oaees Sr. aeeeaast Saree aati -_ ‘Silver IbacedRolishsics nijk.aied ia.pehmadenice' gence paboiedids Si ace RSs 43 26. Bralinas: 400.226 4s gate adware ere oe Radi ae alee ay dawew awe oats 47 277s White: COCHIN: csse-i eee vino miache oon top els 'y aa eile Mand Ree SiS OE 49 28. Partridge Cochins................... Suan reuse awe Pow yee Rae me 50 295, White angshans)¢ .-ouy veo saiaeeee yaaa SOR oe SgGt Pe bam teen 52 30. Barred Plymouth Rocks. ........0 0... ee eee eee 54 31. Columbian Plymouth Rocks..............0.0.0000002000000008 55 32; Silver” Wyandottese tcp xauurschcocass dest) Soci os nai ded auludhd am Agi eee wo 56 33. Columbian Wyandottes... 2.0.20. 57 34., Rhodé. sland: Reds oni ccc puss et Gace ne panned ERR Yaaro ES 58 355 Black: \avasie,..:3 dikes ee Bs, SRAG ec RAS head eae PLES 59 3.0: BUCKEYES cu aariahins OG) Raw aa aes HEE ee? gee EAE Rha Aa ae AS eae eg 60 37.- BlaCkiORpINStOMSisicaise ses and techn ea eid a ha pe anes Owe Ba a 62 38. White Orpingtons......... Atig peta eye Naw esos eae PoeT eee 64 39. Silver-Gray Dorkings........... eG a ee BM RS Bae ELE A Pew how Saad 65 40. Rose Comb White Dorkings... 0... .......0 00000 c cece eee eee 66 Als. White: Faverolles e456 sooo cue gals see teas heal earn LaH ALR n O4A 67 AQ. Wa: Fleche-POw1S). 0.2665 san oted bene pay dane nd ahie Sa aawens ee 68 BG os CHEVECOCUTS wi idcoie-cncned © 5 ayn adh. UMUn Mie PON eee HUOMOIA Ge Aerie SNS Oak 69 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. PAGE 44. White-Crested Black Polish. ........0.0.0.0 0.000 cece eee een eees 71 45. Bearded Golden: Polishts wc aude ua agarsisln Hee pRaO GEE SOME MEY CERNE 72 46. Non-Bearded White Polish........ 0.0.0.0... 0 ccc ccc ce cee e cence 73, 47. Silver Duckwing 'Gamesss 65 c25 564544408405 4 echo gee won ene nec ad 74 48. Red Pyle Game Bantams...........0..00 00000 c ccc eee eee ees 75 49. White Cornish Fowls...... eis ays ac eMLGL Ss cata acess Btls Stead 76 50. Silver Sebright Bantams. ........... 0.0000. c cece eee eens 77 51. Rose-Comb White Bantams............... 0.00.00 c eee ee eevee 78 52, White Cochin Bantams....,... 0... 00 cccee cen cu vee ewweeeenees 79 53. White Japanese Bantams... ........... 0.0... cece cence eens 80 54. Colony houses on range... 0... 00. eect eee ane 83 Bb Central 6G Plants. sic, cece ayes ascrmsertctrtcqassend eemeeci els sarGnatedcbbe dblabia igen gl dupioes 84 56. Laying house in grove of trees......... 0.0 eee cence 85 57. Box-packed poultry for shipment.....................00000 000s 87 5S. Archi: of: poultry Successes wticieicka ae aie ay are okie ae < ORES we ae x OLE 88 59. Broiling chickens packed for shipment.....................2.44. 90 60. Roasting chickens packed for shipment......................... 92 61. Dressed poultry in cartons... 1.0.0.0... cc cece eee eee eee 93 62. Wagon load of live poultry... 0... 0. 96 63. Suburbanite’s poultry plant. .........0...00..0. 000 coe 97 64« Fowls:on free ranges ais is icsacaw vom dntnie wakw ddie doyenaninta b guice ann. enese 98 65.. “A good hatch. 00. cease cen en Moro eee auton ieae nel acerca 99 66,, Aluminum lee bands. oo cccmavecadgoved sd seele enkon wikaeed arena Ges 100 67. Making incision for wing band.................00000.00000 000 101 O8y- Wink Dard aii placer. in olasnnehe ay RauUA ere aann ead dat ni ea Hoe ucsmmened ae 102 69. Methods of marking toes of chicks.....................000 0005. 103 70. Laying house on sloping ground.......... Bec taene MeSictaie Ok he adeloes ju 105 7i., Outdoor feed HOPPery ss ia iscs cane owe erm wee anteaneew Tevians aesacciga ee 106 72. Substantial set of poultry buildings....................000000.. 107 73. Plans for medium-size hen house... .................. 0000000 110 VA.. Site: forsanitary: yardss . Plans ‘Storrs’ traponest. a4 sence esac e pAag agate ans auaens nae 168 118. Corner of well-designed laying house...............0....0000005 169 119. Plans of Maine trap nest............. Seem Rohe Baws een ais dened 170 120. Single-compartment trap nest............0200 ec e ee eee eee ee 172 121. Two-compartment trap nest... 0.0.0.0... 0000. c cece cece 173 122. Feed house in center of laying house................ 0000s eee eee 176 123. Feed carrier suspended from track...........0.0.00 000 cece eee 178 124. Automatic feed hopper................ 00000 e cece eee 180 125. Outdoor feed hopper on skids.... 0.0.20... 0.00.00. c cece eee 182 126. Overhead rail system for feed.....................04. SF hy ton aoa 185 127. Designs for feed hoppers... .......0.. 00 ccc cece cence eens 188 128. Outdoor feed hopper.... 2.0.2.2... 0c c cece cece eens 190 129. Low-wheeled truck for feeding range.............0..0 000 cece I9I 130. Growing stock on alfalfa pasture... 2.20.0... 002 e cee eee 195 1314 .Fowls scratching... os 0 s1051 cnvagns ee bous See Yr aagwsaaresen gers & 197 132, Chick fountains... g 403 263. Eggs during period of incubation............... 0000. c evens 405 264. Fertile and infertile eggs... ......0.....00 000 eee eee 407 265. Vegetable cellar for storing eggs... 6... cece eee 408 266. Gravity test for telling age of eggs... 2.0.0... 0... ee ee eee 409 267. Freight car for shipping live poultry............... 21 Uh gia eave a 411 268;. Avfull houses eye ons ease we sume ois beers Chelan ome ena seen is ae 414 269. Refrigerator car loaded with poultry....................00 0000. 415 270. Candling eggs at farmer’s gate... 0.6... eee 419 27%. Stolen nest In tteé: cs 4¢eacnecacss Reeteeteehedeg wed Cee DH RES SRS 420 272. Other stolen nests.................. on Gass ee Soe ees 422 273. Typical forms of egg breakage............ ciginns "DIE + Sy a ane Racotiah = 424 274. Grading and packing eggs............. och yeh, Wee Aan eee ae 427 275. Well-equipped feeding plant....... ....... Sten Recta 428 276. Interior of a feeding plant............ ES Upham He lycra mean ahonaeds 430 277. Metal chilling racks................. O asiarhe IeNEs cahewe nates 432 278. Bench killing and picking............... Ho % °° "eeanpheris 434 279. California type of laying house.......... as Sisebacel Aatinameues 437 280, Elevated laying houses... ........0.0 00000 cece eee nee 439 281. Preparing water glass... 60.0... nee 440 282. Receptacles for preserving eggs... 2.6.22 eee nes 441 283. Examining eggs by means of candler.. ............ 0 «0. ae 2 284. Arrangement of houses and runs. ............... 0.000 e cece e eee 443 285. Indiana, poultry house: <3.cccocssawesia pew amas a es een ede paurwle 446 286. Metal chilling racks for hanging poultry........................ 448 287. Small fattening. station jcc 6 cane dpe aah oa Gow neewae'sau we wok ees 450 288. Removing small feathers from poultry....................00.... 453 289. String killing and picking. ...................00..0 cece eee eee 454 290. Holding birds on lap while picking...........0....0.........2.. 455 291. Glossary chart of the sections of a fowl.....................00.. 458 292. Catching coop for fowls... 0... 6. eee 459 293. Well-arranged poultry exhibit....... tee) Seba See aks aaah 462 294. Prize-winning Black Langshan...... 0.00... 00.0002 eee eee eee 465 205 Skeleton of a fowls p Be aaane Zee Dey 4 505 Well-proportioned poultry house.......... 0.00000 e eee 506 White Pekin ducklings... 0.0... 507 Painting the perches with crude oil... 0.2... cece 510 Dusting a fowl with insect powder... ......000.000 00: cece eee 511 Spraying the roosting compartments. ...............00000 eee eee 513 Outfit for whitewashing... 0... ccc eee 515 Interior of pigeon-houses.« 15 seu'shi'e sy dae gene seuery Se ves eae Nek 517 Pekin: ducks s6o ues ae oie ek gow ids ooo s ube Sees BOSSA ERE ES 520 White Muscovy ducks: o 210: s2usae) yee sabuad eee coed ae eee dees 521 Indian. Runner ducks. o. s5 64. ce ecb ova ed ces peda ea ae nae ce 522 Aylesbury ducks......... Jyolgtndbiings Hui 0) Sas ddan geahaftd oyae S aelenangny asse/anoph di 524 ROUEH ACRES ia: & esac ave hr vosadedt 0:8 Lane Seber ab ecnte ds 9 olbeshl dose Bel Bek Be WON 525 Ducks are heavy: drinkers... 00 pce ciy pa pak pe aaa Kea aN A Oo Oe 526 Toulouse geese................. Cuca. egonen ae ena ger == === aaa x ee ae =" T | = if 1 t er it Lea an i 2 ss az LU — — ; = a MH 12G Division strips soos once C66-CAE PULLED Top view (California Experiment Station) Fig. 164.—Plans for a revolving hatching egg cabinet. There is a commonplace that round eggs will hatch pullets and long eggs cockerels. This is a notion and should not be taken seriously. The shape of an egg is influenced entirely by the contour of the oviduct in which it is cast, and has nothing to do with the sex of its embryo. For further proof of this, we ob- KEEPING HATCHING EGGS 261 serve that the hen laying a long egg or round egg will continue to lay the form peculiar to her with very little variation, pro- viding she is not frightened or injured in any way. Freshness.—Common sense teaches us that freshness is a prime necessity in hatching eggs. Successful poultrymen aim to set eggs as soon as possible after they are laid. Not only be- cause eggs a day or two old hatch from 12 to 24 hours earlier than those kept a couple of weeks, but because the longer an egg is kept the more evaporation takes place, which weakens its vitality. If eggs are held in too low a temperature, the chilling is likely to injure them. If they are stored where it is too warm Fig. 165.—End view and section of egg cabinet as shown in Fig. 164. the development of the germ is apt to start, and later die. A temperature of about 50 degrees F. seems to be best. The eggs should not be permitted to stand in a direct draft, or exposed to steam, vapor or fumes of a deleterious nature. The shells of eggs are exceedingly porous, therefore they are pre- disposed to outside influences. It is a bad plan to wash eggs intended for incubation. If they are so dirty as to make this necessary, they had better be discarded altogether.. Moisture only helps to convey any soiled matter into the interior of the egg through the pores in the shell. In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be gathered several times a day to prevent chilling, and in hot weather they 262 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING should be collected frequently to avoid heating. If they are to be kept more than two or three days before being set, it is best to turn them oncea day. There are revolving egg cabinets made for this purpose (see Fig. 164), but equally satisfactory results can be had by packing the eggs in an ordinary egg crate and turn- ing it over gently from day to day. This is done to prevent the yolk, also the germ, from gravitating to the membranous lining of the shell and adhering to it. A little attention paid to the foregoing simple directions will work wonders in the possibilities of hatching eggs, and will in- sure much better results in the brooder. It is another applica- tion of the doctrine of preparedness, CHAPTER XIX TESTING EGGS DURING INCUBATION Inasmuch as all eggs are not fertile, and because all fertile eggs do not contain embryos that develop properly, it has be- come a rule to test the eggs during the period of incubation, first for fertility, and later for the strength of the embryo. It will be readily understood why this information is desirable: In the first place, by removing the infertile or clear eggs, which may be used for culinary purposes or hard boiled and fed to little chicks, additional room will be created on the egg trays, which means greater ease and convenience in the operation of the incubator. Then again, if the dead germs are removed the egg chamber is more easily kept free from bad odors, and this is a worthy factor. Since there is no way to determine if an egg is fertile before placing it in the incubator, we must endeavor to gain this in- formation while the eggs are being hatched. Claims have been made that fertility can be told before incubation. These theories have no basis in scientific fact. They are usually offered for some pecuniary gain, and should be discarded. Construction of an Egg.—The yolk of a fresh egg floats in a dense mass of albumen, popularly known as the white, which is in the form of layers. These layers are particularly noticeable in the hard-boiled egg. Attached to the yolk are two cords, called the chalaza. The office of these cords is to suspend the yolk in the white and keep it from injury, and to keep the life germ which is attached to the vitelline membrane of the yolk in a certain position where it will receive the fullest effect of heat during incubation. See chapter on the development of an egg. Experiment and you will soon see that no matter how you twist or turn an egg, the yolk will always return to a definite position. 263 264 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING That is—it will do so providing the egg is fresh. These cords, or chalaza, lose strength with age, the albumen becomes thin and watery, and the yolk, instead of being supported in the center of the white, settles or gravitates to the surface, where it finally adheres to the membranous lining of the shell. In time the vitelline membrane which surrounds the yolk loses its strength and ruptures, and thereby allows the escape of the yellow sub- stance—called the vitellus—into the albumen. (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) Fig. 166.—Turning and cooling eggs for hatching. There are several fallacies in connection with the production of eggs which all breeders should aim to clarify. One is that a pen of fowls must be headed by a male bird for the production of eggs. Another idea is that only fertile eggs contain life germs, sometimes called germinal spots. Still another supposition is that the germ contains an infinitesimally small chick, and that the process of development is simply enlargement. All of these ideas are logical enough in their conception: nevertheless all are wrong. NECESSITY FOR MALE BIRDS 265 The presence of the male is not essential to the production of eggs. Hens will lay just as well without his society as with him. Some breeders claim that their hens do better without males. I do not think there is anything of importance to this idea, ex- cept in rare cases where it might be found that a large number of males were annoying the hens. If anything, I am inclined to think that egg production is slightly improved by the presence of a few males. They are very attentive in the matter of lo- cating food, and in escorting the flock afield, which induces exer- cise and encourages foraging. This value, however, is more (California Experiment Station) Fig. 167.—Plans for an electric egg candler or tester. than offset by the disadvantage in having fertile eggs at times when they are not required for hatching purposes, because they are so easily affected by heat. These days the slogan is—‘‘swat the rooster,” and in the long run it is a good rule. Now for the second fallacy: An egg, whether fertile or not, has a small grayish spot the size of a pin-head on the surface of the yolk, known as the life germ, because it is the vital principle of the egg. If an egg is broken into a saucer, this germ is usually plainly visible to the naked eye; sometimes it is quite con- spicuous. Examine it closely; if it has a clear outer rim or circle 266 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING with little white dots in the center, it is fertile. The infertile germ is whitish in appearance and lacks the clear outer ring. The activity of this life germ is temporarily suspended as soon as the egg is laid. But as soon as the egg becomes heated to the proper temperature, either by contact with the hen’s body or by other means, its development is resumed. It has been found that this germ contains no definite organs, but that its function is to reproduce other cells like itself, each enlarging and reproducing more cells with the same functions, which ultimately establish the form and body of the chick. Signs of Life——After about 24 hours’ incubation life is per- Dead Germ Fertile Egg Infertile Egg (California Experiment Station) Fig. 168.—Appearance of hatching eggs through candle on seventh day of in- cubation. ceptible, but only if the egg is broken open. Blood-vessels may be seen, and on the third day the heart appears. On the fourth day the eye can be distinguished, and from the eye and heart blood-vessels radiate in all directions, which, to the mind of the candler, resemble a sort of spider. See Fig. 168. This network of blood-vessels continues to grow until it completely surrounds the shell membrane. Its function is to take up oxygen penetrat- ing the shell, and act as a respiratory apparatus until the lungs are completed on or about the nineteenth day. The lungs start to take form on the fifth day, and on the seventh day the bill is noticeable. The bones are pretty well shaped by DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 267 the ninth day, later the muscles of the wings are visible, and by the eleventh day the arteries are quite distinct. Up to the end of the first week the embryo lies very still, after which it shows unmistakable signs of voluntary motion. The yolk is now per- ceptibly thinner, for the growing embryo draws heavily upon it (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) Fig. 169.—Testing hatching eggs. for nourishment. The feathers are well developed by the four- teenth day; on the eighteenth day the first cry is usually heard. On the day following the yolk should be nearly all taken into the body. The beak of the chick then breaks through the membrane into the air cell, after which it soon pips the shell and extricates itself. 268 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Testing Eggs.—It is customary to test hatching eggs twice, the first time on or about the seventh day, for fertility, in which the clear eggs are removed; and the second time at the end of the second week, though some operators, if they make their first test on the seventh day, which is pretty sure to remove most of the dead germs, prefer to make the last test on the evening of the eighteenth day, when the eggs are turned and cooled for the last time, and the machine is to be closed until the hatch is completed. The shells of white eggs are so translu- cent that they can be tested on the third day, which is a big convenience. The shells of brown are so dense and thick that it is difficult to see the contents with any de- gree of accuracy until the seventh day. The process of test- : | ing eggs is simple Fig. 170.—Simple egg candling outfit—ordinary enough after od little lamp and cardboard box. experience is acquired. It consists mainly in holding the egg between the eye and a strong light, which illu- minates the interior of the egg. In fact, it is precisely the same as candling eggs. See Fig. 169. Egg Testers.—There are many types of egg testers on the market, and the manufacturers of incubators usually furnish one with each machine. The simplest device is a tube or chim- ney of tin to fit over an oil lamp, and on one side of the tube there is a small opening, against which the egg is held for an examina- tion. See Fig. 170. Eggs may also be tested by sunlight, using Cha Wee ( ee fy fa HOW TO TEST EGGS 269 a shutter or curtain with a small hole in it for the light to shine through. Evening is the best time to make a test by artificial light. Arrange all the details as conveniently as possible before the eggs are removed from the machine, especially for the first test, as the work should be done rapidly to avoid prolonged exposure. Have a low table, large enough to accommodate two egg trays, and locate them on either side of the tester. Two baskets should be placed near at hand, one for the clear eggs, and the other for the dead germs. One by one the eggs are held before the spot of light from ren the tester. If fertile, they are placed = A-————_\.--. 14th day on the empty tray, and if infertile or Coos dead, they go into one of the two baskets. Experience soon teaches the most unfamiliar operator how to distin- guish between the spoiled egg and the egg which is developing properly. And there is no difficulty at all in _ SASH EERE EE See detecting the clear egg. If the for- of Pat oa aaa oe mation appears asa black, station- during period of incubation. ary spot, the egg is one that was fer- tile, but the germ of which is now dead. Other manifestations of a dead germ are blood rings, which indicate a hemorrhage, or, if the albumen appears cloudy and watery, it is a sign that life has started and then died. See Fig. 168. Some dead germs show only a streak of blood. Eggs from the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, often run so high in fertility that some breeders do not bother to test them for fertility at all, preferring to test them but once— about the fourteenth day—for dead germs. Or the eggs may be given their first test without handling, by passing an electric torch. under the eggs as they lie on the wire bottom of the incu- bator trays, which quickly discloses the clear ones. CHAPTER XX DAY-OLD-CHICK INDUSTRY Unique Development.