ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

NEw York STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HomE ECoNoMICcs

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CoRNELL UNIVERSITY

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PRINTEDINU.S A.

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REPORTS OF
THE FOREST PARK RESERVATION COMMISSION
OF NEW JERSEY

AN EXAMPLE OF

WOODLOT FORESTRY

BY

JAMES O. HAZARD

Assistant Forester

TRENTON, N. J.
MacCretiisn & Quicixy, State Printers.

1912.

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Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924003027012

The Forest Park Reservation Commission.

Hon. WOODROW WILSON, Governor, ex-officio President.
HENRY B. KUMMEL, Trenton, Executive Officer.

ELMER H. SMITH, Salem.

CHARLES L. PACK, Lakewood.

WILLIAM W. SMALLEY, Bound Brook.

ALFRED GASKILL, Trenton, Forester and Secretary.
JAMES O. HAZARD, Trenton, Assistant Forester.
CHARLES P. WILBER, Trenton, State Firewarden.

Orricg, State House, Trenton.

(3)

Contents.

Mount Laurel, 2s. .isieesica ci vv nciias satapauoueatuen soda imeamnannts
History of the Forest, ......... 00... ececccececccecucecucsetcenenens
The Neglected Woodlot,
IMPATIEESS © duciusdsds seaueiente a Guameiinuoliee ane da ate Raederentclns wats car een tay sat
Marking the Trees,
Bel linet hie res rss saw aic corn, ues a aneta igen dns loclerny ieee aces nea feces
Cleaning: UUp,. ecsaccncassasoisdecnntares Qareeecuene
MERE PROGUCE: sch A ncswnmeeie ental colle teal mu dnts ues Leica pial edb La htats
The Thinned Forest,
Planting; «dscasenimaniass tana auawaenan mone ee ors os Sadie audigy anne
A Study Of tHe "Grow thy: ecco ehi2 aenc.0 ch Gah Gao iatelieadecoauhery sie ue emmnegaans’
A Comparison of Actual and Possible Yield,
Economics of the New Jersey Forests,
Fire and Grazing,
Silviculture: ves vewnnisass reese wee eed fi os aseaasudalansasemerese
Theory of Thinnings,
State Aid in Forestry,

IIlustrations.

Figs. 1, 2, 3—A Part of the Forest on Mount Laurel Before and After

Treatments. acgcoeds xe vais eh Osa baied-a8.¥ ove 46S psatrnesewsirne aa Sbeiee
Figs. 4, 5-A Pine Stand Before and After Treatment, ...............
Fig. 6.—Improved Forest and Pine Plantation, ................00e eee
Fig. 7—The Product of the Improvement Thinning, ...............5.
Fig. 8.—Cross-sections Showing the Effect of Light Upon the Growth

Ob TTPCES occ oele Coe RaW stew essa deers ee 5 a Gin aig, Racauaralasdaud Baie bud auc laces
Fig. 9—Diagrams Illustrating Yield of Forest, ......-.......cceceeee
Figs. 10, 11—Mixed Forest Before and After Treatment, ............
Figs. 12, 13.—Young Pine Stand Before and Aftér Treatment, .......

(5)

PAGE.

Dense Sprout Stand (Chiefly Chestnut Oak) Before Thinning.
eaves, etc.

Fig. 2. The Same Stand After Thinning. Note that the Tallest, Straightest, Most Thrifty
Trees in Each Group are left to Grow Larger. Also the Low, Clean-cut Stumps.

Fig. 3. The Same in the Summer After Thinning. The Crown-co- th ight-
Portion is Already Dense Enough; On the Left aH ig. oe Thin. eeeeTnene

A Parr or THE Forest on Mount Laurer BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT,

An Example of Woodlot Forestry.

During the winter of I91I—-12 an improvement thinning was
made in the forest on the State Reserve at Mount Laurel near
Moorestown, Burlington county. This forest came into the
possession of the State in the usual neglected condition; that
is, it had been simply allowed to grow. Fortunately, fire had
been kept out. The presence of considerable blight-killed chestnut
on a part of the area, and a general crowding of the trees, made
necessary a felling much heavier than would be proper except
under extraordinary conditions. Forty-five per cent. of the
cubic contents of the stand was removed, and some large vacan-
cies resulted because of irregularities of growth, but the greater
part of the area was so treated that a fairly even stand of trees
was left (see Figs. 3, 11, 13). Fifteen dollars per acre was
netted on the operation. More could have been realized by a
private owner who would adapt time and convenience to the work.

