FARM ees 5m ef. > 47 PRODUCTIVE & FEEDING OF A BY FARM ANIMALS a m BY F.W. WOLL Px.D. | R. B. HINMAN COLLECTION PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 1921-1943 New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. 3191 University Library SF 95.W63 1916 wien of farm animal Wu | mann Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002967655 “The first farmer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land.” EMERSON. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Ps.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, AND CHEMIST TO WISCONSIN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, EX-PRESIDENT OF ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS OF NORTH AMERICA LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, NASHVILLE, TENN. PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY 1915 By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 1919 By HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 1916 By CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. G PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 1917 By. FRED C. SEARS, M.S. PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING 1918 By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. PRODUCTIVE FEEDINGof FARM ANIMALS _ 1916 By F. W. WOLL, Px.D. COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS = 1919 By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M. PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS = 1918 By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 1918 By FRANK C. PELLETT PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING _ 1919 By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS 1918 By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A. PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY 1918 By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.S. SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT 1919 By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S. LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS SOILS, By J. F. EASTMAN and K.C. DAVIS 1915 POULTRY, By H.R. LEWIS 1918 DAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY 1917 FEEDING, By F.W. WOLL 1917 FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP WaTer&=3DIcESTIBLE PROTEIN G2 Dicest. CARBOHYDRATES Ga Dicest. Far 23 PASTURE GRASS GREEN CLOVER GREEN CORN CORN SILAGE CLOVER SILAGE TIMOTHY HAY CLOVER HAY ALFALFA HAY CORN STALKS, Field Cured MARSH HAY OAT, STRAW BARLEY STRAW MANGELS RUTABAGAS SUGAR BEETS POTATOES COTTON SEED MEAL LINSEED MEAL BUC KWHEAT MIDDLINGS GLUTEN FEED MALT SPROUTS COWPEAS WHEAT MIDDLINGS WHEAT BRAN OATS RYE BARLEY WHEAT INDIAN CORN(MAIZE) CORN COBS MILK BUTTER 843 ] CHEESE 30.3 | COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS BY F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, AND CHEMIST “TO WISCONSIN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; EX-PRESIDENT OF ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS OF NORTH AMERICA; MEMBER OF INTERNATION JURY, PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION. 106- ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT SECOND EDITION REVISED “Tf vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.” Pope—Essay on Man PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, IOIS, BY j. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, I916 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. PREFACE THE general interest in matters pertaining to the farm and farm life that has been evidenced in recent years is one of the wholesome signs of the times. Farm animals have shared in this increasing interest, and the love of fine stock, as well as the desire to surround the animals with conditions that will secure the best results for the care and labor bestowed upon them, has been a potent factor in the development of animal industry in this country during the last generation. For permanent and fruitful advance in agricultural matters, it is agreed: that the boy must be interested; must learn about the realities and problems of' farm life; must be taught how to meet these and how to adjust himself to changes in new conditions of farming that may arise. Hence we find that courses in agricul- ture are being introduced into more and more schools; the agricul- tural college no longer has a monopoly of teaching animal husbandry, field crops, horticulture, ete. County agricultural schools and agri- cultural high schools, as well as graded schools in a number of States, are giving their pupils an opportunity to study the under- lying principles of farm operations. Until recently there were no text-books that met the needs of these different classes of students. This want is now, however, gradually being filled, and in some cases there is already a choice of carefully-prepared books, well adapted for the purpose intended. This volume has been prepared with a view to furnishing students in agricultural schools and colleges, as well as practical farmers, with a concise discussion of the main principles relating to the feeding of farm animals and of the various feeding stuffs available to our stockmen. So far as possible, different feeding practices for the various classes of farm animals have also been given and discussed, pointing the way to profitable methods of stock feeding under the variety of conditions existing on American farms. The treatment of this subject in text-book form presents pecu- liar difficulties. In view of the immense amount of research work that has accumulated and is being conducted and published every ‘year, at public expense and otherwise, it would be easy to present a bewildering mass of detailed experimental evidence as to the merits _of different feeds and methods of feeding. This would not, how- ever, serve the purpose of either teacher or student. It has been the v vi : PREFACE aim of the author to give a well-digested, systematic treatment of the subject. It is hoped that the presentation will commend itself to the judgment of educators and farmers, and that a study of this book will aid them to a clear understanding of the principles of productive feeding of farm animals. Acknowledgment for loan of photographs or cuts is due to the Directors of the Agricultural Experiment Stations at Berkeley, Cal.; Ottawa, Canada; Ithaca, N. Y.; State College, Pa.; Burlington, Vie: Madison, Wis., and Uz s. Bureau of Animal Industry ‘ Professors K. C. Davis, S. B. Doten, David Griffiths, I. D. Iddings, Frank L: Peterson, E. A. Trowbridge, and Gordon H. True; American Guern- sey Cattle Club; W. J. Gillett, Rosendale, Wis.; A. W. Morris & Sons Corp., Woodland, Cal.; Publishers Breeders’ Gazette, Chicago, and Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, Cal., and Hog Motor Company, Minneapolis. F. W. Wott. Davis, Cal., January, 1915. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION Minor changes and corrections have been made in the present edition, and a chapter on Feeding Poultry, prepared by Prof. J. E. Dougherty, of the University of California, has been incorporated, in order that students and farmers may learn the main principles of feeding this important class of livestock. It is believed that the usefulness of the book will be further increased ee the addition and changes thus made in the text. Davis, CALIFORNIA, June, 1916. CONTENTS PAG INTRODUCTION. eins Go oeais § ae detiue bag eee Sale Ca whee a 1 PART I.—PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER I. Tse ComposiTIon oF FEEDING STUFFS..........0000e eee 5 II. THe ComMposiTIONn OF ANIMALS........ 00000 cree cece eens 19 III. Tuer DIGEestTion OF FEEDS.... 0.1.0.0... 22 -e cece e eee eee 26 IV. Uses or Freep py AniMALS—FEEDING SPrANDARDS............. 34 V. DevrerMINaTION OF THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING Sturrs. 40 VI. VARIATIONS IN THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STuFFs 53 VII. . Conpitions AFFEcTING THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING Sturrs 63 VIII. CaucunaTION OF RATIONS... ......... 0.0 cece eee nee n eee 71 IX. Tue Feep-univ SYSTEM.......... 0.0 ccc ccc cnc eee eens 79 X. RevativE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS..........0.0000000e 82 XI. ManuriaL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS............000000 86 XVIII. XIX, XX. . (Green Forace anp Hay Crops PART II.—DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS A. CoarsE FEEDS Th. CPastures siccs x acini So oh se ders ensrcine eoacavecat a thee abet Hate II. Soiling Crops............. hci ee east Wl. Hay Cropsi.ccvceoscie ex caves cus atess aae irae rece’ GreEN Forace AND Hay Crops—Continued I. Annual Forage Crops.........-...--- gaan wanainsaa es 105 ‘II. Hay from Leguminous Crops................050 000s 113 III. Straw of Cereals and Legumes..................-02 128 Roots, TuBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS............. 131 SILOS: AND: SILAGE: t50.5 cece egg MENA RO ES ee eS STE 149 B. DEscRIPTION OF CONCENTRATES Tue CONCENTRATES. ....-..000-000005 sn fiehsv desis Thlade enlace bas 163 J, ‘Cereal Grains, ocx cisieea sie ceae pe weed pened Stee eee 163 II. Leguminous and Oil-bearing Seeds..............----. 175 Various Factory BY-PRODUCTS ........0- 0: cece cece eens 179 I. Flour and Cereal Mill Feeds.................0200 00 179 II. Brewery and Distillery Feeds...............-....05- 188 III. Starch and Glucose Factory Feeds................- ‘,. 190 Sugar Factory Freps anp Om MBEAILS..............+-00- 192 I. Sugar Factory Feeds............0 00s cece cece eee nee 192 TD. (OW Meals «sia sek ng duds ssp eee coward Se Mea acoso ane 195 ANIMAL WEEDS: c.cacveose sith aa pertae were tie eradae tan 204 I. Packing-house Feeds............. 00sec cee eee eee neee 204 TL. (Dairy Heed. .c40505 mer evden ercteumtae ae aa OR RES 205 MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS..........00 0 0c e eee cee eee ene ene 210 I. Proprietary Feeds... 1.0.0.0... 0c cece cence een e aces 210 Il. Feeds of Minor Importance..............00e cere eens 210 JII. Condimental Stock Feeds. ........ ec eect nee eens 212 viii CONTENTS PART III.—PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS (GAT FH EDING vita coed ts sssceease.steascaraaieeiawdig asin antago Webern uamnlbcatanages 215 FRSEDING: DAIRY (CATTUR 5 9 cede ming ealiret ened aurea mates eae 227 Freeping BEEr CATTLb........2 0.00 c ccc eee n cece eees 253 Freping Horses auD MULES...............00 cece eee ees 277 ESRD IN G? SWAB cisoiesnciacgsozentdes rowdy sn unis Gebneeerch thon Shae Gee dad aaleuiee 294 FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS.........0... 0000 cece een eens 317 Frrpine or Pouttry, By Pror. J. E. Dovueuerty, UNIVER- SITY OF CALIFORNIA See re ee ern oe ee ae 336 APPENDIX CoMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS..........000.0 bec eee eeee 559 Reapy REFERENCE TABLES FOR CALCULATION OF : Eeenone, 366 PropuctTion VALUES oF FEEDING STUFFS.................. 371 TaBLe oF FEED UNITS............0. 000 cee cece ene eens 372 MANuURIAL VALUE OF I EEDING STUFFS............ 0.045. 373 ‘ ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Composition of Feeding Stuffs (Colored Chart)........ Frontispiece Water in Common Feeding: Stuffs, in Per Cent................. 7 Mineral Matter in a Ton of Common Feeds, in Pounds........... 8 Fats in Common Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent........... Us ees 12 Fiber in Plant Materials, in Per Cent...................00.0005 15 View of a Chemical Laboratory for Analysis of Feeding Stuffs and Other Agricultural Products............0. 000. cce cece eeaeee 17 Composition of Live Animals Less Contents of Stomach and Intes- tines, it’ Pek Cen ty. ..<5-0 ccsa x gees eee payee Beale ame dene 20 The Digestive Apparatus of Ruminants.. .................0.005 27 Digestible Components and Nutritive Ratios of Common Feeds, in Per Cents, sietctisuigcsduths.< Susvice sade aeeleaasd acQeseoes waeversac Back a Sennett 42 A View of the Respiration Calorimeter at the Penneyivats Experi- Ment: Stagion xscny Ge gaccesuge seme sand ae wok Meee Sees 46 Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs............0.0.. 0000 cece eee 89 Shade Trees and a Running Stream in the Pasture Make for the Health and Comfort of Farm Animals....................4. 92 Indian Corn Grown for the Silo or for Soiling.................... 95 The Relative Expense of Producing and Feeding Soiling Crops is Considerably Greater than in the Case of Silage............. 97 A Field of Dwarf Black-hull Kafir Corn............. 0000000000 110 A Soybean Nitrogen Factory. ........ 0000.0 cc ccc ee cece eee 114 Alfalfa will Furnish an Abundance of Green Feed Throughout the Growing Season... 2.0.0... cece ete ete cece eee eneeee 115 Curing and Harvesting Alfalfa.................. 0 cece eee ee eens 116 Crimson \ClOV)r o.oo senciic a sce waa ots dene asked Gare ee Mean Ea nine 120 Sweet Clover is an Excellent Soil Builder........................ 122 A South Carolina Vetch Field. ........... 0. cece e eee nee 123 AL Piel GESOy DEANS shia. :.0 960 dawasncn Sasualss dress Sod lack wos tated Reveatee hee 126 Half-sugar Mangels........... 0... cece eee ete cette eens 134 Rutabagas (Bloomsdale), a , Good Type for Stock Feeding......... 135 Carrots for Stock Feeding.............. 0. cee eee eee eee ee eeeee 136 Pips: On Rapes: ccc esaaides mt hatecearen: dace Shae oe WIRD Haseena ge ga ees 139 Spineless Cactus Yields Large Crops of a Very Watery Feed under Favorable Conditions. ...........0 ccc cecce cece eceneneeees 146 Stave Sil0sicsisiGe deat ce eee tea eeD aaa eet oae dates 149 A Good Concrete Silo. . 0.0.6... ccc cece cece ee teen eeeneee 152 A California Dairy Barn with Concrete Silos.................... 153 A “Re-saw’’ Silo Being Filled with Alfalfa...................4.. 154 Battery of Four Cement Silos on a California Cattle Ranch.....-. 155 Corn and Soybeans Grown for Silage. ..........0. 02 eecee ences 160 ILLUSTRATIONS Weeds Growing from Seed Found in a Mixed “Dairy Feed”’....... 171 Types of Grain Sorghums................. 0000 eee eet eee 173 Diagram Showing Increase in Area Sown to Grain Sorghum in Kansas during the Decade 1904-13...............0-0 eee eeee 174 Section of Corn Kernel.............0... 00s eee eee eee eee 185 Cross-section of Flaxseed Showing the Different Layers of Cells.... 196 The Swelling Test.......... 0.0 ccc ecb e eee cece nent eee eeee 197 Holstein Skim-milk-Calves.......... 000s cee cece eee Orin Biagtneaaa 208 Dairy Calves in the Pasture............. 0.0 cece eee eee ee 217 At Meal Time the Calf is Fed Warm, Sweet Milk in a Clean Pail, While Securely Fastened in 2 Comfortable Stanchion......... 218 Calves in Stanchions in Pasture.............. 000s cece certs 219 Dairy Cows of Good Breeding and Well Kept and Cared for Make Excellent Returns ‘“‘at the Pail”............. 0.00. eee eee eee 228 Normal Changes in Monthly Yield and Fat Content of Milk from WANs COWS cess paccupracditostosiausmelalb cexhacloutonaiers auiyaussoeucne o oateR debt 232 Areas of Circles Representing Average Values of the Products from the Best Ten or the Poorest. Ten Cows inthe Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, 1909-1911............ 0. cece ee eee eee 236 Liberal Rations Fed to Cows of Beefy Tendencies Produce a Gain In WelENtissca.csmecoes ne eet ains oe ceeds eee a eee aa 236 Spring Milk-scale Enabling the Farmer to Keep Accurate Milk Records of his Cows with but Very Little Extra Effort....... 237 Babcock Test: Apparatus: cisscsasns san cana simlaae wink eae es ae 238 Production and Size are the Factors Determining the Feed Re- quiremerts of Dairy Cows............ 00. e eee c eee e teens 239 Alfalfa is, as a Rule, Fed in Racks in the Corrals (Feeding Yards) to Milch Cows in the Western States...............0c cues 246 The “‘ Meal Cart”’ Used for Weighing Concentrates for the Individual Cows in the Herd ......... 0... ccc c cc cee een eeteeneeee 247 Weighing Rations for the Dairy Herd................ 00 cee eeees 248 ’ Yeksa Sunbeam, No. 15439, Guernsey..............000c0e ee eeee 249 Colantha 4th Johanna, No. 48577, Holstein..................... 249 May Rilma, No. 22761, Guernsey........ 20.00. c cece cece eee 250 Tilly Aleartra, No. 123459, Holstein ...............: 0. .cn aes 250 The Number and Value of Cattle Other than Milch Cows in the United States, April 15, 1910........ 02... cece eee eee eee 254 Number of Beef Cattle in the Corn Belt States, 1913............ 254 Increase in Number of Cattle in this Country from 1890 to 1910... 255 The Amount of Grain Required ‘to Produce a Hundred Pounds of Gain in Fattening Steers Increases with the Range of the Feed- ing Period from about 730 Pounds to 1000 Pounds........... 260 Tennessee Steers in the Feed Lot.................0 0.0 ccc eee 263 Steer Feeding Barns and ioe Troughs on a California Cattle Ranch. gon NW it Na A glkA Alc Ea teh ha Nae dialer eh Sai 267 ILLUSTRATIONS xi The Self-feeder is Used by Many Farmers in the Corn Belt States for Feeding Corn or Grain Mixtures to Fattening Steers....... 268 A Mississippi-raised ‘Baby Beef” Calf......... 0.0.0... c cee eee 269 A Grand Champion Shorthorn Bull........................0005. 270 Fatteumg Steers in California.......... 000.00 ccc cee eee eee 272 Draft Horses that Give a Good Account of Themselves in the Show Ring, as Breeding Animals and for Doing Heavy Work. 278 Horses on the Western Range........... 00... c cece eee eeeeee 289 A Team of Farm Work Mules..............0.0 00. c eects 291 A Group of Young Berkshire Pigs................. 2.00 ccc eeeeee 295 The Amount of Feed Consumed Per 100 Pounds of Gain for Fattening Pigs Increases with Their Live Weights............ 296 Well-fed, Busy Youngsters that will Grow into Good Porkers...... 297 The “Hog Motor,” a Device for Making Pigs Grind the Corn They Ba SAt aicG ie a oe pana ee ee en eateeede ta aha ctta 298 Diagram Showing the Acreage of Corn and Number of Swine and Cattle Listed in the Twelve Leading Corn-growing States in the Union, According to the Census of 1910................. 299 and 77. Pigs Fed for ‘Fat and Lean”..................00000-00- 301 Meal Time for the Swine Herd............ 0.0.00 cece cece eae 302 Making Pork on Rape and Oats.................. 2c eee cece eee 303 Making Pork on Blue Grass... 0.0.0.0... ccc cece eee eee eee eee 304 A Thrifty Bunch of Sows and Pigs Crowding around the Feed ET OUSIDE 500 4a he OME exons deans te he Gumi dpeeeee Eames eae piease 307 A Cement Feeding Floor Provided with Sanitary Substantial Troughs is an Essential to a Well-equipped Piggery.......... 309 Portable Hog-houses with Low, Flat Roofs..........2........0.. 310 Interior Arrangement of Hog-houses at Dllinois Station............ 311 The Self-feeder Saves Labor in Feeding Pigs and other Farm Animalssosevsvieust sarong Ae Se a Sages Pa ae aa 312 A Convenient Self-feeder for Supplying Charcoal and Mineral Matter to Pigs on Pasture......... 0... ccc cece eee ee eee 314 Pure-bred Flock of Mutton Sheep at the Morgan Horse Farm...... 319. A Fine Bunch of Yearling Rams................ 2.0 eee e cee eees 320 A Good Type of Mutton Sheep........... 0.0... cee cece e eee 320 Grade Dorset Lambs from Merino Ewes Make Excellent Hot- house: Lambseeiccsesioe sicwscuwne wea omen ee seasihcasanoranaatiedntaeng 326 Range Sheep in Feed Yards at Caldwell, Nevada................ 328 A Flock of Sheep on a Western Range...............0....000008 328 Lamb-feeding Corrals in Nevada............. 0.00 cee ceeee eee aes 329 Winter Scene of Range Sheep in the Nevada Mountains........... 330 A Flock of Angora Goats in the California Foothills.............. 332 An Imported Swiss Milch Goat.........--.-. eee sees Aedes 333 ILLUSTRATIONS Digestive Tract of a Fowl..........0.-.:: cece cece cece eee eees 337 Farm Poultry Colony House.............000 sec ee eee eee nes 340 Free Range for Growing Chickens...................- eMac 341 Interior of a Modern Poultry House..............0. 000002 e eee 343 Dry-mash Hoppers in Use.........0. 000000 ceeceeceeeeeeeceees 345 The Value of Green Feed in Poultry Feeding..................-. 349 Grain-sprouting Rack............0.00 000 c cece eee ete eee eens 350 Scattering Grain in the Litter........... 2... ccc eee cee 354 Two-compartment Fattening Crate............. 0c eee eee ee 356 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS INTRODUCTION PropuctiveE feeding of farm animals is only one of the factors on which successful animal husbandry depends; others are: Keep- ing the right kind of stock; giving it the necessary care and atten- tion and maintaining the animals in a healthy condition. Each of: these factors is of fundamental importance to the stockman. If one is not given due attention, the results secured will not be satis- factory, no matter how favorable the conditions with which the animals may be surrounded in other respects. A clear understanding of the main principles underlying the nutrition of farm animals has never been more important to the stock farmer than at the present time, with prevailing high prices for feed and labor. In order to secure profitable returns, the farmer must be able to adapt these principles to the special conditions that surround him; these are likely to vary in different years, both as to prices and products. Modern industries supply immense quantities of by-products that serve as feed for farm stock, such as flour- and oil-mill feeds, starch and sugar-factory feeds, brewery and dis- tillery feeds, and others. These differ much in nutritive values as well as in cost.' Since better results may.be obtained in feeding stock a combination of different feeds than from only one or two, it is important not only to understand the principles of stock feeding, but to become familiar with the different available feeding stuffs, their main characteristics and nutritive properties, as well as their relative values under changing market conditions. Only in this way can the stock farmer secure the best and most economical returns from his feeding operations and make stock raising pay; provided the other factors have received proper attention: Keep- ing animals adapted for the purpose in view, and giving them the care which they require in order to do well. Animal husbandry is one of the most remunerative branches of agriculture when rightly conducted, and it makes permanent agri- culture possible. The stock farmer is a manufacturer, converting: 1 2 INTRODUCTION the raw materials raised on the farm into valuable human food products. Generally speaking, the animal products sold contain only small amounts of fertility, and the stock farmer can, there- fore, secure good crops from his.land for an indefinite period with a relatively small outlay for fertilizers. He does not, like many grain farmers, rob the farm of its fertility until it will no longer produce paying crops, making it necessary to change the system of farming or to move on to some other section where the same method of selling the fertility of the land can be repeated. Stock farming can be pursued on the same land with excellent results from generation to generation, and for centuries, as is shown by conditions in the agricultural regions of the Old World. The livestock farmer utilizes his own labor and that of his family throughout the year, and not only during the growing sea- son. Stock raising in general leads to thrift and develops some of the best qualities in man. His children grow up with young stock and learn to enjoy and love them, and thus in turn acquire one of the fundamentals for successful animal husbandry, an apprecia- tion of good stock and love of animals. Without these qualities, a farmer is not likely to give his stock the watchful care that they require for best results. There are various reasons why animal husbandry will continue to be one of the best paying branches of agriculture in America. One is, that our population is increasing considerably faster than is the number of farm animals. This holds true of all classes of livestock, except horses; there has, in reality, been an actual de- crease in the number of cattle, sheep, and swine in this country since the beginning of the present century, while our population in- creased over twenty per cent from 1900 to 1910. Another reason why stock raising will prove a profitable busi- ness in the future is the fact that it is not likely to be overcrowded. Stock raising calls for a larger investment than grain farming, and many farmers do not have or cannot secure the necessary capital to engage in animal husbandry; this is true especially of the large and increasing class of tenant farmers in many of the States. Furthermore, it takes from nearly a year to three or four years, according to the system of stock raising adopted, before the invest- ment will yield any revenue. Like people in other walks of life, many farmers lack the necessary business ability and foresight to plan ahead for such a period. If cattle, e.g., are low, and produce little or no revenue one year, it is easy to get discouraged, and many cannot see that such a period is just the time when one should INTRODUCTION 3 plan for cattle raising, since a shortage of cattle with resulting high prices is certain to follow a period of low prices. The preceding considerations suggest the reasons for the belief held by those familiar with the situation, that the prospects for the livestock industry in this country are very bright. In spite of the high cost of feed and labor and the rise in land values during the last decade, the industry will furnish excellent opportunities for farmers that give their stock good care. But the changed condi- tions call for a higher type of farming and stock raising than that followed by the majority of farmers of earlier times. Only improved stock, bred for the specific purpose in view, can give the results that must be reached to make stock raising profit- able on high-priced land, and systems of feeding and management must be adopted that will secure such returns at a minimum cost. To be successful, the stock raiser must be a student and a business man, in addition to a farmer. He should secure all the technical knowledge relating to his profession that he can, and understand the leading principles of the livestock industry, so that he may be prepared to grapple successfully with the problems that confront the stockman. PART I PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER I THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS THE feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of farm animals are, as a general rule, of vegetable origin. They are either farm crops grown especially for this purpose, or are by-products from manu- facturing processes in which farm crops furnish the raw materials. It will be well, therefore, to examine into the composition of plants at the outset, in order that the discussions given in the following pages relative to the feeding of farm animals and problems con- nected therewith may be clearly understood. Chemical Elements.—Plants are composed of an immense number of different compounds; some of these are present in large proportions, others in only small amounts. When these compounds are separated into their ultimate constituents we find that they con- tain a relatively small number of substances which, according to our present knowledge, cannot be further subdivided. These sub- stances are known as elements. About a dozen of the elements are absolutely necessary to plant life, and no plant can grow in the absence of one or more of them. These so-called essential elements are: Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potas- sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, fluorin, and todin. A few other elements may not be essential to plant growth, but are always present in plants. These are: Sodium, chlorin, silicon, and manganese. The first group of elements, in fact the first six of them, make up the bulk of all plant materials; over 95 per cent of the weight of most plants and feeding stuffs is composed of these few elements. But the other essential elements, although present in small amounts, are equally important, since plants cannot grow to maturity if any of them be lacking in the soil or not available to the plant. Group of Components in Feeds.—The elements given in the preceding paragraph are present in plants in ehemical combinations with each other, forming in some cases very complex substances 5 6 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS whose exact composition has not yet been ascertained. For our present purpose they may, however, be conveniently considered as belonging to a few groups of substances which can be readily deter- mined by chemists. These groups of components are separated in the customary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs, and the per- centage quantities present in each are ascertained. For the pur- poses of chemical analysis and for our discussions we may thus consider plant materials composed of— I. Water. II. Dry substance. The dry substance of plants is of either (1) mineral or (2) so- called organic origin. The former components are known as mineral matter or ash; while the organic matter is composed of the following groups of substances: Protein, fat, nitrogen-free extract, and fiber. The last two belong to a group of substances known as carbohydrates. The schedule given below will help to make clear these various groups of plant components: Plants contain— Composed of the elements Ty Water sc. sacsantg ccawlasieien $44:6.6.0:66 0 Oxygen, hydrogen. Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, chlo- rin, iron, phosphorus, silicon, etc. II. Dry substance: 1. Mineral matter (ash) Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 2. Protein............ | nitrogen, sulfur (and sometimes phosphorus). Be Fates cca ste x ees 4. Nitrogen-free exact} Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. 5. Fiber.............. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS Water is found in all plants and plant materials, ranging in amount from 5 per cent to 95 per cent in extreme cases. Some factory by-products which have been artificially dried contain less than 10 per cent, in some cases as low as 5 per cent of water. Hay: and dry coarse feeds generally contain from 10 to 20 per cent, while corn fodder (stover) and some kinds of hay, as alfalfa, will occasionally contain as much as 30 per cent of water when im- perfectly cured or exposed to damp or rainy weather. The cereals and most concentrated feeds contain about 12 per cent water ; green forage crops from 70 to 90 per cent; silage, 70 to 80 per THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 7 cent; root crops, beet pulp, and wet brewers’ grains, 80 to 90 per cent; in case of turnips and some vegetables, as pumpkins, the water content may reach even 93 to 95 per cent (Fig. 1). A knowledge of the amount of water in a feeding stuff is im- portant, both because its value for the nutrition of farm animals is dependent thereon and because its keeping quality is affected thereby. An excessive water content renders plant materials liable to decomposition through the growth of bacteria and molds. Water is the vehicle by which nutrients in both plants and ani- mals are transported from one part to another. Plants absorb it from the soil through their roots, and with it take up mineral matter held in solution in the soil water. The quantity of water 9 10 20 3040 so 66070 80 =690—s*100 MANGELS SKIM MILK TURNIPS cows’ MILK RAPE PASTURE GRASS GREEN CORN GREEN CLOVER CORN STALKS CLOVER HAY TIMOTHY HAY WHEAT BRAN INDIAN CORN OIL MEAL ORIED BEET PULP Fia. 1.—Water in common feeding stuffs, in per cent. thus taken up by plants is very large, and this is partly retained in the cells and the sap of the plants, and partly again evaporated through the leaves. For every pound of dry substance in the plant it has been found that about 400 pounds of water are required, on the average, the exact figure varying from below 300 to over 1000 pounds, according to the character of the soil and the crop. Dry Substance.—The components of the dry substance of plants considered in the following pages are: Mineral matter or ash, protein, fat, nitrogen- -free extract, and fiber. Mineral matter in plants is derived from the soil through the root system. This is the portion of the plants which remains as ashes after combustion. It is composed of the elements already given and, in addition, of many elements that happen to be present 8 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS in the soil where the plant grew. The elements found in the mineral matter are present in one or two forms: Hither in inorganic form, in combinations of two or more of the elements, as sulfates, phos- phates, nitrates, chlorides, or silicates, combined with bases, as _ potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron; or in organic form, as constituents of organic compounds. Especially in the case of seeds of plants the ash materials are present largely in the latter form. _ Ordinary feeding stuffs contain, as a rule, only relatively small amounts of mineral matter, viz.: Less than 5 per cent, except in the case-of some factory by-products and dry forage, in which the ash content may go even above 10 per cent. Leafy plants con- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 90 100 HO 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 ALFALFA HAY COTTON-SEED MEAL CLOVER HAY WHEAT BRAN LINSEED MEAL DRIED BEET PULP TIMOTHY HAY DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS OATS” CORN 6LUTEN FEED POTATOES SE RSE SS RE RO 2 Se ee a a (SN A Fra. 2.—Mineral matter in a ton of common feeds, in pounds. tain relatively large percentages of ash, like all parts of plants in which a considerable evaporation of water takes place. On the other hand, by-products in manufacturing processes where the raw materials are treated with large quantities of water, as gluten feed, brewers’ grains, etc., have comparatively small ash contents (Fig. 2). Protein is a general name for nitrogenous organic compounds of a very complex chemical structure. They contain carbon; oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a small percentage of sulfur and, in some cases, phosphorus. The name protein was given to these sub- stances by Mulder, a German chemist, and means the first or the most important. This term is justified from a physiological point of view, inasmuch as protein is absolutely essential to animal life. The protein substances are characterized by the fact that all contain the element nitrogen, which is not found in the other groups THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 9 of organic plant substances. It was formerly believed that all pro- teins contain about 16 per cent nitrogen, and, since this element can be readily determined by the.chemist, the content of protein in a substance was obtained by multiplying the nitrogen content by422, or 6.25. Later investigations showed that the different protein sub- stances vary considerably in chemical composition, and that the per- centage of nitrogen they contain may range from 15 to over 19 per cent. Hence, the factor 6.25 is often not correct, but it is generally applied, since our knowledge of the composition of pure proteins from different sources is still incomplete. , We shall, therefore, con- tinue the use of the factor 6.25-in this book until chemists have agreed on specific factors to be used in the case of plant materials and feeding stuffs of different origin. Besides nitrogen, proteins contain between 50 and 55 per cent of carbon, 6 to 7 per cent hydrogen, 20 to 24 per cent oxygen, 0.3 to 2.3 per cent sulfur; the phosphorus content of the proteins in which this element is present ranges between 0.4 and 0.9 per cent. The average composition of protein substances may be given as follows: Carbon, 53 per cent. . Nitrogen, 16 per cent. Hydrogen, 7 per cent. Sulfur, 2 per cent. Oxygen, 22 per cent. nab The proteins form a most important group of nutrients, since they furnish the materials for building up body tissues and fluids ; other nutrients cannot take their place for this purpose. We shall see, however, that protein may also serve other purposes than to furnish material for tissue building when necessary, viz.: To supply energy that may be used for maintaining body heat, for performing work, or for storage as body fat. Classification of Protcins—Protein substances are generally classified as (1) simple, (2) conjugated, and (3) derived proteins. 1. Simple Proteins —The most important compounds in this group are given below. a, Albumins.—These are soluble in pure water and are coagulated and rendered insoluble by heat. They are present in small amounts in the sap. and seeds of plants. The main proteins found in the animal body belong to this class, viz.: Those of the muscle, blood, milk, and eggs. Leucosin found in the cereals, legumelin found in leguminous seeds, ricin in castor bean, and tuberin in potatoes, belong to this class. 6. Globulins are insoluble in water, but soluble in a 10 per cent sodium chloride solution. The globulins are abundant in plant materials and have been identified in many seeds of plants. The following are present in the cereals and other common seeds: Maysin in corn kernels, edestin in corn, wheat, cotton seed, and flaxseed, avenalin in oats, legumin and vicilin in leguminous seeds (peas, lentils, horse beans), glycin in soy- beans, and conglutin in lupines. 10 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS e. Alcohol-soluble proteims are insoluble in water and soluble in 70 to 80 per cent. alcohol. To this class belong gliadin found in wheat and rye grain, hordein in barley, and zein in Indian corn. : d. Glutelins are insoluble in water, salt solutions and alcohol, and soluble in dilute acids and alkali. Glutenin belonging to this group, with gliadin, formsthe gluten of flour; bread dough owes its stickiness to the gluten found therein; grains like rice which contain no gliadin cannot be used for bread making. Other simple proteins are albwminoids, histones and protamines; the first substances form the organic basis of bone; tendon and ligament; hair, hoof and nails, etc. These are the most resistant groups of protein sub- stances, being insoluble in ordinary chemical solvents, like water, alcohol, salt solutions, etc. 2. Conjugated Proteins.—These substances have been modified so as to possess different chemical and physical properties from the simple pro- teins, either through combination with other compounds or through the action of ferments, heat or chemicals. The nucleo-proteins belong to this group of which the best known is casein of milk. They contain phosphorus in addition to the elements that are always found in protein substances. 3. Derived Proteins —These are intermediate substances formed in the process of digestion by cleavage of the naturally-occurring proteins; they are diffusible and are assimilated by the living cell for use in the building- up (synthesis) of true proteins. Proteose and peptones are the first repre- sentatives of this class that are formed, when protein is acted upon by enzymes of the digestive juices (pepsin, trypsin, erepsin). On further cleavage these substances are changed into amino-acids, the final decomposi- tion products formed in the digestion of protein substances. The amino-acids are the primary building materials out of which the proteins of the animal body are formed. The different protein substances vary greatly in the kinds of amino-acids which they con- tain, and the proportion in which these occur in the protein molecule. The differences in the nutritive value of proteins of different origin that have been observed, appear to be intimately connected with this fact. There are eighteen different amino-acids known at present, all of which differ in their chemical constitution and the proportions in which they occur in different proteins. About one-half of this number are found in plants and plant materials. Among the more important amino-acids may be mentioned: glycine, leucine, glutamic acid, tyrosine, arginine, trypto- phane, lysine and cystine. Zein (the main protein of Indian corn) has been found to contain no glycine, tryptophane or lysine. Glycine is also absent in albumins and in gliadin. The vegetable proteins contain large amounts of glutamic acid, while the animal proteins are high in leucine and also con- tain appreciable amounts of glutamic acid. The amino-acids found in feed- ing stuffs other than the cereals and other seeds have not yet been sys- tematically studied, although a large amount of research work of these substances and their physiological value has been done during late years. Amides are a common name for soluble crystallizable protein sub- stances of simpler molecular structure than that of the protein sub- stances and even some of the amino-acids. While the latter usually occur in only small amounts in free form in plants, amides are found THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 11 in abundance in the sap of green and young plants, especially after Sprouting, as well as in all immature plant materials. The best known amides are asparagin, found in young asparagus, peas and beans ; glutamin and betain, found in the beet root, etc. The amides are intermediate products formed in the living plant from inorganic materials (nitric acid or ammonia), and are later changed into com- plex protein substances. They are also formed in the decomposition of proteins through the action of bacteria and molds, hence are always present in silage and other fermented feeds. dn contradistinction to total or crude protein (1.e., total nitrogen multiplied by 6.25), the protein substances other than amides and amino-acids are called true proteins. The amides are considered of inferior value in feeding farm animals by some authorities, but it has been shown that they will save body protein from decomposition, and, in some cases at least, they can be utilized for the building up of protein tissues in the animal body. Ainides are also present in small amounts in dry feeds and in most concentrates. The average proportion of non-protein (“ amide”) nitrogen in various feeds is as follows: Green forage crops, 20 to 40 per cent of the total nitrogen content, according to the stage when cut ; corn silage, 30 to 40 per cent ; mangels, 60 per cent; potatoes, 40 per cent; malt sprouts, 30 per cent; small grains, 3 to 11 per cent; mill feeds, 10 per cent, and oil meals, 4 per cent. High- and Low-protein Feeds.—Feeds rich in protein sub- stances are spoken of as high-protein feeds, or simply protein feeds or nitrogenous feeds, and those low in protein are called low-protein or starchy feeds. Among the former class (high-protein feeds) may be mentioned : Concentrates—Peanut cake meal, containing about 48 per cent protein; cotton-seed meal and soybean meal, 40 to 45 per cent; gluten meal, soybeans and linseed meal, 34 to 36 per cent; dried distillers’ grains, 32 per cent ; malt sprouts and dried brewers’ grains, 26 per cent. Coarse Feeds.—Pea hay, 22.9 per cent ; vetch and sweet clover, 18 per cent; alfalfa hay, white and crimson clover, 15 per cent. As examples of low-protein feeds may be given: Concentrates.—Cereal grains, 10 to 12 per cent; dried beet pulp, and corn and cob meal, 8 to 9 per cent; rice, 7.4 per cent. Coarse Feeds—Timothy hay, 5.9 per cent; hay from mixed grasses and Hungarian grass, 6 to 8 per cent; barley hay and oat hay, 8 to 9 per cent; straw from the cereals, 3 to 4 per cent; corn stover, 1 to 2 per cent; corn silage, 2.7 per cent (see Fig. 8, p. 42). 12 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Fats are organic compounds consisting largely of mixtures of fatty acids, combined with glycerine. (so-called glycerides). The more common fats are stearin, palmitin, and olein. The last-men- tioned glyceride is liquid at ordinary temperatures, and, if present in large quantities, renders the mixed fat liquid or very soft. Linoleic and linolenic acids are also found in the seeds of some plants, like flaxseed and soybeans; on exposure to the air in a thin layer, they 0 5 0 15 20 25 30 35 FLAXSEED SOYBEANS DRIED DISTILLERS’ GRAINS COTTONSEED MEAL LINSEED MEAL_ CORN OATS WHEAT BRAN GLUTEN FEED AYE . BARLEY CANADA PEAS MANGELS POTATOES SKIM MILK Fic. 3.—Fats in common feeding stuffs, in per cent. take up oxygen and “ set,” #.e., they dry and harden. This difference in the behavior on exposure to the air is characteristic of drying and non-drying oils. - Some seeds contain large proportions of fat (oil), while others, e.g., some of the cereals, are low in fat (Fig. 3). The coarse feeds contain other materials than fat which are soluble in ether, the solvent for fat used in chemical analysis, viz., chlorophy! and various resinous substances. The ether extract, in the case of these feeds, is, therefore, not as pure fat as that from concentrated feeds. The following figures show the average percentages of fat present in various feeds: Concentrates Per cent Coarse feeds Per cent RACE” send pesos ana eecustee 0.4 Soiling crops .......... 0.3 to 2.1 Wheat, barley, buckwheat 1.8 to 2.2 Hays ................ 1.7 to 3.6 Indian corn and oats....5.0 to 5.4 Straws ............... 1.2 to 2.3 Soybeans ..........005. V2 “Roots. »WWWaWQW WN DAIWA AQVAANARAH HALF FAT SLMMYLHLE== WW WWI WWNIO\ FAT DMATLE nn ®t CW WA OA VERY FAT CLE RNR RRR SWINE, WELL FED FAT SSSI ASA LLMLLLIZ: ae eee QYAMLES SC WSS WAIOON mm FAT == ASH PROTEIN WATER Fia. 6.—Composition of live animals less contents of stomach and intestines, in per cent. weight of animals with increasing age or during fattening is com- posed of more dry matter and less water than when the animal is young or has not been fattened, and not because the fat replaces the water in the body tissues (Fig. 6). The composition of the increase of live weight in fattening has been calculated by Lawes and Gilbert for steers, sheep, and hogs. They found that if a steer, for example, gained 100 pounds during fattening, these 100 pounds would be composed, on the average, as follows: Water, 23.8 pounds, and total dry matter, 76.2 pounds, made up of: Fat, 67.8 pounds, Protein, 7.3 pounds, Ash, 1.1 pounds. While lean animals consist of nearly two-thirds water and less than one-tenth fat, the increase in body substance during fattening THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 21 is over two-thirds fat and less than one-fourth water, and protein makes up only about 7 per cent of the increase. It is easy to under- stand, in view of these figures, why fat and older animals can com- mand higher prices than young or lean animals, and why the per- centage dressed weight of cattle, for example, is higher in the case of the former kind of animals than with the latter. Components of the Animal Body.—We shall now briefly con- sider the chemical composition and main characteristics of the various groups of components found in the animal body. Protein.—Protein substances are found in all parts of the ani- mal body, in the blood, lymph, muscles, connective tissues, milk, ete. The blood is the vehicle by which the digested and absorbed nutrients are distributed throughout the body, and which supplies its different parts with the substances necessary for growth and the exercise of vital functions. Blood makes up about 8 per cent of the body weight of horses, cattle, and sheep, and less than 5 per cent of that of the pig. It is composed of a liquid portion called plasma, in which the blood-cells or corpuscles are suspended. The plasma makes up about two-thirds of the blood; it contains three protein substances in solution, viz., fibrinogen, serum globulin, and serum albumen. On clotting of the blood or when it is whipped, the fibrinogen is changed, through a special ferment called thrombin, into fibrin, which entangles the blood-corpuscles and holds them in a solid clot. The liquid that separates from clotted blood on stand- ing is called blood-serum. There are two kinds of blood-corpuscles, red and white. The red corpuscles are minute, round discs, that vary in shape and size in different animals. They are composed of a spongy albuminoid substance which holds in its meshes the red coloring matter called hemoglobin. This is a very complex protein substance and con- tains about one-half of one per cent of iron, in addition to the ordi- nary components of protein. Hemoglobin is a dark, purplish red, crystalline substance which has great affinity for oxygen. It absorbs oxygen in the lungs, forming oxyhemoglobin; this again readily gives up its oxygen in the cells of the different body tissues when the oxidation (combustion) of nutrients takes place. The chemical changes that occur in the cells and are necessary for the continu- ance of life and for growth are dependent on this supply of oxygen and on the nutrients which are carried to the different parts of the body by the blood. 1See live weight and dressed weight of steers of different breeds and ages, Woll, “ Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen,” 6th ed., p. 206. 22 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The white blood-corpuscles (so-called leucocytes) are of larger size than the red ones, and are found in only small numbers com- pared with red corpuscles. The leucocytes have the power of going through the walls of the capillaries (p. 31), and can pass with the lymph i in between the cells of the tissues. In case some part of the body is injured or diseased, they collect there in large numbers, and on breaking down form pus. Their main function appears to be to destroy disease germs. The muscular tissues in animals consist approximately of 75 per cent water, 20 per cent protein, largely myosinogen (myosin), be- longing to the globulin group 3 per cent fat, less than 1 per cent carbohydrates (glycogen and dextrose), 0.2 per cent nitrogenous waste products (so-called extractives), and 1.0 to 1.5 per cent salts. The extractives are mainly creatin, with xanthine, uric acid, urea, and other waste products that are present in small quantities. The mineral matter in the muscle consists largely of potassium phos- phates ; small amounts of salts of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron are also present. Connective tissues form another class of nitrogenous organic substances in the animal body. To this group belong tendons, liga- ments, cartilage, skin, horns, hoofs, etc. They are all insoluble in water or salt solutions, and are only slightly attacked by acids or alkalies. Among tle substances of this group that have been identified only two need be mentioned here, collagen and keratin. The former is the main organic component of cartilage and bone, and also makes up a large proportion of tendons and ligaments. On long boiling with water, collagen is dissolved and forms gelatin, which solidities on cooling. Keratin is the main component of skin, hoofs, horns, wool, hair, and feathers, all substances that offer the greatest resistance to the action of solvents. Keratin contains 4 to 5 per cent sulfur in addition to the elements ordinarily found in protein compounds. On treatment with steam under pressure it is rendered soluble and forms glue. The manufacture of this material is an important side-line of the large -packing houses. Milk contains two important protein substances, casein and albumen. Casein belongs to the so-called nucleoproteins, combina- tions of albumen and phosphoric acid. It is suspended in a colloidal state in milk, and is not in perfect solution, hence may be separated out by means of centrifugal force. On addition of an acid to the milk, or through the action of exzymee, like rennin or pepsin, casein is precipitated, and the milk “curdles.” The manufacture of cheese from milk depends on this property of casein. Milk THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 23 albumen is soluble in water, and, like other albumens, is coagulated on heating above 80° C. (176° F.). Milk contains about 3.2 per cent casein and albumen, the content ranging between 2.5 per cent and 4.6 per cent, according to the quality of the milk; about 80 per cent of the total milk proteins is composed of casein; the rest is largely albumen. ° Fats may be present in animals as body fat, in the marrow of bones, and in milk. They occur in the former two as oval or round cells that are composed of a nitrogenous membrane filled with fluid fat in live animals. The body fat is similar in composition to the vegetable fats, being largely composed of glycerides of the fatty acids, stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids, but the proportions of the different glycerides vary from that of plant fats, and there are also characteristic components of animal fat which are not found in the vegetable kingdom. Milk fat is composed ‘of the three glycerides mentioned and, in addition, of about 8 per cent of glycerides of volatile fatty acids (mainly butyric acid), which give the char- acteristic fire flavor to fresh butter and, on decomposition, a ran- cid flavor to old butter. On account of the presence of these volatile fatty acids in butter it is possible to distinguish, by means of chemical analysis, between natural pure butter and artificial or adulterated butter. ; Body fat. may be deposited in animals receiving an abundant _supply of feed; it ‘is stored either between the layers of muscular ‘ “tissue, about the internal organs, or directly beneath the skin, espe- cially on the backs of animals. The body fat makes a reserve ma- terial that the animal can draw upon in time of a scarcity of feed. Through systematic liberal feeding and other favorable conditions the faculty to lay on body fat has been greatly developed in fatten- ing animals, especially pigs. Adipose tissue of pigs consists of about 92 per cent of pure fat, the balance being 6.4 per cent water and 1.35 per cent nitrogenous substances (membrane). Lipoids form a group of bodies that stand close to the fats. They are mixed with fats in various tissues and organs of the body. Only two of these substances will be mentioned here, lecithin and cholesterin. The former consists of glycerin and stearic and phosphoric acids, with a nitrogenous base known as cholin. It is found in the nerve tissues, cellular structures, and in the bile. Cholesterin is likewise found in the nerve tissues and cells of the body, and also in the liver, brain, eggs, and in wool fat. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and does not contain either nitrogen or phosphorus. In spite of relatively small quanti- 24 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ties in which the lipoids occur in the animal body, they appear to be of the greatest importance in the nutrition of animals, especially in the case of growing animals. Ash Materials.—The animal body contains the same ash ma- terials as are found in plants, and it holds true, as a general proposi- tion, that the elements which are essential to the life of plants are also essential to animal life. In the case of two elements, sodium and chlorin, the evidence at hand is not sufficient to show that they are absolutely essential to plants, but, since they are present in all soils, plants always contain an ample supply of both elements. It is definitely known, however, that both sodium and chlorin are essential to the growth of animals and to the continued exercise of their vital functions: We shall see that gastric juice, one of the digestive fluids of the body, contains free hydrochloric acid; this acid comes from the sodium chloride (common salt) found in the feed of the animals or eaten directly by them. Animals fed largely coarse feeds receive a sufficient amount of salt in the feed to supply their wants, but when fed much grain or other concentrates low in mineral matter, they need more salt than that contained in the feed; all farm animals relish salt greatly, and the practice ‘of “salting ” livestock has, therefore, become quite general. Salt improves the appetite of the animals and increases the flow of digestive juices; it promotes and regulates digestion and should, therefore, be furnished in ample amounts. In the case of milch cows at least, a supply of salt in addition to that in the feed is essential to their continued health, both because of their large feed consumption, especially grain feed, and because of the amount of chlorin that is daily removed in the milk. The general practice among dairy farmers is to supply about an ounce of salt daily per cow, placing it before them in the mangers or giving them access to salt in the yard. Unless milch cows have access to salt, abnormal conditions will soon appear which will result in a general break- down after a period varying with different cows from a month to more than a year. The gradual reduction in vitality of the animals which is brought about by a lack of salt, as shown by Babcock, is evidenced by “loss of appetite, a generally haggard appearance, lusterless eye, a rough coat, and a very rapid decline in both weight and yield of milk.” ? Phosphate of Lime——The mineral components present in the animal body in the largest quantities are lime and phosphoric acid. They make up the skeleton of the body and form about 80 per 2 Wisconsin Report 22, p. 154. THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 25 cent of its entire ash content. In the case of suckling or young growing animals it is important that the feed shall contain a sufficient amount of lime and phosphoric acid. A deficiency of these components in the feed will give rise to serious disorders in the bone structure of the young, as is shown in the case of pigs fed wholly or largely on Indian corn (pp. 300-301). Under ordinary conditions, when mixed rations are fed, there is generally little dan- ger of not furnishing enough of these two ingredients. The matter should, however, receive attention in feeding pregnant or nursing animals, or young growing animals, and heavy feeding of materials low in calcium or phosphorus should be avoided. Among the feeds low in lime (calcium) may be mentioned: Straw and chaff, the cereals and their by-products, as gluten meal and shorts, malt sprouts, dried brewers’ and distillers’ grains, roots, and molasses. Feeds high in lime, on the other hand, are: Hay from grasses and legumes, and many leguminous seeds. Straw, distillery feeds, molasses, mangels, and potatoes are deficient in phosphoric acid, while the small grains, wheat bran, malt sprouts, brewers’ grains, and oil meal, are high in phosphoric acid. If the rations fed are rather low in either or both of the ash materials mentioned, the deficiency may be made up by an addition to the feed of small amounts of bone meal, calcium phosphate or floats (ground phosphate rock). Potassium and Iron.—Of other essential mineral elements in the animal body, we shall mention only potassium, which is found especially in the cell walls, muscles, and blood; and iron, mainly found in the red coloring matter of the blood (hemoglobin, p. 21). There is no danger that the rations fed farm stock will be deficient in these or other physiologically important elements, like fluorin and silicon, since only very small amounts of them are required and an ample supply is always present in the feeds. QUESTIONS . Name the various groups of substances in the animal body and describe their main properties. . How much water, fat, and protein are contained in the body of a calf, a lean and a fat steer, a fat sheep, and a fat hog? . What is the composition of the increase in live weight during fattening? Name the different forms in which protein occurs in the animal body. What is hemoglobin? What are leucocytes, connective tissues, keratin? What protein substances are found in the milk? In what forms is fat found in the animal body? What are the lipoids? . What are the main mineral substances found in the animal body? . Give the office of common salt in the digestion of feeds and in animal nutrition, -~ SOMNIAM AS fp - CHAPTER III THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS Tue farm animals that chew their feed a second time are known as ruminants. Cattle, sheep, and goats belong to this class. The non-ruminants, on the other hand, are represented among the farm animals by the horse and the pig. The two kinds of animals differ radically in the anatomy of their digestive apparatus; the stomach of the ruminants consists of four divisions or sacs, of which the first three are mainly reservoirs for softening and holding the feed till it is returned to the mouth to be chewed again, while the fourth one is the true stomach, where a digestive fluid is secreted. The non-ruminating animals have only one stomach, into which the feed passes directly from the mouth and the gullet (cesophagus), and is acted upon by the digestive fluid secreted there. We shall consider separately the digestive apparatus of ruminants and non- ruminants. The digestive apparatus of ruminants consists, as already stated, of four separate compartments that are connected with one another, viz. : a. The rumen or paunch. b. The reticulum or honeycomb. c. The omasum or manyplies. d. The abomasum or the true stomach (Fig. 7). The first three stomachs are mainly enlargements of the ali- mentary: canal and serve as reservoirs for the feed before it is chewed the second time. The rumen or paunch is by far the largest one of the four stomachs and, in the case of grown cattle, holds about nine-tenths of the total capacity of them all. The abomasum, or fourth stomach, corresponds to the single stomach of the non-ruminants, and, like this, contains a digestive fluid which acts upon the feed. When the cow swallows her feed, which is partly chewed and well mixed with saliva, it passes down the gullet and partly into the paunch through a slit in the gullet, partly into the second stomach (honeycomb). It remains here for a time and is softened by the saliva and the watery secretions of the paunch wall. The contents of the paunch are given a churning motion which gradually forces it toward the funnel-shaped orifice of the gullet through compression of the paunch by the diaphragm 26 THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 27 and the abdominal muscles. ‘A portion of the softened mass is pressed at a time and conveyed into the mouth by a reverse, so- called peristaltic motion of the gullet. In the mouth it is chewed a second time and swallowed again. By the second chewing the cud or “bolus” is reduced to a pasty pulp, and it now passes directly through the cesophagus groove into the third stomach, the manyplies, without opening the slit in the gullet leading into the paunch. The manyplies has numerous hard, fleshy leaves, between. ee - E a FY Fic. 7.—The digestive apparatus of ruminants (a full-grown sheep): A, Rumen or paunch; B, reticulum or honeycomb; C, omasum or manyplies; D, abomasum or rennet stomach (fourth stomach); E, oesophagus or gullet, opening into first and second stomachs; F, opening of fourth stomach into small intestines; G, opening of second stomach into third; H, opening of third stomach into fourth. The lines indicate the course of the feed in the stomachs. (U. 8S. Department of Agriculture.) which the soft mass is pressed, allowing the liquid portion to pass into the fourth stomach, and the balance of the mass is likewise gradually emptied into this stomach. The Non-ruminants.—In the case of the non-ruminating ani- mals the feed passes directly from the cesophagus into the single stomach. In the horse this has two divisions: The lining of the left one does not secrete any digestive fluid, but the action of the saliva swallowed with the feed is continued here, and the fer- ments found in the feed itself (e.g., in the case of oats) may also 28 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS act on the starch. In the lining of the right side, on the other hand, there are numerous glands which secrete gastric juice, as in the case of the fourth stomach of ruminants. From this point on, the digestion of the feed takes place in essentially the same manner in non-ruminants as in ruminants. The Digestion of Feed.—The various digestive fluids which act on the feed during its passage through the body are (1) saliva, (2) gastric juice, (3) pancreatic juice and the bile, and (4) intestinal juice. Saliva.