peer By neem AD eee eben ic : oa ath elle, beet (ek oemmn > gases, rod Le Se ee a ; % ne PPOULTRY _ HUSBANDRY Y HARRY R. LEWIS Ses. A Sf eht visio® ames E Rice MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY CORNELL ny: TT ALABanerT ” THE GIFT OF Friends and admirers ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library SF 487.L63 1914 rn mann Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003040411 ‘The first farmer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land." —EMERSON LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY AND PRINCIPAL OF THE SHORT COURSES, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS). PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. POULTRY HUSBANDMAN OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; ASSIST+ ANT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS); FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE OF THE BARON DE HIRSCH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL; MEMBER INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POULTRY INSTRUC- TORS AND INVESTIGATORS; LIFE MEMBER AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION, LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By G. E. DAY, B.S.A. Ontario Agricultural College $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By H. R. LEWIS, B.S. Rutgers College, N. J. $2.00 net PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By C. W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. University of Pennsylvania $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS Professor of Pomology Massachusetts Agricultural College $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY By W. C. COFFEY, M.S. University of Illinois In PREPARATION PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of California In PREPARATION COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M. Purdue University In PREPARATION Aad Vb Bid REY A ARE Od NO (LO Ru 1M RYOO’M HLOOWAT EE SLLLH YA, MOOT IWUVA OPE LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett). PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY A COMPLETE TEXT DEALING WITH THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY BY HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. POULTRY HUSBANDMAN OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; ASSIST- ANT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS); FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE OF THE BARON DE HIRSCH, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL; MEMBER INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POULTRY INSTRUC- - TORS AND INVESTIGATORS; LIFE MEMBER AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 329 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE, TEXT “Tf vain our toil, We ae to blame the culture, not the soil.” Pore—Essay on Man SECOND EDITION REVISED PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Mt. SF ug yb iG \% E 6036 COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY J. 4. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, I914 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U.S. A. DEDICATION. TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF POULTRY THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. MAY IT BE TO THEM A STEPPING STONE IN THIS GREAT AND GROWING INDUSTRY. PREFACE. Tue exceedingly large and ever-increasing demand for poultry and poultry products, at home and for export, has caused the poultry business to become so profitable, when conducted upon a scientific basis, that no breeder can afford to lack the latest knowl- edge of best methods in all its branches. A number of poultry books have appeared during the past few years in response to an insistent demand, some dealing with special branches, others covering the entire subject in a general way. But the great need in poultry literature is for a work which covers the subject in a thoroughly scientific yet practical manner, treating each branch in sufficient detail to give entire clarity, and giving to the reader the results of research at the various experiment stations and the methods that are most successful in present-day practice. Such a book has been the aim of the author. In its prepara- tion there has been an earnest effort to help build the foundation for a systematic, scientific, and greater poultry industry. The book contains in a systematic and abbreviated form the practices and experiences of the author as student, practical poul- tryman and teacher, together with the teachings of our leading col- leges, experiment stations, and authorities on poultry husbandry. Of all live-stock, the poultry flock is most often misunderstood and poorly cared for. In recent years much attention has been given to a special study of the needs of poultry, in order to secure reliable data on the subject. It is largely due to this awakening that the poultry industry of America is bounding ahead in such rapid strides. Remember that in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1905, the total value of poultry products in the United States was estimated at five hundred million dollars. In 1907 it had risen to over six hundred million dollars, and in 1910 it was equal to cotton and was next to corn, which is the leading agricultural product. This rapid increase in production, accom- panied by a more rapidly increasing demand for home consumption and export, necessitates a better knowledge of requirements under- lying production and marketing. With these conditions in mind, the text has been written to aid vil viii PREFACE all those interested in every phase of the industry. The book offers, to the student and teacher of poultry husbandry, a complete, concise, systematic course of lessons, commencing with a brief introduction outlining methods of teaching poultry husbandry. The main text opens with a discussion of poultry farming, its opportunities and requirements, the types and systems, methods of starting in the business, and an analysis of foreign poultry con- ditions. The breeds of poultry are classified and their uses given; methods of management are recommended, including housing, feeding, breeding, and all phases of hatching and rearing. Every phase of marketing is analyzed and improved methods are recommended. Suggestions are given on the subjects of exhib- iting, judging, advertising, and the keeping of records. In dis- cussing methods of management the principles underlying the operations are first given; this is followed with a few of the most successful practices. Illustrations are freely but carefully used to bring out important features. In the hands of the commercial poultryman the book affords a large field for study, because it points out the practices which prove to be most efficient on large, successful plants, and because it outlines methods which are recommended by experiment stations in the various States and by the Federal Government. By making free use of the index, the poultryman can quickly find information pertaining to almost any point about which he might wish to know. In case of disease, improper feeding, or environmental con- ditions, the information might be of inestimable value. To the farm poultryman the text clearly pictures methods which would enable the keeping of more birds with no more labor and a much increased profit. The methods given, if practised, would enable the average farmer to keep from two hundred to five hundred birds, as a “side line’ to general farm operations, and realize a handsome revenue. The text is so arranged that it will meet the needs for svstem- atic reading courses, for farmers’ clubs, poultry associations, and granges. The review questions at the end of each chapter are for the use of students in preparing for recitations, for the instructor in conducting reviews, and for the practical poultryman in grasping the fundamental points in the discussion. Reference list. are given at the close of many of the chapters. Most of the references are to Federal and State publications which can be obtained free of PREFACE = ix charge or which can be found in reference libraries. The miscel- laneous references in the appendix deal with the entire subject in a general way. It is recommended that references be studied so far as facilities will permit, since a broader conception of the sub- ject will thus be obtained. “That this book may fill a place in the world of poultry litera- ture, may meet the need for a modern text-book, and may help solve the problems which are so annoying to many, whether they be students, poultrymen, or farmers, is the earnest wish of the author. Harry R. Lewis. New Brunswick, New JERSEY, October, 1913. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Tue author wishes first to express his obligations to a number of persons who have aided in the preparation of this work. To Mr. Morris Roberts, of Maplewood, New Jersey, is due the credit for a number of the pen-and-ink drawings reproduced in the text. Mrs. Harry R. Lewis has materially aided in the completion of the work. Many practical poultrymen and teachers, whose names are not mentioned, have offered suggestions and encouragement, for which appreciation is hereby shown. To all those who have so earnestly and willingly aided in the work the author expresses his appreciation and indebtedness. As previously mentioned, it has been the object of the author to write a text on poultry husbandry which should contain in proper form the most complete and logical discussion of the subject which was possible, from the knowledge which is at present available. For many years the Federal Department of Agriculture, State Colleges of Agriculture, and State Experiment Stations have been experimenting and studying many of the problems affecting our poultry industry. In this work some institutions have taken a leading part in one phase of the field, while others have pursued still other lines. An effort has been made to include in this volume the latest findings from these sources, which have been tested out by the author in his practices. Special mention should be. made of the following stations. The poultry department of Cornell University has been a pioneer in the work of poultry investigations, and much of the best knowl- edge which we have to-day originated there. In the preparation of this work considerable use has been made of their findings in regard to poultry-house construction, breeding for vigor and egg production, and the value of pure-bred birds. Valuable informa- tion, pertaining to the molt of fowls, to the feeding of young and old birds, and to features of marketing, has been credited to the Cornell department. The poultry departments of Perdue University, lowa State University Connecticut Agricultural College, and the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station are among . Xi xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS those which should receive special mention for material made use of. The department of biology of the University of Maine has taken a leading place in the field of poultry diseases and the inheritance of egg production. Many ideas and facts are taken from the work at this station. The Federal Department of Agri- culture, especially in the Bureau of Animal Industry and Bureau of Chemistry, has made valuable discoveries pertaining to the handling, storing, and marketing of eggs and poultry. The prac- tical application of many of these has been outlined. The composition tables given in Chapter XI were compiled from analyses from Experiment Station Reports, more especially those from New Jersey. The composition of many grains was taken from “Elementary Treatise on Stock Feeds and Feeding,” by J. E. Halligan. Valuable material was also obtained from Bulletin No. 164 of the California Experiment Station, entitled “Poultry Feeding,” by M. E. Jaffa. The feeding tables in the appendix are almost entirely from that source. Many photographs have been kindly supplied by the Federal Department, by experiment stations, and by individuals, credits for which are given where they appear. All photographs not credited were taken by the author, many of them being from the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. In order to make uniform background the publishers had many of the photographs retouched, necessarily eliminating the artist’s. name in a number of cases. The majority of the photo- graphs so retouched were of artists’ drawings by Louis Paul Graham. At the end of each chapter will be found a list of reference bulletins to which the author has referred and to which the stu- dent can refer with the assurance of much valuable aid. In conclusion, the acknowledgments would not be complete without expressing my feeling of indebtedness to the general agricultural and poultry literature which at various times has been studied and consulted by the author as student, teacher, and writer. The following books should receive special mention as having been studied as a text or reference work: “Poultry Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and Cottagers,”’ by Edward Brown. ‘ ‘Progressive Poultry Culture,” by A. A. Brigham. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii “Poultry Craft’? and “Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture,” by John Robinson. “Farm Poultry,” by G. C. Watson. “Farm Management,” by F. W. Card. “Principles of Breeding,” by Eugene Davenport. “Animal Breeding,’”’ by Thomas Shaw. “Feeds and Feeding,’ by W. A. Henry. Any one or all of these books can well be secured for one’s library, to be used as texts or reference works. To all who have in any way aided in the completion of this volume, whether by direct coéperation or through the establish- ment of facts through research and investigation, the author feels and-expresses his obligation. May they share with him the success of this effort. Harry R. Lewis. New Brunswick, New Jersey, August 10, 1914. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE Iyrropuction—TueE Tracuine or Poutrry HusBaNpRY..... 1 I. Poutrry Farmine anp WuaTit Mmans........)....2.--505 7 II. Cuoosine a Poutrry FarM............. Paigat tats were, pauls 41 IIL. Maxine a Successrun START........0.. 0000 c eee eee eee eee 56 IV. Tue Brunps or PoutrRY.......... 000. c0cceeeeeceeeeeeeees 63 V. SELECTION OF STOCK.........0 00. ccc cece een e ee eeens 96 VI. PrincipLtes or Pouttry-Housr ConsTRUCTION.............. 104 VII. Practice or Pouttry-House CoNSTRUCTION.........-.....- 124 VIII. Equrppine rum Poutrry Houst.............. eee eee eee eee 143 IX, YaRps AND YARDING......00000c0cccccecccececeeeeeeseeees 158 X. Principues or Pouttry FEEDING.............. 0.0002 cece eee 169 XD FBRDING STUPBS: . a.:i gon oasis w acesosveg aiolantun Ro Be Soegeeasd acai 184 XII. Practice or Pouttry FEEDING................20 00 eee eee 204 XIII. Principies or Pouttry BruwpinG............2....-. 00s 221 XIV. Practice or Pouttry BREEDING............. 200-0 e eee eee 245 XV. MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYING STOCK.............. 00000 e eee 266 XVI. Manacement of THE Breepine STOCK................0.04. 281 XVII. Anatomy anp PuysioLoay or THE FoWL............0 200000 292 XVIII. Formation oF THE EGG AND CHICKEN...............000000- 300 XIX. Narurau INcuBATION AND BROODING.................000005 312 XX. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. .........0. 0. cece eee cece ee eees 326 XXII. ARTIFICIAL BROODING...... 0. eee eee eens 348 XXII. Care or THE GROWING STOCK........ 0... cece cece eee eens 368 XXIII. Brorters, Roasters, AND CAPONS...........020 000 c ee eeeeee 376 XXIV. Farrenine, Kivuine, anp DRESSING..............000000000- 403 XXV. MARKETING THE PRODUCTS.............. 000s cece eeeeeeeeees 422 XXVI. Recorps, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING..............000000 453 XXVII. ExuIBiTING AND JUDGING............ 00. c cece cece e eee 473 XXVIII. Disnases, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES................000.000005 496 JADEN DER a ithig 0e. 3g Sesiee Siskduss gael Boia Sess RUN aoadahale rescue eb Suances 516 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. PAGE The: Bari Blocks 3.:: cdc cw eg teach ae ea aes Frontispiece 1. Agricultural “Gospel” Train........00.0 000.000 ccc eee eee 2 2. A Type of Poultry Educational Exhibit.............0..0.......008 3 3. Students Constructing a Poultry House..................0000005 4 4. Students Killing and Picking Poultry..........0..........0..005 5 5. A Modern Farm Poultry Plant......0.0000. 000000000000. cece eee 8 6. Distribution of Poultry in the United States..................-0. 10 7. Noted Centres of Poultry Production.....................0-000- 11 8. A Typical Farm Flock in the Middle West..................-.-. 12 9. A Large Laying Flock, Petaluma, California..................... 13 10. A Large Breeding Flock, Petaluma, California................... 13 11. Interior of Commercial Hatchery, Petaluma, California ......... 13 12. A General View in the Petaluma District........................ 14 13. A Laying House Common in the Vineland District, N.J........... 15 14. Each House is a 200-bird Unit (Vineland) ...............0...... 16 15. A House Holding 1000 Birds at Vineland ....................... 16 16. Scenes from the Little Compton District, R.I................... 17 17. Roaster Growing by Intensive Methods, South Shore District..... . 18 18. Well-grown South Shore Roasters ................ 000. e eee eee 18 19. Incubator Cellar, South Shore District...........0......00000000. 19 20. Poultry Plant of the New Jersey State College of Agriculture...... 20 21. Refrigerator Car for Shipping Dressed Poultry and Eggs.......... 21 22. Car for Shipping Live Pouitry............... 0.0... c eee ee eae 21 23. A Farm for Intensive Egg Production................ pees Aa ferent A 27 24. A Farm for the Production of Fancy Poultry.................... 27 25. Poultry on a Yorkshire Farm, England.......................-. 36 26. Plant of a Fancy Poultry Keeper in England..................... 36 27. An English Scene. of Intensive Poultry Keeping.................. 37 28. A Typical Danish Poultry House........ Ce oes Ces STE ESI ee UE IS 38 29. A Danish Egg-grading and Packing Room.....................-. 39 30. Rural Trolley Express......... 0.0 000 cee cc een cena eemees 43 31. Systems of Poultry Farming.............0.... 0.0.00 cee eee ee eee 45 32. Large Community Poultry House............... 0.00 eee ee 46 33. Semi-community Poultry Plant............0 00... cele eae 47 34. Colony Houses for Poultry on Extensive Range.................. 47 35. Ideal Location for Poultry Farming........................--00- 49 36. Houses and Yards on a Hillside, Giving Good Pranage caee denen eg 51 37. Gallus: Bankiva: Pait: :.scvie ess dass pad seas ut uae eet ee ea ee 63 38., A. Pairof Aseel Fowlsie.....0 a cies cee ngae seen es aul eared 64 39. Shapes of American Breeds........... 00. ccc eee e cece teen eee 68 xviil ILLUSTRATIONS 40. 41. 42. 43. 44, 45, 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71, 72. 73. 74, 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. Bull Orpineton: Pare piccuc as hw eae sad donated A auto Gecbiwaledse aunt 69 hight: Brahmas Hen: 0:2 soc ceseesd pe dden eee eee At eAeacates 72 Bult eghoOrnsicsccin ae eee kee owes olceR oe eLey oases whom the ees 72 A Pair of Mottled Anconas.............000. 000055 cece eee 74 A White Orpington: Pair: sess saicey 60 view wan wae ee aie eh wes Ya eee 74 Black Orpington Henis:.. cs nie gaa ed ay tiles edie na eal ies Baers 75 Black-tailed White Japanese Bantams....................-.-..-- 77 Jdesl Bye Shapes rcoss eats dente ek Pia wy edee ote ee ee ade 78 A Camping Paitiss¢c2u44 kona Ges caw aN ca Gwe? Yael a Rae 79 Single-comb White Leghorns ..............00000 0000200 e eee eee 81 Single-comb Biack Minorca Pair ..............0...000.-00220005 82 Ideal Shape of the Meat yee ene uctets deh Sys utente a tel crac ae ea ca 83 Bull Cochin :Patrsc.ccce acca aa dates geense sca eon Gatien sane ie & ee RE Black. Langshan. Pairs s...cntcagunsas obec dey oe peeae ogee pant 86 Ideal General-purpose Shape.............000. 000000002 c cece eee ee 87 Comparison of the Three Utility Types of Poultry........... . .. &S The Most Popular Farm Breed of Poultry—B. P. Rocks........... 90 White Plymouth Rock Pair..........0...0.. 00000 eee eee ee 90 An Excellent General-purpose Breed—White Wyandottes.......... 91 Silver Wyandottes.......0.0.0000 000 ccc cece cence 92 Rhode: Island: Reds... .ccace ing dbase o dag aokRhl bu aralalacdach anata ant oe 92 "The:- Gornisht Gaines ciyn0s.5 site cp uteciers emilee n malas Gadecnednoinecn epee 93 A Comparison of Texture of Meat......000.0000000002 00000 c cee 97 Eggs from Pure Brecds and from Mongrels......... meanereeusahneon aie 98 Antiquated Type of Poultry House............0.....0 2.000002... 104 Modern Type of Poultry House...........0...00..000..00-.002. 105 Floor of Standard Multiple-unit, Laying House .............. bape 107 An Efficient Rear Ventilator for Summer Use.................-..- 109 Three Types of Laying Houses....................00020.000200-5- 111 Diagram Showing Lines of Sun’s Rays oo... 2. eee 112 Shapes of Houses Compared, Showing Amount of Wall Material REQUINCAL ie ae cbscict duos hatha Warts cage att & Guide Boot GAubstes 113 The Possible Growth of the Multiple-unit Plan.......0.......... 113 Six Types of Roofs for Poultry Houses.......................... 1l4 A Well-framed Poultry House.............00000000 00000. e eee ee 115 Four Plans for Foundation and Floor Construction............... 116 Four Styles of Doors for Poultry Houses................00.2000. 119 Three Plans for Placing Openings in the Front Wall.............. 120 Types of Poultry Windows...........000000000 00 c cee eee eens 121 Two Plans for Constructing Frames for Muslin Curtains......... 122 Cross Section of Hillside, Showing Manner of Grading............ 124 Diagram Showing Method of Laying Out Foundation... ... 2. 125 Five Steps in the Construction of a Conerete Foundation...... 126 Placing Fresh Concrete im Forms for Wall.........0....0..000000-. 127 Working Plans of Double-unit Laying House.................... 129 Frame of Standard Multiple-unit Laying House .................. 130 ILLUSTRATIONS xix 85. Double-unit House Completed ............ 00 cece cece eee ee 131 86. Working Plans of Small-unit Laying House...................... 132 87. Small-unit Laying House Completed.....................005 '.... 133 88a, b. Working Plans of Laying House with Two-thirds Span Roof 134-135 89. Laying House with Two-thirds Span Roof....................04. 136 90. Interior View of Two-thirds Span House..................000005 136 91a. Working Plans of Half-monitor Laying House.................. 137 91b. Half-monitor Type of Laying House in Process of Construction and Nearing Completion ...........0..0. 0000 e teen eens 138 92a. Working Plans of Portable Laying House...................... 140 92b. Portable Colony Laying House Completed..... ey eee are eran arta 141 93. Arrangement of Nests, Perches, and Dropping Boards............ 144 94. Roosting Closets to Prevent Drafts at Night..................... 145 95. Four Ways of Locating Nests.............0.. 000 cece e eee eee eee 147 96. Dark Wall Nests, Arranged in Tiers..................0 000 eee eee 148 97. (Coopsfor Brood y: Hensiv.s i4.sae 3 qivace des stoke noew geen eer ies 148 98. Pearl or Maine State Trap Nest...........0 0.06.0 cece eee eee 149 99. Improved Connecticut Trap Nest............. 0.0. cee ee eee eee 149 100. The Cornell Trap Nest......... 0: cc cee cece cee ee cee ee eeee 150 101. Common Types of Feeding Troughs.................00....-000- 153 102. A Home-made Dry-mash Hopper ..............2-.002 00 eee ewes 154 103. A Practical Drinking Fountain.................. 20.0000 e eee eee 155 104. A Hopper for Grit and Shell........0...0. 00... c cece eee eee 156 105. A Group of Commercial Feeding Appliances..................... 157 106. A Good Method of Double Yarding and Crop Rotation........... 159 107. Three Methods of Arranging Double Yards...................... 161 108. Forms for Making Concrete Fence Posts...............---.0005- 162 109. Manner of Bracing a Corner Fence Post...............--.000004- 163 110. A Common Type of Fence Construction.....................00. . 165 111. Ways of Bracing Gate Posts............ 0c c cece cece eee eens 166 112. Types of Gate Construction............... patainatelitnd cash lodL As 167 113. Graphic Representation of the Composition of the Bird’s Body .... 170 114. Cross Section of Wheat Kernel.............. 00.0. e eee eee 188 115. Rack for Sprouting Oats......... 6. 6c eee ccc eee eens 189 116. A Tray of Sprouted Oats Ready for Feeding..................... 190 117. Mangel-wurzel Beets at Harvest Time....................000005 199 118. Poultry Feed House, Centrally Located....................0005- 205 119. The Poultry Feed Wagon.......... 0.00. cece eee eee 207 120. Morphological Variation, Illustrated with Chicks................. 236 121. Substantive Variations, Light and Dark Males................... 237 122. Meristic Variation, Four-legged Chick...............2.0.0. c0005 238 123. Functional Variation, Eggs of Different Sizes.................0.. 239 124. Rumpless Birds, a Mutation............-. 00.200 e eee eee eee 240 125. Inbreeding Chart, Showing Distribution of Inherited Characters... 247 126. Line Breeding Chart........... 0000 c cece cee ene eee eee aes 249 427. “Lady Lay More,” a Wonderful Hen...... Fal Wiaiaiend.S fobees rast cals Sede 253 xX 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. ILLUSTRATIONS Strong and Weak Males............ 00. c cece ee ene e et eeeeees 255 Wedge or Angular Shape Common in Good Layers..............- 257 Belle of Jersey and Lady Cornell, Two Phenomenal Hens......... 258 A: Light Brahma Parts ..4.scsi gcc acetia.d e GRb Db A Re acdeelss Wena ce ele 260 An Example of Sexual Dimorphism..................-.. 00000000 261 A Prize-winning Pair of Columbian Wyandottes................. 262 Relation Between Yield, Temperature and Selling Price of Eggs.. 266 White éghorns ysis: canescens wavy gto bua Sie laa etNe syneeden oe 267 Ideal Individuals of the Single-comb White Leghorn Breed........ 268 A Large-unit Laying Flock ..........00..0.00 00.0. e cece eee eens 271 A Simple and Efficient Disinfecting Outfit....................... 273 The Egg-collecting Pail .......000 0.00000 c cece eee 287 Desirable and Undesirable Types of Hatching Eggs............... 288 Skeleton of the Fowl........... 0... e cece ec ect eeee ee 293 The: Digestive “LRaCt soso ede na ee gealavnaeens diate seed ednave cosehiouacs acts ox 296 Circulatory System of the Fowl............... 02.00 cece eee eee 297 Male Reproductive System.............. 000 cece cece eens 298 Female Reproductive Organs........... 0.0002 e eee cece eee ee eee 301 Parts of the Completed Egg............ 0.0... cece cece eens 303 Abnormal Eggs Compared with Normal One..................... 306 Chick Embryo Thirty-six Hours Old..................... ree 308 Chick Embryo Three Days Old................0 ccc cece cee eee 308 Hatching: Times sic ¢ ciiecd eee cas oa 6 sow steed Sean) Fk Sena’ dada cobasanein das 311 Two Common Types of Sitting Coops.......:..........0..0004. 316 Manner of Toe Punching for Baby Chicks...................... 321 A Good, Yet Simple, Chick Leg Band.........................0. 322 An Average-sized Flock by Natural Incubation.................. 324 Working Plans for Incubator Cellar....................0000.00. 328 Views Showing Construction of Hollow-tile Incubator Cellar ...... 329 A Common Type of Hot-air Incubator ...............0.....0004. 331 Modern Mammoth Incubators................0.000 00000 cece 332 A Complete Self-regulating Device for Incubators ............... 333 Interior View of Incubator Cellar................0.00.000000 00 -ee 340 A Useful, Home-made Egg Tester .............2..00 0000 cece uae 343 Eggs Seven Days in Incubator as Seen When Tested.............. 344 Three Different Types of Long Brooder Houses.................. 349 Mammoth Hot-water Brooders...........000 0000 c cc eee eece eevee 351 Portable Indoor Hovers............. 000 ce cece eee c eee eee eees 352 Small Portable Outdoor Brooders.................000000 cece eee 352 Colony Brooder Houses... ..........00 000 e eee eee cece cee ev nes 353 Portable Gasoline Brooder Houses..................00000 cece ee 355 Chicks Showing Pronounced Symptoms of White Diarrhoa........ 364 Growing Poultry on Free Range...............0000 ccc cece eeeee 369 Rearing Chickens under Intensive Conditions .................... 370 A Desirable Rotation of Crops for Poultry Runs................. 372 Four Types of Summer Developing Houses..................00- 373 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. ILLUSTRATIONS xxi A Flock of Fowls Ready for Market........... 0.00 cece eee ee eens 377 Market Types of Broilers.......... 0.000 cece cece eee eee n eens 379 Curves Showing Variation in Supply and Prices for Broilers. ...... 380 Rhode Island Red Broilers Ready for Market.................--- 382 Market Types of Roasting Chickens................0 000 eee eeeee 387 Curve Showing Variations in Market Prices for Roasters ......... 388 A Flock of Capons Five Months Old................. 0.0.0 eens 390 Caponizing Instruments.............. 00: cece eee eee ee nee enes 394 Proper Place to Make Incision in Caponizing.................... 395 Steps in the Operation of Caponizing...............000000e ee 396-397 Comparison of Weights with Capon and Cockerel...............- 401 A Portable Battery of Feeding Coops...............00 0c eee eens 405 Common Type of Funnel Used in Cramming..................-- 408 Cramming: Machine iis ecoo3 aay es nein epee sew RRR Eee ere ee ee ee 408 Proper Method of Sticking and Dry Picking..................... 411 An Excellent Killing Knife. ......0.000 00.0.0 cc cece cece eee neces 412 Dry Picking Squab Broilers................. solo Gemnkt nee wae ek 415 Sealing: Poul tt yicas. cssesne 53s Geecdca sesausinr es 9 dater aed eudialas 0 Sree ace ww Geen ee 416 Roaster Properly Dressed for Retail Trade..................00-- 419 Chart Showing Course of Products from Producer to Consumer.... 425 The Relation of Temperature to Selling Price of Eggs............. 430 Interior of Mercantile Exchange, New York City................ 431 Egg Grading Table in Use............ 0.000 c cece ce eee ee 434 A Popular Manner of Packing Eggs for Shipment................ 436 Effect of Incubation Temperature on Fertile and Infertile Eggs.... 438 Stages in the Development of the Embryo...................005. 439 A Commercial Egg Candler at Work........... 0... 0.00 cee eee eee 441 Boxes for Shipping Baby Chicks .............. 0.2. c cece eee eee 444 Undesirable Types of Market Broilers....................00000 0 445 Soft Roasters Ready for Market........... 0.0.00. c cece e eee 445 Methods of Packing Fancy Grades of Dressed Poultry........... 446 Broilers Box-packed and Iced for Shipment.................50-. 447 Three Methods of Keeping Records.............. 0.000 e ee eeeee 463 Students Washing Live Birds for Exhibition..................5.. 480 The Technic of Washing............0.. 0c cee ence teen e eee e eens 481 Baltimore Poultry Exhibit ............ 00. cece eee n ee ence eeee 484 A Body Louseys.. veces ee ceeeae des eeee tee gine Areinie Aversa 507 A Red. Mite...c.caceac os det iat Gere eee ese pie eee oad 508 A Scaly-leg Mite 0.0.0.0... 0... c cece cece eee eee e tence eens 508 The Work of the Scaly-leg Mite ........ 0. cece eee eee eee eens 509 The Gapeworm.......... 0c cect ence eee e eee e tener ener ees 511 The Common Roundworm........... 00s see ccc cn eee e nner eeaeee 511 The Tapeworm ......... 0000 c cece eee eee n ete cnet ee eeceenaes 512 Parts of Fowl Shown and Named..............0 eee cece eeen eens 515 PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY. INTRODUCTION. THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY. THE DEMAND for the teaching of poultry husbandry in the public schools and colleges is increasing constantly. Nearly all the State colleges and universities are giving considerable time to its study. All secondary schools of agriculture rank poultry instruction with such subjects as dairying and fruit growing. Recently elementary schools have commenced giving the subject of poultry farming a place in their agricultural teaching. During the last few years the poultry industry has witnessed an immense growth in popularity. This has been due to several | factors: The activity of the poultry press; the many poultry sys- tems; attempts to meet the high cost of living; and a “ back to the land ”” movement on the part of city people. This popular awakening has created a great demand for men, properly trained, to instruct, advise, and direct in the many fields of poultry endeavor. Men who contemplate operating their own farms, or managing others, must be taught the practical opera- tions attendant upon poultry farming. They must also be taught enough of the scientific side of the problems involved to enable them to intelligently appreciate the reasons for the character of work which is essential for success. Young men must be carefully trained to fill positions as instruc- tors and investigators at our agricultural schools and colleges. Upon the experience, training, and ability of the future instruc- tors will largely depend the capabilities of the students which are graduated: The field for the poultry teacher and investigator is great, and for years to come the supply will fall far below the demand. The Value of Practical Application.—It is very desirable that all students have some previous experience in the handling of a 1 2 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY flock of birds. Such experience will put the student in a position to see the importance of the various lines of instruction. If such previous practice is lacking, much of the value of the work will unconsciously be lost, owing to the inability to grasp the practical application. Types of Instruction Poultry instruction of different kinds may be classified as elementary, secondary, collegiate, extension teaching, correspondence courses, and educational associations. Elementary instruction should start in the grammar grades of | the public schools, and deal with the external appearance and functional activities of birds of all kinds and of poultry in partic- ular. Many fundamental points may be considered. The stu- dent’s interest in this line of agriculture may be aroused. i | | | Pits Pes Photo by Cornell University. Fic. 1.—Agricultural ‘‘ Gospel”’ train. The secondary instruction is that given in high schools and schools of agriculture. The work at this time should deal with methods, care, and management; and study may be made of differ- ent types and breeds. Collegiate instruction is not only a review of general principles and practices, but it should deal with the deeper scientific prin- ciples which underlie all operations. It should consider the eco- nomic principles, methods of management, markets, and the rela- tion of supply and demand. Much time during the latter part of the course may be given to original investigation and research work. Extension teaching may be termed the “ follow-up”? method of instruction, which should be organized as a part of the work of colleges and universities. It should be available not only to stu- TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 3 dents but to all persons interested in the keeping of poultry, whether beginners or experienced farmers. Such instruction gives to the poultryman at his home the latest knowledge pertaining to his work. It shows in a concise manner the results of recent investigation and its practical application. Some of the methods of extension work are as follows: (1) Extension lectures before agricultural and special poultry gather- ings. (2) Railroad-train trips through centres of poultry produc- tion (Fig 1). Teaching carried on by lectures and educational exhibits. (3) Educational exhibits at fairs, poultry shows, and grange picnics (Fig. 2). (4) The publication at regular intervals Fia. 2.—A type.of poultry educational exhibit. of home-reading-course circulars which tell in a concise way the practical application of the latest findings from poultry experi- ments. (5) Demonstrations showing improved and scientific methods, such as killing, picking, caponizing, grading, and packing. Correspondence courses allow of individual study of a prepared set of lessons and practices; the benefit obtained depends upon the practicability and completeness of the outlined lessons, and the ability of the student to grasp the meaning and to pursue the course until finished. The failure'to study all lessons to the end of the course often results in little good to those who attempt to gain their knowledge in this way. 4 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY Educational Associations—The possibilities of poultry organ- ization for purposes of education are great. The association may have a broad constitution so that it may, if desired, conduct co- operative buying and selling. The educational feature is usually attained through regular meetings, at which systematic lectures or lessons are outlined and discussed. Much may be gained from general discussion of methods and practices, by members. Laboratory Practice.—In any course of instruction, whether it be elementary or collegiate, the lectures and lessons should be supplemented by as much practical work as equipment and time Fig. 3.—Students constructing a poultry house. will permit. The practice work impresses upon the student the value of one method over another. The efficiency of the instruc- tion is thus greatly increased. The following list includes a few of the more practical operations which should accompany a col- legiate course of instruction: , The entire care of a flock of laying birds for a given period, including a complete record, showing cost and income. The actual work of designing, drawing, and constructing poul- try houses (Fig. 3). Incubation and brooder practice. Methods of fattening, killing, and marketing poultry (Fig. 4). The grading and marketing of eggs. The judging of poultry and the management of a student poultry show. REFERENCE READING 5 There are many more important laboratory operations of a scientific nature. Reference Reading.—All lectures and discussions should be accompanied by a required amount of outside reading. The best books and periodicals should be recommended, and from the results of such reading written or oral reviews should be given. Poultry literature from the Department of Agriculture and the gee sic Cvey Photo by Cornell University. Fig. 4.—Students killing and picking poultry. various experiment stations should be freely used in reference work. Any one may obtain poultry publications from the experi- ment station of his own State by having his name placed upon the mailing list. Current poultry journals should be freely used with the definite idea of becoming acquainted with the poultry problems of the day. Modern up-to-date poultry text-books should be used as refer- ence, and the student should be encouraged to purchase a few of the best, such publications to form a nucleus for his own library. Reference reading should not be confined alone to poultry 6 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY literature, for much help can be secured by studying correlated subjects, such as zoology, physics, and chemistry. Home Experiments.—In all types of instruction home practice and experimental work should be encouraged. Each student should be urged to take an interest in the management of the home flock, where possible, starting with the elementary work. This will enthuse the student and create an interest in the work. As the student progresses he may keep a record of the egg yield, cost of feeds, and production of the home flock, and from these data the profits may be calculated. CHAPTER I. POULTRY FARMING AND WHAT IT MEANS. POULTRY KEEPING as an industry is so important a subject that at the commencement it is necessary to outline just what is meant by the term ‘‘ POULTRY FARMING.” As the term is gener- ally used we think of it as meaning an exclusive business, as fruit growing or grain farming; with this idea of the subject before us the outlook is not always the brightest. Does it pay?—The general belief is that poultry farming does not pay, and this is only too true in many cases when the term is applied in the sense outlined above. There is no branch of animal husbandry in which so many experimental starts have been made and which have resulted in total ruin as in poultry farming. This is probably due to at least two causes: (1) Beginning with too large an investment of capital and stock which requires an immense amount of energy and money to keep running; or (2) in many cases the business has been ruined at the outset by the inexperi- ence of the promoters who were made to believe, by misleading statements and fascinating statistics, that poultry keeping is the quickest road to a large fortune. While there are many large, exclusive poultry farms which are paying good dividends, and this number is constantly on the increase, yet the true meaning of the term poultry farming does not lie in this phase of the work. How, then, is the greatest chance of success to be attained? It-is by considering poultry keeping as a branch of the farmer’s operations and making it one of the many departments of his work. Such a combination brings him continuous profit and pleas- ure. The large, exclusive poultry plants should be left to those who have had years of experience in the care and management of birds as well as the sale and marketing of the products. By start- ing the business as a branch of general farming, experience will come as the work goes on, and a careful and systematic increase in the size and production of the plant can be arranged so that the poultry keeper can measure his capacity for large things as the increase accumulates. It is with this thought in view that the sub- ject of poultry farming is approached, the object being to show farmers and amateur poultry keepers that in poultry keeping there 7 8 POULTRY FARMING is money to be made, money which in many cases could not be realized at all if it were not for this branch of farming (Fig. 5). The Poultry Industry in the United States ——The United States census bureau takes an enumeration of the poultry interests when taking the regular census every ten years. A brief survey of the last poultry census is interesting. The practice is to consider only Fic. 5.—A modern farm poultry plant, where poultry raising is a profitable ‘’side line” to general farming. fowls three months of age or over and only those kept on farms, no enumeration being provided by law for cities, towns, or villages. The elimination of the poultry in these other centres greatly reduces the reported number kept and produced in the United States. Investigations made in New Jersey show that incorporated cities in the State have one adult bird within the city limits for every two and one-half persons enumerated in the census. It is supposed that this will run much higher in towns and villages. The following table shows the number and value of birds re- ported by the thirteenth census, compared with the number in the twelfth census. Taste I.—United States Poultry Census. All fowls. Chickens. Turkeys. Ducks. Geese. 1910—Number..... 295,880,190 280,345,133 | 3,688,708 | 2,906,525 | 4,431,980 Wales css see se $154,663,220 $140,205,607 | $6,605,818 | $1,567,164 | $3,194,507 Average value.. .. $0.52 $0.50 » $1.79 $0.54 $0.72 Farms reporting. . 5,585,032 5,578,525, 871,123 503,704 662,324 Per cent of all fakmse4: 45 4: 87.8 S77 13.7 7.9 10.4 1900—Number.......| 250,624,038 233,566,021 | 6,594,695 | 4,785,850 | 5,676,788 The table shows that 94.7 per cent of all birds reported were domestic fowls which are classified as “ chickens,” in distinction THE POULTRY INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 9 from the other kinds of poultry. There was an increase in chickens of 17 per cent. The average value per fowl in 1910 was fifty-two cents, while in 1900 it was only thirty-four cents, the average value having increased over 52.9 per cent. Table II shows the number and value of chickens, reported by geographic divisions. Taste II.—Geographic Distribution of Fouls. Chickens. Number. Value. Division or section. o In- 1910. 1900. een 1910. Per cent. United States. ....| 280,345,133 | 233,566,021 20.0 | $140,205,607 New England......... 6,841,918 6,440,678 | 6.2 4,975,551 Middle Atlantic....... 24,449,500 21,511,436 13.7 16,346,161 East North Central....| 69,471,413 58,104,189 19.6 36,609,410 West North Central....) 85,192,651 65,364,879 | 30.3 41,207,295 South Atlantic.........| 25,627,003 22,293,912 15.0 11,894,700 East South Central....| 24,495,054 22,965,751 6.7 10,272,636 West South Central....| 29,176,294 27,333,880 6.7 10,393,418 Mountain............. 5,467,343 3,116,639 75.4 3,005,103 Pacific: csi ten wlae ees 9,623,957 6,434,657 49.6 5,501,333 The North............ 185,955,482 | 151,421,182 22.8 99,138,417 The South............ 79,298,351 72,593,543 9.2 32,560,754 The West............. 15,091,300 9,551,296 58.0 8,506,436 East of the Mississippi.| 150,884,888 | 131,315,966 14.9 80,098,458 West of the Mississippi.| 129,460,245 | 102,250,055 | 26.6 60,107,149 It will be seen that in 1910 the West North Central division reported 30 per cent of the total number of fowls in the country. The East North Central division ranked next with 24.3 per cent, and the West South Central next with 10.6 per cent. Figure 6 shows graphically the distribution of fowls by States and divisions. The number of farms reporting fowls raised in 1909 was 5,655,- 754, or 88.9 per cent of all farms in the United States; and the number of such fowls was 488,468,354, or an average of 86.4 fowls per farm. The total value of such fowls was $202,506,272, as against $136,830,152 in 1899. The value of the poultry produced during the decade shows an increase of over 48 per cent. 10 POULTRY FARMING In 1909 there were produced in the United States 1,591,311,371 dozens of eggs, valued at $306,688,960. The production in 1899 was 1,293,662,433 dozens of eggs, and the value $144,240,541. While the production of eggs during the ten years increased but twenty-three per cent, the value more than doubled, the exact amount of gain being $162,488,419, or 112.6 per cent. These numbers show an increase in the value of poultry and poultry = = cs Wa ee \ Ong, @e 2 ° @e/\ ° | “6 i OKLA e H x ©0600 |) an ! ieeo/beiee ec? gost een ALA Sa sepoce | ee jelecioes ioe? ; @ Texas @ ce fe fies “wars e eo 7 i oi -—>} z= After the U.S. Census Report for r910. Fie. 6.—Distribution of poultry in the United States. Each black dot represents one million birds on farms. products. This has been brought about by an increased demand for good products and by an improvement in quality of products. The ten States leading in their total value of poultry are: TOW: camara eaaaaunan $12,270,000 Indiana............... $7,762,000 Missouri.............. 11,871,000 Pennsylvania.......... 7,674,000 FAMINOS sa ye4 eae ee 11,697,000 Kansas................ 7,377,000 ODIO esas es eae pay 9,533,000 Michigan.............. 5,611,000 New York............. 7,879,000 Texas................. 4,807,000 In these ten States the total value of the poultry is $86,481,000, or 55.9 per cent of the total value of poultry in the continental portion of the United States. Noted Centres of Production.—While the production of eggs in the United States is widespread, only the central States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, and Kentucky produce more than are consumed in their immediate vicinity. The great numbers of NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 11 eggs shipped to the eastern markets are classified as ‘‘ westerns ”’ and come from this section of the country. This section consti- tutes the “ backbone of the egg industry,” and a brief account of the conditions is here given (Fig. 7). In the Central States production is not continuous throughout the year, as climatic conditions affect the laying. In Kentucky and Tennessee the season of natural production is from December Fic. 7.—Noted centres of poultry production. In California the Petaluma district; in Massachusetts the ‘‘South Shore” Roaster district; in Rhode Island the Little Compton district; in New Jersey the Hunterdon and the Vineland districts. Darkly shaded States are the leading poultry States, lighter shaded ones come next. to April. During March and April the supply from Ohio and Missouri appears on the market; this is supplemented by eggs from Texas and Kansas. Later in the spring the central northern States, Minnesota and Michigan, supply the markets with eggs. The supplies of both the southern and northern sections of this egg belt fail to meet the demand of the consuming public. The population in this section is limited, and large quantities of eggs are shipped to the centres of population to supplement production in those sections. Owing to the cheap price of grain and land, the eggs from central sections compete very profitably with those pro- duced near large markets, even with lower prices and poorer quality. : The eggs produced during the early spring are usually of fine quality. But they are produced on farms where advantages of 12 POULTRY FARMING grading are not appreciated, and are handled so carelessly that the quality is often very bad when they reach the point of consump- tion. Conditions are worse during ldte spring and early summer, when the weather is warm and extra care is necessary to cause the eggs to reach the market in good condition. The eggs produced in this section are sold to local merchants, “case count,” and often hauled many miles over rough roads and exposed to hot sunlight before being sold. They are then often held many days, and are finally shipped by local freight to some Fic. 8.—A typical farm flock in the Middle West. (Photo by U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) central shipping point where they are candled and graded. The loss during the warm months is very great. The price drops all along the.-line, because the quality is poor. Improved methods in marketing can best be attained through codperation. A general practice on the part of merchants to buy all eggs ‘loss off’ will do much to increase the quality. This will bring greater returns to the poultry raisers in this great territory (Fig. 8). One of the most intensive and widely-known specialized egg- producing sections in the United States is located in California at Petaluma (Fig. 12). The landscape for miles around is literally covered with poultry houses and dotted with poultry. The White Leghorn breed predominates; the aim in management being the production of high quality table eggs. The fowls are kept in large flocks and are given extended NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 13 E Ces, ny %, aids Photos by courtesy of The Petaluma Board of Trade. . Fig. 11.—Interior of a commercial hatchery, Petaluma, Cal, POULTRY FARMING 14 "TBD ‘qo zBIp Bun] ey, id Of} UL MOIA [BIOUNT Y—'Z 1 eng ‘apes Jo pavog eumyerag Aq 004d NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 15 range. On most of the farms no fences other than the one sur- rounding the whole are used. The poultry farmers spend their entire time in caring for the growing and adult birds. The incubation is centralized on special plants which are operated exclusively as breeding and hatching establishments. On these plants the breeding birds are kept in large flocks and provided with unrestricted range. The eggs are hatched in large mammoth hatchers and the baby chicks sold to the egg farmer for a certain rate per, one hundred. This cen- tralization of effort tends to increase efficiency, and can be profit- ably patterned after in some of our Eastern egg districts (Figs. 10 and 11). Fia. 13.—A laying house common in the Vineland district, N. J. Cheap houses or shelters are in general use in this district, the common practice being to move them frequently about the range to insure sanitary conditions and provide green food (Fig. 9). The Vineland district in New Jersey is another specialized section, which resembles, in many respects, the Petaluma district. It centres around the city of Vineland (Figs. 13 and 14). The white Leghorns are kept, with the object of supplying the New York City market with white-shelled eggs of highest quality. The farms in this section are small, ranging from one to ten acres. Each farm has from five hundred to two thousand layers (Fig. 15); but there are some exceptionally large farms in the same com- munity. Most of the farmers hatch and rear their own birds, artificial methods being the most common. The birds are kept, 16 POULTRY FARMING two hundred to five hundred together, in long, shed-roof laying houses. The soil is very sandy and the winters mild, thus offer- ing ideal conditions for such large flocks. The district comprises about ten square miles. It is estimated that over one hundred thousand adult Leghorn fowls are here kept under these inten- sive conditions. Fic. 14.—Each house is a 200-bird unit (Vineland). Hunterdon County.—There is another section in the same State which comprises the whole of one county,—namely, that of Hunterdon, in the north-central part of New Jersey. It is pri- marily a section for general and dairy farming. But upon each farm there are usually kept from two hundred to one thousand laying hens, white Leghorns predominating. The object is white Fic. 15.—A house holding one thousand birds at Vineland. Large units are coming into more general use. eggs for the New York City markets. This county alone winters over three hundred thousand laying hens. The methods practised in this district are noticeably extensive, the farms being large and the birds being given unlimited range. This is one of the oldest egg-producing sections of note in America, and the extensive methods practised for years are still proving the most profitable under the existing conditions. NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 17 The Little Compton District in Southern Rhode Island is char- acterized by the extensive type of cgg farming which prevails. Brown eggs for the New England market is the aim. This dis- trict is distinguished by its rough, unproductive land which has a low value per acre, hence the poultry farms are developed on a Fig, 16.—Scenes from the Little Compton district, R. I. Note the extensive colony system and the cheap houses. (Photos by P. W. Almy.) colony basis. Small, cheaply built houses are the rule. The cost of equipment is small, and by the use of a horse and wagon when doing all chores the labor item is reduced to a minimum. This district is characterized by a low production, which returns a fair profit, owing to small investment and low food cost. Market Poultry—There are two sections interesting for their 18 POULTRY FARMING production of market poultry, the soft roaster district, commonly known as the South Shore district of eastern Massachusetts, and the capon district of New Jersey. Fia. 17.—Roaster growing by intensive methods, South Shore district. (Photo by E. O. Damon, owner.) The South Shore district is noted for the high quality of soft roasting chickens which are marketed. The work is usually sec- ondary to other lines of agricultural endeavor; but there are many oat gabe ye = £2.23 i ‘ Fig. 18.—Well-grown South Shore roasters. (Photo by E. O. Damon, owner.) specialized plants, producing from two thousand to six thousand roasters in a season (Figs. 17, 18, and 19). The smaller producers raise from one hundred to five hundred. The profit from this work is very satisfactory, ranging from eighty cents to one dollar MODERN DEVELOPMENTS 19 per bird. This is due to the short period necessary to hold each individual before selling. The capon district, previously mentioned, is made up of thou- sands of general farms in the western part of central New Jersey. Each farmer raises yearly from one hundred to five hundred capons for the Philadelphia and New York markets. The birds are given free range throughout the entire period of their growth, and are allowed to roost in sheds or other outbuildings. The cost for feed is low, as grain farming is practised quite commonly and the birds have the run of the fields after harvest. The profit per bird under the existing condi- tions varies from one to two dollars. The practice of ca- ponizing is gaining rapidly in this section, owing to the suc- cess of those already engaged in this work. Fie. 19.—Incubatorcellar in the South Shore Modern Developments.— district, Mass., showing economical construc- Recent years have witnessed fon" G' Bacon cis in mortar. (Photo great changes in the poultry industry. The changes have been toward greater concentration and specialization. There are now many exclusive egg farms scattered over the more thickly populated sections. Many of them have from two thousand to fifteen thousand layers. This specialization has placed the poultry business upon a scientific basis. This development of special egg farms has brought about great improvements in methods of marketing. There is a closer relation between producer and consumer. This is largely accom- plished by guaranteeing a strictly fresh and clean product, for a definite price above regular wholesale quotations. This naturally leads to more care in marketing the products and an endeavor to meet market requirements as they are found in the various sections. The industry has taken on a very popular aspect, and many people who are engaged in occupations other than agriculture have gone into poultry raising in a small way. This popularity has .called for and has been met by rapid development in the facilities for poultry education at the various State colleges, and poultry departments have been established at many experiment stations (see Appendix). The work of experiment stations tends to make poultry raising an exact science. Many colleges 20 POULTRY FARMING offer short courses in poultry husbandry of from six to twelve weeks during the winter months, the time being devoted largely to lectures, demonstrations, and practical work (Fig. 20). These are of much value to the amateur who desires to become familiar with the details and requirements of the business, as well as to the practical poultryman who desires to become familiar with the most modern ideas pertaining to his occupation. Poultry Organizations——Among the greatest factors which are working for the improvement of the industry are the numer- ous organizations being formed in all sections. The majority were formerly organizations of fanciers, but the element of utility has more recently been included. Associations working Fic. 20.—A plant used for instruction and experimental work, New Jersey College of Agriculture. along both fancy and utility lines should do a great good. Organization for educational purposes alone is gaining ground every day. New Jersey, for example, has an association in each county and a State organization composed of delegates from each county association. Its main purposes are education and coéperation. Changes in Management.—Great changes have been made in the general management of the flocks themselves. The most prominent of these is the general substitution of dry-mash feeding for wet mash. Another change is the housing of birds in open or curtain-front, well-ventilated houses, in contrast to the old types of closed, warm houses. Publications.—The value of systematic advertising has be- come more fully recognized, as will be readily seen by an cxami- nation of the poultry press. This calls attention to another great development,—namely, that of poultry magazines and SHIPPING 21 papers. There are numerous periodicals devoted entirely to poultry topics. Aside from these, practically all the agricultural papers devote some space to the subject. Columns or depart- ments are set aside for poultry matters in many daily and weekly newspapers. Some of the leading daily papers employ special poultry editors. The fattening industry has not progressed in the same ratio as other branches. This is due largely to the fact that there is not enough demand for the high quality of meat which could thus be produced. When market requirements call for such artificial methods in producing better fowls, for table use, that branch will show a rapid improvement. That time is not far distant. Fic. 21.—Refrigerator car used for shipping dressed poultry andeggs. Animportant factor Ce ik in widening the market for the Western poul- Itc. 22.—Cars for shipping live poultry. (U.S try keeper. (U.S. Department of Agriculture.) Department of Agriculture.) CAS LaLa Duck Raising.—The growing of broiler and roaster ducks has seen an almost unprecedented rise during recent years. Formerly very few were produced and it was very hard to market at a profit the few which were grown. With the advent of the meat- fed broiler, conditions changed. It did not then take long to edu-: cate the consumer to the desirability of having broiler ducks for table purposes. In certain sections of the East, especially, this industry has reached immense proportions. On Long Island there are many plants which annually produce over fifty thousand broiler ducks. It is undoubtedly one of the most remunerative branches of the entire industry. Shipping.—The improved facilities for transporting poultry and eggs long distances by rail at a reasonable cost constitute a step in advance. Shipments are made under almost perfect storage and sanitary conditions by the extensive use of refrigerator cars by fast freight and express (Figs. 21 and 22). 22 POULTRY FARMING The Business of Poultry Farming.—Poultry farming is essen- tially a diversified industry, possessing a great variety in character of products. The greatest success is obtained where a combi- nation of products are produced which best meet the market demands and which are most economical of production with the equipment and stock at hand. The poultry farmer can receive a revenue from any one or all of the following products as he may see fit to organize his work: Table eggs, hatching eggs, baby chicks, breeding stock, utility and show birds, market poultry in the form of broilers, roasters, and capons, feathers and manure. Any of the above can be run as a specialty or side line; they can be run under intensive or extensive conditions. This wide variety makes possible the supplying of a varied demand. The opportunities are becoming increasingly greater each year, ‘due in large measure to an ever-increasing demand for products of fine quality, and also owing to the fact that better prices are constantly being received for products of good quality. Types of Poultrymen.—All poultry keepers can be classified or divided into groups according to the extent of their business and the character of products produced. A brief discussion of such a classification follows. The Poultry Farmer——The poultry farmer is essentially a specialist, devoting all of his efforts to the production of poultry and associated products. He invests not only his time but his money in the enterprise. He is usually the owner, manager, and in most cases performs much of the labor essential to the business. Such farms are usually large with reference to the number of birds kept, and are usually located near large centres of population. The commercial products are usually eggs or meat, and sometimes a combination of both. Success means constant application to the details of the farm work. A well-balanced and sufficient equipment is necessary, and some surplus cash is desirable to use in case of need. The land upon which such a specialized industry is run must be especially adapted to the werk. The farmer himself must be well trained in the technic of poultry management. The more experience he has had the safer will be the business and the greater the profits. Special care must be given to hatching and the successful rearing of the young stock, for on large farms of this type many birds must be reared, and the danger of disease and overcrowding is always present. The poultry farmer must be a man of good TYPES OF POULTRYMEN 23 business ability to be able to buy and sell intelligently. The financial return which should be expected from an exclusive type of poultry farming, as outlined, will be from fifteen to twenty-five per cent on the total investment. The Poultry Fancier.—The poultry fancier is a true specialist among specialists. He is a poultry raiser whose primary object is the improvement of his birds through breeding and selection. His efforts are usually directed towards improvement in color and body type or shape. The fancier invests both his time and his money in the work. A heavy investment in equipment is necessary, and an especially large reserve or working cash capital is needed, as the returns are concentrated in a few months of the year, but are heavy while they last. One of the heavy operating expenses of the fancy plant is the high wages which are paid to high-class labor. Advertising expenses are another heavy oper- ating charge. , Success as a breeder of fancy and show-winning birds depends on the following factors: Getting well established and promi- nently before the buying public, winning at shows and an abund- ance of advertising, a practical knowledge of the laws of breeding, a well-developed or permanent ideal or standard towards which to breed, and care in mating. The fancier must be a good salesman, for he must sell a superior article for a high price in competition with low-priced goods. He must have a congenial and winning personality. A neat and attractive farm is a big advantage in this phase of the work. Financial returns to the poultry fancier are large if once he gets well established and is well known as a breeder of winning birds. The Poultry Financier.—By the poultry financier is meant a very small class of persons connected with the poultry business who invest money only in a poultry farm and hire a manager to operate same. Such persons usually have a very limited poultry training, and success depends upon their ability to choose a well- trained and capable man to supervise the work. The danger which has been most apparent with investments of this kind is poor management. This has been especially apparent in the management for egg production and in hatching and rearing. Failure is most often caused by neglect of details. Poor results are often attained in distribution or marketing, due to the lack of personality. There is a class of wealthy persons who invest considerable sums to build up poultry farms primarily as a hobby 24 POULTRY FARMING or pastime, deriving much pleasure from the success of the work. The financial return to the one who has his money only in the business, with no special interest or close personal touch with the management, is apt to be very uncertain and often very dis- astrous. Poultry farming as a pure investment for surplus capital is an unsafe and unwise policy. The Poultry Laborer.—By the poultry laborer is meant the person who gives his time to the care and management of poultry as the hired employee of the owner of the plant. He receives for time so spent a cash compensation, with often additional pay in the form of perquisites or bonuses. In some cases an interest in the business is the method of making the amount of compensa- tion, while in others a definite monthly rate is specified. The opportunity for poultry labor is great, and success depends upon experience and willingness to try and do as directed. Few poultry farmers are willing to hire inexperienced laborers, owing to the trouble and time required to teach them. The wages paid poultry laborers vary from board and room up to sixty and seventy-five dollars per month and found. The in- experienced young man who is looking for experience can usually get about fifteen dollars with board and room. The experienced poultryman receives a wage of about thirty to fifty dollars with board and room, while the manager employed where the plant is large and the responsibility great often receives a yearly salary of from one thousand to fifteen hundred dollars. A very satisfac- tory wage schedule is to put into effect the bonus system. By this method the employer agrees to pay the employee a definite monthly wage; this amount to be paid regardless of the results attained. In addition to this amount, a bonus is paid at the end of each month or year, as the agreement was made, for superior results in hatching, rearing, egg production, etc. A common plan is to offer a bonus of twenty-five dollars per year if the flock production averages over 144 eggs per bird, or a bonus of one dollar per hatch if the result is greater than 60 per cent. The bonus system gives the laborer something to work for and hence increases interest and efficiency. Men who are trained as to the mating and breeding problems can demand the best wages. The wages for poultry labor are somewhat higher than those paid to other types of agricultural workers, due to the fact that a better training, more experience, and careful attention to detail are necessary. TYPES OF POULTRYMEN 25 The average day is one of ten hours, with special late hours dur- ing the spring while hatching and rearing are under way. Extra help is quite often employed at this time to do routine work such as filling lamps, watering, and cleaning. Work on poultry farms offers many attractions to young men wishing workin theopen. Perma- nent and efficient labor is easily obtained if the employer at- tempts to make the work remunerative, interesting, and enjoyable. The Stde-line Flock—There are two types of poultry flocks which are kept as a distinct side line to other business. These are the often-mentioned farm flocks and the city flock. The farm flock exists on over ninety-five per cent of all Amer- ican farms. The great bulk of our eggs are produced in the spring of the year with little care and at small cost from such flocks. The average size of such a flock is from ten to one hundred birds, which are usually poorly housed and insufficiently fed. More interest in the poultry on the part of the farmer would result in more and better birds and would make poultry husbandry one of the most remunerative branches of general farming. The city flock, located on small areas in thickly-settled sec- tions, is a recent and interesting development. Studies in New Jersey show that in average cities there is one bird to every two inhabitants. These flocks vary in size from ten to twenty-five birds, and are kept in close confinement. They are usually well cared for, both as to housing and feeding. Many cities are now passing ordinances regulating the keeping of birds, with the idea of compelling proper sanitary surroundings. Auziliary Occupations.—The poultry industry has made rapid strides in its development during the past decade. This develop- ment has brought about the building up of many associated lines of business. These lines of effort offer pleasing and remunerative occupations to many thousands of progressive poultrymen. The poultry judge is a product of the sporting spirit of the poultryman. Poultry shows have doubled in number and popu- larity in the short space of four years. With this development has come a growing demand for honest, well-trained men, with experience in breeding poultry, to make the awards at exhibitions. Judging is usually an auxiliary occupation carried on by a breeder of birds or, as is often the case, by a poultry editor. A knowledge of standard requirements and honesty in making the awards are the essentials to success. The field for good poultry judges is attractive, and the demand is greater than the supply. 26 POULTRY FARMING With the increasing interest in poultry work has come an ever-increasing demand for poultry literature of all kinds. The trained and experienced writer can find profitable compensation in editorial work, in the writing of poultry text-books, and the writing of magazine articles and news items. The demand for poultry appliances of all kinds has been respon- sible for the development of big industries for the manufacture, sale, and distribution of incubators, brooders, hoppers, feeds, and an endless list of auxiliary appliances. The business of poultry husbandry is an immense in- dustry, highly specialized, yet diversified as to the variety of products and the great variety of occupations associated with it. Separate Poultry Industries.—Poultry keeping as an industry may be grouped under two main divisions,—namely, exclusive poultry keeping, and poultry keeping as a side line to some other branch of work. The former is properly called specialized farming, as all endeavors of the farmer are centred on the care and manage- ment of poultry. In the majority of cases poultry keeping is carried on as a side line. The extent of that one branch of the farm work may vary from a very small place in the time and atten- tion of the owner to that of the largest branch of the work. Most poultry products are from the general farms of the country. Exclusive poultry keeping may be subdivided again into special industries, as (1) egg farming and (2) meat farming. These special industries may be, and often are, combined; but one is usually given the greater prominence. Egg production is often the leading one with the production of meat an adjunct to it. Large, exclusive egg farms are usually located in the thickly settled sections of the country, near large cities, and a special price is received for the guaranteed marketed product (Fig. 23). Some egg farms make a specialty of eggs only twenty-four hours old, the date of laying being stamped on the shell; others sell sterile eggs, for which an increased price is paid, if properly marketed. Poultry meat farms may be grouped under the heads: broiler, roaster, or capon farms. These may be run exclusively or in com- bination, or either one may be ruh in connection with egg farming. The latter is undoubtedly the best practice. Where the production of meat is the leading part of the business, it requires much more careful management, owing to the fact that the returns are not continuous the entire year. There are certain seasons during which SEPARATE POULTRY INDUSTRIES 27 large revenues are received for the various classes of market poul- try; at other seasons of the year it would not pay to ship them. The broiler season extends from September to January; a good roaster can be sold at any time of the year, but often at a re- duced price per pound; capons bring the highest prices from Fig. 23.—A farm for intensive egg production. Three thousand birds housed on five acres. November to March. A broiler during the height of the season often brings as high as fifty or sixty cents per pound. Out of the season twenty cents is a good price, which may be less than the cost of production. A new phase of the poultry business is the community hatchery (Fig. 11). A poultryman who understands the business and is Fig. 24.—A farm for the production of fancy poultry. Note the small units, systemat- ically arrdnged, making special matings possible. (Courtesy of Harmony Park.) suitably located takes eggs from smaller poultrymen, hatches them, and delivers the chicks at hatching time, or in some cases broods them to the age of three or more weeks. One of the greatest specialties of the business is that of the. poultry breeder who improves his birds by careful matings, ex- hibits at shows, and sells eggs, chicks, and adult birds entirely for breeding purposes (Fig. 24). Success in this branch depends on the name and standing which the breeder has. 28 POULTRY FARMING There are not only the various specialties outlined here, but many other branches, as the keeping of ducks, geese, turkeys, and wild game. The broiler-duck business, for instance, is one of the largest and most profitable branches of poultry keeping. The advantages of poultry keeping are many. The amount of land and capital required is not great. There are a great variety of products. These are easy to market. The money invested brings quick returns. The business is suited to persons of either sex. Land is made more fertile. Poultry utilize waste products. Land and Capital Required.—It is safe to say that in no other branch of animal industry is there so little need of an extended outlay in land and capital to make a successful start as in poultry keeping. The investment in land is least for those birds which are not of a roving nature, as ducks and heavy fowls. With turkeys, and some other classes which by nature are wild, more land is required. They do not thrive so well in close confinement. Five acres will amply accommodate one thousand laying hens and pro- vide room for the rearing of the young stock to replace the old ones. Experiments show that less land is required than was for- merly supposed. When many birds are kept on a small area the cul- tivation and sanitation must be more thorough. If scarcity of land is not a difficulty to be met, then the most economical method is to allow free range. If the feed is to be grown at home, much more land is required,—about an acre for every one hundred birds. Growing chicks require much more range than adult birds. An abundance of park room or large runs should be allowed the young pullets and cockerels. Fattening fowls require very little room; it is desirable to keep them closely confined during the finishing period, as a much greater gain in weight is secured by so doing. The first question usually asked by a person starting out in any business is, ‘‘ How much will it cost?’ Unlike most other ventures, the poultry business may be started in a small way with very little capital. When starting in egg production for market purposes, the first cost for stock is very small; but if starting into the Breeding of fancy or show birds, this item is much greater. A modest beginning is best. This can later be extended and more and newer equipment can be purchased as the business grows. The small flock on the average farm will thrive with little scientific care. As the numbers are increased there is a greater chance for disease and a greater need of careful and systematic attention to detail of management, which can come only from experience. ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY KEEPING 29 Great Variety of Products—The poultry business is made up of so many different branches that the beginner is enabled to select the one which will best fit his own conditions. He must first study market requirements and land conditions. The poultry- man having only a small plat can go into the breeding of pure-bred stock and the production of market eggs. The rearing of chicks to be marketed later as roasters or capons requires a much larger area and different conditions. On the average farm which is run exclusively for egg production, there are a number of by-products which bring in a large revenue. Next in order after egg production is the raising and sale of market poultry, both the surplus males and the old stock. Aside from this is the poultry manure, which if properly gathered and stored can be sold as fertilizer to truck farmers and growers of small fruits. There is also a revenue from feathers if they are dry-picked and well cured. Products Easy to Market—With modern means of transporta- tion, it is possible for the poultryman to put upon a special market, many miles away, eggs which are not over twenty-four hours old, and for which an extra price is easily received. It is also possible to ship poultry products much farther, and yet have them reach market in much better condition than many other farm products, as market milk, perishable vegetables, and tender fruits. It should be the aim of every poultryman to produce the best which is pos- sible and then to market the product in the most attractive and sanitary way. By so doing he may get a quick and sure market for all his shipments. As soon as customers learn that a worthy article is regularly produced, a great demand is immediately de- veloped for that particular product from the same source. A permanent market is easily secured in this way. With all poultry products a great value is represented in small bulk. They are much easier to handle, both in preparing for market and during shipment, than the bulky agricultural products. Express charges are relatively small, considering the value carried. Poultry products, especially eggs, owing to their small bulk and high food value, can be easily stored, and if properly handled can be kept for from six months to one year in cold storage and still be useful as human food. This practice of holding eggs from season to season in storage is used for speculative purposes, and eggs are sometimes kept much longer than desirable from the food stand- point. It is very easy to hold them from spring, when large num- .. bers are laid, until the next winter, when they may bring good s + 30 POULTRY FARMING prices on the wholesale markets. The extended storage of eggs over periods of two or more years for speculative purposes is dis- couraged by law. There will always be a demand for fresh eggs, because ‘‘ An egg is an egg,’—that is, a fresh egg is known to contain certain food materials that cannot be adulterated. With poultry products, more than with any other kind of farm products, one can determine months in advance the approximate price to be realized. The production of eggs is affected by tem- perature, and the price varies accordingly. During the spring months a heavy production is certain, and the price is always lowest then. During the winter production is limited, and the price received per dozen is high. Knowing this, the egg farmer should try, by all known methods of care and management, to get a maximum egg yield during the winter months, when the price is high and a first-class market for fresh eggs is certain. Quick Returns for Money Invested—The investor with small capital must get returns quickly if he is to make a success of his investment. Poultry keeping offers inducements to this kind of investor, as there is no branch of animal husbandry which offers such quick returns. In any branch of the business—whether eggs, broilers, roasters, capons, or fancy stock—the products are ready for market in a very short time. Considering the longest possible course which one could pursue,—namely, the saving of eggs for hatching to raise pullets to be kept for egg production,—the products will be ready for market in from five to nine months, depending on the breed kept. This one fact of quick returns explains why many small investors are always starting into the business. Suited to Persons of Hither Sex.—Poultry keeping requires no complicated machinery or heavy equipment. For this reason it is well suited to women as well as men. It is also suited to persons who are unable to perform hard manual labor and who are willing to put time and thought into the work at hand. It has been previously stated that the great mass of poultry and eggs are produced as a side line on the general farms in the central part of the United States. On the most of these farms the routine work of caring for the birds is left largely to the women and children, the men helping with the heavy chores. On many gen- eral farms the women of the family take entire charge of the hatching and rearing. Natural methods predominate, and very satisfactory results are usually attained, owing to the fact that they seem to understand the temperament of the sitting hen PROFITS FROM POULTRY 31 better than men. Women are also proficient in rearing young chicks, due in large part to their ability to look after little details. In a considerable number of cases women have made remarkable success in managing large commercial poultry farms. As a side line or pastime poultry keeping offers to women excellent oppor- tunities for work in the open. A Healthful Occupation—Poultry keeping, whether as an exclusive occupation or as a side line, offers to any one engaging in the work a healthy, interesting, and invigorating occupation. The work is largely out of doors, is not exceedingly heavy, but is constant and detailed. To persons of poor or injured health the care of a small flock of birds offers an ideal opportunity to build strength and muscle and at the same time secure a small income. Under such condi- tions the work should be started in a small way and built up as health improves. Increase Fertility of the Soil—Aside from the commercial value of the poultry manure there is a great increase in the fertility of the land over which the birds run. On a general farm it is probably more economical to use all the poultry manure than to attempt to sellit. The fertilizing constituents of poultry droppings in the fresh state are about as follows: Nitrogen and phosphoric acid each 16 pounds and potash 8 pounds in a thousand pounds of droppings. Poultry manure is the richest of-all the farm manures. Compared with commercial fertilizers the three ingredients mentioned make fresh droppings worth about $7.50 per ton. The manure should be carefully collected and used as a concentrated fertilizer for farm crops. Utilize Waste Products——Poultry help to save many waste seeds and grains on the general farms. They consume many of the by-products which otherwise would be an entire loss. This is true of inferior fruits and vegetables, and refuse from the table. Many insects and weed seeds are consumed. A market value can be realized on these when selling poultry products. Disadvantages of Poultry Keeping.—The business may at times demand more labor and expenditure of money than the poultry keeper can give. Even with modern methods of sanitation there will be occasional outbreaks of contagious disease which will cause a large loss of life and greatly diminish profits. Profits from Poultry.