As the forest on this reserve is typical of that on many areas
in New Jersey, it is the purpose of this bulletin to describe its
treatment as a practical example of how similar forests should
be managed. ‘The questions which entered into the treatment
of this forest, and which will have to be considered in most
woodlot forestry, with the faults that were revealed, are discussed
under the following headings:

1. History of the Forest.
2. The Neglected Woodlot.
3. Markets.
4. Marking the Trees.
5. Felling the Trees.
6. Clearing Up.
7. Products.
8. The Thinned Forest.
g. A Study of Growth.
to. A Comparison of Actual and Possible Yield.

(7)

8 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

HISTORY OF THE FOREST.

The forest is about forty years old. A cut was made forty-
four years ago which removed the entire stand. In the +e=
stocking which followed, a part of the hardwood stand was made
up of sprout growth and a rather larger part of seedling growth.
Shortly after the cutting, pine was introduced by carting from
a forest some distance away branches laden with cones and
scattering them about. From these cones the seeds fell which
have produced the present pine stand. The pine trees on Mt.
Laurel are thus somewhat younger than the hardwoods. The
growth has not been interfered with by fire or grazing.

THE NEGLECTED WOODLOT.

The forest occupies twenty acres, and was composed of a mix-
ture of pine and hardwoods, decidedly overcrowded. The soil is
clayey or loamy sand, rather better than true forest soil, though
it is properly rated as such because the ground is too steep to
be cultivated as are the adjoining lands (see Fig. 2). A thin
layer of humus is being increased year by year, thus gradually
improving the soil. d

Many trees were dead or dying, even the dominating trees
suffered for want of space. Only a small percentage of the trees
were large enough for the saw mill, or for other material than
cordwood, yet it was apparent that if the small, stunted and
interfering trees were removed, the others would be able to
make a more rapid growth. Clearly the forest needed a heavy
thinning, by which all superfluous trees would be removed and
only the better ones left (see Figs. 1, 2, 3).

The most plentiful trees were chestnut oak, white oak, red oak,
black oak, pitch pine and scrub pine, maple, red gum, tulip
poplar, while other species occurred in small numbers. ‘The soil
is naturally adapted to the oaks; the presence of the pines being
due to the artificial seedling. The piries have made a very satis-
factory growth, however, for while they are naturally found in

WOODLO'T FORESTRY. 9

the lighter, poorer, soils, they generally thrive on better ground
if they are not overcrowded by the hardwoods. These pines
when once fully established in full light are able by their rapid
growth to overtop most of the hardwoods, but if the hardwoods
are established first, there is little chance forthe pines to make
place for themselves.

Chestnut has grown more rapidly in this forest than any other
tree. In the past it probably has been the most valuable tree in
the practice of woodlot forestry because of its sprouting capacity,
its rapid growth and the ready market which always awaited it
in the form of lumber, poles or ties. The prevalent bark dis-
ease, however, necessitates removing it from this woodlot. Any-
one owning chestnut in New Jersey will be wise to find an early
market for it, as the disease is very likely to destroy it.

Red cedar was plentiful before the larger growing species be-
came dominant. The species demands practically open sunlight
to live, and as this has been shut out for some years by the over-
topping trees, the cedar ceased to grow and much of it died (see
Fig. 10). It should have been removed from the forest several
years ago.

MARKETS.

Because of the limited amount of material to be cut, an investi-
gation of local markets only was made. It was found that cord-
wood, telephone poles, saw logs, fence posts, etc., could be sold
at a profit. These products represented what a proper thinning
of the forest would produce. An important feature of successful
forestry is the putting of each tree into the product in which it
will yield the most.

MARKING THE TREES.