—The day-old-chick industry probably constitutes the most remarkable development in the history of animal husbandry. Chick producers themselves do not boast about this achievement, and the industry is still too young to have gained the distinction to which it is rightfully entitled. In sharp contrast to other discoveries of its kind, the baby chick trade is one of those evolutions which arrived unheralded and unnoticed, but which instantly secured recognition through sheer merit alone. Accidental Beginning.—The baby chick business is unique in that the discoverer of it did not know that he had discovered anything. The idea came into being by accident, one might say. And from this accidental beginning it has progressed by leaps and bounds that are almost bewildering even to those who have made a practice of following the enormous strides taken by other branches of the poultry industry in the past twenty years. Old Idea.—We speak of the baby chick trade as a new idea, whereas it is little more than the adaptation of a very ancient practice. Artificial incubation is an old custom. It was prac- ticed by the Chinese and Egyptians centuries before the Christian Era. Tradition credits the invention to the priests of the ancient Temple of Isis. The Egyptian hatcheries, which were little more than brick ovens heated by wood fires, were public institu- tions, operated on a toll basis. The farmers brought their eggs to the hatcheries, and later they returned for the chicks. Prac- tically the same idea is carried on in this country, and it is called custom hatching. It remained for an American farmer to expand this custom 270 ORIGIN OF CHICK TRADE 271 hatching into the actual sale of baby chicks. The story goes that a poultryman agreed to do some hatching for a neighbor as an accommodation. This neighbor died suddenly while the hatch was in progress, whereupon the poultryman was at a loss to know what to do with the five hundred chicks which he had incubated. He had no facilities for brooding the extra chicks, and he could not afford to kill them. It occurred to him that some of the townspeople might buy them to place under their sitting hens. Accordingly this poultryman placed some of the chicks in a = —_, >, (Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) Fig. 172.—Series of double-deck mammoths in a large Eastern hatchery. basket, covered them over carefully to keep them warm, and set out to peddle what he conceived to be a very strange assortment of wares. Sold Out.—To makea long story short, this poultryman not only sold all of his extra chicks without any trouble, but he dis- covered that he could have disposed of hundreds more. He found that farmers and backyard poultry keepers were only too eager to avail themselves of the opportunity, and to pay a fair price for the chicks. It was an inspiration to the poultryman. He rea- soned that if farmers in his own community wanted to buy chicks 272 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING already hatched, in preference to going to the trouble of incubat- ing their own eggs, it was likely that people in other communities would want to buy them for the same reasons. Forthwith this poultryman increased his incubator capacity, and for the remainder of the season he found a ready sale for all the chicks he could hatch. The following year he added more incubators, and to-be sure of a sale for his increased output, the poultryman inserted a small advertisement in a local paper. The notice was to the effect that he had little chicks for sale, and that he would deliver or ship them when one day old. Orders came in thick and fast, and in a comparatively short time the season’s output was sold or reserved. The next year this progressive poultryman’s incubator ca- pacity was trebled, also he did more advertising. He sold out again. Most of the buyers to whom he sold the first season wanted more and more chicks. They were satisfied customers and told their friends about the scheme. Whereas the first year’s chicks were sold to farmers living in nearby sections, now orders began to come in from more distant points and from other states. The poultryman soon found that he had more business than he could possibly handle. Idea Spreads.—Then it was that others engaged in the enter- prise, until the baby chick industry quickly spread throughout the entire country. In less than five years hatcheries were dotted in almost every state from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific, and almost all reported a thriving business. To-day the chick industry has assumed operations on a gigantic scale. It has capital invested in plants and equipment running into millions of dollars. Millions of chicks are produced each year, and the demand is constantly growing. In the opinion of many, the business is still in its infancy. Capacities of Hatcheries.—Apparently the size of a hatchery has no limitation. There is one in Ohio which has an incubator capacity of over 600,000 eggs—about forty tons of eggs—at each hatching. See Fig. 174. During the spring of 1917 this establishment produced 1,500,000 chicks. Numerous other *s83a oo0‘Sz1 ‘Ayoedes {Asayoyey erusioyyeQ—' 221 “Bry {a24aumulo) fo aaquipyD DunjDjag &sajanoD) pee RR, i 273 18 274 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING hatcheries ship from a quarter to a half million chicks in a season, while scores of smaller plants turn out numbers varying from twenty thousand to a hundred thousand chicks. It is doubtful if any enterprise could make the enormous growth of the day-old-chick trade within such a short space of time, unless it possessed some peculiar advantages. That is the secret of the success of the chick trade—it has unique advantages, and natural ones. The first poultryman stumbled over them, but even he did not see the commercial possibilities atthe time. His awakening was not so much in the baby chick, as in the realization of the extent to which farmers and poultry keepers generally were disgusted with their own efforts in trying to hatch eggs. The opportunity to purchase chicks already hatched filled a long-felt want, unques- tionably the greatest want in the poultry industry. It ran counter to the familiar proverb—‘‘ Never (Courtesy Smith Standard Company) count your chickens before they Fig. 174.—One of the incubating are hatched,” of which everyone rooms ina hatchery of 600,000 egg : capacity. who had struggled with the mechanics of an incubator or the eccentricities of a perverse,hen, had the fullest appreciation. Specialization.— What is even of greater importance, the chick trade is an application of the principle of specialization. It is generally admitted that the man who devotes all his time, energy and thought to one thing exclusively is likely to become more skillful in that particular line than the man who must do the same thing and a dozen others besides: The poultryman who pro- duces baby chicks is a specialist. He has trained himself for ADVANTAGES OF CHICK INDUSTRY 275 the work. He has experimented and put into operation methods and appliances best suited to secure maximum results at the minimum cost. The beginner with poultry, who is the chick producer’s best customer, as a rule, is especially benefitted by the merits of specialization. While the beginner’s attention is occupied with a hundred and one details incident to the commencement of operations, and before he has had time to learn his own lessons in (Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) Fig. 175.—10,000 chicks ready for shipment. the economical operation of an incubator, he has at his command for a very nominal charge the services of a veteran operator. Still another advantage: If a poultryman meets with a mis- fortune of some kind, either with sitting hens, artificial incuba- tion or brooding, and there is no time in which to make a fresh start, his project sustains a severe setback, maybe for a year, except for the baby chick operator. To-day it is comforting to think that if you are caught in a tight place through unforeseen circumstances, you can turn to the baby chick man. He takes the responsibility of counting 276 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING your chickens before they are hatched. He assumes the risk of your not having broody hens early enough to produce chicks forautumn layers. Hecan furnish you with broods without your having hens at all, and in whatever quantity and at whatever time or times you want them. Hence a start can be made on short notice, and the only equipment required is a brooder. The baby chick man, perhaps, has forgotten more about the Fig. 176.—Incubator building on a large hatchery in Ohio. operation of an incubator than the average operator will ever take the time to learn. Therefore its eccentricities, if it has any, do not keep him awake nights. He is operating on a very large scale, consequently he can afford to hire the services of trained assistants. And the scale on which his business is conducted enables him to incubate an egg for maybe one-third the cost others could do it. Briefly, the baby chick man is one of the greatest assets to the poultry industry. He isa sort of fly-wheel, WHY CHICKS CAN BE SHIPPED 277 with sufficient impetus to carry other breeders over their fluctua- tions in power. As the baseball fan would say—He’s a good pinch hitter. Many were prejudiced against the day-old-chick trade at one time, and a few are still opposed to it. They feel that baby chicks, above all creatures, seem so tiny and delicate as to re- quire the utmost care and attention for the first hours of their existence, and that to ship them hundreds of miles at the mercy of a cardboard box is little short of barbarous. Others ask: “Will the little fellows survive the shipment in express cars with- out being chilled, or without permanent injury to their vitality and productiveness?”’ Natural Provision.—Let us consider these fears: Chicks re- quire neither food nor drink for the first couple of days of their life. Practically the only attention needed consists of rest, warmth and air. During the period immediately following in- cubation the chick is sustained by the assimilation of the yolk of the egg. The general practice is to allow the chicks to remain in the incubator for about twenty-four hours after the hatch is completed, then to place them in the brooder for another day before giving them food. In fact, some poultrymen do not give their first feeding until after the third day, believing that this much time is required for the proper assimilation of the yolk. In any event it is this provision of nature which gave rise to the possibility of shipping chicks long distances while they were in this dormant state. This natural provision was greatly aided by the invention and perfection of special boxes or carriers, which were designed with the idea of conserving the warmth radiated by the chicks themselves. See Fig. 175. The principle of this shipping box for chicks is much the same as the fireless cooker or the vacuum bottle, both of which were regarded rather skeptically at first. The principle is based on a very simple law, that of retaining heat or cold by non-conducting enclosures, and corresponds to the insulation in a refrigerator. One of the best packages yet devised for the shipment of baby chicks is that made from corrugated fibre-board, than which 278 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING there is no greater non-conductor of heat or cold, weight, strength and other qualities being considered. Carriers of this descrip- tion are made expressly for the purpose. They are strong,— capable of withstanding the weight of a man,—durable, easy to assemble and handle, and represent a great saving in transporta- tion charges by reason of their light weight. They are usually made in three sizes, for shipments of 25, 50 or 100 chicks; the small size containing but one compartment, the 50-chick size two compartments, and the large size four compartments. Early in the season, when the weather is quite cold, more chicks may be shipped in each box than is stated above, because the chicks huddle closely together and re- quire very little space. Similarly, in very warm weather the number should be reduced to about twenty chicks to a com- partment, to prevent over- heating. (Courtesy Smith Standard Company) : Fig. 177.—Hatchery of 600,000 egg capa- Ventilation is obtained city; 1t resembles a warehouse or refrigerat- by cutting small holes in ing plant. the sides of the box near the lid, and in such a way that drafts are prevented. In the winter very few holes will supply all the air necessary, while as the season advances, depending also upon the climate to which the shipment is made, more holes should be cut. To prevent the chicks from slipping around over the smooth surface of the bottom of the box, cut hay, straw, alfalfa or other rnaterial is placed in the bottom to give them a foothold, and to absorb any manure. If the weather is extremely cold, feathers may be substituted, which will make the little fellows as warm and comfortable as though in a brooder. As a matter of fact, these shipping boxes are precisely the same as fireless brooders, in which the heat from the chicks’ bodies is bound to keep them DISTANCES SHIPPED 279 sufficiently warm. The point to remémber is to place the correct number of chicks in a given size box. With this done, there is no question as to their security. Mortality.—A visit to any of the large hatcheries will show that it is now a common.thing to ship chicks a thousand miles and have them arrive at their destination in as healthy and active a condition as the day they were removed from the incubator. The average mortality during shipment is two per cent, which is a negligible factor, and would probably exist anyhow, in placing the chicks under the hover in a brooder for the first twenty-four hours. Most hatcheries make a practice of including -three or four extra chicks, to allow for this mortal- ity. In addition to this, they guarantee safe ar- rival and full count, and will make good anylosses, providing these are re- ported at the time the packages are delivered i , by the carrier’s agent. (Courtesy Wilton: Rae Gores A poultry plant in Fig. 178.—500 chicks ready for express ship- Maine shipped a box of ment. Corrugated boxes are slipped into a fifty chicks to a town in wooden crate for extra protection. Wyoming, a distance of 2600 miles, and only four of the birds per- ished. Another shipment was made to New Orleans, in which the chicks were two days and three nights on the road, and they arrived none the worse for their long journey. Express messengers and other railroad employees are now so accustomed to handling baby chick shipments, and they seem to have such a great deal of sympathy for them, that the shipper is usually assured of the very best treatment. Pet Shop Trade.—For the past couple of years the hatcheries have found a big outlet for chicks in pet shops and 5-and-10-cent 280 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING stores. Hundreds of thousands have been sold to eager buyers in this way, mostly to women and children who find it difficult to resist the attractiveness of little chicks. Seemingly nothing arouses the human interest so quickly as a flock of chicks, which fact constitutes a potent advantage, in that the chicks advertise themselves. Every child and most women have an impulse to love and fondle a tiny chick, though generally to the discomfort and injury of the latter. It is doubtful if this phase of the business should be encouraged. The chicks are sold almost exclusively as pets, and the stores handle them largely as a drawing card, often at prices less than they have to pay, simply to attract buyers for other goods—an advertising scheme. Very few of the chicks outlive the pet stage or serve a useful purpose, thus the practice amounts to a waste. If stores insist upon retailing chicks, they should distribute a pamphlet on the care of the birds, or make some attempt to en- lighten inexperienced persons not to kill their pets with kindness. Many of the objections against the baby chick trade were raised by fanciers who claimed that the increased sale of chicks had seriously impaired their business in breeding stock and hatching eggs, for which they were accustomed to receiving good prices. If there is any truth in this belief, which is doubtful, to complain about it is working on the wrong tack. Poultrymen must sell what the buyers want, and not what the breeders choose to offer them. It is quite evident that customers want chicks, because they represent the most convenient form of acquiring stock, in which event it is up to the fanciers to get into the chick game, as many are now doing. To oppose the progress of the chick trade is a policy that is almost certain to result in a reaction against the fancier. Appeal to Farmers.—For years State Experiment Stations and agricultural organs have been endeavoring to induce the farmers to substitute standard-bred poultry for their flocks of mongrels. But the farmer has never been a heavy buyer of hatching eggs from thoroughbred stock, chiefly because of the uncertainty of success with his hatches. Now that he can buy well-bred poultry COMPLAINTS ARE FEW 281 in the form of baby chicks, ready for the brooder, his interest is aroused, and the farmer is fast becoming a regular customer. Chick producers will do well to direct their appeal more directly to this class of trade, and not so much to the beginners. The farmers produce the bulk of our poultry, and the chances are they always will. Furthermore, they produce it more or less as a side line, at the least possible outlay for grain, labor, housing and range. (Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) Fig. 179.—Double-deck mammoth incubators of large capacity. Few Complaints.—It is curious, perhaps, but poultrymen de- clare they receive fewer complaints over the sale of baby chicks than with hatching eggs, therefore they prefer to sell chicks. This anomaly is attributed to the fact that the customer may se- cure unsatisfactory results from eggs, for which he is practically certain to blame the poultryman, when in reality the customer’s ignorance or carelessness, or the integrity of his hens or incubator, is entirely at fault. It must be admitted that any one of a dozen things can befall 282 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING a shipment of eggs, which may weaken or destroy their hatch- ability, and over which the poultryman has no control. Never- theless he is held responsible. He seldom has a chance to defend himself. He must either endure a dissatisfied customer, which is a poor business associate, or he must make good the losses, which wipes out his profit on the transaction. Most of this obscurity is eliminated with baby chicks. The purchaser sees at a glance what he is getting, and thereafter if he mismanages the chicks in the brooder, he cannot blame his in- competence on the shipper. Of course, there will always be some doubt as to the quality and productiveness of a flock of fowls raised from a shipment of chicks. It is a matter of dealing with responsible hatcheries. The reliable chick man is in business, not for a season, but for an indefinite time; he has made a considerable investment on plant and equipment, and to hope to derive profit from this in- vestment it is absolutely necessary for him to render satisfaction. As in all enterprises, satisfied customers are his chief assets. Satisfaction is more than landing baby chicks alive at the ex- press station of the customer. It is giving the customer chicks hatched from strong, vigorous, well-bred productive parent stock, chicks which were properly incubated, and those which should make rapid growth in the brooder, mature early and be- come prolific layers. In other words, the success of the hatchery depends largely upon what becomes of its products under the care and management of its customers. If behooves the chick man to aid his customers wherever possible, and to give them a little more value than what was promised. On the other hand, the customer should not expect unreason- able things. He must not anticipate exhibition specimens from utility chicks, which were sold at utility stock prices. The aver- age hatchery chicks, which sell for about ten dollars a hundred, should be from well-bred, standard stock, but not show birds. They cannot be expected to have the refinements in shape and plumage of specially mated pens, whose eggs are seen advertised at from five to twenty-five dollars per setting. CHAPTER XXI NATURAL INCUBATION Artificial incubation and brooding are to be recommended because of their economy. They save the hen’s time, and in so doing the hen is enabled to produce more eggs. Very often, however, it is more important to save the poultry-keeper’s time, as in the case of farmers and backyard growers, in which event the business of rearing young stock is left entirely to Mistress Biddy. Though incubators are widely used on farms, it is not likely that they will entirely replace hens, because the hens are capable of looking after hatching and brooding details with practically no outside attention. Unfortunately, the hatching season comes at a time when farm work—plowing and planting—is most press- ing. To escape the responsibility of looking after an incubator, the farmer prefers to depend upon his hens, knowing that they are fully competent to secure results, if not so economically, at least as thoroughly, as the machine. ' Itisa mistake, however, to ignore the hens completely. Unless the quarters intended for the sitting hens are convenient, sani- tary and comfortable, not alone for the hens, but for the person who feeds them, it is likely that the results will be disappointing. The hens will do their part, providing they are given the oppor- tunity, and it is this opportunity which is so often neglected. Avoid Stolen Nests.