* FEEDING STANDARDS FOR HORSES Required per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight Condition of Dry Digestible |Total digest-| Nutritive work matter [crude proteinjible nutrients ratio Tle: 13-18 lbs. 0.8-1.0 Ib. 7.0-9.0 lbs. 8.0-9.0 Light.____. ..| 15-22 “ 1.1-1.4 “ | 10.0-13.1 “ 8.0-8.5 Medium..........| 16-24 “ 141.7 “ | 12.8-15.6 “ 7.8-8.3 Heavy.............|_ 18-26 “ 2.0-2.2 “ | 15.9-19.5 “ 7.0-8.0 It is interesting to note in this standard, that a horse at heavy work requires from 5 to 8 pounds more dry matter and from 8.9 to 10.5 pounds more total digestible solids than one that is idle. A substantial increase in work) of a permanent nature should be accompanied by a marked in- crease in the protein and total digestible nutrients fed, with a narrowing of the nutritive ratio. The preparation of the feed for a horse is important. The horse has a comparatively small stomach, and so, as his *Feeds and Feeding. 1917 FEEDING THE HORSE 199 work increases, concentrates should more or less replace roughage. Food is prepared in several ways. Dry rough- age is often chaffed, that is, cut or shredded. Chaffing re- duces the work of the horse for the reason that the more the roughage is torn to pieces by mechanical means, the less labor will be required of the horse in breaking it up. Men who care for horses often make hay or straw more palatable by chaffing, then mixing with concentrates, and dampening the mass with a light sprinkling of water. Thus prepared, more roughage is consumed than would be the case other- wise, and the sprinkling reduces the dust, which is in- jurious to horses. The grinding of grain for horses is not necessary, unless in the case of old animals with poor teeth. Whole grain is appetizing to the horse, he grinds and breaks it up easily with his teeth, and it digests efficiently as thus fed. Crush- ing grain may be desirable, and the author has known of city stables where oats were run through a mill and crushed, and as thus fed gave better returns,in the opinion of the management, than were secured from oats fed whole. Cook- ing of feed has been resorted to by horsemen in the past, more especially in Europe, but this process affects the digest- ibility of the proteids, so the practice is undesirable. What is known as a bran mash, that is, wetting bran with hot water to make a thick, fairly moist feed, is practiced. If fed at regular periods, as, for example, once a week, it has a cooling, laxative effect. Bran mash is relished by horses, and is popular as an occasional feed. The soaking of feed may sometimes be desirable, especially in spring when feed- ing very hard, dry corn or barley. As a rule, it is best that the horse should be watered frequently. Drinking a little at a time, is better than having too much water at greater intervals, especially if an animal is overheated. The air temperature and kind of food will affect the amount of water drunk, but about a 200 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS gallon a day for each 100 pounds of live weight may be given under fair conditions. The feeds most desirable for horses vary according to condition of age, work, and locality. Oats in the grain is the favorite food for horses both in America and Europe. There is no likelihood of danger from overeating oats, they are much relished, and from them the horseman looks for greater activity than from most feeds. Dry ear corn is popular in the corn-growing sections, especially in the South and Central West, where hundreds of thousands of horses see no other kind of grain. Experiments at the Ohio sta- tion, conducted by Prof. Carmichael, show no important difference in the feeding value of corn and oats, as fed work horses under equal conditions. Barley is fed horses in some parts of America, Europe, and northern Africa, and meets with favor. Wheat and rye are too pasty for satisfactory horse feed. Wheat bran has been fed mixed with oats and corn, and gives good results. Corn meal is too heavy for a horse feed, unless mixed with bran, oats or chaffed hay, when it will do very well. What is known as chop feed for horses in some sections consists of varying proportions of oats and cracked or crushed corn, the percentage of one to the other depending upon the value of each feed in the market. As a rule, two thirds oats and one third corn isa good proportion. Linseed meal is a most excellent feed to be given in small amount once daily, as, for example, a half pound a day. This is a fine appetizer, and tends to make the skin mellow and the hair sleek and glossy. Condition powders or prepared condimental stock foods are not to be recommended. ‘The linseed meal will largely serve the same purpose and in fact is a popular conditioner. Of all the dry roughages, timothy hay in the East is the leading favorite. It is usually free from dust and is relished by the horse. Any well cured, sweet grass, how- ever, will usually prove satisfactory horse roughage. Good FEEDING THE HORSE 201 dry corn stover is excellent horse feed. Alfalfa hay or red clover are rich in protein and lime, and may be fed to advan- tage when care is used. Dust must be avoided, and the leaves should be free of mildew or mould. A combination of alfalfa or clover with corn makes nearly a balanced ration for the work horse. There is considerable difference of opinion among American horsemen as to the suitability of these feeds for horses, but in France alfalfa has long been extensively fed to horses, while in the western United States it has been shown to be an excellent roughage for horses when well cured. Corn silage may be safely fed to horses in limited amounts, but it is important that it be bright and well cured, free of all mouldy matter; otherwise serious results may occur. Horses do well on pasture, especially of mixed grasses or of some sort of blue grass, of which Ken- tucky blue is the more common sort. Feeding the brood mare. It is important to keep the brood mare in good condition. She should be kept at rea- sonably steady work, and fed so as not to lose in weight or appear thin and run-down prior to foaling. She may be fed as any work horse might be, and kept in good working order. If used for breeding purposes only, the brood mares are, as a rule, run on pasture for at least half the year, and are fed little grain if the grass is good, otherwise special feed is also given. A light feed of concentrates, especially oats or bran, is recommended. Only a light ration of these con- centrates should be given just before foaling. The stall for foaling should be very clean and disinfected. At foaling time. but a light mash should be given, to be followed by grain in small amount. If all goes well, the mare may gradually go on to regular full feed, and return to work in ten days or so. As the colt grows, the need for increasing the feed of the mare will become apparent. If she is a good mother, and nurses the colt well, furnishing plenty of milk, she will need much more good food than she would other- 202 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS wise. If one has some succulent feed, such as roots or silage, it will prove very good for the mare. The following are two good rations for a brood mare at work: (1) Corn 6 parts, oats 4, bran 4, timothy or prairie hay as desired. (2) Corn 6 parts, bran 3, alfalfa hay or clover as desired. Feeding the foal. For the first three or four weeks the foal will depend upon the mother’s milk for food. When about three weeks old, Figure 71.—A horse ration. (22) 60 Ibs. corn, (26) 40 } ] ] Ibs. oats, (27) 40 lbs. bran. Photograph by the it will begin to author. nibble grain from the mother’s feed box, if convenient. Then arrange- ments should be made to let the colt feed by itself. The mare may be tied, and a small feed box in which a little oatmeal is placed be fixed convenient to the colt. In a week or so some bran may be added to this. When about two months old the foal may receive a mixture of oats and bran in equal parts by weight. When in Figure 72.