Before the choppers were allowed to begin cutting, every tree
to be removed was marked by a blaze in the bark, which could
be easily seen by the workmen (see Figs. 4, 10). The following
rules were fixed and’ followed:

2F

10 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

1. Mark all chestnut trees.

2. Mark all cedar trees.

3. Mark all dead trees.

4. Mark all suppressed trees; that is, all trees which are shut
out from the sunlight by larger ones.

5. Mark all but two, and in most cases all but one, of the trees
in groups which have started from one stump.

6. Mark the poorer specimens of groups of trees where their
crowns have not sufficient space, choosing! to be left the stronger,
freer-growing trees.

7. Mark enough trees so that the crown of each one left will
be free from its neighbor by a few feet.

8. Favor to be left pitch pine rather than scrub pine when
it is a question which of two equally healthy, but interfering,
individuals to save.

g. Favor to be left oak rather than pine where it is a question
as to which of these two species should be removed. (On a
poorer soil this rule would be reversed.)

~ FELLING THE TREES.

After all the trees had been marked, a crew of four men, under
a competent foreman, were given the following instructions for
the felling:

1. Cut all marked trees, but only those marked.

2. Cut all stumps as low as possible. No stump free from
mechanical hindrance should be left higher above the ground than
the diameter of the cut (see Figs. 2, 5, 7, 11, 13).

3. Cut all reasonably straight oak and pine into saw logs
down to a 6-inch top diameter and an 8-foot length.

4. Cut all straight chestnut trees into telephone poles. Peel
the poles.

5. Cut all other chestnut into fence posts.

6. Cut cedar into posts, vineyard stakes and bean poles.

7. Cut locust into posts.

8. Cut all other trees and all branches to a two-inch diameter

limit into cordwood, and then rank in piles of not less than half a
cord.

ing was Required Here as Many of

Fellin,
ying From Overcrowding.

See gy,

OO

Small Pine Trees Have Since Been Planted in

A Heavy

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Pine Stands.
the Trees were D

One of the Older

The Same Stand After Thinning;

Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.

WOODLOT FORESTRY. II

g. Fell all trees over eight inches in diameter at the butt with
saws, in order that the felling direction may be better controlled
and the stumps left smoother. Trees less than eight inches in
diameter may be chopped.

10. Protect the unmarked trees from injury when felling the
marked trees by carefully choosing the felling direction.

r1. Pile all brush in openings or on chestnut stumps, where it
can be burned without damage to the remaining trees (see Fig.
7):

12. Cut suppressed and dying undergrowth and pile it with
the other refuse, but spare the laurel and all live young trees.

These rules will apply to almost any New Jersey woodlot. It
is not necessary, however, that the underbrush be cut or the tops
piled and burned in an ordinary operation. Underbrush forms
a natural part of a forest, and the tops of felled trees, if lopped
and scattered, will soon decay and form humus. A further
reason for leaving the tops to decay is that the standing trees
may be injured when the brush piles are burned. There is no
real need of burning brush in a hardwood forest; when it is care-
fully done, however, it somewhat lesséns the risk of forest fires.
Tihe brush was burned at Mount Laurel because it was desirable
to make a neat and sightly natural park for the use of the local
citizens, as well as to furnish an object lesson in forestry.

CLEANING UP.

After the cutting was completed the cleaning up of the refuse
became the immediate problem. Men with forks, rakes, sprink-
ling pots and water were ordered to burn the brush piles. If a
pile was so located that the flames would not overheat the sur-
rounding trees, a fire line four to six feet wide was raked around
the heap down to mineral earth and a match applied. Each pile
had to be watched until all danger of its jumping across the fire
line was passed. Whenever a fire got started away from the
brush piles it was promptly extinguished by means of the sprink-
ling pots. All piles which were too large or not properly located
with reference to remaining trees were divided or moved before

12 WOODLOT: FORESTRY.

being burned. The cost of cleaning up and burning the brush
was at the rate of 16 cents per cord for the volume of market-
able wood removed. As explained above, this expense 1S UTX
necessary in ordinary woodlot operations.

THE PRODUCT.

The products into which the material was cut were adapted to
the local market. The total amount of material removed was
20,475 cubic feet of solid wood. If figured at 80 cubic feet per
cord; this equals 256 cords.* Only 208 cords, however, were cut
into fuel, the balance being represented by 80 chestnut telephone
poles, 67 cedar fence posts, 109 sawed chestnut posts, 800 bean
poles, 400 vineyard stakes and 12,475 board feet of saw material
(see Fig. 7). The market value of the 48 cords represented by
these products was more than double their value as fuel. The net
return from the whole operation was approximately $300.