—On farms where little or no attention is paid to the chickens, it is customary to allow the hens to steal their nests in out-of-the-way corners of the buildings, sometimes in the hen house, under the barn, in the loft, or in barrels or boxes scattered about the barnyard. This hit or miss plan neither gives comfort to the hen nor security to her brood; it is wrong. 283 284 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING The sitting hen is entitled to just as much consideration as the brood mare or cow. Aside from the humanity involved, to treat animals decently is the only way to obtain the full benefit of their efficiency. Give the Sitters Privacy.—It is a mistake to allow the sitters to bring off their hatches in the regular poultry house along with the rest of the flock. In the first place, the sitting hens are al- most certain to be pitilessly tormented by the other fowls. The layers will fight for possession of the sitters’ nests, lay in them, sometimes drive the rightful owners off the nests entirely, or break their eggs, which is not only a loss in itself, but the presence of broken eggs seri- ously endangers the safety of the rest of the hatch. There is also the risk of allowing fresh laid eggs to become heated and spoiled by the sitters, or of removing the hatching eggs in mistake for fresh eggs. Or, if the nests are entirely ignored, it is likely that the layers will fill them to over-flowing with Fig. 180,—A farm brood. their eggs, making it impossi- ble for the sitting hens to cover the real hatching eggs, in which case they are chilled and the hatch is a failure. Vermin.—Then, again, hens set in the poultry house are more apt to be troubled with vermin than if they are given a clean, new nest of their own somewhere else. This is an important consideration. We like to think that our flocks and houses are free from lice and mites; but free from these pests they seldom are; make no mistake on this point. To delude ourselves on this score is to invite trouble and losses. The brood is no sooner hatched than GIVE THE HENS SECURITY 285 it becomes infested with vermin, both from the mother hen and from the nesting material. Nothing is more devastating. The chicks are weakened, their growth and development are dwarfed, they fall easy prey to disease, and those that survive are finally reckoned as unprofitable. Remote corners in the outbuildings, in mows and under sheds, are objectionable places for sitting hens because they are so re- mote. With nests scattered or stolen in this way the hens are KOOL, | seeroosest yon eet peasecceur ” PROTECTED SHELTER FOR ALL WIND ACTS AS DOOR og el, LID AT TOP **Y CONTROLS CREAP VENTLANOV CONVENIENT AND SWTABLE NEST Fig. 181.—Simple devices for sitting hens, troublesome to feed and water; frequently the hens are neg- lected, either through ignorance of their whereabouts or because it is too inconvenient to reach them. Stolen nests may be free from vermin and free from the dis- turbances of other layers, but as a rule they are not so secure as the hens suppose. Rats are likely to abound in obscure cor- ners, and these pests are a constant menace, or the nests may be visited by an inquisitive cat or dog. Then, again, hens sometimes 286 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING choose locations which are insanitary or wet, and both are detri- mental to good hatches. Fowls are accredited with astounding judgment in some re- spects, yet for all this show of intuition they do stupid things. This point is mentioned to emphasize the fact that no matter how attentive a hen may be to her eggs or to her brood, in a general way her efforts must be supervised by the owner of the Fig. 182.—Give the hens and their broods a grassy range and they will thrive like weeds. flock. Your labor will be amply repaid by the additional chicks reared. To set eggs successfully the first step is to get the hen—the right hen, because they are not all good hatchers. Chickens have a certain amount of individuality; some, indeed, might be said to be temperamental. Some hens are quiet and long-suf- fering; in spite of everything you do to them they will remain on the nest. Others are wild and nervous, and take flight at the approach of the attendant. These excitable birds are not to be intrusted with eggs. Usually they make poor work of hatch- *aIOUI IO dAY JO SHUN Ul Susy Zur}IIS asnoy 0} papuazut dood jo uorj0a8-sso1y—*EgI “BI WE NITMSOW 287 288 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING ing, and later they are found incompetent to manage a brood of chicks. Hens from the heavy breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks, Brah- mas, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Orpingtons, make the best sitters. The lighter breeds, such as Minorcas, Leghorns and Campines, are too flighty, and they are seldom used on that account. Their size is against them, too. It is economy to use it Nest] PEN 0 t NEST it WIRE COveERCD Rens rt | “ .t | [DooR uy 4 a : ‘ it ¢ 7 “ bs NEST eS PCN vx a" VMESH NETTING Vin hace i \2—-O al Fig. 184.—Plan of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183, sometimes called an outdoor natural incubator. large hens because they cover more eggs, though this advantage should not be carried to the extreme of using clumsy hens. The ungainly bird is apt to break the eggs while moving about on the nest, or she is likely to trample and kill some of the chicks before the little fellows are strong enough to get out of her wav. Test the Sitters——The hen that is observed to leave and return to the nest with care and precision and to step lightly is the bird TEST THE SITTERS 289 to select for setting. But do not be misled into thinking that all hens found on the nest after nightfall are really and truly sitters. When broody hens are removed from the laying nests to the place where it is desired to have them sit, some may go on a strike and not sit at all. It is therefore best to first test the hens. Give them some dummy eggs for a couple of days, and if they show unmistakable signs of settling down to business, give them real eggs. 3 a) 4 a 1 + 7 e | 1h y a4 Lit k a | : ani MusLuUIN MUSLIN a MI | im ie is ar i ¢ ot S a ae LI =) | I | 3 12" 13 12” aba 5 es ‘i i ae, +} 15 ai iS 7 | rat Door IT Door i ( im | Lt Fig. 185.—Front elevation of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. Quarters.—A clean, cool, well-ventilated room or coop is the best place for the sitters. If it can be darkened after feeding time, so much the better, as the hens will be quieter. Arrange the nests along the walls and in such a manner that the hens will not have to fly or jump into them, a practice which is likely to break the eggs. If the coop has a dirt floor, the earth will serve as a dust wallow, otherwise the building should be fitted with a special dust bath. It is customary for sitting hens to take a dust wallow about once a day, which they seem to realize is 19 290 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING necessary to rid themselves of vermin. Therefore encourage this habit. Nests.—A nest fifteen inches square is none too big for the sitter, and six inches is about the right depth. Place some clean earth or sand—better still, a piece of sod—in the bottom of the nest, about two inches deep, nicely hollowed to receive the litter and finally the eggs. Avoid corners into which the eggs can be rolled and left to chill; yet do not have the nest so much like a Fig. 186.—Rear perspective of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. hole that there is a tendency for the eggs to pile on top of each other. Litter.—Straw, cut hay, excelsior, shavings or fresh pine needles make excellent nesting material, and shape the stuff so that it will conform to the body of the hen. Never use old nesting ma- terial, because of the germs or vermin which it might contain. If the nest boxes have been used for previous hatches, it is ad- visable to give them a thorough cleaning with some disinfectant, or to whitewash them. SET HENS IN PAIRS OR TRIOS 291 The number of eggs to allow a hen will depend upon the bird’s ability to cover them properly. Never put so many eggs under a hen that they are even slightly visible from beneath her plum- age. This is especially important in cold weather; the outer row of eggs is almost certain to be chilled, and in view of the fact that the hen changes the position of the eggs from six to ten times a day, it means that all of the eggs are likely to be chilled at in- tervals. Even if this does not spoil the hatch, it is sure to retard it, which is not good for the chicks. From ten to eighteen eggs is correct; thirteen eggs are reckoned as a setting. When a number of hens are set, it is well to start them in pairs or trios, then at hatching time the chicks from three hens may be divided between two hens, or the chicks from two hens may be given to one hen, thereby saving the toil of extra hens. On farms it is quite common to see a number of hens with their broods, each brood having perhaps six chicks. If these broods were doubled up, the efficiency of the hens would be greatly in- creased, since it is no trouble for a good biddy to care for fifteen chicks. The work of transferring the chicks must be done at the start, however, or the hens are likely to refuse to accept the extra chicks. A good plan is to make the transfer on the evening of the day the hatches are completed, before the hens have left their nests. Slip the chicks under the hens when it is dark, and on the day following the chicks will not be able to distinguish their foster mothers, neither will the hens be able to detect their adopted offspring. Dusting the Sitters.—Special efforts must be made to render the sitters free from vermin. When the hatches are started, the hens should be thoroughly dusted with a good insect powder. See Fig. 187. Repeat the operation at the end of the first and second weeks of the incubating period. Watch for mites, and in case any are discovered, move the hen and eggs to a clean nest. Lice and mites are not only a danger to the health of the chicks, but they annoy the sitters to such an extent that some- 292 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING times the hens are driven from their nests to escape torment from the pests. It is unwise to dust the hens at hatching time, unless one is familiar with the nature of the insect powder, because some of (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 187.—Sitting hens should be carefully dusted to eradicate vermin. them are of such strength that they may injure or kill the newly hatched chicks. As soon as the chicks area week old it is safe to dust the mother, and this dust- ing should be repeated weekly until the chicks are weaned. If,despite these efforts, the chicks are bothered with head lice, which sap their vitality and stunt their growth, it is necessary to grease the heads of the chicks with lard or carbolated vase- line. This method will drive the lice away, and tend to prevent others from coming. Feeding.—It is a good plan to feed the sitters at regular times each day, for this teaches them to expect it at certain intervals, and they will come off the nests, eat and_ return, promptly. Wholegrain should be fed together withadry mash, but nothing in the shape of sloppy feed should be given, because moist food tends to loosen the bowels. Provide clean water in abun- dance, gritand charcoal. In warm weather it isa good plan to place acan of water beside each nest, so that the hen can drink at will TESTING THE EGGS 293 without leaving the nest. Whole corn is an excellent food for sitters; it is fattening, which is a desirable effect, because the broody hen is prone to become very thin and poor. Should undue looseness of the bowels occur, the addition of a little sul- phate of iron in the drinking water will usually correct the trouble. Disturb the hens as little as possible while they are sitting. If the nests need attention, because they are sometimes soiled from one cause or another, clean them while the hens are off eating. Fig, 188.—The makeshift coop is all right, providing it is weather-proof, vermin-proof and sanitary. See to it that cats, dogs or other animals are unable to gain en- trance to the room or coop, also other poultry. Testing Eggs.—Few farmers bother to test the hatching eggs, though this is advisable, because the infertile eggs may be used as food for other broods. Then, too, if the fertility is poor, let us say if half of the eggs are clear, the eggs from two hens may be placed under one sitter, providing the hatches were started at the same time, and fresh eggs started under the hen from whom the eggs were removed. Here again we add to the effi- ciency of the hens. By all means darken the nests at hatching time, and do not 294 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING disturb the hens unless they step around on the nests a great deal, in which event they are likely to trample the chicks, or if they pick at the chicks, then the chicks should be removed as soon as they are hatched and placed in a basket lined with flannel or some other warm material, and kept near a stove until the balance of the hatch is completed. Occasionally a hen will manifest a vicious attitude toward the brood from the start, and nothing that the attendant can do will alter the situation, in which case it is best to take the chicks away from the vicious mother and give them to a quieter bird. (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 189.—Rectangular brood coop Fig. 190.—V-shaped brood coop and run. and run. If the sitters are well fed immediately before hatching time, they are not so likely to leave the nests in search of food, there- fore the brood is not chilled before the chicks have had a chance to dry off. Confine the hens for a few days after the hatches come off, or they will take their broods too far afield and tire them. It is well to provide separate coops for the broods, and wherever possible place the coops on a grassy range, preferably where there is some shade. For the first two weeks confine the hens to the coops in the early morning, or until the grass has had time to dry off; otherwise the hens will stalk their young through the dew-laden undergrowth and get them soaking wet. CHAPTER XXII ARTIFICIAL BROODING If artificial incubation is practiced it necessitates artificial brooding, unless the hatches are small, in which case the chicks can be given to hens, though this practice really defeats the idea of the incubator, which is to conserve the hen’stime. It takesatleast four weeks to wean a brood of chicks, sometimes six weeks, and during this period the mother hen is a non-layer. In fact, she seldom starts to lay for a month after she has weaned her brood, due to the fact that she is usually so run down and out of condition, as the result of her maternal efforts and responsibili- ties, that she must first rebuild her vitality. This represents a great deal of lost time so far as egg production is concerned, and the time lost is usually during April, May and June, the months of heaviest laying. Farmers are the greatest patrons of this combination method, and their idea is to escape the care of the brooder, which they regard more or less with suspicion. It must be admitted, of course, that no brooder is equal to the hen as a mother; we can- not improve on nature in this respect; but we can do the work a whole lot cheaper with the brooder, and this is an important con- sideration. Were it not for artificial incubation and brooding it would be impossible for commercial poultry plants to conduct their opera- tions. on such a vast scale. It is not practicable to raise large numbers of chicks by hens. In the first place, it is virtually im- 295 296 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING possible to secure enough sitting hens at the right time—early enough to hatch pullets which will mature as fall layers. In the second place, a large number of sitting hens and their broods require a great deal of equipment and range, not to mention care in feeding; and in the third place, the expense of maintaining the hens, without egg production, would wipe out the profits which might be made from their broods. a (Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) Fig. 191.—Double hot-water brooding system. A row of hovers located on either side of a central alleyway. These factors have always been of importance: to-day they are vital to success. The hen must be kept on the job of laying. Her work of rearing young must be left to the machine. Makes of Brooders.—There are a number of brooding systems in vogue, and a wide variety of makes from which to select or evolve a particular scheme, one that is adaptable to given cir- cumstances. There is as much, if not more, choice with brooders “SJ Ooo€ ‘Ajoedes ‘saps yIoq uo suns JoOpino yA asnoy Jepooig—z6r ‘317 298 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING than with incubators. One might say, there is a brooder for any or all circumstances. It goes without saying that artificial brooding should be in imitation of natural brooding, except that the hen’s shortcomings should be eliminated. And the hen has her faults, make no mis- take on this point. For example, she will take her brood afield in wet weather, or lead them through wet grass in the early morn- ing, where the chicks may become chilled and die. The chief requirements of artificial brooding are these: (1) a compartment in which the temperature is equal to the warmth of the hen’s body, which is accessible to the chicks at all times; (2) an abundance of fresh air as well as warmth, because if heat is obtained at the expense of ventilation, the chicks will not thrive; (3) a well-lighted, moderately warm compartment in connection with the heated hover, which will provide a place for exercise, feeding and everyday activities; (4) a protected run or yard where the chicks can be given outdoor freedom in nice weather, and an opportunity to pick up greens and grits; (5) the interior of the brooder must be dry, capable of being flooded with sun- light, and safe from fire risks; (6) every compartment and all appliances must provide means for convenience in cleaning and disinfecting. Common Defects.—The absence of one or more of the fore- going requirements is quite common in many of the brooding systems in use. The greatest difficulty seems to be that the in- stallation of the average brooding system is without sufficient latitude—a margin of safety which will automatically take up the slack resulting from sudden changes in temperature and so forth. Many brooders are run too hot or too cold, some have insufficient ventilation, and others are over-crowded. Heavy losses are likely to occur from these conditions, for which perhaps the operator condemns his apparatus, when as a matter of fact the trouble probably exists solely in its management. Careless Operation.