—Another horse ration. (26) corn, 60 lbs.; (27) bran, 30 lbs. Photograph by the author. pasture a small pen should be arranged in which the colt may be fed grain by itself. A common arrangement is to fence off with the lower rail high enough for the colt to pass under, but too low for the mare. At three months a mixture of equal parts FEEDING THE HORSE 203 of cracked corn, crushed oats, and bran will be relished, to which may be added a small portion of oil meal, if desired. Bright, sweet, leafy clover or alfalfa hay in season should also be available to the foal, or, if these can not be supplied, then hay of fine quality is next best. The colt in its younger days is kept close to the mare, and nurses as often as desired. It is not a wise plan, how- ever, to drive the mare and foal to town and back on hot days or to cause unnecessary excitement for either. Also, the foal should not nurse the mother while she is heated and excited, else indigestion will be likely to occur. Foals are usually weaned at from four to six months of age, but the time of weaning depends on the amount of milk given by the mare and the condition of mother and colt. As a rule, the colt should nurse as long as there is an abundant supply of milk, for no other food can equal the mother’s milk. Feeding growing horses. After weaning it is important to keep the colt growing and building up a strong frame and body. Muscle-making foods, therefore, are what are needed, such as legumes, hays, and oats, bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal, and bean meal. Plenty of good roughage should be fed along with a small feed of grain. At the Pennsylvania station Cochel and Severson fed some draft colts for a year and a half, during which time they made excellent development. The first winter the colts had a feed of 5 pounds of grain daily, in 2 feeds, consisting of 5 parts shelled corn, 3 parts oats, 2 parts wheat bran and 1 part linseed meal. At the end of 3 months this ration was increased to 714 pounds perday. Silage and hay were also fed these colts. The second winter the grain consisted of shelled corn 6 parts, oats 2, and bran and linseed meal 1 part each. Emphasis is placed on the value of pasturage, and the wisdom of feeding all the grain the colts will con- sume when on pasture. Prof. J. L. Edmonds, of the Illinois station, who has conducted extensive experiments in feeding 204 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS horses, in reporting on feeding growing fillies, makes the following pertinent. statement relative to feeding growing colts on Mississippi valley farms:* “Alfalfa hay fed with corn and oats gave results of a character which indicates that there is little or no need of feeding purchased mill feeds to growing horses when alfalfa can be grownon thefarm. When alfalfa hay is the roughage used, a considerable proportion of the grain ration may safely be corn. In this experiment the proportion was one half by weight.” Feeding the work horse. Horses engaged in draft work should be fed a limited amount of roughage and sufficient concentrates to meet all needs. Of course the amount to be fed will depend upon the size of the horse and the work he is doing. It is recommended to feed from two to three pounds of food for each 100 pounds live weight, the amount of concentrates ranging from one half to two thirds of the total, according to the severity of the work. Hard working, farm or dray horses are usually fed roughage at morning and night, with concentrates at noon. The heaviest feed should be given at night, because the horse is then having his most restful period during 24 hours, and so should eat and digest his food to best advantage. Standard foods, common to the locality, and suited to horses, should be used. Oats meet with most favor in the stables of drayage com- panies, while on the farms of the South and Central West, corn is very generally used, supplemented in many cases with oats and a weekly bran mash. In reporting on feed- ing work horses at the Kansas station, t Dr. C. W. McCamp- hell states that the following daily rations were exceptionally well adapted for horses at hard work that weighed about 1,150 pounds: (1) Oats 4 Ibs., corn 6 Ibs., bran 4 Ibs., timothy hay 12 Ibs. (2) Corn 6 lbs., bran 3 Ibs., linseed meal 1 Ib., prairie hay 14 Ibs. (3) Oats 2 Ibs., corn 8 lbs., alfalfa hay 10 lbs. Fattening horses. In some sections of the country, especially in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, thin horses, *Bulletin 192, Illinois Agr. Exp. Station. Feeding Pure-Bred Draft Fillies {Bulletin 186 Kansas Agr. Exp. Station, 1912. FEEDING THE HORSE 205 three to six years old of draft type, are bought and fattened by men who make a specialty of that business. Large num- bers of such horses have been fed in northern Ohio, and then shipped to New York, Boston, and other eastern markets. These horses are usually placed in common stalls in the fall, and fed for about 100 days for the spring market. They are usually fed corn and oats heavily. They will often con- sume 2 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds live weight. When first put on feed fattened horses are given bran for a few days to cool them off and clean them out, after which they are put on a fattening ration of corn, oats, and bran and clover hay. When on full feed, a big draft horse will eat 10 or 12 good-sized ears of corn 3 times a day, 3 quarts of oats each morning and night, and 2 or 3 pounds of bran at noon. Horses thus fed are given very little if any exer- cise, and gain in weight about 3 pounds a day. Watering the horse may be done at any time when he is not too warm, and even then a small amount may be Figure 72.—The noonday drink. From a Scotch photograph, 206 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS allowed. It has been thought by some that horses should always be watered before rather than after feeding. Experi- ments have shown, however, that it really makes no differ- ence. It is best to water frequently, so that the horse will not drink too much at one time. It is a good plan to water before feeding, and then again in two or three hours, if the horse is at regular work. ‘The one time at which a horse requires and appreciates a drink most,’”’ writes Dr. Carl W. Gay,* “yet is offered it least frequently, is the last thing at night, after having consumed his full allowance of roughage, and being ready to lie down to sleep. Every horse having worked through the day should be allowed an opportunity to drink at this time.” Ordinarily water does not need to be warmed, but in winter in the colder North it is desir- able to give water that has been warmed by a tank heater and is not icy cold. The amount of water a horse will drink will depend upon the temperature of the air, on his work, and food. A horse fed alfalfa will drink more than one fed timothy, and, if the food is succulent, such as silage or pas- ture, the amount of water is greatly reduced. Kellner re- portst that a horse will drink for each pound of dry matter in its food from 4.5 to 6.5 pounds of water. Water is im- portant in digestion, because it is the medium by which the food is softened, broken up, and moved through the digestive tract. As a part of the blood, water carries the nutrients throughout the entire body. Salting the horse should be provided for, as he will eat a small amount of salt with relish. Salt is thought to aid digestion, and it makes palatable some feeding stuffs. Too much salt, however, stimulates drinking water in excess, and so may injure the digestive processes. Under ordi- nary conditions a work horse might eat an ounce or two a day to advantage. “Lick stones,’ or pressed cakes of salt have been largely sold in the past to men keeping ex- *Productive Horse Husbandry, 1914, p. 243. {The Scientific Feeding of Animals, By O. Kellner, 1910. FEEDING THE HORSE 207 tensive stables of horses. These are placed in the manger subject to the use of the horse at all times. THINGS THE HORSEMAN SHOULD KNOW . Where the horse industry is most prominent in America. What is meant by horse-power. The relationship of the ration to work performed. Why some foods are better for horses than others. The special value of linseed meal for horses. How to feed the foal. What feed to use to secure the best growth. How much concentrates should be fed the work horse. . When the horse should be given water. . If salt is necessary for the horse. MAKE A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON HORSE FEEDING ABOUT HOME 11. How many horses are there to the square mile in the county in which you live? Of what breeds or types are they? 12. Ascertain how many persons out of fifty in your section feed on the basis of the feeding standard. 13. What commercial feeds for horses are shipped in? 14. Can you report on any fattening of draft horses? 15. Study the methods men follow in giving their horses drink. 