THE THINNED FOREST.

As it now stands, the forest contains 24,712 cubic feet of wood.
Each tree that remains has been saved because it was the best
fitted individual in its group for future growth and gave the
greatest promise of future value. The forest as a whole is
thrifty, and has a prosperous look as if all the trees were doing °
their best to produce wood, in striking contrast to the appear-
ance which it had before the removal of the unthrifty specimens
which served to make the whole seem unkempt (Compare Figs.
rand 3, 12 and 13).

PLANTING.

In several parts of the forest, gaps or openings, too large to
be soon occupied by natural growth, existed. One of these had.
been made by the removal of gravel (Fig. 6), another by road

*A-cord of 128 cubic feet contains on the average 80 feet of wood and 48
feet of air space.

with An Old Gravel Pit in Foreground Planted to

Scotch Pine.

,

The Forest After Treatment

Fig. 6.

“

Product of the Improvement Thinning. A, A, A, Low, Clean-cut Stumps;
Electric Poles; C, C, C, Cord Wood; D, Fence Posts; E, E, E, Brush Piled for Burning.

BB)

Fig. 7.

WOODLOT FORESTRY. 13

grading, others by the enforced felling of chestnuts or of groups
of large pines. The total area was about two acres. To redeem
this land from idleness, and at the same time to get some know-
ledge of the values of various trees in such situations, it was
planted in May to scotch pine, white pine, austrian pine, norway
spruce and douglas fir. The little trees, none of them over a
foot high, many less than four inches, with not a few seedlings
of pitch pine and scrub’pine, which the increased sunlight has
caused to germinate, now promise to thrive and add to the
diversity, interest and value of the reserve.

Planting in gaps, or planting anywhere when protection is
assured and natural forest is lacking, is good policy. The cost
in this case, counting’ trees, freight and labor, was at the rate
of $9 an acre. That is, trees of the same kinds and size could
have been planted solid 6 x 6 feet, or 1,210 per acre, for that
amount. ‘The spacing here was necessarily very irregular.

A STUDY OF THE GROWTH.

The forest having been put in good shape, a study of the
yearly growth, as indicated by the rings on the stumps of the
felled trees, revealed some interesting facts in the lives of the
various individuals. Most of the larger trees made a fairly uni-
form and rapid growth up to twenty years of age, from which
time on it began to drop off, more or less rapidly according as
the stand in which the tree grew was more or less crowded.
In fact trees of all sizes maintained or diminished their rate
of growth according as they were the stronger or the weaker
individuals in their particular groups.

Figure 8 shows plainly the variation which is found in trees
of the same age, in the same stand, and grown under practically
the same conditions except that of spacing; thus 4 is from a
black oak, 41 years old; B from a chestnut oak, 45 years old;
C from a chestnut, 44 years old; D from a post oak, 43 years
old; E from a white oak, 40 years old; F from a maple, 40 years
old and G from a sassafras, 4o years old. The black lines are

14 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

drawn to show the growth in ten-year periods. From their
sections it is easy to read the history of the trees, as follows:

Specimen A came from a tree grown from seed. Up to the
fourth year this tree was practically free from hindrance and
grew rapidly ; in the fourth year it is probable that a drought was
responsible for the very small increase in diameter that is shown.
A study of the United States rainfall record, kept at Moores-
town, shows that in 1874, the year of small growth on this tree,
only 59 per cent. of the normal amount of rain fell in the grow-
ing months of May, June, July and August. In the eighth and
ninth years this tree had a hard struggle with its neighbors for
nourishment. It apparently overcame this opposition, and from
that time until its thirty-fourth year continued little influenced
by its rivals. After the latter period, especially in the thirty-
ninth, fortieth and forty-first years, it shows the effects of
crowding by its neighbors. ‘This tree was cut because it had
reached a size which made it economical to market it, and it was
occupying too much space.