—The first step in the digestion of feed occurs in the mouth. When an animal is eating, the feed is crushed and ground by the teeth, and at the same time mixed with saliva. This is a digestive fluid secreted by several glands located beneath or at the base of the tongue. The secretion of saliva is stimulated by the presence of feed in the mouth, and the saliva is intimately mixed with the feed in the process of mastication, especially in the case of coarse and dry feeds. This insalivation of the feed serves two purposes: First, it moistens and softens the feed so that it may be readily swallowed. Second, saliva contains a digestive ferment, called ptyalin, which acts upon the starch of the feed, changing it to suger (maltose, the same sugar as is found in malted barley). Saliva is an alkaline, viscous fluid which is secreted in immense quantities in the case of the large farm animals. A‘horse fed on hay has been found to secrete over 10 pounds of saliva per hour. Oats require a little more than their own weight of saliva, and dry, coarse feed requires four times its weight. As a horse or cow will consume at least 24 pounds of dry feed in a day, it follows that the quantity of saliva secreted daily by these animals may reach or even go beyond 100 pounds (over 12 gallons). The Gastric Juice-—The digestion of the protein substances of the feed is commenced in the true stomach (abomasum) of the ruminants, or in the single stomach of the non-ruminants, where the feed comes into contact with the gastric juice, which is secreted here. This digestive fluid contains two ferments, pepsin and rennin, and also an appreciable quantity of free hydrochloric acid (about 0.5 per cent). Both rennin and pepsin have the faculty of coagulating the casein of milk, a wonderful provision of nature which insures that milk will remain in the stomach long enough to be acted upon by the stomach ferments, and its nutrients thus fully utilized by the animal. In young calves and other young ruminants the first three stomachs are not much developed, and THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 29 the milk passes directly into the fourth stomach, where it is curdled by the rennin and subjected to the action of pepsin. The latter ferment acts only in an acid medium and on protein sub- stances, which it causes to break up into soluble compounds, known as proteoses and peptones. Since the ptyalin of the saliva acts only in an alkaline solution, its action on the starch of the feed is stopped when the feed reaches the fourth stomach and is mixed with the gastric juice. From the fourth stomach the feed passes through a valve, called the pylorus, into the small intestine. This is a long, tortuous tract, about 120 feet long in cattle, in which three different diges- tive fluids are secreted or emptied: The pancreatic juice, the bile, and the intestinal juice. The pancreatic juice is secreted by the large gland called pan- creas (or sweetbread) and is emptied into the small intestine near its upper end, through a duct leading from the pancreas, This digestive fluid contains three specific ferments: Trypsin, amylop- sin, and lipase. Trypsin converts protein into soluble compounds, mainly peptones, but also compounds of simpler molecular struc- ture than those resulting from pepsin digestion, viz., amino acids. Amylopsin changes starch into sugar, and lipase (formerly called steapsin) acts upon the fats, splitting these up into their com- ponent parts, free fatty acids and glycerin (see p. 23). The bile plays an important part in the digestion of fats. It is a strongly alkaline, yellowish-green digestive fluid secreted by the liver and stored in the gall-bladder attached to the same. The bile acts upon the fats of the feed that are still unchanged, emulsifying these; i.¢., separating them into very minute drops or globules that may be either absorbed through the intestinal wall or readily acted upon by the fat-splitting ferment lipase of the pancreatic juice. It also aids in the absorption of the fatty acids. The bile contains a number of characteristic components whose importance in the digestion of feeds is not clearly understood, but it has several regulative and digestive functions besides those mentioned; it acts as a natural laxative and prevents an accumulation of waste ma- terials in the intestines, changing poisonous decomposition products of protein into harmless compounds that are excreted through the kidneys. The intestinal juice is secreted by numerous small glands in the mucous lining of the intestines, especially in the lower part of the tract. , 30 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS It contains three different ferments: (1) Erepsin, which acts upon the decomposition products of the proteins, albumose and peptones, in the same way as trypsin; (2) an amylolytic ferment which converts starch to sugar (maltose), and (3) invertases (sucrase, maltase, and lactase), changing the di-saccharides, cane-, malt-, and milk-sugar, into mono- saccharides (dextrose or glucose, see p. 14). From the small intestines the undigested material passes into the large intestine, where the formation of the solid excrements takes place. The ferments and bacteria, present here in immense numbers, continue their action until the mass has assumed the con- ' sistency peculiar to each species and is voided as faces. Summarizing the various steps in the digestion of the different components of feed, we note that— : Starch is changed into sugar (maltose) by the ptyalin of the saliva, the amylopsin of the pancreatic juice, and an amylolytic fer- ment in the intestinal juice. Fats are changed into free fatty acids and glycerin by the lipase of the pancreatic juice, and by the bile into emulsified fats or soaps. Proteins are changed into proteose and peptones by the pepsin of the gastric juice, and into amino bodies by the trypsin of the pan- creatic juice and the erepsin of the intestinal juice. In addition to the action of these various digestive ferments the feed is subjected to bacterial action in the paunch and the intes- tines. Through the fermentation processes caused by bacteria, the cellulose and considerable quantities of other carbohydrates are de- composed and converted into gaseous products, like marsh gas, carbon-dioxide, and free hydrogen, which are of no value to the ani- - mals except incidentally through the heat generated in these proc- esses; this may be of benefit in aiding to maintain the body temperature of the animals. Digestion of Feed by Non-ruminants.—The digestion of feed by the non-ruminating farm animals takes place, as previously suggested, in much the same way as in the case of the ruminants. The same digestive fluids act on the feed of the horse and other animals of this class as in the case of the ruminants, viz., saliva,’ gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice. These differ from the corresponding fluids secreted by ruminants mainly in point of concentration. The protein compounds are broken up into simple soluble substances, like peptones and amino acids; the starch is changed into maltose, and the fats into free fatty acids, emulsified fats, or soaps. The stomach of the horse has a capacity of 12 to 15 quarts, while the paunch of a cow or steer holds over 100 quarts. The horses cannot, therefore, eat as much of bulky THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 31° feeds at a time as cattle, nor can they digest coarse feeds containing considerable cellulose (fiber) so completely, as the ruminants. To make up in a measure for its small stomach, the horse has a large sac, cecum, which is about a yard long and corresponds to the vermiform appendix in man. The large intestine is also of con- siderable size and has several enlargements. The entire length of the alimentary canal of the horse is about twelve times the length of the body, that of the pig fourteen times and that of cattle and sheep twenty times or more the length of the body. The length of time during which the feed remains in the alimentary canal and is ex- posed to the action of the digestive enzymes (or to bacterial action in the intestines) will, therefore, vary in different animals. In cattle and sheep the undigested part of the feed is voided in three to four days, and in horses and pigs in one and one-half to two days. Absorption of Digested Materials.—The soluble materials and those that have: been broken down into simpler, largely soluble com~ pounds through the various processes of digestion. are absorbed to some extent by the mucous membrane of the stomach, but for the most part pass through the walls of the intestines.. The intestines are lined with innumerable fine projections called villi, inside of -which are found microscopic branches of two systems of vessels, the capillaries of the blood-vessels,' and the lacteals belonging to the so-called lymphatic system. The digested materials in the form of sugar, salts, soluble proteose and peptones, and similar compounds pass over into the capillaries by the process of osmosis. The capil-: laries are exceedingly fine blood-vessels that converge to a large, vein called the portal vein, through which the materials absorbed by the blood are taken into the liver. They are here distributed! through a second set of capillaries and then reunited, passing into the hepatic vein which leads to the heart. The emulsified fats and free fatty acids, or combinations of these with alkali (soaps), on the other hand, are taken up by the lacteals in the villi of the intestines. From these they pass into the lymphatic system and are later emptied into the thoracic duct which leads to one of the large veins before this enters the heart. The nutrients thus taken into the blood circulation come into contact with the oxidizing agent of the blood, the oxyhemoglobin, and are either directly oxidized in the blood or carried to the body tissues to repair waste and supply materials for the formation of new tissues. Very likely, both these processes occur simultaneously. Some of the digested and assimilated nutrients, especially sugar and lactic acid, soon disappear from the blood through oxidation; and the carbon-dioxide and water formed in the process of oxidation 32 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS are excreted through the lungs and skin. Other nutrients, like the mineral salts and soluble protein compounds, pass into circulation and are brought to the parts of the body where they are needed for building materials. The proteins are decomposed chiefly into. amino-acids in the process of digestion, and pass through the in- testinal wall as such, or possibly in part, as groups of amino-acids; they appear to be synthesized through the action of the living cell walls into more complex substances, from which the body is able to build its various protein tissues or fluids. In the same way the free fatty acids, and the soaps formed from these in the digestion of fats, are changed in their passage through the intestinal wall into neutral fats which enter the lacteals and pass into the circula- tion through the lymphatics. The carbohydrates of the feed, as we have seen, are changed to sugar in the process of digestion and enter the capillaries as such; from these the sugar passes into the blood circulation and enters the liver, along with all other nutrients except the fats. In the liver the sugar is changed into a carbohydrate of the same composi- tion as starch, called glycogen or animal starch, and is deposited as such in the cells of the liver. By this provision an accumulation of sugar in the blood is prevented, and the body has a base of supply of a readily available and oxidizable carbohydrate which can be drawn upon as needed. The liver normally contains only about 2 per cent of glycogen, but after heavy feeding with starchy feeds the content may rise as high as 10 per cent. Aside from furnishing ‘material for production of heat and muscular energy, glycogen may also serve as supply material for the formation of body fat and butter fat, in the case of fattening animals and milch cows, respectively. The fats may be stored between the muscular fibers or deposited as adipose tissue, or, in the case of females giving milk, may be changed into butter fat. We have seen that the muscular tissues of the body consist largely of protein substances, and that they are the form in which protein is stored in the animal’s body. This can take place only in the growing animal. Oxidation of body tissues con- tinues in the animal cells so long as life exists. The final oxida- tion products of protein substances in the body are carbon-dioxide and water (as in the case of carbohydrates and- fat), and, in addition, urea, which is excreted through the kidneys in the urine. As there are no gaseous nitrogenous decomposition prod- ucts formed, and urea represents the most important and, prac- tically speaking, the only nitrogenous decomposition product in the oxidation of protein substances in the body, it becomes a meas- ure of the protein decomposition in the body. By determining the THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 33 amount of urea excreted in the urine, say during a day, we are able to ascertain the amount of protein substances in the feed or of body tissues that have been decomposed during the day (see p. 44). Metabolism.—tThe chemical changes that occur within the body inci- dent to the exercise of vital functions and to growth are included under the general term metabolism. Metabolic processes in the animal body are of two kinds: Katabolic or destructive, those by which the food materials are broken into compounds of simpler structure, and anabolic or construc- tive, by which these simpler compounds are again built up into complex substances. The formation of peptones and amino acids from the proteins is a katabolic process, while the reverse change, the building up of these simpler compounds into body protein, albumen, globulin, ete., is a con- structive process. “Both kinds of processes take place continuously in the living body, as we have seen; they are essential to life, and are discontinued only when life ceases. QUESTIONS 1. Give the various groups of substances found in the animal body and state their main characteristics. 2. Why is it necessary to give salt to farm animals? 3. Name the various digestive fluids in the animal body, and state the changes which different components of feed undergo in the process of digestion. : 4. What is the difference between ruminants and non-ruminants? ‘5. Name the American farm animals that belong to each group. 6. Describe the difference between the digestive apparatus of ruminants and non-ruminants. . 7. Describe the process of absorption of the digested protein substances, carbohydrates and fat. CHAPTER IV USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS WE have seen that the animals, through their various digestive fluids, are able to dissolve certain feed components from the feeding stuffs which they eat, and that these components are used for main- taining the vital functions of the animals, and for the production of work, meat, milk, wool, etc., in the case of different farm animals. When only sufficient feed is supplied to maintain the body weight of the animal, no- production is possible, except in the case of milk-producing animals. Even when the supply of feed is not sufficient to prevent a loss of body weight, these animals will con- tinue to produce milk, and the interests of their young are thus safeguarded. But this is done at the expense of the flesh (or body fat) of the mother. Good milch cows with highly-developed dairy qualities will lose considerable weight under these conditions; this is especially apt to occur shortly after freshening, although a rather liberal supply of feed may be given, and it is often necessary to counteract this tendency to loss of flesh at this period by supplying special fattening feeds. Maintenance Requirements.—The amounts of feed required to maintain farm animals at an even body weight have been studied by a number of scientists since the middle of the last century, and the maintenance requirements of different classes of farm animals are now definitely known. This subject has both a theoretical and practical interest, and is of fundamental importance in the study ‘of the uses of feed by animals, since about 50 per cent of the feed they eat is used for body maintenance. -The earliest statements as to the maintenance requirements of farm animals came to us from Germany. Wolff’s maintenance stand- ard for cattle, for instance, called for a supply in the feed of the fol- lowing digestible components: 0.7 pound protein, 8 pounds carbo- hydrates, and 0.1 pound fat per 1000 pounds body weight and per day. Later investigations by Sanborn, Caldwell, Haecker, and others showed, however, that this is a larger allowance than neces- sary. The Haecker maintenance standard for barren dry cows is now generally accepted ; this calls for 0.7 pound protein, 7 pounds digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 pound digestible fat per 1000 pounds body weight. Of late years the amount of chemical energy which different 34 USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS : 35 feed components and feeding stuffs supply is generally taken to represent their value for feeding purposes, as will be shown pres- ently (p. 44). This has come largely through the studies of Stoh- mann, Rubner, and Kellner in Germany, and Armsby in this country. The maintenance rations for different animals per thousand pounds or one hundred pounds body weight formulated by Armsby are as follows:! Armsby Standard Maintenance Rations Digestible true Energy value, Live weight . protein therms Cathe nica Rabari enka 1000 pounds 0.50 pound 6.0 Horse iss shot iss aes aes 1000 pounds 1.00 pound 7.0 Sheep see cee. ce cass ov ws 100 pounds 0.10 pound 1.0 Swine? ose. caseecwe das 100 pounds 0.10 pound 1.12 ie ip Bulletin 163. The amount of digestible protein is crude, and not true protein The figures given for the amounts of digestible protein and energy values for maintaining swine at an even weight are derived from recent investigations by Professor Wm. Dietrich, formerly of the Illinois Experiment Station. There are a number of factors that influence the maintenance requirements of animals; among these may be mentioned: The muscular activity of the animals (whether standing or lying), temperament, external conditions tending to affect the degree of muscular activity, condition or amount of fat tissue carried, and external temperatures.” It is believed, however, that the feeding standards show with a considerable degree of accuracy the average amounts of digestible true protein and energy values required by the different classes of farm animals given for the maintenance of an even body weight. It is generally assumed that the maintenance requirements of animals are proportional to their live weights; i.e., a cow weighing 1200 pounds will require 50 per cent more feed for. the maintenance of her body weight than an 800-pound cow. This is not correct, however, although sufficiently so for most practical purposes. ‘The maintenance requirements increase with the surface of the animal, and this is approximately proportional to the squares of the cube-roots of the weights of similar animals. If a cow weighing 800 pounds requires, say, 8 pounds of digestible nutrients for maintenance, a 1200-pound cow would require 8 X V (4229)2 or 10.48 pounds, and a 1600-pound cow, 12.7 pounds. 1 Farmers’ Bulletin 346, ? Pennsylvania Bulletin 111. 36 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Uses of Feed.—It has been shown that the digested and assimi- lated feed is oxidized in the cells and tissues of the body; the chemical energy thus set free is utilized in one or more of three different ways: As kinetic energy, for the maintenance of the body heat,’or as mechanical energy, for the production of internal work in the body of the animal or for mechanical labor (horses, mules, and oxen), or as chemical energy stored in the form of animal products. If the energy supplied in the feed is more than sufficient to cover the demands for the first two purposes given, the excess may be stored up in the body in the form of animal products, like meat, fat, milk, eggs, etc., which may later serve to supply energy to man or other animals when used in their feed. The functions of the different components of feed are, briefly stated, as follows: Protein.—Flesh-forming substances. Essential for the produc- tion of lean meat, muscles, skin, ligaments, horns, hair, wool, milk, etc. When present in excess in the feed, used for production of body fat or as fuel, to give warmth and energy. Of general value in stimulating nutritive processes in the body. Fats.—Furnish fuel to keep the animal warm and produce energy. Aid in the production of fatty tissue. For the produc- tion of heat, 2.25 times as valuable as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates—Supply fuel to keep the animal warm and produce energy for muscular work. They are transformed into fats for the production of fatty. tissue.* Feed for Production.—The portion of the ration fed an animal over and above maintenance requirements is the productive part of the ration; the higher this can be increased up to the capacity of the animal for digestion and absorption of feed, the better are the returns obtained and the more economical is the production, so far as feed consumption is concerned. The amounts of nutrients required by the different farm animals for productive purposes have been determined in similar ways as in the case of the maintenance standards. The first attempts to formulate general standards for farm animals were made by the German scientist Grouven in 1858. He gave the quantities of total dry substance, protein, and fat which an animal of a certain age would require daily in its feed ration. A somewhat later effort in this direction is represented by the standards proposed by Wolff, in which the amounts of digestible components required by different classes of farm animals under varying conditions are given. *North Carolina Bulletin 106. USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 37 Feeding Standards.—The Wolff standards were brought to the attention of American farmers in the seventies, and, mainly through’ the publication of Armsby’s “ Manual of Cattle Feeding,” in 1880, they became quite generally known here as “the German feeding standards.” They were modified in 1897 by Lehmann, another German scientist, and ten years later Kellner proposed a new set of standards, based on contents of digestible protein and “starch values ”; ¢.¢., the amounts of different nutrients or feeds equivalent to one pound of starch for the production of body fat by mature fattening steers. These and similar standards suggested by Armsby are the latest contributions to this subject. In order that students may become familiar with the two methods of determining the requirements of different farm animals, we shall give in this book both sets of standards, known as the Wolff-Lehmann and the Armsby standards, based respectively upon digestible components of feeds and the digestible true protein and energy values, measured in therms.* Wolff-Lehmann Standards.—The feed requirements for dif- ferent farm animals of average body weights, according to these standards, are as follows: Feed Requirements per 1000 Pounds Live Weight.—W olff-Lehmann * Digestible Dry Aut matter, -. |Carbohy- live pounds oan dratos, wonntia ratio, 1: Fattening steers, first period..... 30 2.5 15.0 5 6.5 Milch cows, yielding 22 pounds milk daily ................ 29 2.5 13.0 5 5.7 Fattening sheep, first period..... 30 3.0 15.0 5 5.4 Horses, medium work.......... 24 2.0 11.0 6 6.2 Fattening swine, first period..... 36 4.5 25.0 7 5.9 As all the main feeding stuffs in this country, like corn and corn products, oats, mill feeds, oil meal, hay, etc., are relatively high in fat, there is no danger that the rations will not contain sufficient amounts of this component; it does not, therefore, call for special consideration, and has generally been merged with the carbohydrates in this book, according to its carbohydrate equivalent (by multiply- ing with 2.25, see p. 46). Stated in this manner, the Wolff-Leh- “One therm is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1000 kilograms of water 1 degree C. (see p. 45). 38 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS mann standards become very simple and are as easily applied as any standard so far proposed for farm animals. The nutritive ratio of a feed (or a ration) is the proportion between the digestible protein and the sum of the digestible carbo- hydrates and fat contained therein. The fat is changed to its carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying with 2.25, because it has 2.25 times as high heat value as similar amounts of carbohydrates. For example, the nutritive ratio is expressed as 1: 6.5, meaning that there are 6.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat combined for every pound of digestible: protein. The nutritive ratio is cal- culated as follows, e.g., in the case of the first ratio given above: 0.5 (digestible fat) 2.25 = 1.13; 15.0 (digestible carbohydrates) +- 1. 13 (the carbohydrate equiv- alent of the digestible fat) = 16.13; 16.13 + 2.5 (digestible protein) = = 6.5. The nutritive ratio of the ration for milch cows given is figured in the same way, as follows: 5 XK 2.25 = 1.18; 13.0 41.13 = 14.13; 14.13 + 2.5 = 5.7; the nutritive ratio is, therefore, 1 : 5.". The Armsby Standards. —The estimated feed requirements for different classes of farm animals according to Armsby are given in the following table; the figures show the amounts of digestible true protein and energy values, expressed in therms, that should be sup- plied daily to growing cattle and sheep at different ages. These figures in all cases include the maintenance requirements for the various animals.® Estimated Feed sas per Day and per Head (including the Maintenance Requirements).—Armsby. Growing cattle Growing sheep gers Live Digestible Energy Live Digestible Energy weight, protein, values, weight, protein, values, - pounds pounds therms pounds pounds therms 3 275 1.10 5.0 ine or 6 425 1.30 6.0 70 30 1.30 9 I ted gab pe 90 25 1.40 12 650 1.65 7.0 110 23 1.40 15 ae ae a 130 23 1.50 18 850 1.70 7.5 145 22 1.60 24 1000 1.75 8.0 isnt i 30 1100 1.65 8.0 St 5 Farmers’ Bulletin 346. USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 39 For fairly mature fattening animals (e.g., two- to three-year- old steers) 3.5 therms per pound of gain in live weight are believed to be sufficient, and a similar amount of digestible protein is recommended as in feeding for normal growth. Requirements for Milk Production—For the production of a pound of average milk containing about 13 per cent solids and 4 per cent fat, 0.05 pound of digestible protein and 0.3 therm of energy value are considered ample, milk rich in fat and in total solids re- quiring more nutriment than milk containing more water or a lower percentage of fat. Recent work by Haecker and by Eckles has fur- nished additional data on this point. The results obtained by these investigators are important contributions to the subject of feed requirements of dairy cows. The tentative statement of the requirements for the production of milk containing different per- centages of butter fat given by Hckles is as follows :° Feed Requirements for Different Grades of Milk [ Per pound of milk Per cent fat in milk Digestible Energy values, protein, pounds therms 3.0 .050 26 . 4.0 1055 30 5.0 062° .36 6.0 .070 45 The method of calculating rations according to the Wolff-Leh- mann and Armsby standards will be explained fully when the uses of nutrients by different animals and the various feeding stuffs available for farm animals have been discussed. QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the maintenance requirements of animals? 2. Give maintenance ration for a 1000-pound cow according to (a) the Wolff-Lehmann standard, (b) the Armsby standard. ; 3. Give the feed requirements for fattening swine according to the Wolff- Lehmann standard. . What is meant by nutritive ratio? Give an example. . Show how the feed requirements for a dairy cow are calculated according to the Armsby standard. oP *Missouri Research Bulletin 7. CHAPTER V DETERMINATION OF THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS THE nutritive walue of different feeding stuffs may be determined by two different methods: First, by chemical analysis and digestion trials with farm animals; second, by trials with animals in a respira- tion apparatus or respiration calorimeter. The first method shows the proportions of the feeds that are dissolved in the digestive processes, while the second method furnishes direct information as to the nutritive effect of the feeds or rations and shows the uses which an animal makes of the feed eaten. Digestion Trials—The digestibility of feeding stuffs is deter- mined in so-called digestion trials with animals. Numerous such trials have been conducted with ruminants during the past half- century in this country and abroad, and a number of trials have also been conducted with horses, pigs, and poultry. In these trials the animals experimented with are fed the feeding stuff whose digestibility is to be determined, for a period of about a week, and the solid excrements voided by the animal are then collected for another week. Samples of both the feed eaten and of the feces are taken for chemical analysis, and by a comparison of the total amounts of feed components in each the proportion of each com- ponent retained or digested by the animal may be determined and calculated on a basis of percentage digestibility. An example will readily explain the method of calculation. In an experiment by the author, in which the digestibility of corn silage was to be determined, a cow was fed, on the average, 55.0 pounds of silage per day; a small amount, 0.71 pound, was re- fused. She voided 58.8 pounds of dung daily during the trial. Chemical analyses were made of both the silage fed and that refused, as well as of the dung voided. The digestion coefficients for the silage were then calculated as shown below: Digestion Trial with Corn Silage Dry ' |Nitrogen- Protein, Fat, iber, f ; Sends pounds pounds gown decrack, sas : pounds In 54.3 pounds of silage. .| 20.55 ‘| 1.52 67 4.25 | 13.23 88 In 58.8 pounds of dung. .| 7.62 .68 12 2.29 3.73 72 Digested...... biciethaetaaNs 12.93 84 55 1.96 9.50 .16 Digested in per cent.....| 62.9 55.3 82.1 45.4 71.8 18.2 40 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 41 The results show that the dry matter of the corn silage was found to be 62.9 per cent digestible, the protein 55.3 per cent, the fet 82.1 per cent; i.e., the digestion coefficients for the different com- ponents in the feed were as follows (leaving off fractions): Dry matter, 63; protein, 55; fat, 82; fiber, 45; nitrogen-free extract, 72, and ash, 18. If the digestion coefficients for the organic matter in silage is wanted, it is readily obtained by calculating the amount of this component in the feed and feces, as follows: In silage, 20.55 (dry matter) minus 0.88 pound (ash) equals 19.67 pounds (organic matter) ; in feces, 7.62 less 0.72 equals 6.90; 19.67 less 6.90 equals 12.77; percentage digestible, 12.77 divided “by 19.67 equals 64.4. It was found, therefore, that 64 per cent of the organic matter of ‘the silage was digestible. In the case of feeding stuffs that cannot be fed alone (i.¢., a grain feed for ruminants) it is necessary to feed it along with some feed of known digestibility that will supplement it so that when fed together they will make at least a fairly normal ration. The cal- culated amounts of digestible components in the second feed are then deducted from the total digestible amounts of the various components in the ration fed, and the difference is calculated on a percentage basis of the total amounts present in the feed whose digestibility was to be determined (Fig. 8). Interpretation of Results.—The figures obtained in digestion trials show the proportion of the components of the feed that have been dissolved by the digestive fluids of the body and retained for the uses of the animal. This is true only in a general way, for various factors render the matter much more complicated. There reappears in the dung not only the undigested matter of the feed, but small amounts of residues of the digestive juices, waste prod- ucts in the activity of the digestive organs, and intestinal mucus. A correction can be made, however, for the presence of these in the dung by determining the amounts of these waste products. This is done by means of artificial digestion of the dung with a pepsin- hydrochloric-acid solution (Kiihn’s method), and making proper deductions for these in the calculations. Another and more serious source of error is introduced by the fact that the feed is subjected to the action of bacteria and ferments in the paunch and intestines, through which gaseous products are formed, as previously stated (p. 30). These attack especially the fiber of plant materials, and the figures obtained for the digestibility of these components, there- fore, include a portion which has not been dissolved by the digestive 42 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS . fluids of the animals and taken into circulation. This portion does not contribute to the maintenance or the growth of the body, and is of value to the animal only in so far as the heat generated by the fermentation processes helps to maintain an even body temperature. In spite of these errors to which digestion trials 10 20 30 40 ‘$0 60 70 80 90 NUTRITIVE RATIO COTTON-SEED MEAL Us WW DELETE WY 112 LINSEED MEAL PTITIATIIUIATIIIIRUIL MUU L5 SOYBEANS ee : TLE 18 DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS WWM OY 2.3 GLUTEN FEED UML LLL 2.4 ae a COW PEAS YYW UML TLL ETE 3.1 WHEAT BRAN WM 4.0 ALFALFA HAY YUU 43 WHEAT MIDDLINGS MAMMAL 46 RED CLOVER HAY UW 5.9 OATS ae 6.2 RYE EI ZL ALLL TLR TOTO TLL 78 BARLEY LL LE LLL Ws WU 8.0 INDIAN CORN eee WW 99 DRIED BEET PULP WMO OVWIB LU 1.9 fu TIMOTHY HAY WU LL 16.2 CORN STALKS WMO, 236 OAT STRAW YM MM EL, 383 SKIM MILK We 20 COWS’ MILK 38 PASTURE GRASS 45 MANGELS 49 RAPE 43 TURNIPS 77 CORN SILAGE 120 meet PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES ANO FAT Fig. 8.—Digestible components and nutritive ratios of common feeds, in per cent. are subject, the results obtained by them are of the greatest value to both the feeder and the student of nutrition problems. Until the latter part of the last century, our theories of these problems and the science of animal nutrition rested almost wholly on the knowledge of the feeding stuffs gained through chemical analysis and digestion trials, NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 43 Coefficients of Digestibility—The average digestion coeffi- cients for a number of important feeding stuffs are given in the following table. Complete compilations of digestion coefficients determined for American feeding stuffs will be found in several U. S. Department of Agriculture and State publications, as welt as in standard reference books on the subject; these compilations also give the number of separate trials conducted and the number of animals experimented with in each case, as well’as the variations in the results of the separate trials. ae Digestion Coefficients for Ruminants Dry ata : j i) Nitrogen- aiation Protein Fat- Fiber sie Pasture grass 71 70 63 7. | %3" Green alfalfa. . he 61 74 39 43 72 Timothy hay 55 48 50 50 62 Meadow ‘hay 61 57 53 60. 64 Indian corn. eoidiiece Micaied Oh 68 55 74 65 73 Corn stover....:........ 57: 36 67 64 59 Corn silage............. 66 50 82 64 71 Corn meal............... 88 66 91 — 92 Oatsescacsi sees tere ee 70 77 89 31 77 Wheat bran............. 66 77 63 41 71 Wheat middlings.....:.. 82 88 86 36 88 Pea meal............... 87 83 55 26 94 Linseed meal (old process) 79 89 89 57 78 Cotton-seed meal........ 77 83 94 35 78 Mangels................ 87 70 —_ 37 95 Sugar beets............. 92 72 _— 34 97 Respiration Studies.—The second method by which the nutri- tive effect of feeding stuffs may be studied is by respiration experi- ments, involving the use of either a respiration apparatus or a so-called respiration calorimeter. The Respiration Apparatus.—The first apparatus of this kind was constructed by Pettenkofer, the great Munich chemist. It consists of a large air-tight chamber, through which a measured current of air is maintained. The animal experimented with is kept in this chamber for a given period, 24 hours or longer. By weighings ard analyses of the feed, water, and air taken in by the animal, as well as of the gaseous and solid products given off, the intake and outgo of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other ele- *Bulletin 77, Office of Experiment Stations; Massachusetts Report, 1912; Henry, “ Feeds and Feeding,” p. 574; Jordan, “ The Feeding of Ani- mals, p. 427. 44 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ments from the body can be determined with great accuracy. The effect of a given ration on the nutritive processes in the animal body is thus ascertained, and it is possible to determine whether the animal lost or gained in flesh or body fat on the ration fed, and also the exact amount of the gain or loss. An example will illustrate how this information is obtained. A steer received daily the following amounts of nitrogen and carbon in the feed, water, and air: 0.44 pound nitrogen and 13.25 pounds carbon; he excreted in the urine, dung, vapor, and gases given off during the 24 hours 0.35 pound nitrogen and 12.10 pounds carbon, or there remained in the body 0.09 pound nitrogen and 1.15 pounds carbon. Pure muscular tissue (lean meat) contains, on the average, 16.67 per cent nitrogen and 52.54 per cent carbon. The addition of 0.09 pound nitrogen, therefore, equals 0.09 multiplied by 100/16.67, or 0.54 pound of dry lean meat; this amount contains 0.28 pound car- bon (0.54 pound multiplied by 52.54/100). The difference between this amount of carbon and that remaining in the body is 0.87 pound. As only very small amounts of other non-nitrogenous components than fat are found in the body, we are safe in assuming that the excess of the carbon was used for the formation of body fat; as this contains, on the average, 67.5 per cent carbon, the difference of 0.87 pound equals 1.14 pounds of fatty tissue which. was added during the day. The steer gained 0.54 pound of dry lean meat and 1.14 pounds body fat during the day. If the increase was 2.50 pounds a day on the average throughout the experimental period, the difference, amounting to 0.82 pound, was composed of water and a small amount of mineral matter, both of which can be readily determined. Calorimetry.—The value of a feeding stuff for the nutrition of animals depends, to a large extent, on the amount of chemical energy that is set free when it is oxidized. This energy may be utilized for the production of body heat, work, or animal tissues. The burning of a material in a stove and the oxidation of the digested nutrients in the animal body are similar chemical proc- esses differing mainly in the intensity with which they run their course. In either case organic substances unite with the oxygen of the air or of the blood, respectively, and form carbon-dioxide and water (also urea in the case of protein substances oxidized in the body). The same amount of heat is given off whether the oxidation takes place in the body or outside of it. The heat evolved on com- bustion is a measure of the chemical energy which is stored up in NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 45 the feeding stuff, and may be used by animals for maintenance and production. Various units have been employed for measuring the heat of combustion. The common unit is a Calorie, which represents the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilo- gram of water one degree Centigrade, or that of a pound of water very nearly four degrees Fahrenheit. A therm, as proposed by Armsby, means 1000 Calories, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1000 kilograms of water (or 2204.6 pounds) one degree Centigrade. _This unit has been quite generally adopted of late and will be used in the following pages. The various components of feeding stuffs contain certain amounts of oxygen and are, therefore, partially oxidized. Carbo- hydrates thus contain about 50 per cent of oxygen, fats 10 to 12 per cent, protein 22 per cent (pp. 9, 12, 14). The amount of heat evolved in the combustion of any organic material depends on the propor- tion of oxygen it requires for complete oxidation of the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other chemical elements contained therein. This amount can be calculated in the case of stbstances of known composition, and directly determined in a so-called calorimeter. The Calorimeter.—This apparatus consists of a well-insulated, double-walled compartment, into which a platinum shell or bomb is introduced and submerged in water. A weighed small amount of the substance whose heat of combustion is to be determined is introduced into this shell with compressed oxygen, and ignited by means of an electric spark. By noting the rise in temperature in the’surrounding water the amount of heat given off by the sub- stance on complete combustion can be calculated. Chemical Energy.—It has been found by direct experiments that the chemical energy of different classes of nutrients and feed- ing stuffs is as follows: Chemical Energy in 100 Pounds, in Therms Pure nutrients Protein: Carbohydrates: Wheat gluten ........... 272 Starch, cellulose ......... 190 Gliadin, serum albumen... 268 Glucose ..... 02. c cee enees 170 Egg albumen, pure lean Sucrose, lactose, maltose.. 179 MEAE: sipacisiede eee ee 259 ~=Fats: Blood fibrin ............ 256 Steers and swine ....... 425 Sheep ss0) cseaiessars cies 427 Corn Oi] ........ eee eee 421 ; Common feeding stuffs Flaxseed meal .......... 267 Alfalfa hay, mixed hay and Linseed oil meal......... 194 oat straw .........06. 173 Corn meal ............0% 171 Rice meal ...........0005 170 46 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The figures given in the table show the amounts of chemical energy (in therm units) which are set free when 100 pounds of different pure nutrients and common feeding stuffs are completely burned. We note that the figures range for protein from 256 to 272 therms, for carbohydrates from 170 to 190, and for fats from 421 to 427, while those for feeding stuffs vary from 170 (rice meal) to 267% (flaxseed meal). Fats yield about 2.25 times as much energy on combustion as starch, and this factor has been commonly .__ Fig. 9.—A view of the respiration calorimeter at the Pennsylvania Experiment Sta- ie ae calorimeter chamber in which the animal on the experiment is kept, to the left. rmsby. adopted for the heat-producing value of fats as compared with that of starch and of carbohydrates in general. The figures given represent the total potential energy that is locked up in the materials, but they do not show the energy that is available to animals fed the different feeding stuffs or nutrients. The reason for this is three-fold: First, feeding stuffs are never completely digested by animals, as has been shown; only the digestible portions furnish energy for physiological uses: the rest is inert matter, passing through the animals and of no direct value to them, except possibly in regulat- NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 47 ing the bowels. The less digestible matter in a feed, the lower is, therefore, its value to animals. Second, there are certain losses through fermentations in the paunch and intestines which result in the evolution of incompletely oxidized gases that escape from the alimentary tract (p. 80). Third, incompletely oxidized protein substances are excreted as urea, and the fuel value which they represent is, therefore, of no value to animals. The total energy less that lost through these three sources furnishes the available energy, or so-called fuel value of the feed. This may be determined by means of the respiration apparatus, or its improved form, the respiration calorimeter. The Respiration Calorimeter.—The Pettenkofer respiration ap- paratus was greatly improved by Atwater and Rosa by making the respiration chamber into a calorimeter. The original apparatus built at Wesleyan University, Connecticut, has been further modi- fied by Armsby and associates at the Pennsylvania station, where an apparatus was built in 1898 by the Pennsylvania station, in codperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This appa- ratus is sufficiently large to allow of investigations with mature cattle, and it is possible to continue the experiments for a con- siderable length of time, if desired (Fig. 9). “The apparatus consists of a Pettenkofer respiration apparatus pro- vided with special devices for the accurate measurement, sampling, and analysis of the air-current. A current of cold water is led through copper- absorbing pipes near the top of the respiration chamber and takes up the heat given off by the subject. The volume of water used being measured, and its temperature when entering and leaving being taken at frequent intervals, the amount of heat brought out in the water-current is readily calculated. To this is added the latent heat of the water-vapor brought out in the ventilating air-current. By means of ingenious electrical devices, ... the temperature of the interior of the apparatus is kept constant, and any loss of heat by radiation through the walls or in the air-current is prevented.” ’ Trials with this apparatus have been conducted since about 1901, and the results have greatly enlarged our knowledge of nutri- tive processes and the value of different feeding stuffs. The con- duct of such trials involves an immense amount of chemical work and calculations; during the actual experiments alone the services of at least seven men are required, exclusive of the assistants in charge of the feeding and collection of excreta.® 2 Armsby, “Principles of Animal Nutrition,” p. 248. *For a description of the Pennsylvania respiration calorimeter, see U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1910, pp. 307 to 318; Ex- periment Station Record, vol. 15, p. 1037. 48 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS By means of the respiration calorimeter the amount of heat produced by the oxidation of the digested nutrients in the animal body is determined. The distribution of the losses of energy to the animal in the dung, urine, and marsh gas, as well as the net energy contained in the different feeding stuffs, is also shown by the results obtained in trials with this apparatus. The following table shows the distribution in therm units in the case of three common feeds, as determined by Armsby: Energy in Different Feeding Stuffs per 100 Pounds, in Therms Clover hay Corn meal - Wheat straw Total energy........... 172.1 170.9 171.4 Losses in dung. .73.6 15.7 93.9 Losses in urine. .11.5 6.5 4.3 Losses in marsh CaS osyanas. 2.3 15.9 15.5 Total losses........ 97.4 38.1 113.7 Available energy, balance 74.7 132.8 57.7 Available in per cent.... 43 78 34 We note that, while clover hay and corn meal contain nearly the same amount of total energy, only 43 per cent of this is avail- able to animals in the case of clover hay, against 78 per cent in the case of corn meal. Available Energy.—These figures and others similarly obtained do not, however, tell the whole story. Clover hay and other rough feeds, are bulky and call for a large amount of work in mastication and moving it through the alimentary canal, and also necessitate the secretion of larger amounts of digestive fluids than do corn _meal ‘and other concentrates. The energy required for these pur- poses is likewise lost to the animal, so far as production or work is concerned, and can be provided only through that supplied in the feed. The balance, which is known as net available energy or net energy, represents that available to animals for maintaining the vital functions or for productive purposes. The results obtained in respiration experiments-with steers show that a larger percentage of the energy value of concentrated feeds is available for maintenance or for production than in the case of the rough feeds. In the poorest of these, as wheat straw, only small 1 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 49 amounts of the energy value are obtained for productive purposes. Animals that have to subsist on only such feeds for any length of time will lose flesh, since there is not a sufficient amount of energy left to meet the needs of the body after that required for the diges- tion of the feed is taken out. The weak point in the old system of basing the nutritive values of different feeding stuffs on their contents of total digestible components is that it does not take into account the differences in the amount of energy required for the work of digestion and assimi- lation of feeds of different kinds. Where this work does not differ greatly, however, as between different feeds of the same kind, either green feeds, dry roughage, or concentrates, the error intro- duced is not, generally speaking, of much importance. The im- Mmense amount of work done in the study of the composition and digestibility of different feeding stuffs makes the data obtained along these lines most valuable and fully justifies their continued use in practice and for the study of the comparative value of feed- ing stuffs. Keliner’s Starch Values.—The system of comparison of dif- ferent feeding stuffs elaborated during the early part of the century by the German agricultural chemist, Kellner, is based on the re- sults of extensive feeding and respiration trials with mature fatten- ing steers. Kellner fed such steers basal rations barely sufficient to mairitain them at an even body weight, and added to these either pure nutrients, like starch, sugar, oil, etc:, fed separately or combined, or different feeding stuffs whose nutritive effect was studied. He thus found that one pound of digestible components was capable of producing the following amounts of body fat: 1 pound pure starch or digestible fiber, 0.248 pound body fat. 1 pound sucrose, 0.188 pound body fat. 1 pound protein, 0.235 pound body fat. : Fy ees 1 pound fat or oil, 0.474 to 0.598 pound, according to its: e-Ggin. A large number of trials were made to determine whether: the digestible components of ordinary feeding stuffs gave similar re- sults as corresponding amounts of the various groups of nutrients fed in pure form. In the case of a number of feeding stuffs this was actually found to hold true; eg., for many’ oil meals, corn, rice polish, red dog flour, potatoes; buckwheat: middlings,.and ani- mal feeds. With most feeds, however, ‘the; ambtitt’ of fat which 4 ey * al cnapy _— 50 PxrINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS they produced fell considerably short of what the same amounts of digestible components contained therein would have produced, if fed separately. In the case of these feeds the work of mastication and digestion reduced their nutritive effect, and they were given lower valuation numbers as a result. The following method of comparison of the production values of feeding stuffs was accordingly adopted by Kellner. The starch values were determined on a basis of the amount of fat produced by the different digestible components, viz. : 1 part digestible protein, 0.94 starch value. 1 part digestible fat from oil-bearing seeds and oil meals, 2.41 starch value. from cereals and their by-products, 2.12 starch value. from hay and straw, roots and their by-products, 1.91 starch value. 1 part digestible carbohydrates and fiber, 1.0 starch value. . If the nutrients of the particular feed can be regarded as of full value, it is only necessary to add starch values of the three groups of nutrients as shown above, which gives the total starch values of the feed. If they were given lower values, the total valuation ob- tained according to the preceding equivalent figures is reduced by the respective valuation values. The starch values thus obtained have been calculated for all kinds of European feeding stuffs, and are published in standard German reference books. The starch or “ production values” for American feeding stuffs which have been published by Armsby are given in the Appendix. : Kellner also formulated feeding standards for the various classes of farm animals, which give the amounts of dry matter, digestible true protein, and starch equivalents required for maintenance and production in each case. These follow rather closely the Wolff- Lehmann standards, except for the introduction of the starch equivalents. Critique of the Starch Values.—The Kellner starch values and standards are the latest contributions to our knowledge of the relative values of feeding stuffs and the feed requirements of farm animals, They have been accepted by some European writers and students of animal nutrition, while others, and good authorities among them, consider that we are not, at the present stage of our knowledge, warranted in applying the data obtained to other *The valuation figures’ for the various feeding stuffs are giyen in Kellner’s two books, “ Ernihrung d. Landw. Nutztiere” and “ Fiitterungs- lehre,” and in the English translation of the lattér book, “The Scientific Feeding of Animals” (London, 1909). NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 51 classes of farm animals than steers, nor indeed to other conditions of fattening steers than where these are fed moderate rations, at the early stage of the fattening period.® The starch values very likely furnish substantially correct in- formation for the study of rations and the feed requirements for fattening cattle, and may be safely adopted for this purpose. They are less reliable for growing animals and, especially, for milch cows, and due credit is not given to high-protein feeds and rations when these values are applied to the feeding of these animals. A comparison of the figures, e.g., for Indian corn (starch value, 88.8 therms),’ oil meal (78.9), pea meal (71.8), dried brewers’ grains (60.0), wheat bran (48.2), and malt sprouts (46.3), will at once show that the figures do not express the true relative nutritive values of these feeds for the purposes stated. The explanation of the apparent discrepancies very likely is to be sought in the fact that in case of milk-producing and growing animals the protein of the feed possesses a higher value than for fattening. In the latter case the animal utilizes only the difference between the total energy of the digestible protein and that of the solids in the urine, while in the former a considerable proportion of the protein is changed’ directly into milk and flesh proteins. Instead of calculating the starch values on the basis of one pound protein equals 0.94 starch value, it has been proposed by Hansson® to allow the full energy value of protein, viz., 1.43; this method appears to make the starch value system applicable also to milch cows. The Kellner-Armsby’s standards for feeding farm animals are given in Part III, under the respective classes of animals. 5 Zuntz, Mo. Bulletin International Institute of Agriculture, v (1914), No. 4, p. 440; Landw. Jahrb., 44, p. 761; Pott, “ Handb. tier. Ernihrung,” vol. 3, ii, p. iv. The following quotation from Farmers’ Bulletin 346 by Armsby is also of interest in this connection: “The Kellner production values ... show primarily the value of these different feeding stuffs for the production of gkin in mature fattening cattle. Even for this purpose many of them are confessedly approximate estimates, and still less can they be regarded as strictly accurate for other kinds of animals and other purposes of feeding. Nevertheless, there seems to be reason for believing that they also represent fairly well the relative values of feeding stuffs for sheep at least, and probably for horses, and for growth and milk production as well as for fattening. ... As regards swine, the matter is far less certain, and it may perhaps be questioned whether the values given in the table are any more satisfactory for this animal than the older ones.” See also Armsby, Cycl. Amer. Agr., vol. iii, p- 67, and Murray, “Chemistry of Cattle Feeding and Dairying,” p. 222, * Wood and Yule, Journal Agr. Science, v, 1914, p. 248, TTable IV in Appendix. ® Centralanst, Ber., Stockholm, No, 85, or dO dlendind Neos wanan PWN = PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS QUESTIONS . Give an outline of the method of conducting digestion trials. . What is a coefficient of digestibility? . Describe the respiration apparatus. . How is a gain in muscular tissue and in body fat in the animal body . determined ? . What is a Calorie? A therm? . Describe a calorimeter. . Describe the respiration calorimeter. . What is meant by the potential energy of a feeding stuff? . What is the difference between potential and available energy? . Why are coarse feeds less valuable to farm animals than conccntrates? . What are energy values, and how have they been obtained? . For which class of farm animals are the energy values especially applicable, and what are the weak points in applying these to other classes of farm animals? CHAPTER VI VARIATIONS IN THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS We have seen that plants manufacture more or less complex organic substances and ash materials from carbon-dioxide, water, and mineral components, and that the energy thus stored up in the plants is utilized by the animals feeding on these-materials. Differ- ent plants vary considerably in the amount of energy that they supply, and the same plants vary according to their stage of growth and other conditions. The main factors that influence the chemical composition of plants will be considered in the following pages. The soil is an important factor in determining the quality as well as the yield of the crops grown; in a fertile soil, plants reach their highest development, and maximum crops are secured. It is possible to modify appreciably the percentage of different plant constituents by special fertilization; an increase in the protein content, e.g., may be secured by applications of a general fertilizer that is high in nitrogen. By increasing the nitrogen content of the soil in this manner the percentage of protein in barley was increased from 13.77 to over 19 per cent. German scientists found the protein content of wheat grown on different kinds of soil as follows: On unfertilized soil, 16.25 per cent; fertilized with nitrogen, 21.43 per cent, and fertilized with nitrogen and phosphoric acid, 22.37 per cent. Differences are likely to occur in the composition of the whole plant as well as, to a smaller extent, in the kernels, and it is therefore as important for the stockman as for the general farmer to adopt a good system of crop rotation that will secure the best possible growing conditions for the different crops. Plants grown in a soil rich in lime or phosphoric acid will contain a higher per- centage of these constituents than those grown in a poor soil, and will, therefore, be of superior value for feeding milk-producing and growing animals, which require a liberal supply of these mineral constituents. Climatic Environment.—It would be wrong to assume, how- ever, that the soil exerts the chief influence in determining the physical properties or the chemical composition of a crop. In a study of the influence of environment on wheat, which was continued 53 54 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS for a series of years, LeClere found that the climatic environment (i.e., temperature, rainfall, and sunlight) is the most important factor that influences the physical and chemical characteristics of a crop, and the results obtained by Wiley with sugar beets and sweet corn lead to the same conclusion.” The length of the growing periods of plants is another factor that influences the quality of the crop grown. Spring grains are higher in protein and lower in starch than winter grains, because their growing period is shortened by the higher average temperature during the summer. Plants grown in the South are richer in protein than northern-grown plants, for the same reasons.* ‘The Variety and Quality of Seed.—The sowing time and the method of seeding or planting are other factors that have a bearing on the quality of the crops grown. The stage of development when a crop is harvested is another factor that influences profoundly both the crop yields secured and their chemical composition and feeding value. We select as illustrations data obtained with two of the most important single fodder crops in our country, Indian corn and alfalfa. Indian Corn.—Like all other plants, Indian corn is higher in water, ash, protein, amides, and fat, and lower in starch and fiber, during early vegetative stages than later during the growing period. In experiments conducted by Hornberger, a field of Indian corn was sampled and analyzed once every week, from June 18, when the plants were only six to seven inches high, until September 10, when the corn was nearly ripe. The results of the analyses show that the water contents of the samples decreased with the advance of the growing period from 90.3 per cent to 80.5 per cent, and that the ranges in composition of the dry matter were as follows: Ash from 9.5 to 4.3 per cent. Protein from 30.8 to 9.7 per cent. Amides from 9.8 to 2.8 per cent. ; Fiber from 17.8 to 22.6 per cent (with a maximum of over 26 per cent, August 6 to 13). Nitrogen-free extract from 41.7 to 61.5 per cent. Fat from 3.2 to 1.6 per cent. Considering the total yields of feed components on the different dates, the following results are worthy of special note :* 1Journal Agricultural Research, i, p. 275. ? Bulletins 96 and 127, Bureau of Chemistry, U. 8. Department of Agri- culture. See also Shaw, “ Studies upon the Influences Affecting the Protein Content of Wheat,” Univ. of Cal, Pub. in Agricultural Sciences, No. 5. * Haselhoff, “ Landw, Futtermittel,” p. 13. “See Woll, “A Book on Silage,” Rev. Ed., p. 14. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 55 Yield of Ingredients in Corn Plants, in Grams* 1000 plants contained orem ee Date weg Ty Sugar, | ae be Ash | one Fiber cee Gade Amides June 25 sax 5 0.5 43 142 90 210 16 41 July Deus 21 2.1 161 566 438 847 63 186 Side 39 4.1 342 1020 933 1681 94 385 16 78 8.3 674 1898 1896 3585 187 677 23 161 18.8 1190 3249 4581 9301 380 | 1136 30...) 276 32.8 1978 4972 8194] 16884 679 | 1727 August 6...| 468 55.0 3069 7215 | 14420} 29266 851 | 2780 13% 0% 565 67.4 3576 8192 | 17892 | 36746 865 | 2735 20 591 82.6 3991 8848 | 21164] 47357 974 | 3369 28 es ae 108.7 5131 11369 | 27394 | 63232 |. 1143 | 4970 September 3... dea 121.2 5215 12218 | 28311] 73247 | 1729 | 4722 10... 611 119.4 5120 11554 | 27023 | 73473 1906' | 3245 * 1000 grams equal 2.2 pounds avoirdupois. Similar results were obtained at Geneva (N. Y.), Maine, and other stations in studies of the development of the corn plant from tasselling to maturity.° Chemical Changes in the Corn Crop toward Maturity Yield per acre Tasselled Silked Milk Glazed Ripe Gross weight, tons....... 9.0 12.9 16.3 16.1 14.2 Dry matter, pounds...... 1619 3078 4643 7202 7918 Ash, pounds............ 139 201 232 303 364 Crude protein, pounds... 240 437 479 644 678 Fiber, pounds........... 514 873 1262 1756 1734 Nitrogen-free extract, pounds..............- 654 1399 2441 4240 4828 Fat, pounds............. 72 168 229 260 314 The data given in the table show how rapidly the yields of feed materials increase with the advancing age of the corn plant and also how the increase during the latter stages of growth comes mainly on the nitrogen-free extract (largely starch). Between tasselling and maturity the corn plant will increase an average of about 200 per cent in dry matter and toward 300 per cent in carbohydrate content, according to the results of experiments conducted at five different stations. The largest amounts of feed materials in the corn crop are not obtained until the corn is well ripened; when the plants have reached their total growth in height they contain only one-third to one-half of the weight of dry matter which they will gain if left to mature. 5Geneva, N. Y., Report, 1899; Maine Report, 1895. 56 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The preceding remarks refer to total feed components in the corn plant, and not to its digestible components. Digestion trials trials have shown that the digestibility of plants in general decreases as they grow older. The following table of results obtained in American trials will show the average digestion. coefficients of green dent corn fodder cut at different stages of growth: ° Digestion Coefficients for Green Dent Fodder Corn Nitrogen- ‘ No. of D Crud ‘ Stage of growth Coals aaaniee seetein Fiber : Laat Fat Immature..... 14 68 66 65 71 86 In milk........ 17 70 62 64 77 76 Glazing........ 9 67 54 51 75 78 Mature....... 23 69 54 59 75 75 While there was no material change in the digestibility of the dry matter of the corn, a marked decrease is noticeable in the digesti- bility of the crude protein, fiber, and fat with the greater maturity of the fodder. The digestibility of the nitrogen-free extract, on the other hand, remains nearly stationary at the different stages of the growth, and the main increase in feed components falls on this constituent. In general, the decrease in the digestibility of the . feed components given is not sufficiently marked to affect the large increase in the yield of the components with the advancing age of the plant, so that the yields of total digestible components will be greater at maturity or directly before that time than at any earlier stage of growth. Hence we find that the general practice of cutting corn for forage or for the silo at the time when it is in the roasting-ear stage or beginning to harden is in accord with our best knowledge of the subject. Alfalfa.—The changes in the composition of alfalfa during its growing period have been studied by several stations. The average results obtained for three cuttings at the Ontario Agricultural Col- lege are given below. Composition of Alfalfa Cut at Different Stages of Growth, in Per Cent Composition of water-free substance Moisture Nitrogen- Ash Protein | Fiber free Fat Amides extract ‘ Buds forming...