16. Report on the salting of horses among your farmer friends. DOWNS OR oo to = CHAPTER XIX THE CARE OF HORSES Many things might be written regarding the care of horses, because the subject is a very broad one and covers various items of interest and importance; but only a few of the more important features of management will be con- sidered in the limited space here available. Regularity in the care of the horse is very important. Under ordinary conditions when not on pasture he should be fed at the same hour. It is customary to feed three times daily at regular hours, and water before going to work and again upon return. Grooming also should be done at much the same time each day. Where daily exercise is necessary, as in the case of the stallion and horses not at work, it will be well to give this at regular periods. No animal on the farm adjusts itself to regular habits to more advantage than the horse. The grooming of the horse is quite necessary if kept in the stable, although he always responds to this process. Dust and dirt on the skin tend to close up the pores, and thus to a certain extent affect the health and disposition of the animal. Body waste is thrown off in sweating, and a good brushing will remove this, stimulate the skin, and leave the pores open and in better condition to perform their work. If a horse is wet from sweat, it is a good plan to first rub him off with a half round scraper, following with a thorough rubbing with handfuls of dry straw. This rub leaves a horse in good condition for a final brushing. A hard metal currycomb is not a good tool for a horse, especially on his legs and more sensitive parts. It is better to brush him well with a good fiber or hair brush, although a dull curry- 208 THE CARE OF HORSES 209 comb may be used on the body. In connection with the grooming work, one should use a strong comb and brush for putting mane and tail in order. A heavy sponge is always useful for sponging off, and a strong linen towel makes a most useful dust cloth for polishing up the coat of hair. To clean out the hoofs, one may use a pick of some sort, such as a hay hook, for example. Clipping the horse is necessary to remove the long hair in the spring, after it has begun to shed. Formerly this was done with hand clippers, but it is now usually performed with clippers propelled by machinery. Clipping is common- Figure 74.—Brushing off the brood mare. Photograph by the author. ly done to get rid of the hairs which become annoying unless clipped, shedding off as they do by degrees, and more or less covering the clothing of persons driving. Vigorous brushing is a help, but long, thick hair had best be removed by the clippers. The horse feels better for it, there is less danger with a wet coat of his taking cold, and the obnox- ious loose hair is done away with. The long hairs within the outer ear, which serve to keep out insects, should not be cut off. It is also desirable to leave the hair on the legs below knee and hock, for this gives protection to the 210 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS skin. If desired, clipping may be done in the fall, thus doing away with the necessity of this operation in spring. Blanketing the horse is customary in winter in cold cli- mates when the animal is unduly exposed. Special made horse blankets are used in cold stables, although these should not be necessary where the building is properly ven- tilated and drafts do not occur. Humane societies require the blanketing of horses in some localities, when exposed on the streets. A blanket keeps the coat of hair more sleek than when it is not used. In summer very light, durable blankets or nets are frequently used to give animals protec- tion from flies. The man who blankets his horse to give protection from either cold or flies is no doubt kindly of nature and seeks to make his animals comfortable. The care of the feet of the horse is of much importance. The foot of the horse is discussed on page 167. Its care is another matter. The hoofs should have a uniform de- velopment, and not lose their shape. Long toes, lack of uniformity of length of hoof on opposite sides, and low flat heels,—any one of these result in defective feet and improper gait. The hoof should be kept trimmed so as to secure a natural, uniform shape, with strong walls. The frog should never be cut, only the tag ends trimmed off, so that it may serve as a buffer when the foot hits the ground. The bars should not be cut down, and the sole made concave, a process which weakens the foot and narrows the heel, giving a more or less contracted foot. It is desirable to clean out each hoof with a pick every day and brush out all foreign matter. If a horse stands on foul soil or manure, a disease called thrush may develop in the frog, and lameness result. Thrush appears as a dark colored pus of foul odor in the cleft of the frog, which presents a somewhat open appearance when it should be dry and close. For treatment the loose parts of the frog should be trimmed away, and the foot well cleaned and sterilized, after which copper sulphate may be packed THE CARE OF HORSES 211 in the crevices of the foot. An absolutely clean, dry stall is a necessity for healthy, good feet. Sometimes the feet become too dry and brittle, in which case it is a good plan to soak them for a few hours at a time in a shallow pan or trough. Capable horsemen, who watch the feet of their horses carefully, occasionally rub neats-foot or sweet oil on the hoofs, which prevents their becoming too dry. The horse should be kept properly shod, and the feet inspected from time to time to note the condition of the shoes and see that they do not become loose. The treatment of sores and wounds on the horse is a comparatively simple matter. A first requirement is cleanli- ness. In general a sore or wound should first be bathed with pure sterilized warm water. A wound or cut should be disinfected with some easily-obtained, healing solution. Common coal-tar sheep dip, or creolin, diluted 50 times, is a popular disinfectant. A three per cent solution of carbolic acid in soft water is also recommended for this purpose. Dr. Hadley states* that ‘bandages or other dressings must be changed as soon as they become saturated with the wound secretions. At this time the wound is cleaned with an anti- septic solution. The surface of the wound should be sopped instead of rubbed, to avoid irritation and injury to the newly formed granulation tissue. A dusting powder, com- posed of iodoform or boric acid, or equal parts of iodoform, boric acid, and tannic acid, may be sifted on the wound to check secretions and promote healing. If pus has a tend- ency to collect in pockets, these should be swabbed out daily or opened so as to allow free drainage.’”’ Tincture of iodine, as prepared by a druggist for bruises and wounds, is one of the most valuable healing and antiseptic remedies available. Where the harness rubs and tends to produce sores, as on the shoulders and neck, the pressure on the bruised part should be relieved. It is also a good plan to wash the shoulders, neck and withers morning and night with salt *The Horse in Health and Disease, 1915. 212 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS water, using a tablespoonful of salt to a quart of water. In the case of serious sores or wounds the wisest policy will be to secure the services of a competent veterinarian for treat- ment if the expense incurred is not too great. The sanitation of the horse stable is of much importance. In those stables where manure accumulates, and the floor is moist, a strong smell of ammonia is very common. Here we find an unsanitary condition, from which results a more or less unhealthy condition of the feet. The stall should be kept clean, the manure removed each day, and dry bedding of some form supplied. Bright straw or shavings are popu- lar materials for bedding, and readily absorb moisture under- foot. Ventilation is especially important in the horse stable. The temperature of the horse stable should be cool rather than warm. Captain Hayes, a noted authority on horses, manne on the subject of the temperature of the stable, suys:* “T have had many guiueranities in Russia for comparing therelative healthiness, during very cold weather, of hot stables and of those kept ata natural temperature. In large towns in Russia the practice through- out the winter is to have stables at a temperature of from 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit, the difference between the temperature inside and outside being not infrequently over 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Consequently, influenza, inflammation of the eyes, and diseases of the organs of breath- ing, especially roaring among big horses, are common in these abodes. In the Russian cavalry remount depots. an entirely different course is pursued; for the stables at these places are immensely roomy, very lofty, and are ventilated so freely and kept so clean, that even in the early mornings, before the horses are taken out, the air inside is free from any suspicion of closeness. It is instructive to note that the horses kept in them maintain their health during the extremely cold winter in the same excellent manner they do in summer.” The breaking and training of the colt is a most important feature of management. A few rules relating to this process is all that can be offered here. Colts differ widely in tem- perament and disposition, and each one is a problem in it- self. It is a good plan to have a friendly relationship with the colt when it is very young, long before the process of training begins. It should be petted and made familiar with its future master, that confidence may be established. The *Stable Management and Exercise, 1900. THE CARE OF HORSES 213 use of the halter is first necessary, and it may be put on at a very early age, long before being weaned. Next, the colt should be taught to stand tied. Some colts, especially of the draft type, very readily adapt themselves to halter or bridle, as well as to the harness and work. Light horses of the hot-blooded sort, are not so easily educated. Prof. Roberts, an old horseman, says:* “With rare exceptions, the colt on the farm is made usable if, for a few hours each day for a week, he is subjected to the restraints of a bitting harness in the open paddock. The check and side-rein should Figure 75.