New York State Qallege of Agriculture At Cornell University Dthara, N. Y. Library ornell University Library Poultry keeping; an elementary treatise Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003040544 POULTRY KEEPING AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE DEALING WITH THE SUC- CESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY “WOTJOASP PUB BAO] Jo S¥apl pexy pulud [NJYMOA oy ul srysur yorum Ayrurey Addvy oy pu’ uoy J9yY}0UL 9Y} SL, (SHOIBQ GNV NUY YoY HLNOWATG astuuvg) ATINVA Add VH V POULTRY KEEPING AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE DEALING WITH THE SUCCESSFUL MAN- AGEMENT OF POULTRY BY HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. POULTRY HUSBANDMAN OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, NEW JERSEY STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS); FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE OF THE BARON DE HIRSCH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL; MEMBER INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF INSTRUCTORS AND INVESTI- GATORS IN POULTRY HUSBANDRY; LIFE MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY @ SFAY87 Li GS pk COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY (@ 2545 © PRINTED BY J. 5. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS PHILADELPHIA TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF OUR LAND IS THIS VOLUME DEDICATED MAY ITS TEACHINGS INSPIRE A GREATER LOVE AND RESPECT FOR OUR DOMESTIC BIRDS AND A BETTER KNOWLEDGE OF SUCCESSFUL POULTRY KEEPING PREFACE THE purpose in preparing this elementary treatise on Poultry Keeping has been to provide a text suitable for use in rural schools and in graded schools. It is especially adapted for use in the seventh and eighth grades but with slight adaptation can be profitably used for high school work. The need and demand for such a book is becoming more and more apparent. Each year sees a greater interest and development in the teaching of Agriculture in elementary schools. Poultry keeping offers one of the best opportunities in this line. Pupils are especially interested in things ani- mate. A small flock of birds may be owned and kept on the school premises at a very small cost. Poultry is kept to a greater or less extent on nearly every American farm. The children especially take an active interest in this branch of the farm work. An idea of this growing popularity can be appreciated by noting the increased interest which is created by the growth of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs and Poultry Raising Contests. These contests are becoming more and more a part of many school activities. In some cases these contests are but local; in others whole counties have organized and conducted Poultry Raising and Egg Laying Contests for the young folks. Such activities in the poultry field have been of great advantage to the whole agricultural population within the district. As the boys and girls are interested in poultry keeping when young, so their interest is bound to be greater and greater in this branch of agriculture in later years. The idea in arranging the text material has been to keep it as elementary as possible, yet cover in a concise, simple way the essentials in the management of the poultry flock. vii viii PREFACE All of the practices recommended are planned and described especially for the small flock. In many cases, suggestions or references have been made covering the application of these same principles to large flock management. An effort has been made to keep the material general in nature so that it will apply to all sections of the United States and Canada. Following each chapter laboratory exercises have been introduced. If these are followed out in the home or school flock or through trips of inspection to nearby poultry flocks as recommended, they will help materially to fix in mind the lessons of the text and will enthuse interest in the course. Thought questions have been placed at the end of each chapter to aid in reviewing the text material. They also emphasize and call special attention to the leading and more important points covered. A list of reference bulletins have been placed at the end of most chapters. These pubii- cations are known as Farmers’ Bulletins, and can be secured by addressing the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. The school library should contain a complete list of these bulletins, and the pupil should be induced to secure them for his home library. The study of these references in connection with the text will aid in giving a much broader and more detailed conception of many of the problems. Special acknowledgment is due a number of persons for help in the preparation of parts of the text. Mrs. Harry R. Lewis has materially aided in the completion of the work by correcting manuscript and proof. And to others, in- cluding poultrymen, teachers and farmers, whose names do not appear, the author wishes to express his appreciation and indebtedness for encouragement and help given. Pho- tographs have been secured from a number of poultrymen and farmers and from a number of Experiment Stations; credit is given where they appear. All photographs not especially credited have been taken by the author. L. P. Graham is here given credit for a number of photographs PREFACE ix besides those on which his name appears, the removal of the artist’s name having been necessary for uniformity of engraving. The text embodies the modern teachings and practices prevailing at our leading Experiment Stations and on suc- cessful poultry farms. These facts have been specially con- densed and made to apply to small flock management. Incorporated in the text are the results of findings from recent investigations in poultry management at our Agricultural Experiment Stations. The poultry departments of Cornell University, of the New Jersey Agricultural College, of the Connecticut Agricultural College, of Perdue University and of the Massachusetts Agricultural College have published valuable data from experimental findings, facts from which have been used in the text. It is hoped that the text will meet the needs of rural and graded schools and that the pupils will find in it the infor- mation necessary to successfully manage the home flock and that the amateur poultry keeper will find in it elementary information pertaining to poultry keeping which is funda- mental to success. The author will be pleased to receive suggestions and cor- rections. Harry R. Lewis. New Brunswick, N. J., January, 1915. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION InstRucTION IN Pouttry HUSBANDRY.............000eceeeuee 1 Boys’ anp Girus’ PouLTRY CLUBS...............000.00 eee eee 8 Tue ScHoot A ComMuNnITY CENTER..........0...00.0c00ce cues 11 Tue FounpATION FoR Success IN Poutrry KEEpiNG......... 12 CHAPTER 1. Il. III. IV. V. VI. VI. XXI. PAGE Birps anp Birp LIFe...............0.0. 000 eee ees 15 Tur Domestic Fowu.........0..00 000 cece 34 THE EGG BREEDS sisce ssn dcx ed g ghdscug Sate on ei a eae 48 Tae MpAat BREEDS s.4c0gis'5 ea eeu aan ah ae ee OS 58 GeneraL Utitity BREEDS...............0000000 00s 68 MiscELLANEOUS BREEDS...........0..0000cc eee eens 77 BREEDING AND MATING............ 000000 e seer eee 84 PART II—HATCHING AND REARING SPH HGGtssedcatact txt Sees Fah OS te oon aeaee 94 ‘Pum: PATCHING UGG: 2 szjs.05 22-5 pe seg eq nigel Stamens glans 103 < Tm: MoTtanit, FENG: 62 ony sks eeu gd vag Reb oh eee sees 112 ; AARTIPICIAL, HATCHING: « 552 0¢ee cs pan nes Be eo WAN Le eS 122 BROODING fs sen tii hcants Wek Sag ean gd eat Sees Peed OR es 133 REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS...........-.0-2 000 eeee 142 PART III—HOUSING . Location oF THE Housms AND YARDS.............. 151 . ESSENTIALS OF A Pouttry HOovwsE.................. 162 . REMODELLING OLD Pouttry Housms. ............. 170 . Bumpine A Pouttry Hovuseh..............0.0e ee eee 177 . Tus InTERIOR oF THE PouLtTRY HOUSE............. 188 . Best Types or Poutrry Housks.................. 198 PART IV—FEEDING . ELemMents oF THE Birp’s Bopy AND COMPOSITION Om GS: FRB reo. 0cn.4 are ale hare @ oS 3S SEB ee Se 211 DicEstion, ASSIMILATION, AND NUTRITION........... 218 xii CONTENTS XXII. Common Pouutry FREDS..........0000. 00 cece 224 XXIII. Home-Grown Pourrry FEeps.........-....02.0065 234 XXIV. FEEDING FOR GROWTH............0 0000 c eee eee eee 242 XXV. Feepine ror Eaa PRoDUCTION............00.0-005 251 XXXVI. FEEDING FOR FLESH............000 000 ce eee ee ees 263 PART V—POULTRY PRODUCTS XXVII. Varmery of PRoDUCTS........0.000000c0seseeeeees 272 XXVIII. PREPARATION OF PouLTRY PRODUCTS...........-..- 283 XXIX. Disrripurion or Pouttry PRODUCTS.............-- 294 PART VI—HEALTH, DISEASE AND ENEMIES XXX. SANITATION op ogy supagin dea bas pued Beaded dosage 301 XXXII. Common Pouttry DISEASES.............000 000000 308 XXXII. Parasires anD ENEMIES OF POULTRY............... 317 PART VITI—APPENDIX REFERENCE BOOKS ax sta cktudaes sce eae eeiawee es dubs dan dads 340 LOCATION. OF “COLLEGESS + #5 ¢esurs% 4) Hue hd the wera eae aes 342 PLAN AND RULES FoR Boys’ aND Girts’ PouLttry ConrTESTS..... 343 SCORE CARDS ls feoduinnda Rees Cemdanwue hue RSSRGA REE bigobuiy oa. cce eau 349 GuossaRy OF Parts OF A BIRD.................0000 000002200 353 THe CoMPosITION AND DiIGESTIBILITY OF CoMMON FEED Sturrs 355 FEEDING STANDARDS FOR POULTRY.............006 000 eee cues 356 WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF ComMON FEEDING STUFFS............ 357 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG PAGE A Happy Family............... 0. cee eee eee isan! seas 1, The Farm Lad and the Farm Flock.. de aaa 2. Systematic Instruction in Poultry, Shown ‘by Chart......... 4 3. A Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Show......................... 9 4. A Young Man and His Prize-winning Bird................ 10 5. Plan for Poultry Yards and Gardens in Connection with a Rural School: ssc: ee ae 902 ge oven WEE Abunda inaie doa bay pe 12 6. The Foundation to Poultry Keeping and Its Relation to DUCCESS..n c.s.2 pa clnaiilaw quanto aan A iinied he AR d Mates ween 14 7. The Skeleton of a Bird.............000.00 0200 eve 16 8. Details of a Feather........00.. 0... cece eens 18 9. Royal Terns at Their Island Nesting Ground............... 20 10. Brown Pelicans at Their Nesting Site..................... 21 11. (A) Young Black-crowned Night Heron. (B) Young Green Herons os es cee s St esse 4 BESS PEL SE we ete daha as 22 12. Green Heron’s Nest and Eggs.........................00. 23 13. Bobwhite’s Nest and Eggs.................0000..0...00... 23 14. (A) Bronze Turkey Male. (B) A Flock of White Holland NRUEK CYS s OTROS BREEDING AND MATING 93 . The law of atavism means what to the poultryman? . Give an example of atavism. . Define the meaning of prepotency. . What do we mean by correlation in breeding? . What is a sport? Give an example. . What is meant by special matings? . Mating by selection has what advantage over mass mating? . Enumerate factors which should be considered when breeding for egg production. . Why is it essential to breed from rather large, mature birds? . What special features should be considered when breeding for meat production? . Describe the process of pedigreeing. . What are the advantages of pedigree breeding? Reference.—Consult “Animal Breeding” by Shaw. PART II HATCHING AND REARING CHAPTER VIII THE EGG Tue hen’s egg is a mass of cells and tissue of different kinds, encased in a shell or protective coat. Function of the Egg.—In all nature the egg is the repro- ductive body, but the function of the hen’s egg is twofold. The fertile egg contains in its center, the germ, which, on the application of heat, will develop into a young chick, and also, surrounding the germ or embryo, the yolk or food material which nourishes the embryo during its growth. From a reproductive standpoint, the egg contains both the chick and its food supply. The entire mass is encased in a protective shell which retards evaporation, so the egg can be kept a considerable time without injury. In addition to its reproductive function, the egg is used by man for human food, and because of the excellency of the food, and the great demand for it, poultry keeping has become a matter of great commercial importance. The egg of the domestic fowl is not only large of size but highly nutritious, the pro- tein in the egg being especially valuable and considerable in amount. Structure of the Egg—The component parts of the egg are the shell, the membranes, the albumen, and the yolk. The shell is an outer envelope or case surrounding the egg to protect its contents. It is largely composed of carbonate of lime, which the bird secures by eating oyster shells, bone and grit. Sometimes hens lay soft shelled eggs. This is 94 THE EGG 95 either because the bird has not eaten enough of shell forming feed, or because there is disease of the oviduct. The grow- ing chick must breathe while in the shell, and nature has provided for this by making the shell porous, with hundreds and hundreds of small openings, through which the air passes, and through these same openings the liquid part of the egg evaporates. Shells vary greatly in color and structure. The Leghorn lays a white egg, which is rather brittle and thin, and the heavier breeds usually lay dark or brown eggs, which are much thicker and tougher. Owing to an abnormal condition of the oviduct, eggs are sometimes laid with irregu- Shell Outer shell membrane mnershell membrane Germ (found only in fertile 995, Fic. 59.—The cross-section of an egg showing the location of the contents. lar shells; often they are spotted and rough. In collecting eggs for hatching, only the clean, smooth-shelled ones should be used. The liquid part of the egg evaporates very quickly in a warm temperature, and the best way in which to check it is to lower the temperature or, if possible, to close the pores in the shell. Commercial cold storage means the keeping of eggs at a low temperature to prevent evaporation. In the home eggs are often preserved by placing them in a solution of silicate of soda, which coats the egg, and thus closes the pores or openings in the shell (Fig. 59). There are two shell membranes lying immediately under the shell, and in close contact with it. These are called the outer and inner membranes. The outer one lines the shell 96 HATCHING AND REARING itself and adheres to it, and the inner one is closely adherent to the outer. Examination of an egg a few days old will show that at the large end these two membranes are de- tached from each other and that there is a small air space between them. This is commonly called the air cell. As evaporation takes place the air cell grows larger, because the liquid evaporated leaves more room for the outside air, which finds its way in at the large end. Sometimes the air cell may be misplaced, being often found on the side of the egg. This is because the egg is old, and has been lying on its side for a long time; the heavy liquid has settled at the bottom and the air cell risen to the top. At hatching time the shell membranes should be soft and easily broken; if dry and rough, the hatch will be poor, for the chicks cannot pick their way out of the shell. These membranes are com- posed largely of nitrogenous material. Lying immediately under the shell membranes are dense layers of a white sub- stance called egg albumen, which contains considerable nitrogen or protein, has no smell, and very little taste. The white of the egg readily coagulates, and when an egg is dropped into boiling water, this process of coagulation may be easily seen. A study of the egg shows three distinct layers of albumen. First, is a thin liquid near the shell; next, in the center of the egg surrounding the yolk, is a very heavy, dense layer; and a medium layer lies between the two. Egg albumen has two distinct functions to perform. First, it acts as a protective cushion around the chick during its development, preventing sudden jars and shocks. Its main function, however, is to provide the growing chick in the shell with nutriment which goes directly into the forma- tion of its body. At each end of the egg, in the albumen, will be found a thickened string or cord, which appears to be twisted, and attached to each end of the yolk. These cords are called the albumen cords or chalaze. Their function is to hold the yolk suspended in the center of the THE EGG 97 egg, and surrounding the yolk is a membrane to keep it in place. The yolk is rich in fat. It is usually round and yellow. Its function is to nourish the developing embryo. When the chick begins to grow, a number of blood-vessels develop which feed on and absorb the yolk. In the upper part of the yolk is a little indentation or hollow, in which the little chicken develops during the incubation period. Sometimes yolks are a very light yellow, at other times very dark; this color is materially affected by the kind of feed given. That portion of the yolk which still remains when the chick is ready to hatch is absorbed into the chick’s body, and furnishes its nourishment for the first day or two. Formation of the Egg.—The egg is the product of the reproductive organs of the female, which are quite complex, and consist of the ovary and the oviduct. Since the young chick develops outside of the mother’s body, the egg also must be complicated in structure in order to protect and nourish the embryo. In the hen the ovary lies in the center of the cavity of the body, and is attached to the back bone, and closely resembles a bunch of grapes. The small yellow yolks or ovules vary in size from that of a pin head to that of a walnut, and each is attached to the ovary by a stem or strmg. The mother hen has in her body at maturity a certain number of ova or very small yolks, and the rapidity of their development depends largely upon the care and feed given her. The yolks are developed from the surplus feed consumed which is not needed for her growth or maintenance. As the feed is deposited in the yolks, they grow and mature, one being always a little ahead of the others. When a yolk is fully grown, the sac or pouch which encloses it breaks in its middle line, and the ovum drops into an open tube, and after the yoik has fallen what remains of the sac dries up and dis- appears. In a day or two another yolk reaches maturity, and goes through the same process. The rapidity of develop- 98 HATCHING AND REARING ment of the yolks determines the frequency with which the eggs will be laid (Fig. 60). The tube into which the yolk drops is called the oviduct; it is the channel through which the egg passes from the Egg ready to be dropped ig ets the oviduct Enlarged funnel-shaped opening to the oviduct. frst albumin-secretin section of the oviduct. Second albumin secreting | section with egg passing through. Third and last albumin- secreting section Cloaca, the opening through which the egg passes wiles v2 zs being lard Fie. 60,—The ovary and oviduct. ovary until it is laid. This oviduct is divided into two separate parts; in one of which the albumen is added to the ovum, and in the other the shell forming material is stored THE EGG 99 up. During the breeding or laying season this tube is very large and nearly fills the cavity of the body. When the hen ceases to lay it shrivels up and occupies but little space. The opening of the oviduct into which the yolk falls is large and funnel-shaped. The upper part supplies the thickened, gelatinous albumen; the next two folds furnish the albumen which forms the two thinner layers; the last layer is very watery. As the egg mass passes through the oviduct, it revolves around and around, and this rotary motion gives the egg its elliptical shape. It is during this stage of forma- tion that the thick cords within the yolk are formed. These cords have a knotted, twisted appearance due to the revolu- tion of the egg. Contraction of the walls of the oviduct force the egg through the tube. The secretion of albumen is caused by the stimulating effect of the passage of the egg. Just before the egg leaves the oviduct, it passes through a short, thick- walled portion, which secretes the fluid that forms the shell. The shell is put on as a liquid coating, which immediately hardens, and the perfect egg passes into an enlarged sac, called the cloaca, and here it remains until the hen lays it in the nest. It takes about twenty-four hours for the egg mass to pass through the oviduct. When hens are in heavy lay, there are often two eggs in the oviduct, one just enter- ing, while the other is receiving its shell. Malformed or misshapen eggs are usually due to either the bird’s being too fat, or to a diseased condition of the oviduct. A double yolked egg, an egg within an egg, small or peculiarly shaped eggs are frequently seen. The Egg as Food.—From the standpoint of human food, the egg is very valuable. It is similar in composition to the adult bird, but is more concentrated. The solid matter in an egg, exclusive of the shell, contains 50 per cent of protein or nitrogenous material. There is also nearly 40 per cent of fat, and three per cent of ash or mineral matter. The 100 HATCHING AND REARING protein is found almost entirely in the albumen or white portion, and the fat almost wholly in the yellow portion or yolk. The Cooking of Eggs.—Eggs are cooked in various ways, the most common being to boil them for a certain length of time. To make them easily digestible, the best way is to put them in water which has been brought to the boiling point. Then set them on the back of the stove, and let them remain in the hot water for from seven to ten minutes, according to the degree of hardness desired. Eggs fried in hot bacon or ham fat are very palatable, but hard to digest. Sometimes the entire egg is stirred up and quickly cooked or scrambled on a hot frying pan. Eggs are usually found in the picnic basket, boiled very hard, and, after the removal of the shell, are eaten with pepper and salt. They are exten- sively used for the making of cakes, puddings, and other dainties. If properly prepared, they are easily digested, and form the most palatable and most highly relished article of food. They are used primarily as a breakfast dish and in cakes. Their use has materially increased during the past few years, due to the increase in the cost of beef and other forms of meat. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 15.—Have each pupil bring to school a medium-sized white saucer and some wood tooth-picks. This material is to be used in the study of eggs and embryos. Each pupil should provide himself with a new laid egg of normal size and shape. In order to best study the structure of the egg proceed as follows: Slightly crack the shell at the very center of the large end. Carefully pick away the cracked part of the shell and examine the air cell and the shell membranes. Carefully enlarge the opening and pour the contents of the egg into the saucer. Pour it out carefully so as not to rupture the yolk. Study the internal structure THE EGG 101 of the egg, looking especially for the parts mentioned in the text. A portion of the albumen may be dropped into boiling water to see the effect of heat upon same. Different eggs should be compared to see the different colors of yolks. Ex- amine the pieces of shell carefully and find the small pores or openings through which air enters the egg. Some eggs may be hard boiled and studied to show the normal position of the contents. Exercise No. 16.—An old hen which is in laying con- dition should be secured and killed by bleeding. With the aid of a knife the teacher can open the abdomen by making a long cut down the breast bone clear to the tail. The skin on each side can be laid back and after removing the gizzard and intestines the ovary and reproductive organs can be easily seen. The class can then be shown the different organs and parts of organs which are utilized in manufacturing the eggs. If the birds selected are in good laying condition an egg can often be found partly formed in the oviduct. Exercise No. 17.—If the school has facilities for domestic science work the girls will find considerable value from one or more exercises dealing with the preparation of eggs for human food. After the eggs are prepared a lunch may be served to which the boys may be invited and all may become familiar with the appearance and taste of eggs prepared in different ways. At this time the digestibility and health- fulness of the different methods may be explained THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Of what does the hen’s egg consist? What are the functions of the egg? . What is the nutritive value of the hen’s egg for human food? Describe in a very general way the parts of the egg. What is the structure of the egg shell? How does the porous structure of the shell affect the keeping quality of the egg? What material is often used to preserve eggs for home consumption? . What are known as shell membranes and where do they lie? . Where is the air cell located and how is it formed? ON SoyRwr 102 HATCHING AND REARING . What is the albumen? . Where does it lie in the egg? . What is the function of the albumen? . Where are the chalaze located and what is their function? . What is the appearance of the yolk? . Of what is the yolk composed? . What is the function of the yolk? . Of what do the reproductive organs of the female consist? . Describe the appearance of the ovary. . Describe briefly the structure of the oviduct. . Describe the passage of a yolk down from the oviduct, stating when and where the different parts are made. . What is a common cause for misshapen eggs? ; . What two food materials are present in the egg which make it especially valuable for human food? . Enumerate the different ways of cooking eggs for eating. . Which way do you prefer eggs cooked for yourself? Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 128, Eggs and Their Uses as Food. CHAPTER IX THE HATCHING EGG THE purpose when producing hatching eggs is to secure a fair number of good-sized fertile eggs, which will hatch into healthy chicks. Fertility—The most important quality in eggs for hatch- ing is that they be fertile, and the germ of high vitality. One of the common causes of infertility is low vitality in the parent stock, and this lack of vitality may be inherited, or due to improper environment. Another frequent cause of infertility in the early spring is frozen combs. In February and March, when eggs are being saved for hatching, and there are spells of cold, damp weather, the cocks often freeze their combs and wattles and this unfits them for breeding for from four to six weeks. Most of the eggs saved under such circumstances will be infertile, or the germs they con- tain will be weak, and will not develop properly, or the eggs will hatch poorly. Season has its effect upon the fertility of eggs. During the spring, which is the natural breeding season, eggs are always of higher vitality than in any other season of the year. In the hot summer months the germs in the eggs are often weak. . Another cause of low vitality is that there are too few breeding males. It is wiser to mate a small number of females to one male, and thus insure high vitality, than to crowd the females. If the breeders are too fat the result will be infertile eggs as well as low vitality. Quite commonly the germ dies, and in these cases the eggs, when tested, will appear infertile. Holding the eggs too long before incuba- tion, keeping them at too high a temperature, or subjecting them to violent shocks or rough handling before incubation 103 104 HATCHING AND REARING will kill the germ. Infertility and low vitality of the germ go together, are equally important, and their prevention will mean better hatches and stronger chicks. Care of the Breeding Stock.—The breeders selected and mated in the spring for the purpose of hatching eggs need special care, in order to keep them in good physical condi- tion. They must be guarded against disease, and their vitality sustained. The aim should be to secure only a fair number of fertile eggs. Heavy egg production during the breeding season or just previous to it is not desirable; forcing impairs the health and vigor of the breeders, and results in poor eggs for hatching. Breeders should be given free range; this means liberty to go out of the breeding pen whenever they wish to do so. When there is snow on the ground or the weather is unfavorable, they rarely take ad- vantage of their freedom. Breeders need plenty of exercise, especially the heavier types, which have a tendency to take on too much fat. The bulk of their feed should be scattered in deep, clean litter, of such a nature that it will bury the grain, and compel them to scratch to get it. Green feed in some form is desirable in the winter; cabbage, mangel beets, and, in the absence of these, sprouted oats, are best. If the poultry yards or ranges could be seeded with rye or wheat in the fall, the birds would have plenty of early, succulent, green feed immediately at hand. A moderate amount of protein in the form of meat scrap should be given to all breeders; 20 per cent of meat in the dry mash ration is quite safe. The breeding flock should be kept in a well ventilated house which is light and sunny, and has enough floor space to prevent any crowding. Each breeder needs a space at least five to six feet square, especially if eggs are set for hatching early in the season when the birds can not get out of doors. Collecting the Eggs.—Eggs for hatching should be col- lected often; in cold winter weather, three or four times a THE HATCHING EGG 105 day is none too frequent, for if once chilled, they are spoiled for hatching. In the spring they should be collected at least twice a day to prevent their becoming soiled. If collected frequently, the heat from the hen’s body will not start germination. Broodiness should be watched for, and all hens in the breeding pen that seem broody should be immediately removed, as their presence in the nest is apt to spoil for hatching the eggs laid by other birds. In col- 4 TD Win My ay eis Dhanye ie i Fic. 61.—Carefully collecting his hatching eggs in order to keep them in good condition for incubation. lecting hatching eggs, handle them carefully, and collect in heavy, metallic pails (Fig. 61). There should be no sudden jars or shocks, for this may injure the germ, or rupture the air cell. Plenty of nests for the breeding birds should be provided so that the hens will not be crowded. Saving the Hatching Eggs.—Hatching eggs should be kept but a short time before incubation; the shorter the better. Experiments prove that the hatching qualities of eggs de- 106 HATCHING AND REARING crease in direct proportion to the length of time they are held before incubation. Eggs kept over three weeks are rarely profitable. Incubator eggs should be kept in a cool temperature previous to incubation; 50 degrees Fahrenheit is about right. A high temperature in the room is apt to start the development of the germ, but if the air is not warm enough to keep the germ growing, the result is death. If possible, hatching eggs should be placed with the large end up, as this keeps the air cell in its normal position, and prevents the necessity of frequent turning. When the eggs are placed on the side, they should be turned carefully every other day. A common method is to pack them securely in boxes and turn the box every other day. Selecting the Hatching Eggs.—If the pullets desired are to lay eggs uniform in shape and color, these points must be borne in mind when selecting the eggs from which they are to be hatched. Especially is this true with regard to color. If the breed used lays white eggs, all eggs with tinted shells should be sold for food, and nothing but ivory-white shelled eggs should be placed in the machine. If this rule is followed for two or three generations, we can absolutely eliminate tinted eggs from the strain. If brown shelled eggs are produced, we should select those as nearly as possible of uniform shade. Hatching eggs should also be selected for uniformity of shape. Put no exceptionally long eggs in the machine; they are often infertile, and frequently the chick does not form properly, hence can not get out of the shell. Neither should perfectly round eggs be hatched. A uniform, normal shape is best. Malformed eggs should never beset for hatching (Fig. 62). They are usually infertile, but even if they should contain a germ they will rarely hatch. Size is important in selecting eggs for a hatch, and extremely large or small ones should be rejected; if abnormally large, they are usually double yolked, and rarely hatch out. Birds which lay such eggs are usually extremely fat or out of health, THE HATCHING EGG 107 consequently their eggs are infertile. Extremely small eggs are usually the first or the last of a clutch, and will produce Anormal eqg both as to size jand shape 1s too small for hatehing An egg too large tor pateeiag: it 1s apt to be infertile me Abnormal egg: useless for hatching Fig. 62.—Normal and abnormal eggs for hatching. only small chicks of low vitality. Eggs of medium size, weighing about two ounces, are the best. The shells of eggs 108 HATCHING AND REARING placed in the incubator should be clean and perfect, free from thin porous places, and neither rough nor covered with patches of hard substance. It is most important that the eggs placed in the incubator or under the hen should be average eggs, and perfect in all respects. Development of the Chick.—The fertile eggs contain, when laid, a germ which has undergone some slight develop- ment. This germ is called the embryo. But nature has ordained that this little germ stop growing as soon as the egg is laid. If, however, the egg is subjected to a tempera- ture of 103 degrees Fahrenheit, it again starts to grow. Placed in the incubator and subjected to this degree of tem- perature, the germ must be kept growing continuously, if the egg is to hatch a strong chick. The direct cause of the incubation of the embryo is steady heat, the incubation temperature being 103 degrees Fahrenheit. The growth of the chick within the shell comprises two periods: First, the formative period, in which the various organs and parts of the chicks are formed, this period occu- pying the first three or four days. Secondly, the develop- ment period, which lasts until the twenty-first day. During this time the organs previously formed grow and develop. The original embryo in the fertile egg consists of but a few cells, and in its early growth these few cells divide into other cells. From these simple cells a very complicated embryo, with many hundreds of cells, develops in a few days. Each cell develops into a different type of structure. During the first, or formation period, all of the organs of the body take shape. First to appear are the spinal cord and brain, or what will later comprise the nervous system. Next comes the back bone and the ribs. The eye and car are formed early in the second day. The head and blood vessels make rapid early growth, as the latter must nourish the embryo by carrying to it the food material contained in the yolk. The digestive system is well developed on the third day, at THE HATCHING EGG 109 which time the lungs and respiratory organs also make their appearance. The legs and wings are visible on the fourth day. From this time on, these organs grow steadily and gradually assume more and more the “ appearance they will have at hatching. By the seventh day, the head and body of the chick have attained a large size, the eye being especially prominent. The feathers can be readily seen on the ninth day, looking like little hairs all over the body. On the fourteenth day the embryo can be seen to move about in the egg, its head lying at the large end near the air cell, and its feet being curled up in the small end. Eggs which contain a growing embryo should be candled frequently in order to view them through the shell, and some- times they should be broken to study the internal appearance. The air cell rapidly increases in size, being as large as a quarter on the fourteenth day. On the twentieth day the embryo fills the entire cavity of the egg, with the exception of the air cell. That part of the yolk which has not been used by the embryo will be absorbed into the chick’s body on the nineteenth day, and will furnish its feed the first few hours after hatching. Hatching.—If the egg is fertile and the proper temperature be maintained, hatching should take place on the twenty- first day. This process is very interesting to young people. The chick emerges from the shell in the following way: On about the twentieth day it ruptures the membrane of the inner shell and pushes itself up, so that its head occupies the cavity which was previously the air cell. The chick then breathes the air, and is strengthened for its attack upon the shell, which it breaks by hitting it tap after tap in one place with its beak. After one small hole is punctured the chick renews this tapping process around the shell until it has cut all around the upper or large end. Then, by bracing its head against this lid, and pressing with its feet against the lower or small end, it ruptures the remaining shell, and 110 HATCHING AND REARING throws the cap off. After rupturing the shell the chick usually lies quiet for a while to recover its strength, and get ready to walk. During hatching the feathers or down are encased in little oily sacs, which, after the chick breaks the shell, quickly dry out and become very fluffy and soft. A normal chick requires about an hour to an hour and a half to get out of the shell after it has begun to pip. A good hatch should start on the evening of the twentieth and be entirely over by noon of the twenty-first day. LABORATORY EXERCISE Exercise No. 18.—Select four uniform eggs and place them under a sitting hen or in an incubator. In six days place four more eggs with those previously set. In six more days place still four more eggs with the previous ones. When the eggs are placed in the nest the date on which they are set should be plainly written on the shell. The eggs selected must come from a flock in which a male bird is kept. Eight- een days from the time that the first four eggs are set all of them can be removed and taken into the classroom. After carefully breaking the shell the contents of each egg should be poured into a clean white saucer, each dish being labeled with a paper showing the date the egg was set. From this date the pupil can determine the age of the embryo. By the aid of a wooden toothpick it is a simple matter to separate the embryo from the egg mass. First with the naked eye and later with the aid of a small hand lens allow the class to study the different embryos, locating the different organs which are mentioned in the text. After the study has been made the class should be encouraged to make pencil drawings of what they see. Infertile eggs will frequently be found and they can be compared with the fertile egg. If facilities are available, some of the embryos may be preserved in alcohol for museum samples. © © N OOF whe ’ THE HATCHING EGG 111 THOUGHT QUESTIONS . What is the purpose when producing hatching eggs? . What is the most important requirement of the hatching egg? . Enumerate some of the most common causes of poor fertility in hatching eggs. What are some of the causes of dead germs in hatching eggs? . What is the importance of vigor in the breeding stock? What = some of the essentials in the management of the breeding stock? . What are the special factors to be considered when housing the breeders? . Discuss the important points to be remembered when collecting hatching eggs. . How long should eggs be kept before they are placed in the incu- 10. bator? What is the proper temperature at which hatching eggs should be kept before they are placed in the incubator? . How would you select eggs for hatching? . What is the average weight of an egg suitable for hatching? . What is the direct cause of the incubation of the embryo? . What is the correct degree of heat to incubate the chick? . Into what two periods can the development of the chick within the shell be divided? . Describe briefly the formation of organs in the growing embryo. . Describe the development of organs just before hatching. . Why is the yolk absorbed just before hatching? . Describe the way in which the chick gets out of the shell. . How long does it take a normal chick to get out of the shell? . What is the length of the incubation period? Reference.