—The first question asked of any business is, “Does it pay?” It can safely be said that poultry keeping pays 32 POULTRY FARMING a surer income, year after year, on the moncy invested than any other business with which the farmer is connected. The time has passed when it was the unanimous opinion that poultry does not pay. There are too many men actively engaged in it and making a comfortable living, as well as too great a number with yearly incomes well up into the thousands, for there to be any doubt in the matter. It-has been proved over and over again that failure cannot be laid to the business, but to the man at the head of the business. There is no danger of the business being overdone for many years to come, because the demand is greatly ahead of the supply and is constantly on the increase. The United States is compelled to import millions of dozens of eggs, besides other poultry products, each year to keep up with the demand. There have been times when the prices would fluctuate out of season, due to speculation in cold-storage products, but with better laws governing the storage of products this becomes less possible. There need never be any fear of large combines being formed to “ freeze out” the small producer, because the industry is composed of thousands of small units, and the middleman or dealers must have their products. It is possible to make enormous profits from the poultry busi- ness, some of our noted breeders making $30,000 or over in one year. On the other hand, there are men who, to all outward appearances equally as well fitted for the work, have lost that much on poultry in a very short time. Great mistakes are made by the uninitiated in figuring profits on paper. The enthusiastic amateur will usually work it out as follows: One hen will lay twelve dozen eggs a year, which at twenty-five cents a dozen will bring in three dollars. It costs one dollar to feed her, which will leave a profit of two dollars per hen per year. If five hundred hens are kept, they will return a profit of $1,000, and if one thousand hens, $2,000; and so on until he knows he is to be a millionaire. This is not meant to show that this rate of profit cannot be realized. In fact many of our experi- enced poultrymen are doing better, but it is only after years of experience. Therefore, the best advice to the amateur would be to start in a small way and find out by actual experience just what can be made out of the business. In this way experience may be gained without having to pay dearly for it, as would be the case in a heavy first investment. Profit depends largely on cost and methods of feeding. The cost of poultry feed has risen considerably during recent years. PROFITS FROM POULTRY 33 Poultry keepers have learned more fully the feed requirements for winter egg production. It is found in most cases to be impossible to feed the laying hen for less than $1.50 per year. Formerly this could be done for $1.00 to $1.20. Heavy producing flocks often run up to $2.00 or over. There is much need of experi- ence in profitable feeding. The profit from feeding comes from the feed which is consumed over and above the amount which is required for the maintenance of the body. The following may be considered about the average to be expected on a commercial plant which is managed by one with years of successful experience. Production of the Average Hen on a Well-managed Plant. Begsdaid per yeat.siuccnerneriaig ease aegecredee aa eee 120 Value of eggs at un average of 214 cents.................... $3.00 Cost Gf feeds siya sah ak Oakey oes weeny Bhat sie ag ss wh 1.50 Cost of labor per year ......00..0000.0 00 e cee 30 Profit over cost of feed..... 00.0.0. eee 1.50 ING bi POP OM tale case gpsssevkts: Pataca teiniaubrrhg Gueitiate— RiRsaghdl Sue ua iebeadl ah eu Real 1.20 In explanation of the above it may be said that 120 eggs was found to be the average of sixteen commercial plants in the State of New Jersey during 1911. The average farm flock is not up to this, yet, with a little more care and a slightly increased outlay in feed and improved buildings, the average production of the farm flock could be greatly increased, and the profit per bird doubled. The average production of all farm flocks during the same time was estimated to be 92 eggs per hen per year. Two and one half cents apiece was below the average wholesale price for New Jersey eggs the same year. Numerous experiments and observations carried on by the writer show the approximate cost of labor per bird to be thirty cents. This cost was when a double system of yarding was used and green feed was grown directly in the runs. It will be interesting to compare the above figures with the following results which were obtained during the ‘‘ Money-in- Poultry ” contest held under the management of the American Agriculturist, which closed April 1, 1901, with over 500 contestants: Production of the Average Hen. Eggs laid per year..... 2.0.6. eee eee 82 Value of eggs at 214 cents... 0.0... cee eee $1.85 Gostiol teeditinwinia date esis eee one ae ata ed eae eee Saas 94 Cost Of labor x... 25s isting yeh nade nanan sheen omgitt 34 Profit over cost of feed...............20022000- eer ree 91 Net profitiee 2<-8cGtsey day pire cent eh POOR deca SW ee ee ah tan 57 3 34 POULTRY FARMING From a comparison of the two tables it will readily be seen that the quality of the average hen is increasing, especially as regards number of eggs. This is due undoubtedly to better feed- ing and more careful and systematic breeding. When it is necessary to estimate the yearly profit from a hen, a cost of $1.50 for feed and a return of $1.00 over cost of feed are pretty safe figures to rely on. If there is any error it will be on the safe side. It must be understood that it will take a well- managed plant to equal this. At the same time it should not be forgotten that results far superior to the above are very common on modern plants when much thought and energy are thrown into the work. A number of different plants have been closely studied by the author, in various parts of the country, which have turned out yearly profits of from 18 to 27 per cent on the investment. The largest percentage of profit was on moderately small plants of from 200 to 400 birds. The 18 per cent profit was on a plant with a laying capacity of over 2,000. This illustrates a very common fact: Usually as the plant becomes larger and more birds are kept, the owner or manager is less able to look after the necessary de- tails; as these details are left to others, there is too apt to be a corresponding loss. This is not figured when making calculations of profits on paper. Here a word of warning will not be out of place: Beware of the poultry advertiser, or “ poultry system,” which claims im- mense profits per bird per year. These are constantly seen in poultry papers, with special advertisements claiming from $5.00 to $8.00 profit. It is well for the prospective investor to weigh the statements carefully and if possible obtain the advice of an expert before investing heavily in such “ systems.” The adver- tiser may be doing all that he claims and be acting in good faith, yet many of the systems would be an utter failure in in- experienced hands. In this connection it should be remembered that profits which are derived from the various branches of the business vary greatly. It is possible for the breeder of high-class exhibition birds to make a large income from a few birds; this is only after years of breeding and the winning of many high prizes at poultry shows. Importance of Knowing Actual Profits.—On the average poultry farm few records are kept, and the exact income and profit resulting from the efforts of the poultryman are too often nothing but guesswork. In such cases the poultryman himself is BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 35 the one most often cheated. Simple records and a short method of accounting should be worked out which will show at any time just where the business stands financially. Such a series of records should show an inventory which gives the nature and value of equipment at the first of each year. The distribution of crops and the arrangement of birds in flocks should be planned and shown on map. A simple set of single-entry books should be kept, showing the actual expense of operation as well as the income and the different sources from which it came. With this information at hand it is a simple matter to strike a balance and know the exact financial condition of the business. The vital question confronting the American poultryman to-day is not, How can I get better prices for poultry products? but, How can I produce a higher quality at a lower cost? This same question was the important one years ago, and its solu- tion will always be of vital moment. The factors which can be made to partially solve the problem at the present time are: (1) Better birds; (2) more careful mating and breeding; (3) scientific study of laws governing nutrition; (4) more liberal feeding during heavy producing periods; (5) more economical and sanitary housing of the laying stock; and (6) more attention to the handling and marketing of poultry products. With thought and attention to these points the yearly profit per bird would show a great increase. Brief Review of Foreign Poultry Keeping.—European countries as a whole have received a great awakening along poultry lines dur- ing recent years, there being a great increase in the number of fowls kept, also a great improvement in birds and methods adopted. (Facts from Bulletin No. 65, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) In England the poultry industry is greatly handicapped by the preservation of foxes for the purpose of the hunt. There is a special tax which goes to defray the injury done to poultry from this source, yet in many cases justice is not done. In some in- stances false claims are entered which tend to make unpleasant conditions common. In spite of this handicap the industry has increased annually until the yearly production has reached about ten million dollars. The one great peculiarity of the English system is the use of small portable houses, sometimes on wheels, which can be easily moved from place to place, thus giving the birds new ground at all times. The majority of English flocks of poultry are kept on small 36 POULTRY FARMING farms and made to pay good dividends, considering the time and money spent for their care (Figs. 25, 26, and 27). England is the home of the Orpington fowl, large numbers of Fic. 25.—Poultry on u Yorkshire farm. Several varieties are commonly kept on one farm. (Photo by Edward Brown.) which have been sent to the United States and to several European countries by English breeders. Conditions could be easily reversed so far as America is concerned. By studying European de- mands American breeders could find a market for well-bred birds of their most popular breeds. Fia. 26.—Plant of a fancy poultry keeper in England. (Photo by Edward Brown.) Scotland and Wales are not noted as poultry countries. In the former very few birds are kept, ducks and geese predominating, and in Wales there are considerable numbers kept on ranges, but they are of very poor quality. Treland has received within the last few years a great amount BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 37 of help and instruction through government aid. Her poultry industry is rapidly coming to the front, especially the production and immediate marketing of eggs. In methods of fattening and finishing birds for markets she has yet much to learn. Ireland is a country of small farms, especially suited for this work. In France conditions are entirely different. The industry is almost universal and has been so for hundreds of years. The Ministry of Agriculture lends its powerful influence, and each year large shows are held under its supervision. These include all classes of poultry as well as eggs and dressed poultry. France Fic. 27.—An English scene of intensive poultry keeping, with small, elevated, unit houses. (Photo by Edward Brown.) not only supplies her own needs but exports large amounts to England. It is estimated that the value of poultry and eggs pro- duced yearly in France is over $76,000,000, which is nearly double the amount produced in the British Isles, and above one-fourth the value of the poultry products in the United States for the year 1900.. Poultry keeping is made a part of all farm operations. It is especially used in combination with vineyards, where it helps to keep insects in check. Fowls are always allowed free range, except during the season when the fruit is ripening, and the best birds are produced on the same areas where the best grapes are produced. The French fowls are known the world over for qual- ity of flesh and size of egg. 38 POULTRY FARMING In Belgium poultry keeping is carried on to a relatively im- portant extent. The intensive methods characteristic of Belgian farmers are in vogue. Large numbers of young birds are fattened for export trade, and recently the production of eggs for export has taken a rapid stride forward. The egg industry has been increased by importing from Italy thousands upon thousands of young pullets, mostly Leghorns, at from three to five months of age. These are kept entirely for the purpose of securing a lot of eggs in a short time for export trade. The German Empire is not a heavy producer of eggs nor poultry, but imports large quantities from Russia and Italy. Denmark has shown the same unequaled success in her poultry work which has been characteristic of all her agricultural endeavors. Fic. 28.—A typical Danish poultry house. A roosting room is at each end with a glass- front scratching shed between. Brick is commonly used. During the ten years from 1890 to 1900 the number of birds more than doubled. At the beginning of that period egg production was practically nonexistent. The Danes are noted for codpera- tion, and their poultry industry has been greatly benefited by the organization of poultry societies, which help the farmers to secure better markets. As a consequence they have introduced what is undoubtedly the most perfect system of grading and crating, as well as a system of marketing in the shortest possible time. Up to the present time market poultry has not received a prominent place in their industry; but they have proven themselves capable of such wonderful development and organization that it is impos- sible to foretell what they will accomplish in the future (Figs. 28 and 29). Italy does not hold the place in the world’s poultry keeping BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 39 which should be expected of a country where two of the greatest egg breeds of to-day originated. The Leghorns and Anconas are from the Italian peninsula. The northern part of the country is especially suited to the work, as the agricultural districts are divided into small farms. The soil and climatic conditions are all that could be desired. There are movements toward codpera- tion which should yield excellent results in the future. Austria- Hungary has made rapid strides, due largely to organ- ization and codperation in shipping and marketing. The lighter Fia. 29.—A Danish egg-grading and DARE TORS: Eggs are packed in bulk, in nests of excelsior. birds are predominant. It is stated by the Hungarian Poultry Association that, of all branches of agriculture, poultry keeping is best suited to the soil and climate of the country. The statements are also made that Hungary exports as much value in poultry products as in grain, and that poultry pays ten times as much as any other branch of its agriculture. There is a great future ahead in Hungary for poultry keeping. Russia is a great exporting country, owing to its large area, but is backward in its methods and results. The fowls, as a rule, are small and poorly bred. The majority are kept by peasants, and the flocks are very small. From ten to twenty is the average num- ber kept by one peasant. Under these conditions the eggs produced 40 POULTRY FARMING can be sold very cheaply, as the fowls are fed almost entirely on waste and allowed at night to stay under any shelter which is most convenient. The Russian government has made several endeavors to aid the industry, but is hindered by the ignorance of a large mass of the population. In European countries, as a rule, the mass of the production is upon small farms and from small flocks. The greatest advance has been attained in sections where the producers have codperated in securing better market conditions and better methods of ship- ping and marketing, and where there has been a steady and con- scientious attempt to improve both the stock and methods of management. The one great fact which the United States should learn and make use of from these countries is the necessity, if the best results are to be attained, of immediate steps toward system- atic organization and codperation, to see that the producer re- ceives adequate returns for his products. REVIEW. 1. What is meant by the term poultry farming? 2. Give the number and value of poultry in the United States in 1910. 3. Give the percentage increase in numbers and production during the pre- ceding ten years. 4. Where is the greatest egg producing section of the United States? 5. Describe the method of poultry farming in the Petaluma district, Cal. 6. Describe the method of poultry farming in the Vineland district, N. J. 7. For what is the Little Compton district famous? 8. For what is the South Shore district famous? 9. Name five modern developments which have revolutionized the poultry industry. 10. In what respect is poultry farming a diversified industry? 11. What are the opportunities of the poultry farmer? 12. Discuss the poultry fancier and his business, 13. Is poultry keeping suitable as an investment? If not, why? 14. What are the possibilities in the field of poultry labor? 15. Enumerate the various separate poultry industries. 16. Name and discuss the advantages of poultry keeping. 17. What are the possible disadvantages? 18. What do you consider a reasonable profit from poultry? 19. Why must one know his actual profits? 20. Give a brief review of poultry keeping in the leading European countries. References.—The Twelfth and Thirteenth Census of the United States: Agriculture, ‘Distribution and Magnitude of the Poultry and Egg Industry,” by G. F. Thompson, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry, Report, 1902. CHAPTER II. CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM. THE farm is not only the place of business of the poultryman, but it is his home as well; hence special care should be given to the selection and development of the particular piece of land which is to make his home, and upon which he is to develop his business. The development of the esthetic side of life, including many of the so-called enjoyments, is essential to happiness. A well-kept and attractive home, including fruit, flowers, and lawns, all go to make life in the country more enjoyable. The prospective purchaser can consider these matters and the matters which are hereafter discussed with reference to location when picking out his site, but the poultry farmer already owning his place must consider these questions from the standpoint of improving his conditions as they exist. Two Points of View.—In choosing the location for the poultry farm and in developing the particular piece of land selected, two leading ideas:should be considered: First, conditions and sur- roundings as they will affect the poultryman and his family, such, for example, as the social, moral, and religious development of the community, and also conditions which will help toward the education of his children. This group of considerations might be considered as factors of location determining the desirability of the particular place for the proper development of home life. The second group of factors deals with conditions as they are suited for the proper development of his business, and these fac- tors will naturally group themselves into three divisions; namely, factors affecting production which have to do with the laying out and planning of the plant, and environmental conditions as they affect the birds’ health, etc. The second group of factors affect- ing the business will be those incurred in connection with the distribution or the conditions controlling the delivery and receipt of products sold and purchased. The third group of factors might be termed ‘‘Demand and Consumption.” Such factors as markets, character of products desired, and amount and dis- tribution of products demanded, must fall in this class. With these two viewpoints in mind, the problem of selecting 41 42 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM the farm, and developing the farm already owned, becomes a vital question, and should receive close and careful consideration. The Farm as a Home.—When considering the location with reference to the home life and associations of the community, the following factors should be considered: , First, social life of the community; second, the educational facilities; and, third, the moral and religious life of the community. All of the above factors have a direct bearing upon the mode of living and upon family associations. ‘The Community Socially.—Life in rural communities in years past has been more or less of an isolated. existence, but with the development of better means of communication and transporta- tion the possibility for social development and personal inter- course among farmers has developed rapidly, and the farmer and his family have ceased to become a unit for social and educa- tional development which formerly was the case. This possibility of a greater social development has emphasized the importance, when choosing a farm, for the poultryman to investigate carefully the social possibilities of the community and for him to be sure, at least, that they will be on an equality with the conditions to which he has been accustomed, and of a standard which he would like to maintain. Personality of Prospective Neighbors.——In the country, neighborly interest and intercourse are much more developed than in the urban communities, and hence it behooves the pur- chaser, when deciding upon the community in which to locate, to study the habits and customs of his prospective neighbors, to investigate their mode and standard of living, and to see whether they will be the means of maintaining his own standards of living, rather than lowering them. Pleasant, kindly neighbors add much to the pleasure of living in the country, which at the best is quiet and somewhat isolated. A study of land tenure is also desirable, for the presence of farmers operating their own farms in a community usually means much more progressive agri- culture than where tenants naturally predominate. ‘‘ Neighbors signify much more in country life than in city life.” Social Organizations.—The development of social organiza- tions of different natures has been very rapid in agricultural communities during the past few years, and the poultryman, in choosing his location, can measure to a considerable extent the personality and intellectual development of the community by SOCIAL FACILITIES 43 noticing the presence of some of the following institutions: The Grange is an organization for social and educational development, and in choosing the location the presence of a Grange in a com- munity is a desirable advantage. The location of a public or town library where the family can secure up-to-date reading mat- ter at small cost is another desirable asset. Country socials held at frequent intervals and pointing toward desirable agricultural efforts, show a proper spirit of codperation and neighborliness which means much toward increasing community interest. _Organ- izations which provide lectures at frequent intervals on popular agricultural subjects exist in many communities, and are a strong factor for the agricultural development of that particular section. The building up of agricultural institutions and the development of agricultural organizations of various kinds, such as breeding associations, milk-testing associations, educational poultry asso- ciations, and poultry show associations, all offer greater social opportunities. They serve as an indication of the intellectual attainments of the farmers, and they may be taken, also, as a measure of the success which is crowning the efforts of the farmers in a given district. Social Facilities. The . Fic. 30.—Rural trolley express, a conven- poultryman’s first duty should Fe en ee eee eee be to his home, and especially (Photo by Rhode Island Co.) his children, and in choosing the location the presence of good rural schools should be carefully lookedinto. The general tendency in rural schools is toward con- solidation, and hence close proximity to a consolidated school means progressive education of practically as high a degree of efficiency as can be obtained in urban centres. In such centres the boys and girls usually organize agricultural clubs with various aims and objects, such as boys’ and girls’ poultry clubs and corn clubs. In such consolidated school districts the intellectual development of instructors is materially higher than in the isolated district, where the small district or rural school is the only educational centre. The close proximity to higher institutions of learning is a material asset, but not always necessary. The influence of such institutions on a community is very material, and often worth considering when deciding between two locations. 44 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM ; Medical Attendance.—In case of sickness, proper facilities for securing medical aid is a valuable asset. The cost of such attendance is reduced, promptness and quickness are insured, and the quality of such service should receive careful consid- eration. The Community Morally.—A high moral development means a high standard of living, and is usually found where social and educational facilities are best. Distance from Undesirable Institutions——When choosing a location for the poultry farm, places which are considerable distances from saloons, low-class hotels, and gambling houses are especially desirable. The element which is associated with such undesirable institutions can not but materially lower the community in which they exist. This disadvantage may be apparent in the social or moral attitude of the community, in decrease in land values, or it may be apparent in name only; in either case their presence is exceptionally undesirable. Church Facilities.—The location of an active, thriving church in the immediate vicinity of the location selected is an advantage. Such a church is usually a community centre. The average country community which does not have church facilities will be found to be on the decadence in nearly every respect, whereas the church centre in the community materially increases the character of the community which it serves. Within such a com- munity religious centres are formed, men’s clubs are affiliated with the church, and boys’ and girls’ clubs are common. These factors are an important consideration from the standpoint of country life interest and general business success. The Farm as a Business Investment.—The land purchased for a poultry farm should be looked upon as a fixed capital or as something having a purchasing value, and upon its desirability largely depends the success of the enterprise. The farm itself largely determines the condition of environment and the sur- roundings to which the birds are subjected. A proper environ- ment may be termed one of the most important corner-stones to successful management. Production is largely influenced by the condition of soil, drainage, climate, ete. When considering the farm as a business enterprise, three problems appear: First, the conditions of location as affecting production; second, the effect of location upon distribution; and, third, available markets and the character of the products demanded. SOIL 45 Factors of Location Affecting Production.—A mild temperate climate is ideal, although poultry is managed successfully under a great range of climatic conditions. Factors of temperature should receive careful consideration. Extremes should be avoided, and locations which are characterized by rapid variations are undesirable. In the southern part of the United States, where average temperatures are high, conditions are less desirable than in the more temperate climates farther north. Canadian condi- tions, although very cold, seem to be superior to the extreme torrid climate of the South. There is no one best latitude; ideal conditions will usually be found in the latitude of Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, and through aera JOOS -H=4 -—--—s500-—--— ~-———500-—--7 inf 1s ieee Eee eee North yard : 1 ** | 4 o 6p oj! 9 en cae i _cromren| 8 SS Se Boo oF a |§ —~yex20'400-—4 ° GIES Tay eS = : 11S | i qo gd of 1 ' ' 1 South yard | | oe ae ae et Community system — Semi-community Colony After Rice and Rogers. Fic. 31.—System of poultry farming. No fences are used in the community system. The most fencing is required in the semi-community system. Most labor is required in the colony system. to the Pacifie Coast. The prevailing wind direction should be determined, and the character of weather which it brings will materially affect climatic conditions. Prevailing winds from over the land are most desirable, as the associated climate is usually dry. North to northwest winds are best. Atmospheric conditions should also be considered. Close proximity to large bodies of water, to low river valleys, or to the ocean usually means a rela- tively high humidity, which is undesirable. For example, the Jersey coast, being close to the Atlantic Ocean, is handicapped by the presence of thick fogs during spring and fall, which means the prevalence of considerable roup and canker during these seasons, while central New York State or North Jersey, being removed from the water, has a drier climate and less trouble from atmospheric moisture. Soil.—The ideal soil for poultry raising is an open, porous 46 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM sandy loam with an open, gravelly subsoil. Such a soil formation is dry and warm, owing to the fact that surface moisture leaches quickly, and in the spring such a soil proves to be remarkably warm and early. Furthermore, a well-drained soil of this kind cleans itself quickly by carrying the filth below through a process of leaching. Probably one of the most ideal soils for poultry raising in the United States is in central southern New Jersey. Heavy shale or clay soils should be avoided, as they are wet and cold. They are usually late soils in the spring, are slow to dry up after rains, and they hold and accumulate filth from the poultry droppings. Such soils need much cultivation and the growing of green crops in order to insure sanitary conditions. The pres- ence of a water table close to the surface, due to heavy subsoil, Fig. 32.—Large community house, holding five hundred birds. is undesirable. The advantages are all with an open, porous gravelly under-layer. The soil should not be so sandy as to be unproductive. When inspecting a given location the prospective owner should take samples of soil from different depths and send them to his experiment station for advice in regard to nature of same. He should also make it a plan to see the land in spring, if possible, so that he may study the condition at its worst. Some locations which may be dry in summer present a very wet and .springy surface soil during the fall and early spring. Land Contour.—A rolling country (Fig. 35) is best for poultry farming. At least, it is well to avoid level country or extreme mountainous country: the former is apt to be bleak and windy, and the latter too steep and rough for the economic handling of the birds. The sloping rolling country offers protection from severe winds, and makes it possible to locate the plant in sheltered LAND CONTOUR 47 spots, and also insures good soil and air drainage. The particular site selected should have plenty of land sloping to the south, for Fic. 33.—Semi-community poultry plant. Hatching and brooding buildings in back- ground, and isolated single-pen and double-pen laying houses distributed over the rest of the plant. Roads and double yarding are common in this system. such areas are usually warm, and they are usually much drier. Slopes to the north should be avoided, as they have all of the un- Fic. 34.—Colony houses for poultry on extensive range. The house in the foreground shows cheap construction. desirable features of cold temperature, moisture, and no protec- tion from the north winds. In studying the character of the country, a contour map is an advantage. The weather records 48 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM of the community, if they are kept locally, should be inspected, and a personal trip by the prospective purchaser over the land being inspected is essential. Water Drainage.—The surface soil on the poultry plant should be dry. This means that rain water should be carried off quickly, preferably by absorption, rather than by erosion. The location of ample and natural water-courses on sloping land is a big advan- tage. Slight indentations or hollows should be avoided, as in the spring, when the ground is thawing, small ponds of water are apt to form in them. On steep, hilly sites erosions can be prevented by terracing the yards, and by the providing of winter cover crops, or by keeping the area in permanent sod. The houses should be so located that all of the surface water from the back of the house can be carried around and off to a point a considerable dis- tance in front, without coming in contact with the house (Fig. 36). The soil should be well underdrained, preferably by natural open subsoil, in the absence of which it should be artificially drained. In the spring of the year the presence of wet, soft, springy soil is an indication of poor underdrainage. Such soils, although they may be fairly dry on the surface, are cold, wet, and late in spring, which is a material disadvantage. Poorly- drained soils are, at the best, unhealthy, keeping out air, and hence aiding in the development of injurious bacteria, which aid in increasing the presence of disease among the flocks. Muddy, wet soil in the spring makes muddy feet, which, when the birds enter the houses, soil the litter and nesting material and give the eggs a dirty appearance. Air Drainage.—The circulation of air in the atmosphere fol- lows the same principle of warm and cold air which takes place in the ventilation of the poultry house. Warm air rises and cold air falls; hence in hilly or rolling country the cold, heavy, moisture- laden air is constantly falling to low levels, and the warm air rises and seeks the higher places. It is desirable to avoid shallow places, as they are apt to be damp and cold. A location part way up the slope is ideal, being above the frost line and in a sec- tion of considerable atmospheric circulation. The slope of the hill protects the plant from prevailing northwest winds. It is for this same reason that peach orchards and the like thrive best on sloping land rather than in valleys. Natural Vegetation.—The location which shows the presence of a considerable natural vegetation is better than one showing WATER SUPPLY 49 scanty vegetation. The presence of natural forest growth is an advantage, from the fact that it provides shade, and also acts as windbreaks and prevents erosions in hilly country. An abundance of trees and natural vegetation has a cooling effect, as well as a purifying effect upon the surrounding atmosphere. Water Supply.—Stagnant waters about the poultry farm are very undesirable, but a constant supply of fresh pure water for drinking purposes is a great advantage to any location. A satis- factory supply of water may be attained by any of the following methods, which are arranged in the order of their value: 1. A perpetual stream of running water through the farm, which not only acts as a source of pure water, but aids in main- taining perfect soil and surface drainage. This method of water- Fie. 35.—Ideal location for poultry farming. Rolling land gives good drainage and proper air circulation. (Photo by Southern Railway Land Department.) ing is most economical, and is desirable where the colony system is used. Where the birds are kept in the community system, a large number in small runs, it is not advisable to have a brook running through the yards, for fear of contamination. 2. It is often possible to dam such a stream to form a head of water on elevated ground not far from the plant, so that a small reservoir may be formed and pipes run to the desired points of distribution. Gravity distribution is the most efficient and economical if sufficient pressure can be attained. 3. The presence of a never-failing spring at some elevated position may be utilized in the same way, there being no power required for distribution. 4. If the source of water supply is below the level of the plant, the water can be elevated to stand-pipes or reservoirs in any of the following ways: Hydraulic rams, gasoline engines, water- wheels, or windmills. 4 50 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM 5. The use of a driven well and compression storage tank oper- ated by a gasoline engine will be found an efficient and economical method of furnishing water where natural sources are absent. The one point of most importance in laying out a water system is to take the water from above the plant and carry the waste water below, thus doing away with contamination. The more naturally this system can be brought about, the more desirable is the location, as'a greater economy in labor and equipment is secured. Size and Shape of Land.—The area of land secured will largely influence the system of housing and yarding which will be followed. A farm of forty or fifty acres will allow of develop- ing an immense business on the colony plan, as well as giving ample space for growing much of the feed at home. A farm of four or five acres will take care of approximately 1000 layers on a very intensive community basis, and provide range for raising young chicks. No feed except pasture can be grown on such asmall area. If possible, some land on the place should be in trees, prefer- ably fruit trees, so as to have shade available. Artificial shade can be constructed, but it is not as satisfactory as the cool, moist shade provided by growing trees. The shape of the land is an important factor. A square lot of land has the following advantages over a long, rectangular one: 1. If the area is large, it is better to place the buildings in the centre near the dwelling house and work the farm all ways from this centre location, thus saving much time which would be spent in going long distances many times a day to do the work, as is required when the farm is narrow and the buildings located at one end. 2. It is peanteally impossible to have all the flock constantly under the eye of the attendant when they are too scattered; the danger from loss by hawks and thieves of all kinds is apt to be much greater. 3. If the plant can be planned to have all the runs arranged as nearly as possible in the form of squares, the cost for fencing and posts will be less and the amount of green feed grown in them will last much longer than in long, narrow yards. Plan of the Plant—The common systems of poultry keeping which have given success in all parts of the country may be classi- fied as follows: Community, Semi-community, and Colony Systems -(Fig. 31). PLAN OF THE PLANT 51 Community system is a term applied to that method of housing in which the birds are confined in large flocks under one roof. The poultry houses are usually of the long-house type; in some cases as long as five hundred feet. The yards, if any, run to the front, and in some cases both to the front and to the rear. In this system the amount of land required is relatively small, considering the large number of birds kept. It is well adapted to egg farms located on expensive land very near large centres of population. The birds are closely confined and under observa- tion at all times. The disadvantages are danger of fire and dis- Fia. 36.—Houses and yards on a hillside, giving good drainage. ease, and extra expense required for fencing. This type of long house is often used with only one or two yards. The house is then not divided into small pens, as many as five hundred birds being kept in one flock (Fig. 32). Semi-community is a term applied to plants in which the birds are kept in smaller units, consisting usually of single or, at the most, double pen-houses arranged along streets or roads, with yards running to the front or rear. The pens are from twenty- five to one hundred feet apart, depending on the length of the tuns. This type requires more land than the former, and more labor to attend. Advantages are: Giving birds much more room and reducing the risk of the transmission of disease. These first two systems are suited to the production of market 52 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM eggs. In the breeding of high-class exhibition and fancy speci- mens it is absolutely essential to keep the different flocks separate. The semi-community does this well. It is also adapted to the village or farm flock where the nearness of a neighbor or the presence of some crop which would easily be destroyed makes it desirable to keep them securely yarded (Fig. 33). Colony system is a term applied to the method of dividing birds into small flocks of from twenty to fifty and scattering them in small colony houses about the farm; no fencing is used, the birds have free range all the time. The feeding or work is usually done by an attendant driving around from coop to coop with a wagon. This system is adapted to low-priced land located at considerable distance from cities; it can be used to excellent advantage on waste land, such as brush fields or rocky wooded hillsides. It is suited to the raising of roosters, capons, and turkeys on a large scale, since they do much better on free range and the bost of feed is reduced to a minimum. The cost of labor per bird is usually high where a system of this kind is employed, but by the use of wagons or feed carts it should not be excessive (Fig. 34). The colony system works out to very good advantage in com- bination with other branches of farm work, such as fruit-growing. The colony houses may be scattered among the trees, thus making the same land produce two crops. With dairy or beef farming the houses may be scattered about the permanent pastures, where they can be easily attended to and do no damage. Economy of Time and Labor.—The poultry plant, whether large or small, should be laid out with the idea of saving steps. The greatest saving in this respect can be made by care in planning the location of the buildings. The main building should be cen- trally located. It usually contains a feed-room and general workroom, as for fattening, killing, and picking. The incuba- tion and brooding equipment and the laying houses should be so placed in relation to the main building that the entire round.of work can be done without retracing steps and with the shortest distance possible. Chick ranges should be located as near the centre of the plant as practicable, as the birds require feeding much oftener when young. A good system of roads and paths should be constructed so as to be dry at all times. These should be in direct communi- cation with the public highway. PROMPT COMMUNICATION 53 The two heaviest expenses in connection with egg production are feed and labor. The latter can be materially reduced by care in planning the plant. Arrangement of Buildings.—The direction of the most objec- tionable winds should be studied, and the buildings so arranged that the back or low portion is toward the strongest wind. If it is north or west, all windows, doors, and yards should be in the front, which would be protected by the building itself. If no natural windbreaks are present, it is advisable to make plantings of hardy evergreens near the different houses to break the force of strong winds. The buildings for housing the birds should be so located as to receive the early morning sun, and the windows so placed that the sun will shine directly into them during the entire day. An Attractive Appearance when Complete.—The general arrangement and grouping of the buildings should be such as will give a pleasing appearance to the place as a whole when completed. The general shape and character of all structures should harmo- nize when finished. The largest and most attractive buildings should be placed in the most conspicuous place, usually nearest the highway, where they will give a solid appearance to the passer-. by. Usually they will be more conveniently located in such a position. In a fancy or high-class breeding plant, and to a greater or less degree on any kind of a plant, the general appearance of the plant as a whole will serve as advertising. If the individual buildings and the group are neat and attractive in appearance, the natural supposition is that care and skill are exercised in the handling and breeding of stock. Factors of Location Affecting Production.—The frequent dis- ' posal of poultry products is as important a factor in successful management as is production. The two things go hand in hand if the highest price is to be realized. Prompt Communication.—It is essential to keep in close communication with the purchaser, whether the location be at a considerable distance from, or very near the market. In this way the prices, which are changing daily, can be determined and the products disposed of at a time when the best returns will be realized. During frequent fluctuations of the market this may mean a saving of many dollars. It is desirable to keep informed regarding the needs of the purchaser, whether he be the commission merchant or the consumer. 54 CHOOSING A POULTRY FARM If one has these facilities, it will be possible to save much in the purchasing of feed and other supplies during periods of low prices. There are many times when some machines or parts of machines need repair, and much time can often be saved by making a quick order for prompt delivery. This is especially true in incubation and brooding, where injury to the heating equipment may be quickly repaired, thus saving many dollars from loss of chicks or eggs. Means of Communication.—The following are the more com- mon means of rapid communication essential for the satisfactory management of modern poultry plants in this age of competition: (1) Rural free mail delivery; (2) local telephone; (3) long-distance telephone or telegraph connections. Not only does the presence of these necessities aid in facilitat- ing marketing, but farm values are greatly enhanced. By free mail delivery better roads are induced. These make it possible for the farmer to be much more prompt in all business proceedings. They also help greatly to banish isolation, which formerly was one of the greatest disadvantages of all the many types of farming. Facilities for Transportation.—The site selected should be not far from a suitable trolley line which carries freight, or a railroad freight and express depot. The necessity of transporting the products from the plant to the consumer as quickly as possible is thus met. The advantage to be derived by having all purchased feeds and supplies delivered by rail within easy and quick reach of the plant is important. Two or more competing lines within easy reach are to be desired as a guarantee of good service at reasonable rates. The presence of good roads between the farm and the depot should be sought, as the character of the load hauled is governed by the poorest place in the whole road. The presence of an interurban trolley system leading to a market centre is especially ‘desirable, owing to the quickness with which the products can be sent by trolley express if desired, and this usually with a very short haul at either end (Fig. 30). All poultry products are of such a perishable nature that a long haul over rough roads to distant markets or shipping points will so handicap the poultryman that he will find it impossible to compete with others who have the modern advantages out- lined above; hence the importance of considering these matters carefully before selecting a location. The farmer who can deliver REVIEW 55 to a common carrier at his door the products which he has to sell, and in return receive those which he needs to purchase, possesses a decided economic advantage. Factors of Location Governing Demand.—Poultry products of a perishable nature will stand shipment better and over much greater distances than many agricultural products, such as milk, for example. Fair rates can be obtained either by express or freight, and in general good handling is given them. In spite of this, however, it is desirable to keep in close proximity to the mar- ket, depending somewhat on the type of market. When shipping to large centres of consumption, the wholesale market is usually employed, and eggs can be shipped great distances with the same degree of success. 'Where, however, the small local or retail market is used, the poultryman must be relatively near the same in order to reduce his cost of shipping and to make more frequent and prompt distribution. Distance from Market is an Economic Factor.— 5 = == = 2 le---/6'-— 3} k-— /6--— Small Colon ony House k-—— 20°. '- —— > kK -— /6—- | Fia. 68.—Three types of laying houses. The long house is used for small-unit flocks with intensive methods for breeding purposes. The large colony house is for large flocks for market eggs. The small colony house is used for breeding in small flocks. size should be built strong enough to stand the handling and mov- ing to which they are subjected. In some sections it is the practice to build extremely cheap houses directly on the ground; in such cases the walls and posts rot and the building is not very long lived. This practice cannot be generally recommended, but it may prove practical where low-grade lumber can be secured at low prices. Materials for Laying Houses.—Materials used for poultry houses are: Wood, hollow tile, brick, concrete blocks, and solid concrete. The first two are the only ones which prove good for the laying house. Brick and concrete walls are apt to make the interior of the house damp and cold in the winter. Roup has been very prevalent where the walls were of concrete. Concrete-block 112 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION houses have been used successfully, but they are expensive both as to cost of material and labor, and are not so dry as houses built of wood or tile. In most locations and under most conditions the use of wood with a shingled or paper-covered roof would be the most economical and furnish the best conditions. The house of tile with stucco finish offers favorable conditions for laying hens, but the cost is about one-third more than where wood is used. Height of House.—A low house, provided it allows head room for the attendant, is more economical to construct, easier to warm, retains heat better, and suffers less from various changes in outside weather than does the higher house. A good plan is to have the After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fie. 69.—Diagram showing lines of sun’s rays in September and December. The front of the house is 8 ft. 6 in. high and the back 4 ft. 6 in. high, with a width from front to back of 20 feet. house high enough so that all work can be done by the attendant without danger of striking his head against the rafters. With a muslin front, this height will provide ample air for as many birds as the floor space will accommodate (Fig. 69). Shape of the House.—The nearer the house approaches a square the less lumber will be required to build it; therefore, the deeper the house, all things considered, the more economical its construc- tion (Fig. 70). Poultry houses which are built very narrow require a front and back wall of nearly the same height as a much deeper house. The only extra expense in the deeper house is the extension of the roof and part of the end walls. To increase the depth from front to back would give a greater floor space with less cost per square foot of floor space; this would mean less cost per bird. The limit to the depth of the house should be determined, in large part, by the facility with which the sunlight can get into the back part. \ STANDARD MULTIPLE-UNIT LAYING HOUSE 113 A depth of twenty feet in a shed-roof type of construction is deep enough; a greater depth requires a half-monitor roof, which has many undesirable features (Fig. 72). Nore.—The nearer the rect- angle approaches a square the smaller will be its perimeter, the area remaining the same. A Standard Multiple- unit Laying House.—The use of a standard unit of known capacity gives a basis from which to work in extending the plant. It may be neces- sary to vary it considerably. For the shed-roof type of con- struction, one of the most eco- nomical units is a room 20 by 20 feet. If it is high enough to 20%20-400sg1! 80° Around 18%22%e400qf| 80% Around 16425*40053 | 82’ Around 14428440009 12| 85/9 Around 1243313400 sg ft. 90% Around 10x40: 400 sq £2. 100' Around After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fig. 70.—Shapes of houses compared, show- ing the requirements of wall material. As the shape approaches a square the perimeter be- comes shorter. give ample amount of head room for the attendant, there will be five Units, capacity 500 birds /00'— — ———————~—-~~-~~~—~ 7] “- — —20'—-—- * | Jl 9 a 1 | t Single Unit, , Capacity /00 birds 20°—- = lena ii Fig. 71.—The possible growth of the multiple-unit plan,—single, then double, and an indefinite future increase, 8 114 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION sunlight in the back part of the house and the floor space is very large. Such a unit will have a capacity of one hundred birds, allow- ing four square feet per bird; it is adapted to all climateswhere poul- try are commercially kept ix the United States, and isoneof themost efficient producing units. This unit is adapted to both the intensive poultry farm and the general farm where large flocks are kept. The capacity of houses with this unit can be increased indefinitely by the addition of other such units. For example, if five units were used the house would be twenty by one hundred feet and would have a capacity of five hundred birds (Fig. 71). Type of Roof.—The type or form of roof should be studied carefully, as it is the most expensive part of the house. It usuallv covers only one floor, and must be made water tight and strong SHED TWO-THIRDS SPAN EVEN SPAN MONITOR HALF MONITOR mich After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fic. 72.—Six types of roofs for poultry houses. The shed roof is most common and is the best. enough to support heavy snows and windstorms. The accompany- ing sketch (Fig. 72) shows six different types of roofs used for poultry houses. Each of these has a variety of uses. There is much difference in the lumber and labor required to build the dif- ferent types. Care should be used to build the best and get the most economical type. The three which offer the best conditions in most instances are the shed roof, the two-thirds span, and the even-span or gable roof. In these three types of roofs with a uni- form floor space and equal pitch, the amount of material is about the same. In actual practice it is possible to construct the shed roof with less pitch. When this is done, the shed roof is the most economical, requiring less labor to erect; a higher front is possible, which enables TYPE OF ROOF 115 a greater amount and better distribution of sunlight. All the roof water is carried to the rear; this does away with half the amount of eave troughs required on a two-pitch roof, and keeps the front of the house dry and clean. A shed-roof house is also much cooler in summer; the slope of the roof, being toward the north, does not receive the vertical rays of the sun. The shed roof is well adapted to any house twenty feet or less in width. The greater width is most economical. In such construction a central girder or purlin should reach the entire length of the house, with posts every ten feet, to support the roof (Fig. 73). A gable roof provides garret space, which can be stuffed with straw to make the house dryer and warmer; but it increases the amount of labor and offers a hiding place for mites and parasites. Fic. 73.—A well-framed poultry house. The combination or two-thirds span roof is often used, where it is desired to have an alley in the back of the house, as ‘more head room can be obtained in the back portion of the house with- out having excessive height in front. This type requires more labor to build, as there is much more fitting and sawing to be done. For houses greater than twenty feet in width, the half-monitor type of roof is the most desirable, and especially where it is neces- sary to have a central work alley with pens on both sides. The upper window allows the sun to penetrate to the back half of the house and gives an abundance of ventilation. This type of house is apt to be cold in the winter, as the warm air rises and comes in contact with the cold glass in the peak and cools rapidly. This can be partially counteracted by stretching muslin over the inside of the sash to keep the warm air from circulating directly against the glass. , The A-roof is a very economical method of covering a. given 116 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION floor space, but has not been used to any great extent, as it does not provide ample head room. It is sometimes used for small, single-pen houses where small flocks are kept, if it is not necessary to enter the house to perform all the work. Foundation.—An efficient foundation adds durability and aids in keeping the house dry. The materials used are brick, stone, concrete, and wooden posts. Posts of locust, cedar, or other durable wood may be used on a stone or cinder footing. They are apt to settle and are not so durable as masonry walls. They do After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fic. 74.—Four plans for foundation and floor construction. A, Floor flush with top of sill; B, finished floor flush with bottom of sill, the latter being laid in cement; C, founda- tion wall extending above floor level; D, construction suitable for board floor. not aid in keeping out rats. The most efficient plan is a solid wali of masonry. The foundation should be built deep enough to pre- vent heaving by frost and to help keep out water. It should sup- port the building without any settling. The foundation should also be economical as to cost of labor and material. A brick or stone wall, especially the former, is expensive from a standpoint of labor, as the brick and stone have to be laid in mortar by experi- enced masons. Stone or brick walls built loose are not permanent and, therefore, not desirable. The concrete foundation, if properly built, furnishes the most durable wall. Care should be taken to have the underdrainage deep enough, the foundation course prop- erly tamped, and the mixtures rich in cement (Fig. 74). FLOOR 117 A good foundation is made as follows: A trench is dug about one foot wide and from two to three feet deep, depending on the climate and the nature of the soil. The bottom should be filled to a depth of one foot with loose stones or cinders to give drainage. The rest is filled with concrete, the wall being carried about six inches above the level of the ground. Bolts are imbedded in it every fifteen feet, to later hold the sill-in place. Floor.—There are three different types of floors used,—earth, wood, and concrete. In deciding which one of these floors to use, the following factors are to be considered: (1) Dryness; (2) a smooth, hard surface which can be easily cleaned; (3) rat and mouse proof; (4) economy of construction. The floors should be a few inches above the outside grade so that surface water will not run into the house. An improperly constructed floor means damp houses and an unhealthy flock. The earth floor is not generally desirable, because soil water is brought to the surface by capillary action, and there is the possi- bility of surface water soaking under the foundation and dampen- ing the litter or flooding the floor. On high, well-drained sandy soils with a low water table, the earth floors prove satisfactory; but it is necessary, if the house is to be kept perfectly clean, to expend an excessive amount of labor in cleaning at frequent intervals by removing four or five inches of top soil and replacing it with clean sand. Even with this precau- tion there is always danger of disease germs lurking in the soil and at some future time causing infection. Board floors are undesirable, for the following reasons: They rot out quickly if they are not raised above the ground so as to allow the air to circulate freely under them. If raised very high the house is much colder, which is not desirable in winter. If the floors are raised only a few inches above the ground, they offer harbor for rats. They are also hard to keep clean, no matter how carefully they are constructed, as there are always crevices which offer hiding places for lice and mites and disease germs. A cement floor, if properly constructed, offers ideal conditions, and it is unquestionably the most desirable for laying houses. It is absolutely moisture-proof if it has the moisture insulation, prac- tically rat-proof, easily cleaned, and quickly and thoroughly dis- infected. It costs no more to build than a good wooden floor and remains good for all future time. The following construction for concrete floors is recommended: 118 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION Excavate the soil inside of the house to a depth of at least eight inches below the top of the foundation wall, place a layer of crushed stone, cinders, or coarse gravel about eight inches thick over the bottom, tamping thoroughly and leaving it level. Over this place a rough coat of concrete about three inches thick, made by mixing one part of good cement with three parts of fine sharp sand and five parts of coarse gravel or cinders. Put one thickness of tarred building paper over the rough coat while fresh, lapping and cement- ing the seams, nailing it down every two feet with roofing nails, letting the heads stick out about a quarter of an inch to hold the finish coat. One inch of finish coat should be laid over the paper. This is composed of one part of cement to three parts of coarse sand. Material for Framing.—The frame should be built of material large enough to give rigidity to the building, and yet not so heavy as greatly to increase the cost. For a laying house twenty feet or less in width, 2 x 6 inch lumber doubled should be used for sills, firmly bolted to the foundation. Hemlock, yellow pine, chestnut, or other material of equal grade may be used. The lumber used depends upon the kind which is the cheapest in the vicinity. For studding use 2 x 4 inch pieces, and double these for corner posts. The plates are best constructed of 2 x 4 inch material doubled, spiking them together and breaking joints. One great advantage of double sills and plates is the possibility of strengthening weak places and of correcting any crooked or warped timbers that might be used. For rafters use 2 x 6 inch material for anything greater than ten-foot spans, 2 x 4 inch being sufficiently strong for any- thing under that length. For a purlin or girder in a wide house 2 x 6 inch material is used. For all light partitions 2 x 3 inch material is heavy enough, and this may be laid flat. The rafters and studding should be placed not more than two feet apart,— better, sixteen inches. If the outside boards run up and down, the studding may be six feet apart, with 2 x 4 inch intermediates parallel with the sill (Fig. 84). Walls and Partitions.—A necessary feature in the construction of walls is to have them tight, to eliminate the danger of drafts. One of the best materials which can be used is tongue-and-groove boards, securely driven together. It is not well to use boards greater than eight inches in width, as they are apt to warp, and when they dry out leave open spaces. If siding boards are used, the lap or “ novelty ” siding makes tight walls, leaving a smooth inside wall. If shingles are used on the outside of the walls, a DOORS 119 tight board wall should be laid first, so that the house can be easily cleaned and kept free from vermin; it will greatly increase warmth in the winter. When it is desired to line the inside back wall of the house, tongue-and-groove boards are the best. They should be free from extra beading. It is rarely necessary to ceil inside the roof of the poultry house, except perhaps over the roosting places in cold climates. In the construction of intermediate walls or partitions, a good method is to board the bottom part about thirty inches solid, the remaining distance being covered with wire or cloth. The use of cloth makes the building cheaper, but is less durable and collects dust. In houses over forty feet long, one cross partition or more should be put in to prevent a draft blowing through the house. bE 22-4 po--. l _ pee | ss L_ —— = |}. ——— = —_ a = Se@ug toa SEO TVEEBS i — After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fig. 75.—Four styles of doors for poultry houses. A, Brooder house door, cut in the centre so that the top half only need be opened, providing ventilation but preventing floor draft; B, door hung to swing both ways; C, double jdoors for use where overhead trolleys are used; D, sliding door. Doors.—All doors in laying houses should be large enough to permit the attendant to pass through quickly with feed and water. -They should admit of easy opening and closing with a minimum loss of time. They should be so placed that the work can be done with the least possible retracing of steps, and should be strong and durable, as they are much used. The doors between pens should be arranged in a straight line, hinging on one side with double-action spring hinges, so that they may be opened from either side and will close automatically as the attendant passes through, being held in place by friction stops. All doors should be raised above the floor at least eight inches, so that in opening and closing they will be clear of the litter on the floor. The sketch shows types and methods of hanging poultry doors (Fig. 75). 120 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION Windows and Curtains.—Window and curtain openings in the poultry house are valuable, in that they admit sunlight and fresh air, cleansing the house, and making it a congenial place for the birds. They should be so arranged that they can be opened quickly and easily, and the danger of breakage thus reduced to a minimum. Too narrow and too low t | | | t | re.) U | | \ J | v Correct positiciz of openings Insutficient in amount and too low Fic. 76.—Three plans for placing openings in front wall of poultry houses. Sunlight is necessary to the fowls, but too much glass makes the house cold at night and too warm in the daytime. An excessive emount of glass makes the house too expensive. A good rule for large houses using muslin openings is to allow one square foot of WINDOWS AND CURTAINS 121 glass to every sixteen square feet of floor space, or one square foot for every four birds. The amount of muslin can be determined by allowing double the number of square feet that there is glass, or one square foot of muslin to every eight square feet of floor space. The windows should be placed high up in front and run vertically rather than be horizontal. In this way the sun’s rays will have a chance to sweep across the entire floor at some time of the day, drying and purifying the entire area (Fig. 76). The sunlight is most needed in the winter when the sun is lowest. In the summer the hot noontime sun is kept out by a projecting roof (Fig. 89). The direct rays of the sun should strike all of the floor area possible (Fig. 66), but it is not practicable to have the house high enough to let the direct rays strike the dropping boards at the Tee ance iT | After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. Fie. 77.—Types of poultry windows. A, Hinged at the side and opening inward, the method preferred; B, sliding window; C, hinged at the top and opening outward; D, upper sash hinged ut the top and opening outward and lower sash stationary. back of the room. This would tend to cause the birds to congre- gate there in the winter when they should be working in the litter on the floor. Extremely large sizes of window lights should be avoided, as they are expensive to replace when broken. Very small lights are undesirable, as the sash bars shut out a great deal of sunlight and the glass is hard to clean. Where possible, a single sash should be used in an opening, as it is cheaper than a divided sash. Single ones require very simple frames which can be made at home; they also allow of hinging on the side or top, making them easy to open. Figure 77 shows different plans for windows used in poultry houses. Muslin curtains should be stretched on light frames built of 1 x 3 inch strips and hinged at the top. The frames are raised up inside by means of pulleys and cord. Sometimes they are hung on cords and pulley and hang below the windows outside the house. 122 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION When made, light-weight muslin should be used, canvas being too heavy and cheesecloth too light. At best a great deal of, dust is present in the poultry house, which requires that these muslin curtains be beaten or swept occasionally to clean them so the air can pass through freely. Too large or too long frames are objectionable, as they get out of shape easily and give trouble in raising and lowering them. — ere A frame about 4 x 5 feet HZ | NX is a very convenient size (Fig. 78). A glass sash is sometimes placed in the I centre of the frame so that, y/ CXS when the curtain is down N /\ onstormy days, sunlight can get into the house—if there ) 9 is no other glass window. Nw y 4 Material for Roofing.— Sa es a ee The material used to cover the roof depends almost entirely upon the angle or pitch. A roof with less than one-third pitch should not be covered with shingles, as the water does not run off “J | quickly and the roof will rot. 7 \ x A driving rain is apt to run under the shingles and cause the roof to leak. A good = Se \ grade of roofing paper may UN A\\ be used, as it is much Se ee cheaper and if properly cared Fia. 78.—Two plans for constructing frames for for is as durable as shingles. muslin curtains. Such paper can be used on roofs which are nearly flat. A roof with low pitch and tight paper is warmer in summer and also warmer in winter than a shingle roof. It can be made cooler in the summer by providing ample ventilation from the rear over the roosts (Fig. 67). Care of Poultry Buildings.—It is a policy of economy to care- fully care for poultry houses and attempt to increase the length of their usefulness. This care should consist of keeping the houses in REVIEW 123 good repair, byreplacing any broken or rotten parts, and also by pro- tecting them against the elements by keeping the outside covered with a good paint. Buildings should be painted as soon as built, and kept well painted, both for looks as well as permanence. Whitewash may be used on the interior as a preservative, it acting as a filler. Tar is one of the best preservatives known. It is a by-product from coal in the manufacture of gas and is very cheap. It may be diluted with gasoline and used in warm weather without artificial heat. It should be used on all posts, sills, and parts exposed to great moisture. It is suitable for all kinds of roofs except those covered with tin. It is used also to paint the outside of buildings, but its monotonous black color should be relieved by yellow or other appropriate trimming. Tar will last longer than oil paints, is much cheaper, and preserves wood better. It may be used on the dropping boards, roosts, and nests to fill crevices where lice would hide. REVIEW. . Contrast the old and new ideas in poultry-house construction. . Discuss type of house in its relation to three systems of poultry farming. Enumerate nine features in a good poultry house. Discuss the five features which you consider most important. Tell of three types of laying houses. What two features should be considered in deciding on height of house? Describe a standard unit and discuss its possible development. Name materials often used in poultry-house construction. Which is most generally used, and why? 10. Name and define six types of roofs. 11. Which roof type is best? 12. Give the several types of foundations used in poultry-house construction. 13. Discuss the use for floors of dirt, wood, and concrete. 14. Give specifications for constructing a concrete floor. 15. What sizes of lumber are used for framing? 16. What kinds of lumber are used for walls? 17. Discuss the use of doors and manner of hanging. 18. How should the windows and curtains be placed? 19. Describe methods of hanging windows. 20. Tell of muslin frames, and manner of opening and closing. 21. On what pitches of roof may shingles be used? When use roofing paper? 22. Give reasons for using paint, whitewash, and tar. $0. COST O> On ye a BO: References.—Poultry-house Construction and its Influence on the Domes- tic Fowl, by C. L. Opperman, Maryland Bulletin 146. Poultry-house Con- struction, by H. R. Lewis, Bulletin New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Poultry- house Construction, by W. A. Brown, Maine Extension Bulletin, volume 4, No. 111. Building Poultry Houses, by Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin 274. Poultry-house Construction, by Halpin and Ocock, Wisconsin Bulletin 215. Nore or AcKNOWLEDGMENT.—Cornell University Bulletin No. 274 on Building Poultry Houses, by J. E. Rice and C. A. Rogers, has been freely used in the preparation of this chapter, both as to ideas and facts. CHAPTER VII. PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. THE LocaTIon of the house having been decided upon, the desired height of the floor should be determined,—marked Z in figure 80. This level should be at least six inches above the highest point of the ground site of the house. In cases where the house is built on very sloping land, it may be desirable to do some grading by cutting away the higher portions, using this material to fill up the lower level before the foundation is laid out (Fig. 79). Fia. 79.—Cross section of hillside, showing manner of grading before laying out founda- tion. The long dotted line shows original slope and the heavy black line shows the surface graded for the poultry house. The house is shown in outline. Drain tile may be placed at A to carry water below the house. Methods of Laying Out Foundations.*—Locate the corner of the building O (Fig. 80), and drive around this corner three stakes, as L, M, and N, about three feet apart. On each of these stakes find the level of the floor Z, by the use of the levelling board or transit. Connect these stakes with boards, shown as LM and M N, having the top of each board level with Z. In using the levelling board and spirit level in small buildings, it is well to locate a stake in the centre of the house which is level with Z, and work from this to the four corners. In long houses it is neces- sary to start from the point Z, and work to the different corners in a direct line by the use of intermediate stakes, all of which should be level with Z. Next stretch a line, H J, over the point O, which is the corner of the building, in a direction which will represent the back of the house. Measure off from the point O on this line the number of feet which will represent the length of the house. * Method after Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin No. 274. 124 DIGGING THE TRENCH 125 Drive a stake, marked P, the top of which will be level with Z. About this stake drive three other stakes, L’, M’, N’, and connect these with two boards, the tops of which are level with Z. Next pass a string, RS’, over the point P at right angles to the line OP. The best way to determine the right angle is by the use of the right-angle triangle. Measure off on the line P S’ eight feet, and on the line PO six feet. Move the string back and forth until the distance between these two points is ten feet. When this angle is determined, measure off on the line PS’ the distance equal to the width of the building, and drive a stake at this point, S. Construct the regular corner boards about this point, level ” ZL LR Mm ialy | -——. s 4 pl lla After Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulietin No. 274. ” Fig. 80.—Diagram showing method of laying out foundation. (See text for directions.) The foundation cannot be laid out too carefully. with Z. Determine the corner Y by measuring from S in the direction of Y, the distance being equal to the length of the house, and also from O in the direction of Y, the distance being equal to the width of the house. The intersection of these two lines will be the point Y. Construct the regulation corner boards about this corner, level with the point Z. Stretch two lines which will locate the outside of the finished wall. This line will be level with the point Z. For laying out the length of the wall or trench, other lines may be stretched parallel to these, indicating the width of the trench or wall desired. Digging the Trench.—The trench for the foundation wall should be dug at least four inches wider than the thickness of the wall to be built. The dirt is thrown outside so that later on it 126 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION can be graded up against the foundation, turning the water away. The trench should be dug approximately three feet deep, or below the average frost line. Before laying the foundation, if the ground is moist, it is well to lay a three-inch tile in the bottom of the trench (Fig. 81, a), running it to some suitable outlet at a lower level. After laying the tile, the trench should be filled up to a depth of about one foot below ground with stones or coarse cinders (Fig. 81, b). This should be firmly tamped and levelled. This gives a good foundation on which to lay the stone, brick, or con- crete foundation wall, with little danger of heaving. A concrete wall is the most desirable and economical for the foundation. Making Frames for Concrete Walls.—The frames for concrete walls are usually made of one-inch material, preferably eight to of trench; b, tamped cinders over drain tile; c, forms ready for pouring concrete; d, forms filled with concrete, sill bolt in place; e, forms removed, foundation completed, and cinders filled in on both sides. ten inches wide. These frames should be made in sections, cleats being used to fasten them together, all cleats being on the outside. If the wall is to be eighteen inches high, the frames should be con- structed eighteen inches wide. They may be from eight to sixteen feet in length, so they can be easily handled. After the frames are made, they should be set in the trench so that the top is level with the top of the foundation wall when completed. They can be held securely in place with stakes outside of the frame (Fig. 82). The corners should be securely nailed together to prevent bulging. Every three feet, cross pieces should be nailed to keep the frames from spreading while the concrete is being poured (Fig. 81 c, d). The frames should be constructed and set up so that they can be readily taken to pieces without breaking the wall. One set of frames can be used over and over again. If they are no longer desired for that purpose, the boards can be used for roofing or CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS 127 other purposes in the building itself. If an extra-high frame is built, it is necessary to brace it above ground with diagonal stakes to prevent bulging. Concrete Foundations.—For the construction of the wall itself, the following materials will be necessary: cement, sharp coarse sand, and some material which will serve as aggregate or filler, as coarse gravel, stone, or cinders. For making the mixture, a mixing board should be made, large enough to allow room for shoveling the mixture over and over in two different piles (Fig. 82). A floor 10 x 12 feet will give ample room for the work. A desirable mixture for the wall itself is what is known as 1-3-5, or one part cement, three of sand, and five of the aggregate. These should be measured, and should be mixed on the board in alternate Fie. 82.—Placing fresh concrete in completed forms for foundation wall. layers. A wheelbarrow of known capacity is very desirable. After the ingredients are on the mixing board, the entire batch should be shoveled over to insure a perfect mixing. To facilitate mixing, it is desirable to have a man with a garden rake do this work during the shoveling. After the mixing, all the water should be added that the mixture will hold; but not enough should be put on to allow any to run off; this would be a waste of cement and weaken the mixture. When thoroughly mixed with water, the concrete is ready to put into the trench, which may be done with a wheel- barrow or shovel. While the concrete is being poured, long bolts are placed about ten feet apart to later hold the sill. Thorough tamping is important, and to be complete the concrete should be 128 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION tamped enough to bring the water to the surface. The frame should be filled to within about an inch of the top (Fig. 81, d, e), and the remaining space should be filled with a wearing coat composed of one part of cement and three parts of sand, mixed in the same way. This should be smooth and the corners bevelled to prevent chipping. During the process of pouring the concrete, anchor bolts should be imbedded every ten feet, allowing them to project above the frame about five inches if a 4 x 6 inch sill is used. It will require from two to three days for the mixture to harden before taking the frames away, but before much pressure is put on the wall it should be allowed to season. It will season more quickly and become harder during moist weather than when it is exceptionally dry. For this reason, it is desirable during very dry weather to wet the wall down occasionally. Fifteen days is usually required for proper seasoning before the operation of building the house should be commenced. Construction of Frame.—After the concrete wall is finished, the guide lines should be re-stretched in order that the sills may be laid true. They should be laid to the outside string, as they are apt to vary some in width. The sills should be bolted firmly to the foundation, washers being used so that the nuts may be set very tight and not wear into the wood. The corner stud posts should be nailed to the sill, flush with the outside of the sill. The corner posts should be made plumb and held perpendicular by nailing scantling braces running each way; if these four posts are properly plumbed, the plates being nailed on them, a perfectly upright building is secured. It is possible by the use of the square to insure perfect fit when marking and cutting the rafters. But usually it is desirable to cut one pattern rafter, putting it in place to see if it fits properly, then using it to cut the others by. Plans and Specifications of Laying Houses.—The following description of the plan shown in figure 85 gives the important features for a standard-unit laying house. Double-Unit House.—The outside dimensions are 40 x 20 feet, sills to be 4 x 6 inches, and to be bolted to a concrete foundation wall eight inches wide and twenty inches deep. This is laid on tamped cinder or crushed stone, the entire depth of the foundation trench being three feet. The shed-roof type of construction is used, with nine-foot studding in front and a height of four and one-half feet in the back (Figs. 83, 84, and 85). All studding and rafters are 2 x 4 inch DOUBLE-UNIT HOUSE 129 hemlock or yellow pine. A 2x 6 inch girder runs the length of the building supporting the rafters along their centre. The girder is Floor Plan. ey i U Preody | aed oy 3 ‘" it \ 4h “ie U4 é }: yw \ ac Finish Coat e 1? Rough Coat < 7 Concrete Wel/ i é b Dreinage Materia ° Front View. \ mus]| LIN ‘ ae — 5° — rondo we Fe] kil 20° : yar Fig. 83.—Working plans of a double-unit laying house. Each unit 20 x 20 feet, with a capacity of 100 birds. supported every ten feet by 4 x 4 inch posts, resting on concrete piers. The plates which rest on studs should be made of 2 x 4 inch material doubled, and joints “ broken.” 9 \ 130 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION All outside walls and roof are single boarded, preferably of eight-inch tongue-and-groove yellow pine. White pine can be used, but is much more expensive. The roof and back wall should be covered with a good patent roofing paper; all joints should be carefully lapped and cemented. The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top and can be lifted up. The 3 x 5 foot windows are hinged at the side and open as indicated on the floor plan. One window in each pen should be so constructed that part of the wall will open when desired, thus making a combination door and window. This will greatly facilitate cleaning.* The dropping boards, perches, and nests are best arranged on the back wall. The perches are hinged to the wall so that they Fig. 84.—Frame of standard multiple-unit laying house—light, cheap, yet durable. may be hooked up when cleaning. The nests are darkened by a hinged door in front, which may be let down when it is desired to remove the eggs. The dividing partition between the units is built of boards and extends from the back wall to within six feet of the front wall; the remaining space is left entirely open. This protects the birds from any drafts when on the roosts. When desired, portable light-wire partitions may be used to separate the units. A large dry-mash hopper should be built in this middle parti- tion (Fig. 83). If four or more units are built, it is necessary to have only one hopper in the centre of each two units, the other dividing partition being used for nesting space. The construction of the hopper is shown in the following chapter. *This general arrangement of glass and muslin openings was early recom- mended by Cornell University. It has since been generally adopted as the most efficient arrangement. DOUBLE-UNIT HOUSE 131 When the house is completed, a concrete floor should be laid, and should consist of three or four distinct layers. First, a layer of about six to ten inches of cinders or coarse gravel, tamped thoroughly. This serves for drainage purposes to keep the soil moisture away from the bottom of the floor. Next, a rough coat of concrete about four inches thick, and over this a finished coat of two parts of sand with one of cement, trowelled smooth. Where there is danger of much moisture coming up from below, it is advisable to put a layer of tarred building paper between the rough and finish coats of cement. It should be nailed down with a Fia. 85.—Double-unit house completed. Note the combination door and window, and the arrangement of openings for light and ventilation. flat-headed nails; the heads of the latter should be left sticking out about one-quarter of an inch to hold the top coat of cement. Such a floor is moisture proof and vermin proof, and is easily and quickly cleaned. The completed house is shown in figure 85. Materials—In the following list of materials required for building a double unit, as shown in the working drawings given in figure 83, the prices quoted are only approximate: LumsBer: SGills......... bee denied Gis la maint Grate 6 ps. 4” x 6” x 20’ Plates: 2.0. aesvaigd eee sheet eee oe te 8 ps. 2” x 4” x 20’ PORES Sj coideeos eee eee ea Ok RS OS 2 ps. 4"x 4” x 14’ 2 ps. 4” x 4" x 18’ Studdings cers vanes ckeia seesaw 9 ps. 2”x 4" x 18’ . 4 ps. 2”x 4" x 14’ RAfEGTS gags oaceeee h ea Gee Gas DEES eee eek 22 ps. 2” x 4" x 22’ Frame for nests and dropping boards...... 