| 81.53 | 11.63 | 18.46 | 27.56 | 39.36 3.06 4.09 Medium bloom.| 78.48 9.60 | 15.44 | 33.58 | 39.08 2.40 2.23 Full bloom..... 74.50 8.35 | 18.12 | 37.64 | 39.36 1.94 1.86 * Compilation by Lindsey and Smith, Massachusetts Report, 1911. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 57 The results show a decrease in the percentage of water and, therefore, in the succulence of the crop. In order to show the changes in chemical composition, the analyses have been calculated to water-free substance, and it is seen that as the plant matures the percentages of ash, crude protein, amides, and fat decrease; as the stems grow hard and woody, the fiber contents of the plant in- crease, and the percentages of valuable feed components decrease in proportion, except that of nitrogen-free extract, which does not change materially. If we now consider the digestibility of the dif- ferent cuttings of alfalfa, we have the following average figures obtained in digestion experiments conducted at Ontario Rapicals tural Coliege: ? Digestion Coefficients for Alfalfa é Nitrogen- | D Crude... . matier | protein | Fat | free | Fiber First cutting............ 59 73 49 72 39 Second cutting.......... 56 73 50 | 70 38 Third cutting........... 51 64 44 64 37 There is a decided decrease in the digestibility of the total dry matter and of all components as the plant approaches maturity ; the decrease is especially marked between the second and third cuttings, If the total digestible matter obtained in the three crops be calcu- lated on the basis of the figures just given, it will be found that the amounts of digestible matter secured in the later cuttings are considerably lower than those found in the earlier ones. In the Canadian experiments referred to, the three cuttings gave, on the average, the amounts of green alfalfa and digestible matter shown in the table: Calculated Yields of Dry Matter and Digestible Matter of Green Alfalfa Per Acre in Pounds Green Total dry | Digestible alfalfa matter matter ; ; eh First cutting............ . 14075 2714 1590 Second cutting......... 14513 3525 1978 Third cutting........... 12363 3142 1611 There was a decrease of 18.8 per cent, or nearly one-fifth, of the digestible matter during the two weeks’ interval between the last two cuttings, calculated on the yields of the second cutting. 7 Report, 1899, p. 37, 58 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS : . The largest amount of digestible matter was obtained at the: time of the second cutting in “these trials, when the growing crop was about one-third in bloom. It is generally recommended to cut alfalfa at this stage of growth, or when between one-tenth to one; third of the plants are in bloom. It will be found, on examination, that new shoots are coming up from the crown of the roots at this time. The cutting should not be delayed until these are sufficiently high to be injured, as the yield of the next crop would be greatly reduced thereby.. The exact time to begin cutting alfalfa will naturally vary somewhat according to the area to be cut, the weather, and other conditions. The difficulty of making a good quality of hay from alfalfa that is past bloom, and the large losses of leaves in this case, render it important not to delay the cutting beyond the time stated above. Hay Crops.—The changes i in the chemical composition of the hay crops during the growing season, in so far as they have been studied, appear to be similar to those of alfalfa, and show that these increase in fiber as the plants grow older, and that the nitro- gen-free extract changes but little, with the other components de- creasing to a considerable extent.® In the case of Indian corn, on the other hand, like all grain crops as well as roots and tubers, so far as is known, the highest yield of feed materials is obtained at maturity. While the best time of cutting hay will vary somewhat according to the use for which it is intended, we note that early-cut hay has, in general, a higher feeding value, ton for ton, than late-cut hay; it is better, therefore, to cut too early than to delay the cutting until past bloom. Practical experience has also shown that the best time for cutting hay is, in general, shortly before bloom or during the early bloom. When the hay is intended for horses or fattening cattle, later cutting may be practised, since these animals relish late-cut hay and are fed hay more for the filling and less for the nutriment it supplies than is the case with dairy cows, young stock, and sheep. The method of harvesting or preparation of feeding stuffs, furthermore, affects their chemical composition and value. Dried green grass and carefully cured hay have been found to have a similar value as an equivalent of fresh green grass; the only appre- ciable difference in chemical composition comes from the water content of the three materials. Under ordinary practical conditions, certain losses from leaves and tender stems in hay-making cannot, 8 Fraps, “ Principles of Agricultural Chemistry,” p. 381. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 59 however, be entirely avoided; these losses are especially important in the case of leguminous crops, notably alfalfa. The leaves make up about one-half of the weight of the alfalfa plant, and carry four-fifths of the crude protein, over one-half of the starchy com- ponents, and only about one-fourth of the fiber of the entire plant. Headden, of the Colorado station,® concludes from his studies of the alfalfa plant, “that the minimum loss from the falling of leaves and stems in successful hay-making amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent, and, in case where the conditions have been unfavorable, to as much as 60 per cent or even 66 per cent of the dry crop. For each 1700 pounds of hay taken off the field at least 300 pounds of leaves and small stems are left, and in very bad cases as much as 1200 pounds may be left for each 800 pounds taken.” These are lost for feeding purposes, but are returned to the soil, whose supply of humus and valuable fertilizer ingredients they increase, and thus | improve its crop-producing power. When hay is exposed to rain or to sultry weather, important losses occur through leaching and fermentations. The Colorado station made analyses of samples of alfalfa hay exposed to rainy and damp weather for 15 days after cutting, during which time 1.76 inches of rain fell in three showers. Comparing the composi- tion of this hay with that of hay from the same field cut the same day but immediately dried in an air-bath, the results shown in the following table were obtained : Percentage Composition of Dry Matter Nitrogen- Tee Ash Crude Sande Crude extract fiber protein Hay cured in an air-bath..| 12.18 26.46 {| 3.94 18.71 38.71 Hay exposed to rain..... 12.71 38.83 3.81 11.01 33.64 The damage to the hay was due partly to mechanical losses from leaves and tender parts becoming brittle and breaking off, but largely to the loss of protein, nitrogen-free extract, soluble mineral components, and aromatic principles, through fermentations and exposure to rain. The removal of the latter greatly decreases the flavor and palatability of the hay to stock; such damaged alfalfa hay is not likely to be worth more than one-half as much as good, well-cured hay. ®° Colorado Bulletins 35 and 110. 60 ‘PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. What has been said in regard to alfalfa applies with equal force to other leguminous crops and also, to some extent, to other hay crops. These losses arise from two sources, fermentations and respiration in the plant cells, both of which are favored by warm, damp weather. Coarse plants with thick stems, the cells of which are not so rapidly killed on drying, like Indian corn and the sor- ghums, lose more feed: materials from the sources given under un- favorable weather conditions than fine-stemmed plants like the com- mon grasses that are readily dried. This explains how corn fodder left to cure in shocks will lose about 10 per cent of dry matter, even under ideal weather conditions, if standing in the field or kept under roof for a period of a month or more. Corn shocks of differ- ent sizes left for some months in the dry climate of Colorado lost from one-third to over one-half of their dry matter, the losses increasing with the size of the shocks.” In work by the author in Wisconsin which was continued for four years,"! the average losses of dry matter and crude protein in carefully shocked fodder corn left in the field from one to several months amounted to about 24 per cent; similar results have been obtained in investigations con- ducted at a number of other experiment stations. Since losses like those given will occur in case ,of corn cured under cover with all possible care, it is evident that the average losses of dry'matter in field-cured fodder corn must be still higher under ordinary farm conditions. A careful study of the various experiments on this subject will readily show this to be the case (see p. 108). . . The Siloing Process.—The most important method of prepara- tion of feeding stuffs, next to hay-making, is the stloing process. The subject of the silo and silage will be discussed later (p. 149), and we shall here refer only to the changes that occur in the composi- tion of the plants during the process in so far as they affect the nutritive values of the feeding stuffs. During the early stages of building silos in this country very large losses occurred in them, due mainly to the form of silos built.. These were square and shallow structures which were poorly adapted for silage-making: First, because considerable air was left in the siloed mass and ad- mitted from corners. and leaky walls; and, second, because large amounts of silage spoiled while being fed out. The losses in feed materials found in the early silo experiments, therefore, would often go up to fifty per cent, and such results were also generally ® Colorado Bulletin 30. 4 Report 1891, p. 227; Agr. Science, vol. 10, p. 299. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 61 obtained in the cases where silage was made. in pits in the ground or in open stacks. In modern tall, round silos the losses of dry matter have been greatly reduced, and under ordinary favorable conditions will not amount to more than ten per cent. As in the case of field-curing of corn, this loss falls primarily on the carbo- hydrates and the protein substances, changing these in part into organic acids and amides, respectively, so that the resulting silage is higher in fiber and lower in nitrogen-free extract than the ma- terial from which it was made. The following average analyses of green fodder corn and corn silage will illustrate this fact: Average Composition of Green Fodder Corn and Corn Silage, in Per Cent , ys Nitrogen- | © Dry : 7 riatter Ash Protein . Fiber : oe : Fat Green corn fodder.; 79.3 1.2 1.8 5.0. | 12.2 mi) Corn silage....... 79.1 1.4 17 6.0 11.0 8 There is a slight decrease in the percentage of protein in: ‘silage as compared with fodder corn, but there is a further change in the protein compounds during the siloing process which does not appear from the average analyses given. Through the action of enzymes and bacteria, a portion of the protein of the fodder corn undergoes cleavage in the silo, and silage, therefore, contains a considerably larger proportion of non-albuminoid or amide nitrogen than the green corn (p. 11). ‘The latter has been found to contain, on the average, 27 per cent of amide nitrogen, against 40 per cent or over in silage. Effect of Storage.—Changes in the chemical composition occur in many feeding stuffs in storage. These are often quantitatively too slight to appear in statements of chemical aes but still are of considerable importance, as, e.g., in the case of new and old oats, corn, hay, etc. These and many other feeds lose moisture on being stored; changes also occur in the composition of the dry matter, which are not yet clearly understood in many cases. New oats thus readily cause digestive disorders, such as colic, when fed to horses, and it cannot be supposed that the difficulty arises merely from the fact that such oats contain, say 10 per cent more moisture than old oats. In all probability the enzymes present in the oats, of which three different ones have been identified, cause certain changes in the composition of the dry matter during storage; although not measurable by the ordinary methods adopted in feed 62 _ PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS analyses, these changes are still of great importance, and transform the oats from an undesirable feed to the best-relished and most effective available horse feed. Changes in the chemical composition also occur in the storage of hay, potatoes, and root crops, like sugar beets, mangels, ete. These are caused by the respiration of the plant cells and result in losses of valuable feed components, especially of soluble carbo- hydrates. As a rule, these changes do not affect the palatability of the feeds, but they do decrease their general nutritive value (p. 134). QUESTIONS 1, Name the various factors that influence the quality and yield of crops, and state their relative importance. . At what stage of growth does Indian corn contain relatively most protein; fat; carbohydrates? . Give the approximate increase in dry matter and carbohydrates in Indiaa corn between tasselling and maturity. . State the changes that occur in the composition of alfalfa from buds forming to full bloom. . When does (a) Indian corn, (6b) alfalfa yield the largest amounts of dry matter and digestible matter per acre? 3 . State the losses that are likely to occur in making alfalfa hay. . Give the losses that are likely to occur in curing Indian corn fodder; also the losses in the siloing process, NO oc fF WD WD CHAPTER VII CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS WE have already shown the effect of advanced stages of develop- ment of plants on their digestibility. Some other factors that influence the digestibility of feeding stuffs will now be considered. Different Classes of Farm Animals.—As might be expected from the differences in the digestive apparatus of the various classes of farm animals, these differ somewhat in their ability to digest cer- _ tain feeding stuffs, Concentrated feeds are digested to a similar extent by nearly all classes of farm animals, but this does not hold true in the case of coarse feeds. The digestion coefficients for meadow hay and oat straw obtained by Kellner in the case of steers and sheep will illustrate the differences met with.* Digestibility of Hay and Straw by Steers and Sheep, in Per Cent Meadow hay Oat straw Steers | Sheep || Steers Sheep Dry matter............ 65 | 62.|| 57 | 47. Crude protein scat eens 61 ‘57 32 | 19 Batic ceutinis ictdoieehcles 61 57 || 43 50 Fibers. yc 02a x ieeeas -64 | 61 63 49 Nitrogen-free extract...} 70 69 58 49 Hay or straw of the same origin was fed to both classes of ani- mals in these experiments. Greater differences are likely to occur where digestion coefficients of feeds of different origin are compared. Steers can, in general, digest bulky, coarse feeds better than sheep can, while ‘with easily digested feeds only minor differences occur in the digestion coefficients obtained with these classes of farm animals. Horses and other non-ruminants have a lower digestive capacity for coarse feeds than the ruminants. This is especially true as regards the fiber content of feeds. Through their more thorough mastication of roughage, and the fact that the feed is prepared for digestion by being softened in the paunch previous to the stomach digestion, the ruminants are able to better utilize the energy of the fiber in coarse feeds, like hay and straw, than are horses or pigs. The following average figures for digestibility of timothy, alfalfa 1 Experiment Station Record 9, p. 509. 63 64 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS hay, and wheat straw by horses and ruminants will show the extent of the differences observed : Digestion Coefficients for Horses and Ruminants, in Per Cent* Alfalfa hay Timothy hay Wheat straw Horses ee Horses Bun Horses eae Protein .ca crak ued cds 73 74 “21 ) 48 28 23 IND OP eis'cemnecig canny canon 40 45 43 50 18 55 Nitrogen-free extract....| 70 72 «|r «47 62. 28 39 SAGs 3 tesntieud arta wSasenecn eossitce 14 40 47 50 66 36 Organic matter......... 58 61 44 56 21 | 46 The coarser and less valuable a feeding stuff is, the greater is the difference in the digestibility coefficients obtained with the two kinds of animals. With concentrates no appreciable difference has, however, been observed in the digestibility by ruminants and other farm animals: 77 per cent of the protein of oats is thus digested by sheep and 79 per cent by horses; the latter digest 76 per cent of the protein in corn, and sheep digest 78 per cent. Digestion experiments with swine have shown that, generally speaking, these animals digest their feed to a similar extent as horses or ruminants. The differ- ences which have been observed in the digestion coefficients are small and more likely to have been caused by experimental errors in the technique of digestion trials than by actual differences in the digesti- bility of the feeds. The experimental errors in determining the digestibility of concentrates are considerable, especially in the case of animals that cannot be fed such feeds alone, and it is only by repeated digestion trials under different conditions as to animals, amounts fed, combinations with other feeds, etc., that the results can be considered trustworthy. Kellner concluded from his investiga- tions of this point: * “When only two experiments are made, one with hay and the other with hay and wheat bran, there is danger that the coefficients of digestibility obtained by the most careful work may vary from the actual by = 9 per cent in the case of crude protein, =: 6.4 per cent with the nitrogen-free extract, + 19.6 per cent with the crude fat, and ++ 38.5 per cent with the crude fiber. It is plain from this that single experiments give results of very uncertain value, which are almost entirely lacking in significance. Weight can be only given to the averages of many experiments, and only such. averages can be regarded as decisive.” 2 Massachusetts Report, 1911. 3 Experiment Station Record, voi. 9, p. 513. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 65 Even swine are able to digest considerable amounts of vegetable fiber. Direct experiments have shown that the digestion coefficients for fiber obtained with this class of animals are as follows: In the case of wheat bran, 39 per cent; wheat shorts, 37 per cent; barley, 49 per cent; corn, 39 per cent; corn and cob meal, 39 per cent; cracked wheat, 60 per cent; pea meal, 78 per cent; green oats and vetch, 49 per cent. These figures, in most cases, compare favorably with the average digestibility coefficients for the respective feeds obtained with steers or sheep. ' Breeds.—Different breeds of the same class of farm animals do not appear to differ appreciably in their digestive capacity, nor do individual animals of the same breed differ in this respect, so long as the animals compared are in good health and have good teeth. Very young as well as old animals are handicapped in eating whole dry grains, on account of their inability to chew their feed well, and it should be fed wet or ground to such animals. Differences in the digestibility of feeds have sometimes been found in the case of individual animals, but there does not seem to be any regularity in the variations observed, and these are, therefore, likely to be acci- dental and due to errors of experimentation. Age.—Age does not seem to affect the digestive capacity of animals whose digestive apparatus is fully developed, nor does a fair amount of work influence the digestion, provided that this is done at a moderate rate, like ordinary work of horses, mules, and oxen. Work done at a rapid pace, on the other hand, is likely to diminish the digestibility of the rations fed. ‘The various conditions bearing on the chemical.composition of plants which have already been discussed are also of importance in so far as they affect the digestibility of plants. Among other factors that might be supposed to influence the digestibility of feeding stuffs, besides those already mentioned, are the following: Quantity of Feed—The quantity of feed does not appear to appreciably affect its digestibility. It should be said, however, that the testimony on this point is somewhat conflicting. The results of early experiments by Wolff and others, indicating a similar digesti- bility of small and large rations, have not been corroborated by more recent work. ‘It seems reasonable to suppose that the digestive fluids will vary to a certain extent, both in composition and amounts, with the character of the rations fed, in case of herbivora, as found to be the case with carnivora in the brilliant investigations by the Russian physiologist Pavlov. There is some evidence with herbivora which *“ Work of the Digestive Glands,” London, 1910. 5 66 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS points the same way, but it cannot be said to be conclusive as yet.® The question must be considered still open as to whether a scant ration is digested more completely by farm animals than an ample ration. This matter, however, is more of scientific interest than of practical importance, as no stockman would want to starve or under- feed his animals for the purpose of possibly securing thereby a more complete percentage utilization of the feed. He would know that stock so fed can never yield profitable returns. Drying and Preparation of Feeding Stuffs.—The mere drying of green or succulent feeds, where this is not accompanied by me- chanical or fermentative losses, does not alter their digestibility. According to Jordan, four of six feeds experimented with on this point showed a slight difference in favor of the dried feeds, while two gave the opposite result. Itis very certain, however, that as dry- ing and curing of green fodder is carried on under ordinary. field conditions there are considerable losses from abrasion of dry and brittle parts, and the remaining feed is, therefore, relatively richer in coarse parts, and its digestibility lower than that of the green feed. Attention was called to this fact in the discussion of the feeding value of alfalfa hay. The losses from these sources are per- haps greater in the case of leguminous hay crops than with other kinds of hay, but they are appreciable in all cases where the harvest- ing of the hay has been delayed until past bloom, or where the curing has been done under conditions that would render the hay very dry and cause a loss of leaves and tender parts of the plant. Asa result, hay or other dried feeds have generally been found to have a lower digestibility than the original green or wet material. The following table of digestion coefficients shows this to be true. As: the green and dry feeds of the same kind were not, as a rule, of similar origin, the two sets of figures given are only comparable in a general way. Digestion Coefficients for Green and Dry Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent ‘matter Protein Fiber “hres Fat Timothy grass.......... 66 72 64 68 52 Timothy hay............ 64 68 66 63 49 Corn fodder, dent, mature 74 63 66 81 80 Corn fodder, dry........ 66 45 63 73 70 Clover, green........... 61 65 53 72 63 Clover hay ............. 55 58 54 65 56 Alfalfa, green........... 61 74 43 72 39 Alfalfa hay ............- 62 74 46 72 40 Brewers’ grains, wet..... 63 73 40 62 86 Brewers’ grains, dried... . 64 71 48 60 88 5 See Illinois Bulletin 172. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 67 Grinding, Cutting, or Rolling of Feeds.—The digestibility of feeding stuffs is not, as a general rule, materially altered by special methods of preparation, like cutting, grinding, cracking, or rolling. An exception to this rule is found in the case of old or very young animals that cannot chew their feed well, and with small, hard seeds that would largely pass through the digestive tract unbroken and would not be acted upon by the digestive fluids of the body. When used for feeding farm animals, grains like wheat, barley, rye, kafir corn, etc., are therefore usually ground, and other cereals (corn, oats) are ground only when fed to young animals or to very old animals, so as to insure a maximum digestibility. If whole or broken grain reappears in the dung of the animals, it is evident that the feed had better be ground, or, if already ground, that too much is fed, and the allowance should in that case be reduced. Hay and other roughage is sometimes run through a cutter before being fed out when of poor quality, or for mixing with other feeds, so that the animals may eat as much as possible thereof. In the western States alfalfa hay is frequently cut for steers and dairy cows. This is considered as economical practice, both because it insures the hay being eaten without waste and because it means a considerable saving of storage room. It is a common practice in European countries to feed cut straw mixed with grain to horses and occasionally to other farm animals, so as to induce them to consume a considerable amount of cheap roughage. Soaking, Cooking, or Steaming Feed.—The digestibility of feeding stuffs is not influenced by soaking or wetting these prior to feeding time, but a depression of the digestion: coefficients for protein will occur when the feeds are boiled, steamed, or otherwise subjected to high temperatures. The method of cooking feed was at one time much practised, especially among European farmers, but it has now been generally abandoned, except in the case of feeding swine. Numerous trials conducted at experiment stations have shown that it does not, in general, pay to cook feed for farm stock. There is a certain advantage in cooking potatoes and in steaming cut straw and hay of poor quality when intended for feeding swine, from the fact that the cell tissues are softened by the process, and the non- nitrogenous components are thus acted upon more thoroughly by the digestive fluids. This does not refer to the protein substances, however, as these are rendered less digestible through the action of heat. "The per- centage of digestible protein in fresh, wet beet pulp was thus found by artificial digestion to be 60.1 per cent; after being dried at 68 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 75° to 80° C., 58.7 per cent, and after drying at 125° to 130° C., 41.1 per cent. ‘The author found the digestion coefficient for protein in old-process linseed meal by artificial digestion to be 94.3. per cent, and for new-process meal, in the manufacture of which higher temperatures are used, 84.1 per cent.° The average coefficients for the two kinds of oil meal obtained in American digestion trials with ruminants are 89 and 85 per cent, respectively. A similar depression in the digestibility of protein in feeding stuffs resulting from application of heat has been observed in digestion trials on farm animals for meadow hay, corn silage, vetch silage; wheat bran, and dried beet pulp, and in artificial digestion trials with many human foods as well as with cattle feeds. The Siloing Process.—From what has already been said, we should not expect that the siloing process will appreciably affect the digestibility of feeding stuffs, since the heat generated in the silo fermentation will rarely exceed 50° C. (122° F.). The following average digestion coefficients for three kinds of silage will show the influence of the siloing process as regards digestibility : Digestion Coefficients for Green Fodders and Corresponding Silage, in Per Cent D F F Nitrogen- ination Protein Fiber : Bee Fat Corn fodder, dent, mature 72 54 59 75 75 Corn silage, dent, mature 70 51 65 71 82 Clover, green............ 61 65 53 72 63 Clover silage ............ 45 35 48 45 45 Soybeans............... 67 78 45 7 55 Soybean silage.......... 67 66 53 65 57 Only a few determinations of the digestibility of the last two feeds have been made so far, and the decrease in the digestibility of these crops in the silo may be found less important than now shown, when as much work has been done with them as with corn silage. It is evident, however, that no improvement in digestibility can be expected in siloing feeding stuffs; the favorable results obtained in feeding silage as compared with dried forage must, therefore, be due to the relatively small losses of feed materials occurring in the silo- ing process as compared with the curing of fodder or hay, and to the palatability and beneficial effects of silage on the health of the animals. * Wisconsin Report, 1895, p. 76, DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 69 Influence of Different Nutrients —Carbohydrates.—It was found, during the early studies of nutrition problems with farm ani- mals, that the digestibility of a ration was. appreciably decreased by the addition of large quantities of carbohydrates; the effect was noticed when more than 10 per cent of the dry substance of a ration. was composed of soluble or other carbohydrates, and was especially marked as regards the digestion coefficients for protein, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. Potatoes, roots, or corn will cause such a depression in the digestibility when added to rations of wider nutri- tive ratios than 1: 8; the wider the nutritive ratio is, the greater will the depression be. If the protein content of a ration be increased with the allowance of carbohydrates, the depression in the digesti- bility of protein is decreased. High-protein feeds may, therefore, be fed with starchy coarse feeds, like hay or straw, without affecting their digestibility, but starchy feeds, like roots and tubers, cannot be fed in larger proportions than 15 per cent of the ration, calculated on the total dry matter content, without decreasing its digestibility. The Massachusetts station lately corroborated these results of early investigators and showed that molasses and molasses feeds have a similar effect on the digestibility of the hay, as given above in the case of potatoes and roots.” When molasses constituted more than 20 per cent of the dry matter of a ration of hay and gluten feed, a marked depression in the digestibility of the ration was observed. Fat (oil) —A moderate amount of oil added to a ration for cows, say one-half to one pound daily per 1000 pounds live weight, exerts a favorable influence on its digestibility, but if larger quanti- ties are fed, the nutritive ratio of the ration becomes very wide, with a resulting depression in the digestibility; more can be fed in the form of the oil-bearing seeds, e.g., flaxseed, than clear oil without seriously affecting the digestibility of the ration or the appetite of the animals. A heavy feeding of oil, even if it were economical, is not advantageous, because it is likely to cause a loss of appetite. Protein.—An addition of easily digestible protein substances to a ration does not influence its digestibility in any way. In experiments with pigs in which potatoes. with varying quantities of meat flour were fed the crude protein of the meat was completely digested, while the proportion of potatoes digested remained unchanged. Protein added to a ration not only does not affect the digestibility of the basal ration, but will counteract any depression in digestibility that might be caused by the addition of large quantities of soluble carbo- hydrates, as has been stated. It has been found, in general, in ex- 7 Report 1909, part i, pp. 82-131. 70 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS periments with ruminants, that the best conditions for the digestion of rations fed are found when these contain about one part of diges- tible protein for every eight parts of digestible non-nitrogenous substances (including fat multiplied by 2.25). In the case of swine a depression in the digestibility of carbohydrates will not occur until ‘starch has been added in sufficient quantities to bring the nutritive ratio of the ration down to 1: 12, and the digestibility of the crude protein was not affected by a ratio of 1:9. The result of experi- mental work shows that the maximum nutritive effect of a ration can be obtained only when the relation between the digestible protein and non-protein (the nutritive ratio) lies within certain limits that may not be outside of 1:8 in the case of ruminants and 1:9 to 12 in the case of pigs. Other Components.—The addition of free acids, like sulfuric or lactic acid, will not influence the digestibility of a ration or of its components. _Since:there are large amounts of free organic acids, like lactic, acetic, and butyric acids, in silage, particularly of the first two acids, this result is important. It is not recommended, however, to give such feeds in large quantities to cows whose milk is used for infant feeding, or for feeding young stock, as they have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The effect of many other materials on the digestibility of feeding stuffs has been investigated, like calcium carbonate, common salt _ (sodium chloride), and other mineral salts. In general, no influence on the digestibility of feeds has been observed in experiments con- ducted for the study of these problems. A moderate amount of com- mon salt will improve the palatability of a feed, however, and may cause an animal to eat more and thus give better returns, if this is adapted to the specific purposes for which it is kept. A good dairy cow, e.g., if stimulated to consume larger amounts of feed than be fore, will respond to the more liberal feeding by an increase in her milk production, while a cow not bred consistently “along dairy lines,” with a view to securing a large milk production, will put on body fat under similar conditions, and the milk yield will be likely to decrease as a result. QUESTIONS How do steers and sheep differ in their ability to digest (a) coarse feeds; (b) concentrates? . What is the main difference in the digestive capacity of horses and cattle? . Name the various factors that influence the digestibility of feeding stuffs. . How do (a) drying and (b) cooking affect the digestibility of protein? Give some examples. . Give the influence of different nutrients on the digestibility of feeding stuffs. ao Per CHAPTER VIII CALCULATION OF RATIONS QUESTIONS relating to rations for the various classes of farm ani- mals will be considered in detail later on, in the discussion of feeding problems connected with the respective animals. We shall here give the general method by which rations are calculated from the tables of composition and digestibility of feeding stuffs. The Wolff-Lehmann Standard.—We shall suppose that a milch cow yielding about 20 pounds of milk daily is to be fed a ration composed of the following feeds: Hay from mixed grasses, corn meal, wheat bran, and oil meal. Experience has taught us that a cow will eat, on the average, about 20 pounds of hay daily, with a fair allowance of concentrates. It is a good plan to feed concen- trates in proportion to the amount of milk or butter fat produced by the cows. We will assume that the cow will receive as a trial ration, in addition to the amount of hay given, three pounds of corn meal and four pounds of wheat bran. From Table I in the Appendix we learn the composition of hay, corn meal, and bran. Ingredients for a Trial Ration . : Digestibl Diy, | Digeno | ,Migertibe., pounds pounds aN 100 pounds of hay contain.........: 84.7 4.2 44.9 100 pounds of corn meal contain.... 88.7 8.0 75.9 100 pounds of wheat bran contain... 88.1 11.9 47.6 Twenty pounds of hay, therefore, contain: -847 X 20= 16.94 pounds dry matter; 042 X 20=—= —.84 pound digestible protein; and 449 X 20= 8.98 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat. In the same way three pounds of corn meal will contain: .887 X 3= 2.66 -_pounds dry matter; 08 X3—= .24 pound digestible protein; .759 X 3==2.28 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat; and- Four pounds of wheat bran will be found to contain: 3.52 pounds dry matter; .48 pound digestible protein, and 1.90 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat. 71 72 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS We now have the composition of the ration given as follows: Results of First Trial 5 : Digestibl eee kee ache ucates pounds pounds ee 20 pounds hay................00005 16.94 84 8.98 4 pounds wheat bran............. 3.52 48 1.90 3 pounds corn meal............... 2.66 24 2.28 TO tele ace ces neere arden qucinee swaranny 23.12 1.56 13.16 Wolff-Lehmann standard .......... 29.0 2.5 14.1 DYGH GIES. eskalesi.d Aneounns caaoun s peaate 5.88 94 .94 There is, therefore, a deficit both in dry matter and digestible components in the ration; and it is evident that we have to supply a high-protein feed in order to keep the relation between the two classes of nutrients near to the requirements of the standard. Linseed meal serves this purpose very well, and we may add 2 pounds of this to the ration. Results of Second Trial - es — matier | Protein | “Grates i” and fat Ration as above............2-4.. 23.12 1.56 13.16 2 pounds oil meal............... 1.80 .60 95 SEGA aie dc cthwualevaiadosiaeeilepecsinnnas 24,92 2.16 14.11 6.5 Wolff-Lehmann standard ........ 29.0 2.5 14,1 5.6 Deficitewcncx2y secede eae 4.08 36 .01* *Excess. The ration is still below the standard in dry matter and digestible protein, especially the former, but may be sufficiently close to the standard for all practical purposes. If we had to feed a poorer grade of roughage than the hay given, more dry matter would have to be supplied in proportion to the digestible matter, and the deficit of dry matter would have been avoided without increasing at the same time the digestible components of the ration. The Wolff-Leh- mann standards were framed to conform especially to ordinary European feeding practices, which generally include some straw or low-grade roughage in the rations fed to livestock. CALCULATION OF RATIONS 73 The ration as given might be improved by feeding a concentrate, like cotton-seed meal, in the place of oil meal. This feed contains still more digestible protein than the linseed meal, viz., 37.6 per cent, and, by substituting 2 pounds of it for the linseed meal, the digestible protein of the ration would be raised to nearly the requirements of the standard. It would make a less palatable ration for cows, how- ever, and in most parts of the country would render it somewhat more expensive. Another change in the ration that would bring it closer to the standard in digestible protein and nutritive ratio would be to replace one-half of the wheat bran by middlings, or one-half of the corn meal by oats or barley. The desirability of making these changes would depend mainly on the cost of the various feeds. The nutritive effect of the ration would not be likely to be materially influenced by the changes suggested, except that it is, in general, advisable to feed a mixture of several feeds to dairy cows and heavy-producing animals rather than only one or two, as it will increase the palatability of the ration and- stimulate the appetite. The preceding ration is, however, satisfactory as given and will produce good results “ at the pail.” Nutritive Ratio.— We notice that the nutritive ratio of the ration given is 1:6.5 instead of 1: 5.6, as required by the standard. It follows from what has been said, however, that it is not important to bring the nutritive ratio closer than this to the standard. Up to recent times a definite nutritive ratio was considered important for the specific purpose of feeding in view; e¢.g., 1: 5.4 was the required ratio for milch cows, according to the original Wolff (German) standard, and it was not deemed advisable to vary greatly from this ratio. Investigations conducted since the publication of the Wolfft-Lehmann standard have shown, however, that, given a certain minimum of digestible protein in a ration, its exact nutritive ratio is of no great importance ; but a liberal supply of total digestible matter in a ration is important, and a nutritive ratio of 1:7, or even wider, may prove nearly as efficient for feeding dairy cows as a narrow ration, provided the former ration furnishes a more abundant supply of digestible nutrients. This applies with special force to fattening animals,! but holds good also in the case of dairy cows and cther animals to which it was formerly considered necessary to supply rations of especially narrow nutritive ratios in order to secure a large and economical production. 1See Kellner, Landw. Versuchs-Stationen, vol. 53, pp. 1-474. 74 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS A ration containing a relatively small amount of protein is spoken of as having a wide ratio, e.g., 1:7 or higher, and one with a relatively high protein content as having a narrow nutritive ratio, e.g., 1: 5.4 or less. A medium ratio would lie between these limits. The nutritive ratios of different feeding stuffs range from 1:1 or below, as in the cases of dried blood, tankage, cotton-seed meal, to 1: 20 or above, as in the case of cornstalks, sorghum hay, and straw of the cereals. The former feeds and others in the same class are known as protein feeds or nitrogenous feeds, and the latter as starchy or non-nitrogenous feeds. The nutritive ratio of a feed is of value in showing whether it supplies largely protein or non-nitrogenous components and whether one feed can be substituted for another without change in physiological effect (see p. 38). Armsby’s Energy Values.—As previously stated, the Armsby standards show the amount of digestible true protein and energy values required for feeding different classes of farm animals. The requirements for maintenance and for production are given sepa- rately. For a dairy cow the standard thus calls for the following amount of nutrients for the two purposes: For maintenance, 0.5 pound digestible true protein and 6.0 therms of energy values per 1000 pounds live weight. _ For production, 0.05 pound digestible true protein and 0.3 therm per pound of milk of average quality. In the example given above the amount of nutrients to be fur- nished the cow would, therefore, be as follows, assuming the cow to weigh 1000 pounds: Nutrients in Energy Values Digestible Energy true protein values, pounds therms For maintenance. .... 5 6.0 , For production....... * 1.0 6.0 Total requirements 15, 12.0 By reference to Table III in the Appendix it will be found that the feeds given in the preceding example contain the following amounts of digestible protein and energy values: CALCULATION OF RATIONS 75 Ration Expressed in Protein and Energy Values Digestible Energy true protein, values, pounds | therms 20 pounds-timothy hay Al 6.71 4 pounds bran....... Al 1.93 3 pounds corn meal. . 20 2.67 2 pounds oil meal...) ‘ = .55 1.58 WO tall cca sictecsce-fscn' 1,57 12.89 Variation from standard .07 .89 The agreement between the standard and the composition of the calculated ration is as close as can be desired in this case. No importance can be attached to the slight excess of 0.07 pound in the digestible protein in the ration or the excess of energy value, 0.89 therm, and we conclude, therefore, that a ration like the one given is theoretically sound, and it will be found practical and efficient in feeding dairy cows producing a medium amount of milk, say 20 pounds a day. Comparison of Standards.—The Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby standards are recommended for use in calculating rations by differ- ent authorities, and both will be found valuable for this purpose. _ Either set. of standards has the advantage over the other in certain points, and students should become familiar with both, so as to be able to apply in each case the particular method of calculation that may best serve the purpose in view. We have seen that the Armsby standards are, in the main, derived from the investigational work done during the last quarter of a century by German scientists, largely Kellner, who worked mainly with mature fattening steers. Only a small amount of research work relative to the application of the system of energy values to the feeding of other farm animals has been done; in case of some animals, like sheep, pigs, and poultry, such work is entirely lacking (p. 51), so that the standards based on energy values, proposed for all animals except fattening cattle, rest on a more or less insecure basis. : The Wolff-Lehmann standards, on the other hand, do not take cognizance of the varying value of digestible matter in different feeding stuffs due to the losses of energy in the processes of digestion and assimilation. Rations comrposed of feeds that supply similar amounts of digestible matter might, therefore, differ greatly in the amounts of net available energy that they supply, and would in that case have a different feeding value for maintenance or productive 76 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS purposes. Under ordinary practical conditions, however, rations are composed of roughage‘and concentrates in about similar proportions, and no great error is therefore introduced by the use of these standards. They have been simplified in this book by combining digestible fat with the digestible carbohydrates, according to its fuel value, so that only dry matter, digestible protein, and digestible carbohydrates and fat are now considered, making the necessary calculations very simple. The fact that these standards are based on the vast amount of work done during the last half century or more, in the lines of chemical analysis, digestion trials, and feeding experiments with all kinds of farm animals, renders them especially valuable to both farmers and students of feeding problems, and they may safely be taken as aids to rational feeding, even though they cannot be considered infallible guides. Limitations of Feeding Standards.—Feeding standards are intended to be used only as gauges by which the farmer may estimate the quantities of nutrients required by his stock for a certain produc- tion, and are not to be followed blindly. Farm animals vary greatly in their productive capacity, as well as in their feed requirements and their capacity to make economical use of their feed ; hence feed- ing standards can apply only to average conditions, a point which should always be kept in mind in using them. In constructing rations according to the standards, several points must be considered besides the chemical composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs. The same feeds vary greatly in chemical composition and digesti- bility, as we have seen ; this fact renders it quite unnecessary to make a certain combination of feeds conform absolutely to the feeding standard, for we have no assurance that the particular feeds avail- able will closely correspond to the average figures for the digestible components given in tables of composition of feeding stuffs; in fact, the chances are that they will vary more or less from the average data given in the tables. Therefore, unless samples of the feeds on hand are analyzed by a chemist, and digestion trials conducted with each feed—both of which are lengthy and laborious tasks—we can know only in a general way what the actual values of the available feeds are. In view of this uncertainty as to the exact composition of the feeds, it is quite useless to try to make a certain combination of feeds conform to a definite standard within a few hundredths or tenths of a pound. The standards are a valuable guide to the practi- cal feeder and the student of animal nutrition, but it would be a mis- take to look upon them as precepts that must be rigidly adhered to. CALCULATION OF RATIONS 77 There are several other considerations that should receive atten- tion in formulating rations for farm animals, besides supplying nutrients in the right amounts and proportions and getting an effec- tive ration at as low a cost as possible. Among these are: First, the feeds must be palatable to the animals fed and must not have any deleterious influence on their digestion or general health or on the products which they furnish. A well-balanced ration for milch cows can be made up of oat straw and oil meal, but it would not be likely to produce satisfactory results, because of the large amount of roughage the cows would have to consume and the unpala- tability of the ration. Second, the rations must contain a fair proportion of roughage and concentrates ; they must not be too bulky and still must contain a sufficient amount of roughage to keep up the rumination of the animals, in the case of cows and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals generally. In the case of dairy cows, about . two pounds of hay are generally fed per hundredweight, if this is the sole roughage. If silage is available, one pound of hay and three pounds of silage may be fed per hundredweight, and one pound of concentrates for every three to five pounds of milk produced, accord- ing to the character of the roughage and tne quality of the milk pro- duced; if a good quality of roughage is available, less grain may be fed, and vice versa. Cows producing milk of low fat content should receive less grain per pound of milk than high testing cows (see p. 240). A good rule for feeding grain to cows on mixed hay, corn stover, corn silage, and similar low-protein roughage is to allow as many pounds of grain a day as the cow gives pounds of butter fat in a week. Cows receiving a good grade of alfalfa or other rich coarse feeds will not need more than one-half of this amount of grain feed. Third, the ration should conform to the system of farming fol- lowed, and this should be arranged with a view to growing on the farm, if possible, all the roughage and most of the concentrates which the stock are to receive, so that the farmer may be largely indepen- dent of the feed market with its fluctuating prices. Fourth, the rations are preferably composed of feeds of different origin, so that, especially, the protein substances are supplied from different sources. The recent experiments with cows fed rations balanced from restricted sources (corn, wheat, or oat products only) at the Wisconsin Experiment Station ? illustrate in a striking way the necessity of furnishing a variety in the make-up of rations for ‘Research Bulletin 17, 78 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS dairy cows at least, and the same doubtless holds true also for other classes of farm animals. Of the rations experimented with, only those composed entirely of corn feeds (corn meal, gluten feed, and _cornstalks) proved satisfactory for dairy cows (see p. 166). Fifth, the local market prices of feeding stuffs are of the greatest importance in determining which feeds to use; the conditions in the different sections of our continent are so different in this respect as to render generalization difficult. As a rule, nitrogenous concen- trates are the cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour- mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest. Where alfalfa or other leguminous crops form the main dependence of farm animals for roughage, nitrogenous concentrates need not be fed to the extent that is necessary where farmers depend on mixed hay,.corn fodder, and other non-nitrogenous forage crops. for feeding their stock. The feeding standards express the physiological requirements of animals for a certain production. The economy of systems of feeding based on the standards does not enter into consideration, nor is it possible to formulate feeding standards of general or permanent value that take into consideration the financial side of the question, since the market prices of feeds vary in different places and at dif- ferent times in the same places. But for the practical farmer the cost of feeds is a factor of vital importance. It is of little help to him to be told that he can secure a certain production of milk or meat by a special system of feeding if the prices of the different feeding scuffs called for make it impossible or unprofitable for him to adopt them in his feeding operations. ' However, the standards place before the feeder an ideal which he may approach as nearly as the special conditions by which he is surrounded will allow. The relative cost of different feeding stuffs must always be considered, and the choice: | of feeds with which to supplement home-grown forage crops and grain must be made accordingly. QUESTIONS 1, Explain how a ration is calculated according to (a) the Wolff-Leh- mann standard; (6) the Armsby standard. 2. Discuss the relative value of these two standards for (a) dairy cows; (6) fattening steers. 3. Formulate rations for a 1000-pound dairy cow producing 20 pounds of 4 per cent milk, according to (@) Wolff-Lehmann, (6) Armsby stand- ards, using the following feeding stuffs: Mixed hay, oats, and wheat middlings. . Explain the method of calculating nutritive ratios; give an example. . State the limitations of feeding standards. and give at least four pointa to be considered in formulating rations for farm ‘animals. . What is the difference between a physiological standard and a practical feeding standard? oe a CHAPTER IX THE FEED-UNIT SYSTEM The feed-unit system furnishes a convenient and practical method of determining the comparative nutritive values of different feeding stuffs. It originated in Denmark, and has been used there and in other north European countries during the last couple of dec- ades for comparing the feed consumption of farm animals during certain periods and the relative economy of their production. While originally worked out for dairy cows and mostly applied to these, the system has also been adapted to other classes of farm animals, espe- cially swine, calves, and horses. A simple single figure is obtained by this system for the total feed eaten by an animal during a given period, including that eaten on pasture, and valuable information may thus be secured relative to the economy of the production by a comparison of the total feed consumption and production of the animals. The different feeds are given equivalent values according to the results of elaborate, care- fully-conducted feeding experiments, most of which were made at Copenhagen Experiment Station. All feeds are referred to a stand- ard, the so-called feed unit, which is a pound of mixed grain, like corn, barley, wheat, or rye. . Numerous feeding experiments, conducted with the greatest care and scientific accuracy, have shown that, eg., 1.1 pounds of wheat bran or 2.5 pounds of mixed hay of average quality can be substituted to a limited extent for a pound of grain in ordinary rations for dairy cows without causing any appreciable change in the yield or the composition of the milk produced by the cows, or in- fluencing their body weight or general condition. The quantities of the different feeds given, 1.1 pounds wheat bran and 2.5 pounds hay, are therefore equivalent to one feed unit. Table IV in the Appen- dix gives a list of feed units obtained largely as a result of Scandi- navian feeding experiments with cows, supplemented by results of American trials and feeding experience. In case of coarse feeds, certain limits are given between which the equivalent values may vary, according to the quality of the feed; ¢.g., a choice grade of alfalfa hay will have a unit value of 1.5; 7.¢., it would take 1.5 pounds : 79 80 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to equal a pound of mixed grain in nutritive effect, while in the case of a poor quality of this hay it will take 3 pounds to equal a feed unit, ete. The value of pasture may vary between 6 and 12 units per day, according to the production of the cows and the kind and the con- dition of the pasture. The former figure may be applied in case of dry cows, or for scant or largely dried-up pastures; the latter for heavy-producing cows on luxurious pasture. A simple example will readily explain the application of the system. We will suppose that a cow ate 750 pounds of hay, 150 pounds of wheat bran, and 90 pounds of ground corn during a cer- tain month. The cow consequently received 750 divided by 2.5, or 300 feed units in the hay eaten; 150 divided by 1.1, or 136 feed units in the bran, and 90 feed units in the corn, making a total feed consumption of 526 feed units for the month. If she yielded 30 pounds of butter fat during the month on this feed, she produced 30 ~ 5.26, or 5.7 pounds of butter fat per 100 feed units. By the use of the unit values given, the feed consumption of in- dividual cows for an entire year may be obtained and compared with their production, thus enabling a farmer to determine whether a cow is a sufficiently high and economical producer to remain in the herd, and the net returns for the feed which each cow in the herd has yielded. It also makes it possible to compare the results obtained in different herds, and furnishes valuable data for studies of the relation of feed to dairy production. The Feed-Unit Standard.—The following feeding standard for dairy cows, according to the feed-unit system, has been proposed by Hansson, of the Royal Swedish Academy, for a 1000-pound cow per day: For maintenance, 0.65 pound digestible protein and 6.6 feed units. .For production, 0.045 pound to 0.05 pound digestible protein and 4% feed unit per pound of mi ke is Hzeample.—A 1000- -pound com received 30 pounds silage, 8 pounds clover hay, 3 pounds corn meal, and 3 pounds gluten feed. How many feed units does she receive in her feed, and how many units are required per 100 pounds of, milk and per pound of butter fat? How much digestible protein and, how many feed units should she receive according to the feed-unit standard : ? 2“ Kontrolféren. Arbetsfilt,” Stockholm 1910. THE FEED-UNIT SYSTEM 81 Ration Compared with Feed-Unit Standard Standard " Feed| Digestible Ration fed ‘niga protein, Feed Digestibe . units pounds 30 pounds corn silage—30 +6 =| '5 42 Maintenance | 6.6 65 8 pounds clover hay— 8+2=| 4 57 Production ..| 7.2 1.20 3 pounds corn ...........66. 3 23 aes 3 pounds gluten feed—3 +.9 =| 3.3 64 Total ..../13.8) 1.85 Dota 2 ses's’sissadsleisveta eh nen’ 15.3 1.86 According to the feed-unit standard, the cow should receive 1.85 pounds of digestible protein and 13.8 feed units per day; we note that the ration supplies 1.86 pounds digestible protein and 15.3 feed units. It is, therefore, somewhat higher in feed units than the standard, but the amount of protein tallies perfectly with that called for by the standard. The feed-unit system is simple and easily applied. It has been found to give accurate results under ordinary farm conditions, and is scientifically well founded, as has been shown by the fact that the results obtained by this system do not, as a rule, vary from the methods of valuation of feeding stuffs based on their contents of digestible matter or energy values. At least so far as dairy cows and swine are concerned, this system may be depended upon to fur- nish fully as reliable a guide to practical feeding operations as either of the two methods given, and will doubtless be generally adopted in the future also in this country, especially in the work of cow-testing associations. QUESTIONS . Explain the origin of the feed-unit system. . What are the special advantages of this system, and to what classes of farm animals is it especially adapted? . How is the value of pasturage determined in this system? . Give the feed-unit standard for dairy cows. . Formulate a ration for a 1000-pound dairy cow according to this stand- ard, using the following feeds: Mixed hay, corn silage, wheat bran, barley, linseed meal. 6. How does the ration given above agree with the Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby standards for milch cows with the same production? orm co noe ? Wisconsin Circular 37, p. 12. CHAPTER X RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS WE have seen that the relative cost of feeding stuffs is a matter of the greatest importance to the farmer. If he has to buy feeds for his stock in order to supplement the farm-grown crops, as nearly all farmers have to do, he must give due regard to getting the most for his money in actual feeding value. He should be in position, there- fore, to ascertain the relative feeding value of the available feeds according to the best information at hand. . The relative value of feeding stuffs may be measured in several ways: According to (a) the market prices of the feeds; (6) their contents of digestible nutrients; (c) their energy values, and (d) the feed units which they furnish. Considering first the market values of feeds, it is well known that these are subject to great variations and are influenced by a number of factors which do not necessarily bear on the intrinsic feeding value of the feeds. To illustrate, alfalfa is as valuable a feed in™ the western States,.where it may be bought at $8 a ton or less at times, as in the eastern or central States, where it generally com- mands more than twice this price; again, cotton-seed meal and cake are worth as much to the southern farmer as to the Pacific coast feeder or the European dairyman. But these latter have to pay nearly twice as much for it as the former. The question of cost of transportation is evidently of paramount ‘ importance in determining the market price of a feed; another factor is the reputation of a particular feed, which greatly influences the demand for it. The relative prices of cotton-seed meal and linseed meal well illustrate this fact. In many sections of the country the former furnishes considerable more protein at the same or lower prices than the latter, and is fully as good a feed for most purposes, and still does not find as ready sale as linseed meal. The market prices of feeds are often not a reliable guide to their intrinsic value, and they also fluctuate greatly in different places and in differ- ent years; hence any attempt to gauge the value of feeds according to their cost is bound to prove unsuccessful. Several authors—and the writer among them—have calculated the commercial values of pro- tein, fat, and carbohydrates in concentrated feeding stuffs from the 82 ’ RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 83 average composition and market prices of a large number of com- mon feeds, and'used the figures thus obtained for comparisons of the cost of different feeding stuffs, but unless at least a dozen different feeds are included in the calculations and these are repeated at frequent intervals, at least every five years, the results obtained are not very satisfactory. Such calculations are laborious, and the results, as may be inferred, are valuable only for a limited period and region.® Methods of Comparison.—The only methods of comparison that have a general value are the three previously given, based on the digestible components of feeds, their energy values, or feed-unit values. The method of comparison to be followed in each case will be explained in the following paragraphs: (a) Digestible Components——The digestible components of the feeds to be compared are added together, the per cent of digestible fat being first multiplied by 2.25, and the sum divided into the market prices for 100 pounds of the different feeds. The cost per unit of digestible matter is thus obtained, and the feed or feeds that supply a pound’ of digestible matter at the lowest cost are selected. This method furnishes reliable information in regard to the com- parative value of feeds of the same kinds, rough feeds, concentrates, roots, etc., but not when feeds of different classes are compared, on account of the greater losses of energy in the digestion of coarse feeds than in the case of concentrates. (b) Energy Values.—The net energy values for 100 pounds of the different feeds are divided into the price per 100 pounds, and the feed or feeds furnishing a unit of energy value (therm) at the lowest cost thus ascertained. These values are reliable for produc- tion of increase in body weight in the case of fattening steers, and. approximately so also for other purposes of animal production. (c) Feed-unit Values——The cost of a feed unit is determined by multiplying the cost per 100 pounds by the feed-unit value of each feed. The lowest cost per feed unit shows the cheapest feeds. The origin and meaning of the feed-unit system is explained in another chapter of this book (p. 79). Example 1.—Given green corn fodder at $2 per ton; alfalfa hay at $10 a ton; corn at 60 cents a bushel ($21.40 a ton) ; wheat bran at $24, and linseed meal at $30 a ton, which feeds are most economi- cal for feeding dairy cows? By reference to Table I in the dgpendis. we obtain the following figures : § Wisconsin Report 8, p. 212, 84 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Example 1, Details of Cost Dyeetble Energy values | Feed units in : er * No. Feed Roundes Cost Cost Ccst cents | Total per Total per Total per 2 pounds] pound,| therms| therm, _unit, cents cents cents 1 Fodder corn............ 10 13.8 .72 12.4 81 4 8.0 0.8 2 | Alfalfa hay............. 50 53.0 94 34.4 1.45 2.0 1.0 Bt Indian Comm. ceccnnwamae © 107 83.9 1.28 88.8 1.20 1.0 1.07 4 Wheat bran............ 150 77.7 2.02 48.2 2.49 1.1 1.32 5 | Linseed meal.......... .