—Consult any standard text on Elementary Em- bryology. CHAPTER X THE MOTHER HEN On all poultry farms the sitting hen is more or less used to hatch the eggs and rear the chickens. The instinct of the hen to sit on the eggs is called broodiness. Until recently the hen was used exclusively as a means of hatching eggs, but the last few years have seen a marked development Fia. 63.—This mother hen hatched seventeen fluffy chicks from seventeen eggs. The nest was in a corner of this small 3 by 5-foot colony house. in artificial methods. When the hen sits on the nest and hatches the eggs we commonly call it natural incubation. Here the hen, herself, generates the heat necessary to develop the embryo. After hatching she also takes care of the chicks until they are big enough to look after themselves (Fig. 63). Desirable Points in a Good Mother.—The success in natural incubation depends entirely upon the qualities pos- 112 THE MOTHER HEN . 113 sessed by the hen. It is, therefore, vital that only good hens be used for breeding. In choosing the sitting hen, gentleness is one of the desirable traits. The broody hen should be easily handled. Large size is another desirable characteristic in a good mother hen. A moderately large bird can cover about fifteen eggs, and give to all of them the same degree of temperature. If a small hen is chosen, she can cover fewer eggs, and those near the edge are apt to be chilled or cooled. The hen weighing from five to seven pounds makes an excellent mother. Health is another important requisite, and only strong, vigorous hens should be used for hatching eggs. Those which have ever had any poultry disease should be rejected. Such birds are apt to lack vitality and can not endure the strain of sitting. A broody bird should not be over fat, but merely plump. If thin or emaciated, she is likely to have tuberculosis or similar trouble. The breast of a good breeder hen should be fairly free from feathers, and the skin over the breast feel warm to the hand. This is because of the large amount of blood circulating through this region during the broody period. The Hen’s Nest.—The sitting hen should always be pro- vided with some form of shelter to protect her from rain, and from the heat of the sun, and it should be so constructed that it can be closed, thus confining the hen to the nest; above all, so it can be closed at night to keep out rats, skunks, and weasels. A large sugar barrel makes a good shelter. Five or six of these can be placed in a row, and all covered with a strip of roofing paper. This will make them water proof, and help to preserve them. Small individual sheds or houses, about two feet square, can be built for shelters. They take little material and very cheap boards can be used. Where a large number of hens are to be set, one sec- tion of a laying house is sometimes used. The nests can be arranged along the walls, two or three tiers high. Whatever the type of small shelter, it should be built in a protected 114 HATCHING AND REARING situation, preferably the south side of a building, or the south side of a board fence or stone wall, where they get the direct sun’s rays and are sheltered from north winds. If built in an orchard or where there is green sward and natural shade, the chicks will grow much better. It is wise to locate the hatching shelter where the chicks are to be permanently reared, as too much changing about is undesirable. Making the Nests.—No matter what the type of shelter, earth or soil nests are best. When the nest is built directly on the ground, the soil can be scooped out and packed up in the corner, thus making a hollow in the center. If the nest is built in a box or a shelter with a wooden floor, three or four shovelfuls of dirt, or some thick sods, should be placed in the bottom of the nest. The hollow in the earth should be about fourteen inches in diameter, and three inches deep in the center. The corners should be filled in so that the eggs can by no chance roll out of the nest, and become lost. After the soil is hollowed out, the nesting material should be added; straw cut into six or eight inch lengths makes a fine nest. Shavings and leaves are also often used. The straw should be shaped to conform to the curve of the earthen nest, and should be packed down solid so that the eggs will not be buried in it. Nesting material to the depth of one inch is sufficient. Setting the Hen.—After the nest is made, the hen for sitting should be selected, and placed on the nest, preferably in the evening, before dark (Fig. 64). At this time she does not get frightened and is much easier to handle. She settles down on the eggs immediately, and is more contented than if she were handled in the day time. For the first twenty- four hours it is well to put false eggs under her, and keep them there until she has proven to bea good sitter. After one day’s trial the false eggs can be removed, and real ones to be incubated substituted. In placing the permanent eggs in the nest be careful to distribute them well. Do not put THE MOTHER HEN 115 one on top of the other, and place only as many in one nest as the hen can completely cover. When the hen is placed on the eggs, hold her firmly, with both hands, and place her gently down upon them. She immediately feels the eggs beneath her, and settles down upon them without commotion. Management of the Sitters—For the first two or three days on the nest, the sitter should be very closely confined. After this time she should be confined to the nest most of the time except when let off for feed. A good plan is to let ‘3 hog ah Fie. 64.—A barrel and a box nest. The young man is carefully shaping the nest and placing the eggs. a broody hen off twice a day, morning and night. Each hatching nest should have attached to it a small, slatted coop, where water and feed can be kept, and the hen allowed to enter and leave the nest as she sees fit. Feed for the sitting hen should be clean cracked corn and wheat, in equal parts. Clean fresh water should be kept before her all the time, and a little green feed given her once a day. If a number of sitting hens are placed side by side, they can all be let out at the same time for feeding. The attendant should, how- ever, make sure that the hens go back singly to the nest. If they are not watched, two hens may go back to one nest, 116 HATCHING AND REARING and leave the eggs in one nest to get cold. The nest should be cleaned during the middle and at the end of the hatch, and any broken eggs or soiled nesting material be removed. When putting the hen on the nest dust her thoroughly with a good lice powder, and repeat this about the eighteenth day of incubation. This is to keep her free from body parasites. If she is not infested, the chicks are more likely to be free from them (Fig. 65). The eggs should be tested or candled about the tenth day, and a record made of any infertile eggs and dead germs. The development should also be noted, as well as the size Fic. 65.—The story of the stolen nest. A, The stolen nest in the tall grass under the grape vine. Thirteen eggs to be kept warm for 21 days. B, On the twenty-second day the proud mother brings forth twelve fluffy little youngsters. of the air cell. Infertile eggs are recognizable by the fact that they are absolutely clear, while a normal egg which contains a good germ will appear to have a dark spot about the size of a pea. Extending from this will be detected dark lines or blood vessels. At the end of the tenth day, a dead chick is revealed by the presence of this dark spot, fixed or attached to the shell so that it does not move about when the egg is rotated. The live germ moves when the egg is turned around. The dead embryo will be encircled by a fixed red line about half an inch or one inch from it. The air cell at this time should be about one-half to five-eighths of an THE MOTHER HEN 117 inch in depth. In a good egg the line of demarcation be- tween the air cell and the egg mass should always be clear, sharp, and distinct. NATURAL HATCHING RECORD ING. Eggs: S6tiri.xc.5 carded ace ak Da ectics Rae Hee WING ate caceane Gore Brief description of nest and method of management .............-. Eggs Infertile Dead Germs Cracked Result of Tests: Seventh day....... Fourteenth day Ota seiaic genie wentdiaees Number vigorous chicks hatched............ 00.0.0 c cece eee eee eee Number chicks dead in the shell............. 0.0. c cece Per cent hatch of total eggs set... 0.0... eee ee eee Per cent hatch of fertile eggs left after first test .................... A record should always be kept showing the results of the egg test. At the end of each hatch this record should give the number of eggs put in, the date when they were set, the date when hatched, the number of vigorous chicks hatched, the number of infertile eggs, and the number which died in the shell. It will be useful for the pupils to refer to in future years, and compare the results attained by present and past experience. At hatching time the hen sticks pretty closely to the nest, and as a uniform and rather high tempera- ture is needed to bring the young out of the shell she should not be disturbed or annoyed after the nineteenth day until 118 HATCHING AND REARING the hatch is over. On the twenty-second or twenty-third day she will herself bring all the strong chicks off the nest to search for feed. Care of the Chicks After Hatching.—Immediately after the mother hen brings the hatched chicks off the nest, it should be cleaned and all broken shells and unhatched eggs removed, after which the nest should be dusted with a good lice powder, and clean nesting material put in. The shelter should be inspected to see that it is dry and rain-proof. Fia. 66.—After the chicks are hatched the hen should be confined near the nest by a slat coop, the chicks being allowed to roam at will. Here we see the youngest member of the family taking interest in the little chieks. If the ground immediately in front of the nest is dirty, it should be spaded up and made clean. The chicks need no special feed the first day, but merely access to clean, fresh water and plenty of grit. Dry cracked grain is the best feed for young birds. A common practice, and a good one, is to confine the hen in a small slatted coop in front of the nest shelter. Here she can be fed and watered, and the chicks can be fed outside of this coop, which permits them to pass out through the slats, and thus get away from the mother hen (Fig. 66). A good ration for the chicks is equal THE MOTHER HEN 119 parts of fine cracked corn, cracked wheat, and pinhead oat- meal. After they are four or five weeks old, this can be gradually changed to cracked corn and whole wheat, equal parts. If they can be given wheat bran in an open pan or hopper until they are two weeks old, they will probably grow faster and be a little bigger. Clean, fresh water should always be kept within easy reach, and the shelter so placed that they can have plenty of green grass. Protecting the Chickens Against Lice.—The one serious handicap to natural incubation is the tendency of the young Fre. 67.—On the farm the chicks can be reared in the pasture. The coops can be protected from the cows and horses by a temporary rail fence as shown in this picture. After the hens are removed the chicks will continue to live in the same coops. chicks to get hen lice from the mother hen. The effect of these parasites on the young chicks is to retard their growth, lower their vitality, and, if numerous, to cause many deaths. The first indication of hen lice on the young chicks is the fact that they do not seem active, or to grow fast. They carry their wings and head low, and their bodies seem short. Close inspection of the down at the top of the head will reveal minute insects burrowing into the skin. The remedy is to rub lard thoroughly into the head and neck, and into the down clear to the skin. If the mother hen is dusted 120 HATCHING AND REARING thoroughly with a good lice powder at the beginning of the hatch, and again just before the eggs pip, danger from this parasite is materially reduced. Weaning.—As soon as the chicks are old and big enough to look out for themselves, they should be separated from the mother hen, who, if put back into the laying house, will begin again to lay, and thus increase the egg yield and revenue. After they are five weeks old, the chicks will grow faster if not compelled to stay at night in the warm shelter with the hen (Fig. 67). The time for the mother hen to be removed from them depends somewhat upon season and weather conditions. She should never be taken away before they are five weeks old, and never during cold, rainy weather. As soon as it is possible to distinguish the pullets from the cockerels, they should be separated, as the pullets grow better by themselves, while cockerels will more rapidly become plump for broilers if kept rather closely confined under forced feeding. Natural incubation is a natural proc- ess. Given a good sitting hen and good eggs, the result will always be satisfactory. eZ LABORATORY EXERCISE Exercisr No. 19.—Allow members of the class to set one or more hens. Barrels or boxes may be secured for nests. The pupils should follow instruction carefully, as given in the text, when making the nest, selecting the sitters and man- aging the hens during incubation. If hens are not owned by the school, some members of the class will doubtless be willing to contribute some for the work. The setting of hens at home should be encouraged. The pupil should keep a careful record of the work and report from time to time upon the results obtained. Prizes may be offered for the best hatches and broods. The above work is best carried on as laboratory work before and after school, rather than as exercises during school hours. CONOR WNH — e THE MOTHER HEN 121 THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Define the meaning of the word “‘broodiness.”’ Define the meaning ‘‘natural incubation.” Upon what does the success of natural incubation depend? Enumerate the desirable points in a good mother hen. . Why should the sitting hen’s nest be protected? . Describe the use of barrels for shelter for the hen’s nest. . Can the laying pen be used as a place to set hens? . Describe a good location for the hatching nests. . Describe the process of making a nest. . When is the best time to set the hen? . Why are false eggs often placed under the sitter for the first day on the nest? . How closely should the sitting hen be confined to the nest? . What feed should be given the sitter? . Describe the necessity and method of dusting sitting hens with lice powder. . When should eggs be tested? . What should be looked for when the eggs are tested? . Describe the appearance of an egg containing a dead germ,a live germ, and an infertile egg on the seventh day. . Describe the management of the nest immediately after hatching. . What should be the early feed for the newly hatched ch . What is the effect of lice on young chicks? . What is the remedy for head lice in young chicks? . Why and how should the chicks be weaned? . Why should the sexes be separated as soon as they can be dis- tinguished? Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 585, Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen’s Eggs. CHAPTER XI ARTIFICIAL HATCHING By artificial hatching is meant doing without the sitting hen, and supplying artificially the heat necessary for hatch- ing the eggs. Heat generated by burning kerosene, coal, or gas is commonly used for this purpose. In natural incuba- tion the management is simple, for the mother hen takes charge of all the details, but in the artificial process the poultryman is responsible for every step. Artificial incuba- tion dates back to prehistoric times. We have ancient records which prove that the Egyptians and Chinese hatched eggs in specially constructed ovens, which in some cases were heated by fermenting manure, in others by fire. No thermometers were used to determine the temperature, but operators, through years and generations of practice, became so expert that they could tell the proper heat just by remaining in the room. The past twenty-five years have seen a re- markable stride in the development of commercial incubators, which to-day are used more or less extensively on all poultry farms. The Incubator.—The incubator is a machine designed essentially for the hatching of eggs. There are two types of incubator, one known as the hot air and the other as the hot water machine, the hot air being commoner (Fig. 68). In these the heat is conveyed to the eggs by a current of warm air which forms around the lamp chamber, and when hot enough is passed down over the eggs from above. The air in the incubator compartment of the hot air machine is heated by a tank or by pipes which pass above the eggs. There are two general types of incubators, the individual and the mammoth machine, Individual incubators range 122 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING 123 in size from those with a capacity of 60 eggs to those as high as 460 eggs. They are generally heated by kerosene lamps, but, when available, gas is more profitable. The small 60- egg incubator is especially adapted to the use of the poultry- man who hatches only from one to two hundred eggs, and also to the pupil who must begin in a small way, and get his experience before trying any of the larger types. Mam- maine | Fig. 68.—An individual incubator which has a capacity of 240 eggs and is heated by a kerosene lamp. moth incubators have come on the market but recently. They are intended for use on large farms where thousands of eggs are hatched every spring, and range in size from 1,500 to 30,000 egg capacity. Heat is generated either by coal or gas. Burning coal heats hot water which circulates in pipes above the eggs. In most of these mammoth machines, the heat is regulated by the expansion and contraction of the water in the heating system. Slight variations in tempera- ture are met by raising or lowering the egg trays, or by allowing the hot air to escape through a perfectly controlled regulator or ventilator. In selecting an incubator for home use, the individual machine will probably be the best, and the one selected should bear a good reputation, and be well built and durable, with an egg capacity of from 60 to 220 eggs. In choosing a particular make of machine it is safe to purchase one of 124 HATCHING AND REARING the higher priced ones, as they are sure to be well built and generally have a good reputation. It is poor policy to select a cheap machine which is only good for one or, at the most, two seasons. Placing the Incubator.—The incubator should be placed in a cellar, or a room below the ground level. The cellar of a dwelling house, if it can be kept at a uniform temperature, is very satisfactory, but insurance restrictions should be looked into before placing an incubator in a dwelling. If the machine is placed below the ground level, the temperature can be kept more uniform. When a number of incubators are to be operated, a cellar specially constructed for the purpose and at least five feet below the ground is best. The incubator room should be built with masonry walls and a concrete floor, but may have an asbestos or metal ceiling. Such a room is practically fire-proof. The incubator cellar must be well ventilated, and a good arrangement is to have double window sashes, the outer one hinged at the top and the inner one hinged at the bottom. When opened at an angle of 90 degrees the air will circulate through the room without causing a draft to blow on the incubator itself. Requirements of the Incubator.—Heat is the primary factor in an incubator, for we must generate by artificial means the heat which in natural incubation would be gen- erated by the hen’s body, and this demands a temperature in the incubator of 103 degrees Fahrenheit. It is well to start with a temperature a little below this, usually 102 degrees, and gradually increase it until at the end of the hatch the heat may be as high as 104 degrees. Great variations in temperature are detrimental to the hatch. An excessively high temperature of 108 degrees will kill the developing chicks, while an average temperature of 105 to 106 degrees will bring the hatch off too soon, and leave many dead in the shell. Too low a temperature will cause postponement of the hatch, and but few chicks will be able to break ARTIFICIAL HATCHING 125 the shell, owing to retarded development and want of vitality. In an individual incubator the heat is regulated by a thermostat and damper (Fig. 69). The action of the thermostat is based upon the expansion of metals, or in some thermostats on the expansion of gases. As the heat in the incubator rises, the metal or gas expands, and this expansion is transmitted to the damper over the heat box by means of levers. If the incubator is too hot, the damper rises, and allows the heat to escape. When the incubator is running at too low a temperature, the metal contracts, the damper falls, and more heat is thrown into the machine. Weight to balance Thumb nit to regulate temperature with. lever arm. Lever arm. which supports the damper over the lamp Lzpanding meial dcrum on which the of the thermoste lever arm is balanced. Won-expansive “metal == . tr the thermostat Connecting red. Rivets holding expanding aaa of rod metzl to non-expanding metal. to thermostat. Fic. 69.—Sketch of the parts of a self-regulating device for an incubator. The second requirement is moisture. Moisture prevents evaporation, and also softens the membrane of the egg, thereby making it easier for the chick to get out, hence a relatively high degree of moisture is essential towards the close of the hatch. The moisture content is read by the instrument called the hygrometer. Normal air contains about 40 to 45 per cent of moisture, or relative humidity, as itis called. During the latter part of the hatch the humid- ity should run as high as 58 per cent. Fresh air is the third of the important requisites in an incubator, and to secure this in the machine some form of ventilator must be used. In some incubators the bottom of the machine is open or slatted; in others fresh air is carried 126 HATCHING AND REARING into the incubator through ventilators made for the purpose. Asa current, or rapid movement, of air increases evaporation, ventilators in incubators are usually covered with muslin or burlap to strain the air and thus retard the circulation. CARE OF THE INCUBATOR After securing an incubator it is advisable to start it up and see if it will maintain the proper temperature. It should be thoroughly tested and adjusted, and run for at least a4 Fic. 70.—A class studying different makes of incubators. (Photo from U. S. Office of Experiment Stations.) three days before eggs are placed in it (Fig. 70). If it is old and has been operated before, it should be taken apart and the interior thoroughly disinfected with a three per cent solution of carbolic acid. This will prevent the transmitting of germs from one brood to another, and will insure better hatches. Care of the Lamp.—The lamp is the source of heat, and must be attended to regularly once a day so that the tempera- ture will be kept at the proper point. The observance of ARTIFICIAL HATCHING 127 the following rules is advisable. The best time to take care of the lamp is at noon. Never trim and fill it just before the eggs are to be handled, as kerosene on the eggs will be detrimental to the hatch. After trimming and filling the lamp put it in the burner box. Be sure that the chimney fits tight. Wipe off all oil from the lamp and burner. Clean the box or bracket frequently so that there will be no soot, charred wick, or kerosene within it. On first placing the lamp in the machine turn it low so that it will not flare up. After a few minutes it may be raised to the desired height without danger of smoking. The incubator should be situated where it will be protected from drafts. Drafts are ° apt to cause smoking, which will always result in lowering the temperature and sometimes cause fire. Humidity—By humidity we mean the water or moisture which is in the air. Artificial incubation calls for a high degree of humidity. There are three ordinary methods of providing it. One is by wetting the floor and thus keeping the incubator cellar damp. Another method is to place trays filled with sand on the bottom of the incubator and keep the sand well moistened with water. Another common mode is to sprinkle the eggs with luke warm water. In rooms which are very dry these three methods may be combined. If eggs are sprinkled, the best time to do it is just before they hatch. Putting the Eggs in the Machine.—In putting the eggs into the machine they may be allowed to cover the tray entirely, but should never be piled one on top of the other. This would increase the labor of turning the eggs, and those on top would be subjected to a higher degree of temperature. Before putting the eggs in the incubator, if they have pre- viously been kept in a cool place, they should be gradually accustomed to greater heat. If they have been shipped a considerable distance, they should be unpacked and allowed to stand for a few hours with the large end up before putting 128 HATCHING AND REARING them into the tray; this permits the air cell to assume its normal position. Turning.—In artificial incubation we attempt to imitate nature. The hen on the nest turns the eggs frequently by means of her feet, beak, and body; in the incubator, the attendant must do this with his hands. A good rule is to begin on the third day of incubation to turn the eggs and to turn them twice a day, morning and night, until the first signs of pipping are noticed, which will usually be on the twentieth day. The object of turning is to change the posi- tion of the embryo, so that it will not adhere to the shell and die. The growing embryo also needs oxygen, and turning helps to keep the air cell in its proper position. The best way to turn the eggs is to remove about one-tenth of those in the tray and roll the others about in the tray by means of the palms of the hands. It is unnecessary to turn each egg half way over. Cooling.—The hen occasionally leaves the nest, and thus permits the eggs to cool; so in artificial incubation, especially in warm weather, we must artificially cool the eggs, not only to lower the temperature, but to supply them with pure, fresh air. A good rule for cooling is as follows: Do not cool for any longer time than is required for turning, if the tem- perature of the room is lower than 50 degrees Fahrenheit. During the first week cool merely during the operation of turning; in the second and third weeks gradually increase the length of time for cooling until just before hatching when the eggs can often be cooled for from a half hour to an hour each day with advantage. Good hatches have been known to take place when the eggs had been left out all night, but this is risky. Testing the Eggs.—The eggs should be tested on the seventh and fourteenth days. Testing is a process which informs the operator of the progress of the hatch, and the condition of the hatching eggs, and also gives him an oppor- ARTIFICIAL HATCHING 129 tunity to eliminate the infertile eggs, which will never hatch. The machine can be handled better if there are only fertile eggs in it. On the third day one can also pick out the eggs that contain dead germs, which, if left in the machine, de- compose and cause an offensive smell. While testing the eggs, the rapidity of evaporation can also be determined by the size of the air cell; the larger the air cell, the more rapid the evaporation. Never turn the hatching eggs at testing time, for the process of testing moves and cools them suffi- ciently. A simple homemade tester can be fashioned from a wooden box, eight inches wide by eighteen inches long, and lined with asbestos. The lid can be hinged on, and a door made to latch. Place an ordinary kerosene lamp in the box and set the box up on one end. Cuta hole in one side, exactly on a level with the flames of the lamp. The hole should be a little less in diameter than the transverse diameter of the egg. When testing the egg, pass each one in succession before this opening, holding it close to the opening so that no light will escape anywhere except through the egg. (For a description of fertile and infertile eggs and dead germs, see Chapter X.) Hatching Records.—A record should be kept of every hatch. This can be of simple form, but should show the number of eggs put in, the breed and the date. It should also record the temperature, taken twice daily, the number of infertile eggs tested out, of dead germs found, and the number of vigorous chicks hatched. From this record can be figured the percentage of the hatch and this data is valuable for future hatching seasons. Care at Hatching Time.—About the nineteenth or twen- tieth day the attendant should be on the look-out for signs of pipping, and when he notices the first cracked egg, he should sprinkle them all with luke-warm water. The machine should be immediately closed and kept closed until the hatch is over. During this time the temperature must be 130 HATCHING AND REARING kept at about 104 degrees Fahrenheit. Sprinkling the eggs will cause a high humidity. If the incubator has a glass door, darken it with a piece of burlap or dark cloth to keep the chicks quiet. This will prevent them from trampling on each other in an effort to get to the light. When the hatch is about over, the trays should be removed, the burlap frame inserted, and the chicks allowed to drop into the nursery. INCUBATOR RECORD Incubator number.......... MAK Gib. c sais uedss Capacity........... Date eggs set.............. Number of eggs set..............-2005 Kind of eggs set. ..........----.-.5- ‘TEMPERATURE RECORD Dayurcs cto ddelneteiciies 1) 2/3/4]5/6) 7/8] 9 |10)11/12 ils B16 vis 19}20/ 21/22/23 Temperature: | Ri Meovara gti ned ate y zcove ie leet inact Mee ela! eel allie dices acall ew na Seal as PEM incnwicg g:gee§ tra goailes ie al lia Ada Kl i el sb | Infertile Eggs | Dead Germs | Cracked Result of tests: Seventh day....... Fourteenth day..... Number of vigorous chicks hatched. ...............00 0000 ccc eeee Number of chicks dead in shell..........0.000..0.0 0.00 cee eee eee ee Per cent hatch of total eggs set... 00.0... eee ce eee eee Per cent hatch of fertile eggs after the first test........... 0.00.0... Remarks about the hatch .ccwyesuns cas Ge bee Hes peewee ede we ee ewe Steps To Be Avoided in Artificial Hatching.—Poor hatches often result from the following causes, which the pupil must make every effort to prevent. If the thermometer does not register properly, it will mislead the operator into running the hatch at either too low or too high a temperature, there- fore, all the thermometers should be tested in warm water, and compared with a thermometer known to register accu- ARTIFICIAL HATCHING 131 rately. The eggs must be fresh and of good quality, and properly cared for, as previously described. The greatest care must be given to the incubator from the time it is set until the hatch is over. A successful hatch must come off on time, starting on the twentieth day, and being completely over by the end of the twenty-second. In short, a poor ther- mometer, poor eggs and lack of attention are the three most common causes of unsatisfactory hatches in an incubator. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 20.—Secure a small incubator. If one can not be secured locally, some manufacturers are very willing to donate small machines for classroom work. In the presence of the class, the machine should be gone over carefully and the form and use of every part explained. Later the machine can be taken to pieces and the internal construc- tion studied. Special attention should be devoted to the perfection of construction, the means of temperature control, method of ventilation, and the means of applying moisture. A trip to a large hatching establishment, where mammoth machines are operated, will make the study more interesting. EXErcIsE No. 21.—Place a small incubator in a cool, shady corner of the schoolroom. Appoint certain members of the class to care for it. The eggs can be brought by some of the pupils. Follow carefully the instruction given in the text. Each day a short period can be set aside, when those running the machine can explain to the class the work done that day. Each member should keep a little book with a complete record of all operations and results, as specified in the text. ExercisE No. 22.—If two or more incubators are avail- able, run them both at the same time. Operate both alike in every respect, except in one machine place moisture, by using sand trays, and in the other machine use no moisture at all. Study the results as determined by the number and weight of chicks hatched. 132 HATCHING AND REARING Exerciss No. 23.—Have one or more members of the class construct a homemade egg tester, as described in the text. When the eggs are being hatched for the above exer- cises, they can be tested frequently, to study the appear- ance of fertile and infertile ones and to watch the develop- ment of the embryo as seen through the shell. Exercise No. 24.—Weigh fifty eggs before placing them in the incubator. Weigh them each day until the chicks hatch. Weigh the chicks after hatching. How do you account for the regular loss of weight? How much is the loss per 100 eggs for the entire twenty-one days? THOUGHT QUESTIONS What is meant by the term “artificial hatching”’ ? What kinds of fuel are sometimes used to generate the heat? . Describe the ancient Egyptian ovens. What is an incubator? What two types of incubators are in general use? . Describe the difference between the individual and mammoth incubator. . Describe the general type of individual incubator. . Describe the mammoth incubator as to its usefulness. . What are some of the important points which an incubator should possess? 10. Describe a suitable location for an incubator. 11. What is the proper heat to incubate an egg? 12. How is the proper heat maintained and controlled? 13. What is the proper degree of moisture for incubation? 14. Why is fresh air necessary for incubation? 15. How would you prepare an incubator to receive the eggs? 16. What are the essential points in the care of the lamp? 17. How is the proper moisture content maintained? 18. What precautions should be taken when putting the eggs in the machine? 19. Give a rule for turning the eggs in the machine. 20. Why should the hatching eggs be turned during the period of incubation? 21. Give a rule for cooling the hatching eggs. 22. What is the best practice to follow in testing the eggs? 23. What hatching records should be kept? 24. What special attention should the incubator receive during the time the eggs are hatching? 25. Enumerate some things which should be avoided in artificial hatching. Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 236, Incubation and Incubators. COON BaABRwWoe CHAPTER XII BROODING Broopine is the process of caring for the young chicks from the time they are hatched until they are old enough to go without artificial heat. The brooder might be termed an artificial mother. Brooding is an important operation on the poultry farm, for it is just at this juncture that many losses occur, and if succeeding generations of pullets are to be successfully reared, it will depend largely on the brooding. Points of a Good Brooder.—An ideal brooding equipment embraces four distinct features. First, there must be a hover, either circular or square, the circular being preferable. This hover is usually darkened, and kept at an even and fairly high temperature of about 90 degrees Fahrenheit. It should be easy to ventilate and very accessible for the birds. Second, surrounding the hover should be a brooder com- partment, well lighted, and a little cooler than the hover. In this space the chicks can withdraw from the heat of the brooder whenever they wish, yet at the same time it con- fines them in close proximity to the hover and heat. Third, connected with the hover compartment, but within the brooder house, should be a light run or yard, the floor of which should be covered with clean sand and fine litter. After the chicks are a few days old, they can be allowed to runin this in-door pen, and thus become gradually accustomed to a cooler temperature before being let out of doors. Fourth, all brooder houses should be provided with an out-door run which furnishes some shade, a rather dry and sandy soil, and an abundance of green feed (Fig. 71). Types of Brooder Houses.—Three general types of brooder houses are in use; the small colony brooder, the large colony 133 134 HATCHING AND REARING brooder, and the long intensive brooder house. The small colony brooders are usually about 3 x 5 feet or a little less in size, and form in themselves a complete house. They are _ Theprotected run within Srat CoLony Groover the brooder house The outside run enclosed with KS wire wher the chicks are young The warm welllighted and vertilated The healed darkened hover be- hover compariment neath which the chicks gore gefwarr7 The protected rurr LONG INTENSIVE BROOOER House. within the brood- N ; er house The ourside rur) €r7rc/osed with wire when the chichs are young - The warm well lighted and ventilaled hover Compartment ‘The healed darrened hover Leredh which the chicks golo ge wart The profegled runwithin LARGE CoLony BROOOER the brood- ia . Cr fous The ovfside rur; enclosed with wire when the chicks are yourg. W ; a The warm, welllighted and vertilaled fover comparimert. The heated garkened fiover be- reat which te chicks goo Gel WATT. Fia. 71.