5 ps. 2” x 3” x 16’ hemlock. Roof, dropping boards, walls, and nests, 8-mch tongue-and- groove boards 5. ..s.sae voy jes eve aumgaermist es paaee sex 2,200 sq. ft. Curtain frames and trim, 1” x 2” white pine............ 200 linear feet 132 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION Nests 1” x 4” white pine................0cccee eee eee 100 linear feet Brood y COOP eeisiss csiaey. ncn ppiedieaen gare vanmey 2 one bundle plaster lath. IN ATUG 5.ssay74 ors bea anencpsee ep paconnarn event A See ich acMicatd ede 10 Ibs. 20-penny wire. 50 Ibs. 10-penny wire. 20 Ibs. 8-penny wire. Approximate cost of the above materials..................... $ 75.54 Roofing paper, 1,060 sq. ft., or 11 rolls, at $8.00................... 33.00 Four special sash, 3’ x 5’, at $2.00........00.. 00.000 cece eee eee 8.00 Muslin, 8 sq. yards, at 1214 cents per yard....................... 1.00 Hardware, as hinges, locks, tacks, hooks, and wire................. 4.75 Foundation and floor— Cement, 35 bags, at 50 cents............... Eo coaneutay $17.50 Cinders or gravel, 30 yards at $1.00.................... 30.00 Sand, Styardsy i. | a f 7 m 2 ian 5 ry Muslin Curtain : s = = | ran Cs 1 ¥ c > 4 Bs ty { ' . # . 9 uN ‘2 © 1 ' e—2’5 > | { | — k————— ——_——_-_ 18" = Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College. Fia. 88a.—End and front views of a part of laying house with two-thirds span roof. TWO-THIRDS SPAN LAYING HOUSE 135 This material will cost approximately $217.00; for 48 linear feet will cost $4.52 per running foot; or $0.28 per sq. ft. for the area of 768 sq. ft. Allowing 4 sq. ft. per bird, the cost per bird is $1.12. Two-thirds Span Laying House.—Figures 88a and 88) show drawings of a single section of the long laying house at the Michi- gan Agricultural college, each section being eighteen feet square, e oe eas [ a re oo L \* a] * Biiaa c a f 2 lett 4114" : st GQ o € =| ' aye ig sae 1d or \ n a Nye 3 t ; ; a lu $ z Fy z |_| iss qi} & oo z 7 U A 2 8 ine'sts! {| | | A ‘ roy ee Se es ae ek wt Pe q 2’ i #1 iH i Fa} H : ZF e > Ke \ = 18 : Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College. Fie. 88b.—Working plans of laying house with two-thirds span roof.—Floor plan of one section. thus accommodating sixty-five birds. The sills are made of two 2 x 6 inch pieces and the plates of two 2x 4 inch. The front is seven feet eight inches high and the back four feet eight inches; the studs are seven feet and four feet long, respectively. The roof is of combination type, being comparatively steep, having one foot rise to every two feet horizontal run.. Shingles are used instead of prepared roofing, being adapted to the steep roof. No alleyway is used in this house, and the pens are connected by a series of 136 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION doors. This utilizes all the space and compels the attendant to mingle with the birds where he is able to study their needs and conditions much more thoroughly (Figs. 89 and 90). YR ta cy Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College. Fic. 89.—Laying house with two-thirds span roof. A neat house. The cost is greater and the front lower than with the shed roof. In the centre of the south side is a glass door made by hinging two 9-light 9 x 12 inch glass windows. This affords fifteen square Photo from Michigan Agricultural College. Fia. 90.—Interior view of house, Fig. 89, showing arrangement of nests and perches. feet of glass to 324 square feet of floor space. The door ean be epened for cleaning purposes. The open-front method of muslin ventilation is used in this TWO-THIRDS SPAN LAYING HOUSE 137 house. On both sides are muslin frames 3 x 5 feet, which being four feet from the floor do not permit drafts on the birds when open. One is opened every day during the winter, but closed at night. Floor Plan. a | 5 I sil ii \ 1 FP} 5 4 ‘s i) ‘'- y i ee eal L U 4 i " ast U 3 ea = b4 +4 _ a COI TTF §] / I i pares a TT wT U i at {2 1 ! = = Hy G i f i #H Ly \ | LL ia i ; mn it Fs L im rit i os oe i ; ! i ; ‘ be-- e-em RH e R -- w= --4 Cross Section. soe | tes NESTy ere < ov q i Sever 4 pm ar ki ae { i t “4 LL zi DR eae ee e----—- 8-—- +4 Front View. ESE EHH I oa dane et FINE MESH WIRE FRONT 3S. a oO e a bane Boer che Baye By Fig. 91a.—Half-monitor type of laying house: Working plans. The house is lined on all sides and above. This would not be advisable in a commercial house. The roosts are also set on 2 x 4 inch pieces in the form of a 138 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION frame which is hinged at the back and can be raised for cleaning. It is desirable to raise the roosts so as to force lazy hens to the floor. The floor is made of cement, and any tendency toward cold is eliminated by the liberal use of straw, which in addition compels the hen to exercise in her search for feed. Cement floors are cold because of dampness. This may be prevented by the use of a layer of tar paper in the construction, as already described. Frame in processof construction. \ ey Nearing completion. ages Beets Bie = Fic. 91b.—Half-monitor type of laying house *: Under construction. For ease in cleaning, all fixtures are portable, and all nests and boxes have sloping tops, thus eliminating the accumulation of filth on the internal fixtures. This house is well adapted for commercial use. A Ha!lf-monitor Laying House.—This house has an entire glass front in the peak (Figs. 91a and 916). The extension in front is *This house was constructed from plans and specifications prepared by A. L. Clark of the New Jersey Experiment Station. PORTABLE LAYING HOUSE 139 left. entirely open two feet above the ground. The opening is covered with small-mesh poultry netting, no curtains being pro- vided for it. The nests and perches are in the back part of the main house, and are protected and separated from the open front by a solid board partition extending from the lower part of the windows to within two feet of the floor. The windows in the peak are equipped with transom sash, so that they may be opened, being hinged at the top and opening outward. List of Materials —The following is a list of material required for the half-monitor house complete, 20 x 40 feet: Foundation, concrete wall as deep as necessary and 8 inches wide—2Z2 bags cement, 2 cubic yards gravel, 4 cubic yards cinders. POTN 5-2 Sac may serve as windbreaks. Such a fence must be built very high, as birds will more easily fly over a wooden fence than a wire one. They can readily see the top and have a place to light upon. Fences built of narrow slats or pickets are occasionally used, but TWO INCH MESH WIRE ONE INCH MESH WIRE GROUND LINE © eee | al al ! ! i | | a. Fra. 110.—A common type of fence construction. a, Manner of anchoring wire under ground; b, wire buried a few inches under ground. the cost is usually prohibitive and the appearance is no better than a well-built wire fence. Best Construction.—One of the best and cheapest poultry fences that it is possible to build is approximately seven feet high; with cedar posts, twelve feet apart; with two strips of poultry netting, the first strip of inch-mesh wire three feet wide set four inches in the ground, and the second strip of two-inch mesh four feet wide. In nailing the wire to the posts care should be taken to have the selvage edges the same distance apart on each post. If an attempt is made to stretch the wire wider than its natural width, it is drawn out of shape and does not make a neat fence. — Gates.—When building the fences few gates should be planned, since they are expensive to build, they materially increase the labor in caring for the birds, and require constant attention to keep them in repair. Where double yarding is practiced or where the birds 166 YARDS AND YARDING are divided into small flocks, as in small-unit systems, a large num- ber of gates are necessary. In each of these cases, they must be used frequently for watering and feeding, and should be located in the natural or shortest path of the attendant, so that he can do the work with the fewest steps. Where gates are to be placed if the fences, the gate posts should be firmly braced as shown in figure 111. Construction of Gates.—In the construction of gates, durability should be of first consideration. They are constantly subject to a large amount of wear, and the more permanently they are made the less repair will be necessary. For large gates, 2 x 3 inch hem- Fig. 111.—Ways of bracing gate posts. A, By using next post in line, similar to corner bracing; B, by overhead wire, especially useful with narrow gates. lock or yellow pine, or other material of equal grade, should be used. All joints should be mitered and bolted together with wash- ered bolts. Corner braces should be used, and the whole gate braced diagonally with round iron. For'small gates between com- munity pens, 1 x 4 inch boards can be used, lapping them at the corners, and providing a diagonal brace running from the bottom of the gate on the hinged side to the top of the gate on the free side. This brace board prevents the gate from sagging and adds greatly to its rigidity. Figure 112 shows a number of types of construction. Gates should be large enough to allow an attendant to pass through with a load in each hand, and to pass a wheelbarrow through when desired; four feet may be about the right width for MAINTENANCE 167 such purposes. When it is desired to construct wider gates to allow a two-horse team to pass through, it is better to have them con- structed in two parts, opening in the centre and swinging each way. Double strap hinges should be used; T-hinges are apt to pull out. Strap hinges will allow of some latitude in lining up the gate to make it swing true. The gate should be hung so that when it is allowed to swing free it will spring shut. All gates should be provided with some method of fastening, such as hooks, latches, or springs. Gates should be hung high enough above the ground SESS] SIZ = ae Z ZK \aazane = Ses ‘\ j || Cm e iq ' My ee Zee ENSZZ Fig. 112.—Types of gate construction. A, Best type, 1 x 6 inch white pine is used; B, same material with different bracing; C, corners mortised and bolted, 2 x 3 inch material used. US Dee Se WA ee to give ample allowance for swinging. It is sometimes well to place a 6-inch or 8-inch base board between the ground and the bottom of the gate, allowing the gate to hang when shut just clear of this board. If wheelbarrows or wagons are to pass through, the base board is omitted. ' Maintenance.—Poultry fences constitute a heavy first cost, and the depreciation is great. They are a constant item of expense, and should be looked after constantly. Any broken hinges or hooks, torn wire, rotting posts, or other defects should be imme- diately repaired. Torn places in the fence can be easily mended by weaving new wire over the opening. In making such repairs or when building the fence, care should be used to allow no long 168 YARDS AND YARDING sharp points to project into the yard, as they are apt to injure the birds. As the galvanizing on most poultry wire is very short- lived, it is found profitable to paint the poultry netting with a good coat of oil paint after it has been up a few years or before signs of rusting appear. SOND Ow wt Lh REVIEW. . What factors will determine the advisability of yarding or free range? Give the area of yard necessary. What is the effect of shape of yard upon the cost and efficiency of feeding? What is meant by double yarding? Give a good crop rotation through the season for double yarding. Enumerate three methods of double yarding. . Name and discuss materials used for poultry fence posts. . Describe manner of setting posts. . How should corner posts be braced? . Name and describe materials used for poultry fences. . Tell of two methods of fastening fence to the ground. . Give construction of a desirable poultry fence. . Tell of two methods of bracing gate posts. . Tell how to make a good poultry gate. . What points should be considered in locating poultry gates? . Give importance, and tell how to keep poultry fences in repair. References.—Preservation Treatment of Poles, by William H. Kempfer, §. Forestry Service Bulletin 84. Concrete and Concrete Fence Posts, by Bainer and Bonebright, Colorado Bulletin 148. Construction of Concrete Fence Posts, U. 8. Farmers’ Bulletin 403. CHAPTER X. PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING. Birps differ in a number of ways from other farm animals, especially in digestion and assimilation of the feed and in their requirement for maintenance and production. They are charac- terized by intense vitality. The transformation of feed in the growing animal and the production of eggs in the adult are exceed- ingly rapid; their lives are never sluggish. “Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station, has compared a Leghorn fowl that weighs 34 pounds and lays 200 eggs (weighing 25 pounds) with a Jersey cow that weighs 1,000 pounds and gives in a year 7,000 pounds of milk containing 14 per cent of solids. He states: ‘If you take the dry matter of the hen and compare it with the dry matter of the eggs she lays in a year, there will be 514 times as much dry matter in the eggs as in her whole body. The weight of the dry matter in a cow’s body will be to the weight of the dry matter in the milk as 1 to 2.9. In other words, based upon the dry matter, the hen does twice as well as the cow. I suspect that the hen is the most efficient transformer of raw material into the finished product that there is on the farm. Her physiological activity is something remarkable, so in that particular the hen stands in a class by herself.’ The temperature of the bird’s body is high, ranging from 102° to 110° F. in different species. The energy necessary to keep up this high temperature is great, and material of the right kind is in con- stant demand to supply it. Birds are characterized by a heavy appe- tite, which indicates intensive needs; this is accompanied by a very rapid digestion which must be kept in order and constantly supplied with pure feed. The nature of birds of the poultry group is to sub- sist largely on seeds. They are therefore classed as granivorous (seed-eating) rather than as omnivorous, yet in actual practice the feeding of meat to some extent is found advantageous.”’ * Composition of the Bird’s Body.—The great variety of sub- stances and compounds constituting the bird’s body may be grouped under four general headings,—water, ash, protein, and fat. Along with the bony skeleton are ligaments, muscles, and tendons, which hold the bones together and move them, the skin and feathers which cover the body, also all internal organs,— * Quoted from Cornell Countryman, article by James E. Rice. 169 170 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING all these and more may be regarded as composed primarily of these four substances. In the body of the mature hen these are found in about the following proportions: Water, 55.8 per cent; ash, 3.8 per cent; protein, 21.6 per cent; and fat, 17 per cent (Fig. 113). Water.—Usually more than half, and in some birds as much as three-fifths, of the weight of the living bird consists of water. This water content is greatest in young and leananimals, and decreases as they become more mature or fatten. This latter feature is shown in the capon or soft roasters, in which the water is often as low as 40 per cent. Ash.—The ash content or mineral matter is that portion of the body which is left after the volatile and combustible elements are driven off by heat. Ash is found to a limited extent in all parts, and it is essential to provide a sufficient amount of this material. The Water 558 Protein 216 weight of ash ranges from 3 to 3.8 per cent of the bird’s body. Protein.—The term protein is used to designate a large group of substances differing from other components of the body in that they contain more sulphur, com- Fic. 113.—Graphic representa- bined usually with about 17 per tion of the approximate composi- cent of nitrogen. Common exam- eens esyueen ples of protein are the whites of eggs, lean meat which has been washed free from fat particles, the casein in milk, and the gluten in wheat flour. Besides the elements already named, protein contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These elements are known as organic substances, as no mineral or ash is left after burning in air. Protein is the most important group of materials found in the body, as it forms the base of all living tissue, largely making up the material called protoplasm, which is the substance through which life is manifested. In the body, protein is always associated with the ash and water present. Fat.—The fourth group of materials found in the tissues of all birds represents a reserve value, usually in the form of fat. When the feed does not furnish the required supply of nutrients, this reserve of surplus fat helps to counteract the deficiency. The fatty particles in the normal body act as cushions between the NUTRIENTS 171 various organs, arid also form a protecting layer under the skin, giving it a plump, full appearance. The proportion of fat in the bird’s body varies from 15 to 34 per cent, being lowest in the adult bird which is emaciated from disease or improper feeding, and highest in birds which are well fattened. Glycogen.—Another material called glycogen, very similar to starch, is stored in relatively small amounts in the organs of a healthy animal. This substance resembles fat in that it contains neither nitrogen nor sulphur, but is composed entirely of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, in the same proportion as in starch. It may be called animal starch. Nutrition is the process by which life is maintained and indi- vidual growth is promated. It controls the wearing away and the building up of the body tissues, converts feed into heat and energy, and supplies the material for products which are essential to normal life. The chief processes of nutrition are digestion, ab- sorption, circulation, assimilation, and respiration. Nutrients.—Materials in feeds, as seen in their raw state, are not transformed directly into living tissue, but they are first broken up into simple compounds, called nutrients, which go toward the formation of the solids and fluids of the body. Their classification is the same as that of the components of the body already consid- ~ ered, with an added group (carbohydrates), making five in all,— namely, (1) protein, (2) fat, (3) carbohydrates, (4) mineral mat- ter (or ash), and (5) water. Protein.—The groupof nutrients classed as protein includes com- pounds which contain those elements that are found in the tissues of all plants and animals used in feeds. The classes of materials which provide protein are always necessary, are the most expensive to buy, and are the hardest to produce at home; hence, in purchasing feed stuffs for the various rations, the proportion of protein they con- tain is usually the factor which determines the price to be paid. Fat.—In the form of oils, in seeds, in vegetable products, and in animal tissues, fat is familiar to all. Most feed stuffs, especially if from vegetable sources, are relatively poor in oil content. Some vegetables, as flax and cotton, store up oil instead of starch and are at the same time rich in protein; but, as a rule, the materials commonly available for poultry feeding though poor in fat are rich in carbohydrates. Carbohydrates.—This third class of nutrients includes the starches, sugars, and fibres which are chiefly valuable for producing 172 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING energy. In vegetable feeding stuffs they constitute a distinct group. In animal feeding stuffs they are represented chiefly by the small proportion of glycogen present. Their principal elements are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Like fat, they contain neither nitrogen nor sulphur, but they differ from fat in that they contain less carbon and more oxygen. Carbohydrates can usually be pro- duced at home; very little should be purchased on a well-managed poultry plant, provided there is land enough for the growing of the proper crops. As found in feeding stuffs, carbohydrates may be divided into two general classes: (1) Substances which go to make up the cells or framework of the plant, such as cellulose and fibrous materials difficult to sepa- rate, represented in the analysis by the term “ crude fibre.” (2) Substances illustrated by starches and sugars found stored up in cells as reserve material, dissolving readily in water and sometimes represented in analysis tables by the term ‘‘ nitrogen- free extract.” Ash.—The mineral matter in feeding stuffs which supplies the incombustible material to the bird’s body is called ash. This ingredient is very necessary, especially in the growing of young animals, and can be supplied to poultry in the form of grit, shell, bone, and feeds such as bran and alfalfa, which are rich in ash. Uses of Nutrients in the Body.—All the nutrients in the ration, minus the water present, constitute what is commonly termed the total dry matter. Each nutrient has a definite work to do in nourishing the body. In an efficient method of feeding they must all be supplied in abundance and in the right proportion. The most obvious use of protein is the production of tissue, as de- sired in growing chicks or young animals, the repairing and building up of the waste tissue in the adult, and the supplying of material which goes into the formation of feathers, claws, and similar parts. The second use is exemplified by the part which protein takes in the production of the egg. In compounding the ration it must be remembered that protein is indispensable and that its place cannot be satisfactorily filled by carbohydrates or fat. If, however, the protein content of the feed consumed is in excess of that required for tissue building and egg production, it is burned in the body like carbohydrates and furnishes material for the formation of fat. The uses of the carbohydrates and the fats of feeding stuffs are so similar that they may be considered together. Three uses are given: (1) They are burned and produce heat, which keeps the DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 173 bird’s body warm; (2) they are burned and produce the energy required by the bird in moving; (3) if the supply of either is greater than that required for heat and energy, the excess gives rise to the laying up of fatty tissues. The principal difference between these two formers of heat and energy lies in the fact that fat has the greater energy value, being rated at two and a fourth times that of carbohydrates. Little care need be taken to supply ash for the uses of the adult animal, because the substances which furnish it are usually present in the ordinary ration in sufficient amounts; but the growing birds, especially the maturing pullets, require a greater proportion. Care must be taken to supply for their use an abundance of mineral matter, as it goes toward the formation of the bony framework of the body, and a large, well-developed body is impossible without an adequate frame. Mineral matter can best be supplied to the young birds in the form of wheat bran, which is easily and quickly digested, or by feeding finely ground oyster shells and lime grit. Laying birds require a ration well supplied with ash to provide material for the formation of the shells of their eggs. The three principal nutrients, protein, carbohydrates, and fat, are the important ones to consider when buying feeds, and it is well to determine the value of the purchased material by the weight of digestible protein which it contains. Water Supply —The prime necessity of an abundant supply of water is too often overlooked, and the matter of cleanliness should not be neglected. Water has four definite functions to perform in the bird’s body: (1) It fills up and distends the tissues, giving them a plump appearance; (2) it aids in digestion by dissolving particles of feed, so that the digestive fluids can act on them more readily; (8) it aids in transporting digested matter and greatly hastens assimilation by stimulating diffusion; (4) it aids greatly in the regulation of body temperature. The need of keeping a supply of fresh, pure water constantly accessible to birds cannot -be too strongly emphasized. Digestion and Assimilation—Much of the feed of domestic birds is in the form of seeds, whole grains, and the like. Such materials as are hard and lumpy, or are encased in hard, fibrous husks which resist the action of the digestive juices, cannot be immediately available as nourishment; they must be ground and crushed by the digestive organs before they can be used in the body, The natural means provided for this purpose are hereafter described. 174 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING Some of the feed eaten is not digested and is voided with the droppings. Only that part which is capable of digestion is of value in nutrition and worthy of consideration by the feeder. The undigested residue must be subtracted from the original material in computing nutritive value. It is only the digestible nutrients which are available for assimilation. This fact is important and should be borne in mind in selecting feeds, as many which are rich in certain nutrients have a very low digestibility. The percentage of a feed which is digestible is called the “‘ digestion coefficient.” For example, whole wheat grains contain 11.9 per cent of protein, only 80 per cent of which is digestible or of assimilative value; hence, out of every 100 pounds fed, containing 11.9 pounds of protein, only 9.5 pounds are of use to the fowl. Digestion bears a direct ratio to the health of the flock; and the stronger and healthier the birds are the better able they will be to digest a large amount of feed and get all of the possible good out of it. The following are some of the factors which affect the value or the digestibility of feeds: (1) Young, tender shoots of grasses and forage plants are more digestible than mature tissues; hence, they have a higher value than if allowed to become old and woody. (2) Grains or by-products if exposed to rains or dampness during the process of curing or storing will have a greatly reduced value as compared to those cured under favorable conditions. (3) A ration not properly balanced will tend to waste the surplus nutrients. (See Chapter XII.) (4) The digestibility of feed for poultry is seldom increased and often found*to be decreased by cooking. (5) The indigestible portion of feeds may serve in some in- stances to give needed bulk to a ration, but it often places a heavy tax on the energy of the fowl and sometimes offsets entirely the nutritive value. Aside from the digestibility of feed, the question of its physical effect on the condition of the individual is an important considera- tion. The point to determine is whether the ration is best suited to the birds to which it is fed. Feeds which in themselves are valuable may cause disastrous results if improperly fed or if given to a wrong type of birds; for example, ground green bone is highly nutritious, but if fed in excess will often upset the digestive system and thus retard the object sought,—namely, that of increasing egg production. Hence, ease of digestion is as important a factor as total digestibility. Milk is both entirely digestible and easily FEED REQUIREMENTS 175 digested. Pork scraps are digested with great difficulty, yet their digestible coefficient is high. (For an account of the digestive organs see Chapter XVII.) Objects of Feeding.—The feeding of different types and ages of poultry may be grouped in accordance with their several objects as follows: (1) Growth, which mostly includes the formation of lean meat and other tissues incident to the gain in weight exem- plified by the growing individual; (2) maintenance, which includes the repair of waste in the body tissues resulting from the vital processes while performing their necessary functions, but does not allow for any increase either in weight or in product; (3) produc- tion, exemplified in birds by egg laying, incident to the important function of reproduction; and (4) fattening, which covers the special preparation of fowls for market. Feed Requirements.—Important experiments have been car- ried on in America to determine the feed requirements of domestic fowls, some reliable work having been done by the New York and the New Jersey Stations. The results of these investigations afford a basis of various feeding standards. While no rules can be laid down for absolute observance under all conditions, their judicious observance in a general way will serve as a guide to the feeder. The requirements for the growth of chicks for the maintenance of adult fowls, and for egg production, are shown in Table IV. The following table is by W. P. Wheeler of the Geneva Experiment Station: TasLe 1V.—Feed Requirements of Chickens per Day for each 100 Pounds of Live Weight. Digestible nutrients (pounds). a ates Nutri- irds. Total value tive Pro- Carbo- ; (calories).| ratio. tein Fat. hydrates Ash. Lee Growing chicks: First two weeks............ 2.00 0.40 7.20 0.50 10.1 18,800 | 1 to 4.1 Two to four weeks.......... 2.20 -50 6.20 70 9.6 17,830 | 1 to 3.4 Four to six weeks... .| 2.00 40 5.60 .60 8.6 15,640 | 1 to 3.3 Six to eight weeks... 1.60 40 4.90 50 7A 13,780 | 1 to 3.7 Eight to ten weeks. . 1.20 30 4.40 -50 6.4 11,680 | 1 to 4.3 Ten to twelve weeks 1.00 30 3.70 40 5.4 10,000 | 1 to 4.4 Adults (maintenance only): : Capon, 9 to 12 pounds...... .30 -20 1.74 .06 2.3 4,600 | 1 to 7.5 H ie to 7 pounds......... 40 -20 2.00 10 2.7 5,300 | 1 to 6.2 £213 to 5 pounds......... .50 .30 2.95 115 3.9 7,680 | 1 to 7.4 Egg production: H 5 to 8 pounds......... 65 .20 2.25 .20 3.3 6,240 | 1 to 4.2 €D 13 to 5 pounds......... 1.00 35 3.75 .30 5.4 10,300 | 1 to 4.6 176 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING Growth and Maintenance.—Owing to the increase in weight which is taking place, the requirements of the growing animal are constantly changing. Larger birds require more nutrients per day per bird. Whether the object is for growth, for maintenance simply, or for production, the larger birds require more feed, but much less in proportion to live weight. It must be borne in mind that, while the classification of weights given in Table IV is conveni- ent, the grouping is only tentative; for example, it should not be presumed that a hen just under five pounds in weight must always have a ration supplying nutrients exactly as outlined, or one just above five pounds should have the other ration; there is a natural blending, the point of division being flexible. Under normal conditions, about three-fourths as much nutri- tive material is required in a ration to maintain a flock of hens without production as to keep them in full laying condition. Main- tenance varies at different seasons of the year; as, for example, the energy necessary to keep a hen’s body at the normal temperature of 105° F’. during the winter requires more feed than to maintain the same temperature in summer. Egg Production Mature birds in full laying condition require rations which have a much higher protein and ash content than those required for maintenance, the increase being approximately 100 per cent. The carbohydrates and fat are not required in nearly the same increasing amounts, yet the producing bird re- quires an increase in energy or fuel value of approximately 30 per cent over that for maintenance. Fattening—The exact requirements for a fowl during the period of fattening have never been worked out. The best results in practice have followed a slight reduction in protein content and an increase of about 75 to 100 per cent of carbohydrates and fat as compared to egg production requirements. During the finishing process a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 8 can be freely fed. Practicability of Feeding Standards.—One great need in study- ing nutrition is reliable and actual scientific data pertaining to the digestibility of feeding stuffs when fed to poultry. Volumes of carefully collected data pertaining to digestion in other farm animals have been published, but birds as a class have received very little consideration. Owing to this lack of correct informa- tion it is necessary to use the rules which are supposed to apply to animals in common in figuring poultry rations. It is probable PRACTICABILITY OF FEEDING STANDARDS 177 that the accepted laws of nutrition observed with other animals hold true to only a limited extent in regard to poultry, but they form the best guide until more accurate data can be obtained. Birds have a type of digestive system entirely different from that of any other group of animals, are of a much more active disposi- tion, and of a much higher body temperature, so that it is only reasonable to suppose that the same coefficients of digestion and the same energy values would not in all cases apply. The standards here given are as practical and reliable as are at present obtainable. | Digestion experiments have been carried on with poultry at the Maine Station with certain definite results. Corn showed a higher digestibility than any other grain tested. Wheat bran when fed to adult birds showed a rather low digestibility. A mixture of finely cut clover and corn meal was a more economical feed than bran. It was found that any great proportion of crude fibre was undesirable, being but slightly digested and of little value other than giving bulk to the ration; and that the addition of about seven per cent of bone ash slightly increased the digestion coeffi- cient of a mixture containing vegetable matter. Considerable experimental work has been done by the United States Department of Agriculture pertaining to the digestibility of poultry rations. The results of the work show that corn in the ration is one of the most economical sources of crude protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat, because corn is highly digestible. Oats and wheat should be utilized for their crude protein and fat. Where wheat is used extensively, adequate provision must be made for the deficiency of fat in this grain. It was found that protein and fat in beef show high coefficients of digestibility, the protein considerably higher and the fat but slightly lower than the corresponding nutrients in corn. Until recently, all feeding determinations have been based on standards and coefficients of digestibility derived from German sources. When these standards are used, the total nutrients in the ration are considered, and the requirements of the individual animal determine the exact feed stuffs and the proportion in which they should be.combined. It must be remembered that no stand- ard, however derived, can be properly used as the basis of absolute, inflexible rules. They can be used as the starting point for the feeder, more especially the beginner, and are not supposed to eliminate the use of judgment. 12 178 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING Relation of Feed to Character of Product.—Table V shows the composition of various poultry feeds and of finished products. Note the relatively high proportion of protein in the egg and in the mature pullet; also the high fat content of the capon and the large percentage of water present in the egg. Admitting the close relationship which exists between the composition of feed consumed and the products resulting therefrom, the feeder is able to select those feeds which will be the most productive of the results desired. For example, the richness of corn in fat and carbohydrates would lead to the selection of that grain as the basis of a ration for the feeding of capons. In like manner meat scrap and green clover would occupy a prominent place in feeding the mature hen for egg production, because of the large amount of protein and water. TasLe V.—Compesition of Feeds and of Finished Poultry Products. . Crude Carbo- Materials and products. Water. protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Feeds: COrtiichisee os aici penis ch 10.6 10.3 5.0 72.6 1.5 Oa taioverereis sete Ste eo ache ex tele 11.0 11.8 5.0 69.2 3.0 Meat scrap..............- 10.7 60.2 25.0 std 4.1 Green clover.............. 70.8 4.4 1.1 21.6 2.1 Finished products: OM sic seii oad SEE SOR 55.8 21.6 18.8 3.8 Pullet 55.5 21.2 18.9 3.4 Capon 41.6 19.4 35.3 3.7 Fresh egg.............-.55 66.7 12.2 8.9 12.2 Evolved and first used by Prof. Rice of Cornell University to show the relation between feed and product. Table V also shows why a high egg yield cannot be reasonably expected from birds that are fed on an exclusive corn diet, and why other feeds than corn are required to bring tne pullet to ma- turity in good laying condition. The importance of a properly balanced ration is also manifest, which simply means that the ration must show a proper relation between its nutrient content and the compounds desired in the product. When eggs are con- sidered as the manufactured product, it is plain that raw materials of the right kind and in proper amount are essential to their abun- dant production. A bird is in reality a machine, which may be compared to an automobile whose engine must be kept running at a low speed but which must have reserve power available when needed. The fuel required for maintaining the ordinary speed may he likened to the feed required for the bird’s maintenance. When SPECIAL FEATURES 179 it is desired to get a greater amount of energy from the engine, additional fuel is supplied and its speed is increased. So it is with the bird. When a certain product is desired, feed in addition to that required for maintenance must be supplied in the proper proportion and of the composition which will best attain the desired end. Special Features.—It has been shown by careful experiments* that the observance of certain important factors in poultry feeding leads to better results. Need of Meat in the Ration—Under natural conditions, with free range, birds will hunt for worms and insects and thus largely supply the meat requirements of their ration. When fowls are kept in close confinement, it is necessary that this meat require- ment be artificially supplied. The feeding of meat scrap is the best form of meeting this demand. In practice it is found necessary to sterilize the scrap completely in order to destroy toxic properties and increase the keeping qualities. Approved brands are sterilized and thus form excellent feed, but they must be fed with caution. In purchasing meat scrap it is safest to buy only that with guaran- teed analysis and from a known and reliable firm. It is safe to feed meat in an egg-producing ration at the rate of 5 er cent. of the total feed. The exact percentage varies with the analysis of the meat and the character of the other com- ponents of the ration. Meat is usually fed to the birds by mixing it with the dry mash, where they can have constant access to it. When it is desirable to force them for a short time for some par- ticular purpose, the scrap is often fed in separate hoppers. They must have meat in some form, and in order to do their best the quantity must be ample. Natural Feeds for Fowls.—If it were necessary to limit birds to only one character or ‘one type of feed, they would subsist longest and would do best on a ration entirely of grain. A large part of their feed, therefore, should be in the form of whole or cracked grains. Many kinds of grain are available, each with its own peculiar composition and value, and the feeder is thus allowed great latitude of choice in compounding rations. Corn is probably the grain most widely fed; moreover, it is greatly relished by all classes of poultry. Corn is very fattening, especially if fed to laying fowls exclusively. *“Experiments by Poultry Department, Cornell University,” foi Farmers’ Reading Course, No. 17, by James HE. Rice. 180 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING Wheat and its by-products constitute one of the best groups of feed stuffs for poultry. Oats when clipped are relished by birds and make an economical grain ration. Barley is also a good grain to feed. Buckwheat is rather fattening and usually expensive, so it is best given during the winter and at the evening feeding. Peas are generally expensive; but, being rich in protein and much relished by the birds, they are very desirable when their cost is not too great. Need of Variety in the Ration.—Animals as well as people tire of a steady diet. A variety in the ration increases the palatability, and, by adding relish, enhances its digestibility. Variety in the ration allows the birds, if they have a preference, to select the grains which they desire, and those are usually the ones which they most need. Variety can be supplied both in the grain ration and in the dry mash. When changes are made, they should be gradual, allowing birds to become accustomed to them slowly. Necessity of Fresh Water.—lIt will be remembered that more than 65 per cent of the egg and 55 per cent of the bird’s body are water (Table V); hence the necessity of keeping an abundant supply before the laying hens and the growing birds at all times, in addition to what they secure from grains and succulent feeds. During heavy laying a flock of 100 hens will drink approximately 10 to 15 quarts of water each day, depending upon the size of the birds and the season of the year. Relation of Fat to Laying Condition.—Hens with an excessive amount of body fat, due to lack of exercise and the use of fattening feeds, are not in good laying condition, and the egg yield will invariably be retarded. It has, however, been proved by experi- ment that some surplus fat on the body is essential. A fat hen has some surplus energy, but a lean hen requires all the feed she can digest to maintain and build up body weight and cannot use any for production. The laying hen requires considerable fat in the manufacture of the yolk, which contains about 60 per cent of fat. Value of Exercise—In order to keep her body warm and in proper health, a hen should be compelled to hunt or exercise for the grains which she receives. It is the usual habit of these birds, even little chicks from the time of hatching, to scratch in search of feed. Exercise increases the circulation and enhances vitality. It is true that exercise takes energy, and all energy must be pro- duced from feed; yet the increased amount of feed is amply paid SPECIAL FEATURES 181 for in healthy birds and an increased egg yield. To promote exercise it is well to keep the floor of the laying pen or scratching shed covered to a depth of four or more inches with good litter, and during the winter throw therein at least half of all the feed consumed. Digestibility of Ground Grains——Experiments show that a greater efficiency is obtained from feed consumed if a part of the grains are fed.in ground form or as a dry mash. Experiments covering a period of two years show that birds receiving whole grains give a product valued at only 48 per cent above the cost of feed, while those receiving part of the ration in the form of ground grains showed an excess of 68 per cent. The actual differ- ence in the total value of product was found to be about one-third greater with the hens having ground grains in the ration. More energy is required in the digestion of whole grains than ground grains. The exact determination of whether or not it will pay to feed ground grains will depend on the nature of the ration. If too much time and energy are required for fowls to grind the feed, egg production will be retarded; but, on the other hand, if all grains are fed ground, exercise will be restricted and the health of the birds impaired by reason of the tendency toward too great a concentration. This undue stimulation to an unnatural egg yield is likely to result in lowering the bird’s vitality. Mineral Matter for Laying Hens.—The ash content of different feeds varies considerably, and the bird’s requirements also vary during the different periods of its life. The problem is to adjust properly these varying factors to each other. During the growing stage and during egg production, more ash is required than is supplied by the ash content in vegetable feeding stuffs. Wheat bran is very rich in digestible ash, and is easily adapted to the feeding of baby chicks, but it does not supply enough to meet the requirements of laying hens. The lack of ash in the ration of laying birds tends to induce egg eating, because soft-shelled eggs are then likely to be produced. This condition can be pre- vented by keeping crushed oyster shell, ground bone, and similar material constantly before the hens. The shell constitutes 8 per cent of the whole egg, and to lay 160 eggs in a year the hen will require 1.6 pounds of mineral matter for the shells alone. Use of Sharp Grit—Birds have no teeth with which to grind feed, this mastication being performed in the gizzard by muscular action. In order that this work may be properly done, sharp grit 182 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING must be present to aid in crushing and wearing the feed into fine particles. The harder and sharper the grit the better, and it should be kept always before the birds. Digestion does not take place until the feed is ground in the gizzard, and when new, sharp grit is not present the feed must remain unground in the gizzard until it becomes soft and falls to pieces; this process is slow and results in imperfect digestion. Stimulating Feeds.—The use of condimental or stimulating feeds, such as the so-called “‘ stock feeds,” ‘ poultry panaceas,”’ and “‘ egg feeds,” should not be permitted except when birds seem to be lacking in appetite and it is desired to increase the palata- bility of their ration; and such use should be stopped as soon as the birds recover. It is a very bad practice to feed forcing and con- dition powders to strong, healthy birds. The habitual use of such stimulants in the ration causes the individual to become immune to the good effect which they may at first seem to have on the system. Their action on a healthy bird is very similar to that of alcohol on the human system; for a short time there is an excessive stimulation, but the after effects are depressing because of the tendency to break down or unnecessarily wear out the tissue. The use of these stimulating substances should be discouraged. Their actual value as nourishment is usually only a small fraction of their cost, and their value for promoting palatability is not equal to that of common salt, which may be safely added occasionally for this purpose in the proportion of about one ounce of salt to twenty-five pounds of dry feed. REVIEW. . Compare poultry with other farm animals. . Compare a hen with a cow as a transformer of raw materials. . What is the temperature of a fowl’s body, and how does it affect the feed requirements? . Give the composition of a fowl’s body. . Discuss the following components in detail: (a) Water, (b) ash, (c) pro- tein, (d) fat. . Define nutrition; nutrient. . Name three important nutrients and give their general composition. . Give the uses of the following nutrients in the body: (a) Protein, (b) car- bohydrates, and (c) fat. 9. Discuss digestibility of feeding stuffs. 10. Name and discuss the three objects of feeding. 11. Compare maintenance requirements of the capon and the hen. 12. Discuss requirements for growth. oe WwWNnre CONT REVIEW 183 13. Discuss feed requirements for fattening. 14. Compare production requirements of large and small hens. 15. What are the possible uses of feeding standards? 16. Discuss the relation of feed to product. 17. Enumerate ten factors which must be considered in studying the principles of poultry feeding. 18. How and when may stimulating feed be used? References.—Feeding of Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course Bulletin 17. Digestive Experiments with Poultry, by J. M. Bartlett, Maine Bulletin 184. Principles and Practices of Poultry Feeding, by H. R. Lewis, Bulletin New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Digestion Experiments with Poultry, by E. W. Brown, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 156. Feeding of Laying Hens, by A. G. Phillips, Kansas Bulletin 164. The Economy of using Animal Feed in Poultry Feeding, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulle- tin 149. The Adaptability of Concentrated By-products for Poultry Feeding, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 27. Experiments with Whole versus Ground Grains, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 106. Poultry Feeding Experiments, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 88. Mineral Ele- ments in Animal Nutrition, by E. B. Forbes, Ohio Bulletin 201. CHAPTER XI. FEEDING STUFFS. THERE are a large number of feeding stuffs available from which the poultryman can make his selection. Almost any material used in the feeding of any type of live stock can be given to poultry with safety. It is essential at the outset that the poul- tryman and the student appreciate the value of the different feed materials and their variability. When determining the advantages and disadvantages of different feedstuffs, four things should be considered: First, the digestibility, as determined by the readi- ness with which the birds utilize the nutrients; second, the total composition, as determined by chemical analysis; third, their pala- tability, which is measured by the ability with which the birds relish the feed; and, lastly, the wholesomeness of the materials. The object of this chapter is to group all feeds in a systematic classification: First, according to whether they are mineral, vegetable, or animal, and then according to their usefulness. Sources of Nutrients.—All materials fed to poultry may be divided into two classes,—organic and inorganic. The inorganic or mineral feeds are water, salt, lime, and phosphate. These natural substances are found only in limited quantities in vegetable feeds, such as grains. Water.—As has been stated, water is essential in the ration to maintain right conditions in the bird’s body and to supply the amount required for the manufacture of eggs, as one dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water. Water is supplied to the birds in the following ways: (1) Fresh water to drink, and (2) succulent feeds to eat, such as green grass, sprouted oats, beets, cabbage, and other vegetables. Salt.—Salt is supplied to increase palatability and to aid diges- tion by diffusion. It should be supplied when necessary in the ration to the extent of not over four ounces to every one hundred pounds of dry feed. Lime.—The shell of the fresh egg is composed almost entirely of lime. Compounds of lime are used in building bone and are found to a limited extent in other body tissues. Grains are rather deficient in lime, and it is necessary to supply other lime if birds are kept in close confinement. The practical sources 184 CORN AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS 185 usually available are oyster shells, limestone grit, and dry ground bone. Their composition is shown in Table VI. TaBLE VI.—Composition of Sources of Lime (pounds in 100). Equivalent , Sources of lime. Protein. Lime (CaO). to carbonate Pr gn Crushed oyster shells. . id 53 95 0.08 Limestone grit........ Me 18 32 10 Dry ground bone...... 26 27 49 24.18 Phosphate.—Less than four per cent of the body of the adult bird is mineral matter, consisting almost entirely of phosphate of lime, and the use of phosphate has been found to be especially profitable and practical in rations for growing chicks. Bone ash is supplied in the form of granulated bone, bone meal, or cut bone. Organic Feeds.—The feeds grouped under this heading are: (1) Grains and their by-products, which are termed concentrated feeds, and (2) grasses, hay, and straw, which are called roughage. Concentrates take their name from the fact that high nutrient content is represented in small bulk; and roughage from the fact that a larger amount of fibre or cellulose is present, and a larger bulk represents only a small nutrient content. The leading grains must be relied upon mainly for poultry. The different organic feeds naturally group themselves into the following divisions: Grains and their by-products, animal feeds, hays, grasses, and vegetables. As the by-products are closely associated with the grains from which they are derived, these two groups will be discussed together. Corn and its by-products are the principal sources of feed for poultry, the great value of this grain lying in its available energy, due to its high percentage of easily digested carbohydrates and fat and the absence of all poisonous substances. There are three races of corn which are available in different sections for poultry feeding. These are designated by the terms dent, flint, and sweet. Dent ‘and flint corns are practically the same in chemical composition. The flint variety is usually found in the cool climates, along the northern border of the corn belt, being extensively raised in New England. Dent corn flourishes where the higher temperatures prevail. In palatability and usage dent and flint corn are practically the same. Corn, being largely starch and oil, is essentially a feed designed to produce heat. ’ 186 FEEDING STUFFS Feeding for fattening poultry, no other grain equals corn. Corn is the cheapest feed for poultry, from the fact of its high feeding value and it can be raised at home. Corn is very easily digested and assimilated. The facts that corn is easily digested and is a rapid fat former make it a very undesirable feed for mature birds in close confinement if egg-laying is desired. A great many of the farm flocks throughout the country are maintained almost entirely upon an exclusive corn diet, which results in a very small and usually an unprofitable egg yield. Corn does not contain the nutrients in the proportion in which they are required in the manufacture of eggs, and therefore it should be used in connection with other grains, its particular function being to supply heat and energy. Care should be taken in feeding whole or cracked corn to avoid the use of moldy feed. New corn which has not been properly dried may mold and heat; in this condition it is a very unsafe feed. Corn meal, as the term is usually used, simply means the whole corn kernel ground fine. This material is used quite exten- sively in the feeding of all kinds of poultry, especially in making mashes for the fattening of poultry for slaughter. Oftentimes corn together with the cob is crushed and ground at the same time. The product obtained is called corn-and-cob meal. When the preparation is ground exceedingly fine, so that the coarse fibres of the cob are reduced to fine particles, this mixture may he economically used in poultry mashes. In general, corn cobs consist largely of crude fibre and consequently have a low value. When fed to poultry, this becomes a serious objec- tion. When corn-and-cob meal is used in place of corn meal, the ground oats and wheat can be eliminated from the mash. It is desirable to use all possible means to keep the fibre content low. Gluten meal is a by-product of corn, resulting from the manu- facture of starch. In the manufacturing process the starch is separated from the gluten cells and husk by gravity. Gluten is really the corn grain less the starch. Gluten meal is rich in fat and protein, is ately concentrated; and should be used in poultry by-product : from the manufacture of starch, “consists of the. shell or hulls of the corn grain, and is rarely used for poultry. Gluten is one of the best sources of concentrated vegetable protein. Gluten feed is a term used for defining prepared rations or feed mixtures containing a certain percentage of gluten meal combined WHEAT 187 with other less expensive, bulky products. It is generally a poor practice to purchase the so-called gluten feeds without a guaranteed analysis. Even in such cases the true gluten meal is to be preferred, as it has a known digestibility. Hominy meal is another by-product of corn, resulting from the manufacture of corn into hominy, which is an article for human food consumption. The outer shell of the corn grain and the germ constitute a by-product which is very similar to gluten. This product is not generally used. Germ-oil meal is a by-product of the starch industry. Although rather limited in supply for feeding purposes, it is fairly high in protein and contains over ten per cent of fat. It is used in some localities for the finishing and fattening of poultry. Wheat constitutes one of the leading foods for both man and animals. It is becoming more and more popular as a feed for poultry, and at present it is recognized as the most efficient single feed which can be used for egg production. When compared with corn, wheat carries a slightly larger amount of starch as well as materially more protein and considerably less fat. Owing to this slight difference in composition it furnishes more nearly a balanced ration for poultry feeding. Experiments show that wheat is especially valuable in the feeding of young and growing animals, owing to its high protein and ash content. Wheat, together with corn, constitutes the great bulk of grain feed on the majority of farms in America. Wheat Bran and Middlings.—In the process of manufacturing flour, the layers of wheat kernels are split up into different com- ponents or grades. These are known as bran, middlings or shorts, and flour. Shorts are essentially the same as middlings, ex- cept that a larger amount of fine bran may be present. Bran consists of the outer coatings of wheat kernels left in large flakes with portions of the inner layer of protein-bearing cells. The product is light, bulky, and fibrous. Middlings contain a larger proportion of the inner layers, including some flour, and have less of the outer coats and are more starchy than bran (Fig. 114). Wheat bran, mixed with corn meal, usually forms the basis of most poultry mashes. Wheat bran contains a relatively high per- centage of nutrients, but its digestibility is rather low,—not much greater than that of a good grade of legume hay. Middlings may well form a part of a dry-mash mixture, but are rather too sticky for the wet mash. Coarser productsshould go with them in all cases. 188 FEEDING STUFFS Damaged wheat in the form of shrunken, crushed, or broken grains is available at low prices, but owing to the variable quality it is not recommended for general feeding. When it is used, analysis should be made to determine its true value, and then it can best be fed in moderate quantities, mixed with other materials. Practice is to grind damaged wheat and mix the feed in a mash. No bad results have been noted following its reasonable use if the quality is good. Dry bread can often be secured by poultrymen located near cities at a nominal cost. It is usually shipped in barrels, and can best be fed in the rations after it has been crushed or broken fine. Outer wall onbran Inner wall Aleurone protein cells \ Fra. 114.—Cross section of wheat kernel (greatly enlarged). Oats.—As a feed for poultry, oats probably rank next to corn and wheat. Owing to the extensive demand for oats in the prep- aration of foodstuffs for man, the price is rather high when based on true feeding value. Oats vary widely in weight per bushel and in quality. The proportion of husk to kernel for poultry feeding should be low, since the sharp fibre shell is objectionable. The oat grain possesses a higher portion of protein than is found in corn, while the fat content is greater than that found in wheat and nearly equals that found in corn. Oat meal is a commercial preparation designed primarily for human food, but valuable for poultry. The price is high, but a slightly inferior grade can usually be purchased relatively cheap in bulk. Oat meal is very digestible and a good feed for baby chicks, supplying nutrients in small bulk and in a form that the birds can OATS 189 readily see. It is used extensively in fattening poultry for market, and is suitable for use in wet mashes during the finishing periods. Rolled or crushed oats with hulls may take its place; but if hulls are present, the advantage is entirely with the purer oat meal. Oat meal should be used in chick rations in small quantities. Sprouted Oats.—The feed- ing of sprouted oats when they are from four to six inches high is a very economical method of supplying green feed to all classes of poultry. The cost is slight, the time required for growth short, and the amount of succulent material is very large. The following method is generally followed in the sprouting of grain, the idea being to incorporate as much water into them as possible during the sprouting period. Manner of Sprouting.— Only the best grade of plump, heavy feed oats should be used, and handled in such a manner that they will reach maximum growth quickly. Six quarts of clean oats are placed in a ten- quart galvanized pail, which is then filled with water at a — temperature of not over 100° gnourk’ io provile, five hundred laving hens F., to which are added ten _ with acontinuous supply of succulent food.* drops of formalin to prevent mold. The oats are allowed to soak in this in a warm room for forty- eight hours. Next they are poured on a tray of the sprouting rack to a thickness of one inch. The sprouting rack used can be home made. It is built seven feet high and two feet square, with seven trays, each being about two feet square. Figure 115 shows such *The sprouting of oats for poultry was early recommended by the Maine Experiment Station. The Cornell Poultry Department was the first to devise the use of a home-made rack with wooden draws for the oats. 190 FEEDING STUFFS a rack. The rack is kept in a room where‘the temperature is not less than 60° F., and the sprouting oats are thoroughly sprinkled with water twice daily. In from seven to ten days, depending on the temperature of the room, the sprouts reach their best development, which is from four to six inches. After this, if they are not fed quickly, they go backward, owing to lack of nourishment in the seed. It is found that on the seventh day, with a temperature of 75° F., the oats are in the best condi- tion to feed, having taken up during the soaking and sprouting period three and two-thirds their original weight of water. Figure 116 shows the oats on the seventh day ready to feed. The best way to feed them is in broad, flat, open troughs, sie Si mF placing as much of the green material in the trough at one time as the birds will clean up immediately, leaving none to be scratched out and wasted. Under aver- age flock conditions one square inch of feeding surface per bird per day is sufficient to satisfy their appetites and sup- Fic. 116.—A tray of sprouted oats ready for feeding. ply the succulence Des Each bird receives one square inch per day. essary, without causing diarrhea. The sprouting oats are very palatable, being relished by every bird in the flock. It has been tried in some cases with sick birds which would not eat grain, and in nearly every instance was eaten greediiy. Advantage of Sprouted Oats —(1) Sprouting of oats for feeding is a simple process, requiring little time and attention, and in every case results are certain. A sprouting rack similar to the one shown in figure 115 is capable of supplying a continuous quan- tity of green feed for over 500 laying hens during the winter months. (2) Oats so prepared and fed to laying birds are very palatable and satisfying, much more so than when fed as whole grain. (3) This is the most economical method of feeding oats, 366 pounds of succulent feed being obtained from every one hundred pounds of dry oats, In every case where sprouted oats were fed to birds Masizem id RYE 191 an increased production was noted. (4) Sprouted oats are a very efficient’ source of feed compared with other succulent feed which could be stored. One hundred pounds of fresh sprouted oats contain about the following: Water 75.9; ash 0.8; protein 3.2; fibre 2.5; other car- bohydrates 16.3; fat 1.3. This shows a total dry matter of 24.1 pounds as compared with 20 in potatoes, 12 in beets, and only 10 in cabbage. The analysis shows a protein content of 3.2 pounds as compared with 2.1 in potatoes, 1.3 in beets, and 2.4 in cabbage. Buckwheat is highly prized as a poultry feed in some sections where the price is not prohibitive, and especially in sections where white meat is desired. It is usually fed mixed with other grains, its principal properties being to supply heat and energy. The large, black, woody hulls of buckwheat have little food value, and are generally used only when reasonable in price. When ground and separated in making buckwheat flour, two by-products are found,—bran and middlings. The middlings are prized for their high percentage of protein and fat. Buckwheat bran, being com- posed chiefly of hulls, is of little value in poultry feeding, even when ground exceedingly fine. It is doubtless true that buck- wheat foods tend to produce white fat and meat in poultry, just as they tend to produce white, tallowy butter when fed to dairy cows. Barley is a suitable feed for nearly all classes of poultry and is a good substitute for corn. It is nearly equal in feeding value, and in Europe it largely takes the place filled by corn in America. It is usually fed whole with other grains as a scratching ration. The carbohydrates in barley are-greater than those found in oats and less than those found in corn, and it has less fat than either oats or corn. The barley grain has been for years one of the chief grains for both the feeding of animals and the human race. At present it is devoted almost entirely to brewing purposes. Malt sprouts and brewer’s grains are by-products of barley. These preparations are barley grains less the dextrin and sugar. Theo- retically malt sprouts may be a good source of succulent material, but, owing to the demand for this product as dairy feed, it has not been extensively tried by poultrymen. Rye.—The use of rye as a poultry feed in America. is quite limited. It seems to have no properties which are superior to wheat or barley, its nearest rivals. Persons raising rye extensively 192 YEEDING STUFFS will find it more profitable to market this material and purchase other feeds for poultry purposes. Sprouted rye is very palatable, and birds do well on it. The main by-products of rye are rye bran and distiller’s grains, but, owing to limited supply, they are very seldom used. Rice.—The use of rice as a poultry feed in this country is quite limited. It seems to be inferior to wheat as to digestibility and palatability, and for this reason is not generally recommended for poultry feeding. The rice grain is not generally used even in the South. Good commercial chick rations often contain broken rice. Oil meal is a by-product of the manufacturing of linseed oil from flaxseed. Old-process oil meal in which the oil has been extracted by pressure contains greater amounts of food materials than is the case with new-process oil meal in which the oil has been extracted by the use of naphtha. There is probably no more helpful feed for poultry than oil meal when given in small quantities. It is especially recommended that a small amount of oil meal be fed the laying hens during the moulting season, as it hastens the growth of feathers and gives them a sleek, finished appearance. Cottonseed meal is a by-product. from the manufacturing of cottonseed oil from cotton seed. For poultry feeding the prepara- tion has not had extended use, owing to the belief that it is too concentrated and contains certain toxic properties. Miscellaneous Grains.—In addition to the previously-men- tioned grains which are suitable for poultry feeding, the following are sometimes available at nominal prices, and can be used econom- ically according to their composition: Sorghum seeds can be used to advantage in the grain rations, likewise kaffir corn and broom corn seeds. If used in reasonable quantities, these grains will replace corn in the rations, as they are essentially carbohydrate carriers. Millet is used for young chicks, but, owing to an extremely hard shell, it is doubtful if it is a wise practice. Sunflower seeds are recommended by many authorities as a desirable ingredient in the grain rations. They carry a high vege- table oil content, and hence are economically used during the moulting season, as they have the same effect on the plumage that was apparent with oil meal. The Canadian field pea, the cow pea, and the Soy bean are three nitrogenous plants which can be economically grown on poultry farms both to supply suc- ORGANIC FEEDS 193 culence in the spring and summer, and, where desirable, they can be grown to maturity, harvested, and fed in the mashes. Tasie VII.—Composition of Grains and their By-products. (Total ingredients:are given, regardless of their digestibility.) Feed. Water. Ash. Protein. | Fibre. ee Fat. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Corn group. Dent corn.............. 10.6 1.5 10.3 22, 70.4 5.0 Flint corn.............. 11.3 14 10.5 1.7 70.1 5.0 Sweet corn............. 8.8 1.9 11.6 2.8 66.8 8.1 POP COMM. . 22 Asya yin 10.7 1.5 11.6 1.8 69.2 5.2 Corn meal.............. 12.0 1.3 8.7 2.1 71.2 4.7 Corn meal (sifted).......] 12.0 1.0 8.9 1.3 72.0 4.8 Corn-and-cob meal. ..... 15.1 1.5 8.5 6.6 64.8 3.5 Gluten meal............ 8.2 9 29.3 3.3 46.5 11.8 Gluten feed............. 8.5 1.7 26.2 7.2 53.3 3.1 Hominy meal........... 11.0 2.5 10.4 4.2 64.1 7.8 Wheat group. Whole wheat ........... 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1 Wheat screenings....... 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65.1 3.0 Wheat bran............ 11.9 5.8 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0 Wheat middlings........ 12.1 3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4.0 Low-grade flour......... 12.4 6 10.0 9 75.0 11 Old bread.............. 31.2 | Variable 6.9 |Variable| 44.2 9 Oat group. Oats, whole or ground...} 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 60.7 5.0 Clipped oats........... 11.2 2.8 12.0 7A 61.6 5.0 Oat meal............... 7.9 2.0 14.7 9 67.4 7.1 Rolled oats............. 8.5 1.9 15.0 6 66.0 8.0 Buckwheat group. Buckwheat............. 12.6 2.0 10.0 8.7 64.5 2.2 Buckwheat bran........ 10.5 3.1 12.4 31.9 38.8 3.3 Buckwheat middlings....| 13.2 4.9 28.9 4.1 41.9 7.0 Barley group. Bare yrs nici s.deareg sme nen tine 10.9 2.4 12.4 2.7 69.8 1.8 Barley meal............ 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 2.2 Barley screenings........ 12.4 3.6 12.2 7.6 61.6 2.6 Malt sprouts............} 10.2 5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5 1.7 Other grains. Linseed meal (0. p.)..... 9.2 5.7 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 Cottonseed............. 10.2 3.5 18.4 23.2 24.7 19.9 Cottonseed meal........ . 8.2 7.2 42.3 5.6 23.6 13.1 RyC. i ag eyyacies emt a Ged 11.6 1.9 10.6 17 72.5 1.7 Ries iar sae eatees seed 12.8 7 7.5 5 78.1 A Sorghum seed...........| 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6 Broom corn seed........ 12.7 3.4 10.2 7.1 63.6 3.0 Millet seed............. 14.0 3.3 11.8 9.5 57.4 4.0 Sunflower-seed.......... 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 21.2 Canada field peas....... 13.4 2.4 22.4 6.4 52.6 3.0 Cowpeas.............-. 14.8 3.2 20.8 4.1 55.7 14 Soy beans.............. 10.8 4.7 34.0 4.8 28.8 16.9 i | | | | | i | | { | ! i 194 FEEDING STUFFS Mixed Feeds and Manufactured Products.—Certain classes of products designed for poultry feeding are manufactured in different sections of the United States. In some instances it has not been proved that these materials are objectionable, but in nearly every case experiments show that the ingredients which are supposed to be furnished can be more economically secured from natural sources. A great variety of so-called ready-mixed feeds are advertised. They are supposed to contain a given amount of nutrients in a very economical form. In practice a great major- ity of such feeds should be avoided, as many of them are adultera- tions containing a large amount of filler and make-weight material. Analyses made at various experiment stations show the following materials to be occasionally used in such feeds: Oat hulls, ground peanut shucks, cut straw and hay, sand, and other foreign sub- stances, which are used to increase the bulk and the weight of the feed. It is a much more economical practice for poultry- men to purchase the standard grains and by-products and do their own mixing. Any plan which will lower the grain bill will be helpful. Animal Feeds.—Leading authorities agree that, for the best results in poultry feeding, the birds should be given protein and other nutrients from animal as well as from vegetable sources. All feeding experiments show that where animal protein is entirely withheld the birds do not make so good nor economical growth, and cannot be made to produce as many eggs in a given period. There are several sources from which nutrients of an animal origin can be obtained. Their use depends somewhat on location and upon the price of the different ingredients in local markets. Meat scrap is undoubtedly the most popular of the different forms of animal matter for poultry. There are many grades on the market, which may be grouped as high grade or low grade. The high-grade meat usually contains about 60 per cent of protein and the low-grade about 35 to 40 per cent. It will always be found more economical to purchase high-grade meat scrap, as the price per pound of protein will be less. Then,-too, the high- grade meat is usually more sanitary and better prepared. A com- mercial practice is to cook the carcasses or pieces of meat under steam pressure for a given number of hours, to render out the fat. This sterilizes them completely and kills any bacteria of a detri- mental nature which might be present. Scrap prepared in this way is not apt to contain poisonous matter. On the other hand, ANIMAL FEEDS 195 it is sometimes found in the manufacture of low-grade meat scrap that no treatment is given to meat which would purify it; in other instances it is treated with a strong acid. When such methods are followed, there is danger of disease bacteria in the feed, or a strong acid residue may remain when ready for market. Beef scrap of this last character has been known to cause considerable injury and loss of valuable birds. Pork scrap is sometimes available for poultry feeding, but it contains a larger amount of fat and has a low digestibility, ‘for which reasons it is not as desirable as beef scrap. Bone products come next to meat scrap in popularity and efficiency as animal matter for poultry. They are fed either green or dried. The practice in preparing green bones is to secure them daily from the meat shop and grind them up in bone cutters and feed them fresh. If this method is followed, they have to be fed in limited quantities, as the birds will not stand a heavy feeding. The dried, crushed bone is a very efficient source of protein and ash in baby-chick feeding. (See also page 201.) Animal Meal.—Meat scrap, mixed with quite a large percentage of bone and fat, is often ground up exceedingly fine, thoroughly dried, and sold in the form of “‘ animal meal.” It has about the same feeding value as meat scrap, but there is a greater possibility of adulteration, and the feeder cannot be so sure of what he is using. Dried Blood.—This is a dried product of slaughter-houses, and, when properly sterilized and stored in dry places, will keep indefi- nitely. It can be used to good advantage in limited amounts in poultry mashes, especially to check diarrhcea; however, it possesses no advantage over a high-grade meat scrap or bone product. Fish Scrap.—The feeding of fresh fish was quite extensively practised at one time in localities where it could be obtained, but, owing to the fact that it tainted the eggs and the flesh of poultry, the practice was discontinued. Properly prepared fish scrap, from which the oil has been entirely removed, is being fed with very good results in certain sections, especially in California. A very essential feature in the manufacture of fish scrap for poultry feeding is that all the oil, which carries the objectionable odor and flavor, should be removed. Some high-grade fish scrap is manufactured at about one-half of the cost of meat scrap. This contains considerable protein. If possible to obtain this, it will make a very satisfactory substitute. Clams and other shell fish, if available in sufficient quantities, 196 FEEDING STUFFS may be fed to poultry. They are palatable and supply some digestible material. Milk as a poultry feed is desirable on account of the protein content which it carries and also on account of its palatability. When used in large quantities, it furnishes protein in an easily digested form. One undesirable feature is the increased labor and trouble in feeding it, especially when milk itself in the natural state is used. Skim milk, especially the sour material, should be used more extensively in the feeding of all classes of poultry, as it not only carries a high nitrogenous content, but it is palatable and the presence of the lactic acid material aids digestion. Skim milk is considered a wholesome feed for all forms of live stock. Birds con- sume large quantities with very beneficial effects. It is used in commercial fattening of poultry, the wet mashes being moistened with it. Reports show that the feeding of buttermilk or sour skim milk to baby chicks is good practice, as the lactic acid present reduces the danger of infection and the spread of white diarrhcea. Taste VIII.—Composition of Animal Feeds. (Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) Carbo- Feed. Water. | Ash. | Protein. | Fibre. |yvarates, Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Meat scrap (high grade)..| 10.70 4.10 | 60.20 | .... avis 25.00 Meat scrap (low grade. ..| 15.40 2.50 | 45.00 | .... tla 37.10 Pork scrap............. 11.0 2.2 55.0 ena ome 31.8 Ground bone (dry)...... 8.19 | 56.95 | 31.36 BAe ers 3.50 Green cut bone......... 38.94 | 26.12 | 20.37 | .... Zine 11.67 Animal meal............ 4.90 | 42.65 | 30.45 3.30 | 10.32 8.38 Blood meal............. 10.61 4.65 | 75.69 1.28 1.46 7.11 Dried blood............ 6.70 6.60 | 65.10 eee 5.30 | 16.30 Fresh fish.............. 44.0 1.00 | 10.50 | 42.00 les 2.50 Fish scrap (variable) . 5-10 2-8 |34.0-50) .... ee 17.0 Clams and other shell fish) 34.10 2.30 6.00 | 55.00 2.00 60 Whole milk. 6 3.6 aeetcit 4.9 3.7 Skim milk Pf 3.1 5.3 3 Buttermilk 7 4.0 4.0 1.2 WHO Ys sh as tcis Fisry 3 Fan noses A 6 5.1 Al Cheese................. 3.4 23.7 17 30.6 Milk albumen 18.0 3.(?) | 43.0 (?) 1-5 Granulated milk 28.5 3.6 13.7 51.1 3.1 Hens’ egg (others similar) 66.7 12.2 12.2 ote 8.9 Whey.—This by-product of cheese making should be used when it can be obtained. It does not have the nutrients which the butter- milk and skim milk contain, but it is relished by the birds, LEGUMES AND GRASSES 197 Granulated Milk.—A milk product available for poultry feed- ing is known as granulated or powdered milk. It is whole milk evaporated and crystallized. Its cost is very high, and in most cases prohibitive. The only case where it can profitably be used is in the feeding of chicks for the first few weeks of their growth. Milk Albumen.—Another milk by-product upon the market in large quantities, and so well distributed that all poultrymen can use it if they desire, is milk albumen. This is formed from skim milk during the manufacture of milk sugar. It comes in various sizes and grades, suitable both for use in dry mashes and in scratch- ing rations. It varies considerably in composition according to method of manufacture. Eggs, although a product of the digestion and assimilation of feed material, contain in themselves a high feeding value. Eggs contain a high protein and mineral content, but in general it is obviously too expensive to feed fresh eggs in an effort to produce eggs. On all poultry farms there will be a considerable supply of eggs in the spring of the year which are tested out as infertile on the seventh day of incubation. These should constitute, if prop- erly cared for, a valuable addition to the feed for the young and growing chicks. In some cases it may be possible to dispose of these infertile eggs at bake shops, if they are carefully candled. It is best to feed these infertile eggs hard boiled, and to begin giving them to the young chicks after they reach the age of two weeks. In feeding these eggs they can be crushed, shells and all, and scattered about the pen or brooder. They should be fed in small quantities. They should not be fed to old hens, as their use may start the habit of egg eating. Legumes and grasses are usually fed to poultry in two different forms: First, in the cured state in the form of hay; and second, in the form of green succulence. In the dry condition they are usually cut fine and mixed in the dry mash to increase bulkiness. Alfalfa, clover, and certain mixed grasses are generally used for this purpose. There are on the market short-cut clover and alfalfa hay and also clover and alfalfa meal. Where alfalfa or clover can- not be raised on the farm, it is profitable to include one of these in the short-cut form in the dry mash for the laying birds during the winter. Alfalfa hay, both in the short-cut and meal forms, offers ex- ceedingly good opportunity for the use of adulterants; for this reason the short-cut form is most desired, as the percentage of 198 FEEDING STUFFS adulterated material can easily be detected. Clean alfalfa hay is bright green in color and has the true alfalfa smell. Cut timothy is often used as an adulterant, and this can easily be detected by the large amount of yellow or brown material pres- ent; this adulteration cannot easily be detected in fine-ground or meal form. TaBLeE IX.—Composition of Hays and Grasses. (Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) Carbo- Fat. Water. Ash. Protein. | Fibre. hydrates. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Alfalfa (green).......... 80.00 | 1.80 4.90 4.70 7.90 07 Alfalfa (dry)............] 11.90 | 7.138 | 14.12 | 27.09 | 37.34 | 2.42 Clover (green).......... 70.80 | 2.10 4.40 8.10 | 13.50 | 1.10 Clover (dry)............ 10.00 | 8.10 | 16.32 | 17.84 | 45.99 | 1.75 Lawn clippings (green)...| 76.40 | 2.40 2.30 4.10 | 13.80 1.00 Lawn clippings (dry)....| 15.30 | 5.50 7.40 | 27.20 | 42.10 } 2.50 Barley (green)..... ore 76.00 | 7.30 2.71 6.90 7.00 .09 Peas and oats (green)... .| 80.50 1.74 2.90 6 00 8.80 .06 The green crops which are raised for poultry feeding most extensively are alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, cereals, and buckwheat. All green succulent grasses are desirable, and the one which grows best during a given month should be ready at that time. Legumes are most desirable for feed, as they contain considerable protein and produce a heavy yield. A small alfalfa field should be run in connection with every poultry plant, and will allow from three to six cuttings of the same field during the season, supplying a continuous source of green feed. Vegetables.—A valuable property of vegetables in poultry feeding is the amount of water they contain. They make very desirable succulent feed where they can be grown successfully. Fresh, leafy vegetables can be used for only a short time, as they wilt and spoil quickly. Some of the root crops, such as mangels and beets, maintain their succulent condition for a long time, and will furnish succulence well through the winter if properly stored. The leading vegetable crops found most useful in supplying succulence, during certain seasons of the year, are considered here. It is rather hard to keep vegetable crops in storage for any con- siderable time during the winter without a special place, as in an underground root cellar. They are often used up soon after their natural season to prevent loss in storage. VEGETABLES 199 Potatoes, when available, can be used in the feeding of poultry. They are best cooked and mixed with wheat bran. On farms the small potatoes which are unmarketable can be economically used. Care should be used to regulate the amount, as their extended use is apt to make the poultry lose their appetite, become dopy and out of condition. Good potatoes bring more for market than when fed. Beets, containing more water than most root crops, constitute one of the most valuable feeds which can be given for succulence. Mangel beets are easy to cultivate and harvest. They give a large yield of dry matter on a small area. The sugar beet, named Fie. 117.—Mangel-wurzel beets at harvest time. The topsare cut green and fed immedi- ately; the roots are pulled and, after curing a few days, are stored for winter feeding. because it has a higher sugar content, will give about the same yield as the mangel, but will require double the labor in harvesting. Every poultry farmer should attempt to grow beets, store them, and thus insure a palatable, succulent winter feed. Other Root Crops.—In addition to the potato and beet, other root crops can be used for poultry feeding, but it is doubtful if any of them other than beets can be economically grown for that purpose. Carrots, parsnips, turnips, rutabagas, and artichokes have all been used, when available, with success. All root crops, if grown for winter feeding, should be stored in a dry, well-venti- lated cellar or pit, and the temperature should be maintained just above the freezing point. Roots can be fed either whole or ground. ; 200 FEEDING STUFFS The constant use of onions is discouraged, as their function is nothing more nor less than a stimulant. Onions are desirable when the birds are off their appetite or out of condition. Birds relish onions in all forms. It is necessary to limit the amount fed, how- ever, as they are apt to impart some of their odor to the eggs and flesh. Limited quantities of chopped onion tops are a desirable addition to rations for growing chicks. Root-crops require considerable labor to grow, harvest and feed. Their succulence and palatability, however, make them a necessary part of every poultry ration, especially when other green forage is not available. TaBLe X.—Composilion of Vegetables. (Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) Feed. Water. Ash. Protein. | Fibre. es Fat. Roots. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Potatoes (white)........ 78.9 1.0 271 6 | 17.3 0.1 Potatoes (sweet)........ 71.1 1.0 1.6 13 | 24.6 A Beets (mangel)..........} 90.9 1.1 14 9 5.5 2 Beets (sugar)........... 86.4 9 18 9 9.8 l Beet pulp (dry)......... 8.0 5.4 9.5 15.4 61.3 4 Beet pulp (wet)......... 89.8 6 9 24 6.3 a ONIONS: sscieie es eee oe 87.6 6 1.4 7 9.4 3 TRUPHIPS ise 2 ep eens aidan 90.5 a“ Lal 1.2 6.2 2 GCarroteses ced ands uiscnaccgs 88.6 1.0 1.1 1.3 7.6 4 Artichokes.... ........ 80.0 1.0 2:5 Ss 13. ple Leaves. Cabbage.......... .... 90.5 1.4 3.8 1.5 24 ft Tete. odo Kh eos 95.9 3 1.6 S 1.0 2 Beet tops............... 88.0 2.4 4.4 2,2 2.6 2.2 RADE. cose tances : $0.2 2.0 3.4 2.6 2.3 5 Onion tops.......... , 91.0 1.1 3.9 3.0 8 2 Chard (Swiss)...........