Specimen B is from a tree of sprout origin. Until it was
twenty years of age, this tree made a very creditable growth
on the side away from the center of the stump from which it
sprouted. ‘At that time the other sprouts from the same stump
became so powerful that the necessary food and light was denied
this one, and gradually its rate of growth decreased until in the
last few years it became quite insignificant. The side of the
section with the shortest radius illustrates the effect of over-
crowding in the forest. Light and food were lacking here, and,
consequently, little growth was made after the sixth year. Com-
pare this growth with that on the longest radius. Two and
two-tenths inches were made on the short radius in forty-four
years, while on the longest radius the same was made in eleven
years, or one-quarter the time. After the sixth year a growth
of 1.7 inches was made in thirty-eight years on the shortest
radius, as against 5.2 inches on the longest radius during the
same period. Had this tree had sufficient room it could have
maintained a complete growth, as indicated on the long radius,
and would then have been 12.4 inches in diameter instead of 8. 5

Fig. 8. The Effect of Light Upon the Growth of Trees Illustrated by Cross-sections From Seven Trees of Nearly the Same Age.

WOODLOT! FORESTRY. 15

inches, as it was at the time it was cut. ‘This tree was felled
because it was the weakest of a crowded group..

Specimen C is from one of the smallest chestnut trees cut on
this woodlot. Its growth was slow throughout, but especially
so since its thirtieth year. It was also crowded by other trees.
It would have been at least twice this size if it had grown free
from competition. Some trees of this species grew to a 26-inch
diameter, while this tree was growing to 9.2 inches. All trees
of this species were cut because of the chestnut bark disease.

Specimen D is from a post oak. This tree was crowded by
others on the side of the short radius. On the side of the long
radius it grew fairly rapidly until it was about 24 years of
age when the crowding became too severe and its growth was
seriously checked. Practically all the trees of this species were
removed by the thinning, because any of the other oaks are better
as regards the rate of growth and market value.

Specimen E is from a white oak grown from seed. It made
a moderate growth for twenty years, but was always crowded.
After it was twenty years old the surrounding trees gained su-
premacy, and if the cutting had been deferred a few years more,
they would probably have killed this tree entirely. The growth
rings for the past ten years are so close together that they can
only be distinguished under a strong magnifying glass. Of this
species only weak individuals, like the one shown here, were cut,
as white oak is one of our most valuable forest trees. ‘

Specimen F is from ared maple. This tree was out of its ele-
ment from the start. The ground here is much drier than its
natural habitat, consequently its growth has been very -slow
throughout. Up to twenty years of age, the growth was better
than from that time on, as is the case with practically all other
trees in this stand. In addition to being in an unfortunate loca-
tion, this tree, being rather tolerant of shade, persisted in its
growth in spite of an amount of crowding which probably would
have killed an oak. This is a tree of low value, and, except
under very favorable circumstances, is not suited for timber

growing.

16 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

Specimen G is from a sassafras, and a good sample of the
class of inferior trees which are allowed to remain in the forest.
Specimen 4 was 12 inches in diameter when this tree was not
quite 4 inches. During the last ten years this tree was scarcely
able to maintain life. It is a weed tree, and has no place in a
timber forest.

This discussion and the illustrations show some of the possi-
bilities of tree growth. They give an insight into tree history,
and indicate the effects which trees have upon one another as they
grow together in a forest. Anyone can take Fig. 8 into a forest
which is being cut, and there read life histories comparable at
every point with those shown here. Of course, any complete
study of tree growth would include an analysis of heights as
well as of diameters, but that may be ignored here, for the sake
of simplicity, as well as because the relation between height and
diameter is fairly constant in any given stand or forest unit.

A COMPARISON OF ACTUAL AND POSSIBLE YIELD.

The diagrams on the opposite page, Fig. 9, show at a glance
the value of proper thinnings. ihe relative size of these dia-
grams was determined by a study of the average volume growth
of the unthinned stand, and the maximum volume growth of the
theoretical thinned stand, as shown oni individual trees which
grew under conditions which would normally be found in thin-
ned stands. The unthinned stand at forty years of age showed
a total product of 2,240 cubic feet per acre, in comparison with
a possible 3,296 cubic feet per acre in a properly thinned, stand.
While these figures represent the difference in volume, they do
not represent the difference in value. It is quite probable that
the 1,808 cubic feet left after the forty-year cut in the properly
thinned stand would have double the value, foot for foot, of
that which now remains in the forest which was not thinned
until it was forty years old. This fact becomes more evident
when it is realized that the volume of the improved stand thus
represented would be largely saw timber instead of fuel.