—Three types of brooders, showing how each supplies the four requirements for successful brooding. portable, and are usually heated by a kerosene lamp. Each brooder will hold from 50 to 75 chicks (Fig. 72). A large colony brooder has recently been put on the market, which has a capacity of from 300 to 1500 chicks. Most of the large brooders have coal stoves, above which are arranged BROODING 135 metal hovers or reflectors which throw the heat down to the ground; others are heated with gasolene or with kerosene : but all of the colony brooders are designed for large commer- cial poultry plants where many thousands of chicks are to be reared (Fig. 73). The long intensive brooder house is rather expensive to build, but is most satisfactory. These long brooder houses are from 14 to 16 feet wide, and sometimes vary from 50 to Fie. 72.—A small out-door brooder heated with a kerosene lamp and holding fifty chicks. several hundreds of feet in length. Different types of hovers are used in these, the small individual portable hovers being quite common; each in itself being a unit. The heat is pro- vided by kerosene lamps. Fireless brooders were tried some years ago, but were not practicable. Long brooder houses are frequently heated by hot water pipes running along the top of the hovers, and usually elevated six to eight inches from the ground. Muslin frames are generally placed over the pipes to hold the heat and deflect it down to the brooder 136 HATCHING AND REARING floor. But the most satisfactory method yet devised for heating long brooder houses is what is known as the mam- moth brooding system. This consists of a circular hover heated by hot water pipes which run in an insulated box below the brooder floor. The heat ascends to the hover through a galvanized drum or cylinder. Of these three different types the small colony brooder is best adapted for use on small poultry plants, the large brooder to large com- Fig. 73.—A gasolene brooder house. Capacity two hundred chicks. This house is being used as a shelter for growing pullets. mercial farms, and the intensive system to broiler farms, where there is much early winter brooding (Figs. 74 and 75). Operating the Brooder.—Before placing the chicks in the brooder, it should be thoroughly cleansed, the old sand and litter removed, the hover floors and walls scraped, and the whole washed with a three per cent solution of creolin. Fresh, clean sand should be put on the brooder floor to the depth of half an inch, and over this some fine clover or alfalfa. The brooder should be examined carefully to see that it is in perfect order, and then the lamp lighted, and the BROODING 137 brooder run for at least thirty-four hours to see if the proper temperature can be maintained, that is, 98 degrees Fahren- Fra. 74.—A, A coal-burning brooder stove having a capacity of heat for 300 chicks. B, A house eight by twelve feet in which the stove is placed. heit. Before the chicks are put under the hover, fresh water should be provided, and a large quantity of grit put in two or three piles near the hover curtain. Fig. 75.—A modern, commercial, long-pipe brooder house, which has a capacity of 2000 chicks up to ten weeks of age. Putting in the Chicks.—The chicks should be left in the incubator for at least thirty-six hours after hatching, to allow them thoroughly to dry off and to get up on their 138 HATCHING AND REARING feet. Then they should be transferred from the incubator to the brooder in covered baskets, especially when they are apt to become chilled. They should be placed carefully under the hover. This practice teaches them where the heat is and they will more quickly know where to go in search of it later. In the small circular hover, about two feet in diam- eter, no more than 50 to 75 chicks should be put. More can be crowded in, but in most cases it will only result in an increased mortality. The best plan is to put them in the brooder just after dinner, and for the remainder of that day give them all the clean, fresh water and grit they can eat. Degrees of Warmth.—The following temperatures on the floor at the level of the chick will be about right for the average brooder. At the start run the brooder at from 98 to 100 degrees, from 94 to 96 degrees the second week, from 90 to 92 the third week, and from 80 to 85 the fourth week. The idea is to keep the brooder fairly warm, and allow the chicks to get away from the heat when they wish to. They will come back to it when they need it. A very high brooder temperature is not desirable, as it lowers the vitality, causes digestive disorders, and will carry off many of the chicks. On the other hand, too low a temperature is apt to chill them and make them crowd together. A uniform temperature, starting at 98 and very gradually becoming cooler, is the best. Feeding the Baby Chicks.—The following outline describes a very effective method of feeding baby chicks, but there are probably numerous rations equally as good. Whatever ration is decided upon, the idea should be to feed little but often during the first few weeks. Keep them hungry, and make them scratch in the litter in search of feed. The first eighteen hours in the brooder the chicks should be given fine grit, shell, and fresh water, and short cut alfalfa and clover put on the floor for them to pick at. The next day they should be given pinhead oatmeal or rolled oats; three feedings will suffice, and they should be given BROODING 139 only a small amount or what they will eat up between the feedings. For the remainder of the first week in the brooder, they should have a good fine cracked grain ration, scattered on the floor of the brooder in the litter, five times a day. The following grains make an ideal chick ration when the poultryman desires to mix his own feed: Cracked) corms: -eois.cy nimasndouweucndwcnal an 20 pounds Fine cracked wheat.................... 25 pounds CGN 5) 3 2a cee tmacanstcdebe Abas eRe ene GHE.X 5 pounds Pinhead oatmeal................0.0..2. 5 pounds To supplement this, feed sprouted oats or green grass, . and once a day, hard boiled eggs in small amounts. On the Fia. 76.—An out-door, dry mash hopper for growing chicks. It is rain proof and always ready. seventh day wheat bran should be put before the youngsters in small hoppers, but after this time, the noon feeding of grain can be omitted. From the third week until they are put on range, the following ground grains should be added to the wheat bran, the entire mixture being kept before them all the time in hoppers (Fig. 76). The mash consists of: 50 pounds wheat bran 5 pounds sifted ground oats 5 pounds corn meal 2 pounds meat scrap 140 HATCHING AND REARING Until they begin to forage, this grain feed can be given three times a day, at morning, noon andnight. Ifavailable, sour skim milk, kept constantly before them in hoppers or fountains, is good. Thisisthe generally accepted practice in feeding brooder chicks, but it may be possible to modify the ration slightly. Importance of Fresh Air.—From the time the chicks are a few days old they should be encouraged to go out of doors as much as possible; the fresh air will make them grow more rapidly. Poor results in artificial brooding are often due to keeping the chicks in too high a temperature, and to lack of fresh air. Things to be Avoided in Brooding.—The heaviest loss in brooding chicks may be attributed to one of the four follow- ing causes: First, overheating, or running the brooder at too high a temperature, and keeping the chicks confined to the heat, which results in delicate hot-house birds without stam- ina, which develop a severe diarrhoea. Second, chilling, or keeping at such a low temperature that the birds crowd to- gether to keep warm, and many die of suffocation, while others are generally weakened in constitution. Third, there is often considerable loss because the young chicks pick at each other’s toes. This is called cannibalism, due to a thirst for blood, and is particularly common with the light, active breeds. The habit can be largely overcome by putting the birds out of doors on clean grass range, and giving them meat scrap, wheat bran and ground bone, mixed in equal parts, and put where they can get it all the time. Fourth, many brooder chicks are lost as the result of infectious diseases. Contagious white diarrhoea may beinherited from themother hen, and is quickly communicated by one bird to another. Bacillary diarrhea in a flock can be checked by giving an abundance of sour skim milk, but when flocks are affected by this disease it is better to begin with new stock and eggs from another source. Weaning.—After chicks are five weeks old the temperature should be gradually lowered and artificial heat done away with. This will wean the chicks from warmth so that they can BROODING 141 be put on range in a cool house when about eight weeks old. But a gradual lowering of the temperature, and the harden- ing of the chicks before they are put out in the cool house, is essential to successful rearing. If not gradually accustomed to doing without heat, many will die from the sudden change. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 25.—Visit one or more poultry farms in the vicinity to make a study of brooders. A better scheme, where possible, is to have in the classroom two or more types of small brooders. These should be studied externally and internally, as the incubator was studied. The different types studied should be examined to see in what way they provide the four compartments or conditions which are required by a successful brooder as specified. Exercise No. 26.—A small out-door brooder should be placed in the school yard in some dry place which is protected. The south side of the building is a good location. The chicks which are hatched in former exercises can be brooded in this brooder. Special care should be used not to overcrowd the brooder, and the pupils attending it must follow very care- fully the instruction for temperature and feeding, THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Define the meaning of the term “‘brooding.”’ Enumerate the four requirements of a successful brooding equipment. Enumerate three general types of brooder houses in common use. . Describe the small colony brooder. What are the characteristic features of the large colony brooders? . Describe the long intensive brooder house. . What operations are necessary to prepare the brooder for the chicks? . How should the chicks be carried from the incubator to the brooder? . How many chicks should be placed in one brooder compartment? 10. What is the proper degree of warmth for the different ages of chicks? 11. What are the two principal requirements in feeding brooder chicks? 12. Describe in detail a practical method of feeding brooder chicks. 13. What is the importance of fresh air in brooding chicks? 14. What is the effect of overheating the hover? 15. How will chilling cause a high death rate? 16. What is meant by cannibalism and how can it be prevented? 17. What infectious disease is very dangerous to young chicks? 18, How and why should the brooder chicks be carefully weaned? OONBAPRWNHE CHAPTER XIII REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS From the time the chicks leave the brooder house until they are placed in the laying house in the Fall the aim should be to promote their uniform and steady growth. Any check or set-back in their growth will result in delayed maturity, and retarded development often leads to lack of vitality, and sometimes death from disease. Slow, irregular growth means adults of small size. Hence, every effort should be made to create a congenial environment, conducive to the best development of the birds. Early Care.—When the chicks are taken from the brooder and put in colony houses, every precaution must be taken to prevent their becoming chilled. The danger, of course, depends somewhat upon the season of the year. If properly weaned in the brooder house until six weeks old, they can be safely put on range any time during May or June. Earlier in the season than this, it is wiser to keep them in the brooder house until they are ten to twelve weeks old. If it is necessary to move them early while the weather is cool, it is a good plan to provide a temporary hover in the colony house. This should consist of a board, three to four feet square, suspended from the ceiling by cords, with a burlap drop curtain, eight inches deep, around the edge. When the chicks are in the colony house, this hover can be let down to within ten inches of the floor, and the chicks will naturally hover under it and their body heat be conserved, which will prevent chilling. As the chicks grow older the hover can be raised two or three inches a day, until finally dispensed with. Crowding, or putting too many chicks in the colony house, should be guarded against. A colony house 6x8 142 REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS 143 feet should house through the growing season 50 birds. If more than this number are put in such a house, their growth will be slow and they will be small at maturity. Advantage of Free Range.—When possible the growing stock should be given plenty of range to roam over (Fig. 77). There are many reasons why free range is an advantage. It induces plentiful exercise, which means health; it reduces the cost of feed by providing natural green grass and weed seeds. The birds also secure many grubs and insects which take the place of meat in their rations. Free range is cleanly, while small yards are easily contaminated. Fic, 77.—Leghorn pullets being reared on free range. The shelters are placed near the corn field to give shade. Necessity of Green Feed.—To promote the best growth the chicks require an abundance of succulent material, that is, green growing plants, such as grass, weeds, and grains. On free range plenty of this green feed will be found. But it is often necessary to keep the youngsters in a limited area, or to confine them because of some garden crop which they may injure. Under these circumstances, double yarding can be resorted to. Double yarding is dividing the total space for the birds into two yards, and placing the house exactly in the center, therefore, partly in each yard. The 144 HATCHING AND REARING birds can then be confined to one yard while a crop is being grown in the other. When this green crop gets to be four or five inches high, the chicks can be turned in to feed on it. Then another crop can be planted in the yard where they previously fed. By this system of rotation the chicks can be continuously provided with green fodder, and the fre- quent cultivation keeps the yards clean and sanitary. It is the next best thing to free range. During an average season the sowing of four crops will be found to work to the best advantage, if alternate crops are used. Peas and oats should be seeded early, this crop followed by buckwheat, and buckwheat in turn by soy beans, which should be fol- lowed by winter wheat and rye, and the latter crop allowed to grow all winter. Thus early green feed in the Spring is provided. Shade Very Desirable—The yard should have shade to protect the birds from the direct rays of the sun. If they stay all day in the heat of the sun, they grow slowly, and their bodies often become so sunburnt that they do not feather properly. Natural shade from plants or trees is best (Fig. 78). Wild trees or forest growth, if not too thick, makes admirable range, as do fruit orchards. Peach, apple and plum trees are among the best to plant on the poultry range. The corn field also is a good place in which to rear the youngsters. The colony house can be moved along the edge of the field, and the chicks find suitable shade and range in the corn. Sunflowers and castor beans are frequently used in small yards to provide shade, and beauty as well. When natural shade is not available, artificial shelters may be constructed. Such shelters are commonly made from boughs of trees, preferably evergreen, about two feet above the ground. Boards or burlap fastened to a frame may also be erected above the ground to give shade. These artificial shelters are generally unsatisfactory because they REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS 145 more or less attract heat, and the air underneath such a tent is intensely hot during the middle of the day. Fresh Air Houses.—Chicken houses for summer use should be merely shelters, the main requirement being plenty of fresh air, although low cost is an important consideration. The small colony house may be only a shed, with a roof and one wall, the other three sides being covered with wire. But whatever the type of shelter, it should afford protection from all four-legged enemies, from the rain, and from the Fie. 78.—An ideal corner of a pasture for the growing birds. Shade in abun- dance, plenty of green grass, and a small brook running under the trees give the birds everything they need. sun. Portability is next in importance, for it is often desir- able to move the house from place to place in order to give the chicks green feed. A house can be so built as to be used for both the growing stock in the summer and the laying birds in the winter, and such a house is called an adaptable colony house, because it can be used for more than one purpose. Desirable Types of Colony Houses.—The following is a brief description of three useful types of small colony houses. 146 HATCHING AND REARING Figure 79 shows a small house, 6 x 8 feet, built on runners. It has a gable roof, and in order to facilitate the circulation of air and make the house cool, the side walls are hinged to the roof at the eaves. This house will accommodate 50 pullets during the summer, and furnish them all necessary protection from enemies. It can be built of very cheap material, the cost being only $9.50. Figure 80 shows a very desirable type of adaptable summer colony house. It can be used for the summer growing stock, also for laying birds in the winter. In the following discus- sion will be outlined working plans, list of material, and direc- tions for building such a house. Building a Small Colony House.—Subjoined is a list of ma- terial required to build one adaptable summer colony house, as pictured in the accompanying working plan (Fig. 81): 215 sq. feet yellow pine, tongued and grooved, 8 in. boards 10 ft. long 12 ps.—2” x 4” hemlock, 10 ft. long 2 ps.—4” x 4” hemlock, 10 ft. long 3 ps.—2” x 2” hemlock, 16 ft. long 1 ps.—2” x 2” hemlock, 12 ft. long 1 ps.—2” x 2” hemlock, 10 ft. long 2 ps.—1” x 3” hemlock, 10 ft. long 80 sq. ft. roofing paper 2 prs. 3 in. hinges 3 prs. 4 in. hinges 1 door latch 2 yards muslin 20 ft. one inch mesh wire 5 lbs. eight-penny nails 1 Ib. six-penny finishing nails 1 box tacks 1 lb. medium staples Approximate cost of above materials, $13.65. The size is six by eight feet. It is of shed-roof construction, built on runners, so that it can be easily moved about. The front has a door in the center, with windows at either side of the door, each provided with a muslin curtain. In sum- mer there is plenty of ventilation from the fact that the REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS 147 lower parts of the end walls are on hinges, and can be lifted up. This house complete, including all material but not labor, costs $16.00. Hemlock or yellow pine should be used for all runners and for the frame; yellow pine, tongued and grooved, will do for the roof. Fia. 79 Fia. 80. Fic. 79.—A cheap fresh air shelter for the growing birds during the summer. Fic. 80.—A house which can be used for growing chicks during the summer and for layers during the winter. (For working plans, see Fig. 81.) | cca | rea [Laws muse Cal aS S eC Fic. 81.—Working plans of adaptable summer colony house, 6x 10 feet, 6 feet high. 148 HATCHING AND REARING Feeding.—Feeding the youngsters during the summer months is a simple process. Only two rations are necessary, a grain feeding and a dry mash. A good grain ration for use on the range consists of equal parts of cracked corn and whole wheat. This should be scattered broadcast about the range morning and night. The dry mash ration should consist of the following proportion of ingredients: Wheat DEAT «26d capa eaiy ss haidoco ee aches 50 pounds GROW OF t8).04 4 auaisivcs atcha ier tine vibe deeecend 10 pounds Gluten meal... cir sccnes cee aes eae 10 pounds Cornrinieal:, cic sacs bce ces oat Gente RRB 10 pounds Alfalla meals 2320.02. burganiatoiates ee 10 pounds Meat Scrape on gen cts Gar phn Cee Cece 5 pounds Bone meal, occas gis vdxewis pecs ean ees 5 pounds TO Gall: + a5 cee Sy ee Bey ae te eS 100 pounds This should be put in large feeding hoppers located near each other about the range. The mash enables the chicks to balance their own ration, promotes the more uniform de- velopment of the birds, and greatly reduces the labor of feeding. Plenty of fresh water should be at hand. If the range is not piped with running water, large drinking vessels or barrels can be located at accessible points, and frequently replenished with water, which is allowed to drop continu- ously. Management.—Three important things the poultryman must bear in mind when caring for the growing stock during the summer. The first is to protect them from enemies. If rats are allowed to become plentiful, they will prey upon the chickens, and many will be lost. If the range is wooded land far from the house, hawks and crows may do consider- able damage. Weasels and minks, if abundant, will kill large numbers, and so may dogs or cats if not properly tramed. The poultryman must watch the growth of his birds, and have conditions such that they will grow continu- ously without any setback. Lastly, he must feed abun- dantly. If the chicks are to gain in weight, they must be REARING THE YOUNG BIRDS 149 given all the feed they can clean up, for they are very active, and need a good deal to give them energy. Care at Maturity.—As the pullets approach maturity, also, their growth must be watched. They should be put in the laying house two or three weeks before good egg produc- tion can be expected, which will be about the middle of October, and this early housing accustoms the birds to their quarters. No animals are so easily affected by change of environment as poultry, and if the poultryman gets his fowls in laying houses, under close observation, he can, to a certain extent, control the time of their maturity. This often means all the difference between a good and a poor winter egg yield. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 27.—If funds are available, purchase the lumber necessary to build the summer colony house described in the text and allow the pupils to build same. The class can be divided into a number of sections, with four or five in a section. Usually enough interest will be maintained so that most of the work of construction can be done outside of regular school hours. If land is available, these buildings which are built by the pupils can go towards equipping a small poultry plant to keep as a part of the teaching equip- ment. Exercise No. 28.—If there is room in the school yard a small area should be set aside on which a succession of crops can be planted in order to demonstrate how to provide a continuous supply of green feed to growing chicks, which of necessity must be closely confined. It is best to plant these crops in a poultry yard. If no yard is near, an area ten feet square will serve to give practice. By having the crops growing, the pupils will not only become familiar with the appearance of the seed and the manner of planting but they will also become acquainted with its habit of growth and the appearance of its leaf and stalk. 150 HATCHING AND REARING ONO PON THOUGHT QUESTIONS . What is the primary object in the management of young chickens during the summer? . What is the effect of a check or setback in the growth? . What factor is essential to secure a good growth? What special factors should be considered in the care of chicks when they are first placed on range? How many chicks should be placed in a colony house? Why is free range best for growing poultry? What is succulent material? How ae a continuous supply of green feed be obtained in small yards? . Why is plenty of shade necessary to growing birds? . What are some of the best kinds of plantings to make shade? . How can shade be provided from an artificial source? . What is the leading requirement in the summer houses for chicks? . What other features should the summer colony house possess? . Describe a desirable type of summer colony house. . How many different rations do growing chicks require? . Give a suitable dry mash ration for growing chicks on the range. . Give a suitable grain ration for growing birds on the range. . What natural enemies are responsible for much loss on the range? . Is liberal feeding necessary with growing poultry? . Why should the maturing pullets be placed in their houses early in the Fall? PART II HOUSING CHAPTER XIV LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS Tue selection of a suitable site for the poultry plant and the proper location of the house and yards often makes all the difference between success and failure for the poultry- man. With the place already purchased, the problem is simply how best to develop a small poultry plant on a particular location. To the prospective poultry keeper with no farm purchased, the question is, first, the choice of a suit- able location, and secondly, the establishment of his plant on the location he selects. Choosing the Poultry Farm.—While the choice of the poultry farm will fall to but few, three factors in connection therewith will be appreciated by all poultrymen, and apply equally as well to the small flock which caters to the retail trade as to the large plant which caters to the wholesale trade. The markets must be studied. In choosing the farm, one in close proximity to several large centers of population should be selected; the nearer the city, the greater the demand for eggs and poultry, but the land will also be more expensive. The nearer to the market the quicker will be the delivery, and quick delivery means that the eggs and poultry will be fresh when they reach the consumer. _ Markets are of two general types, wholesale and retail. The former, to which poultrymen ship their eggs and poultry in considerable quantities, are in large cities. The eggs are shipped direct to wholesale dealers or commission merchants, who in turn sell them, and charge commission for their 151 152 HOUSING work. Retail markets are those in which the poultryman sells his eggs and poultry direct to the consumer. This is the ideal method for the poultryman who has a small flock and lives near the consumer, since a large number of eggs and poultry can be disposed of in the course of a year by delivering them directly to the family trade, and higher prices are received for them. There is more labor involved in marketing them, yet with a small flock this is certainly the best. method. The poultry farm selected should have good transporta- tion facilities. A rural trolley line is a great advantage, but it should also be near a railroad which gives good pas- senger, freight, and express service. Good roads between the farm and the station, or between the farm and the city or market, are also important. If the poultryman has a telephone and rural free delivery, these will prove of great convenience. He can easily com- municate with his customers, and more quickly supply them with the kind of produce they desire. Transportation and means of communication play a big part in the manage- ment of either small or large flocks. Locating the Poultry House.—In locating the poultry house, several factors must be taken into consideration. The character of the soil is important: A sandy loam is best, for a top soil of this kind usually has a gravelly sub- soil, and this combination will drain well, warm up quickly in the spring, and also dry very quickly after rains. Heavy clay soils should be avoided, for they are cold and damp, and very sticky in the winter and late in the spring; after rains the birds’ feet and the nests usually get very dirty. The character of the soil is one of the chief things to be taken into account when locating the poultry buildings. Drainage must also be considered. Drainage is determined largely by the topography of the land, hilly or rolling country being best, as it promotes good surface drainage. All sur- LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS 153 face drainage should, of course, be away from, rather than towards, the buildings. The poultry house should be located on a hill slope (Fig. 82). This makes it certain that there will be no stagnant water at any season, for the filth or drop- pings of the birds about the yards will be carried off to lower points, and contamination of the runs prevented. Perfectly level lands should be avoided, especially if the soil is heavy, for they are often spongy and wet in the spring and early summer. ze serve as wind-break. (House. House Should be placed on slope facing Southward. Low wet swampy 2an@ should be avoided The bottom of the valley where thereis 2 river: Avoid sucha place near the river bank. Fig. 82.—The cross-section of a hill ahowing the proper location of the poultry ouse. A good circulation of air is likewise essential. Probably few of us appreciate the fact that there are currents in the air, the same as in water. Cool air flows down to a lower level, and warm air ascends. Bearing this in mind, do not locate the poultry house in a hollow or at the foot of a hill. Such situations are cold, and apt to be damp and frosty in winter. Part way up the slope the air will be clearer and drier. The exposure of the slope largely determines its desir- 154 HOUSING ability, the best exposure for a poultry house being on land which slopes to the south. Here it gets sunshine the greater part of the day, and if built just beyond the crest, not directly on the top of the hill, it is protected from the north winds by the hill behind it. Northerly slopes should be avoided, as they are cold and bleak in winter. & Alternate yards Poultry Rouses Corn = @ Laying hock + or & &@\¢@ ¢ adic GG &\¢ hh Growing range & ¥ Alternate yards S| i [aeRS @ &) &| 4% 4&2 @ A '~™ A small & poultry house Q, (ps darn - zo be used for Vhouse? Barn fo with should be given free range at all seasons of the year Highway Fia. 83.—A desirable plan for a two-acre poultry plant on a general farm. One acre for adult birds in orchard and one acre in corn used as range. Four- hundred-bird capacity. Natural vegetation on the site is a big advantage, and sod is to be preferred. If shade is lacking, corn may provide it, while fruit trees are growing. Wild forest growth furnishes good shade, but in some spots may need thinning out to let in the sun. Whatever site is chosen, green feed will prob- ably be lacking, but this can be secured by clearing a strip immediately in front of the poultry house, and planting it LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS 155 for permanent sod. If there is an orchard on the farm, it makes an ideal spot for the poultry house, and the same piece of ground serves a double purpose, and is made to yield a double revenue (Fig. 83). Ideal Location for the House-—Summarizing, the follow- ing describes an ideal location for a poultry house; the poultry house and yards should be located in undulating country and on a southerly slope which is not too steep. The soil should be a dry, porous, sandy loam with a sub- soil of gravel, and covered with sod. Plenty of natural shade should be at hand. Surface water should drain away from the poultry house by means of natural water courses. The site should be easy of access, and near enough to the dwelling for the birds to be under observation. The Poultry Yards—Wherever possible, the birds should be allowed free range; sometimes, however, they must be yarded. Often the question is whether to yard the poultry, or to fence in the crop which they will damage. But in ideal conditions there is unrestricted range, the two prin- cipal advantages being the reduction in the cost of feed, and more cleanly and sanitary conditions of the birds. Sanitary runs on the farm mean healthy birds. Usually if an effort be made, a place can be found for the birds which permits unrestricted range. Where poultry are bred under intensive conditions on small areas, for example, in villages, it is absolutely necessary to yard them, but the yard should be as large as possible, and double yarding and rotation of crops the method (Fig. 84). Alternating yards are becoming more and more popular as a means of keeping the birds healthy under limited range. The term “alternating” simply means that each pen of birds is provided with two yards, which may be designated 1 and 2. In some cases both yards are in front of the house, in others one yard may be in front of, and the other behind, the house. It is also becoming the custom to give each pen 156 HOUSING of birds, if there be more than one, a small exercise yard, connected with which is a much larger one, in which green feed grows, and into which the birds are turned loose at frequent intervals to pasture. This method works admirably where there are a number of pens close together, as in a long laying house. House House 7 Pa S/NGLE DOUBLE or YARD ALTERNATE YARDS Fie. 84.—Single and double yard. Birds are allowed first in yard No. 1 and then in yard No. 2, green crops being grown in each yard while it is vacant. The success of the alternating yard system depends upon securing a good rotation of crops. Thesubjoined outline shows a simple system adapted to almost any climate. Other crops may be sown, but the principle will be the same (Fig. 85). Yarp 1 YarD 2 Seeding time Crop Seeding time Crop April 15...........Peas and oats June 1...........Buekwheat DULY V5 oe Ses wag as Soy beans September 1...... Winter wheat and rye LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS 157 In locating yards the idea should be to have them on ground which slopes away from the poultry house, so that waste from the yards is carried away from the house, not towards it. Ideal Fence Construction.—Where birds are kept closely confined, fences must be provided of such a height as to prevent them from flying over the top. It is quite a problem to know how to build fences that will.be durable and at the same time economical. Three things must be considered in constructing a fence, namely, the posts, the fence material, and the gates. There is probably no cheaper or more dur- Fiq, 85.—A poultry house with a double yard. At the left the birds are feeding on peas and oats. At the right soy beans are growing for future forage. able post than one of locust or cedar, three to six inches in diameter. If dipped in tar before being sunk in the ground, and kept painted, they will last a long time. The fence posts should be set at least 214 feet in the ground, with the dirt well packed around them, and the corner posts securely braced. The distance between the posts should be from twelve to fifteen feet, according to the height of the fence, and this depends upon the breed to be fenced in. A three- foot fence will confine the heavy breeds, like the Brahma and Cochin; a six-foot one will confine any of the medium sized breeds, while a fence seven to eight feet high, if the 158 HOUSING yards are not too small, will shut in the lighter breeds, like the Leghorn. Sometimes a few birds of the flock will persist in flying over, having discovered their powers of flight. This habit must be broken before others contract it from seeing them, and it can be done by clipping a wing, cutting the primary flight feathers off about one inch from the wing proper (Fig. 86). Woven wire makes the best poultry fence. Owing to the fineness of the wire, the common hexagonal poultry netting Y Post s : iS | SLRKOSSOKD os ERS : SY He GROUND LINE > Ay AY SPORES ISIS, | Crotch'sticks! which hold _| | || thewtre under ground | | H 1 ! ty | H J Ld Fic. 86.—An ideal fence for poultry. Hexagonal mesh poultry netting is used. does not last very long unless it is painted. Painting makes any wire fence more durable, and unless galvanized, it should be painted at least every two years. In planning the yards, make few gates, but their location and construction is important. It takes considerable time to open and close them, and they are apt to get out of repair. Where gates are necessary, locate them in the natural line of travel from one pen to the other, or from the feed house LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS 159 to the pens. They should be well built (Fig. 87) so they will not rack to pieces. Three by six inch yellow pine boards if lapped at the corners and securely nailed, make good gates. They should be braced diagonally, covered One by sex inch material for side pieces. One by six inch material for braces. (One by six inch material for cross pieces. Ll ke > Fic. 87.—A neat, well-built gate for a poultry fence. with poultry netting, and so hung that if left partly open they will swing shut. Arrangement of Poultry Buildings——The general plan of the poultry plant, even when started in a small way, should allow for future development. The buildings should be so 160 HOUSING grouped as to make an attractive appearance from the high- way, to be easily accessible, and to reduce the amount of labor. The principal buildings, such as feed room, incu- bator, and brooder houses, should be centrally located, with the young stock range near the residence or in the center of the plant. In this position the youngsters can be better protected, and more closely watched. To the pupil starting out with a small pen of birds, proper location is the most im- portant consideration, for if successful with his small flock, he will doubtless wish to enlarge his poultry plant in the near future. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 29.—To demonstrate the water holding capacity of soil and to show why a light soil is drier and warmer than a heavy soil, secure three glass tumblers. In the bottom of each place four or five small stones about the size of one’s thumb. Secure two types of soil, one pure sand and the other a heavy clay soil. In one tumbler place clear sand, filling the tumbler to within one-half an inch of the top. In a second tumbler place the same amount of the clay soil. In the third tumbler place the same amount of a mixture of one-half sand and one-half clay. Into the top of each tumbler pour an equal amount of water, about one- half a tumblerful will be sufficient. Watch the rapidity with which the water soaks down through the different types of soil. Note in which tumbler the water reaches the open spaces around the stones first. With a pencil stir the top of each tumbler and note the condition of the top soil. Which of these three types of soil is best for poultry? Exercise No. 30.—If an effort is being made to organize a small flock for the school have the pupils build the fences according to the plan described in this chapter, Be sure that the posts are firmly set. Exercise No. 31.—Have each pupil lay out on paper an ideal arrangement of the essential buildings for a small LOCATION OF THE HOUSES AND YARDS 161 poultry farm. This should include all houses, yards, fences and roads. The plans can be placed on the wall and dis- cussed by the entire class, the good and poor points in each being pointed out. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . How important is the proper location of the poultry house and yard? . How does the problem of location differ with the poultry keeper owning his own land and the one who has not yet secured his location? . When choosing the location for a poultry farm what. consideration should be given to markets? What are some of the most desirable methods of transportation? How important are the rural telephone and the rural free delivery? . Describe the best soil for poultry. . What kind of soils should be avoided? Why? . What factors should be considered with reference to water drainage? . How does air drainage affect the location for the poultry? . Why should low places be avoided? . What exposure is best for the birds? . Is sod land good for poultry? . What advantage, if any, is an orchard on the site selected? . Describe in a few words an ideal location for the poultry house. . What is the problem of the average poultry keeper in reference to yarding his birds? . What is meant by ‘alternate yarding’’? . Give a simple crop rotation for double yards. : . What three things should be given special consideration in the construction of the poultry fence? . Discuss posts for poultry fences. . What kind of material makes the best fence? a . What special features should be considered in building and placing the gates? . Is it necessary to plan the lay out of the buildings with reference to a possible future growth and the general appearance when complete? References.—United States Farmers’ Bulletins: 403, The Construc- tion of Concrete Fence Posts; 524, Tile Drainage on the Farm. CHAPTER XV ESSENTIALS OF A POULTRY HOUSE Tue design of the poultry house and its construction largely determines the conditions surrounding the birds, that is, creates their environment. Factors in environment are temperature, moisture, sun- light, and feed, and these affect the health and greatly influence production. The environment must be congenial Fia, 88.—An open, fresh air poultry house. and calculated to keep the birds well and contented; other- wise, they may become lazy and unhealthy, or poor producers. The modern poultry house combines all the features neces- sary to produce ideal conditions. Principles in Design.—The poultry house should be dry and admit plenty of sunlight, with enough floor space for the num- ber of birds (Figs. 88and 89). Thereshould be protection from 162 ESSENTIALS OF A POULTRY HOUSE 163 extremes of temperature. The building should be rat-proof, and easy to clean. All fixtures should be simple in design. Dryness of the Poultry House.—Moisture breeds disease, and germs of several undesirable types thrive and multiply in dark, damp places, hence a damp poultry house is un- suitable and unhealthful for the birds. Moisture in the poultry house may be from several causes. First, there is moisture from the air, which is usually due to imperfect ventilation. Second, the moisture exhaled by the birds, i, Fra. 89.—A closed, poorly ventilated, old type of poultry house. which unless carried off and replaced by fresh, pure air, may be seen as beads of water on the rafters and walls. The third type of moisture comes from the soil, especially if this be heavy and damp. When the house is located on such a spot the dampness must be counteracted. Soil water should never be allowed to work up and dampen the litter, and this can be prevented by a good concrete floor placed on ten inches of cinders. Sometimes dampness is due to surface water, especially in the spring of the year when the ground is frozen; on this account a house should 164 HOUSING never be located in a hollow, for at certain seasons, when water can not seep into the ground, it may flow into the house. Perfectly dry floors and dry, pure air are the primary essentials in constructing a poultry house (Fig. 90). Need of Sunlight.—Plenty of sunlight in the poultry house helps to make it sanitary by destroying harmful germs, and also makes the birds more contented. This is evident to any one who watches them in cool winter weather. They Fia, 90.—Building a floor to the poultry house which will be perfectly dry. A, cinders six inches deep; B, concrete three inches deep. wallow in the dust, then bask in the sunlight. To get all the sunlight possible, the house should face the south. The design should be for a rather high front, yet not so deep that the sunlight can not penetrate to the back. A good rule with regard to sunlight is to have the house so designed and situated that at some time during the day the direct rays of the sun will strike every part of the floor. Importance of Thorough Ventilation—Good ventilation ESSENTIALS OF A POULTRY HOUSE 165 is especially necessary in the poultry house in winter, when a considerable number of birds are kept closely confined to their quarters week after week. Poultry are very active, and have a high body temperature. In the course of a day they exhale a lot of impure air, which is a poison. Hy- giene demands that this be removed and replaced with pure air laden with oxygen. This air breathed out is heavily laden with moisture. The constant removal of this moisture laden air by ventilation makes the house drier. Good venti- lation in the poultry house is best insured by the liberal use of muslin curtains in the front. If these are left open Cross-section of Cross-section of a a shutter ventilator muslin-covered a os Cupola ventilator, with trap-door to Rear ventilation, designed contro] amount of air passing through especially tor use in the summer OLSPSAS AAS Fic. 91.—Four ways of ventilating the poultry house. much of the time, the atmosphere will be almost as pure as that out of doors. In snowy, wet weather and on very cold nights these openings can be closed by frames covered with light-weight muslin, which readily permits the air to pass through. Slatted shutters resembling blinds are frequently recommended for use in place of muslin curtains; these should be hinged so that they can be thrown open when not needed (Fig. 91). Ventilators in the back of the poultry house are desirable for summer use, and, if constructed rightly, will help to keep the house cool during the hot weather. Sometimes the ventilation is by means of flues or pipes connected with chimneys on top of the house. If of good design these 166 HOUSING work satisfactorily but they are often too small or too badly arranged to answer the purpose. Plenty of Floor Space for the Birds.—The layers must have all the floor space they need for exercise, especially large laying flocks in winter. The house is built for the birds and its capacity is determined by the floor space. All fix- tures, such as hoppers, nests, water fountains, etc., should be elevated above the floor, as this will increase the capacity of the house. The birds must not be crowded. Crowding increases the likelihood of disease, and creates unsanitary conditions. Four to five square feet of floor space should be allowed each bird. Protect the Birds from Extremes of Temperature.—Birds can bear extremely low temperature without injury, if there are no drafts and the air is dry. But if an air current, laden with moisture, circulates rapidly through the poultry house, it does not need a very low temperature to freeze their head parts, and injure them for production. Frozen combs are quite common with the light, active breeds, unless care is exercised in designing the houses and manipulating the ventilators. During winter the birds should be induced to take all the exercise possible by scratching in the litter; this keeps them warm by increasing the circulation. They should be given considerable whole or cracked corn during the winter, as it is a very heating and fat-forming feed, therefore, beneficial to them. The Construction Should Be Rat=proof—Whatever the type of poultry house, every effort should be made to build it so that rats can not get into it. The surest method is to construct foundation of concrete, and after the house is completed a concrete floor two or three inches thick should be laid for further protection. The danger of rats carrying off young chicks is great, and frequently there is heavy loss from failure to guard against them. One-inch mesh poultry netting tacked underneath wooden floors, or buried in the ESSENTIALS OF A POULTRY HOUSE 167 ground where dirt floors are used, will help to keep rats out. The boards used in building a poultry house should be such as will not harbor mites or other parasites. Dressed lumber is best. All fixtures should be portable, and as simple as possible in type, so as to admit of rapid and thorough cleans- ing whenever it is desirable to clean the house. Simplicity—The poultry house should be built of durable materials, for it does not pay to spend one’s money on a cheap house which is only temporary. If built on a good foundation, and of good, first-class material, the house is a permanent building, to be cared for as such. The simpler its design, the more attractive it will’ be; simplicity of the exterior and freedom from fancy corners and costly trimmings enable one to keep it in a good state of preserva- tion at little cost. When completed the poultry house should immediately be given two good coats of oil paint, any knots in the boards being shellaced beforehand. This treatment will keep the boards from shrinking and coming apart, thus forming cracks, and will the better preserve the house. Economy but not Cheapness.—In designing and building his house, economy should be first and foremost in the poultry keeper’s mind, but not cheapness at the sacrifice of efficiency; and efficiency in every respect is probably best secured by a house of shed-roof shape, from four and one-half to six feet high in the back, and from seven to eight in front. The height will depend upon the depth, but it must be high enough to permit the attendant to care for the birds without inconvenience. The house should approach a square in shape, this being more economical, as less building material is required. Twelve by twelve, fourteen by fourteen, or sixteen by sixteen are common dimensions for the floor areas of small poultry houses. An Ideal Plan.—The following summary demonstrates the type of house which at present is accepted as the best. The floor space should be ten to twenty feet square. The roof 168 HOUSING should be of one pitch, with the highest part in front and the lowest part at the back. A height of from five and one-half to six feet must be maintained in that part of the interior where the poultryman must move about to do the work. If small and portable, the house should have a wooden floor; if large and permanent, the floor must be concrete. The house should be built so that at least two-thirds of the front can be open, these openings to be covered with muslin and glass, using twice as much muslin as glass. The roosting boards, dropping boards, and nests should be in the back part of the house, away from the open front, and fixtures should _ P0o0f 50 pitched as7o carry all ff We waler. Jo the bach ~, A Ss => Perches Low s/de7o pe Dropping Board a The back > Front facing Jothe south Nes/s Fie. 92,—Cross-section showing an ideal arrangement in a poultry house. be elevated above the floor (Fig. 92). Features which have been enumerated will be described more in detail in succeeding chapters. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 32.—The Effect of Dampness.—Secure two tumblers. Place about one inch of dirt in the bottom of each. Moisten the soil in one and leave the other dry. Place in each asmall piece of bread, about the size of a thimble. Place an inverted butter plate, or piece of card-board, over the moist tumbler and leave the other one open. Set the tumblers away on a dark shelf. Look at them daily and ob- ESSENTIALS OF A POULTRY HOUSE 169 serve the growth of mould spores on the bread. On which piece of bread does the mould form first and fastest? Why? The open tumbler represents a dry, ventilated compartment. The wet tumbler represents a wet, non-ventilated place. The same condition shown here takes place in a wet, poorly ventilated poultry house. Exercise No. 33.—Muslin Ventilation Purchase a yard of light-weight muslin and a few tacks. On some windy day tack this muslin over the outside of the lower part of one of the school house windows. Be sure to put the muslin over a window on the side of the school house towards which the wind is blowing. Then open the lower sash and allow the pupils to stand inside of the window in front of the muslin curtain. Compare the atmospheric conditions felt here with those felt when the next window adjoining is opened and they are allowed to stand in front of an open unprotected window. Explain from this object lesson the advantages of the curtains as used in poultry houses. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . What is the relation between the design of the poultry house and the birds’ environment? . What is meant by environment? What are some of the factors of environment? Enumerate the modern principles in the design of a poultry house. Why should the house in.which the birds are kept be free from moisture? . Discuss three kinds of moisture which may be found in the poultry house. . Why is plenty of sunlight desirable in the house? . Give a good rule to govern the amount and distribution of sunlight. . Why do birds need plenty of fresh air in the house? 10. How can the poultry house best be ventilated? 11. Why is automatic ventilation by the means of flues not the best? 12. How much floor space should be given each bird? 13. How can the birds be protected from extremes of temperature? 14. How can a poultry house be made rat-proof? 15. Is simplicity in poultry house construction important? 16. How does a coat of paint help preserve the house? ; 17. Discuss economy vs. cheapness in poultry house construction. 18. Describe an ideal plan for a poultry house. Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 574, Poultry House Construction. COON 2 ARON CHAPTER XVI REMODELLING OLD POULTRY HOUSES On ordinary farms and often on small village lots, will be found auxiliary buildings, such as sheds, out-buildings, etc., which by a little ingenuity can be remodelled into good poultry shelters at small cost. Basement barns, slightly reconstructed, make excellent winter quarters for laying hens. Where poultry houses of antiquated type can be reconstructed at small cost, the aim should be to make such changes as will give efficiency and durability. If the remodelled house Fie. 93.—The boiler room of an old grist mill was remodelled into a poultry house for twenty-five birds so that the little man might have a place for a special flock all his own. is to be satisfactory, it must be water-tight and should be air-tight on three sides (Fig. 93). It must be so arranged that plenty of sunlight can enter it, with openings that will constantly admit plenty of fresh air, yet not be. drafty. Care must be taken to see that it is dry, especially that the floor of the house is not wet and moist. In old buildings, special precautions to guard against rats should be taken. 170 REMODELLING OLD POULTRY HOUSES 171 When completely remodelled, the buildings should be thor- oughly cleansed and made ready for the birds. Economy calls for careful use of both labor and material in the remodelling. The labor is simple, and of such a nature that the poultryman can do much of it himself. Materials rarely need be purchased. Old boards can be taken from other buildings, or those usually found in considerable num- ber about the farm can be used. Burlap obtained from rip- ping up old bags can be used in place of muslin; it is Just as serviceable, although not quite so good-looking. Openings for windows can be cut in the wall in such a way that no window frame is needed. Stones picked up about the farm can be used for floor and concrete work. SUGGESTIONS FOR REMODELLING A HOUSE The following suggestions are offered with the idea that they may be useful when putting an old house into suitable condition for layers: Thorough Cleaning the First Requisite The first thing to do is to clean out any rubbish and filth which may have accumulated in the building. If it is an old poultry house, all litter should be removed, the dropping boards thoroughly scraped, and the walls and floor swept. The window lights should be cleaned on both sides. If the floor is of dirt, six inches of the top soil should be removed. The interior of the house should then be sprayed with a five per cent solu- tion of carbolic acid. These procedures will prepare the house for remodelling. Next, openings in the front wall should be marked out with a pencil, and then cut. They should be planned with reference to the studding and frame- work of the building. The idea should be to arrange for as much sunlight as possible, and to have it well distributed over the floor. The window openings should be so cut that there will be about one square foot of glass to twenty square feet of floor space, and the curtain openings planned so that 172 HOUSING there will be one square foot of muslin to ten square feet of floor space. Window openings should be cut vertically, that is, up and down. Curtain openings should be rather wide and horizontal. The openings in the walls must be cut a little smaller than the window sashes which are to fit them. The sash can then be hinged on the inside, the wall acting as the jamb against which the sash shuts. The open- ings in the wall should be covered with one-inch mesh poultry netting. This confines the birds to the house and also keeps out sparrows. Sparrows will eat a considerable amount of the poultry feed in the winter. They are also apt to infect the flock. The window sashes should be hinged to the wall inside so that they can be opened. The best way is to hinge them on the side so that they will swing against the wall out of the way. The muslin curtains can either be attached so that they will roll up, or they can be tacked to frames, and hinged to the top, and folded up against the roof. Finishing the Floor.—If the floor is of wood, it should be carefully examined to see that it is in good repair. It must be tight, that is, free from cracks and holes. Any cracks should be covered with boards. The upper surface must be fairly smooth. If the floor is very poor, yet must be retained, a good plan is to cover it with one-inch mesh poultry netting, and over this lay a fresh floor, using eight- or ten-inch shiplap, or tongued and grooved yellow pine boards. If a dirt floor is to be put in a poultry house, the best way is to spread four to six inches of stones, gravel or cinders, which will give good drainage, and over this place a coat of cement or concrete two or three inches thick. This should be tamped well to bring the water to the surface. A common mixture for such a flooring is one part cement, three parts sand, and five parts cinders, or crushed stone. Such a floor has the advan- tage of dryness, is absolutely sanitary, and is proof against rats. Repairs to Walls and Roof.—The walls of the house should REMODELLING OLD POULTRY HOUSES 173 be looked over carefully to see that they are tight, as cracks or holes may cause undesirable drafts. Such holes may be covered by battens on the inside. The roof should be in- spected to see that it is in good repair, and strong enough to hold any weight to which it may be subjected; for example, heavy snow. If it has been papered, and the paper is badly worn, a new one must be put on. If a shingle roof, any miss- ing shingles should be replaced with new ones. If the shingles are in poor condition, it is better to entirely reshingle, since the roof must be absolutely water-tight. Building Dropping Boards, Perches, and Nests.—All of these fixtures should be built in the back part of the house, which is the warmest and best protected. Put the dropping boards close to the back wall, about two or three feet above the ground. Their height will depend upon the breed kept, and their width upon the number of perches. Fourteen inches should be allowed between the perches, and eight or ten inches of perch to each bird. The top of the dropping boards should be as smooth as possible, so that they may be easily cleaned, and if they can also be easily removed it is an advantage. The perches should be elevated above the dropping boards about six inches, in order that a hoe can be manipulated under them to clean the boards. The perches should be movable and of durable construction. Round poles, two or three inches in diameter, make good perches. Nests can be built under the dropping boards or fastened to one of the side walls; either place is good. Provision should be made for the birds to enter them under the perches or from behind, and there should be a door or opening in the front for the removal of eggs. The nests should be planned and built about twelve to fourteen inches square, one for every four or five birds. They should be dark and, if possible, movable. Finishing Touches.—After the house has been remodelled and the fixtures completed, it should be made habitable by giving it a thorough spraying with the disinfecting 174 HOUSING solution recommended in Chapter XXX. If the floor is of wood or concrete, about two inches of sand should be scattered over it, and this covered with six to eight inches of good coarse litter; straw or a poor grade of hay is best. The feed hoppers, grit boxes, and drinking fountains should be attached to the wall or placed on shelves or tables. The house is now ready for the birds, which should be put in and kept closely confined for a week or two, until they get accustomed to it. Decide on the number of birds the house will accommodate, but it is not wise to have more than one bird to about four square feet of floor space. Fia. 94.—An old tool shed remodelled into a very fine small-flock poultry house. Such remodelling as outlined will take but little time, and can be done when other work is slack. Little skilled labor is called for, and the use of waste material found about the farm so reduces the cost that a far greater number of birds can be kept (Fig. 94). LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 34.—Remodelling a Poultry House.—If there are any small buildings about the school grounds which are not used for any definite purpose let the class follow the instructions given in this chapter and remodel one into a REMODELLING OLD POULTRY HOUSES 175 laying house for poultry. Such practice can be secured by purchasing a small and rather dilapidated building from some one in the neighborhood. Only a very small building should be used, as larger houses would entail too much work and expense. Exercise No. 35.—Improving Poultry Houses —A num- ber of poultry houses in the immediate vicinity can be visited and suggestions made as to changes which would make them more efficient. Such, for example, as more light, better floors, more roost room, etc. Such a discussion will aid in fixing the desirable points in mind. Full notes should be taken on each house studied. Exercise No. 36.—Laying a Concrete Floor.—Valuable experience in laying concrete floors can be secured by pur- chasing one or more bags of cement and, if no poultry houses are present on the school grounds, a door step, or a piece of sidewalk, can be laid in the same manner. Concrete floors or walks should consist of three layers. First an under or drainage layer consisting of six inches of cinders or stone. Above this a layer of concrete consisting of one part of cement, three parts of sand and five parts of cinders or stone. This mixture should be thoroughly mixed before any water is added; it should then be mixed with water until all is added that will hold without running off. This rough coat should be well tamped and left rough to better hold the finish coat. The finish coat should be made about one inch thick and should consist of one part of cement to three of sand. It is best to finish the top coat smooth. This can be done with a flat piece of board or a plastering trowel. When it is desired to build steps, or to form any piece of concrete, leaving square corners and plane vertical surfaces, it is best to use wood forms, which should be lightly nailed together - so that they can be easily removed. Concrete should be allowed to harden at least forty-eight hours before it is stepped on. 176 HOUSING Ree ee PWN O ee Oar THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Is it possible to remodel old buildings so as to make them suitable poultry houses? What special conditions should be secured in order that the re- modelled house be efficient? . What is the first requisite in remodelling an old building? What special precautions should be practised to insure cleanliness? . How should the openings which are cut in the front wall for windows and curtains be planned? . How should a wooden floor be repaired? . If the finished floor is to be of dirt how should it be prepared for the birds? . How should a concrete floor be made? . What attention should be given the walls to put them in proper condition? . What should be done to the roof? . Where should the dropping boards, perches, and nests be located? . Describe the construction of the dropping boards. . What special feature should be considered in building the perches? . Describe the process of making the remodelled house habitable for the birds. . What should be the size of the nests? . Is there any building on your place that can be made over into a suitable poultry house? Describe it. References.—United States Farmers’ Bulletins: 461, The Use of Concrete on the Farm; 481, Concrete Construction on the Live Stock Farm. CHAPTER XVII BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE Tuts chapter deals with the actual construction of a poultry house designed for laying hens. The specifications call for a house six by eight feet, giving a capacity of from ten to twelve birds, depending upon the breed. If it is desirable to keep a larger flock, the capacity can be doubled by increasing the width of the house, making it eight feet deep and twelve feet wide. This will give a capacity of from twenty to twenty-five birds. Such a house is designed especially for a beginner, and is adapted to the small flock, whether on the farm or in the city back yard. The house described is economical of construction and easy to build, and is most satisfactory, as proven by years of usage. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HOUSE If designed to be portable, the house should be put on runners, and have a wooden floor. If permanently located, it must go on a concrete foundation, and have a concrete floor. The house should be of the shed roof type, eight feet high in front, and five feet in the back, with a depth of eight feet, and a width of six feet. The area of the floor will be six by eight feet. Halfway between the top and the bottom of the front wall, and extending all across the width of the house, is an opening three feet deep and six feet wide for air and sunlight (Fig. 95). It is covered with inch mesh netting, also by a muslin curtain, attached to a frame. A small glass window sash is inserted just below the muslin curtain to admit sunlight when the curtain is down. There is a small ventilator at the back of the house which can be used in the summer for free circulation of air between 12 177 178 HOUSING the double walls at the back. This is a good arrangement, as it cools the house off during hot summer nights. A door two feet wide and six feet high is cut in one side near the front. The top of the door follows the slant of the roof, thus giving a few inches in height. The frame of the house is built of yellow pine and hemlock, the floor of pine boards, and the walls of eight-inch tongued and grooved yellow or Fic. 95.—The small-flock poultry house as it will appear when finally completed. white pine, the boards being laid up and down. The roof is made of shiplap, and ten-inch yellow pine boards, covered with a good grade of roofing paper. The interior fixtures consist of four nests placed on the side wall opposite the door, and a hopper hung on the other side of the wall near the door. The roost and nests are built in the back and lowest part of the house. The dust box is located in the center BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE 179 of the front, immediately below the small window, and the water vessel on a shelf at one side of the dust box. These brief specifications will give some idea of the type of house to be built (Fig. 96). LIST OF MATERIAL TO BUILD ONE SECTION The following list specifies the amount of lumber required to build a house as above described. Runners,—2 ps. hemlock 2” x 10” by 10 feet long Floor timbers,—6 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by 6 feet long Posts,—1 pe. hemlock 2” x 4” by 16 feet long Posts,—1 pe. hemlock 2” x 4” by 10 feet long Plate,—1 pe. hemlock 2” x 4” by 12 feet long Roofing rafters,—4 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by 10 feet long All studding,—3 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by & feet long All studding,—2 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by 12 feet long Boards for first floor and roof,—120 sq. ft. 1” x 10” Y. P., T. &G. Material for nests, dropping boards, and hoppers,— 50 sq. ft. 1” x 6” Y.P.,T.&G. Perches,—2 ps. hemlock 2” x 2” by 12 feet long Frame for muslin curtains,—2 ps. hemlock, 1” x 4” by 12 feet long One cellar sash with glass,—3 lights each 6” x 8” 1 roll, 3-ply roofing paper 100 sq. ft. red felt building paper Explanation of the Above Terms.—The term “timber” is used to describe large, thick sticks of wood ranging in size from two by four inches to two by six inches or larger, and are usually of hemlock or yellow pie. Their cost is figured by the board foot. The term ‘‘T. & G.” is the abbreviation for “tongued and grooved.” It means that each board has a groove on one edge, and on the other edge a tongue or nar- row projection of wood which fits into the groove when the boards are laid together. “Beaded” is a term which means that the boards are furrowed on one or both sides, in order to give the wall a neater and more finished appearance. The initials ‘“Y. P.”’ stand for yellow pine, and ‘“W. P.” stand for white pine. The word “roofers” is a trade name which denotes yellow pine tongued and grooved. Shiplap is a term which means boards with a lip on each side. When 180 HOUSING these boards are laid together, the lips fit over each other, and make a tight joint. “Barn boards” is a trade name for shiplap yellow pine. The following miscellaneous material will complete the house and make it ready for the birds: + Ne uw uf 72 iN -- — 10° Es) ind View wsiin |) cuaTarw TLL Fie. 96.—Working plans of the small-flock, portable poultry house. 2 lbs. 20-penny wire nails or 2 pairs 6-inch strap hinges spikes 10 Ibs. 10-penny wire nails 1 box carpet tacks 1 barn door latch 1 hasp and staple 1 padlock 1 lb. poultry staples 4 hooks and eyes 2 pairs 4-inch strap hinges A piece of one-inch mesh poultry netting, three feet wide and seven feet long, will be needed to tack across the large opening under the muslin curtain, and light-weight muslin, one yard wide and two yards long, to tack on the frame for this opening; also two- or three-ply standard grade roofing paper fortheroof. Theabove material will cost $19.50, and can be secured at almost any lumber yard and hardware store. BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE 181 TOOLS NEEDED FOR THE WORK The following tools are necessary. Two sawhorses, one hammer, one crosscut saw, one ripsaw, one screw-driver, one spirit level, one try-square, one steel square, and one two-foot rule. The sawhorses can be made by the students. DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION The following details for building the house should be taken up in the form of laboratory exercises, and are here given as such. They are designed for the construction of a portable house, six by eight feet, with a wooden floor. Fia. 97. Fia. 98. i ek ats fa Sie eee, Se ses Ra ua “U4 ——— oe : Sa rs a | hes me Fic. 97.—Detail drawing giving dimensions for runners. Fic. 98.—Detail drawing giving dimensions of floor joist. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 37.—Constructing the Runners.—Select for the runners, two hemlock planks, each ten feet long, two inches thick, and ten inches wide. Square both ends, so that the board is exactly ten feet long. Notch the runners so that they will take the floor joists, and also level the ends, according to the detailed sketch. This beveling makes the house slide easily when moved (Fig. 97). Exercise No. 38.—Cutting the Floor Rafters—Select the two by four pieces of hemlock ordered for the floor joists. Cut each of them six feet long, and square the ends. To secure uniformity cut one as pattern and make the others just like it. Fit these floor joists into the slots in the upper part of the runner, and nail securely with ten-penny nails (Fig. 98). 182 HOUSING Exercise No. 39.—Leveling the Runners and Squaring the Corners.—The next process should be to level both run- ners by the use of the spirit level. Place pieces of board or bricks under the runner, and on them the spirit level. When the bubble in the center of the spirit level is in the center of the glass tube, the runners are level. Next square the corners by using the large steel square; after all of them are perfectly square they should be held so permanently by nail- ing cleats diagonally across from corner to corner (Fig. 99). Fria, 99,—The runners and floor rafters in place, showing the stick used to hold them square. Exercise No. 40.—Laying the Rough Floor.—Select from the pile of lumber the yellow pine shiplap boards, which were ordered for the rough or lower floor, and lay them diag- onally from corner to corner. The best plan is to begin at the center and work towards the ends. The boards should be securely pressed together, then nailed, and finally sawed off to make the work neat. “All sawing should be to a line, and straight and even. Each board should be fastened with two nails in each floor joist and runner. Exercise No. 41.—Erecting the Posts—Select the two by four sticks ordered for posts. Cut two posts eight feet long, BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE 183 and two five feet long. Be sure that the ends are perfectly square. Nail the eight-foot posts securely at the front corners, and flush them with both sides of the corners. Use the spirit level to plumb the corner posts. They should be braced with shingle laths both ways. One end of the laths should be nailed high on the posts, the other end being tacked to the runner or frame when the post is plumb. Fie. 100.—The posts erected and braced, showing the plates in place. Set the five-foot posts at the rear corners of the house in the same way (Fig. 100). Exercise No. 42.—Erecting the Plates——The plates are two by four strips which connect the tops of the two rear posts and the tops of the front ones. For these cut two pieces of hemlock two by four, and six feet long. Be sure that they are exactly the right length and the ends square. Nail to the top of the posts with twenty-penny spikes. Exercise No. 43.—Erecting the Roof Rafters.—Select the pieces designed for rafters. Saw one piece exactly ten feet long, and notch the lower side of it as shown in figure 101. 184 HOUSING These notches will fit into the plate at the front and back of the house. Place one rafter to see if it fits, and if it fits perfectly use this as a pattern and cut three exactly like it. Space them two feet from the center, and have the outer one flush with the ends of the plates. Spike them securely with twenty-penny spikes (Fig. 101). Exercise No. 44.—Erecting the Studding.—Make the right stud for the door of two by four hemlock, and set it up on one side, two feet from the corner post. It should be perpendicular to the runner, and parallel with the corner posts. Erect intermediate timbers, three feet from the floor, between all posts and the outer studding. Do not put any aw a co JO £ e rO4 Fie. 101.—Detail drawing giving dimensions of roof rafter. intermediate sticks across the space left for the door. Cut all intermediates a little long so that they will fit between the posts, and be flush with the outer edge. Nail them securely. Next fit the intermediates at the top and bottom of the cur- tain opening. Exercise No. 45.—Erecting the Walls.—Select from the pile of lumber the one by six inch tongued and grooved pine lumber, and with this cover the back, the side, and the front walls. Leave openings for the door, curtain, and windows as specified. Before nailing them, saw the top of the boards so they will be flush with the top of the rafters. Be sure to keep them perpendicular. Drive them together securely, nailing each board as soon as fitted, driving two nails in each board where it crosses a rafter or stud. Keep the corners square and plumb. On the side walls make the boards conform to the slope of the roof (Fig. 102). BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE 185 Exercise No. 46.—Laying the Roof.—Select the boards for the roof from the lumber pile. Lay them perpendicular to the rafters. Begin laying the roofing boards at the back, or lower part of the house, making the under part of the first board flush with the ends of the rafters. Cut each board exactly seven feet long. Lay them so that six inches project on each side of the roof, and the last board is flush with the upper end of the roofing rafters. Cover roof with a two-ply roofing paper, according to directions found with 3 = 4 Wi Fia. 102.—Boarding up the walls. Note openings left for muslin curtain, window and exit for the birds. the roll. Lay the paper carefully and nail securely. Tar all joints before and after nailing. Exercise No. 47.—Laying the Finished Floor.—Cover the rough floor which was first laid with red felt building paper, lapping it to the width of four inches. Lay the top floor boards over this, lengthwise of the building. Fit them care- fully about all posts and studding, and blind nail them, as this gives a better finish. Drive the boards firmly together, and cut them the exact length required. Next, double-board 186 HOUSING the back wall on the inside, following the same method of construction as on the outside wall. Exercise No. 48.—Miscellaneous.—Cut an opening in the back wall for a summer ventilator and cover it with a slid- ing board. Fit a glass sash into the opening, planing it down to the exact size. Hinge the window at the top, so that it will swing up and down, and provide two hooks and eyes, one to fasten the window up, and the other to hold it open. Cover this window opening with one-inch mesh wire, tacking it on the inside. Make a one by four-inch muslin- frame of white pine, the outside of the frame just a little smaller than the opening in which it is to swing. Follow the accompanying sketch as to its method of construction and bracing. Cover it with light-weight muslin, using carpet tacks. Hinge it at the top, so that it will swing up and in, and cover the large opening. Cover the large opening in the front wall with one-inch mesh poultry netting, putting the wire on the outside. Make a door of the right size to fit the opening left for it. Brace the door on the inside diagonally, and hinge securely on the side farthest from the corner post, with heavy strap hinges. Put a barn door latch on the door to hold it shut, and provide a hasp and staple for locking it. The house itself is now complete, and ready for inside fixtures. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . What is the floor area of the small-flock poultry house? . For what purpose is the small-flock poultry house adapted? Describe in a general way the plan of the house to be built. Define the meaning of the following terms: Timber; T. & G.; W. P.; Y. P.; shiplap; barn boards. . How are the different sizes of the nails specified? . Describe the following pieces of hardware: Strap hinge; barn door latch; hasp and staple. What is the total estimated cost of all material for the small-flock poultry house? . See what this list of materials will cost in your community. . Give a list of the tools needed to build a small house of this kind. . What is the function of the runners? Describe the cutting of the floor rafters. BODO N OM £OWe =e BUILDING A POULTRY HOUSE 187 . Why is it necessary to level the runners and square the corners? . Describe the method of laying the first or rough floor. . Where are the timbers valle . What is meant by the term ‘“‘plate’’? . What is the function of the roofing rafters? . The word ‘‘studding” refers to what timbers? . How should the walls be built? . What kind of material is used for the roof? . What kind of water-proof material is used for the roof? . How should the second or finished floor be laid? . What miscellaneous construction work is necessary to complete ed posts located? the house? Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 474, Use of Paint on the Farm. CHAPTER XVIII THE INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE Tue subject of. this chapter is the poultry house equip- ment, commonly called the poultry fixtures or appliances. They constitute those parts of the house which should be movable, but are sometimes built to be stationary, though the practice is an unwise one. ESSENTIAL FEATURES Simplicity both in design and construction is essential for interior equipment, and the simpler it is the cheaper. This is true not only because of the material required, but the amount of labor necessary to construct it. The simpler it is, too, the easier it will be to operate, and the plainer the construction, the easier to disinfect it and keep it clean. Portability is an important consideration. All fixtures should be so constructed that they can be readily removed and put out of doors in the sun; the more complicated ones, such as nests, so that they can be taken apart for cleaning. If the fixtures, such as perches and nests, are movable, it is much easier to keep the house free from mites and parasites. The working qualities of the equipment are important also, and all the parts should be well adapted to the purpose for which they are to be used. Durability counts for much if the appliances are often handled. They should be made of material strong enough to last, well put together and securely fastened to the walls or other places of attachment. Fixtures should be elevated above the floor. This leaves the entire floor space to the birds, and decreases the cost of housing per bird. Fixtures should be so made as to be easily cleaned. If possible make them of hard wood, free from cracks and crevices. Only dressed lumber should be used. 188 INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 189 If these points are borne in mind when constructing appli- ances, the poultry house will be much more satisfactory. The following fixtures should receive most careful consideration. Dropping Platform.—The dropping platform is a wooden shelf, either stationary or movable, located under the perches, to receive the droppings of the birds at night. In this way it is easy to collect the droppings, and by keeping them out of the litter the house is kept clean (Fig. 103). Some houses have pits under the perches, instead of dropping boards, and in the pit bark, shavings or other absorbent. The pit, however, is objectionable. It is unsanitary, often more or less offensive, and hard to keep free from parasites. LLTOPPIMG Platform. Brace holding the al front of the pla tform- " Fic. 103.—Sketch showing the best location of the dropping board, in the low, back part of the house. Properly cared for, the droppings should be lightly cov- ered with dry loam, sand or gypsum. This dries out the moisture from the droppings, and keeps the house sweet and clean. The droppings on such platforms should be collected twice a week, at least, and oftener if possible. In narrow pens dropping boards can be constructed in one piece, and set on cleats, nailed to each side wall. The drop- ping board can readily be removed by pulling it out, just as a drawer is drawn out. The boards should run from back forward to eliminate all danger of catching the hoe in cracks between the boards when cleaning. Perches.—Perches are usually put in the low, back part of the house above the dropping platform or dropping pit. 190 HOUSING Some poultry houses have small roosting pens of special design with poles or perches resting across two sawhorses. The droppings thus fall directly on the ground, and are occasionally covered with loam to keep them dry. The perches are used by the birds to roost on at night. Fowls are so formed that they need a small, round or nearly round stick about which to lock their feet when sleeping. Branches of trees or saplings, two or three inches in diameter and ten feet or more in length, make good perches. If these are lacking, two by two or two by three hemlock sticks will Proof, “" -Ferch Support re ig bie se ia MN Llavared Back \/ Bf \ Wall — B= “A Perch support it7rorr7al | positon ) for roasti7g Dropping Board Fic. 104.—The best form of perches. They are made in sections and hinged to the back wall. be satisfactory, set on edge, the upper edges rounded. Each perch may be a unit in itself, in which case it is usually set on a cleat or in a groove made especially for that purpose. An ideal way is to make the perches in sections, each section hinged to the back wall, and supported in front by legs eight or ten inches long. This raises the perches high enough above the dropping boards for easy cleaning (Fig. 104). There should be plenty of perches in the house, in order to prevent crowding, eight to ten inches of perch room per bird being about right. The perches should be about fourteen inches apart, to keep the birds from soiling each others’ plumage, INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 191 and the back perch should be no closer to the back wall than twelve inches. Nests.—Nests are constructed to provide a place where hens may lay their eggs. The two most common locations are either under the front of the dropping board or along the wall. In any case they must be darkened, for the birds like dark nests, and they lessen the danger of egg eating. Whether on the wall or suspended, nests should be so de- Nests localed Just under the JSrort edge of the drop: ping board Llevated nest built permaneritly 7o a 7 wall f the house. /Tovable rest | | N boxes ) Point where tr bias 4 can be oper Nest Jo collact egg. 7 fi loor supporting We Brace used Jo support the rests and dropping board Fic. 105.—Two of the best types of poultry nests. signed that the laying hen can enter from the back (Fig. 105). The eggs can best be removed from a drop door in the front. Nests should always be built of plain or dressed lumber, and ten to fourteen inches square. If open, the sides should rise at least four inches above the bottom of the nest to keep the eggs from rolling out when the hen leaves the nest (Fig. 106). When closed nests are built, there should be at least twelve inches between the bottom of the nest and the ceiling. One nest to four hens is the right proportion during the spring and summer, but in the winter, or non-laying season, this number is not needed (Fig. 107). 192 HOUSING Trap Nests.—Trap nests, as the name implies, are espe- cially designed to catch or detect the hens which lay eggs; they are used in pedigree poultry breeding. The general .. Fie, 106.—An egg crate, if turned on its side and a narrow, four-inch strip nailed along the bottom of the openings, makes a very satisfactory nest. It can be attached to the wall or suspended under the dropping platform. plan of these nests is the same, although there are some ten to twenty different styles. When the hen enters the nest to lay her egg, she releases a spring or trigger which closes latform as sketched in Fig. 105. (Photo by A. L. Clark.) the door behind her, and fastens it so that no other hen can enter, nor can the hen which is caught leave until the at- Fia, 107.—Nests located under the dropping INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 193 tendant releases her. When he sets her free her leg band number is read, and recorded on a card for the purpose. Such records, if carefully made, show the egg production of individual birds for a given length of time. In order to keep the eggs from getting broken, some sort of nesting material is usually placed in the bottom of the nest. This may be straw, a poor grade of hay, or planer shavings. Straw litter is very good, as it is dry and keeps clean. Water.—Water pans or fountains should be set on shelves or fastened to the wall in an elevated position. Two types of water vessels are in general use: one an open pan or trough, the other a syphon fountain. The pan is easy to fill and clean, but, unless provided with some specially constructed cover, the birds are apt to get into it, and soil the water. Syphon fountains are of various styles and makes. They work on the principle of a vacuum or absence of air. As the water flows out of the opening at the bottom, air pressure on the outside is caused by the absence of air on the inside of the vessel. This outside pressure holds the water at a given height until more air enters as more water is released. The drinking vessel should be of good size, so that the birds can always have plenty of fresh water. Regardless of the type, they should be so located that the birds can not tip them over if they should alight on them when flying. A heavy galvanized drip pan for a refrigerator, four to six inches deep, makes a durable drinking pan. Hoppers.—The feed hoppers generally used are designed for two purposes, the feeding of both mash or ground grains, also often for feeding grit, shell and meat. Many types of hoppers are on the market, but it is hard to find one which feeds the mash down continuously as the birds eat it, yet does not waste it. Hoppers of different types can be made at home at much less cost, yet are very satisfactory. All hoppers should be attached to the walls or placed on raised platforms (Figs. 108 and 109). 194 HOUSING ees Door opened up A ~ < Place where hopper is filled Wood pyramid runnin %) | [the length of the hopper /| | |totake upwaste room ” tres located every | ts three inches alon, it % the feeding operin to keep tne diras from = wasting the masn, Les ard Fia. 108.—An efficient, homemade hopper, so constructed that the birds can feed from both sides. Fia, 109.—White Leghorn pullets feeding from a hopper of the same size and type as sketched in Vig. 108. Note the length of hopper and distance above the floor. (Photo by A. L. Clark.) INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 195 Dust Boxes.—The dust box is a necessary part of all poultry house interiors. Its purpose is to provide a dry, fine dust or soil in which the birds can bathe themselves. Access to such a box reduces the danger of body lice to a minimum. The best places for the dust boxes are in the front corners of the laying house, because these are well lighted and the birds naturally love to bask and dust in sunlight. A good method for constructing dust boxes is to use a corner of the building (Fig. 110), the walls forming two sides of the box, and build the other two sides by nailing together at right angles, in the form of the letter L, two twelve- inch boards. These boards can then be fitted into the corner, thus making a box fi) three or four feet square. Fill this with equal parts = of very fine road sand and dry loam, and add a small amount of tobacco dust. Fie. 110.—Sketch of a dust box built into The dust boxes, to best do eee tere eee their work, should be kept free from stones or large clods of soil. No litter should be allowed to accumulate in them. Litter on the Floor.—As soon as the interior fixtures are completed and in place, it is well to cover the floor with some good litter or scratching material. Coarse straw, shredded corn stalks, hay and shavings are used (Fig. 111). The litter should be quite deep, so that the birds will have to work to find the grain scattered in it. It is also essential, from the standpoint of health, that it be kept in good order, which means that it should be dry, coarse, deep, and clean. After filling the mash hoppers and water fountains, the house is absolutely ready for the birds. 196 HOUSING LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 49.—A mount and Value of Poultry Manure.— Secure the co-operation of at least three or four members of the class by getting them to keep an exact record, for about one month, of the time it takes them to clean off the dropping boards. Also the amount of absorbent used, and the amount of droppings produced from a given number of birds. From Fie. 111.—A commercial poultry house in excellent condition for the layers. The litter on the floor is about fifteen inches deep. their figures the class can determine the amount and value of droppings produced per one hundred birds for a given period. Exercise No. 50.—Perch Roum.—Get as many members of the class as possible to measure for a number of consecu- tive nights the amount of perch room occupied by a given number of birds. The figures obtained can be presented to the class. Differences between breeds and at different seasons will be noted. The causes may be explained by the class. INTERIOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 197 Exercise No. 51.—Types of Dry Mash Hoppers.—Have the members of the class bring to school different types of commercial or homemade dry mash hoppers. A collection representing many kinds can thus be secured. A period may be set aside when these can be studied and their advantages and disadvantages described. Exercise No. 52.—A Dust Bath—Secure one peck of dry sand and a peck of dry loam. Allow the class to see these thor- oughly mixed. To this may be added a small amount of to- bacco dust. If available the addition of one peck of sifted hard coal ashes helps to make the mixture dry and powdery. Such a mixture makes an admirable dust bath. By mixing it in the classroom and calling attention to the necessity of fineness and dryness these facts will be impressed on the mind of the pupil. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Is it best to build the interior fixtures of the poultry house movable or permanent? Why? . Enumerate the essential features in planning the interior equipment. Discuss portability as applied to the interior appliances. What can you say of the efficiency of the appliances? Are durability and permanence necessary factors to consider? Should all fixtures be elevated from the floor? Why? Define the meaning of ‘dropping platform.” . What is the function of the dropping platform? . Is a pit under the perches desirable? Why? 10. Describe the management of the droppings. 11. Describe the location and construction of the perches. 12. How much perch room should be allowed each bird? 13. Where are the two most common places to locate the nests? 14. What size of nest is best? 15. How many nests are necessary? 16. What is a trap nest? 17. What is the manner of operating trap nests? 18. What material is best to use in the nests to keep the eggs from getting broken? 19. Discuss the common types of receptacles for watering the birds. 20. What is the purpose of hoppers? 21. What is the function of the dust box? 22. Give a good mixture to use in the dust box. 23. What kind of material can be used on the floor of the house as scratching litter? 24. Describe some useful and unique appliances which you have seen in use. Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 347, The Repair of Farm Equipment. OWN oR ON pt CHAPTER XIX BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES Many different types of poultry houses are to be found on poultry farms in America. Poultry keepers, therefore, should study the desirable features of these various types, and at least attempt to devise more uniform and satisfactory buildings for their birds. Types of construction differ be- cause of diverse conditions. The size of the flock, the breed, and the climate all affect the design of the poultry house. THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN POULTRY HOUSE Originally all birds roosted in trees. To-day many of them show a preference for roosting in the open air. Espe- cially is this true of young stock during the summer. When man began to breed birds commercially, he constructed for them simple shelters, which were merely roofs over their heads. From this crude beginning the construction of poultry houses has gone through successive stages of development until, about thirty years ago, very expensive houses were erected, many of them beautiful in design, and some arti- ficially heated. The latter were apt to be poorly ventilated and unsatisfactory. From the heated houses, poultry keepers changed to a glass front house. This house was built to be durable, the walls being usually double-boarded with paper between. Such openings as were provided in the front of the house were covered with glass sash. Automatic ventila- tors were inserted in the roof, but often did not work as they were expected to. These glass-front houses were found to be very hot during the day and very cold at night, and the birds did not thrive in them. Recent years have shown a sudden change from this tight, warm house to the open front or muslin front house. The first stage in its development was the elimination of 198 BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 199 some of the glass windows and substitution in their place of muslin windows. The fresh air movement led in many cases to the entire front of the house being left open. Prac- tice seems to be generally uniform with regard to the desira- bility of muslin and glass in the front of the house. Such houses admit of adequate ventilation, the birds thrive well, and egg.production is well maintained. The Modern Standard Type.—The modern standard type of poultry house is one built rather low with a shed roof. The back and side walls are solid, the front largely open. About two-thirds of the open area is covered with a muslin curtain, and one-third with glass. This glass is provided to let in light on stormy days when the curtain is lowered, and the curtain is used when it is necessary to close the Shed Gable Groren 3par Fic. 112.—Three common types of poultry house roofs. Ud | opening. This type of house is recommended by practically all of the state Colleges in the land, and is found on most of the large and successful poultry farms. Roofs.—The roof is an important feature of the poultry house, because it is rather expensive to build. Three types are common; the shed roof, the gable roof, and the broken span. The shed roof house is all of one pitch. The gable has two pitches at the same angle, with a ridge in the center. The broken span has two pitches, the back slope being much longer and extending to a lower point than the front one. Houses of the shed roof type are most popular, for the reasons that they are cheapest to build, they require less lumber, have a higher front, and therefore, admit more sunlight, and all rain water is carried off behind (Fig. 112). 200 HOUSING Materials for Building a Poultry House.—Wood and tile are both used in poultry house construction, but wood by Fre. 113.—A poultry house built of hollow tile and stucco. This material costs just about one-half more than the same house would have cost built of wood. far more frequently. It is the cheapest and best material. Tiles cost about one-half more than wood, but do not equal it in efficiency (Fig. 113). Sometimes concrete and brick are used, but are generally unsatisfactory, and such construc- BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 201 tion is costly. Experience proves that houses built with con- crete or solid brick walls are apt to be very damp. HOUSES DESIGNED FOR EITHER SMALL OR LARGE FLOCKS We will now discuss six different types of poultry houses, all of which are recommended as desirable for flocks of differ- ent sizes and under different conditions. Small-flock Colony Laying Houses.—The house shown in figure 114 is twelve by fourteen feet in size, and is designed for forty laying hens. As will be noted, it is of the shed roof type, eight feet high in front and four and one-half feet high in back. In the center of the front is a large opening, shaded by a muslin curtain of three by five feet. If the house is built to be permanent, it should have a concrete floor. The sill is four inches square. All studding is of two by four inch hemlock, and the siding of white or yellow pine shiplap. The roof is made of one by ten yellow pine ship- lap, covered with a good three-ply roofing paper. The perches, nests, and dropping boards are attached to the back wall, and all other fixtures to the side wall. The following list gives the lumber required to build such a house: SiUlSie gt ask sak ea es oe 2 ps. 4" x 4” hemlock 12 ft. long 2 ps. 4” x 4” hemlock 14 ft. long POStS angina tae Saeed oa see 1 pe. 4” x 4" hemlock 10 ft. long 1 pe. 4” x 4” hemlock 16 ft. long PIBLES ccnnnsae es eoienmaaen« 2 ps. 2” x 4” hemlock 12 ft. long Studding: coesisacimesa: asiale 3 1 pe. 2” x 4” hemlock 16 ft. long 4 ps. 2” x 4” hemlock 10 ft. long 6 ps. 2” x 4” hemlock 14 ft. long 7 ps. 2” x 4" hemlock 16 ft. long Roof rafters............... 7 ps. 2” x 4” hemlock 16 ft. long Boards for roof and inside fixtures, 450 sq. ft. 1” x 8” yellow pine, tongued and grooved BIGING cee ae sees 350 sq. ft. of 6 in. white pine shiplap Two glass sashes...... 3’ x 5’, each sash with 12 panes of glass For trim and muslin frames 200 linear ft. white pine 1” x 3” 150 linear ft. white pine 1” x 4” Miscellaneous material includes roofing paper, cement and sand for foundation, muslin, wire, and hardware. 202 HOUSING The cost of material is $42.50. Houses of this type are quite generally used on village lots, and on farms where flocks of about forty to fifty birds are kept. Multiple Unit House—This house, as described, is shown in figure 115. It is the prevailing type on many large poultry farms. The multiple unit house is so called because it is built on a unit basis. Each unit is 20 x 20 feet, and has a capacity of one hundred birds, which allows four square feet to a bird. Figure 115 illustrates two units of this type of house. Specifications follow. The outside dimensions are 40 x 20 feet. Sills are 4” x 6”, bolted to a ‘concrete foundation wall eight inches wide and twenty inches deep, laid on tamped cinder or crushed stone. The entire depth of the foundation trench is three feet. The construction is shed roof type, with nine-foot studding in front, and four and one-half foot studding at the back. All studding and rafters are of 2’’x 4” hemlock or yellow pine. A 2” x6” girder runs the length of the building to support the rafters, its own weight being sustained every ten feet by 4” x 4” posts, resting on concrete piers. The plates should be made of 2’ x 4” material doubled, and joints broken. BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 203 20° i} it i i - a q I i ii i " areacy! Bets cop Fe \ —— << she ode oie Hae wit ie i 1 rps Ho 41 bit 4 ts | aba a? a o ” 1B ay ae ie | Hof rep [a ' iit ze i 7s at = Ne “x N\ \ ¥ —=— 3 rT "a | ft a _— 4 eas 87 a | —/ _E al ' alls ae 4 re FVNTOTRTATIM —_—- 4 fe wt ———y ee RES a ¥ = By | = vem +4 Finish Coat ieee Va eat « Concrete Wall © Drainage Malerta: is 20 —-——# Front View. MUS|] LIN . ne Be: oe cool ado A . ka 20° ; #0" + Fie. 116.—Working plans of a double section, multiple unit house. All outside walls and roof are to be single boarded, prefer- ably of eight- or six-inch tongued and grooved yellow pine; white pine could be used, but is more expensive. The roof 204 HOUSING and back wall should be covered with good roofing paper and all joimts carefully lapped and cemented. The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top so as to be lifted up. The three by five glass sashes are hinged at the side and open, as indicated on the floor plan. One window in each pen should be so constructed as to let that part of the wall be opened when desired; this makes a combination door and window, which will greatly facilitate cleaning, filling hoppers, etc., in an extremely long house. The dropping boards, perches, and nests are best located on the back wall, the perches being hinged to the wall so that they may be hooked up when cleaning. The nests are darkened by a hinged door in front, which can be let down when the eggs are removed. The partition wall between the units is built of boards, and extends to within six feet of the front wall, the remaining space being left absolutely open. This protects the birds from any drafts when on the roosts. If desired, portable light wire partitions may be used to separate the units. A large dry mash hopper should be built into this middle partition between each pair of units. If four or more units are built, it is only necessary to have a hopper in the center of each two units, the other dividing partition being used for nesting space. There is an elevated shelf below the muslin front to hold the water fountain, and hoppers for grit and shell. When the house is completed the concrete floor should be laid according to specifications. Figure 116 shows the working plans of this house. The following materials are required to build it: Sill es doceisiay mani dek he eased 2 6 ps. hemlock 4" x 6” by 20 feet PACS acai ani ol enters 8 ps. hemlock 2" x 4” by 20 feet POStSiinces gEEeteR aeaeNe 2 ps. hemlock + x 4° by 14 feet 2 ps. hemlock 4” x 4 by 1S feet Btuddingens ces ciecse saves 9 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by 1S feet 4 ps. hemlock 2" x 4” by J4 feet Ratters.ccsacsdexeashege 21 ps. hemlock 2” x 4” by 22 feet Frame for nests and dropping boards, 5 ps. hemlock 2” x 3" by 16 feet BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 205 Roof, dropping boards, walls, and nests, 2,300 sq. ft., eight- inch tongued and grooved yellow pine Curtain frames and trim, 200 linear feet white pine, 1” x 2” Nests, 100 linear feet white pine, 1” x 4” Broody coop, one bundle plaster lath Nails, 10 Ibs. 20-penny wire, 50 Ibs. 10-penny wire, 20 Ibs. 8-penny wire Approximate cost of the above...................., $75.54 Roofing paper, 1,000 sq. ft., or 11 rolls at $3.00...... 33.00 Four special sashes, 3” x 5” ft, at $2.00............. 8.00 Muslin, 8 sq. yards at 20c. per yard.. Beane 1.60 Hardware, such as hinges, locks, hooks and wire..... 4.75 Foundation and floor: Cement, 35 bags at 50c. each.. iiemasses — ESO Cinders or gravel, 30 yards at F100 nce cns ee sus 30.00 Sand) 5 cuble-yardss< 25 day siake vega yeaa on 7.50 Motal-COst). xs43.5 se ahnhe dane eeseaes os 5177.89 Such a house is very economical when a poultryman wishes to keep only 100 birds, but intends to enlarge his plant in Fig. 117.—A long laying house, especially adapted to the large commercial flock for egg production or for many small flocks for breeding. the future, the time elapsing before he does so depending, of course, on the success of his enterprise. Long Breeding House.—Many poultrymen think it a good plan to have special breeding pens, each accommodating from twelve to fifty birds. These are best taken care of by building a long laying house. Figure 117 shows a common type used for breeding flocks. Here we have a house of the shed roof type, 16 feet wide and 144 feet long, divided into twelve pens, each pen being twelve by sixteen feet. On account of the slope of the ground the house drops ten 206 HOUSING inches to every forty-eight feet. Two solid partitions are built across the house, forty-eight feet apart, to break drafts. The arrangement of the dropping boards, nests, perches, etc., is very similar to that in other standard types. The openings in the front permit the use of both muslin and glass in standard proportions. The following is a list of materials required to build a forty-eight foot section of this type. Foundation 2 ft. deep and eight inches wide: 20 bags cement, 2 cu. yards gravel, 6 cu. yards cinders All framing hemlock or yellow pine Sills: 8 ps. 2” x 6’ x 20’ doubled 8 ps. 2” x 6” x 16’ doubled 3 ps. 2” x 4” x 16’ End and division studs: 10 ps. 2” x 4” x 8’ 5 ps. 2 x 4" x 7’ 10 ps. 2” x 4” x 6’ 10 ps. 2’ x 4” x 7’, doubled, for doors to hinge on Side wall studs: 36 ps. 2’ x 4” x 844’ 23 ps. 2" x 4” x 516’ Extras for short pieces: 3 ps. 2’ x 4” x 12’ Corner and division Lv (doubled): 18 ps. 2" x 4" x 10 ps. 2° x 4" x a) Rafters: 25 ps. 2" x 4” x 18’ Girders (doubled) : 4 ps. 2” x 4” x 20’ 2 ps. 2” x 4" x 8 Plates: 8 ps. 2” x 4” x 20’ 4 ps. 2’ x 4” x 8 Roof Grea 900 sq. ft. shiplap Roof paper, 800 sq. ft. Supports for eae boards, etc.: 12 ps. 2” x 2” x 10’ 700 sq. ft. shiplap for inside sheathing, dropping boards, and partitions 250 linear ft. shingle laths for nest. platform Siding, 550 sq. ft. novelty siding, four cloth curtains 4” x 5’; four window sashes, 5’’ x 3’ BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 207 Trimming, doors, nest, etc.: 200 linear feet 1’’ x 2’ dressed white pine 100 linear feet 1” x 3’ dressed white pine 500 linear feet 1” x 4” dressed white pine 200 linear feet 1” x 8” dressed white pine, matched 3 prs. double swing butts 5 prs. 5-inch strap hinges for doors 12 prs. 4-inch strap hinges for windows, curtains and small doors 5 barn door latches The total cost of this material will be approximately $217.00, or about $4.50 per running foot. This makes the cost per bird for all material $1.12, allowing four square feet toa bird. A house of this kind is admirably Bai, Fic. 118.—A group of small-flock poultry houses such as were fully described in Chapter XVII. They are especially useful to the suburban or small-flock poultry keeper. adapted for special matings during the breeding season, and can be utilized the balance of the year for ordinary laying flocks. The City Lot Poultry House.—The amateur poultry keeper and the city lot poultryman rarely keep more than 15 to 25 birds. Figure 118 shows a group of houses adapted to this purpose. They are described in detail in Chapter XVII, and a list of materials is given. This house can be built for about $20.00. 208 HOUSING Scratching Shed House.—In many sections the prevailing type of poultry house is known as a scratching shed type, from the fact that an open shed adjoins the laying room. The floor of this is kept covered with litter, and in winter when they must be confined the birds have access to it. Figure 119 shows a scratching shed house with a broken span roof. It is forty feet long and ten feet wide, and is divided into four sections, the two in the center being the laying and roosting quarters, and the outer ones open scratching sheds. Such a house is ample for 100 hens. It is considerably more EEE iy Fie, 119.—A double-pen, scratching shed, laying house with a broken or two- thirds span roof. expensive than the multiple unit type, the material costing $130.00. This house is used in cold, bleak climates, where the birds must be closely confined for many months. A Gable Roof House.—Gable roof, or even span, houses are quite popular. They costmore to build than the shed roof kind, but, owing to the area in the peak are usually well ventilated, and cooler in summer than the shed roof house. They are apt to be cold in winter, unless special precautions are taken against excessive cold. Figure 120 shows a good type of gable roof house. This house has a floor surface of sixteen by thirty-two feet, and is six feet high to the BEST TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES 209 plate. It has a capacity of from eighty to one hundred birds, depending upon the breed, but costs more than the multiple unit house. Six different types of poultry houses have here been de- scribed. All are useful and satisfactory styles. It is hoped that the pupil, by close observation, will now be able to select the one best adapted to his purpose; and the best type for each individual poultryman will depend greatly upon the number and the kind of birds he expects to keep. we a Pe ed oe r ‘ ath cON aT Fia. 120.—A type of gable or even span poultry house which is especially common in southern New England. LABORATORY EXERCISES ExercisE No. 53.—A Study of Poultry Houses.—Take the class on a trip to near-by poultry farms to study poultry house types and methods of construction. As many different types as possible should be visited. The possibilities and cost of each should be discussed on the ground. Each pupil should have a notebook and take notes. The owners of the plants visited will usually be willing to discuss them with the class and give reasons for their choice of houses. Exercise No. 54.—Drawing Poultry Appliances ——One or more periods can be profitably used in drawing parts of poultry equipment, such as hoppers, nests, perches, etc. Types of roofs and simple outline drawings of house designs 14 210 HOUSING can be made which if kept by the pupil will often be of value in the future. Such work should be very simple. If drafting is included as a part of the course of study, such work should rightfully be included in that course. Exercise No. 55.—Materials for Poultry Houses ——One or more exercises devoted to figuring materials required to fill a certain specification will be very helpful. A house of a certain size and design can be described by one of the pupils and then the entire class with the aid of the teacher can figure out piece by piece the kind, size, and amount of material required to build it. A house which is owned by one of the students, or which one might wish to build will create more interest. Figure materials in the following order: Sills, posts, plate, studding, rafters, walls, roofs and miscellaneous mate- rial. For values it is well to secure figures for lumber from some lumber yard orlocalsawmill. At this time the meaning of board feet and ways of measuring lumber should be explained. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Name three factors which especially affect the kind and type of poultry house to be built. . In ancient times where did poultry stay at night? . Describe the evolution in poultry house design from early time until the present age. Why is the modern fresh-air poultry house so efficient? . Describe briefly the modern standard type of poultry house. Enumerate three different types of roofs which are commonly used for poultry houses. . What are the advantages of the shed roof over the other types of roofs? . What materials are sometimes used for poultry houses? . Which material is cheapest and best? 10. Briefly describe the features of the small-flock colony laying house. 11. What is the cost of the small-flock colony laying house? 12. Describe the multiple unit laying house. 13. Discuss the usage and cost of the multiple unit house. 14. What are the features of the long breeding houses? 15. What is the cost of the long breeding house? 16. Describe briefly the scratching shed house mentioned in the text. 17. What are the possibilities of the scratching shed house? 18. Describe briefly the city lot poultry house. 19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a gable roof house? 20. Describe a type of poultry house which is common in your com- munity and is giving satisfaction. Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 574, Poultry House Construction. PART IV FEEDING CHAPTER XX ELEMENTS OF THE BIRD’S BODY AND COMPOSITION OF ITS FEED CHEMICAL analysis shows a close similarity between the composition of the bird’s body and the composition of its feed. This similarity is chiefly apparent in the kinds of material present. Different feeds vary greatly in their composition. Birds of different ages, and of different breeds, also vary in their structural elements. Yet materials vary- ing in composition and especially suited to the different requirements of feeding may be found. A general knowledge of the composition of the birds, and of available feeds, is necessary in compounding a practical ration. Birds generally are of active temperament, and endowed with great energy. This temperament and energy mean the consumption of a large amount of materials to produce heat. They also have an extremely high body temperature, which in turn calls for feed of a certain composition. They also yield products whose heavy weight is out of all proportion to their body weight. This explains why the laying hen con- sumes so much more feed than the one which does not lay. COMPOSITION OF THE BIRD’S BODY The bodies of all animals, birds included, consist of four well defined groups of elements, commonly classed as pro- tein materials, fatty materials, ash, and water. The following discussion will tell us something about these materials, and the amounts thereof which are found in the body (Fig. 121). 211 212 FEEDING Protein.—Protein is the chief element in all living tissues. Common examples of it, as seen in the bird’s body, are lean meat, gristle, feathers, etc. A common example, as seen in the product of the bird’s body, is the white of the egg, or albumen. It is complex in its nature, consisting of nitrogen, : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and ; es a sulfur. It is characteristic 5 2RELLLO because of the large amount of FAT 88 7 iz x nitrogen which it contains, this © being about fifteen per cent. SORZDLSSSO No nitrogen is found in either NN of the other three groups here NS classified. The body of the ’ PP ye O TE), iN. Le pA sae ton ess sie a mately 22 per cent of protein. Xn Fat.—As an example of fatty —___ tissue, we have the yellow fat = in the abdominal parts of a hen. Fatty tissue consists of minute a cells, surrounded by a tough a eo cell wall. The oil or liquid in =WATL frz I7 % the center of this wall is the fat. ————— Fat is in reality stored up oil, or a reserved feed supply. Should the bird become short of feed, it would draw upon this fat and use it to nourish the body. In the body of the aver- Fic. 121.—Diagram showing the up- age bird, there is from 15 to 20 body. Note the large amounts of water per cent of fat, and much more eae nat than this in old fowls, capons, and roasting chickens which are especially fattened for market. Ash.—Ash is a true mineral matter. As the name implies it is the material which would be left if the bird’s carcass were burned by fire. The ash in the body is in the skeleton | COMPOSITION OF FEED MATERIALS — 213 or bony framework and is composed largely of lime and phos- phorus, the body of the average bird containing about 4 per cent of ash. It is especially desirable in the feed of a young growing animal, since it is needed for the formation of the skeleton. Water.