| 87.8 2.4 4.4 2.9 2.5 ct Cabbage is one of the most popular and most valuable vege- tables for succulent poultry feed. The crop grows rapidly and a large yield is possible from a small area. Cabbage is generally fed direct from the field in the late fall without storing. It is the best practice when growing cabbage for poultry feeding to allow it to head up well, because the total weight of succulent feed is thereby greatly increased. Cabbage may either be fed chopped fine and mixed with mashes, or it may be suspended on a cord or on a hook and the birds allowed to eat it directly from the head. MINERALS FOR POULTRY 201 Lettuce is as desirable a source of succulent feed as cabbage, but, owing to the smaller yield, its poor keeping qualities, and its high market value for human consumption, it is little used for poultry. It is often economical to raise small quantities of lettuce for the feeding of baby chicks, as they relish it and thrive on it. Kohl-rabi may be spoken of as a turnip-cabbage. The fleshy stem is used for. its succulence. In value it is about equal to turnip, and the keeping qualities are good. The rape plant is a rapidly-growing annual plant and is coming into quite general use as a poultry forage crop. Immense yields are secured where it is grown for soiling, and when pastured it grows continuously through the summer. Swiss chard is planted in rows and cultivated, the crop being supplied to the birds at regular intervals. The chard will grow continually after each successive cutting, and one seeding will produce a large amount of succulent feed in a season. Minerals for Poultry.—The importance of minerals in poultry rations has been much neglected in the past. Recent experiments tend to show that the character, composition, and source of min- erals or ash in a ration are the determining features as to the efficiency of a given ration. Dry ground bone, in its many forms, and if of good quality, has proved to be a very good source of both protein and phos- phate. Samples averaging 25 per cent protein and 24 per cent of mineral matter can be purchased so reasonably as to make them, beyond doubt, a very economical source of protein and ash. Birds relish dried bone. It has no laxative properties, and is recommended for the feeding of baby chicks and growing stock. Fresh cut bone consists of refuse bone and clippings from butcher-shops. This product when available, ground in especially prepared cutters, is a very good source of protein and mineral matter. The supply is usually limited, and the price rather high. Where a large number of birds are to be fed, it is better to purchase the bones in bulk, and grind them by the use of a power bone cutter on the plant. Fresh bone is not good for growing chicks, but will produce excellent results when fed to laying stock. It is very forcing when fed in large quantities, and it is the best practice to limit it to less than 15 per cent of the dry-mash ration. (See also page 195.) Oyster shells, when fed to poultry, supplies to laying hens the carbonate of lime for the egg shell, and, in the case of growing 202 FEEDING STUFFS birds, provides ash for the skeleton. It seems to be of less value for growing chicks, as it contains little if any phosphate. Samples of crushed oyster shells usually run over 95 per cent carbonate of lime. Crushed shells are especially valuable when they can be fed fresh, that is, gathered regularly from the beach, or after the oysters or clams have been removed, and immediately crushed or ground. Sources of Phosphate-—Composition (pounds in 100). Phosphoric acid, Protein. P2035. Granulated bone (dry)...................5.. 25 24 Green cut bone..........0... 00.00 cece eee 19 to 34 =. 23 to 25 Phosphate Tock, «0.04 5.00. ee ee eben ca ae ie 28 to 32 Poultry grit is not valuable as a source of ash, as it usually contains little if any lime, and very little phosphate, the main component being silica. The function of grit is that of grinding. Other Sources of Mineral Matter—There are a great many advertised sources of mineral matter for poultry feeding. Few of the commercial forms, however, seem to supply the particular kind of mineral in the best form. Raw phosphate rock gives fair results, but the available mineral matter is small in comparison with its bulk. There are certain advertised commercial feeds which are guaranteed to contain a large quantity of ash. Some of these, owing to their physical properties, are of little value, and are not economical when compared with the results obtained by the use of cheaper and better-known materials, such as bone products. Ash in Grains——Wheat bran is a very efficient source of ash and is fed quite extensively with this purpose in view. Consider- ing only its value as a protein carrier, the cost of wheat bran is relatively high, but considering its palatability and high ash con- tent it can be highly recommended. It is desirable in the feeding of baby chicks. There are other grains, such as barley and oats, which contain enough ash to be worth considering. Double Function of Minerals—Experiments show that the ash content in a ration bears a definite relation to the complete use of other nutrients in it. Not only is the actual availability of the mineral matter itself of value, but mineral compounds have a very noticeable effect in increasing the digestibility of other nutrients in the ration, especially protein. Minerals thus perform a double function. ORONO oR WN REVIEW 203 REVIEW. . Into what two great groups can all feeds be divided? Name the inorganic substances used for feed. . Discuss the use of water in digestion and assimilation. When and where should salt be used? When are phosphates especially useful? What is meant by organic feeds? Give several examples. . Where does corn rank as a poultry feed? . What by-products of corn are used in poultry feeding? . Discuss wheat and its by-products as a poultry feed. . Name the parts of the wheat kernel and what feed each forms after milling. . Tell of the value of oats as a poultry feed. . Discuss sprouted oats, their use, and methods of sprouting. . Give the composition of sprouted oats. . Discuss the use of each of the following grains in poultry feeding: Buck- wheat; barley; rye; rice; sorghum seed; sunflower seed; peas and beans. . What is the source of oil meal? . What is the advice regarding the use of ready-mixed feeds and manu- factured product? . Enumerate the important feeds of animal origin. . With respect to what nutrient are they especially important? . Give the composition of beef scrap, and discuss its use as a feed. . Give the composition of ground bone, and its use as a poultry feed. . From what standpoints is milk a desirable feed? . Discuss the use of skim milk in poultry feeding. . Under what conditions can eggs be profitably used in feeding poultry? Tell how. . Discuss, in detail, hays and grasses as to their uses as feeds. . What vegetables are often grown for feeding poultry? . Discuss mangel-wurzel beets as feed for poultry. . Give the sources of mineral matter in the ration. . Discuss minerals and their effect upon digestibility. References.—The Economic Value of Root Crops, by E. R. Minn, Cornell Bulletin 317. Poultry Feeding Stuffs, by H. J. Wheeler, Rhode Island Bulle- tin 84. Poultry Feeding, by M. E. Jaffa, California Bulletin 164. Condimental Feeds, Delaware Report, 1901. Commercial Feeding Stuffs, United States Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 108. Alfalfa Meal as a Feeding Stuff, in U.S. Farmers’ Budletin 259. CHAPTER XII. PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING. BEFORE discussing the requirements of a successful ration and the practice commonly used in the feeding of poultry, it is well that the design and construction of the feed house be considered and that the equipment be reviewed. FEEDING EQUIPMENT. The Poultry Feed House.—A great many poultry plants, whether small or large, owing to improper facilities for the handling of feed and the mixing of rations, lose large sums of money through waste and labor which could easily be saved by careful attention to better methods. In the design and laying out of a poultry plant, one of the things to be considered is the location of the feed house. It should be centrally located on rather high ground, if possible, giving good drainage and freedom from dampness; it should be easy of access both from the main highway and from the different units or laying houses themselves. In some instances it is desirable to locate the feeding room in the centre of the long laying house, having over- head tracks running from the feeding room directly to the different houses. This is a great labor-saving device, and proves very serviceable in the caring for adult birds in the intensive house. In equipping broiler plants, where a special feed room is required for chick rations, the overhead track system has been found very economical and practical. In planning the style and construction, two things should be borne in mind: First, to have the building large enough for the storing of grains and the proper housing of the feeding appliances; and, second, to have it, as far as possible, proof against mice and rats. The feed house is often two stories in height (Fig. 118), with the grain-storage bin located on the second floor and the rations falling through chutes to the lower floor. This gives ample room on the lower floor for the proper arrangement of mixers, grinders, and other appliances. There must be room for feed pails, for drinking fountains, for hoppers, and for storage when needed. 204 FEEDING EQUIPMENT 205 It may be possible during certain seasons of the year to buy at reduced prices large quantities of grain and hold it for later use. Thus much can be saved. This practice is impossible without large storage bins. The feature of having the house proof against rats and mice is important; for, if these enemies gain access to the grains, a con- stant and considerable loss will be going on which may be almost unnoticed. On an extensive plant it may be feasible to construct the entire feed room of concrete or hollow tile; but where, owing to limited funds or other reasons, it is necessary to erect a frame building, it will be found a very desirable practice to fill in concrete Seal Fria, 118.—Poultry feed house centrally located, with long laying house on either side. The upper floor is used for storage of hay and grain, and the lower floor for mixing and weighing. between the inside sheathing and the outside weather boarding to a height of about thirty inches from the ground. If this is done during the construction of the house, it adds very little to the cost and prevents rats and mice from gnawing through from the out- side. In addition to this, a good, heavy concrete floor should be laid on a crushed stone or cinder bottom. If the moisture insula- tion of tar paper be used, as described in Chapter VII, it will insure dryness, which is essential to keep the grains from molding, besides adding to the rat-proof feature. Special Feed-room Equipment.—The amount, character, and size of the appliances required properly to equip the feed room for work will be determined largely by the size of the plant and the character of the work to be done. A poultry plant making a 206 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING specialty of egg production, with market broilers and dressed poultry on the side, may require under average conditions the following equipment in the feed room: Caldron, dry-mash mixer, vegetable cutter, hay cutter, bone cutter, and power. Caldron.—A cooker or steamer is useful for the cooking of hot mashes during the winter, in the preparation of special mashes for special feeding purposes, and in heating or scalding any moldy or partially injured grains to restore their feeding value. Water may be heated in it for the scalding of utensils. Such a caldron should be of from thirty to fifty gallons capacity and strongly built. Dry-mash Mixer. —On plants where a large number of birds are fed and where such materials as green cut clover and ground bone are used in the mashes, it is necessary to mix them daily; where this is done a good power mixer will save labor. There are many commercial types of revolving mixers on the market. An important feature in the mixer is that the basin can be easily emp- tied. The mixers should do the work thoroughly and quickly. On small plants such an equipment is not required. One of the most economical methods is to mix the ration on the floor by means of scoop shovels, mixing from 500 to 1,000 pounds at one time and storing it in bins ready for use. Vegetable Cutter—A vegetable cutter is often used if many vegetables, such as beets, are fed. Birds seem to relish them better and eat more of them if they are finely cut and fed in troughs; there is less waste but more labor than if they are fed whole. Hay Cutter—Fresh clover, alfalfa, and other green, succulent materials are often run through a hay cutter, which can also be used for the cutting of dry hay, such as alfalfa, and straw for litter. Bone Cutter—Either the vertical or horizontal power bone cutter will be an economical investment if a fresh supply of bone can be assured. Green bone, however, must be fed in limited quantities and with care. Power.—A plant large enough to warrant the extensive equip- ment as outlined should have some source of power to run the machines. The gasoline engine will doubtless prove the cheapest and best on a farm. Near large centres of population an electric motor will probably supply the power more cheaply. In the equip- ment of the feed room an effort should be made to reduce the labor item to a minimum. This will allow one man to care for an in- creased number of birds; in other words, it will lower the labor FEEDING EQUIPMENT 207 cost per bird during the year. The labor item is the second greatest item in the cost of production,—feed being first. Feed Wagons.—On large plants where the attendant makes his rounds and must cover considerable distance, it is found very feasible to do the feeding from a wagon constructed for the purpose (Fig. 119). This wagon may contain egg cases for the collection of eggs, and a box or receptacle for the removal of droppings when the houses are cleaned. Such a wagon is also useful for the trans- portation of young stock to and from the range. Compounding Rations.—The problem of the composition, mix- ing, and supplying the ration for poultry of all classes and for all Fie. 119.—The poultry feed wagon is a great labor saver in caring for poultry on the range. (Photo from Cornell University.) processes is one of the most important considerations in the practical handling of birds. Success requires close association with the birds. In compounding the ration or daily diet for a laying hen, several factors should be carefully considered: Breed, age of birds, housing condition, season, and range. The prices of feed and the amount of labor must be taken into account. Other points are discussed under the headings that follow. Sufficient Nutrients.—The first requisite in a successful ration is that it contains a sufficient amount of feed adapted to the pur- pose desired. The nourishing parts of feed are called “ nutrients ”’; these are of several kinds: Protein, carbohydrates, and fat. The nutrients in a feed may be expressed either in the amount required per bird or the amount required per 100 pounds in live weight. Owing to the great variation in the weight of the individuals, it 208 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING is usually expressed in the latter form. Two features must be considered in this respect: (1) The amount of each of the three nutrients—protein, carbohydrates, and fat—that 100 pounds live weight will require; and (2) the heat or energy which the ration will develop when consumed. As stated in a previous chapter, standards have been devised that give approximately the amounts of different nutrients and the number of heat units required. Wheeler’s standard shows digestible nutrients per day for 100 pounds live weight for hens in full laying condition. By this standard it will be noted that as birds increase in size the amount of feed required by the indi- vidual is increased per individual, but actually decreased for each 100 pounds live weight. This is due to the fact that fewer in- dividuals are required to make the 100 pounds weight. Feeders often fail to supply enough nutrients for heavy layers. Nutrients must be in the Right Proportion.—It is just as essential that the nutrients in the ration be of the right proportion as that they should be sufficient in amount. The right proportion will be determined by the purpose of feeding and by the age and character of the individuals themselves. For instance, if the purpose is to feed for fat and flesh, as in the preparation of birds for market, ari increased proportion of fat and carbohydrates in the feed will be required. On the other hand, if the feeding is for egg production, a large amount of protein material will be essential. The age and the breed of the specimens being fed influence the proportion of nutrients in the following manner: The heavier breeds naturally have a tendency to take on flesh quickly, and, therefore, large proportions of fat-forming nutrients are not re- quired when feeding for egg production. With more active breeds, as the Leghorns, more of such nutrients may be used. As the indi- vidual gets older the natural tendency becomes more and more pronounced to take on excessive flesh, and this character of feed should be withheld. Nutritive Ratto—The proportion of nutrients in any ration is called the “ nutritive ratio.’ By nutritive ratio is therefore meant the relative value of the particular nutrients, expressed arbitrarily in terms of each other. The ratio is expressed in numbers giving the protein as one and comparing this with the combined carbo- hydrates and fat. For instance, a ration containing 100 pounds of protein and 400 pounds of carbohydrates and fat will be ex- pressed as having a nutritive ration of one to four. FEEDING EQUIPMENT 209 The nutrients must first be reduced to the same value. The fat in a feed is richer than the others in heat value. Fat has been found to have an energy value of two and one-quarter times that of carbohydrates, so that it is necessary, in order to reduce them to the same value, to use this coefficient in the solution. Nutritive ratio can be expressed in the following manner, by formula: Given a ration containing 10 pounds protein, 30 pounds carbohydrates, and 5 pounds fat. Nutritive ratio=1: 4.13 Protein : carbohydrates + (fat x2.25) 10 : 30 + (5X2.25) 10 : 41.25 1 : 4.13 It will be noticed in the above calculation that the amount of fat present was multiplied by 2.25. Potential Energy.—lIt is often helpful to know the heat values which the nutrients present in a ration will develop when consumed by the birds. This capacity is expressed by the term ‘ potential energy.” This means the measure of value in units of heat or energy in the nutrients themselves. Potential energy is expressed in calories per gram. A calory is a unit of heat or energy. It is used to mean the amount of heat necessary to raise one kilogram of water one degree of temperature on the centigrade thermometer. It is known that one gram of carbohydrates or of protein has a potential energy of 4.1 calories, while one gram of fat has a potential energy of 9.3 calories. In actual practice the energy value of any ration may be quickly determined by using the following multiples: One pound of pro- tein or of carbohydrates will develop 1,826 calories, and one pound of fat will develop 4,220 calories. Balanced Rations—A balanced ration is one which contains the nutrients in the proportion which meet the needs of the animal body for its best development and for the most economical pro- duction of the product desired. The rations may be expressed in a number of different ways. A ration which is high in carbohydrates and fat in proportion to the protein is said to be wide, and is balanced for the feeding for fat growth. A ration which has a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 6 or 7 is said to be medium and is balanced for maintenance only. On the other hand, a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2 in which the protein very nearly equals the carbohydrates and fat is said to be 14 210 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING narrow, and is balanced for the feeding for some highly nitrogenous product. Rations must Contain Succulence and be Palatable—The ration as compounded must supply to the birds an abundance of succulent material. If not present under natural conditions, it will be neces- sary to supply it daily from an artificial source for at least one feeding. Where the birds have free range and an abundance of green grass, artificial sources are not necessary. In the winter, sprouted oats, mangel beets and cabbage, one or all, may be economically used. In the summer the feeding of green crops either by soiling methods or pasture should be largely depended upon, according to area and character of the range. The palatability of the rations should not be overlooked, for if the birds do not like a ration it usually means that they will not consume a sufficient amount to supply their needs. The natural craving for.a good ration will increase the amount con- sumed. In most cases the digestibility of a ration is increased by being palatable, because secretion of digestive juices is increased. Variety is an important factor in palatability. Sufficient Bulk.—Rations that are too concentrated should be avoided. When consumed they do not distend the digestive organs enough to allow a thorough mixing with the digestive juices. The feed is insufficiently digested, resulting in a tendency to produce diarrhoea and other disorders. Such materials as wheat bran, short-cut alfalfa, ground oats, and others, when added to a dry mash, increase bulk and make it more digestible than if the ration is composed of only middlings, corn meal, gluten, and meat scrap. There is a possibility, on the other hand, of having a ration too bulky, so that it will be necessary for the birds to consume extremely large amounts in order to get the required amount of digestible nutrients. The bulky materials added usually contain much fibre with little nutritive value. Care must be exercised in the preparation of rations to have them of proper bulk. Economical but not Cheap.—The cheapest feeds which can be purchased are not always the most economical. For instanee, 100 pounds of meat scrap analyzing 40 per cent protein can now be purchased for $50 a ton, and meat scrap purchased for $60 a ton usually analyzes 60 per cent protein. If the low-grade meat: scrap is purchased, the poultryman pays $6.25 for every hundred pounds of protein, whereas for the high-grade meat he would pay FEEDING EQUIPMENT 211 only $5.00 for every hundred pounds of protein. In other words, the purchase should be based on the total amount of digestible material which can be procured for $1.00, and not on the price of 100 pounds of the material in bulk. Just because a moldy feed, perhaps cracked corn, which has become heated, can be purchased at a low price, it does not neces- sarily follow that it is the most economical cracked corn which can be purchased. In such cases the reverse will usually be true. In selecting poultry feed stuffs from which to form a ration, quality should come first and cost second. The Cost of a Pound of Protein.—It is often necessary to pur- chase practically all the protein feed stuffs, while many of the carbohydrate feeds can be produced on the farm if there is sufficient room to admit of the growing of such crops as corn. In all cases protein feeds are the most expensive. It is usually the most economical practice, in deciding which feed to buy, to deter- mine the amount of digestible protein present. Wheat bran con- taining 12 per cent of protein has 12 pounds of protein in a hun- dred. Corn containing 8 per cent of protein has 8 pounds in a hundred. Oil meal containing 30 per cent of protein has 30 pounds of protein in a hundred. High-grade meat scrap containing 60 per cent of protein has 60 pounds of protein in a hundred. (The number of pounds per hundred as given here is sometimes referred to as units per ton.) Take these weights of protein as a basis for figuring cost value. A unit of protein in such feed stuffs can now be purchased for about $1.00; this means five cents per pound. For example, high-grade meat scrap showing 60 per cent of protein will contain 1,200 pounds of protein in every ton. Divide the cost of a ton, which is $60, by 1,200, the total amount of pro- tein, and we have the cost of a pound, five cents. The above method will be found very efficient in determining the most economical feed to purchase to supplement home-grown or purchased carbohydrate feeds. Ration Easily Mixed and Stored.—Since labor is an expensive item on the poultry plant, it will be found economical, from a standpoint of time and labor, to compound the ration of such materials as are easily mixed, and store them in large quantities . ready for use. It should be the practice to mix both the dry mash and scratching rations separately in large quantities at one time. It is well to purchase grains, as far as possible, in large amounts at frequent intervals, in order to save labor in handling. It will 212 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING often be found possible to buy grains in bulk out of season at a much reduced price. Another great advantage in mixing rations in large quantities is that a greater uniformity in feeding is secured than when each ration is mixed daily. Unless a great deal of care is exercised, there is always a wide variation in the composition when mixed in single lots. Rations Correctly Fed.—Regularity in poultry feeding is an important requisite. The birds become accustomed to a given hour and expect their feed at that time. Any variation from this order will soon result in a reduced production. Having combined the best possible ration, intelligence is re- quired in feeding it if the best results are to be obtained. Condi- tions in the flock and the season are constantly changing. Cor- responding changes in the ration and methods of feeding should be made to maintain a uniform condition in health, weight, and productivity. Grit, Shell, Charcoal, and Salt.—In addition to the rations containing the right amounts of nutrients, it is necessary to keep before the birds at all times a hopper containing crushed grit. This is needed to enable the birds properly to grind and digest the grains fed. The function of the grit is to act as “‘ teeth,” and should - be extremely hard and angular. As arule, it is found unnecessary to supply grit often when the birds have free range. Crushed oyster shells should always be available to the birds to furnish the lime necessary to form the shell of the newly formed eggs. Powdered or crushed charcoal is also very desirable, as it acts as a cleanser or purifier, cleansing the system and keeping the birds in good condition. It is also rich in mineral matter. It may be mixed with the dry mash in self-feeding hoppers or fed in separate hoppers. It can profitably be used at the rate of five per cent by weight in the mash, but less than this is common. Salt added to the ration in limited amounts increases pala- tability, and hence induces the birds to eat it more readily. Its use in large quantities is detrimental. SYSTEM OF FEEDING. A great many general systems are practised in poultry feed- ing, many of which contain good points, many bad. The best system. to use in any case will be determined largely by the object SYSTEM OF FEEDING 213, sought. All systems have been analyzed carefully and will fall under one of the four following combinations: (1) Trough feeding of wet mash; (2) hopper feeding of dry mash; (3) scratch feeding of cracked grains; (4) hopper feeding of cracked grains. Combinations of two or more of these are often used, and undoubtedly give better results than the exclusive use of any one alone. Trough Feeding of Wet Mash.—This system is recommended for use where a small number of birds is to be fed, and only when it is possible to devote considerable time and attention to them. It may also be used when it is desired for some reason to force for an increased production, as in the case of adult birds which are laying poorly; to hasten maturity, as in the case of late-hatched pullets; during very cold winter weather, when it is desired to give the birds increased warmth by feeding them mashes mixed with hot water; it is also recommended for fattening purposes, especially for the finishing period. Advantages.—When care is used and this ration is fed properly, it is probably a little more productive of results, as the birds are induced to eat more. Disadvantages—More labor is required in mixing and feeding; if not fed with a great deal of care, and if allowed to become sour or moldy, it may produce indigestion and diarrhcea. If the troughs are not very large, it does not give each bird an equal chance. This method requires constant attention to the details of feeding, careful watching of the condition of the birds, and the practising of absolute cleanliness. General Usage-——This method is deuaity practised on small farms where flocks are small, and where there is sufficient time for the feeder to do the work properly. It is sometimes used on large plants in connection with dry mash during the winter. It is always practised in the fattening of poultry. Hopper Feeding of Dry Mash.—This method is one of the best in the feeding of large flocks when it is desired to lessen the amount of labor, and especially in feeding concentrated parts of the ration to laying hens. One important factor in the hopper feeding of dry mash is that a successful hopper be used. The essential factors of a desirable hopper are given in Chapter VIII. Advantages——When dry mash is fed in the right kind of a hopper, it saves much labor. The diet itself is very helpful from the standpoint of digestion. It does not require such careful 214 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING study or attention on the part of the feeder, and it allows the birds themselves a greater freedom in arranging and balancing their own diet. It also allows of perfect cleanliness in feeding. Disadvantages.—This method is wasteful if not fed in the cor- rect type of hopper; for this reason great care should be used in the making or selection of a hopper. In some instances it has been noted that birds, not accustomed to dry-mash feeding for a considerable period, eat very little, and do not relish what they do eat. This can usually be corrected gradually, and at an early age. General Usage.—This system is in general use on large com- mercial plants. In most cases it is used to supplement the feeding of cracked grains in litter. It has supplemented or almost entirely taken the place of wet-mash feeding on all egg farms. Scratch Feeding of Ground Grains.—This method of feeding is very profitably used to supplement the feeding of dry or wet mashes. It may also be used as an exclusive ration when birds show excessive gain in weight, as it induces a larger amount of exercise. When it is desired to check maturity, this method is sometimes employed. To get the greatest benefit, the grains’ should be scattered in some good scratching material which should be clean and dry and four or more inches deep. It should be coarse enough to hide the feed, but not so coarse or bulky that the birds cannot move it by scratching to find the grains. Materials often used for this purpose are straw, shavings, cut corn fodder, and dry leaves. Advantages.—There are several advantages of this system of scratch feeding. It induces the birds to exercise, thus increasing circulation and keeping up vigor. It also keeps them in good flesh, especially in the case of old hens, by not allowing them to get too fat. It enables the attendant to study the condition of the birds. Considerable labor is required in feeding by this method, but the general practice of cutting down labor can be carried to an extreme by the use of too many automatic or labor-saving devices. This daily feeding of grain in litter offers one of the general methods whereby the feeder can keep in touch with his flock. Disadvantages.—During certain seasons of the year the litter may get damp and moldy. After drying, dust is increased in the house while the birds are scratching, and this is apt to cause the development of certain fungous diseases. This trouble can be avoided by the use of clean, sweet litter. SYSTEM OF FEEDING 215 General Usage.—Scratch feeding is used to supplement dry- mash feeding on large utility plants, and nearly every such flock of adult birds in the entire country is fed at some time of the day by this system. Hopper Feeding of Cracked Grains.—In some cases it is diffi- cult to secure good litter for the floor of the house, or it is desired to reduce labor of daily feeding; then it may be well to use large hoppers for feeding of cracked or whole grains. For growing chicks on the range, the feeding of cracked grains from self-feeding hoppers is a very common and efficient practice, greatly reducing the labor, and increasing efficiency. The advantages attendant on this method are the reduction of the labor item; and, where no litter is present, it causes the birds to exercise to a limited extent. Disadvantages.—Hoppers used for this purpose are usually of commercial types, and it is found in actual practice that they do not always work properly, which results in the birds being neglected. In some cases they feed too abundantly. It eliminates almost entirely the personal attention of the poultry- man, which is so essential. It does not provide enough physical exercise. General Usage.—This system is rarely used with laying stock, but is quite generally used on the range in the rearing of the grow- ing chicks. It is sometimes used on utility plants to supplement the night feeding of cracked grains in litter. The Best System.—For the average laying flock the best system to follow, both winter and summer, is a combination of scratch feeding of cracked grains in deep litter at night, and the hopper feeding of dry mash. This requires the least amount of labor consistent with the greatest efficiency and the proper personal attention. Simple Laying Rations.—Only laying rations will be discussed in this case. Rations for other purposes are given in the chapters that deal with those particular phases of the work. , New Jersey Rations—The following is the New Jersey dry mash, with the supplemental rations which are designed for the complete feeding of laying hens throughout the winter and the modifications necessary for summer feeding. The quality of the different brands of meat scrap is very vari- able, and should a lower grade with less protein and more fat be used it would raise the nutritive ratio slightly. 216 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING This mash is kept before the birds all the time in large self- feeding hoppers. TaBLE XI.—Dry Mash, Mizture No. 1. : Amount | Amount Dry Ash or . A Seam Cost. Hind of feed. | Pye | mosdure| mater | mineral | Protein. | Blaster’) cats. Lbs. Qts. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Wheat bran... .. 200 380 | 176.0 11.6 24.2 90.6 $3.20 Wheat middlings| 200 240 | 176.0 7.6 |*25.6 | 121.4 3.50 Ground oats..... 200 200 | 178.0 6.0 18.4 | 113.6 3.30 | Corn meal...... 100 95 | 89.0 1.5 7.9 76.4 1.65 Gluten meal... .. 100 80 92.0 8 25.8 65.6 1.70 Meat scrap, high grade......... 100 86 39.3 4.1 66.2 31.1 3.00 Alfalfa, cut short 100 200 92.0 7.4 11.0 42.3 1.60 Total....... 1,000 | 1,281 | 892.3 39.0 | 179.1 541.0 17.95 Average topound]........ 1.28 892 .039 179 541 .018 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.02. The above dry mash is designed especially for the feeding of White Leghorns. Where heavier breeds are kept, such as Plymouta Rocks or Wyandottes, the tendency will be to take on an excess of fat. Under these conditions it is the best policy to restrict the amount of mash eaten by leaving the hopper open during the afternoon only, thus inducing the birds to work more for the grain fed in the litter. During the molting season, or in the months of July, August, and September, oil meal is substituted for the gluten in the same proportion, to hasten the growth of feathers. In the spring, as soon as the birds get out on green grass, the alfalfa can be gradually omitted. Meat scrap is gradually reduced in amount as soon as the birds get out on free range and can find insects and worms. The extent to which the above mash can be changed or reduced during summer will depend upon the character and amount of range which the birds have during that time. The following modification of the New Jersey dry mash is very economical for summer feeding, the change from one to the other being made gradually as soon as the birds are on free range with plenty of forage: SYSTEM OF FEEDING 217 TaBLE XII.—Summer Dry Mash, Mixture No. 1A. Carbo- Amount | Amount Ash or i D ‘ f hydrat Cost. Kind of feed. | dnt, | mathare,| etter. | minezel | Protein. | plan tes'| (1014). Lbs. Qis. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Wheat bran.....| 200 380 | 176.0 11.6 | 24.2 90.6 $3.20 Wheat middlings| 100 120 | 88.0 3.8 12.8 60.7 1.75 Ground oats.....} 100 100 | 89.0 3.0 9.2 56.8 1.65 Gluten meal...... 50 40 | 46.0 4 12.9 32.8 85 Meat scrap...... 25 21 | 22.3 "| 1.0 | 16.5 8.0 75 Total....... 475 661 | 421.3 19.8 | 75.6 248.9 8.20 Average topound|........ 1.39 .887 .04 158 .524 017 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.22. As supplemental to the dry mash, the following scratching ration of whole grain is fed about 9 o’clock every morning in deep litter. Its primary object, aside from its nutritive value, is to induce exercise. About five pounds of the scratching ration is fed to each 100 birds on the floor of the house or under some shelter, where the litter is dry and where there is protection from cold winds. TaBLeE XIII.—Scratching Ration, Mixture No. cS) ; Carbo- : Amount | Amount D Ash or . hydrat Cost. Kind of feed. auine ae inten uuneral Protein. plus fat (1913). : ‘ % x 24. Lbs. Qts. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Wheat.......... 100 53 90 1.8 10.2 73.0 | $2.20 Clipped oats.....| 100 98 89 3.0 9.2 56.8 1.93 Total....... 200 151 179 4.8 19.4 | 129.8 4.13 Average topound]........ 755 839} .024 .097 649) 0206 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.6. In the afternoon, about four or five o’clock, depending on the season, a ‘night ration” is fed, composed of whole grains and cracked grains at the rate of ten pounds to each 100 birds. It will be noted that this manner of feeding gives to the birds the materials suitable for supplying the heat to the body during 218 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING the night. The night ration given is designed for White Leghorns; when feeding heavier breeds, it is better to eliminate one-half of the cracked corn and to substitute barley for the buckwheat. Dur- ing the summer months a night ration of equal parts of cracked corn, wheat, oats, and barley is given, the amount depending on the size and condition of the range. TaBLe XIV.—Night Ration, Mixture No. 3. Carbo- Amount | Amount Ash or ; D \ . | hydrates} Cost. Mind offeed. | ze. | mesture,| matter. | Rveen | Prov | plugfat') ads). 4 Lbs. Qts. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cracked corn....} 200 120 178 3.0 15.8 | 152.8 | $3.30 Wheat..........} 100 53 90 1.8 10.2 73.0 2.20 Clipped oats.....| 100 98 89 3.0 9.2 56.8 1.93 Buckwheat......| 100 66 87 2.0 7.7 53.3 2.00 Total....... 500 337 444 9.8 42.9 | 335.9 9.43 Average topound)........ 674 888] .019 085 .671; = .018 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.8. A good rule in feeding the night ration is to feed all that the birds will eat, or rather more, so as to have a little left for them to go to work on in the morning. A good feeder will occasionally go among the birds at night when they are on the perches and feel their crops. If, they are not full early in the evening, he will con- clude that either the layers are not getting enough or that they have lost their appetite. In either case, the defect should be imme- diately corrected. Twenty birds, if fed dry mash and scratch feed, will receive during the winter months the following nutrients per day: Lbs. Protein. C.H. plus fat. Cost. 8.0 1.1 4.87 $0.14 The yearly cost of feed averages about $1.40 per bird. The feeding of some succulent material in addition to this ration cannot be too strongly recommended. Cornell Rations.—The following complete rations for laying hens are recommended by the poultry department of Cornell University. “The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by weight as whole grain. Regulate the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light feeding of grain in the morning and about all they will consume at the after- SYSTEM OF FEEDING 219 TasLeE XV.—Whole-Grain Mixture fed Morning and Afternoon in Litter. By weight, By measure, By weight, By measure. winter, winter. summer. summer. 60 Ibs. wheat 32 qts. wheat 60 lbs. wheat | 32 qts. wheat 60 lbs. corn 36 qts. corn 60 Ibs. corn 36 qts. corn 30 lbs. oats 30 qts. oats 30 Ibs. oats 30 qts. oats 30 Ibs. buckwheat | 20 qts. buckwheat 7 Taste XVI.—Dry Mash fed in a Hopper, open Afternoons only. By weight, winter and summer. By measure, winter and summer. 60 lbs. corn meal 57 qts. corn meal 60 lbs. wheat middlings 71 qts. wheat middlings 30 lbs. wheat bran 57 qts. wheat bran 10 lbs. alfalfa meal 20 qts. alfalfa meal 10 lbs. oil meal 8 qts. oil meal 50 lbs. beef scrap 43 qts. beef scrap 1 Ib. salt 4 qt. salt noon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case of pullets or fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and morning feeding to induce heavy eating of dry mash, especially in the case of hens. This ration should be supplemented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other succulent feed, unless running on grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green feed should not be fed in a frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet, clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently occur from disease, due to the fowls taking into their bodies, through their intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of molds.” California Rations.—The following are two dry-mash formulas recommended by the California Station: ‘They are calculated for 100 hens a day, and if fed with nine to twelve pounds of grain, according to weight of hens, and some green stuff, they will form a well-balanced ration. The mash may be fed wet or dry.” Quarts. Pounds. Quarts. Pounds. Bran... sce cadens 6.0 3.0 Bran. eects mcaieca ae 4.0 2.0 Middlings.......... 5 5 Alfalfa meal.........1.0 5 Linseed meal O. P.. .5 5 Corn meal.......... 1.0 1.5 Gluten feed........ & 1.0 Shorts.............. 2.0 1.5 Ground oats........ 1.0 75 Barley meal......... 1.0 1.1 Corn meal......... 1.5 2.25 Ground beans....... 1.0 11 Beef scrap......... 1.0 1.50 Beef scrap.......... 1.0 5 Coarse bone meal. . .0.5 1.00 Coarse bone meal.... .5 1.0 220 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING “Salt should be added to every mash, about an ounce being sufficient. Pepper may be added occasionally. Fresh lean meat may be substituted for beef scrap in any of the formulas, three quarts of the fresh being equal to one of the dried. Cottage cheese may be substituted in the same proportion, except that it is advisable not to replace all of the meat, one-half quart beef scrap and one and a half quarts cottage cheese being a much better proportion. The equivalent in pounds is given for convenience in ordering. The quarts represent the amount for 100 hens and may be multiplied or divided ad libitum.” REVIEW. 1. Give points to consider in the location of the feed house. 2. Give two important points in the design of the feed house. 3. Give the special equipment necessary to equip the feed room properly. 4. Define ration. What does,it include? 5. Tell of the necessity of having sufficient nutrients in a ration. 6. Why is a certain proportion with respect to nutrients necessary? 7. What is the meaning of the term nutritive ratio? Give example. 8. What is potential energy as related to feeds? How can it be quickly determined? : 9. Define balanced ration. 10. Discuss the need of succulence in a ration. 11. What is the effect of varying degrees of palatability? 12. Discuss bulkiness in poultry rations. 13. What is meant by an economical ration? 14. Explain how to find the cost price of a pound of protein in any purchased feed. Give examples. 15. How does ease of mixing and storing affect the economy of feeding? 16. Of what use is personal attention in feeding? 17. Enumerate the functions of grit, shell, charcoal, and salt. 18. Mention four systems of poultry feeding. 19. Discuss possibilities and usage of each of the four systems. 20. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each. 21. Outline the best combination of these systems. 22. Outline a complete system of feeding laying hens. 23. Give the rations and amounts for one of the States mentioned in this chapter. ‘ References.—Four Methods of Feeding Early Hatched Pullets, by James E. Rice, Cornell Bulletin 249. Feeding for Eggs, by James Dryden, Oregon Reading Course, Lesson 3. Feeding for Egg Production, by J. 8. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 211. Feeding for Winter Eggs, Pennsylvania Exten- sion Circular 11. Feeding Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course, Bulletin 17. Rations for Poultry, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course, Bulletin 18. Forcing the Moult, by Stewart and Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 83. Methods of Feeding Poultry, in the United States Farmers’ Bulletin 244. The Forced Moulting of Fowls, in United States Farmers’ Bulletin 412. CHAPTER XIII. PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING. Poultry Breeding.—By poultry breeding is meant the science which treats of the reproduction and improvement of the domestic fowl. It may be said to be both a science and an art. It is truly a science in so far as it deduces and systematically applies facts and principles as they are demonstrated. It is an art in so much as the knowledge and experience thus acquired and the principles deduced may be utilized for the continued improvement of the animals. A few and rather hazy suggestions pertaining to the improve- ment of fowls have been handed down from remote ages, but most of the earlier work on animal breeding was carried on with larger and more easily recorded domestic animals. In recent years many of the principles which govern successful breeding have become better understood, and the knowledge obtained has been more thoroughly disseminated than ever before, largely owing to the fact that experiment stations are making a special study of this science, and in many instances are using poultry as the study medium. As a rule, it may be stated that the laws of breeding which apply to all animals are equally applicable to poultry. Breeding a Complex Problem.—Breeding is not an art which can be learned’ entirely from books or from. the study of results obtained by a few crossings or matings; it is acquired by experi- ence and by the actual study of the progeny resulting from such matings, generation after generation, and in large numbers. To be successful, one must be familiar with the subject from both points of view, theoretical and practical. It is impossible to apply principles to a profitable use until they are thoroughly understood. These scientific principles have, in great measure, been derived directly from the methods of the more successful breeders, and hence are fundamental. Need of Improvement.—The improvement of the flocks of poultry which are found in greater or less numbers on practically all American farms has not received the attention which it merits, and which the results from such improvement would warrant. The breeding of poultry: in a practical way has been left almost entirely 221 222 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING to the fancier, who keeps a smaller number of birds and aims to secure color pattern rather than utility qualities. This tendency is changing in recent years, and the value of well-bred birds for egg production and market poultry is becoming better appreciated. The chief reason for the lack of interest in the improvement of poultry has been the fact that most farmers regard the raising of poultry as a side issue, and hence give it little consideration. Another cause is the erroneous view which many farmers take in regarding the value of the products, and the possibilities offered through study and improvement, as matters entirely too small to deserve attention. Many of our most successful keepers still believe that improve- ment can best be brought about through feeding, and that selec- tion, when practised, is not rigid enough or along the lines which would insure direct improvement. ; The birds of any poultry flock, wherever kept for profit, should be considered and treated as machines,—living machines, which, when given raw material in the form of feed, will transform it into finished agricultural products, such as eggs and meat. These manufactured products represent great value in small bulk, and can be shipped great distances at little cost. In the production of market eggs this concentration of the finished product is very noticeable. One dozen eggs weighing about twenty-four ounces (114 Ibs.) contain more human food material than the same weight of milk. TasLe XVII.—Composition of Eggs Compared with Milk. 4 tb). Water. Ash. Protein. ig Fat. Dry matter. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Eggs.......-.. 0.99 |0.18 | 0.16 0.00 0.12 0.46 Milk... ice 1.30 01 .05 .07 05 18 If the domestic hen is to be considered as a machine, and if the most profitable returns are to be realized from her, this machine must be carefully selected, and trained to the highest degree of efficiency. If a bird of a certain type will lay more eggs in a year, of larger and more uniform size than another bird, and meet all the requirements of the egg market, this type should be given the preference by egg producers. Again, if one type or breed of birds PROBLEMS OF THE POULTRY BREEDER 223 produces more and better flesh in a given time, hence yielding a larger return when put on the market, this particular type should be selected and improved for market poultry. The aim should be to choose the type of machine best adapted to the desired purpose; then, by breeding and selection, to develop this machine into the most economical transformer of raw material into the desired product that it is possible to secure. Great Aim in Poultry Breeding.—The foremost aim in poultry breeding should be the improvement of poultry in those qualities which have a definite market value; as, increased egg production, quality and quantity of flesh growth, and perfection of color pat- tern. All these qualities are associated more or less with perfection of proportion or symmetry of the individual, and any improvement which is continuous and which progresses toward a given ideal will materially improve the general appearance of the progeny and conduce to uniformity. The Problems of the Poultry Breeder.—Poultry breeding operations may legitimately be divided into two classes: First, breeding for commercial results. This is an operation practiced by all commercial poultrymen. Second, experimental breeding which is an operation practiced by persons who are interested in studying the laws of breeding, and the mode of inheritance of certain characters. The commercial breeder studies such problems with an effort to increase egg production, to bring about greater stamina, size and vitality in his birds, and to perfect color pattern of plumage. The experimental breeder cares little for the com- mercial results attained, but makes many crosses and studies the results of same, with an idea of learning or determining definite laws. When laws governing mode‘of inheritance are determined, the practical poultryman can apply them for commercial results. There is a great need for more extended and careful breeding, for little is known of the complex laws governing inheritance of com- mercial characteristics in poultry. * The following are some of the more important problems which are at present being investigated. 1. The mode of inheritance of different commercial characters and the deduction of laws governing same. 2. The inheritance of acquired characters. Are characters which are developed by an individual due to its environment inherited? If so, why? 3. The future possibilities resulting from selection. 224 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 4. What are the proper standards to use in selecting for egg production, and for other commercial characteristics? 5. What is the true significance and commercial value of the inheritance of egg production? 6. Can variation of egg production from normal line of individ- uals be utilized to improve quality? If so, how can they best be attained? 7. Is the egg production of an individual a true measurement of the permanence of her progeny in this respect? These are but a few of the present-day problems which are being investigated, and their solution will mean much in formu- lating methods and practice to be followed in the future by poultry breeders. Poultry farmers must appreciate the true commercial results which are attendant upon more careful breeding before popular interest will be awakened. ‘The following paragraphs give in condensed form the present belief in regard to many of these problems. Basis of Value in Poultry.—The basis of value in poultry keep- ing is the power of the individual to produce a given product at a profit. The relative value of the individual depends upon its adaptation to one or more particular uses and the returns which it yields above the feed consumed. For example, the best laying hen is the one which converts the largest amount of feed into eggs of the best quality with the least possible waste of the feed con- sumed. While a large consumption of feed is necessary to heavy production, it is not in itself a guarantee of heavy production. The mongrel hen is often a heavy consumer of feed; but, owing to the fact that her bodily functions are not developed sufficiently to turn every atom of feed not required for maintenance into eggs, she does not yield a profit. A certain amount of feed is required to maintain the body, and observation proves that the individual which consumes the most feed in proportion to its live weight will, in the majority of cases, be the most profitable; hence the necessity of studying individuals closely, and breeding from those which possess the qualities to be desired in their young. The records of a few noted hens show what breeding and selec- tion will do; and also show that in order to increase the productive, or basic, value of poultry, one must study the individuality of his flock, and mate from the very best, with the idea of eliminating the poorer birds and of intensifying in the progeny the desired qualities which are pronounced in the selected parents. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 225 Fundamental Principles.—As a science, breeding is both com- plex and varied. This is in part due to the obscurity surrounding many of the phenomena, and to the great degree of variation in results obtained under apparently the same conditions, also in part to the influence which the purity of the individual exerts, as shown in the results of future transmission. Fortunately, however, the fundamental principles of the science of breeding, the complete understanding of which is essential to success in practical breeding, are few in number, and readily under- stood. These principles are as follows: 1. Decide upon a standard of excellence, which may be either real or imaginary, and always breed toward it. 2. Always breed from parents both of whom conform as closely as possible to this standard. 3. Always breed from parents which are as purely bred as it is possible to obtain them,—that is, birds which have long been bred without the addition of alien blood. 4. Study the individuals, and endeavor to mate them so that the faults of the parents will be corrected in the offspring. 5. Practise a rigorous selection from hatching time to maturity, and especially when mating the breeding hens. 6. Always consider environment, such as housing and feeding conditions. Breeding toward a standard of excellence gives the breeder a guide by means of which he can frequently estimate his progress. By following this guide without deviation definite results may be much more quickly attained. The standard may be written or it may be carried in the mind of the one engaged in breeding. In the former case, one prepared by an association is generally used. At the present time the American Poultry Association publishes the “‘ American Standard of Perfection,” in which are given the requirements of-all standard-bred poultry. In the absence of this standard the high excellence and uniformity now attained, as seen at.the large poultry shows, would be impossible. The necessity of breeding only from parents which conform as nearly as possible to the standard is based on the law of heredity that like produces like, and that, in order to secure a given progeny, the more nearly the parents conform to the standard the greater are the chances that the offspring will develop the desired qualities. The study of the science of breeding has shown that with an increased admixture of alien or foreign blood there is always a pro- 15 226 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING portionately greater variation in the transmitted qualities; hence the necessity of breeding from parents as purely bred as it is pos- sible to obtain them. By eliminating alien blood the desired prop- erties become dominant, so to speak; that is, they become intensi- fied, and there are fewer contending characteristics to crowd them out. The longer a family of individuals can be bred purely, so much more powerful will its dominant traits become. (The mating and selection of individuals is discussed in the next chapter.) The influence of environment on future generations is im- portant. All conditions and operations included in the care and management of birds will more or less influence the indi- vidual, and also leave their mark upon the offspring; lack of proper environment may tear down and soon destroy all that has been accomplished by years of hard work in selection and breed- ing; hence the necessity of understanding the natural requirements of the birds before experimenting with the laws of breeding. Controlling Factors.—The influences which are active in the propagation or breeding of poultry are numerous and varied. A. A. Brigham* has grouped these under three heads, as follows: All characteristics which are transmitted from parent to off- spring, this group being termed inheritance. All characteristics which are due to external conditions sur- rounding the individual, these being termed environment. All characteristics which are functional in nature, and in many cases influenced by man’s activities. In demonstration these func- tions are nearly all influenced directly by man, while in the wild state they are given freedom of exercise. This group may be termed functional activities. ; Inheritance.—Inheritance, in the sense here used, is a much broader term than when employed to define the law of heredity. It embraces all the powers, qualities, and characteristics which are transmitted from the parents to the progeny through the egg, the combining or merging of traits possessed by both male and female into one, and the new characteristics of the resulting chicks. This factor of inheritance affects or influences a great variety of conditions. Among these are the shape and size of the body, and the quality and color pattern of the plumage; all internal bodily functions, such as the development of the digestive system, the power of the circulatory system, and the capacity of the respiratory system; the texture and structure of muscles, bones, and * “Progressive Poultry Culture,” by A. A. Brigham. CONTROLLING FACTORS _ 227 ligaments. It also affects the habits of the future progeny, their capacity for consuming feed, and indirectly their power of reproduction. Disease is both directly and indirectly transmitted. In the former case diseases which attack the reproductive organs, such as white diarrhoea, are directly transmitted through the egg to the resulting offspring. In other instances diseases, such as tuber- culosis and cholera, by affecting the parent tend to generate in the progeny a weakness of that organ or group of organs which makes the offspring more susceptible to the infection of that par- ticular disease. The specific germs of such diseases are not in- herited, yet the predisposition is. It is this factor of inheritance which marks out an orderly and progressive path for the develop- ment of poultry breeding, and enables the fancier and utility breeders to show every year a systematic advance in the methods of mating their best birds. Environment.—From the time the egg is laid it is susceptible to external conditions, such as temperature, moisture, and physical changes. These factors are entirely different from the group pre- viously mentioned, as they can be directly influenced or regulated by man. If the embryo is to develop normally and regularly during the incubation period, and the chick be successfully hatched, these external factors of temperature, moisture, and purity of air, as well as certain physical changes, must all be regulated or borne in mind. The external conditions, such as shelter and feed, which exist immediately after hatching, influence to a great extent the charac- teristics of the progeny at maturity, and they affect indirectly the future breeding possibilities of the individual. All the problems of environment can be most safely solved by planning everything with a view to the comfort of the birds; other- wise, their growth will not be satisfactory, nor can they be expected to produce a profitable quantity of eggs. Cleanliness and sanitary surroundings are very essential, as they tend to minimize the danger of communicable diseases and create an atmosphere of contentment. Maintenance of favorable environment is very important during the brooding and rearing period, for a low brooder temperature will chill the young and cause crowding, which will result in weakly developed chicks, if not in their immediate death. Later, during the growing period and when on the range, they need a large area of shade, and an abundance of nourishment, including green feed, 228 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING if the blood elements which they inherited from their parents are to be given an opportunity for full development. Another important factor in the environment is the supply of feed, which must be sufficient in amount, wholesome, and of the right degree of concentration. Instances have been known in which the excessive forcing of mature birds during their first laying season had so weakened their vitality that their records in egg pro- duction were not nearly as high as those of their parents, whereas, after selected mating and breeding, they should have excelled them if conditions had been right. Birds which are kept by man in a state of domestication are dependent upon him for shelter and feed, which largely make up their environment, and a careful and proper regulation of this is essential if the inherited qualities are to be given opportunity for their highest development. Functional Activities —From the time the chick is hatched, the degree of development which it will ultimately attain depends in large measure upon the extent to which it performs its normal bodily functions. The normal activity of an organ increases its power to perform its function in a healthy and normal manner. For example, the blacksmith by the constant use of his right arm gradually attains a greater muscular development in this than in the other arm which does not get this regular and systematic exercise. In a similar way the poultryman may, by careful hand- ling and feeding of his birds and by allowing them sufficient exer- cise, keep them in a normal and healthy condition. Should he restrict their exercise, and increase the concentrated feed stuffs, such as corn meal, the birds would soon become lazy, take on excessive fat, and gradually become poorer and poorer layers until the function would finally cease. If the conditions were not cor-- rected, the functional activities of the body wouid become con- gested and clogged and death would result. In the same way it is possible to develop excessively the growth and maturity of certain organs; as, for instance, in the forcing of pullets for early maturity. The egg-forming organs are stimulated to activity before they attain their normal development, and the resulting eggs are small in size, in many instances containing weak germs, especially if the pullets are mated to males of early devel- opment. Their eggs when hatched will produce chicks small in size and of light weight, many of them cripples and weaklings. Not only will the eggs be small, but the bird itsclf, because of its early maturity, will never attain the size and shape which would LAW OF HEREDITY 229 have been possible with a slower bodily development and later maturity. Thus we see the folly of attempting to force early laying at the expense of other functions of the body. The aim should be to give the bodily functions every incentive to healthy, normal growth and maturity, after which time, with the strength and vital- -ity incident to strong functional activity, the greatest usefulness of the individual can be expected. Laws of Breeding.—There are certain definite laws which govern breeding, but in the science of breeding many principles and interpretations either remain undiscovered or cannot in every ‘instance be explained. The purpose in the following sections will be to outline some of the more fundamental laws, and assist the student to such an understanding of the knowledge of to-day as will enable him to pursue the art of breeding with a clearer insight and with greater certainty of success. Many of the laws or rules of breeding which have been expressed scientifically during the last two hundred years had been previously handed dc wn from generation to generationin traditional form. The fact that early statistics were not kept in definite form militated against the general diffusion of knowledge of results, and is partly re- sponsible for the slowdevelopment made in the study and progress of the science of breeding prior to the last two centuries. In recent years more progress has been made and many principles established. Law of Heredity.—The law of heredity as usually stated is: Like begets like. It implies that the characteristics of the parent will appear in a more or less marked degree in the offspring, and refers directly to the transmission of individual characteristics to future generations. Heredity is too broad a term to apply merely to one individual parent or offspring, but should include a group of individuals which constitute the parentage, as well as a group of offspring. The law of heredity and the principles for which it stands are fundamental to all breeding operations. :The poultry breeder must become familiar with all that concerns preceding generations in order properly to plan for and achieve results in succeeding generations. The difficult problem confronting the student is to determine or predict to what degree the progeny will resemble the parent, since many factors are at work which may cause variations from the type, and also produce entirely new traits and characteristics. Practical Examples.—When applied to classes of poultry, the law that “like begets like’ finds ample illustration in the dis- t 230 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING tinctive peculiarities common to different breeds. Each of the eleven different groups into which all birds have been divided has its distinctive peculiarities. These relate to physical form, color, and functional development. This is further seen in the division and subdivision of each breed into varieties. So strong may be the resemblance between them that it is often possible, from a flock of considerable number, to pick out daughters or, more often, sons from a given mating, because they possess certain family or mating characteristics peculiar to one or both of the parents. These resemblances are not accidental, but are the direct expres- sion of this, the greatest law of breeding. Benefits from this Law.—The actual benefits from this law may be grouped into three divisions: It makes possible the improvement of poultry by breeding to a fixed standard. The highest degree of perfection which it is pos- sible to attain will probably never be reached so long as the stand- ard of excellence is only gradually raised. It enables breeders to maintain improvement after it is once established. Everywhere in nature there is a strong tendency toward deterioration, and the proper manipulation of individuals by the action of this law will aid in checking this retrograde tend- ency. Poultry, if neglected for even one or two generations, are especially susceptible to this process of deterioration, the degree’ depending upon the vitality and purity of the blood when the race was at its best. By the action of this law it is possible to fix new types and standards after they have once been created by a selection of variants. The tendency of poultry breeding in the past has been to attempt to create new breeds. In many cases the breeder did not clearly understand just what type he was after, or the exact value of a desired characteristic, could it be secured. The result is that we have to-day a great many breeds of poultry which are duplicates in many respects. The great need in the immediate future is the improvement of well-established breeds rather than the creation of new ones. Heredity in Cross Breeds.—By hybridizing is meant the crossing of two varieties, or breeds, the object being to produce a combi- nation of the desirable qualities of the two. At some future time the qualities of three or more breeds may be combined. For ex- ample, let us suppose that a breeder who had produced an excellent strain of single-comb White Leghorns found that, owing to the MENDEL’S LAW 231 excessive size of the comb and its becoming frosted, the produc- tivity of the individuals was impaired. He desired to remedy this by replacing the single comb with a pea comb, but in order to do this it would be necessary to cross his birds with Indian Games possessing finely developed pea combs. The pea-comb trait would be fixed in the early generations, since this is a dominant character. It would require, however, many generations of breed- ing and selection to eliminate the color pattern which was brought into the flock by the intermixture of the game blood. In a study of characters which may possibly result from hybrid- izing and the frequency of their occurrence, knowledge of Mendel’s law will be helpful. Mendel’s Law.—Mendel’s law states that, when crossed forms or hybrids are bred together the opposing characters possessed by the original parents tend to combine in definite proportion. The offspring from such hybrid individuals (AB) will assume the algebraic form A?+2 AB+B?. In the formula A represents one of the contrasting characters, while B represents the opposite trait. This formula means, in numbers, that, out of every 100 chicks resulting from a cross, twenty-five will possess one of the characters, or will be pure A, twenty-five will be pure B, while the remaining fifty (represented by the figures 2 AB) will be a mixture of the two opposing characters. Mendel’s law also states that where there is a pair of contrast- ing characters,—for example, single comb and rose comb,—one will be dominant over the other, the result being that a majority of the progeny will show this dominant character. The other opposing character is termed recessive, for it recedes from view in the presence of the stronger or more prominent one. Dominance of a character does not imply that the recessive one is absent, but simply that in the development of the new individual the dominant character is bound to appear. A pigmented condition of the plumage is dominant over absence of pigment; an extra toe is dominant over a normal number; feathers on the shanks are dominant over their absence, the rose comb over the single comb, and so on through a great variety of characters. Only one pair of contrasting characters is to be considered at any one time. This second phase of Mendel’s law may be expressed by the fol- lowing formula: D?+2 Dr+R? M+ri4 + 232 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING D, being the dominant character, will be present in three- fourths of the progeny. In one-fourth of the progeny represented by D?, the character will be pure. In one-half represented by 2 Dr, it will be mixed with the recessive, but, owing to its dominance, will suppress the recessive (as to appearance). The other one-fourth of the progeny, R’, will have only the recessive character. If the breeding of individuals resulting from the first cross be continued, interesting phenomena of this law will appear. D? and R? will continue indefinitely to breed true if bred to them- selves, as they respectively contain only pure dominant and pure recessive characters. Mendel’s law refers specially to the hybrids or the apparently crossed portion of the progeny represented by 2 Dr. When individuals of the Dr group are bred together, their offspring will in turn be split in the same algebraic ratio of D?+2 Dr+R: yes Ae which was apparent in the first cross when pure forms were allowed to breed together. This ratio will continue indefinitely when the hybrids of future generations are bred together. The same will hold true-of the dominant and recessive characters possessed by the hybrids,—namely, that the dominant character will always show in the Dr group even when the recessive is also present. In this second generation D? and R? are pure and will breed pure. (They are technically called homozygotes.) The other individuals resulting from the same cross, represented by the letters 2 Dr, are hybrids like their parents (and are technically called hetero- zygotes). From the above discussion it will be seen that, since the Dr group, or mixed group, always exhibit the dominant character, it is often a difficult problem to differentiate them from the dominant group D? To test a dominant, mate it to a recessive, and if all the offspring are pure dominants no recessive character will appear. If this parent is not pure, but mixed, the offspring will be one-half domi- nant and one-half recessive, having followed the combination: (Dr) +(RR). All hybrids which produce only pure dominant characters may INHERITANCE OF FECUNDITY 233 be used to start a pure race with such characters; hence, by the elimination of one recessive character at a time, it is possible to breed a race with special desired characters. Mendel’s law, from its complexity and apparent confusion, will not be of definite value to the average farm poultryman, yet it is essential that the student have a clear understanding of the subject in order that the behavior of characteristics in transmission can be better appreciated. The principles which the law presents have led to other important discoveries in the phenomena of breeding. Some of Mendel’s deductions in his original records are discredited, owing to faulty analysis, yet the results of his work are more far-reaching than those attained by any other one man. Inheritance of Fecundity.—The transmission of the character of producing a large quantity of eggs is one of the most important problems before the poultry breeder, and some valuable work is being done at agricultural experiment stations. The discussions pertaining to the inheritance of fecundity, or egg production, as given here are based upon the work of Dr. Raymond Pearl at the Maine Station. Quotations and facts are taken from his papers on the subject; more especially, Maine Bulletin 192. Among the leading biologists who are at present making a study of breeding problems, two general views are held as to certain funda- mental principles of heredity: (1) The “ statistical’ conception of inheritance, and (2) the ‘ genotype” conception of inheritance. “The statistical conception of inheritance is that point of view which assumes, either by direct assertion or by implication, that all variations are of equal significance, and consequently that all may be treated statistically as one homogeneous mass, provided that they conform to purely statistical laws of similarity.” In studying heredity in the past, the mistake has been made of noting a few individuals only, and these exceptional cases have often led to conclusions which are worse than useless because of their extreme range of variability. The advocates of this line of study use this as an argument in favor of their point of view, and make the statement that to study inheritance with any degree of reliability the race as a whole must be considered, and not simply the individuals which go to make it up. This method is compara- tively new, especially when applied to poultry, and necessitates a large mass of material representing sufficiently large numbers of the breed under consideration to be actually representative. 234 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING “The most extensive statistical work which has been carried or. in America is that which was done at the Maine Station from 1898 to 1907. Here the practice was followed of breeding continuously, year after year, from the heaviest layers, regardless of all other considerations except vigor and health. The final results of this mass selection, after nine years’ work, did not show that mass selection from high producers of eggs, on the basis of the trap-nest records of the individuals, brought about continuous improvement in the average flock production, or that the progeny from the heaviest layers were better producers than those from birds selected from the general flock. These maybe considered ‘negative results.’ The genotype conception of heredity, on the other hand, lays down the fundamental truth, firmly based on breeding experience, that two sorts of variations can be distinguished: 1. Those variations that are represented in the germinal matter, and are inherited without substantial modifications, a3 in pure lines. 2. Those characters that are somatic * are not inherited. This group is not connected with germinal matter, but with the soma or body proper. It is only possible by actual breeding tests to ascertain to just which group a given variation belongs. The keynote to this latter conception of inheritance of fecun- dity comes from the analysis of individual pedigrees, by which method the behavior of each individual in inheritance can be de- termined. The leading thought in this new conception is, that the germ cell (egg or sperm) and not the body (or soma) is the fac- tor of primary importance in generation. For example, the indi- vidual’s body (somatic) characteristics are not determined by the body characteristics of its parents, but by the composition or con- stituents of the parental germ cells or gametes. Thus the size of a hen is not determined by the size of its parents, but by the gametic construction of the latter. Recent practical applications of this conception of the inheritance of fecundity have shown: 1. That the gametic make-up of the male is of greater im- portance than that of the female; since, in the average flock, the *“For the student not familiar with the technical terms of biology it may be said that somatic is a term used to designate those characters of the organ- ism which pertain to all parts except the reproductive or germ cells. The reproductive cells are called gametes, and the adjective gametic means per- taining to germ cells, in opposition to somatic, which means pertaining to any or all parts of the organism other than the germ cells.” LAW OF VARIATION 235 gametic constitution of the male is perceptible in all the progeny, while that of the female appears in a smaller percentage of cases. 2. That it is possible systematically to breed males with a high productive gametic constitution. 3. That in breeding to increase egg laying the production has been divided into two kinds,—namely, (a) normal or natural produc- tion, which takes place during the natural breeding season or spring months, the average in this period being about thirty eggs; and (b) excess laying period, which is possessed by fewer birds, and which represents from 100 to 175 eggs laid during the fall and winter. The problem, then, is how to breed birds which shall possess in their gametic make-up germ cells representing both of these periods. 4. That improvement in egg production comes about by raising the general average through elimination of the poor producers; or, in other words, by bringing the mass to a higher level, and not to any great extent by raising the standard and improving the best. 5. That in order to accomplish this improvement, as above outlined, it is necessary to know what has been the individual performance of the members of the flock for a number of genera- tions in succession, and-this can only be determined by keeping small breeding pens and by trap nesting. While the application of the genotype theory is comparatively new, studies so far are in entire accord with it. They indicate, first, that fecundity in fowls is transmitted; second, that this ‘ inheritance is in accord with the genotype concept, even where it is almost impossible to establish true blood lines.” Law of Variation.—This law may be defined as the tendency of individuals to produce progeny which differ in type from either par- ent. It is constantly working in opposition to the law of heredity, and might be expressed as the law that “ like does not produce like.” In the light of present knowledge, the causes of variations are in many cases obscure. It will be noted, however that in many cases the progeny are not like the parent. In some instances the differences may be slight and exhibited only in one or two charac- ters, while in'‘others the variations may be very marked and cover a great variety of traits and forms. As applied to poultry two general principles are held: 1. All traits and characters of poultry vary to a considerable extent in inheritance. 2. Variation as a phenomenon of inheritance is probably not caused by the sudden cropping out of a distinctly new and dif- 236 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING ferent character. Variation is rather the result of changes taking place in existing characters, due to the changing relation between characters. The fact that individuals do vary makes improvement possible through selection and breeding which would otherwise be impos- sible. Indeed, without this factor there would be no chance for either improvement or deterioration; the type would be fixed in all its characteristics. Variations are of two kinds,—those which increase the useful- ness of the individual and those which are undesirable or create Fra. 120.—Barred Plymouth Rock chicks from the same mating and of the same age, showing morphological variation. an inferior condition. It is the duty and purpose of the breeder to select and intensify desirable variations whenever possible. Types of Variation.—The unit of variability is not the individ- ual, but the breed. The real measure of variation is the breed character. Four distinct types of variation have been described by Davenport.* The following brief discussion shows practical examples of these forms in poultry breeding and gives a clearer conception of variations. These types are (1) morphological, (2) substantive, (3) meristic, and (4) functional. Morphological variation has to do with differences in form or * Principles of Breeding,’ by Eugene Davenport. TYPES OF VARIATION 237 size which are quantitative in character. This type of variation is very common, a simple example being two chicks which are exactly alike except that one is larger than the other (Fig. 120). In this instance there is no difference in the characteristics of the two individuals, but merely the fact that in one growth had been more rapid and proceeded farther than in the other. This type of variation is especially important in breeding for large-sized birds for market poultry. Substantive variation is shown by differences in the quality of different individuals as distinct from mere size and form. Such Fic. 121.—Two birds of the same parentage, showing variation in color only—an example of substantive variation. variations are qualitative rather than quantitative in nature. This type of variation refers to the constitution or nature of the indi- vidual, and is manifested by differences between individuals of the same breed (Fig. 121) and between different breeds. In regard to the character of flesh, some are hard (Games) and others soft (Brahmas). In the quality and taste of the meat, wild and domes- tic species differ widely. Birds of the same breed differ in their power to withstand cold. Individuals differ as to their power to resist certain communicable diseases. 238 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING Variations in color are dependent upon quality and are based upon certain chemical constituents in the feathers, or upon the refraction and reflection of light due to the character of the surfaces. Substantive variations are undoubtedly of the greatest service in poultry breeding. They are closely associated with efficiency, utility, color pattern, quality of flesh and bone, color of flesh and skin. Meristic variation represents alternations in the form or in the repetition of parts. It usually manifests itself by a departure from the normal systemat- ic or specific plan of the birds. For example, the normal chicken has two legs; the addition of other legs would constitute a meristic variation in the type (Fig. 122). Meristic variations are of little eco- nomic importance, as they usually appear as abnor- SU Ss malities which have no Fie. 122.—Chick with four legs—an example of practical value. To the meristic variation. student of biology they open up a vast field concerning the real nature of living matter. Functional variation relates to alteration in the normal activity of the various organs or parts of the bird, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions, and the like (Fig. 123). It has to do, not with the form of the organs, but with their functions. The best examples of functional variation are the individual variation in egg produc- tion in females and the variation in the prepotency of males and their power to fertilize a given number of eggs. Functional activi- ties are influenced, and variations caused, by many factors, among the more important of which are exercise, feed, improper environ- ment, and care. All of these should be regulated by the careful poultry breeder, if his efforts in mating and breeding are to be followed by the fullest development and improvement. Mutations —Mutations, as distinct from ordinary variations, may be described as unlooked-for or accidental deviations from type. The new type formed is not the result of slow continuous selection and fluctuation, but, with no intermediate stage between the old type and the new, there is a sudden change of form. Muta- TYPES OF VARIATION 239 tions are commonly called “ sports ’’; they are of little economic value, owing to the impossibility of predicting their appearance and to the readiness with which they disappear. If inbred with the parent stock they frequently cease to reproduce. The better method for improvement is the slow one of gradual selection from time to time of all variations which tend toward the ideal i Fig. 123.