| 120 59.5 1.93 78.9 1.90 9 1.35, We note that the rank of the different feeds at the prices given is as follows: According to contents of digestible matter, 1, 2, 3, 5, 4. According to energy values, 1, 3, 2, 5, 4. According to feed-unit values, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The relative value of these feeds does not differ greatly whether one or the other of the methods of calculation be adopted; fodder corn is the cheapest feed according to all three methods of calcula- tion; alfalfa or corn meal comes next, and wheat bran and oil meal are the most expensive feeds. Where differences in the relative rank do occur, it is evident that the digestible matter gives an undue advantage in the case of coarse feeds, and that energy values give corn too much credit over the protein feeds, wheat bran and oil meal, except when fed to fattening steers, in which case the figures given for these values are doubtless the best available. The rank based on feed-unit values, on the other hand, is likely to prove the more correct in case of feeding growing animals, milch cows and sheep, Example 2.—Both cotton-seed meal and linseed meal can be bought at $32 a ton, gluten feed at $25 a ton, and dried distillers’ grains at $28 a ton, which should be bought for feeding dairy cows, supplementary to corn silage and clover hay. By similar methods of calculation as before we have the following data: Example 2, Details of Cost ae Papeete Energy values Feed units No. Feed ; sealer Cost Cost Cost per er er cents | Total pound,| Total tien Total unit, cents cents cents 1 | Gluten feed............ 125 80.6 1.55 79.3 1.58 9 1.13 2 | Distillers’ grains...... 140 88.6 1.58 79.2 1.77 9 1.26 | = | Cotton-seed meal. . 160 80.6 1.99 84.2 1.90 8 1.28 - 4 | Linseed meal...... 160 T717 2.06 78.9 9 1.44 RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 85 As these feeds are all high-protein feeds and adapted to feeding dairy cows, relative cheapness is the important consideration in this case, and we note that the feeds rank in the following order by all three methods in this respect: Gluten feed, distillers’ grains, cotton- seed meal, and oil meal. With the roughage on hand, corn silage and clover hay, the feeds may be given preference in the order given. If only starchy roughage were available, cotton-seed meal or oil meal, being richer in protein than the two others, would be more desirable feeds, unless their cost were greatly against them. QUESTIONS 1. Give three methods by which the relative value of feeding stuffs may be determined. 2. State the special advantages of each one of these methods. 3. What is the relative value of the following feeds for fattening steers, at the prices given, according to the different methods stated: Clover hay, at $12 per ton; cornstalks, at $4 per ton; alfalfa hay, at $15 per ton; shelled corn, at 50 cents per bushel; oats, at $30 per ton, and wheat bran, at $25 per ton? CHAPTER XI MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS Fertility in Feeds——When a farmer buys feed for his stock the fertility which is contained therein is often not taken into considera- tion, especially in the central or western States, where the supply of fertility in the soil, as a rule, has not as yet been depleted by continuous cropping. Farmers in the older sections of our country, and in the countries of the Old World, who pay out enormous sums of money annually for commercial fertilizers, are more likely to con- sider the manurial value of feeding stuffs. In addition to furnishing feed for farm animals, all plant materials supply valuable fertilizer ingredients (nitrogen and mineral matter) which largely go into the manure and aid in restoring the fertility of the farm land that has been lost through the removal of agricultural crops. Under other- wise similar conditions the feeds that furnish the largest quantities of fertilizing ingredients should, therefore, be selected. We under- stand by manurial value of feeds the value which these would have if applied directly as manure on the land. This value is figured on the basis of the amounts and cost of the three fertilizer constituents, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, which have definite and fairly constant market values. Table V in the Appendix shows that a ton of alfalfa hay, e.g., contains 44 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 34 pounds of potash ; these amounts of fertilizer constituents would be worth, at a low valuation (15 cents per pound of nitrogen, 4 cents per pound of phosphoric acid and potash), $8.36 (Fig. 10).* If a farmer buys a ton of alfalfa hay, he therefore receives, in addition to the energy for feeding purposes contained therein, an amount of fertilizer constituents which would cost $8.36 if bought in the form of commercial fertilizers. In the same way, the ferti- lizer value of Indian corn would be $5.64; oats, $6.63; wheat bran, $11.55 ; linseed meal, $18.75, and cotton-seed meal, $23.36. These figures make up a large proportion of the market values of the feeds ; a study of them will show that the most expensive feeds, which are all high-protein feeds, have, generally speaking, also the 1 Present market. prices vary considerably from the figures used in these calculations. 86 MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS 87 highest manurial values. Where there is a choice between different feeding stuffs, the contents of valuable fertilizer ingredients in the feeds should receive careful consideration. By way of illustration we may bring together in a table some of the common feeding stuffs: Fertilizer Ingredients of Some Common Feeds Contained in One Ton Nitrogen P HoaGhore Potash Coarse Feeds: Timothy hay................. 19 7 28 Corn fodder.................- 12 8 22 Clover hay........ sodiaiaaoe itioscees 39 11 37 Alfalfaiceccs mineral components, lime, phosphoric acid, and potash availabl- for feeding livestock than the grasses. Hay from leguminous crops is nearly twice as rich as that from grasses, and larger crops per acre are also obtained than from grasses. The average composition of hay from grasses and from leguminous plants will be seen from the following table: Average Composition of Hay from Grasses and Legumes, in Per Cent Protein (Carter Fat Hay from grasses........... ‘| 7.52 | 75.64 | 2.70 Hay from leguminous plants..| 14.37 | 64.14 | 3.23 Assuming that common grasses will yield two tons of hay per acre and clovers and other leguminous plants three tons, the latter will furnish from two to four times as much protein per acre as the common grasses, together with as much more fat and somewhat more carbohydrates. They also contain nearly three times as much nitrogen and about twice as much potash as does hay from grasses.” The more general culture of legumes and the production of hay therefrom during the last couple of decades have cothe largely as a result of the teachings of modern agricultural science, and are 5 Farmers’ Bulletin 16. 8 114 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS a hopeful sign of agricultural progress in this country. The legumes furnish the cheapest sources of nitrogen and nitrogenous feed com- ponents available to the farmer, and by their culture he will, in a measure, become independent of both fertilizer and feed manu- facturers. The most important species of the legumes adopted for feed- ing farm animals are clover (red, mammoth, alsike, white, crimson, wen Japan), cowpea, soybean (Fig. 15), vetch, pea, bean, beggar weed, and peanut. Brief men- tion will be given in the follow- ing pages of these different species that are of special im- portance as forage crops. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)® (Fig. 16) is one of our most valuable forage plants. In the western part of the United States it ranks first in impor- tance as a soiling and hay crop. It was introduced into Cali- fornia from Chili in 1854, and gradually spread over the irri- gated regions of the West, and from there eastward, until it is now grown in every State in the Union, as well as in Canada. It requires a deep, well-drained and fertile soil, with a perme- Fie. 15.—A soybean nitrogen factory. The able subsoil, for its best develop- acteria te the root nodules into'forme thar Ment, and under optimum con- are ved by the host plant for the elaboration ditions will yield enormous crops of forage. Several cuttings are obtained during the season from alfalfa fields, the number increas- ing from two to six or more as we go southward. The highest yields are obtained on the irrigated land in southern California and the southwestern States, where eight to ten tons of hay per acre are frequently obtained. As it generally takes about four tons of green alfalfa to make a ton of hay, this corresponds to a yield of forty.tons of green alfalfa per acre. Good alfalfa fields in the humid regions will yield at the rate of four to five tons of hay per f { | t | °In Europe and Canada often called Lucern, GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 115 acre. When well established and cared for, alfalfa will yield large crops for a series of years—at least in the West and Southwest, where the plants are not weakened by rigorous cold of winter. Weeds that may appear in the first cutting will be choked out by the alfalfa if cut before seeding, and later cuttings will give a clean hay. As already stated, foxtail is often a bad weed in western alfalfa fields early in the season, so that the first cutting of hay may cause trouble in feeding cattle, sheep, or pigs on account of the rough bristles of the foxtail heads. If this cutting is placed in the silo, there will be no difficulty in this respect, as the foxtail heads are softened in the siloing process (p. 158). Fie. 16.—Alfalfa will furnish an abundance of green feed throughout the growing season. It is rapidly becoming one of the most valuable forage crops in the country. (Pacific Rural Press.) Composition of Alfalfa.—Alfalfa is one of the. richest forage crops American farmers can grow.. It contains more protein than any of the leguminous plants used for feeding purposes, with the possible exception of sweet clover, peas, and vetches. A good quality of alfalfa hay contains at least 15 per cent protein, 2 per cent fat, and about 25 per cent fiber, while the lower grades contain less than 10 per cent of protein and over 30 per cent fiber. Compared with red clover, alfalfa furnishes a heavier yield of hay that contains more protein than clover, and, once established, it will occupy the land for a considerable period, while clover, being a biennial, must be re- seeded every three years. Alfalfa has a high digestibility and is greatly relished by all classes of farm animals. It is used in four different ways for feeding, as soiling crop, for hay, silage, or for pasture. It is one of our most valuable green feeds, especially for cattle, hogs, and sheep; its protein content renders it a highly de- sirable feed for dairy cows and young stock. As it has a nutritive 116 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS ratio of about 1: 3.6, it is too high in protein for the best results when fed alone, even with the animals mentioned, and may, there- fore, be supplemented to advantage with Indian corn or other starchy feeds. In the corn belt and eastern States the common farm-grown feeds are starchy and low in protein, like corn fodder, mixed or timothy hay, cereals and roots, and alfalfa is, therefore, of special value as a supplemental feed in this important agricultural section of our country. It may be partly substituted for wheat Fia. 17.—Curing and harvesting alfalfa. (‘‘Productive Farming,’ Davis.) bran or similar feeds in rations for dairy cows, in the proportion of about 114 pounds of alfalfa to 1 pound of bran, and the bill for concentrates thus greatly reduced. Choice grades of alfalfa will nearly approximate wheat bran in feeding value, and can generally be produced at a cost less than one-half of what this concentrate commands (Fig. 17). Alfalfa furnishes an excellent pasture after the first year, under certain restrictions, viz., that it is not eaten off too closely, espe- cially in the fall, and that cattle and sheep are not put on the pasture when hungry and while the dew is on; otherwise they are likely to GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 117 bloat, death resulting in severe cases. Alfalfa pasture is especially valuable for dairy cows, growing cattle, brood sows, and young farm animals of the various classes. It makes one of the best hog pastures in the country; an acre will supply sufficient feed for ten to twenty hogs, and these will make good gains on it with a small grain allowance of corn, barley, or shorts, viz., 600 to 1000 pounds of pork for the season. Alfalfa-fed beef goes on the market without any grain on the Pacific coast; in the eastern and central States such cattle are fattened with corn or small grains with excellent results. Changes in Composition.—The changes in the chemical com- position of alfalfa with the progress of the growing period have already been considered (p. 56) ; briefly stated, young plants contain most water, ash, and protein (total and amides), and older plants contain most fiber. The digestibility of the plant also decreases as it approaches maturity. Owing to the large proportion of valu- able feed materials in the leaves and tender parts, carefully-cured alfalfa hay cut at the right time, when new shoots are appearing, will have a much higher feeding value than hay that has been left standing too long, or cured by faulty or careless methods so as to lose a considerable portion of the leaves, or that has been exposed to rain storms after cutting. Much of the alfalfa hay is of poor quality, from one or more of the reasons just given, especially the first two—too late cutting and careless methods of hay-making. Choice or prime alfalfa hay’ is well worth the high price that it com- mands on the hay market in comparison with the lower grades. The experience of the Ontario Agricultural College with regard to late- cut hay is worthy of note in this connection:* “The decrease in digestibility is so rapid that by the time the plant has passed the full blooming stage, it appears to be unsafe to feed it in large quan- tities to any animal. ... Because of the rapid decrease in feed value, also because of the rapidity with which the new crop comes on when the old one is removed, and because of the danger in allow- ing stock to eat the fodder when the plant becomes hard and woody, alfalfa, whether in the pasture field or in the hay field, should not be allowed to stand later than the early blossoming stage.” Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is grown in pure seeding mostly for the purpose of seed production; for forage purposes it- is, as a rule, sown with timothy, and with this plant forms the main hay crop in eastern and northern United States. Clover furnishes ™Woll, “ Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen,” p. 406a. ® Report, 1898. 118 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS two or three crops a year. The yields obtained vary from two to five tons per acre, according to the season and the fertility of the soil. The yield of the last crop is especially variable and is frequently too small to be worth while cutting. If it is not cut, the clover is generally pastured by cattle or sheep. At early stages of growth, clover is very low in dry matter,- viz., less than 10 per cent, and relatively small yields of hay are secured from early cuttings. On good land very heavy yields are obtained, however, aggregating 16 to 20 tons of green clover for the season. The tendency of green clover to cause bloat in cattle and sheep may be overcome by feed- ing some dry forage prior to turning on to pasture, or by placing hay or straw in feed racks in the field. According to Henry, cattle and sheep will resort instinctively to the dry feed when bloat threatens. Experience and chemical analyses have shown that the best time to cut red clover for hay is when about one-third of the heads have turned brown. The crop then yields the maximum amounts of total dry matter and digestible nutrients. Red clover hay is an excellent feed for dairy cows, sheep, pigs, and all kinds of young stock. It ranks second to alfalfa in feeding value for these animals. Clover hay is less adapted to working horses on account of its liability to be dusty. This is a disadvantage that hay from all legumes has, compared with that from grasses, and comes from the larger proportion of leaves in the former; these are brittle and readily crumble into dust unless the clover is carefully cured and handled. Clover makes an excellent supplementary feed to the corn 1 plant, timothy, and other crops grown on the farm, as these are, in general, of a starchy character and low in protein and mineral substances. In the feeding of growing animals or dairy cows clover may, there- fore, make up a part of the ration to great advantage, and is much relished by them. Besides being a valuable hay and soiling crop, clover makes a good silage crop, if properly put up in air-tight, tall silos. The main conditions for making good clover silage, or silage from other legumes, will be further discussed in the chapter on silos. We shall see that the crop must be siloed directly after being cut, before it has lost much moisture, and that it is preferably run through a cutter, and must be carefully distributed and packed in the silo so as to exclude as much of the air as possible. Even well-preserved clover silage, as that of other legumes, has often a strong and not particularly pleasant odor, and is not quite as palatable to dairy GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 119 cows or other farm animals as corn silage, as it soon dries out on exposure to air. It may, however, be considered of similar feeding value as corn silage, and makes a valuable feed for farmers who have difficulty in curing clover into hay on account of rainy weather. Like other legumes, clover may be safely placed in the silo wet with dew or rain. If it has been allowed to dry out before being siloed, water should be added as it is elevated into the silo or after each - load is filled into the silo. Mammoth clover (Trifolium medium) is a somewhat later variety than red clover, generally maturing three to five weeks later. As its name suggests, it has a larger and coarser growth than red clover and produces but one crop a year. It is, therefore, frequently pastured for several weeks in the early spring, and will make a good growth when the stock is removed. It requires a similar soil and climate as red clover, and is better able to thrive under un- favorable conditions. than this crop on account of its stronger root system and its perennial growth. It does not make as palatable hay as red clover on account of its ranker habit of growth, but its ability to do well on relatively poor soils and its perennial character make it a valuable hay crop to the stock farmer. Alsike or Swedish clover (Trifolium hybridum) is grown for both hay and pasture, often in mixture with red clover and timothy, or with red clover only. It produces a fine, soft hay that is greatly relished by stock and eaten without waste. Alsike flourishes on land that is too acid or too moist for other clovers, although it will not grow in really wet soils. While red clover usually dies out the third year, alsike will often live for several years, a feature which greatly increases its value for pasture.? Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum, Fig. 18) is an annual, especially valuable as a cover crop in orchards and for green manur- ing. It is also used for pasture, as a soiling crop, and, to a limited extent, for silage. It does not make as satisfactory hay as other clovers on account of the minute barbed hairs on its blossom heads, which become spiky as the heads ripen. Hay from over-ripe crimson clover tends to make hair balls, often 3 to 4 inches in diameter, of compact, felt-like structure, in the stomachs of animals, especially horses, and cases are on record of animals dying as a result of eating such hay.’° The difficulty may be avoided by cutting the hay at *White clover (Trifolium repens) is not a hay crop, being used in pastures and lawns only, in mixtures with grasses, ” Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 8; Farmers’ Bulletin 579, 120 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS the time of blossoming. This clover is best adapted to the climate of the south Atlantic States, and has been especially recommended by the New Jersey and Delaware experiment stations. Japan clover (Lespedeza striata) is a southern forage plant of special value for pasture; it also furnishes a good quality of hay if cut when in full bloom. It will yield one to three tons of hay per acre on good land, of a quality that is considered equal to the best clover hay. According to Tracy, Japan clover, with cotton seed as grain feed, is the cheapest milk-producing ration in many sections Fic. 18.—Crimson clover. (‘‘Productive Farming,"’ Davis.) in the South. It is of great value to southern agriculture as a soil- renovator, increasing the nitrogen content and improving the com- position and texture of soils that are largely unproductive, so that they will grow other crops. It affords valuable pasturage for cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs, though the animals must be accustomed to it in order to relish it. It is considered by some authorities the best pasture plant for the poorer clay soils of the cotton belt. It does not differ greatly in composition from red clover, the hay being somewhat lower in ash and fiber and higher in nitrogen-free extract than red clover hay.** " Farmers’ Bulletin 441. GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 121 Sweet clover (Trifolium melilotus, Fig. 19) is grown as a forage crop to a limited extent in some of the central and southern States. It will grow on soils that are too poor in humus for the successful production of either alfalfa or red clover. Sweet clover may be used as hay, silage, soiling crop, or as a pasture for all classes of farm animals. It must be cut before blooming, since the plant rapidly becomes coarse and unpalatable to stock after this stage. Owing to the presence of a bitter principle (cumarin) in sweet clover, animals at first refuse to eat it, but appear to relish the plant when once accustomed to it, whether in dry or succulent form. Sweet clover stands next to cowpea hay and alfalfa in its con- tent of crude and digestible protein, but is also somewhat higher in fiber than other legumes. Average Composition of Leguminous Hays, in Per Cent Digestible Protein Fat Fiber Ash Carbo- | Nutri- Protein | hydrates} tive and fat ratio Sweet clover hay | 13.3 2.1 26.9 7.5 9.9 40.8 | 1:41 Alfalfais Bureau of Statistics, U, S.. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 73, p- 37, 156 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS ¥ acid is non-volatile and makes up about two-thirds of the acidity of silage made from nearly matured corn, or about 1 per cent on the average, while acetic acid is present in from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent on the average. This and related acids give to well-preserved silage its pleasantly acidulated, aromatic odor, and make corn silage particularly palatable to farm animals. Corn is planted: thicker when grown for silage than for grain (p. 106). The closeness of planting varies in different regions, according to soil and climate. The common practice is to plant the corn in hills, three and a half feet apart both ways, for grain, and in drills, three and a half feet apart, with stalks eight to ten inches apart in the row for silage. This will secure a fair propor- tion of ears and a maximum yield of dry matter in the crop taken off the land (p. 105). Experiments conducted with regard to the effect of methods of planting corn have shown that the yields ob- tained are not influenced materially by the disttibution of the seed so long as the amount of seed per acre remains the same.* The question of planting corn in hills or drills may, therefore, be decided on the score of convenience of cultivating the field and handling the crop. \ Corn for the Silo.—Experience and direct trials have proved that it is best to plant a variety of corn for silage that will mature in the locality given, and to grow a maximum amount of dry matter to the acre, which will mean that the yield of perfect ears will be smaller than when grown for grain. As the quality of the silage made from well-matured corn is better than that made from rather immature grain, the best practice is to allow the grain to nearly ripen before it is cut for the silo. This is advantageous also because of the rapid increase in the yield of dry matter per acre during the last. stages of the growing period when the kernels begin to harden (p. 55). If the grain is fully matured by the time the silo can be filled, a quantity of water added to the mass in the silo or in the blower as the corn goes into the silo will secure a good quality of silage. Frosted corn can likewise be made into good silage by a liberal application of water in the same way. The amount of silage that can be obtained from an acre of corn will vary with the fertility of the land, the season, and the care used in growing the crop, from 6 tons or below to over 20 tons in exceptional cases. A 50-bushelcrop will yield about 8 to 12 tons of silage per acre, depending upon the amounts of foliage and stalks that accompany the ear. Southern varieties of corn, as a *Tllinois Bulletin 31, Connecticut Report, 1890. SILOS AND SILAGE 157 rule, carry a larger proportion of the plant in the form of stalks and leaves than do northern-grown varieties.® The general practice adopted by farmers in the corn belt ‘is to silo the corn, “ears and all.” The entire crop is run through a cutter and filled into the silo, where it is evenly mixed and tramped down carefully, especially along the walls of the silo. Experiments conducted by the author at the Wisconsin station® and by Hills at Vermont station’ showed conclusively that this method of handling ‘the crop is more economical and convenient than to husk, shell, and grind the corn separately and feed it to dairy cows, with silage made from corn fodder or stover. According to the results obtained in the Vermont trials, one acre of corn silage made from the whole corn plant, including ears, is equal in feeding value to one and one- quarter acres of silage made from corn stover fed with the corre- sponding amount cf ground grain, The fact that corn silage is relatively low in protein has led to the suggestion that leguminous crops be placed in the silo with the corn. The most successful crops for this purpose are cowpeas or soybeans grown in the corn, both being cut for the silo at the same time. Cowpeas mature at about the same time as corn in the South, and furnish large yields of feed; they make a valuable - mixed silage for southern stock farms. Soybeans may be success- fully used for the same purpose and can be grown farther north; grown together with Indian corn, they make a good quality of silage that is considerably richer in protein than corn silage alone . 340). e Sorghum has been highly recommended as a silage crop by the Kansas and Tennessee experiment stations on account of its being more drought-resistant than Indian corn. It will give heavier yields than this crop in regions where the rainfall is too light or too irregular for growing a good crop of corn. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn, and remain green far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the leaves all dried up. Yields of green sorghum of 20 tons per acre are reported from Kansas, or one-half as much again as a good crop of corn. It is important, in making silage from sorghum, that it be harvested late, when the seed has become hard, as it will'make a very acid silage if cut at an earlier stage of growth. Cut at harvest time, it will make a good quality °> Farmers’ Bulletin 578. * Reports 1891 and 1892. 7 Report 1892. 158 DESCRIPTION .OF FEEDING STUFFS ‘i of silage, of nearly similar feeding value and palatability to corn silage. The grain sorghums (Egyptian corn, kafir, milo maize, feterita, etc.) are used for silage to a limited extent in the western States. They make a good silage if cut when the seed is ripe; this is not relished quite as well as corn silage, and is eaten in-smaller amounts than this, e.g., by dairy cows 20 to 25 pounds per head daily as a maximum feed. The Kansas station found that kafir silage ranks second to corn silage as a feed for dairy cows, and that it is better than sorghum silage for production of milk.* In dry, hot sections, where the grain sorghums give relatively large yields and where Indian corn cannot be successfully grown, these crops will doubtless assume great. importance in the future as silage crops on dairy and other stock farms. Alfalfa is used only to a limited extent as a silage crop. There is ordinarily no difficulty in making it into good hay in the western States where this crop grows to best advantage and is of the greatest economic importance. It is, however, made into silage by many farmers; if run through a cutter and siloed immediately after mowing, before it has wilted much, and carefully tramped down in the silo, it will make good aromatic silage that is palatable _to dairy cows, steers, sheep, and other farm animals after they have become accustomed to it. Like all silage made from legumes, it has sometimes a stronger and less agreeable flavor than corn silage, owing to the butyric acid formed therein, but stock soon learn to like it. It has not been shown, however, that alfalfa silage has a higher feeding value than corn silage, ton for ton, although it is considerably richer in protein and contains somewhat more dry matter per ton than corn silage. In California and other western States where foxtail is often a serious pest in alfalfa fields during the early part of the season, the first crop is siloed by some farmers, and the foxtail thus ren- dered harmless; the beards remain soft in the silage and do not cause trouble to farm animals eating it, as is generally the case when this crop is made into hay, especially if cut rather late, after the foxtail heads are nearly ripe. Silage from such weedy alfalfa will be of good quality if put up in accordance with the directions given, and is often better than that from pure alfalfa. The last crop of alfalfa is also frequently siloed in the region mentioned, owing to the rainy weather that is likely to prevail at this time,. rendering it difficult to make this crop into hay. § Circular 28. SILOS AND SILAGE 159 Clover and other legumes are not often used as silage crops for the reasons stated above, and when so used the silage is generally made under conditions similar to those just given for alfalfa, when they cannot very well be cured into hay. As the legumes have a large proportion of leaves and tender stems, they dry out rapidly and must be run through a cutter and siloed as soon as possible after being mowed. Clover, like alfalfa, is cut for the silo when about one-third of the plants are in full bloom, or before the first single heads are beginning to wilt. According to trials conducted at several experiment stations, the largest. yields of dry matter and of all feed components except fiber are obtained from clover when it is cut at this stage (p. 57). If the cutting has been delayed beyond this stage, the safer plan is to add water’ to the clover as it is ele- vated into the silo, or to add water in the silo after each load or half-day run. The losses of feed materials in the siloing process in the case of clover, alfalfa, etc., are but slightly larger than for corn, so far as can be judged from the limited data at hand regarding this point. When put up in the manner stated and well packed in an air-tight silo, the necessary loss of dry matter in clover or alfalfa will not be likely to exceed 10 per cent. This is a much lower loss than that sustained in making hay from alfalfa (and probably from elover and other leafy legumes as well), on account of the unavoidable and often considerable abrasion of leaves and tender parts in the. process of haymaking; as previously shown, this has been esti- mated at 15 to 20 per cent as a minimum, and as high as 60 per . cent of the hay crop in extreme cases (p. 59). Aside from the losses sustained through abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may reduce the value of the hay one-half. The losses from either of these sources are avoided in preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place 2 small loss of 10 per cent or less will occur under ordinary favorable conditions through the respiration of the plant cells and the fermentations in the silo. The reason why legumes are not siloed more generally must be sought in the fact that it is more difficult to secure a good quality of silage from these crops than from Indian corn, unless the neces- sary conditions for success in making legume silage are clearly under- stood ; furthermore, the flavor of the silage is not, as a rule, as agree- able as that of corn silage, and farm animals do not relish it quite so much, When once accustomed to legume silage, however, they do well on it; dairy cows will eat 20 to 25 pounds of clover or alfalfa. 160 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS silage per head daily. On account of the larger amount of protein furnished in this feed than in corn silage, less or cheaper concen- trates may be fed in the rations and the cost of production thus decreased. ' Cowpeas and soybeans are used as silage crops to some extent in the South, either mixed with Indian corn (Fig. 32), as previously stated, or grown and siloed separately. The Maryland station found cowpea silage of somewhat higher feeding value than corn silage. The cowpeas should be siloed when the peas are well ma- Fria. 32.—Corn and soybeans grown for silage. When cut and placed in the silo (one ton of soybeans to three tons of corn) this crop makes a very valuable feed for dairy cows. Wisconsin Station.) tured, since immature vines make an acid, watery silage. Farmers who have had considerable practical experience with this silage are of the opinion that it has no equal as a feed for cows and sheep; it is also a good hog feed, and is considered greatly superior to pea- vine hay for all these animals. In feeding experiments at the Dela- ware station, six pounds of pea-vine silage fully took the place of one pound of wheat bran, and the product from one acre was found equivalent to two tons of bran. Soybeans make silage of a fair quality when siloed alone, and ean be more easily handled than cowpeas. The larger late varie- ties yielding heavy crops of forage are to be preferred for the silo. SILOS AND SILAGE 161 Corn-soybean silage gave better results with dairy cows than straight soybean silage, in experiments by Professor Humphrey and the author at Wisconsin station.® Pea or corn cannery refuse is often put up in large silage stacks near the factories or in ordinary silos. It makes a valuable feed for fattening cattle, sheep, or dairy cows, and compares favor- ably with corn silage; by some feeders it is considered superior to this silage, especially for dairy cows. It is also fed to horses, mules, and hogs to a limited extent.*° Like other kinds of silage, it should be fed with dry hay or cornstalks, and, for best results, with some grain feed, and not as exclusive feed, as is sometimes done. Green oats and other cereal fodders are occasionally siloed when grown for forage or in case they cannot be used for grain. They are cut when the kernels are past the milky stage and filled into the silo after having been run through a cutter. If the grain has be- come nearly ripe, it is necessary to add considerable water to the green fodder as it goes into the silo, either through the blower or in the silo after each load, and the cut mass must be carefully dis- tributed in the silo and tramped down along the wall of the silo. Oat silage made in this manner is of excellent quality and furnishes a very palatable, nutritious feed for cattle and sheep. Beet tops and leaves are generally siloed in European beet-: growing countries by being placed in large trenches in the field and covering these with boards or straw and a layer of dirt. Preserved in this way, they make a slimy, strong-smelling silage, which is, however, greatly relished by milch cows*and fed heavily on the dairy farms on the Continent. Because of the shallowness of the pits, large losses of feed materials are sustained. by this method of siloing, viz., 25 to 33 per cent or more of the dry matter in the leaves and tops. Beet pulp is preserved in similar trenches or shallow pits in the western States where the manufacture of beet sugar is an important industry. The siloed (“cured”) beet pulp is an excellent feed for fattening steers, sheep, or dairy cows; as it is made mostly in re- gions where alfalfa is the main hay crop, it is generally fed with al- falfa hay, which it supplements nicely, being high in insoluble carbo- hydrates (2.8 per cent) and relatively low in protein (1.0 per cent crude protein and 0.3 per cent digestible crude protein). Its feed- ing value may be considered equal to about one-half that of corn silage. Of other materials made into silage may be mentioned: ® Report 21, p. 67; Cornell Bulletin 310. * Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 45, 11 . 162 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Apple pomace,’! wet brewers’ grains, sorghum bagasse, cane tops,!” potato tops, hop vines, sugar-beet tops and shocked corn,’* prickly pears," thistles, and other weeds." None of these materials are, however, of sufficient importance to call for more than a mere mention. Publications by Experiment Stations on Silos and Silage Crops. (r., report; b., bulletin; c., circular.)—Ark., r. ii, 1889, pp. 68-77; Col., b. 30, 1895, pp. 21-23; b. 200, Aug., 1914; Conn. (Storrs), b. 70, Jan., 1912; Del., r. 1902, p. 30; Fla., b. 78, Mar., 1905; 92, Mar., 1908; 16, Jan., 1892; Ill, b. 48, 101; Ind., b. 40, June, 1892, b. 163; Iowa, b. 100, July, 1908; 107, June, 1910; 141, July, 1913; ¢. 6, Jan., 1913; Kan., b. 6, June, 1889, pp. 61-74; c. 28, b. 48; La., b. 148, Mar., 1914; Md., r. 1889-91; b. 129, July, 1908; Mich., b. 47, April, 1889; spec. b. 6, Dec., 1896; b. 255, May, 1909; Minn., b. 40; Miss., b. 8, Aug., 1889; Mo., c. 48, 67; Mont., b. 94, July, 1913; Neb., b. 17, 1891; b. 188, May, 1913; N. H., b. 14, May, 1891; ¢. 16, June, 1914; N. J., b. 161; N. ¥. (Geneva), b. 102, N. S.; N. Y. (Cornell), b. 167, March, 1899; N.C., b. 80, Oct., 1891; N. D., b. 98, July, 1912; Ohio, b. 5, vol. ii, No. 3, 8. §., June, 1889; Okla., ¢. 33, 34, and 36, June-Aug., 1914; Ore., b, 9, Feb., 1891; b. 85; Pa. (Bd. of Agr.), r. 1894, pp. 232-237; b. 118, Oct., 1912; S. D., b. 51, Feb., 1897; Tenn., b. 105, April, 1914, vol. 17, No. 1, Jan., 1904; Va., b. 53, pp. 53-80; 70, pp. 115-119; 182, June, 1909; Wash., b. 14, Nov., 1894; pop. b. 10, Sept., 1908; W. Va., b. 129; Wis., b. 19, April, 1889; 28, July, 1891; 59, May, 1897; 83, April, 1900; Farmers’ B, 32, Nov., 1895; 292, Dec., 1907; 353, April, 1909; 556, Oct., 1913; 578, May, 1914; Bur, Ani- mal Industry, r. 23, 1906; c. 136, Jan., 1909; Ontario (Canada), b. 32, Aug., 1888; 42, May, 1889; r. 1905, p. 101; (Bur. of Ind.) b. 39, April, 1892; Ottawa (Canada), b. 65. QUESTIONS 1. What is a silo, and of what materials are silos built? 2. What is the capacity of a round silo 16 feet in diameter and 36 feet high? Of one 14 feet in diameter and 32 feet high? 3. Of what dimensions would you build a silo of a capacity of (a) 50 tons, (6) 100 tons? 4. What capacity and dimension of silo would you need for a herd of 25 dairy cows, feeding these on the average (a) 30 pounds per head daily for a period of 120 days, (b) 25 pounds daily for a period of 200 days? . Give three important points in building siles. . State the main advantages of the silo on American dairy and stock farms, . Mention the six main silage crops and their characteristics for feeding different classes of farm animals. "Vermont Report 1903. “ Louisiana Bulletin 143, p. 12. ** Wisconsin Bulletin 228, p. 42. 4 New South Wales Gazette, 8, p. 505. % Tbid., 9, p. 71. See also “ A Book on Silage,” by the author, Rev. ed., pp. 34 and 35. : Nan CHAPTER XVI THE CONCENTRATES Concentrates’ are feeding stuffs containing a large amount of nutrients in small bulk, such as grains, mill feeds, and oil meals. Another general name for these feeding stuffs is concentrated feeds or “ grain feeds.” They are, in general, characterized by relatively high amounts of valuable feed components and a high digestibility, and by relatively low amounts of water and fiber. There are prob- ably several hundred feeds of this kind used for the nutrition of farm animals in this country, but only the more important kinds will be considered in this book. They may conveniently be dis- cussed under the following heads: 1. Cereal grains and other seeds. 2. Flour-mill and cereal feeds. 3. Brewery and distillery feeds. 4, Starch- and glucose-factory feeds. 5. Sugar-factory feeds. 6. Oil-mill feeds, 7. Packing-house feeds. 8. Dairy products. 9. Proprietary feeds. 10. Miscellaneous feeds. I. CEREAL GRAINS The cereal grains are standard feeds, more or less familiar to all farmers, and until recently the main reliance of feeders for con- centrates. When market prices are not prohibitive, no better or more highly nutritious feeds can be obtained for feeding farm animals. The cereals contain a medium percentage of protein (8 to 12 per cent, nearly all true protein), a high percentage of carbohydrates (about 70 per cent, largely starch), and a medium fat content (2 to 8 per cent). The percentage of ash is rather low, on account of relatively large amounts of carbohydrates and other organic components, but it is high in potash and phosphoric acid, and low in lime. The starch in the grains is formed during the last part of the growing period; hence, if this is checked by drought or lodging of the crops, the grains will be lower in carbohydrates and relatively higher in protein than normally ripened grain. Damaged, shrunken grains, No. 3, No. 4, or rejected grains are, therefore, as a general rule, of a higher feeding value than grain that is graded high and commands the highest prices on the market. The leading cereals, so far as stock feeding goes, will now be con- *This term was originally introduced by Professor W. A. Henry, of Wisconsin, in the nineties, and has now come into general use. 163 164 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS sidered in the order of their importance for this purpose, followed by the minor grains, leguminous seeds, and oil-bearing seeds. Indian corn (maize, Zea mays) is the most important cereal crop in our country. In 1909 the area in corn made up more than one-half of the entire acreage devoted to grain raising; wheat com- ing second, with 28 per cent of the total acreage, and oats third (20 per cent of the total acreage). Corn was grown on 82 out of every 100 American farms, according to the United States census of that year. While Indian corn may be grown successfully in every State in the Union, it thrives best and reaches its greatest importance as a cereal and a forage plant in the vast interior of our continent, lying between the large eastern and western mountain ranges, especially in the prairie States in or near the Mississippi valley. The latter are generally spoken of as the “Corn belt.” The most important corn-producing States, according to the census of 1909, were: Illinois (with a production of 390,000,000 bushels), Iowa (342,000,000), Indiana (195,000,000), Missouri (191,000,000), Nebraska, Ohio, and Kansas following in the order given, each with yields of over 150,000,000 bushels of corn. The entire corn crop for the whole United States for the year given aggregated nearly a billion and a half dollars in value. . Corn is the most variable of all cereals, both as regards the size to which it grows and the form of the kernel of the different varie- ties. “In the South the tropical corn stems, four or five months from planting, carry great ears burdened with grain so high that. a man can only touch them by reaching high above his head. At the other extreme, the Mandan Indian in the country of the Red River of the North ‘developed a race of corn which reached only to the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne scarcely a foot from the ground on pigmy stalks.” (Henry.) There are six different races of Indian corn, but only three of these are of importance for feeding farm animals, viz., dent, flint, and sweet corn. The average composition of these races is as follows: Average Chemical Composition of Indian Corn, in Per Cent Crud 7 Nitrogen- Ash eaten Fiber ‘ bcd Fat Dent com.............. 15 10.3 22 70.4 5.0 Flint corn...... “inole reds 14 10.5 17 70.1 5.0 Sweet corn............ oe 1.9 11.6 2.8 66.8 8.1 THE CONCENTRATES 165 The main difference in the composition of these three races lies in the higher fat, protein, ash, and fiber contents of sweet corn, and its lower nitrogen-free extract, than that of the other races. Of the differences given those in the protein, fat, and carbohydrate contents are the most important; the high percentages of fat and sugar in sweet corn are probably responsible for the fondness of stock for this corn. Characteristics of Corn.—Although fairly rich in protein, corn is especially a carbohydrate grain, containing nearly 70 per cent of pure starch. Its high fat content (about 5 to.8 per cent). increases its value as a fattening and heat-producing feed and adds to its palatability to farm animals. Corn is low in ash (less than 2 per cent), and this contains only a small proportion of lime and phos- phorus; hence corn is less valuable than other cereals for feeding young stock and for milk-producing animals and poultry, all of which require considerable mineral matter for building up their bone structure, or for ash in milk or egg-shells. By feeding corn as a sole feed to pigs, farmers'in the corn belt and elsewhere have sustained large losses through overfattened, weakly swine, with poor bone, that fall an easy prey to disease (p. 301). As shown elsewhere, corn can be supplemented for best results with feeds rich in protein and mineral substances in feeding the classes of live stock mentioned. Corn is fed either whole as ear corn, or shelled or ground. The best method of feeding varies according to the kind and age of the animal, and will be considered under the respective classes of live stock, along with the adaptability and general value of corn in each case. Instead of grinding the shelled corn, the ear corn is sometimes ground “cob and all.” This feed,-known as corn and cob meal, has been found to be of value in making a lighter feed than corn meal, and makes a good feed for~ horses, steers, and milch cows. Experiments have shown that it has a similar value to corn meal, pound for pound, for these animals. Ear corn contains varying proportions of cob, according to the race, variety, and maturity of the corn, an average ratio for dent corn being 14 pounds of cob to 56 pounds of shelled corn. The cob is very low in valuable feed materials and contains about 30 per cent fiber; the carbohydrates are composed largely of pentosans (31 per cent) and substances of lower feeding value than starch. The cob therefore adds but little to the value of the ground corn in it- self, but the benefit from grinding the corn and cob together comes from the mechanical effect, rendering the ground meal lighter and insuring a more complete action of the digestive juices on the same. 166 ‘DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Corn Proteins.—The proteins of corn, according to Osborne, are composed of about 40 per cent zein (a characteristic alcohol- soluble protein), 30 per cent glutelin, 22 per cent albumen, globu- lin and proteose, and 6 per cent protein insoluble in alkali.? While little is known so far regarding the specific nutritive properties of the different protein substances, it seems evident that the special corn proteins possess important advantages over those of the wheat or the.oat plant. Investigations conducted during a series of years at the Wisconsin station have shown that corn is the only one of the three cereals which can properly nourish dairy cows for long periods and keep them in a strong, healthy condition so that they will give birth to normally-developed, vigorous calves.? It has not been established that this difference in the nutritive effects of the three plants fed by themselves is due to differences in the composition of the protein compounds, but, with our present incomplete knowl- edge of this subject, it seems most likely that the phenomena brought to light in the important investigations referred to must be ex- plained by differences in the inner constitution of the proteins in these crops. Oats are a highly-prized feed for farm animals, especially horses, cows, sheep, and young stock. Next to corn, they are the most important cereal for feeding livestock in the United States. Their cost frequently makes them rather expensive for feeding other stock than horses, but, when not too costly, there is no better con- centrated feed for the animals mentioned. Oats vary greatly in their percentage of hulls; a good quality of oats contains, on the average, about 30 per cent hulls, while light oats may contain con- siderably over 40 per cent hulls (or 16 per cent fiber). Oats con- tain more fiber and protein and nearly as much fat as corn, as will be seen from the analyses given below: , Composition of Oats and Oat Hulls, in Per Cent Digestible Protein Fat Fiber Ash — Carbo- Protein hydrates and fat ORES ispecies ces 11.4 4.8 10.8 3.2 8.8 58.9 Oat hulls...... 3.4 1.3 30.7 6.7 1.3 39.9 Science, 1913,-p. 185; Journal Biological Chemistry, 1913, xxxi, No. 2. * Wisconsin Research Bulletin 17. THE CONCENTRATES 167 The hulls serve a similar purpose as corn cobs in grinding the grain, making the meal lighter and more easily digested. Oats are generally fed whole, however, except in the case of old or very young animals that cannot masticate their feed thoroughly. Ground or rolled oats are to be preferred for feeding such animals. The favorable effect of oats on horses has long been known, and it has been held that no other grain or feed is equal to oats for them. It has been stated by various scientists that oats contain a special stimulating principle not found in other grains, but the matter has not yet been fully settled. In 1883 Sanson, a French chemist, claimed to have discovered, a characteristic nitrogenous alkaloid in oats called “avenin,” having a stimulating effect on the motor nerves of the horse, but subsequent investigators have been unable to verify the presence of such a compound. The careful and exhaustive studies by Osborne have shown that the proteins of the oat kernels are made up of glutenin (about 11 per cent) and a small amount of a globulin called avenalin (1.5 per cent). It is very likely that the digestive ferments found in oats are of importance in the digestion of this grain. The mechanical effect of oats in inciting a free flow of digestive juices may also be a factor in bringing about the favorable results which oats doubtless produce in the feeding of horses. ’ New oats must be fed with care to horses, as they have a decided loosening effect on the bowels. The change in this respect that takes place in oats in storage also, in all probability, comes as a result of the action of the oat enzymes on some of the constituents of the oats.* Digestibility of Oats——The following summary of digestion coefficients shows the extent to which the different classes of farm animals can digest oats: Average Digestion Coefficients for Oats, in Per Cent Nitrogen- Animals used Reber ~of ee Protein Fiber : free Fat Ruminants..... 6 70 77 — 31 77 89 Horses........ 4 74 84 22 82 81 Poultry........ 13 63* 71 90 88 * Organic matter. Horses are evidently able to digest the dry matter of oats, as well as the protein and nitrogen-free extract, better than do rumi- ‘Farmers’ Bulletin 420. 168 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS , nants, while these animals digest the fiber and iat better than do horses, Oats do not have quite as high digestibility as Indian corn, so far as fiber and nitrogen-free extract are concerned, due to ‘the higher percentage and the more woody character of the fiber in oats than in corn. The coefficients for protein and fat in the two grains, on the other hand, are about similar. The high fat contents of these two grains are doubtless important factors in making them palatable stock feeds. Oats, as a rule, have a somewhat lower feed- ing value than corn, although this depends largely on the combina- tion in which they are fed. In general, a mixture of the two grains gives better results than either fed alone. This rule does not hold good, however, in the case of oats for horses (p. 287). Corn and Oats (“ Ground feed ”).—Mixtures of corn and oats are ground together and sold in upmense! quantities in eastern and central States as “ ground feed ” or “ ground corn and oats.” This is used for feeding horses and dairy cows, especially the former, for which purpose it is well adapted.. A good grade of corn and oats makes a valuable horse feed, but low-grade materials, like oat hulls, refuse from oatmeal factories, ground corn cobs, etc., are often added in making the feed, and its purchase cannot be recommended outside of States which have feed inspection laws on* their statute-books, where the feed may be bought on definite guarantees of protein, fat, and maximum fiber contents. The wholesome effect of feed inspec- tion laws has been strikingly illustrated in the quality of the - ground feed sold in a State before and after the passage of such protective laws.° Ground oats and corn are generally sold on a guarantee of 9 to 10 per cent protein, 3 to 4 per cent fat, and 7 to 9 per cent maximum fiber, according to the proportions of the two grains entering into the feed. These may vary from one of corn to three of oats by weight to three of corn and one of oats. The market prices of the two grains determine largely the proportions used of each, more corn being used when this grain is the cheaper, and vice versa. Since corn contains only about 2 per cent fiber, and oats, on the average, about 10 per cent, mixtures of the two grains will not be likely to contain over 7 per cent fiber. A fiber content of over 9 per cent is conclusive evidence that the ground feed is either adulterated, or that a very poor grade of light oats was used in its manufacture. 5 Wisconsin Circular 30, p. 83, January, 1912. THE CONCENTRATES 169 Barley is mainly used for stock feeding on the Pacific coast in this country, but in middle and northern Europe it is one of the common grain feeds for farm animals. It makes an excellent feed for horses and dairy cows, and, fed with dairy by-products, produces a fine quality of pork. It is generally fed ground, cracked, or rolled. The last method of preparation is considered preferable, because fine-ground barley forms a pasty mass in the mouth of animals and is more likely to give rise to digestive troubles than when rolled, as is the case with fine-ground corn or corn and oats for horses. There is a prejudice among some farmers against feeding barley to milch cows, but this is doubtless unfounded, for its value for milk production has been fully established. In an experiment at the California University Farm® a cow that received green alfalfa or alfalfa hay and only rolled barley in addition, 10 pounds daily as a maximum feed, produced an average of 60 pounds of milk for a period of over three months, and not only did better on this feed, but kept up better in her milk flow than during any previous lacta- tion period. Barley is higher in protein and carbohydrates than oats, and lower in fat, containing, on the average, 12.0 per cent protein, 1.8 per cent fat, 4.2 per cent fiber, 68.7 per cent nitrogen-free extract, and 2.5 per cent ash. It has a high digestibility, viz., on the average: For ruminants, protein 73 per cent, fat 79 per cent, and nitrogen-free extract 92 per cent. : For horses, protein 80 per cent, fat 42 per cent, and nitrogen-free ex- tract 87 per cent. For swine, protein 76 per cent, fat 65 per cent, and nitrogen-free ex- tract 90 per cent. While it is considered that rain or foggy weather during ripen- ing injures the quality of barley for brewing, this does not affect its feeding value in any way, and barley unfit for brewing can often be obtained for feeding purposes at a low figure. Rye is less used for stock feeding in America than the three cereal grains considered in the preceding. Its value for this purpose is, however, well established. It is the common bread grain in northern Europe, and is also fed to stock when its price is not too high. Rye does not differ greatly from barley in the composition or feeding value. Its average composition is: 11.3 per cent protein, 1.9 per cent fat, 1.5 per cent fiber, 74.5 per cent nitrogen-free ex- tract, and 2.1 per cent ash. Its average digestion coefficients, as . determined with cows, are: Protein, 80 per cent; fat, 86 per cent, and nitrogen-free extract, 80 per cent. * Unpublished resulta 170 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS / Rye makes a valuable feed for horses and fattening swine; it is often fed soaked to the latter farm animals, and is preferably fed ground and mixed with other concentrates to other classes of live- stock. Rye was found to have about the same feeding value as barley in extensive Danish swine-feeding experiments, and the quality of the pork produced was satisfactory. The best results were, how- ever, obtained with mixtures of the two cereals. Wheat is too high-priced, as a general rule, to be used for feed- ing farm animals. In exceptional cases it may be advisable to use it for this purpose, however, and it is well, therefore, to understand its nutritive value and main characteristics, especially since the lower grades of wheat can generally be used for stock feeding to advantage, even at present-day market prices for grains. Wheat stands close to barley in composition and feeding value. It is of slightly lower value as a feed for fattening animals, but is superior to this cereal in nutritive effect for young and growing animals and for dairy cows. It is lower in fat but somewhat higher in protein and carbohydrates than corn; its digestibility is as high as that of the other cereals except oats, which, as stated, have a somewhat lower digestibility than these on account of their rela- tively high fiber content. , Wheat is generally ground before feeding. On account of its large content of gliadin and glutenin, it forms a sticky paste when chewed, and for this reason is preferably fed in mixtures with more bulky concentrates, like oats or wheat bran. Damaged wheat (salvage wheat from elevator fires, etc.) is at times obtainable at a low cost; the better grades make a valuable feed, only slightly inferior to an average grade of wheat. Grain screenings are mixtures of broken or shrunken grain, weed seeds, chaff, pieces of straw, dirt, etc., which are obtained in the cleaning of grain in elevators. They vary considerably in their chemical composition and feeding value, according to their origin and the character of the impurities contained in the grain. On account of the large proportion of different weed seeds in screenings, they are expensive feeds at any price to farmers who wish to keep their land as free as possible from noxious weeds. Many of the weed seeds in screenings will pass through the animals uninjured and will germinate when the manure is put on the land,’ thus rendering cultivation more expensive and reducing the yield of cultivated crops through the growth of weeds. Many farmers do not, therefore, wish to buy screenings under any condition, and this 7™Vermont Bulletins 131 and 138, THE CONCENTRATES 171 is the only safe position to take towards whole screenings. Finely- ground screenings often make satisfactory and cheap feeds, and, if carefully ground, are not, as a rule, objectionable. Poisonous weed seeds, like corn cockle, are found in most screenings, but they are not ordinarily present in sufficient quantities to give rise to any Fig. 33.—Weeds growing from seed found in a mixed ‘‘dairy feed.” This contained 100,000,000 weed seeds to the ton. The soil was sterilized, so that it is certain that every lant grew from a weed seed in the feed. Most samples of whole screenings contain still arger numbers of weed seeds. (Vermont Station.) trouble in stock feeding. Sheep and poultry appear to be able to destroy weed seeds of screenings more thoroughly than other farm animals, and do well on them (Fig. 33). Screenings are often used in the manufacture of mixed feeds and molasses feeds, in the latter case serving as absorbent for the 172 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS molasses. Both screenings and molasses feeds manufactured from them may be considered worth somewhat less than wheat bran, ton for ton. Emmer (often incorrectly called speliz) is a drought-resistant cereal crop, especially valuable in the semi-arid western United States, where it is extensively grown and fed to stock. Experiment stations in that region have experimented extensively with emmer for a number of years, and have shown that it is well worthy of a trial by farmers in those States, along with oats or where oats can- not be grown. Emmer yields good crops of grain (20 to 40 bushels per acre), and compares favorably in feeding value with oats and barley. For best results, mixtures of oats or other grains and emmer are ground and fed, instead of clear emmer, which is rather fibrous and bulky. The hulls of emmer make up about 20 per cent of the grain. It resembles oats more than any other grain crop, and is largely used for feeding farm animals as a substitute for oats. The following compilation of digestion coefficients of these two grain crops and of barley shows that emmer stands between these in digest- ible components, and that it stands nearer oats than barley: * Digestible Components in Oats, Emmer, and Barley, in Per Cent é.. F Nitrogen- | Nutriti Pp F utritive rotein Fat ‘iber i oe ratio Oates ca ceineng savers es 10.73 3.59 3.17 51.04 1:5.8 EMM? 33 e 55 ends eae oe 9.96 1.36 4.98 52.06 1: 6.0 Barley vccveseu svn oe oe3% 9.37 1.66 ' 1.86 69.96 1: 9.0 Buckwheat is rarely used for feeding farm animals, either whole or ground, since it is too valuable as a raw material for the manufacture of buckwheat flour. The by-products obtained in the manufacture of this flour will be considered under “Flour and Cereal Mill Feeds ” (p. 183). Sweet and non-saccharine sorghums are important bread crops for the peoples of Asia and Africa. “In India alone over 33,000,000 acres of land are annually devoted to growing the millets, including the sorghums, kafir, milos, etc., a greater area than is devoted to wheat raising, rice, and Indian com combined.® * Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 120; Farmers’ Bulletin 466. * Church, ‘‘ Food Grains in India,” 1901; cited in Henry, “Feeds and Feeding,” p. 147, THE CONCENTRATES 173 The sorghums may be divided into two classes: (1) The sweet or saccharine varieties, of which amber or orange cane is mostly grown, and (2) the non-saccharine or grain sorghums, which are smaller and have pithy stems, with but little sweet juice (Fig. 34). Sweet sorghum is grown primarily for forage and, to a limited extent at the present day, for the production of syrup. The non-saccharine sorghums are grown both for grain and for forage. The grain sor- ghums are represented in this country by kafir corn, durra, and milo maize, and a few other varieties of minor importance. Different strains of each of these are grown and possess different characteris- Fia. 3:1.—Types of grain sorghums; these crops are of increasing importance for grain and forage to farmers in the western United States. From left to right: 1 and 2, yellow Milo; 3 and 4, white and brown Kaoliang; 5, Feterita (Sudan Durra); 6 to 8, red, pink, and black-hulled Kafir corn. (Breeders’ Gazette.) tics that make them of special value under varying conditions. The main cultivated strains are: White and black kafir, white, brown, and Sudan durra, and yellow milo. The kafirs and milo occur in standard and dwarf varieties. White durra is also called Jerusalem corn; brown durra, Egyptian corn,’® and Sudan durra, feterita. The grain sorghums are valuable forage and grain plants, especially suited to a dry and hot climate. The most striking characteristic of the grain sorghums is their ability to withstand drought, and to make a good growth with but little or no rainfall. After periods of protracted drought, they will resume growth as soon as water Both white and brown durras are often incorrectly called Egyptian corn. 174 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS becomes available. In this respect they differ greatly from Indian corn, which will not yield satisfactorily when once checked in its growth. This quality makes the grain sorghums especially valuable under the conditions in the semi-arid western and southwestern States. They bid fair to become of great agricultural importance in these sections of the country. The areas sown to grain sorghums in Kansas (Fig. 35), Oklahoma, and Texas have increased in a marked manner during the last ten years, and they are apparently replacing Indian corn to some extent in these States.1* The grain of the non-saccharine sorghums resembles corn in chemica] composition ; it contains a higher percentage of starch than corn, but less protein and fat, and may be considered not quite equal to corn in feeding value or palatability. The grain should be ' AREA OF GRAIN-SORGHUNM ANDO COPN IN KANSAS. ‘ ¢ MILLIONS OF ACRES. ie - ane aes 1 1805 1906 1907 1908 4909 — 7910 i wou a aa satel 1912 — 1913 A GRAIN SORGHUM om conv Fie. 35.