—Nine times out of ten losses in the brooder are due to carelessness or mismanagement, and the most conspicuous blunders are made at the beginning of a new brood, SOME COMMON MISTAKES 299 in that the brood is not properly broken to the brooder. Briefly, the brooder will provide warmth and so on, but the operator must teach the brood of chicks how to avail themselves of its care. No one make of brooder or system of brooding is superior to the others. The poultry raiser must choose one that is best suited to particular requirements, such as the size of the flock, size and (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) Fig. 193.—Brooder stoves are great labor-savers inasmuch as they can be made to care for chicks in large flocks. type of houses, climate and so on. Also the funds available for permanent equipment of this sort. There are two principal ways of brooding: one is in small units, consisting of about fifty chicks, and the other is in large flocks, ranging from 200 to 1500 chicks. Then again, the small unit plan may be carried out in two ways: either by single hovers in small coops (see Fig. 194), usually spoken of as colony brooder coops, or by a long, continuous brooder house in which the hovers are 300 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING arranged side by side and heated from a central plant, which is generally a hot-water system. See Fig. 191. Hot-Water System.—The earliest method of heating the hovers in a long brooder house was by means of a series of hot-water pipes arranged about eight inches above the floor of the brooder. The chicks huddled together under these pipes, and ventilation was controlled by means of apertures in the tops of the hovers. A development of this idea was found by heating a compartment cae 2 Mita eat eS Gi % a Fig. 194.—Colony coop brooders on a Government experiment station. or duct under the brooder floor with a hot-water system of piping, and then conveying the warmed air up through a vent in each hover. Fireless Brooders.—Another method is to heat the brooder house to a moderate temperature by the use of a few coils of hot- water pipes, but to heat the hovers themselves by means of indi- vidual kerosene lamps. An adaptation of this method is to use fireless hovers, so constructed as to conserve the heat thrown off from the chicks’ bodies. See Fig. 195. These fireless brooders INDIVIDUAL HOVERS AND BROODERS 301 have never been widely used; the whole principle is against them. Adequate ventilation is impossible, since to ventilate the hovers means to lose the warmth created by the chicks. As a matter of fact, all long brooder house systems are rapidly disappearing in favor of large flock systems reared with brooder stoves. The long brooder house usually represented the most expensive building on a poultry farm, and because of its equip- ment it could not be used for any other purpose, consequently for six months each year it was idle. See Fig. 192. And capital invested in idle equip- ment is unprofitable. Individual Hovers.— For farmers and_back- yard flocks, where but a hundred or so chicks are raised each year, the in- dividual hover, heated by hot air or hot water, with a kerosene lamp as the source of heat, seems to be the most popular ' dest S Fi 6 Fig. 195.—Homemade fireless brooder. The EVICE: ee Tig. 196. principle is that of conserving the warmth Most of these hoverscan given off by the chicks’ bodies. be installed in any sort of a coop or building without alterations, or with some minor prepara- tion, such as cutting a hole for the exhaust pipe from the lamp. Some makes have the lamp in the center and are entirely portable, others have the lamp on one side, which is housed in a separate box fastened to the outside of the house. They are called uni- versal or adaptable hovers, and practically all makes can be de- pended upon to give satisfactory results. Colony Brooders.—Some manufacturers of portable hovers make a brooder coop in connection with the hover. The coop is built in sections, screwed together and easily handled. See Fig. 197. The coop is about six feet long, three feet wide and about three feet high at the front; it has a shed roof, which is Bi Pai Bate (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 302 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING removable, and the interior of the coop is divided by a removable partition. One compartment is fitted for the hover; the other is intended for an exercising pen or nursery. Both contpart- ments are easily ventilated, comfortable and convenient for the chicks, and the entire coop is readily cleaned. This type of brooder is commonly known as the outdoor colony brooder. It can be purchased complete at a reasonable price, and there is no better outfit for the beginner or for one who in- a asa om iE os (Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) Fig. 196.—50-chick size lamp brooding hover which may be adapted to any type of house. a tends to raise but a few chickens. The average capacity is fifty chicks. When artificial heat is no longer required, the hover, lamp and central partition can be removed and the coop used for a growing coop. It is also convenient for housing extra male birds at odd times, as a conditioning coop for show specimens, or as an isolation pen for sick birds. When not in use, it can be taken apart and stored under a shed. Paint it occasionally and it will last for many years. COLONY BROODER STOVES 303 Brooder Stoves.—Whereas the outdoor colony brooder is a splendid outfit for the farmer, backyard flock and small poultry plant, the colony brooder stove is to be recommended for larger operations. In reality the brooder stove is a development or enlargement of the colony brooder idea. It is of recent origin, yet for all it has gained greater popularity than all the other ap- pliances. It is the one device which permits of a gradation of heat and a reserve heat, and it is by far the most economical system of brooding, both as to labor and fuel. Co.) Fig. 197.—Outdoor colony brooder. The front and top are removed to show interior equipment, which consists of a hover similar to that shown in Fig. 196. The lamp box is on the outside, and all fumes from the lamp are carried off by means of the T-shaped duct leading from the top of the hover. (Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Works on a Large Scale.—The brooder stove had its inception in the need for performing its work on a large scale, at the least possible cost for special buildings, for fuel, for operating costs and for the care of the chicks, and this it does. These stoves are made in various sizes, with capacities ranging from 200 to 1500 chicks. They have passed the experimental stage; they are giving results, though until one has had considerable ex- perience in raising chicks in fairly large numbers, it is not ad- 304 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING visable to attempt a brood greater than, say, 300 chicks. Then, as skill is developed, the flocks can be enlarged. Not that brooder stoves will fail to perform the functions required of them, but the operator must become familiar with ways of feed- ing large flocks of chicks running together, so that they can be induced to exercise sufficiently, and not get into bad habits, such as toe-pecking and feather-pulling. Gradations of Heat.—In many of the earlier brooding ap- pliances there were, generally speaking, two distinct tempera- tures and no gradations of heat; the interior temperature of the hover, so frequently stuffy and hot, and the outside air, which (Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) Fig. 198.—Outdoor colony brooder—a complete outfit. was very apt to be too cold. Either of these the chick had to. accept, and both were weakening—to be chilled or partly suf- focated. The brooder stove is a high-power furnace capable of radiating a great deal of heat, which, by means of a wide-spread sheet-iron deflector, is distributed downward over the backs of the chicks, where it is most needed. See Fig. 199. When taken from the incubator direct to the brooder, the chicks instinctively learn to form a circle around the stove. In the majority of times they will gauge their distance from the base of the stove entirely by the intensity of the heat most comfortable to them. See Fig. HIGH-POWERED FURNACE 305 200. In short, the brooder stove provides a gradual decrease in temperature, from the base of the stove, which is very hot, to the farthest corners of the room, which can be kept as cool as desired by means of ventilation. This arrangement of providing warmth is thoroughly practical, for it permits every chick to seek the degree of warmth best suited to its individual comfort. The plan is in imitation of natural brooding, which is best, except that it is not economical. CHECK DRAUGHT-_ VENTILATING PORT: BAFFLE PLATE WAFEA* THERMOSTAT ables REGULATOR. AQJUSTMENT AiR cele / ASBESTOS BOARD (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) __ Fig. 199.—Sectional view of a coal-burning brooder stove. All the warmth is ia downward over the backs of the chicks, where it does the greatest _good. The bare breast of a sitting hen has a temperature of about 105 degrees, whichis greater heat than the chicks require under ordinary circumstances. The temperature of the hen’s plumage ranges from about 109 degrees to 90 degrees. But the chicks are not compelled to accept any one of these temperatures for all time. They may seek that which is most comfortable at a particular time. If they have been exposed and are cold, the chicks can be quickly warmed by nestling close to the bare breast of the hen. Later they can seek a lower temperature within the 20 306 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING confines of the wing feathers; or, if they are too warm, they can push out their heads and cool off: Thus it will be seen that the natural condition is a very flexible one, and we should aim to imitate this flexibility as much as possible in artificial brooding. No Special Buildings——A brooder stove does not require a special type of building, and this factor is one of its greatest virtues. It can be installed anywhere, providing the room or (Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Co.) Fig. 200.—Coal-burning brooder stove. Note the circle formed by the chicks, building is fairly well constructed, weather-proof, dry, and capable of being well ventilated without direct drafts. Stoves may be set up in colony houses, and later, when the brood no longer require artificial heat, the stoves may be removed and the same quarters used for rearing the young stock. See Fig. 201. Stoves may be erected in laying houses, and when the broods are weaned the stoves are taken down and stored else- where, or removed to other quarters to take care of new broods. The idea is simplicity itself; it is flexible and economical. Fuel.—There are various types of brooder stoves on the mar- NO SPECIAL BUILDINGS 307 ket; some designed for crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, distillate and coal; but, since no form of combustion is safer than that confined within the iron castings of a coal stove, where coal is obtainable for anything like a reasonable price, this fuel should become the VX6 RIDGE . Cuimney CAP 6-0" \; 10-0" ae 4 ERRA COTTA PIPE se x i VENTILATING WeLt i & et ING WEEE. | GEE E- | o 2 ‘ J EL ———t — ae 4 x4" Corcan "9 1 ~~ Beat ” } oR " Stove Fire a — Be i | | 2-6"x| bone era | 0) i‘ L| loren our | U Gu nel ° Faso nN al Saar Deor i my bn BRoopDER— t | Stove Ey CF | MATCHED FLOORING B16" Fost 16° s 3x8" 2xo"Toist bd 1G o" ST] CONCRETE aE ConcneTe kre L {T mI im abe 1G. FRONT ELEVATION FOUNDATION Tor END VIEW DiRT FLOOR Fig. 201.—Combination brooder house, colony house and laying house. most popular. One scuttle of coal will run a good-sized brooder stove for twenty-four hours. The ideal house for an 800-chick stove is a building about fifteen by thirty feet, divided in the middle by a solid partition. This affords two rooms, one to be heated by the stove, and the other without heat, to be utilized as a scratching pen after the chicks are about a week old. There should be large windows on: at 308 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING least three sides, and so arranged as to flood the interior with sun- light. Except in very warm weather, these windows should not be relied upon for ventilation, for it is almost impossible to venti- late in this manner without creating drafts. It is the draft, not fresh air, that causes trouble. Ventilation.—The following system of ventilation has given excellent results, and it may be installed in any house at a moder- (Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) Fig. 202.—Filling the coal hopper of a brooder stove. ate cost: In the four corners of the brooder house, and about one foot above the floor line, cut circular openings in the walls about six inches in diameter, and with ordinary stove-pipe and elbows construct an S-shape ventilator, pointing downward on the outside and upward on the inside. Over the inside opening place a screen to prevent chicks from flying into it, also a damper to control the intake of air. In the center of the roof install an exhaust vent or cupola having an area twice as great as the com- ~ TEST THE BROODING SYSTEM 309 bined areas of the fresh air intakes. Cold air expands when heated, hence the necessity for doubling the size of the exhaust ventilator. Ventilating cupolas of galvanized iron may be purchased in varying sizes from sheet-iron workers, or a similar device may be made of wood which will answer the purpose nicely. If one does not wish to cut an opening in the roof, the highest point in the bt] (Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) Fig. 203..—Sectional view of coal-burning brooder stove. A, Base; B, ash- pit; C, grate; D, fire draft; E, thermostat wafer; F, counterpoise weight; G, regulator arm; H, escape vent; I, metal hover; J, curtain. front wall of the building may be converted into a ventilator, and fitted with a shield or baffling plate to prevent back currents of air or driving rains from entering the house. Test the System.—When the brooder stove and ventilation system are installed, it is advisable to try out the scheme for a few days before the chicks are brought out, in order that. the operator may familiarize himself with every phase of the work. Ascertain the exact heating capacity of the stove under severe 310 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING weather conditions, how often the fire requires stoking, if it is a coal fire, and how to bank the fire at night. A thermometer should be hung three feet from the base of the stove and one inch above the litter, for that is where the chicks sleep and rest. The stove should be hot enough to make the thermometer in that position register 90 degrees. No harm will ensue if it registers more than 90 degrees, but try not to have it register less particularly if the night is coming on cold. When the brood has settled down comfortably for the night, the nearest chicks should be about two feet from the base of the stove, and this intervening distance amounts to a reserve heat, so that as the night advances and the fire cools off somewhat, the chicks may draw closer to the stove for the desired warmth. Hover Breaking.—Late afternoon or early evening is the best time to remove the chicks from the incubator and place them in the brooder, for the darkness will serve to restrain the more venturesome fellows from exploring the building and becoming chilled. Furthermore, when they are quiet they can be made to obtain their first impression of where the warmth is to be had. This is termed hover breaking, and it is the first and paramount issue in the artificial brooding of chicks; they must be taught to seek the hover or the base of the stove, which corresponds to a hover, for warmth, and until the attendant is absolutely assured that this instinct is firmly established, he must adopt special means of confining them within or very close to the stove. Wire Partition.—A good plan is to erect a small mesh-wire partition, poultry netting will do, in a circle around what is con- sidered to be a safe distance from the stove, removing it in the daytime, or when it is found the chicks no longer require it as a safeguard. See Fig. 193. If the chicks are not confined close to the stove in this manner for the first few nights, it is quite likely that some of them will stray from the warmth and be unable to find their way back, whereupon they will soon become chilled and die. With proper training, two or three days is usually sufficient to break a brood of chicks to the hover, and the attendant must BREAKING BROOD TO THE HOVER 311 be as patient as possible, for the success of the brood later on largely depends upon this early discipline. It sometimes happens that a brood will be particularly obstinate, and insist upon spend- ing the night in every place but the right one, all of which is very exasperating and likely to tax the patience of the most careful operator; yet the will of the operator must dominate. The expert brooder operator realizes the importance of this, and aims to break his brood into the ways of a particular ap- paratus, much as a dog is trained to follow a scent, or a horse is broken to the harness. Poor results are often blamed on the brooding appliances, when in reality the fault rests entirely on the persons running them. A brooder stove, no matter what make or type, is seldom better than the operator in charge of it. CHAPTER XXIII FEEDS FOR BABY CHICKS Baby chicks seem like such helpless, frail little creatures that the first month of their life is likely to be a period of much con- cern to their keeper, especially the beginner. A certain mystery seems to attach itself to the undertaking, which forebodes dis- tressing, troublesome times ahead, maybe serious losses, even failure. We speak of it as the brooding period, and it is well named. According to the dictionary, brooding means ‘‘to dwell upon with anxiety.” Rearing young stock is the most difficult operation, though largely because it requires the closest attention to details. Other than this it need hold no fears, even for the novice, because the work is really quite simple, and almost certain of success, pro- viding a few elemental facts are borne in mind. Moreover, there is comfort in the fact that once a chick is weaned from the brood- ing period, which lasts from four to six weeks, depending upon the season and weather conditions, it is practically as hardy as a mature fowl. In its fullest sense, brooding means to provide shelter, warmth and comfort, a quiet retreat for the chicks, a resting place and a place to sleep, under the most healthful conditions, such as sani- tation and ventilation, which will promote rapid development and a strong constitution. Hatch all the chicks you can during March, April and May and the problems of brooding are greatly simplified, because condi- tions at this time are naturally favorable. The weather is on your side, also plant life, because it is fresh and appetizing. Then, too, March, April and May hatched pullets will start laying in the fall and furnish winter eggs, which is the goal of every poultry raiser. 312 HIGH-POWERED ORGANISMS 313 Remarkable Growth.—When one considers the remarkable growth made by chicks during the first month or two, it is easy to understand why they require a watchful attendant. At hatching time the chick weighs about one and a half ounces. It doubles this weight in six days, and under normal circumstances it can be made to weigh two and a half pounds in three months, which is more than twenty-five times its original weight. If we humans grew that fast, we would weigh about two hun- dred pounds at the age of three months. This comparison fur- nished some idea of the naturally intensive, high-powered ca- pacity of the chick, and of the need for suitable nourishment. (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 204.—Summer-hatched chicks require plenty of shade. Inexpensive coops like these are easily moved from place to place, which moving gives the chicks fresh greens and clean soil. Proper nourishment is the crux of the whole business. Chicks require a great deal of food in relation to their size, but do not mistake this to mean that you should simply pile the food in front of them. On the contrary, they must be fed in just the right quantities. The feeding program is the most important consideration; it is paramount; it makes for success or failure. Overfeeding.