—Eggs of different size, showing functional variation. Upper and lower rows laid by different hens. The difference in size is a result of functional variation due to varying rapidity in the development of the ovum and variations in glandular secretions in the oviduct. type. A typical example of mutation is the rumpless or tailless bird (Fig. 124), which shows an inability to reproduce when closely bred, and when bred to tailed birds produces very few rumpless progeny. . : Causes of Variation.—All variations are influenced to a greater or less degree by two groups of causes,—namely, internal and external. Accurate knowledge pertaining to this first group of influences is so limited, and the subject so complex, that it is of 240 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING little value to the poultry breeder. The small breeder, and even the casual observer, cannot, however, fail to note the great variation in breeds of poultry owing to diverse conditions in their environment. By this is meant all the external conditions of their life; as feed, climate, housing, enemies, and especially with young growing birds, their range. All internal processes of devel- opment are dependent upon external influences for their natural expression; hence the breeder has every incentive to create exter- nal conditions which will conduce to the growth and _ highest Fia. 124.—Rumpless birds—a common example of spontaneous variation or mutation. development of the individual, and these conditions will in them- selves contribute to the development of the particular type or variation which is desired. Atavism.—By atavism is meant the invariable tendency of individuals to revert to the original type. It is sometimes called reversion, retrogression, or breeding back. It differs from the law of heredity in the fact that the characters cropping out represent ancestry more or less remote rather than that near at hand. An excellent example of atavism is the frequent hatching of black offspring from apparently pure-bred Barred Plymouth Rock matings. This is a reversion in type to the original Black Java LAW OF CORRELATION 241 hen which was the female ancestor of the Barred Plymouth Rock breed. Atavism may be shown in form, color, or functional activi- ties. Its tendencies are of two kinds: 1. Those characteristics which are apparently lost but which crop out in pure birds after many years or generations of straight breeding. 2. Those outcropping characteristics which appear in the descendants of crossbred birds, and which have not previously shown themselves in any descendants of the cross or which soon disappeared after the original cross. The prevalence of either of these tendencies is governed or largely influenced by the following factors: 1. The degree of purity, or the time elapsed since pure breed- ing was begun. The more generations there have been of pure breeding, the less likelihood is there of reversion to show. 2. The purity of breeding of either parent when new blood is introduced for desired vigor and vitality. It is safest practice to do one’s own breeding so far as possible, as when purchasing alien males there can be no certainty of their purity with respect to certain desirable traits. 3. Lack of prepotency in either or both parents permits rever- sion to crop out, because they lack the power to subdue latent characteristics. The results which atavism may accomplish are of no practical value to the breeder. But a knowledge of its workings convinces him of the folly of using grade sires of unknown ancestry in breed- ing for either eggs or meat purposes, also that to produce definite results and to develop a pure line of standard-bred poultry he must avoid crossing. Law of Correlation.— By correlation is meant the relation which exists between the form and functions of various organs of the bird’s body. Correlation exists between all forms of animal life and makes possible their systematic classification. Poultry offers an exceptionally fertile field for the study of correlated features, as they have many variable and easily defined parts. Some of the following are especially interesting correl- atives. The form and size of the individual is often proportional to the form and size of its parts. For example, a bird with a long neck is very apt to be “ rangy ” throughout, with long body, legs, and head. The reverse is also true, and a bird with short, compact body and neck usually has short, stout legs, back, and head. 16 242 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING There is also a relation between the color of the comb and wattles and the health and vigor of the bird, the latter being asso- ciated with a bright red comb, and disease or lack of vigor with a dull color or lack of color. In different breeds there is a definite relation between the size and weight of the body and the development of wings. In the lighter breeds this results in powers of flight which are lacking in the heavier breeds. Many false notions as to correlation are often advanced. For instance, there is a belief that the color of the skin indicates the quality and flavor of the flesh; that the color of eggs hells influences the quality of the contents; that white birds are often of weaker constitution than pigmented birds,—all of these are without sub- stantial proof. Body Character and Functional Activity—Poultry breeders and experimenters have for a number of years persistently endeavored to find some correlation between egg production and some readily detected external characteristics, but with little success. As was previously stated, egg production seems to be an inherited func- tion based on the gametic constitution of the individual, and has not been consistently indicated by any other factor. A bright red comb, full bright eyes, erect carriage, compact and solid body are all signs of the vigor and vitality which are necessary for heavy egg production, but none can be said to be always associated with it. The author has noted a consistent relation between shape of barrel or body and the power of reproduction. Heavy egg pro- duction was found to be associated with great depth and breadth of body in proportion to its length. There is need for much statistical work to test such a relationship, and accurate results cannot be claimed until a great number of individuals have been studied. Wherever it is possible to associate certain external features with functional activity or vitality or constitution, it is a simple matter to put into practice a rigid selection,—using only birds which show this external character. Prepotency.—By prepotency is meant the increased power which one parent has over the other of imparting its characteristics to the offspring. It is really the power which an individual has to transmit its own characteristics. This question of prepotency is of the utmost value to the breeder, because of the direct influence which it is bound to have upon the improvement of his flock, REVIEW 243 whether for meat or fancy points. An individual may be all that could be desired with respect to certain characteristics, yet might not transmit these particular traits to its progeny because it lacks prepotency. Certain breeds are especially prepotent with regard to some well-defined characteristics; for example, Games, when crossed with other breeds, transmit their distinctive traits to a large per- centage of the progeny. Prepotency in individuals varies greatly, and is indicated both by the resemblance of the progeny to the parent and to one another. Prepotency is increased in the individual and in the breeds with increased purity of blood, stronger constitutional vigor, and in- breeding. ; Sex Limitation.—The power of one sex to transmit character- istics, and the limitation of the other sex in the same respect, is a disputed point among the closest students. In the light of recent work the general opinion seems to be that there is such a difference between sexes, and that it is very important in breeding poultry either for color pattern or for egg production. In egg production the male parent is believed to have the greater transmitting power. REVIEW. . Define poultry breeding. . In what respect is this science a complex one? Point out some facts which call for marked improvement in our breeds. Compare the composition of milk and eggs. What is the chief aim of the poultry breeder? Enumerate some of the problems which are confronting the poultry breeder, . What is the basis of value in poultry? . Enumerate and discuss six fundamental principles which underlie pro- gressive breeding. . Define three fundamental factors which affect all individuals in greater or less degree. . Discuss environment and its relation to all progeny. . Discuss the effect of functional activities upon the individual and its offspring. 12. State briefly the development of the laws of breeding. 13. Define the law of heredity and give a practics} example. 14. Discuss three direct benefits to be derived from the action of this law. 15. Definé crossbreeding or hybridizing. 16. What is the first assertion of Mendel’s law? 17. Discuss the influence of a dominant character when a cross is made. Explain with equation, according to Mendel’s law. FS 2 SNORE ee 244 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 18. Explain procedure in testing an individual to determine its purity of breeding. . Define fecundity. . Outline two views now held as to the transmission of fecundity. . Enumerate five points which cover the practical application of the teach- ing of inheritance of egg production. . Define the law of variation. . Enumerate, define, and give examples of four distinct types of variations. . What is a mutation? Give an example. . Define atavism. . Name three factors which influence reversion. . Define the law of correlation. . Exemplify by comparing the body characteristics of the fowl with egg production . Define prepotency; give example. CHAPTER XIV. PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING. THE aims of all commercial poultry breeders may be summed up into four definite objects. Some may be striving for all of these, but in the majority of cases efforts are concentrated on one, or perhaps two, of the following purposes: 1. To develop the most efficient egg machine possible,—one capable of turning out the maximum number of eggs of high quality during the season of high prices, at the lowest possible cost for feed and labor, 2. To develop a type of bird for table purposes which will attain the greatest weight in the shortest possible time, the flesh so formed being of high quality, and this to be achieved with the least expenditure for feed and labor, thus leaving the greatest possible margin of profit. 3. Often it is the aim to develop a type of bird which shall possess both egg and meat characteristics, these traits to be de- veloped to the highest degree of perfection which it is possible for them to attain in combination. This is the type of fowl usually classed as general purpose, and the type found on the majority of poultry farms in America, especially where the farmer keeps them in small numbers as a side issue. This is the hardest type of fowl to develop, for improvement in either of the above- mentioned qualities means deterioration in the other, for meat and egg qualities are the results of opposite characteristics which it is impossible to develop to their greatest efficiency in one individual. 4. To develop a bird with plumage of a given color pattern is also the aim of a large class of poultry breeders. Breeding for any other fancy points may also be included here. This breeding of poultry to a color standard is practised by many at the sacrifice of meat and egg qualities; in other instances it is an important feature in connection with breeding for other utility qualities. All breeding of poultry legitimately comes under one, or a combination, of these four purposes. This chapter deals with the practical application of the laws of breeding as well as with the methods to be followed and the practical results to be expected. 245 246 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING BREEDING SYSTEMS. Crossbreeding or Hybridizing.—Crossbreeding may be defined as the breeding together of birds of different breeds, varieties, or families, with the hope of securing progeny exhibiting in one individual the desirable characteristics of both parents. This form of breeding is only applicable in the formation of new breeds. The effect of its use is so thoroughly to mix blood lines and pedi- grees that all records of the performances of the ancestry are lost or of no value. Crossing is one of the most certain means of pro- ducing variability. Where birds possessed of similar characteristics are mated together, the progeny of the first cross usually show a fair degree of uniformity with regard to the desired trait. Further breeding of this crossbred progeny, or hybrid, will result in a great variety of types and variations in the characteristics. When birds of opposite or unlike characters are mated together, the results are varied and disappointing, even in the first generation. A good rule is to avoid crossing wherever possible, and to resort to it only as the last extreme toward a definite aim. Grading up is a term applied to a method quite generally used to improve the quality and characters of a mongrel flock. This is usually accomplished by the use of pure-bred males in a mixed flock. The resulting progeny are called grades, since they are the offspring of a pure-bred animal and one of mixed or common breed- ing. In poultry raising the cost of birds which arepure bred and true to type is relatively so small, in comparison with their superiority over mixed stock, that, as arule, it is more satisfactory and econom- ical to begin with pure-bred birds, and if need be to start with but asmall number. Where grading up is practised, the mating may be made either way, but the male is generally taken for the pure- bred parent, since he represents half the flock as far as progeny are concerned. By this method it is possible to raise a practically pure flock from mongrels in a certain number of generations. The great disadvantage of grading up is the fact that it is not likely to be closely followed continuously after a certain degree of perfection is reached, and, just as soon as the breeder uses a grade male bird, improvement ceases and retrogression begins. Inbreeding.—The terms inbreeding and in-and-in breeding are used to designate the breeding together of animals which are of the same pedigree. Inbreeding commonly means the mating BREEDING SYSTEMS 247 of individuals related for one generation, while in-and-in breeding indicates those showing a longer period and closer degree of, rela- tionship. The two terms simply express a difference in the degree of relationship of the mated birds. Three ways in which it is possible to inbreed are: MALE Fig. 125.—Inbreeding chart showing distribution of inherited characters. The black represents the blood lines of the male, and the white the blood lines of the female. The solid black lines represent that a male has been chosen from the group from which they start and the dotted lines that a female has been chosen. Inbreeding is traced through four generations and the results are shown at the bottom of the chart. 1. Breeding sire and daughter, which produces progeny with one-fourth blood like the mother. 2. Breeding son and mother, which gives progeny with three- fourths blood like the mother. 3. Breeding brother and sister, which produces progeny with blood lines from both sire and dam in equal proportion. This latter method is undesirable in general practice (Fig. 125). 248 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING The chief advantage of inbreeding is the possibility which it offers of fixing or making permanent the blood of some valuable individual. In-bred progeny are exceptionally potent. Another advantage is that it avoids the introduction of new blood which might produce objectionable characteristics. Inbreeding is the greatest force known to intensify existing blood lines, and this factor makes it one of the best as well as the worst system to use; for it intensifies all characteristics of the individual, whether bad or good. Therefore the breeder who resorts to this method of mating must exercise special care in eliminating objectionable factors which would be intensified equally with the good ones. It is often supposed that inbreeding tends to reduce vigor and vitality; but, when this is the case, it is undoubtedly due to the fact that these characteristics exist already and are intensified in the progeny. If poultry breeders were more careful in selecting for vigor and vitality, this apparent objection to inbreeding would be overcome and less heard of. Line Breeding.—Line breeding may be defined as the breeding of individuals which are selected from, or restricted to, a single line of descent. For example, it is the process of breeding within one family or within a limited number of families all of which have a common ancestry and represent similar types (Fig. 126). Line breeding offers good opportunity for improvement, since it excludes everything outside of the chosen line of descent and combines in the progeny the characteristics especially desired. The result is the rapid purification of the pedigree and the fixing of atype. There is slight danger of outside or alien traits appear- ing. This is a very conservative system of breeding, and is the one practised by many of the best poultry breeders. It has resulted in building up some of our best strains of standard-bred poultry. The leading advantages of line breeding are two: (1) The probable certainty with which results may be predicted, thus allowing the breeder to work with his eyes open; (2) the progeny of line-bred birds are backed up by a strong hereditary influence which results in hastening improvements in the one desired direction, owing to the lack of alien or mixed blood. In practising line breeding there is one point of caution,— namely, the necessity of making the matings both from the pedi- gree records and by individual selection in the pens. Some breeders are apt to neglect the latter factor of individual condition, and make their matings from paper only; in consequence, a few genera- BREEDING SYSTEMS 249 tions of weak birds may be used, and this will speedily ruin all past and future results. Line breeding is one of the best systems for improvement if understood and correctly managed. ‘The chart (Fig. 126) will enable the poultryman to understand the system, so that he may proceed in safety and get sure results. LMALE LINE ‘ FEMALE LINE C7CTALIONS LINE BREEDING CHART ; Ist and ee0.--- + Ge Fia. 126.—Line-breeding chart. In this chart the black and white circles and seg- ments represent the blood lines, black standing for the male line and white for the female line. The solid black lines represent that a male has been chosen from the group from which they start and the dotted lines that a female has been chosen. The cross-lined circle at the left shows what takes place when out-crossing or the bringing in of new blood lines is practised. (After I. K. Felch.) Out-crossing, as generally practised, is the use of a male bird of unrelated blood with females of the same breed which have been in-bred or line-bred for a number of generations. It does not mean the introduction of blood of a different breed, but of 250 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING new blood of the same breed. It is usually done with two objects in view: (1) To correct some defect which it is apparently impos- sible to correct within the line which has been established and fol- lowed; or (2) to introduce some desirable feature which the estab- lished line does not possess. If careful selection has been made in line breeding, it is doubt- ful if out-crossing should be resorted to except for one of the above- mentioned reasons. Even under these conditions, out-crossing should be cautiously done, lest the variations which are produced follow a different line or direction from that which is desired. Reciprocal Crosses.—By reciprocal crossing is meant the alter- nate crossing of male and female of two different breeds or varieties. The behavior of reciprocal crosses in poultry breeding is an inter- esting phenomenon. When two races of the same general type and character are crossed, the progeny are similar, no matter which type was used as the male parent. If, however, the parents are widely different, the resulting progeny will vary with the'varying size of the parents. For example, if one parent is a bantam and the other a large bird, the size of the egg, and therefore of the chick, will be like that of the mother. If the mother is a bantam the chicks will be small; if the mother is of full size the chicks also will be full size. There are many minor features which give similar results, but generally the progeny resemble each other regardless of parent alternations. Control of Sex.—A problem concerning which there is much speculation and discussion is the possibility of controlling sex. From the standpoint of economy and profit, it would be a great advantage in poultry breeding to have a large majority of the progeny females, since one male is sufficient for a considerable number of hens, and the female is the real economic producing unit. Despite the fact that numerous rules have been formulated for controlling this factor, our present knowledge of the laws of reproduction does not permit us to expect any great variation in , either direction from the usual 50 per cent of each sex. Sex is undoubtedly determined, in birds at least, at the time of fertiliza- tion by the union of certain kinds of germ cells, and its control is at present beyond human power. The sex of the egg after being laid is not known. Summary of Breeding Systems.—Considerable has been said concerning different systems of breeding. The choice of a method should be governed entirely by the purpose to be accomplished. BREEDING SYSTEMS 251 If the purpose is breed improvement, using as a basis family lines already established, then line breeding and, to some extent, inbreeding should be followed. When new types or breeds are desired, two courses are open,—either to watch for and fix mutations or sports as they occur, or, more often, to accelerate possible varia- tions by crossing, and then from the hybrid progeny attempt to develop desired characters. But Mendel has shown this to be a difficult and tedious proposition at the best, and impracticable on the average poultry farm. If the purpose is to improve common stock at small expense, then grading up is the best method. In all cases the idea should be to breed from the best of the fowls which have the desired trait developed to the highest degree of perfection. Selection.—Regardless of the extent or the method of breeding, the poultryman has always at command the power of selection, and it is the real source of improvement. It is made possible by variation, and is responsible for many of the most noted develop- ments in poultry breeding. By selection is meant the ability to choose stock for propagating purposes which possess desirable qualities, and which are prepotent with regard to these characteristics, so that, with proper care, the resulting progeny will be of a high standard of excellence which can be maintained. To select consistently and bring about definite improvement, a breeder must have a clear idea of his purpose, and work continuously toward it. He must know the breed with which he is working as well as its ancestry, must under- stand the principles underlying selection, and use judgment in departing from certain well-defined lines when compelled thereto for economic or commercial reasons. In selection there is the important fundamental advantage that it results in absolute improvement of quality, and not merely in the elevation of the flock to a higher standard by the elimination of the lower or average members. It accomplishes two well- defined results: (1) It increases the production of individuals, thereby making it possible to secure increasingly higher individual records; and (2) it stimulates the average production by raising the average of the mass, by eliminating the poor producers, and by substituting heavier layers in their place. Selection should be continuously practised, not only in the breeding pen, but in the elimination of weak or sick birds through- out the entire brooding and growing period. Fowls which show, 252 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING at any time, a lack of constitutional vigor will never prove profit- able for any purpose. Further possibilities in selection are discussed under the sub- ject of breeding for definite purposes. BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION. It is probable that more poultrymen are endeavoring to increase the egg-producing qualities of their birds indirectly by breeding and selection than are attempting to improve all other qualities combined. This is due to the fact that egg production represents a direct money return which, under farming conditions, is the one factor of greatest definite value. The Poultry Department of Cornell University has been a pioneer in advocating the selection and breeding for egg production. As a result of its investigations and teachings, the following rules or guides have been laid down, and success will follow their use. The rules follow and should be kept in mind when breeding for egg production: (1) Keep only pure-bred birds; (2) breed from heavy producers and persistent layers; (3) breed from mature birds; (4) practice line breeding; (5) breed from early-preducing pullets; (6) breed from late molters; (7) breed from heavy eaters; (8) breed from early risers and late retirers; (9) practice proper management. Keep pure-bred birds of one well-established egg breed. They have proved to be the most economical producers of market eggs, laying the greatest quantity of excellent quality, while the feed consumed is utilized to better advantage than in other types. There is also greater uniformity in the shape, size, and color of the eggs, and a greater demand and selling value in general and special markets. The uniformity with which pure-bred birds may be bred and developed for a given purpose, such as egg production, is much greater than with mixed or impure stock. Breed from Heavy Producers.—This is one of the leading rules in breeding for egg production. The average productive power of the progeny may be greatly increased. This can only be accu- rately carried on by the use of the trap nest and by special matings for breeding purposes. The most persistent layers are those which begin to lay early in the fall (October or November) and continue to lay regularly. throughout the winter and spring months, also laying well during the summer, and which, after undergoing a quick, complete molt, begin again to lay in the early fall of the following year. In selecting a breeder it is not safe to take the BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 253 bird which is a heavy layer merely during the three spring months, for she is often found to lack the persistency so essential to a heavy yearly production. Only mature birds, male and female, should be used in breed- ing for egg production, for these are more prepotent, and will produce offspring with more vigor and vitality and of larger size when adults. Hens should be used, not pullets. Practise line breeding to fix and intensify the good qualities of the strain in regard to fecundity. This avoids the dangers attendant upon out-crossing. The introduction of low fe- cundity lines by the use of males of unknown pedigree is evidently a very bad mistake. Early-producing Pullets. —By selecting for breeders hens which were early pro- - ducers in their pullet year, it is possible to intensify this characteristic in the progeny, and not only is this quality in itself desirable, but a heavy yearly productionisseldomat- tained without it. Early pro- duction, say October of the pullet year, means an early ‘ rare! Fie. 127.—‘‘ Lady Showyou,’’ a white Plym- winter start, which signifies outh Rock hen that laid 281 eggs in twelve mouths, re! : winning the Missouri National Egg-Laying Con- a good yield for the winter test. Note the ragged condition of the plumage, : the pale shank and the bright, prominent eye. months and promises for the (Photo by the Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station.) individual a high yearly total. Late Molters.—It has been proved by experiment and obser- vation that the bird which molts the latest is, in the majority of cases, the heaviest layer; in other words, the hen that molts in July or August, and gets her new plumage and makes a fine appearance early, is not the one that is the heavy layer (Fig. 127). The one that is laying eggs until cool weather in the fall is the one that does not molt until late, but looks shabby and raw during that time; nevertheless, when she does start, the molt is usually rapid and complete, leaving her in good condition to com- mence laying in early winter. This external feature, the molt, is of practical value in selecting persistent layers. 254 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING Birds with Large Appetites—-The consumption of a large amount of feed is essential in the case of the heavy layer, in order to secure the materials necessary for the egg, and it has been found that heavy egg production is always accompanied by heavy eating. The bird with a vigorous appetite should be selected, not the one which is a small and delicate feeder. A bird which does not eat cannot provide material for both maintenance and_ pro- duction, and hence is unprofitable, even though her cost for keep is but slight. Early Risers and Late Retirers.—In the selection of breeders, it is well to choose birds which are off the roost early in the morn- ing and the last on the roost at night. This habit indicates a keen appetite, since they are up with the first break of morn looking for feed, and are the last to give up the search at night. This also shows vitality, for any bird out of condition or with low vitality will leave the roost late in the morning and with reluctance. Selection.—At the same time that one is breeding for this quality in accordance with the preceding brief suggestions, it is essential to select for the following features: (1) Constitutional vigor; (2) egg type; and (8) size. Constitutional vigor means the health, activity, and vitality seen in strong fowls, the lack of which in weak ones makes them unsatisfactory producers and reproducers. There is great need of breeding and selecting for constitutional vigor, because we are expecting more of the modern hen in pro- portion to her live weight and size than from any other class of domestic or farm animals (not including honeybees). As a result of heavy strain from overproduction, fowls often break down, and the effect is shown in the future progeny. Much of the low fer- tility and low hatching power in poultry, the weakness of chicks and mortality in mature stock, when such conditions arise, can be traced in large measure to the broken-down constitution of the fowl under exacting requirements. A good hen is expected, on an average, to lay in one year five times her body weight in eggs. This would equal one egg every three days during the year. In order to accomplish what is expected of her, she must consume about 30 times her body weight of feed. By observing one or more flocks, it will be noted that from hatch- ing time till death fowls differ considerably in regard to their consti- tutional vigor, all flocks showing strong and weak fowls, regardless BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 255 of breed or strain (Fig. 128). Breeding and selection will make it possible to reduce the number of weak ones to a minimum. Lack of Vigor.—The following are some of the common causes of loss or lack of vigor as determined by Rice and Rogers:* 1. Increased Productiveness.—In its wild life the ancestor of the domestic hen laid but few eggs a year, perhaps a dozen. The modern hen is expected by good care and management to lay from 120 to 160 a year, and, at the same time, these eggs, or some & eer” | Fie. 128.—Strong and weak males. Contrast the bright protruding eye, erect carriage, and short heavy spur in the one and the low tail, sunken eye, long slender spur, and drooping carriage in the other. 7 of them, must be hatched into chicks with as much strength and vigor as the parent. It is evident that any increase in the produc- tion of eggs must be accomplished by a proportionate increase in the physical strength of the bird, to enable her to assimilate the increased amount of feed required for this increased production. 2. In-and-in Breeding Without Regard to Vigor.—Inbreeding is often resorted to in order that the high producing qualities may be better and more quickly fixed; but, where due consideration is not at the same time given tovigor, loss of vitality is bound to follow. * Cornell Reading Course (‘‘Constitutional Vigor in Poultry Breeding’’). 256 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING 3. The use of pullets instead of hens for breeding will lower vigor by producing progeny from immature parents. 4. Too heavy feeding during the fail and winter with the object of increasing production. Under normal conditions the fowl is allowed a part of the year in which to rest and store up energy for future seasons of heavy production, and it will be found that forced feeding and heavy production are antagonistic to the highest fertility and greatest degree of vigor in the offspring. It is well, therefore, at as early a date as possible, to pick out all the adults which are desirable for use as breeders, and give them time to store up energy and physical strength. 5. Excessive Crowding or Congesting of Breeding Stock—The modern intensive system of handling poultry is responsible for much of the present low vitality. Where it is desirable to raise future economic producers, it should be the policy to handle the breeding fowls on extensive farms rather than on intensive produc- ing poultry plants. Both young stock and breeders have more vigor when raised on land used for other purposes, as fruit growing, grass, and grain crops that are being raised mostly for pasture and green forage. 6. Lack of exercise for breeding stock is another direct cause of low fertility and subsequent low vitality. 7. Carelessness and improper methods of hatching and rearing chicks give bad results. 8. Failure to select breeding stock with superior physical vigor. If the desire is to increase or even maintain a high degree of vitality this selection is paramount. The following signs of high vitality have been listed by Rice and Rogers and should be applied when making selection for vigor: The actions and movements of fowls probably best indicate their physical condition. The physically weak are inactive and dull, and more likely to sit than to stand. They do not range to any extent in search of forage, nor do they scratch in search of feed. They are longest on the perch, possibly spending the entire day there. The loudness and frequency of the crow of the male, and the cackle of the female, are indications of physical strength and superiority. The weak fowls seldom crow or sing. There are certain body signs which indicate lack of vigor in a fowl; as, for instance, long neck, thin beak, narrow head, a long, slender body, long legs and thighs, or a stilted appearance, while the reverse is true of vigorous birds. BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 257 In the young, growing chick common signs of low vitality are stunted growth, accompanied by slow feathering and a pronounced crow-like beak, drooping wings and head, and a low, squatting walk. The strong bird at any age should have a bright prominent eye, a well-developed, blocky body, bright plumage, and erect car- riage, bright comb and wattles, and should be active and sprightly in movement. It is evident that there is a relation between the physical characteristics of fowls and their vitality; hence it should be the Fic. 129.—Showing the wedge or angular shape which is so common in good layers. The heavy development toward the back may be seen from side, front, and rear. rule systematically to select for constitutional vigor at all ages and for all purposes. Egg Type.—The development of an ideal body type, and the constant selection of breeders which resemble or approach. that type, will aid greatly in developing a uniform flock; and, if the features which go to make up this type are those associated with heavy egg production, it may be termed an egg type. While it has not been proved that there is any definite relation between a certain type as a whole and egg production, yet the following features are associated with the possibility of heavy production: In discussing type, the mistake must not be made of disre- garding the breed shape or type, for it can readily be seen that 17 258 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING there cannot be one egg type for all breeds, owing to the differences in body shape. The egg breeds bear a close similarity in their breed type, and it may thus be assumed that this general confor- mation represents the desired form (Fig. 129). These are here outlined. They are valueless unless combined with health and vitality. . 1. Width of body comes first; as, without ample room for the digestive and reproductive organs, they cannot attain their maxi- mum development. 2. Depth of body is essential for the same reason. 3. A rather long body carried high in front and low behind, with the large part of the body back of the leg joint. BELLE OF JERSEY LADY CORNELL* Fig. 130.—Two phenomenal hens. A CoMPpaRISON. Belle of Jersey. Lady Cornell. Body weight, Ibs../............. 3.8 Body weight, Ibs..............-. 3.2 Lbs. feed consumed............. 118.5 Lbs. feed consumed............. 110.0 Eggs laid in one year............ 246 Eggs laid in one year........... 257 Weight of eggs laid, Ibs.......... 29.5 Weight of eggs laid, lbs.......... 28.8 FinanciaL STATEMENT. Cont Of feediies.nes oa altuns aa Shon’ $1.79 Cost of feed.................005 $1.66 Labor, and interest............- 1.00 Labor, and interest........ veces 1.00 Total Aebitis -ciatines suv wsuanectsy) eloutoats -é 2.79 Total debit..................0. 2.66 Value of eggs at $0.35........... 7.18 Value of eggs at $0.35........... 7.43 Value of manure.............+5- 33 Value of manure...............- +29 Potalored iti case oa acisinacr eaves 7.51 Total credit..... 00... 0... cee eee 7.72 Net profitsswncsee se ctans yaks ¥ 4.72 Net profits cave eeaciece sation vs 5.06 _ *Bred and owned by the Department of Poultry Husbandry, Cornell University. BREEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION 259 4. Neck medium in length and rather full hackle. 5. Tail carried rather high, showing vigor. 6. Head medium, and comb and wattles large and well colored. 7. Body V-shaped when viewed from side, top, and rear. This V-shape is very characteristic, and when present in marked degree the heavy development lies well back in the abdominal region (Fig. 130). 8. Close, compact feathering, and short, stout beak, with bright eyes, are other signs which indicate a good layer, hence are requisite in the ideal type. 9. Legs rather short and widespread. Size.—Other things being equal, it is the best practice, when breeding for egg production, to select fowls of good size, for such birds are capable of digesting more feed and have a greater body weight, which are characteristic of physical strength. They also lay larger eggs, and have a large abdominal cavity, which provides more room for the vital organs. BREEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION. The following points will be of value in making the best selec- tion for the breeding pen. Only those factors are discussed which are needed in addition to those required for egg production. Use Pure Breeds of the Meat Type—The pure-bred bird will give the highest percentage of progeny capable of the highest development for meat purposes, owing to long-continued breeding for that purpose. The feed they consume will also be utilized for the desired purpose to a greater extent than that of mongrels or crosses. The finished product, when killed and packed for ship- ment, will show greater uniformity and be of higher quality. Large, Well-developed Birds.—Size is of the utmost importance in mating for meat purposes. If rightly managed a large frame is capable of putting on more flesh than a small one. Not only should a large frame be selected, but it should be abundantly covered with flesh, especially the breast, thigh, and back It may ‘be said that the meat type is represented by a bird large in size and free from sharp angles, with a wide deep body and heavy development ahead, an abundance of flesh, and having a compact rather than rangy appearance. Character of Product.—The character of the product desired will to some extent determine the method of breeding. For ex- ample, with broiler raising as the object, a bird should be chosen 260 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING which develops rapidly and will attain considerable size at an early age, as Wyandottes and Plymouth Rocks. When large- sized late roosters are desired, the type of bird selected is one which is capable of attaining extremely large size, accompanied by a tenderness and good quality of flesh when considerably advanced in age, but it need not be of exceptionally rapid growth, as Brahmas. Associated with these three factors should be good health and an abundance of vigor, which under propermethodsof management will Fig. 131.—A light Brahma pair—ideal for meat production. give the individuals every possible opportunity to develop to their fullest extent all the inherited qualities of flesh growth (Fig. 131). BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS. Years of practice are required to learn all the combinations and possibilities which result from various methods and practices of mating for certain colors. The best way to produce variations in pattern and color, as required by the standard for each breed, must be learned, especially variations of sex in the same variety. BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS 261 Double Matings.—Before discussing color variations in detail, it is necessary to understand what is meant by the term “ double mating.” Double matings are quite different from the reciprocal crosses described elsewhere. They have been developed largely through the sexual dimorphism which is so pronounced in most breeds of poultry, and especially through the desire of breeders to exaggerate this difference between the sexes. These are often designated as cockerel and pullet matings. Examples of such exaggerated differences are found between the hen and cock birds of Dark Brahmas. It is the desire to per- Fic. 132.—A difference in color pattern due to sex—an example of sexual dimorphism. fect the penciling of the hens, while in the males it is to group the colors in masses. In order that this difference may be highly developed, the practice is to make two matings, one for females and the other for males. To produce females the practice is to mate the best penciled hens with a cock bird which shows as much lacing as possible. To produce males the darkest hens are mated with cock birds which show as little lacing as possible. The sexual difference may be noted in Barred Plymouth Rocks, the males showing narrower bars and being lighter throughout, 962 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING while the females show wider bars and are darker throughout. The best marked birds of this breed are bred by double matings. By con- tinuing this process throughout many generations, it is possible to de- velop some excellent specimens according to standard requirements; yet breeders have thus practically split some breeds into two well- defined and separate varieties according tosex color pattern (Fig. 132). _ This method is also practised extensively in securing Leghorns of the desired comb type, the male requirement being a straight, Fig. 133.—A prize-winning pair of Columbian Wyandottes, with coloration similar to -the light Brahmas. (Photo by Sunnybrook Farm, Eatontown, N. J.) upright comb, and the female a lopped comb, these differences being exaggerated by the use of double matings. Breeding successfully through double matings necessitates a thorough understanding of the breed and the laws of heredity. It is an artificial procedure, while single mating is natural. Breeding for Color—There are a great many rules and direc- tions for the breeding of partly colored birds, especially those with fancy plumage pattern; as, for example, the penciled and stippled breeds (Fig. 133). But, since a full understanding of these is needed only by the true fancier, and can be acquired only by years of actual practice, they will not be discussed here. A few references will be made, however, to common well-known facts. BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS = 263 Breeding for desired solid color is by selection and grading, not by the formation of new colors from crossing of birds of differ- ent colors. The latter procedure would result in progeny with the characteristic colors of both sire and dam arranged in motley array; while by selection through many generations it is possible to attain different degrees of color and shade, as, for example, variations in red and buff. Under color is of great importance in fixing external color, for it affects the outside color by toning it down or intensifying it, according to the contending combinations of outer and under color. Another interesting factor is that of color harmony or the relation between certain colors, also their association with definite colors in other body parts. For example, the Rhode Island Red, or any red bird, “with stripe in the saddle or hackle is invariably accompanied with yellow shank and skin. Were the same plumage to be combined with willow-colored or blue shanks, a lack of color harmony would immediately be noticed. The same is true with all black plumage. For example, in the Minorca and Black Langshan the black feathers are always asso- ciated with blue-black shanks and white skin, since any other color (yellow, for instance) would produce a lack of color harmony. Furthermore, these relations seem to be very firmly fixed, and even after repeated trials it is extremely difficult to substitute the opposing color. There are certain black breeds which have yellow shanks, yet this association is accompanied with a peculiar sheen which might be described as a bronze tinge, while the true black color of blue-shanked birds has a greenish sheen. There might be named numerous combinations of colors which seem to be fixed. “ Brassiness and creaminess”’ are defects which may be due in greater or less degree to one or more of the following three causes: An unequal distribution of black pigment in plumage of breeds which have a slate under color of dark stripes on saddle or hackle (for example, Columbian Wyandottes). This effect is especially noticeable in newly established breeds before color pattern has become thoroughly fixed. In its earlier stages this effect is termed “smoky,” but the cloudiness later changes to a slight yellowish tinge. Such a defect can soon be bred out by fixing the color type. Creaminess or brassiness may also be caused in white breeds by an excess of fat, induced in many cases by the feeding of too much corn and corn meal. Not that the corn necessarily causes , 264 PRACTICE OF POULTRY BREEDING the creaminess, but the large deposit of fat under the skin gives the white plumage a yellowish tinge. It is also caused in many cases by the ‘‘ burning ” of the white plumage during the summer when the birds are exposed continu- ously to the rays of the sun. Most of the noted breeders of exhi- bition white birds keep them confined practically all the time, letting them out only toward night. Soil Effects on Plumage and Shank.—The presence of certain alkalies in the soil may make it almost impossible to secure the greatest degree of color in plumage and shanks. In certain sections it is impossible to get and keep the clear yellow shank, owing to the presence of alkalies in the soil. Certain highly colored soils, of a clay or shale nature, are a great hindrance to the breeder by compelling him to confine his birds. (For further discussions on breeding for color see references, page 265.) Breeding Fallacies.—There are two alleged facts in breeding which should be explained. The influence of a previous sire or impregnation on the charac- ter of subsequent chicks. In the case of fowls, even after a cock bird has been removed from the pen he may become the parent of chicks hatched from eggs subsequently laid by these hens, for the sperm continues active within the hen for from ten days to two weeks. But if, after the eggs laid have ceased to be fertile, a new cock be added, different from the first, there is no proof of any influence of the previous male bird. Experiments by Waite show that at least three weeks must elapse before one can be sure that the effect of a previous mating has ceased. Another alleged effect is that of imagination upon the subse- quent. progeny. For example, there is no ground for believing that, if two pens of birds, one black and the other white, run side by side, any splashing or mixing shown in the progeny is due to the effect of sight or imagination. A more sane hypothesis would be that the opposing cock bird jumped the fence and fertilized the eggs. REVIEW. 1. Name four objects toward which all poultry breeding of a commercial nature is tending. . What are the commercial possibilities of crossbreeding? . Define “grading up,” and state its commercial possibilities. . Define “inbreeding,’’ and name three ways in which it is possible ts inbreed. . What can you say of the prepotency of in-bred progeny? or we OO LO REVIEW 265 6. Define line breeding; what are its possibilities in commercial breeding? 7. Define ‘‘out-crossing’’ and give its use. 8. What is meant by reciprocal crosses? 9. What are the possibilities of sex control? 10. Give a brief summary of the possibilities of different breeding systems. 11. Define and give the fundamental advantage of selection. 12. Give two results of proper selection. 13. Enumerate and discuss briefly nine rules which should be considered in breeding for egg production. 14. Give three features which should be considered in selecting for egg pro- duction. 15. Discuss the factor of constitutional vigor in breeding. 16. Enumerate some of the contributory causes to lack of vigor. 17. What are some of the signs of vitality and lack of it? 18. Give nine points which are associated with high egg production. 19. What is the value of good size among egg, breeds? 20. Discuss three factors which should be considered when breeding for meat production. 21. Discuss “double matings” for color and plumage markings. 22. What is meant by sexual dimorphism? 23. Give some important considerations in breeding for color. 24. What are the causes of ‘‘brassiness or creaminess?”’ 25. Name some soil effects upon plumage and shank color. 26. What, if any, is the effect of a previous impregnation upon subsequent chicks? : References.—Breeding Poultry for Egg Production, by Raymond Pearl, Maine Bulletin 192. Importance of Constitutional Vigor in the Breeding of Poultry, by Rice and Rogers, Cornell Reading Course Bulletin 45. Inherit- ance of Fecundity, by Pearl and Surface, Maine Bulletin 166. Appliances and Methods for Pedigree Poultry Breeding, by Pearl and Surface, Maine Bulletin 159. A Barometrical Study of Egg Production in the Domestic Fowl, by Pearl and Surface, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 110 (in two parts). The Single Testing System of Breeding for Egg Production, by D. F. Laurie, Department of Agriculture, South Australia. Breeding for Egg Production and Egg Types, by James Dryden, Utah Bulletin 92. CHAPTER XV. MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYING STOCK. The primary object in the management of a flock of laying hens is the profit which accrues from the sale of eggs for use as human food, as distinguished from the production of eggs to be used for hatching in the propagation of future layers and breeders. JAN. MAR =MAY JULY ~—SEPT.—_—NOV. DEC. FEB APR. JUNE AUG. —_OCT. PRICE |] fF] YIELD OF EETERE : co EGGS $100 AF HH TTH F 4000 95 | 3800 90 Fy 3600 85 -H 13400 80 +3200 75 |4+-++- - 3000 70 2800 65 2600 60 Y 2400 55 2200 50 E 2000 4S E 1800 40 KO Vi aT zi 1600 35 1. TER 1400 30 EEE Er 1200 25 | ee a 1000 20 LA SEEee A 800 AS WEA HIT] 600 40 set z fad LK 400 5 u HH 44] 200 OF HH] 0 TEMP Fia. 134.—Curves showing the relation between yield (y), temperature (T) and selling price (P) of eggs during the year 1911. In the former case the idea is to secure a maximum egg yield throughout the year, especially during the months when the price of eggs is high, owing to a large demand and limited production. This usually occurs during the cold months, or during November, December, January, and February (Fig. 134). The endeavor is to secure a maximum winter egg yield if the greatest profit in market eggs is to be realized; while, in the case 266 4 PROPER MANAGEMENT . 267 of production of eggs for breeding purposes, the actual laying season for the eggs which are selected is very short, and during the more natural season of heavy production. The exact profit which will be realized depends on two factors,— cost and amount of production. All the necessary factors of environment and feed should be provided at a minimum cost without decreasing the efficiency, keeping in mind that larger pro- duction means a greater amount of products for sale. The aim is to get the maximum production at the minimum cost. If records are carefully and regularly kept, there will be found a limit beyond which increased expenditure in feed and labor is not compensated Fig, 135.—White Leghorns. There is every sign of high vitality. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry. Farm.) for by an increased yield. The relation between cost and amount. of production should invariably be studied. Proper management for successful egg production may be briefly summarized under the four headings: (1) Selection of stock; (2) suitable environment; (3) proper feeding at all seasons; (4) care in marketing. These may be considered the four corner- stones upon which is built the successful management of laying stock, all other conditions being secondary. Selection of Stock.—The best way to start is to build up the home flock with winter egg production as the main object. The breed to be selected depends upon market requirements and upon the size and character of the farm. Large, extensive plants will yield large amounts of eggs which must be shipped to special markets at some distance. The poultryman should first determine 268 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK the color of egg (white or brown) demanded by that particular market, and then aim to produce that for which the highest price is paid. The stock selected should be constitutionally vigorous, and well bred for several preceding generations. If possible, they should be from a heavy producing strain, as the offspring of such are much more apt to be good producers (Figs. 135 and 136). Suitable Environment.—The laying stock, if economical pro- duction is to be assured, should be given congenial surroundings and an environment conducive to good health,—hence, to increased Fria. 136.—Ideal individuals of the single-comb White Leghorn breed—unsurpassed as producers of large, white eggs, for commercial purposes. (Photo by International Cor- respondence School.) egg production. Environment depends upon the size and style of house and the care of house and yards. Good care is important in the management of laying flocks. Proper feeding of laying birds at different seasons should be studied, and proper changes made to meet the changing conditions of season, weather, and age of the birds. The cost of feed should be kept as low as possible, and yet it must supply the nutrients required and in the forms most conducive to health and production. Care in Marketing.—Profit from good production does not depend alone upon a large yield of eggs; but, if the best prices and profits are to be realized, the eggs must be marketed in a manner, and at markets, which will insure the highest revenue. CARE OF THE FUTURE LAYERS 269 For this reason a poultryman producing eggs commercially must make a careful study of egg types and grades, as well as of market conditions, in order to solve these questions intelligently. Care of the Future Layers.—During the growing season of the pullets which are being raised for future layers, great care must be exercised to keep them growing uniformly from hatching to maturity, as a check or setback will cause them to mature too late for winter laying. They should be brought to maturity as rapidly as is consistent with normal development and body growtL. Development is best promoted by free range with an abundance of shade and green feed. At all stages of their growth dry mash should be within reach, as it allows the birds an equal chance to obtain the nutrients they require. Maturity should be reached within six to eight months from the time of hatching, this depending upon the breed, the Leghorn being one of the earliest to mature. All birds depended upon for winter egg production should be brought to the laying age by the middle of October at the latest, or before extremely cold weather sets in. It is often possible, by varying the amount and character of feed and the mode of feeding, to mature all birds, even though of different hatchings, at approximately the same time by giving them forcing or retarding mashes. It is not desirable to mature birds too early in the fall (previous to September 1), as they are apt to molt the same season, in which case they will not be profitable for winter egg production. On the other hand, maturity should not occur too late, since the advent of cold weather retards it for from two to three months. It is best to endeavor to get a maximum egg yield of at least twenty-five per cent by the first or middle of November at the latest. If such a yield is secured it is very easy to maintain it or increase it during the winter by proper manage- ment. On the other hand, if the egg yield is small in November it will be nearly impossible to obtain a profitable yield from the birds during the next three months. In Winter Laying Quarters Early—The pullets should be put in their winter quarters at least a month before they are expected to commence laying, for two reasons: (1) In order that they may become accustomed to their quarters, for birds are very susceptible to changes in environment, and will not produce the maximum number of eggs if changed about from pen to pen. (2) It is much easier for the poultryman to study his birds, watch their ultimate maturity more closely, and, if need be, vary the food to suit 270 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK changing circumstances, when they are in their quarters than when they are scattered about over the range. (For types of houses see Chapter VII.) Before putting pullets into winter quarters it is advisable to plan the arrangement of the birds in their permanent pens for the ensuing year, so as to insure permanence and avoid the labor of transferring them. Practise Rigid Selection at Maturity —Only strong, vigorous birds should be put in the laying pen, and to secure the best results selection should be made from hatching time to maturity, care- fully weeding out all sick or crippled birds and thosé which show lack of stamina or vitality. This selection should be especially rigid when the final choice is made in the fall; only those of good size, healthy, mature, and vigorous should be chosen, as these char- acteristics are usually combined with prolific laying of large eggs. Size of Flock.—The number of birds to be placed in each flock will depend upon the type of farm and upon the extent of the business. Of the two extremes, it has been demonstrated that the highest individual production can be secured where a small number of birds (from 10 to 20) are kept as the unit. But increased indi- vidual production means increased labor; therefore it follows that large flocks, of two hundred to five hundred birds, can be expected to produce a large number of eggs more economically. In the latter case the yield per bird will usually be slightly lower, but the cost of labor will be so much reduced that the advantage will be on the side of the large flock (Fig. 137). Winter Management of the Layers.—The problem of winter management is to create, in so far as possible, ideal artificial con- ditions, by making or producing an environment which approaches in a great measure the natural conditions of spring, which is the natural laying season of the hen. The creation of this artificial environment necessitates careful and continuous study of the birds and their needs. Proper Feeding.—The first requisite in the winter management of the laying flock is that the birds be provided with sufficient feed containing nutrients in the right proportion to supply all their requirements for maintenance and production, also that they be given an abundance of succulent material, which is an incentive to egg production, especially during the winter. The proper feed will vary with the breed, the season of the year, and the weather. During extremely cold weather an increase in corn will enable the WINTER MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYERS 271 birds to maintain their body heat with a lower consumption of the materials regularly supplied in the ration, and will help to keep up the normal production. The feeding of hot mashes occasionally during extremely cold weather will also help to keep them warm. Exercise.—Hens kept in close confinement, as is the case with the laying flock in winter, should be made to take sufficient exer- cise to keep the body in normal flesh without depositing surplus fat. More care in this respect is required when the heavier breeds are kept, such as Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes; with Leg- horns there is less danger. When not at liberty the exercise taken Fig. 137.—A large-unit laying flock (500). An abundance of range and plenty of shade. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) by hens is principally walking and scratching, but birds in con- finement can be compelled to exercise by placing practically all their grain feed in deep litter on the floor of the house. Better results can be obtained through the winter from birds kept closely confined and induced to exercise in this way than when they are let out on wet snowy ground and chilled. The actual amount of exercise necessary must be determined largely by the judgment of the feeder and by the flesh condition of the birds in the flock. Keep them plump,—neither thin nor excessively fat. Health and Cleanliness—A healthy condition of the laying birds is a fundamental requisite, and is best insured by keeping everything about the poultry house sanitary. The breaking out of head colds of a roupy nature in a flock of birds in the 272 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK winter will immediately cut down the egg yield perceptibly, in some cases more than half, and it will be a number of weeks before the condition is remedied and the birds are back to their normal production. Three special matters must be considered in the sanitation and cleansing of the poultry house. They are embraced under the following headings: (1) Frequent removal of the drop- pings; (2) kecping the litter in perfect condition; (3) a general cleaning and spraying of the house at least twice a year. Removal of Droppings.—The exact time and frequency of clean- ing the dropping boards will depend upon the number of birds in the house, the weather, and the kind and amount of absorbents used on the dropping boards. A good rule is to clean the boards whenever the droppings become moist, for they then give off objectionable odors and fumes that are detrimental. This is apt to take place more quickly if the weather is damp than when it is dry or when exceptionally cold in the winter. As long as the droppings can be kept dry by the use of absorbents, such as dust, gypsum, sand, and phosphate ‘‘floats,’”’ they emit no odors and are not objectionable. It is not economy to clean them too often, owing to the large amount of labor involved. The usual custom is to clean them about twice a week, but the rule varies according to the conditions outlined. Care of Litter—The litter on the floor of the poultry house is placed there to hide the grain, and this object is best accom- plished if the litter is loose, dry, and rather coarse. The frequency with which it should be removed and replaced with new litter depends upon several circumstances. A safe rule is to clean out the old litter and put in new (1) whenever it becomes so fine that it packs down and does not hide the grain; (2) whenever it becomes moist and damp, due to foggy weather or the beating of rain into the house, in which case it is very apt to produce roup or colds; (8) whenever it becomes much soiled with the poultry manure. A good plan is to start in the fall by putting about two or three inches of litter in the house and then add to it, a little every week or two, thus keeping clean litter on the top all the time. In actual practice it is advisable to clean the litter all out three or four times each winter, but this depends almost wholly upon the kind of litter used. Materials to use for Poultry Litter —Where poultry raising is car- ried on in conjunction with general farm operations, there is usually WINTER MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYERS 273 an abundance of material at hand for use as litter, such as straw, cheap hay, leaves, or cut corn stover. Of these four materials, grain straw is undoubtedly the best; leaves crush quickly and do not hide the grain, while cut corn stover is rather coarse, the birds have a tendency to eat it, and this often produces a trouble known as “ crop bound.” On the large commercial poultry plants where litter must be purchased, one method is to use planer shavings, which can be bought by the bale, mixed with the same proportion of wheat, oat, or rye straw. This mixture lasts longer than straw alone, is always loose and porous, does not pack, and the droppings dry up quickly. By adding a lit- tle fresh material from time to timea well-ventilated house will not need frequent clean- ing. Spraying the Interior of the House.—Before the birds are put in the laying house in the fall, and again each spring, each pen should be given a thorough cleansing, which means the removal of ail portable fixtures and placing them in the sun for a few hours, as well as the spraying of the interior of the house and fixtures with a good dis- ; heen RAE infecting solution (Fig. 138). Fic. 138.—A ee as efficient disinfecting A good mixture is one con- taining lime to whiten the house, a disinfectant which will kill disease germs, and kerosene or crude oil to kill mites. This is very desirable, as it accomplishes three purposes with one application. (See Chapter X XVIII.) Careful Attention to Details Necessary.—The poultryman should always bear his birds in mind and make special efforts to meet all changes in weather. Keep the house as dry as possible by closing the curtains and windows on stormy days, especially if the wind is from such a quarter that it will blow directly into the house; also protect the birds from extremely cold weather by means 18 274 . MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK of properly adjusted muslin curtains. Frozen combs should be particularly guarded against, for a laying flock exposed to this condition will show a marked decline in egg production. The birds should not be allowed out of doors when there is snow on the ground or when the ground is wet, for wet feet and the eating of snow are known to decrease egg production. If a heavy production is desired during the winter, the best policy is to keep the birds continually confined, regardless of weather. Care of Broody Hens.—As soon as an individual hen has laid a number of eggs, her natural tendency is to try to incubate them. This instinct is much more pronounced during late winter and spring, and, if a continuous heavy production is desired, it is necessary to break up the broody habit as soon as possible, for two reasons. If hens are allowed to sit continuously, they do not begin again to lay for a month or more, and they are also apt to spoil the eggs laid by other hens in the same pen. The best way to break up broody hens is to confine them from three to five days, as a rule, in specially constructed coops with slatted bottoms, feed- ing them light rations of wheat, with plenty of water. Withhold all heating feed, such as corn, and keep them away from their natural nests. The desire to sit is thus more quickly discouraged. The sooner the habit is broken up, the sooner the birds will start laying again. Inattention to the proper management of broody hens will mean a large number of them in the nests, especially during the spring. This will greatly curtail the egg yield and will hinder other hens from laying where they should. Summer management of laying birds resolves itself into three . topics: (1) How to handle the birds in the most economical manner; (2) the selection of birds which are to be kept over for future layers; (3) carrying the birds safely through the molt. All these matters should be considered from the standpoint of econ- omy of feed and labor, as well as immediate and future egg pro- duction. Handling the Birds in the Most Economical Manner.—As soon as warm weather comes in the spring, the birds should be permitted as much range as possible, since this supplies them with an abund- ance of natural green feed. Freedom of range will greatly reduce the amount of feed required and will keep the birds in much better health. When it is impossible to pasture the birds on green feed, it is necessary to grow and feed it to them in the form of a soiling crop. SUMMER MANAGEMENT 275 Reduce the Ration Gradually, According to Range Conditions. — Discard all special concentrated commercial feed if it is possible for birds to get the equivalent from home-grown sources. No sudden changes should be made from one method of feeding to another. When it is impossible to provide summer layers with an abundance of range and green feed; they must be fed right through the summer practically the same rations which they received during the winter. Extensive forcing of layers at any season should be discouraged, as it is apt to weaken them physically, shorten their term of profitable production, and at the same time unfit them for breeding during the breeding season. Feeding for forcing can be successfully carried on during a few of the winter months without injury, but not in the summer. The birds should then be given a rest in which to get back any lost vitality or vigor. In the management of the summer flock an important requisite is that the houses be cool with an abundance of fresh air. This can be secured by leaving the curtains up and windows open, and by admitting cool air from the back of the house. Any of the open- front convertible houses can in this way be made into desirable laying houses for summer. This is especially important in low shed-roofed houses covered with paper, as they are apt to be very hot in the summer. By inducing a circulation of cool air during the night, the birds will keep in much better condition, and respond with a larger yield. Selection of Layers for Second Year.—The age when birds are most profitable as layers depends almost entirely upon their man- agement during the pullet year, and upon the health and vigor of the birds at the end of their first laying season. There are two general methods on commercial plants regarding the holding of birds for laying. The first one is to keep only pullets for commercial egg pro- duction. They are brought to maturity and forced for continuous maximum egg production, and at the end of one year’s laying are disposed of for meat. A start is made again each year with an entirely new lot of layers. This method necessitates the hatching of an exceedingly large number of chicks every year, and great risk is run in the danger and liability of late hatches and poor broods. The other method, which is quite extensively followed, is to keep a definite number of birds during the pullet year,—say, for example, one thousand. At the end of the first year select five 276 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK hundred of the best to be kept for egg production, and bring into the laying flock five hundred additional pullets. Subsequently, the older half of each flock should be disposed of at the end of its second laying season, and five hundred pullets brought in each year as new layers. All things considered, this system is un- doubtedly the safest and the most productive of satisfactory results on the average egg farm. It is the method generally used on the average farms of the country, but in some cases the selection is much more rigid than here indicated. It is, however, true that the greatest number of eggs are laid during the pullet year, and the next greatest number the year following. Each succeeding year the number of eggs rapidly diminishes, and it is doubtful whether, under average conditions, it is profitable to keep a bird for egg production after her second year unless she is especially valuable for breeding purposes. It is well to inspect the birds at the end of the pullet year, and make two selections during the summer,—the first one before ex- tremely warm weather begins, and the other before the hens are put into laying quarters for the winter. In these selections the following points should be carefully noted: (1) Discard all birds which are not healthy and vigorous. (2) Discard any which have not grown well during their first year. (3) Discard any which during that time were subject to disease. (4) Spasmodic layers, as those which lay rapidly for only a short time followed by long periods of rest, are also undesirable. Any hens which are not in good laying condition at the first selection of the summer can profitably be left over until the fall, since there is then an exceptionally good demand for dressed poultry, while there is a fairly good price for eggs during the months of August and September. When making the last selection in the fall, it is wise to withdraw from the mass 5 to 10 per cent of those which more nearly approach the ideal type, these being the most vigorous, and the ones which have proved to be the best layers. They should be put in a special pen, separate from the other birds, and mated for breeding purposes, for it is only by selecting and breeding from the best that any improvement can be reached. Care at Molting Time.—Much interest has been manifested in recent years in the subject of the management of the flock dur- ing the molting period.* Generally it is unprofitable to subject the molting flock to a period of fasting followed by a period * Cornell University has investigated this problem very completely. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD EGG YIELD 277 of heavy feeding. It has been shown that during the fast the birds lose weight and their vitality and stamina decline, and after heavy feeding has been resumed it takes much longer to get back the weight that was lost; this is usually gotten back before the birds start laying. The best practice is to feed the birds on,a normal, well-balanced ration throughout July and August, and allow them to molt naturally; it will be found that some specimens are early molters and some late. The late molters are usually the heavy producers; therefore, in making the last selection in the fall, birds which are rather ragged at that time will usually prove more profit- able as layers in the following winter than those which molted and got their new plumage very early. Where limited feeding is the rule, the egg yield is immediately shut off, and the balance of the summer is wasted for that purpose. It is a fact, however, that the feeding of a certain ration con- taining a high percentage of fat or oil and much protein will have a tendency to form new feathers and to make them glossy and attractive. For this reason sunflower seeds are recommended. The following conclusions have been reached from experiments conducted at Cornell University:* (1) It does not pay to force the molt by fasting. (2) It is good policy to encourage the hens by careful feeding to lay during the late summer and fall. (8) When the hens want to lay, let them lay, and the molt will follow in due time according to the character of the individual. (4) In most individuals the molt is subservient to egg production. What Constitutes a Good Egg Yield.—The exact number of eggs which a hen will lay in a year varies greatly with the breed, and with different individuals in the same breed, and it cannot be said that one breed is always a better egg producer than another. The strain is a better indication of good production than the breed; in other words, it is the breeding back of the individual which counts. The individual egg yield from an average flock of birds will vary greatly, ranging from 100 to 150, a fair estimate being about 130. There are many exaggerated statements in regard to a 200-egg strain, but a family of birds averaging such a height of production is yet to be developed. There are undoubtedly heavy- laying strains, but a successful egg yield depends as well on feeding and management, and its maintenance or increase upon future breeding and selection. As was said before, the profitable egg yield is produced during the winter months; a commercially profit- * Bulletin No. 258, “Molting of Fowls,” by J. E. Rice and C. A. Rogers. 278 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK able yield for December, January, and February is about 30 or 33 per cent; that is, a well-bred flock, properly cared for and kept for egg production, should lay one-third as many eggs as there are hens. During the spring and early summer it can usually be raised to 50 or 60 per cent, and in some cases even higher for a short time. Where very small flocks of five to ten birds are kept, it is sometimes possible to get exceptionally high individual records,— often as high as a 100 per cent egg yield for the flock for periods of short duration. In large commercial flocks in which many fowls must be considered in getting an average, annual egg yields over 160 or 170 eggs per bird are exceptions rather than the rule, and it can not be expected that whole flocks will average this number or anything like it. Improvements in Egg Production.—The efforts of, the poultry- man in managing the laying flock should not only be concentrated upon present production, but upon means and methods of increas- ing future production. Improvements in this line necessitate a close study of the individual, for it is the individual which makes the average, and a few poor birds greatly reduce the average of the better ones. In a flock of one hundred hens, it will be found that, on the average, perhaps 10 to 30 per cent rarely lay an egg during the profitable months of the year, another 5 to 10 per cent are totally barren, the remainder being fairly good egg layers. The best way to obviate this is to select or weed out the poor layers and keep only the best. It often proves more profitable to take one hundred birds out of a flock of one hundred and fifty, after which, with less labor, one can get nearly as many eggs and a much more profitable yield per bird. Where the selection is not made, the poor birds are fed at the expense of the better ones. Improvements will come largely by the codperation of three factors: (1) Rigid selection at the end of the pullet year and the mating of a breeding pen from the best birds. (2) By trap-nesting the individuals in this breeding pen during the winter and early spring, and hatching future layers from males and females that are themselves from prolific layers. (3) By producing relatively early hatches, and selecting rigidly throughout the growing season, keeping only the best youngsters for future production. The Keeping of Egg Records.—Success in poultry keeping is assured if the many details of the business are understood and are REVIEW 279 closely followed. Since profit depends upon the amount and dura- tion of egg production, it is very essential that the poultryman keep in close touch with this branch of his work. In order to do this with the least amount of labor, the practice should be to post in every laying pen a so-called egg record (see page 455) which can be filled out daily with little labor and from which at the end of each month totals can be easily obtained. A careful study of such records over a period of years will enable the poultryman to know his flock better and to manage them more economically. Nest Eggs.—China eggs should be used in the nests, simply for the reason that they induce the birds to lay continuously in the same place. If it were not for their presence the birds would, after all the eggs had for a few times been removed, seek a new place to lay, usually the floor; this would result in cracked or broken eggs, many being entirely lost. China eggs are good to use in con- nection with trap nests, where it is necessary to keep the birds from laying on the floor. Egg Eating.—The habit or vice of egg eating usually results from the birds getting a taste of a fresh egg when one has been cracked or broken. It is a habit difficult to break when once established. The following conditions will tend to prevent their acquiring the habit and, possibly, to suppress the vice: Darkened nests; large roomy nests; frequent removal of eggs; the immediate removal of any broken shells or egg contents. Patented nests are advertised which allow the egg to roll down out of reach of the bird, but they are usually undesirable. REVIEW. 1. Give the primary and secondary objects in managing a flock for egg production. 2. Discuss the constant relation between selling price of eggs and tempera- ture or season. 3. Upon what two factors does profit from egg production depend? 4. Discuss four factors which enter into the profitable management of the laying flock. . Discuss the fall management of the laying stock. . What is the best time at which to place pullets in winter quarters? . Point out the necessity of making rigid selection at maturity. Discuss size of flock. . What are the essential features in winter management of the layers? . Discuss three factors which are necessary to promote cleanliness in the laying pen. = DOONAN 280 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 11. What is the most practical method of handling broody hens? 12. Name the two most important considerations in summer management. 13. What is the profitable age of birds as layers? 14. Discuss the selection of layers for the second year. 15. Discuss management during the fall molt. 16. What is a good egg yield? 17. Name three factors whichtend toward improvement in egg production. 18. Are egg records valuable? Why? 19. -Of what use are china nest eggs? 20. Discuss the vice of egg eating and state how it may be controlled. References.—The Yearly Record of Three Flocks, by H. H. Wing, Cornell Bulletin 211. A Record of Six Hundred Hens, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 115. Cost of Egg Production, by Henry H. Wing, Cornell Bulletin 204. Winter Egg Production, by H. R. Lewis, Circular, New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Poultry Keeping for Egg Production, by W. P. Brooks, Massachusetts Bulletin 122. Feeding and Management of Poultry for Egg Production, by J. S. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 211. Essentials of Profitable Egg Production, by H. R. Lewis, New Jersey Bulletin 244. CHAPTER XVI. MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK. THE primary object in managing a pen of birds for breeding purposes is to secure fertile eggs in season, the aim being not to get the greatest possible number of eggs, but to secure the most abund- ant yield compatible with a large and uniform size of the eggs and a high percentage of fertility. Breeding by Selection.—In order to secure this and at the same time year by year consistently to build up a strain, one point must be carefully borne in mind, for it means many dollars a year to the farm poultryman, as well as to the commercial poultry breeder. This point is, special matings each year for special breed- ing purposes. These are best made just previous to the breeding season, usually in January or February, by selecting the finest females in the flock and mating them with choice males of known pedigree. Such matings should be made early enough to allow at least four weeks to elapse before the eggs are saved for hatching, so that the effects of previous matings are gone, and a higher degree of fertility will be assured. To secure the best results, the breeding pens should be relatively small, ranging from ten to fifteen birds. Where this is the rule, more care and attention can be given to indi- vidual breeders, and the small number of males required will get along better than if too many are in the same pen. Such matings are advisable for many reasons, the following being the more important: 1. By breeding from the best the progeny, in accordance with the laws of heredity, will not only resemble the parent in many respects, but will be of higher type than if the entire flock had been used for breeding. 