—Putting the collar on the young horse for the first time. Photo- graph by the author. be left slack at first. Gradually from day to day the reins may be shortened; provided, however, they are never made so short as to place the head in an uncomfortable position or draw the bit so tightly into the corners of his mouth as to make them sore. After the bitting, the colt may wear the harness and be driven with lines in the open field, without being attached to a vehicle. The next step is to drive him for a few hours each day by the side of a good-sized, staid, mature farm horse attached to a farm wagon, which should be furnished with a brake. The lesson of training should be continued without interruption until he knows what is expected of him. When given the command Whoal, accompanied by a firm yet not rough pull on the lines, he should prompt- ly stop. When the command “get up” is given, along with a slap of the *The Horse—By Isaac Phillips Roberts, 1905. 214 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS reins, it means go forward. If it is desired that the horse back, then he is given the word ‘“‘back,’”’ accompanied with a backward pull on the reins. The word ‘steady’ is commonly used to caution a horse as to his movements, that he may not act too fast. With farm teams, the command ‘“‘gee”’ signifies a turn to the right, while “haw” means a turn to the left. | Ordinarily haw and gee are used in the field when the reins cannot easily be used, as in plowing, cultivating, etc. Horses should not be required to work until they have matured enough to bear the service without injury. If compelled to do hard work before he is four years old, his development may be much injured.” The harness of the horse in its simplest form, consists of three pieces, bridle, breast harness or collar, and saddle. These and their use may be briefly described as follows: Figure 76.—A pair of draft horses in harness. Photograph by Prof.W.J. Decker. The bridle consists of the bit, cheek straps, brow band, throatlatch, and checkrein. There may or may not be blinds. There are many kinds of bits, but under most con- ditions on the farm a plain single bar bit is all that is needed. Sometimes the bar is covered with leather or rubber as bet- ter suited to the tender mouth. By adjusting the length of the cheek pieces, the bit may be fitted to the mouth, so that it will be neither too loose nor too tight, crossing the bars of THE CARE OF HORSES 215 the mouth just back of the tushes. Blinds are used by some persons, and some horses handle better with these on the harness than without them. A bridle without blinds is known as an “open bridle.”” The checkrein extends from the bits to the top of the saddle by way of the poll or through loops attached to the upper parts each side of the bridle. The checkrein is intended to assist the horse in holding up his head and neck in an easy, graceful manner, to keep him under restraint so he will not attempt to eat when at work, or move the head and neck about so as to disarrange the harness. A too tight check is punishment for the horse. The breast harness consists of a flat strap which extends down over each side of the neck just in front of the withers, the ends supporting a breast piece, which connects with the tugs by means of which a light vehicle is pulled. The breast harness should be carefully adjusted, so that the breast piece will pull neither too high nor too low against the breast, interfering with free action of limbs or breathing. The collar used in heavy work harnesses, in place of the breast harness, varies in the material. It should consist of a frame of leather or other material, shaped to fit the neck and shoulders. Most collars have sweat pads on top and sides, so that with work the neck and shoulders will not be- come sore. The exterior of the collar has a groove, in which fits a pair of hames. At the lower part of each hame is attached one end of the heavy tug of leather or other material, the other end of which is hooked to the vehicle or implement to be hauled. Much care must be used in the fit of collar. It should not chafe or bruise the skin or make the rougher parts of the shoulder or joint sore. The tugs should be so adjusted that when a load is drawn the animal’s wind will not be shut off and the weight of the load will be properly distributed over the collar. Each horse should have his own collar, and care be taken to see that it fits the neck right. A new collar requires some time for adjustment. 216 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The saddle extends over the back just behind the withers, on the top of which are two rings, through which the driving lines pass from the ends of the bits to the driver behind. The saddle, which crosses the back, is held in place by several pieces. The checkrein may slip over a hook at the saddle top. From the rear there extends a backstrap along over the spine to the center point between the hips, where another strap called the crupper is buckled, which passes under the tail. Thus we have a continuous line from mouth to root of tail, which assists in keeping the harness in place. The lower part of the saddle has its ends connected by means of a belly band, so that it may be held securely in place. A breeching piece which extends around back of the hind quarters, is supported in place by straps, the upper ends of which are attached to the backstrap at a point between the hips. There are many styles of harnesses and methods of harnessing; but, no matter what the style, it is of first importance that the harness fit right in all its parts, and that the horse or mule wearing it be made comfortable in its adjustment. IN CARING FOR HORSES . How much regularity should be observed? What is the effect of grooming? When is clipping resorted to, and why? How does a blanket affect the hair? What should be done to prevent thrush? Explain how you would treat a wound. ° . What attention should be given to stable temperature? . How should the colt be trained to use of the harness? 9. At what age should colts be compelled to do hard work? 10. What attention should be given to fit of the collar? INTERVIEW SOME MEN ON THE CARE OF THEIR HORSES 11. How generally is regular grooming resorted to? 12. Is winter blanketing universal in your neighborhood? 13. Is the care of the foot left to the blacksmith alone? 14. What is commonly used for treating sores or wounds? 15. Are absorbents or disinfectants used in the stable? 16. How are colts ‘‘broken-in” by most horsemen? 17. What kind of bits are common, (a) for harness horses, (b) for draft horses? ANS ROO CHAPTER XX BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE The first cattle of which we have any information existed in Europe in prehistoric times. The bones and skele- tons of two very different types. of cattle have been found in Great Britain and parts of Europe. One of these was very much larger than the cattle of to-day, and has been called the Giant Ox. The other is much smaller and finer of bone. The skeletons of these two forms are quite similar to the cattle of our own time. Many bones of these animals have been found, and it is believed that even in the stone and the bronze age many thousands of years ago people had cattle more or less domesticated. Pliny and the earliest historians refer to swift and fierce wild bulls, called Uri, that were found in the forests and meadows of Germany and other parts of Europe at the beginning of the Christian era. The early Romans:-captured specimens of these wild bulls and took them to Rome and used them in their brutal festivities. Wild White Cattle have been known in England, Scot- land, and Wales since earliest historical times. These cattle lived in great parks. They had upright horns, were covered with shaggy hair, and were pure white in color, except the hair about the ears and muzzle, which was usually a dark red or black. Numerous small herds of these cattle are kept to-day in Great Britain, the most famous of which is at Chillingham Park in northeastern England. This herd, which numbers only 60 or 70 animals, runs wild on an estate of 1,100 acres. They have never been tamed, but live by themselves back among the hills in the forests and meadows. It is believed that these wild cattle are descended from the Giant Ox, and are the connecting link between the prehistoric 217 218 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS form and our domesticated cattle of the present time. Shorthorn Cattle. This noted breed, formerly called Dur- ham cattle, originated in northeast England, in the counties of Durham and York. The river Tees flows through a pretty valley, and for some distance is the boundary line between these two counties. This region, many years ago, was called the Teeswater country, and the large cattle found here in northern Yorkshire were known as ‘‘Teeswater Cattle.” In southern Yorkshire, in what.is called Holderness, was another kind of cattle having some things in common with the Tees- water. Many of these were black. There were also red or red-and-white cattle in other sections not far from here. Figure 77.