—This is in the body in large quantities, the body of the average bird containing more than 50 per cent. It is diffused between and within the cells, and also permeates the entire body structure. Water is composed of two chemi- cal elements, hydrogen and oxygen, two parts of the former being combined with one part of the latter to form the liquid. The general composition of the bird’s body varies with its age, breed, and activity. The older it becomes, the bigger the ash content, and the less the water and fat in its body; this is especially true of male birds. The White Leghorn breed, which is very active, develops considerable tough, fibrous tissue and little of the tender, juicy flesh which is un- excelled for eating. Hence, the more active the breed, the tougher and more fibrous becomes the meat. COMPOSITION OF FEED MATERIALS Materials which are valuable for poultry feeding are similar in composition to the constituents of the body which they furnish. The same compounds found in the feeds are present in the body. To this number a new one is added, namely carbohydrates. In the following paragraphs we will discuss the five compounds found in feeding stuffs,— protein, carbohydrates, fat, ash, and water. Protein.—Common examples of protein feeds are meat scraps, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and other so-called concentrated by-products. Protein in feeds is of the same chemical composition as when found in animals (Fig. 122). It is essentially a nitrogenous material, and is the determining factor in poultry feeding for all purposes. In the feeding of birds it has many uses, but it is essential for the formation 214 FEEDING of flesh, that is, lean meat, and is most necessary for egg production. Eggs contain over twelve per cent of protein, therefore necessitate a rich, nitrogenous ration, and pro- tein must be supplied in the feed to the full amount required by the animal. Experiments show that its place can not be taken either by carbohydrates or fat. Carbohydrates.—Carbohydrates are not found in the animal’s body as such. They are, however, a very common constituent of the grains, corn, barley, etc. In composition they are somewhat similar to protein, except that they con- Fic. 122.—Diagram showing the approximate amount of nitrogen in protein. Assuming that the whole pile is made up of protein the amount of nitrogen present would be represented by the black portion on top. tain no nitrogen. Carbohydrates, as the name implies, con- tain the chemical elements of carbon and hydrogen and oxygen. The uses of carbohydrates are threefold. Taken into the body of the bird, they are digested and assimilated, and thereby energy is developed which enables the bird to move. After digestion a portion of the carbohydrates is used to maintain the heat of the bird’s body. The amount of carbohydrates fed in excess of the amount of heat and energy developed, is stored up in the body as reserve material. This reserve supply usually takes the form of fatty tissue. COMPOSITION OF FEED MATERIALS | 215 The carbohydrates in the average ration will generally be sufficient, for they are in all farm-raised feeds (Fig. 123). In balancing a ration an excess of carbohydrates must be avoided, and this can best be done by giving concentrated protein feeds. Fat.—The fat in feed is quite similar in composition to that found in an animal’s body; in one case it is a vegetable oil, and in the other, animal oil. Its uses are identical with those of the carbohy- |g drates, and need not be considered separately. [% Water.—Water is a [72> common element in all & feeding stuffs. Since the | bird’s body contains more than fifty per cent | of water, and the egg which is produced more | than sixty-five per cent, | it is essential that large | amounts of water be )y y ; ; given the birds. There — Fic. 123.—Corn which can be seed aaeires s. ° American farm is one of the best sources of is a very high water carbohydrates. It can be fed to birds either content in young, tender, whole, cracked, or as cornmeal in the dry mash. growing plants. Birds on free range get large quantities from this source. There is also considerable water in fresh cut fodders, but, owing to the fact that they wilt quickly, they do not furnish as much water as when the birds eat them directly from the root. The water contained in grow- ing plants often runs as high as 80 to 85 per cent. In dry grains and hay much of the water has evaporated, and there is left only about ten to twelve per cent. When given to the birds in feed, water serves many purposes. First, it is desirable as an appetizer, for it is a well-known fact that succulence or juiciness increases the palatability of feed. 216 FEEDING Water, by circulating and filling up the tissues of the body, distends it and makes it appear plump. Water also plays an important part in regulating the body temperature. As- similation, or the diffusion of feed materials through thin walls, is greatly promoted by the water ingested. Water, also, is the vehicle by which materials are conveyed from one part of the body to another. These facts demon- strate that some knowledge of the chemical composition of the body is essential to an intelligent study of feed ma- terials themselves. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 56.—Composition of a Bird.—Kill a fat hen. Cut her up into six or eight pieces by severing the wings, legs and neck. Open the abdominal cavity and separate some of the body fat. With the material thus afforded it will be possible to show to the class portions of the body containing each of the compounds which go to make it up. Lean meat and feathers will illustrate essentially a nitrog- enous product. The body fat may be closely examined as to structure. The bones will serve as an example of ash or mineral matter. If scales are available the pieces can be weighed and then placed in a double boiler and heated for a few hours, after which the flesh should be weighed again. How can the loss of weight be accounted for? Exercise No. 57.—Composition of Feeds.—Feeds of the different groups should be secured and can be used in connection with the study of their composition. The differ- ence between dry and green fodder can be illustrated by mowing some grass on the school lawn and weighing it im- mediately; then spread it out thin and allow the sun to dry it for two days. When it is thoroughly dry, weigh it again. How can the difference in weight be accounted for? In which condition do the poultry like the grass best, green or dry? Why? CRN ORO Nf . Enumerate . Give an example of protein feeding stuffs. . For what purpose are protein feeds necessary? . Eggs contain how much protein? . What are carbohydrates? . Mention some common carbohydrate feeds. . Enumerate the uses of carbohydrates in the bird’s body. . What is fat? . What are the functions of water? . How much water in green growing plants? How much in dry COMPOSITION OF FEED MATERIALS 217 THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Discuss the similarity between the character of feed given to poultry and character of the product desired. . Discuss the temperament and energy of birds as it affects their feed requirements. Enumerate the four compounds which are found in birds’ bodies. Give some examples of protein. Of what chemical elements is protein composed? What percentage of protein is nitrogen? What percentage of the bird’s body is protein? . Give some common examples of fat. . Of what is fat composed? . What is an average per cent of fat in a bird’s body? . What is ash? . Give an example of ash as seen in the bird’s body. . What per cent of the bird’s body is ash? . What portion of the bird’s body is water? . Of what two chemical elements is water composed? . How does age, breed, and activity affect the composition of the bird’s body? fe compounds which are found in feeding stuffs. fodder? Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 22, Feeding Farm Animals. CHAPTER XXI DIGESTION, ASSIMILATION, AND NUTRITION Birps, like all other animals, in order to grow and produce must eat. The bird in its ability to produce is somewhat like a machine. The feed it consumes is the raw material, and the raw material is first digested, then assimilated, and produces the finished or manufactured product. That prod- uct is the egg. Birds differ from ordinary machines, in that they use some of the raw material to repair the body. There are three processes in this nourishing and building up of the body; namely, digestion, assimilation, and nutrition. Digestion.—Digestion may be defined as a process in which raw material is so changed that it can be assimilated by the blood, and may furnish nutriment to the body. Digestion is largely a process of chemical changes. The digestive organs of the bird are the parts used to perform this operation; and these organs, taken as a whole, are called the alimentary tract, or the digestive system. Assimilation.—Assimilation may be defined as a process whereby material already digested is taken up by the blood vessels and arteries. This assimilation takes place in the lower part of the alimentary tract, or the intestines, and is largely brought about by diffusion. Nutrition.— Nutrition may be defined as the process of transporting and distributing assimilated material to all parts of the body. It is the ultimate process in the promo- tion of growth, the repair of waste, and the yielding of a product outside of the body. Blood is one of the leading carriers of nutriment. Nutrients.—Nutrients is a term used to designate certain groups of feed materials which are eaten by animals. These 218 DIGESTION, ASSIMILATION, NUTRITION 219 feed nutrients are classed as protein, carbohydrates, fat, and ash. They must be present in the feed in the right proportion if the body is to be properly nourished. THE DIGESTIVE TRACT IN BIRDS The digestive tract is made up of many different organs and groups of organs, each with its own function to perform and each constructed especially for the work which it has to do. Division of the Work of Digestion.—The digestive tract performs four different kinds of work, and the organs of digestion are so designed and constructed that each one is especially fitted for the work assigned to it. One group of organs, called the mouth parts, is for seizing the feed. An- other organ, known as the gizzard, is used for grinding the feed, and takes the place of the teeth in most animals. The upper part of the digestive tract performs, to a greater or less extent, the actual work of digesting the feed, while, as was previously mentioned, the lower part is especially designed and adapted to promote the assimilation of the digested material into the blood (Fig. 124). Mouth Parts.—The mouth parts are hard, horny growths which project outside of the body. In land birds, the mouth part is called the beak, in water birds, the bill. The beak of the land bird is sharp and pointed, the upper and lower parts closing tight together. They are designed to pick up grains and to cut blades of grass. In water fowls the bill is wide and blunt, and is especially designed for scooping in the mud or digging in the wet soil. The Gizzard.—The function of the gizzard is to grind the feed, and this is quite necessary since the bird has no teeth with which to chew it. Birds subsist chiefly upon hard grains, like corn and wheat, which must be subjected to consider- able grinding before they are reduced to fine particles. The gizzard looks very much like a large ball, slightly flattened, 220 FEEDING and is, in a full grown fowl, about two or three inches in diameter. It is dark red in color, and often covered with fat. Fig. 124.—The digestive system of the fowl. The bird eats considerable grit, which immediately finds its way into the gizzard, and this grit, assisted by the action | DIGESTION, ASSIMILATION, NUTRITION 221 of the muscular walls, grinds the feed. The feed is whirled around and around in the gizzard until it becomes a soft mass, when it passes into the intestines. Other Digestive Organs.— Digestion is carried on, more or less, in all parts of the digestive tract, the chief divisions of which, named in the order in which the feed passes through them, are as follows: The mouth, cesophagus, crop, stomach, gizzard, and intestines. In practically all of these organs the changes of digestion are brought about by the solvent action of fluids, or chemical secretions, which ooze from the numer- ous membranes that line the walls of the organs. The secretions act upon the feed, and convert it into more easily digested forms. Some of the fluids are acid in reaction, others are alkaline. Some act upon one nutrient, some on another. Assimilation.—Assimilation takes place by diffusion and in the lower portion of the intestines. By diffusion is meant the passing of a liquid through a porous membrane. The intestinal walls are covered with little hairs, called villi. The walls of the intestine and the so-called villi are full of small capillaries. The only partition lying between the blood and the digested mass is the thin wall of these blood vessels, and the digested feed has now become so fine that it can pass through this membrane into the blood. Nutrition—When assimilated by the blood it is carried to all parts of the body for the process of nutrition. After it is digested, most of the nutriment is transported from the intestines to the arteries just outside of the heart, by means of a large duct, or tube, called the thoracic duct. This thoracic duct pours into the arteries large quantities of digested food material. The heart is the center of the circulating system, being neither more nor less than a pumping engine. It receives from the veins the impure blood which comes from all parts of the body, and this, after passing through the right side of the heart, is sent to the 222 FEEDING lungs, where it gives off the poisonous carbon dioxide and takes in oxygen. After being purified in the lungs, the blood is brought back to the left side of the heart from which it is once more pumped to all parts of the body. So it nourishes and builds up the tissues. From this brief discussion of feed consumption and assimilation may be noted the close analogy between the bird and the machine, which, if borne in mind and followed, will lead to a better knowledge of the requirements of individual fowls for different types of production. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 58.—Osmosis a Process of Assimilation.— Fill a small paper bag full of a strong salt solution. Care- fully tie the top and place the bag in a pail of clear, fresh water. After remaining in the water for ten minutes care- fully remove and taste of the water in the pail. How did the salt get into the fresh water? Exercise No. 59.—A Study of the Digestive Tract.—Dis- sect a mature fowl. Carefully remove the entire digestive tract, including liver and pancreas, without rupturing any part. Lay the organs out carefully on a table or drawing board in such a way that the course of feed through same can be described. The function of the organs and the loca- tion may be discussed very clearly in this way. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . In what can a bird be likened to a machine? . Define digestion. . Where does digestion take place? Define assimilation. Where does assimilation take place? Define nutrition. What is a nutrient? Of what is the digestive tract made up? . What are the four different types of work performed by the diges- tive tract? . Describe the mouth parts of land and water birds. . What is the function of the beak? HS SeNeopRwNr — DIGESTION, ASSIMILATION, NUTRITION 223 12. Describe the location and appearance of the gizzard. 13. What is the function of the gizzard? How does it do its work? 14. Enumerate the digestive organs in the order in which the food passes through. 15. What is the cesophagus? 16. Where is the crop located? What is its function? 17. Where is the stomach located and what is its function? 18. Describe the process of assimilation. 19. Describe briefly the process of nutrition. 20. Describe the course that the blood takes in passing once through the circulatory system. References.—United States Farmers’ Bulletins: 142, The Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Values of Foods; 506, Food of Some Well Known Birds of Forest, Farm and Garden. CHAPTER XXII COMMON POULTRY FEEDS Ir is not the object of this chapter to describe every kind of poultry feed obtainable, but to enumerate and classify those most common and necessary. The pupil should try to become familiar with feed types, since by cultivating his powers of observation along this line he will learn to dis- tinguish good feeds from inferior ones. SIMPLE CLASSIFICATIONS OF POULTRY FEEDS All feed material contains more or less protein, carbo- hydrate, fat, ash, and water. A classification based on the proportion of these ingredients in different feeds, will be of assistance in compounding rations. Many feed materials belong to two groups; for example, cereals both contain protein and are rich in carbohydrates. We will follow the plan of grouping such feeds in the class to which they more prominently belong. Animal and Vegetable Feed.—All true feed material is from either animal or vegetable sources. Meat scrap is a good example of a valuable poultry feed which is of animal origin. The grains are good examples of vegetable feeds. Protein Feed.—Protein is the element which determines the value of a ration. This is true whether fed for flesh or for egg production. Many varieties of feed fall into this group; only a few, however, are special protein carriers. Protein feeds are hard to grow at home, therefore many of them must be purchased, and they are rather expensive. Meat Product.—Meat products of animal origin consti- tute our main supply of protein feeds, meat scrap, meat meal, and dry blood being the three leading forms. Meat 224 COMMON POULTRY FEEDS 225 scrap is composed largely of the refuse of slaughter houses, which is boiled under pressure, then put in a large press, and squeezed until all the liquid is forced out. Meat scrap con- tains lean meat, fat, and considerable bone. Meat meal is meat scrap ground into small particles. Dried blood is a refuse product from slaughter houses, sometimes but not commonly used as a poultry feed. It is dark in color, and finely ground. In purchasing meat products, quality should be the first consideration. Meat scrap is more used than any other meat product. It varies greatly in quality, but there is a high grade meat scrap which contains 50 per cent of protein, and is put up most carefully. Thereis a lower grade which yields from 30 to 35 per cent of protein, but is often poorly ren- dered, and contains products which are undesirable in the rations. Good meat scrap should contain about 50 per cent of protein. Dry granulated bone is another protein product which yields 25 to 30 per cent of protein. In certain sections where available, fish scrap is utilized, much of it being de- rived from the manufacture of glue. Fish scrap contains in the neighborhood of 40 per cent protein. Milk albumen is another highly nitrogenous feed material; it is manufactured especially for poultry feeding. The protein content varies considerably, 50 per cent being the average analysis. Meat Products Dry Matter Protein Carbohydrates Fat Meat Scrap. High Grade.... 90 50-60 none 25 Dry Granulated Bone....... 92 25-30 none 3 Fish Scrap ........-........ 90 35-50 none 15 Milk Albumin.............. 85 20-50 none 3 Concentrated Vegetable Products.—There are five con- centrated by-products which on analysis yield a high pro- tein content, and are used quite extensively for poultry feed. Cottonseed meal ranks high as a protein carrier, containing 42 per cent of protein. The meal is of a very bright yellow color, It is a by-product from the manufac- 15 226 FEEDING ture of cottonseed oil from cottonseed. It is not used ex- tensively in poultry rations as it is apt to contain a great deal of undesirable products. Soy bean meal ranks next as a protein carrier, averaging 35 per cent of protein. It is a grayish-yellow meal, made from the soy bean seed, which must be finely ground when fed to poultry. It is not used extensively owing to the limited supply. Linseed oil meal is a common protein carrier, containing about 32 per cent of protein. It is a dark gray meal, exceedingly fine in texture, the by-product resulting from the manufac- ture of linseed oil from flax seed. One of the most common sources of vegetable protein is gluten meal, which yields 30 per cent of protein. It is a yellow meal, lighter in color than cottonseed meal, and is a by-product from the manu- facture of starch from corn. It is probably more used than any other material as a source of vegetable protein. Buck- wheat middlings is another highly concentrated product, not as yet much used in poultry feeding. It is a by-product of the manufacture of buckwheat flour from buckwheat. Analysis shows about 28 per cent of protein. Mill Products Dry Matter Protein Carbohydrates Fat Cottonseed Meal............ 92 40-45 25 12 Soy Bean Meal............. 90 34-36 30 15 Lindseed Oil Meal........... 90 32-34 35 10 Gluten Meal................ 92 . 28-30 45 il Buckwheat Middlings........ SS 28-30 40 7 CARBOHYDRATE FEEDS This group comprises a large number of valuable feeds, all of the cereals belonging to this class. Carbohydrate feeds can be, and are, largely raised at home. None of them come from an animal source, not being found in animals. The carbohydrates which are most commonly found in poultry feed are starch and sugar. Corn and Its Products.—Corn is the most widely used poultry feed. It is raised extensively on most farms, and is COMMON POULTRY FEEDS 227 often fed to poultry to the exclusion of all other grains. This is poor policy, for it will not conduce to good egg pro- duction. Corn is not a well balanced ration. It averages 70 per cent of carbohydrates, which is too high a carbohydrate content to be fed exclusively, while the protein content is small. Four kinds of corn are sometimes used for feed; these are dent, flint, sweet, and pop corn (ig. 125). Dent and flint are most common, while the two latter are in great demand for other pur- poses. Corn may be fed either whole, cracked, or ground up into meal. When whole or cracked it is usually fed in the litter; when as corn meal, in the mashes. Composition of Corn Car- Dry Pro- Matter tein peer Fat Corn (Dent). 90 10 70 5 Corn (Flint). 91 10 70 5 Wheat and Its Products.— Wheat is the best exclusive feed for birds. It is palata- ble, highly nutritious, can be raised easily, and is relatively cheap (Fig. 126). It contains 71 per cent of carbohydrates, while the protein content: is ¢no corn stalk and one corm Kertel, much much higher than in corn, ‘M7ed- (Dent variety.) There are two kinds of wheat, winter and spring, winter wheat being the best. Wheat is used quite extensively in the scratching rations for poultry. Bran and Middlings.—These are two by-products from the manufacture of wheat flour. They contain about 15 per cent of protein and 55 per cent of carbohydrates. They consist 228 FEEDING largely of the outer shell of the wheat kernel, and are rather coarse in texture. Wheat bran is used as the base of all poultry mashes, and is especially valuable for baby chick feeding. Wheat and Its Products Dry Matter Protein Carbohydrates Fat Wheaties us gee ena ceameis eee 90 12 71 2 Wheat Bran ................ 88 15 54 4 Wheat Middlings............ 88 15 60 4 Oats and Its Products.— Oats are fed quite exten- sively for they seem to be relished by the birds, and are readily raised at home. Oats contain 60 per cent of carbohydrates while the protein content is much higher than in corn, and about equal to that in wheat. Oats are generally fed whole in the scratch litter, or ground in the mash (Fig. 127). Oatmeal and rolled oats often form the exclusive feed of young chicks. Clipped oats are whole oats from which the sharp spikelet of the husk has been clipped. When available these are superior to whole oats. Oats contain the following percentages: Fic. 126.—Wheat is one of the best single Dry matter 89, protein 12, ei iss carbohydrates 60, fat 5. Buckwheat.—Buckwheat is used only to a limited extent. It contains 65 per cent of carbohydrates, but an objection A characteristic spike or head of wheat One of the wheat kernels much enlarged COMMON POULTRY FEEDS 229 is the hard, thick shell. This grain contains the follow- ing percentages: Dry matter 88, protein 10, carbohydrates 65, fat 2. Barley.—Barley is sometimes substituted for wheat. It is not grown or fed extensively in America, but is one of the leading grain crops of Europe (Fig. 128). Fie. 127. Fia. 128. = ra \\ iene AR Nf) 4) n My Ys, yy . CP () Ny ¥/) ANN i) Y/) 1X Aa JINR Wy ' NZ 4 | NY Hy) MN \ M Tho top or head of the oat stalk showing an open arrangement of the seeds iF An oat kernel Asingle barley kernel r seed much enlarged much enlarged Fig. 127.—Many oats are fed to poultry, as they are raised in large quantities here poultry are kept. . Fie. Y23.— hen it can be secured at a reasonable price barley makes an excellent poultry feed. There are many other carbohydrate grains which are scarcely familiar enough to merit mention. Common ex- amples of these are sorghum, broom corn, and kaffir corn. Where these can be obtained at a nominal cost, they can be profitably used in the grain ration. Barley grain contains: Dry matter 90 per cent, protein 12, carbohydrates 70, fat 2. 230 FEEDING Potatoes.—Potatoes are examples of carbohydrate feed, containing about 20 per cent. As poultry feed, their use should be limited to small and cull potatoes, and these only in small amounts, as they are rather soft, and not easily digested. The composition of potatoes may be expressed in the following percentages: Dry matter 20, protein 2, carbohydrates 18, fat 0. Dry Beet Pulp.—Beet pulp is a by-product from the manu- facture of beet sugar from sugar beets. Dried beet pulp Fie, 129.—Sunflowers make excellent shade when they are planted thick, and the seeds make a very rich and valuable poultry feed. is usually given after it has swollen by being soaked in water. It contains 61 per cent of carbohydrates, and, theoretically, is a good feed, but birds do not seem to relish it. FATTY FEEDS Considerable fat is present in all feeds, especially in meat scrap, a good grade of meat scrap often containing as high as 25 per cent of fat. Sunflower seeds make a profitable sub- stitute for meat scrap, when it is desirable to give more COMMON POULTRY FEEDS 231 fat in the rations, for they contain 20 per cent of fat (Fig. 129). The advantage of feeds rich in fat is that they hasten the molt. The feathers seem to come out more quickly, and more quickly look sleek. The use of fatty feeds during July and August is especially recommended. Sunflower seeds contain: Dry matter 92 per cent, protein 16, carbo- hydrates 22, fat 20. FEEDS CONTAINING ASH The ash in poultry feeds promotes the growth of the bony frame of the bird. When fed to hens it goes to form the egg shell. Sometimes the presence of phosphoric acid in the ration materially increases the digestibility of other feeds. There are two types of ash, one from a vegetable source and the other from a mineral one. Wheat bran is a good example of vegetable ash. Bran contains 5 per cent of ash which is found in the outer shell. Mineral ash is best obtained from dried bone. This prod- uct contains about 50 per cent of lime, and from 25 to 40 per cent of phosphoric acid. Dried bone is excellent feed for young growing chicks, and can profitably be given to the extent of 10 per cent in the dry mash ration. Green bone is not recommended; as a rule, it is impossible to secure a good supply, and the labor required to prepare it is con- siderable. Oyster shell is fed to adult birds to form the shell of the - egg; it contains 95 per cent carbonate of lime. FEEDS CONTAINING WATER Since the bird’s body and the substance of the egg must both contain a high percentage of water, considerable water is necessary in the ration. This can be supplied to the birds in two ways; first, by giving them plenty of fresh water to drink, secondly, by giving them succulent feed. Succulent feed is feed which contains the juices originally present in 232 FEEDING the growing plant. The difference between succulent and dry feed should be studied. Grass is succulent when just mowed or cut, but after lying in the sun for five or six hours, the juices dry out. Succulence not only makes feed more palatable, but also promotes digestion. Green feed and grass contain 80 per cent of water, dry fodder and grains not more than 12 or 14 per cent. Succulent and Dry Feeds Compared Dry Carbo- Matter Protein hydrates Fat Clover (Green). .........00. 0000000000 ee ee 80 4 14 1 Clover: (Dry) a. jsccaiees: we gra cc cawne xa cates QO 16 45 3 Lawn Clippings (Green) .................. 24 2 14 1 Lawn Clippings (Dry)..................... 85 C 42 3 Source of Succulence.—In the summer, birds allowed range get plenty of succulent feed from the grass and weeds, but when confined special crops must be grown to provide this green feed. Rape, millet, oats, buckwheat, soy beans, and swiss chard can all be used with profit. For winter feeding we must cultivate some crop which can be stored. Mangel beets and cabbage are the best adapted for the pur- pose, cabbage being especially adapted to fall feeding, and mangel beets for winter use. In the absence of any good succulent feed for winter the artificial growing of cereal, such as oats, is recommended. LABORATORY EXERCISE Exercise No. 60.—Identifying Poultry Feeds.—Secure a pint sample of all the common poultry feeds in the vicinity. These can be kept in mason jars. Small portions of each feed material can first be given the class for study in order that they may become familiar with the appearance and form of each grain and feed. Later a mixture of different grains may be given and the class will, with a little experience, be able to tell of what grains the mixture is composed. If delicate scales are available, by picking out and separating COMMON POULTRY FEEDS 233 the different grains it will be possible by weighing the mixt- ure and later weighing each kind of grain to tell the percent- age composition of each. This exercise may well occupy two or more periods. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . Classify feeds according to their chemical composition. . Of what value is such a classification? All feed materials are from what two general sources? Give a common example of an animal feed. What is the determining factor in a ration? Can protein feeds be readily grown at home? Give three common forms of meat products which are fed to poultry. How is meat scrap prepared? . What is the difference between a low and a high grade meat scrap? 10. What is the protein content of dry granulated bone and fish scrap? 11. Enumerate five vegetable products carrying a high protein content. 12. Are all carbohydrate feeds from an animal or a vegetable source? 13. Discuss corn as a carbohydrate feed. 14, pee the relative amounts of carbohydrates and protein in wheat. 15. Is wheat bran commonly used as feed for poultry? 16. How are oats generally fed to poultry? 17. What can you say of buckwheat and barley as poultry feeds? 18. Can many potatoes be safely fed to poultry? 19. Would you recommend the feeding of dried beet pulp to poultry? 20. What feed element is very abundant in sunflower seed? 21. How much ash does wheat bran carry? 22. Discuss dry ground bone as a source of mineral matter. 23. For what purpose is oyster shell fed? 24. In what two ways can water be supplied to birds? 25. Discuss the supplying of succulent feeds to poultry. References.—United States Farmers’ Bulletins: 298, Food Value of Corn and Corn Products; 318, Cowpeas; 372, Soy Beans; 420, Oats, Distribution and Use; 424, Oats, Growing the Crop; 455, Red Clover; 565, Corn Meal as a Food and Ways of Using It. OND Ory OE CHAPTER XXIII HOME-GROWN POULTRY FEEDS Tue possibility of growing some of the feed for the birds on the home farm will depend largely on the area of land available. Another important consideration is the character of the soil, that is, whether it is productive or non-productive. The chief advantage of home-grown feed is its good quality. Many poultry feeds can be raised cheaper than they can be purchased, the greatest drawback being the excessive labor required. Where heavy crops are grown, there is always a tendency to slight the poultry work. Classification of Home=grown Poultry Feeds.—To make a systematic study of the home growing of poultry feeds, it is well to divide them into four groups. The first, and prob- ably the largest, group will be home-grown grains, such as corn, wheat, etc. Another group should include dry fodder, and here alfalfa belongs. Root crops should constitute a third group, while grasses and green crops make up the fourth class of feed material, which it is desirable to raise on the home land. All home-grown feeds must fall under one or the other of these classes. GRAIN FEEDS Grain feed can be profitably grown on the home farm if there is plenty of available land, plenty of labor at a moder- ate price, and if a large number of birds are kept. Granted these conditions, the four grain crops which may be grown are as follows: Corn.—Corn is more cultivated than any other grain for poultry feed, but at least four or five acres should be avail- able before it can be considered a crop worth raising. In addition to using corn for feed, the stalks can be cut into 234 HOME-GROWN POULTRY FEEDS 235 short lengths for litter, and the corn field should be so located as to afford range for the growing chicks. These different uses make the raising of corn most satisfactory. An acre of corn, properly planted, on fertile soil, should yield an average of sixty bushels, at a selling price of about fifty cents per bushel. The value of the product per acre will then be about $30.00. The question whether it is desirable and Fiq. 130.—A small patch of corn should be grown in connection with every flock of poultry. It can be utilized for feed in many forms, for shade, and later for litter. (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.) profitable to raise corn can be determined by comparing these figures with the results obtained by trying an experi- ment, on a small area, with whatever grain one desires to grow (Fig. 130). Wheat.—Wheat, as a poultry feed, is not usually grown on the farm where the poultry are kept. One reason for this is that so much machinery is required to harvest it, and 236 FEEDING get it in shape for feed. A common practice with poultry keepers is to purchase winter wheat from grain farmers in the vicinity, such wheat costing from 90 cents to $1.00 per bushel. It is usually of excellent quality, and if it is possible to store a large quantity, it should be purchased in the fall. An acre of wheat will yield about 20 bushels and this at market price should be worth $1.00 per bushel. This gives the total value of the feed raised per acre as $20.00. The profit in growing such a crop can best be determined by com- paring it with the cost of purchasing the same. Oats.—Oats are cheaper to grow than to purchase. When raised on poultry farms they are not generally threshed, but harvested just like hay, then stored up in barns, and fed as litter in the poultry house. A combination of Canadian peas and oats makes a desirable crop. They can be cut before they are ripe, which prevents them from shelling out. The addition of the peas, which carry a high protein content, makes this combination almost a balanced ration. Some- times the peas and oats are allowed to ripen before harvest- ing, then are threshed, and the resulting mixture of peas and oats is ground and fed in the mash. The straw can be used for litter. Buckwheat.—If land is available it is usually more econom- ical to grow buckwheat than to purchase it. Two or three acres will keep 1000 birds supplied with buckwheat the year round. The best way is to harvest the crop before the grain is ripe. Grain and straw can be fed as litter without thresh- ing, and a bundle of straw can be put in the pen each week. Of the four grains mentioned, corn is probably the most profitable one to raise on the poultry farm. DRY FODDER The dry fodders used by the poultry men are clover and alfalfa. Short cut alfalfa and clover are expensive to pur- chase, and the quality can not always be assured from the HOME-GROWN POULTRY FEEDS 237 external appearance. On every poultry farm a small area should be planted with alfalfa or clover, preferably alfalfa. This can be cut and cured as hay, then cut into short lengths and fed in the dry mash. If desired, it can be wet with hot water and fed moist. Fine, dry cut hay of this type is very wholesome for young chicks on the brooder floor. Dry alfalfa in the mash acts as a source of vegetable protein, alfalfa hay containing 12 per cent of protein. One acre may be expected to yield from four to five tons of cured hay. Root Crops.—The necessity of succulent feeds has been previously mentioned, and root crops form an ideal succulent feed. They are particularly valuable because they give a relatively big yield per acre, are easy to store for winter feeding, retain a high water content throughout the storage period, are easy to feed and are relished by the birds. Mangel Beets.—Mangel beets are the best root crop, because they give the biggest yield, and are very succulent. The seed should be sown on rich fertile soil, in drills, two and one-half feet apart. This admits of horse cultivation. After they are an inch or two high they should be thinned out so as to be no closer together in the row than eight inches, which will allow each root to develop to its maximum size. To secure the greatest benefit from the beet crop, the tops should be harvested and fed to the birds in the fall before freezing. They can be cut off with a corn knife, leaving the roots intact. The roots should then be dug up and stored before severe freezing (Fig. 131). The ideal way tostore them is in root cellars specially built for the purpose. Where there is no such building, they can be stored in a pit dug in the ground. The beets should be packed in the pit, then covered with corn stalks, and this in turn with a foot of soil. Packed in this way they will keep a long time without any risk of freezing. Mangel beets can be chopped fine and fed to birds 238 FEEDING and will be relished. A common way to feed them is to cut them in halves and hang them on the wall with a spike. The birds will eat the inside, and leave only the outer shell. There are various other root crops, such as potatoes, carrots, turnips, etc., but they should be fed only as a by-product. GRASSES AND GREEN CROPS There is every reason for keeping the yards and ranges covered with growing green grass, for this materially re- duces the cost of feed, and tends towards cleanliness. f Fic. 131.—Mangel beets make the best winter succulence for poultry. The beets on the left of this picture are shown with the leaves on; those in the center have been topped and the green leaves fed to the birds; those at the right have been pulled and are shown in small piles, drying before storing in pits or root cellars. Two Methods of Providing Green Feed.—The birds can be provided with green feed during the summer in either of two ways. Growing it in the yards is best. But if the yards are small, and this is impossible, it can be grown on separate plots, and, after harvesting, be carried to the birds. Crops to Use.