2. Mass breeding does not assure superiority; in other words, when eggs are selected, year after year, from those of the entire flock, all that can be expected is to maintain in a succeeding gen- eration the same degree of perfection which was attained by the parent. In breeding for egg production natural selection is of no value. In fact, experience seems to show that it tends to cause retrogression. When breeding from the mass many fowls will fall below the standard in type and production, and these will work havoc in the breeding pen. 281 282 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 3. It is impossible to study individuality when large flocks are used for breeding. The possibility of future improvement lies in a study of the individual and efforts to raise the average of pro- duction; this can best be done by individual matings for breeding purposes. Such matings should be based not only upon external characteristics, but upon production as well, pedigree record blanks being placed in each pen and trap-nest records kept during the winter and spring months. With a small number of birds this necessitates very little labor, while the benefits accruing and the interest created will offset the slight expense. 4. In matings of this kind a high percentage of fertility will be realized, from the fact that greater care can be exercised in picking both the females and the breeding male, also because the results will be better if one or two males are confined in a small pen of this kind than when many males are allowed to run with large flocks. It is also much easier to keep track of the condition of the breeders and to eliminate anything which might tend to infertility. 5. The handling and selection of eggs from pens of this type will be more careful. The percentage of eggs hatched and the resulting progeny depend to a great extent upon the care and hand- ling of the eggs after they are laid. Where a poultryman has a small number of eggs of high value, as is the case with these small matings, he will naturally give them closer attention than where he has to handle an enormous quantity, which, under normal con- ditions, are good only for market. Poultrymen, when breeding their prospective layers, should seriously consider the advisability of making special breeding pens, during the breeding season at.least. It is still better to make them in the fall and keep accurate records throughout the winter, for by so doing the breeder is enabled gradually to improve the quality of his birds at very little expense. He can also eliminate the very poor layers from the flock; it is by discarding such birds and breeding from the best that superiority is ultimately brought about. Points in Selection of Breeders.—In the selection of desirable birds, both male and female, for the breeding pen, the first con- sideration should be whether the resulting progeny is to be used for meat, eggs, or both, and only ideal birds in these respects should be chosen. The breeder must first decide upon an ideal type and bear this in mind when he mates the birds. He should BREEDING BY SELECTION 283 base his selection not only upon the external appearance, but upon type, as well as the color of the eggs, since uniformity in this respect is important. Next should be considered the ancestry or pedigree of the birds. At the beginning, owing to lack of records, it will be im- possible to know the exact ancestry of the breeders, and external appearances must count for. much; but, when possible, the best plan is to purchase the male bird for this foundation stock from a reliable breeder who is known to carry the best birds of the type desired. Even if he costs a considerable sum of money, a good male means much to the future progeny and will be a profit- able investment. It is often said that a good male is worth half the flock, but he is worth more than that, for even in the first generation he means fifty per cent of the blood of the progeny. If he should be prepotent as to his characteristics and is bred to his daughters,he represents three-fourths of the blood of the prog- eny in the second generation; and so on, until, through line breed- ing, uniformity of type is attained. If this method be followed continuously, it is possible to raise fowls inheriting almost entirely the pure blood of the first male. After selection has been thorough, it is a very simple matter to trap-nest during the rest of the year, as records show that the winter layers are the most prolific, hence the ones from which we should breed. It is important to choose for the breeding pen females noted for their high production of eggs, which fitly represents the commercial worth of the individual. They should have laid their eggs, or a large proportion of them, during the fall or winter. The male used in this pen should be descended from high producers, which means he should be the son of a prolific hen. In this way high productivity will be inherited from both parents. Prepotency of the pair is also of prime importance; they should not only possess the desired characteristics, but the power of trans- mitting them to their progeny. This trait can be studied for a number of generations by means of pedigree records, and is shown by the resemblance of offspring to their parents. If a fowl capable of high production is not prepotent, and there are many of this type, she is of little value in the breeding pen, and it is wise to make a study of this from a practical standpoint. External characteristics should be considered, yet not be given greater weight than the functional. For instance, birds should not be introduced into the breeding pen for the sake merely of 284 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK external qualities, nor should a bird be discarded from the breed- ing pen because her color markings are not of the best. But so far as is possible, those birds should be selected which conform to the standard, both as to shape and color pattern of plumage. The health of the breeding birds is important. None should be put in the breeding pen which show signs of disease, and it should be the rule to mark with color bands any birds in the gen- eral flock, as well as in the breeding pen, which have ever been afflicted with disease; for such birds, even after recovery, do not make good breeders, and in the case of certain hereditary diseases there is always the danger of transmitting them to the progeny. Hence the health of both male and female in the past, as well as the present, should be noted, and only birds of good constitution and vitality and free from taint of disease should be used. Age of Breeding Stock.—The age at which hens make the best breeders is the second or third laying season. At this time they have reached maturity, have attained their maximum develop- ment, they produce large eggs, hence large chicks, and the breeder has the advantage of having studied their individual possibilities in the pullet year. All things considered, yearling hens during the second laying season undoubtedly make the best breeders. With males, however, it is a good plan to use well-developed cock- erels. This is often done, and the best results are secured by using a cockerel of a relatively early hatch but full maturity. When, for any reason, it is necessary to use pullets for breeding, they should be hatched early, fully matured, and mated with old cocks, not cockerels. Pullets as Breeders—The mistake is often made, especially by poultrymen who desire to hasten matters by hatching their own birds, of using immature pullets. This is always poor policy unless the pullets are fully matured; and approximately one year old. For instance, birds hatched early in January and February may perhaps make satisfactory breeders next year in March or April, but it is rarely the case. The following are some of the chief reasons why disaster accompanies this practice: Where pullets are used as breeders, a large percentage of the eggs set are infertile, undoubtedly as the result of immaturity. The chicks at hatching time and at maturity prove to be small, and the size of the chick will prove to be in direct proportion to the size of the egg. The resulting progeny show a pronounced lack of vitality, both PROPORTION OF MALES TO FEMALES 285 during their growing period and at maturity; and if the practice be continued, there is rapid deterioration. There is a case in point where broiler raisers made a practice of crossing White Wyandottes and Light Brahmas, as they considered that a better broiler was secured, but they found they had to make an original cross from standard-bred birds every year in order to secure any degree of uniformity in the resultant chicks. In consequence, they were obliged to hatch each year from pullets, and it was invariably necessary to get new stock, as there was a noticeable loss of vitality and decrease in size of the progeny. The trouble was corrected in a large measure by using pure-bred White Wyandottes for the broiler end of the business, and hatching from yearling hens. The progeny resulting from pullet eggs are small and at matu- rity do not attain the maximum size. This is due to their early handicap in the small size of the egg and of the chick when hatched. When continued, this tendency leads gradually to a decrease in the size of that particular strain. The factors enumerated have in the course of succeeding gen- erations of pullet breeding led to a noticeable deterioration, which is often expressed as “a running out of the stock.” This trouble can easily be corrected by breeding from mature birds only. Proportion of Males to Females.—The number of females, and the relation between females and males in special mating, depend upon certain conditions, such as the breed, the size of the flock, and the season. Where light, active egg breeds are mated, it is unnecessary to maintain as great a proporticn of males to females as when the heavier, slower breeds are kept. For example, one Leghorn male to ten females is ample to insure a high fertility, whereas with the heavier breeds, which are slow and of less nervous tempera- ment, one male to seven or eight females is as high a ratio as is conducive to the best results. Season also influences this question. When the breeder desires eggs for hatching at other than the natural breeding season of spring, he must run a greater proportion of males in a flock of given size, this ratio, however, depending upon the number of eggs being produced. The size of the flock, to quite an extent, also affects the fer- tility. The smaller the flock, the larger the number of males neces- sary to a given number of females, and the larger the flock the smaller the proportion of males. The best practice is to mate 286 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK them according to a well-established scale, and study the resulting fertility. Any great excess of infertility will probably be due to poor methods of breeding the birds, rather than to the relative number of males. Care During Mating Season.—A few points in the care of breeding birds during the breeding season must be specially borne in mind, and those which follow are of paramount importance. The style and type of the house should not be noticeably differ- ent from a good open-front laying house, but it should be so planned as to get an abundance of fresh air and sunlight. The extreme open front is probably the best for this purpose, as, not being used during cold weather, the birds need no protection from cold. Sunlight in the house is most essential. Plenty of room is needed. Breeding birds should never be crowded, for this will prevent some of them from getting sufficient exercise and sunlight, and will increase the tendency to disease and parasites. Moreover, it is impossible to study individual type and keep a careful watch on the health of the birds when too many are crowded into a pen of insufficient size. The birds in the breeding pen should be given plenty of exer- cise, and this can best be accomplished by feeding considerable grain in deep litter, or by varying the amount of mash which they eat, by the length of time which the hopper is left open, according to their body fat. Lack of exercise tends to increase deposition of fat, and this to deerease fertility. Feed for Breeding Hens.—The feed required by the breeding hen is almost identical with that of the laying hen, and can be supplied by giving a good laying ration. But a few important factors must be emphasized. The feed must contain an abundance of nutrients, since any lack of these will decrease the egg yield and the chances of fertility; it may also result in small-sized eggs, which is an important and undesirable feature. Protein in some form, preferably a high grade of beef scrap, has been shown by experiments to be invaluable for maintaining a high degree of fertility as well as for promoting a good egg yield. Just preceding the breeding season it is safe to give as much as fifteen or twenty per cent of beef scrap in the dry mash. But previous to this time, or during heavy winter production, forcing by this means is tabooed, as it is apt to lower vitality and to cause sterility or weak germs later i in the season. Green feed is a necessity. Experiments have shown that it SELECTING EGGS FOR HATCHING 287 increases fertility, and the birds relish it in large quantities. Where “it has been given to, or withheld from, breeding flocks for alter- nate periods, the effect upon fertility has been shown absolutely. This advantage is approximately from eight to twelve per cent. The feed should contain only a limited amount of carbohydrates or fat-forming elements, especially for the heavier breeds, since, under normal conditions, they have a tendency to take on flesh rapidly, and this results in an excess of fat, a decreased production, and accompanying infertility. Plenty of feed and care in the method of giving it are most essential. Collecting Eggs for Hatching.—Eggs laid during the breeding season are to be used for hatching; hence much care should be exercised in their collection and handling (Fig. 139). After mating, it is well to wait from two to four weeks before sav- ing eggs for breeding purposes, two weeks being the usual time, but in the case of heavy breeds four are necessary and safer at any season. (See page 281.) It is well to collect the eggs two or three times a day, thus averting the dangers of their being broken, or becom- ing extremely dirty by a num- A Fig. 139.--The egg-collecting pail should ber of hens treading on them. be of heavy construction to avoid breakage. It also lessens the danger of A nest of soft material may be placed in the bottom. incubation being started by broody hens, and in cold weather of the eggs being chilled. Any violent motion of the egg, such as shaking or jarring, should be avoided, as this is apt to rupture the internal membranes and make the egg useless for incubation. Selecting Eggs for Hatching.—On collecting the eggs they should immediately be sorted, and any egg unfit for hatching should be disposed of for the table. Select eggs uniform in type, shape, size, and color, discarding all that are cracked, extremely dirty, badly shaped, or which have a rough, thin, or irregular shell. Extremely small or exceptionally large eggs should not be used (Fig. 140). This careful selection of eggs for hatching means the saving of money in the course of a season, since all eggs of unsurt- 288 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK able type which would not produce living chicks can at this time be disposed of at a profit. If put into an incubator, they would result only in a hatch of weak or malformed chicks, and the revenue which might have accrued from the sale of eggs would be lost. Keeping Eggs for Hatching.—Many eggs are ruined for hatch- ing purposes during the time they are held previous to incubation. Eggs should be kept at a relatively low temperature, 50° F. being the most desirable. Experiments show, and embryologists tell us, that the embryo in the egg begins to develop at a temperature of 70°, but if this temperature is not maintained it immediately dies. During this short period it will not have attained any size, and cannot be detected by candling, but may be classed as Fia, 140.—Desirable and undesirable types of hatching eggs. Upper row quite uniform as to size and shape; lower row, too long, too round, or with imperfect shells. infertile. This fact undoubtedly accounts for the exceptionally high percentage of apparently infertile eggs on farms and small poultry plants during the late winter and early spring, when, in order to keep the eggs from freezing, they are placed behind the kitchen stove. ; It is advisable to place hatching eggs so that they can be regu- larly and carefully turned once a day. The embryo floats in the upper portion of the yolk, and, if the egg is left in one position for a considerable time, the yolk may come into closer contact with the shell, and, if not turned, it may become attached. More- over, if eggs are not regularly turned, the air cell will assume an abnormal position, since the fluid in an egg has a tendency to settle and the air to rise. Eggs left in one position for a consider- CARE OF YOUNG BREEDERS UNTIL MATURITY 289 able time will show air cells of irregular shape, often on the side of the egg. The result is that the chick will occupy the wrong position in the shell, and in most instances a successful hatching is impossible. The length of time which the eggs are kept previous to hatch- ing bears an important relation to the hatch. Experiments show that the longer eggs are kept, regardless of the manner of keeping, the smaller will be the percentage of hatch. Eggs set in from two to five days will yield the highest percentage of chicks. Under average conditions it is not desirable to keep eggs for hatching longer than one week, but if they are carefully turned and kept at a temperature of 50° or below, satisfactory hatches may be obtained after keeping them even three weeks. Some Causes of Infertility.—Since infertility proves one of the greatest sources of loss, and probabiy depends in large measure upon the breeding stock and the mode of handling eggs, it is well to recognize a few of its common causes. They are here outlined as follows: Immature or extremely aged breeding stock, the former being the more common cause. Insufficient time between mating and the saving of eggs for hatching. Weakened vitality of the breeding stock Excessively fat breeders. Insufficient exercise. Lack of green feed. Lack of sufficient animal protein. Excess of females to one male. Unsuitable environment. The following are some of the causes of “ apparent infertility ”’ or death of the germs: (1) Low vitality of breeders; (2) keeping eggs at too high a temperature; (3) keeping eggs too long before incubation; (4) insufficient turning. Fertility is the one thing above all others which the breeder is seeking, especially after having mated his fowls for breeding purposes, usually at considerable expense. Want of attention to any of the above factors may result in a loss of this important requisite. Care of Young Breeders Until Maturity.—Birds hatched from high producing stock, and to be matured for breeding purposes, 19 290 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK require attention differing somewhat from that given to stock raised for production only. Hatch chicks early, to give them time for full development. If this is neglected, and they are forced to premature maturity, the resulting progeny will be of small size, and this will be per- sistent throughout. Brood in small units, so that the individual may have a chance to develop to the utmost. Where breeding in extremely large flocks is practised, the fowls do not have an equal chance to de- velop, some of the smaller ones becoming stunted: by insuffi- cient feed or crowding, when they otherwise would have developed into good birds. From the standpoint of economy and efficiency, in the commercial flock the large unit is practicable; but with a few birds of exceptionally high quality and value, the smaller unit has the advantage. Give the growing youngsters free range where there is an abun- dance of natural green feed, and well ventilated coops or shelters. Separate the sexes as soon as practicable, and raise each inde- pendently until maturity. Mark indelibly any chick which shows signs of weakness or disease at any stage of its growth. Any that are malformed or show decided lack of vitality should be slaughtered. Those of a type unsuitable for breeding purposes should be placed in the laying pens. Give the fowls an unrestricted opportunity to develop to the highest possible degree, since when fully developed and matured the breeder has a flock of prepotent birds capable of turning out the best progeny. Summary.—Poultry breeding is a natural process, and arti- ficial conditions must be adapted to its requirements. Standard- bred birds are of a nervous temperament and possess great powers of production and reproduction, but this indicates that they need extra care and attention. Under normal conditions these birds lay but few eggs during the spring season, when it is easiest to hatch and rear the young, their sole instinct being to reproduce their kind. With birds under domestication the idea is not only to reproduce them in kind, but to obtain a commercial product, and, in order to develop this industry to its highest de- gree, man has transformed the fowl into a “ machine.” Here the conditions differ from the natural instincts and habits of fowls, and, in order to run such a machine to its highest efficiency REVIEW 291 and to bring about steady improvement, constant thought is necessary. One cannot expect to get maximum results or superi- ority in his flock without more or less continuous care in selection and mating. © Co N oOoaPPwnre REVIEW. . What is the chief object in managing breeding stock? . Discuss the desirability of selected matings for breeding purposes. . Discuss six points which should be considered in selecting breeding birds. . What is the most desirable age for breeding stock? . Give five disadvantages resulting from using pullets as breeders. . Discuss conditions regulating the number of males and females in the breeding pen. . Give three features which require special consideration during the mating season. . What four special points should be considered in feeding breeders? . What points do you consider of special significance in collecting eggs for hatching? . What points should be considered when selecting hatching eggs? . Mention three factors which affect the keeping quality of hatching eggs. . Give nine causes which tend to produce infertility. . Mention four causes of apparent infertility or early death of the embryo. . What five points are of special significance in the care of young breeders until maturity? . Compare the wild bird and the domesticated species in reference to re- production and artificial breeding. Reference.—Fertility of Eggs, North Dakota Farmers’ Bulletin 251. CHAPTER XVII. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL. Birps, considered as a great class of animals, are one of the most clearly defined classes in the animal kingdom. There is a great variety of types, representing different forms, sizes, and habits, yet in general their structure is very similar. Birds are more closely allied to the reptile group than to the mammals. There are over eight thousand species in the class. The fowl is a warm-blooded, air-breathing, egg-laying, feathered vertebrate, with four limbs. Those in front are for flying (which use has been greatly diminished during domestication), while the hind ones are for walking, scratching, perching, and swimming. Since the fowl is a true bird and is organized for flight, it possesses an ex- ceedingly light skeleton. Its muscular tissue is capable of great con- traction, and its respiratory system is exceedingly well developed. The Bird’s Skeleton.—There are four marked points in which the bird’s skeleton differs materially from mammals: 1. The extreme lightness of the bones, making flight possible. 2. The tendency of bones to fuse, thus giving greater rigidity to the body proper. 3. The adaptation of the limbs to allow of walking as well as flight. 4, The great length of the spinal column, especially the neck, this being as long as the rest of the column combined. The bird’s skeleton (Fig. 141) is very compact, much more so than that of mammals, and the bones are harder and whiter. It contains fewer bones than the mammal, many being grown to- gether to form one, as the skull bones, the dorsal vertebra, and the tarsal and metatarsal bones. The neck is very long and flex- ible, giving the bird great latitude in movements of the head. The ribs are joined in the middle as well as to the backbone and sternum, the latter being highly developed to furnish the seat or location of the muscles used in flight. Wings.—Parts corresponding to the hands and forearms of the human skeleton are found in the wings of the bird, and from them are developed respectively the primary and secondary wing feathers. The wings are carried folded on the back. 292 THE BIRD’S SKELETON 293 The hind limbs of the bird represent more modifications and a greater number of bones. The tibia is the principal bone, while the most noticeable characteristic is the fused tarsus and meta- ay “ee, Bi Ee Bm EP Ls After Edward Brown. Fia. 141.—Skeleton of fowl. 1, Upper jaw; 2, lower jaw; 3, nasal cavity; 4, eye cavity; 5, skull; 6, neck vertebre; 7, scapula; 8, clavicles (wish bone); 9, digits; 10, bones of fore- wing; 11, ulna; 12, radius; 13, humerus; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, femur; 17, acetabulum; 18, ischium; 19, pygostyle or tail bones; 20, breastbone or sternum; 21, tibia; 22, tarso- metarsus; 23, spur; 24, rear toe; 25, toes. tarsus. The thigh bones are exceedingly short, and when the bird is in full plumage are never seen. The fowl normally has only four toes. The fifth one is missing. (The Dorking and Houdan 294 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL are exceptions). The toes end in claws which aid in scratching and perching. The four toes are arranged with three in front and one behind, except in the five-toed breeds, which have two behind. The spur above the toes is most developed in males as a means of defence. The sternum, or breast bone, is one of the most highly developed bones in the fowl’s skeleton. It is very large and projects far back beyond the ribs, forming a large part of the abdominal wall. It is so situated as to protect the vital organs lying above it. There is a thin blade called the keel, which forms an attachment for the. flight muscles, and its size varies greatly as the sizes of the wings vary. Some breeds with small wings have no incentive to flight. They have small keels and a correspondingly small amount of breast meat. The two clavicles, commonly called in the human skeleton the collar bones, are thin bones, the lower points being attached and the upper slightly spread, thus forming a spring which aids in working the wings. The united clavicles are often called the ‘ wish bone.” The fowl’s head is small in comparison with other body parts, and is characterized by lightness and the fusion of cranial bones. The jaws are commonly called mandibles and form the bird’s beak. Just back of the upper mandible are the nasal cavities, which are relatively small and open by means of small slits into the interior of the mouth. These slits are found open when the bird’s head is down, and closed when the head is elevated; hence the necessity for the bird to raise its head when drinking, to keep the water from running out of the nostrils. The vertebral column of the fowl is characterized by the great length of the neck, by its mobility, and by the rigidity of the back, loin, and tail. The pelvic arch is composed of the ilium and acetabulum above and the ischium coming down each side, forming what are com- monly called the “lay bones” in the hen. These four bones assume various positions at different stages of the laying period. The Physiological Organization of the Fowl.—It is well to understand the elementary parts of the animal structure and their relation to one another. These are the cells, various kinds of tissues, organs, and their resulting system. A cell is the most elementary living part of the body. There are millions of these, of various shapes, according to the tissues MUSCULAR SYSTEM 295 they form. They are very minute. Each living and growing cell is made up of a cell wall containing a mass of protoplasm with its nucleus, cell sap, and other cell contents. Protoplasm resembles the white of an egg, but may be jellylike in consistency. Living cells grow and multiply in large numbers together. Those of one kind or structure are united to form a certain kind of tissue. There are six kinds of tissues recognized in the body: (1) Muscular tissue; (2) epithelial tissue, or skin; (3) nervous tissue; (4) connective tissue, which surrounds other tissues and organs, holding them in place; (5) bony tissue; (6) fatty tissue. In order to accomplish a definite purpose and to work to the best advantage, several kinds of tissues are usually associated together to form organs. For example, the heart is a group of different tissues working for 4 definite purpose. Each organ has a work to perform, which is closely associated with other organs working in codperation with it. Such a combination is called a system. The following systems make up the working parts of the fowl’s body: Muscular, digestive, circulatory, respiratory, reproductive, and nervous systems. The nervous system, and others of minor importance to the poultryman, will not be dis- cussed _ here. Muscular System.—The muscular system has a double func- tion to perform in the case of the fowl: (1) To furnish the means by which the bird can move, (2) to cover the bones and fill out the body contour. This latter function tends to give the show bird the highest degree of type and perfection of bodily propor- tions and the standard shape. The character and extent to which the muscular tissue has been developed determine in a large measure the value of the bird for table purposes. The character and form of muscles in any breed are largely inherited, but they can be influenced by feeding and management. For example, the effect of close confinement compared with liberal exercise on the structure of the muscular tissue is easily shown. The former will produce soft flesh, fine in texture, and relatively free from connective tissue; the latter will produce less flesh, coarse in structure, with an increased amount of connective tissue. . Muscles vary greatly in size and thickness in different parts of the body. Those of most importance, from a commercial stand- point, are found chiefly on the breast and limbs. The former are the muscles which control flight. 296 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL The Digestive Organs.—The digestive system is one of the most complex combinations of organs in the bird’s body (Fig. 142). After Wheeler, GYVOP Hr rQhAaoe g Tongue upper bill removed Esophagus Crop Lsophagus True stomach Gizzarad Duodenum Small intestine Caeca Rectum Cloaca Liver Spleen Gall bladder Pancreas Fiq, 142.—The digestive tract. Teeth, though found in prehistoric birds, are wanting in birds of the present time. The digestive organs of domestic fowls are as CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 297 follows: (1) The beak, or mandibles, for picking up feed and sometimes cutting or tearing it; (2) the gullet, through which feed passes, after being moistened in the mouth with saliva; (3) the crop, or temporary receptacle; (4) the stomach (proventriculus), where gastric juice is secreted and mixed with it; (5) the gizzard, a strong muscular sac, where, by means of small stones and sharp grit (serving as the teeth of the bird), the feed is ground more finely than in the mouths of many of the larger animals; and (6) the intestine, a long tube which receives the pulped material from the gizzard, subjects it to the action of several juices from the pancreas, the liver, and other glands, and absorbs the digested and dissolved por- tions; the undigested residue passes along to (7) the cloaca, where it mixes with the waste materials from the genito-uri- nary canal, which empties into the intestine at this point. Circulatory System.—The circulatory system of the fowl is very similar to that of mam- mals, being composed of a heart with four cavities, from which the blood is pumped to all parts of the body, through blood vessels, some of which convey nourishment, while oth- ers purify the body by carry- ing away its waste material. The blood of birds is about two or three degrees warmer Fig. 143.—Circulatory system of the fowl. than that of mammals. The circulatory system is composed of two distinct circuits or courses which the blood takes in passing through the body. The diagram (Fig. 148) shows the course of the blood. The heart is designed to pump two streams of blood at once, its left side pump- ing the blood through the body and the right side through the HEAD AND UPPER PART OF BODY ORGANS BODY AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 298 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL lungs, just as in the human system. (Refer to text-books on physi- ology for a description of the human circulation.) Respiratory System.—Breathing is carried on in the lungs. The air enters these through the trachea or windpipe, whichis a long tube, dividing just before it reaches the lungs into two bronchial tubes, one of which enters each lung. It is in the lungs that the blood gives up the poisonous material-which it has gathered, and takes up its supply of oxygen to carry through the body. The lungs are surrounded by large air sacs in the breast and abdomen, there being nine in all. These increase the size of the bird in proportion to its weight and enable it to fly better. Reproductive Systems.— The female’s reproductive system consists of two main organs, the ovaries and ovi- duct. The hen has two ova- ries, only one of which is active. In general this re- sembles a bunch of grapes, the ova (or eggs) varying in size from small specks to full- size yolks, when the bird is in condition for laying. Each ovum (or egg) as it comes to maturity enters the oviduct, where it may be fertilized by the sperm of the male; as it - passes down the oviduct suc- oaca . . eae cessive layers of albumin are Fia. 144.—Male reproductive system. added, and finally just before being laid the shell is put on. A description of the formation of the egg is given in Chapter XVIII. The reproductive glands of the male bird, called testicles, two in number, are near the backbone just in front of the kidneys and about opposite the last ribs. These secrete the male sperm, which is transported through two tubes, called vas deferens, to the cloaca (Fig. 144). The Development of the Senses.—The fowl has a well-devel- vas deferens REVIEW 299 oped brain, but the senses are much inferior to those of mammals in general. The sense of touch is limited, since the skin is covered with feathers, the quills of which end in small bulbs or hollows under the skin. The sense of smell is not very keen, while the sense of taste varies considerably in individuals. All fowls reject things which are objectionable to them; probably, however, this is as much from sight as from taste; but it is clearly demonstrated that they have a sense of taste quite well developed, since they show a partiality for certain kinds of feed, whether there is any great difference in the physical nature of the feeds cr not. Palata- bility is an important consideration in poultry feeding. The sense of sight is very highly developed as well as the sense of hearing. REVIEW. . Give a physiological description of the domestic fowl. . Name the leading parts of the bird’s skeleton. . Discuss four points in which the bird’s skeleton differs from that of mammals. . Discuss briefly or define cells, tissues, organs, and systems. Name several tissues; several organs; several systems. . What are the functions of the muscular system? Locate and give the functions of the various organs of the digestive system. Give two uses for the circulation of blood through the bird. . How does the plan of circulation compare with that in the human body?: Describe it. . Locate and give the use of the respiratory system. . Discuss the special senses in fowls. CHONATER WHE iad eH Oo Reference.—Ligaments of the Oviduct of the Domestic Fowl, by M. R. Curtis, Maine Bulletin 176. CHAPTER XVIII. FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN. THE reproductive organs of birds, and especially of the domestic fowl, are among the most complicated, since they must not only produce the ovum, but must enclose it in a protective envelope or sac, and supply nourishment for the embryo when growth sub- sequently takes place. As the ovum is developed after it is out- side of the body, this elaborate protection is necessary in order to preserve it in its original form, to retard evaporation of water, and at the same time to permit the absorption of oxygen and mois- ture. The reproductive organs are composed of the ovary and the oviduct (Fig. 145). The oviduct is divided into two distinct parts, one secreting albumin and the other the shell. The Ovary.—The active ovary lies on the left side of the body posteriorly, close to the backbone. It resembles closely a bunch of grapes which vary in size from that of a walnut, when the ovum is fully developed, down to that of a pin-point. The ovum corre- sponds to the yolk or yellow part of the egg. All hens have at maturity a certain number of embryonic ova, which represent all the eggs or yolks which it will be possible for them to develop dur- ing life, the rapidity with which these will mature depending upon management and feeding. The development of the ovum is brought about through an excess of feed, that is, material beyond what is required for maintenance and growth; hence egg production cannot attain its maximum unless plenty of feed be given. By the accumulation of yellow or yolk the ovum is brought to matur- ity, the yolk sac or calyx distends, and, as development progresses, the yolk sac becomes detached from the ovary and completely covers the ovum. When the ovum reaches maturity, the calyx or yolk sac gradually recedes along the white stigma line, allowing the egg or yolk proper to slip from the capsule, at which time it drops into the expanded, upturned opening of the oviduct. The remaining calyx immediately contracts, rapidly diminishes in size, and is soon entirely absorbed. The oviduct is a large tube, whitish in color, which starts from a point just below the ovary and ends at the cloaca. During the breeding season it becomes much enlarged, and is covered with a 300 THE OVIDUCT 301 network of fine blood vessels. The upper opening of the oviduct is expanded in the shape of a funnel to facilitate the entrance of the ovum when it emerges from the yolk sac. The duct on its re x (Yolk entering the | funnel-shaped $, ‘ oviduct Sul Calyx or. yolk sack : iN Second portion 3 of the oviduct where the albumin tis formed [ZAird portion where the shell is added opened showing Last portion of: ae | completed egg Passage through| { which the e997 zs expelled. R Vent or cloaca After Dalton. Fig. 145.—Female reproductive organs. way to the cloaca lies in folds, being lapped upon itself three times before it finally passes into the cloaca. When the yolk enters the oviduct it consists of a yellow mass, called the “‘ vitellus,’’ enclosed in a thin membrane, the “ vitelline ”” membrane. Fertilization takes place in the upper part of the ovi- duct before any albumin has been added, and if at this time the 302 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN yolk be examined there will be found, just beneath the vitelline membrane, a small circular whitish body, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, which will always float uppermost, no matter in what position the egg is laid. In the fertilized egg this disk has three well-defined areas,—an outer white rim, within which is a clear zone, and in the centre of this zone a somewhat elongated structure which is the embryo itself. These three parts constitute what is known as the blastoderm of the hen’s egg, the part whose function is reproduction; all the rest of the egg is directly utilized for nutrition and protection. F The passage of the egg down the oviduct, from this time on, is marked by the following processes: By the muscular contraction of the walls of the oviduct, the yolk is propelled to the cloaca. The passage of the yolk stimulates the walls of the duct to secrete successive layers of albumin. The first layer is thick, and has thickened portions which are fastened to the opposite poles of the yolk, to hold it in place. These thick- ened portions are called chalaze; they are heavy twisted threads of albumin. After the thick layer of albumin two layers are added, each of which is thinner and more watery than the preceding one. When the egg reaches the lower or contracted part of the oviduct, two very tenacious but thin layers of albumin are added, to form the inner and outer shell membranes. The air cell, which is always perceptible at the larger end of the fully developed egg, is not present at first, but is formed by the evaporation of the fluids of the albumin and the entrance of atmospheric air to replace these fluids after the egg is laid. Just before the egg is discharged into the cloaca, it passes through a section of the oviduct where the shell is added, in the form of a coating of thin liquid secretion containing lime, which hardens quickly. The perfect egg with its hardened shell is retained in the cloaca a short time before being laid. The power to hold the egg in the cloaca is under the control of the bird, so that, if she is frightened from her nest or unable to reach it, she can retain the egg for some time, the exact period varying with individuals. , The parts of the completed egg are the shell, shell membranes, albumin, and yolk (Fig. 146). The use of each is discussed in the following paragraphs. The shell is the outer envelope of the egg, and its function is primarily that of protection. Soft-shelled eggs are those that have either no shell or else a very thin one. This is due to a deficiency THE PARTS OF THE COMPLETED EGG 303 of lime salts in the feed, hence the necessity of supplying lime: It is estimated that one hen laying 100 eggs of average size will pro- duce in a year about 22 ounces of carbonate of lime. The bird gets this large amount of lime from such materials as shells, dust, stones, and pieces of bone, which it constantly picks up when at liberty; if confined, oyster shell is given to supply the deficiency. The egg- shell itself is composed chiefly of carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and a little animal matter. It is extremely porous, hence permeable by air, which is needed to supply oxygen to the embryo during incubation. Microscopic examination reveals thousands of Blastoderm, snell outer shell- membrane. Chalaza viteline membrane inner shell mempcane. Fic. 146.—Parts of the completed egg. minute pores in the shell, by means of which evaporation is going on constantly from the time of laying. The degree of this evapora- tion is a sure indication of the age of the egg or the conditions under which it’ has been kept. Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly in warm weather than in cold, and in dry air than in moist; hence the difficulty of keeping eggs fresh for any length of time in summer. This time could be greatly increased if it were pos- sible to close these pores or openings and thus stop evaporation, which, however, would make the egg unfit for hatching. Shell Membranes.—Immediately under the shell are two mem- branes, called the inner and outer shell membranes. Both of these adhere closely to the shell, the outer one being in direct con- 304 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN tact, while the inner one is adherent to the outer. At the large end, however, they are separate, and form a small cavity or sac known as the air cell. This is filled with air which has been drawn into the egg owing to the evaporation of the liquids, the size of the air cell increasing as the age of the egg increases. If this cell is found in any place but the large end of the egg, it usually denotes that the egg has been kept for some time, and has not been turned; thus the liquids settle and force the air to the highest point. Albumin.—Next is seen the albumin or white of the egg. This is a translucent liquid without definite structure, and, in the fresh egg, free from smell and taste. The albumin is easily coagulated by heat, only about 140 degrees being required. It is soluble in water. Under chemical analysis albumin is rather complex, being composed of varying proportions of oxygen, hydrogen, sul- phur, phosphorus, and carbon. The albumin can be readily divided into three distinct layers: a thin outer coat, a thicker middle layer, and a very much thickened inner stratum. In the latter can be found the chalaze, which are thickened strings or cords of albumin, having an outer terminus in the outer layer of albumin, and an inner securely interwoven in and around the yolk; they run lengthwise of the egg, are twisted in opposite directions, and hold the yolk in place. In appearance they resemble twisted cords. The albumin has two distinct functions; the first is that of protection, by forming a thick layer of material around the germ, at the same time that it furnishes the material in which it floats, thus protecting it from shocks which otherwise might prove fatal. The second purpose is that it provides material which goes directly into the formation of tissue for the embryo. _ The Yolk.—The yolk or ovum may be called the most import- ant part of the egg, since it contains within its outer wall, or vitel- line membrane, the germ or embryo and also the nourishment of the growing embryo. The yolk is nearly round, and light yellow in color, the degree or intensity of color varying with the character of the feed. In composition the yolk is considerably richer than the albumin, especially in phosphate of lime, there being but a trace in the albumin. The yolk is composed of two distinct por- tions arranged in concentric rings or layers, one being light in color and not coagulable upon the addition of heat, the other darker yellow in color and easily coagulable at a high temperature. In the lighter portion of the yolk is a hollow or indentation, in the upper part of which, and next to the vitelline membrane, lies the MALFORMED EGGS AND THEIR CAUSES 305 germ, which can easily be distinguished by its whitish color and circular shape. The function of the yolk is to nourish the chick for the first few hours after hatching and during the early stages of its growth. It is just as essential to the young chick as is the colostrum to the calf. It supplies nutrients in easily digestible form, at the same time exerting a laxative influence which starts the digestive processess. Composition of the Egg.—Aside from its shell, the hen’s egg resembles in its composition the adult’ bird. Wheeler gives the following analysis: The dry matter of the egg, exclusive of the shell, shows the following proportion of constituents, water not considered: 49.8 protein; 3.4 ash; 38.5 fat. Considering the total dry matter in the whole egg, shell in- cluded, we find the proportions to be: 38.5 protein; 35.6 ash; 25.4 fat. A fresh-laid egg with a good sound shell, including water, shows the following analysis: 13.2 protein; 11.4 shell, 0.8 other ash; 8.9 fat; 65.7 water. The ash found in the egg, aside from the shell, is rich in phos- phate. The shell consists almost entirely of carbonate of lime. Malformed Eggs and their Causes.—Soft-shelled eggs are due either to the absence of shell-forming material in the feed or to disease in the lower part of the oviduct which results in an insuffi- cient secretion of lime salts. In rare cases, however, they may be caused by the fowls not eating enough of shell-forming material, even when an abundant supply is available. Sometimes the bird is too fat, and this results in an absence of muscular tonicity, the egg being passed down the oviduct so rapidly that the secretions are not supplied in sufficient amount. In the ordinary course of eggs down the oviduct, they should mature at such times that only one will be laid at a time; but in consequence of improper feed, usually too much of carbohydrates or fat, the bird deposits excessive fat, the organs contract and do not permit the free passage of the ovum, finally one of two things may result. Two ova may pass into the oviduct nearly at the same time, or one may be held near the upper end until another is formed there, when the combined force of the two will propel them down the oviduct, this resulting in an egg being laid with two yolks,—the commonly seen double-yolked egg, which is usually of excessive size because of the twin yolks. 20 B06 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN Another peculiar condition which is often interesting to the uninitiated is the presence of a perfectly formed egg within another egg. This is due to the fact that, by the contraction of the ovi- duct, the completed egg has been forced back into the albumin- secreting section of the duct after being coated by the shell liquid. It remains there until it is met by another yolk, when the two pass together through the uterus, or shell-forming part of the ovi- duct, and the entire mass receives another shell. Extremely small eggs are common at the beginning or end of a laying period; this is in part due to a diminution in the size, hence in the lessened secreting power, of the oviduct. y Double yolk / t \ Fig. 147,—Abnormal eggs shown in comparison with a normal one. The elongated form is due to the contraction of the oviduct. Distorted and misshapen eggs are accounted for by a diseased condition of the lower part of the oviduct and an accompanying contraction which prevents the expansion necessary when the egg leaves the oviduct and enters the cloaca; consequently, it is forced through a small opening and, as the shell is soft, is compressed into peculiar or elongated shape. These malformations are largely the effects of domestication, and are rare when the flock receives proper care and feeding (Fig. 147). Fertile Eggs.—Every egg, whether fertile or not, contains the female germ, which, however, cannot develop or grow until it has been fertilized by the male germ. The latter is contained in a FORMATION OF THE CHICK 307 cavity at the upper end of the oviduct, and there, as the naked yolk passes into the oviduct, before albumin has been added, the necessary union takes place. It is a common but mistaken belief among the inexperienced that a male bird in the pen is necessary for the production of eggs. This is true so far as the laying of fertile eggs is concerned; and, while it is true that the primary object of egg production is repro- duction, yet impregnation is unnecessary for the production of the egg, and hens will lay just as many eggs when no male bird runs with the flock as they will with one. In fact, it is becoming a rule on the larger egg farms to produce infertile eggs for market, since they are less likely to spoil, and there is no danger of the germ developing and ruining the eggs for eating. Fertilization is not an incentive to egg production among domestic fowls. The egg, then, is a productive sac surrounding a female germ cell, which may or may not be fertilized. In the latter case the egg is termed infertile and cannot possibly be hatched, because to produce life there must be the union of the male and female germ cells. Formation of the Chick.—The first stage in the development of the embryo takes place before the egg is laid, probably due to the heat from the bird’s body. This change is termed “ segmen- tation,” and results in the multiplication of cells which form a cap over the germ vesicle and a group of cells under it. In the normal egg, development is arrested at this stage, and a certain amount of heat is necessary to renew it after the egg is laid. After segmentation and application of the right degree of heat, incubation begins. The germinal disk divides into two layers, between which a third stratum soon forms. The upper layer (called the epiblast) produces ultimately the skin, brain, spinal cord, eye, and internal ear. From the lower layer (hypoblast) is formed the lining of the digestive tract, while from the middle layer (mesoblast) are developed all the other organs, such as bones, nerves, and muscles. This middle layer thickens rapidly, forming two parallel ridges running lengthwise of the germ, with a groove between them which is termed the medullary canal; the walls of this groove gradually extend and finally meet, forming a tube or neural groove, in which the brain and spinal cord develop later. The notochord just below the tube can be distinguished from the first day of incubation. It marks out the future bony axis of the body, or the vertebral column. From the notochord are 308 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN formed certain lateral plates, which later form the ribs. From the above brief description it is evident that even during the first day, many of the important structures of the body are clearly outlined (Fig. 148). During the second day of incubation the remaining important structures take shape, and those already formed develop further; there is a decided increase in the number of the protovertebre; - 4 Forebrain 2 Midbrain 3 Hindbrain 4 Auditory pit 5 Viteline vein Oo Cerebral @ Future Hemisphere P nOvSTE GORA 1 Forebrain 7 Medullary roldé 2 Midbrain 8 Tart fold 5 3 Hindbrain ff 9 Area pellucida 4 Auditory vesicle 5 Heart 6 Protovertebrae 7 WNotochord 8 8 Arteries A r 9 False amnion ¥ lo Amnion 4 Optic vesicle After Mills. Fig. 148.—Chick embryo thirty-six Fic. 149.—Chick embryo three hours old. days old. the tubular heart and larger blood vessels are formed. Most noticeable of all is the development in the region of the head of the three cerebral vesicles at the extremity of the neural groove; these are called the anterior, middle, and posterior vesicle. In front of them the developing cerebrum may be seen. The eye or optic vesicle develops from the front cerebral vesicle, while the rudi- mentary ear and the auditory pit are formed from the posterior vesicle. The early formation of the heart and the rapid develop- ment of the vascular system are important features of the second FORMATION OF THE CHICK 309 day’s growth; these are essential for the nourishment of the embryo, hence they are early active, delivering a constant blood stream. The progress during the third day (Fig. 149) is in the nature of continued development of structures already formed rather than in the formation of new ones. Up to this time the embryo has been lying face downward, but it now turns on its left side with the head bent downward. The vitelline circulation is completed, the heart is subdivided and further developed, and additional arteries and veins are formed. Some of the special senses are now formed or developed; among the most noticeable are the formation of the lens of the eye and the development of the nasal pits. The cerebral hemispheres are more clearly defined, the hindbrain sepa- rates into the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and many of the larger nerves branch out from the nerve centres. The alimentary canal increases in size and its parts are more clearly differentiated; the cesophagus, stomach, and duodenum becoming well defined. The lungs now make their appearance as an outgrowth from the alimentary tract. By the third day the allantois can be outlined; it is a temporary membranous structure closely associated with the alimentary tract, and from it is soon developed a complete system of blood vessels which carry blood to and fro. On the ninth day it is well developed, and can be seen spreading over the back of the embryo, close to the shell. It is the medium through which respiration is effected in the embryo, and at hatching time it shrivels up and is cast off. The fourth day is characterized by a rapid increase in the size of the embryo, combined with a noticeable diminution in the amount of albumin, and the embryo lies very close to the shell. The vascu- lar area at this time is about one inch in diameter and carries an increasing amount of blood. The body proper develops rapidly, not only in size but in the formation of the limbs, the legs being short and thick, while the wings are long and slender. In the female rudimentary sexual organs make their appearance on this day. From the fifth day the growing embryo reveals development rather than the formation of structures, since these are now estab- lished in greater or less degree. On the fifth day, certain cartilaginous processes can be detected, which subsequently develop into bones. The sixth and seventh days mark that special development in the embryo of the fowl which is to distinguish it from that of a mammal or reptile, for in the first four or five days the develop- ment of all vertebrates is very similar. After this time the more 310 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN pronounced specializations are the definite formation of body walls and a rudimentary growth of feathers. At this period the white or albumin has practically disappeared. The beak is formed, and gives the embryo a distinctly birdlike appearance. The head is proportionately large, and the eyes extremely so. The body is ‘very bulky, owing to the large size of the heart and liver. The legs have increased greatly in size, and the division of the extrem- ities into toes*is very marked. The yolk sac, while yet large, is very flabby, from the absorption of nutriment. The feathers may be distinctly seen on the ninth day. They are enclosed in a small sac, in which they grow to about one- quarter of an inch in length before hatching time, but the sac is not broken until then. By the thirteenth day the beak and nails have taken on a hard, horny appearance. Motion can be discerned in the embryo on about the sixth day, but it is very slight, and there is no pronounced movement of the entire embryo until the fourteenth day. Up to this latter time the chick has been lying with its body at right angles to the long axis of the egg. Now it turns, so that the body lies lengthwise of the egg, the beak in contact with the inner membrane of the shell about one-quarter of the way from the large end of the egg. The air cell is now much enlarged, owing to evaporation of the fluids, and the additional space so formed is utilized by the chick at hatching. Infrequent turning of the eggs, or weakness of the embryo, will not permit the change of position on the fourteenth day; there will be what is termed a ‘“‘false presentation,”’ and, in the majority of cases, the chick will not be able to get out of the shell. By the twentieth day the embryo will have grown so that it occupies all of the egg except the air cell, the yolk will have been nearly all absorbed, and what remains is drawn into the body at the umbilicus (navel opening), the body walls closing over the opening. This process of absorption is an important factor in the early life of the chick, since it is the source of nourishment until the chick can digest and assimilate feed from outside sources. Process of Hatching.—The process of hatching is one of the most striking phenomena connected with the development of the young chick, and is interesting alike to the experienced and in- experienced. The process is approximately as follows: When ready to leave the shell, which is usually on the twentieth or twenty-first day, the chick tears the inner shell membrane with its beak, stretches its neck, and, occupying the extra air space, at once begins to breathe the air which it contained. As a result of REVIEW 311 this extra oxygen, the pulmonary circulation becomes active, the embryonic circulation ceases, and the allantois shrivels up, since jts use is no longer needed. The chick now has room to move its head, ‘and it begins to break the shell by dealing blow after blow with its beak upon one spot on the inside until the shell is punctured (Fig. 150). This performance is re- peated, in a new place each time, until the shell is broken all around about one-third of the distance from the large end. All the chick now has to do ‘ Fie. 150.—Hatching time. One egg completely to get out from the shell is | pipped ready for the final effort of the chick; the 46 forse ee parts of ee a resting after the effort. (Photo by the shell apart by pressing its feet against the small end and its head against the large one, which it throws off. It takes the chick some time to dry off and get the use of its legs, and usually from one to three hours elapse after hatching before it becomes very active. REVIEW. . Why need the fowl’s reproductive system be so complicated? The hen’s reproductive system is composed of what two parts? Where is the ovary located and what is its work? . Describe the appearance of the ovary and yolk sacs. . Describe the maturity of an ovum and its entrance into the oviduct. What is the oviduct? What are its uses? . Where is the egg fertilized? . Describe the changes in the egg during its passage through the oviduct. . Enumerate the parts of a completed egg, and give the use of each part. . Give the approximate composition of the whole egg, with and without the shell. 11. Mention the types of malformed eggs, and give the cause of each. . Discuss the fertile and infertile egg. . Describe the development of the embryo which takes place before the egg is laid. . Describe the first day’s development during incubation. . Describe the appearance of the embryo when thirty-six hours old. . Describe the appearance of the embryo when seventy-two hours old. . Give subsequent development from third day to hatching time. . Describe the process of hatching. — SOMNAARwWIe ae wry Pilar tl easily removed and a set of slats closer together or farther apart quickly inserted. As the chickens’ heads vary consider- ably in size during the season, this adjustable front is neces- sary. The dropping pans are 1% inches below the floors, which are made of heavy, : a -_ square-mesh wire, roosting Ae poles are 2 inches wide, 34 of an weighing, feeding, and moving of the birds can inch thick, and 2 feet 6 inches (Pnotoby US. Bureau of Chemistry) long. The first floor is 6 inches from the ground, and it is 15 inches from the wire floor to the top of each coop; thus each tier, including the dropping pans, is 1634 inches deep. The battery rolls on four wheels, two double- pivot wheels in front, and two wheels connected by a bar in the rear. The sliding doors on the sides are fitted with hooks which fasten into eyes on the battery. The whole battery is made of furring, 17% by % inches, covered with 2-inch-mesh wire and laths. The feeding troughs are 3/4 inches across the top, inside measurement, and 3 inches from top to bottom, outside measure- ment. A wire partition divides the battery into two equal parts. * Planned by the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. 406 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING Care in Crate Fattening—From six to ten birds, according to size, are placed in each division of the battery. They should be weighed when placed in the crates so that the gain can be de- termined. Many mixtures of grain have proved successful. The best rations are usually composed of corn meal and low-grade flour, about 60 per cent of the former and 40 per cent of the latter. Six per cent of tallow is sometimes added to this ration, with varying results. Grit is generally provided, especially if the birds are kept on feed for two weeks or more, and four pounds to each hundred birds are given twice a week. Clover or alfalfa meal, meat meal, blood meal, charcoal, and sometimes salt, are added to the ration, according to the ideas of various feeders, but their use is not essential. The excessive feeding of very concentrated rations often has the effect of making the birds pull feathers and pick at each other; they often keep at it until they have eaten much of the flesh of live chickens. In such cases reduce the concentration and substitute greens and a small amount of meat or blood meal. Milk or buttermilk is essential in all fattening rations. Milk in some form is used to soften the rations, and acts on the diges- tive processes, keeping the birds in good condition during forcing. If much milk is given, the amount of meat may be reduced. But- termilk and skim milk are generally used, and the milk may be either sweet or sour, but usually it is sour. The feed should be thoroughly mixed, either with a rake or a machine, according to the quantity, so that there will be no lumps or dry masses. The consistency should be about that of cream, or so that it will drip from the tip of a large wooden spoon. Chickens seem to prefer a thicker mixture, but it is doubtful if they get sufficient nourish- ment from it, for their hunger is much sooner satisfied than when compelled to eat the thin one. The percentage of milk to use in the mixture depends upon the grains, the weather, and method of feeding; about 60 per cent seems to give the best results. Suc- cessful fattening depends largely upon whether the feeder watches his birds and notes their condition. The first two or three feeds should be light and the amount gradually increased until the birds can be given all they will eat up clean. The birds are usually fed from two to five times daily, but three is best for the small or amateur feeder. The use of milk has a tendency to produce white flesh, which in certain markets is not as desirable as yellow; this, however, is merely a matter of FATTENING 407 choice, not of quality. Birds specially fattened are usually dressed. Small lots are shipped direct to the point of consumption. In the case of large feeding stations, they are put into cold storage and held for future shipment. The shrinkage in dressing is approxi- mately 14 per cent. When crate fattening is the method, care must be exercised to keep the crates in well-ventilated buildings, for fresh air is essential to the process. The coops must be cleaned regularly every other day, and disinfected at least every week. Careful records should be kept of the feed consumed and the gain in weight during the feeding period, to determine whether or not the practice is profitable, and to what extent. Extensive experiments with this method of fattening, made by the United States Department of Agriculture, led to the following conclusions by Alfred R. Lee: _ “The Plymouth Rocks and other general-utility breeds can be fattened at less cost than the Mediterranean breeds, such as Leghorns. Chickens of the same breed vary greatly in the amount of flesh they put on during the fattening period. Where a number of birds are to be fattened, the use of por- table coops or batteries is found most profitable; less labor is required, and the birds turn out in better condition. Low-grade wheat flour is one of the most economical feeds, being far superior to oatmeal. It will take approximately from three to three and one-half pounds of grain to produce one pound of flesh; hence the feed cost averages six to eight cents for each pound gained. The cost of labor per pound of increase is from one to three cents, according to the number and arrangement of the pens; therefore the total cost of a pound of gain, counting feed and labor, is approximately seven to eleven cents. Less expensive gain in flesh is usually made by short feed- ing periods ranging from seven to ten days. . Hens do badly under crate fattening, and it is usually un- profitable to attempt it; if fattening is necessary, the flock method will give the best results at small cost.”’ Records should always be kept so that the gains can be esti- mated; for it often happens that birds are carried through in small flocks by inexperienced feeders at a loss not only of money but in weight as well. 408 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING Cramming means the introduction of feed into the bird’s crop by physical force, with no aid or desire on the part of the bird. There are three distinct methods of cramming,—namely, hand, funnel, and machine cramming. Hand cramming is rarely resorted to in this country, but is done quite extensively on small plants in England. The method is to place feed in the bird’s mouth in the form of a pellet, force it down with the finger, and then work it into the crop by pressing the hand downward on the outside of the gullet. It is occasionally After Edward Brown. Fia. 186.—Common type of funnel used in cramming. The Tic. 187.—Cramming machine point isrounded to prevent in- used extensively in Europe, but as jury to the bird’s throat. yet very little in America. done in this country in the fattening of geese, but is so laborious that it is impracticable. Funnel cramming is a method not extensively employed in America, but it is more effective and more rapid than hand cram- ming. In this process the feed is mixed into a thin paste of about the consistency of cream, and poured through a long-necked funnel sc shaped that it will not injure the bird when passed down the gullet until the lower end enters the crop (Fig. 186). On insert- ing it care must be taken not to choke the bird, and only enough feed should be introduced to fill the crop. Machine cramming is widely practised in Europe, but not to a great extent in this country as yet (Fig. 187). It consists in KILLING 409 forcing feed into the crop with a specially constructed machine. The feed is placed in a metallic vessel or cylinder, and then by a plunger, operated by foot power, is forced into a tube which is passed down the bird’s gullet and into the crop. With practice this can be done very rapidly, and, when done by skilful operators, tends to produce the choicest quality of flesh. The development of artificial feeding in this country will depend upon an increased demand for a superior quality of meat. The profits from machine- fed poultry are large, even counting the increased cost of labor, because of the great gain in weight and improved quality of meat. Regardless of the method practised, the following points should be borne in mind: The object is constant growth; restricted exercise; no overfeeding; birds allowed to become hungry be- tween feedings; period not too long, or loss will follow. Killing.—If dressed poultry is to reach the consumer in the best possible condition as regards flavor, wholesomeness, appear- ance, and perfect state of preservation, it must be properly killed. Much of the loss resulting from the shipping and storage of dressed poultry that soon spoils is due to improper sticking and bleeding and to neglect before killing. Preparation for Kzlling—tIn the preservation of good market qualities in a well-fed fowl or chicken, it is well to starve it for twenty-four hours before killing, supplying it, however, during this time with fresh, clean water. This period of fasting empties the crop, and partially the intestines also. A distended crop makes the bird look unattractive, and the contents will discolor the flesh during storage. The same is true of the intestines; if full, a discoloration soon appears, and the contents offer a fertile field in which putrefactive bacteria may grow and multiply when taken from storage, or even during display. Methods of Killing~—The essential point in slaughtering is to empty the blood-vessels, and to do this in such a way as to facilitate the plucking of the feathers. With dry picking this is of special importance. It is estimated that fully thirty per cent of all poultry shipped into the larger cities is improperly bled, and much of it in such poor condition as to be retailed at a loss ranging from two to five cents a pound, when compared with similar birds which had been well bled and are in good order. Insufficient bleeding not only gives to the carcass a bad appear- ance, but makes it spoil quickly, the flesh loses its firmness sooner, and its flavor is not.so good. The common odor of stale flesh, and 410 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING later of putrefaction, is soon perceptible, and in every way the product is more perishable. There are three distinct methods of killing poultry,—dis- locating the neck, sticking and beheading. Dislocation —Neck dislocation is not very common except in the case of squabs. It consists in holding the bird’s head just back of the jawbone, with the right hand, while the left grasps the body at the shoulders; the neck is bent on the back and twisted or turned about three-quarters of the way around, then extended quickly and with considerable force. This quick rotary movement dislocates the upper vertebra at the base of the skull, rupturing the spinal column and causing instant death. The advantage of this method is its rapidity and cleanliness, but an objection to its general adoption is the fact that it does not permit free bleeding, and this is necessary to produce a well-dressed specimen which will keep a long time. Sticking—The method known as sticking consists in the severing of the arteries of the neck through the mouth, making no outside cut whatsoever. When the feathers are to be removed by scalding, the bird is merely bled to death; but if dry picking is to be done, there are two procedures,—namely, the severing of an artery in the neck to cause bleeding and the sticking of the brain to paralyze the muscles of the feathers (Fig. 188). The process of sticking can be briefly described as follows:* 1. When ready to kill, grasp the bird by the bony prominence of the skull just back of the angles of the jaw, being careful not to let the fingers touch the neck, as this might cause pressure upon the artery and check the free flow of blood. 2. Make a cut with a small, sharp-pointed knife on the right side of the roof of the mouth where the bones of the skull terminate. 3. Brain for dry picking by forcing the knife through the groove which runs along the median line of the roof of the mouth until it touches the skull midway between the eyes. The point of the blade should then be moved backward and forward to rupture the nerve tissue, thus paralyzing the bird, yet not causing instan- taneous death. This latter operation is sometimes performed by thrusting the knife under the eye at such an angle that the point will touch the skull in the same place,—midway between the eyes. The outside cut, however, disfigures the bird, and is no better than the inside thrust. The position of hands and knife are shown in figure 188. * Method by Pennington & Betts, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. KILLING 411 Fria. 188.—Proper method of sticking and dry picking. -A, Sticking the jugular vein to cause bleeding; B, spreading the beak to cause free bleeding; C, piercing the brain to cause relaxation of muscles, allowing the feathers to be removed without tearing the skin; D, plucking main tail and wing feathers; Z, bird roughed and ready for pinning; F, removing pin feathers, called ‘‘pinning.” 412 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 4. The best knife blade to use is one not more than two inches long and one-fourth of an inch wide, with a sharp point, a straight cutting edge, and a thin, flat handle. Figure 189 shows the kind of knife recommended by the United States Department of Agri- culture. The knife should be stiff, so that it does not bend; of the best steel, so that it can be kept sharp and will not be nicked in braining; and the handle and blade should be in one piece. Such a knife, with the aid of an emery wheel or grindstone and oilstone, can be made from an 8-inch flat file. To make this knife, the handle of the file should first be ground off. Then the blade should be shaped from the small end of the file as shown in figure 189. The curve of the point should slope from the back downward. A blade of this shape reaches the blood-vessels to be cut more surely than does a blade on which x A MU ul [uuu After Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. Fig. 189.—An excellent killing knife can be made from an ordinary file. the point curves upward. After the blade is made, the ridges on the file should be ground down, leaving just enough roughness to prevent the knife slipping in the hand of the killer. The length of the knife over all should be seven inches. Before sticking, the bird is usually suspended by its feet, the head down and on a level with the waist of the operator. A looped cord is frequently used to hold the bird; but a better plan is to bend a piece of wire into the shape shown in figure 188, A, the bird’s legs being caught in the loops at the bottom. This device is quickly and easily fastened in place, and it holds the bird securely with its legs spread, thus facilitating picking. Instead of sticking the brain, it was formerly the custom to stun the bird, and partially paralyze it, by striking the head with a piece of wood; but this method is being generally super- seded by cutting and sticking. With large, old birds, stunning is sometimes resorted to in order to stop their struggles. PLUCKING , 413 A number of special appliances have been designed with the idea of systematizing and facilitating the killing and plucking of chickens, and one of the most popular of these is known as the Cornell killing and picking box. Beheading.—The practice of beheading chickens is at present largely confined to farms where one or only a few birds are killed for family use or retail trade. Poultry killed in this way is not in demand at the larger markets; it does not keep well and is unattractive when displayed for sale. The customary way is to grasp the bird by the legs and wings,—brought together and held in the same hand,—the head and neck being placed on a heavy piece of wood or chopping-block, and the neck severed about one inch from the base of the skull with a sharp hatchet. The ac- curacy of the blow can be assured if the head is held firmly on the block by means of large nails driven in the edge of the block about one inch apart, the neck being placed between these, and the body drawn away from them until the skull and jawbones are against the nails. This distends the neck and does not permit the bird to flop or move its head. After beheading, the body should be held firmly and the neck pressed against an old piece of burlap to prevent spattering until the bird has become quiet. For home consumption this method is quick, and, if the fowl is scalded and meat cooked immediately, the plan is a good one. The market objects to a beheaded bird, on account of its spoiling sooner. Besides, the head indicates the breed and sex, also the condition of the bird when killed. Behead- ing, therefore, is not permissible in the killing of dressed poultry for shipping and storage. Plucking.—There are two distinct methods for removing feathers,—dry picking and scalding. Dry picking consists in plucking the feathers immediately after sticking, without immersing the body in hot water, and is called for by nearly all markets, especially the wholesale trade. The advantages of this method may be summed up as follows: (1) Better preservation. (2) Better appearance of the finished carcass. (3) It is possible to save the feathers, and have them in better condition for Sale. (4) There is no danger of ruining the meat by parboiling it with the hot water used in scalding. Dry picking is an art, and perfection in it calls for consider- able practice. The knack of grasping the feathers and removing 414 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING them rapidly in large clusters, without tearing or injuring the skin, can only be acquired by learning the principles involved and by the constant application of these to the work until the knack is acquired. The usual custom is to pluck the feathers first from the parts of the body which tear the easiest, the order of plucking being as follows: Breast, neck, shoulder, and thighs, these small feath- ers being tossed into a barrel at the side of the picker; next the large wing and tail feathers are removed, and usually thrown on the floor and discarded, as they are of little commercial value. The small or fluffy feathers are next removed, care being taken when plucking not to bruise the skin with the fingers or nails. The feathers are grasped between the thumb and forefinger with just enough pressure to pull them out. The picker becomes accustomed to holding feathers just tight enough to let them slip through his fingers before the skin tears. After the feathers are removed the bird is said to be “‘ roughed ”’ (Fig. 188, #). Next it must be gone over and the pinfeathers extracted. This is usually accomplished with a knife, the small pins and broken feathers being grasped between the knife blade and the thumb, the knife being passed over the skin in a direction opposite to that in which the pinfeathers grow. In large poultry-picking establishments the work of ‘“ rough- ing ” is usually done by one group of pickers, and the ‘“ pinning ” by another; thus a larger number can be turned out, for “pinning ” takes practically as long as picking, and yet does not require as much practice and can be done by cheaper labor. On the average farm where one man does all the work, one hundred birds is a good, ten-hour day’s work (Fig. 190). There are two modes of picking,—standing and lap picking,— the former being more generally used. Lap picking is quite com- mon in New England; the operator sits beside a box and holds the bird in his lap with its head between the box and his right leg, the fine feathers being thrown into the box while picking. The greatest objection to this method is the danger of bruising the bird’s flesh by rubbing its skin against the legs. This can be averted by suspending the bird. Scalding—This method of plucking fowls is quite generally used on farms throughout the country, and especially for retail trade. A bird can be very easily and quickly plucked in this way. If properly done, it is not injured for immediate consumption. PLUCKING 415 But the inferior grade of much of the scalded product put on the market results in much criticism of the practice. The common practice of scalding poultry when a large num- ber are to be dressed is to heat water in a caldron or kettle, as shown in figure 191. A number can be scalded at one time and hung up to drain previous to pulling the feathers; this will allow the feathers to cool off, and thus avoid burning the hands of the pickers. When only one or two birds are to be Fre. 190.—Dry picking squab broilers. Where a large number are to be killed the work should be systematized, each man having a special work to do. A, Sticking; B, rough- ing; C, pinning. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) scalded, water can be heated in a tea kettle and poured into a pail, then gotten to the desired temperature by pouring cold water into it. The receptacle in which the scalding is done should be of sufficient size and depth to permit of the com- plete submersion of the bird, and the water should be hot enough to scald the plumage completely but not scald the skin. This means that it must be a little below the boiling point. The bird should be immersed two or thrée times. If the bird 416 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING is to be marketed with the head on, it is best to hold both the head and feet, keeping the head and neck feathers out of the water. Full fluffy-feathered birds must be held in the water longer than thin or sparsely feathered birds. After scalding, the bird should be allowed to drain before picking. The method of picking de- pends upon the four following conditions: 1. Age of the bird. The general practice is to scald fowls, since scalding has less effect on their appearance and preserva- tion than on young birds. A B Fic. 191.—Scalding before picking is 4 method adapted only to retail or home trade. A, The bird, after bleeding, is grasped by the head and feet and immersed in hot water; B, the scalded birds are hung to drain before plucking. (Photo by Oakland Poultry Farm.) 2. Purpose for which the birds are to be used. Birds which are to be cut up and used for stewing or for chicken pies can be scalded, as the damage matters less than when they are wanted for roasting. 3. Length of time before cooking. When they are to be immediately cooked, as is the case with birds for the home table or a near-by retail trade, there will probably be no objection to or discrimination against properly scalded birds. 4. Market requirements. When to scald and when to dry DRESSING 417 pick should be determined largely by the demand of the market to which the birds are shipped. If market quotations show a preference for dry-picked birds, then dry picking should be pre- ferred to scalding. Plumping or Cooling.—As soon as the birds are picked by either method, it is a common practice to immerse them in a tub er pail of cold water for at least an hour. This accomplishes several objects: (1) It removes the animal or body heat from the carcass, thus increasing the keeping qualities. (2) It also lessens the excessive red color of comb and wattles, and gives them a better appearance. (3) The entrance of water into the pores makes the flesh plump and distends the skin. The method to follow in plumping is as follows: Have a tub or tank of cool water near the picker. As soon as each bird is roughed and pinned, it should be thrown in this cool water and allowed to cool for about twenty minutes. After this each bird should be handled separately, the clotted blood being removed from the mouth and nose, the comb, feet, and shanks should be washed and then each bird should be placed for about an hour ina tank or tub filled with ice-cold water. This will complete the proc- ess of plumping, or distending the flesh. It will also cool the bird and leave it in good condition for packing. When the birds are to be dry packed, they should be removed from the plumping water and allowed to drain for at least two hours before packing; when ice packed, they can be packed immediately when coming from the cooling water. Cooling is a very necessary operation when fitting poultry for market. Shaping.—The process of shaping improves the appearance of the bird by forcing its breast forward and making it look full of meat. It may be done during cooling if the process is refrigeration. Although not general in this country, shaping is extensively done in Europe. The method is to place the birds in wooden frames or V-shaped troughs so that, when pressure is applied from above, the flesh is forced into the desired part and stays there after cooling and hardening. With good, well-grown, plump-breasted birds little if any benefit is to be derived from the process. At best jt will improve the appearance only of those birds which are naturally thin or not in prime condition when killed, giving them a more plump appearance. Dressing.