—A herd of Wild White Cattle at Vaynol Park, Wales. Photograph by the author. Some cattle of superior milking qualities were brought over from Holland, also, in the middle of the 18th century. From these various sources came the Shorthorn. In this section of England the grazing was fine; and the city of Darlington, by the river Tees in Durham, became in time a great cattle market and gathering place for stockmen. The improvement of the Shorthorn began over a century ago. Two brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, who lived on separate farms north of Darlington, did much to improve BREEDS OF CATTLE 219 the native stock between 1775 and 1820. Some have called them the founders of the Shorthorn breed, but this claim is probably incorrect. They improved the local cattle so that they matured earlier, fed better, and had less waste at slaughter than the parent stock with which they began. Thomas Bates lived in this same region, east of Darling- ton, and he bred a type of large, handsome cattle, noted for both beef and milk production. Shorthorns of his breeding during the latter part of the nineteenth century were criti- cised for lack of vigor. He produced the Duchess, Waterloo, Wild Eyes, Oxford, and other families. Bates died in 1849. Figure 78.—Shorthorn bull Ringmaster, a noted champion bull and sire. Owned by White and Smith of Minnesota. Photograph from The Farmer. Thomas Booth, another great breeder, began to keep Shorthorns about 1780 on a farm in Yorkshire, southeast of Darlington. He had two sons, John and Richard, who also became famous breeders. Their cattle had thicker chests, were somewhat rougher in form, and perhaps better feeders than the Bates cattle, and became very popular. The Booths produced the Anna, Isabella, Bracelet, Moss Rose, and some 220 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS other families. The Collings, Bates, and the Booths were famous as among the greatest improvers of Shorthorn cattle that have ever lived in England. Early in the nineteenth century a Scotchman by the name of Robertson introduced the first Shorthorns to Scot- land and began breeding them on his estate at Ladykirk on the banks of the Tweed. This was in the South. In 1829 Captain Barclay brought the first cattle of the breed to north Scotland. In 1837, up in Aberdeen, where the winters are cold and rough, and the soil not the richest, Amos Cruick- shank began breeding Shorthorns, and at the time of his death was the greatest breeder in the history of Scotland. He developed what are known to-day as “Scotch Short- horns.”” They are noted for their early maturity, compact forms, strong constitutions, and fine killing qualities. Scotch cattle seemed to produce less milk than those bred by Bates, but were thicker-fleshed, so that butchers liked them better. Cruickshank produced quite a number of the most popular families of to-day, among which the Brawith Bud, Clipper, Duchess of Gloster, Lovely, Orange Blossom, Spicy, Venus, Victoria, and Violet may be mentioned. Two other great Scotch breeders have played a leading part in Shorthorn history, on account of their constructive breeding, William Marr, of Uppermill, and William Duthie, of Collynie. The distribution of Shorthorns is world-wide. It is the most common breed of English-speaking countries, and more great improvers of live stock have been found among Short- horn breeders than any other one breed. So common is the Shorthorn, and so well is it suited to different conditions, that long ago it was nicknamed ‘The Universal Intruder.” The introduction of the Shorthorn to America occurred in 1783, when a few were imported into Virginia by Gough and Miller. These men imported still others about 1792. From this time on the Shorthorn continued to be brought to the American states along the Atlantic coast. In 1834 a very BREEDS OF CATTLE 221 important shipment came to Ohio, selected for the Ohio Importing Company. Since then many thousands of Short- horns have been imported, and are found distributed widely in North and South America. The characteristics of the Shorthorn are very marked. The color is red, red-and-white, pure white, or a mingling of red and white hair forming what is called a roan. No other breed possesses this peculiar Shorthorn roan color, which has long been very popular among the breeders. In size this is one of the largest breeds, and bulls at maturity should weigh in ordinary condition 2,000 pounds or more, Figure 79.—A fine Shorthorn matron on an Ohio Farm. Photograph by the author. and cows 1,400 pounds and upward. The head should be lean and shapely, and short from between the eyes to the muzzle, which should be of flesh color, dark noses being un- popular. The horns usually are of medium size and of a white or waxy color, in most cases curving around in front like a semicircle rather than standing upright. Shorthorns should have wide strong backs and large bodies. The hind quarters are noted for their thick, meaty development, though the rump and tail head tend to be patchy and rough. 222 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Shorthorns have been criticised for having plain, somewhat prominent shoulders, and for being rather long of leg. These criticisms, however, do not so generally apply to cattle of Scotch ancestry. In disposition the Shorthorn is unexcelled. As a butcher’s beast fair examples of the breed rank high, the fattened animal dressing out well at slaughter and producing a superior quality of meat that is a favorite on the market. Although especially suited to the range, Short- horns do almost equally well under conditions of arable farm- ing, where extensive use of pasturage or range is not available. Figure 80.—A first prize Milking Shorthorn at the show of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England. Photograph by the author. The Shorthorn in milk production ranks at the top among the beef and so-called dual-purpose breeds. It is a common thing for dairy Shorthorns to produce 5,000 or 6,000 pounds of milk a year. Many cows of the breed have produced over 10,000 pounds, while Rose of Glenside made the wonder- ful record of 18,075 pounds in a year. There have been some remarkable records of production during continuous BREEDS OF CATTLE 223 years, among which Darlington Cranford 5th gave over 100,000 pounds of milk during ten years. Shorthorn milk tests around 4 per cent fat, and many excellent butter-fat records have been made. At least 300 pounds of fat should be made in a year by a fair example of the breed. An Australian cow, Melba VII, produced 868 pounds in a year, and Rose of Glenside, in her test above referred to, made 735 pounds of fat. Milking Shorthorns have grown greatly in popularity in recent years. Among the more favorably known families are the Clay, Waterloo, Kinsella, and Buttercup. Remarkable prices have been paid for Shorthorn cattle now for over a century. In 1811 at the sale of Charles Colling the bull Comet sold for $5,000. In 1873 at the New York Mills sale, 109 animals sold for $381,990, an average of $3,504, the cow Eighth Duchess of Geneva bringing the top price of history for a cow, $40,600. In 1919 the bull Gartley Lancer sold in Scotland for $23,750, while two other bulls brought $21,000 each. Polled Shorthorns are bred and registered separately, although from pure Shorthorn ancestry. They were first called Polled Durhams, but since 1919 have been known as Polled Shorthorns. They do not differ from ordinary Short- horns except that they are polled. They have not greatly grown in popularity. The Hereford breed of cattle originated in the county of Hereford, in southwest England. There are many beauti- ful meadows and grassy hills in this region. The cattle graze here the whole year and are rarely kept under roof. We know but little of the origin of this breed. Cattle have thrived in this part of England for centuries. One noted English judge of live stock over a hundred years ago gave the opinion that the Hereford might have been the first breed on the island. Some time before 1671, white-faced cattle were brought from Holland to Hereford, and some think the Herefords get their white faces from these cattle Late in 224 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS the eighteenth century, the common color of the breed was red with a white face. As with the Shorthorn, a number of men became noted Hereford improvers and did much for these cattle. The Tomkins family is the most famous of early days. There was Benjamin the Elder, who died in 1789, and Benjamin the Younger, who died in 1815. These men produced many famous animals and did much for the breed. William Galliers, John Price, and John Hewer also Figure 81.