—Alfalfa or clover is the best crop to yield summer succulence. When the yards are large, and kept permanently sodded, clover, alfalfa, and blue grass are all desirable (Fig. 132). An excellent combination is clover and blue grass. If the yards are only of medium size and only one seeding can be made, a good stand of Swiss chard HOME-GROWN POULTRY FEEDS 239 or dwarf Essex rape will provide considerable succulent feed. As the birds eat the crop off it grows again from the crown. When a rotation of crops is desired, the following will be found adapted to the various seasons: For early spring, Canadian peas and oats, spring vetch, and oats or barley. A good summer or hot weather crop consists of either buck- wheat, soy beans, or cow peas (Fig. 133). For late fall seeding, clover, winter vetch, winter rye, or winter wheat will be best. These crops for each season have been desig- Fie. 132.—Leghorn pullets feeding in a heavy alfalfa pasture. nated in the order of their desirability. It is quite the custom to sow them broadcast, and harrow or brush in the seed. We must seed heavily in order to get a thick stand and short, succulent growth. CROPS NECESSARY TO THE POULTRYMAN Every poultryman, whether he keeps 10 or 500 birds, should raise some of these crops, the amount to depend upon the number of birds he keeps. Alfalfa should be grown and used as hay; much of it can be cut green, and fed as a succulent crop. Mangel beets should be planted to provide 240 FEEDING winter succulence. Whenever possible, the runs should be kept permanently sodded. On summer runs, a green crop or summer succulent feed should be planted as recommended. LABORATORY EXERCISE Exercise No. 61.—A Study of Seeds and Growing Plants. —A small quantity of seed of the different crops mentioned which are suitable for home production should be secured. Fic. 133.—Soy beans can be used for shade and green feed and will mature seeds at the same time. The soy beans in this picture are shown after a large flock of pullets had been running in them all summer. The bare vines in the foreground are seen to be full of seed pods. If land is available on the school grounds or near at hand, plots should be laid off and the class allowed to plant a small area of each. The seeds should be studied first so as to enable a quick and accurate identification. The method of germination and the form of growth should be observed. If land is not available the same work may be accomplished in a small way by planting the seeds in flower pots and growing in the school window. HOME-GROWN POULTRY FEEDS 241 THOUGHT QUESTIONS . What fact determines largely the amount of feed which can be grown at home? . What are the two leading advantages and disadvantages of the home growing of poultry feeds? . Into what four groups can all home-grown feeds be classified? When should grain feeds be raised? . Discuss the home growing of corn for poultry. . Is wheat generally grown on the farm where it is fed? . What should be the value of wheat raised to the acre? . Is it generally cheaper to grow oats than to purchase them? . What crop can be profitably grown with oats? Why? . How can home-grown buckwheat best be fed to poultry? . What two dry fodders can profitably be grown on the poultry farm? . What is the protein composition and yield per acre of alfalfa? . Give a number of reasons why root crops should be grown by every poultry raiser. . What is the leading root crop for poultry feeding? . What is the best way to feed beets? . What two methods are in general use for supplying green crops to poultry? . Give a good combination of grasses to plant if a permanent sod is desired. . Outline a good rotation to provide continuous green feed during 19. the year on small yards. Enumerate the necessary crops for every poultry flock. References.—United States Farmers’ Bulletins: 164, Rape as a Forage Crop; 224, Canadian Field Peas; 278, Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring; 295, Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food; 339, Alfalfa; 415, Seed Corn; 428, Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in The Rural School; 433, Cabbage; 443, Barley, Growing the Crop; 537, How to Grow an Acre of Corn. 16 CHAPTER XXIV FEEDING FOR GROWTH THERE are three definite objects in the feeding of poultry. All young growing animals are fed for growth, or the build- ing of tissue. Poultry are also fed for some product to be yielded by the body, the egg being the product desired, and in order to put birds in condition for market they are fed for increase of flesh. To best attain these three objects, different rations must be fed in each case, and different systems of feeding followed, if the greatest efficiency is to be obtained. In this chapter we will discuss feed require- ments and the methods of feeding for growth. Feeding methods necessarily apply to pullets from hatching time to maturity. Feeding for growth can be divided into two peri- ods; the brooding stage and the growing stage. During the brooding period the object of all feeding and management Fia. 134.—The maturing pullet; she o cia ee is the ultimate aim when feeding for 1S to get the chicks safely growth and maturity. through the stage of their helplessness. If during these few weeks they are not prop- erly cared for in the brooder house, there will be great mor- tality, which is often largely due to improper feeding. It is at this early period that the framework of the body, or skele- ton, starts to grow, and without a strong, heavy skeleton, it is impossible for the bird subsequently to carry a heavy weight of flesh. The brooding period ceases when the chicks 242 FEEDING FOR GROWTH 243 are taken from the brooder house and put on range. From this time until maturity the object of feeding is to promote uniform and continuous growth, for such a development conduces to greater uniformity of flesh, and higher vitality at maturity (Fig. 134). FEEDING BROODER CHICKS A simple method of feeding the brooder chicks is outlined in detail in Chapter XII, page 138. A general knowledge of what chicks require, and the essentials in their management, is necessary in order to purchase or mix their rations. Principles Involved.—The feed should be limited during the brooding period. It is well known that just before the chicks are hatched that part of the yolk which remains is absorbed by the body. This serves as food, and nourishes the chick for the first thirty-six to forty-six hours after it emerges from the shell. Heavy feeding of concentrated feeds during the first three days is apt to upset the digestive system, and to cause death. Frequent feeding is, however, most essential. The young chick grows rapidly, and develops in size much faster than any other animal. It has, too, a very small stomach, so that in order to provide a continuous supply of nourishment, feedings must be frequent. The chicks can not store up at one feeding large quantities for future needs. Moreover, the chicks should be kept hungry, for hunger makes them active. Digestive organs crowded with feed will soon become impaired so that diarrhoea and death will result. It is a good plan to feed small amounts at short intervals, giving only enough to make it certain that the chicks will be hungry before the next feeding, and they should be made to clean up all of the feed given before they are fed again. They must be kept busy, and this is accomplished by feeding them in the litter, by limiting the amount given, and by making them hunt for their feed. Exercise is the best 244 FEEDING incentive to a good appetite and good digestion. Dry feeds are the safest, and the best rations are dry, finely cracked chick grains. After the birds are a few days old, they can be given a simple dry mash consisting largely of wheat bran. Wet, sloppy feeds, especially if allowed to become sour, seriously impair digestion. Plenty of grit should be given the little chicks. As they have no teeth, grit grinds their feed, and is a material aid to digestion. The feed is also acted upon and made more digestible by the digestive fluids. A liberal amount of ash is good for the young chicks, as it goes largely into the for- mation of the frame. Ash assists materially, too, in the digestion of feed. Wheat bran and dry, granulated bone are the two best sources. When two weeks old, the chicks have passed the danger point. From this time on they should be given all they will eat, provided they are hungry at feeding time. They should not be allowed to lose their appetite, as this will check their growth for the time being. Rations for Brooder Chicks and Methods of Feeding.— The following rations for chicks have been formulated after careful tests and a study of the results obtained. They are recommended for use with brooder chicks. Mixture No. 1. Scratching Ration Kind of Feed Amount Finely cracked corn................000. 40 pounds Finely cracked wheat.................. 40 pounds Rolled oatsi< i. suorwicatwsck days oe cases 20 pounds PO Ga eas ene Sa 2 Ue lee Leas 100 pounds This scratch ration should be fed in the litter on the floor of the hover, and should be given the chicks for the first time on the second day they are in the brooder. For the first two weeks it is well to give the mixture four times a day, but only a small quantity at a time, and this will keep the chicks hungry and active. Wheat bran should be kept before FEEDING FOR GROWTH 245 them continually for the first two weeks, in shallow open pans or small baby chick hoppers. After this time a change should be made, and the following dry mash substituted for the wheat bran, feeding it in hoppers, and keeping it before them all the time. When the change is made, the feeding of the scratching ration can be reduced to three times daily. The following is the chick dry mash: Chick Dry Mash Kind of Feed Amount Wheat bran..........0 0.00000 c ee eee 50 pounds Gluten: feed eas oc sc tie's'sanguld gandsinn ensts 5 10 pounds Com meal. cauiew ekg s sea ee ney en eee sees 10 pounds Ground ‘Oatsvc¢222ca25e) oxen geese ewes 10 pounds Beef scrapiwsce si 26s tat oe sek Beever’ 10 pounds Granulated bone..................0005 10 pounds otal: celi4.aeta nc eeaeae aes 100 pounds There are two miscellaneous brooder feeds which can be used to advantage. Hard boiled eggs in considerable quan- tities can be given to the chicks after they are a week old. The eggs should be boiled thirty minutes, and only as much given as the chicks can clean up quickly. If any is left in the litter to become sour and moldy it is very injurious. Infertile eggs from the incubator can be largely used for this purpose. Sprouted oats and vegetable tops, or young green grass should be given during the early brooding period. Out-door runs to the brooder house, covered with alfalfa or clover, are quite a necessity. Cost of Feeding a Young Chick up to Eight Weeks of Age.—The cost of feeding a chick in the brooder house during the brooder period varies considerably; on the average it is from six to eight cents, but during the winter it costs a little more than this. THE GROWING PERIOD In addition to the feed, the requirements for the growing period are detailed in Chapter XIII. The method of feeding there recommended applies equally well to cock- 246 FEEDING erels and to pullets. But, if the best growth is to be attained, the sexes must be kept apart. Principles Involved.—The following principles should be understood before attempting to feed young stock during the growing period. The rations must be designed to pro- mote growth, and must contain a considerable amount of protein, which is necessary for the production of lean meat or flesh. It should also provide a liberal amount of ash to form the skeleton, or bony frame. Fic, 135.—Leghorn pullets on range. If given opportunity they will always pick the cool shady hedge rows rather than the open sunny places. The feed supply should be constantly available. Growing chicks are always hungry, and it is impossible to gauge their appetite by feeding them once or twice a day. If their feed supply is always where they can have free access to it, their growth will be uniform. This constant feed supply not only equalizes the growth, but it enables the summer or late hatched chicks to get their share of it. If they were all fed together with a scratch ration, the summer chicks would be crowded out by the strong older chicks. Plenty of range is good for them. Large runs mean sani- tary conditions, and also afford plenty of exercise (Fig. 135). FEEDING FOR GROWTH _ 247 Grass ranges insure that the feed is obtained from a natural and inexpensive source. Dry feeding is the cheapest. Excessively rapid growth is not desirable, but it should be uniform and continuous. This can best be secured by a feed of dry cracked grains and dry mash, which involves less labor, and is productive of a more uniform and economical growth than the practice of feeding wet, sloppy mashes to growing chicks. “ a Fic. 136.—A water-tight barrel placed in a shady place on the range will insure a constant supply of fresh cool water. The barrel should be filled at least every other day. Growing pullets should not be excessively forced. Such forcing usually results in a too early maturity, often accom- panied by lack of vigor and vitality, and, if practised year after year, soon exhausts the stock. Plenty of clean, fresh water must be given. Water quenches the thirst, and also performs many functions connected with digestion and assimilation. In the summer, when the weather is dry and hot, the water supply should be closely looked after to make sure that it is accessible and plentiful (Fig. 136). Rations for Growing Poultry——As a rule, the composition of rations for growing poultry is very similar to that of the 248 FEEDING , rations fed during the brooding period. An effort should be made to keep down the cost. Owing to the small size of the brooder chicks, finely ground, expensive grains are neces- sary; but as the chicks grow older and larger, coarser and cheaper grains may be substituted. As soon as the chicks go on range, they should get the same dry mash ration that was fed during the latter part of the brooding period. This mash should be fed in large homemade hoppers, built to hold two or three hundred pounds. They can be located a short distance apart about the range. The advantage of these large mashes and of a constant feed supply, is that the chicks thus balance their own rations, and get a diet which more nearly meets their individual requirements. The grain used to supplement the dry mashes should be of simple composition, and inexpensive to purchase. Only common feeds grown in the locality need be selected. The following is a suitable grain ration for growing poultry: Kind of Feed Amount Whole wheat.......... 0.000 cee eee 50 pounds Cracked Gorm. icc nce pack erk bees tain Sones 50 pounds Dota 240 henna deena ae 100 pounds The above ration should be scattered by hand broadcast over the range morning and night, but only so much that the youngsters will eat it up clean in one-half to three-quarters of an hour. If too much is fed, it will be found lying around on the ground and spoiling. This is an expensive as well as a dangerous way of feecling. The birds should be anxious for the feed before the time arrives (Fig. 137). In order to keep them evenly distributed in their own colony, it is well when feeding the grain to start each day at a different point of the range. If the feeder begins at the same place cach time, the chicks will be apt to congregate there, and many will not return to their own houses, but will crowd into those nearest at hand. If the rations recommended are used, and the birds provided with FEEDING FOR GROWTH 249 free range, the feed necessary to mature a cockerel or pullet to five months of age will cost from thirty to forty cents. Feeding Just Before Maturity—After the chicks have completed the growing period, or are approaching maturity, their ultimate maturity can be quite materially affected by the feeding. If they are not maturing fast enough, or not in just the proper condition, they can be forced in slight degree by the addition of nitrogen to their feeds. Doubling the meat scrap in the mash will bring about the desired results. Fic. 137.—Feeding White Leghorn cockerels their scratch grain ration. If, on the other hand, they seem to be maturing too fast, the combs and wattles reddening up too rapidly, growth and maturity can be slightly retarded by withholding some of the more concentrated nutrients. Successful feeding calls for knowledge and skill. These can only be secured by study and personal observation of the results obtained by feeding. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 62.—The Unabsorbed Yolk.—Dissect a day old chick and another one four days old. Note the size of the yolk in each case. How is the presence of this yolk accounted for? How does its presence necessitate limited early feeding? 250 FEEDING Exercise No. 63.—Mizing Chick Rations.—Secure small quantities of the feed materials required for the specified chick rations. Have the class mix the rations in the pro- portions called for. Be sure to get the ingredients well mixed. Note especially the size of the grains and the con- sistency of the rations after mixing. Exercise No. 64.—Feeding Young Chicks ——After the ra- tions are mixed, feed them to the chicks which have been hatched as called for in some of the previous exercises. If no chicks are hatched at the school, allow one or more mem- bers of the class to try the method of feeding which is specified and report to the class at frequent intervals. THOUGHT QUESTIONS 1. For what three different objects are poultry fed? 2. Into what two groups can feeding for growth be divided? 3. What is the special object to be attained in feeding during the brooding period? 4. What. a eS special object desired from feeding during the growing period? 5. Enumerate the principles involved when feeding brooder chicks. 6. Why should chicks be fed sparingly during the first few hours after hatching? 7. Why is frequent feeding with young chicks desirable? 8. What is the relation between hunger and exercise in young chicks? 9. What is the function of grit in chick feeding? 10. oe in detail a simple but efficient method of feeding brooder chicks. 11. Give a good scratch ration for brooder chicks. 12. Give a good dry mash mixture for young chicks in the brooder. 13. What is the average cost of feeding a young chick to eight weeks of age? 14. Enumerate the principles involved in feeding chicks during the growing period. 15. Why is a constant feed supply so essential during this period? 16. What are the advantages of free range feeding? 17. What is the effect of forcing for an early maturity? 18. mee good method of feeding birds during the so-called growing period. 19. Give a good grain ration to be used on the range during the summer. 20. What is the average cost of growing a pullet or cockerel to maturity on the range? 21. What special methods may be used to feed the birds just before they reach maturity? 22. How can a poultry keeper become an efficient feeder? CHAPTER XXV FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION In feeding for egg production two definite objects must be kept in view. The first of these is maintenance. By main- tenance is meant the feed necessary to build up the bird’s body. The processes of digestion and production constantly wear away the tissues of the body, and a certain amount of feed material is necessary to repair this waste. The bird’s body contains over 55 per cent of water, over 20 per cent of protein or nitrogenous mate- g rial, nearly 20 per cent of fat, and about 4 per cent of ash. These are the materials which are constantly broken down or consumed by the proc- esses of life, and these ma- terials must be provided in the feed if the bird is to pro- duce many eggs (Fig. 138). The second object in feed- ing for egg production is to : Fic. 1388.—The primary object in feed- provide the necessary mate- ing for egg prod vetion: is to fill the egg pail daily throughout the year. rial to form the egg. If egg production is to be satisfactory, these nutrients must be fed in excess of the amount needed merely to maintain the body. The bird has great powers of self-preserva- tion, and its feed will first be utilized to maintain its own body before many eggs are produced. The whole egg con- tains about 65 per cent of water, over 13 per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and about 10 per cent of fat, in addition to the shell, which constitutes about 12 per cent 251 202 FEEDING of the whole egg. The shell is almost wholly composed of mineral matter, a large proportion of which is car- bonate of lime. From these figures we see that if the bird is to be properly maintained to yield a goodly egg pro- duction, the ration fed must contain a large amount of protein, water, and ash. EGG PRODUCTION A DRAIN ON THE VITALITY In order to produce an abundance of eggs, much raw material must be consumed to be transformed into the egg. A bird must be strong and have considerable vitality to bear this strain; weak hens frequently break down and succumb. In the average hen weighing from three to five pounds, which produces in a year twelve dozen eggs, the egg producing organs must be working all the time in order to transform the large mass of feed material into eggs. The Record of the Belle of New Jersey.—The following interesting figures from the record of a wonderful little White Leghorn hen would emphasize the requirements of such a bird for egg production. This little White Leghorn hen was bred purposely for egg production (Fig. 139). During her pullet year she laid 246 eggs, the total weight of which was 2914 pounds. At maturity she weighed three and eight-tenths pounds. The weight of her eggs was eight times as great as that of her body. The feed she consumed during this period weighed 118 pounds. Thus the weight of her feed was thirty times as great as that of her body. Her feed cost $1.79. When we stop to consider the immense amount of work this little hen had to do in order to transform such a large volume of feed into eggs, we do not wonder that strength is one of the first requisites for egg production. After the cost of feed and labor and the interest were de- ducted, the bird yielded a profit of $4.72. This is abnormally high production. It shows, however, what can be accom- plished when conditions are right. By mating the sons of this FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 253 A Fie. 139.—The story of Belle of Jersey in picture. A, Belle of Jersey as she appeared just at the close of her first year’s production. B, The feed she ate during her twelve months of egglaying. The ration isthe standard one recommended later in this chapter. C, The number of eggs which she produced in the 365 days,—246, weighing 2914 pounds, or eight times her body weight. 254 FEEDING bird in future breeding work, her high egg producing quali- ties can be transmitted to future generations (Fig. 140). PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION Health the First Requisite.—To insure success the health of the flock must be maintained. The birds must be given Fra. 140.—A son of Belle of Jersey. By using him as a breeder it is hoped to meduins BOIaee generation of birds, many of which will be as good or better than is mother. plenty of exercise, and nothing but clean, wholesome grains should be fed. The feeding of the grain in deep litter, and the keeping of the birds in fresh air houses, are the two main steps towards health. Protein to be the Chief Constituent of the Laying Rations. —Experiments demonstrate that protein is the determining FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 255 factor in rations for egg production. Protein from an animal source is far superior to that from a vegetable, which never takes the place of animal protein. For profitable egg production, birds should receive a ration which contains not less than 10, or more than 25 per cent of meat scrap. Need of Plenty of Water.—Fresh, clean water should always be before the birds (Fig. 141), and must be supple- mented by good, succulent feed, such as cabbage, sprouted oats, or mangel beets. Dry alfalfa and clover are not suc- Fia. 141.—A small brook runs through the corner of this poultry yard, making an abundant supply of fresh water available even on the hottest days, and this without any labor on the part of the one attending the birds. culent. A large amount of water is necessary owing to the high water content demanded by both the bird’s body and the egg (Fig. 142). Birds’ Relish for Grain.—Birds naturally love grain and seeds. In their wild state, much of their feed consists of weeds and wild herbs. Their digestive system is so con- structed as to consume and digest large amounts of hard grain and seeds. In their rations the grain supplied should form one-half to two-thirds of the total bulk of feed, the balance being dry mash. 256 FEEDING Sour Skim Milk.—Sour skim milk is a valuable addition to the ration. The souring of milk generates lactic acid, which Fic. 142.—Sprouted oats form one of the best green feeds for poultry. They make the best growth when sprouted at a depth of one inch, as shown in tray No. 1. When sprouted deeper they mold and do not make as many sprouts. is a great aid to digestion, and is also beneficial because it kills injurious bacteria which may find entrance to the digestive Fia. 143.—A small dry mash hopper which is designed for the feeding of dry mash to laying hens. The projecting roof makes it possible to use this hopper out of doors. tract. Sour milk also furnishes a considerable amount of protein nutrient. Experiments show that birds lay remark- ably well and produce eggs at a profit if fed on sour skim milk. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 257 Dry Mash Economical.—Dry mash is an excellent feed for it is fed in large hoppers, and is constantly accessible to the birds (Fig. 143). Thus they regulate their feed consumption according to their own bodily requirements. Highly concentrated protein feeds can be given in the mash. Feed nutrients from such sources are more economical than those obtained from grain. Necessity of Ash.—Large quantities of ash must be given in the laying rations in order to form the egg shells. Oyster shells furnish such ash. They can be ground very fine, and kept in the hoppers all the time. Necessity of Grit.—Grit has a definite use in the ration. It finds its way immediately into the gizzard, where it lodges, and helps to grind the feed into small particles, which can be readily digested. These principles of feeding should be thoroughly understood if the laying flock is to be success- fully fed. A PERFECT RATION FOR LAYING HENS In the following are given the New Jersey state dry mash, and supplemental rations designed for the perfect feeding of laying hens throughout the winter. Such modifications as may be necessary for summer feeding and for different breeds are also described: Mixture No. 1. Dry Mash . Kind of Feed Amount by Weight Amount by Measure Cost Wheat bran............. 200 pounds 380 quarts $3.20 Wheat middlings......... 200 pounds 240 quarts 3.50 Ground oats....... .. 100 pounds 100 quarts 1.65 Corn meal.............. 100 pounds 95 quarts 1.65 Gluten feed.............- 100 pounds 80 quarts 1.70 ALPS f aie sissed cd eowese? ars 100 pounds 200 quarts 1.60 Meat scrap...........--- 200 pounds 176 quarts 5.50 Totalscusenences cee 1,000 pounds 1,271 quarts $18.80 The average cost per 100 pounds is $1.88. This mash should be kept before the birds all the time in large self-feeding hoppers. In the fall during the molting 258 FEEDING season, it is well to substitute oil meal for the gluten meal in the same proportion; this will hasten the growth of feathers. As soon as the birds get on green grass range the alfalfa can be gradually omitted and the meat scrap reduced in amount. The extent to which this mash can be cut during the summer depends upon the character and amount of range allowed the birds. The mash is compounded especially for Leghorns. When heavier breeds are kept, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyan- dottes, especially yearling or two-year-old hens, if they have a tendency to put on an excess of fat the best policy is to restrict their allowance of mash, by opening the hopper during the afternoon only, thus compelling the birds to work during the morning for the cracked grain fed in the litter at the morning feeding. The following modification of the above mash will prove very economical for summer feeding when the hens have considerable range and plenty of growing green feed. Mixture No. 1. Summer Dry Mash Kind of Feed Amount by Weight Amount by Measure Cost Wheat bran........... 200 pounds 380 quarts $3.20 Wheat middlings.......100 pounds 120 quarts 1.75 Gluten feed... ... 50 pounds 40 quarts 85 Ground oats. . ....100 pounds 100 quarts 1.65 Meat scrap............ 25 pounds 21 quarts 75 Gta ue See e ses 475 pounds 661 quarts $8.20 The average cost per 100 pounds is $1.70. As a ration to supplement the dry mash, the following may be given: A scratching ration of whole grain in deep litter, every morning, both winter and summer, at nine o’clock. The primary object, aside from its nutritive value, is to induce the birds to take plenty of exercise. About five pounds of this ration to 100 birds can be fed on the floor of the house, or under some shelter where the litter is dry, and where there is protection from cold winds (Fig. 144). The scratching ration is made up as follows: FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 259 Mixture No. 2. Scratching Ration Kind of Feed Amount by Weight Amount by Measure Cost WHC atb incase diticiet's a 100 pounds 53 quarts $2.20 Oatsiikiawiony aus eae ws 100 pounds 98 quarts 1.93 Total ce se020 ters vs 200 pounds 151 quarts $4.13 Average cost per 100 pounds is $2.06. At four to five o’clock in the afternoon, according to the season, a night ration composed of whole and cracked grains isfed at the rate of 10 pounds to 100 birds. Fig. 144, —Feeding the morning scratch ration to his pen of Buff Orpingtons. A close interest in the habits of the birds and careful attention to their feeding will be rewarded by an increased egg production. Mixture No. 8. Night Ration Kind of Feed Amount by Weight Amount by Measure Cost Cracked corn.......... 200 pounds 120 quarts $3.20 Wheaties ceca siete § 100 pounds 53 quarts 2.20 Oats oars cavieritaraineee eo 100 pounds 98 quarts 1.93 Buckwheat............ 100 pounds 66 quarts 2.00 ‘lotalsscccasy views’ 500 pounds 337 quarts $9.33 The cost per 100 pounds is $1.80. It will be noted that this night ration, as outlined, supplies materials to keep the bird’s body warm during the night. It is designed for Leghorns. When feeding heavier breeds, it 260 FEEDING is advisable to eliminate one-half of the cracked corn and all of the buckwheat (Fig. 145). Durimg the summer a night ration of equal parts of corn, wheat, and oats will be ample for the needs of the Leghorns. A good rule to follow in feed- ing night rations is to give a little more than the birds will eat so that there will be some left for them to work for in the morning. One advantage of dry mash feeding as stated is that the birds in large measure balance their own rations accord- F poe Fic. 145.—The interest which this young man shows in his birds is written all over his features and is shown by the gentleness of his birds. These Barred Plymouth Rocks are being fed their evening grain ration. ing to their particular tastes and requirements. Some suc- culent material in addition to the grain rations is necessary for the best results, and sprouted oats or mangel beets are to be preferred. In conclusion it might be said that there is no such thing as a best ration. Feeds to use and methods of feeding will vary with location, season, and breed of fowl. The best practice is to give a concentrated, well-balanced dry mash, and keep it before the birds all of the time. This can be FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 261 supplemented by feeding cracked grain rations twice a day in deep litters; those recommended above can be used to begin with. They should be carefully studied, both as to cost and efficiency, and from time to time can be modified as conditions warrant. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 65.—Mizxing Laying Rations.—Secure the feeds necessary to mix the three rations recommended for the complete feeding of laying hens. Have the class thor- oughly mix them. The best method of mixing in large quantities is to dump all materials in a pile on a hard, smooth floor. Shovel the pile over to one side, making another pile. Do this three or four times until the mixture is complete. When each shovelful is emptied the contents should be spread over the top of the pile. When the rations are being mixed study their appearance and conditions. Exercise No. 66.—Feeding Laying Hens.—Using the ra- tions mixed above, allow one or more flocks of layers to be fed the same for a given time (three months). It is best to feed a small flock owned by the school. If not possible a student’s flock will answer. The class can visit same occa- sionally and reports can be given. Complete records of amount and cost of feed consumed should be kept. The daily egg production and the selling price of eggs should be recorded. After the period is over or at the end of each week or month, the class can figure out the profit above feed consumed and other facts of interest to poultry keepers. THOUGHT QUESTIONS What are the two definite objects in view when feeding for egg production? What is meant by feeding for maintenance? Give the average composition of the bird’s body. For which purpose does the bird use the feed consumed, mainten- ance or production? Give the average composition of the egg. Why is egg production a drain on vitality? . Give figures showing the record of Belle of Jersey’s production. SUS Se IRON FEEDING . In what way can this production of Belle of Jersey be handed down to her progeny? . Enumerate the principles involved in feeding for egg production. . How does the feeding practice affect health? . What is the most important feed nutrient in feeding for eggs? . What are the ways in which plenty of water can be supplied? . What should be the proportion of the grain to mash feed? . What are the advantages of sour skim milk as a feed for eggs? . Enumerate the advantages of dry mash feeding, . Discuss the need of ash in the laying rations. . What definite object does grit perform? . Outline a complete method of feeding for egg production. . Give the composition of a complete dry mash suitable for feeding for egg production. . Give a grain ration suitable to supplement the dry mash. Both morning and night. . How does the morning grain feed differ from that given at night? . Is there a best ration for all conditions? . Give the composition of any rations which you know of which are giving success. CHAPTER XXVI FEEDING FOR FLESH Ferepine for flesh means getting the birds ready for market. They must be plump all over, that is, well covered with flesh, which should consist of both lean meat and fat (Fig. 146). Get them into the best condition for cooking and eating. Fat is especially desirable in birds, since it permits them to be thoroughly cooked without becoming excessively dry. Many kinds of birds are used for food, and there are various methods of conditioning them for market. In this chapter we shall discuss in a general way a few of the prevailing customs. THREE CLASSES OF BIRDS TO BE FED All poultry conditioned for market can be grouped into one of three classes: broilers, roasting chickens, and fowls. Broilers constitute a rather large class, and are birds specially prepared for broiling. They are usually small, being sold when from 10 to 15 weeks old. Cockerels are largely dis- posed of in this way; sometimes pullets, also, but rarely, as they are in too great demand for laying. The object in getting broilers ready for market is to bring them quickly to marketable size, since every week they are kept adds to the cost of production, and increased cost reduces the profits. Roasting chickens include cockerels which are approach- ing maturity, capons, and sometimes pullets (Fig. 147). The object in getting roasting chickens into condition is to have them of large size, yet with tender meat. “Fowls” is a trade name applied to old hens, which, when they have passed their usefulness for egg production, are disposed of for meat. Fowls constitute the poorest quality of poultry 263 264 FEEDING meat, but are in considerable demand by people in moderate circumstances. They are chiefly used for fricassees, or for Each of the above mentioned group of birds requires a different mode of feeding and different handling. meat pies. Fic. 146.—Two pairs of broilers. Those on the left are plump, full breasted and properly finished. Those on the right have not been properly fed and are thin and narrow breasted. A plump carcass is necessary if the bird is to be the best for eating. Fie, 147.—A flock of roaster chickens about ready for market. FEEDING FOR FLESH 265 PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN FEEDING FOR FLESH Feeding for flesh, as the term implies, is essentially a fattening process. There are a few definite principles which, if followed, will put considerable fat on the birds in a short time. Restriction of Exercise.—The first principle in feeding for flesh is to keep the birds somewhat closely confined either in special coops or small yards. This confinement prevents them from roaming, hence less feed is required for heat and energy. At the same time more of the feed they consume is stored up in their bodies as a reserve feed supply, and this reserve takes the form of fatty tissue. Rations Should Be Rich in Carbohydrates and Fat.— Carbohydrates and fat are the two feed nutrients especially utilized in the formation of surplus body fat. Hence rations for fattening should be rather rich in carbohydrates and fat, as compared with nitrogenous feed elements; that is, the rations should be wide. Plenty of Protein Needed.—In fattening birds, it is not only desirable that they should put on fat in order to be in the best condition, but they must be plump, and the whole body well covered with flesh or lean meat. Protein is neces- sary to form this flesh; hence the fattening ration should contain some nutritious and easily digested form of nitrogen- ous material. Meat scrap and granulated bone are usually the best. Moist Feeding.—Fattening by means of well moistened feed has become very popular. First, because no excessive exercise on the part of the birds is necessary to consume it. Second, the birds relish it and usually eat more if a ration is served in this way. Third, a moist ration is more easily digested because in a fine and soluble condition. Plenty of Grit.—Plenty of sharp grit hastens the grinding of the feed material, and also grinds it finer, which makes 266 FEEDING it much more easily digested. Birds confined to a small coop or yard are often deprived of all natural sources of grit, and it must then be provided in the fattening ration. Maintenance of a Good Appetite.