—Diagram showing increase in area sown to grein sorghums in Kansas during the decade 1904-13. (Ball.) threshed and ground for feeding to fattening cattle, while it may be fed threshed or in the head. to working horses and sheep, and preferably “heads and all” to idle horses, colts, dairy cattle, and young stock. Ground grain is fed with skim milk to calves, and moistened with water or skim milk to hogs. As it is quite carbon- aceous (N.R., milo 1: 9.7%, Egyptian corn 1: 8.9), it makes a good supplemental feed for hogs fed skim milk or alfalfa, either hay or pasture. Rice.—As in the case of many other seeds, rice is too valuable as a human food to allow of its use for feeding ‘farm stock, and it is only used for this purpose to a limited extent in rice-growing sec- tions. The hull or husk of the rice kernel is rough and brittle, and “U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1913, p. 221, THE CONCENTRATES 175 is usually removed before the grain is sold. The hull is not, as we shall see, suited for feeding livestock, on account of its sharp barbs and high content of ash (silica, see p. 186), but it is sometimes ground with rice for feeding purposes. The hulled rice is a very valuable fattening feed. It contains considerably more nitrogen- free extract than any other available feeding stuff, viz., nearly 80 per cent, while its protein content is low (on the average, 7.4 per cent). Owing to the high starch content and the minute amount of fiber in the hulled rice, it has the highest percentage digestibility of any vegetable feed known, its digestion coefficients being as fol- lows, according to the German digestion trials: Dry matter, 98 per cent; protein, 86 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 100 per cent, and fat, 90 per cent. According to the Louisiana station, the ground, rough rice is worth 7 per cent more than corn as a feed for farm stock, and hulled rice is worth 16 per cent more. Supplemented with cotton- seed meal and other high-protein feeds, ground rice furnishes southern farmers a highly nutritious ration for cattle, sheep, or horses. The only thing that stands in the way of its general use for feeding is its cost. II. LEGUMINOUS AND OIL-BEARING SEEDS The leguminous seeds, like peas and beans, soybeans and cow- peas, are valuable concentrated feeds, and their use for feeding farm animals is increasing every year, as farmers come to realize their value and appreciate that they can greatly reduce their feed bills by growing high-protein forage and grain crops on their farms. At the same time the fertilizer bills may be reduced, since these crops render available for plant use thé free nitrogen of the air through symbiosis with certain soil bacteria, and leave the soil richer in this expensive fertilizer element than it was before the crop was grown thereon (p. 113). These grains have a high digesti- bility and contain two or three times as much digestible protein as the cereal grains. With the exception of soybeans, which contain nearly 15 per cent digestible fat, the leguminous seeds are all very low in this component, containing only about 1 per cent thereof. Further information as to the character of the seeds given will be found under the discussion of the respective crops as forage plants. The chemical composition of these seeds will be seen from the following: : , “4 176 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Chemical Composition of Leguminous Seeds, in Per Cents Digestible Protein Fat Ash Carbo- : Protein | hydrates| N. R. and fat Canada field pea........ 23.7 8 2.4 19.7 50.2 | 1:2.5 Horse bean.............} 26.6 1.0 3.8 23.1 51.6 | 1:2.2 Soybean........... wee} 83.5 17.2 4.8 29.1 56.2 | 1:1.9 Cowpea............000. 20.5 1.5 3.2 16.8 57.4 | 1:3.4 Flaxseed is used ‘only to a limited extent for feeding purposes, viz., mostly as a calf feed, its high price being rather prohibitive for feeding to other farm animals. It is always ground for calf feeding and mixed with boiling hot water in the proportion of a pound of meal to a gallon of water. The jelly-like liquid thus formed has a laxative effect and forms a highly-prized component of calf rations. It is generally fed mixed with standard, easily- digested concentrates, as wheat middlings, ground oats, barley, ete. (p. 221). Flaxseed contains about 22 per cent protein, 33 per cent fat (oil), and 7 per cent fiber ; it has a high digestibility, containing over 20 per cent digestible protein, 17 per cent nitrogen-free extract, and 29 per cent fat; owing to the large content of digestible fat, its nutritive ratio is considerably wider than linseed meal, viz., 1: 4.0 (p. 363). Cotton Seed.—Only relatively small amounts of cotton seed are now fed to stock on account of the value of the seed for the manu- facture of cotton-seed oil. Formerly the seed was used quite generally throughout the South as a feed for farm animals. It is fed either raw, roasted, steamed, or boiled. The composition of the cotton seed is, on the average, as follows: Water acs circ mimes _ 9.9 per cent PrOtelM soa. wzscesicoasyaececneen ses 19.4 per cent tic cytacanis teens toeea toec accrcal 19.5 per cent BIDER oss raed aectiseones 22.6 per cent Nitrogen-free extract....... 23.9 per cent Ashies? vacxenysa oe pas Sag eis 4.7 per cent It contains about 11 per cent of digestible protein, 83 per cent digestible carbohydrates, and 18 per cent digestible fat. Cotton seed possesses a high feeding value, especially as a cattle feed, but has sometimes proved injurious to stock on account; of the lint and the dust that it collects. The main reason for its present limited use as a stock feed is, however, that the seed can generally be sold THE CONCENTRATES 177 for a good price at the oil mills, or exchanged for cotton-seed meal at the rate of 800 pounds per ton of seed: It has, therefore, now been largely replaced by cotton-seed meal in the feeding of farm animals,?? Literature on Forage and Grain Crops.—Hunt, “The Forage and Fiber Crops,” New York, 1907. Hunt, “ The Cereals in America,” New York, 1904. Voorhees, “ Forage Crops,” New York, 1907. Shaw, “ Grasses and How to Grow Them,” New York, 1908. Shaw, “ Forage Crops,” New York, 1907. Shaw, “Soiling Crops and the Silo,” New York, 1902. Shaw, “ Clovers and How to Grow Them,” 1906; Wallace, ‘“ Clover Farm,” 1898. Spillman, “‘ Farm Grasses of the United States,” New York, 1907. Wing, “‘ Meadows and Pastures,” Chicago. Wing, “ Alfalfa Farming in America,” Chicago, 1909. Coburn, “The Book of Alfalfa,” New York, 1908. Myrick, “The Book of Corn,” New York, 1903. Shoesmith, “The Study of Corn,” New York, 1910. Montgomery, “The Corn Crops,” New York. Holden, “A, B, C of Corn Culture,” 1906. Bowman and Crosley, “Corn,” Ames, Iowa, 1908. : Farmers’ Bulletins 11, “The Rape Plant,” 1893. 164, “Rape as a Forage Crop,” 1903. 16, ‘“‘Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and Feeding,” 1894. 18, “Forage Plants for the South,” 1894. 102, “ Southern Forage Plants,” 1899. 300, “Some Important Grasses and. Forage Plants for the Gulf Coast Region,” 1907. 147, “ Winter Forage Crops for the South,” 1902. 436, “ Winter Oats for the South,” 1911. 25, “ Peanuts, Culture and Uses,” 1895. 26, “ Sweet Potatoes, Culture and Uses,” 1895. 129, “ Sweet Potatoes, Culture and Uses,” 1901. 31, “ Alfalfa or Lucern,” 1895. 215, “ Alfalfa Growing,” 1905. 276, “ Alfalfa Culture in Eastern United States,” 1907. 339, ‘‘ Alfalfa,” 1908. 199, “ Corn Growing,” 1904. 36, ‘‘ Cot- ton Seed and its Products,” 1896. 37, “ Kafir Corn,” 1896 (see also Bulletin 73). 552, “Kafir as a Grain Crop,” 1913. 50, “Sorghum as a Forage Crop,” 1897. 58, “ The Soybean as a Forage Crop,” 1897. 372, “Soy- beans,” 1909. 66, “ Meadows and Pastures,” 1897. 86, “ Thirty Poison- ous Plants,” 1898. 89, “ Cowpeas,” 1899. 318, ‘ Cowpeas,’” 1908. 101, “ Millets,” 1899. 168, “ Pearl Millet,” 1903. 108, “Salt Bushes,” 1900. 110, “ Rice Culture in the United States,” 1900. 139, “ Emmer: A Grain for the Semi-arid Regions,’ 1901. 466, “ Winter Emmer,” 1911. 167, “ Cassava,” 1903. 224, “Canadian Field Peas,” 1905. 246, “ Saccharine, Sorghums for Forage,’ 1906. 458, “ The Two Best Sweet Sorghums for Forage,” 1911. 288, “The Non-saccharine Sorghums,” 1907. 322, “Milo as a Dry Land Grain Crop,” 1908. 448, “ Better Grain for Sorghum Crops,” 1911. 356, “ Peanuts,” 1908. 431, “The Peanut,’ 1911. 361, “ Meadow Fescue, its Culture and Uses,” 1909. 362, “Conditions Affecting the Market Value of Hay,” 1909. 508, “ Market Hay,” 1912. 402, “ Canada Blue Grass, its Uses and Culture,” 1910. 420, “Oats, Distribution and Uses,” 1910. 427, “ Barley Culture in the Southern States,” 1910. 518, “Winter Barley,” 1912. 441, “ Lespedeza or Japan Clover,” 1911. 455, * Red Clover,” 1911. 485, ‘‘ Sweet Clover,” 1912. 550, “ Crimson Clover, Growing the Crop,’ 1913. 515, ‘‘ Vetches,” 1912. 529, ‘“ Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States,” 1913. 483, “The Thornless Prickly Pears,” 1912. 502, “Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in the Northwest.” 509, “ Forage Crops for the Cotton Region,” 1912. 271, “‘ Forage Crop Prac- tices in Western Oregon and Western Washington,” 1906. 331, “ Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma,” 1908. 534, “ Durum Wheat,” 1913. ‘ 2 Farmers’ Bulletin 36. 12 178 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletins 4, “ Range Improvement in Arizona,” 1902. 15, ‘‘ Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great’ Basin,” 1902. 31, “ Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States,” 1902. 38, “ Forage Conditions and Problems in Eastern Washington and Oregon, and Northwestern California and Nevada,” 1903. 59, “ Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska,” 1904. 67, “ Range Investigations in Arizona,” 1904. re OO NK on om oO QUESTIONS . What are the main cereal grains used for feeding farm animals? . Give the classes of animals to which each kind is preferably fed; their average chemical composition and relative feeding values. . What per cent of hulls do oats generally contain, and in what way are the hulls of importance in feeding farm animals? . What is “ ground feed,” and to which classes of animals is it generally fed? . What are grain screenings? State under what conditions they may be safely used, and what disadvantages are incident to their use. . Give the different kinds of sorghums used for feeding farm animals, and the special points in their favor. . Name the leguminous seeds used for stock feeding, and give their average composition and relative value in comparison with the cereal grains. . What oil-bearing seeds are used for stock feeding, and under what condi- tions are they used? CHAPTER XVII VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS I. FLOUR AND CEREAL MILL FEEDS In the manufacture of flour or cereal products (breakfast foods) a large number of by-products are obtained that are of the highest value for stock feeding. The flour-mill feeds are well-known by-products that have long been standard feeding stuffs in all parts of the country where live- stock are kept. These are bran, middlings or shorts, and low- grade feeding flour. A brief statement of the minute structure of the wheat kernel will make clear the characteristic differences in these by-products. The wheat berry is covered by three different coatings of tough, thick-walled cells, which contain a considerable proportion of fiber and but little starch. Directly beneath the innermost seed-coat is a layer of cells, very rich in protein, called the aleurone layer; inside of this is the soft whité portion (endosperm) of the berry, made up of cells largely filled with starch grains. These also con- tain protein substanc2s, known under the name of gluten (gliadin and glutenin, see p. 9). Within the inner starchy portion of the berry is found the germ containing the embryo of the wheat plant, The following figures show the approximate proportion of the differ- ent parts of the wheat berry, according to Bessey : Coatings or bran layers ... 5 per cent Aleurone layer ........ 3 to 4 per cent Starch cells ........ 84 to 86 per cent Germ, os ysaeeniewess cates 6 per cent Wheat is the main bread grain in this country. In the manu- facture of flour the wheat is first passed over a series of screens which remove the impurities contained therein, such as weed seeds, chaff, etc. (p. 170). Itis then scoured, and, after being heated some- what, is run through a series of rollers, set at decreasing distances apart, so that the kernels are gradually broken into smaller and smaller pieces. The fine floury portion formed is separated after each “break,” and the tough outer seed-coats are thus gradually freed from adhering flour and make up the bran. The aim of the miller is to obtain all the starch cells and gluten possible from the 179 180 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS wheat, and to avoid the germ and the bran, including the aleurone layer, which would give an undesirable yellow tinge to the flour and lower its keeping quality. There are considerable differences in the nomenclature of mill feeds adopted by millers in different sections of the country, but the more common terms recognized by the trade are wheat bran, shorts or standard middlings, white middlings, and red-dog flour. Wheat bran is rich in protein and fat, and also in fiber, the average percentages of these components being about 15, 4, and 10 per cent, respectively. Its digestibility is lower than ‘that of the cereals, viz., dry matter 66 per cent, protein 77 per cent, fiber 41 per cent, nitrogen-free extract 71 per cent, fat 63 per cent, making the percentage of digestible components: Protein 11.9 per cent, Carbohydrates and fat 47.6 per cent (N.R., 1: 4.0). Bran is rich in mineral matter, and contains about 80 per cent of the phosphorus of the wheat berry ; hence, it is very valuable as a source of this important element in feeding young, growing, or milk-producing animals. The ash is relatively poor in lime; in feeding wheat bran to the animals, it should, therefore, be supple- mented by hay of legumes, which is especially rich in this com- ponent. Wheat bran also contains 6 to 8 per cent of the organic phosphorus compound phytin, to mien constituent it largely owes its laxative properties. The wheat bran on the market is of two kinds: Country mill bran and roller or flaky bran. The former kind comes from small flour mills which do not have the perfect machinery for the separa- tion of starch-cells from the seed-coats that is found in large roller mills; this bran is, therefore, higher in starch and lower in protein and fiber than roller bran. The value of the two kinds for feeding purposes will depend largely on the combinations in which it is fed, and the kind of animals fed. While roller bran supplies more protein than does country mill bran, its digestibility is likely to be somewhat lower on account of its larger fiber content. The differ- ences in the nutritive values of the two kinds of bran are, in general, small, however, making it advisable, in case both kinds are avail- able, to select whichever can be obtained at the lower price. Wheat bran is often high-priced in comparison with other de- sirable’ concentrates, and farmers should study the market prices of different feeds and the feed bulletins issued by the various ex- periment stations so as to be able to take advantage of low market prices for other feeds that may serve their purpose equally well. / VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 181 The fact that wheat bran is a common and valuable dairy feed should not lead feeders to believe that it is indispensable and must be bought at any price. It is often possible to buy other equally valuable concentrates at a lower cost. , Bran is especially valuable for feeding stock that requires a liberal supply of protein and mineral matter in their rations and are able to digest bulky feeds; on account of its coarseness it is well adapted for use with heavy feeds like corn meal, buckwheat middlings, oil meal, ete. Middlings or shorts are well suited to the use of young animals that do not do well on bran, like pigs and calves. They are espe- cially valuable for feeding these classes of animals, and are always mixed with other feeds, like corn meal, ground oats or barley, oil meal, ete., when so used. They contain, as a rule, about 17 per cent protein, 5 ‘per cent fat, and less than 8 per cent fiber. Red-dog flour, or dark feeding flour, is rich in starch, protein, and fat, containing, on the average, about 18 per cent protein, 4.5 per cent fat, and over 60 per cent nitrogen-free extract; its fiber content is generally below 2 per cent. The high percentages of protein and fat contained in red dog are due to the presence therein of the rich wheat germs which generally go into this by-product. It is, therefore, a more valuable feed than the best grades of middlings, and is also somewhat higher in price. Besides for feeding young animals, calves, and pigs, red-dog flour is used in foundry work, to prevent the mold from adhering to the castings. White middlings or flour middlings are composed of a mixture of standard middlings and red-dog flour, and have an intermediate composition and feeding value between these feeds. Adulterated Wheat Feeds.—As a rule, the wheat feeds on the market are pure feeds, or free from serious adulterations, although of greatly varying quality. Adulterations with ground cornstalks, ground corn cobs, cedar sawdust, oat hulls, and weed seeds have, however, been identified in commercial samples in the past.1_ The only common adulteration of wheat bran and other wheat feeds is the admixture of whole or ground grain screenings. If finely ground, the screenings are, as a rule, rather unobjectionable, since the weed seeds contain considerable amounts of ‘nutrients, but the whole screenings make a very undesirable adulteration, on ac- count of the danger of fouling the farm land with weeds by their use. One of the most striking recent examples of this danger that 1Wisconsin Bulletin 97, p. 30; U: S. Notice of Judgment, 66, 67, and 2387. 182 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS has come to the author’s notice was presented by a sample of wheat bran examined in the feed-control work in Wisconsin.” The anal- ysis showed that 1413 whole seeds were found in 10 grams (or less than one-third ounce) of ihe bran, and the weed seeds made up over 10 per cent of the weight of the sample. The number given represents over 128,000,000 weed seeds in a ton, which would be distributed on the land with manure and, to a large ex- tent, be ready to germinate the first season. By taking up space and plant food that should be used by farm crops, the weeds grown from the seeds would decrease the production of the land and would also increase the cost of growing the crops (p. 171). The feed laws of the various States require that bran (or mid- lings) containing screenings must be sold as “wheat bran (or wheat middlings) mixed with screenings,” and a statement of the percentage contained therein is also required in some cases. Oat Feeds.—The by-products in the manufacture of oatmeal are similar to those obtained at the flour mills, except for the differences in the structure of the oat kernel. Oats consist of a kernel and a hull which are easily separated. The former is high in starch, protein, and fat; the latter is low in all those com- ponents, and high in fiber, hence has a very low feeding value. As previously shown, the hulls make up about one-third of the oat-kernel, on the average, and contain 30 to over 40 per cent fiber and only about 3 per cent protein. The hairy tips on the oats are separated in the manufacture of oatmeal, after the kernels are hulled, and make up the by-product sold as oat dust. The only other refuse feed obtained in oat mills is oat shorts or middlings (often sold as oat feed). Oat dust contains considerable protein (13.5 per cent), fat (4.8 per cent), and other valuable feed components, with about 18 per cent fiber. It is, therefore, a feed of some importance, although its light, fluffy mechanical condition makes it difficult to feed except in mixtures with heavy concentrates. Oat shorts or middlings are the richest of the by-products from oats, and correspond closely to wheat middlings in chemical com- position, with a somewhat higher fat content than this feed. Oat feed contains ground oat hulls with shorts or middlings; it should be bought only on a definite guarantee of its composition, including maximum fiber content. The oat feeds on the market differ greatly in composition and feeding value, according to the ? Circular 30, p. 79; see also Circular 97 of the same station, and Ver- mont Bulletin 138. VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 183 condition of the feed market and the integrity of the manufacturer. Oat hulls are frequently ground and used as adulterants for ground corn and oats, or oat feeds (p. 168). Unless present in excessive quantities, the true quality of these feeds can be determined only by chemical analysis, and it is not safe, therefore, to buy such feeds except on a guarantee, and of reputable feed dealers or manu- facturers. Barley Feed.—In the manufacture of pearl barley or barley flour only one by-product is obtained, which is sold under the name of barley feed or meal. It resembles wheat bran closely in com- position, except that it contains a somewhat higher percentage of nitrogen-free extract and less fiber. The two feeds may, in general, be considered of similar feeding value. Rye Feeds.—Rye is used in this country mainly in the manu- facture of spirits and for feeding livestock; the manufacture of rye flour is a relatively unimportant industry. The refuse from rye mills is sold either as rye feed or as two separate feeds, rye bran and rye middlings. The process of manufacture is similar to that of the wheat feeds. Rye feed contains, on the average, about 15.5 per cent protein, 0.3 per cent fat, and 5 per cent fiber. It is, therefore, considerably lower in fiber than wheat bran, but other- wise quite similar in composition to this feed. It is often sold ata lower price than wheat bran, and is then an economical feed, well worthy of a trial for feeding dairy cows or pigs. It should be fed in moderate amounts to pigs, as it will otherwise produce a soft pork of inferior quality. In Germany rye feed is considered a more valuable feeding stuff than wheat bran, as it is believed to be more easily digested and more nutritious.? This may be due to the fact that rye and rye feed contain a large amount of diastase, which is found in only small amounts in wheat bran. There are also marked differences in the protein substances of the two cereals, the most important one being that rye contains no glutenin, which, with gliadin, forms the main protein substance of wheat. Buckwheat Feeds.—Buckwheat flour mills supply the feed market with three or four by-products, viz., buckwheat hulls, bran, middlings, and feed. Buckwheat hulls are the coarse, black cover- ing of the buckwheat kernels, which are readily separated there- from. They have practically no feeding value whatever, although, if finely ground, they may serve a purpose as dilutant of heavy feeds, like corn meal or buckwheat middlings. The hulls contain 3 Pott, “ Landw. Futtermittel,” 3, ii, p. 164. 184 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS about 4 per cent protein, less than 1 per cent fat, nearly 50 per cent fiber, and 36 per cent nitrogen- -free extract. Buckwheat feed means the entire refuse obtained in the manufacture of buckwheat flour, and contains ordinarily one-half to two-thirds of hulls, the balance being made up of the heavy, floury portion of the buckwheat grain immediately inside of the hulls, known as middlings or shorts. Buckwheat feed composed of one-half middlings and one-half hulls will contain about 15.7 per cent protein and 24 per cent fiber, and one containing one-third middlings and two-third hulls about 12 per cent protein and 30 per cent fiber.* A study of the digestible components furnished by this feed and by wheat bran would lead to the conclusion that a good quality of buckwheat feed (containing not much over one-half hulls, by weight) is worth about 20 per cent less than wheat bran. Buckwheat middlings are a very valu- able and rich feed, containing about 28 per cent crude protein and 7 per cent fat, with only 4 to 6 per cent fiber. It is highly prized as a feed for dairy cows, but cannot often be obtained as a separate article of commerce; most millers sell their entire amount of refuse as buckwheat feed. Corn Feeds.—The corn kernel (Fig. 36) consists of five dif- ferent parts: An outer and an inner layer of skin or hull, a layer of gluten cells, the germ, and the main starchy part (endosperm), some of which is hard and flinty, and some soft. The New Jersey station® made analyses of the different parts of the corn kernel and determined the approximate proportion of each, with results as shown in the table. Composition of Dry Substance-of Corn Kernel, in Per Cent | Nitrogen-| Propor- Ash Protein | Fiber free Fat tion of | extract parts Entire kernel........... 1.7 12.6 2.0 79.4 4.3 10.0 Skin ee, Podneiceawsierc cauemuanrs 1.3 6.6 16.4 74.1 1.6 5.5 GOTTA aceon ese hctees ties 11.1 21.7 2.9 24.7 29.6 10.2 Stance and flinty part. . 7 12.2 6 85.0 1.5 84.3 The most striking part of the data shown in the table is the high protein, fat, and ash contents of the corn germ. This con- tains 65 per cent of the total fat in the kernel, 16 per cent of the protein, and 62 per cent of the ash (71 per cent of the phosphoric- * Wisconsin Bulletin 170, p 5 Bulletin 105; see also eae Bulletin 87. VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 185 acid content). The hulls (skin) contain very nearly one-half of the total fiber, and the starchy part about 90 per cent of the total. nitrogen-free extract of the kernel. The only by-products of corn or hominy mills used for feeding farm animals are corn bran and hominy meal. Both of these are obtained by similar manufacturing processes as those given under wheat feeds. The corn bran does not differ greatly from wheat bran in chemical composition; it is lower in ash and protein, and somewhat higher in carbohydrates and fiber, however; its digesti- bility is slightly higher than that of wheat bran, except for the protein it contains, which is consider- ably lower, viz., 54 per cent, against 77 per cent for wheat bran. The two feeds may, in general, be considered of similar feeding value, in so far as it is possible to compare the feeding values of two feeds of as different nu- tritive ratios. : Hominy meal, feed or chop, con- sists of the bran, germ, and soft floury portion of the kernel which are sepa- rated in the process of making hominy grits for human consumption. It forms a very valuable, palatable, fat- tening feed, of a similar composition to Fig. 36,—Section of corn_ kernel. Indian corn, the main difference being Sra ere ay that it is higher in fat and lower in nitrogen-free extract than is Indian corn, and also somewhat higher in fiber, 4s will be seen from the following average analyses: : Chemical Composition and Digestibility of Hominy Meal, in Per Cent Dry Protein Fat Fiber | Ash matter extract Total components....... 90.4 10.5 8.0 49 | 64.3 2.7 Digestion coefficients....| 82 65 92 67 89 ett Digestible components...} 74.1 6.8 74 60.5 Digestible components in COM ssc ese ee whee eae 81.4 7.8 4.3 66.8 Hominy meal is a highly valued feed for milch cows and fatten- ing steers, and may serve a useful purpose as a substitute for Indian corn in rations for these and other farm animals. Like all corn 186 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS products, it is of rather uniform quality and free from adultera- tions. Rice By-products.—In the milling of rice several by- -products are obtained which are used for stock feeding. The rice grains are covered by two layers: The outer coat, a hard, chaffy husk which is easily removed, and the inner coat, a closely-fitting cuticle or skin. The removal of these coatings and the manufacture of marketable rice are done by three operations: Husking, hulling, and polishing. Husking is accomplished by passing the rice be- tween revolving millstones, which are set far enough apart to erack the hull and allow the rice to fall out without cracking it too much. The hulls are not removed completely, there being always some grains which retain their husk. The by-product from this process is rice hulls. The rice is next passed through one or more hullers, which remove the cuticle or skin. The products of this machine are rice bran, some flour, and clean rice. The final process consists in polishing the rice, which is done in a special machine and gives the rice its lustre. The by-product from this process is a finely-powdered material, known as rice polish. Three by-products used for stock feeding are thus obtained in these processes, viz., rice hulls, rice meal, and rice polish. Rice hulls are used as a fuel at the mills and for packing eggs, etc.; they are also sometimes ground and sold as “husk meal” or “ Star bran,” or used as an adulterant of rice bran. They are, how- ever, of no value as a feed, and are, in fact, injurious to stock, being provided with sharply-pointed fibers, which are strongly impreg- nated with silica. When taken into the stomach and intestines of an animal they provoke an intense irritation of the delicate membranes of these tracts, and may cause impaction of the bowels; fatalities are on record resulting from animals eating rice hulls or rice bran adulterated with hulls.® The average chemical composition of the rice by-products is shown in the following table: Composition of Rice By-products, in Per Cent | Nitrogen- Ash Protein Fiber free Fat extract Rice hulls...............- 15.6 3.2 36.2 35.2 1.0 Rice bran.... a 9.7 11.9 12.0 46.6 10.1 Rice polish... 4.8 11.9 3.3 62.3 7.2 ® Browne, Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer, June 13, 1903; Louisiana Bulletin 77. VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 187 In addition to the preceding by-products, a feed called “ com- mercial rice bran” is obtained and sold in the South. This is a mixture of the pure bran with varying amounts of ground hulls, the quantity of the latter being sometimes as high as 50 per cent. According to the Texas station,’ commercial rice bran may contain as low as 4 per cent of protein and 2 per cent of fat, and as high as 50 per cent of fiber. An addition of rice hulls decreases the feed- ing value of bran in proportion to the amount of hulls added. Adulteration of rice bran with hulls or mineral matter has been largely practised by southern mills, and has brought the feed into disrepute. In view of the danger of such adulteration, rice bran should be purchased only of reputable dealers and on guarantees of valuable components and maximum fiber content. It should con- tain not less than 10 per cent protein and 6 per cent fat, and not more than 20 per cent fiber. Test for Rice Hulls——Pure rice bran and rice meal contain considerable fat and are not moistened if placed on the surface of water. When the test is made with rice bran or meal adulterated with hulls, these will soon sink into the water. Rice polish is a highly digestible starchy feed which is used as a feed for pigs, dairy cows, fattening steers, horses, and mules; its high price often makes it more expensive under southern conditions than, e.g., cane molasses (p. 192). Pure rice bran and rice polish are both valuable feeds which compare favorably with corn meal in feeding value and may be fed under similar conditions. At the Louisiana station rice bran was used successfully for one-half of the concentrates in rations for horses and mules, and it is also a good cow feed, if fed with high- protein concentrates and before turning rancid.* The rice feeds will not keep long before they turn rancid, on account of the unstable character of the oil and the high oil con- tent of these feeds. Rancid rice feeds are not palatable to livestock. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the method of manufacture by which flour-mill feeds are obtained as by-products. ; 2. What are the differences in composition and relative feeding value of wheat, wheat bran, wheat middlings, and red-dog flour? . 3. What are the common adulterations of wheat feeds, if any? 4. Describe the by-products obtained in the manufacture of cereal feeds, barley, rye and buckwheat flour. 5. Describe (a) the corn by-products; (6) the rice by-products. — 6. Why are rice hulls a dangerous material to be used for feeding farm animals? 7 Bulletin 73. 8 North Carolina Bulletin 169; U. S. Dept. Agr., b. 330. 188 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS II, BREWERY AND DISTILLERY FEEDS The main feeds of this class met with in the trade are wet and dried brewers’ grains, malt sprouts, and dried distillers’ grains. The first three feeds are essentially barley products, while the last feed is made from mixed grains, largely rye and corn. Brewers’ grains are the by-product obtained in the manu- facture of beer. The barley is steeped in warm water and held at a warm temperature until it begins to sprout; by this process the starch content in the grain is converted into sugar (imaltose), through the action of the ferment diastase found in barley. When the malted barley contains a maximum amount of sugar it is quickly dried. The tiny dry sprouts are then separated and form the feed called malt sprouts, while the remaining dried grains make what is known as malt. This is treated with large quantities of water to extract the sugar, ash, and other soluble components; the ex- tracted malt makes wet brewers’ grains, and these, on drying in vacuum, are changed into dried brewers’ grains. On account of their large water content (70 to 80 per cent), the wet. brewers’ grains must be fed in the vicinity of breweries and within a short time after they have been made. As the starch of the barley has been largely removed by the processes of malting and brewing, the brewers’ grains are considerably richer in protein than the original grain and may be considered fully as valuable a feed for farm animals as these. Their digestibility is somewhat lower than that of barley, for reasons easily seen; but fed either wet or dry, the brewers’ grains form a valuable feed for farm animals, wet grains being especially adapted for milch cows, brood sows, and fattening swine, and dried grains for cattle and horses. When fed in a sound, fresh condition and in moderate quantities, say twenty to thirty pounds per head daily, with dry roughage and concentrates, wet brewers’ grains make an excellent feed for dairy cows, and can often be contracted for from local breweries at a low price; they may be considered worth about one-fourth as much as the dried grains for feeding stock. Brewers’ grains have been brought into disrepute by being fed in excessive quantities, without dry roughage and under unsanitary conditions, and their use as a stock feed under such conditions is. prohibited in most States. When the wet grains are fed to dairy cows, care must be taken to keep the mangers and stable scrupu- lously clean, so as,to avoid filthy conditions and foul odors around VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 189 ° the premises, which will seriously affect the quality of the milk produced and the health of the animals. ' Dried brewers’ grains can be kept indefinitely and transported from the place of manufacture like other commercial feeds. They contain, on the average, 20 per cent digestible protein, 32 per cent digestible carbohydrates, and 6 per cent digestible fat, against 11.9 per cent,.42.0 per cent, and 2.5 per cent, respectively, for the same components in wheat bran; the two feeds, therefore, contain similar amounts of total digestible components. The brewers’ grains have the advantage of containing about twice as much digestible protein and fat as wheat bran, but contain 10 per cent less carbohydrates. Dried brewers’ grains form an excellent feed for cattle and horses, and may be fed to the former in similar quantities as wheat bran or small grains, while the rations for horses may consist,of one-third to one-half of the dried brewers’ grains, the balance being made up of corn and oats. Dried brewers’ grains will prove cheaper than oats and quite as satisfactory, especially for hard-worked horses in need of an extra amount of protein.° Malt sprouts are the tiny dried germs of barley that have been allowed to grow to about one-fourth inch in length. They form a light, bulky, and somewhat dusty feed, containing about 26 per cent protein (of which one-fourth to one-third is in amide form), 12 per cent of fiber, and less than 2 per cent fat. On account of its tendency to dustiness, the feed is either fed mixed with other concentrates or with silage, or is moistened before being fed out. It is especially valuable as a dairy feed, and may be given in amounts of two to three pounds daily per cow; on acccount of bitter principles contained therein (betaine and choline), most cows object to the feed at first, but soon learn to like it. It is a common feed in the. dairy sections of the country, and, as a rule, forms a relatively cheap source of protein. Dried distillers’ grains are the dried residues obtained in the manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors from cereals. The ground grains are treated with a solution of malt, thus converting ‘the starch into sugar (maltose) ; by the addition of yeast, the sugar is changed into alcohol, which is distilled over, leaving a very watery residue, called distillers’ slop; this is dried in especially- constructed driers and sold as dried distillers’ grains. The dis- tillers’ grains consist of the hulls, germ, protein, and carbohydrates of minor nutritive value, and make a very rich and valuable feed ° Massachusetts Bulletin 94, 190 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS for farm animals. The quality of the grains will vary considerably, according to the cereals used in the manufacture of the distilled spirits; the larger the proportions of corn and the smaller that of rye and “malt” (small grain, so-called), the higher the grade of dried grains produced. The rye distillers’ grains contain only 30 per cent protein or less, and are the least valuable of the distillers’ grains.’° The protein in the better grades may reach 34 to 36 per cent, with 10 to 12 per cent of fat or more. The dried distillers’ grains have a high digestibility and must be classed among our most satisfactory and economical protein feeds, of a value nearly similar to oil meal when fed in rations for dairy cows. It may be fed in quantities of two to four pounds per head daily, preferably mixed with other concentrates. Ill, STARCH AND GLUCOSE FACTORY FEEDS Three feeds are obtained as by-products in the manufacture of starch and glucose from Indian corn, viz., gluten feed, gluten meal, and germ oil meal. Starch and Glucose Feeds.—In the glucose factory the shelled corn is passed through a cleaning machine which removes pieces of cob, dirt, dust, etc. It is then immersed in large steeping tanks, where it remains for 30 to 40 hours until the corn is soft. The water is next run off and, in large factories, saved for further treat- ment. The softened corn is coarsely ground between large mill- stones placed well apart so as to break up tlie kernel and set free the interior starch cells. The mass is now put on sieves of fine bolting cloth; the coarse hulls and germs of the corn remain on the sieve, while starch and gluten go through—the latter two com- ponents are separated by running the mixtures through a series of long troughs and into settling tanks; the starch, being heavier, sinks to the bottom, while the gluten and fat (oil) float on top and are skimmed off and dried. The gluten feed proper consists of the hulls and undissolved starch remaining on the sieves; it is dried and either placed on the market in this condition, or after addition of the gluten, which has been previously extracted with naphtha for removal of most of the oil found therein. The steep-water is evaporated in the larger factories, and the solids are added to the gluten feed. The ash and protein contained therein go to increase the contents of these con- stituents in the gluten feed; on the other hand, the palatability 1 Massachusetts Bulletin 94. VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 191 and keeping quality of the feed may be somewhat decreased by this method of manufacture.1 The gluten obtained in some factories is placed on the market as a special feed called cream gluten meal. The corn germs are generally kept separate and extracted, and the residue put on the market as corn oil cake, or, if ground, as germ oil meal. The composition of these various feeds put out by different manufacturers, as well as the'nomenclature, differs somewhat. In general, the gluten feeds now on the market contain about 25 per cent protein, 4 per cent fat, and 8 per cent fiber. The ash content is about 4 per cent, in the case of feed to which the solids in the steep-water have been added; and, otherwise, less than 1 per cent. Gluten meal, on the other hand, contains about 35 per cent protein and less than 10 per cent fat. Germ oil meal has a protein content about 11 per cent and a fat content of 6 per cent. The digestibility of all these feeds is nearly as high as that of Indian corn.?? é QUESTIONS 1. Describe the methods of manufacture by which brewers’ grains, malt sprouts, and distillers’ grains are obtained. 2. What are the characteristic properties of these feeds? 3. Give the method of manufacture of starch- and glucose-factory feeds. 4, State their value for feeding farm animals. * Wisconsin Circular 47, p. 72. * Wisconsin Report, 1896, p. 92. CHAPTER XVIII — SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS I. SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS Sugar is manufactured on a large scale in this country from two agricultural crops, sugar beets and sugar cane. The former crop furnished the raw material for about 70 per cent of the sugar manu- factured here during 1913-1914. The cane-sugar industry is lo- cated in the South, practically all cane-sugar manufactured in the United States being made in Louisiana. The beet-sugar factories, on the other hand, are located in the northern and western States, the States leading in this industry being Colorado, California, and Michigan. The by-products of importance as stock feeds are cane and beet molasses, and beet pulp, which is fed either wet or dried. Molasses is the non-crystailizable residue obtained in the treat- ment and evaporation of the sweet juice of sugar beets or cane. The beet molasses is composed of about 20 per cent moisture, 9 per cent protein (largely amides and nitrates), and 60 per cent nitrogen-free extract, which is almost wholly sugar, and at least two-thirds sucrose, the rest being composed of glucose, raffinose, organic acids, pentosans, etc. Beet molasses contains about 10 per- cent of ash, largely potash and soda. It forms a thick, salty, not particularly sweet liquid, which is very laxative on account of its content of alkali salts and organic acids, and must, therefore, be fed sparingly to farm animals. In feeding beet molasses it is generally mixed with three to four times its proportion of warm water and sprinkled on the hay, cut straw, or other roughage. It is also used in the manufacture of molasses feeds with different absorbents, such as dried brewers’ grains, malt sprouts, alfalfa meal, ground grain screenings, pea meal, ground cobs, wheat bran, and other materials. The value of these feeds differs greatly, according to the character of the absorbent used. If good feed materials enter into their manufacture and the price of the feeds do not go too high in comparison with other concentrates, they may be considered well worth a trial. Beet molasses is used in some factories for the manufacture of molasses beet pulp (see p. 195). It may be fed in 192 SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 193 iimited quantities to all classes of farm animals, except, perhaps, to pigs; according to reports by the Cornell* and Utah stations,” it is injurious as a swine feed and likely to produce a poor quality of pork. Cane molasses (black-strap molasses) differs from beet molasses mainly in the composition of the non-nitrogenous constituents and in its smaller protein and ash contents. Unlike beet molasses, it has a sweet taste and is greatly relished by farm animals. It is fed largely in the South to horses, mules, and fattening steers. According to the Louisiana station,? horses and mules on many sugar plantations in the State are fed as much as 10 pounds black- strap daily, per head, with excellent results, both as to the cost of the ration and its effect on the health of the animals and their working capacity. The Massachusetts station found that one gal- lon (12 pounds) of molasses makes a good carbohydrate feed for horses; a similar amount may be fed to fattening steers as a maximum allowance.* Cane molasses is especially valuable on account of its high sugar content and its palatability; it serves a useful purpose as an appetizer and for utilizing low-grade ma- terials for stock feeding. It is often used for preparing animals for shows and sales, as it gives them a thrifty appearance and a smooth, shiny coat. It should be fed only in moderate amounts for breeding animals. Beet pulp is obtained in large quantities as a by-product at beet- sugar factories. The carefully-cleaned beets are cut into thin, V- shaped sections, and the sugar contained therein is extracted by the so-called diffusion process by treatment with warm water in a battery of especially-constructed diffusion cells. The juice thus obtained is purified with lime and sulfur dioxide and evaporated until the sugar begins to crystallize out. Molasses is obtained as a residue after the crystallizable sugar (sucrose) has been removed so far as possible. The extracted beet pulp, as it comes from the diffusion cells, corftains 80 to over 90 per cent water and only a small amount of sugar (1 to 2 per cent). It is, however, relatively high in other carbohydrates, and has been found to have about the same feeding value as beets, per unit of dry matter contained in both. Its feeding value may be considered one-half that of corn silage. The Colorado station found that two tons of pulp are equiva- lent to one ton of roots in feeding value; this confirms the result + Bulletin 199. 2 Bulletin 101. 2 Bulletin 86. Texas Bulletin 97; see also Massachusetts Bulletin 118. 13 194 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS of a trial at the Nebraska station showing beets to be practically of a similar value as corn silage for dairy cows. On account of its high water content, wet pulp cannot be shipped far from the sugar factories, and it must, therefore, either be fed at or near the factory as wet pulp or beet pulp silage (p. 161), or it is dried in an espe- cially-constructed large drier at the factory and placed on the market as dried beet pulp. Ten to fourteen tons of wet pulp will make one ton of dried pulp.® The wet pulp is an excellent feed for dairy cows, sheep, and steers. As it is produced in large quantities and fed at the fac- tories, it is often fed too heavily for best results, sometimes without dry roughage or grain feed. Not more than about 100 pounds per 1000 pounds body weight should be given daily. Siloed or cured pulp is made in large quantities near sugar factories and generally fed there. It may be fed in quantities similar to fresh pulp, and always with dry roughage, preferably alfalfa hay or other leguminous hay. In a feeding experiment conducted by the California station® 1000-pound steers, each eat- ing 103.5 pounds cured pulp and 15 pounds of cut alfalfa hay, gained 2.4 pounds a day, on the average, for a period of 70 days, and steers, on a ration of 108 pounds cured pulp, 12.1 pounds rye grass hay, and 2 pounds ground horse beans, gained 2.5 pounds a day during the same period. Milch cows cannot be fed safely over one-half of this amount of siloed pulp without the quality of the milk suffering therefrom, both as to composition and as a food for infants; fed up to this limit and always with dry roughage and grain, it makes an excellent feed for dairy cows. Dried beet pulp is a valuable feed for dairy cows, steers, and sheep, and, to a limited extent, for other farm animals as well. It is a highly starchy feed, containing about 60 per cent nitrogen- free extract; 17.5 per cent fiber and 8 per cent protein; it con- tains 4.1 per cent digestible protein and 64.9 per cent carbohydrates (N. R., 1: 15.8). Dried pulp may be fed safely in large quantities to fattening steers, dairy cows, and sheep, and makes a very de- sirable feed when it can be obtained at a relatively low cost. It may be considered nearly equivalent in feeding value to wheat bran or oats, and of slightly lower value than corn, barley, and similar feeds. According to the feed-unit system, it takes 1.1 pounds of either of the former feeds or 1 pound of the latter feeds 5 New Jersey Bulletin 189. ® Unpublished results, SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 195 to equal a feed unit (p. 79). Dried beet pulp is often moistened with three to five times its weight of water about six hours before feeding time, especially on dairy farms where there is no silo. Some dairymen and farmers prefer feeding the pulp in this way. In case of heavy producing cows or steers, it is possible that they are induced to eat their feed with a keener appetite and to eat more when the dried pulp is fed moistened than when fed dry, but no decided advantage has been shown by this method of feeding. Beet molasses is sometimes added to the pulp in the factory as it goes to the drier; the resulting molasses beet pulp makes an excellent feed for dairy cows and sheep, being worth somewhat more than the plain dried pulp.’ It was found to have about one- tenth higher feeding value of corn for fattening lambs in experi- ments conducted at the Colorado station ; this is probably somewhat too high for an average figure. II, OIL MEALS The oil-bearing seeds that furnish by-products of value as stock feeds are: Flaxseed, cotton seed, coconut, soybean, and peanut, the last three to a limited extent only. Linseed Meal (Oil Meal).—Flaxseed (Fig. 37) is grown largely in the northwestern States, the Dakotas, and Minnesota, and the linseed oil mills are located in these and the central States. There are two methods of manufacture, known as (a) old-process and (0) new-process. , By the former method the cleaned and ground seeds are placed in large linen bags and subjected to heavy pressure until the residue forms. cakes about 1 inch thick and about 13 by 32 inches (edges trimmed). The cakes are broken into small pieces or ground to a fine meal, usually the latter, which is generally sold as old-process linseed meal, or simply oil meal. In the new process of manufacture the flaxseed is ground and heated to about 160° F., and is then placed in large percolators holding about 1000 bushels or more. The seed is treated repeatedly with naphtha till practically all the oil is dissolved. Live steam is then introduced into the percolators and the naphtha gradually driven-out of the mass. The meal is transferred to steam-heated driers, and, when dried, elevated to the meal bins and sacked. The naphtha is evaporated from the oil solution, and commercial lin- seed oi] remains. 7 Wisconsin Report 22, p. 108; see also Massachusetts Bulletin 99, Michigan Bulletin 220, 196 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Old-process meal is generally preferred by feeders on account of its forming a jelly with warm water, and because of its favorable influence on the health and appearance of farm animals. Owing to its relatively high oil content (6 to 8 per cent), it is somewhat more laxative than new-process meal, which contains only about 3 per cent fat, and it gives a thrifty appearance to stock, producing a fine, shiny coat, soft to the touch, which is of special importance in the case of exhibition stock. The nutritive effect of the two kinds of meal may, in general, be considered nearly similar. The old- process meal has some advantage as a feed for fattening animals, Fic. 37.—Cross-section of flaxseed showing the different layers of cells: ¢, cuticle; q, mucilage cells; s, stone celis; pi, pigment cells; p, protoplasm and oil; a, aleurone gn grains; when soaked in water the mucilage cells well and form the peculiar flaxseed jelly. for show stock, and in combination with dry feed or feeds of con- stipating tendencies; when given with feeds of a laxative influence, such as green fodders, roots, and silage, or where a large supply of protein is important, as is often the case in feeding milch cows, the new-process meal may be preferred. The Swelling Test..—It is of interest to determine at times whether an oil meal is old- or new-process. The following simple test can be made at any farm by means of a tumbler and a teaspoon: Pulverize a small quantity * Wisconsin Report, 1895, p. 64; “ Examination of Oil Meals,’ by the author. SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 197 of the meal and place a level teaspoonful of it into a tumbler (Fig. 38) ; then add ten teaspoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal; stir thoroughly and leave to settle. If the meal is new-process it will settle in the course of an hour, and will leave about one-half of the water clear on top. Old- process meal will remain jelly-like, Fia. 38.—The swelling test. I, old-process oil meal; II, new-process oil meal. In case of the former, the meal stirred in water remains in suspension on standing, while the new- process meal soon settles so as to leave a clear yellowish solution on top, only about half the quantity of water added being absorbed. Composition of Linseed Meal.—The chemical analysis and ‘digestibility of old- and new-process oil meal will be seen from the following table: Chemical Composition and Digestibility of Linseed Meals, in Per Cent Total components Digestible components Old-process | New-process|/| Old-process ; New-process Moisture... ......0ceeeeeeee 9.8 9.0 Aghaicc cna eases cin ines 5.5 5.5 Be ee hag cha tapia aha weenie oanttenen os 33.9 37.5 30.2 31.5 PID ete tec theca aceternaittces 7.3 8.9 Nitrogen-free extract........ 35.7 36.4 } aan 35.7 bins aausliehee wgueetale iaerts 7.8 2.9 6.9 2.4 Nutritive ratio, 1: .......... sets meg 1.6 1.3 198 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Linseed meal may be fed safely to all classes of farm animals; generally speaking, it is one of the most desirable stock feeds avail- able. Flaxseed contains a glucoside, linamarin, which, with fer- ments, may yield prussic acid; but it is, as a rule, present in only minute quantities, and but few cases of ill effects from its use as a stock feed are on record. The cost of the more starchy factory by- products makes them, in general, relatively cheaper sources of pro- tein than oil meal, but the latter may be fed to advantage in smaller quantities even under these conditions, on account of the medicinal properties as a regulator of the system, and for its stimulating effects on the appetite of the animals and their general feeling of well-being. The quantities to be fed daily will depend on the relative cost of oil meal and other concentrates. If the market prices of the latter feeds are such as to admit of economical feeding of large quantities of oil meal, the following amounts may be fed per head daily without injurious effects: Horses, 1 pound; milch cows and fattening steers, 3 pounds; fattening sheep and hogs, 1 pound, the quantities fed being increased toward the end of the fattening period ; calves and lambs, 14 pound or less. Where the production of high-grade butter is the object sought, not more than one pound of oil meal should be fed, since the quality of the butter is apt to suffer when larger quantities are fed, especially if given with corn or other feeds having a similar softening effect on the butter. Calves are generally fed boiled flaxseed rather than oil meal, espe- cially until they are about two months old, unless the price of the seed is almost prohibitive, as sometimes happens. Oil meal may advantageously be fed to swine as a slop, a pailful of meal being stirred into a barrel of skim milk and left over night; the mixture will form a thick, almost solid mass in the morning, which will be greatly relished by swine. Fed to poultry in small quantities, a tablespoonful to each hen a few times per week, it will brighten the plumage, invigorate the system, and promote laying. Cotton-seed meal is the ground residue obtained in the manu- facture of cotton-seed oil; the oil is expressed by pressure as in old- process linseed meal. The cake is generally ground into a fine meal for the trade in the eastern and central States, while for the western States and Europe it is broken into pieces of about nut or pea size, which are readily eaten by cattle; for sheep the cake is, as a rule, coarsely pulverized. There are two kinds of cotton-seed meal on the market, viz., decorticated, made from seed the hulls of which are largely removed before the extraction of the oil, and the SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 199 undecorticated, so-called cold-pressed cotton-seed cake; this is the product obtained when the whole uncrushed seed is subjected to the cold-pressure process for the extraction of oil. The difference in the value of the two kinds of meal is readily seen from the following average analyses: Composition of Cotton-seed Meal and Cold-pressed Cotton-seed Cake, in Per Cent Cc -seed | Cold-pressed et ae a eae Moisture............... 7.0 7.6 BD eniven ee aad eens 6.6 4.9 Protel ys. sce vs wads ore 45.3 24,2 PAD OY ices scraciice haees ae 3 6.3 21.1 Nitrogen-free extract... . 24.6 32.5 At accuse oats Motes 10.2 9.7 100.0 100.0 Recent analyses of cotton-seed meal appear to run considerably lower in protein than given above, viz., about 42 or 41 per cent, with fat likewise lower (about 8 per cent), and fiber higher (10 per cent). The trade recognizes three grades of cotton-seed meal: Choice, prime, and good. The former “ must be finely ground, not necessarily bolted, perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, free from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41 per cent protein.” The protein limits for prime and good cotton-seed meal are 38.6 per cent and 36 per cent, respectively. The analyses given above indicate the difference in the value of the decorticated and cold- pressed cotton-seed cake. The high fiber content of the latter feed is important, and the result is shown by the lower digestibility of this feed compared with cotton-seed meal.® Average Per Cent Digestibility of Decorticated and Cold-pressed Cotton-seed Cake Nitrogen- Protein Fat free extract Decorticated cotton-seed meal| 86 93 77 Cold-pressed cotton-seed cake.} 74 90 55 Tt is evident, from the differences in the protein and fiber con- tents of the two feeds, that cotton-seed meal is a much more valu- able seed than cold-pressed cake, although the latter ordinarily ® Pott, ‘“ Handb. tier. Ernéhrung,” iii, 2, p. 102. 200 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS sells for only a few dollars per ton below cotton-seed meal; hence the wisdom of buying only the best grades of cotton-seed meal. This applies also to so-called cotton-seed feed which has been placed on the market during late years. This is “a mixture of cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls (1:5), containing less than 36 per cent protein” (definition) ; as a matter of fact, it contains only 10 per cent protein, 3.4 per cent fat, and 33.1 per cent fiber.?° Test for Impurities—The Vermont station has published the following simple test for impurities in cotton-seed meal :1t Place a teaspoonful of the meal in a tumbler and pour over it two ounces of hot water. Stir the mass until it is thoroughly wet and all the particles are floating. Allow it to subside for from five to ten seconds ° and pour off. If a large amount of fine dark brown sediment has settled in this time, a sediment noticeably heavier than the fine mustard-yellow meal, one which upon repeated treatments with: boiling hot -water keeps settling out, the goods are a feed meal, i.¢., meal containing relatively large quan- tities of ground hulls. If, however, there is found a larger amount of this residue, one which persists in remaining after several washings, it is surely composed of hulls, and it is a feed meal or an adulterated cotton-seed meal. The results are striking when a feed meal is compared with a sample of pure cotton-seed meal. Uses of Cotton-seed meal.—Cotton-seed meal is a very valu- able feed when rightly used. In most sections of the country it is our highest protein feed and the cheapest source of protein for stock feeding. It is an excellent feed for milch cows, and may be ‘fed in large quantities (six pounds per head daily) apparently for any length of time; ordinarily only one to two pounds per head are fed daily, however, with other concentrates, and this is, in general, the better practice, since heavy feeding of cotton-seed meal gives the butter a hard, tallowy texture, raises the melting-point of the butter fat, and decreases the percentage of volatile fatty acids (p. 23),—in short, produces a low-grade butter.?? Fattening steers may also receive similar heavy feeds of cotton- seed meal as milch cows, if desired, but only for a period not to exceed 90 days; if fed cotton-seed meal longer and in larger quanti- ties, sickness and death are likely to occur, owing to the presence of certain poisonous principles in the meal. Cotton-seed meal cannot safely be fed to calves or pigs for the same reason. ‘The poisonous properties of cottonseed’ meal have been ascribed by various in- vestigators to the presence of nitrogenous bases, like cholin and betaine, to alkaloids, and to salts of pyrophosphoric acid. Withers, * Pennsylvania Bulletin 28; Wyo., b. 106. “Bulletin 101, Texas Bulletin 109; Experiment Station Record 20, p. 510. * Proc. Soc. Agr. Science, 1889, p, 84, , SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 201 of the North Carolina Station, has lately identified a toxic principle called gossypol in cotton-seed kernels and studied its physiological effects; he found that it may be changed to inert forms by oxida- tion and precipitation.** The latter method may be adopted by treatment with soluble iron salts. Recent investigations appear to show that the danger in feeding cotton-seed meal to pigs can be overcome by giving them in drinking water for every pound of cotton-seed meal eaten, for each 100-pound pig, one gallon of a solu- tion of iron sulfate (made by dissolving 1 pound in 50 gallons of drinking water).1* If further work shows that cottonseed meal, can be safely fed to pigs by this method, it will prove of great importance to American agriculture, as it will tend to do away with enormous losses of pigs that occur each year through the feeding of cotton- seed meal either to pigs direct or to steers followed by pigs. Cotton-seed hulls are also fed to cattle in the South, being used as a roughage and a cheap substitute for hay. They are dry, hard and usually covered with a fuzzy lint. The average composi- tion of cotton-seed hulls is as follows: Moisture ............. 11.3 per cent AGN soe cey yy uate et eae 2.7 per cent Protein ne. hte a as 4.2 per cent Biber” schwstcatokspyaccats 45.3 per cent Nitrogen-free extract ... 34.1 per cent Bat. ieaeicindaeene eae 2.2 per cent 100.0 Ten per cent of the protein has been found digestible; 38 per cent of the fiber, 40 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract, and 77 per cent of ‘the fat, making the amounts of digestible feed con- stituents found therein: Protec. wdals eden 0.42 per cent Carbohydrates and fat 34.77 per cent The hulls are used as a fuel at the oil mills and, as stated, for stock feeding, either clear or mixed with concentrates, like cotton- seed meal, wheat bran, cracked corn, etc. In the South cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls are often fed as the entire ration for fattening steers, milch cows, and other stock.