—Hereford bull, Richard Fairfax, purchased for $50,000 by Ferguson Brothers of Minnesota from L. A. Pinnard. Thisis the highest price paid for a beef bull in the United States. Photograph from Ferguson Brothers. did much to improve the Hereford. John Hewer sought for more size, quality, and uniformity of color. He bred many famous animals during the middle of the last century. Here- fords were first brought to America by that famous states- man, Henry Clay, of Kentucky. He took much interest in pure-bred live stock. Mr. W. H. Sotham, a native of Here- ford, who emigrated to America in 1840, brought some of BREEDS OF CATTLE 225 these cattle to Albany, New York. Mr. Sotham did much to make the breed popular in this country during the middle of the nineteenth century. About 1875, men in Illinois, Indiana, and the West, who owned a great deal of land, became interested in the Here- ford. Since then these cattle have become very popular in the grazing sections of the West, and are found in large numbers beyond the Mississippi, although choice breeding herds are to be found in Indiana, Kentucky, Minnesota, and Illinois. Recently the Hereford has obtained an important foothold in the Gulf Coast states east of the Mississippi. The characteristics of the Hereford are very marked. The color is its most striking feature, the head being white, as is often also the top of the neck, the breast, brush of the tail, and legs below knees and hocks, the rest of the body being red. The red color varies from light to dark, the pre- ference being for a bright cherry red. The skin at the muzzle should always be of a clear flesh color. The white head, which is short from muzzle to eye, often somewhat dished of face, and crowned with beautiful, forward curving waxy-white horns, represents the ideal for stamina, sex char- acter, and feeding capacity. In size and weight the Here- ford closely resembles the Shorthorn. Hereford cattle are conspicuous for their wide backs, deep bodies, and. short legs. They frequently show considerable dewlap and brisket, and have beautiful smooth shoulders. The hind quarters, however, tend to be somewhat narrow and rough. They are noted for their hardiness and adaptability to all sorts of grazing conditions, thriving well with the least grain and shelter. The heavy curly winter coat of hair and thick mellow skin gives the Hereford protection which other breeds lack in an equal degree. Hereford cattle mature early and are noted for baby beef production, attaining 1,000 to 1,200 pounds when well fed, at less than two years of age. In the market Hereford steers are popular with buyers, and kill 226 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS out a high percentage of carcass to offal. The cows of the breed are inferior milkers, as a rule, though yielding an excel- lent grade of milk. In disposition Herefords tend to be more or less nervous and restless as compared with the Short- horn and are not so well suited to stable confinement. The quality of “rustling,” as they say in the West, fine constitution, and ability to make early beef, have made the breed extremely popular in the range country in the United States, Canada, Argentina, and Australia. Among the popular families are the Anxiety, Beau Donald, Corrector, Disturber, March On, Perfection, and Prime Lad. High prices have been paid for Herefords, and in 1917, 1918, and Figure 82.—An exhibitor’s herd of Herefords at the fair, Photograph from The Farmer, 1919 very high prices prevailed. In 1919 Mousel Brothers, of Nebraska, sold 50 head for an average price of $3,845, and in 1919 W. T. McCray, of Indiana, sold 120 head for an average of $3,635, the record for any breed of cattle. In 1919 the bull Richard Fairfax was bought by Ferguson Brothers, of Minnesota, for $50,000, then the world’s record price for a bull. Two bulls sold in 1918 in England, one, Ringer, for $45,000 and the other, Resolute, for $40,000. Polled Hereford cattle of much merit are bred to-day in large numbers. This line of breeding first started with grade BREEDS OF CATTLE 227 cattle in Kansas. About 1900, through an effort to secure pure-bred stock from regular Hereford ancestry, a number of polled bulls and cows were secured by Warren Gammon, of Iowa. Since 1900, when a Polled Hereford Association was organized, cattle of this type have been built upon a pure foundation tracing back to horned Herefords. Polled Herefords are now widely bred in America, with Iowa the central point of importance. The Aberdeen-Angus is a Scotch breed of cattle that was first developed in and about the county of Aberdeen, in northeast Scot- land. This sec- tion is about a thousand miles north of the lati- tude of Chicago. The winter cli- mate of this re- gion is rather se- vere, and the soil is not the best, though the graz- ing is good. Some think these ani- mals are de- Figure 83.—A Polled Hereford bull. Photograph by the scended from pues the Wild White Cattle. It is a hornless breed. They first became celebrated through Hugh Watson, a tenant farmer at Keillor. He loved his cattle and studied carefully the improvement of his herd. As a result he produced more early-maturing, heavier-fleshed, and more compact cattle than had before been known in Scotland. He had a cow named ‘‘Old Grannie”’ that lived to be 36 years old, and was the mother of 25 calves, a wonderful record for a cow of any breed. William McCombie was another famous breeder of 228 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Aberdeen-Angus cattle. He improved on the work of Wat- son, and his cattle became, celebrated for the prizes they won in the shows of Seffland and France. Sir George McPherson Grant, who died in 1907, was the most noted breeder of recent days, and from his herd came some of the greatest cattle of the breed. The first Aberdeen-Angus cattle were imported to Amer- ica in 1873, by George Grant, of Kansas. Later in the seventies a few head were taken to Canada, New York, Figure 84.—Aberdeen-Angus bull, Balatum, owned by J. 8. Caldwell & Son of Ohio. Photograph by the author. Illinois, and other states of the central West. It is only in rather recent years that these cattle have become popular in America and recognized as one of the really great breeds. The characteristics of Aberdeen-Angus cattle are espe- cially marked in color, head character, and quality of flesh. The standard color is a hard, clear black, although at rare intervals red will occur. This red is inherited from past generations, for at one time there were many reds, browns, and brindles among the cattle of Aberdeen. The head is BREEDS OF CATTLE 229 polled, although abortive horns, or scurs, occasionally develop. Even though coming from pure-bred sire and dam, the red color or scurs prohibit registering in the books of the Amer- ican Aberdeen-Angus Cattle Breeders’ Association. In size, cattle of this breed are essentially in the same class as the Shorthorn and Hereford, although they in fact weigh slightly less under average conditions. Aged bulls will weigh about 2,000 pounds, and cows around 1,400, although it is claimed that some bulls of the breed have weighed up to 3,000 pounds, this weight being credited to the noted bull Justice. Figure 85.