—Oddly enough, perhaps, more chicks die from overfeeding than from underfeeding. And the trouble usually starts by feeding the brood too soon after it has left the incubator. The last development in incubation prior to breaking the shell is the embryo chick’s absorption of the yolk. This highly nutri- 314 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING tive material is capable of sustaining life for two or three days, or until the chick is strong enough to walk about freely and pick up food. Investigations have shown that this absorbed yolk con- tains almost half of the original energy of the egg. It is a wise provision of nature, with which it is folly to interfere. There is no need for additional nourishment at this time, and to supply any will invariably work more harm than good, in that it inter- feres with the proper assimilation of the yolk. We might say (Courtesy U, S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 205.—Feeding frame for young chicks. It is wire-covered, and none but the small chicks can crawl under the lower rail. that the chick’s system is not ready for food until the third day after incubation. This condition makes it possible to ship chicks hundreds of miles without imposing any hardships through lack of feeding and watering. It is a good plan, however, to place water before the chicks as soon as they are removed to the brooder, preferably water with the chill taken off, if the weather is cold. Care should. be taken that the little fellows do not wallow in the water and get wet; therefore it is best to use shallow vessels protected in some way so that the chicks cannot fall inside. FEED LITTLE BUT OFTEN ‘ 315 As a rule, chicks learn to eat as soon as they are able to stand. They will even commence picking at things while they are in the i) (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) Fig. 206.—Brooder stove with the hover or heat deflector raised to permit sweeping and cleaning around the base of the stove. The deflector is suspended by means of rope and pulleys attached to a counterpoise weight. incubator. The idea seems to come to them as instinctively as walking. In the case of drinking it is sometimes necessary to teach them, or at least to point out the presence of water. This 316 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING is easily done by dipping the bills of two or three chicks in the water. They will catch on to the idea in a few minutes, where- upon the rest of the flock will quickly imitate them. Feed little but often, is the slogan to be adopted in the brooder. This is especially important with flocks which are confined in- doors, or leg weakness is apttoresult. Chicks on free range are not sus- ceptible to this ailment. Leg weakness comes from excessive feeding without sufficient exer- cise; the bodies of the chicks become too heavy for the muscles and bones of the legs, consequently the chicks are unable to walk or stand. They present a pitiable ap- pearance and are likely to be trampled and killed by the rest of the flock. On the morning of the third day, which is to : say when the chicks are eenenteaecmmeniil forty-eight hours old, rear Sinmnn tema sve them a light me ooo from pines to place. ss of easily digested food, preferably soft food, which has been sprinkled with fine grit. Repeat this feeding every two or three hours, so that the chicks receive four or five meals a day. The first feed may consist of bread crumbs moistened with milk, bread crumbs and hard-boiled eggs ground fine, shells and all, johnnycake, or pinhead oatmeal. Food moistened with milk is of great value in giving the chicks a good start, but the IMPORTANCE OF MILK 317 mixtures must be fed in a crumbly state, never in a sloppy con- dition. In the case of bread crumbs a good, plan is to moisten them with milk and then squeeze out the greater part of the liquid. It is also important to feed these mixtures fresh. Do not mix up a large quantity and then allow it to stand around until it turns bad. Johnnycake.—The following is a good recipe for johnnycake: One dozen eggs (wherever possible use clear eggs removed from the incubator), or one pound of sifted beef scrap, to ten pounds (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 208.—Where flocks of different ages are likely to run together, the young broods should be given a fenced yard for the first few weeks so that they will not be molested by the older chickens. of corn meal; add enough milk to make a dough, and one table- spoonful of baking soda; bake into cakes. Milk.—Many breeders are having good results by feeding milk and no water the first week or ten days, and even longer. Sour milk should be fed just as it begins to thicken and before it separates, as the chicks like it better in that condition. Milk is more than a food; it contains lactic acid, which tends to pre- vent and correct white diarrhea and kindred bowel troubles. It should be placed before the chicks in shallow pans or founts, so designed that the birds cannot wade in it or contaminate it. 318 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Scratch Grains.—Continue with the soft food for three cr four days, then gradually substitute a scratch grain mixture consisting of cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and hulled oats in equal parts, to which may be added about five per cent of cracked peas or broken rice, and two per cent of millet or rape seed. At the same time a dry mash should be fed, which may consist of ten pounds of corn meal, ten pounds of wheat bran, two pounds of bone meal and one-half pound of granulated charcoal. Only as much of the scratching feed should be given as the chicks will scratch out in ten minutes. If the chicks have range, the dry mash may be kept before them all the time, in shallow troughs or hoppers. If they are confined to the brooder, the mash should be left before them for about fifteen minutes at each feed- “ing. If it is impossible to sup- ply the chicks with milk in any form, add a half pound of sifted beef scrap to the (Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Company) dry mash _ after the first Fig. 209.—Sectional view of brooder stove. week. Increase the propor- tion of scrap each week, until it amounts to about four pounds at the end of a month. After the first week the number of feedings may be reduced to four a day, and after the second week to three a day. In the morning the feeds are light, so as to encourage exercise. To- ward evening the heaviest feed is given, so that every chick may go under the hover with a full crop. The last meal should be given about an hour before sundown. The best way to feed the soft mixtures is on boards or heavy sheets of cardboard. Tin pie plates are good, except that the chicks slip about on them. Never feed the soft mixtures in the litter, where they are likely to absorb filth from the droppings. BEEF SCRAP AND GREENS 319 On the other hand, it is a bad plan to feed the scratch grains on a board, once the chicks have learned how to hunt for them, be- cause they are likely to gorge ‘themselves, which defeats the idea of the scratch grains. These grains should be sprinkled in the litter, where the chicks are obliged to dig and work for them. Green Food.—Unless the chicks are given outdoor freedom where they have access to an abundance of tender green shoots, they must be given succulence in some other form, such as lettuce, sprouted oats, sliced onions and tops, or ground vegetables, such as mangels or turnips. Chicks are very fond of onions, which seem to act as a tonic. Slice a good-sized onion for each fifty chicks; cut it soas to form rings, and the chicks will tussle and fight for them as though they were worms. Clover, alfalfa and rape are all excellent green foods for chicks, and wherever possible they should be given liberty where these crops _are (CDESC, Ls Daneman growing. This is the most Fig. 210,—Colony house fitted with gasoline convenient way to furnish brooder. green food, and the cheapest way. If a grass range is not available, substitutes must be found, because no brood will thrive without greens. Succulence supplies them with roughage for crop development, mineral ele- ments to aid the digestion of concentrated foods, and with certain tonic properties which sustain the appetite. In short, if chicks are given unlimited freedom on a grassy range, they are almost certain to thrive even if the rest of the feeding system is seriously defec- tive. Avoid Moldy Feed.—Chicks are susceptible to bowel trouble if given moldy or musty grain or decomposed food, therefore it 320 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING behooves the poultryman to investigate his feeds very carefully. Grain which has heated in the bin, or allowed to become damp and mildewed, is the equivalent to so much poison. Bear this point in mind if you are offered cheap grain, because it is likely that the grain has suffered some such deterioration, hence the reduced price. Bargain foods are usually inferior goods, and the most expensive in the long run. It pays to get reliable stuff from a responsible dealer, and then to store it properly so that it will not spoil. (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 211.—An orchard makes an ideal location for growing chicks. Finely broken grit and oyster shells should be kept before the chicks at all times after they are a week old. It is best not to put these articles before them in hoppers until this time, because some of the chicks are likely to mistake the grits for food and gorge themselves forthwith. As previously mentioned, the early feedings of soft food should be sprinkled with the grit; sharp sand will answer the purpose. If charcoal is not included in the mash, it is well to keep this before the chicks along with ‘the grit and shells, also a box of FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS 321 granulated bone or bone meal. These articles are inexpensive and they will last along time. The charcoal acts as an absorbent and aids digestion - it serves to keep the crop sweet. Granulated bone is rich in nitrogenous matter and makes bone and muscle; it keeps the chicks sturdy. TaBLE XXIV.—FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS RECOMMENDED BY THE INDIANA EXPERIMENT STATION ScraTcH GRAINS Dry Masu Pounds Pounds Cracked corn (sifted).......... 10 Wheat bran.............,..- 10 Wheat (cracked).............. 10 Middlings.................. 10 Ostsws sexier teases eke oe 10 Corn meal.................. 5 Meat scrap................. 5 Charcoal ii .cersaduveadeeas 66 2.5 Plenty of sour milk or buttermilk to drink. If milk is not available, the meat scrap may be increased to 15 pounds in the mash. Scratch grains are fed in litter from the first. The mash is supplied in a hopper when the chicks are five to seven days old. “TsBLeE XXV.—FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS RECOMMENDED BY THE - CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION ScraTcH GRAINS Pounds Wheat c4se6 cdots saengecebeuseeteeriierd 20 Oats (steel cut). 0... cee eee 15 Millet vires x coca cd. Gucrtarhe ted wa be aa See 5 RACE eo i in een adn gu UES Aosah nil seneaaee UNS Sh 2 Cracked otitis sisi ac uwews dew deans ame ee a ee 6 (GE cs sink nab aes ics Bos ek eels ee eae eeN 10 CHACOS i. e565. tn stand aaeaarty edhe as ea eam snteeeD 5 Bonéeemeall 6 cc as eu ce vows es cne se cues ecard 5 The ingredients are crushed to the size of millet. The mixture is fed from the first. Toward the end of the second week the cracked wheat and oats are increased until by the sixth or seventh week these two grains have replaced all others, except the cracked corn. From the seventh week on the grains con- sist of cracked corn and wheat. A mash is given after the eighth day, con- sisting of either of the following mixtures: MasH Mixture I Pounds Bran (wheat)..............00.. 3 Middlings..................... 2 Corn meal (coarse)............. I Oatmeal c.9-tsca.c-earns cage ce ee I Meat meal.................0.. \y Bone meal...............0..0- yy Gharcoalies waste a5 wes es qe soueg My One teaspoonful of salt is added to each gallon of either mixture. mixtures are intended for chicks from ten days old to six weeks. MasuH Mixture II Pounds Bran (wheat).................. 4 Alfalfa meal. .................. 2 Corn meal (coarse)............. I Meat meal.................05- Y Bone meal.................... \y Charedal oc heneaaeeseeuieupece A The After this the meat meal and the bone meal should be increased gradually, until the meal equals one pound of the ration and the bone meal a half pound. 21 322 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Fresh Water.—Needless to say, the fountains must be kept full of pure, clean water at all times. If they are permitted to go dry, though only for a short time, the chicks soon become famished for a-drink, whereupon they fight for room around the refilled fountains and in so doing seriously wet themselves. As soon as the flock can be weaned from artificial heat or from the care of the brooder, the chicks are old enough to be given a scratch-grain ration of whole wheat, cracked corn and other small le Mesa aha in Be a (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 212.—The hen and her brood must be given privacy for the first couple of weeks, grains, such as milo maize, kafir corn and barley. The corn meal in the mash can be increased somewhat and other meals added, such as ground oats and wheat middlings. Essentials to Health.—If called upon to suggest the proper care of baby chicks, and my expression were limited to ten words, it would be something in this fashion: Keep them warm, dry, exercised, aired, watered, and somewhat hungry. The question might then arise, how can one feed liberally and yet keep the chicks somewhat hungry? An answer is difficult without ap- CORNELL FEEDING METHODS 323 pearing to argue in a circle, which is really the case: If a chick is dry, warm, exercised, aired and watered, he is sure to be hungry, and when hungry he will search continually for food; and thereon hangs the secret of successful brooding. Keep all the conditions such that every chick is exercising for food, and always re- ceiving a reward for its pains, from dawn to dark. TABLE XXVI.—RaTIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING CHICKS RECOMMENDED BY POULTRY DEPARTMENT OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE RATION Mixture No. 1 8 pounds rolled oats. 8 pounds bread-crumbs or cracker waste. 2 pounds sifted meat scrap (best grade). I pound bone meal. ; Mixture No. 2 3 pounds wheat (cracked). 2 pounds cracked corn (fine). I pound pinhead oatmeal. Mixture No. 3 3 pounds wheat bran. 3 pounds corn meal. 3 pounds wheat middlings. 3 pounds meat scrap (best grade). I pound bone meal. Mixture No. 4 3 pounds wheat (whole). 2 pounds cracked corn. I pound hulled oats. Mixture No. 5 3 pounds wheat. 3 pounds cracked corn. Tue METHOD One to Five Days Mixture No. 1, moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed five times a day; Mixture No. 2 in shallow tray containing a little of No. 3 (dry) always before chicks. Shredded green food and fine grit and charcoal scattered over food. Five Days to Two Weeks No. 2 in light litter twice a day; No. 3 moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed three times a day; No. 3 (dry) always available. 7 ; Two to Four Weeks As above, except that the moist mash is given twice a day. Four to Six Weeks (until Chicks are on Range) Reduce meals of moist mash to one a day; Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry mash always available. Six Weeks to Maturity Na. 3 and No. 5 hopper fed. One meal a day of moist mash if it is desired to hasten development. Further instructions: Provide fine grit, charcoal, oyster shells and bone from the start. Give grass range or plenty of green food. Keep chickens active by allowing them to become hungry once daily. The incubator chick is born with just as many instincts as the chick hatched under a hen, it is just as sturdy if the period of in- 324 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING cubation has been properly conducted, hence there is no reason why it should not develop just as quickly and profitably. Like most of us, however, the chick is a creature of habits, some of which are pernicious, and generally inspired by simply watching the other. fellow do it. For example, toe-pecking and feather- pulling are two of the most troublesome habits to combat in the brooder, and unless controlled at their inception, they will fre- quently lead to a heavy mortality. Therefore while it may be perfectly normal for a brood to develop toe-pecking, yet the habit must have been induced by an abnormal condition—lack of exercise, idleness due to exhaustion from overheating, over- feeding or improper feeding. Usually it is improper feeding, either as to quantity or an insufficient variety; not necessarily a lack of variety in the grains, but an improper balance of the nutritive elements—the greens, grains, grits and grubs. Last, but not least, of the suggestions for brooding—be sure to get chicks on the soil at the earliest possible moment. No matter how well equipped the brooder, Mother Earth is the chick’s natural habitat. The chick has an affinity for dirt,— and it won’t be genuinely happy till it gets the dirt CHAPTER XXIV CARE OF YOUNG STOCK The hatching season is admitted to be the critical period for the poultry keeper. It is the time when affairs are most pressing, and when the prospects for next season’s flock are either secured or discouraged. As soon as this season is past, and the brooders and incubators have cooled off for the last time, say about the first of August, poultrymen are likely to relax their vigilance, which is natural enough, except that it must not be carried to extremes. When chicks reach the age of four weeks, and are fairly well feathered, they are as good as grown, barring accidents, and pro- viding they receive reasonable care. Most of them are inde- pendent of their mothers or brooders, and quite competent to shift for themselves; yet too much confidence must not be re- posed in them. Young chickens are susceptible of indiscretions, just as are children. They need a watchful eye more or less at all times for best results. The breeder who gets the most from his flock is the fellow with this watchful eye, to see that all are sufficiently fed, that they are not tortured by vermin, that they are not menaced by rats, hawks, crows and other pests, that none are killed accidentally and their bodies left to decay in some obscure place where the rest of the flock can eat this putrid matter, with its resultant ill effects. They must have an abundance of clean, cool water. They must have plenty of green food, and an opportunity to roam for insect life and mineral food. Exercise.—They must have plenty of exercise, especially in the cool morning hours or in the late afternoons. Exercise sharpens the appetite and encourages eating large quantities of 325 326 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING food, so essential to rapid development, and it also wards off any tendency toward leg weakness which is apt to result from heavy eating without exercise. Exercise on a grassy range is the greatest boon of all. Give fowls range and clean living i (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) Fig. 213.—Portable hover installed in a simply constructed coop. quarters and their keeper can almost afford to throw away all the medicine bottles. Over-crowding.—By all means avoid over-crowding at this season, which is saying a good deal. Where large flocks are kept it is not so easy as it sounds, even if sufficient buildings are available. Chicks have strange ways. They are gregarious; EXERCISE AND OVER-CROWDING 327 they like to assemble in large numbers. Where one goes they all want to go, despite the fact that there may not be room for them. However carefully the attendant may have been to distribute the young stock among brood coops and colony houses, if these buildings are on the one range, with no partition fences, the chicks are likely to desert some houses, and crowd into others. I never heard of a poultryman of any experience who was not bothered with this perversity. It is as sure to occur as two or three hens (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 214.—A number of broods can be kept together if the mother hens are confined. trying to crowd into one nest, though there may be a dozen or twenty other empty nests. Keeping the houses fairly far apart tends to discourage this practice of over-crowding, but to do so is not always possible, nor practicable. Where large numbers of chickens are grown a great deal of ground is required. And when the houses are spread over a big acreage, it means considerable additional labor to distribute feed and water, and to perform the cleaning and other chores. Very large farms do this work with a team, which is the only practical, economical method. 328 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Abandoned Houses.