* The hulls are con- sidered of a similar feeding value as a good quality of straw or low-grade hay. In feeding experiments with steers conducted at the Texas station they were found of nearly similar value as an equal weight of sorghum hay. 13 Journal of Agr. Research, v,p. 261. For literature on experiments with cotton-seed meal, composition, ete, see Ga. Bul. 119. * North Carolina Circular 5; Jr. Biol. Chem. 15, 161. * Farmers’ Bulletin 36, pp. 14-15: “ Directions for Feeding Cotton- seed Meal and Hulls to Farm Animals ;” Texas Bulletin 159. 202 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS Immense numbers of steers are fattened in the South on these feeds only, generally mixed in the proportions of four parts of hulls and one of meal. The fattening is continued from 90 to 120 days. Sheep and dairy cows are also fed mixed cotton-seed meal and hulls with good results. “All the information at hand indi- cates that this practice is both economical and profitable. The diet apparently does not injure the health of the animals, nor impair the healthfulness of the resulting products.” ** Coconut meal is a by-product in the manufacture of coconut oil from dried broken pieces of coconut kernels (so-called copra). It is used very little as a stock feed in this country except on the Pacific coast. It is relatively low in protein, fat, and fiber, its composition being about as follows: 20 per cent protein, 6 to 3 per cent fat, 9 to 10 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent ash. According to digestion experiments conducted at the Massa- chusetts station,’’ the protein is 90 per cent digestible, the fat wholly digestible, and the nitrogen-free extract 87 per cent digesti- ble. As the price of coconut meal is generally but slightly higher than that of wheat bran, it is, as a rule, more economical than this feed, especially for dairy cows, but it cannot be fed in as large amounts as wheat bran, nor can it be kept more than a few weeks in warm weather on account of its tendency to turn rancid. Fresh coconut meal has a pleasant, aromatic flavor and is greatly relished by cattle and other stock; two to three pounds daily is a fair allowance for cattle. It should always be fed mixed with other concentrates. It is also fed to some extent to horses, pigs, calves and poultry. Soybean meal is the ground residue obtained in the manu- facture of soybean oil. The meal fed in this country is imported from either Japan, China, or Manchuria; so far as is known, none is manufactured here, although soybeans are now grown quite exten- sively in various parts of the United States. It is a valuable concentrate for farm stock, and is one of the richest nitrogenous feeds on the market, containing about as much protein and fat as cotton-seed meal (41.4 per cent and 7.2 per cent, respectively) ; it has a lower fiber content (5.3 per cent) and a higher digestibility than this meal. According to Kellner, only 3.4 per cent of the protein is present in amide form, and the protein has a digesti- bility of 97.7 per cent. The soybean meal is, therefore, a highly digestible feed, well adapted for feeding young stock, dairy cows, steers, and other farm animals. It is fed in this country almost entirely on the Pacific coast, where it is used largely for poultry +6 Loc. cit, * Bulletin 152. SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS » 203 feeding. It makes a good substitute for linseed meal, pound for pound, for dairy cows, and is one of the most promising concen- trates available for stock feeding; the only objection to its use, so far as is known, is its cost, which is, as a rule, considerably above that of linseed meal or cotton-seed meal. Peanut Meal.—This residue is obtained in the manufacture of peanut oil. It is rarely fed in this country, but it is one of the common oil meals used by European dairy farmers. The meal on the market is manufactured either from hulled or whole peanuts, the former being the more valuable. It is one of our most con- centrated and digestible nitrogenous feeds, containing, on the aver- age, nearly 50 per cent protein, 7.3 per cent fat, 5.0 per cent fiber, 24.5 per cent nitrogen-free extract, and 5.2 per cent ash. The pro- tein substances and the nitrogen-free extract are 90 per cent di- gestible, and the fat 89 per cent digestible. It is, therefore, a con- siderably richer feed than either cotton-seed meal or soybean meal, and, like these, is well worthy of a trial or a more extended use by our dairy and stock farmers. In Europe peanut meal is fed espe- cially to dairy cows, which receive two or three pounds thereof daily per head, generally mixed with other kinds of oil meal and grain. It is also often fed as sole concentrate, however; a common ration for dairy cows in southern Germany and Switzerland is composed of about 20 pounds meadow hay and two to four pounds peanut meal, according to the production of the cows. It is also a good feed for fattening steers, and is fed to horses as a partial substitute for oats, viz., in place of 13.2 pounds (6 kilos) of oats, 8.8 pounds oats and 2.2 pounds peanut meal, and in place of 11 pounds of oats, 6.6 pounds oats and 8.3 pounds peanut meal. This oil meal is also used with good results in feeding young stock, espe- cially foals. On account of its high fat and protein contents, it has a rather poor keeping quality ; it is sometimes adulterated with residues from other oil-bearing seeds or with peanut hulls, and should, therefore, always be bought on analysis. QUESTIONS | 1. Describe the by-products obtained in the manufacture of (a) cane-sugar, (b) beet-sugar; and give the main uses to which these are put in feeding farm animals, 2. What are the general methods of manufacturing oil meals? 3. Give the main oil meals used for feeding farm animals in this country, and their characteristic properties. 4. Give the swelling test for determining when linseed meal is old- or new- process. 5. Give a simple test for purity of cotton-seed meal. 6. Are cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls used as sole feeds for farm animals; if so, under what conditions and for what purpose? CHAPTER XIX ANIMAL FEEDS I. PACKING-HOUSE FEEDS The packing-house products used for feeding livestock are dried blood, tankage, meat scraps or meat meal, and bone meal. These feeds are especially valuable for feeding pigs, poultry, and other animals that require a considerable supply of nitrogenous and mineral components in their feed, and do not object to the animal odor of these feeds. The packing-house products are high-protein feeds, and those containing much bone, like meat scraps and tank- age, are rich in mineral matter, especially phosphoric acid and lime. Dried blood or blood meal contains over 80 per cent of protein, sometimes as high as 86 per cent, of which about nine-tenths is digestible, and the small amount of fat present therein has been found wholly digestible. Blood meal (blood flour) is used to some extent in feeding calves, being given in the skim milk, about a tea- spoonful per feed. This is considered an excellent source of protein for calves, and is also of value on account of its tonic effect. Other young stock may receive about one-fourth pound per day. per 100 pounds, and older animals one to two pounds per head daily. The price of the blood meal stands in the way for. its more general use for older animals, however. It must also be fed mixed with other concentrates to such animals, as stock object to the animal odor of both blood and meat products. Digester tankage, meat meal, beef scraps, and similar feeds vary considerably in composition, accord- ing to their origin and the amount of bone which they contain. They should always be bought on definite guarantees of protein’ and fat contents. Tankage makes a valuable swine and poultry feed. It is made from fresh meat scraps, fat trimmings, and scrap bones. These are thoroughly cooked in large steel tanks under live steam pressure, by which method the tallow is separated. The steam is then turned off, and, when the mass has settled, the tallow is drawn off. The residue is kept agitated and dried till it contains about 8 per cent water, and the tankage is then taken out, allowed to cool, ground, and is ready for shipment. Tankage is generally sold under a guarantee of 60 per cent protein and 6 per cent fat, while meat 204 ANIMAL FEEDS 205 -meal or beef scraps contain 40 to 50 per cent protein, 8 per cent or more of fat, and about 25 per cent ash, largely phosphate of lime (bone). An important use of meat meal and similar feeds is in poultry feeding. Experiments at Geneva (N. Y.) and other stations have established the superior value of animal proteins in feeding poultry, especially ducks. It is likely that this value depends, to a large extent, on the mineral matter supplied in these feeds, and not especially on the protein which they contain; better results are generally obtained, however, by feeding both classes of nutrignts combined in the same feeding stuff rather than separately, as, ¢.g., grain feeds with ashes or bone meal. Fish meal, or fish meat meal, contains amounts of protein, fat, and mineral matter similar to good grades of meat meal, and may be considered of about equal value to this feed, pound for pound, for feeding poultry or swine, when manufactured from fresh fish refuse by modern sanitary methods. Besides being a valuable poultry feed, fish meal may be fed to horse and cattle in a limited way where an extra supply of protein in the rations seems desirable. In northern Europe it is occasionally fed to dairy cows in amounts of one to two pounds per head daily, mixed with other concentrates, and is considered an economical feed, well adapted for this purpose, although the cows at first object to its peculiar odor. Bone meal or ground bone is likewise used for feeding poultry, and, in a small way, with Indian corn for pigs, in order to correct the lack of ash materials in this cereal (p. 300). One-half ounce ground phosphate rock (floats) may be given daily to calves or pigs for the same purpose.t ~ II. DAIRY FEEDS The dairy products form a most important group of feeds for livestock. Owing to the value of whole cows’ milk as a human food, and as the raw material for the manufacture of cream, butter, cheese, etc., it is only used for stock feeding in the case of beef animals, and for dairy and breeding animals during the early life of the calves. It is, therefore, not necessary to describe in this place the chemical or physical properties of all milk, beyond a few observations as to its value for young stock: Colostrum Milk.—Immediately after calving a thick, viscous liquid, known as colostrum, is secreted by the cow; in the course 1 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 1. 206 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS of two or three days this gradually changes to normal milk. The colostrum differs from milk in its high content of solids, albumen, and ash, while the percentages of fat and sugar which it contains are somewhat lower than those of normal milk. Owing to the high albumen content, colostrum will thicken (coagulate) on heat- ing. The average chemical composition of colostrum and normal cows’ milk and milk of other farm animals will be seen from the following table: Average Composition of Milk, in Per Cent (Konig) Water Fat Casein | Albumen psa Ash Cows’ colostrum....; 74.6 3.6 4.0 | 13.6 2.7 1.6 Cows’ milk (normal) | 87.3 3.7 2.9 5 4.9 HG Mares’ milk. ....... 90.8 1.2 2.0 5.7 3 Ewes’ milk......... 80.8 6.9 6.5 49 9 Goats’ milk......... 85.7 4.8 4.3 4.4 8 Sows’ milk.......... 82.5 5.8 6.3 4.4 1.0 The colostrum of the other milk-producing animals is corre- spondingly high in albumen and ash compared with that of milch cows. Whole milk is the first feed of young animals, and is a com- plete feed, containing all the elements necessary for the sustenance and‘growth of the young. On account of the relatively large fat globules in milk rich in butter fat, this is not, however, adapted for feeding young pigs and lambs; digestive disturbances are likely to occur when such milk is fed,? and animals do not make as satisfac- tory gain on such milk as on whole milk lower in fat or on skim milk. A similar harmful effect of an excess of fat in the milk has been frequently observed in feeding infants. Calves are fed the dam’s milk for only a day or two after freshen- ing in ordinary farm practice, except in the case of beef, exhibition, or breeding stock, which often receive whole milk for several months, when they are fed skim milk, with ground flaxseed, ground grain, or mill feeds until they can eat and digest hay and concen- trates (p. 221). In the feed-unit system three pounds of whole milk are given an equivalent value to one feed unit (one pound of grain). We may assume that it will require six pounds of whole milk, on the average, for a pound of gain with young calves, or one-half the amount of skim milk required. 2Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin 31. ANIMAL FEEDS 207 Skim milk is used extensively for feeding calves and pigs, and, properly “reinforced,” makes an excellent substitute for whole milk in feeding these animals. It is also often fed to poultry. It is now, as a rule, obtained by the centrifugal method, which fur- nishes a by-product containing, on the average, 9.5 per cent solids, composed of about 0.10 to 0.15 per cent fat, 5 per cent sugar, 3.5 per cent casein and albumen, and 0.9 per cent ash. It is, therefore, essentially a protein feed, with a nutritive ratio of 1:2; hence is preferably supplemented in feeding animals with starchy or medium- protein feeds, like cereals, wheat middlings or shorts, etc. Creamer- ies furnish their patrons enormous quantities of skim milk in the aggregate, viz., as a rule, 80 per cent of the milk delivered. The whole milk is nt run through a separator on many dairy farms where cream is shipped or delivered to the creamery; the skim milk thus obtained is warm and in the best possible condinen for feeding young stock. The value of separator skim milk for feeding purposes is vari- ously estimated at 15 to 25 cents per hundred pounds; according to the feed-unit system, six pounds of skim milk are of the same value as one pound of grain; at one cent a pound for this ($20 per ton), 100 pounds of skim milk would, therefore, be worth 16 cents, and at 114 cents for grain it would be worth 25 cents per hundred. Experiments conducted at the Wisconsin station showed that the best results in feeding skim milk and corn meal to pigs will be reached by feeding these in the ratio of 3 to 1. Assuming that five pounds of corn meal fed alone would produce a pound of gain, the value of 100 pounds of skim milk would be 31 cents, with corn at $20 per ton; 46 cents with corn at $30 per ton. The rule given by Gurler as to the value of the skim milk is that 100 pounds when ‘fed with corn to fattening pigs are worth one-half the market price of a bushel of corn (56 pounds). Unless fed perfectly sweet and under sanitary conditions, skim milk will be likely to cause scouring in calves; pasteurized skim milk is less apt to give trouble in this respect, and it is important, therefore, that creameries adopt the method of pasteurizing the skim milk before it is returned to the patrons. This will also improve the keeping quality of the milk and will serve the still more important object of removing the danger of spreading tubercu- losis through the skim milk, as the tubercle bacillus is readily killed on heating to pasteurizing temperatures of 160° F. or over (Fig. 39). 208 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS: Buttermilk is the by-product obtained in the manufacture of butter. It is used especially as a feed for growing and fattening pigs. It contains, on the average, somewhat less than 10 per cent solids, viz., 0.5 per cent fat, 4 per cent casein and albumen, 4.4 per cent milk-sugar, and 0.7 per cent ash. It does not, therefore, differ materially from skim milk in composition, and extensive com- parative feeding experiments conducted by the Copenhagen station and elsewhere have shown that buttermilk is very nearly of the same value as skim milk for feeding pigs. It can also be fed to calves with good results, if special care is taken to feed it in fresh condition and in small amounts at the start, so as to gradually Fic. 39.—Holstein skim-milk calves—promising stock for the dairy herd. accustom the stomach of the young animals to it. Unless it can be fed in the manner suggested and with the most scrupulous cleanliness, the attempt had better not be made to feed buttermilk to calves, as disastrous results are likely to follow. Whey is obtained as a by-product at cheese factories, and is supplied to patrons in large quantities. It contains only about 6.6 per cent solids, viz., 0.3 per cent fat, 0.85 per cent albumen (with a little casein in suspension), 4.8 per cent milk-sugar, and 0.65 per cent ash. Whey is a more dilute and more carbonaceous feed than either skim milk or buttermilk (nutritive ratio, 1:9, against about 1: 1.5 for skim milk and buttermilk) ; hence it may be better supplemented by protein feeds than these, like wheat bran, small grains, and oil meal. Whey is fed to pigs almost en- ANIMAL FEEDS 209 tirely ; its value for this purpose has been found to be about one- half of that of skim milk or buttermilk. This would make 12 pounds of whey equal to one pound of grain feed in feeding value. It has also occasionally been used as a calf feed, but the preceding remarks as to feeding buttermilk to calves apply with still greater force to whey. It must be fed fresh and sweet, if used for this purpose, and with the utmost care as to the various factors that make for successful calf feeding (p. 220). QUESTIONS . What packing-house feeds are used for feeding farm animals? Give the characteristic properties and uses of each. . What is colostrum milk? . Name the dairy by-products used for feeding farm animals. . What are the characteristics of each? Name their uses. . What is the average composition of (a2) cows’ milk, (0) mares’, ewes’, goats’, and sows’ milk? In the case a the latter kinds, give fat contents only, 6. What is the relative feeding value of whole milk, skim milk, buttermilk, and whey for feeding calves or pigs? ore 08 bo -_ CHAPTER XX MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS I. Proprietary Feeds.—A large number of different kinds of mixed feeds, mostly proprietary feeds, are on the market and are sold for feeding different classes of farm animals. The names under which they are sold often indicate the purpose for which they are intended, like dairy feeds, horse, calf, swine feeds, etc. Some of these feeds possess considerable merit and may be bought at prices that: render them economical in comparison with standard stock feeds; others may likewise have merit, but are sold at ex- cessive prices, and others, again, are neither desirable nor economi- cal feeds and may safely be left alone. Unfortunately, the majority of the proprietary feeds belong to the last class. The farmer should aim to be relatively independent of feed manufacturers by raising his own feed so far as practicable, and to supplement these through the purchase of standard feeds of the kind required for the special feeding operations in which he is engaged. The mixed feeds on the market, as a rule, are bought by farmers who are either so situated that they cannot raise much of their own feed or who have not posted themselves sufficiently on the subject of feeding stuffs to know that these mixed feeds do not necessarily possess any merit above that of ordinary well-known feeding stuffs, and that state- ments on the advertising circulars of feed manufacturers must often be considerably discounted. There are, however, as suggested, many proprietary feeds on the market which may be purchased at reasonable prices and under definite guarantees of minimum contents of protein and fat, and maximum fiber contents, which are, moreover, made by reliable manufacturers who value their business reputation and furnish feeds of at least the value suggested by the guarantees. Where such feeds can be bought at fair prices and fit into the system of feeding practised by the farmer, there is no reason for not giving them a trial. Among these feeds are a number of alfalfa molasses feeds, the brewery molasses feeds, mixed grain or mill feeds, etc.; also some of the calf meals (if not too high priced) and poultry feeds. II. Feeds of Minor Importance.—Besides the feeding stuffs mentioned in the preceding, a large number of materials find a 210 MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS 211 limited use for feeding farm animals in different parts of the world; a few of these will be briefly considered in the following. Leaves and twigs of brush and trees are a favorite feed for goats, and also’ used for feeding cattle and sheep in the northern part of the Scandinavian countries and Finland, bei tained in sufficient quantities to carry the a season. Birch, ash, and linden are commonly; and molasses is afterwards mixed with} the material. Enthusiastic f but their feeding value has not yet been determined by carefully-conducted Acorns and beachnuts are used as a swine feed on the Continent eing diven to the woods in the fall and hat ‘they pick/up from the ground. Ac- California, the anima. fattened upon cording to the \T slop make a eet fed per head da The tenflency of beechnuts to make soft pork of inferior quality may /bd paptially Avercome by feeding peas, horse beans, or grain for geve al jwesl prior to slaughtering time. The effect of acorns on the quality of the pork is similar to that of beech- nuts; hogs fed exclwm#vely acorns furnish pork of a very low grade and are generally discriminated against by buyers.? Both these nut and brush feeds contain considerable quantities of tannin which renders them bitter and less palatable to stock than ordinary feeding stuffs. Icelandic moss is another material that is sometimes used for feeding cattle in extreme northern countries. It may be inferred that this possesses considerable feeding value from the fact that it forms the main and often sole feed of the reindeer in these northern regions. Its digestibility and nutritive effects have been studied 1 Wisconsin Circular 30, p. 94. 4Bulletin 93. * Pott, “ Futtermittellehre,” ii, 1, p. 569. 212 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS by Isaachsen, of the Agricultural College of Norway.* It is essen- tially a starchy feed, containing about 50 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 42 per cent fiber, and only 3 per cent protein. III, Condimental Stock Feeds.—Condimental stock feeds, stock tonics, etc., are sold everywhere and in large quantities in the aggregate. In so far as these materials claim to be feeds and to possess actual nutritive properties, they can be dismissed at once, as they are not fed in sufficient quantities to be of any importance whatever as feeds, and are, furthermore, too expensive to be used for this purpose. As regards their value as tonics and medicine, on the other hand, the examinations made of the materials have shown that they do not contain sufficient amounts of substances possessing medicinal properties to have any influence on stock one way or the other. A large bulk (one-half or more) of the stock feeds are made up of some common feeding stuffs, like mill feeds, corn meal, oil meal, ground screenings, etc., and the balance gen- erally consists of salt, charcoal, or sulfur, with a small amount of mild drugs or condiments, like gentian, fenugreek, sassafras, ginger, pepper, etc. The doses of these condiments which an animal re- ceives 1n an ounce or two of the stock feed, fed as directed, are too small to have any medicinal. effect whatever, as they make only a small fraction of the dose recognized by veterinary science, on account of the small proportions in which they are present in the stock feeds. The preceding remarks are largely based on theoretical con- siderations, which, however weighty they are, may not settle the matter in the minds of many people. The stock feeds have, however, been tried out at more than a dozen different experiment stations, and the results obtained in the trials are given in the publications of these stations and may be studied by all interested. The author made an investigation of the main stock feeds on the American market several years ago and compiled the results obtained on all experiments that were conducted with them up to that time in this and foreign countries. In these experiments 992 farm animals were included in all, viz., 78 steers, 81 dairy cows, 604 sheep, 112 pigs, and 117 hens. Out of the 23 different trials compiled, only two showed the stock feed to possess any merit, and the interpretation of the results of the two exceptions is open to question. The evi- dence is, therefore, practically unanimous against the use of con- dimental stock feeds, and goes to show that, when fed under condi- ‘Ber. Norges Landbrukshéjsk, 1905-6, p. 202; Tidsskr. norske Landor., 1910, No. 10. MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS 213 tions similar to those that prevailed in these experiments, the addi- tion of a stock feed to the ration is a positive disadvantage, both with reference to the production of the animals and the relative cost of the production. Home-made Stock Tonics.—If a farmer considers it necessary to use stock feeds for animals in poor condition of health, off feed, .or ailing in one way or another, that is not plainly a case for a veterinarian to attend to, it would seem that the better plan would be to buy the separate ingredients at a drug store and mix them in the proportions indicated below. He will save money thereby and will have the satisfaction of knowing just what he is feeding his stock and of feeding it in a much more concentrated form than in the case of commercial preparations. The following three mixtures of drugs, ete., have been suggested by the Vermont ‘station § and the Towa station "(Formula 3) 8 Formula 1.—Ground gentian, one pound; ground ginger, 1% pound; powdered saltpeter, 4% pound; powdered iron sulfate, 4 pound. Mix and give one tablespoonful in feed once daily for ten days, omit for three days, and feed as above for ten days more. Formula 2.—Fenugreek. 14 pound; ginger, 14 pound; powdered gentian, Y pound ; powdered sulfur, ¥, pound; potassium nitrate, 4% pound; resin, 14 pound; cayenne pepper, 14 pound : ground flaxseed meal, 3 pounds; powdered charcoal, 114 pounds; common salt, 1144 pounds; wheat bran, 6 pounds. Formula 3.—Powdered gentian, 1 pound; powdered ginger. 1 pound; fenugreek, 5 pounds; common salt, 10 pounds; bran, 50 pounds; oil meal, 50 pounds. Summary.’-—The evidence at hand with regard to condimental stock feeds shows that there is practical unanimity of opinion among scientific men who have given the subject special study, in regard to several points connected with these so-called feeds or tonics. 1. They are of no benefit to healthy animals when fed as directed, either as to increasing the digestibility of the feed eaten or rendering it more effective for the production of meat, milk, wool, ete. 2. They are of no benefit as a cure-all for diseases of the various classes of live stock ; neither do they possess any particular merit in case of specific diseases, or for animals out of condition, off feed, ete., since only a small proportion of ingredients having medicinal 5 Bulletin 104. ® Bulletin 87. ™ Condensed from Wisconsin Bulletin 151. “ Condimental Stock Feeds,” by the author (May, 1907, 40 pp.). Bibliography on stock feeds up to 1907 is given in this bulletin. 214 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS value is found therein, the bulk of the feeds consisting of a filler which possesses no medicinal properties whatever. 3. Exorbitant prices are charged for these feeds, as is natural, considering the extensive advertising the manufacturers are doing and the liberal commissions which they, pay agents and dealers. The large sales of stock feeds are doubtless mainly to be attributed to these facts. 4, By adopting a liberal system of feeding farm animals and furnishing a variety of feeds, good results may be obtained without resorting to stock feeds of any kind. If a farmer considers it neces- sary to give stock feeds at times, he can purchase the ingredients at a drug store and make his own at a fraction of the cost charged for them by the manufacturers. The preceding conclusions may be said to give the case against the condimental stock feeds. It is only fair to state, as the other side of the case, that the suggestions for better care and feeding of stock which have come from the advertising matter issued by stock feed manufacturers, or from their agents, have doubtless been of value to many farmers and have been productive of results. As many people are not disposed to heed advice that is given without cost, it may be that indirectly the money spent for condimental stock feeds has not in some cases been wholly wasted: QUESTIONS . What is a proprietary feed, and to what extent is it wise to use such a feed? . Name three miscellaneous feeds of minor importance for feeding stock. . State how and for what class of farm animals each is used. . What is a condimental stock feed? State the main conclusions to which experiments with these materials have led. . Is it necessary to feed condimental stock feeds to farm animals? If not, what would you use in their place? _ Cue oo bo fan) PART III PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER XXI CALF FEEDING Feeding Standards for Calves.—The following tables give the feed requirements for growing cattle, according to the standards of Wolff-Lehmann and of Armsby: I. Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Growing Cattle—1000 pounds live weight Digestible Live cereal Age, igh Dry months | Founds | Mer | protein [ogoeey’| NR and fat* 2-3 150 23 4.0 17.5 | 1:4.5 For dairy breeds....... 3-6 300 24 3.0 15.1 | 1:5.1 6-12 500 27 2.0 13.6 | 1:6.8 2-3 165 23 4,2 17.5 | 1:4.2 For beef breeds........ 3-6 330 24 3.5 16.2 | 1:4.7 6-12 550 25 2.5 14.8 | 1:6.0 * Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. IT. Armsby Standards Per Day and Head Age, Live Digestible Energy months ae a eer gene, 3 275 1.10 5.0 6 425 1.30 6.0 12 650 1.65 7.0 Birth Weights and Gains made by Calves.—New-born calves weigh from 40 to over 100 pounds each, according to the size of the parents. Beach gives the average birth weight of calves of the dairy breeds as follows:* Ayrshire, 77 pounds; Guernsey, 79 pounds; Holstein, 107 pounds; Jersey, 67 pounds. These weights were 7 to ‘Connecticut. (Storrs) Report, 1907. 215 216 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 9 per cent of the average weights of their respective dams, which were all mature cows. According to Eckles, the average birth weights of calves in the University of Missouri dairy herd were: Ayrshire, 64 pounds; Holstein, 89 pounds; Jersey, 53 pounds, and Dairy Shorthorn, 76 pounds, these weights being 6 to 8 per cent of the weight of the dam.” The records show that bull calves average about ten pounds heavier than the females at birth; the maturity of the cow is also of importance, the birth weight of calves from heifers and young cows being, on the average, about five pounds lower than that of calves from cows that had given birth to three or more calves. Gains Made by Calves.—In experiments at the Kansas sta- tion, calves reared on skim milk, grain and pasture from birth until one year old made the average gains during the successive months shown in the following table :3 Weight of Calves from Birth till One Year Old, in Pounds Bee: Average Average | Number Age, Ave Average | Number ont weight Peas aie caonitis ae peas eee Birth 77 sf 23 a site ie 24 1 111 34 45 7 403 54 38 2 144 33 56 8 455 52 28 3 181 37 60 9 515 60 21 4 229 48 60 10 578 63 20 5 287 58 54 11 626 48 20 6 349 62 43 12 669 43 19 The gains made during the respective months were lowest during the first three months and higher toward the end of the year, with gains of about one pound per head daily during the first months, and about two pounds per head daily during the fifth to the tenth month; the average daily gain during the entire year was 1.6 pounds per head. The method of feeding the calf will vary according to the pur- pose in view: Whether it is to be added to the dairy or ‘beef herd, or is to be vealed. After considering some general phases of the subject of calf feeding, we shall take up separately the feeding of calves for the various purposes mentioned (Fig. 40). Feeding Stuffs for Calves.——The number of different feeds used for feeding calves is not as large as in the case of mature 2“ Dairy Cattle and Milk Production,” p. 174. 2 Bulletin 126; see also Illinois Bulletin 164. fd CALF FEEDING 217 animals. The more important calf feeds are: Whole milk and dairy by-products, milk substitutes, hay, and various concentrates. Whole milk is the natural feed for calves, both as to the char- acter of its nutrients and the proportion in which these occur. It forms their sole feed for a period of a week or two to several months, according to the purpose in view, whether the calf is to be added to the breeding herd or to be vealed. Fic. 40.—Dairy calves in the pasture—an old-country scene. Only the fourth stomach (abomasum) of the new-born calf is fully developed; the other three compartments are small and do not take part in the digestion of the feed until the calf is old enough to eat solid feed. The lining of the fourth stomach of the young calf coritains a considerable amount of the ferment rennin, and large numbers of such calves are killed annually in Europe, espe- cially in Bohemia, to supply the demand for rennet stomachs used in the manufacture of cheese. As the calf learns to eat solid feed, the other compartments of the stomach gradually develop, and the digestive processes become similar to those of grown animals. The amount of whole milk required for one pound of gain will vary considerably, according to the age of the calves. During the 218 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS first few weeks, 4 to 6 pounds will make one pound of gain under favorable conditions, while with older calves it will require 8 to 12 pounds to produce a pound of gain. Whole milk will produce larger gains in live weight than skim milk or other feeds, but this is made at considerably higher cost, on account of the high value of whole milk as a human food. If we assume that it will take 6 pounds of whole milk to make one Fic. 41.—At meal time the calf is fed warm, sweet milk in a clean pail, while securely fastened in a comfortable stanchion. (Wisconsin Station.) pound of gain in a young calf and 12 pounds of skim milk (p. 206), the cost of the ration will be 6 cents in the former case, and 1.8 cents in the case of skim milk at ordinary creamery prices—$1.00 per hundred. pounds for whole milk and 15 cents per hundred pounds of skim milk. In experiments at the Kansas station it cost four times as much to produce a pound of gain with calves on whole milk as on skim milk, although the whole-milk calves gained an average of 1.86 pounds daily, against 1.51 pounds for the skim- milk calves.* Looking at the problem from another point of view, Otis found that two pounds of grain, when fed with the proper amount of skim milk, were equivalent for calf feeding to one pound of butter * Bulletin 126; Wisconsin Bulletin 192. CALF FEEDING 219 fat in whole milk. With butter fat at 25 cents per pound, 100 pounds of grain (worth $1.00 to $1.50) will take the place of $12.50 worth of butter fat, and at 30 cents for butter fat it will take the place of $15 worth of butter fat. Feeding whole milk or poorly-skimmed milk to calves is, therefore, generally speaking, a very expensive and wasteful method, since skim milk with only a slight fat content, fed with grain feed, will produce almost as good results. Skim Milk.—The value of skim milk and other dairy by- products for calf feeding has already been considered (p. 207). After the second or third week skim milk may gradually take the place of whole milk, the proportion of the latter being slowly de- creased and that of skim milk increased until after a week or ten days the calf will be getting only skim milk. This is fed warm and Fia. 42.—Calves in stanchions in pasture. (‘‘Productive Farming,” Davis.) sweet, and is most conveniently fed fresh from the separator. The foam of separator skim milk should always be skimmed off before feeding the milk to calves, as it tends to cause digestive troubles and bloating; colic and scouring resulting in death may follow in aggravated cases, if this precaution is neglected. A calf may be fed from 10 to 12 pounds of skim milk daily in three feeds until about six weeks old, when the amount may be increased to 16 pounds or more, if he can handle it without scouring, and this is given in two feeds, one-half at each meal. It requires constant care and watchfulness to raise a skim- milk calf or one fed other dairy by-products; all sudden changes and irregularities in feeding must be avoided, as well as a too liberal allowance of milk (Figs. 41 and 42). Overfeeding or in- judicious feeding is a frequent cause of calf scours, and when this occurs the feed or milk must be reduced or withheld for a time, and special treatment resorted to. 220 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS Remedies for Calf Scours.—1. A teaspoonful of sterilized dried blood (so-called blood flour), thoroughly mixed with the milk at each meal, will generally remedy the trouble when it is promptly attended to. The blood meal also serves as an excellent tonic for weak calves. 2. In aggravated cases of calf scours the milk is withheld and an egg in a tablespoonful of blackberry brandy is given three times a day till im- provement is noted. 3 3. The formaldehyde treatment is another remedy that will produce good results in most cases after a few days.° arrived at the average cost of feed for all the horses per 1000 pounds as $75.66 per year, and for the mules, $76.76. “‘ These figures indicate that the mule has no constitutional advantage over the horse in cheapness of maintenance. In fact, the horse has a slight lead in the data presented, but the difference is so small as to be negligible. In actual practice it is probable that the mule is maintained a little more cheaply than the horse, because oats are fed to horses more commonly than to mules. The practice of feeding oats to work horses, however, is largely a whim of the feeder, since numerous tests have shown that corn may be entirely substituted with satisfactory results. The difference between the two is thus largely a matter of custom, so far as light is shed on the problem by the tests mentioned.” 22 Kentucky Bulletin 176. 72 Burkett, “ Feeding Farm Animals,” p. 170. * Sept. 10, 1914, p. 390. FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 293 Mules may be fed the same feeds and similar amounts of these as horses, and what has been said in the preceding about feeding this class of animals applies, in general, also to mules. QUESTIONS . State the general laws governing the use of feed by horses. . Give a common ration for horses in your locality, and show in how far it approaches the Wolff-Lehmann and the Armsby standards. . How is the work done by horses measured ? . State the main principles of feeding (a) foal, (6) the mare, (¢) work horses. When are horses preferably watered, and how many times fed daily? . Should horses receive all the hay they will eat? Why? . Discuss the value of different rough feeds for work horses. . State briefly the value of silage and of roots for horses. . Give the main concentrates fed horses, and state briefly their relative values. . Give the system of feeding farm horses during winter, when idle or doing light work. . How are horses fattened for market? . Which makes the more economical use of feed eaten, the horse. or the mule? 13. Is a small consumption of feed a desirable point in farm animals? CONAN PO Ee _ So ee noe Literature on Horses.—Gay, ‘“ Productive Horse Husbandry,” Phila- delphia, 1914. Roberts, “ The Horse,” New York, 1905. Johnstone, “ The Horse Book,” Chicago, 1908. ‘“ Heavy Horses, Breeds and Management,” London, 1905.“ Light Horses, Breeds and Management,” London, 1904. Langworthy, “ Principles of Horse Feeding,” Farmers’ Bulletin 170, 1903. Experiment Station Publications on Horse and Mule Feeding: Florida, b. 72; Illinois, b. 141; Indiana, b. 97; Iowa, b. 18, 109, c. 6; Kansas, b. 186; Kentucky, b. 176; Maine, r. 91; Maryland, b. 51; Massachusetts, b. 99, (Hatch) b. 94; Michigan, b. 254; "Mississippi, b. 15; Missouri, c. 27, b. 114; Montana, b. 95, 97; Nebraska, b. 130; ext. b. 28; New Hampshire, b. 82, 129; New Jersey, r. 393, b. 92; "North Carolina, b. 189 ; North Dakota, b. 26, 45; Ohio, b. 195; Oklahoma, r. ’98, 99; Pennsylvania, b. 117, 122; Utah, b. 77, 101; Virginia, b. 80; Wyoming, r. 12, b. 98; Ottawa, r .’06; Bur. An. Industry, ec. 168; Farmers’ B. 170; Office Exp. Stations, b. 125. * CHAPTER XXV FEEDING SWINE Feeding Standards for Swine.—Standards for feeding swine have been established by Wolff-Lehmann. as given in the following table: The Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Swine, per 1000 Pounds Live Weight Digestible Age, | Weight, To. months pounds matier Protein ees ic and fat* Brood sows, with pigs...) .... on 22 2.5 16.4 1:6.6 Fattening swine— : First period ......... ee re 36 4.5 26.6 1:5.9 Second period........ Pe ee eee 32 4.0 25.1 1:6.3 oo period......... Bae sieke 25 2.7 18.9 1: 7.0 es i ea 2-3 50 | 44 7.6 | 303 | 1:40 ; 3-5 100 35 48 | 241 1: 5.0 Breeding stock......4| 5-6 120 32 - 3.7 22.2 1:6.0 6-8 200 28 2.8 19.4 1:7.0 8-12 250 25 2.1 15.8 1:7.5 2-3 50 44 7.6 30.3 1:4.0 - A Les 3-5 100 35 5.0 24.9 1: 5.0 Fattening stock..... 4} 5-6 150 33 4.3 23.7 1:5.5 6-8 200 30 3.6 21.4 1: 6.0 8-12 300 26 3.0 19.0 1:6.4 * Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. Feed Requirements of Swine.—Next to the dairy cow, the hog is the most economical producer of human food materials among our farm animals, and it stands close to the cow in this respect. Jordan has shown that 100 pounds digestible organic nutrients in the ration produce. the following amount of edible solids in the form of the various animal products: Milk, 18 pounds. Pork, 15.6 pounds. Veal, 8.1 pounds. Poultry or eggs, 3.5 pounds to 5.1 pounds. Beef, 2.75 pounds. , Mutton, 2.60 pounds.’ While these are only average figures, and may not hold true in individual cases, they show that the hog has a wonderful capacity 1« Thé Feeding of Animals,” p. 405. 294 FEEDING SWINE 295 for converting feeding stuffs into human food, and he often does it under very adverse conditions as regards care and attention, and without being particular as to either the character of the feed or the quarters he occupies. No farm animal appreciates good feed and comfortable quarters, however, or responds more readily to good treatment, than do swine, but none are more abused in these respects. The pig isan omnivorous eater and can fatten on feed that other stock will not touch, but the best results in feeding pigs, as in the case of other farm animals, are secured when they receive good, wholesome feed and are given careful attention. Under these conditions, swine raising is especially profitable, and while it requires a smaller investment in animals and equipment, it will, as a rule, yield quicker and relatively larger results than any other branch of animal husbandry. Fie. 71.—A group of young Berkshire pigs. (Iddings.) Swine are remarkable producers of fat (Fig. 71). The com- position of the increase in body weight in the case of fattening swine, as determined by Lawes and Gilbert, is as follows: Protein, 1.4 per cent; fat, 71.5 per cent; mineral matter, 0.1 per cent; water, 22.0 per cent, showing that the fattening process in the case of these animals, still more than with other fattening stock, consists largely of an accumulation of body fat (p. 20). Birth Weight and Gains Made by Pigs.—Pigs, when far- rowed, will weigh from about one and a half to three pounds each ; two and a half pounds may be considered an average weight for our common, medium-sized breeds. The number of pigs‘in a litter will average about nine. Young pigs ordinarily gain more for every week as they grow older, but there is a gradual decrease in the rate of gain to body weight. The largest returns for the amount of feed 296 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS eaten are secured from young pigs; or, to put it in another way, the amount of feed required for a pound of gain is smallest in the case of young pigs, and increases steadily with advancing age (Fig. 72). The fact is brought out in a striking manner by the follow- ing compilation by Henry’ of over five hundred feeding trials conducted at American experiment stations with over 2200 pigs The Relation of Weight of Pigs to Feed Consumed and Rate of Gain Eee’ Average | Average deity pak Average f Feed Weight of pigs, | Number live feed eaten 100 gain per anda pounds of animals eHEnE per day, Pounds a Paik e ounds 4 pounds pounds wont p pounds pounds 15 to 50 174 38 2.2 6.0 0.8 293 50 to 100 417° 78 3.4 4.3 0.8 400 100 to 150 495 128 4.8 3.8 1.1 437 150 to 200 489 174 5.9 3.5 1.2 482 200 to 250 300 226 6.6 2.9 1.3 498 250 to 300 223 271 7.4 2.7 1.5 511 300 to 350 105 320 | 7.5 2.4 1.4 535 in all. In compiling the results given in the table, six pounds of skim milk and twelve pounds whey were rated equal to one pound of concentrates (one feed unit). The table shows the average weight of the pigs in each group, the feed eaten daily and per 100 pounds live weight, the daily gains made, and the feed per 100 pounds gain (Fig. 73). WEIGHT OF PIGS- LBS 100 200 300 +400 += 500 ~——« 00 15-50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-3550 Fia. 72.—The amount of feed consumed per 100 pounds of gain for fattening pigs increases with their live weights. 2 Feeds and Feeding,” 10th ed., p. 502. FEEDING SWINE 297 The greater economy of young growing pigs as compared with older ones for making gains from a given amount of feed is plainly seen from this table. While pigs of less than 50 pounds live weight required only 293 pounds of feed per 100 pounds gain, pigs weigh- ing 150 to 200 pounds required 482 pounds, and hogs weighing over 300 pounds required 535 pounds per 100 pounds gain. This difference does not represent one of actual feed value in the products, however, as the carcass of the mature hog contains more dry matter and more fat than that of young animals, but the feeder selling young animals has the benefit of the situation, as he is paid for the total weight furnished, and not only for the dry matter or edible portion of the carcass. Fig. 73.—Well-fed, busy youngsters that will grow into good porkers. (Henry.) Results similar to those shown in the preceding table were ob- tained in the extensive swine-feeding experiments conducted at the Copenhagen station during the nineties.* In these trials it required, on the average, 376 feed units to produce 100 pounds of gain with pigs weighing from 35 to 75 pounds each, and 639 pounds with hogs of 275 to 315 pounds weight, there being a gradual increase from the former to the latter figure with increasing weights of animals fed. Preparation of Feed for Swine.—It has been shown that the digestibility of feeding stuffs is not, as a rule, materially altered by different methods of preparation, like cooking, cutting, grinding, rolling, etc. (p. 67). In view of the special importance of this 8 Report 30, 1895; Exp. Sta. Record 7, p. 245, 298 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS question in feeding swine, we shall give briefly the evidence of experi- mental work along this line. Grinding Grain.—Trials conducted for ten years at the Wis- consin station * show that an average saving of 6 per cent was secured by grinding shelled corn for pigs; in 11 out of 18 trials conducted there was a saving and in 7? cases a loss by grinding the corn. If corn is worth 50 cents a bushel, there is, therefore, a saving of 3 cents per bushel by grinding, out of which the labor and cost of grinding must be paid. It is evident from this result that grinding corn for fattening pigs in general does not pay. In these trials the pigs fed ground corn ate more feed and gained more rapidly in a given time than those receiving whole corn. This is doubtless the reason why some farmers believe that pigs do better on ground than on whole corn. According to a summary by Rommel ° of 19 trials Fic. 74.—The “hog motor,” a device for making pigs grind the corn they eat. (Hog Motor Company, Minneapolis.) with 297 pigs, it required 524 pounds whole corn or 479 pounds meal to produce 100 pounds gain, a saving of 84% per cent, or a little higher than found in the Wisconsin trials. Similar experi- ments with small grains and peas have shown that there is a saving of 12.3 per cent in feed by grinding.® It is advisable, therefore, to grind these grains in feeding pigs or to soak them before feeding (see below). Swine may grind their own grain, as shown in Fig. 74. Cooking Feed.—Cooking feed has now been abandoned for all classes of farm animals except occasionally for swine. The question of the advisability of cooking grain for fattening hogs was studied by a number of stations in the eighties. Henry gives a sum- mary of 17 trials at five different stations with cooked and un- cooked grain (corn, barley, peas, rye, or shorts, fed separately or in mixtures) for swine, showing that in all but one trial there was a marked increase in the feed required per 100 pounds gain when this 4 Report 1906. 5 Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 47. ® Loc. cit, FEEDING SWINE 299 was cooked (steamed) ; it required, on the average, 490 pounds of uncooked feed per 100 pounds gain and 561 pounds of cooked feed— a loss of nearly 15 per cent in the efficiency of the feed, not con- sidering the expense of cooking. This practice has now been gen- erally abandoned, except in the case of a few feeds, like potatoes, field peas, roots, chopped musty hay, ete., which are occasionally steamed by some feeders to induce a larger ‘consumption or improve the palatability of the feed (p. 67). 123456789 ON? ILLINOIS (OWA KANSAS i l liXA Zig =os | {| | | INDIANA OHIO GEORGIA ULLALLALL Li sea scoters ‘ACRES. OF INDIAN CORN . ZA NUMBER OF SWINE, MILLIONS ME NUMTEER OF CATTLE, MILLIONS. Fia. 75.—Diagram showing the acreage of corn and the number of swine and cattle listed in the twelve leading corn-growing States in the Union, according to the census of 1910. Soaking Feed.—Soaking or wetting feed for swine is practised by some feeders who believe they obtain better results thereby. It has been shown, however, that no decided advantagé is secured by this method. The average results of twelve trials conducted at eight different stations, as shown by Rommel (loc. cit.), came as follows: Feed required per 100 pounds gain, dry feed 444 pounds, wet feed 434 pounds, a difference of 2 per cent in favor of the latter feed. The pigs, in general, ate more soaked or wet feed than dry feed, and often made slightly better gains on the former feed, but the returns per unit of feed eaten were not, as we have seen, appre- 300 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS ciably improved by the method of preparation; nor has it been shown that the amount of water fed in the slop of pigs has any material effect on the gains made or on the utilization of the feed. Swine Feeds.—The various feeds used in feeding swine have been previously discussed, and we shall consider here only a few of the main swine feeds, especially with reference to feeding prob- lems in different sections of the country. Indian corn is by far the most important single swine feed in this country. The States in the corn belt are growing more pigs than any other section, and there is, in general, a parallelism in the different States between the two industries, corn growing and pork production (Fig. 75). The corn is mostly fed «a the cob, and the labor and expense of shelling and grinding are thus saved. Trials at a large number of stations have shown that it requires, on the average, about 555 pounds of shelled corn per 100 pounds gain, or that a bushel of shelled corn (56 pounds) will make very nearly 10 pounds of pork. The pigs made an average daily gain of 0.98 pound in these trials, which were conducted in more than a dozen different States and included thirty different series of ex- periments. Corn is, above all, a fattening feed, and stands at the head of desirable concentrates for finishing fattening swine. Both on account of its relatively low protein content and high starch content (N. R., 1: 9.5) and its low content of mineral matter, it is not well adapted for feeding alone to young growing pigs, and much damage has been done to our swine industry through the abuse of this grain as an exclusive feed for such pigs. The studies of this problem by Sanborn and Henry in the eighties were some of the earliest con- tributions of the Missouri and Wisconsin stations to the science of animal nutrition and have been of the greatest importance to American swine-breeders. Feeding for Fat and for Lean.—Henry’s striking experiments on “ feeding for fat and for lean ” ® were especially adapted to bring the attention of farmers to the danger of using corn as a sole feed for young pigs (Figs. 75 and 76). In these trials one lot of pigs was fed corn meal only, and the other received skim milk, wheat middlings, and dried blood or other combinations of protein feeds. The method of feeding followed greatly influenced both the gains made.by the pigs and the composition of their bodies. The corn Indiana Bulletin 86; see also Copenhagen Station Report 10, 1887. * Wisconsin Reports, 1886-1890, : c : FEEDING SWINE 301 ration produced relatively low gains in live weight, and the bodies of the pigs were abnormal as regards the development of the skeleton, muscles, and internal organs. The amount of blood for each 100 pounds of dressed carcass of the corn-fed pigs was greatly decreased below normal. The tenderloin and other muscles were relatively light, the proportion of internal fat and that stored within Fig. 76 Fia. 77 Fras. 76 and 77.—Cuts of pigs fed for ‘‘fat and forlean’’; Fig. 76 shows the disposition of fat and leanin the necks of the pigs, and Fig. 77 the fat and the lean of the loin or smal! of the back of the pigs. A, fed for lean; B, fedforfat. Note the large size of the individual muscles of the protein-fed pigs over those fed earbohydrates. Corn should be supplemented by clover, shorts, peas, skim milk, and similar feeds to bring the best results in feeding pigs. (Wisconsin Station. ) the muscular tissue was abnormally high, and the strength of the bones of the corn-fed pigs was greatly diminished, resulting, in general, in a weakly animal that would fall an easy prey to disease and accidents. The lesson brought out by these and other experiments along this line is that young animals must receive a feed or a com- 302 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS bination of feeds fairly rich in protein and mineral matter (N. R., 1:7 or less), that will develop a body with normal bone structure, muscles, and internal organs. As corn is deficient in both these constituents, pigs require supplementary feeds of nitrogenous character (skim milk, middlings, peas, tankage, dried blood, etc.) for a normal growth, or, at least, an addition of wood ashes, ground bone, or ground rock phosphate (floats), to build up a strong frame. Where corn does not do well, other cereals may take its place to advantage in the feeding of pigs; wheat, barley, rye, kafir corn, field peas, cowpeas, soybeans, etc., are all valuable swine feeds when it is practicable to feed them, either in combination with Indian corn or with each other. Barley occupies a similar place to the farmers of California (and of northern Europe) as corn does in Fic. 78.—Meal time for the swine herd. Intelligent feeding and careful management Pe on most farms. Note construction of individual the corn-growing States, and has the advantage over corn in being higher both in protein and ash. It will give best results with pigs if rolled or ground before feeding. Oats are not a satisfactory swine feed on account of their high fiber content, except for breeding stock and shoats that are not being fattened. In the case of these animals they may be fed whole, scattered on the ground or on a feeding floor, so as to give the animals exercise at the same time (Fig. 78). Dairy products form a most important group of swine feeds in dairy sections, and are used extensively as feeds supplementary FEEDING SWINE 303 to Indian corn. The results obtained in feeding skim milk and corn to pigs depend, to a large extent, on the proportions in which the two feeds are given. Skim milk alone will produce very un- satisfactory results in feeding pigs,° and more than five or six pounds of skim milk per pound of corn is also likely to give poor returns. The ratio of skim milk to grain to be fed will depend upon the relative price of the two feeds and on the age of the animals; fed to pigs shortly after weaning, larger proportions of milk will give better results than with older animals. The results of a large number of trials at the Wisconsin station and else- where showed that a ration of 3 to 1 will give most economical results in gain of live weight. Fed in the ratio of 1 to 3 pounds milk for each pound of corn meal, Henry found ?° that 327 pounds - of milk were required to save 100 pounds of meal; in the ratio of 3-5: 1, 446 pounds; 5-7: 1, 574 pounds, and 7-9: 1, 552 pounds, and, on the average for all trials, 475 pounds (p. 207). Fic. 79.—Making pork on rape and oats. The average returns for three years on this pasture were $22.84 per acre. (Missouri Station.) Corn is the best supplemental grain to feed with skim milk or _. buttermilk for growing pigs; with whey, on the other hand, wheat shorts, pea meal, or linseed meal as a part of the grain ration is to be preferred, being mixed with corn in increasing proportions of the latter as the animals approach maturity.** Trials made in this country and abroad have shown that 1000 pounds of ordinary whey, *Utah Bulletin 57; Conn. (Storrs) Bulletin 39. 2° Wisconsin Report 1895; see also Cornell Bulletin 199. “Wisconsin Report 8, p. 38; Ontario Report, 1896. 304 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS when fed with grain feed, such as corn meal and barley or shorts, will save 100 pounds of grain in feeding fattening pigs, and that two pounds of whey are worth about as much as one pound of skim milk or buttermilk in feeding swine (p. 209). Canadian experiments have shown no appreciable difference in the feeding value of sweet and sour whey, but whey run through. a separator or from separator skim milk is worth only 75 to 80 per cent as much as common whey obtained in the manufacture of American cheddar cheese.*” Pastures.—As with other farm animals, swine will make the cheapest gains when grazing or harvesting their own feed (Figs. 79 and 80); pasture only, without any supplementary grain feed, will not, however, produce satisfactory gains, whether this con- sists of mixed grasses, clover, or alfalfa. In trials at the Utah. Fic. 80.—Making pork on blue grass. The average returns for four years on this pasture were $15.18 per acre. (Missouri Station.) station * pigs weighing 60 to 75 pounds when on pasture (alfalfa and mixed grasses, chiefly the former) gained only 0.2 pound daily ; pigs receiving one-half grain ration when on pasture gained 0.7 pound; and those receiving a full grain ration gained 1.2 pounds daily. The pasturage saved about 15 per cent in the amount of grain required for the production of 100 pounds gain. The practice of feeding pastured pigs small grain rations is an econom- % Ontario Reports, 1897 and 1909; Wisconsin Report 8, p. 47. # Bulletin 94. FEEDING SWINE 305 ical method of carrying pigs over summer that are to be fattened later, since such pigs will make rapid gains when put on full feed, and at a slightly less cost than those fed a full ration from the start (Utah Bulletin 94). Alfalfa pasture alone will furnish but little more than a main- tenance ration for pigs,“ but if grain is fed, all of this can then be used for production. Two pounds of corn or more per 100 pounds of pigs have been found more profitable than a lighter .ration. * When grain is fed, an acre of alfalfa will furnish pasture for at least 2000 pounds of pigs (15 to 20 shoats of medium weight), and will produce 500 to 800 pounds of pork, according to the kind of pigs fed, pasture and weather conditions. Temporary Pastures.—Rape (Fig. 79), soybean, cowpeas, In- .dian corn, sorghum, etc., furnish excellent feed for growing pigs and brood sows and will enable the animals to make rapid gains when supplemented with grain. Pork can be produced more cheaply by feeding grain with green forage than by feeding either alone. The value of rape pasture for feeding swine, especially for breeding sows, is well understood (p. 138). Hogging down corn is a common practice of harvesting a corn field in the corn-growing States. The method is especially adapted ‘to sections where labor is scarce. The corn is generally allowed to nearly mature, and pigs of medium weight (80 to 120 pounds) or brood sows are turned in to gather the corn. They will eat the ear corn and leave a great deal of the coarser part of the plant, husks, cornstalks, and cobs to be plowed under, which, with the manure from the hogs, will greatly improve the humus content and the fertility of the land. Incidentally the pigs get considerable exercise and fresh air and will be less susceptible to disease than pigs fed in a dry lot. When the fat. hogs are removed from the field, brood sows and pigs may be turned in; they will clean up and make good use of what is left. Hogs running at large in a field or pasture will be put in prime condition for market if they are fattened in a pen for a period of three to four months by being fed all the corn they will eat, with plenty of pure water to drink. According to Burkett,® a 5- to 10- acre field of good corn will carry 50 to 75 hogs from the shoat to the finished period. The total i “Oklahoma Report, 1899; Mississippi Report, 1905; Nebraska Bul- etin 99. * Nebraska Bulletin 99; Colorado Bulletin 2. *“ Feeding Farm Animals,” p. 254; see also Farmers’ Bulletin, 614.. Towa Bulletin 143. 20 306 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS quantity of pork produced from a given acreage, when hogged down, will be greater than when ear corn or snapped corn is fed in pens. Feeding the Boar.—The feeding of the boar should vary ac- cording to his age and the season of the year. Thin, growing boars need more grain than older ones, but neither should be fed so that they will grow fat, since this will impair their breeding qualities, just as much as having them in a thin body condi- tion. The boar should receive only as much grain as he will clean up readily, and should have a chance to exercise in summer time in a pasture lot, and in the wihter in a small yard adjoining the pen. Succulent feed should be provided throughout the year if possible: During the summer by pasturage or cut green feed, giving enough grain to maintain a good condition of flesh; during the winter months either roots, pumpkins, or culled fruit may be supplied. An allowance not over a pound daily of grain per 100 pounds live weight will be sufficient while on the summer pasture, and during the winter, two pounds grain and four to six pounds roots. The grain should contain a considerable proportion of pro- tein, as, e.g., shorts and fine-ground oats (2 to lor 3 to 1). Skim milk is especially valuable for young boars as the breeding season approaches, and during this time two or three pounds grain may be fed; a mixture of equal parts of corn, ground oats, and middlings will prove an excellent combination. . Feeding the Sow and the Pigs.—The brood sow must be kept in a good body condition at all times, so far as possible, so as to be able to give birth to thrifty, vigorous pigs, and to furnish an abun- dance of milk for a healthy, rapid growth. Succulent feeds are an essential part of the ration both in summer and winter. A farrow, matured sow will keep in good condition on good clover or alfalfa pasture alone, but a young sow must receive about one to two pounds of grain daily per 100 pounds weight in addition; e.g., a mixture of oats or barley and shorts, with a little corn so as to keep the nutritive ratio down to about 1 to 6 (p. 294). But little grain is fed for a few days before farrowing, and the sow is given cooling feeds of a laxative nature, as roots, and a slop made up largely of bran or shorts. For the first twenty-four hours after farrowing no feed is given, but all the lukewarm water she will drink ; she is then given limited feed for three or four days, and is slowly brought up to full feed in the course of about ten days. A grain mixture of ground,corn, ground oats, and shorts (1:1: 2), mixed with three to five pounds skim milk, will give excellent re- FEEDING SWINE 307 sults at this time; she should also be given some roots and be put on pasture as soon as possible. As much of the grain is fed as she will eat up readily. After two or three weeks, the pigs should be given some feed in a small trough of their own, and this amount increased as rapidly as they are able to clean up more. When the sows and pigs are on pasture they will eat much less grain, but should be allowed some grain all the time as it will prevent the sow from getting too thin, and will enable the pigs to grow more rapidly; gains made at this time are much cheaper than those made later on, as has been shown before (Fig. 81). After the pigs are about three months old, they should weigh 60 pounds or better; they should get their nourishment largely from pasturage, and only one-half grain feed is given, unless feed is cheap, in which case full grain feed may be continued until they are weaned at three to four months of age. If the sow is to raise two litters a year, the Fig. 81.