—Aberdeen-Angus cow, Queen Milly of Sun Dance 3d, owned by C. D. and E, F. Caldwell of Missouri. Photograph from the owners. In body conformation the Aberdeen-Angus cattle are inclined to be a trifle prominent in the shoulder, their backs are only moderately wide, the loin being rounding rather than flat like the Shorthorn and Hereford. There is a tendency towards a sag in the back, the hind quarters are round and full, though the tail-head is often somewhat prominent, due to a falling away on each side of the rump. 250 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS These cattle stand on short legs, and are very compact. They graze well, mature early, fatten smoothly, produce meat of the choicest grade, and kill out with the least waste. The Aberdeen-Angus is a great favorite with the butchers on account of the smoothness of carcass and small per cent of waste in dressing. In the fat stock shows in recent years, in America and England, no other breed has won so many grand championships. In slaughter tests the bullocks have dressed out 72 per cent carcass to offal, which is a very high record. Many of the cows are good milkers, and produce an excellent grade of milk. In disposition the Aberdeen- Angus are nota- bly nervous, more resembling the Hereford than the Short- horn in this re- spect. These cattle Figure “ea hie et eae geen ace Bee are growing 1918 International Live Stock Show. own by Purdue ; a University, Indiana. Photograph from American much in popular Aberdeen-Angus Association. ity. With Iowa as the great breeding center, many fine herds are found in the corn-belt states. There are some excellent herds in the southern states, where the breed has comparatively recently obtained a foothold. Among the more popular families of Aberdeen-Angus cattle are the Erica, Queen Mother, Pride, and Blackbird. During recent years very high prices have been paid for these cattle, the highest being for the bull Blackcap Bertram sold in 1919 for $45,000. Some of the bulls have sold for over $10,000 each, while this sum repre- sents the highest price paid for a cow, being paid in 1919 for BREEDS OF CATTLE 231 Blackeap McHenry 151st. Aberdeen-Angus show steers topped the market many times, the highest price ever known, $2.50 per pound live weight, being paid for the grand champion steer Fyvie Knight 2nd, exhibited by Purdue University at the 1918 International Live Stock Exposition. The Galloway is a beef breed that originated in south- west Scotland in what is known as the Galloway country. It is a hilly region, with plenty of grass, and has a somewhat cool and rather moist climate. These cattle have been bred here for centuries. They are black, though other colors formerly occurred, are polled, have long, shaggy coats of curly hair, and are hardy and rather wild by nature. They are not quite as large nor so com- pact of body as the Aberdeen-Angus, and do not fatten so easily. They produce a very high grade of beef, fine of grain and inclined to be free from extra fat, such as is often found in high- ly fed Shorthorns or Figure s7—aA eee a Photograph Herefords. The Gallo- way is a breed that can endure severe winter conditions better than most others, on account of the protection of a thick hide and a long, thick, silky coat of hair. Very beautiful robes are made from Galloway hides with the winter coat of hair. This breed was first brought to America about 1850, or perhaps some years before. It is not popular and the herds are rather scattered, more being in the northwestern states and in Canada than elsewhere. The exhibit of the breed at the fat-stock shows and fairs is usually small compared with the Shorthorn, Hereford, and Aberdeen-Angus. bo A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE BEEF BREEDS . The relationship of Wild White Cattle to improved breeds of to-day. . The difference between Teeswater and Holderness cattle. . The parts played by the Collings, Bates, Booths, and Cruickshank. (a) When and where did they live? (b) What did they do? (c) What families did they produce? A few marked characteristics of the Shorthorn. . Striking points of identity of the Heretord. Why the Hereford is a superior breed for the range. . What Hugh Watson and William McCombie did for the Aberdeen- Angus. . How the Aberdeen-Angus passes the killing test. . The conditions under which the Galloway originated. . The kind of coat worn by the Galloway. ASSUME YOURSELF TO BE A CENSUS TAKER AND . Find out if any pure-bred herds, and what kind, occur in your neighborhood or township. . Make a map and locate the herds upon it. . Ascertain what kinds of pure-bred beef bulls are used in grade herds, and why? . Report on what you think the best pure-bred beef herd in the county, and your reason why? CHAPTER XXI JUDGING BEEF CATTLE In judging heef cattle, we have different classes and con- ditions of animals. Examples of these may be found in mature bulls or cows, and young stock in breeding herds; and in fat cattle ready for the butcher, or in feeders that are not yet in condition for killing. If of about the same age and condition of flesh, however, we shall find that they 3 Figure 88.—Victor, Grand champion steer _at the 1911 International Live Stock Exposition. Fed and shown by Iowa State College. Photograph from The Farmer. have much in common in type and form. In a study of beef cattle through the use of the score card and the scale of points, it is customary for classroom work to make use of as good examples of such animals as are obtainable, judging them as fat cattle. The following scale of points is espe- cially arranged for the scoring of fat cattle, and its use is discussed herewith. wo vo (uN) to [ee) roe A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS A SCORE CARD FOR FAT CATTLE Points of Score of Scale of Points perfect score cattle judge GENERAL APPEARANCE, 38 Points. Weight, score according to age. At 12 months 850 Ibs., at 24 months 1,250 Ibs., at 30 months D500 DS ic Picco meta ch Mitakcnd canoe cnen wetia cee eee Be Asie es Form, broad, deep, compact, low set, top and underline straight neon ere e enone a TOS ossdesshieve Quality, fine bone, mellow elastic hide, soft and SUV MA Tea os Srcrtcc ress anaer Ot syne RES A Ba LOM keeeetines Condition, deep, even covering of smooth, firm flesh, the cod and flank indicating finish.......... MOLY epetacindites HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points. Muzzle, broad, mouth large, nostrils large........ see Eyes, large and bright, with placid expression... .. | Reo seeps ar Face, short, wide, slightly dished; cheeks fleshy; jaw strong Fires utiy es apnea eamuaererewA SeHaUa Se WINES ocala lo) Sieewea Forehead, broad, full ecc4 ss eveusrcess Me tas gete ces Te Sewerage Ears, medium size, not coarse, well set........... FL Aes tects et Neck, thick, short, throat clean, blending well with _OCONOMOwoc. WIS.. SEATTi€ wasH. ® Figure 110.—Holstein-Friesian bull calf, Carnation King Sylvia, bought in 1918 for the record price of $106,000 by Carnation Stock Farms. Photograph from the owners. ferent animals. In recent years, however, cattle that showed much more white than black have been in most favor. The heads incline to be a trifle long and narrow; the horns seem- ing small for such a large breed; the body is capacious; the rump is long and often steep; and the thighs are large and in many instances tend to be somewhat thick and beefy. The udder is a notable feature of the breed, tending to be pendant, and with age hanging low rather than being held 276 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS fairly close to the belly. In some cases the udder attains immense size and capacity. There are three recognized types of this breed: (a) The thin-fleshed, wedge-shaped type; (b) Those that carry somewhat more flesh; and (c) Those that are rather broad over the withers and thick in the quarters, and show more beefiness than dairy cattle men usually admire. Many persons approve the medium between the two extremes, if the cow is a satisfactory producer of milk. An animal of beefy form, with a thick pair of thighs, is not to be commended. Among the noted Holstein-Friesian sires one finds extremes in type, some animals possessing conforma- tion that is far from what might be regarded as ideal. The milk of the Holstein-Friesian is about average, or below, in quality, not being noted for butter-fat content. But in production of quantity of milk, this breed leads all others in a marked degree. A large number of cows have produced yields of over 100 pounds of milk in a day, Cascade Johanna Illustrites having the remarkable record of 161.4 pounds in 1 day and 3,546 pounds in 30 days. There are many records of over 25,000 pounds of milk in a year. Most remarkable among these is that of Tilly Alcartra, a California cow that has produced in eight consecutive yearly records a total of 201,138 pounds of milk, a yearly average of 25,142 pounds. The greatest yearly production of milk by a cow of the breed was by Segis Pietertje Prospect, of 37,381 pounds, completed in 1921. Holstein-Friesian milk usually contains a small per cent of fat, 3 per cent being common, and 4 per cent unusual for cows not being in official test. Breeders, however, are steadily improving the breed in this respect, so that no doubt there will be an improvement in the average amount of fat. On account of the large milk yield, however, the butter-fat in one day may amount to a very important total. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 277 In 1919 the cow Rolo Mercena De Kol produced 51.93 pounds of estimated 80% butter in her milk in a 7-day test, while during 30 days she produced 201.17 pounds. From 1915 to 1921 Duchess Skylark Ormsby held the world’s rec- ord for a year’s production of butter-fat, 1,205 pounds, or 1,506.36 pounds of estimated butter. In 1921 Bella Pontiac, however, completed a record for a year of 1,258.8 fat, equal to 1,587.5 pounds of butter. Upto 1922 there have been official advanced registry (A.R.O.) records made by 50 cows of 1,000 pounds or more of butter-fat in 365 days or Figure 111.—Holstein-Friesian cow, Springbrook Bess Burke 2d, one of the most noted dams and producers of the breed. Photograph trom the owners, E. C. Shroeder Farms, Minnesota. less. In May 1921, the President of the Holstein-Friesian Association of America stated* that “the Advanced Registry contains milk and butter records to the number of 125,000, and last year there were added thereto about 17,000 records,” which showing is remarkable. Among the noted Holstein-Friesian families are the Bess Burke, Clothilde, De Kol, Johanna, Korndyke, May Echo, Netherland, Ona, Pauline Paul, Pietertje, and Segis. *Hoard’s Dairyman, June 3. 1921. 278 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Prices for Holstein-Friesian cattle range from ordinary to the highest that have been paid for cattle of any breed. A considerable number of animals sold during the period following the World War for from $10,000 each or more. The bull Carnation King Sylvia, a son of the famous cow May Echo Sylvia, sold in 1918 for $106,000. The distribution of Holstein-Friesian cattle is very wide- spread. In the United States, New York holds first place as a center for the breed, with Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan ranking in numbers of animals in the order given. A large percentage of the cattle of this breed are located in the Middle Atlantic and Central States. The breed is promoted by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America, with about 20,000 members, and by many state and local breed associations. The breed has had a wonder- ful development in the United States, and is constantly growing in favor. The great feeding and producing capacity of the cows, and their quiet disposition, have added much to their popularity, especially among men supplying milk to creameries or the city trade. In recent years, especially during and since the World War, Holstein-Friesians or Friesians as they are termed there, have grown in great favor in Great Britain. Guernsey cattle originated on the island of Guernsey, another of the Channel Islands, and come from much the same ancestry as the Jersey. The people of Guernsey adopted plans for keeping out foreign cattle, similar to those of Jersey. The earlier Guernsey cattle show less careful breeding, however, and, as a whole, have not been selected and improved as much as those on Jersey. Guernsey is a tri- angular, hilly island, of about 15,500 acres in area, and sup- ports a population of perhaps 45,000 people. The climate is balmy and healthful. The people make a specialty of flowers, vegetables, and cattle. The island of Alderney is officially a part of Guernsey, and the cattle on this island BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 279 are the same as the Guernseys, being so regarded by Guern- sey and American breeders. In early days, though not at present, all the cattle from the Channel Islands in England and America were called Alderneys. These cattle were first introduced to America, it is thought, in 1830. The characteristics of Guernsey cattle are very compar- able with the Jersey. The two breeds are certainly closely related in their origin. The Guernseys are somewhat larger, than the Jerseys, standard weights being 1,600 pounds for the mature bulls and 1,100 pounds for the cows. The color Figure 112.—Guernsey bull Langwater Advocate. Photograph from Lang- water Farm, North Easton, Mass. is usually yellow or red fawn, although white spots are very common, some of the most noted animals of the breed show- ing considerable white. The face is somewhat straighter than with the Jersey, and a very light creamy or ‘‘mealy” ring of hair extends around the muzzle and about the eyes. A flesh-colored muzzle is preferred by breeders, a dark slate color being decidedly unpopular. Guernseys are often plain of head and rough of shoulder, and lack the beautiful front 280 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS udder development so often found on the Island Jerseys. These cattle are noted for the yellow skin and secretions, the milk being especially high in color. Guernseys are usually of a quiet disposition, and the bulls are perhaps rather less nervous than are Jersey males. The milk of the Guernsey from the standpoint of quality and butter-fat production is unsurpassed. The milk has a natural rich yellow color, and tests 5 per cent or better in butter-fat. The cows make surprisingly high yields of milk, Figure 113.—Guernsey cow, Langwater Phyllis. Owned by F. L. Ames, Langwater Farms, Massachusetts. Photograph from Mr. Ames. and some 10,000 cows officially tested, up to December, 1920, showed an average production of 9,068 pounds, con- taining 454 pounds of fat. Great individual records have been made, the leading one in milk production being that of Murne Cowan of 24,008 pounds for a year, ending in 1915, while Countess Prue secured the lead in butter-fat produc- tion, by producing 1,103.28 pounds during a year ending in 1921. A wonderful two-year record was made by Kath- BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 281 erine’s Trixie, in a yield of 18,945.7 pounds of milk, contain- ing 791.48 pounds of fat. Among the great butter-fat producing Guernseys are Murne Cowan with a yearly record of 1,098 pounds, May Rilma, 1,073 pounds, Nella Jay 4th, 1,019 pounds and Langwater Nancy, 1,012 pounds. The American Guernsey Cattle Club was the first breed association to establish what are known as official tests for milk and butter production, conducted by disinterested experiment station or agricultural college employees. Since the Club began this work, the Guernsey has made a remark- able showing. Some of the largest butter-fat records made by cows of any breed have come from the Guernsey. The prices paid for Guernsey cattle average fairly high, compared with those of other breeds. In 1918 the average price of 1,318 head sold at public auction was $330, while the average of 2,464 head sold in 1920 was $508. On May 13, 1921, at the Eastern Guernsey Breeders’ Association sale 56 head brought an average of $1,087. Some very high prices have been paid for individuals, one two-months-old bull calf, Florham Leader, selling for $25,000. The distribution of the Guernsey is not so extensive as either Jersey or Holstein-Friesian. Wisconsin is the leading state in promoting Guernseys, while the Middle Atlantic states, New England, and the North Central states largely furnish the American support of the breed. The American Guernsey Cattle Club, with headquarters in New Hamp- shire, is the official promoter of the breed, and there are also state and local Guernsey clubs. The Ayrshire is a Scotch breed that originated in the region Robert Burns has made famous, the county of Ayr in southwest Scotland. It has rather a cold, damp climate in winter, but there is good grazing in summer. Except near the sea, the country is more or less hilly. The Ayrshire is a dairy breed, and one of the youngest of the prominent breeds. Cattle were taken to the Ayrshire country from 282 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS various places, for Shorthorn, Highland, Dutch, Guernsey, Devon, and Hereford cattle are said to have been owned by the farmers of that region. From the mingling of color of these breeds we get the red, brown, and white markings that are features of the Ayrshire. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were cows in southwest Scotland that were famous milkers, and by offering prizes for compe- tition, the Scotch people have still more encouraged large milk production. Ayrshires were first imported to America early in the nineteenth century. Figure 114.—Three beautiful Ayrshire cows owned by Arthur H. Sagendorph of Massachusetts. Photograph from American Agricullurist. Characteristics of the Ayrshire. The mature bull should weigh about 1,500 pounds, and the cow about 1,100. The color is red and white or brown and white, with white most abundant in recent years. The head is one of the striking features of the breed, with its rather long, large and erect horns. While a true dairy breed, the Ayrshire inclines to be a trifle fleshy, with more thickness over the withers, along the back, and about the thighs than in case of the Jersey or BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 283 Guernsey. Some of the bulls are too beefy for the best dairy form, but there are many cows that show beautiful dairy type. No other breed has such a uniformly well-developed udder as the Ayrshire, the fore part being much extended, and the rear udder carried well up behind.