—The necessity and manner of dressing depend upon the market and the fowl. When poultry is marketed through 27 418 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING wholesale channels, it should never be drawn or cut. Experiments prove that undrawn poultry decomposes more slowly than does poultry which has been wholly or partly drawn. Full-drawn poultry—that is, with head and feet removed as well—decomposes the more rapidly. Drawing also mars the appearance of the bird for display in the markets, and there is greater danger of its be- coming fly-blown. The work of dressing is left to the middle man to perform, in accordance with the customer’s requirements. When plucking for the wholesale market,—for example, broilers, roasters, and fowls,—all the feathers are removed except a few around the neck just back of the head. In the case of capons, the neck, thigh, tail, and wing feathers are left on the bird. This is the characteristic capon plucking, and distinguishes them from cockerels, for the feathers are left on those parts which show the distinctive feminine or capon plumage.. When dressing for the home table or a restricted retail trade, it is usually desired that the birds be ready for cooking, and the following methods are common for broilers and roasters. In preparing broilers so they will look attractive for a private trade, they should be carefully plucked and the legs and head cut off. Then with a heavy knife or cleaver cut each side of the entire length of the backbone, severing the ribs. These incisions should meet at the neck and just below the vent. It is then pos- sible to remove the neck, backbone, and entire intestines with no other cutting. In the case of large broilers which are to be halved, the breast should also be cut lengthwise in the centre with a cleaver or meat saw. The giblets should be cleaned, and accom- pany the dressed carcass. Preparing roasters.—(Fig. 192) For fine trade proceed as fol- lows: Singe the bird after it is cool and thoroughly dry by holding it over a flame from burning straw. Be careful not to blacken the skin; this is why paper is objectionable. 1. Remove the shanks and the tough sinews which extend through the legs and impair the quality of the drumstick. To remove these sinews run a knife down the back of the shank bone, between it and the sinews. Place this cut over a hook or big nail and pull gradually; in large old. birds it may be necessary to place the hook under each sinew, one at a time. The sinew will break at the upper end, and can then be removed with the shank, leaving the thigh free. 2. Pull the skin of the neck toward the body and sever the DRESSING 419 neck with a sharp cleaver about midway between head and body. Thus, when the skin is released, about one inch of free neck skin will remain, to cover the cut bone. 3. Make a cut about two inches long at the left side of the breast well up toward the neck, and remove the crop, being care- ful not to increase the size of the opening. 4. Turn the bird with the tail toward the operator and make a longitudinal cut about two inches in length from the vent toward the point of the breastbone. Insert the forefinger and remove the tissue and fat which cover the intestines. When they Fra. 192.—Roasters properly dressed for retail trade. (Photo by U. R. Fishel.) are fully exposed, hook the finger into a loop of the intestines, and cautiously pull them out, taking care not to injure any part. When they are all removed, make a circular cut around the vent, and remove it with the intestines. 5. Next remove all internal organs, such as the gizzard, liver, heart, lungs, spleen, and reproductive organs, taking care not to enlarge the opening. 6. Next wash the bird thoroughly with warm water followed by cold water. 7. Open gizzard and heart, wash thoroughly, and, with the liver, replace in the body cavity. 8. Take clean white cotton string and tie the skin of the neck over the end of the neck. 9. Lay the wings flat, and secure them to the sides by a string 420 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING passed twice around the whole body, then fasten; this holds them secure while cooking. 10. Tie a piece of string around the hock joints, leaving them about two inches apart, one on each side of the keel; then bring them down, and fasten securely to the tail. 11. If desired, immerse the bird in clear cold water for one hour; this will set the muscles firmly. After draining and drying the bird is ready for the customer. Fowls are usually cut up for stews or meat pies, but this work is rarely done by the producer. Boning.*—It is sometimes desirable to dress an extra fancy product which retaiis for an exceptionally high price. In such cases it is customary to remove all or most of the bones from the fowl through an opening in front of the shoulder. The flesh is afterward stuffed and roasted like an ordinary roaster; but when serving one can cut right through the entire bird, and get light and dark meat and dressing at one cut. This process is termed “boning,” is rather difficult, and requires much practice. REVIEW. . What is the object of fattening? . Give three methods of fattening. What is flock fattening, and when is it used? What is crate fattening? To what extent is crate fattening employed? . Describe a desirable fattening crate. . Discuss in detail methods employed in commercial crate fattening. . What is cramming? Give three methods. . Discuss cramming as practised in America. 10. What is the object in forced feeding? Give essentials. 11. How does proper killing affect the quality? 12. Why should the bird be starved before killing? 13. Give three methods of killing. 14. How is the neck dislocated? 15. Describe the process of sticking. 16. Describe a desirable type of killing knife. 17. Describe a good method of suspending before killing. 18. Describe a good method of beheading. 19. Give two methods of plucking. 20. Give the advantages of dry picking. 21. Describe the procedure in dry picking. 22. Describe the process of scalding poultry. 23. What four factors should determine whether to dry pick or scald? " *Method described by W. A. Lippincott in Iowa Bulletin No, 125. DONMARWNH REVIEW 421 24. What is the object of cooling? 25. How can the birds be shaped? 26. Describe two methods of dressing broilers for retail or home trade. 27. Describe the dressing of a roaster for retail trade. References.—F attening Poultry, by Alfred R. Lee, U.8. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 140. How to Kill and Bleed Market Poultry, by Pennington and Betts, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 61. The Comparative Rate of Decomposition in Drawn and Undrawn Market Poultry, by M. E. Penning- ton, U. 8. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 70. Practical Suggestions for the Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs, by M. E. Pennington, U. 8. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 98. Trussing and Boning Chicken for Fancy Trade, by Wm. A. Lippincott, Iowa Bulletin 125. CHAPTER XXV. MARKETING THE PRODUCTS. Tue successful poultryman must not only produce first-class poultry products, but he must be a capable salesman and man of business as well. The maximum number of eggs may be produced during the winter; but unless the poultryman understands busi- ness principles and market requirements, big profits cannot be realized. Whatever increases or decreases the ultimate selling value to the producer is worthy of careful consideration. The Salesman.—When poultry raising is conducted on a limited scale, the poultryman himself is both producer and sales- man; if, however, the business is large and there is a group of poul- try raisers in a community, they may be able to codperate in marketing with good results. In such case if an expert salesman is allowed to handle the market end of the business, he will dis- pose of the products in such a way as to get the largest returns for the producer and at the same time increase the demand. The successful salesman must, nevertheless, have some experience in poultry production, for this makes him a better and more intelli- gent seller. A good salesman must know how to advertise, if he is advantageously to dispose of a variety of products offered for sale. He must drive a good bargain and be shrewd yet honest in all his dealings, if he is to retain the confidence of his best customers. For the small poultryman, and especially the farm poultryman, the most important requisite is that he keep accurately posted as to market prices, fluctuations, and conditions. The easiest way to increase an income without greatly increasing expenses is to add to the profits by raising products of high quality, and marketing them at the right time and place in a neat and attractive manner. The Markets.—The expense of marketing poultry products is comparatively small, as they are of high value, small in bulk, and can be shipped a considerable distance with little shrinkage. The high-class trade in the large cities is the most profitable, and, where one can ship a guaranteed quantity during the entire year, or the season, of such product as broilers, he can safely compete in this market, but where his output is limited it is a waste of time. There is often a home market which, with a little care, can be 422 THE MARKETS 423 developed satisfactorily and will pay the small producer much better than the larger city trade. A great variety of markets are open to the poultryman, and, according to his location and production, he may choose any one of the following methods: (1) Selling direct to the consumer; (2) selling direct to the retailer; (3) shipping to commission merchants. Selling direct to the consumer insures the largest revenue, as all expense of commission and extra handling is eliminated. This market is usually limited, unless one lives near a small city or village, in which case he can generally build up a retail route which will take his entire output. A disadvantage is the amount of time consumed in taking orders and distributing. To determine whether or not this method pays best, the time spent in dis- tribution should be balanced against the lower price and extra expense of commission when shipping by the third method, the cost of production being in each case the same. The most satisfactory way of selling direct to consumers is to supply hotels, restaurants, and clubs, as they usually contract for the entire output and are willing to pay a good price, and it is much easier to ship the entire output to one place at certain specified times than to spend time and labor in disposing of it among many small consumers. This last method offers an ex- cellent chance of advertising,—an advantage to both the poultry- man and the purchaser of the products. Selling Direct to Retailer—Often one can sell both eggs and dressed poultry direct to some retail grocer, who is glad to get them and to pay a good price. Knowing they are perfectly fresh, he can sell them to his high-class trade and develop a good mar- ket for the poultryman. It may be necessary to go to a distant city or distribution point to find his market, but it will always pay when once secured. Shipping to Commission Merchants.—The easiest and simplest way in which to dispose of the bulk of poultry products is through the commission merchant for sale in the open market. In iso- lated cases the merchant can. perhaps secure a special market for a guaranteed product, and this is becoming easier each year. But by this method the cost of marketing is very high and the price realized is the lowest. The commission, transportation, cartage, and, in most cases, loss by breakage, are always charged to the shipper. The commission usually amounts to five per cent of the gross receipts. 424 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS If one has a large output and can ship through a commission house which makes a specialty of high-grade products, he can usually secure prices much above the market quotations,—pro- vided his shipments are always regular and of high quality. Most commission houses are on the alert for such products and will give the shipper the best of service. The exact market to select depends, then, upon the amount and character of products for sale. The wholesale market is best adapted to poultry enterprises with a large and regular output, which are located at a considerable distance from the point of distribution and consumption. The retail trade, on the other hand, is especially suitable for the poultrvman with a limited supply of good products. He can create a strong demand for these products at such a price as to yield a profit on his output. Relative Returns —Receipts and net profit are always much higher when the products are sold direct to the consumer, although the aggregate profits may not be great, owing to the limited de- mand, hence limited sales. Returns, hence net profits, are lowest when the products are sold at wholesale through commission houses; but, owing to the great demand, there is more chance of a high total profit, provided the shipments are large. The sale of products directly to the retail store probably nets the highest selling price and the largest revenue in proportion to the labor required in packing and distribution. Where the producer can make a contract with prominent and reliable retail stores for a fine product, the demand for his goods among the patrons of that store, if in a large consuming centre, will become almost limitless. This mode of marketing cuts out two of the middle men through whose hands most products sold at wholesale must pass, hence yields greater profit to the pro- ducer and seller, and the product reaches the consumer more quickly and in better condition. The following prices show the average received for eggs mark- eted through the common channels of trade, and by direct selling. These prices are merely comparative (from Perdue University): PIUCKS Ci nc. cette betwen bea Mate Maced oie 20 cents, trade. Gro Cer ss csc Shahid da Ko SA Ra Soa ees 23 cents, trade. Wholesale buyetty cccass cages: 80% sa6 wees sr es 21 cents, cash. Retail trade:,: 22 daniane ace cide Mate woah tobe ealeeela 27 cents, cash. Fancy trade; 4.530. p20cus ceva bead pe aa gued 30 cents, cash. FROM PRODUCER TO CONSUMER 425 It is difficult to realize that, with a small or medium-sized flock, a slightly increased selling price for eggs per dozen through- out the year will result in a very decided total profit. For example, 150 hens laying 1,800 dozens of eggs, selling at 18 cents per dozen, will produce an additional profit of $36 when the selling price of each dozen is increased only two cents. WHOLESALE ROUTE RETAIL ROUTE PRODUCER a(S COMMISSION IMERCHANT CONSUMER Fic. 193.—Chart showing the courses through which eggs may pass in going from the producer to the consumer. A, The course taken by the great bulk of the ‘‘ western” product in reaching the eastern markets; B, the course taken by the eastern output in reaching New York and other large centres of distribution; C, direct selling through the retail store; D, the hotel and restaurant trade; EZ, products going direct from producer to consumer. From Producer to Consumer.—It is interesting to note the many channels of trade and the great number of hands through which every shipment may and usually does pass before it reaches the consumer. Figure 193 is a diagram portraying the different courses which poultry products may take. 426 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS The doing away with much of this unnecessary handling will reduce the ultimate cost of the product for the consumer, and the quality at point of consumption will be better. Customers’ Interests.*—To do justice to both, a good sales- man must take the viewpoint of the consumer as well as that of the producer; and, in order to do this, customers may be arbi- trarily divided into five well-defined classes, according to their financial standing, as follows: (1) Poor, (2) of moderate means, (3) high class, (4) wealthy, (5) hotels and restaurants. It is evident at a glance that the quality of products demanded by these five classes will vary considerably. The well-to-do con- sumer demands and is willing to pay for a high-class product, whereas the poorer customers with limited means will purchase a lower quality for less money. There is a marked variation according to the season, the poorer classes demanding products at the season of abundant supply when the prices are correspondingly low, while the wealthier classes and hotel trade will demand and gladly pay a higher price for a product out of its natural season. All customers, regardless of their financial standing, have the same personal interest at heart, and are governed by the same thought when purchasing,—namely, to get the largest possible quantity of the best quality of product available for the money. These interests may be classified under the follow- ing six headings: Quality, price, supply, accessibility, systematic delivery, re- sponsibility of salesman. Quality is the first requisite, and may be estimated by the following factors: Freshness, whether in dressed poultry or eggs; care in handling, from producer to point of consumption; whole- someness, which means absence of any taint; type of egg as to size and color; weight, whether of eggs or meat; method of pro- duction; price, in so far as it represents quality. Price.—Price is a consideration with all classes, but the actual purchasing power of money is estimated differently by these different groups, according to the amount on hand for their pur- pose. To the producer, the price depends upon variations in quality; shortage or abundance; competition, both in selling and buying; the middle man’s profits, which vary according to the *From work performed by Prof. E. W. Benjamin at Cornell. Ameri- can Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry. CUSTOMERS’ INTERESTS 427 e number of hands through which the product has passed; cost of production; and cost of handling, which varies with the market and manner of fitting for market. Supply—tIn many ways the supply of poultry products in various markets is affected by the following: Quality; the higher the quality the less the supply; variations in amount of products, such as eggs, being produced in great numbers, while with capons and turkeys, for example, the production is very limited. The source of supply very often affects the amount of a given product in certain markets according to the distance from place of pro- duction and size of producing plant. The amount of capital in- vested in production and distribution affects the total supply, especially during seasons of limited output. The extent to which business is carried on in a community determines largely the available supply of products handled. Accessibility—This is one of the chief factors from the con- sumer’s standpoint, for if large quantities of first-class products are in the vicinity, yet not readily accessible, they are of no value. Distance from point of consumption, proximity of reserve sup- plies, telephone and railroad connections, mail facilities,—all play an important part in bringing producer, middle man, and consumer closer together. Systematic Delivery—The customer desires regular and sys- tematic supply, whether it be eggs or dressed poultry, and this supply is affected by the location of the distributing point, express rates, method and regularity of final delivery to cus- tomer. The exact method of delivery varies according to the customer. Responsibility of Salesman.—The ultimate seller has the re- sponsibility of delivering goods to the consumer that will be satisfactory and thus keep up the demand for these goods. His ability to please the customer will depend largely on his distance from the consumer, his business methods, care in filling orders, financial standing, acquaintance with customers, and amount of business handled. The consumer is a valuable partner in a profitable poultry trade, and the salesman who caters to the interests of the con- sumer will not only increase the demand for his products, but can demand—and will be gladly paid by the customer—a price so much higher that it will more than cover the time and expense involved. 428 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS SELLING EGGS FOR HATCHING. Eggs are marketed for two purposes,—for human food and for hatching. When marketing them for breeding purposes four important points must be considered,—namely, securing the mar- ket, method of shipping, chance of fertility, and value of guarantee. Securing the Market.—If a large number are to be sold, the market is usually secured by systematic advertising. Where the breeder has an established reputation, which his birds have maintained for years by winning prizes at shows, and there are pleased customers in all parts of the country, there is little need of advertising. High-class eggs for breeding purposes call for special markets and enormous expense in marketing. The output must be disposed of by making a great many small ship- ments to many customers. In marketing eggs for food all the output, if desired, can be shipped regularly and in considerable quantity to the same customer. To counterbalance the labor and heavy expense of marketing eggs for breeding purposes, an exceedingly high price is usually received for such eggs. Method of Shipping.—In shipping eggs for hatching, chill- ing or overheating must be avoided, also breaking or unnecessary jarring. The usual method is to pack them in ordinary market baskets, pasteboard containers being first put in the basket; after the eggs are placed in these, the whole layer is filled with bran or dry sawdust to prevent jarring or cracking. Eggs thus packed are much more likely to reach their destination safely than when they are shipped in heavy and tight wooden boxes, in which case the handler is ignorant of the contents and takes no extra precautions. Express companies charge an extra rate for handling eggs for hatching, hence are expect ‘ickness, n Ree Shell} Grit feed Hens| Eggs Mortality 3 o Date. No. 1/No. 2!No. 3| *©2° fa) w YW eed || vena: = es a -o-) ms ae eo oO Total Weigh back Con- sumed Notes.—Leg band numbers.......... 0. es severe eee e eee e ence Average daily production...... Total income from eggs......... Total cost of feed........ Profit or loss from egg8..-eeseerrrree *soin}Biodur9} 10,8qQnou! jo Zurdaay oy} OF OAIND B Jo Buryyo;d ogy Ajdde 04 481g ay) sea yuourzIEdeaqd ALYNO []9U1IOD 34 Ly (App a2u0 ps090y) einzeiadura} Woo yy Sigs Opie Se Sar ees lel yy i Lay | Mae hi Syed teil a See edo g ctisied ay Io Nu a ar TS nee Pose Wek eee tee nee ling | al i wie c ee rie Ut oe Wd Oe cme Wolo Il seealegee MM ed oar 4 zie] TOT [oy cree || | | | ial SOT a ey ie ee ae | ie HEE O01 | "Sangenadmnsy sore niles —— ip cg it =. pi [esse ae ee) 8% | 22 16 02 6L |S} 20 | 91 | St rt el rat 11 01 6 g|z a|r|e ral CAG Re: Ca el eee: fing ainyesadura daoIiddad AUVNIAITIaAd 4s “TPUS ul peeqg | Fr gece eee eer a ae ae ee eae preg aa ae RT rI0L Aeqd 481Z eq WI Aeq qi | SC erece Re ES RT Ew Woke De ee ee Be ee & paag ~ Cee ee Sie eR HY ae ERE & ‘sbby jo ‘ON cslneneSHe cin — etiausar cae «sep baatoateneaint Bye Seieranees sige a *piovey Joyeqnouy “INANLUVdad AULTOOd nA nes ON sapoosg 0} passafsuDs eee ee ee ee oe | sbba apusaf fo yoqoy fo “uaa lad ee ‘66a 002 fo yoyoy fo “uaa lad RETR ees - = Bees eteres Z oy Age doen eeke E zl SUAS ASA TESS - | ae SESSA eee oe a os | reree | | | = “pasn 10} gg -woriay jo adA4 | | | | | | ; ay} a10y 9BUsIsEq SUTRAS Ge wiaae | » — aim ne al PeTivacie re || rol GQ | eou0 ecient ne &@ ce 12 0G 61 st 21 | 91] ST Biot GI/IT/OT) 6; 8} 2); 9/E Fr) el; a TPs ryeyejy rp fog Ayprany dOluad AUVNINITAUd 458 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING Such a record shows at a glance the number of birds, the egg production, and the cost of feed consumed; and it is a simple matter to balance this sheet and find the profit or loss from the sale of the eggs. An Inventory.—In order to ascertain at the end of each fiscal year the present inventory value of the plant, and to know ex- actly how much money was spent in stock and equipment, it is important to keep some kind of inventory record. This is espe- cially necessary when adding to the stock, which means a reduc- tion in cash for a time with the possibility of increased revenue in the future. Such a record can easily be kept on a sheet of paper Tuled into five columns, the equipment values being inventoried under the following five heads: Land, buildings, stock, tools and implements, and miscellaneous equipment. With the value of these inventoried for one year, the only work necessary at subsequent stated periods is carefully to revalue the stock. During the intervening time a full record can be kept on this sheet of all sales and all purchases, each being placed in its respective column. By dividing the inventory values under head- ings suggested, it is possible to estimate depreciation or gain in value in each department, and to know the investment in each. Incubation Records.—Where artificial hatching is carried on to any great extent, a simple yet complete record of each hatch is necessary, as a means of determining whether the required efficiency is being maintained, and also the better to point out any fault in operating the machines. This record of fertility and hatching percentages should be kept from year to year for future reference. Such a record should cover the following facts: Number and name of machine. Number and kind of eggs set. Date set. Temperature in both room and incubator, taken three times a day. Moisture in the incubator, readings taken at short intervals. Dates when hatch began and when it was complete. Number of infertile eggs and dead germs on seventh and fourteenth days. Figures showing efficiency of hatch: Vigorous chicks hatched; cripples hatched; percentage of eggs hatched; percentage of fertile eggs hatched. A simple record sheet for this purpose is shown on page 456. Sitting Records.—Where hatching is natural, there should be a simple but accurate record of the different broods hatched and the time when the hatch is expected. The entries should be as IMPORTANT RECORDS TO KEEP 459 WEEKLY FEEDING RECORD ING: OF) OWES iis. 6.:5 ahold dhiagisans, ddearnces PROM 6 eicscndte es aves? TO sciiaigee tiene iesnis Saeve Day of Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Mornince Corn Wheat Oats Vegetables Mixture I Mixture II Mixture III Noon Corn Wheat Oats , Vegetables Mixture I Mixture II Mixture III Nicut Corn Wheat Oats Vegetables Mixture I Mixture II Mixture III Torat AMOUNT OF Cost Corn ‘consumed, at... per 100 lbs.=....... Wheat consumed, sats jw... per 100 Ibs. Oats consumed, at ... per 100 lbs. Vegetables consumed, CSC tbs v.... peer 100 bs. Mixture I consumed, CSC atts ..... pee 100 bs. =....... Mixture II consumed, —C—SCs atts... pe’ 100 lbs. =...... Mixture III consumed, CSC tts j.... pe 100 IOS. =......... Total amount in pounds Total cost Cost per Wits pes eee ed ete bey Marae oe Food cost of one dozen eggs .............. bg fo “WY q34a4 SINIL ass wooy = ~---Japoolg eR tai wooy bo Pie Japoosg ‘Gisise wooy He ----Japoolg SYNLVYAdWNAL Se peap Jaquiny Rpcasaa Snare ae See peap Jaquiny Se Tae Te aie sauooaw Ativa aivw ALI Ty LYOW Sa\0N Poorg jo "juad Jag AUjeUOW 12101 Japooig Joyeqnau| syaryg poo9y 19poolg “ON 4epooug IMPORTANT RECORDS TO KEEP 461 follows: (1) Number of nest and number of hen; (2) date when set; (3) number and kind of eggs; (4) number of eggs tested out on the seventh and fou teenth days; (5) the hatch or number of vigorous chicks taken from the nest. The above record can best be kept in a small pocket notebook, for nests are usually in places where it would be impossible to post records without danger of loss or soiling. Brooding Records—Whether brooding is carried on in small outdoor brooders or in the large brooder house, if the poultry- man wishes to know just how efficient his system of brooding is, he must keep a record which will give him at a glance the following facts pertaining to the brood: (1) Number of chicks when brood began; (2) temperature of room and brooder, taken three times daily; (8) daily mortality; (4) amount and kind of feed, if desired (this, however, is not of much importance); (5) total mortality up to a certain age; (6) percentage of brood up to that age. A good breeder record is shown. Feeding Records—Where very detailed and accurate records of cost and amount of feed consumed are desired, the method shown in the form on page 459 will be found advantageous. On the ordinary farm, a feeding record on the monthly pen sheet will be sufficient. Labor Records.—On large poultry plants where many men are employed, or where it is desirable to keep a record of the time consumed in doing a certain kind of work, the method described will be satisfactory. Have special time cards prepared, one for each laborer, for one week, with his name written upon it. The cards should be ruled horizontally into as many spaces as there are different kinds of work to be recorded, and vertically into nine columns. The first column is for the kind of work, the next seven for the days of the week, and the last one for the total number of hours spent at each kind of work. The accompanying form (p. 462) shows this plan. By making a different distribution of labor, or by eliminat- ing some detail, it is often possible greatly to reduce the cost in caring for a large flock of birds. Such a record as the one described will aid in solving this problem. Young Stock Records.—It is advisable to keep a record of all young stock put on the range, and to check up this list when they are put into laying quarters in the fall. Because of possible 462 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING loss due to shrinkage or to thieves, it is desirable to keep a simple memorandum of the number of birds put on the range and the total number taken from the range. Ascertain from these num- bers what percentage of loss can be expected in the future. The need of better preventive measures will be shown. Daily Labor Record Card. [Designate time spent in minutes.] Kinps or Work 1 2 3 4 5 6 a ToraL Hovcrs Feeding Cleaning Building Seeding Hatching Rearing Miscellaneous Methods of Keeping Records —There are three methods of keeping poultry records: Sheet records; books with either loose ‘or permanent leaves; and a card file. The method adopted should be light in weight, compact, and portable. There should be little danger of loss or misplacement. The information should be readily accessible at all times. Of the above methods the loose leaf records with a strong, easily detachable binder probably offer the greatest advantages, for they meet all requirements. Each sheet may be used inde- pendently, or may be filed vertically in a drawer and used like a card system. The great disadvantage of the single sheet file is the danger of loss or misplacement, and the possible injury of some of the sheets. The card system is excellent; but a great drawback is its bulk, and the impracticability of carrying a lot of cards to the pens or about the plant when making notes or ACCOUNTS - 463 studying records of individuals. Figure 206 shows these three systems. The post binder with loose leaves is undoubtedly the best for general use; but whatever system of records is adopted, uniformity in the size and style of the sheets must be maintained. ACCOUNTS. The Poultryman’s Diary.—One of the simplest yet best records for the poultryman to keep is a diary, taking time regularly to enter the chief events of the day, such as any special work which has been done or any important transaction. Record purchases and sales of stock or products. Such a diary is both a day-book Fria. 206.—Three methods of keeping records. A, Sheet records, B, loose leaf; C, card index. and an account book. From it the transactions of the day can later be posted in the regular account books. A diary of this kind is very useful if there is variety in the daily transactions. It can be kept year after year, and by referring to the same date in preceding years the general progress and season’s work can be determined. What Accounts Should Show.—Account books for a year should show distinctly three things: 1. All the business transactions, showing the items of all money expended and all money received. This will tell the poultryman whether or not his business has been conducted at a profit or loss, and the amount of same. If at a loss, this loss or waste can be traced to one of the different branches of his busi- ness. He can also see which is the most profitable line of his 464 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING work. The keeping of such a record will not only tell the poultry- man just where he stands financially, but tend to develop in him a spirit of economy. If the poultryman has no time for this work, his wife or one of the children may perhaps be interested in the business and may keep the accounts. A good way to cultivate business habits in the children is to give them a small flock of birds and require them to keep an exact record for the year, thus ascertaining the actual profit from the flock. In this way the keeping of records and accounts will gradually become a mere matter of routine. 2. The system of accounts should include a yearly inventory, ‘the importance of which has been shown on page 458. 3. The system of book-keeping should include the balancing of the books at stated periods to determine the financial con- dition of the plant. Methods of Accounting.—There are two recognized methods of keeping accounts,—namely, single and double entry. The latter involves considerable clerical work, as separate accounts are kept for each branch of the business. It necessitates entering every transaction twice, once as a debit and once as a credit item. This method has the advantage of checking against mis- takes. Every trial balance shows just how each department of the business stands. The work involved is so great that it is suitable only for large plants where one person is employed solely for the accounts and office work. The single entry is very simple and adapted to any poultry plant. In this system entries are made but once, every trans- action being either a debit or credit, against or in favor of the poultry plant. In this system the inventory value is placed on the debit side of the account. Also on the debit side are entered, as they occur, all items of expense, such as feed, labor, repairs, stock, and tools. On the credit side of the accounts are entered all products sold and all incoming cash,—for example, eggs and fowls sold or consumed at home. Such an account may run for a month or longer before balancing, but the best rule is to balance it each month, in order more closely to watch the expenditures. When it is balanced, both sides of the account are added, the difference is determined, and this difference is entered as a new balance. If the credit column is greater, a profit is shown; but if the debit column is the larger, the difference will be the amount of loss. ACCOUNTS 465 Sample Monthly Sheet. Dr. Equip- Miscel- Date. Item. Feed. SSE: Labor. jangous Total. ie 1 ds b pr. 1|100 pounds beef scrap......... $3.00 aie ees a anaes 3.00 5|4 bushels shelled corn......... 3.00 edie ees gene pesrtet ee: 5|5 bushels oats................ 3.25 coed tikd oe widow, Fee 3.25 8 | Carpenter work on brooder....| ...... aetecks $2.00 er 2.00 8 |\Gumber's «gic osccaeew a weemuces Sed ae Sa Lauenes $4.00 4.00 10| 1 indoor brooder.............. i Babee $8.00 bid NES 8.00 10|6 gallons kerosene............ ere cake cata gees 72 72 19 | 300 eggs for hatching.......... £2 anens bots Beis Zach 5.75 5.75 20 | 100 pounds oyster shell........ .80 Lay hed Boasts ies .80 25 | 3 bushels wheat.............. 3.75 celia Ga Mouadat Noten 8.75 otal ecieitkive ee ekedones x2 $13.80 $8.00 °| $2.00 | $10.47 | $34.27 Cr. Hatch- | Market | Breed- Date. Item. Market ing poul- ing Total. CES. eges. try. stock. 1910. Apr. 4| 10 dozen eggs, at 24 cents..... $2.40 bes Sees $2.40 10|1 pen breeding fowls..........| -...:- : $5.00 5.00 12 | 18 dozen eggs, at 24 cents..... 4.32 ae er ee eee 4.32 13} 1 hen (home use)............-. ere x uid sep $0.55 alate 55 14] 3 market hens..............-- ds scageans ih biokie 1.80 sacri 1.80 15 | 8 dozen eggs (home use), at 24 CONTE: cs Ente Rea tena eyes es ie * 1.92 baste Dh ahailae nts da 1.92 17 | 15 dozen eggs, at 23 cents...... 3.45 sya: cae GOs ee feats 3.45 19|7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 CONS) sia oe TAduene Senet ey 1.61 1.61 19| 300 eggs, hatching (home use)..| .....- 5.75 20| 50 day-old chicks............- 3.00 23|7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 COMES ii ccyers id uondetie a : 1.61 Leer risus Rohan 1.61 29| 100 eggs, hatching...... gods Ais 3.00 arshiebetets pth aie 3.00 30 | 6 dozen eggs, at 22 cents P 1.32 a eats eee itd pia aeteaie 1.32 Total... s+ Moe tetas Boi $16.63 $8.75 $2.35 $8.00 | $35.73 On a wide sheet, place the credit form at right and debit at left. Column System.*—It is often desirable to itemize the ex- penditures and receipts, yet not increase the number of entries. This is easily done by using what is termed a compound single entry system, which consists in having the sheets of the account book ruled in a number of vertical columns in addition to that for date and for dollars and cents. Each of these columns should represent a certain kind of transaction. For example, on the debit side, the columns could be headed: Feed, labor, stock, im- plements, miscellaneous; while on the credit side the headings could read: Eggs, broilers, breeding stock, and miscellaneous. When the columns are footed up in making a trial balance, one *Sample sheets from Circular No. 176 U. 8. Department of Agriculture by R. R. Slocum. 30 466 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS AND ADVERTISING can tell at a glance which of the scheduled items is the heaviest, and the relations between the different sources of income and expense. This system reduces labor, for it is unnecessary to write each time the source of expense or income, since the column itself is so headed. This is sometimes called the ‘‘ Column System.” In keeping records and studying expenses, those of labor and feed will, as a rule, be found the heaviest. In some cases labor will be a small item, as the poultryman has a plant of such small size that he can do all the work himself; but the cost of feed is continuous, and this must be watched carefully, and every attempt made to keep it down by purchasing feed direct from producer, by compounding efficient yet economical rations, and by cutting out sources of waste in feeding. Yearly Summary Sheet. Dr. Fi Miscel- Equip- Date Feed. sent: Labor. ig Total. January........... ‘ $18.00 Lae ite $2.45 $31.70 February. he ‘i arena $2.00 2.09 14.85 March... 20.00 | ......- 9.90 41.40 April. 8.00 2.00 10.47 34.27 Mais eichents tog eile ld BRIO ae ORES w Wepahee aS Bate. yet aieaiets 5.35 18.35 SIMO ss, jrewesin'' hin suas Ace act Oia lematye RP ene BS & 2.50 5.45 23.45 DAY since cic Seton dee Settle 4. 2 yeeay eee a aS 1.10 15.25 AULUSt. tec tae Stee teh eeeete| 23:80) si.ees- |) vag 4.95 18.75 September ie Serene 2.25 45 17.70 October ic iis sie co haa snes wee ees ae Siaieis Seeger: 2.75 18.85 November Ssvesisle 1.00 1.43 17.23 December 8.15 21.90 Total $46.00 | $9.75 | $54.45 | $273.70 Cr. Market Hatch- | Market | Breed- ing poul- ing Total. Date, eges eggs try. stock 1910, ATA TY sie 5 idole iovet dunia dane sesansbarececoeien Oe 6 $21.65 | ...... $2.35 | ...... 24, Be DIUARy seed iccidyuve-ysovcevecaareotoereraveneratensen a4 24.83 | ....5. 3.30 ees ye PPCM cis ian ciated 3 anereee a eae aay e eas 20.66 $6.50 3.50 $10.00 40.66 ASD T Ill ia segs ced aces ara acavnts Waiawens Saeed 16.63 8.75 2.35 10 35.73 BY caienaie ocean Sees Oreo Ramee 11.52 4.50 4.25 8.00 28.27 IUNC oieiee es waste oadagios Hades aT Ae 6.00 5.75 15.20 10.00 36.95 DULY siijincaecache cameos 2 ASRS ENA E OS 7.08 2.00 22.15 8.00 39.23 AUBUSE iu. .oi05 45 adeia Mette NANA 4 Oe 5:37 [Pee e sks 13.90 4.00 23.27 Septem bers esc 0-8 vend Headeein.g histovanace 6 DIO Tiss cee 10.80 3.00 22.90 October. ... sn 8.60] ...... 4.40 9.00 22.00 November. , 8.17 7.85 15.00 31.02 December. . 12.56 sie 4.05 20.00 36.61 GT 5 88 ibe a Oe e Aer On 4 $152.17 | $27.50 | $94.10 | $95.00 | $368.77 ADVERTISING 467 ADVERTISING. The advantages of advertising must be decided in each case by the poultryman himself. It is undoubtedly true that adver- tising pays when it is rightly done; yet an immense amount of money is wasted annually by poor or untimely advertising. It pays best when one has a surplus stock to sell with no available market. If well planned and timely, it leads to and greatly in- creases sales, which means a larger profit or, perhaps, the chang- ing of an apparent deficit into a profit. On the whole, advertis- ing pays only when well planned, and when there is a large busi- ness supplying an abundance of products and customers are few. It will always pay in an enterprise which depends on a few sales of choice specimens, for in no other way could possible purchasers be apprised of the existence of such products. How to Advertise—There are many methods of legitimate and profitable advertising—so many, in fact, and so simple, that most poultrymen entirely overlook them, and think that the only way to advertise is to expend a lot of money, with no assurance of a proportionate return. The following are some of the ways which may profitably be employed on most poultry farms: 1. A farm and home of neat and attractive appearance. 2. Neat and attractive appearance of team and wagons when on the road. 3. An attractive and ‘“ catchy ”’ name for the farm. 4. A conspicuous yet neat farm bulletin board, on which products for sale may be listed and attract the attention of pass- ers-by. 5. The ownership of birds having heavy egg records, and the publication of such records. : 6. The exhibition of pure-bred stock at poultry shows and fairs and the winning ot prizes. 7. A neat and attractive label on all shipping crates. 8. Clearly printed letter heads without an excess of printing. 9. Printed circulars and cards which can be mailed. to pros- pective customers, displayed on exhibition cages at shows, and enclosed with all correspondence. 10. Printed blotters, which can be enclosed in correspondence, and keep the breeder and his work constantly before the eye of the prospective customer. 468 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 11. Using advertising space in magazines and newspapers. 12. Agreeable manners toward all persons interested in one’s business. This is often overlooked, and would-be buyers are antagonized or driven away before the possibility of a purchase can be discussed. The eleventh method, that of advertising in magazines, is one of the most expensive, since it calls for a definite outlay of money with no definite assurance of return. It should be done carefully at first, but it is the only real way of reaching the major- ity of poultry purchasers. What to Advertise.—In general it may be said that it pays to advertise for sale any product which is so nearly perfect as to sell readily and satisfy the purchaser, yet not damage the repu- tation of the breeder. The poultry products generally advertised for sale are fancy and utility stock for breeding, eggs for hatching, and day-old chicks. Dressed poultry and market eggs for food are rarely advertised, since there is a steady demand for them at a standard price through the regular channels of trade. When to Advertise.—There may ke said to be three good times to advertise. (1) During the season of natural demand. For example, when the purchasing public is demanding eggs for hatching, this is the time for advertising the fact that one has such a product for sale. It may also be well to run a small advertise- ment throughout the season as a reminder to the poultry reader. Continuous advertising is less expensive. Advertising expressly to bring immediate results should be during the season of natural demand. (2) It is advisable to advertise at any time during the season if, owing to crowding or some other cause, one has a sur- plus product to sell. During the late summer and fall one must get rid of old stock to make room for incoming pullets; and breed- ing cockerels can profitably be advertised for sale from fall until the breeding season in the spring, the heaviest sales being in the late fall and early winter. (3) It is well to advertise when one wishes to secure some particular product or kind of birds. Adver- tising for products wanted is, however, less profitable, as there are usually many advertisements offering for sale just the product or object desired. Where to Advertise.—In deciding where to advertise, several factors must be considered if the money expended is to bring in the greatest number of sales. Under most conditions the highest grade of poultry journals ADVERTISING 469 will prove the most profitable advertising mediums. Second- grade papers with a limited circulation in a restricted community rarely prove profitable. When deciding upon the exact paper with which to make a contract, it is best to select one with a heavy circulation in your own part of the country. Ifa large number of birds are for sale, it is quite customary to advertise in a number of periodicals; this reaches many more people, and the advertisement is more strongly fixed in the minds of possible purchasers if they see it in a number of different papers. Another essential point is to select a paper with a heavy cir- culation among the class of customers one desires. The choice of a good medium is an important consideration. The periodicals which let advertising space of this nature can be grouped under four headings: 1. Country and suburban-life papers. Such papers reach the highest class of possible purchasers. The advertising rates are usually high; hence the breeder must have the best quality of goods and be prepared to give satisfaction if he uses these channels. 2. General agriculture and poultry papers circulate among the great mass of poultry keepers, whether they have only back- yard flocks or extensive egg farms; and it is from advertisements in these periodicals that the great majority of sales materialize. 3. Another class of papers, termed ‘breed and specialty papers,” deal exclusively with one or more closely-related breeds of poultry,—pigeon magazines being a good example of this class. Advertisements in such papers are usually read only by the best breeders in their respective lines, and the goods they demand must be of the highest grade and will fetch a good price. 4. A method of advertising has recently developed which is proving very remunerative in small communities. Breeders who have a surplus of a fairly good product may in this way make good sales. It is to utilize the special space for poultry adver- tising now so often reserved in newspapers, especially in the weekly editions. The space is comparatively cheap, the advertisement reaching an immense number of small poultrymen. Preparing Advertisements.—Too much space may be occupied, or the space allotted may not be utilized judiciously, and much of the information to be given may be overlooked. In writing an advertisement the following points should be borne in mind: 470 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING The advertisement should be concise and attractive; these features tend to give the reader the very best impression. The make-up of the advertisement should be “ catchy,” at- tracting the eye of the reader and holding it long enough for him to take in its meaning. It should be terse, which means that much information and descriptive matter should be condensed into small space; for space costs money, and information is what the breeder wishes to disseminate. Every statement in the advertisement should be true, and it should be so worded as to leave no exaggerated impression in the mind of the reader. For, when sales are made, the birds must come up to the advertised standard. Exaggeration not only makes this impossible, but dissatisfies the customer. The advertisement should give no data but what are reason- able or actually possible. The fact that one bird in a flock laid 225 eggs a year does not mean that a strain of such layers can be developed from her eggs, nor that the average of the breeder’s entire flock will equal anything like this figure. Advertisements should show important facts pertaining to the specimens for sale,—as, for example, a record of winning at poultry shows; a brief reference to utility qualities; a statement concerning past breeding and records made; a statement as to vitality and health; the name of strain, if such name has become popular; photographs will add to the attractiveness. The size of the advertisement depends upon the quality and quantity of products, their value, and the money available for advertising. The better the quality and larger the quantity, the greater the space which can be used to advantage. The greater the value of the products, the greater usually is the profit; hence more advertising space may be used. Small advertisements are usually the more profitable, and it cannot reasonably be assumed that doubling the size of the advertisement will always double the sales. Extremely conspicuous advertisements are warranted only when one has a phenomenal product for sale and wishes to enhance his reputation through the possession of such a product. There are numerous instances in which the phenomenal record of one bird has made a world-wide reputation for the breeder. Getting the Most Out of Advertising.—If the heaviest sales are to result from a given sum spent in periodical advertising, REVIEW A471 a “follow-up ” system must be worked out and the breeder and his product be kept continually before the eye of the prospective customer. In such a system all inquiries by mail must be answered immediately. A short personal letter is best, accompanied by the breeder’s card, with circulars describing matings and pointing out the good qualities of the strain. Under separate cover the annual catalogue should be forwarded,—if the breeder’s business is extensive enough for him to issue such a booklet. The cata- logue should describe in detail all matings and products for sale, and give past winnings and other records. It is also a good plan to give some guarantees as to financial standing, since it is cus- tomary to send cash with the order, and this reference makes the purchaser feel more secure. As a rule, all inquiries should be followed by at least two letters before being dropped; if these fail to bring a response, additional ones would in most cases be a waste of money. A record should be kept of all sales, so that circulars and catalogues can afterward be mailed to customers, with the idea of keeping their trade year after year. Such a record can be kept on filing cards, and indexed for handy reference. Where adver- tising is carried on extensively and in a number of different per- iodicals, it is well to tabulate all inquiries, arranging them under the name of the paper in which the advertisement was noted. This will show the effectiveness of the different papers, and those which are bringing in no return at all can be dropped. If a business is to prosper year after year, and keep its old customers as well as acquire new ones, the breeder must live up to his advertisement when he fills orders resulting from it. No business will long prosper if the customers are so hoodwinked that they are dissatisfied, and fail to come back every year for addi- tional purchases. The unscrupulous advertiser must depend upon securing enough new customers each year to make up for those lost, which is almost an impossibility. It must be remembered that, after all is said and done, the satisfaction of customers throughout the country is the most extensive advertisement a breeder can have, and the most profitable as well. REVIEW. 1. Give eight advantages of keeping records. 2. What four points should be considered in planning records? 3. What points should be shown in a breeding or mating record? 472 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING . What is meant by a pen record, and what should it show? . What should an inventory show? . Describe a complete incubator record. . Describe a complete brooding record. | . Describe a form for keeping labor records. . Enumerate three methods of keeping general poultry records. . Give five features desired in the record plan selected. . Outline the possible uses of a diary or memorandum. . Discuss the three things which a poultryman’s account should show. . Name and discuss two general methods of accounting. . Describe and give advantages of the column system of single entry. . Under what conditions does advertising pay? . Outline a complete system of advertising. . What products can one profitably advertise? . When is it most profitable to advertise? . Give three things to be considered in selecting the advertising medium. . What would you consider in preparing an advertisement? . What should determine size and duration of advertisements? . How would you get the most from an advertisement? Reference.—A System of Poultry Accounting, by Robert R. Slocum, U.S Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 176. CHAPTER XXVII. EXHIBITING AND JUDGING THE MANY advantages which a poultryman or farmer derives from exhibiting his poultry and products will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Exhibiting for Pleasure.—There are some poultrymen who keep a few well-bred birds because of the pleasure they derive from mating and breeding them to a certain standard, for the sake of the competition and the possibility of beating the other fellow. They are usually small breeders, and at the small poultry shows they form the majority of the exhibitors. But whether exhibiting for profit or otherwise, and in order to appreciate the ’ work and to get all he can out of it, the breeder must have some of the enthusiasm in competition which characterizes the true exhibitor for pleasure. Profit from Prizes——The profit from prizes, whether cash, cups, or other articles, is an advantage to be considered. The cost of preparing and exhibiting live birds is, as a rule, much greater than the actual value of prizes, yet the satisfaction of having won enhances the value of the prize in a way that cannot be expressed in dollars and cents. In some of the larger shows sweepstake prizes of considerable value are offered and are well worth winning from a monetary point of view. Profit from Advertising—Undoubtedly the greatest benefit which can come to an exhibitor is the notoriety which his birds achieve when he is successful in winning some of the leading prizes in that particular class. It brings his name prominently before prospective purchasers of high-priced birds, which creates a demand, and permits him to place a higher value on each of his individual birds. It makes good advertising matter,—material which speaks for itself, and is no mere statement without suf- ficient backing. Profit from the Sale of Birds——Another beneficial result of exhibiting is the possibility which it offers of disposing of birds at a price in advance of that obtained without exhibition. The prospective purchaser comes to the show looking for stock for breeding purposes, and the exhibitor goes to the show to exhibit 173 474 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING such stock. In fact, the greatest success which can attend any show, and one which insures its future support, is the fact that exhibitors have been able to make profitable sales. This means also the taking of many orders in the future for eggs to be used for hatching, and for day-old chicks. Profiting by Comparison.—The exhibitor has the opportunity to compare his products with those of his contemporary. He can check up his work; and, knowing something of the methods of his fellow-breeder, can estimate the results and profit by the comparison. This opportunity for comparison might be termed the educational feature of poultry shows, but the advantage to be derived from it will depend upon the time and energy devoted to the study. These shows also furnish opportunity to make a satisfactory comparison of the different appliances and equip- ments for poultry craft. The advantages of poultry exhibition are numerous, and are increasing every year. In the world of poultry endeavor ex- hibits have come to stay, and will have a permanent influence in perfecting breed types and making them popular. Development of Poultry Exhibits.—From the earliest time, it has been man’s nature to compete for comparison, the winner showing ability in the attainment of some definite end. The breeding of a standard breed of poultry and the exhibition of the same has been one of the noticeable fields for such efforts. Until about 1900 relatively small progress was made in extensive poultry exhibitions, but since that time poultry shows have increased both as to number and quality of birds shown. New Jersey stands as an example of this unprecedented increase. In 1908 there were eight poultry shows held within the State, in 1912 there were eighteen official poultry shows, and in 1913 all of these organizations combined in the holding of a mammoth poultry show at a centrally-located point. The small poultry show if run in a limited educational way is productive of much good. During the past ten years these smaller shows have grown in number and in popularity. The smaller shows are usually con- ducted by an organization of a few poultry growers in a rather restricted community. Some of these have grown rapidly and now have a world-wide membership. The shows of moderate size are of greatest educational value; in the largest shows the money from prizes is the main object. TYPES OF POULTRY EXHIBITIONS 475 Poultry shows and exhibits have so increased in numbers and importance that a professional can now start early in the fall and make a circuit of the larger shows, and thus have birds on exhi- bition nearly all the show season. The exhibitor can choose from two types of shows,—namely, county and State fairs and pure poultry exhibitions. The former are patronized to quite an extent by the small breeder who has not yet attained such a degree of perfection as will permit him to compete at the larger and special poultry shows. They are also frequented by the breeder on a large scale as a means of getting his birds into shape for the winter shows. He has a chance to win some prizes, which will offset the need of special effort at home. Types of Poultry Exhibitions.—There are four distinct classes of poultry exhibits: Standard-bred poultry, exhibits which rep- resent merely utility value, exhibits of poultry products, and educational poultry exhibits. Standard-bred poultry predominates, and is found more or less in all poultry exhibitions, regardless of the primary object. The breeding of standard-bred poultry should be, and is, the chief aim of the great majority of poultry breeders, whether they seek ultimately to gain distinction by breeding prize winners or by producing market eggs or the best market poultry. Hence the exhibition of birds which are standard-bred as to color pattern, weight, and shape is a matter of vital interest to all. Utility Features—Exhibitions of poultry for their utility or commercial food value are now enjoying considerable popularity, and are becoming a regular side issue of the standard poultry exhibition. Prizes are offered, and competent judges appointed to award them. ‘The birds are arranged in two classes,—live ‘and dressed; each may be subdivided, according to their commercial value, as fowls, large roasters, light roasters, large, medium, and squab broilers, and capons. Prizes are awarded according to weight, shape, and appearance. In view of their increasing popu- larity, these exhibitions will no doubt be extensively developed in the near future. Exhibitions of poultry products now take place in connection with regular shows, and are becoming even more popular than the utility exhibits. These products are. usually eggs, prizes being offered and classes arranged for white and brown eggs, for eggs from the different standard breeds, and for commercial eggs 476 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING showing methods of crating and marketing. In awarding pre- miums the size, weight, shape, color, uniformity, texture, and cleanliness are all taken into account. Such exhibits can be made very instructive by showing improvements in grading and marketing, and the higher prices thereby realized. Educational exhibits may be of two distinct kinds,—college poultry shows and poultry extension exhibits. College shows are run by the students themselves as a part of the course of instruc- tion in poultry craft. These shows usually embrace all the types of exhibits, and are purely for educational purposes, the students forming from among their members the organization necessary to run the show properly, outlining classes, erecting coops, and staging the birds. It is generally the custom to let each student make entries from the college flock, the order of selection and entry being drawn by lot. In connection with such a show, there is usually a competitive judging contest, in which the students are given a certain class to judge by comparison, the successful competitors winning cups or other premiums for their excellent work. The information secured and the experience acquired by such an exhibition do more to fix breed types in mind and familiarize the student with the objects and methods of running a show than weeks of study in the classroom would accomplish. The second distinctive educational exhibit may be termed “poultry extension exhibits at agricultural fairs and poultry shows.” Such exhibits are prepared by the poultry departments of the State Agricultural Colleges, and are exhibited at all leading fairs and shows in their respective States. They deal more with methods than with the actual exhibition of birds, although the latter is done to some extent. The housing and care of poultry is taught by means of models and charts, also feeding, sanitation, grading, sorting, and packing. The possibilities in such work are almost endless and the results far-reaching, for they demonstrate to the farmer the teachings of experimental work and offer to the colleges and experi- ment stations an opportunity to keep in touch with the conditions in different communities. This same kind of exhibit is often used in connection with educational train work, where a part of a car or a whole one is devoted to a travelling poultry exhibit, which is a supplement to lectures given. Demonstrations in killing, pick- ing, and packing are alsc given in connection with this educational EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 477 train work. Extension teaching in connection with poultry ex- hibitions is as yet in its infancy, but there are wonderful oppor- tunities for its further development. EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY. Preparing Rirds for Exhibition.—To train and exhibit poultry in such a manner as to win success calls for a full understanding of the requirements as well as years of experience in the actual work of exhibiting. The amateur should begin with the smaller shows, where there is little competition, and where he can gain the absolutely necessary experience without becoming discour- aged. Wherever possible, it is advisable to work for a few years with an experienced and successful exhibitor before starting out for oneself.. It is the same in exhibiting as in other lines of work: There are “ tricks of the trade”? which would require years to learn by experience, also sources of loss which should be learned under careful guidance. Thus the road to success is learned more quickly and more certainly. Training the Birds.—In order to get the birds into prime condition and to have them appear to advantage, it is the custom to place those to be exhibited in small training coops, similar in size to the ones used at the show, and then by constant attention accustom them to seeing people and to being handled. On large exhibition plants special houses are provided for this training; they are fitted up like a regular showroom, the specimens being selected early in the fall. After a short period of training a second selection is usually made, only those being chosen which show the best characteristics and which bear handling. As a matter of fact, preparation for the show is a continuous procedure, begin- ning at the time the birds are hatched and lasting throughout their exhibition life. The birds designed for exhibition are hatched early, usually in January or February, so that they may attain maturity and standard weight by the time of the fall shows. They are housed and protected from weather which would injure their plumage and are carefully watched for scaly legs or any- thing else which would impair their show value. The training coop used should be elevated above the floor about three fect to facilitate handling, and so that the birds will become accustomed to this elevated position which they must occupy in the showroom. When penning the birds for training, 478 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING only one bird should be put in a cage. This is the condition in which they will be shown, and two birds in the same cage may lead to fighting or soiled plumage, which would counteract any possible advantage which might be attendant upon training. Nothing but clean straw or planer shavings should be used in the exhibition pen during the training period, and only dry, hard grains should be fed. If the training period extends to the time they are sent to the show, it is well to feed them for a few days on the same ration they will get in the showroom, so as to get them accustomed to it. A sudden change of ration often results in a slight diarrhoea, which silts the plumage, and lessens the bird’s chances to win. Success at the show will depend largely upon the behavior of the birds in the pens. Of two birds that fully come up to the standard, the one that is easy to handle, that is gentle, that does not tear around the cage when the judge is inspecting, but takes a characteristic pose and holds it, is sure to get the highest award. These qualities in show birds are almost wholly due to training, and they will often make an inferior bird come out ahead of one with a higher score that lacks these traits. Some persons have a natural ability to train birds, which is a great help. Conditioning and Selection.—The selection and housing of the birds for exhibition should begin many weeks before they are shown. The exhibitor should select and begin to train at least double the number of birds he expects to enter. This will allow of frequent selection and elimination of infericr birds as their defects appear. If it is found, upon examining the birds, that the molt is not complete or the feathers are not in first-class condition, a little sunflower seed or oil meal can be fed, which will materially aid the lustre and finish. When pullets are to be shown as such, special care must be taken to prevent them from coming to matur- ity before the show date. This is best done by confining them in small cages and moving them frequently from place to place. With maturity come exceptionally heavy combs, high tail car- riage, and great abdominal development, which is not desirable in the pullet. The birds to be shown should be weighed carefully, and any slight lack of weight can be made up by varying the rations, to the extent of feeding additional corn, and restricting exercise. Birds selected for possible exhibition must be free from any blemish, and in shape of body, color, and pattern must conform EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 479 to the standard as nearly as possible. In making a selection the following rules will usually hold good: Study the parts of the head particularly, as they are the most easily seen, and any defect in comb, wattles, or eyes will quickly be noticed by the judge and visitors. The conformation of the body should be observed, and no bird exhibited which has not the typical shape for that breed. The color markings are important, and both surface and under color should be studied. In choosing between two or more birds, the one having a very glaring defect should be discarded for one with minor de- fects, even though in greater number. A brassy or creamy tint in the plumage of a white bird is a serious defect. It is impossible to win a prize or even create a pleasing impression with such a specimen. Large birds which come up to, or a little above, standard weight should be given the preference over small or undersized specimens, if other things are equal. Birds below standard weight may possibly be brought up to the desired point by feeding. Having selected specimens according to these rules, they should be placed in training pens, and continually posed until they learn to stand in the desired position, the trainer using a small round stick for this purpose. Nervous birds require a much longer time for proper training. The more frequently the birds are handled, the more quickly will they become submissive. Slight defects in the angle of the comb, wattles, or tail, may be wholly or in part corrected by persistent manipulation with the fingers. The exhibitor should send his birds to the show abso- lutely clean; this means the washing of the comb, wattles, and ear lobes, and of the shanks and toes, with warm water and brush to remove dirt from between the toes and under the scales. After they are clean, they should be sponged with clean cold water, then rubbed with carbolated vaseline, and immediately wiped perfectly dry with a soft cloth. It is becoming more and more the general practice among exhibitors to wash birds previous to showing. This is especially true with white-plumaged birds and with any fowl where the plumage is soiled. Washing is a delicate operation, for improper temperature or any faulty practice will result in making the birds appear worse after washing than before. The general procedure, followed by most commercial conditioners, is as follows: Use a 480 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING specially constructed room or rooms for this purpose, the wash- room being fairly warm, at least 70 degrees. It should be equipped with four large wash tubs (see Figs. 207 and 208), in each of which is a different solution. Number one is the wash water in which the bird is thoroughly immersed and scrubbed with ivory soap suds, the soap suds being rubbed clear down into the base of the feathers, the solution in this tub being warm. Next the bird is thoroughly rinsed in water which is only slightly warm, and then immersed in a weak solution of bluing, the water being cool. The density of the bluing solution should not be too great, as it is apt to leave Fra, 207.—Students washing live birds for exhibition. (Photo from Cornell University.) a blue stain on the plumage and on the white ear lobes. Another rinsing is often made, after the bluing water, so as to be sure that all soap is removed. The bird is then fanned for a few minutes, to hasten the webbing out of the feathers, especially the tail, and then is placed in a clean cage in a room which is heated to about eighty or eighty-five degrees. Too high a drying temperature will make the feathers curl and have a ruffled appearance. To make the feathers stand out from the body, a little laundry starch may be sifted into them. An amateur should not attempt to wash and fit birds for exhibition except under instructions from an experienced person. EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 481 Fia. 208.—Birds to be exhibited should be carefully washed and conditioned. A, White Wyandotte male ready for washing. The bird should be held so as to prevent flut- tering. B, All feathers should be completely wet and white soapsuds worked into them clear to the skin. An especially hard place to clean is the back and base of tail. C, bird thoroughly rinsed and ready for bluing water. 31 482 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING Shipping the Birds to the Show.—Even under the best con- ditions birds are subjected to considerable rough usage while going to the exhibition; hence they should be shipped in sub- stantial coops so built as to provide enough space for the bird yet not be bulky or heavy. They should be strong enough to bear considerable weight without crushing, as they may be piled high with other packages. They should be protected, yet venti- lated on all sides and at the top, thus preventing the possibility of smothering. A slatted crate covered with muslin is excellent. The coops should be plainly labeled, preferably with two labels, and addressed to the secretary of the poultry show. The secretary of a show usually sends to exhibitors special shipping tags with a designated place for the shipper’s name and address. All exhibition birds should be sent by express. It is not only the quickest way, but they change hands fewer times and are delivered directly at the show building. Attention at the Show.—When the birds are delivered at the showroom, the exhibitor should be on hand and see to their cooping. Immediate cooping is necessary to success. If, from poor management, the birds are allowed to remain in the ship- ping crates for any length of time, their plumage becomes soiled, and they are apt to become sick or get out of condition. The exhibitor should strive to have his birds placed in cages which are well lighted, are free from excessive drafts, and from rough edges or wires. He should also look his birds over care- fully when putting them in the pens, to see that they have made the journey without injury, and also to smooth out any rough or disordered plumage. After the birds have been judged and prizes awarded, the exhibitor, if he is to get the full benefit of his exhibit and winnings, should display labels on his pens, giving the name of the owner, the name of the farm, and, if possible, the strain or breeding back of his birds. There is sometimes danger that valuable birds which have won against heavy com- petition may be stolen; therefore, it is advisable to lock the pen with a small, neat padlock. This calls the attention of the visitor to the precautions taken, and indicates the value of the particular bird. While the show is in progress, the fancier will make use of every opportunity to confer with his fellow breeders, to become acquainted with possible customers, to take orders for future shipments of birds and eggs for hatching, as well as to sell the birds on exhibition in the showroom. EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 483 The exhibitor should personally attend to cooping his birds for the return journey; for, in the hurry and commotion at the last, there is always danger of mixing the birds, but personal care will prevent it. The exhibitor should secure his premium cards and ribbons for future reference and display. It is unwise to place the ribbons won on the outside of the coop. The best plan is to suspend them from the centre of the coop on the inside, or against the back on the inside, where they can readily be seen from the front. On returning home, the birds should be put in their training coops and kept under quarantine for ten days, to make sure that they have caught no contagion while at the show. If they are soon to be sent to another exhibition, it is well to leave them in the fitting coops during the intervening time. There are many advantages and possibilities in exhibiting, yet there may be resulting losses. The most common are from disease contracted from neighboring birds, and colds resulting in roup due to improper conditions in the exhibition rooms. The exhibitor must be constantly on the lookout for such troubles during the progress of the show. Quite commonly during transit, either the shipping coops are sent to the wrong place and cannot be traced, or the birds die from severe weather or rough usage. Show Associations and the Work.—Poultry shows are usually held by poultry associations which may or may not be incorpo- rated. The small show is usually started by a few members in- terested in breeding standard-bred birds. Larger shows, however, are started by an organization incorporated with the object of holding shows. Such an association adopts a constitution and by-laws and elects annually its regular officers, usually a presi- dent, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer. It also usually elects or appoints an additional officer, known as the show sec- retary, who is directly responsible for the financing and operation of the show itself. He, in turn, appoints his assistants and super- intendents, the need of these and their number depending upon the size of the show. Many of the larger shows are the outgrowth of small local shows held under the auspices of a small group of breeders. In some sections of the country the small poultry show is gaining favor rapidly. The first duty of the superintendent of the show and his assistants is to write and issue the premium list, which designates the classes into which entries must be divided, also the premiums which will be paid to the winners. Such a premium list should be 484 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING in the hands of the exhibitors at least two months previous to the show. The superintendent should also devote as much space as possible to a commercial exhibit of poultry utensils, feed, and appliances, for such space is usually a source of revenue, as well as an educational feature of the show. He should also arrange for and secure as many special premiums and prizes as possible, as these will heighten interest in the different classes and compe- titions. He must also set aside certain areas for special non- Fic. 209.—Baltimore Poultry Exhibit, showing plenty of light and wide aisles, two important factors in a successful poultry show. competitive displays, since these add to the attractiveness of the show as well as bring in revenue. One of the first duties of the management is to secure a suit- able place for the show (Fig. 209). This in itself is often a hard proposition, because the majority of buildings do not have rooms suited to the purpose, or the price asked is prohibitive, espe- cially for the small shows. The older associations usually hold their annual shows in the same building year after year, and a place for the show need not be considered. As soon as the hall is secured, the pens must be planned and arranged, and spaces set aside for commercial exhibits and special displays In making the floor plan of the exhibition, these considerations must be berne in mind: EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 485 Arrange the aisles and doors so as to reduce to a minimum the possibility of strong drafts of air blowing down the aisles and on the birds in the pens. Plan for comparatively wide aisles, in order to accommodate the visitors without crowding. So arrange the aisles that the visitors can systematically make trips through the entire exhibit with the least possible retracing of steps. Previous to the show, the manager should make all prepara- tions for the immediate cooping of the birds when they reach the exhibition hall, also for feeding them during the show. In the larger shows this privilege of feeding the birds is often given to one of the larger concerns that manufacture poultry feed, and they often take the entire responsibility of cooping and feeding for a merely nominal sum,—sometimes for the advertising value alone. Arrangements for cleanliness during the show must also be made. This involves the cleaning of the pens and the placing of fresh litter,—usually consisting of shavings or cut straw,—and also the daily spraying of the pens with a good- disinfectant. As soon as premiums have been awarded, the larger poultry shows publish a catalogue of exhibitors and winners, which is a great advertisement for the exhibitors and a very essential feature of the purely financial show. One of the most important duties of the superintendent is to secure competent judges, and the greatest care must be exercised to choose men of experience, integrity, and force of character. Selection of Judges.—Realizing the desirability of having reliable judges always available, from among whom secretaries of shows can, if they desire, make their choice, the American Poul- try Association has organized a licensed bureau of judges, composed of all the available judges of poultry of good character who care to register. It should be the duty of every secretary so to manage his exhibit that, during the time the judges are performing their work, it will be impossible for any unscrupulous exhibitor pur- posely or otherwise to bias in any way the decision of the judges. The best plan is to bar all persons except the judges and their secretaries from the showroom during the time that judging is 486 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING going on. In order to stamp a higher character on all poultry exhibitions, judges and superintendents of shows should mete out severe punishment on all cases of faking which come to their knowledge. EXHIBITIONS OF POULTRY PRODUCTS. The competition of classes for dressed poultry and eggs is now coming into prominence at most poultry shows, and is an important feature both from the educational and the commer- cial standpoint. Such classes will draw a larger number of ex- hibitors and interested visitors, and prove a most attractive part of the exhibit to the visitors, many of whom have no appreciation of the finer points of a standard-bred bird, but do appreciate good eggs and fine-looking poultry. It is a much simpler proposition to judge such exhibits than it is to award prizes to live birds. The conflicting characteristics are relatively few, they are in quality only, and are usually seen at a glance. In listing such classes, the publication of the score card to be used in awarding the premiums will help the exhibitor to make his entries, and lead to a more uniform and higher grade of exhibit. JUDGING. By judging is meant deciding authoritatively upon the respect- ive merits of the birds displayed. Such authority is invested in judges, of whom several are usually employed, the number varying with the number of the entries. Each judge takes the classes with which he is best acquainted, although there are judges who, after extensive experience, can intelligently decide upon points of merit in almost any class. The uses to which poultry judging are put are two-fold: First and foremost, judging is the method used to determine the degree of excellence of individuals in competition. It is the procedure of awarding prizes and thus indirectly determining the ability of one man over another as a breeder of specimens which more nearly equal or attain a given standard; secondly, judging is used quite extensively in educational work, especially at our Agricultural Colleges, to fix in the minds of the pupils the characteristics desired in certain individuals. Judging for educational purposes is carried on in two ways: First, the instructor usually goes through the operation a number of times, explaining as he goes, JUDGING 487 and later the student is allowed to do this work, under suitable supervision. Oftentimes prizes are awarded for excellence in student judging. The Principles of Judging—Many qualities are needed to make a successful judge, and in judging a show satisfactorily there are important points which in many contests are overlooked. The observance of these at the start will insure just decisions, which satisfy the exhibitor, and without which no poultry show can continue to be successful year after year. A full knowledge of standard requirements and disqualifica- tions is necessary. Consistency in judging is essential, and is one of the chief qualifications of a good judge. Some judges have a, certain stand- ard fixed in their minds, and, after a few years, an exhibitor under such a judge can select a type which he feels sure the judge will consider the best. This is but natural; hence it is desirable to change the judge from time to time to insure impartial treat- ment. Honesty and justice in making decisions form another very important requisite. The development of a code for judges will promote efficiency -and save much time. A simple method would be to make light marks on the display cards while judging to indicate certain defects. A natural liking for the work is helpful, for greater concen- tration of effort is sure to follow. Methods of Judging.—There are two general methods of judging poultry,—namely, by comparison and by scoring. Judging by comparison is the common practice of comparing specimens as a whole, giving no one part or combination of parts a numerical value, but awarding the highest prize to the specimen showing the greatest number of good qualities which, taken con- nectively, surpass all others. Comparison judging is the method in use for the award of premiums at nearly all poultry shows. Its chief advantage is the rapidity with which one can judge a large class. Even at the first study of the specimens in a class one can discard all those with marked defects, and by comparing several different groups the poorer ones are gradually eliminated, leaving only the best. Premiums are awarded more justly and satisfactorily by this method than by scoring; for birds of inferior type often make a 488 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING high score, owing to the aggregate value of the different parts in combination, and also to the fact that it is almost impossible for two judges to cut in exactly the same proportion each time. In comparison, each judge has his own system of marking defects, and by going over a class a few times he can rapidly check off the finest birds. The skill of the judge depends upon his system of checking and his knowledge of standard requirements, com- bined with an ability to size up the form and glaring defects of a bird at a glance. Scoring is a much more detailed method of judging. It is based upon the estimated numerical value of the specimens. This is obtained by giving to each part a value representing its degree of perfection. Scoring requires a standard score card on which a value is assigned to each part separately considered. This method is in use at some of the smaller poultry shows which are run prima- rily for educational purposes, and is also used by individuals to determine the relative value of their own specimens. It is also a part of the course of instruction in colleges and agricultural schools, being used to call direct attention to merits and defects. The score card is used for many purposes, aside from the determining of respective merits of two or more individual birds. It is coming into general use in judging dressed poultry and poultry products, and, if properly outlined and handled, can be used with good results in the educational inspection of poultry farms. The strong feature of the score card is that numerical values represent perfection of the different parts and of the whole. As a tabulated record the success of any score card must depend upon the accuracy with which the specimen is divided ‘into its component values. A disadvantage is that it is impos- sible for all judges to view a defect in the same light, and to cut in the same proportion. Under the scoring system two judges may arrive at the same total value, yet analysis of their score will show considerable variation in their cuts for indi- vidual defects. Types of Score Cards.