ACTUAL GROWTH AND YIELD AT THREE PERIODS

® ©

TOTAL GROWTH
AT 20 YEARS AT 350 YEARS AT 40 YEARS
5l2 CU. FT. 1184 CU. FT. 2240 CU.FT.

POSSIBLE GROWTH aM YIELD AT THREE PERIODS

55 % LEFT =
1240 CU.FT.

70 % LEFT=
1264 CU. FT.

70% LEFT =
1808 CU. FT.

TOTAL GROWTH
AT 20 YEARS AT 30 YEARS AT 40 YEARS

512 CU. FT. 1808 CU.FT. 2584 CU.FT.
TOTAL ACTUAL YIELD TOTAL POSSIBLE YIELD
AT 40 YEARS AT 40_YEARS

1488 CU.FT.

55% LEFT
1240 CU.FT.

TOTAL GROWTH
2240 CU. FT. 5296 CU. FT.

Fig. 9. Diagrams Comparing Yield per Acre of Uncared-for Forest with the Possible Yield
of the Same.

$5 % LEFT
1808 CU. FT.

WOODLOT FORESTRY. 17

ECONOMICS OF THE NEW JERSEY FORESTS.

To apply the lesson of Mount Laurel, it may be observed that
the forests of New Jersey at the present time are composed of
what is commonly known as “second growth.” In reality, most
of them have been cut over three or four times. They have also
been repeatedly burned and otherwise greatly abused. Thus
while 45 per cent. of the State’s land area is forest, the greater
part is of little actual value. And the stripping the forests of
so much of their valuable saw timber has forced many manu-
facturing concerns to cease entirely to depend upon the local
sources and to import their log' material from other States. That
the home market for saw material is satisfactory is evidenced
by the absence of any considerable areas of standing timber.
The small saw mills, cutting only from 5,000 to 7,000 board feet
per day, have long been able to keep pace with the growth of
the forest. Whenever an oak or a chestnut tree becomes large
enough to make ties, piles or poles, it finds a ready market.

By properly thinning and caring for his forest, the farmer
or woodlot owner can in forty years secure logs which it formerly
required from sixty to eighty years to produce. At the same
time he can get from the thinning material sold, or used, more
than enough to pay the expenses of the attention that the wood-
land requires. Timber raising which is not economical is not
recommended. ‘Timber culture on a sound financial basis is the
only forestry which should be practiced.

In many localties it has been customary in the past to cut the
forests clean every twenty or thirty years to supply the cord-
wood market. The practice is wasteful. Forestry demands that
the material to be made into fuel shall be drawn from the
branches of timber trees and from the defective trees which it is
necessary to remove in order to allow the better trees to grow
into valuable timber. There will always be enough poor trees to
supply the demand for fuel; there is now an excess of them in
all parts of the State. Under these circumstances, it is folly
to cut trees which have the possibility of producing more value

3F

18 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

if allowed to grow. Any woodland owner who permits clear
cutting for fuel purposes in any of the ordinary New Jersey
woodlands does it to his own detriment.

The market for cordwood is good only where the woodlands
are so located that a short haul is possible. If woodland owners
would merely thin their forests of poor material, holding the
better trees for more valuable products, they would take a great
deal of wood out of the fuel market, and thus extend the area
within which cordwood can be cut at a profit. Every woodland
owner whose forest is so located that there is a market for fire-
wood has an immediate forestry problem which he should con-
sider. By a little study and careful management, such a prop-
erty may be made to yield a continuous revenue. Simple protec-
tion will accomplish something, of course, for, when nature is
made forester, the fittest will surely survive. But her process
is slow and her ax dull. The case of Mount Laurel proves this.

The composition of the New Jersey forests in the future will
be mainly of oak and pine. Chestnut, which up to the present
time has composed from 30 to 60 per cent. of the northern
forests, is rapidly being exterminated by the bark disease. Black
oak, red oak, white oak, chestnut oak, tulip and ash are the
species naturally adapted to the higher elevations. To them,
pines and other conifers may be added by planting. On the
level sands of South Jersey the native pitch pine is of greatest
value and deserves a higher esteem than is commonly accorded
it. The oaks found in association are comparatively slow gTrow-
ing and of less commercial value.