—Usually the houses that are farthest away from the central part of the farm are the ones most likely to be abandoned. The reasons for this are very apparent. Chickens soon learn the ways of an attendant and the hours when feed is distributed. Day after day they watch the feeder ap- proach from the central part of the farm, and they go to meet him. The stock from the farthest points on the range comes in and joins the flocks close by; in a large herd they congregate, impatiently waiting for the dinner pail. It is natural enough, even if it is troublesome. Change Feeding Ground.—Efforts should be made to avert the forming of these habits, though I confess, it is not always possible to do so. The first step is to keep the flocks guessing as to where the attendant_is going to make his approach. In other words, if practicable alternate the routine as much as pos- sible; approach the colony field from different points, so that no particular place exists as a feeding ground. On some farms this is easy to do, on others it is out of the question. Another stunt is to avoid distributing feed near the houses that ° are nearest the central part of the farm, but to carry it to the farthest houses. In this way the flock will follow to the farthest points, and when the chicks have finished, especially if it is the evening meal, they are more likely to remain in the vicin- ity of the farthest houses, and to take shelter in them as night falls. In our haste and efforts to reduce our steps it is natural to want to distribute the feed at the nearest point where the flocks can get it; but this is wrong, and will only pile up additional work in the long run. Short-sightedness is one of the worst characteristics a poultryman can have, yet it is strangely common in the matter of feeding. Avoid the spirit of doing a thing for the sake of getting it done. It is almost always fatal to success with poultry, just as it is a serious handicap in other lines of work. Watch the flock and not the clock, isa pretty good slogan for the chicken man. Unlimited Feed.—Some of the most successful poultry raisers WHEN THE FLOCK EATS AT WILL 329 work on the assumption that the fowls know what is best for them in the matter of food, better than the man who does the feeding. Certainly this is true of some feeders, for I have seen some farm laborers who appeared to have as little interest in their tasks, and as little knowledge of the importance of their work, as they might have over a translation of Sanskrit. Where this condition obtains it is infinitely better to permit the stock to (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 215.—A covered runway which can be moved from place to place is best for very young chicks until they are strong enough to battle with the older stock on free range. exercise its own judgment, by keeping all feeds before them at all times, and giving them access to the feeds at will. There is another virtue about this method: the birds do not establish any habits of waiting for the feeder two or three times a day, and then gorging themselves forthwith, only to go off in the shade somewhere, like a snake after it has swallowed a toad, and wait for digestion. Instead, if they have always been ac- customed to feeding at will, they generally eat a little, run around, return and eat some more, run off again, and repeat the process 330 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING allday long. This is the best thing for them—a lot better than gorging at stated intervals. When chickens have feed before them in hoppers situated at convenient places throughout the range, they have nothing to draw them in a herd in any one spot, consequently they are not so likely to find one location more attractive than another, and will remain pretty much as they are distributed over the range in the first place. The ‘‘always filled hopper” principle goes a great way toward eliminating the bother of over-crowding due to the abandonment of certain houses. Feed Hoppers.—There should be plenty of hoppers, of a non- wasteful type, and great care should be taken to make them water-tight and weather-proof. Some of them can be placed indoors. A good plan is to keep the mash hoppers inside the house, where the feed will not be wasted by high winds blowing the lighter meals away. Scratch feed hoppers may be left out- side, in sheltered spots, accessible to the fowls, but in such a way that the hoppers will have protection from sparrows and other thieves. Watertight Covers.—Positively the hoppers must be made watertight, not only for the economy of the thing, but to avoid moldy, sour or spoiled food. If the hoppers leak ever so little, it means musty grain, and musty grains mean bowel troubles, maybe serious ones, and heavy losses. Take a little extra care in the making of the hoppers and provide tight lids or covers. And the covers must extend far enough over the sides of the hoppers to prevent driving rains from reaching the contents. The hoppers should have slatted sides through which the birds can reach the grain without difficulty, but not large enough for them to crawl through and perhaps soil the feed. The pullet is the favorite—the “star boarder.” She is espe- cially cherished on egg farms, and held in preference to the hen for fall and winter egg production—the periods of highest prices, which mean so much to the year’s profits. Every poultry raiser’s experience will substantiate the belief that a fowl’s greatest egg-producing capacity is in her first CARE OF PULLETS 331 laying year—the pullet year, providing, of course, all conditions are equal and as they should be. Therefore, under favorable conditions the pullet is the most profitable bird on the farm; and as such she is deserving of special care and attention. We are enjoined to get our hatches out early, in time to have pullets mature as autumn layers; but it is well to remember that age is not the only important consideration. While it is necessary to hatch chicks early to get mature pullets before cold weather sets in, especially among the heavier breeds, the feeding and general care of the growing stock have much to do with the flock’s start as layers. To be fitted for laying a pullet must be in full flesh, of normal size, with a fair amount of surplus fat, and these conditions are obtained only by an abundance of food of the right sort. See special chapters on feeding. The pens from which the old stock has been removed should be carefully cleaned, sprayed or whitewashed before the pullets are turned into them; the yards should be plowed or spaded under, and if possible sown to green food to sweeten them. In short, everything must be made as fresh and comfortable as possible for the new tenants. Cleanliness and roominess tend to keep the growing pullets healthy and vigorous, which are essential to egg production. The young stock should be kept growing steadily, yet it is a mistake to force pullets too rapidly. If their egg-producing organs are developed into a state of production in advance of their bodies having attained full growth, they will lay under- sized eggs, or they may lay a few eggs and then enter a molt, which will postpone further egg production until late in the winter. By no means force pullets by excessive feeding of highly concentrated animal protein foods. Transfer Pullets Early—lMany poultrymen make the mistake of allowing their pullets to remain on the range, in colony houses, too far into the fall, sometimes until the birds are ready to lay. The error in this practice is this: Chickens are creatures of habit, and nothing disturbs them more than changing their accommo- 332 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING dations, even though they may be moved to a more desirable. They will fuss and foolishly agitate themselves when placed in an unfamiliar building, which invariably results in a falling off in the egg yield. For proof of this, take a pen of fowls that are laying nicely and remove them to another building; then note the egg yield. (Courtesy Petal Chamber of Ci ce) Fig. 216.—A husky brood; count them. It should be a rule to get the pullets into their permanent winter quarters several weeks in advance of the time they are expected to commence laying, and to train them to accept their more regulated method of living and confinement with as much grace as possible. CREMATE OR BURY THE DEAD 333 Dangers of Poisons.—No experienced poultryman willfully feeds his flock on spoiled grain, because he knows that to do so is almost certain to result in sickness. No one with common sense would think of leaving poisons about, such as arsenate of lead or Paris green, where the fowls have access to them, or where children are likely to play with them. Common sense dictates that these poisonous things are in the class with high explosives, to be treated with the greatest caution and forethought, lest they result in some terrible fatality. In other words, we are im- pressed with the danger of explosives and poisons, therefore we handle them accordingly. Decayed Animal Matter.—It is unfortunate that poultry raisers generally do not extend this caution in the matter of poisons, and make it cover all such risks, since others exist which are almost equally as potent as the arsenate of lead, despite the fact that little or no attention is paid to them. Iam speaking of the decaying carcasses of fowls and rotten eggs which are so often carelessly left about the premises, thrown on rub- bish piles, in manure pits, or in adjoining woods and fields. Such carcasses, in fact, dead animal matter of any kind, really constitute just so much poison as soon as they start to putrefy. If death was caused by disease, the bodies are poisonous even before they start to putrefy, for reasons too obvious for further explanation. They are the carriers of contagion, which is the equivalent of poison. Destroy the Dead.—Every authority who writes about poultry or gives advice on the subject is sure to say—‘‘ Destroy the bodies of dead fowls. Either burn them, put them in quicklime, or deeply bury them.” Perhaps poultry keepers have been told this so often that it has lost its power, for certain it is that the advice is not followed as a general practice, at least, not witIsthe scrupulousness that is weighed against the skull and cross-bones poison label or the explosive. Yet it should be, every mite as carefully. Chickens Are Scavengers.—It is not a very pleasant idea to contemplate chickens as scavengers, though in treating a subject 334 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING of this kind we are obliged to deal with facts and not fancies. Chickens are scavengers. Almost all fowls are scavengers to a certain degree. Whether this is the result of intense domestica- tion or a natural impulse, J am not prepared to say, but I do know that fowls will eat dead animal matter at the slightest op- portunity, and, what is more, they eat it with apparent relish. (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 217.—Growing coop for young stock constructed from piano cases covered with tar paper. Note runway in front of right-hand window. In the early stages of decomposition, if the animal matter has not been infected with a malignant disease, little harm will result from eating it, unless eaten in large quantities, which will bring about bowel troubles. But as soon as an advanced state of putrefaction sets in, the carcass fairly swarms with bacteria— microbes of one kind or another, not to mention worms and the WHEN DISINFECTANTS ARE USELESS 335 eggs of flies, which are highly poisonous. Taken into the bodies of the fowls these bacteria soon attack healthy tissue. Since few fowls or animals meet with accidental deaths, or die without cause, it is well to consider all dead animal matter as being highly poisonous, therefore unfit for food. All the disinfectants in the world are useless, and spraying, white-washing and cleaning go for naught if the carcasses of dead birds are left about the premises. We can treat disease till the end of time, but we can never hope to exterminate it so long as a single infected specimen remains on the plant. These are not the vaporings of a crank. They are plain truths. And the sooner we recognize them, the better it will be for our poultry and other folks’ poultry as well. If the evils resulting from the careless handling of dead animal matter were a little more tangible, no doubt we would be held accountable unto the law for spreading contagion. The fact that these evils are not tangible, and we are not held technically responsible, does not alter the moral obligation, however, conse- quently we owe it to the community, as well as to our own security, to provide every precaution. Flies thrive and breed upon carrion. They are notorious germ carriers, traveling far and wide and doing untold damage. Your flock of fowls may be perfectly well, and the conditions under which the birds are kept may be the acme of sanitation, but if your neighbor’s ways are negligent, it will be only good fortune if at some time or other your birds do not suddenly break down with illness of some kind, which, if it could be traced, would be chargeable to this neighbor. The Easiest Way.—Dead bodies, especially those of little chicks, are improperly disposed of largely because it is deemed easier to get rid of them by the shortest route. This is a fallacy, if the bodies return in the form of disease, for nothing is more troublesome to combat than a flock of sick chickens. In back- yard flocks the bodies of dead chicks are frequently thrown into the garbage cans, many of which are without tops. With or without lids to the cans, this is a bad practice. 336 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING On farms where fowls are kept merely as a side line, the bodies are apt to be tossed into the manure pit. Sometimes an effort is made to cover them with the manure, but this does not remove the evil, if the bodies were infected with disease. At some time or other this manure is going to be spread about as fertilizer, and with it will go the diseased remains of the dead fowls. Most of the remains will be consumed, though not always the disease, (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 218.—Inexpensive colony growing coop built on skids. for some disease germs live for months in the soil, especially where there is heat, as in a manure pile, to further nurture them. Hog Pen.—Frequently dead fowls are thrown into the hog pen. Even when they are consumed by the hogs, this is not fit food for hogs. Usually some parts of the remains lie about long enough for other fowls to find it, and run off with it. Maybe a dog will steal a body from the pen. Pit or Well.—Some poultry keepers throw their dead into a PRECAUTION SEEMS TROUBLESOME 337 pit or abandoned well. It may be that the hole is covered over so that other fowls or animals cannot gain access to the carcasses, but the chances are that flies will have no trouble in finding them. Maggots, the larve of flies, worms and other ‘‘crawling things” abide in putrid matter. Later these insects may be eaten by the chickens. The most careless method is to throw the dead bodies under buildings, into hedge rows, along fences, on rubbish heaps or other seemingly out-of-the-way places. Fowls and dogs, not to mention rats, cats, skunks, crows and other flesh-eaters, soon (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 219.—Choose a _ secluded spot Fig. 220. — Open-front colony for the brood coop. house with hinged front to exclude : driving rains. 7 learn the whereabouts of such places, and thereafter they will make a practice of haunting them, like scavengers. If they would consume all of the waste matter, it would not be so bad, but they do not. They eat portions, and distribute the balance around the grounds. Bad eggs, especially those removed from the incubator, are often left lying about, together with the empty shells and a small percentage of dead chicks gathered at the close of a hatch. On some of the largest hatcheries I have seen whole barrels of un- hatched eggs, in various stages of decomposition, standing un- 22 338 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING covered outside the incubator cellars. In.some cases the odors were so bad as to be sickening. Eggs are animal matter, and should be destroyed as thoroughly as dead bodies, especially during warm weather. In the winter time, when snow is on the ground, it is not un- common to find carcasses thrown into the snow right outside of the hen houses, on the assumption, I presume, that the cold will prevent their decay. No doubt it was the intention of these poultry raisers to gather the bodies before a thaw, but in most cases they were forgotten, or hidden by the snow, until decay had set in. Furthermore, cold does not kill all germs. Some- times it simply suspends life, which will be renewed at the ap- proach of warm weather. There are but three really effectual methods of destroying dead animal matter: Incineration, quicklime and deep burial. Placing the bodies in quicklime destroys them and all germ life utterly, but it is rather troublesome to do this every time a dead chick is found. Burial places the matter out of sight, and may or may not destroy it. In any event, the burial should be deep, so that other fowls or animals cannot dig it up. Cremation is the best method, not only because burning puts an end to any possibility of infection, but because it is the easiest to perform. Contrive some kind of an incinerator out of an old garbage can or metal receptacle, raise it off the ground about eighteen inches, either by iron legs or a brick or stone foundation, so that a fire can be built underneath, and every time you have any waste paper or rubbish from the house, keep it handy for this purpose. Aside from destroying the bodies of all dead fowls which are found in the brooders, laying houses and other buildings, do not forget to look around the range at regular intervals. Sometimes chickens are killed by strange causes, or they will go off in the brush and die as the result of sickness or exposure. If their bodies are not found by the attendant, they are sure to be found by the rest of the flock, which is likely to prove a serious menace, the importance of*which cannot be over-estimated. CHAPTER XXV BREAKING UP BROODINESS Hen’s Business is to Lay Eggs.—On farms devoted to egg pro- duction it is the hen’s exclusive business to produce this product in the greatest number, and it is her manager’s duty to see that she is equipped with every facility toward this end,.with no chance for even a temporary cessation of activities.. Where poultry is raised on a large scale the hen is not held responsible for rearing next season’s flock of pullets.. It is far more economical to per- form this work by artificial means—with the aid of incubators and brooders; in consequence the hen is denied any participa- tion in the furtherance of her species, save the laying of the egg, and any inclination toward these maternal ambitions must be promptly discouraged. Production is not Continuous.—Contrary, perhaps, to the opinion of the novice, egg production is not a sequence of certain quantities of correctly proportioned nutrients taken into the body daily, digested, assimilated and then converted into a regular supply of eggs—a continuous operation, as it were, un- interrupted so long as the hen’s health and.vigor are maintained, and her care is as it should be. The egg cells, scarcely visible to the naked eye, of which there are many hundred in the well-bred normal fowl, and some author- ities place the number of latent eggs at upwards of five thou- sand, are stimulated and developed in series or clusters, sometimes called ‘‘clutches’”’ or “‘litters”; each series being ripened or held dormant in accordance with the fowl’s general health and her capacity to consume sufficient quantities of nutrients essential to the stimulation of the egg-producing organs. The number of cells in each series varies widely with different 339 340 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING breeds and with different specimens, and there seems to be no basis for an approximation. There may be a dozen cells in a litter, or five dozen, and in rare cases, such as the hens that have attained wonderful records at egg-laying contests, fowls will con- tinue to lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for a couple of years. Ordinarily, between clusters there is a period (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) Fig, 221.