—A thrifty bunch of sows and pigs crowding around the feed troughs—a familiar farm scene. (Pacific Rural Press.) pigs must be weaned at a considerably earlier age, viz., from two or two and a half months old, in order to get the sow bred again in time. To do well, pigs weaned at this age must have had grain before weaning, and must also receive skim milk with their grain feed after this period. If skim milk is not available, a slop is made of hot water and rolled or ground barley oats, and wheat shorts (1 : 1:2). A little digester tankage added to the slop before feeding will give good results. The amount of grain fed to pigs on pasture should vary accord- in to the kind and condition of the pasture, price of grain, thrifti- ness of the pigs, etc. The Oregon station 1’ gives the following as "Circular Bulletin 18. 308 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS a safe rule to so by with regard to feeding grain to pigs on pasture: When the price of pork on foot at the farm is more than three times the price of grain, a rather heavy ration should be given; when the price of pork is five times or less than the price of grain, a minimum amount should be fed. The growing period of pigs will last until they are five to six months old, depending on the method of feeding practised, usually about five months old, when they will have reached a weight of nearly 100 pounds; they are then put on fattening rations. The Dietrich Standard for Pigs.—Dietrich concludes, from careful studies of the nutrition of pigs conducted during a series of years, that one and the same pig under different conditions may maintain its live weight on distinctly different quantities of the same combinations of feed. This variation appears to be due to the plane of nutrition upon which the pigs have been maintained previous to the time of making the maintenance experiment. He gives the maintenance requirements of pigs that have been previously kept on a low nutritive plane as follows: Dietrich Maintenance Standard for Pigs, Per Head, 100 Pounds Live Weight. Digestible crude protein Digestible carbohydrates Digestible fat 0.10 pound 0.25 to 0.40 pound 0.03 pound The energy requirements of the ration are about 1.12 therms (p. 35) .78 The rations given in the following table have been calculated according to the rather elaborate system of feeding pigs recom- mended by Dietrich: An Approximate Ration for Pigs Intended for Breeding Purposes Age of pigs in months Feeds 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 Pounds of feed per 100 pounds live weight per day Corn.......... 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.3 2.9 Soybeans (seed). A 5 A 4 4 A 7 Skim milk...... 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 — — Water......... 7.1 6.4 5.7 5.1 4.4 9.2 8.5 In the place of corn may be substituted rye, barley, wheat, rice, ete., and in the place of soybeans, linseed meal or peas, but in the latter case the quantity fed must be increased, as peas contain #Tllinois Bulletin 163; Circulars 126, 133, and 153, FEEDING SWINE 309 less protein than the other feeds. “This would also increase the carbohydrate, hence the corn would have to be correspondingly de- creased. Or these may be left out and more skim milk added. Some of the protein may also be supplied in the form of clover or alfalfa. If skim milk is not available, more of some other nitrog- enous feeds may be supplied, and also more water, as milk is 85 to 90 per cent water. If tankage containing 60 per cent protein is used in place of soybean meal, much less will suffice, as tankage is richer in protein. “The above is intended for dry lot feeding (Fig. 82). If pigs are on pasture, these quantities should be reduced. If the above ration is used in a dry lot, a little bran or shorts used in place of part of the corn so as to give the ration more bulk will improve it. A greater variety of feeds will probably also make the ration better.” Swine may grind their own grain, as shown in figure 74. Fia. 82.—A cement feeding floor provided with sanitary substantial troughs is an essential to a well-equipped piggery. (Wisconsin Station.) Fattening Swine.—In the corn belt States, which supply a large proportion of the hogs fattened for market, the common practice is to keep the hogs with fattening steers until three to four weeks before the end of the fattening period, when they are penned and finished for market. As previously shown, the number of hogs put with the steers will vary with the form in which corn is fed to the latter; the extra grain which the hogs receive is likewise determined by this factor, and the amount of undigested feed in the droppings of the steers (p. 273). If the steers are fed snapped, ear corn or whole shelled corn, much more passes through undigested and becomes available to the hogs in the droppings than if soaked corn, ground corn, or corn and cob meal is fed. If the 310 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS steers are fed protein feeds in addition to corn, they are able to digest the starchy components of the ration better than in case of wide nutritive ratios, and hogs, in that case, can glean less feed from the droppings. Fattening Rations.—When the ration of the steers consists of whole corn, the hogs are usually fed one-fourth to one-third pound of tankage per head daily; this will be all they need in addition to the corn in the droppings for about four to five weeks, until they do not apparently gain further in weight. They are then taken out and finished on a ration of corn and tankage, cotton-seed meal, co j Fia, 83.—Portable hog-houses with low, flat roofs; if used for housing swine in hot weather, they should be provided with a shade at the rear under which the pigs can lie in comfort. This shade is five feet wide, made of inch stuff placed upon removable supports which rest upon cleats nailed to the ends of the house. (Wisconsin Station.) peas, shorts, or gluten feed, in the proportion of seven parts of corn to one of tankage, or of three parts of corn to two parts of either of the other feeds. The fattening period ordinarily lasts about sixty days, at the end of which time the hogs will generally weigh about 200 pounds. In other sections of the country hogs are either fattened on dif- ferent kinds of pasture and fed grain in‘ addition, or are fed in a dry lot until ready for the market. The latter method is less satisfactory for summer and fall feeding than pasturage, as it increases the cost of production, the hogs are less thrifty, and a larger amount of grain is required per 100 pounds gain. It is essen- tial to furnish some green feed, as clover, alfalfa, and corn. The & a =) = RQ ao) a = A {ea [ea] & Fig. 84.—Interior arrangement of hog-houses at Illinois Station. Sanitary and practical. Note feeding troughs can be filled from the outside without entering the pens. 312 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS’ kind of grain fed with it will vary according to the character of the available green feed; with leguminous crops the grain may consist of corn or barley, preferably soaked or ground with a little tankage. If green corn, rape, or sorghum forage is fed, more nitrogenous feed mixtures must be supplied; skim milk and tankage are the best supplementary feeds with the cereals and mill feeds. Cotton-seed meal is fed considerably in the South to fattening hogs with corn or other grain, but fatal results often follow on account of the poisonous principles found therein (p. 200). If the animals are to be fed not more than twenty-one days in the finishing period after pasturage or running with steers, one-third of the total grain ration may be made up of cotton-seed meal; if it is likely to extend beyond twenty-one days, the proportion of cotton-seed meal must be reduced to one-fifth or one-sixth of the whole ration and the finish- ing period be limited to five weeks in all.?® Fic. 85.—The self-feeder saves labor in feeding pigs and other farm animals, The large self-feeder is used for different grain feeds, and the small one for feeding charcoal, ashes, and lime. The Use of Self-feeder—tThe self-feeder (Figs. 85 and 86) has been used to a limited extent in feeding fattening swine, for feeding grain or salt, charcoal, ete., and has given similar results, as previously stated, in the case of steers and sheep.?? A patented “hog motor grinder,” by which the pigs grind their own corn as wanted, is a special form of self-feeder. In two trials at the Mary- land station 7? it produced good results, but not quite as economical gains as hopper feeding. * Farmers’ Bulletin 411. ” Maryland Bulletin 150; Wisconsin Agriculturist, Sept. 17, 1914. * Bulletin 150; Day, “ Productive Swine Husbandry,” p. 208. FEEDING SWINE 313 According to the forage conditions in different parts of the country, great variations in the methods of feeding fattening hogs, as well as swine in general, are possible. The preceding sugges- tions will, however, indicate in general the plan of feeding that will be likely to give best results in special cases. Summer vs. Winter Feeding.—By far the greater proportion of the pigs in this country are fitted for the market in the summer and early fall, and depend on the summer pasturage, supplemented by grain, for cheap and rapid gains. Hogs fattened during winter, as a rule, require somewhat more feed for making a certain gain in weight than during the summer, at least in the North. No exact information in regard to this point is available for this country, but records obtained in Danish pig-feeding trials with about 2500 summer- and winter-fed pigs have a direct bearing on this question. The following summary table 2? shows the amount of feed eaten, reduced to a grain equivalent according to the feed-unit system, and the feed requirements per 100 pounds gain in weight and for each of three groups of pigs—35 to 75 pounds, 75 to 115 pounds, and 115 to 155 pounds—with averages: Feed Required to Fatten Danish Pigs in Winter and in Summer Grain equivalent Grain equivalent- per day per head, for 100 pounds gain, Weight pounds pounds Winter Summer Winter Summer 35 to 75 pounds............... 2.66 2.65 371 346 75 to 115 pounds............... 3.96 3.92 446 397 115 to 155 pounds............... 5.26 5.25 516 457 AVETARGs Siiacces csnnt wea he acees 3.96 3.94 444 400 While the pigs ate practically the same amounts of feed in summer and winter, it required 400 pounds to make 100 pounds of gain in summer, against 444 pounds in winter, an increase of 11 per cent. The larger feed requirements in winter are explained by the fact that more body heat is lost by radiation on account of the lower air temperature. The same result was obtained in comparing the feed required by pigs weighing about 70 pounds each, kept in a well- built piggery and in individual hog-houses (Fig. 83), at the Ottawa station.2* The trial was conducted during 60 days in winter time. * Copenhagen Station Report 30, 1895; Exp. Sta. Record 7, p. 246. 7° Report, 1904, 314 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS In the open winter quarters the pigs ate 526 pounds grain per 100 pounds gain, against 366 pounds for those in the piggery, a differ- ence of 44 per cent in favor of the latter quarters. Brood sows in similar colony houses required only 25 per cent more, a figure which corresponds closely to that obtained in trials at the Kansas Agri- cultural College ** (Fig. 84). Feeding for Bacon Production.—Bacon hogs are kept only to a relatively small extent in the United States, but the raising of such hogs and the production of a high quality of bacon are important special industries in Canada and northern Europe, es- pecially in Ireland and Denmark. The bacon found on the market Fic. 86.—A convenient self-feeder for supplying charcoal and mineral matter to pigs on pasture. (Breeders’ Gazette.) in this country is largely the sides of lard hogs and has an inferior grade of meat. The special breeds of bacon hogs are best adapted to the production of good bacon, having a larger body and legs, less thickness and depth of body, and being lighter in shoulder, neck and jowl. There is less accumulation of fat and more lean and firm meat than on the lard hog. While the latter hog is essentially a product of corn, the bacon hog is produced where dairy products, small grains, and leguminous feeds are readily available; hence we find some hogs of this type in eastern and northern States where favorable feeding conditions exist for bacon production, and there is apparently an increasing home demand for ‘all bacon that is produced in this country. Bacon hogs are marketed at about 200 * Report Prof. Agr., 1883, FEEDING SWINE 315 pounds live weight; they should be only moderately fat, and a firm quality of fat is essential in a first-grade article. Soft bacon is a serious defect and is produced by a variety of causes. These have been summarized as follows by Day: *° “1. Lack of Maturity—Generally speaking, the more immature a hog is, the greater the tendency to be soft. Almo:t invariably the largest per- centage of softness occurs among the light sides of bacon. ; “2. Lack of Finish.—Thin hogs have a marked tendency to produce soft bacon. Marketing hogs before they are finished is, no doubt, responsible for a great deal of softness. * 3. Unthriftiness in hogs, no matter what the cause may be, almost in- variably produces soft bacon, “4. Lack of ewercise has a tendency to produce softness, but this ten- dency can be largely overcome by judicious feeding. é “5. Baclusive meal feeding is, perhaps, one of the most common causes of softness, especially when hogs are not given exercise. Some kinds of meal are more injurious than others, but wherever exclusive meal feeding is practised and the exercise is limited, more or less softness is always sure to result. 6. Corn.—Of the grains in common use, corn has the greatest tendency to produce softuess. lts injurious tendency can be modified by mixing it largely with other meal or by feeding skim milk, green feed, and roots, but its tendency to produce softness is so strong that it must be regarded as an undesirable food for bacon hogs... . _ “7, Beans seem to have more marked effect than corn in producing soft- ness, and should not be used for finishing bacon hogs.” Barley and skim milk make the best combination for bacon pro- duction, and may be fed in the ratio of 1 to 3 or 1 to 5. These feeds will produce large gains and a good quality of meat; other valuable feeds are peas, linseed meal, fine-ground oats and tankage. Clover, alfalfa, or rape will furnish large and satisfactory returns in summer with barley, shorts, and a small amount of skim milk, Winter feed- ing is also practised where roots are available—either mangels or sugar beets; they should be supplemented by skim milk and barley or wheat, with some linseed meal or tankage. QUESTIONS . How do pigs rank in relation to other farm animals as producers of human food? . Give the average birth weight of pigs. State the average amount of feed eaten daily by pigs of different weights and the feed per 100 pounds gain for pigs of different live weights. . What, if any, is the advantage of grinding, cooking and soaking feed for swine? . Describe the use of Indian corn in swine feeding. . How can swine be fed for fat and for lean? . Discuss briefly the value of dairy products and of pasture for swine feeding. ; Noo p~p» wp 29 «* Productive Swine Husbandry,” p. 134. 316 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 8. Give briefly the method of feeding fattening swine in different parts of the country. 9. What is the difference in feed requirements per 100 pounds gain of swine in summer and in winter? 10. Give Dietrich’s maintenance requirement of digestible protein and energy value for breeding pigs, and outline the method of feeding recommended by him, 11. Describe the method of feeding swine for bacon production. 12. What feeds are especially adapted for this purpose? Literature_on Swine. —Day, “ Productive Swine Husbandry,” Phila- delphi 1913. Lovejoy, ‘“‘ Forty Years’ Experience as a Practical Hog Man,” Springfield, Ill., 1914. Dietrich, “ Swine,” Chicago, 1910. Coburn, “ Swine Husbandry,” New York, 1888. Dawson, “ The Hog Book,” Chicago, 1911. Spencer, “ Pigs, Breeds and Management,” London, 1902. Tracy, “Hog Raising in the South,” U. S. Farmers’ Bulletin 100, 1899. Rommel, “ Pig Management,” Farmers’ Bulletin 205, 1908. Gray, “ Feeding Hogs in the South,” Farmers’ Bulletin 411, 1910. Warren, “ Hog Houses,” Farmers’ Bulletin 438, 1911. Hunter, “ Pastures and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest,’ Farmers’ Bulletin 68. Experiment Station Publications on Swine Feeding—Ala., b. 82, 93, 122, 143; Ark., b. 41, 54, 84; Col., b. 47, 74, 146, 165, 188; Conn. (Storrs), b. 31, 39; Fla., b. 113; Ga., b. 87; Idaho, b. 74; TL, b. 16, 97, 163; ¢. 126, 133, 153; Ind., b. 79-82, 90, 108, 126, 158; Iowa, b. 2, 48, 91, 106, 113, 143, 136, ext. b. 15; Kan., b. 53, 61, 95, 124, 136, 192; Ky., b. 101; Mass., r. ’84, °97, °99; Me., r. 89; Md., b. 141, 150; Mich., b. 233, 243; Minn., b. 104; Miss., r. 705; Mo., b. 14, 29, 67, 79, 110; Col., b. 1; ¢. 55; Mont., b. 27, 57, 89; Neb., b. 94, 99, 107, 121, 123, 124; press b. 20; N. H., b. 113; N. M., b. 90; N.C., ce. 5; N. Y. (Cornell), b. 89, 199, 220; Ohio, b. 209, 268; r. ’84; ¢. 73; Okla., r. 799-00, p. 48; Ore., c. b. 18, 54, 80, 89, 102; Pa., b. 95; R. 1, b. 152; S. Dak., b. 38, 52, 55, 63, 83, 90, 105, 136; Utah, b. 34, 70, 101, 94, r. 91; Vt, r. 91; Va., b. 167, 176; Wash., pop. b. 63; W. Va., b. 59; Wis., b. 104, 144; r. 785, 789, 790, 791, 794, 795, ’02, ’05, °06; Wyo., b. 74, 96; Ont., r. °96, ’97, 99, 701, 05; Ottawa, b. 33, 51, 57; r. 791, 794, 701, ’02, °04, ’08. CHAPTER XXVI FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS Feeding Standards for Sheep.—The three following tables give the established feeding standards for sheep of different types and ages: The Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Sheep, per 1000 Pounds Live Weight Daily I Digestible Age. | weight, | matte | c N.R 4 wel, ’ atter, = RK moe pounds pounds | Protein hae and fat* 1. Growing sheep: ; 4-6 60 25 3.4 17.0 1:5.0 6-8 75 25 2.8 15.2 1:5.4 Wool breeds..... 4| 8-11 85 23 2.1 12.6 | 1:6.0 : 11-15 90 22 1.8 12.1 1:7.0 15-20 100 22 *1.5 11.5 1:7.7 4-6 65 26 4.4 17.5 1; 4.0 6-8 85 26 3.5 16.6 1:48 Mutton breeds...{| 8-11 100 24 3.0 15.4 1: 5.2 11-15 120 23 2.2 13.7 1:6.3 15-20 150 22 2.0 12.9 1:6.5 2. Sheep, coarse wool.................. 20 1.2 11.0 1:9.1 Sheep, fine wool.................... 23 1.5 12.7 1:8.5 3. Ewes, suckling lambs........... tedea| 25 2.9 16.1 1: 5.6 4. Fattening sheep, first period.......... 30 3.0t | 16.1 1: 5.4 Fattening sheep, second period....... 28 3.5¢ | 15.9 1:4.5 * Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. +t Doubtless too high, making N. R. too narrow. The Armsby Standards for Sheep, Maintenance Requirements, per Day and Head Live Digestible | Energy Live Digestible | Energy weight, protein, value, weight, protein, value, pounds pounds therms pounds pounds therms 20 23 30 100 10 1.00 40 05 54 120 Al 1.13 60 .07 71 140 13 1.25 80 .09 87 317 318 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS Growing Sheep, Estimated Requirements (Including Maintenance Requirements) per Head Daily ’ Weight, Digestible | Energy months | pounds | Protein, | value, 6 70 0.30 1.30 9 90 25 1.40 12 110 23 1.40 15 130 .23 1.50 18 145 22 1.60 Types of Sheep.—Sheep are kept for two more or less distinct purposes: For production of wool and for meat production. Accord- ing to the particular breed kept, emphasis is laid on one or the other .of these purposes. We have representatives of both kinds of sheep in this country (Figs. 87, 88, and 89) : The range sheep, which are primarily wool producers, and the general farm sheep, “ which should be considered, first of all, a producer of mutton and handled so that it will yield the chief source of income through its mutton lambs.” The range areas devoted to sheep raising, like those used for cattle raising, are gradually diminishing with the settlement of western lands by the farmer, but they still furnish our main supply of sheep. The numbers of sheep on farms or ranges in this country have diminished with each decade from 1880 to 1910, while our population increased over 80 per cent during the same period, from 50,000,000 people in 1880 to 92,000,000 in 1910. There has also been a gradual decrease in sheep kept on farms in the eastern and northern States. Sheep raising in these States and on western farms, on land adapted to the production of early lambs and fatten- ing of mature sheep, seems likely, however, to be of increasing im- portance in the future, as the demand for good mutton increases and prices advance, as they are bound to do, with our rapidly- increasing population and the decreasing ratio of farm animals to population. The primary conditions for success with sheep, as with other farm animals, lie, first, in keeping animals that are adapted for the purpose in view, preferably pure-breds, or sired by a pure-bred ram; and, second, the feeding and caring for these so as to obtain the best results possible under the special conditions surrounding each flock. Sheep are primarily grazing animals ; they serve a special purpose on the farm by being able to utilize feed that is not adapted to, or cannot be. used by, other classes of farm animals; stubble fields, volunteer growth, pasturage and, especially, aftermath that is too 319 FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS ‘ . Fia. 87.—Pure-bred flock of mutton sheep at the Morgan Horse Farm, Middlebury, Vermont. (U.S. Department of Agriculture.) 320 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS scant to make it worth while to pasture cattle or horses thereon, will often furnish abundant feed for sheep. Their ability to keep weeds in check on farm lands is also important. According to Craig,’ cattle and horses eat about 50 per cent of the numerous plants regarded as weeds, while the proportion eaten by sheep is over 90 per cent. A single sheep does not destroy a whole plant at one time, Fie. 88.—A fine bunch of yearling rams. (Breeders’ Gazette.) Fic. 89.—A good type of mutton sheep. (Pacific Rural Press.) but, moving as they graze, each sheep nibbles a few leaves in passing, and when the flock has passed the plant is defoliated. Sheep are, therefore, economical feeders if need be, but they also respond better than the larger farm animals to intensive feeding, and will give quicker returns for the investment for stock and equipment than the larger ones. A daily gain in weight of a quarter of a pound to one-half pound is not excessive for sheep weighing 100 pounds, while a 1000 pound steer will not be likely to gain more than 1“ Sheep Farming,” p. 7. FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 321 two pounds daily on approximately the same feed as eaten by ten sheep. Sheep are ruminants and consume considerable quantities of rough feed ; they, therefore, need smaller proportions of expen- sive grain feed than do swine. For these and other reasons the further development of the American sheep industry is a matter of great economic importance, especially in view of the decreasing ratio of meat-producing animals to our population, which is likely to continue with the rapid extension of the manufacturing industries in this country. Wool Production.—In feeding sheep, whether of the wool or mutton type, a growth of both wool and body tissue takes place. If only sufficient feed is given to maintain the sheep at an even body weight, the growth of wool is diminished, but does not stop entirely. When liberal fattening rations are fed, on the other hand, a normal growth'of wool results; this cannot be further increased by feeding heavier rations, so far as the wool fiber is concerned, but the weight of fleece obtained may be increased on account of the larger percentage of wool grease found therein. Wool is composed chiefly of the protein substance keratin, containing 4 to 5 per cent sulfur, in addition to the usual components of protein, -carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (p. 22). Since the pro- duction of wool is a necessary accompaniment of sheep feeding, whether it is the main object sought or not, it follows that rations fed to sheep should contain considerable protein and have relatively narrow nutritive ratios, especially in the case of growing animals. We find, therefore, that the feeding standards call for a large amount of protein for growing sheep and breeding ewes. Fattening Sheep.—Mature fattening sheep do’ not, however, re- quire more protein in their feed than the same class of steers, since there is very litile new formation of tissue in the case of these animals, the increase during the fattening period being made up largely of fat. This is shown by the analyses of sheep at different stages of fattening which were made by Lawes and Gilbert, of Rothamsted Experiment Station, about the middle of the last cen- tury. The composition.of the increase from store to fattened con- dition, and from fat to very fat condition, is given below: Composition of Increase of Fattening Sheep, in Per Cent weer a Ash Protein Fat Increase from store to fat condition.| 78.0 2.12 7.16 68.8 Increasefromfattoveryfatcondition | 81.8 3.12 7.75 70.9 21 322 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By comparing the figures given in the table with the correspond- ing data for fattening mature steers, it will be seen that sheep build ‘up more fat and less protein (lean meat) during the fattening process than do steers, and the increase in weight consists of more dry substance than in case of these animals (p. 257). Results obtained by Henneberg and Kern with three mature wethers slaughtered at different stages of the fattening period illustrate the changes that occur in the composition of the carcass of sheep during fattening. One wether was slaughtered and the carcass analyzed at the beginning of the trial, when in a lean con- dition ; another after 70 days of fattening, when half fat, and the third one at the end of 203 days of fattening, when extra fat. The table shows the contents of lean meat and fat in the case of three wethers : Effect of Fattening on the Carcasses of Mature Sheep Lean Fat, posnis | Pounds Lean wether............... 26.2 11.9 Half-fat wether............ 25.9 33.2 Extra fat wether........... 26.7 41.9 We note that there was no material change in the content of lean meat in the three animals, but the per cent of fat in the carcass increased from about 12 to 42 per cent during the fattening process, assuming that the three wethers had a similar composition at the beginning of the trials. This increase in the per cent of fat was accompanied by a decrease in the water content of the carcass during the fattening, as has been previously shown. Weight of Lambs at Birth.—Lambs will weigh from six to ten pounds at birth, according to the size of the ewes and the breed. The average weight of single lambs of several breeds reported by Humphrey and Kleinheinz from records obtained with the Wis- consin station flock * was 9.5 pounds; of twins, 8.0 pounds; and of triplets, 6.8 pounds. The figures for the main breeds were, on the average, for Montana range sheep, Shropshire, and Southdowns be- tween 7 and 8 pounds; for Oxford and Cheviots between 8 and 9 pounds, and for Hampshire and Downs between 9 and 10 pounds. Ram lambs average about one-half pound heavier at birth than ewe lambs. 2 J. f. Landw., 26, p. 549. 2 Report 1907. FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 323 Feeding Ewes.— Where individual attention can be given to the breeding ewes, as in the case of mutton breeds, it is desirable to secure as many twin lambs as possible, while under western range conditions one lamb to each ewe has been found to give the best results. If the ewes are in a vigorous, well-nourished condition “ when mated, they are more sure to breed and will give birth to more twins and triplets than when in a thin, run-down condition; hence the practice of “ flushing” ewes has become common among breeders of mutton sheep; i.e., these are fed heavily for two or three weeks prior to breeding time by supplying plenty of easily digestible feed, like rape, cabbage, or grain, in addition to pasturage or dry roughage. Breeding ewes in good condition do not need much grain during the winter; one-half pound of a mixture of oats and wheat bran (3 to 1 by weight) per head daily for ewes weighing about 150 pounds is sufficient, with a couple of pounds of good dry roughage, like legume hay, oat hay, nice fodder corn, etc., and two to three pounds of succulent feeds, either silage or roots. Silage from nearly-matured corn, containing not too many ears, may be fed to advantage to pregnant ewes, but moldy, spoiled, or very acid silage must not be fed, nor frozen roots or silage. More silage may be fed after lambing, when feeds favoring the milk secretion arc especially valuable. To avoid milk fever, but little grain is fed for a few days after lambing. After this period, when the danger of milk fever is passed, the ewes may be gradually brought over to a full grain allowance. Dry roughage and succulent feeds may be fed safely both before and after lambing. Ewes’ milk contains, on the average, about 7 per cent of fat, but great variations occur in the composition of milk, both in case of ewes of different breeds and of ewes of the same breed. Konig gives 2.16 and 12.78 per cent as the extremes of the per cent of fat in ewes’ milk according to European analyses. At the Wisconsin station the milk from 14 ewes of six different breeds contained 12.2 per cent solids and 7.1 per cent fat on the average; the average daily milk yield from these ewes was 2.8 pounds.* Feeding the Ram.—The ram must be kept in a vigorous, thrifty condition in order to give good service. No grain is necessary while on pasture, except a little for about a month prior to the breeding season. Fattening feeds should be avoided ; a common grain mixture consisting of oats and bran (2 to 1 by weight) can be fed in connec- tion with a good quality of hay. Clean, pure water and salt must be supplied as in the case of all sheep. ‘Report 1904. 324 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS Feeding Lambs.—The dam’s milk generally forms the sole feed of lambs during the first two or three weeks of their lives ; about this time they begin to nibble a little grain or hay, and should have access to both thereafter. A lamb creep should be provided where the ewes cannot eat the feed intended for the lambs; the creep or pen may be built at one side or corner of the barn with two boards, 1 x 6 inches, of the desired length, to which are nailed vertical strips, 1x 4 inches wide and 3 feet long. The slats are placed far enough apart to let the lambs slip through. A low, flatbottom trough is placed within the space set apart for the lambs on which the grain is fed, like ground oats, bran, cracked corn, a little linseed meal, etc.® Pure water should be supplied regularly. A creep should also be provided for the lambs as the ewes and lambs are let on to the pasture in the spring, where they may find their grain feed. This, in addition to the dam’s milk and pasture, will enable them to make a rapid and healthy growth. The ewes will not, however, need any grain when on good pasture. In experiments at’ the Wisconsin station ° it was found that lambs fed grain up to ten months old reached a given weight four to seven weeks sooner than when no grain was fed before weaning time, and the lambs were ready for the market at any time during this period, so that advantage might be taken of favorable market conditions. In experiments with dif- ferent grain feeds for unweaned Shropshire lambs for periods averaging ten weeks 0.3 to 0.4 pound of grain was eaten daily, with resulting average gains of about one-half pound per head daily. The following amounts of different grain feeds were re- quired per 100 pounds of gain in body weight: Wheat bran, 71 pounds; corn meal (4 trials), 74 pounds; whole oats, 78 pounds; and cracked peas, 81 pounds. Unweaned lambs that go into the breeding flock should receive feeds like oats and peas, wheat or bran, while corn is preferable for lambs intended for the butcher, as it tends to produce a fat carcass. Stomach worms are a common sheep disease east of the Mississippi, especially in lambs, and are a serious drawback to American sheep raising. The eggs of the worms are distributed over the pasture in the droppings of the sheep, where they soon hatch and are taken into the system of the sheep while grazing. Old infested pastures, especially blue-grass, are to be avoided’ in feeding sheep, and these are changed to clean, fresh pasture every two or three weeks, if possible, during the summer months. Rape pasture and other annual crops will prove of great value where the permanent pastures have become infested with worms. Where sheep are suffering from stomach worms, either of the following remedies may be resorted to: Gasoline, ° Kleinheinz, “ Sheep Management,” p. 65, ® Reports 1896 and 1903, FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 325 turpentine, or benzine. The dose for lambs is 5 ounces of cows’ milk, 1 tablespoonful each of gasoline and raw linseed oil, well mixed and given in a drenching bottle; for older sheep, 114 tablespoonfuls gasoline are given in the mixture. The general rules in regard to feeding sheep are similar to those for feeding other classes of farm animals. Regularity of feeding is all-important, as are cleanliness, gentle treatment, patience, and exercise of good judgment on the part of the feeder. Ss Feeding Fattening Sheep.—The production of fat mutton sheep is of increasing importance in this country, and the industry is capable of still further development, as the quality of the mutton is improved by'the feeding of special mutton sheep, and more people learn to appreciate tender, juicy mutton. As with other farm ani- mals, the largest and quickest returns are made by fattening young lambs. The influence of age and the results obtained in fattening sheep are illustrated by feeding trials with range sheep conducted at the Montana station.’ Four lots of lambs, one- and two-year-old wethers and aged ewes,.about 55 in each lot, were fed on rations consisting of clover hay and whole barley for a period of 88 days. The main results obtained are shown in the following table: Fatiening Range Sheep of Different Ages . Two-year- Yearling Aged Lambs old wethers | wethers ewes Average weight at beginning, pounds..... §3 95 116 92 Average daily gain, pounds.............. 27 27 28 18 Average ration: Clover hay, pounds..... 2.1 3.8 4.1 2.3 Barley, pounds......... 68 68 68 68 Feed for 100 pounds gain: Clover hay....| 763 1413 1469 1320 arley........ 253 256 248 387 Digestible feed per pound increase........ _ 10.2 16.6 17.1 17.5 Per cent dromed alg tama Reui ievanteonfeNSaeae ee 54.2 52.9 53.6 50.6 The lambs made the most rapid and economical gains of the four lots. The amount of feed required for maintenance and in- crease in weight was smaller and the average percentage dressed weight was higher for this lot than for the older sheep. Clean, fresh drinking water should always be provided. The amount which sheep will take will vary with the character of the rations fed and the weather, from less than one quart per head when on succulent feed to five quarts or more when on dry feed only. Sheep fed dry roughage and concentrates crave salt, and even when on pasture it should be supplied regularly in order that they may 7 Bulletin 35; also Bulletins 47 and 59. 326 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS do well. Salt furnishes the chlorin required for the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and has also other important functions in the digestion of food (p. 24). Hot-house Lambs.—The most extreme method of fattening sheep is that of producing so-called hot-house lambs (Fig. 90). The term “ hot-house ” applies to lambs born in the late fall or early winter, which are fattened during the winter months and marketed in the early spring. The quarters in which the lambs are fed are not artificially heated, the name having reference to the fact that the lambs are produced under artificial conditions for a market willing to pay a very high price for a fancy article, in a similar way Fra. 90.—Grade Dorset lambs from Merino ewes make excellent hot-house lambs. (Peterson.) as in the case of ordinary hot-house products. The lambs must be in fat condition to sell as hot-house lambs. Dorsets or Dorset grades are best suited for lamb production, as the ewes will breed earlier than the usual time, viz., during the early summer, and the lambs will be dropped during October and November. The mother’s milk is the best feed available, and ewes must be fed liberally on milk-producing feeds so as to give a maximum flow of milk. The ewes’ milk is supplemented by grain feeds as the lambs grow older. The following grain mixtures were found to give good results in trials with hot-house lambs at Cornell station: § * Bulletin 309, which see for description of the method of management of a hot-house lamb producing flock throughout the year, FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 327 (1) 50 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds wheat middlings, and 5 pounds oil meal, (2) 25 pounds wheat bran, 25 pounds wheat middlings, 25 pounds hominy meal, 8 pounds linseed meal. The lambs are fed grain in a separate pen (creep), as pre- viously explained. Rightly handled, hot-house lambs will make a sufficiently rapid growth to be ready for the market in ten to twelve weeks from birth. They will gain at least one-half pound each daily during this period, and will reach a weight of about 50 pounds at slaughtering time. These lambs are generally marketed before March, as the prices in the East, where they are mostly produced, as a rule go down after this time. Early Spring Lambs. —Fattening early spring lambs has be- come an important industry in the South. By the use of Bermuda grass, bur clover, and Japan clover, permanent’ pasture may be available in this section ten months of the year, and temporary winter pasture may be resorted to the remaining two months, thus giving both ewes and lambs the advantage of pasturage during practically the entire year; the lambs may be fed grain separately and marketed during April to June, when good prices prevail.? In many cases the ewes are fed nothing but cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls, the daily feed being .5 pound meal and 1.3 pounds hulls; another cheap southern feed is soybean hay. Fall Lambs.—Fattening lambs are often carried until fall on pasturage, with a slight feed of grain, say one-half pound per head daily, and are sold at about eight months old, when they will weigh in the neighborhood of 100 pounds. Rape sown in the corn or on ground set apart especially for this crop will- furnish excellent supplemental feed for such lambs, as well as for fattening sheep in general, If rape is grown by itself, it is either sown broadcast or in drills 30 inches apart, the advantage of the latter method being that a larger yield of green forage will be secured, and that the field can be kept free from weeds (p. 138). Movable hurdles are generally used where rape is pastured off by sheep or swine. Winter Lambs.—Another method is to fatten the lambs during the winter season. This is the common method practised in regions where lambs are fattened for market. In the Hast the lambs are generally kept in rectangular feeding pens with hay racks and grain troughs provided with vertical slats, making an opening for each lamb. They are put on full feed in about three weeks and ® Alabama Bulletin 148; Missouri Circular 25; Tennessee Bulletin 84. 328 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS fed grain until in the right condition for market. Water and salt are supplied in each pen. In the corn belt the common method is to feed the lambs an abundance of good hay and to bring them slowly on to full grain ration, beginning with one-fourth pound per head daily and gradu- Fia. 91.—Range sheep in feed yards at Caldwell, Nevada. (Iddings.) Fic. 92.—A flock of sheep on a western range. (Pacific Rural Press.) ally increasing this to one pound per head daily in about three weeks, after which time they get all the grain they will clean up at each feeding; less hay is eaten as the lambs get on full grain feed. Lambs thus fed should make a gain of 25 to 30 pounds in 100 days, when they will be ready for market. There is considerable variation in the choice of grain mixtures and other feeds. Corn FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 329 with wheat bran, oats, or linseed meal fed in varying proportions, according to the character of the available roughage and the market prices of the feeds, makes up the majority of the rations fed; other feeds are cotton-seed meal, soybeans, peas, and, of rough feeds, roots or silage, alfalfa or clover hay, corn fodder, etc. The lambs are often fattened in two droves in the corn belt, the first one being purchased in November and fed until the end of January, when the second lot is purchased and fattened by the first of May. In the western States extensive lamb and sheep feeding opera- tions are carried on each year (Figs. 91, 92, 93, 94). The sheep are usually separated into flocks of about 500 each and fed in lots Fig. 93.—Lamb-feeding corrals in Idaho. (Iddings.) arranged in rows with feeding lanes between. No shelter is pro- vided except what may be furnished by a hay or straw stack. The sheep are brought from the high summer ranges to these feeding points where alfalfa hay is available, and are fed all the hay they will eat until they are shipped. If grain is fed, they are given three-fourths to one pound daily per head, generally Indian corn, or barley or wheat in the far western States. Experiments at the New Mexico station?® show that by an addition of corn to alfalfa hay an improved quality of mutton was obtained and the feeding period was shortened. The general conclusion drawn is that, with Bulletin 79. 330 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS alfalfa alone,1! it requires about 110 to 120 days to fit the lambs for the local market; with light grain ration (one-fourth pound per head per day), 100 to 110 days; with medium grain ration (one-half pound), 90 to 100 days, and with heavy grain ration (1 pound), 70 to 80 days. The gains were as great (but not as rapid) with one-fourth pound of corn per head daily as with one- half pound. The cost of the gain increased, however, with an in- crease in the grain ration. Other prominent feeds used for fatten- ing sheep in the West besides alfalfa are beet pulp and field peas (pp. 121 and 194). Western sheep men calculate that the wool pays the cost of the sheep feeding, and the mutton and lambs represent the profit of the Fic. 94.—Winter scene of range sheep in the Nevada mountains. (Doten.) business. Large numbers of wethers are shipped Hast every year from these States, especially to Chicago, and either go directly on the market, if sufficiently fat, or are fed at some feeding station near the market until they are in prime condition or can be dis- posed of to good advantage. While at these stations they are fed hay, corn, and, generally, grain screenings, at least in past years. Value of Various Grain Feeds for Fattening Lambs.—The following table shows the results of a large number of trials with various grains for fattening lambs, which will be of interest in this connection. In the last column of the table the number of feed units required per 100 pounds gain are given, assuming 214 pounds " Farmers’ Bulletin 504, p. 9. FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS ! 331 hay, 1.1 pounds oats or emmer, and 1 pound corn, wheat, barley, or screenings, to equal one feed unit; 2 pounds hay (alfalfa) in the western trials were assumed to be equal to one feed unit. Feeding Various Grains to Fattening Lambs * Num- | Average ration |} Aver- | Feed per 100 | Num- Concentrate ber of | ————— || Fe? peEnes gaan ber of trials | Grain | Ha pend : feed v gain | Grain | Hay | units Indian corn f.......0.60. 000s 4 1.4 1.0 29 506 350 646 Indian corn }.......... rec asbianard 4 13 5 31 429 478 668 Wheat, whole............... 5 1.2 1.4 25 475 583 708 Oats, wholes ccs cena we cave « 3 1.0 1.7 24 423 744 683 Barley, whole........06.0005 5 11 1.9 30 390 639 646 Emme r, whole............64- 4 1.3 1.8 25 537 691 764 Wheat screenings, whole...... 4 1.3 1.4 26 488 567 715 -* Condensed from summary tables in Henry’s ‘‘ Feeds and Feeding.” f Eastern stations. t Western stations. We note that there was but little difference in the nutritive effect of the corn and barley, the average daily gains made by the lambs on these grains being 0.3 pound; the other grains produced a gain of about one-fourth pound per head daily. Considering the feed requirements for the production of 100 pounds of gain, there were only slight differences between corn, barley, and oats, while whole wheat, screenings, and emmer gave the lowest returns per 100 pounds feed units. Self-feeders similar to those used in the case of self-fed steers are employed by some sheep farmers in feeding fattening lambs, a supply of grain feeds sufficient for about a week or less being placed in the feeder. The lambs are able to take all the grain they want as it comes out at the bottom of the feed trough. As in the case of steer feeding, the experience of farmers with self-fed sheep has been both favorable and unfavorable, although the evidence seems, on the whole, more unfavorable than with self-fed steers. According to results obtained at the Michigan station,’* “ Fatten- ing lambs by means of a self-feeder is an expensive practice, and economy of production requires more attention to the variation in the appetites of the animals than can be given by this method.” J. E. Wing, a noted authority, states? that not only is the death- rate much heavier where self-feeders are used, but the cost of gain is also much greater. It is evident, therefore, that the use of self- feeders for sheep cannot be recommended, except under conditions 2 Bulletin 128, “Sheep Farming in America”; see also Michigan Bulletin 113, Minnesota Bulletin 144, Colorado Bulletin 151. 332 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS where large numbers of sheep are fed, and where labor is scarce and high. Rations for Fattening Sheep.—The rations given below will show the kinds and amounts of different feeding stuffs that may be fed to fattening lambs weighing 80 to 100 pounds: 1. 2 pounds clover hay, 1 pound wheat bran, 114 pounds corn. 2. 114 pounds hay, 114 pounds roots, 114 pounds oats and wheat bran, equal weights. 3. 1144 pounds clover hay, 1 pound roots, 1 pound corn, ¥% pound wheat bran. 4, 3 pounds alfalfa hay, 24 pound corn. Fic. 95.—A flock of Angora goats in the California foothills. These goats will keep down underbrush; they furnish mohair fiber used in the manufacture of plush and other fabrics. 5. 1 pound each cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed meal. 6. 11% pounds clover hay, 1 pound corn, 4 pound wheat bran, Y% pound gluten feed. 7. 2 pounds alfalfa hay, 2 pounds ground corn and oats. 8. 2 pounds clover hay, 114 pounds soybeans, 14 pound wheat bran. Feeding Goats.—Goat raising is of importance as an industry in only four or five States in the Union, viz., in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oregon, and California (Fig. 95). In 1910 there were nearly three million goats and kids in the United States, of which over a million were in Texas and about one-half million in New Mexico. Nearly three-quarters of the number of goats in the country were found within the borders of the five States mentioned. FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 333 The number of goats in other States is very small, and it is safe to say that the goats kept in them do not often receive any special attention as to feed or care; they are, as a rule, kept in very small flocks and are left to browse and find their feed along the roadside, on vacant town lots, and in waste places. As in the case of sheep, there are two distinct types of goats: One kept on account of their fleece, and the other type for milk production. - The former, which are by far the more numerous in this country, are represented by the Angora goat, whose fleece fur- nishes the mohair fiber; the latter by imported milch breeds, espe- r at " ssa SER ASE a eee - : 1 | Fia. 96.—An imported Swiss milch goat. (Toggenburg.) These goats will produce over 1000 pounds of milk per year, or about one-fourth as much as an ordinary dairy cow. (Peterson.) cially Swiss milch goats. Angoras in the far western States and in the north central States serve a useful purpose in keeping down the underbrush; in California and other western States they are used for keeping the fire lines in the forest reserves open and free from underbrush. The goats greatly relish the fresh leaves and buds and tender twigs of bushes and deciduous trees, and keep in good, healthy condition on this feed with what pasturage they may find. Grain is only fed when they are fattened for slaughtering. Milch Goats.—While the Angora goats will do well on brush- wood alone, the milch goats require a more varied feed to give milk of good quality and flavor and to produce milk during a full lacta- tion period (Fig. 96). Goats’ milk contains about 4.8 per cent 334 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS butter fat, on the average (p. 206). A common doe will give a couple of pounds of milk a day for five or six months, while a good milch goat will yield three to four times this amount and con- tinue to produce milk from eight to ten months. Goats are easy keepers, they require but little care and attention, and are economi- cal milk producers. They are often spoken of as “the poor man’s cow,” on account of their low cost of keep and because they are generally kept by people who cannot afford to buy a cow; three or four milch goats will produce as much milk as a good cow; on the other hand, it is stated on good authority that eight goats can subsist and yield a good flow of milk upon the amount of feed that is required for one cow.’ Milch goats should receive a supply of good hay, preferably leguminous, such as clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, etc., throughout the year. Fine, bright corn fodder, straw, or other dry feed may also be given in amounts of two to four pounds per head daily, when they are not on grass. Good vegetable kitchen refuse may often be fed to advantage. Oats, barley, and wheat bran are excellent grain feeds for goats, one-half to one pound per head being the average daily allowance. These may be fed separately or equal weights of cach mixture. A little linseed meal, two to three ounces a day per head, makes a valuable addition to the ration ; somewhat heavier grain feeding, viz., up to one and one-half or even two pounds per head daily, will pay well during the early part of the lactation, in the case of milch goats of exceptional productive capacity. Pure water and salt should be supplied regularly, as in the case of sheep. QUESTIONS - Name the two types of sheep kept in this country, and give the sections where each type is mainly kept. . Give several reasons why it is desirable to keep sheep on most farms. . How is the production of wool influenced by the method of feeding practised ? Give the average weight of lambs at birth. . Discuss briefly the method of feeding (a) rams, (b) ewes, (¢c) lambs. . State the methods followed in fattening (a) hot-house lambs, (b) early spring lambs, (c) fall lambs, (d) winter lambs. Give the principal methods adopted in fattening western sheep, . State the value of the self-feeder in fattening sheep. . Name the two types of goats kept in this country, and state in what section each one is most important. 10. Give the method of feeding goats generally found in your locality. 11. What relation have goats to forestry work in this country? 12. How much milk will an average milch goat produce in a year, and what is the quality of the milk compared with cows’ milk? 13. Why is the goat called “ the poor man’s cow ”? * Thompson, “ Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats,” p. 200. i QAR wr © 0 sy FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 335 Literature on Sheep and Goats.—Craig, “ Sheep Farming,” New York, 1913. Kleinheinz, “Sheep Management,” Madison, Wis., 1912. Powers, “The American Merino,” New York, 1907. Doane, “Sheep Feeding and Farm Management,” Boston, 1912. Stewart, ‘“‘ The Domestic Sheep,” Chicago, 1900. Wing, “ Sheep Farming in America,” Chicago. Miller and Wing, “The Winter Lamb,” Mechanicsburg, Ohio, 1907. Shaw, “Sheep Husbandry in Minnesota,” St, Paul, Minn., 1901. ‘‘ Shepherd Boy,” “ Modern Sheep, Breeds and Management,” Chicago, 1907. Wrightson, “Sheep, Breeds and Management,” London, 1903. Shaw and Heller, “ The Management of Sheep on the Farm,” Farmers’ Bulletin 20, 1894. Craig, “ Sheep Feeding,” Farmers’ Bulletin 49, 1897. Curtiss, “ Raising Sheep for Mutton,” Farmers’ Bulletin 96, 1899. Thompson, “ Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats,” Chicago, 1903. Schreiner, “ The Angora Goat,” New York, 1898. Thompson, “ Infor- mation Concerning the Milch Goat, » Bureau Animal Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 68, 1905. Thompson and Shaw, “ The Angora Goat,” Farmers’ Bulletin 137, 1908. Heller, “The Angora Goat,” Farmers’ Bulletin 573, Experiment Station Publications.—Colo., b. 32, 52, 75, 76; Ill, b. 129, 166; c. 125; Ind., b. 147, 162; Iowa, b. 17, 18, 33, 35, 48, 63, 110; c. 6; Mich., b. 84, 107, 114, 128, 136, 178, 220; Minn., .b. 44, 57, 59, 75, 78; Mo., b. 115; Mont., b. 21, 27, 35, 39, 47, 59; Neb., b. 66, 71; N. H., c. 16; N. Y. Res Serta b, 809; Ohio, b. 179, 187; Okla., b. 78; S. D., b. 71, 86; Utah, b. 78, 90; Wis., r. ’97, ’04, ’05; b. 32, 41, 58; Wyo., b. 47, 51, 64, 68, 69, 73, 81; Ont. (Guelph), +. 91; Farmers’ Bulletins 49, 98, 556; U.S. Bur. An. Ind. b . 17; ce 18. CHAPTER XXVII FEEDING POULTRY By J. E. DOUGHERTY, Associate Professor of Poultry Husbandry, University of California. In order to feed poultry intelligently, we must try to analyze and fully understand the combination of causes whose effect will be an abundance of eggs, rapid growth or quick fattening. It is the common practice of some farmers to feed laying hens nothing but shelled corn and then they wonder why they do not get good results. Practically any hen will lay some eggs in the spring, which is the natural laying period. It is the hen that will lay well not only in the spring but throughout the year that returns a net profit to her owner; and_it is only by correct feeding, 1.e., the feeding of the most suitable feeds in the best proportions to produce eggs, or increase in body weight, that one can expect to obtain the most profitable results from poultry feeding. ; Productive feeding requires that one be familiar with (1) the action of the fowl’s digestive system in utilizing the feed eaten, (2) the maintenance and productive needs of fowls of different ages and fed for different purposes, such as eggs, market, growth,. (3) the nutrient qualities of the feeds fed and thejr fitness for use in any particular ration. The Digestive System.—Poultry have no teeth with which to grind or tear feed before letting it pass from the mouth into the crop. Neither can they swallow feed into a storage stomach and later regurgitate and masticate it at leisure (“chew the eud”). Poultry of all kinds must swallow what they eat just as they find it and, for this reason, can only use such grains, pieces of bone, stone, etc., as can be swallowed. Green herbage, vegetables, meat and other soft and easily torn materials can be broken apart into sufficiently small pieces with the strong muscular jaws and horny beak. Young chicks cannot eat as coarse materials as older fowls, so that grains, etc., for chick rations must be ground or cracked more finely than those intended for older fowls. After being picked up, the feed passes directly from the mouth into the crop, which is a good-sized, bag-like enlargement of the cesophagus serving the purpose of a storage stomach. It is 336 FEEDING POULTRY 337 similar in this respect to the rumen or paunch of a cow. In the crop, the feed is mixed with digestive juices which soften and prepare it for the second stomach (proventriculus). This latter Tongue apeer bill removed Esophagus Duodenum ; Small intestine Caeca Rectum Cloaca Liver Spleen Gall bladder Pancreas GIVOP RW HAQHAROO After Wheeler. Fia. 97.—The digestive tract of a fowl. organ is much smaller and more muscular than the crop and the feed is passed into it only in small portions (Fig. 97). After being acted upon by the digestive fluids of the second stomach, 22 338 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS the partially digested feed is passed on to the gizzard, an extremely powerful grinding organ having a tough and convoluted lining, where it is ground to a very fine state by means of the abrasive action of the stones or grit which the fowl swallows. Pieces of glass have been taken from the gizzard of a chicken that were rounded on the edges and worn as smooth as though ground and polished by hand, and pieces of iron have been removed that had been bent double. Such instances give an idea of the toughness of the gizzard lining and the enormous muscular power of this natural grist mill. The feed passes from the gizzard into the intestines, where the process of digestion is completed; the digested nutrients are ab- sorbed by the walls and pass into the blood, which distributes them to all parts of the body. The indigestible parts of the feed eaten, together with waste matter which is thrown off by the body and dumped into the lower intestine, are carried on into the cloaca and voided in the form of manure. In poultry the urea and all fecal matter are voided together, the whitish part of the normal drop- pings representing the urea. Feed Components.—The body of a fowl is composed of approxi- mately 44 per cent dry matter and 56 per cent water. The dry matter consists of 21.6 per cent protein, 17 per cent fat and 3.8 per cent ash. Protein is needed to furnish materials with which to build new body tissue, as feathers and muscles, and to replace the old, worn- out body tissue and feathers. The albumen of the egg also consists of proteid material so that the laying hen draws quite heavily on the protein in her feed to meet this need. Carbohydrates furnish muscular energy and heat to keep up the body temperature. The carbohydrate nutrients left after meet- ing the needs of the fowl’s body for heat and muscular energy are stored in the form of body fat or used to make up the yolk of the egg, which is largely fatty material. Fat performs exactly the same function as do the carbohydrates. It is, however, two and one quarter times more concentrated and efficient. Ash, including various salts and mineral materials, is essential to a proper functioning of every part of the fowl’s body. Among other things it helps build strong bones and rich blood; strengthens the nails and feather quills, and furnishes the material for the shell of the egg. Without mineral matter the bones would be soft and flexible and unable to support any weight. FEEDING POULTRY 339 Crude Fiber—This is the coarse, woody material in the feed; the seed coats of the different grains, the stems of clover, alfalfa, and hay and straw are high in fiber. It is only slightly digestible and has practically no nutritive value for poultry, but it is a very essential part of a ration because it adds bulk and performs the mechanical function of keeping the feed in the digestive organs loose and spongy so that the digestive fluids can easily penetrate to and act on every part. In the absence of such coarse, fibrous material, the sticky and more concentrated feeds would form a hard, muci- laginous mass in the digestive organs which the digestive juices would not readily penetrate. Digestion would be checked, un- healthy fermentation of the partially digested materials arise and indigestion follow. Fine-cut alfalfa and bran added to a mixture of flour and corn meal make a porous, crumbly, wet mash. Without the alfalfa and bran, the flour and corn meal would form a sticky, lumpy and unpalatable mass when mixed and moistened. A mod- erate amount of bulky material is always essential to a well-balanced, nourishing ration, but too much of such material is detrimental because it compels the fowl to pass through its body large amounts of useless, indigestible materials. Feeding standards have not been worked out for poultry to the extent which they have for other kinds of farm livestock. With the larger livestock, standard amounts of feed eaten per day for animals of different ages and used for different purposes have been quite accurately determined but with poultry this has yet to be done. To date the general statement to “feed all the fowls will eat up clean” and nutritive ratios for different purposes represent the extent of our standards for poultry. Undoubtedly curves of feed consumption for different types of poultry, for poultry of different ages, and for poultry used for meat or egg production will eventu- ally ‘be worked out and such curves will prove of inestimable value in more definitely guiding the inexperienced feeder than the above general statement can and in throwing greater light on pro- duction and maintenance costs. Nutritive Ratio Standards for Poultry of Different Ages Birds Nutritive Ratio Growing stock io. csckasss es aewes eo eee ae eeeet 1:3.7-4.0 Broilers and Fryers (finishing)................. 1:4.0-4.6 Laying and Breeding Stock (414-8 Ibs.)......... 1:4,.2-4.6 Laying and Breeding Stock (3-41 lbs.)......... 1:4.6 Adult stock fattened for market................ 1:5,5-6.5 Capone: sig esnata adel ovine laud malts ne ise Seeds ss 1:5.5-6.5 340 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS The foregoing applies to ducks, turkeys, etc., as well as chickens. Feeding standards are not in any way iron-bound, but they are valuable guides to the feeder in aiding him to mix rations which many years of careful feeding investigations, borne out by practical experience, have found to be most suitable to the needs of poultry. Growth.—The growing chick requires quite a large amount of protein in its feed to build the new bone, muscle and feathers which develop as growth goes on. Laying.—The laying hen, on the other hand, has stopped growing, and less protein in the ration is needed to repair the con- a es S eaemeetemnetemate. al cr Meter Fic. 98.—Farm poultry colony house, 8x10 feet, capacity 25 to 30 birds. stantly breaking-down body tissue, but for the production of eggs proteid material is required in considerable amounts for the making of albumen, so that a laying hen requires almost as narrow a ration as growing stock. Fattening.—The mature fowl that is being fattened for market should be fed a wider ration than laying or growing stock as it is being fed largely for the purpose of developing fatty tissue. Such fowls are fed only enough protein to repair body waste and supply sufficient extra protein material to lay on some new meat tissue mixed in with the fat so that the resulting carcass will be juicy and well marbled. To properly fatten, a fowl must lay on a mixture of lean-meat and fatty tissue; if lacking in fat well interspersed FEEDING POULTRY 341 with the lean, the meat will be too dry; the overfat fowl will be too greasy to be toothsome. Since broilers and fryers are allowed to get their proper growth first and are then finished off for mar- ket, they are fed a narrow growing ration until ready for the finish- ing process, when they are fed a somewhat wider ration which still contains a sufficient proportion of proteid material to allow for some additional growth. A ration for poultry may be defined as the grain mixture, mash mixture, greens, grit, oyster shell, etc., that the fowls con- sume during one day. When the birds are not given free range to wander about the farm at will but are kept in fenced-in yards or runs (Fig. 98), greater attention must be paid to the composition Fig. 99.