—If the birds are to be made to grow fast, they must keep up a good appetite. Too much feed will often result in getting them off their feed, and birds. once off their feed while in the fattening yard rarely make any satisfactory gain. The best way to insure a good appetite is to allow them to become hungry and anxious for feed for a short time before each feeding. These are the fundamental principles in feeding for increase in weight, and they should be borne in mind and carried out during all fattening processes. METHODS OF FATTENING Three methods are commonly employed in fattening poultry: the flock method, crate fattening, and cramming. They will now be briefly discussed. Pen or Flock Fattening.—Flock fattening is a term used to describe the fattening of a large number of birds for fleshy growth, usually in the finishing of broilers and fowls, and with very little labor. The birds are kept in large flocks, in small yards, and exercise restricted (Fig. 148). They are thus easily confined and fed, and they grow and put on flesh rapidly. Fowls are usually fit for market without any fat- tening process. If not, they can be fattened for about two weeks, the whole flock being restricted to a small area. Two rations are generally used in feeding flocks for fleshy growth, one a mash ration, which can be fed either wet or dry. Whole or cracked corn is usually combined with the mash, since corn, either whole or cracked, constitutes the main grain feed. This grain is especially high in carbohydrates, and valuable for that reason. Finishing Ration for Broilers—Often it is desirable to finish young chicks for two or three weeks before killing and FEEDING FOR FLESH 267 marketing them as broilers, and this should be done right in the brooder pens where they were reared. The object is to make them a little plumper and heavier in a short time, and the following ration is excellent for this purpose. It should be mixed with skim milk and fed in a crumbly state, not sloppy. a7 te oe PROS Fig. 148.—Broilers being finished on a commercial scale. The birds are confined to these small yards and fed the rations here recommended. Broiler Mash Kind of Feed Amount Corn Meal iiss oadeete Ge Peas 25 pounds Ground (O88 56 i o'ev. dogs oe ied arenes es 8 25 pounds Beet Scrap sccie ing 7s oie # ae Mew Be ae ee 15 pounds Granulated bone................00005 10 pounds Wheat middlings...................0. 25 pounds Ota) sieves g:tisbh Soca duno Seated oes 100 pounds Moisten with skim milk and feed in a trough. Be sure the feeding troughs are kept clean, and that the mash is 268 FEEDING not mixed too wet or sloppy. Supplement this with a ration of equal parts cracked corn and wheat. Rations for Fattening Fowls.—Fowls can very easily and quickly be fattened if kept in close yards in flocks from 10 to 25. They should be given a cracked grain ration of equal parts of whole corn and wheat, three times a day. This can be scattered over the bare ground, where they will eat it up quickly. Broilers and fowls should not be especially fed for more than two weeks, as they will reach their maxi- mum weight in about 12 to 14 days, and after this will Fie. 149.—Cockerels being fattened in a homemade fattening crate. The trough along the front is for the feeding of very moist mashes. No water is given during the feeding period. begin to lose. Special care must be exercised to keep the yards in clean and sanitary condition. Crate fattening (Fig. 149) is a mode of bringing roast- ing chickens into prime condition for market. The cus- tom is to confine the birds in specially constructed coops or crates, which are light, portable, and easily cleaned. The standard fattening crate is about cighteen by twenty-four inches square, and fourteen inches high, and will hold from four to six chickens. These crates usually have movable floors to facilitate cleaning. The bird in poor condition will gain much more rapidly in weight than the one which FEEDING FOR FLESH 269 was vigorous when put in the crate. The ration most used is a mash, fed moist in a trough. There are usually three or four feedings a day, according to the appetite of the birds; as a rule the rations contain a good deal of corn meal, oats, and meat. The birds should not be kept in the crate longer than three weeks. They will obtain their maximum weight in from eighteen to twenty-one days, and after this time are apt to lose slightly, owing to the close confinement and want of appetite. Crate Fattening Ration.—The following ration has given wonderful results in crate fattening. It should be mixed as moist as possible with skim milk; if none of this is at hand, water will answer the same purpose. It is best fed in pans or water-tight troughs. No water should be given to the birds during the fattening or finishing period, as the mash is moist enough to supply all that is necessary. Fattening Mash Kinds of Feed Amount Cornmeal, ....2cc0a0 fo een eae kena aa 40 pounds Wheat middlings..................... 20 pounds Ground 0atse....4058 sa oes a tw cana mes 20 pounds Beef Straps carves Seb gas daaeaea edd ches 20 pounds Total oc s.c0ses Goat eevee ee 100 pounds Where wet mashes are given, clean feeding is most essen- tial. What remains in the feeding vessel is apt to become sour, and affect the digestive system unfavorably. No mash should be left in the troughs between feeding times. When the birds are not eating it is well to darken the room to keep them quiet. Cramming.—Cramming, as the term implies, is forced or artificial feeding. Feed is forced into the birds’ crop either by hand or by a specially constructed apparatus. Cramming is not much practised in the United States, but has met with marked success in England. The ration recommended for crate fattening can also be used for cramming. All success in artificial feeding depends 270 FEEDING upon the experience and judgment of the feeder. The birds can be easily injured. It is also easy to get them off their feed by lack of judgment as to the amount of feed given them. The most practical method of putting an aver- age flock into good condition is by pen or flock feeding. If this does not produce enough flesh, they can be finished off for two or three weeks in the crate. Commercial Fattening.—Some of the best poultry raised in America are fattened for market in the large fattening establishments of the Central West. The birds are low- grade stock picked up on farms, especially in the South, and shipped by the carload to fattening establishments. Two or three weeks of forced feeding put the majority of them into prime condition. When fat enough they are dressed and shipped by cold storage to the centers of con- sumption, New York City and Philadelphia being the heaviest receiving points. The poultryman with only a few birds to sell will find it to his advantage to fatten them up. Plump birds are in greater demand, and bring a higher price, and have a finer flavor, than poor ones, to say nothing of their appearance. LABORATORY EXERCISE Exercise No. 67.—A Comparison of Flock and Crate Fat- tening.—Secure ten nearly mature cockerels. Divide them into two flocks. Allow one flock considerable yard room. Confine the other flock in a very small area. A box or crate will suffice. Feed both flocks according to the method sug- gested for crate fattening. Weigh the flocks at the beginning of the feeding period and each day for four weeks. Deter- mine the efficiency of close confinement vs. some range. At what time was the greatest gain in weight made? Keep a record of the feed consumed and determine the efficiency of the fattening process. Poor birds will show a gréater gain than fat ones. CONDOR Sod r FEEDING FOR FLESH 271 THOUGHT QUESTIONS What is meant by feeding for flesh? Why is considerable fat desired on market poultry? . Into what three classes may all birds which are being fed for market be placed? . Discuss the broiler group. What is included in the group called roasting chickens? What is meant by the trade name “fowls”? Enumerate the principles involved when feeding for flesh growth. Why is it necessary to restrict exercise? . Why should a flesh producing ration be relatively high in carbo- hydrates and fat? . What forms of concentrated protein feed can best be used in feed- ing for flesh? . Why is a moist mash more fattening than a dry mash? . Why is plenty of grit especially necessary in feeding for flesh? . Are birds which are being forced apt to get off their feed or lose their appetite? . What three methods of fattening are in use? . Define the meaning of the term “pen or flock fattening.” . What methods of feeding are usually followed in flock fattening? . Give a good broiler finishing ration. . Discuss the fattening of fowls. . What is crate fattening? . Give in detail a good crate fattening ration. . What is meant by the process of cramming? . Tell what you know about commercial fattening on a large scale. PART V POULTRY PRODUCTS CHAPTER XXVII VARIETY OF PRODUCTS Pouttry keeping affords a variety of products, the num- ber being probably greater than in any other branch of agri- culture. These products may be of two kinds: Perishable and partially perishable. Dressed poultry is of a highly per- ishable nature and must be shipped well iced or in cold storage. Eggs and live birds are less perishable in nature, and can be shipped considerable distance without material injury, which can not be said of milk and butter, the most important of dairy products. The demand for poultry products is constantly increasing, especially for table eggs and dressed poultry. This growing demand is probably due to the increasingly high price of beef and pork; hence eggs are more and more used to take the place of meat. Utility and Fancy Products.—We frequently hear the terms “utility” and “fancy” applied to poultry. The term “utility”? means poultry bred exclusively for food. “Fancy” means birds sold either for breeding purposes or for fancy feathers. To-day there is much closer co-operation between these two lines of poultry production than ever before, while there is also a growing demand for birds with high utility value. Utility, in this sense, means the ability to yield a product which is in steady demand for consumption as human food. The poultry keeper more and more appreciates the fact, that to be profitable, his flock must yield utility products ss well as be valuable for exhibition. More attention is now 242 VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 273 being paid to pure bred poultry; therefore, it is to be hoped that all true utility poultrymen will aim to have their birds well bred, vigorous, and of a standard type. POULTRY PRODUCTS All poultry products yielded by the average flock, which can be sold to bring in revenue, can be grouped into three general classes. First, products sold for food; second, prod- ucts for breeding purposes or the reproduction of other birds; third, miscellaneous products, commonly called by- products. In the following discussion poultry products will be divided into these three groups, and briefly discussed. FOOD PRODUCTS Poultry products which can be used for food are of two varieties, eggs and meat. Table Eggs.—Table eggs constitute the bulk of all poultry products, being produced by every flock in America. The profits resulting therefrom depend upon the outlay necessary to secure the products. There is a great demand for table eggs, especially in large cities, and they must be of uniform quality, as regards freshness. Some highly specialized markets demand eggs which are uniform as to shell, while retail markets call especi- ally for eggs uniform in shape, size, and general appearance (Fig. Fic. 150.—Table eggs of good 150). Eggs are in demand at ®t’; perked jp cartons This all seasons; im the winter we GePig) 18 nelail tds or where find the biggest demand in cities, ‘°°su™°™ in summer at seashore and other summer resorts. The demand is so constant that it does not materially affect their cost, the supply being the factor which controls the price. During the months when hens produce but few 274 POULTRY PRODUCTS eggs, the price is high. Jn summer and even more so in the early spring when hens are producing heavily, eggs are cheap. Prices vary continually during the year, ranging from twenty-three to sixty cents. In wholesale markets, an average price of from thirty to thirty-five cents per dozen should be realized. Eggs are divided into three classes, fresh, held, and storage. Fresh eggs are those which have been carefully handled, and are shipped immediately after laying to the point of distribution. Held eggs are those which have been held by the farmer or poultryman for some time after being laid. The incentive for holding them is the belief that prices will go up, and that more money can be gotten for them. Held eggs are usually of inferior quality, and the air cell is apt to be large, due to evaporation. They do not bring as high a market price as fresh eggs. Storage eggs are those which have been in cold storage, the temperature being kept at a low point by artificial refrigeration. Such eggs, if properly packed, and not kept longer than six to eight months, are good when taken out. It costs on an average from six to sixteen cents to produce one dozen eggs. This varies, of course, considerably, with seasons, being high in winter, and low in summer. It also varies with the breed kept, and the age of the layers. Pullets produce eggs more cheaply than hens. Leghorns produce more cheaply than heavier breeds. The amount of production will vary with season and breed. Different flocks of hens may average from 120 to 150 eggs, but in order to attain this average hens must be good layers in cold, winter weather. The profit to be realized from com- mercial egg production varies somewhat with the breed and size of the flock kept. Birds in good health, producing the amount specified, should yield a profit of from $1.00 to $2.50 per year. Commercial egg production is a profitable branch of poultry keeping, but more attention might be paid to this source of income with the average flock. VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 275 Market Poultry.—Poultry designed for the table may be classified into three groups: Broilers, roasting chickens, and fowls. The demand for these three different classes depends largely upon the means of the customer. In buying broilers and roasters, quality is what the high prices are paid for. With fowls, quantity is the object desired by the consumer, hence lower prices prevail. Broilers.—Broilers are young chickens that are usually sold when from ten to fifteen weeks old. To bring the best prices, they must have been quickly grown and must be Fic. 151.—White Leghorn broilers plucked and ready for delivery. These birds are twelve wecks old, weigh about two pounds each, and are called medium broilers. plump (Fig. 151). Three types are called for by the trade: Small, medium, and large. Small broilers weigh about one and one-half pounds, and large ones sometimes two and one- half pounds apiece. Broilers, especially the small type, are frequently sold by the pair. They are demanded by high- class hotels and restaurants, and by well-to-do families. There is not much meat on them, but they are considered rather a delicacy. There are two seasons for broilers: First, the special or artificial season, which is during the winter and early spring. 276 POULTRY PRODUCTS The poultryman must prepare in advance for this trade. He must hatch the chicks in the fall and winter, and have them ready for market in January, February, and March. The natural season for broilers comes in the months of May, June, and July, when the surplus cockerels which result from the hatching of pullets for layers, reach the broiler age. Most of the broilers sold are raised as a side line to egg production. There are a few special broiler farms about the country, but, as a rule, they are not financially a success. It costs from twenty to thirty cents to produce a broiler; this includes the egg and the feed. Prices vary considerably during the special broiler season in the winter, and there is a noticeable drop in price about the first of June, when the natural supply floods the market. The largest profits are realized from broilers if they can be made marketable before the natural supply reaches the market. Roasting Chickens.—The term ‘‘roasting chickens” ap- plies both to pullets and cockerels sold for roasting, and usually marketed when from eight to ten months old. The idea is to market them just before they reach maturity. There are two market types, the small and large roaster. The small roaster ranges in weight from four to five pounds, the large from six to eight (Fig. 152). The natural roasting season is in the fall and winter, and the heaviest demand usually comes in the holiday seasons of Thanksgiving and Christmas. Roasters bring a price of from twenty-four to thirty cents a pound, and they can be made very profitable if grown on free range. There are three types of roasting chickens: Cockerels, pul- lets, and capons. Cockerels are generally produced as a by- product to egg farming, and are marketed for roasting during August, September, and October. In a few sections they are produced purposely to cater to the roasting trade, and then they undergo a fattening process to put them in prime con- dition for market. Pullets are rarcly sold for roasters except VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 277 when bred on special roaster farms, to be sold as roasters to the large fattening establishments in the central part of the country. The highest priced roasting chicken is known as the milk and corn fed pullet, a plump but immature bird, which, by a special method of fattening, is put into prime condition for eating. Capons possess many advantages over the cockerel. They can be produced much more cheaply; they grow to a larger size, the quality of the meat is much better, and they bring a higher price (Fig. 153). The price for a cockerel roaster averages about 26 cents, and for a capon roaster about 34 cents. The demand is steady and Fic, 152.—Six small roasters, weighing four pounds each. Note the plumpness, which is necessary if they are to be in demand for eating. constantly increasing, and the time is coming when a poultry- man, to realize the largest profits from his male birds, must resort to caponizing. Fowls.—Fowls are old hens: They are usually marketed ‘after their pullet or second year in the laying pen; but they bring a fair price in the market at any season of the year. They are especially in demand in the large markets in the late summer and early fall, and the immense Jewish trade materially affects prices durmg the Jewish holidays. Fowls are often bought and sold alive, but market poultry will usually bring the highest prices when shipped dressed. POULTRY PRODUCTS Fia. 153.—A Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel and capon. The capon is shown with the neck, wing and thigh feathers unplucked. This capon weighs one pound more than the cockerel at the same age. The capon makes the best market poultry. VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 279 PRODUCTION OF POULTRY FOR BREEDING PURPOSES OR REPRODUCTION Eggs and birds sold for breeding bring relatively higher pricesthan when sold for food. Abnormally high prices are not always certain, and prevail for only exceedingly good birds. The aim of the poultry keeper should be to combine in his birds both good breeding qualities and points of utility. In addi- tion to the products mentioned above considerable revenue can be brought in by the sale of hatching eggs, of baby chicks, of males and females for breeding, and of pullets for laying. Hatching Eggs.—During the months of March, April, and May, the demand for utility hatching eggs is very good. Prices range from $5.00 to $10.00 per 100. Much higher prices are received for eggs in small quantity if produced by hens of exceptionally fine quality. The possibilities in selling hatching eggs are great, especially on a commercial ege farm. Good birds can be kept, and properly mated. All eggs from such hens that are sold for hatching bring about double the price they would if sold for food, and this increased revenue is all profit. Baby Chicks.—There is a great demand for baby chicks, and it reaches its height in April, May, and June. The chicks are hatched in large numbers at commercial plants, and shipped immediately after hatching. If properly packed they can be sent considerable distances without injury. Baby chicks of good quality stock usually bring from $10.00 to $20.00 dollars per 100. The profits of the baby chick business are excellent, if one has good facilities for hatching them. Birds for Breeding.—Strong and vigorous adult birds for breeding can usually be disposed of in large numbers during the winter and early spring, and bring a good price; this ranges from $3.00 to $10.00 apiece. They often bring more than this, but in order to do so must be of exceptionally fine quality (Fig. 154). The selling of breeding birds can not be developed to any great extent on commercial poultry farms. 280 POULTRY PRODUCTS Pullets for Layers——The demand for pullets, fully grown, to be used in the laying flock is usually greatest in August and September, and prices range from $1.00 to $2.00 apiece. Such birds can be grown at a cost of from 60 to 85 cents; if free range is available, they will net the poultryman considerable profit. Fig. 154.—An ideal bird to be used or sold for breeding. Note especially the full breast and signs of high vitality. BY-PRODUCTS There are two by-products of the poultry yard that are worthy of care. These are feathers and poultry manure. The feathers are considered quite a marketable product, if many birds are dressed, as they can be sold for 20 to 40 cents a pound. If not produced in large enough quantities for market they can be utilized in making pillows, etc., at home. When the feathers are to be saved the birds should be plucked dry, the feathers then spread out and thoroughly aired before they are bagged up. VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 281 Poultry manure for fertilizing purposes should be kept in a dry place, and well mixed with gypsum or dry loam. A flock of 100 birds will produce in a year between 500 and 600 pounds (Fig. 155). The product is highly fertile, and well adapted for use in the home garden. If there is considerable quantity, it can be sold for from $3.00 to $4.00 a ton. LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 68.—Fresh and Held Eggs.—Take one dozen fresh eggs and place on a shelf in the schoolroom and leave there for five or six weeks. At the expiration of this time Fie. 155.—The amount of droppings voided by one henin a year. The average is estimated at from fifty to sixty pounds, only a small portion of which can be collected and saved. secure one dozen strictly fresh eggs. Compare the held and fresh eggs as regards the following points: Flavor, raw and cooked, size of air cell, shell lustre, hardness or toughness of yolk sac when the egg is broken and allowed to run into a dish. Why is the air cell larger in the held egg? Exercise No. 69.—Weight of HEggs—Have the pupils bring to class a dozen eggs each from as many flocks as pos- sible. Weigh each dozen eggs and have determined the average weight per egg. If eggs can be secured from different breeds the comparison will be all the more interesting. 282 POULTRY PRODUCTS Exercise No. 70.—Weight of Broilers —Weigh a number of chickens about ten to sixteen weeks of age. Determine the different classes into which they would fall if shipped to market at that time. Examine the condition of plumpness and compactness. Do these factors appear to be one of breed, or care and feeding, or both? Exercise No. 71.—Curing Feathers—When birds are plucked as called for in a later exercise on killing and pick- ing, save the feathers, being careful to keep them clean. Dry and cure them as described. When cured a pillow or other useful article may be made for the schoolroom. Weigh the feathers before and after curing. Determine the weight of feathers obtained from each bird. THOUGHT QUESTIONS . How does the variety of poultry products compare with those from other lines of agriculture? Poultry raising may be for what two general purposes ? What about the demand for poultry products? What is meant by utility and fancy poultry products? Which type of product is of most importance? Into what three groups can all marketable poultry products be divided? . Discuss fully table eggs as a poultry product. . What profit can usually be realized from egg production? . Discuss broilers as a marketable product. . What about market prices and profit from broilers? . Enumerate the important facts which treat of roasting chickens as a marketable product. 12. Enumerate the different poultry products which are sometimes sold for breeding or propagating purposes. 13. When is the natural demand for eggs for hatching? 14. What prices are generally received for hatching eggs? 15. What are the possibilities in producing baby chicks for sale as such? 16. Discuss the production and sale of breeding birds. 17. What prices can usually be obtained from the sale of mature pullets for laying? 18. What prices should be received for feathers? 19. How should feathers be prepared for market? 20. What method should be followed in order to properly preserve the poultry droppings? 7 SOHN SRW — an Reference.—United States Farmers’ Bulletin 452, Capons and Caponizing. CHAPTER XXVIII PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS Tue demand for certain poultry products varies in differ- ent sections, and in different seasons. The market calls for certain distinct features. It should be the aim of the poultry keeper to study the markets, and cater to the specific demand for products. It is an interesting fact that in Boston and throughout New England the markets demand and pay & premium for brown-shelled eggs. The New York markets demand and pay a premium for white-shelled eggs. In Philadelphia and its vicinity there is no discrimination as to shell. The preparation necessary to make any poultry product meet the demand costs but little, while the increase in selling prices is often quite material. So the poultry keeper, whether he has a small or large amount of poultry produce, ought to take pride in making it look neat and attractive. SPECIAL PREPARATION OF POULTRY AND EGGS FOR MARKET In this chapter we will discuss some of the details which need careful attention when preparing poultry products for market. Eggs.—Egegs shipped to market should always be of good quality and strictly fresh. No male birds should ever be permitted with the laying flocks at any time except the breeding season in the spring. H this precaution is taken the eggs will be infertile, and these are much better than fertile eggs. They never develop into chicks. They keep longer in cold storage, do not show blood rings, and are superior from every point of view. The nests for laying hens should be kept clean, and provided with plenty of fresh litter. If eggs are laid in dirty, filthy nests some of the 283 284 POULTRY PRODUCTS filth is apt to make them deteriorate in quality, because the filth may get inside through the pores of the shells (Fig. 156). Eggs for food should be collected regularly, and at least once a day. They should never be taken from stolen nests or the incubator, for such eggs are usually of poor quality, Fic. 156.—Undesirable types of eggs for market. The lower egg is clean and normal as to size and shape. The others are dirty, thin-shelled, or cracked. Such eggs should be kept at home. and may contain blood spots. In collecting eggs, be careful not to break the shell. A crack in the shell will allow the contents to leak out, run over other eggs, and spoil their appearance. After collection the eggs should be sorted and packed immediately. First, grade them according to the color of the shell, packing and shipping white- and brown- PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS 285 shelled eggs separately, particularly if the market pays a pre- mium for one color over the other. To a certain extent, eggs should also be graded according to their size, putting in one box only eggs as nearly as possible of a uniform size. Ex- ceptionally large or exceptionally small eggs should be kept for home use. If the market is high grade, it may be well to candle the eggs to make sure that none have blood spots. Blood spots may form in strictly fresh eggs, owing to injury of the oviduct during the formation of the egg. Pack the eggs in strong, durable cartons to avoid breakage. In packing Fig. 157. Fig. 158. Fic. 157.—A crate used in the shipping of live ieee to market. Fic. 158.—A crate used to ship exhibition or breeding birds. cases or crates of eggs, the top and bottom should be padded with excelsior or paper to keep the eggs from sudden jars and breaking. For retail or any other high class trade it may pay the poultryman to grade the eggs carefully and pack them in one-dozen boxes, these boxes being carefully labelled and sealed. Put up in this way eggs bring from three to six cents more per dozen than wholesale quotations. Live Poultry—When poultry is shipped alive it may be of two kinds. First, poultry shipped to commission mer- chants, ultimately reaching the butcher (Fig, 157). Second, breeding males and females which are sold and must be 286 POULTRY PRODUCTS shipped alive. Market poultry is shipped in small crates of about three by four feet, very lightly constructed and slatted. Crates for shipping exhibition birds are much heavier and more durable, the sides being usually solid, and the top slatted (Fig. 158). Solid sides protect birds from drafts, and also from any injury which might occur if they were allowed to stick their heads out of the crate. All live poultry should be shipped by express, and deliv- ered to the express company at such a time that they can start on their journey immediately after packing. They should be provided with water and feed. Poultry shipped alive bring a smaller price per pound, but it is often the best way in which to dispose of fowls and poor quality birds. Dressed Poultry.—The fattening of poultry has been pre- viously discussed. The preparation of dressed poultry for market consists of three distinct operations; killing, picking and packing. Birds may be killed in one of two ways. The first, and probably the most common, is beheading, or cutting off the head, as is done on farms and by inexperienced poultry keepers. Grasp the bird firmly by the feet and wings, being sure to hold it firmly to prevent fluttering. Place the head on a chopping block, and sever it from the body by one blow with a sharp axe or hatchet (Fig. 159). The bird should be held firmly for two or three minutes until bleeding and fluttering have ceased. The second method of killing is called sticking. This consists in severing with a sharp knife, the large artery in the back of the mouth (Fig. 160). This method is common in killing poultry for market. The bird is suspended by the feet, the head being on a line with the waist of the killer. The head is grasped in the left hand, and the knife in the right. With the point of the knife an incision is made at the back of the mouth on the left side. This severs the large artery and, if the head is held down, bleeding will be profuse. PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS 287 The process is then completed by inserting the knife through the slit in the top of the mouth until it hits the brain. This punctures the lower part of the brain, and makes the bird lose control of its muscles. The feathers can then be plucked A ig ayia Tag F Sicat 4 LE i. Fig, 159.—Beheading a chicken. The method of killing usually employed on farms and with small poultry flocks. more easily. Sticking is by far the best method of killing a bird for market. If the bird is for the home table, be- heading is just as satisfactory. Picking is the process of removing the plumage from the 288 POULTRY PRODUCTS Fra. 160.—The leading operations in sticking and dry picking a bird for market. A, The bird suspended by the feet. The head should be on a line with the killer's waist. B, The operator severing the artery at the back of the mouth with a sharp knife. C, Immediately after sticking, the feathers are plucked quickly and carefully. D, The bird completely picked and ready for chilling in cold water. " PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS 289 bird. Two methods prevail, known as dry picking and wet picking. In dry picking the birds are plucked immediately after killing, and if properly bled the plumage can be plucked before the animal heat has left the body. Dry picking is not used extensively except where the birds are prepared for market. The method is to suspend the birds by the feet, and then remove the feathers quickly by a downward motion of the hand, grasping the feathers by the thumb and forefinger, and pulling in the direction opposite to that in which they grew. In certain parts of the birds the skin is very tender and the feathers large, and here one must be careful not to tear the skin. These spots are usually plucked first while the feathers pull easy. Among the tender places which might be mentioned are the sides of the breast, the inner joint of the wing, the thighs, and the neck. The second method of picking is commonly called scalding. Immediately after the bird is killed immerse it in water, heated to just below the boiling point. Dip it in the water two or three times so that it is thoroughly saturated, clear to the skin. The hot water makes the feathers come out easily. As soon as the bird is scalded the feathers are rapidly plucked, pulling out a good many at a time. Scalding is usually done when birds are beheaded, and is a very satis- factory way of picking for home use. But scalding poultry for market is not a good practice; it spoils the appearance of the carcass, and prevents it from keeping well. Scalded poultry, too, does not bring as high a price as the dry picked, even though of the same quality. After the birds have been picked they should be immedi- ately immersed in cool water and left an hour or more (Fig. 161). This takes the animal heat out of the body, and makes them plump. When taken out of the water, wash the feet and shanks to remove any dirt, and the head and mouth parts to free them from any blood stains. Poultry can be shipped to market in boxes or barrels, but in either case 290 POULTRY PRODUCTS should be packed in ice. The best way is to pack the birds very tight, layer upon layer, with a considerable quantity of cracked ice placed between each layer. The amount of ice used will depend upon the season. Birds are usually packed on the side, as this makes them fit into the receptacle more closely and neatly. When shipped long distances they are usually dry packed, and shipped in cold storage or re- , frigeratorcars. Dressed poul- try shipped only short dis- tances to market should always be sent by express. Hatching Eggs.—The great , essential in the hatching egg is high fertility; this means 4 good, vigorous germs which will hatch into strong chicks. In shipping eggs for hatching | the poultryman should aim i to give satisfaction. Eggs must be what they are repre- sented to be. Hatching eggs should always be selected with special regard to uniformity in shape, size and color. Only those with uniformly hard and smooth: shells should be sold, and they should be very carefully packed. In small quantities they can be wrapped in excelsior, and shipped in corrugated pasteboard boxes with separate compartments (Fig. 162). Large quantitiesmay be wrapped in excelsior and packed in large, thirty-dozen cases. Hatching eggs are often shipped in market baskets, the eggs being packed in paste- board fillers, and the entire basket lined with excelsior. It should be plainly labelled so as to receive careful handling. All eggs for hatching should be shipped by express. Baby Chicks.—The trade in baby chicks has developed a special container in which to ship them, and the best time one hour immediately after picking. PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS 291 to ship them is immediately after they are taken from the incubator. At this age they have still within their bodies the absorbed yolk, which will supply them with food for a considerable time. If they are allowed to remain in the incubator or brooder for two or three days, and are then shipped, there is apt to be a heavy mortality, Corrugated pasteboard boxes, especially for shipping chicks, can be procured. They are divided into two small compartments [EGGS.mes. Fig. 162.—Fifteen hatching eggs packed in a corrugated pasteboard box for shipment by parcels post. Note how each egg is wrapped in felt and then inserted in a separate compartment protected by many layers of packing material. and are well ventilated. In these 25 to 100 chicks can be safely shipped. Baby chicks should always be plainly labelled, so as to insure careful handling and quick delivery. In conclusion, it may be said that two principles are fun- damental, and should be borne in mind when preparing poultry for the trade. The first of these is that quality means higher prices, the satisfaction of customers, and busi- ness in the future. The second is that the poultry keeper should try in every way possible to meet the market demand for the particular product which he has for sale (Fig.163). 292 POULTRY PRODUCTS LABORATORY EXERCISES Exercise No. 72.—Grading and Packing Market Eggs.— Have each member of the class bring to school fresh eggs in any number desired. Secure one or more shipping crates, depending upon the number of eggs to be brought. Go over the eggs carefully before the class, grade them according to instructions in the text. Candle them, letting each student handle his own eggs before the candle. The room may be ZpBre EGGS of Hy (en QUALITY LITTLE-BROTHERS-POULTRY-FARM: QUALITY r “ARKET pours® Fia. 163.—A neat trade mark for the young poultryman to use on his best products, which he sells retail. This will advertise his flock and bring him customers. darkened for this work, in which case the whole class can take part. Use the same candle used for testing incubator eggs. After grading, pack the eggs for shipment and ship to some wholesale market. When the returns are received, the amount can be divided pro rata among the pupils bringing eggs. Oftentimes an exercise of this kind will lead to some sort of co-operative marketing in the community. The school can often take a leading part in such efforts. Exercise No. 73.—Stiching and Dry Picking—Demon- strate to the class the proper method to bleed, stick, and dry PREPARATION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS 293 pick poultry. One or possibly a number of birds can be used. If the teacher is not qualified to do this work, a capable and willing person in the community can usually be secured. A bird may be scalded and picked at the same time to show the difference in appearance after picking. Exercisse No. 74.—Shipping Packages.—A small amount of effort will be required to secure a considerable assortment of boxes and crates such as are in common use in shipping poultry and eggs.