FIRE AND GRAZING.

Fire, uncontrolled, has no place in any forest Controlled, it
is often a helpful agent in cleaning up waste. ‘The pine lands of
South Jersey have been brought to their present low estate by
repeated burnings, not by the use of the ax. Any tree up to ten
years of age is likely to be killed by even a very moderate fire,
and older trees, even the fire-resistent pitch pine, are often
seriously damaged.

WOODLOT! FORESTRY. 19

It is of value to a forest owner to bring his trees to saw-log size
in the shortest possible time. Frequently it has taken fifteen
years to re-establish a growth equal in value to a ten-year-old
stand which was destroyed. Fire, therefore, must not be tole-
rated!

Grazing must be prohibited in all forest plantings, and in
reproduction cuttings, at least until the trees are of such size that
their crowns are out of reach of the animals. The young, tender
shoots are relished by stock, and an entire year’s growth may be
lost in a few minutes; moreover, trees thus injured may carry
the results through life in the form of crooked stems.

SILVICULTURE.

A tree, or a forest, grows and develops well or ill, in response
to certain stimuli. In the case of a single tree these influences
are reduced to their simplest terms—food, water, light. In the
forest they are multiplied and complicated by the struggle of
trees, shrubs and herbs each to find the means of life. One who
practices forestry takes a hand in this contest, and wisely as he
may, checks useless interference, conserves the elements of
growth, and stimulates the most valuable trees. After the forest
is started his only tools are the ax and saw. It is, therefore,
right, not wrong, to use them constantly—and intelligently.

But the basis of all silviculture is a knowledge of what helps
and what hinders the growth of trees. Leaving many factors
untouched, the most important may be considered under the fol-
lowing heads and then applied to the “Theory of Thinnings.”
(Page 21.)

Light—Without light the leaves of trees are unable: to per-
form their functions in the elaboration of sap. Some kinds of
trees require more light than others. Those whose leaves will
function in a weak light are known as tolerant, or shade-endur-
ing, while those that ‘require practically full sunlight are called
intolerant, or light-requiring. There are many grades between
the extremes. Coniferous or evergreen forests are comparativelv

20. WOODLOT FORESTRY.

easily managed because they contain but one, or, at the most,
a few, species. In any hardwood forest, however, trees of widely
varying light requirement are found. Pitch pine, red cedar, grey
birch and tulip poplar are some of our most intolerant trees;
black oak, red oak, white oak and basswood are more or less
tolerant, while beech and sugar maple are very tolerant.

One intending to cultivate a forest should study the light re-
quirements of each species represented, and by proper and timely
thinnings give each tree the light it needs—not too much, for it
is easily possible to develop oversized crowns and to waste the
humus and foster weeds on the forest floor. Most trees need
some shade protection in early life, as direct sunlight frequently
causes the tender plants to dry out. Once fully established, how-
ever, any tree will make a more rapid growth in full sunlight
than elsewhere.

Soil.-—Each tree species grows best in some particular kind
of soil, yet, other things being equal, most trees will live in any
soil except the most impoverished. ‘Trees even in the forest
often become established in places entirely unsuited for them.
Some species, like the hickories and oaks, have deep root sys-
tems, and consequently require a deep soil; others, like the hem-
lock and spruce, have shallow root systems, and often will grow
in a few inches of soil on the face of a solid rock. In improv-
ing a forest the trees should be studied with reference to their
soil requirements, and an attempt made to bring about an ad-
justment by encouraging those which seem well satisfied. In
planting new forests the most suitable trees for a given. locality
can always be found, but in the case of old forests, it is neces-
sary to make the best of the trees which are already on the
ground.

Humus.—The humus which forms on the forest floor from
the decay of leaves and other litter is of value to the trees as
fertilizer, as a mulch to prevent the evaporation of moisture
from the soil, and as a medium through which the air may
reach the roots. The forest soil improves year by year as the
humus enters into it; it is, therefore, important to preserve it.
This can be done by keeping a moderate amount of shade. ‘T'oo

ee ee a IS San Tt OTE

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Which Died from Lack of Light.

the Low Stumps.
Mixep Forest BErorE AND AFTER TREATMENT.