—Every laying house should be equipped with a broody hen coop. of non-production, a sort of rest period, which varies in duration the same as the size of the litter. It may be a week or a month, or perhaps three months; and not infrequently a hen will lay but the one cluster of eggs and then stay off the nest for the re- mainder of the year. Such specimens are to be rated as drones, and dealt with accordingly. Birds that are impoverished and those that are not bred along the lines of heavy egg production are EGGS ARE LAID IN SERIES 341 usually in this class, and for which the poultryman should keepa sharplookout; they are not fitted for the highly organized egg plant. Intervals Between Litters.—Generally speaking, hens that lay short litters take but a few days to the intervals between them, whereas those that lay from thirty to sixty eggs in almost daily succession will require a much longer period, which seems per- fectly natural. Egg production is a severe tax on the hen’s body; it is a secretory and a reproductive process combined, and as such it de- mands time in which [-, LE to recuperate. ! When a hen com- pletes laying a litter, especially during the spring months, she is usually attended bya maternal instinct—a desire to hatch the eggs, all of which is very natural, indeed, but not in accordance with the poultryman’s views on the subject. Producing eggs for Fig. 222.—Outdoor coop for breaking up broody table purposes does hens. Note the slatted bottom, not concern Mistress Biddy. She performs her labors in response to the highest ideal—that of reproducing her kind, and having completed the first step in the operation, the laying of the eggs, she cannot acquit herself of the responsibility until they are transformed into a fluffy flock of youngsters. It is a noble resolve, but, unfor- tunately for the hen, it has no place on the commercial egg farm. Hens of the general purpose and meat varieties, such as Ply- mouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes and Brahmas are more addicted to this form of domesticity than are the lighter breeds; though the desire is pretty well founded in all classes of poultry, even to the so-called non-sitting breeds—Leghorns, (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 342 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Campines and Minorcas. The non-sitting breeds, however, are not so habitually broody, nor so likely to be difficult to dis- courage. In the fall of the year strict attention is paid to the require- ments of the pullets to induce them to commence laying, and during the severe winter months that follow everything is done to sustain this yield. By March, which is the natural season for egg production, wherein almost anything that resembles 4 chicken is giving a good account of itself, the poultryman relaxes his vigilance over the egg basket and turns his energies toward other problems—mating, fertility, incubating and brooding. There is such an abundance of eggs at this time that this phase of the business seems to take care of itself. Watch Out for Broodiness.—March, April and May are the months of heaviest production, after which the egg yield will fall off very rapidly if the poultryman is not watchful of his flock—on the lookout for broody hens. From the first of March and well into the summer the poultry keeper should make it a hard and fast rule to go over all the nests every evening, an hour after the last feeding time is best, and remove therefrom any fowls that show signs of broodiness. Very few hens lay after four o'clock in the afternoon, and inasmuch as they have no business on the nests after nightfall anyhow, it is a pretty safe practice to take up all birds found in the nests at that time, on the assump- tion that they are suspicious characters, and confine them in quarters specially built for their accommodation, which will be described in another paragraph. Easily Broken at First.—Those who are inexperienced may rea- son that it seems unnecessary to make this a daily task, and that to go over the nests once a week or every few days will answer the same purpose; but such is not the case. A hen removed from the nest on the first day of her inclination to sit is very much easier to discourage than when she has been permitted to indulge her fancy for a week or more. She is usually rather indifferent about the matter at first and can be diverted with little effort, whereas at the end of a week the notion is a confirmed habit— a firm resolve, lodged crosswise in her mind and clinched on the A EFFECT ON EGG PRODUCTION 343 inside, from which it is a tedious job to break her. Everyone who has raised chickens, no doubt, has had an opportunity to observe the tenacity and stubbornness of a sitting hen; her will- power is almost unconquerable. Failure to discourage broodiness is probably the most potent cause for the low rate of egg production in the farm flock, and for which the farmer has nothing to blame but his own indifference or ignorance. The broody hen eats and drinks very little and takes practically no exercise, consequently she soon becomes thin and emaciated and we are apt to marvel how she sustains life at all. She could not survive if it were not for her ability to draw upon her internal store- house for sustenance. It is the depreciation of this store of energy that causes her egg- producing organs to become contracted Fig. 223.—Egg-laying contest house for two pens and dormant, and in of birds, Storrs, Connecticut. the same _ inactive, shrunken condition that we find in the immature pullet or the fowl that is going through the molt. Her entire attitude is that of sluggishness; the abdominal section that was once re- laxed and distended, is drawn well up into her body; the pelvic bones that were formerly pliable and spread far apart, are rigid and close together; and the comb and wattles that were pendu- lous and brightly colored, are now pale and shrivelled. Time Lost.—Briefly, when the hen becomes broody she reverts to the state of an undeveloped pullet, and the time involved is very short. Once she has been reduced to this condition, and with all things favorable, from four to six weeks are required to bring her back into laying. If conditions are not favorable; for example, if the weather is very hot, or she is not fed the proper 344 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING ration, or if she was never but an indifferent layer at best, the chances are she will not resume laying until next season. In- stead, it is highly probable that she will enter the molt. Loss of Plumage.—When a hen is permitted to get in poor condition, especially in warm weather, either by illness, idleness on the nest, or by raising a brood of chicks, her plumage, like her body, dries up. It loses its sleek, glossy appearance; the oil in the quills is impoverished, and in consequence the fowl enters an early molt. The early molt is the longest, sometimes re- quiring four and five months, so that on farms devoted to egg production it is seldom considered profitable to carry the early “‘molters”’ over to the next season, and they are disposed of as meat. Egg Production Is Secondary.—We might term egg production a supplementary function, for such it really is—secondary circu- lation, the result of over-stimulation. Strictly speaking, fowls eat to repair and restore the daily wear and tear to the body tissues—to maintain them in a healthy, normal state. If the amount of nourishment that they consume is merely equal to this task alone, there is none left for the work of stimulating the egg-producing organs to a point of activity. On the other hand, if there is an excess of nourishment, that which is assimilated over and above the daily requirements of the body, it goes into the development of the reproductive organs, which progress no faster than this nourishment is provided. In the late winter and early spring the hen will instinctively labor to bring about this excess of nourishment for egg develop- ment. It is the natural season for her to commence laying. With the advent of milder weather she will forage for tidbits of greens, seeds, bugs, worms and other morsels in addition to her regular bill-of-fare, all of which is highly nutritious and “places her in the pink of condition. When she has completed laying her first clutch of eggs, especially if it be a long one, the chances are she will manifest a desire to hatch them. Or, she may continue to lay another litter and then try to hatch it. Certain it is that she will try to hatch at least once during the spring months, and maybe three or four times. BREAKING UP BROODINESS 345 If the poultryman is not alert, the hen will steal a march on him, for she is very persistent. The operator must thwart her plans immediately, and frustrate them in such a way that she is induced to continue to eat large quantities of food, and thus maintain her appetite, keep her body well nourished and prolong the life of her plumage, in which case she will continue laying throughout the summer. Avoid Cruel Measures.—There are many ways of discouraging broodiness, but, remem- bering that the real rea- son for so doing is to in- duce further egg produc- tion, any practice or method that subjects the hen to cruelty or pri- vation will only defeat the idea, therefore it should not be tolerated. The old-fashioned ideas of inflicting some form of punishment on the un (Courtesy Kansas Ekonsvien: Stakan) offending biddy because Fig. 224.—'‘A”’-shaped colony house covered she responded to a nat- with tar paper. ural impulse were wrong. Aside from humane reasons, to half starve or ill treat fowls, or to keep them from water, invites further loss in eggs, since these cus- toms are sure to bring about the very condition that should be avoided—the reversion of the egg organs to a dormant state. Small Flocks.—Where the birds are kept in small flocks, a good plan is to build a coop with a slatted bottom at the end of the roosting compartment, having it well ventilated and easy of access. See Fig. 221. Or an ordinary packing-case may be converted into a broody-hen coop: Remove the bottom and re- place it with slats, mount the box on legs that will keep it about six inches off the floor, and then construct a simple wire-netting- covered-frame for a lid. As the clucks are taken from the nests é 346 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING they are placed in this coop, and the sensation of currents of air under them instead of eggs is disconcerting, to say the least. The hens are unable to squat in a comfortable position, due to their legs protruding through the openings between the slats; they have no sense of privacy nor security, hence two or three days of this harmless pillory usually disgusts them with the idea of wanting to hatch a brood of chicks, and when released they are only too anxious to rejoin their companions in the laying house. It is understood, of course, that food and water are kept before them during their confinement, and that they are not to be treated like prisoners, but as hospital inmates. In long laying houses of the continuous type, where the birds are kept in large units, a section of the roosting compartment may be given over to the broody-hen coop and fitted with a temporary slatted floor. It is better, however, to partition an end of the house in which there is the maximum amount of sun- shine, and to remove all fixtures or nests that may offer secluded nooks. Green food in abundance should be placed in the pen along with fresh water and the regular grain rations, and if pos- sible the inmates should be induced to exercise. The presence of a few lively cockerels in the pen will go a long way in breaking the obstinate clucks. If the weather is mild, as it usually is when one has a large number of broody hens, another good plan is to place them in an open yard, giving them no access to a house even at night, except during a violent storm. Without refuge of any sort, and nothing to do but fuss with others of their kind, life holds very little en- joyment for them, so that even the most persistent members are readily converted. However troublesome it may be to remove the broody hens every day, positively it must be done if eggs are to be secured in large numbers during the summer months. It is a part of the general scheme of intensive progressive poultry culture—equally as important as artificial incubation and brooding. Furthermore, it means greatly increased profits, for it should be remembered that August eggs bring about the same prices as January eggs. CHAPTER XXVI SURPLUS COCKERELS Cockerels a Necessary Evil.—On poultry farms specializing in egg production the aim is to rear pullets. Cockerels are looked upon more or less as a nuisance. Yet, no matter how hard we try to mate our pens so that the hatches will run to females, as a general rule fifty per cent of the chickens are cockerels. It is one of those natural laws over which we have no control. To the beginner this is sometimes discouraging, in view of the fact there is not a great deal of profit to be made from the average flock of surplus cockerels. In fact, some breeders complain that their cockerels actually become a liability, and sell for less than the cost of production. Where such is the case, there is some- thing wrong with the management. Poor Returns.—It is true, very few breeders derive any ap- preciable returns from their surplus cockerels, especially from males of the egg-laying varieties, such as the Leghorns. This is due in a large measure, however, to mismanagement. Either the birds are not properly fattened and prepared for market pur- poses, or they are not marketed at the right time. Many poul- try raisers sell their cockerels at an early age, profit or no profit, regardless of the prevailing prices, in order to get them out of the way, retaining only the most promising specimens for future breeding purposes. It is a mistake to force these birds on the market at a sacrifice, since they can be turned into easy money if one has sufficient space in which to segregate them, and then fatten and hold them for greater weight and better prices. Separate at Early Age.—As soon as the cockerels are old enough for their sex to be determined they should be separated from the 347 . 348 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING pullets and kept by themselves. If permitted to run with older fowls, they are constantly bullied and do not receive their proper share of food, which, of course, retards their development. If they are allowed to mature with the pullets, the males not only get the lion’s share, but they bother the pullets as well, which is not good for the pullets’ growth. If the pullets develop slowly, they are not fitted for early egg production. Cockerels that are penned by themselves at the age of two (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) Fig. 225.—Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels in warm weather. Shed is built in the lee of a barn. months live peacefully together, require very little attention, and if properly fed they can be made to put on flesh very rapidly. The quality of their flesh is greatly improved in this manner; instead of being dry and tough, it is tender and juicy, comparing favorably with the capon, and in place of angular bodies their carcasses will be plump and well-rounded. The people of the United States are probably the greatest consumers of poultry and eggs in the world, and yet we are said NEED FOR FATTENING 349 to be satisfied with a very poor quality. The average quality of chicken seen in the retail store and on hotel tables in this country is far below that found abroad—in France, England, Belgium, Denmark and so on. This is largely due to the great consumption of broilers, which, however good. they may be in some respects, lack the tenderness and abundance of flesh found on fowls that have been properly fattened before killing. BEA Vea Py} (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 226.—Home-made fattening crate located in the lee of a building. These crates can be utilized for broody hens as well. In fact, as a general practice the fattening or finishing of poultry by special processes is virtually an unknown industry in this country. : The common plan has been to let the fowls eat all the corn they will consume for a couple of weeks before marketing, but this method does not produce prime table poultry in a strict sense of the term. Corn has a distinct tendency to put on weight—this is unquestionable; but this weight consists mainly of a heavy 350 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING deposit of oily fat in layers under the skin, and in masses in the abdominal cavity, which is not particularly desirable inasmuch as it does not really constitute edible meat. In fowls that are properly fattened this excess weight is distributed in tiny globules of fat throughout all the body tissues, where it belongs; conse- quently in cooking this fat is not wasted, but renders the tissues soft and juicy. The average American farmer is very careful to see that his steers and hogs are properly fattened before sending them to market, but to the poultry he pays little or no attention. It is difficult to find any excuse for this indifference, because a pound of grain can be converted into more poultry meat of greater value and in less time than through any four-footed medium. Fattening Feeds.—Common sense dictates that if fowls are confined in small pens and kept quiet they will fatten much quicker than if allowed their liberty. The flesh of a chicken on unlimited range is tough and stringy, no matter how young the bird may be. Ground barley or oats, with one-third corn meal, thoroughly moistened with skim milk, makes a splendid growing and fattening food. Cramming is practised by experts who wish to produce fowls of the highest quality table meat, and while it gives excellent results, the crate fattening method is almost as good, and will answer the purpose of the average poultry raiser. In the long run the crate method is probably the most profitable. See Fig. 227. It is practised very extensively in England, and in recent years many of the large American packing houses have specialized in it. Rations.—The Ontario Agricultural College conducted a series of experiments in fattening poultry, and found that a mixture of two parts corn meal, two parts ground buckwheat and one part pearl oat dust, with an equal weight of skim milk, gave excellent results at a cost of three and a half cents per pound for the weight gained. Oats and skim milk made the gain cost slightly over five cents per pound. Another good fattening ration is made up of I00 pounds of FATTENING METHODS 351 corn meal, 100 pounds of wheat middlings, and 40 pounds of animal meal. The fowls should have access to plenty of sharp grit to aid digestion, and as a blood purifier, some poultrymen mix a little sulphur in the mash once every two weeks. At the close of the fattening period, which usually lasts about six weeks, a little tallow may be added to the feed. It is unquestionable that the breeder of heavy fowls, such as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds, has the advantage over the Leghorn breeder when it comes to disposing of cockerels. If desired, the heavier breeds can be caponized, or they can be held for roasters, and made to weigh six or eight ita . (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 227.—Pouring feed into the troughs of fattening crates. pounds. Furthermore, breeders of heavy fowls usually hatch a month or two earlier than Leghorn breeders, consequently their young stock can be made to weigh four to five pounds to the pair at a time when broilers and fryers command top prices. Squab Broilers.—March, April and May are the best months for hatching Leghorns, hence cockerels from these hatches are not large enough to be sold as broilers or fryers until June or July, at which time market prices have materially declined. In some localities there is a fair outlet for Leghorn cockerels as squab broilers, weighing about three-quarters of a pound each, during April and May. They are sometimes called asparagus chickens, and the price is about a dollar per pair. 352 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Costs.—Leghorn breeders will do well to take advantage of this market whenever possible, since it means a very fair profit, and it also offers an opportunity to relieve any congestion in the colony houses. It is comparatively easy to bring Leghorns to weigh a pound in six weeks’ time, and under normal circumstances the cost of production, including the original value of the egg and its incubation, together with the labor and expense of dressing and shipping, should not exceed twenty-five cents. This leaves a net profit of twenty-five cents per bird—nothing to brag about, i \==m Li TI jaa TOO - = Yo mesh hardware etoth bertem * te'ato'carriage belt FRONT. view an te catch sropeings Hie cr ry pp EAD ELEVATION 2K Oressed | (California Experiment Station) Fig. 228.