—Free range for growing chickens (Wis. Station). The flock requires less feed, grows faster, and is more thrifty when not confined to small yards. of grain and mash mixtures and other parts of the ration because the fowls cannot then range over the fields for seeds, worms and insects, green herbage and other materials necessary to properly balance their diet. Fowls on free range (Fig. 99) get a great deal of grain from the harvest fields that would otherwise be totally lost; they pick up worms and insects that help supply the animal feed which they need in order to thrive; they secure a great deal of greens that are tender and perfectly fresh because the fowls harvest them themselves. ‘This is why fowls on free range so often do well and produce profitably when fed only a little grain by the owner. In proportion as fowls are restricted in their liberty and forced to depend upon their owner for all of their feed, must the 342 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS poultryman pay more serious attention to the fowls’ diet, in order that they get the materials they need to produce most profitably. The principal points to be considered in formulating a poultry ration may be set forth as follows: Variety.—It pays to feed a ration consisting of a well-blended mixture of a number of different feeds but it is not advisable to change the ration from day to day or week to week in order to secure such variety. Continual changing of the ration necessitates a re- adjustment of the fowl’s digestive system every time a new kind of feed is eaten. If fed a definite ration regularly, the digestive tract becomes thoroughly adjusted to the handling of that definite ration and a more economic digestion of the feed results. Variety in- creases palatability. Palatability produces a more efficient use of the feed consumed because it stimulates a more copious secretion of the digestive juices. Variety tends to reduce the cost of the ration. If at a time when wheat, barley and corn are selling for $36, $26 and $32 a ton, respectively, “A” feeds only wheat as a grain, whereas “ B ” feeds equal parts of the three, then “ A” is pay- ing $1.80 per hundred pounds for his poultry grain, whereas “ B” is only paying $1.57 per hundred. Variety makes it possible to use in the ration feeds which of themselves might be unpalatable to the fowls, although very desirable from other points of view, but which could be put into a variety ration and disguised by other very pala- table materials. Suitability—Every ration should be suitable to the purpose for which it is fed if the highest efficiency is to follow, just as in the mechanical world every piece of machinery must be exactly adapted to the work required of it to reach a high efficiency curve. The feed mixtures fed to birds that are being fattened will differ some- what from rations fed to secure rapid growth of young chicks or a full egg-basket from laying hens. To illustrate, in crate fattening best results are secured by feeding a sloppy mash ration mixed with buttermilk to such a consistency that it will run off a spoon. Set- ting hens should be fed a mixture of grains only and no mash, because they take so little exercise that an easily digested ground mash would cause them to become overfat. Ducks would suffer if they were not able to take a mouthful of feed and then rush to the water trough to wash it down. Bulk.—The ration should contain enough bulk to enable the digestive juices to easily penetrate it, but should not contain an excess which must be eliminated with a waste of energy. Grain to Mash Ratio.—All rations but quick-fattening rations, FEEDING POULTRY 343 such as are used for crate fattening, etc., should be made up of both grain and mash mixtures. The grain is needed to provide activity for the muscles of the digestive tract and to keep them in the best working condition. Ground feeds being easily digested do not furnish these muscles with sufficient work. In order to meet the needs of heavy production a part of the ration should consist of soft ground feeds which are easily digested and can rapidly supply the extra needs of heavy egg production, rapid growth and quick fattening. Digestibility—The more thoroughly digestible a feed is, the more effective it is. Hay and grains with heavy seed coats are not, Fia. 100.--Interior of modern poultry house. as economical feeds for poultry as feeds containing less woody mate- rial because the percentage of digestibility is lower. Variety in- creases the digestibility of a ration. Cost is an essential item in feeding poultry. The feed cost of producing a dozen eggs when fowls are fed a well-balanced variety ration, is less than when they are fed only one kind of grain, for instance. The most economical ration is one that secures the best results at the lowest cost. Flavor.—No feeds should be fed which will injure the flavor or keeping quality of the products. How Much to Feed.—There can be no hard and fast rule laid 344 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS down for the amounts of feed to be given fowls, except to feed all they will eat up clean. The quantity of feed eaten depends upon age, breed, housing, range and many other factors which the feeder does not always consider as seriously as he should. The heavier breeds will eat more than the lighter breeds. Three-quarter-grown birds may eat more than fully matured ones. Heavy layers will eat more than poor layers. Perhaps one of the most common troubles to be found among poultry raisers is-overfeeding, and such feeding is undoubtedly a major cause for a large number of poultry ills. Feed is allowed to lie on the ground. Fowls do not have to take sufficient exercise for the feed they consume and their crops are continuously crowded to the detriment of their health. The feeder should constantly study his fluck. He should occasionally pick up a few and examine them to determine their condition.. Under the necessarily intensive condi- tions which must be practised on the commercial poultry farm, the fowls must be forced to take proper exercise by the methods of feed- . ing used. The mechanics of feeding are represented by the scratch- ing pen, feeders and exercisers. Fowls must be fed at all ages in such a way that there is always a slight edge upon their appetite, except when they go to bed at night. They should be fed lightly during the day and made to work for all sof the grain. Grain mixtures should always be fed in a sufficiently deep litter to force the hens to scratch vigorously for all they get. See the floors in Fig. 101. The mash should be fed in such a way that it cannot be eaten too rapidly nor to eagerly. The amount of wet mash eaten can be regulated by not feeding too often and only as much as the fowls will clean up in twenty or thirty minutes at each meal. The dry mash may be regulated by the length of time the hoppers are left open each day. With the lighter breeds the dry-mash hoppers may as a rule be left open all the time (Fig. 101). The heavier breeds of fowls, however, sometimes overeat of mash and the hoppers must be kept closed during the morning hours. Heavy-laying hens are industrious. The character of industry is so closely related to that of prolificacy that experienced breeders use it as a guide in picking out good layers. Wet Versus Dry Mash.—Since the introduction of the dry method of mash feeding, there has been much discussion’ pro and con, and many investigations have been carried on to determine the relative values of the two methods for feeding chickens. In feed- ing ducks ‘and other waterfowl, the wet mash is used altogether, owing to the shovel-like construction of their bills. Since ducks FEEDING POULTRY 345 must shovel the mash into their mouths and cannot pick up small particles of feed like chickens, a slightly sticky, moist mash is most suitable to them. A crumbly, moist mash is more palatable to chickens, but the scooping action of waterfowl in eating would scatter a crumbly mash and make it difficult for them to pick up. Duck raisers generally use a somewhat sticky binding-material, like white middlings or low-grade flour, to bind the particles of mash together. The dry mash has been more widely adopted with each succeed- ing year for several reasons: 1. It requires less labor. Sufficient may be mixed at a time to Fie. 101.--Dry mash hoppers in use (California Station).. Observe 15-inch high platform to keep hoppers up off ground where they will not be scratched full of dirt and litter. last for a week or more. The feeds used in the wet mash must not only be mixed dry but the amount needed for each meal must be moistened and mixed just before feeding. By using large hoppers, enough dry mash can be distributed to each pen to last the fowls a week or two. 2. There is less waste. The fowls scatter the wet mash a good deal. They pick out choice portions and carry them off to eat. Some of the feed adheres to mixing utensils, hoppers, ete., and is wasted. Well-constructed dry-mash hoppers are practically non- wasting. 3. The dry mash is more sanitary as there is no wet feed to adhere to mixing box, shovels, pails, and feed hoppers, and become 346 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS sour. To keep utensils clean that are used in wet-mash feeding requires extra labor. 4. Fowls that are accustomed to the dry mash will lay just as well as those fed the wet mash. Growing chicks fed a dry mash containing plenty of bran will usually be less subject to digestive diarrhoea than if fed a wet mash, as the dry feed will counteract any tendency to diarrhcea. Wet mashes are more eagerly eaten than dry feed and should therefore be fed much more carefully to prevent overeating. In cold weather a light noon feed of a wet mash may be advantageously fed as an appetizer and for variety, in addition to the regular dry mash which is kept before the fowls at all times. Fowls are con- fined a great deal in winter and the days seem long. After working and scratching in the litter all morning they are inclined to sit around in the sun about noon. A scanty feed of wet mash at this time will put new energy into them, set them to exercising vigor- ously again, and help materially to increase the egg production. At other times of the year when the weather is good and the-fowls spend much more time out of doors, the dry mash is all that is needed. For fattening, the wet mash is better than the dry because the fowls can be induced to eat more feed and will fatten more rapidly. Being more forcing, it should be fed with greater care to prevent over-fatness, indigestion and liver trouble. Feeding Versus Breeding.—Methods of feeding or the com- position of a ration cannot permanently force a fowl to produce mere heavily than it is naturally capable of producing. It may be possible to greatly increase production for a short period by over- stimulation with condiments and very concentrated ground feeds, but the fowl soon breaks down under such treatment and is ruined for future use. All that feeding should be expected to do is to furnish to the fowls feeds that will be physically suitable, 7.¢., small enough in size, not too bulky, and not unnaturally stimulating, and so proportioned i in the ration as to meet the needs of production and healthful activity to best advantage. “The best ration” is one ‘that promotes the health of the birds and stimulates them to their best productive effort. Feeding cannot take the place of breeding in building up the productive abilities of fowls from generation to generation. ‘It can only provide the kind of a ration which will most suitably furnish the nutrients needed to develop a fowl productively to the best of her capacity. Increased productive capacity can only be secured FEEDING POULTRY 347 in each succeeding generation by constantly breeding only from the more vigorous and productive. Although the hen’s laying capacity cannot be increased, it can be developed to the fullest degree by providing favorable environmental conditions as feeding, housing, yarding, etc. Animal Feeds.—Animal feed of one kind or another has been an essential part of the diet of fowls as far back as history extends. A fair proportion of the wild fowl’s diet consists of insects, worms and bugs of various kinds. The craving for animal feed of some sort as a part of their diet was natural to the wild ancestors of our present domestic fowls, for nature modeled them so that they should readily catch and utilize such materials as feed and instilled into their being an appetite for animal feed as a part of the daily ration. This appetite for meat feeds remains with our domestic fowls, even though they have been under domestication for a long period of time. In fact ever since man first began to use poultry for utilitarian purposes, the value of animal products as an essential part of their ration has been recognized. Ten per cent of the total ration or from twenty to twenty-five per cent of the mash is generally recommended as being the proper proportion of such animal feed as dried meat scrap or fish scrap. However, the writer’s experience is that where high-protein vegetable feeds are used in the ration as a partial substitute for the more expensive animal protein feed, less than this amount of commercial meat feed can be advantageously fed. Since animal feeds are the most costly materials used in a poultry ration, the cost of the ration and therefore the cost of the product could be reduced if a less expensive vegetable substitute were used for a part of the animal feed. ' Buttermilk and skim milk, which are the usual forms of milk used, have proved in a great many tests to be two of the best animal feeds for poultry when properly fed. Since it is difficult to feed skim milk always sweet, and as it is undesirable to feed it some- times sweet and sometimes sour, a sour condition is the most satis- factory way in which to feed it. With young stock until they are over half-grown, it should not be fed too freely as they are apt to drink too much and contract indigestion or fermentation of the crop. Meat scrap and fish scrap are the commercial forms of animal feed most widely used for poultry feeding. These are slaughter- house and fish-cannery by-products that have been cooked, dried and reduced to a finely ground condition. A good grade of com- 348 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS mercial fish scrap fed in normal amounts to laying hens will not taint the eggs laid. Green cut bone from the butcher shop, which consists of waste trimmings with adhering particles of meat, is a very desirable poultry feed, when finely ground and fed perfectly fresh. It is more palatable than dried scraps because it is fresh and succulent. It is usually fed at the rate of about one-half ounce per hen per day. If fed alone, the fowls may be given all they will clean up in fifteen minutes about noon. ' Bonemeal or dried commercial ground bone is added to poultry rations to supply calcium phosphate to build strong bone in growing stock, to furnish lime for shell-making in laying stock, and for other purposes. Commercial meat scrap usually contains enough bone for adult stock, but for young stock a small amount of bone meal should be included in the ration. When feeding meat scrap with a very high protein content, ground bone should also be fed with it as the very high grades of scrap do not-contain as much bone as the average grades. Dried blood is used to some extent for poultry but is not as suitable as the feeds mentioned above. It is very concentrated and must be fed with great care. It is also not very palatable. Linseed meal and soybean meal’ are very desirable high- protein vegetable feeds to be included in a poultry-laying ration because (1) they are rich in protein and may be used to advantage as substitutes for a part of the animal protein usually fed; (2) these feeds have a gently laxative and natural tonic effect on the digestive system and have been found very beneficial in helping the birds to come strongly through the molt as well as in promoting health and production at all times. The two feeds are quite simi- lar in feeding value but soybean meal is perhaps somewhat more palatable than linseed meal. Such feeds may constitute five to ten per cent of the mash. Cottonseed meal may be given in the dry mash either in place _ of or along with the linseed meal ; but its use should always be under the watchful eye of the feeder, as it tends to constipate. Green Feeds.—Some sort of vegetable feed is as essential to the continued health and vigor of poultry as is the grain ration. Its function in the bird’s economy is not so much to furnish nutriment, although it does this to some degree, as it is to act as a natural tonic on the fowl’s whole system. Green feeds stimulate the liver, induce a copious secretion of digestive fluids and instil into the very cells FEEDING POULTRY 349 of the body renewed vigor and force. It is this very beneficial tonic effect that makes green feed such a valuable adjunct to the diet. When plenty of greens are fed there is also a reduction in the amount of grain and mash eaten. The West Virginia Experiment Station found that fowls that were fed no green feed ate more grain and animal feed and produced less eggs than hens that were fed all the green stuff they wanted. The green feeds that are most valuable in securing results and are relished most by the fowls are the young and tender blades of grass, young alfalfa, kale, chard, rape, etc. Green forage crops, Fig. 102.—The value of green feed in poultry feeding. Fowls feeding on greens to left; those in bare yard to right eagerly striving to reach greens. (California Station). grasses and vegetables are more tender and juicy when young than after they have developed strong woody stalks and begun to form seed. During the growing months fresh, tender, green stuff in the shape of alfalfa, fresh lawn clippings, rape, green alfalfa, or grass- covered range (Fig. 102) can easily be secured. A range covered with a green crop on which the flock can pasture is undoubtedly the most desirable but is not always feasible. The next best way is to run a quantity of fresh green stuff through a feed cutter every day and feed it at noon. A handful for every five fowls is about the proper amount to feed. Give them all they will eat up clean, is always the rule. Since fresh cut greens quickly wilt and become 350 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS unpalatable, two or three feedings of greens per day are better than one, where it can be done. In winter when fresh, growing greens cannot be had, one has to fall back on sprouted grains, mangels, pumpkins, cabbage, potatoes, and steamed alfalfa or clover hay, for the supply of succulent vegetable feeds. They are named in the order of their preference. Sprouted ¢ grains although equal to other ; ae — fresh tender greens are only ; used when fresh green stuff from the fields is not to be had because of the labor of sprout- ing. Sprouted oats or barley are among the best winter green feeds. They are fully equal in succulence and tonic value to the tender green stuff of sum- mer. Oats are better to sprout than barley |ccause they do not make such a rank growth. These grains are sprouted by a great many commercial poultry- men for feeding early hatched chicks as well as grown stock. The grains are usually sprouted in racks about six feet high containing trays two by three feet in size and two inches deep. The trays are spaced about ten inches apart, seven in a tier so that there will be one tray ready to use each day (Fig. 103). In starting, a pail of the Fic. 103.-—-Rack for sprouting oats; large right size is nearly filled with enoueh to provide five hundred laying hens oats at night and the oats (Lewis:) covered with luke-warm water. The next morning they are dumped in a pile on the top tray and left. At night they are spread out so that the tray is level full of wet oats to a depth of one inch and another pail of oats put to soak. Next morning the top tray of oats is moved down a tray and the other tray put on top to receive the oats from the pail. The trays of oats are thus moved down one step at a time till by the seventh day the FEEDING POULTRY 351 first tray is at the bottom and the oats are ready to feed. The oat sprouts should be four to five inches high when fed. Three things are necessary to sprout grains successfully: (1) A temperature of not less than 70 degrees; (2) moisture; (3) good ventilation. The temperature must usually be secured by artificial heat. Moisture is supplied by wetting the trays every day with warm water from a sprinkling pot. Cracks must be left between the boards in the bottom of the trays so that surplus water will drain away and not rot the oats. Until the sprouts begin to show in a tray, the oats should be raked over each time they are wetted to insure an even distribution of moisture. Raking after the sprouts appear will break them off. Plenty of moisture is of prime impor- tance for good quick growth. A number of kinds of lamp-heated sprouting cabinets are manu- factured, and racks of trays can be made and kept in a warm room or in a cellar with a furnace. To prevent mold, the flats should be thoroughly scrubbed and washed with a 5 per cent solution of formaldehyde each time they are emptied. Mangels or stock beets are excellent for winter feeding and in some localities, like the South and Southwest, can be left in the ground all winter and harvested as needed. In feeding the mangel it can be split into big pieces and a piece rammed on a nail about a foot from the ground in each pen, for the birds to pick at, or it may be run through a root cutter and fed in a moist mash. Pumpkins are split up and fed raw, seeds and all. .. Cabbage is usually stored in pits or cellars and taken out as needed. It makes a very succulent winter green feed, but is not so easy to grow and keep as mangels, nor is it as economical a feed. Raw potatoes are not relished by the fowls and are therefore generally boiled and mixed with the mash: Steamed clover and alfalfa hay do not compare with the other feeds mentioned either in succulence or palatability. As a protein feed containing considerable crude fiber to be used in connection with concentrated fat-forming feeds, like corn or other grain, such feeds are very good. Alfalfa meal mixed in a dry mash has prac- tically no value as a green feed. Charcoal acts as a blood purifier and as a preventive of indiges- tion by absorbing poisonous gases. One pound to forty pounds of mash is about the right amouuat to feed when added to the mash, or it may he fed separately in self-feeding hoppers. Salt in small quantities seems to increase the palatability of the 352 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS ration. In large amounts it is poisonous. One pound to 200 pounds of mash is about the right proportion to feed. Composition of Green Feeds (Without Regard to Digestibility) . Water | Ash | Fiber | Protein | C3'PO | Fat Sprouted oats........... 75.9 0.8 2.5 3.2 16.3 13 Lettuce.........ee ee eee 95.9 0.8 0.5 1.0 1.6 0.2 ART > se cisnscecdavone! diovanioel ea 85.2 1.8 1.5 2.6 8.4 5 Green alfalfa............ 80.0 1.8 4.7 4.9 7.9 a Green barley............ 76.0 7.3 6.9 2.7 7.0 Jl Lawn clippings.......... 76.4 2.4 4.1 2.3 13.8 1.0 Mangels...........-.... 90.9 1.1 9 14 5.5 2 Pumpkins.............. 90.9 5 1.7 1.3 5.2 A Cabbage..........-.+.- 90.5 1.4 1.5 2.4 3.8 A Potatoes's acc5 graye tenses 78.9 1.0 6 2.1 17.3 Al Alfalfa hay.............] 11.0 6.4 22.6 17.6 39.3 3.1 Red elover hay.......... 15.3 6.2 24.8 12.3 38.1 3.3 Composition and Digestibility of Animal Feeds , Digestible Water | Ash | Fiber | Digestible| sarboby. fat Skim milk.................. 90.5 0.9 3.3 5.4 Buttermilk.................. 90.4 0.7 3.8 5.5 Whey vidcunge tieeeieien es 93.4 0.6 ae 0.9 7.7 Meat scrap................-] 10.1 5.8 2.8 57.0 33.3 Fish scrap................-. Variable and similar to meat scrap Dried blood......... ‘| 8.5 4.7 a fs 60.8 5.6 Fresh-cut green bone.........| 8.9 26.1 18.3* 10.5* Ground dry bone............ 8.0 |. 64.4 19.0*¥ | ..... Pork scrap...............:..] 11.0 2.2 ses 45.0 33.4 Digester tankagé............. 7.0 15.9 5.8 50.1 26.1 * Assumed. Success with poultry depends upon four factors, 4.¢., skilful breeding, housing, feeding, management and marketing. The very best ration will not give efficient results unless the fowls are other- wise well taken care of. Feeding is but one part of the problem of successful poultry raising. There is no one best ration for any particular purpose. The feeds fed and the composition of the ration will depend on the feeds available in any section of the country. Fish scrap is used exten- sively on the Pacific Coast as a substitute for meat scrap because it can be obtained at a lower price, on account of the many fish FEEDING POULTRY 353 canneries located there. Cottonseed meal is used more extensively in the South than in the North and West because the South is a cotton-growing region. EXAMPLES OF POULTRY RATIONS The rations that follow are simply given as examples of well- constructed rations. They are given in detail to concretely point out the way in which rations for different purposes should be made up and fed. Grain Mash 75 pounds whole wheat, 25 pounds bran, 50 pounds whole or rolled barley, 25 pounds shorts, ' 25 pounds cracked corn. 25 pounds ground barley, 15 pounds commercial fish scrap, 10 pounds linseed meal, 2$ pounds fine charcoal, .5 pound fine dairy salt, Oats could be substituted for the barley in the above grain mixture, and whole Egyptian corn, milo or other grain-sorghums for Indian corn. Ground oats could be used in place of ground barley, and soybean meal could substitute for linseed meal in the mash. If skim milk or buttermilk were available, it could be kept before the fowls in drinking vessels and no other animal protein feed need be fed. Fresh, finely-ground, green bone from the butcher shop could be used in place of other animal feed, and fed at the rate of about one-half ounce per hen per day. It could be fed separately at noon if the dry mash were used, or mixed in the wet mash. Milk could be used -to mix a wet mash in addition to feeding it alone or, if only a limited amount of milk is available, it could be used to moisten the wet mash, and the amount of other animal feed reduced. Green feed should be plentifully supplied. Grit and oyster shell should be kept before the fowls in self-feeding hoppers at all times (Fig. 101). The mixed grain is fed lightly in a deep litter (Fig. 104) in the morning and more freely at night so that the fowls will get all they want before going to roost. The mash, if fed as a dry mash, should be kept constantly in open hoppers before such active fowls as Leghorns. For heavier fowls which have a greater tendency to eat too much mash and to become over-fat, it may be necessary to keep the hoppers closed in the morning and not open them till noon. Approximately one pint of grain to ten hens should be fed in the morning and one and one-half pints at night. 23 354 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS Great care should be taken not to over-feed. Best results are secured in both eggs and health of fowls when they are active and in normal flesh. They should only be fed what they will eat up clean each day and should come hungry to every meal. During the daytime their appetites should be kept keen and never entirely satisfied. Chick Ration.—The chicks are removed to the brooder after 24 hours, but are not fed for from 60 to 72 hours after the hatch is completed. When the chick leaves the shell its digestive appara- * a 2 ig i rl i NB Fria. 104.—Scattering grain in the litter. (California Station.) tus contains a considerable amount of unabsorbed yolk. Until this is thoroughly digested and absorbed into the blood the chick’s deli- cate stomach is not ready to receive much feed. When they are first taken to the brooder only a fountain of water should be put before them. They will immediately begin picking at the sand on the floor and drinking water. This prepares and hardens the crop for the reception of feed. In feeding chicks a grain mixture composed of equal parts of fine cracked wheat. fine cracked corn and steel-cut oats is fed in a wooden chick hopper the first two days and left before them all the time so that they can pick at the grains and learn how to eat. They FEEDING POULTRY 355 will do a great deal of picking at first but swallow very little. As soon as they have learned how to eat, the grains are scattered on the sand for a day to teach them to scratch, and a light litter of cut alfalfa hay or clover is then put in. From the time the litter is put in, the chicks should be made to scratch for all their grain. Plenty of exercise keeps the system toned up and is the best preventive for the many ills to which little chicks are subject. Later on cut straw can be used instead of the cut clover or alfalfa, but for the first couple of weeks the latter is best as the chicks will eat the finer parts and it will do them good. Pieces of straw would cause inflamma- tion of the crop if eaten at this tender time of the chick’s life. Beginning with the sixth day a dry mash should be fed in the morning at 10 o’clock. This is composed of the following parts by weight: 2 parts bran, 2 parts shorts, 1 part cornmeal or barley meal, 2 parts meat scrap, 1 part powdered bone, 4 part chick charcoal. For the next two weeks the litter should be kept very deep and the grain mixture scattered in it early:in the morning and about 2 o’clock in the afternoon, with a one-hour feeding of dry mash at 10 o’clock in the morning. As the chicks develop, the dry mash should be gradually left before them for longer intervals until by the time they are from 12 to 14 weeks old they have access to the mash at all times. ree The chicks should be gradually changed over from the chick grain to the laying grain-mixture after they are five or six weeks old and big enough to begin to eat somewhat coarser grains. The steel-cut oats are first slowly eliminated at about five weeks. Just as soon as the chicks can handle larger grains, whole wheat and coarse cracked corn are substituted for the fine cracked corn and wheat. At about ten weeks cracked oats or barley may be added. At five months rolled oats or barley can be given and later whole grains. At six months the pullets should be eating the regu- lar laying grain-mixture. The laying mash may be substituted for the chick mash at four or five months. Pen-Fattening Broiler Ration—The regular chick ration should be fed for the first five weeks. The sixth week the dry mash 356 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS is omitted and a crumbly, moistened mash fed having the following formula: 15 pounds bran, 15 pounds shorts, 15 pounds barley meal or oatmeal, 15 pounds cornmeal, 6 pounds meat scrap, 2 pounds fine charcoal. The mash is moistened with buttermilk or sour skim milk if possible. If chicks can also be given buttermilk to drink it may be left before them in pans or fountains for about four hours every morning and the meat scrap may then be omitted from the mash. isa Peres OU eS ie cue ese ACanrenuaianpay So During the sixth week one feed of this moist mash is given at 11:30 o’clock and the grain mixture fed night and morning in the litter. The seventh week the moist mash should be fed noon and night, with a feed of scratch grains in the morning; thereafter the moist mash is fed three times a day till the birds are ready for market. Plenty of green and grit are given at all times. Broilers weighing from one to one and a half pounds should be ready for killing in from nine to twelve weeks when pen-fattened in this way. The above mash should not be fed for more than four or five weeks. Hence, if it is desired to have the birds weigh heavier before marketing, they should be given plenty of exercise and fed FEEDING POULTRY 357 on grain and dry mash until it is desired to pen them up to fatten for market. ; Crate-Fattening Ration.—Crate-fattening is used where it is desired to produce choice milk-fed fowls-that are as tender, juicy and toothsome as possible. Birds under nine weeks of age should be pen-fattened. Fowls three-fourths grown will crate-fatten best (Fig. 105). ‘The following formula is a good example of a suitable crate-fattening ration: 2 pounds barley meal ‘or oatmeal, 1 pound, cornmeal, 1 pound shorts, 8 pounds buttermilk. This ration should be fed two to three times a day, being allowed to sour six to twelve hours before feeding. Charcoal and’ grit are kept in front of the birds between meals. Birds are fed from ten days to three weeks and starved for twenty-four hours before start- ing the fattening process. Crate-fattening should not be carried on longer than from ten to twenty-one days, or the fowls will go off feed and die, since the process is such a forcing one. Large broilers and fryers can be nicely finished off in this way. For roasting carcasses, fowls that are not quite mature make rapid gains when crate-fattened. Cocker- els that have matured and become staggy do not make as profitable gains as those that have not yet fully matured. Crate-fattened, ‘milk-fed fowls are always in demand at fancy prices, because the milk ration and close confinement produce such a choice, jpicy meat. Literature on Poultry.—Lewis, “Productive Poultry Husbandry,” Phila., 1913; Pearl, Surface and Curtis, “ Diseases of Poultry,’ New York, 1915; Kaup, “ Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene,” Phila., 1915; Wortley, “Diseases of Poultry,’ New York, 1915; “Twenty Lessons in Poultry,” Phila., 1916; Woods, “ Open Air Poultry Houses,” Chicago, 1912; American Poultry Journal Yearbooks 1913, 1914, 1915; Basley “ Western Poultry Book,’”’ Los Angeles, 1912; Fiske, “ Poultry Feeding and Fattening,” New York, 1908; Lewis, “ Poultry Keeping,” Phila., 1915; American Pekin Duck Company, “ How We Make Ducks Pay,” Boston, 1907. Haperiment Station Circulars and Bulletins.—California ec. 99, 142, 145, 150; b. 164; r. 1907, 1908. Colorado, b. 164, 213. Delaware, r. 1901. Indiana, b. 71, 76, 182. Iowa, ext. b. 19, 36, 37. Kansas, b. 164; r. State Bd. of Agr. Sept., 1908, b. 107. Kentucky, b. 197; ¢. 38. Maine, b. 64, 79, 100, 117, 130, 179, 184. Maryland, b. 157. Massachusetts, b. 106 r. 1897, 1898, 1903, 1905; State Bd. of Agr., b. 1, 1908. Minnesota, b. 119.’ Mississippi, b. 162. Missouri, c. 76, 79; b. 57. New Jersey, c. 2, 23, 79; b. 57, 265; r. 1905, 1906. New York (Geneva), r. 1888, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1895, 1901, 1908; b. 29, 38, 39, 53, 90, 106, 126, 149, 171, 222, 259, 271. New York 358 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS (Cornell), b. 25, 249, 282. North Carolina, b. 211. North Dakota, r. 1897. Ohio, b. 201, 262, 298. Oregon College, b. 108, 157, Extension Series VII. Pennsylvania Dept. of Agr., b. 143. Rhode Island, b. 156; r. 1902; b. 126. Wisconsin, b. 261; c. 56. West Virginia, b. 60, 83, 88, 102, 145. U.S. Farmers’ U. C. 22, 84, 97, 222, 244, 259,412. U. 8. Bur. Animal Industry b. 56, 140; r. 1898. Ontario Agr. College, b. 163. QUESTIONS . Describe the digestive system of the fowl. . What are the chief functions of protein in the fowl? . What are the uses of the carbohydrates and the fat? . What special uses has the ash in feeds for poultry? Discuss the advantages of crude fiber for poultry. . Define a poultry ration. What are the needs and benefits of a variety? . Discuss the advantages of suitability of the feed to the flock. . Discuss the question of how much to feed. . Enumerate the advantages of the dry-mash. . What animal feeds are available for poultry feeding in your section? Which are cheapest? . What green feeds are used by poultry keepers in your section in the winter? In summer? Give the composition of a good dry mash for use of laying hens in your section. . Outline a good plan for feading chicks. . Describe hen-fattening, and give rations. . Give the details of a good plan for crate-fattening. Tate be ~ io io —e aS oo p ae 2) — an APPENDIX Taste I.—Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent* Digestible tisk P Nitro- = * oist- TO- . gen- ar- Feeding stuffs ure tein Fat | Fiber free Ash Pro- | bohy- extract tein | drates and fat A. RouawaGE: Green Feeds: é Alf; fain. cpeasihon Alsike clover...... Barley fodder..... Bermuda grass... . Burr clover....... NIAAA er = awe CON PR BOBO ONMMmd ft eh ek et et oa) CWHwhy TRwWrw ANOOw nNwaN BYR We CORDS Canada field pea. . Common millet... Cow pea......... Crimson clover.... Horse bean....... = PRN NONEN SPE bow G0 00 90 0 GO trig 9 b9 0000 DOWNED MWHGO Hungarian grass. . Indian corn fodder Italian rye grass '!. Japanese millet... Johnson grass... Kafir corn....... Kentucky blue BLASS s cere ewnes 65.1 Mammoth red clover.......... 80.0 | an Ree NNN, eH Wr Dow i wilerd= : A ma] ye a Ro a 5 ee eae San =i) — Ag | rmNEpeNHS | ~ |onndanane | $3 | oomranwaw | sv | emaennyon. wpjorg | go | AON WOE OS | FNM WIAONAS | 4 | AOBROSAGH | 29 | SHAAHHISS RU | SSSSSSSSH | BL SSSSSSSSH 1B SSSOSSHHHA | at | SSSSSSSdS a Saal 2 a : 3 : 5 709) AMON AAA | O | MODIHNOND | - POU SEIAES BS O01CRCN 7 SES C9100 C8 Det 601) AIp [eq], AtiSHSAHOG _| A oF Fi 05 00 N ATSHSA don nididis modo Snsnn 2 a, . MAMAN San Sears % Sige ea casas tea eebaee ae gee. a, oe eee) Se Be Bets Fe A oe ml aphget Golan gp kate Heo meee wm ao oh Rede ee Basso) lala cge ee Oe ae ae acs BRU abe ex age ahaa Cie oy 5, BG ogo ok Ske ieyeeaa sg Shales Pag pest Papen) Be aa Pe aes ele) Sage a ek a3 3 eerie vem ae ee see | | age a eS os Th) | eS 2 eee ae ote Se BoP a ak he eerie as ra aY peal gL at-asm coca || allege ates ceue ene gacemetn) | IL aRA OMAR ae Bilge a Plea i oreet ey ace fy cE ECR Se ae eS AN ae OR ON | AN a OR NW ONw hr. O19 AO rm ON Wr O19 Aor ONWMnr OW AQWwr-ONWDhY O19 Sess NN AAA NN Se aANN SAesnAN, 369 APPENDIX Composition of Feeds—Continued ay pus MeQOrimegacgm |» | Meo eg wo mmoanmaawta | | nadtancoos g9}8Ip SSSHHANHS | 5 | OOOH SSonnaANws |g | SdododHnNwOY -AGOqleg | a . fos 13 oS a 8 a 22 Can}! d |moannmonooo |B2] a2 ct o | BS ujorg| ~ | SSSaRaess | g | SSAARISSA | wm | SSARBRRSK | 85 | SRALARSSSES g | SSSSSSSSS | 8 SSSSSISSSH Gy | SSSSSSore | I | SSSSH HA ai a nm a) saci! oO oO = 2 193)801 Fe NEROMOWMA) a | Atanoowon|M | ammoroonr | 9 NOADWOMOAN Arp [810.1 SOSHnAGASO | F | OSSHAN HO SSSHnAaGWTISG|O | SddoHAGHIOD 387 pu AQVONYIN |, | AN MONAIoO© ANQOMO WOM C169. 09 IQ MA Ds 09 sey8Ip SOSHAANHHS | HR | SSOSHANGIS | F | SSOSOHAHANMH |] A | OSOSOHANAG HHS -AYqOqIBD aa 4 : = : oo} | 7 = ae 4 on et oo siow | BN | NH anode. oN - | BONMEOANNG apjorg | B | SSSSAAARS | gr | SSSARHVSS | fo | SSSRARGRS | g | SSARSLSAR : ag | SSSSSSSSS | pn | SSOSSSSSSS | BL | SSSSSSSSS & Ssesoscssen qo 2 3 hy 6a b>] $ © : rye | OR | awanoxegwn |g l[awanoqgwon |s |ataonnwon | 2 | atannpwon Arp [230 SOSHNG HOO SSSrHidawiSo |F | SSSGHASOd SOSHAG SO 48} pac | oa t0919 09 et Og C109 Pe Wirt 0019 OY TARO AN 9D WH VOI WHOA 89] 8p 2 1 SSSonNGO MIS SOSHANMHS |e | SSOSHN YS SSconnnwissd -Ayoqiey 2 y re 3 a 6 " | atwemaeee | 2 lamencmanwss | 58 00 6 69 19 00 O09 HID iE ATROKR GOON] upjorg| F |SSSAAMMBN | ~ | SOSHAGHSS | FY | SSAABBSAA | ~- | SSSAAnIeSH . £ | SSSSSSSSS |] B | SSSSSSdGG | FI | SSccSosssH| 5g |SSoSoSdSddsd he 3 > : a Cy oO fa ff 5S | ATMDNOWRE | A |Atomnononnge|f | rntmnon 198» APRON Indo | sem |) SP ES ee | of SS a ee ees |e eee eee | ft ees Se OUR he Se Ap poy | OC | CSOSA A wi SSOnNG Wd SSOSHAG HSS SOSKHAwG dio ‘. Ske a. Si Ok th ae GE Se ae ee Syl) eee ae, ee ee Bede gab. at oe ee oe 2 ae eae ir eee ae ee ea ae (oi) bag eer eS Sree vats ie eee 33 ‘a SE e Sak poe ee Stteese et eee ere cee: hw 2 a a ee gas: Ce a a ee Se ee ee ee i es Oe ee a a” i a ae: ee” meee {SI ee et ee eC | ee SO RY ge [19 ESOS a ....| 73.2 .29 15 53 Sorghum fodder........... | 82.2 5 vie .23 .09 .23 Timothy grass.............. 66.9 2.15 48 26 76 White clover............... 81.0 Bere .50 .20 24 Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders: Alfaltay. ooo c nes omer amasweat (680 7.07 2.19 51 1.68 Alsike clover............... 9.94 | 11.11 2.34 .67 2.23 Barley chaff................ 13.08 | ..... 1.01 27 99 Barley straw............... 11.44 5.30 | 1.31 30 2.09 Buckwheat hulls............ 11.90 | ..... 49 .07 52 Common millet............. 9:7 DF |. leas 1.28 A9 1.69 Corn stover (without ears)...| 9.12 3.74 | 1.04 .29 1.40 Fodder corn (with ears)..... 7.85 4.91 1.76 54. 89 Hay of mixed grasses........ 11.99 6.34 | 1.41 27 1.55 Hungarian grass............ 7.69 6.18 | 1.20 25 1.30 Mammoth red clover........ 11.41 8.72 | 2.23 55 1.22 Oat ‘etrawesinike. 2. cate ete 9.09 4.76 .62 .20 1.24 Red clover...............+. 11.33 6.93 | 2.07 38 2.20 Red-top.............0000 ee 7.71 4.59 | 1.15 .36 1.02 Rye straw.............---- 7.61 3.25 46 .28 79 Scarlet clover.............. 18.30 7.70 | 2.05 .40 1.31 Timothy ews ss sca esac secee ss 7.52 4.93 1.26 53 -90 Wheat chaff................ 8.05 7.18 79 70 42 Wheat straw............... 12.56 3.81 59 12 51 White clover............... ree pice dee | eehO .52 1.81 Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc.: : Carrote ss sao: caeeeceg ees 89.79 1,22 15 .09 51 Mangels................06-- 87.29 1,22 19 .09 .38 Potatoes) osccoe asda vce c 79.24 .89 32, 12 46 Red beets..........--..005 87.73 1.13 .24 .09 A4 Rutabagas..............65- 89.13 1.06 19 12 49 Sugar beets..............-. 86.95 1.04 22 .10 48 Sweet potatoes............. 71.26 1.00 24 .08 37 TUMIpS scsi ied esac eae 89.49 1.01 18 10 239 Yellow fodder beets......... 90.60 195 19 .09 46 874 APPENDIX Taste V.—Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products—Continued, ; Phos- . ‘ Nitrogen,| phoric | Potash, Material ae guctae per zenit Paid, per cent per cent Grains and Other Seeds: Barley............0.0e0eeee 14.30 2.48 1.51 79 48 Buckwheat................ 14.10 |} ..... 1.44 44 21 COMM terre ster 8 deka 8 | 10.88 1.53 | 1.82 .70 .40 Japanese millet............. 13:68 |) acs 1.73 .69 38 Millet, common............. W268 | access 2.04 85 36 SP OBB i cunctles aenieuassatenctoh aaenie aie 18.17 2.98 | 2.06 82 .62 RACE auth ans ven Saeoin Rrese eek 12.60 .82 | 1.08 .18 .09 RyCracie eos ewes cence ats 14.90 | ..... 1.76 82 54 Soybeans..............-00- 18.33 4.99 | 5.30 1.87 ‘1.99 Sorghum seed.............. 14.00 | ..... 1.48 81 42 Wheat, spring.............. 14.35 1.57 | 2.36 .70 39 Wheat, winter.............. 14.75 | ..... 2.36 89 61 Other Concentrated Feeds: Apple pomace.............. 80.50 27 .23 .02 13 Apples, fruit............... 85.30 39 13 01 19 Brewers’ grains, dry......... 9.14 3.92 | 3.62 1.03 .09 Brewers’ grains, wet......... (eae 1 a rere .89 31 .05 Buckwheat middlings....... 12.00 4.80 | 4.53 2.84 1.18 Corn-and-cob meal.......... 8.96 | ..... 1.41 7 AT Corn COb8seesei2 se mens meds 12.09 82 .50 .06 .60 Corn meal...............05 12.95 1.41 1.58 .63 40 Cotton-seed hulls........... 10.17 2.40 .69 25 1.02 Cotton-seed mea]........... 7.81 6.95 | 6.79 2.88 .87 Gluten meal................ 8.59 73 | 5.03 33 .05 Ground barley............. 13.43 2.06 | 1.55 .66 84 Ground oats............... 11.17 3.37 1.86 77 59 Hominy feed............... 8.93 2.21 1.63 -98 49 Linseed meal (new-process)..| 7.77 5.87 | 5.78 1.83 1.39 Linseed meal (old-process)...| 8.88 6.08 | 5.43 1.66 1.37 Malt sprouts............... 18.38 | 12.48 | 3.55 1.43 1.63 Ped Mealiti ccna cas semen é 2.68 | 3.08 82 .99 Rice bran : 12.94 71 .29 24 Rice polish................. 10.30 9.00 | 1.97 2.67 71 Rye bran....... Fada endunvener i 12.50 4.60 | 2.32 2,28 1.40 Rye middlings.............. 12.54 3.52 1.84 1.26 81 Starch feed (glucose refusc)..| 8.10 | ..... 2.62 .29 15 Wheat bran................ 11.74 6.25 | 2.67 ] 2.89 1.61 Wheat flour................ 9.83 1.22 | 2.21 | .57 54 Wheat middlings............ 9.18 2.30 | 2.63 95 .63 Dairy Products, etc.: BUbteP ens cass paccient eekee dius 79.10 15 12 .04 .04 Buttermilk................. 90.50 .70 48 17 16 Cheeses, sisi ssid terete tees 33.25 2.10 | 3.93 60 12 Cream: 4.55% 3 eauis san eras 74.05 50 40 15 13 Skim milk.................. 90.25 80 56 20 19 WHC. sescucis:sineeuesenb anes dietaaes-« 92.97 60 15 14 18 Whole milk................ 87.00 75 53 19 18 Animals: Live cattle..........,....0- 50.2 4.40 | 2.48 1.76 16 Sheep... 3 :esew esau ss swe es 44.8 2.90 ; 1.95 1.13 14 SWANG). ius cide eee aia ee 42.0 1.80 | 1.76 73 10 APPENDIX 375 Taste VI.—Average Weights of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs Feeding stuff pees ag ‘ oS pounds quarts Alfalfa: méal oo csicserdezd sen aha neeee ea es eas 6 1.7 Barley meal «ics cage caiw sive e dcsduswasvede « eave ediaseieeer os 1.1 29 Barley, WhOlG: ccc. cece giencewlioae state uaierieracene 1.5 7 Beet pulp, dried........... 00 cece cece eee ences 6 1.8 Brewers’ grains, dried 6 1.7 Buckwheat bran...........0.0ccce cece eee “oad 6 1.7 Buckwheat middlings. 9 11 Coconut meal........ 1.5 a Corn-and-cob meal... 14 7 Corn and oat feed............... 7 1.4 Corn= brant sieie:s.c idee eo teed ee sod 5 2.0 Gorn: Meal cis ve gestecal. ca wee eee Swann Wade ioe 1.5 7 Gorn, whole i. saws oi4 Sax aeedet nen. Pere 1.7 6 Cation 800d isis css cue neod peas Rae eek ae 1.0 1.0 Cotton-seed hulls........... 0.0 c cece een eee eee 3 3.3 Cotton-seed meal........... 0.0. c cece e eee eee 15 7 Distillers’ grains, dried............0-- ee cee eee 6. 1.7 Germ oil meal..............5000- spupcadeceaualaanete tant 1.4 7 Glitten: £060) siciee. ce coe ae sewaseeo es cakes 13 8 Gluten meal... ccc eee eee ence tence eens 17 6 Hominy meal....... 0.000 cece cece eee ence eens 11 9 Kealir meals. csieccch o-sccg iy dinner es foie ha anesera es wraaneh ene 1.6 6 Linseed meal (new-process).........+-eeece eee 9 11 Linseed meal (old-process)...........0000ee000 0 - Ll 9 Malt sprouts........... dre usagi CUMS DAS teu & 6 1.7 Mixed mill feed (bran and middlings)............ 6 1.7 Molasses. scias ecg iycadie d Magee Swe tN bode et 3.0 3 Molasses beet pulp.........--0+e eee r eee e crete 8 1.3 Oat feed ccs s btn a cures 2. acu cerepuaes in cailaen Mea igeetalisce & 8 1.3 Oat middlings............. 0... eee ee eee eee eens 1.5 7 Oats, whole.............0 cece eee eee eens 1.0 1.0 Rice bran. .... cece eee eee tenets 8 13 Rice polish... 6.2... eee eee eter t ees 1.2 8 Rye bran...... 0. ccc eee eet teense 6 1.7 Rye feed (rye bran and rye middlings).......---- 1.3 8 Rye meal... 0.00... c cece eee ett es 1.5 7 Rye, whole...........ececeee eee e cnet tetntes L7 6 Wheat bran. ...........e eee eee rere 5 2.0 Wheat feed, mixed...........--00eeerrtrtt 6 17 Wheat, ground...........0eeeeeeee nents 1.7 6 Wheat middlings (flour)......-.-...+-+eesrrtte 1.2 8 Wheat middlings (standard).......-.-++++--000: 8 13 Wheat, whole.... 5.2.0.6 cece eee erence renee! 13 ca Wheat screenings........--0-+0eer eee recente INDEX Absorption of digested materials, 31 Acids, free, influence on digestibility, 69 Acorns, 211 Adulterated butter, 23 Age, influence on digestibility of feeding stuffs, 65 Agricultural sections of United States, characteristic grasses and hay crops, 90 ~ Albumen, 22 Albumenoids, 10, 11 Albumins, 9 , Alcohol-soluble proteins, 10 Alfalfa, 114 changes in composition, 117 composition, 115 in different growth, 56 digestion coefficients, 57 hay for horses, 284 losses in haymaking, 59 silage, 158 5 yields of dry matter and diges- tible matter, 57 American Fat Stock Show, results obtained with fattening steers, 259 Amides, 10 Amino-acids, 10 Amylopsin, 29 Amyloses, 14 Animal body, components, 21 feed for poultry, 352 Animals, live, composition, 19 Annual forage crops, 105 Apples, 143 Araban, 14 Armsby standards, 38 Armsby’s energy values, 74 Artichokes, composition of, 142 Jerusalem, 142 Artificial butter, 23 digestion, 41 stages of materials in animal body, 24 Available energy, 48 Avenalin, 9 Baby beef, 269 Bacon production, feeding for, 314 Barley, 169 feeds, 183 Bean straw, 130 Beans, 175 Beech nuts, 211 Beef calf, the, 225 cattle, cost of feeding, 262 feeding of, 253 length of feeding period, 263 literature on feeding, 276 rate of increase of, 258 rations for, 253 returns for feed eaten, 264 systems for feeding, 253 young and old, average daily gains, 258 Cows, influence of liberal feed- ing, 236 Production in eastern States, 274 in southern States, 274 scraps, 204 Beet molasses, 192 pulp, 193 dried, 194 silage, 161, 194 Bermuda grass, 102 Bile, 29 Black-strap molasses, 193 Blood, 21 corpuscles, 21 meal, 204 Blue grass, Kentucky, 101 Boar, feeding of, 305 Body fat, 23 Bone meal, 205 Breed, influence on digestibility of feeding stuffs, 65 Brewers’ grains, 188 Brewery feeds, 188 Broiler ration, 355 Brush feed, 211 Buckwheat, 172 bran, 183 feeds, 183 hulls, 183 middlings, 183 Buttermilk, 208 Butyric acid, 23 Cabbage, 138 Cacti, spineless, 146 Calf feeding, 215 literature on, 226 standards, 215 meals, composition of, 222 scours, remedies for, 220 Calorie, 45 377 378 Calorimeter, 45 Calorimetry, 44 Calves, birth weights and gains by, 215 feeding stuffs for, 216 gains made by, 216 grain feeds for, 221 literature on feeding, 226 oil with skim milk for, 220. remedies for scours, 220 roughage for, 221 rules for feeding, 220 salt for, 222 skim milk for, 210 substitutes for skim milk, 222 succulent feeds for, 222 supplemental feeds with skim milk, 220 water for, 222 whole milk for, 217 Canada field peas, 121 Cane molasses, 193 Capillaries, 31 Carbohydrates, 13 chemical energy in, 45 influence on digestibility, 69 Carrots, 136 Casein, 22 Cassava, sweet, 143 Cattle feeding, literature on, 276 markets, 261 shrinkage of, 261 Cattle-raising, margin, 261 spread, 261 Cellulose, 14, 15. Cereal grains, 163 hay, 109 straw, 128 composition of, 128 Charcoal for poultry, 351 Chemical elements, 5 energy, 45 Chick ration, 354 Cholesterin, 23 Chufa, 142 Citron melons, 141 Climatic environment, influence on chemical composition of feeding stuffs, 53 : Clover, alsike, 119 crimson, 119 Japan, 120 mammoth, 119 red, 117 silage, 159 Swedish, 119 sweet, 121 white, 119 INDEX Coarse feeds, 11, 12 Coconut meal, 202 Coefficients of digestibility, 41, 42 Composition of plants, 6 Concentrates, 11, 12, 163, 246 for calves, 221 dairy cows, 246 lambs, 327, 331 steers, 266, 287 Condimental stock feeds, 212 Conglutin, 9 mnective tissues. 22 Cooking feed, influence on digesti- bility, 67, 298 Corn and oats, 168 feeds, 184 hogging down, 305 kernel, composition, 184 oil cake, 191 proteins, 166 silage, average composition, 61 stalks, 129 Cost of poultry feed, 343 Cotton seed, 176 meal for poultry, 348 belt, grasses of, 90 ; seed cake, cold-pressed, 199 decorticated, 199 hulls, 201 meal, 198 for pigs, 200 iron sulfate method for prevention of toxic effects, 201 tests for impurities, 200 uses of, 200 Cow melons, 141 Cowpea plant, composition of differ- : ent parts, 124 . Silage, 160 Cowpeas, 124, 175 Cows, high-producing, value of, 234 on pasture, feeding grain to, 94 Crate-fattening, poultry, 357 Creatin, 22 Cutin, 15 Cutting feeds, influence on digesti- bility, 67 - Dairy barn, routine of day’s work in, °° 250 2 bull, feeding of, 251 ealf, the, 224 cattle, feeding of, 227 literature on feeding, 252 cows, amount of feed eaten an- nually, 238 concentrates for, 246 INDEX _ Dairy cows, dry roughage for, 245 feeding standards, 227 : table for, 241 influence of liberal feeding, 236 rations for, 247 succulent feeds for, 244 summer feeding of, 243 the American practical feeding ration for, 240 winter feeding of, 244 feeds, 205, 210 heifer, feeding of, 242 herds, improvement of, 237 products for calves, 217 for swine, 302 Damaged wheat, 170 Deserted plants, 145 Dextrine, 14 Dextrose, 14 Diastatic ferments, 13 Dietrich’s standard for pigs, 308 Digester tankage, 204 Digestibility of feeding stuffs, 40 conditions affecting, 63 Digestion coefficients, 41, 42 of feed, 28 Digestive apparatus of non-rumi- nants, 27 poultry, 336 ruminants, 26 tract of a fowl, 337 Di-saccharides, 14 Distillers’ grains, 189 Distillery feeds, 188 Dried blood, 204 Dry mash for poultry, 344, 345 Dry substance, 7 Dry of feeding stuffs, influence on digestibility, 66 Durra, 110, 173 ' Eckles’ standards for dairy cows, 240 Edestin, 9 Egyptian corn, 173 Elements, chemical, 5 essential, 5 Emmer, 172 Energy, available, 48 values, Armsby’s, 74 Erepsin, 30 Ewes, feeding of, 323 milk, composition of, 323 Extractives, 22 Farm animals, composition, 19 literature on feeding, 226 . Farm animals, 379 productive feeding of, 215 colony poultry house, 340 horses, wintering, 288 Fat, 11 influence on digestibility, 69 ' Fats, chemical energy in, 45 'Fattening cattle, protein . require- ments of, 257 composition of increase of live ‘weight, 20, 256 crate for poultry, 356 poultry, 340 sheep, rations for, 332 Feed, absorption of, 31 coarse, 11, 12 components, 6 cooking, 298 digestion of, 26 functions of, 36 grain feed for calves, 221 high- and low-protein, 11 influence on quality of milk, 233 quantity of milk, 254 inspection, 182 quantity of, influence on diges- tibility* of feeding stuffs, 65 requirements for production, 36 roughage for calves, 221 skim milk for calves, 220 soaking, 299 unit system, 79 table of unit values, 372 standard, 80 uses of, by animals, 34, 36 Feeding the boar, 305 calves, 220, 221 dairy cattle, 227 ewes, 323 farm animals, literature on, 226 fattening sheep, 325 flour, dark, 181 for fat and for lean, 300 goats, 332 lambs, 324 mules, 291 poultry, 336 the ram, 323 sheep, 317 the sow and the pigs, 306 standards for quality, 339 swine, 294 Feeding standards, 37, 339 for beef cattle, 253 calves, 215 comparisons of, 75 dairy cows, 227, 239 growing cattle, 215 380 Feeding horses, 277 limitations, 76 poultry, 336 sheep, 317 swine, 294, 300 stuffs, chemical energy in, 45 composition of, 5 and digestibility, 359 concentrated, average weights of, 375 description of, 90 energy values, 371 manurial values, 86, 373 methods of comparison of values, 83 chemical analysis, 16 ready reference tables off composition, 366 relative values, 82 variations in chemical com- position, 53 Fertility in feeds, 86 - retained by farm animals, $7 Feterita, 173 Fiber, 15 Field beets,\133 Fish meal, 2Q5 Flaxseed, 176 Floats, 305 Forage and anak crops, literature Formaldehyde treatment for calf scours, 220 Foxtail, 111 Fowl, digestive tract of, 337 Fructose, 14 Fruits, composition of, 143 fresh and dried, value in com- parison with hay, grains, etc., 144 Galactose, 14 Gastric juice, 28 German oil meal, 191 Gliadin, 10 Globulins, 9 Glucose, 14 factory feeds, 190 Glutelin, 10 Gluten feed, 190 Glutenin, 10 INDEX Glycin, 9 Glycogen, 32 Goat feeding, literature on, 335 feeding of, 332 Gossypol, 201 Grain feeds for calves, 221 dairy cows, 246 lambs, 327, 331 poultry, 341 rs, 266, 287 hay\/ 109 for horses, 286 reenings, 170 orghums, 110 / silage from, 158 Tease wood, 145 Green feeds for poultry, 348, 352 Green forage and hay crops, 90 . Grinding feeds, influence on digesti- bility, 67 Ground feed, 168 Growing cattle, standards for, 38 sheep, standards for, 38 Growth and fattening, 256 of poultry, 340 Gulf coast region, grasses of, 91 Haecker’s standards for dairy cows, 240 Harvesting, methods of, influence on chemical composition of feeding stuffs, 58 Hay bales, standard sizes, 103 weights, 103 for calves, 221 dairy heifer, 243 horses, 284 crops, 98 changes in chemical com- position, 58 composition, 99 in the stack, measurement of, 104 yields of, 98 Hemoglobin, 21 Hexoses, 14 ' High-producing cows, value of, 234 High-protein feeds, 11 Histones, 10 Hog motor, 298 Hogging-down corn, 305 Hogs following steers, 272 Hominy chop (feed, or meal), 185 Hoppers for dry mash, 345 Hordein, 10 Horse feeding, literature on, 293 feeds, 210 INDEX Horses, alfalfa hay for, 284 allowance of roughage for, 283 and ruminants, digestion of co- efficients of hay and straw for, 64 character of feed required, 278 concentrates for, 287 corn for, 287 digestibility of coarse feeds, 63 energy requirements.of, 280 fattening for the market, 289 feeding, 277 ~ standards, 277 grain hay for, 286 hay for, 284 measurement of work done by, 279 roots for, 286 silage for, 286 system of feeding, 282 timothy hay for, 284 watering, 283 work done by, 277 working, rations for, 290 Hot-house lambs, feeding of, 326 Hungarian grass, 111 Icelandic moss, 211 Increase of live weight in fattening, composition, 20 Incrusting substances, 15 Indian corn, 105 chemical composition, 164 Indian corn, grain, 164 field-curing, 108 fodder, 129 for horses, 287 for swine, 303 losses in curing, 60 methods of harvesting, 108 proportion of nutrients in, 106 thickness of planting, effect of, 105 silage, 155 variation in composition, 54 yields secured, 106 Intestinal juice, 29 Invertases, 30 Japanese cane, 112 Jerusalem artichokes, 142 corn, 173 Johnson grass, 102 Kaoliang, 173 Kafir corn, 110, 173 silage, 158 381 Kale, 140 Kellner’s starch values, 49 Kentucky blue grass, 101 Keratin, 22, 321 Kjeldahl method, 16 Kohlrabi, 135 Lacteals, 31 Lactose, 14 Lambs, early spring, feeding of, 327 fall, feeding of, 327 fattening, value of grain feeds for, 330 feeding of, 324 hot-house, feeding of, 326 weight at birth, 322 ‘winter feeding of, 327 Laying ration for poultry, 341 Leaves and twigs, 211 Lecithin, 23 Legume’ hay, average composition, 113, 121 Legumelin, 9 Legumin, 9 Leguminous crops, value of, 113 seeds, chemical composition, 176 Leucosin, 9 Levulose, 14 Lignin, 15 Linamarin, 198 Linoleic acid, 11 Linolenie acid, 11 Linseed meal, 195, 348 Literature on feeding of beef cattle, 276 Literature on feeding of calves, 226 dairy cattle, 252 farm; animals, 226 goats, 335 horses, 293 mules, 293 poultry, 357 sheep, 335 swine, 316 forage and grain crops, 177 silos and silage, 162 spineless cacti, 147 Lipase, 29 | Lipoids, 23 | Live animals, composition, 19 Low-protein feeds, 10 | Lymph, 22 Maintenance rations, 35 requirements, 34 for different body weights, 35 Malt sprouts, 189 382 Maltose, 14 Mangels, 133 Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 86, 373 Mare, feeding of, 281 Market hay, grades, 103 Marsh hay, 103 Maysin, 9 Meat meal, 204 Melons, 141 Metabolism, 33 Milch goats, 333 Milk, albumen, 22 colostrum, 205 composition, 206 with variations, 228 fat, 23 production, factors influencing, 229 influence of age of cows, 230 . breed, 229 condition of cows, 231 excitement, 232 feeding, 233 frequency of milking, 232 grooming and exercise, 233 individuality, 230 stage of lactation period, 231 season of year, 233 temperature and weather, 232 requirements for, 39 whole, for calves, 217 Milk-sugar, 14 Millets, 111 Milo maize, 110, 173 Mineral matter, 7 substances, influence on digesti- | bility, 69 Molasses, 192 - beet pulp, 195 Mono-saccharides, 14 Motor, hog, 298 Mules, feeding of, 291 Muscular tissues, 22 Myosin, 22 Myosinogen, 22 Net energy, 48 Nitrogen-free extract, 13, 18 Non-ruminants, 26 Non-saccharine sorghums, 110 Nucleo-proteins, 10 Nutritive ratio, 38, 73, 339 INDEX Oat dust, 182 feeds, 182 hulls, 182 shorts, 182 silage, 161 straw, composition, 128 Oats, 166 and oat hulls, composition of, 166 digestibility, 167 new, 167 Oil, addition to skim milk, for calves, 220 meals, 195 composition, 197 Old-process linseed meal, swelling test for, 196 Olein, 11 Orchard grass, 101 Oxyhemoglobin, 21 Pacific Coast, grasses of, 91 Packing-house feeds, 204 Palmitin, 11 Pancreas, 29 Pancreatic juice, 29 Parsnips, 142 composition of, 142 Pasturage, value of, 94 Pasture, feeding grain to cows on, 94 for dairy cows, 243 steers, 265 swine, 304 grasses, chemical composition, 93 Pastures, 90 care of, 91 swine, 304 Peanut, 126 meal, 203 straw, 130 Peas, 175 , Canada field, 121 Pectin bodies, 15 Pentosans, 14 Pentoses, 14 Peptones, 10 Phosphate of lime, 24 Phytin, 180 Pie melons, 141 Pigs, birth weight and gains made by, 295 fed for fattening in winter and summer, 312 feeding of, 306 intended for breeding purposes, approximate ration for, 308 INDEX Pigs, relation of weight to feed con- sumed and rate of gain, 296 Plains Region, grasses of, 91 Plants, composition, 6 Poisonous plants, 127 Poly-saccharides, 14 Potatoes, 137 dried, 137 Poultry, animal feeds for, 347 broiler ration, 355 bulk of feed, 342 charcoal, 351 chick ration, 354 composition of green feeds, 352 animal feeds, 352, crate-fattening, 357 digestibility of animal feeds, 352 digestive system, 336 tract, 337 examples of rations, 353 farm colony house, 340 fattening, 340 crate, 356 feed, bulk of, 342 cost of, 343 cottonseed meal, 348 dry mash, 345 hoppers, 345 flavor of, 343 grain to mash ratio, 342 green feeds, 348 how much to feed, 343 linseed meal, 348 suitability of, 342 soybean meal, 348 variety in, 342 wet mash, 346 wet versus dry mash, 344 feeding, 336 standards, 339 versus breeding, 346 growth, 340 hoppers for dry mash, 345 house, interior of modern, 343 how much to feed, 343 laying, ration for, 341 literature, 357 nutritive ratio standard, 339 salt, 351 Preparation of feeds, influence on digestibility, 67 Proprietary feeds, 210 Protamines, 10 Protein, 8 chemical energy in, 45 determination, 16 influence on digestibility, 69 383 | Proteins, conjugated, 10 derived, 10 modified, 10 simple, 9 Proteose, 10 Pumpkins, 141 Ram, feeding of, 323 Range and desert plants, 145 cattle, feeding of, 273 forage plants, composition of, 145 sheep, fattening of, at different ages, 325 Rape, 138 Rations, calculation of, 71 for beef cattle, 253 for dairy cows, 248 for fattening sheep, 332 -for work horses, 290 Red-clover, 117 Red-dog flour, 181 Red-top, 101 Remedies for calf scours, 220 Rennet stomachs, 217 Respiration apparatus, 43 calorimeter, 47 Rice, 174 bran, 187 by-products, 186 composition, 186 hulls, 186 test for, 187 meal, 186 polish, 186, 187 Ricin, 9 Rocky Mountain States, grasses of, 91 Rolling feeds, influence on digesti- bility, 67 Root crops, 131 Roots, value of, 132 and silage, relative yields, 131 and tubers, 131 for horses, 286 Roughage for calves, 221 for dairy cows, 245 for dairy heifer, 243 for horses, 283 Ruminants, 26 Rutabaga, 135 Rye, 169 feeds, 183 Sage brush, 145 Saliva, 28 Salt, common, importance of, 24 for calves, 222 384. Salt, common, for dairy cows, 24 for goats, 334 for poultry, 351 bush, 145 « bushes, digestibility of, 145 need of, by animals, 24 Salvage wheat, 170 Scours, calf, remedies for, 220 Screenings, weed seeds in, 171 Seed, variety and quality, influence on chemical composition of feed- ‘ing stuffs, 54 Self-feeder for sheep, 331 for steers, 268 for swine, 312 Sheep, digestibility of hay and straw + effect of fattening on carcasses of, 321 ; fattening, composition of in- erease of, 321 feeding of, 325 rations for, 332 feeding of, 317 Sheep, feeding of, literature on, 325 use of self-feeders, 331 husbandry, advantages of, 318 | standard rations for, 317 types of, 318 Silage and silos, literature on, 162 for dairy cows, 245 for horses, 286 for steers, 265 crops, 155 miscellaneous, 161 digestion coefficients for, 68 summer, 97 Siloing process, changes in chemical composition during, 60 influence on digestibility, 68 Silos, advantages, 153. and silage, 149 cylindrical, capacity of, 150 important points in building, 151 structures, 153 types, 149 Skim milk, 207 for calves, 219 for swine, 302 Smithfield Show, data for steer slaughtered at, 259 Smooth brome grass, 102 Soaking feed, influence on digesti- bility, 67, 299 Soft bacon, causes, 315 Soil, influence on chemical composi- tion of feeding stuffs, 53 INDEX Soiling crops, 95 composition, 96 for dairy cows, 244 succession of, 97 partial, 96 system, advantages of, 95 disadvantages, 96 Sorghum, 109 non-saccharine, 110 second-growth, care necessary in feeding, 110 silage, 157 Sorghums, 172 Sow, feeding of, 306 Soybean, 125 meal, 202, 348 plant, composition of, 125 silage, 160 Soybeans, 175 Speltz, 172 Spineless cacti, 146 literature on, 147 Starch, 13 Starch, factory feeds, 190 values, 49 critique of, 50 Steaming feed, influence pn digesti- bility, 67 Steapsin, 29 Stearin, 11 Steer feeding, concentrates for, 266 literature on, 276 pasture for, 265 Silage for, 265 use of self-feeder, 268 digestibility of hay and straw by, 63 fattening, composition of in- crease, 257 feed required for 100 pounds gains in winter and summer, 264 followed by hogs, 272 range, feeding of, 273 rations for, 275 relation of age to weight and daily gain, 260 two-year-old, fattening of, 271 Stock feeds, concentrated, 212 tonics, 212 home-made, 213 Stomach worms, in sheep, 324 Storage, influence on chemical com- position of feeding stuffs, 61 Stover, 129 Straw, buckwheat, 130 cereal, 128 Steers, INDEX Straw, legume, 130 millet, 130 Succulent feeds for calves, 222 for dairy cows, 244 Sudan grass, 111 Sucrose, 14 Sugar, 14 beets, 136 cane, 14 factory feeds, 192 malt and milk, 14 manufacture, 192 Summer silage, 97 Sweet cassava, 143 clover, 121 potato, 143 Swine, cooking feed, 298 dairy products for, 302 fattening, 309 composition of increase, 295 rations for, 310 Swine, feed requirements, 294, 300 feeding of, 294 for fat and for lean, 300 literature on, 316 self-feeders for, 312 feeds, 210, 299 grinding grain for, 298 Indian eorn for, 299 pastures for, 304 preparation of feed for, 297 soaking feed for, 298 standards for, 294 Tankage, 204 Teosinte, 112 Therm, 45 Timothy, 100 region, grasses of, 90 Tuberin, 9 385 Turnips, 136 - Trypsin, 29 Urea, 22 Urie acid, 22 Variety in poultry feed, 342 Veal calf, the, 225 Velvet bean, 125 Vetches, 123 Vicilin, 9 Villi, 31 Water, 6 for calves, 222 ‘for goats, 334 Watering horses, 283 Weed seeds in feeds, 171 Weende method, 17 Western lambs, feeding of, 329 Wet mash, 344-346 Wheat, 170 berry, anatomical structure, 179 bran, 180 feeds, adulterated, 181 middlings, 181 shorts, 181 Whey, 208 for swine, 303 White middlings, 181 Woodgum, 14 | Wolff-Lehmann standards, 37 Wool production, 321 Work done by horses, measurement of, 279 horses, rations for, 290 Xanthine, 22 Xylan, 14 Yearling steers, fattening of, 271