Cedar Tree at Left

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Note ,also,
The Same Stand After Thinning. Note the Clean Appearance of the Forest and

A Typical Mi:

Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.

WOODLOM FORESTRY. 27

much sunlight causes a rapid disintegration of the litter and
often fosters a weed growth that makes a heavy draft upon
the soil moisture. Fire destroys the litter, which by decay passes
into humus, and impoverishes the soil.

Moisture-—The amount of moisture required by the different
forest trees varies greatly, and, though most trees will live in
any except the extremes of dryness and wet, a knowledge of
the preferences or requirements of each will aid one in deter-
mining whether or not a given tree is in a congenial situation.
Black spruce and larch are at home in wet swamps; rock oak
on stony hills; white oak, black oak and walnut on well drained
lower slopes and lowlands. In nature, if a tree germinates out
of its range, it dies and no one is concerned about it. In forestry,
however, it is important to know how much moisture a given
tree needs in order that mistakes may be avoided.

Litter and Undergrowth.—The litter and undergrowth protect
the humus and gradually add to it. They form a light covering
for the soil and help to maintain a condition of moisture con-
ducing to the decomposition of dead vegetation. They also
form a shelter for game. The litter and undergrowth are as much
parts of the forest as the trees themselves, and as such should
never be destroyed either by fire or by cutting.

THEORY OF THINNINGS.

The object of thinning a forest is to reduce the wasteful com-
petition by which nature brings the trees to maturity. While
they are small, many trees can find sustenance on a given area;
as they grow older, and each requires more room, the number
must be diminished. From the standpoint of the forest, a thin-
ning should be made whenever the individual trees begin to crowd
one another. From the standpoint of the owner, thinning must
be deferred until the trees are large enough at least to return the
cost of their removal. As a matter of fact, very few of our
forests seriously need thinning before they are twenty years of
age, a time at which, if advantageously located, they will usually

22 WOODLOT FORESTRY.

yield enough material to cover the cost. To thin a forest prop-
erly, then, begin when it is about twenty years old, and thin it
regularly at intervals of from five to te years until the final
crop is ready for harvest.

Points to observe in thinning:

1. Choose the trees to leave, rather than the ones to take out.

2. Try to develop an even spacing between the trees.

3. In the early thinnings, let the value of the species in its
final product be important in determining the trees which are
to be left.

4. Have in mind that trees with long straight boles are of
greatest value for lumber.

5. Save the best grown trees of the most valuable species.

6. Try to maintain a nearly complete crown canopy as a
means of preserving soil fertilty. Do not take out too much,
rarely should more than 20 per cent. of the volume come out at
a time (see Fig. 3).

7. Mark the trees to be removed, not those that are to stay,
as every wound lessens the vitality and the value of a tree.

STATE AID IN FORESTRY.

Since forest owners know little about the methods employed
in forestry, the Forest Commission offers the services of its
foresters, so far as their time will permit, to all who ask for them.
The assistance given includes the examination of woodlands and
the making of recommendations for their management. Where
cutting is necessary, a part of the trees to be felled will be
marked to guide the owners in the removal of the rest. Advice
in regard to markets will be given, but in no case will the forester
have part in a sale. Those interested in forest planting will be
advised regarding the most suitable species for their situations,
how to obtain the trees and how to plant them. The State sup-
plies no planting material. Fire protective plans will also be
formulated.

ote the Great Number of Small

N

re Thinning.
Weak Trees.

Stand Befo

me

A Younger P:

12.

ig.

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Younc Pring Stanp Berore AND AFTER TREATMEN

The Same Location After Thinning.

13

Fig.

WOODLOT FORESTRY. 23

In all cases the assistance given is advisory. There is no obli-
gation to follow the recommendations made, though where they
are acted upon the Forest Commisson claims the right to inspect
the property from time to time and to publish facts concerning
the work for the benefit of the public. The cost to the owner
is the forester’s actual expenses while away from Trenton. His
salary is paid by the State. Inquiries by mail on any forest
subject will be carefully answered. For this there is no charge.

Write to the State Forester, Trenton, about anything relating
to forests or shade irees—not fruit trees.