—The general types of score cards now in use are here briefly described, so that the student or poul- tryman may apply them to his own specimens, whether birds or poultry products, and get some idea of the merits of each. JUDGING 489 Standard-Bred Poultry—Two kinds of score cards can be used in scoring standard-bred poultry,—namely, the standard score card and the decimal score card. The standard score card is the official score card of the Amer- ican Poultry Association, and is as follows: Student’s Official Score Card. Class No. 1—American Breeds. TAGS iach tes oid du deenentecy the as beet ease Sta we od AS eee Entry No. ............ Coop No. ......:..... Band No. .......... Owner 3 4hsche strona: Breed .............. SOK: fica ucuichad eens Estimated weight ............... Corrected weight ................5- Student’siname =s 2. 002s seeeuce eevee RRO Sane 4 Section ........... Scale of Points : Student’s Perfection. estimate. Corrected. Shape | Color | Total Shape | Color | Shape | Color 8 | Symmetry.............. 6 | Weight or size........... 4 | Condition............... Beak ........... 3 3 6 Heal gee 8 |Comb....... Bea tesayttes tot oeae 2 4 6 | Wattles and ear jobes..... 3 6 Or 8 Neth’ sca ty seu get cats diets 4 6 10° | Wings: 32222 esees ee 6 6 12 |) Backcvis ceenes eee oe 4 5 OP War hn c5 sg teas ewan cee deat 5 5 TO) | Breastic sc sccs cid cosas 3 3 6 | Body and fluff........... 6 | Legs and toes........... Total......... 100 TV OtaliCuts® vis: asaieaciy yee Guten Se orien eae Score......-. lee), - gnapasGucadachthetta don delta d twats dmgels Instructor Full directions for the use of the above score card can be found in “‘ The American Standard of Perfection.” 490 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING The decimal score card is so designed as to give to each part its proportionate rank, the specimen being divided into ten com- ponent parts, each of the same value. In using the standard score card, parts which fall below the requirements are deducted from the perfection value in propor- tion to the ratio in which they drop below the standard. When the scoring is complete, the cuts are added, and the amount subtracted from 100, which gives the total score of the bird. The score card, when completely filled out, should be dated, signed by the judge and countersigned by the secretary. The standard score card sets so much value on color mark- ings that its use inclines one, if not careful, to overlook those factors of body shape and apparent vitality which make up the utility or commercial value of the birds. It is, however, true that purity of breeding—hence of color pattern—to a certain extent promotes uniformity. It is also true that by studying color pattern the breeder of standard poultry is led to a closer study of the conformation of the body. The tendency is, and has been, to sacrifice shape and sizé for fine feathering, which in the end lowers the commercial value of the breed or strain. Hence if greater stress were laid, in the stand- ard score card, upon conformation of the body, with the view of increasing the utilitarian value of the breed, it would increase the production of standard-bred birds by the general farmer or small poultryman, who must get his living by selling his birds for market purposes. The perfect bird of any breed is the one which shows perfection in feathering. The utility and standard-bred white Leghorns are good examples of this divergence of values. The fancy Leghorn is a rather small, dainty bird, with small comb and wattles and rather short body; while the Leghorn which yields the highest profits from the sale of eggs is a larger bird, of heavier and coarser development, with long body and larger comb. Such a divergence should not exist; standard-bred birds, to rank as such, should have the typical shape and size developed to their highest degree. Score Card for Egg Type of Live Poultry.—This score card is of use to the breeder of poultry who wishes to breed for maximum egg yield. It fixes in his mind the external characteristics of the bird which are significant of the egg producer. The values given the component parts signify the relative importance of each part in selecting the layers and nonlayers. JUDGING 491 Utility Score Card for Live Poultry. Commercial egg production the primary object. Date iersgirsdeaicels oa Exhibitor ....... iS sche vlomatieaa sees exes a warcpaigarl oA Ss rans Tenia Aveta heater eet a Entry No........ Breed: sscgascwvastaeets sceisty ss Ce SR ee Ee ee eee eee Description. Counts. Cuts. CRE RAT: RP UR RRO a. ang eed Bae dod ew ewes Uaowe HEA wd e aa eae (25) —_—— Form, compact and symmetrical, with no undue development in any part, as excessive fat growth, abnormal leg development, or extra long neck... 10 — Quality, texture of comb fine, skin and flesh soft but not fat, skin mellow and not too thick. Body plump and skin tight, not loose and flabby... Temperament, vigorous constitution, active, not lazy. A nervous, energetic temperament is associated with activity. ......... ccc ccc cece nee er 8 == EMBL AD SAN DON BC Reps essed cpa yin dns ph ddd bode trea essay coucu deh roashnd VS Pons NB 15 _—— Head medium to large and broad... .......... 0.00 e cece ce tee e esses 3 — Eyes full and prominent; bright, showing vigor..................000000- — omb and wattles medium to large in size, and bright red in color. Comb firmly fastened to the head. Comb of single-comb White Leghorn large 5 — Neck medium in length with full hackle... ......... 00. c cece cence eeeee 4 _— BODY ssw sacs asides site pam canoes ae ceoe anne eeu tesla mae pa hicenies (50) — Hind quarters greatly developed, with heaviest part of the body carried back of the hock joint. V-shaped when viewed from side, top, andfront.. 15 — Breast moderately full and wide.......... 0.00.0: c cece ccce cece cece cece — Back wide and long, showing great depth from centre of back to point of ‘ JOO T onssasuchee sates cay ssteslans ciel slnckt biases tay cnles ama Clnoycty a eoeachoaaal docaonc lula tenes races wal — Fluff abundant, fine, and lying close to the body...............0.-000 05 3 — Tail carried rather high and well spread...............0.ce eee eee eens 2 — Feathers soft and held close to the body............. cece cece ee eee aee 2 — Wings held well up and carried close to the body.....................4. 3 — tracted ‘and: hardened). ii. s¢ cae ca yiute args Aone as ace ee Soe ee Ee 18 — TSG Bs e.g tease east on ce ture gest aaa cn oS alta ee AD a oR es (10) —— Legs straight, wide-spread, especially at and above the hock joint......... 5 — Length medium to short ; long legs—giving the bird a stilted appearance— are usually associated with lack of vitality and low production......... 2 — Color of yellow, bluish black, or flesh, depending upon breed characteris- tics, yellow to have the preference. ........... 00. cc eee cece ee ee eevee 1 — Shanks free from feathers. ... aiaviorsiiararinoretenerib stares rater 2 — POtaleecnsstox tatiana remind wases Maree ete ieS aiehiveveleis dame 100 —_ Final score....... VUES ete reeeeaans SAMI aoe eee dae Nae eee This scoré card can be used in two ways,—for instruction con- cerning the fixing of egg characteristics and for comparison of breeders when selecting for the breeding pen. In using this score card it must be borne in mind that, if the poultryman is selecting for egg type, vitality should be the first consideration; and, while certain features are usually associated with heavy egg production, yet the trap nest is the only sure way of finding it. Score Card for Dressed Poultry—This may be used in several ways: For instruction concerning the meat type; by the producer in grading dressed poultry for shipment; by commission men in 492 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING determining value of shipments received; and at poultry shows in awarding premiums to dressed poultry. It will help the producer te raise and market a more uniform type of dressed birds, and will indicate to him the special points in killing and packing,—factors which result in a higher market price. Score Card for Dressed Poultry. DA t Che te shigeish teivsheves haut EGRDIDLEOD. SG (2 2-0 siscareoe a exeaeeys Rh Suaeswbyat. adpsid S tudnsterti.d erates @apeens Entry NOs: esaccewinces Breede Acaneettie cise hehe aa Riles en PACE er hook 2-2) a susecusse Seaman Average weight........ Market types saisoxd.jhimene dealing yitiieGs dee bidet wae ke Description. Any sign of poor health or diseased condition is a disqualification. Lack of vigor is a serious defect. Counts. Cuts. (40) CONDITION eens 1 47s Walder gun teionin’y Steen o Aiea ee Bec dese We aeaglaeng as Weight, perfection being the highest weight allowable in a given class..... 15 —_ Plumpness, 2 full plump development in all parts, especially breast and i CE Sica irs 2. ces mcs 2 Gecealen etcetera a he RGN cok Meee hts eae WR Bas 2S 5 —— Color of shank and skin, according to market requirements: yellow, white, and blue usually preferred i in the order named.........-...-0-02-e ee ee 10 — FRI LEING AND) DRESSING «ace syste 8 siecetud: & wien kd, Sieuayaee og ake a erpnia ie we eae docied soba (40) Manner of sticking, or bleeding. Perfection isin the throat. For behead- ing cut five pone For exposed bleeding cut three points............ 10 —— Manner of picking. Dry picking scores highest. Tor Ene cut three to ten points, depending upon condition............. 00.000 eee eee eee 15 — Completeness of picking.............. 10 — Cleanliness and appearance of finished carcass 5 — PAGKING-AND PACKAGES suc pistes ¢.rog is ve Aiie eZine gaia 2 np ate are piheey so haKES (20) Manner of packing—efficiency, 5 points; uniformity, 5 points............ 10 — Package, neat, substantial, and attractive..............00 0c ee eee eee ee 5 — Labeling or guarantee 2s. s.2% .5 ven es ees a as Fea nk Pee EPS OO 5 — Otay -v-3 3am a seatas caine Ps Las Pee Ye RE 100 — Final score....... DAE le scans ssasnse dh Bae tcect eunch US UE CORRES RD Score Card for Market Eggs.—This brings out the desirable points in first-class market eggs. Such a score card may be used in different ways: For instruction as to market egg requirements; by the producer and shipper to keep in his mind the importance of grading and better methods of packing; at poultry shows in awarding premiums for commercial egg exhibits. Score Card for Market Eggs. Date..... : TOXBIDICOR since decaayse-c- Seesaies ash ckbave RG oustened a avSianees ve VAIN EAS ie Entry No. ... Breed p's. icciciit Picotianta costae aa tueses BO hue hint tee Ae arated Weight per dozen in Ounces ...... 6. eee ee eee te teens sane eenneeeeenes Description. Counts. Cuts. PR BOE NBSB seodeigs df ova Nines oe WLS de ates. g BALSA G. seaksm Nee Bakara, coats ee 30) Size of air cell, perfection is one-eighth inch or lessin depth. Cut five points for each additional eighth inch in depth. ......... 00. ce cc ee eee ees 20 —— Neve shell lustre, lack of same due to washing or age is a serious ae Ct is scant’ a Sarees. 8: Siw eveash Be epee STG a PRAT Ko ee 5ab6: shied eleuali ct 10 — JUDGING 498 SBE eae ates 6 VA ae A ee ie os pea 3 eee oe Ke ee ea Weight of total sample, perfection is 27 ounces or more per dozen. Cut one point per dozen for each ounce under weight. Overweight is not a de- AOC Uiecca iad soot 2 a Sites ek Mette Sel cel Ok Gime Behe Ete acs cole Eada ce each ede bat 10 —_—_— Uniformity of sample, all eggs making up 2 given sample should be of the BATE WIE Daye: 5,5 carjcuaud-a) yertaccege comer tna apacantoderielay Penile aleve Sayed -efeneienedivies eueed 10 —_— COLORS au neeeAon. a cena? aug selevh ae eyettlit a AtU Maat hated dich Blacuaa arta wicheedaha di (20) Color of total sample, pure white or brown is perfect. Creamy or tinted white eggs, a defect. Dark brown eggs have the preference over light BRO WDS saiccsindiins.c: wren i anties oe ekaae s Rinne nee ae bam eal pales edo 10 —— Uniformity of sample, all eggs in sample should be of same tint. Cut one point for each egg varying in color from average color of sample........ 10 —— HARE co Yor ps A re ae ee et cal fy 2 dicadsh fa hepe sealed watuast ee nate (10) Egg shape, the ratio of the large to the small diameter is about one ¢o one and one fifth; this varies slightly with different breeds................ 5 —— Uniformity of sample, cut one point for each egg varying from the average shape of all eggs in a given sample..............0 0. ec cece eee eee eee 5 —— AP PE ARAN GBs oiici.0wiagiid ie os tdsanace st areye d, 3 o> DURA «nae ne Heyy SO nce (10) Clean, all eggs should be free from dirt or blood stains; cut one-half point for Gachieeg. so. stained sss sccos de asia oc Awe 9S PRO la bo SRG Ole A ako ee ORS 5 — ' Not cracked or broken, cut one point for each cracked egg in sample. More than five cracked eggs or any egg broken so that the contents leak dis- qualifies the sample..s . 2. nccsoz.e s ccsnicsaare 4 d eertonce Cmeuine a idee AUR akseneiie es Beene 5 —— CONDITION OF SHELU, 6.22.0 S04.0.aemiS Stas cords oP eepwoecdss doa eG Eoscensven Ba ucvoa (5) Smoothness of shell, cut one-half point for each rough-shelled egg........ 3 —— Hardness of shell, thin-shelled eggs which break easily and do not offer de- sirable shipping possibilities are defective. .0. 40.0404 overs eons ya odes 2 —— PACKAGES sco v sdhatiin s chang ga ni (5) Neat and attractive package 3 a Lightness of package.... 1 —— Durabilbty-or pack awe soc. testes aigsi ek Mees. ha aoa ae eae ole ee ede AeA 1 — "LOtalisiss wiGag sees fe eee Fete ye ee ae eas vet 100 —— Final score........ SUNT ge Gia send geo ceaucas God Geico ee eae eosiae goM GM eae Score Cards for Poultry Plants——This score card indicates some points to be considered in poultry-plant location, construction, and management. The poultryman who is designing or building a plant will find in it valuable suggestions for grouping his build- ings and for equipment that will produce the best results. Score Card for Educational Inspection of Poultry Plant. Owner Of farm deci cio deans weenie a acetic POV AAANOSS: 2 cinch fa)8 a asdeuteys sarah Savina onavete oe County: sie ss aes By a EO ee ees SGA CE. cnc otie says te ect yainay cy uatond cracanaeen io See ‘Breed «ses he ew ease ee Average production per bird per year .............. Total:number-of chicks hatcbed,. .2.. 0204 24 tae og peed Dee EN ee ode SES Total number of adult females wintered «0... 1... cece eects Products sold, wholesale or retail 6.1... . cc cece ete teen tenet eens Other products produced besides eggS ...-. este eee e ee ee ee t erent eee eee Remarks. iiss sseseey teasens doa Si eidteyoun d situa ee bene Pea hata Os WON Bee Be Saas ena lele edhe Equipment. Counts. Cuts. General appearance, as to efficiency.....-.- 1-6... reece eee eee eee ee eee 3 ees HealthvOl D1rd$-usc.c2-5 eehis cc a Sh bk Be ND a Hatem auth Zoints alte 8 — Fowls showing lack of vigor cut 4; fowls showing signs of disease cut 4. 494 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING Comfort of birds...... CB Meelis ea ghs sk Masia, kb OU 22 Sind a wutnudaacn Ame A ban e aa se Temperature of house counts 2; moisture conditions count 2 TO CATION OF HOUSES 2255 ecu is! taaneeae dosanclvtalncae Aca = 8 ust ceart ld ay ouacce’e varia tub 4 Well drained, count 2; facing south, count 2 Censtraction Of Rouse 6 cs. c0 bm cere tends apnea eae ae eR eeEey ERMA SS 10 Shed roof; perfect, count 2; smooth tight walls, 1; tight sound floor: con- crete 3, dirt 2, wood 1; proper type and arrangement of fixtures, 4. Tei 6 QL 88) on cribs Sah ace ode. es scealga OW SMEEEK. oes CREED lahat ASML HABE BREE 4 1 sq. ft. to each 16 sq. ft. of floor space or to each 4 birds, counts perfect; 1 sq. ft. to 8 birds, count 3; to 12 birds, count 2; to 16 birds, count 1. VS rita ati On pices sy geaeszae se stevate 6. caine 84 Shsaete oxo wens cased < upayeie d Sagsie kw Eee 5 Muslin perfect. 1 sq. ft. to 2 birds, count 5; 1 sq. ft. to 4 birds, count 4; 1 aq. ft. to 6 birds, allow 3; no muslin, counts 2 or less. Facilities for doing work properly, 1; durability, 1. Incubation equipment..........0.. 0.0 c cece cee centre cee e rece nee Location of incubator house, 1; ventilation, 1; means of supplying moisture, 1; arrangement of cellar, 1; efficiency and sufficiency, 1 Brooding equipment isisc¢ sneaee 4 woven bye a 2 kets od Sanne ee esas lass a Light, 1; ventilation, 1; sanitary conditions, 1; labor-saving devices, 1; effi- ciency and sufficiency, 1 Total for equipment ............. 0... e cece eee ee eee eens 50 METHODS. Floorspace: per: bird sc: =o esck 3b sssas iowa diene teas Fhe Die ee tee 4 4 sq. ft. count 4; 3 count 3; 2 count 2. Cleanliness: of (bird aiéci-:: ss.icyecs:s! sczyage ie 9 a:acgeacasb Saebok od Reacdes Bed tanned hawk pH eee Cleanliness’ OF Houses sé os jisire 9: ecsqalentily are ayuouee eA seieiiel el ghsste sas 0 olnsad te "av a) ogaseane secanede 8 Perches 2; nests 2; walls 1; curtains 2; glass 1. Feeding practices. YT Nn Sea cate th cesce eh Narn co aN sp pst den lp te ania eevee va este enn oy eae 8 Wet mash, count 4. Seratch: grains sesec3 Bese sae vensee ss Wogan aa edie ea as ata IS 6 Hopper’ grains, count 2. Consider 4 as the value of manner and time of feeding; and count 2 on condition of litter. Water... .. cee een eee eee eee latateie wreanreals @cumtonste ia habs anh ta nibs ate a tnt 2 Clean and fresh, 1; convenient and abundant, 1. Succulence, method and efficiency. .............. 00. c eee cece eee ence 4 Count perfect for double yarding, or range, in summer and sprouted oats, vegetables, or root crops in winter. General methods of entire feeding practice................--0-0 sees eee 2 Range conditions iii: <3 :ssieras ie wtktagasioa aceudsdie Mosn,dea a, ous Sad wb Haitee a we ewe & Lara 6 Abundance of range, 1; shade, 2; green feed, 2; dry mash, hopper fed, 1. , Method of handling and marketing the eggs..............-.-0202 eee eee 5 Regularity of collection, 1; care used in grading, 1; method of packing for Pu a 1; regularity and frequency of shipping, 1; sterility in market eggs, 1. REVIEW. . Name five advantages of exhibiting. . Discuss the development of poultry exhibits. Name four types of poultry exhibits. What are some of the possibilities in educational exhibits? What would be your procedure in training a bird for exhibition? What would you consider legitimate conditioning? What do you consider illegitimate conditioning? Give the points you would look for in selecting birds for exhibition. Describe how to wash a bird. , Give points of caution in shipping birds to the show. SOWNONPWNe —s . Cuts. REVIEW 495 . What attention do they require at the show? . Outline the organization and preliminary work necessary to run a poultry show. . How are judges selected? ; . Give best conditions necessary for their doing good work. . Give three objects of judging. . Name and define two judging methods. . Give the advantages of each method. . Enumerate five principles underlying successful judging. . Give the main points of the official score card for standard poultry. . Give the uses of a score card for live poultry of the egg type. . What are the uses of a score card for dressed poultry? . Outline the main points of a score card for market eggs. Reference.—The Value of the Poultry Show, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Report, 1908. CHAPTER XXVIII. DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES. In every flock of poultry, regardless of size, an outbreak of disease is always possible. In some cases this is due to environ- ment or management for which the poultryman is directly respon- sible; in others, disease may break out in a flock well cared for. Every poultryman, therefore, should familiarize himself with the structure and functions of the bird’s body, so that the first symptoms of disease will be perceived, and proper steps taken to check its spread. Perfect health depends upon a full under- standing of environment and feeding, which have been elsewhere outlined, with a knowledge of the laws of sanitation and preven- tion of disease. Treating Diseased Poultry.—With the average fowl or average flock it is a well-established principle that it does not pay to treat diseased birds unless they are of exceptionally high value and the disease is not infectious. The reasons are as follows: Birds which have ever been affected with the common diseases and are supposedly cured are a constant menace to the flock. If allowed to mingle with the others, their identity may be mistaken, and they may be put in the breeding pen, to perpetuate through their offspring a weakened constitution and tendency to similar diseases in succeeding generations. The value of the individual bird and its production are so small, in comparison with the time which must be devoted io treatment and the cost of medicine, that it is rarely a profitable expenditure of time unless a bird be very valuable. Diseases that are infectious or highly contagious should never be treated with the idea of subsequently using or selling the affected birds. The custom should be to kill all that are diseased, and at once to begin thorough disinfection and keep it up for an indefinite period. When to Treat Poultry—It is both practicable and profitable to treat sick poultry under any of the following circumstances: 1. When only one or a few fowls need treatment which is simple, easy of administration, and absolutely certain in its effects. 2. When, as in the case of certain common and simple infec- 496 POULTRY HYGIENE AND SANITATION 497 tions, it is possible to treat the whole flock collectively, with reasonable certainty of benefit. 3. In the case of individual birds of high intrinsic value, the extent and the nature of the treatment must be decided by the poultryman himself. Here, however, there will be a much greater number of diseases that can be profitably treated. Prevention Rather than Cure.—The aim of all poultrymen, whether engaged in a large commercial business, a small backyard poultry plant, or the production of fancy specimens, should be so to care for the birds, and to institute such sanitary measures, that disease will be prevented, rather than to try to cure disease after it is firmly established. This accords with the present attitude of the medical profession, and bears out the old adage, ‘‘An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” Vigorous health is the first requisite in preventing and combating disease. The elemen- tary principles involved in maintaining a flock in healthy condition and free from disease will now be considered. Hereditary vigor of constitution helps to throw off disease, and must be bred into flocks in which it is lacking. Selection must go on continuously from year to year for this purpose. Practising sanitary and hygienic care,—that is, a system of management absolutely hygienic and an environment perfectly sanitary. Maintain a careful oversight, and immediately isolate or slaugh- ter any diseased bird or birds, with prompt and thorough disinfec- tion whenever any signs of disease appear. Poultry Hygiene and Sanitation.—Given healthy birds of vigorous constitution, an important necessity is to have absolute cleanliness. While some poultrymen may succeed for a time in defiance of this, yet the time is sure to come when neglect of cleanliness will make itself felt. Of course, disease may come in spite of all precautions, yet the possibility of its doing so can be reduced to a minimum. The word “ hygiene ” is‘practically synonymous with cleanli- ness, hence its use in the following discussion. The essentials of hygienic care may be summed up in the following groups: Clean housing; clean feeding; clean yards and runs; and clean birds. Clean Housing.—The first step toward securing a clean house, if a dropping board be used, is to remove the droppings at least once a week, and sometimes oftener. If an absorbent is used, a good plan is to clean the dropping boards whenever the droppings become wet or if they do not dry quickly. In a moist state they 82 498 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES emit an objectionable odor, which is not the case if they dry and harden immediately. The floor should be covered with a good scratching material which should be kept fairly fresh and clean, free from excess mois- ture, and fairly coarse. It should be removed and replaced with fresh material whenever it becomes damp or is filled with droppings which do not dry. The house should be given a thorough cleansing at least twice a year, and if necessary oftener. All portable fixtures should be removed, washed, and placed in the sunshine to dry, and all window-panes cleaned. All muslin curtains must be beaten, to rid them of dust and make them more pervious to ventilation. The litter and nesting material must be removed, after which the interior of the house and all fixtures should be thoroughly sprayed with the following disinfecting solution: 5 quarts cream of lime; 1 pint of zenoleum; 1 quart of kerosene. This mixture should be well shaken and diluted with an equal amount of water, then applied with a force-pump through a fine nozzle. Used thoroughly in this way, the solution will accomplish three things more rapidly and easily than if applied with a brush: 1. A thin coat of whitewash will be evenly applied and spread — with force enough to put it into all the cracks and crevices. 2. The zenoleum will kill any disease germs which may be lurking in the house. 3. The kerosene will destroy or drive out all red mites, and to some extent body lice. The former are easily exterminated by this spray, and the latter by means of a good lice powder in connec- tion with the spray. The above solution, for common use, is cheap, easily applied and a perfect disinfectant, making the house clean, which means more attractive surroundings and healthier birds. The fixtures should next be replaced, the floor covered with fresh, clean litter, and new nesting material put in the nests. Besides frequent cleansing, to keep the house sanitary there must be an abundance of sunlight, which in itself is a powerful germ destroyer, and proved to be very beneficial to the health of the birds. The prevention of dampness, too, is a vital consideration, since damp, dark quarters furnish a natural breeding-ground for all types of bacteria,—places where filth cannot be readily detected, and where disease germs may multiply undisturbed. Clean Feeding.—To sum up in few words, clean feeding neces- POULTRY HYGIENE AND SANITATION 499 sitates the use only of fresh, pure feed stuffs, and the avoidance of all moldy or musty grains and mashes; the supplying of abun- dance of succulent feed at frequent intervals and in small amounts, so that none will remain from one feeding time to another and become sour. All drinking vessels must be kept sweet and clean, and be filled with clean, fresh water. Drinking vessels should be washed thoroughly every month with a five per cent zenoleum solution. The feeding floor and vessels must be kept clean, espe- cially if wet mashes are given. The birds should not be unduly forced, as this causes loss of vitality and stamina and makes them more likely to contract diseases which the vigorous fowl would resist. Health is also promoted by considerable exercise induced by the feeding of grain in litter and by having plenty of yard room. One of the most common modes by which infectious diseases are transmitted to a flock is by means of drinking water from the vessels which all usein common. Owing to this fact, it is customary to give to flocks, especially if they show any signs of roup or other infection, a drinking water containing some harmless antiseptic. The best and most common one is potassium permanganate, which can be purchased at any drug store for about twenty-five cents per pound, and from which a stock solution to full saturation should be made, or a solution in which is dissolved as much as possible of the crystal, some being left in the bottom of the jar or pail. This solution should be tightly stoppered, and a little of it can be placed in the fountain each time water is drawn, the pro- portion being two teaspoonfuls to ten quarts of water, which will give the water a purple color. This is recommended only when the birds show signs of colds. Clean Yards.—Tainted and filthy yards breed infection which transmits disease from one flock to another or from one fowl to another in the same flock. The best and safest rule is to have the yards as large as possible, for the larger the yard the less the danger of excessive filth accumulation. Where there are only small runs, the frequent cultivation of these will greatly reduce the possibility of spread of infection. The raising of succulent green crops for forage will not only dispose of the surface droppings, but will con- vert them into crops which the birds can later use for feed. - Clean Birds.—If poultry are to be healthy and develop their productive powers to the fullest extent, they must be free from parasites, both internal and external. The destruction of parasites will be considered later. They are merely mentioned here as one 500 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES of the factors in poultry hygiene. The term “ clean birds ’? means the immediate checking of any symptoms of disease. This neces- sitates not only the treatment of sick birds, but their immediate isolation, and the proper disposal of dead ones. The only safe way to dispose of dead birds is to burn them, which is especially necessary if the diseases are highly infectious. If buried, it should be at least three feet deep, to prevent the possi- bility of dogs or wild animals digging them up. The danger of infection, however, is never entirely averted except by burning. A most unwise practice is to throw the bodies into the bushes, or other out-of-the-way spot, whence the infection, if present, may be carried broadcast. The Diagnosis of Disease.—The first question which confronts a poultryman with sick birds is, ‘‘ What ails my birds?” It is obviously necessary to determine the nature of the trouble before instituting preventive or curative treatment. But it must be understood that the average poultryman or farmer cannot diagnose poultry diseases, either by external or internal examination, with any degree of certainty. In most cases it is possible by a careful ex- amination to locate the trouble, andsthereby to place it in a general group of disorders which affect this or that particular organ in a given way. There are two general methods of making a diagnosis, —external examination and post-mortem examination internally. An external examination may show certain well-defined symp- toms which are almost always associated with illness of any nature, and which must be understood before attempting to make an exact diagnosis. Symptoms to look for are: A lack of interest in what is going on about it; a dumpy appearance, caused by contraction of the neck, ruffled feathers, sitting in one place, usually in a dark corner out of the way of other birds; the eyes closed most of the time, giving the bird a sleepy appearance; the wattles and the comb shrivelled up and dark or purple in color, or very pale; decided loss of appetite. When these symptoms are noted, the bird should be isolated, and an attempt made more accurately to define the trouble. The following classification* of external symptoms may assist ° the one making the diagnosis in determining which of a number of specific diseases is really present in the specimen. Before accepting this as the direct cause, he should compare the symptoms with an accurate pathological description. *After Raymond Pearl, Maine Experiment Station. THE DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE 501 External Symploms and the Diseases which they Indicate. Compiled by the Department of Biology of the University of Maine. Symptoms. Diseases Indicated. Abdomen swollen............. Peritonitis; dropsy; white diarrhoea. Belching of gas............... Inflammation of the crop. Breathing abnormal,—‘.ec., too All diseases of the respiratory system; arsenic slow, too rapid, wheezing, poisoning; pericarditis; gapes; air-sac mite. whistling, or snoring. Choking... u sau een ecs guess 3 Arsenic poisoning. Comb pale...............008. Tuberculosis; dropsy; air-sac mite; infectious leukaemia; white diarrheea. Comb first pale but later dark... Enteritis. Comb very dark.............. Liver disease; blackhead; congestion of lungs; pneumonia. Comb yellow................. Liver disease; visceral gout. Comb with white powdery scurf.White comb. Constipation................. Simple constipation; indigestion; inflamma- tion of the oviduct. Convulsions.................. Arsenic poisoning; copper, lead, or zinc poisoning; epilepsy; harvest bug. OGushy o.ks Atemedas way Diseases of the respiratory system. Crop enlarged and hard........ Crop-bound. Crop enlarged and soft........ Inflammation of the crop; enlarged crop; gastritis. Diartheasiscnciccscew awa ees Diseases of the alimentary tract; poisonings of all kinds; blackhead; tuberculosis; cholera; roup; white diarrhoea. Emaciation................40- Tuberculosis; aspergillosis; visceral gout; mites; white diarrhoea. Eye, expansion of pupil........ Arsenic poisoning. Eye, sticky discharge from... ..Catarrh; roup. Face swollen................. Roup. Droppings bright emerald-green.Cholera. ; Fever, very pronounced........Peritonitis; aspergillosis; infectious leukemia; inflammation of the oviduct. Lameness.........---.-.20-405 Tuberculosis; aspergillosis; rheumatism; scaly legs; bumble foot. Legs, roughened with scales raised. Scaly legs. Mouth, mucous discharge...... Congestion of the lungs; pneumonia; gapes. Mouth, white, cheesy patches. .Roup; canker. Neck bent back............... Poisoning; congestion of the brain; wry-neck. Neck limps sicsscsena nin wea Limber neck. Paralysis meme vcs ah sees se eae’ ¢ Poisoning; apoplexy; heat prostration. Saliva, abundant secretion..... Arsenic poisoning. Skin, scaly and incrusted...... Body mange; favus. _ Staggering.................5. Congestion of the brain; leg weakness. Thirst, excessive.............. Hypertrophy of the liver; peritonitis; asper- gillosis, tapeworms. Tongue, hard and dry......... Pip; diseases of the respiratory system. Tumors on head.............. Roup; chicken pox. Urates yellow..............0., Cholera. Vent, mass of inflamed tissue . projecting from. Prolapsus of the oviduct. Vent, skin inflamed with yellow discharge and offensive odor. Vent gleet. 502 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES Post-mortem Examination.*—Whenever birds die from un- known causes, the poultryman should make a post-mortem exami- nation, and try to determine from the general condition of the internal organs the exact nature of the disease. This may prevent any further outbreak, and the experience acquired by dissecting and studying the birds will enable the poultryman to do it each time more accurately. He should be so familiar with the normal appearance of the organs as to detect at once any unnatural con- dition, The majority of birds which die are victims either of simple diseases or of complications which have decided internal and visible characteristics, and with a little study such post- mortem examinations will prove both interesting and instructive. The following procedure is recommended in making such an examination: Lay the dead bird on her back, braced up on a piece of inch board; extend the wings and legs, and fasten with sharp nails to the board. Pluck the feathers from the breast and abdo- men; then take a sharp knife, and cut the skin on the median line from the crop to the vent, taking care not to cut through the flesh and rupture any of the organs. Next take a pair of blunt-pointed, sharp scissors and cut the flesh away from the abdomen, cutting the ribs on either side of the breastbone, so that it may be taken out entire. In doing this be careful not to injure the organs or to make them bleed. After the sternum (breastbone) is removed, the entire cavity of the body is exposed, and the organs will be seen lying in their natural position. Now study each organ, taking the uppermost first, and ascertain if it is normal, or, if not, what is the cause. The liver is the most prominent organ, and in the healthy bird should be rich reddish brown in color and free from any specks or blotches. It should be firm in texture, neither excessively large nor shrivelled up. Both lobes should be approximately of the same size, and the gall-bladder normal in size, bright green in color, and not ruptured. The heart should next be studied. It should be firm in texture, free from an excessive accumulation of fat, and not excessive in size. Both lobes should be of the same size; if not, it may indicate heart failure. There should be no tubercles or nodules on the heart nor in its sac; éither presence may denote tuberculosis. The lungs are next studied, and will be found on either side of the heart at the back. They are pink in color, and composed of spongy tissue. The lungs should always be examined for nodules *This method described by Raymond Pearl, Maine Experiment Station. DISEASES OF POULTRY 503 of tuberculosis and for lesions of aspergillosis, the latter being much more common in the fowl than tuberculosis of the lungs. A small piece of the lungs should be placed in a tray of water. It will float if healthy, and sink if unhealthy. The crop, gullet, and windpipe should next be studied,—espe- cially the crop,—to see that there is no obstruction which would stop the feed from entering the stomach and gizzard. The organs pre- viously examined can now be removed, and careful examination be made of the gizzard and intestines to see that the walls as well as the undigested material within them are normal in appearance. The cecum should be studied, and the presence or absence of tubercles on the intestinal membranes noted. Next the repro- ductive organs of the female can be studied, to determine the possible rupture of the oviduct or the breaking of an egg in it. In making a post-mortem examination, if the disease seems to have been located, a description of the disease should be gone over carefully and compared with the conditions found, to verify or disprove the supposition. Diseases of Poultry.—In studying the diseases of the domestic fowl, the most systematic procedure is to group them, according to their location or the group of organs which they directly affect, as diseases of the digestive system, nervous system, respiratory system, and reproductive system. Furthermore, there are diseases not associated with any par- ticular group of organs or any one system, which, nevertheless, should be considered. These may be termed miscellaneous diseases. There is still another group, representing a few diseases of highly infectious nature which may affect one or more parts of the body. These are termed infectious diseases. The following list gives the common diseases which the average poultryman is apt to meet in every-day work. They are grouped according to the system with which they are associated. Owing to limited space, detailed discussion of these is impossible. At the end of this chapter will be found references to standard authorities on poultry diseases, where detailed information concerning each specific disease may be found. Diseases of the digestive system: Impacted, inflamed, or enlarged crop; inflammation of the stomach, gastritis; simple diarrhcea; enteritis; indigestion; constipation. Diseases of the nervous system: Apoplexy; heat prostration; congestion of the brain; epilepsy. 504 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES Diseases of the respiratory system: Catarrh; bronchitis; influenza; roup; pip; canker; thrush; aspergillosis; congestion of the lungs; pneumonia. Diseases of the reproductive system of females: Ovarian tumors; absorption of eggs; enlargement of the yolks; inflammation of the oviduct; prolapse of the oviduct; obstruction of the oviduct; rupture of the oviduct; vent gleet; breaking down behind. Diseases of the male reproductive organs are of no economic importance. Miscellaneous diseases: Diseases of the liver; diseases of the skin; chicken pox. Special diseases of chickens: White diarrhoea; leg weakness. Infectious diseases: Tuberculosis; diphtheria; cholera. By the study of one or more of the recommended text-books on diseases, every poultryman and student may become familiar with the symptoms, causes, and common methods of treatment of the diseases outlined. These are by no means all of the diseases of poultry, but they cover the more common affections. Poultry Surgery.—In the case of lacerations, cuts, or other wounds, a little knowledge of surgical methods may enable one successfully to cleanse and sew them up, thus in many cases saving a valuable bird. From a surgical standpoint, there is more lati- tude with poultry than with almost any other animals, as illus- trated in the operation of caponizing. This is usually performed with but little, if any, attention to aseptic precautions. Cuts or wounds of any degree of severity may be successfully treated by the following method if the value of the bird warrants the time and trouble: Wash the hands and instruments thoroughly with soap, then rinse the hands in a 1 to 1,000 solution of bichloride of mercury. Pluck all feathers in the vicinity of the wound and wash the adjoining parts with warm water, using a piece of cotton or soft cloth, then wash with the mercury solution. If the wound is small, it need not be sewed up; if large, it should be sewed with white silk thread previously soaked in alcohol. If the wound penetrates the muscles or other organs besides the skin, sew each up separately. When completed, powder the wound with iodoform, put the bird in a small, clean coop, and watch the wound for a few days and keep it clean. Bumble Foot.—This means corns or abscesses on the sole of SOME COMMON POULTRY MEDICINES 505 the foot caused by injury, usually by jumping or flying from a great height. The treatment is to open the sore spot with a sharp knife, going to the bottom; extract the entire core. Then proceed as when treating wounds, except that it is unnecessary to sew up so small a cut. Frozen Combs.—In the northern part of the United States and Canada, especially during exceptionally cold weather, and if not properly housed or protected, it is a common occurrence for indi- vidual fowls, and sometimes whole flocks, to have their combs and wattles frozen. When this misfortune happens, there is an immediate falling off in egg production. If the affected birds are not treated at once, this falling off will be very marked and pro- longed, and, if badly frosted, the frozen parts will be lost. Treatment consists in immersing the frozen parts in cold water for ten minutes, after which they should be manipulated with vaseline once a day, until the comb assumes its normal color and texture. Severe freezing spoils a bird for breeding purposes, there- fore it must be guarded against. Some Common Poultry Medicines.—The following kinds of drugs and remedies will often be found useful on poultry plants where sick birds of considerable value are treated, or on any plant for the treatment of a flock. They should be kept in a small cupboard where they are available at all times. The list is recom- mended by the Maine Station.* Calomel (Subchloride of Mercury).—A very useful alterative medicine for fowls of all ages. One-grain pills are usually used. One-fourth grain is a good laxative. It has avery good effect on the liver. It should be followed in two hours by a dose of castor oil. Cayenne is an excellent liver stimulant when given in not too large quantities. In case of colds it is very useful, and is often used as one of the ingredients in stimulants so often fed to increase or stimulate winter egg production. Catechu is often used to treat severe cases of diarrhcea. The average dose of powdered catechu is from 2 to 5 grains and of the tincture from 2 to 5 drops. Castor Oil—One of the best and most common remedies for diarrhoea. This affliction is often caused by some scour or fetid mass in the intestine; a dose of castor oil will often remove this and thus allay the diarrhea. It is also a valuable factor to aid in reducing an impacted crop. A teaspoonful of castor oil is poured *“Poultry Diseases and Their Treatment,” by Pearl and Surface. 506 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES down the throat and then the crop is manipulated until the soft- ened mass is caused to move on properly. Epsom Salts (Magnesium Sulfate).—It is one of the cheapest and most useful of all drugs. It is especially useful in liver trouble and diarrhoea. Half a teaspoonful for a full-grown fowl is a stand- ard dose. It can be fed by mixing in soft feed; but a much more effective plan is to allow the bird to go without feed for a few hours and then dissolve the salts in warm water and pour down the bird’s throat. Cottonseed oil and olive oil are useful when hens are egg bound, for diarrhoea, and for external and internal use in dressing sores, torn flesh, and bound crop. Bichloride of Mercury.—A 1 to 1,000 bichloride solution is a germicide and disinfectant for external use, cleansing wounds and preventing infection. It is highly poisonous, and to prevent it being mistaken for water it is well to color it with laundry blue for identification. One can mix the solution by purchasing’ the standard bichloride of mercury tablets, or, better yet, have the druggist make a standard solution. Medicines in Tablet Form.—It is often desirable, because much more convenient and easily administered, to have the medicines in compact tablet form. Wholesale drug houses carry complete lines of such tablets graded according to dosage. They are administered very easily by holding the bird’s mouth open with one hand and with the other thrusting the tablet far back into the bird’s mouth so that it is swallowed. The following four drugs in this form are useful: Salicylic acid, two and one-half grains, for use in cases of rheu- matism. Aconite Root, one-tenth grain, for use in fevers. Bismuth subnitrate, one grain, for intestinal irritation. Iron, quinine, and strychnine tablets, for use as a tonic. Dose, 3 per day. Antiseptic Ointment.—The following ointment may be made by the poultryman and will always be found useful in treating cuts, sores, and wounds of all kinds: Oil of origanum...... 66... cece eee eee eens 1 ounce Cres Oll esses cao dessa Cosas ease tthe Sucte gcauinideesd budhar SADSvGua BE dames 37 ounce Pin @ttiaitge'c & gel'n diersicteh tui duenwly aces caiwa'y ak tat ewe Viena ea comeee 1 ounce PROSUIS sais cers we. napnecaeasen sted ork anbadecaeh Bi Wea s Hume had dine cbse debceneear es 1 ounce Clean axle grease (or vaseline)............... 000 e eee 8 ounces POULTRY PARASITES 507 The axle grease and resin should be melted and the other ingredients mixed into the melted mass. Pour into a tin or mold and allow to cool. POULTRY PARASITES. External Parasites.—The prevention or extermination of com- mon external poultry parasites is a tedious and painstaking process, necessitating constant watchfulness and preventive measures. There gre some thirty known species of insects and other forms of animal life which are parasitic upon poultry, some living on the skin, some boring under it, while others stay on the bird only long enough to get their nourishment. The presence of these insects forms an economic factor in the health of a flock and the profit from it. Birds infected with para- sites do not grow as large, nor do adults lay as many or as large eggs, as when not infested. The parasites suck the blood of the fowls and disturb their rest at night. It is unnecessary for the poultryman to know all of these different species in order to protect his birds from them, but there are four common types which will be here discussed, namely: Lice (Fig. 210); mites; scaly legs; depluming mites. Lice are the most common parasites of Fia. 210.—Body louse of poultry. There have been found at least the domestic fowl, Menopon eight distinct varieties on domestic poultry. béseriatum. Such lice live on the fowl’s body all the time. Of these only three occur to a damaging extent, the one shown in figure 210 being the most common. They usually swarm over the body, always producing a scurvy-like roughness of the skin, and sometimes destroying it. They cause diarrhoea and general debility, manifested by a pale comb and entire cessation of the reproductive function. Lice live on the waste material thrown off by the skin and feathers. They breathe through pores or openings in the sides of their bodies, and can be killed by filling these pores with fine powder, hence the custom of dusting with insect powder. A good powder should be used or the effort will be wasted. Sometimes the fowls are dipped or the houses fumigated, but these methods are not recommended, owing to the rumpling of the 508 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES bird’s plumage after dipping, and to the impossibility of properly fumigating without injuring the birds. A natural dust-bin should be provided for each flock in some dry, sheltered place, and it is a safe rule to dust the birds at least twice a year with some reliable insect powder, repeating the process twice, at intervals of a week or ten days, to catch the young lice, which are still in the egg at the time of the first dusting. The powder should be liberally sprinkled from a metal box with per- forated cover, the birds being held by the feet, and the powder Fic 212.—The scaly-leg mite, ; : Sarcoptes mutans. (Highly mag- Fig. 211.—The red mite of do- nified.) mestic fowls, Dermanyssus gating. Such mites stay on the fowl’s body only at night; at other times they hide in cracks and crevices about the poultry house. (Highly magnified.) worked into the feathers with the fingers. Most of the lice will be found in the down near the vent, and these parts should be well dusted. Few of the commercial lice powders are reliable, but the fol- lowing can easily and quickly be made at home, and is sure death.* Take 3 parts of gasoline and 1 part of crude carbolic acid, 90 to 95 per cent strength. Mix these together, and stir in grad- ually enough plaster of Paris to absorb all the moisture, which will usually be about four quarts of plaster to one quart of liquid. Thorough mixing of the liquid and dry plaster will result in a dry, pinkish-brown powder with a fairly strong carholic odor. A commercial apparatus for dusting fowls consists of a hollow cylinder in which the bird and powder are placed and revolved, after which the bird is immediately liberated. This is effective, *Lawry’s Lice Powder, Cornell University. is POULTRY PARASITES 509 but uncomfortable for the fowls from the dust getting into their eyes and mouth. T. E. Quisenberry, of Mountain Grove, Mo., has recommended the use of blue ointment as a preventative for lice, one great advan- tage being the ease of application and permanence. It is usually applied by rubbing into the feathers and down around the vent. Mites (Figs. 211 and 212) differ from lice in that they do not live on the bird’s body all the time, but mass together in cracks and crevices under perches and in the walls, whence at night they crawl to the fowl and suck blood, returning to their hiding places Fic. 213.—The work of the scaly-leg mite. Affected birds should be isolated and given immediate treatment to prevent spread of the mites. before the birds leave the perches. When full of blood they are red, hence the name of red mite or red spider. Spraying with strong kerosene emulsion or crude petroleum will kill all the mites it touches, hence it is well to have fixtures movable so one can get at all parts which might harbor these insects. Painting the perches with crude petroleum every few weeks, in warm weather, will keep mites in perfect control. Scaly Legs.—The form of scabies which affects the legs of fowls (Fig. 213) is due to a burrowing insect, which multiplies under the scales and secretes a calcareous material. This elevates the scales and gives them an uneven appearance, and in some 510 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES places the leg enlarges to two or three times its normal diameter. This pest is readily communicated from fowl to fowl, hence the wisdom of destroying it wherever found. The treatment is to stand the bird in a pail of warm water, and allow the scales to soak up thoroughly, then carefully scrape off the crusts without making the legs bleed, after which wipe dry and apply carbolated vaseline once daily. Crude petroleum is very effective in mild cases. In bad cases it may be necessary to repeat the treatment, but ordinarily one soaking and frequent applications of vaseline will soon effect a cure. The treatment should be started on the first sign of trouble. Depluming Mites.—These are minute insects which live on the fowl, taking up their abode at the base of the quills, which they consume or damage so that the feathers subsequently fall out. If the condition persists, the feathers around the neck and head may all drop out. Treatment consists in rubbing crude petroleum or carbolated vaseline frequently into the parts of the skin infested. Mosquitoes, where common, often do considerable damage to poultry. In South Jersey, near the coast, the writer has noted extensive damage resulting from mosquitoes biting the combs and faces of fowls, especially during damp weather. The punctures, which are made by the mouth of the insect, seem to offer exception- ally favorable places for the development of chicken pox, the infection easily getting a foothold and spreading in all directions. Where mosquitoes are so thick as to do damage as outlined, a preventive measure to eliminate the danger from chicken pox is to saturate the air in the roosting quarters with a two or three per cent solution of xenoleum at night when the birds are on the perches. This carbolated preparation acts as a disinfectant. Internal Parasites.—There are two groups of internal parasites which embrace nearly all the types of economic importance,— namely, (1) parasites which find their way into the trachea of the bird and (2) intestinal parasites. The first group is represented by the gapeworm (Fig. 214), found only in little chicks, which when affected will stand around with drooping wings, gasping for breath. Gapeworms are little, reddish worms which fasten themselves on the wall of the trachea and suck blood from its mucous lining, causing inflammation. They are about half an inch in length, and may become so numerous as almost to stop the breathing. The disease is especially prevalent in the spring, the infection being transmitted in the soil from one POULTRY PARASITES 511 year to another. If the parasites are known to exist, the best procedure is to plow the ground and lime it thoroughly. Do not use it for young chicks for a year or two—not until some crop has been grown upon it, and the ground worked over considerably. When only a few chicks are affected, the worms can be extracted with a horsehair loop or commercial extractor. Fic. 214.—The gapeworm, Syngamus trachealis, of young chicks, attached to the inside of the trachea. A serious handicap to successful brooding when the soil becomesinfested. Intestinal Worms.—Internal parasites are represented by two distinct kinds of intestinal worms, known as roundworm and tape- worm. The former are round, smooth worms (Fig. 215), tapering at each end, pointed in front and blunt in the rear. They derive their nourishment from the feed, and, if present in large numbers, Fia. 215.—The common roundworm, Heterakis perspicillum. When present in large numbers they are a serious hindrance to production. greatly impair the nutrition of the bird, perhaps interfering with digestion and causing obstruction. The best treatment is to give some drug which will cause them to loosen their hold on the lining of the intestine, and to follow this up with a laxative to expel them. For individual fowls one teaspoonful of oil of turpentine may be given one hour before feeding in the morning, and three hours later one teaspoonful of castor oil. 512 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES The tapeworm (Fig. 216) represents the second type of intestinal parasites. If present in any number, they will be very detrimental to the flock, making the birds emaciated and weak and causing the feathers to lose their lustre. The treatment outlined for round- worms will also be beneficial with tapeworms. Frequent feeding Fia. 216.—The tapeworm. When tapeworms are present in any numbers they greatly impair the efficiency of the birds. of onions or garlic is said to be a preventive, and powdered pome- granate-root bark, at the rate of one teaspoonful to fifty birds, will help to expel them. ENEMIES OF POULTRY. There are predatory animals which, if given a chance or if they have once acquired the habit, will do great damage by killing poultry. Losses from this source may amount to a very high figure. The rat probably ranks first as an enemy, killing a great number of young and growing chicks each year. Concrete floors and runs pro- tected by fine-mesh wire are the best means of keeping them away. Weasels and skunks also delight in killing birds and robhing nests wherever they find them, the weasel preying on growing chicks on the range during the day. Traps and the shotgun are here the best preventives. Steel traps placed in commen runways or in special openings under fences will result in their capture. Crows and some varieties of hawks carry off both young and adult birds. The crow is particularly adept in stealing young chicks. He usually alights on some tall pole or post in the vicinity of the chicken yard before swooping down for his prey. One of the best and surest ways of catching him is to place small steel REVIEW 513 traps on the tops of some of the tallest poles in the vicinity, and he will soon be a captive. When killed and hung up in the centre of the plant, he serves as a warning to keep others away. With poultry plants located in the immediate vicinity of large centres of population, there is increased danger of theft. Appre- ciating this fact, the great majority of commercial poultry men keep well-trained watch dogs about the plant. In some cases they run at large; in others, they may be chained to their houses, or probably the best practice is to have them located about the border of the plant on long wire trolleys, which will allow them to cover a considerable area. Many poultry breeders are dog breeders as well, often getting a considerable revenue from this side-line. REVIEW. . What is fundamental to a practical knowledge of poultry diseases? . Under what conditions is it desirable to treat diseased poultry? When is it not desirable to treat diseased poultry? Discuss prevention as compared with curing. Give three factors essential in maintaining a healthy flock. . Define the word hygiene as used in this chapter. . What three practices are essential to insure clean houses? . Give the composition of a complete disinfecting solution, and tell of its effects. ; . Discuss the effects of sunlight and of moisture in their relation to a sani- tary and hygienic house. 10. Discuss clean feeding. 11. What is the best practice to guarantee clean yards? 12. Describe the external appearances of sickness, associated with many disorders. 13. Give external symptoms of roup; tuberculosis; chicken pox; gapes. 14. Outline method of making a post-mortem examination. 15. Name five common poultry medicines; state method of use and effect. 16. Name four common external parasites of poultry. 17. Describe the effects of body lice. 18. Describe a good method of spraying fowls for lice. . What is used? 19. Give the composition of a reliable, homemade powder for destroying lice. 20. Describe the chicken mite and his manner of attack. 21. Tell how to keep down the ravages of mites. 22. What is meant by scaly legs? How can the trouble be cured? 23. Are mosquitoes ever injurious to poultry? What are the effects? 24. Describe and give method of combating two common intestinal parasites of poultry. 25. Tell how to control the gapeworm. 26. Name common diseases of the digestive system. 27. Give a list of diseases of the hen’s reproductive organs. 28. What diseases affect the respiratory system? 29. When is it desirable to practise poultry surgery? 33 DNB wWNe Ke) 514 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 30. Describe the procedure in treating cuts and wounds. 31. What is bumble foot? Give its cause. 32. How would you treat a frozen comb? 33. Mention predaceous enemies of poultry, and tell how to control each. References.—Poultry Diseases and their Treatment, by Pearl, Surface, “ and Curtis, Maine Bulletin. Fowl Typhoid, by Cooper Curtice, Rhode Island Bulletin 87. Tapeworm Disease of Fowls, by Gage and Opperman, Maryland Bulletin 139. Tuberculosis in Fowls, by A. R. Ward, California Bulletin 161. Common Diseases of Fowls, their Control and Treatment, by F. D. Chester, Delaware Bulletin 47. Chicken Pox or Sore Head in Poultry, by C. A. Cary, Alabama Bulletin 136. Diseases of Chickens, by H. J. Milks, Louisiana Bulle- tin 108. Lice and Mites of Poultry, by Nathan Banks, U.S. Bureau of Ento- mology Circular 92. Tuberculosis, Fowl Cholera, Chicken Pox, and Roup, California Report, 1903. Asthenia (growing light in fowls), by Chas. F. Daw- son, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry Report 15. Some Common Disinfec- tants, by M. Dorset, U. 8. Farmers’ Bulletin 345. Gapes in Poultry, by H. Garman, Kentucky Bulletin 70. Causes of Death in Young Chickens, by C. K. Graham, Connecticut Bulletin 44. How to Destroy Rats, by D. E. Lantz, U.S. Farmers’ Bulletin 369. Disinfection and Commercial Disinfec- tants, by Ravenall and Smith, Wisconsin Bulletin 156. Infectious Diseases among Poultry, by D. E. Salmon, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 8. Healthy Poultry, in U.S. Farmers’ Bulletin 305. Lice on Poultry, in U.S. Farmers’ Bulletin 435. Fowl Cholera, by A. R. Ward, California Bulletin 156. Fowl Cholera, by P. B. Hadley, Rhode Island Bulletin 144. Avian Coccidiosis, by P. B. Hadley, Rhode Island Bulletin. The Chicken Mite, Mississippi Bulletin 78: Tuberculosis, by E. F. Pemot, Oregon Bulletin 64. Diseases of Chickens, by E. F. Pemot, Oregon Reading Course Bulletin 4. The Common Chicken Mite, by H. C. Pierce, lowa Press Bulletin 19. | Mc After ‘‘American Standard of Perfection." Fig. 217.—Fowl with points named. 0. Beak. 9. Saddle feathers. 18. Flight coverts. 1. Single comb. 10. Sickles. 19. Fluff. 2. Face. 41. Lower sickles. 20. Body. 3. Wattles. 12. Tail coverts. 21. Thigh. 4. Ear lobes. 13. Main tail coverts. 22. Knee-joint. 5. Hackle. 14. Wing bow. 23. Shanks. 6. Breast. 15. Wing coverts. 24. Spur. 7. Back. 16. Secondaries. 25. Toes. 8. Saddle. 17. Primaries. 515 APPENDIX. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. Poultry Experiments, by Pearl and Surface, Maine Bulletins 117, 130, 144, 157, 165 and 179. Poultry, by G. Allman, Department of Agriculture Western Australia, Bulletin 23. Poultry Raising, by W. E. Vaplon, Colorado Bulletin 164. Poultry Experiments, by T. I. Mairs, Pennsylvania Bulletin 87. Poultry Raising on the Farm, by D. E. Salmon, U.S. Farmers’ Bulletin 141. Care and Management of Poultry, by Sheppers and Dynes, North Dakota Bulletin 78. ; Poultry, by C. E. Brown, Minnesota Bulletin 119. The Hen’s Place on the Farm, by Oscar Erf, Kansas Bulletin 150. The Poultry Industry in Maryland, by C. L. Opperman, Maryland Bulletin 138. Poultry in Pennsylvania, by T. E. Orr, Department of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, Bulletin 143. Farm Poultry, by W. 8. Jacobs, Arkansas Bulletin 99. Farm Poultry, by Lloyd and Elser, Ohio Circular 118. Farm Poultry Management, by James I. Rice, New York Department of Agriculture Circular 11. Poultry Raising, by J. G. Halpin, Michigan Bulletin 245. Farm Poultry, by J. 8. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 195. Poultry Management, by G. A. Bell, U. S. Farmers’ Bulletin 287. Poultry Keeping on the Farm, by F. 8. Cooley, Montana Farmers’ Bulle- tin 3. Profitable Poultry, Kansas State Board of Agriculture Bulletin 107. Farm Poultry, W. R. Graham, Ontario Bulletin 151. Methods of Poultry Management, by Raymond Pearl, U. S. Farmers’ Bulletin 357. Poultry Management, by Stewart and Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 115. Poultry as Food, by Helen Atwater, U.S. Farmers’ Bulletin 182. 516 APPENDIX 517 ADDRESSES OF COLLEGES, EXPERIMENT STATIONS, ETC. (These devote time to educational and experimental work in poultry husbandry; in most cases bulletins or other publications are issued freely.) Alabama, Experiment Station, Auburn. Alabama, Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. Arizona, Experiment Station, Tucson. Arkansas, Experiment Station, Fayetteville. California, State College, Berkeley. Canada, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph. Colorado, Experiment Station, Fort Collins. Connecticut, Agricultural College, Storrs. Delaware, Experiment Station, Newark. Georgia, Experiment Station, Athens. Illinois, Experiment Station, Urbana. Indiana, Purdue University, Lafayette. Iowa, Agricultural College, Ames. Kansas, Agricultural College, Manhattan. Kansas, Department of Agriculture, Topeka. Kentucky, Experiment Station, Lexington. Louisiana, State Station, Baton Rouge. Maine, Agricultural College and Experiment Station, Orono. Maine, Department of Agriculture, Augusta. Maryland, Agricultural College, College Park. Massachusetts, Agricultural College, Amherst. Massachusetts, Board of Agriculture, Boston. Michigan, Agricultural College, East Lansing. Minnesota, University, St. Paul. Mississippi, Agricultural College, Agricultural College. Missouri, Experiment Station, Columbia. Missouri, Poultry Station, Mountain Grove. Montana, Experiment Station, Bozeman. Nebraska, Experiment Station, Lincoln. Nevada, Experiment Station, Reno. New Jersey, Agricultural College, New Brunswick. New South Wales, Department of Agriculture, Victoria. New York, Cornell Station, Ithaca. New Zealand, Department of Agriculture, Wellington. North Carolina, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh. North Carolina, College Station, West Raleigh. North Dakota, Experiment Station, Agricultural College. Ohio, Agricultural College, Columbus. Ohio, Experiment Station, Wooster. Oklahoma, Experiment Station, Stillwater. Oregon, Agricultural College, Corvallis. Pennsylvania, Agricultural College, State College. Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg. Rhode Island, Agricultural College, Kingston. South Carolina, Experiment Station, Clemson College. South Dakota, Agricultural College, Brookings. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Utah, Experiment Station, Logan. Virginia, Experiment Station, Blacksburg. Washington, Experiment Station, Pullman. West Virginia, Experiment Station, Morgantown. Wisconsin, Agricultural College, Madison. 518 NUTRIENTS IN FODDERS AND FEED STUFFS TaBLe XVIII.—Pounds of Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in Different Quantities of Fodders and Feed Stuffs. 3 I . ms 3 $s s 28 iS = d ié es ro) dq 3 $g 23 3 > rs Be os 3s a be q acd a eee | A uy o 3 Alfalfa, green, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.3. 1 0.2 0.04 7 0.006 231 2 4 07 15.01 462 3 6 Al .22 02 693 4 8 er 29 .02 924 5 1.0 37.03 1155 Alfalfa hay or meil (best)gutritive ratio 1:3.3. 1 -89 37.02 1033 2 1.78 37 74.03 2066 3 2.67 41 1.11 .05 3099 4 3.56 55 1.48 -06 4132 5 4.45 69 1.85 08 5165 Barley, green, nutritive ratio 1: 5.8. 28 ©.02 SO? estes 242 2 56.04 20 01 484 3 84 = .06 31 01 726 4 1.12 .08 41.02 968 5 1.40 .10 .51 .02 1210 Barley meal, ated. nutritive ratio 1 : 6.2. y% 46 .33 705 1 93 at 66 ‘02 1410 2 1.96 23 «1.31 04 2820 3 2.79 34 «1.97 06 4230 4 3.72 45 2.62 .07 5640 4.65 .56 3.28 .09 10059 Barley, ea nutritive ratio 1: 6.9 I -09 -60 1370 2 13 19 1.19 04 2740 3 2.7 28 1.79 07 4110 4 3.6 387 =©2.38 = .09 5480 5 4.5 47 2.98 ll 6850 Beans, nutritive ratio 1:2.9. . 1 87 17 49 01 1272 2 #175 35 97 .02 2544 3 2.62 52 1.46 03 3816 4 349 69 1.94 .04 5088 5 4.73 87 2.43 05 6360 Blood, dried, nutritive ratio 1: 0.11 45.36 -03 746 -90 7 06 01 1493 2 1.81 1.44 12 02 2986 3 2.72 2.16 18 03 4479 4 3.62 2.88 24 04 5972 5 4.53 3.60 30 05 7475 Bone, peu a, 46 14 .015 324 1 ‘92.28 03 648 2 1.84 .56 06 1296 3 2.76 .84 09 1944 4 3.68 1.12 12 2592 5 4.60 1.40 15 3240 Bran, rice, nutritive ratio 1: 5.9. 8 -10 42 .10 1424 2 1.78 .20 84 —.20 2848 3 2.67 .30 1.26 30 4272 4 3.56 .40 1.68 40 5696 5 445 .50 2,00 50 7120 Bran, wheat, nutritive ratio 1 : 4.3. 8 ll 42.02 1070 2 176 (22 84 05 2140 3 2,64 341,26 07 3210 4 3.53 45 1.69 10 4280 5 4.41 56 92.11 12 5350 ao} be . =a eS 8 33 = - @ af 35 2 S$ .o aé (an a eee BL £ =) A Ay o ee i) Brewer's ee dry, nutritive ratio 1 : 3.0. 1 0.92 16 0.37 0.05 1200 2 1.84 ee: 73 10 2400 3 2.76 48 1.10 .15 3600 4 368 .64 1.47 20 4800 5 460 .80 1.83 25 6000 Brewer’s grains, wet, nutritive ratio 1 : 3.2. .04 09 330 2 49 .08 19 03 660 3 73 12 28 04 990 4 97 = 16 37 = .06 1320 5 1.21 .20 46 07 1650 Buttermilk, nutritive ratio 1: 1.4. 1 10.04 04 wes 179 2 19 .08 09 .01 358 3 29 12 13.01 537 4 39 = 16 18 .02 716 5 48 .20 -22 02 895 Cheese, cottage, nutritive ratio 1 : 0.3. i. .28 21 04 01 507 2 56 42 09 02 1014 3 84 63 13 03 1521 4 1.12 .84 17 04 2028 5 1.40 1.05 .22 05 2535 Clover seeds, bur, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.8 % 46 08 19 610 1 -93 17 .39 04 1221 2 1.87 34 «1.77 09 2442 3 2.80 52. 1.16.13 3663 4 3.74 68 155 .17 3884 5 4.67 .86 1.93 21 6105 Clover, green, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.9 03 256 2 46 .O7 18 01 512 3 69 10 27 Ol 768 4 92 14 36 = -.02 1024 5 1.15 17 45 .02 1280 Corn, cracked, nutritive ratio 1 : 8.5. a 89 08 63.04 1524 2 1.79 17 127 08 3048 3 2.68 26 1.91 .13 4572 4 3.48 34 2.55 17 6096 5 447 .43 3.19 .21 7620 Cracklings, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.4. 4% «AT 28-28 1364 1 94 43 2728 2 188 .86 5456 3 2.82 1.29 8184 4 3.76 1.72 10912 5 4.70 2.15 13640 Feed flour, nutritive ratio 1: 8. 1 88 09 -67 01 1465 2 1.76 17 1.25.02 2930 3 2.64 26 862.02 03 4395 4 3.52 .85 2.70 .04 5860 5 440 .44 3.37 .05 7325 Kale, green, nutritive ratio 1 : 11.5. 1 15.03 AO! aes 263 2 30 = 05 20 01 526 3 45 08 30 01 789 ‘ -60 10 -40 02 1052 APPENDIX 519 os K . a Ee) u a => } E 3 ae oe ee 33 a 3 dq a ak a d ,3 a roy =| -_ } & p22 S 8 By 6.8 po f 3 ay _ 3 : @ 2 4 -—36 a > ° He 4 CRS) a > ° e Bed oo Q ee “4 a a su fe) i Ps aa 3 su A A Ay oO & & 4 a Ay 13) & i) Lettuce, green, nutritive ratio 1 : 6. Meat scrap, first quality, nutritive ratio 1 0.05 0.01 0.03 eis 97 1: 0.27. 2 11 02 .06 194 4 3.78 2.16 0.28 0.14 5288 3 16 .04 09 0.01 291 5 4.73 2.70 35 17 6610 4 21 = .05 12 «01 388 Milk, dried, nutritive ratio 1: 27 .06 15.02 485 4% 45 .26- .08 650 sc: green, nutritive ratio 1 : 7.3 1 51 16 1300 06 302 2 1.78 1.02 32 2600 5 ‘41 13 19 02 604 3 2.67 1.54 48 3900 3 61 19 .29 03 906 4 3.56 2.05 64 5200 4 81 26 39 = .04 1208 5 4.45 2.56 -80 6500 5 102 .32 49.05 1510 = Milk, skim, nutritive ratio 1 : Meal, coconut oil cake, nutritive ratio 1 09 §=.03 .05 268 1: 3.9. 2 18 06 ll Bas 536 % 43 08 21 05 750 3 28 10 -16 on, 804 1 86 16 42 10 1500 4 37 13 21 acti 1072 2 1.72 = .33 85 .20 3000 5 47° =«.16 27.005 1340 ; 2.58 .49 1.27 .30 4500 Millet, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.2. 3.44 .66 1.70 .40 6000 %. 46 .10 18 02 586 5 430 .82 2.12 .50 7500 1 92.20 35 = .04 1173 Meal, corn, nutritive ratio 1 : 11.5. 2 1.84 .39 .69 .08 2346 1 -66 03 1266 3 2.77 .59 1.04 .11 3519 2 1.76 113° 1.32 07 2532 4 3.69 .78 1.39 .15 4692 3 #264 .19 1.99 .10 3798 5 4.61 .98 1.73.19 5865 4 3.52 .26 2.65 .13 5064 Mixed feed, nutritive ratio 1 : 5.6. 5 440 82 3.31 17 6330 1 .89 .10 47, .03 1186 Meal, cottonseed oil cake, nutritive ratio 2 1.79 .19 95 .06 2372 .0. 3 2.68 .29 1.42 .09 3558 % 45 21 .08 06 381 4 3.58 38 1.89 12 4744 1 90 41 15 11 762 5 447 48 2.37 .15 5930 2 1.80 .82 31.22 1524 ~— Oats, nutritive ratio 1 : 6.2. 3 2.70 1.23 46 33 2286 47 04 1042 4 3.60 1.64 62 44 3048 2 178 18 95 08 2084 5 4.50 2.05 .77 55 3610, 3 267 .28 142 .13 3126 Meal, gluten, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.9. 4 3.56 37 1.89 17 4168 % 46 = .13 22.07 938 5 445 46 2.37 .21 5210 1 92.26 43 «414 1876 — Peas, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.7. 2 1.84 .52 87.28 3752 % 45 .10 26 5 335 3 2.75 .77 = 1.30 42 5628 1 0 19 51 670 4 3.67 1.03 1.73 .56 7504 2 1.80 .38 1.02 1340 5 4.59 1.29 2.16 .70 9380 3 2.70 .57 1.53 2010 Meal, aimee oil (n.p.) nutritive ratio 1 : 2.0. 4 360 .76 2.05... 2680 iG ee ee ue 8 ae 5 450 95 2.56 .03 3350 : : . , nutritive ratio 1: 12.8. 29 ii7a (59. i77 {13} ggaa. Mice mutlilve Tete Lee dare 3 267 .78 1.15 .20 4332 2 175 1 135... 2756 4 3.56 1.04 1.54 .26 5772 3 263 .16 2.03 01 4134 5 4.45 1.30 1.92 33 7206 4 3.51 121 2.70 01 5512 Meal, soy bean, nutritive ratio 1 : 0.9. 5 438 .26 3.38- .02 6890 4% 45.20 12.03 719 we mae: nutritive ratio 1: 5.1. 1 .90 40 -23 .07 1439 “12 53.04 1378 2 1.80 .80 45 13 2878 2 L cn "24 1.07 .08 2756 3 2.70 1.20 67 .19 4317 3 264 .37 1.460 .11 4134 4 3.60 1.60: 90 .26 5756 4 3.53 (49 213 115 5512 5 4.50 2.00 1.12 .33 7195 5 441 .61 2.57. .19 6990 Meat, Jreety, nubitive tatio 1 a 114 Wheat, plump, nutritive ratio 1 : 6.9. a a 1° 89 09 61 Ol 1354 1 26 8.2 seve 03 228 2 $4177 18 1.22 02 2708 2 53 4 sees 06 456 : 3 2.66 .28 4183 .04 4062 3 79 86 Sedu .08 684 Sten us 11 912 4 354 37 244 105 5416 5 132 100 |... .14 1140 5 4.438 .46 3.05 .06 6770 Meat serap, first quality, nutritive ratio | Wheat, shrunken, nutritive ratio 1: 4.6. 27. 1’ 92 1357 1386 AT 27 04 .02 661 2 183 (26 1.15 04 2772 2.75 .40 1.72 .05 4158 5 53 2.30 .07 5544 4.58 .66 2.87 .09 6930 54 07 = .03 1322 1.89 1.08 14 07 2644 2.84 1.62 21 10 3966 wos ore oo for) x 520 APPENDIX TaBLe XIX.—Average Weight and Volume of Different Feed Stuffs. One at. One Ib. weighs measures (pounds). (quarts). 1 9 Barley imeal ic toc cules cieiesd bln dk abe poke seen wires a 0. Barley Whole csciic colds ach ts snes bangieceuetes aun wines eet 15 0.7 Bone meal so). x aus. dh esnc noe woe wens egistie selena ts 2.0 0.5 Brewer’s dried grains. .......... 0.000000. e cece eee 0.6 1.7 BOC h SCL i.e cits, dings Sal eran RSNA Zeek RA aiele Ma ER as 1.3 0.8 Corn-and-cob meal ........00 0000 e cece eee cece ee 1.4 0.7 Corn-and-oat feed... 0.0... . cece cece eee eee ee 0.7 14 Corn. Draneis.35 a Uee ees vache aches ses targue cin Hadas DE dadbn 0.5 2.0 Worn Meal hi) Fr.ce Ges vie we wisi aba digs g ong Dials addon wot abe 1.5 0.7 Gorniy Whol esd cei acise tuted o eateitinn samde la ohea Ml nee hana 17 0.6 Cottonseed meal .... 0.2... cece ce ees 1.5 0.7 Distiller’s dried grains.............0.00.0..0200 000000 0.5-0.7 1.0-1.4 Germ ‘Ol meal oc. o.¢ eye ene wee Ue aur ead we eo wank 1.4 0.7 Glutennfecd ss. se isk ccatudincktnae Aucie aa eet, wiseunde wes es 1.3 0.8 Glutensmealyuis..02:; sg gina aan den nag ats nak aed 1.7 0.6 Hominy mealies cccchciss od Guincnay cas’ (egies eras 1.1 ‘0.9 Linseed meal, new process....................000.. 0.9 1.1 Linseed meal, old process.................200 00000205. 1.1 0.9 Malt: sprouts: i625 uae cutee faci padi sil cde ie ew 0.6 A Mixed feed (bran and middlings)............... res 0.6 1.7 Oat: feed (variable mixture)..............0.0...0... es 0.8 1.3 Ost Mid dings so ccna ne Sein dis Alara aaretiarreed hea wees 1.5 0.7 Oats, BTOUD A a. Saiesie estes wabiah Maar he sate beeeneem att ated avide alle 0.7 1.4 Oats, whole.....................- BAA ASG NEINSR A paradevela a ree 1.0 1.0 Rye feed (bran and middlings)........................ 1.3 0.8 Rye Meal sive ccekeains dite Horgau wees gma viee Dek gen tee 1.5 0.7 Rye; wholes cassia cities pauisdaits u dancetakieen tes Ha ods 1.6 0.6 Soy-bean meal....................... Sts tech tant each Seed 1.3 0.8 Wheat: bratty ices 3 geoenys whadu side dacuwied Hea gacnnes 0.5 2.0 Wiheaity rou hse cae. ats cence asen nd cS soaud) duis ineualagseoseet da 17 0.6 Wheat middlings (flour)...............000........0... 12 0.8 Wheat middlings................... Spbtis Chieth andi nebeiarehon 0.8 13 WHEAT WHOLE. circa soy culiiia ¢ sl edie sna Sea andronadateseeenta Gyee-cete 1.9 0.5 TaBLeE XX.—Poultry Journals. (Alphabetically arranged by States, with Canadian papers at the last.) Union Poultry Journal. ..................0...0.... Fort Smith, Ark. Poultry: Journal os: «os divyis cus aan ces hee os SS eee Se Haywood, Cal. Pacific: Poultry Crafts: :25 see ee26 682 ¢5 ose ec nae ns Los Angeles, Cal. *Poultry Jourmall 4 iss cs3.94- 954% ccna Sed aie § od ade Petaluma, Cal. Pacific Fanciers’ Monthly..................0.00... San Jose, Cal. Intermountain Poultry Advocate.................. Colorado Springs, Col. Southern Fancier...............0.0..0...000 0 cee eee Atlanta, Ga. Southern Pit Games (sport) ................000.2. Blakely, Ga. * Western Poultry Advocate....................0005 Lewiston, Idaho. American Hen Magazine.....................00.. Chicago, Il. *American Poultry Journal........................ Chicago, Il. Successful Poultry Journal........................ Chicago, III. Poultry Tribune. . 0.0.2... .... 0.0.0.0... cee eee Mount Morris, Il. * Specially recommended. POULTRY JOURNALS 521 Modern: Poultttys ic; asec tia kodes ator Peataas Peoria, Ill. *Poultryeeg acs oes Get ees aE Bg AS Pe VE ORE OS Peotone, Ill. Poultry Keeper.........0. 0000000 e eee ee Sawai Quincy, Ill. *Reliable Poultry Journal... ........... 0000000000 Quincy, Ill. Standard and Poultry World...................... Quincy, Ill. POU ye PGS tisssassicous males sccrnigsn, ont eehenk tne Ccbaenandna Stand Goshen, Ing. *Inland Poultry Journal....................02005. Indianapolis, Ind. Gamie: Birdijscs os acc8 Wane: Sine BN aA) Re I Tell City, Ind. Western Poultry Journal... ...............00020-. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Golder He Bt a inF or cases ihac le tahun ali ach OOO yin Wasa Des Moines, lowa. Egg Reporter... 2.0.0... eee eee Waterloo, Iowa. Poultry’ Cultures: ciccivscege. dosent ix lactate seretand sehr x Topeka, Kans. Poultry: Ideas: .cssecces seen yee ps cae yar eet BEET eA Louisville, Ky. Atlantic Poultry Journal .................2..000.5 Baltimore, Md. American Stock Keeper... .....0.0000..0 000 eee ees Boston, Mass. PH ATM POWIIY ® ssacyicayh. dec ton catsse egies Reeds s aed ert a Boston, Mass. Profitable Poultry... 0.0.0.0... 0.00.0 e eee eee ee Boston, Mass. Michigan Poultry Brecder.................2.2.0--5 Battle Creek, Mich. Poultry Pomters icy oc ceca eta ee Slee Gy penal AA Kalamazoo, Mich. National Barred Rock Journal............0....202. Union City, Mich. Poultry: Heralds cs once am erly ¢ oiin ag ca cua aes eee pa St. Paul, Minn. Useful Poultry Journal.............. 0000 eee eee Trenton, Mo. American Poultryman..........00......00200000005 Lincoln, Nebr. Poultry” Topless. i 3-sa0e hes ade cance Hedams ous ove es Lincoln, Nebr. Poultry: NOWS cs eset aca b Stein duiivaraa Magen don earie ads Newark, N. J. *American Poultry World... 0.0.2.0... 0000 c ee eee Buffalo, N. Y. Poultt'y- Review =x: csp oan oho hee eNe eae Elmira, N. Y. Ancona, WOrl dis i2ijetckut oct crenata ein dea S. ctw aque Franklinville, N. Y. Feathered Warrior (Game fowl) ................... Lisle, N. Y. *American Poultry Advocate...............000-0000- Syracuse, N. Y. *Poultry Husbandry: 2c eee Gas oe tees HER RO RE Waterville, N. Y. Southern Poultry Review.... ...............000.. Charlotte, N. Y. Poultry Record scsg.c;¢ a seach dae od Miel baen ara deed & Carey, Ohio. City armen sn: ican alight Atitnie? Slane pana leen ee Columbus, Ohio. Poultry Success... ..........................:... Springfield, Ohio. Northwestern Poultry Journal... .................. Salem, Oreg. Keystone Poultry Journal (quarterly) .............. Beaver Springs, Pa. Poultry and Incubator News....................., Garrettford, Pa. Poultry Yards. iwi cis eure aay ess the Reda ed Pheenixville, Pa. Happy Henn cccas at cs otuie aoa aid at oar ok ewe eee Pittsburg, Pa. Poultry and Farm Review..............0.0.002055 Pittsburg, Pa. Game Fowl Monthly................ 0000 e eee eee Sayre, Pa. Poultry PancieR ova, ¢giods sargin dae ak epee kade Sellersville, Pa. *Poul try tems 3: ses eisdignet yicis avaacrne Sonnee eae Sellersville, Pa. Gritsand Steele vnc ae ee ae wane oak glee eet Gaffney, S. C. Progressive Poultry Journal....................0-. Mitchell, S. Dak. Industrious Hen. ... 2.00.0... 0... eee Knoxville, Tenn. Southern Poultry Magazine....................... Nashville, Tenn. Poultry Life of America. .........0.....0000.0.0000, Belton, Tex. Southern Poultry Journal...................0.00., Dallas, Tex. Southern Poultryman..................000000000, Dallas, Tex. Texas Poultry Journal...................00...000. Houston, Tex. West Texas Journal.......... 0.000000 ccc eee eee Loraine, Tex. *Specially recommended. 522 APPENDIX Pacific Poultryman............ 00000 cect ence eee Seattle, Wash. Feathered World. .............00 02 ccc cece eee eee Walla Walla, Wash. Geflugel Zuchter (German)...............-...0004- Hamburg, Wis. Advance Poultry Journal .......... ... cece eee La Crosse, Wis. National Partridge Wyandotte Journal............. Milton, Wis. Profitable: Poultry s+: methods of keeping, 462 of sitting hens, 320 pen, 455 planning of, 453 sitting, 458 young stock, 461 Red mites, 508 Reference reading, 5 Regularity in feeding, 212 Retailer, selling to, 423 Returns, 424 rapidity of, 30 Rhode Island Reds, 93 origin of, 71 Rice, value, 192 Right-angle triangle, use of, 125 Roads, 52 Roaster, breeds for, 388 defined, 386 dressing, 418 farming, South Shore, 18 Roasters, chapter on, 376-402 distribution of, 385 features of, 388 management, 389 prices, 387 types, 387 Roofing materials, 122 Roofs, types, 114 Roosting quarters, 145 Root crops, 200 Roundworms, 511 Running water, advantages of, 49 Russia, poultry farming in, 39 Rye, value and usage, 191 534 8 Salesman, 422 responsibility of, 427 Salt, 184, 212 Sanitation, 110, 497 Sarcoptes mutans, 508 Scalding, 414 Sealy legs, 509 Score card, decimal, 490 dressed poultry, 492 market poultry, 492 official, 489 types of, 488 Scoring, 488 dressed poultry, 491 eggs, 492 poultry plant, 493 Scratch feeding grains, 214 Scratching ration, Cornell, 219 New Jersey, 217 Segmentation defined, 307 Selection defined, 251 for egg production, 254 hatching eggs, 287 importance of, 281 judges, 385 layers, 275 live birds, 101 pullets at maturity, 270 show birds, 479 Selling value pure-bred birds, 99 Semi-community system, 51 Senses, development of, 298 Setting coops, cleanliness, 320 materials for, 316 Setting the hen, 318 Sex adaptation, 30 control, 250 limitation, 243 Sexes, separation, 324 Sexual dimorphism, 261 Shade, 371 Shape, a breed characteristic, 68 of laying house, 112 selection for, 102 Shaping, 417 Shed roof, 115 Shell for chicks, 359 membranes, 304 structure and composition, 302 usage, 212 Shipping dressed poultry, 447 ice in, 447 methods of, 428 need of facility in, 54 to exhibition, 482 INDEX Show, arrangement of, 485 running, 483 Side line, poultry keeping as a, 25 Silkies, 77 peculiarity of, 77 Simplicity, 111, 143 Sitting hen, care of, 319, 322 selection of, 317 when to set, 315 qualities of egg breeds, 80 of general-purpose breeds, 88 of the meat breeds, $5 records of. 458 Size, importance of, in breeding, 258 of laying house, 110 of stock, 102 Skeleton, 292 Skim milk, composition, 196 Skunks, 512 Slips, 398 Slope, best, 46 Social organizations, 42 facilities, 43 Soil effect on color, 264 on fertility, 31 proper condition of, 45 undesirable types, 46 Solid color, breeding for, 263 Somatic defined, 234 Sorghum, 192 South Shore roasters, 18 Spaying, 401 Spraying for cleanliness, 273 Spring, for water supply, 49 Sprouted oats, advantages, 190 composition, 191 manner of sprouting, 189 Standard bred defined, 94 poultry, exhibition of, 477 classification defined, 66 table of, 66, 67 of excellence, use of, 225 weights, table, 70 Start, small beginning, 56 Starting time, 61 Sternum, 294 Sticking, 410 Stimulating feeds, 182 Stock, importance of good, 61 method of acquiring, 100 quality of, 101 selection of, 96, 267 Storage of dressed poultry, 448 of eggs, 412 = Substantive variation, 237 Suburban poultry farming, 25 INDEX Success and failure, causes of, 96. best way to achieve, 7, 56, 61 Succulence for chicks, 361 need of, 210 Sultans, appearance, 77 Sunflower seeds, 192 Sunlight, 106 Supply, 427 vs. demand, 32 Surgery, 504 Swiss chard, 201 Symptoms of disease, 500 | System, best for beginner, 60 defined, 295 the key to success, 62 Systems of feeding, best, 215 classified, 212 of poultry farming classified, 59 T Tapeworm, 512 Tar, use as a paint, 123 Taste, sense of, 299 Telephone, need of, 54 Temperature for brooding, 257 for holding hatching eggs, 288 for incubation, 33 fowl’s body, 169 of houses, 109 Testicles, location, 298 Testing eggs, 320, 343 Thermostat, use of, 333 Tile, use under foundation, 126 Time to start, 61 Tissue defined, 295 kinds of, 295 Toe punching, 454 tmanner of, 322 Training for exhibition, 477 Transit, use of, 124 Transportation, facilities for, 21 need of, 54 Trap-nesting to improve egg production, 278 Trap nests, 148 design, 149 usage, 149 Trench for foundation, 125 Troughs for feeding, 152 Turning eggs in incubation, 339 Two-thirds span house, specifications, 135 Type defined, 71 for egg production, 257 of incubators, 331 of laying houses, 110 U Under color, importance of, 263 535. Uniformity of eggs, 97 of flocks, 98 Unit of protein, cost of, 211 standard multiple-unit house, 113 United States census table, 8 Utility classification, 66, 78 exhibitions, 475 fancy combined with, 23 quality, score card for, 490 score card, use of, 491 types compared, 88 Vv Value, basis of, 224 Variation, causes of, 239 functional, 238 laws of, 235 meristic, 238 morphological, 236 principles of, 235 substantive, 237 types of, 236 Varieties, number of, 66 Variety defined, 70 necessity in feeding, 180 Vegetable cutter, 206 Vegetables, composition of, 198, 200 Ventilation, automatic, 108 in incubator cellar, 329, 340 in poultry house, 108 Vigor, cause of lack of, 255 constitutional, 254 importance of, 254 selection for, 102 Vineland District, New Jersey, 15 Vital question, profitable production, 35 Vitality, signs of high, 256 of low, 256 Vitelline membrane, 301 Vitellus defined, 301 Ww Walls, materials for, 118 Washing birds, 479 Waste products, 31 Water, elevating for storage, 49 for chicks, 359 importance of fresh, 49 in eggs, 184 in fowl’s body, 170 necessity of, 173, 180 sources of, 49, 184 uses of, 173 Water-glass, use of, 441 Weaning chicks, 324, 368 536 INDEX Weasels, 512 Wire, poultry fencing, 163 Weight, 102 Working plans, half-monitor house, 137 Weights of breeds, table, 70 long laying house, 132 Wet mash, 213 portable laying house, 140 Wheat as a poultry food, 187, 193 two-thirds span house, 135 bran, composition, 193 Wyandottes, 71, 91 manufacture, 187 Y flour, 187 Yarding, double, 159 middlings, 187, 193 Yards and yarding, 158 screening, 188 clean, 499 Whey, 196 cost of, 159 White diarrhea, 364 crop rotation for, 160 White-faced Black Spanish, origin, 73 shape of, 159 Windows, arrangement, 106 size of, 158 for laying house, 120 vs. free range, 158, Wings, 292 Yolk, 304 Winter quarters, 269 Young stock, record, 461