—Plans for a 2-compartment fattening crate. perhaps, yet all things considered it is a very fair return on the investment. This profit will defray the expense of maintaining a pullet for two months. When Prices Are Low.—When prices on young chickens fall below twenty cents per pound live weight, as they do in July and August, there is very little profit to be had over the cost of pro- duction, especially for Leghorns weighing about two pounds each. The market is usually so glutted that buyers can afford to dis- criminate in favor of the heavier breeds. At such times, rather than sacrifice the shipments, it will pay the poultryman to fatten SQUAB BROILERS 353 the cockerels for small roasters. True, the fact that they are Leghorns will always discount the highest prices, yet if they are properly fattened and neatly dressed their returns will be pretty nearly commensurate with their cost of production. Quarters.—Some breeders argue against the idea of keeping surplus cockerels for the reason that they cannot provide suitable living quarters for them. Admitting that the poultryman’s (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) Fig. 229.—Killing and dressing broilers—surplus cockerels. space is limited, the cockerels come along at a time when it is usually advisable to dispose of some of the older fowls for meat, especially the breeding males, whereupon, by combining other pens, there will be left one or more empty pens for the accommo- dation of the cockerels. See Fig. 225. Before the breeding season opens again, or before these pens are required by the pul- lets, the cockerels will have been sold or used on the home table. Quality Counts.—Many a consignment of poultry has brought 23 354 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING poor returns and bitter disappointment to the shipper simply because it was not uniformly graded, or because the fowls were carelessly dressed or improperly packed. Nine times out of ten the poultryman has no one but himself to blame for poor prices. Specimens that are thin and emaciated, malformed in any way, those having crooked breast-bones, or those with bruised or mutilated skins, should not be included in a shipment intended to be sold at top prices. It is far better to leave a few undesirable carcasses out of a shipment, to be used on the home table, than to include them, no matter how tempting it may be to add this additional weight. Remember that the sales account is going to be returned on the basisof quality. To keep the undesirables at home you may lose a few pounds, from which at least you derive a (U.S. Dep't Agriculture) meal or two for the Fig. 230.—Correct way to grasp head of fowl family; whereas to for killing and bleeding, Note position of knife d th ithe chk in respect to veins. send them in the ship- ment may be the means of reducing the price a couple of cents per pound on the entire lot. Nothing appeals to a dealer so much as uniform quality. Each grade should be uniform in size, shape, color of skin and shanks, age and degree of plumpness. Scalding is the most rapid method of removing the feathers, and there is less loss in dressed weights than by dry picking, due to the absorption of a small amount of water by the body in the plumping process, but it is almost impossible to practise this method without destroying the natural appearance of the skin. If the water is too hot, or the fowl is immersed too long, the skin STICKING AND PICKING is partly cooked and the thin scarf skin peels off, which causes the flesh to become dis- colored. If the water is not hot enough, it is then difficult to remove the feathers with- out tearing the skin. The cor- rect temperature is about 180 degrees. When the feathers are removed, singe the body with an alcohol flame to re- move hairs, and then plunge it in cold water to remove the animal heat, and to plump the carcass. Dry Picking.—It requires more time and skill to dry pick fowls, yet one is usually com- pensated for this additional trouble. Dry picked poultry is more attractive and brings higher prices, and in many markets no other sort will be tolerated, except to a cheaper class of trade. The success of dry picking depends on getting the right bleed and the correct stick. Hang the fowl by a cord (see Fig. 229), or hold in the hands while sitting, seize the -head in the left hand (see Fig. 230), and with the right hand run the blade of the sticking knife into the throat until the large artery in the left side of the EYE Dotted lines indicate comb and wattles. 10 VA CORRECT Gur GROOVE IN. ROOF OF MOUTH EYE ENO OF BEAK (U.S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 231.—Anatomy of skull, showing position of veins and correct way to cut for killing. 356 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING throat is severed. This operation is termed bleeding, and must be successfully done before the fowl is stuck. See Fig. 231. As soon as the blood spurts freely insert the knife-blade in the slit of the roof of the mouth and plunge it backward into the brain directly back of the eye. When the brain is reached, there will be a violent muscular contraction, whereupon give the knife a sharp twist and withdraw it. , (U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 232.—Heads of fowls with lower jaw removed, showing poor attempts at severing veins in throat. If the operation has been successful, paralysis will be induced, and the feathers will loosen. Begin picking immediately; rough pick the breast and body feathers first, then wing and tail feathers and finally the wing and tail quills. Always remove the greater bulk of all the feathers before attempting to clean off the small feathers. Avoid pulling too many feathers at one stroke to pre- vent tearing the skin, and remember that tearing is most likely PACKING AND SHIPPING 357 to occur on each side of the breast and on the neck. A neat job and rapid work are only acquired after considerable practice. To the uninitiated it looks very simple, indeed, until experience proves that there is quite a knack to be learned. Give No Food.—All poultry intended for slaughter should be kept without food for twenty-four hours, and in many states this is required by law. In so doing the intestines are given time to become empty, which helps to prevent decomposition of food materials within the body, and adds greatly to the keeping qual- ity of the carcass. Water should be supplied during this fasting ‘period, for it aids in cleansing the intestines. A few markets prefer poultry drawn, but that sent to New York, Chicago and cities in general is not drawn. Undrawn poultry keeps best. Shipping.—Bearing in mind that the package frequently sells the product which it contains, the poultryman should prepare his shipments in.the most attractive manner, so they will arrive in the best possible condition. Each box or barrel should be lined with paper, preferably parchment paper, which will help to prevent evaporation, or injury to the contents through rough handling. Clean rye or wheat straw may be used to advantage. For icing poultry in barrels in warm weather, bore a hole in the bottom for drainage, then place a layer of ice, then alternate layers of poultry and ice until the package is full. Pack the poultry breast down and back up, with the legs straight towards the center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side by side around the outside. The middle of the barrel may be filled with bodies or with cracked ice. Over the top layer of poultry place a layer of ice, then a piece of burlap, and finally a layer of ice on which the head rests. Poultry packed in this manner can be shipped long distances and should arrive at its destination in perfect condition. In cold weather it is seldom necessary to use ice. Mark all shipments clearly, giving the name and address of the consignee, name and address of the shipper, and the contents of the package. A stencil is useful for this purpose; it is much neater than amateur printing. Besides, it is more business-like. CHAPTER XXVII CAPONIZING Does Caponizing Pay?—There is a wide difference of opinion on the subject. Without attempting to answer this question offhand, let us first consider the matter fully, and from different points of view. Delicious Meat.—Capons are undoubtedly a more delicious meat than an uncaponized bird, which is especially true of fowls that are held past six months of age. The flesh is sweeter and of a superior flavor in the capon, consequently it brings much higher prices. The markets of the entire country are sparingly supplied with capon flesh, hence there is a constant demand for it at uniformly good prices. There is no definite capon season, apparently, but most breeders market their stock after the holi- days, from January to March. Usually the highest prices pre- vail at this time. Even so it is almost impossible for the chance buyer to pick up any capons in the general markets, because the supply is seldom equal to the demand. Advantages of the Capon.—The capon has many advantages over the rooster: In the first place he is very docile, his disposi- tion is entirely changed, he seldom if ever fights, he declines any great amount of exercise, and will stand close confinement well. Life holds very little for him, except to eat and sit around and grow large and heavy. The meat of capons is more economically grown than that of cockerels, because more of the food consumed is stored up on the body as flesh and less is devoted to energy. What is most important, capons can be kept longer than cock- erels, because they will continue to grow larger and heavier, with- out becoming coarse and staggy. They can be kept for a year or longer, and sold profitably when poultry is scarce and bringing 358 SURPLUS MALES INTO CAPONS 359 higher prices. Not caponized, it is quite likely they could not be kept in prime condition for market longer than the fall of the year, at which time poultry is so plentiful that prices are usually low. Capons command from twenty-five to forty centsa pound, depending upon locality and the season, while the ordi- nary rooster brings from twelve to twenty-five cents. These are pre- war prices. Surplus Cockerels.— On the average farm, especially those devoted . to egg production, cock- erels are taboo—unwel- comed guests. Every year several hundred thousand male birds are sold at an actual loss to. producers, because poul- trymen believe they are a nuisance. It is con- tended that they do not more than pay the ex- pense of raising. Thisis : true if the young cock- (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) erels are marketedidirect jae Stump breast, well covered body from the range without and short thighs. any special preparation. Cockerels sold off the range are too thin and muscular. As prime table poultry they should be fattened for a couple of weeks in crates, as described in the previous chapter. Increased Profits——In our efforts to secure pullets for egg production, we cannot evade raising an equal number of cockerels, E : ib 2 B KY ng & 360 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING of which only a very small percentage are required for breeding purposes. Therefore, as a simple business principle, if we must raise surplus cockerels, we should strive to convert them into a profit, if only as a by-product. And if caponizing will bring this about, it is the strongest argument in favor of the practice. Since the poultry department at Cornell University has been (Courtesy U.S, Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 234.—Capons dressed for market. Conventional method of picking; the birds, however, are not in perfect condition of flesh. caponizing their surplus males, it has added several hundred dollars a year to the net profits. Not only are better prices re- ceived for capons, but there is an increase in weight over the nor- mal state for the same age and under precisely the same care and feeding. In the same length of time it is possible to raise capons that will weigh almost a half more than they would have weighed LARGE BREEDS ARE BEST 361 as cockerels. At six months of age cockerels have received their most rapid growth. The same birds, if caponized when about twelve weeks old, can be made to continue their growth until they are eight and ten months old. Larger Breeds Are Best.—Cockerels of any breed can be made to increase in weight by being caponized; yet the larger breeds (Courtesy U. S. Dep’t Agriculture) Fig. 235.—Side view of capons dressed for market. are by far the most desirable. If a poultryman is going to special- ize in capons, rather than develop surplus males as a side line, then of course, the selection of the breed to be used is of primary im- portance. The operator must keep before him the idea of well- finished, well-rounded, solid meat, a bird that has the greatest amount of flesh for the least amount of bone, and the shortest shank. See Fig. 233. This ideal condition is shown by the use 362 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING of Asiatic breeds—Brahmas and Langshans, which are still further improved by the admission of Plymouth Rock and English Game blood. Cross Breeds.—It is not uncommon for Light Brahma capons to weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds each at eight or ten months of age. Smaller capons, however, will more nearly supply the. needs of the average family, consequently the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes will be found very satisfactory. White Ply- mouth Rocks, straight or crossed with White Cornish Game, give excellent results, a long full breast, clean yellow legs, and no dark pinfeathers. Another practice is to cross the Barred Plymouth Rock with the Light Brahma, which will give greater weight, but the dark pinfeathers are an objection. A bird with handsome plumage is more attractive as a capon, for in dressing this class of poultry much of the plumage is left on the body. See Figs. 234 and 235. The conventional way to dress capons is to leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up the thighs. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market, and fof this reason partridge-colored birds are used to a great extent. The undeveloped comb and wattles are other distin- guishing features of the capon, also a long, rather pointed head. Time to Caponize.—Cockerels may be caponized at any age, but for the comfort of the bird and convenience of the operator, it is not advisable to perform the operation when the birds are too young or after they are more than six months old. In de- termining the proper time, the size of the bird should be the governing factor, the most desirable time being when the birds weigh from two and a half to three pounds, or when they are about three months old. The operation will succeed on older birds, but the percentage of deaths and slips will be greater. A slip is a bird that is neither capon nor cockerel, and brings no better price than a cockerel. (U.S. Department of Agriculture) Fig. 236.—Caponizing instruments: a, hollow tube cannula; 0, scoop can- nula; c, knife; d, spring spreader; e, sliding spreader; f, tweezers; g, probe; h, sharp-pointed hook; 2, sliding cannula; k, spoon forceps. 363 364 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Caponizing is simple and easy to learn; in France it has been practised for centuysies, and practically without instruments except a sharp knife. Anyone with average intelligence and a fair amount of dexterity can learn to caponize in a short time. The beginner should practise first with dead fowls, and wherever possible it is well to first attend a practical demonstration. The Agricultural Stations of some states give free lessons at certain seasons. Reliable Instruments.—The beginner should purchase a re- liable set of instruments (see Fig. 236), and once he has become familiar with the use of each instrument, and with the manner of making the incision, there will be little difficulty in doing the work. Dexterity is simply a matter of practice. The beginner should caponize a bird in about fifteen minutes; after one has gained the confidence and dexterity that come with practice, this time may be reduced to four or five minutes. The operation is performed with apparently little pain to the subject, and the moment the bird is released he will walk about as if nothing had occurred. Two conditions are essential to success in caponizing: One is that the intestines of the bird should be entirely empty, so that there will be the least amount of bulk in the abdominal cavity; the other condition is strong light, which will permit the organs of the bird to be clearly distinguished. Sunlight is best, conse- quently if the weather is favorable it is a good plan to operate outdoors. Withhold all food and water from the fowls for at least twenty-four hours before the operation. Some operators keep the birds off food for forty-eight hours, which insures empty intestines. ; The bird must be secured to the operating table in a convenient manner; pass a noose of cord about the legs, as shown in Fig. 237, and tie the wings in the same way. Attach weights to the ends of the cords, which will hold the bird in any desired position. Have the instruments conveniently at hand, also a basin of water, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, and Ge aioe le” laos (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 237.—Layout for caponizing. First step in the operation is to locate the last two ribs and make the incision. 365 366 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING some absorbent cotton. Once the operation is started, carry it through as quickly as possible. Locate the area for the incision, between the last two ribs, as shown in Fig. 238, and then remove a few feathers where the cut is to be made. Moisten the surrounding feathers to keep them out of the way. Before making the incision, stretch the outer skin as far as possible toward the thigh; thus when the operation is completed the opening in the outer skin will not be over the cut between the ribs, inasmuch as it will have slipped back to its normal position. Make the incision as neatly as possible, about an inch long. There is little danger of cutting the intestines, providing the bird has been sufficiently starved. Insert the spreader, being careful that it presses against the ribs, thus springing the ribs apart and ex- posing the intestines. See Fig. 239. The intestines are covered with a thin membrane called the omen- (U.S. Department of Agriculture) tym, Tear this membrane apart f ng ar poe Se ee of with the point of a sharp hook owl, showing where incision should : 7 2 be made between the last two ribs. | (see Fig.240); push the intestines aside witha probe, and up against the backbone the glands or éesticles should bein plain sight. See Fig. 241. These glands are a creamy yellow and about the size and shape of a bean. In very young birds the glands are little bigger than a grain of wheat. Skilled operators remove both glands through one incision, in which case the lower gland should be removed first, so that any bleeding will not obscure the other gland. Inexperienced operators remove only the upper or nearer gland, and then make a second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal of the other gland. This takes double the time, and is much harder on the bird. It is not a good practice. Back of the gland is a large blood-vessel, the spermatic artery, Se “co S tion) t Sta 7meni (Courtesy Kansas Exper inserted to hold the is made the spreaders are ision inc —After the i . 239. Fig. cut open. 367 368 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING which constitutes the delicate part of the operation, because if this artery is ruptured the bird is almost certain to bleed to death. The whole trick is to grasp the gland without grasping the artery or the tissues surrounding it. The cannula or spoon forceps is used for this purpose. Having grasped the gland, twist the instrument around several times, then tear the gland from the body and remove it. Repeat the operation on the other gland. See Fig. 242. After removing the glands, if the bleeding is at all profuse, it (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 240.—The hooked end of a Fig. 241.—When this is done the sharp probe is then used to tear intestines are pushed aside, revealing away the thin membranes covering the gland, which is about the size and the intestines. shape of a small bean. is advisable to remove a portion of the blood by means of small pieces of absorbent cotton, inserted in the wound with the aid of the tweezers or probe. Be sure to remove all blood-clots, feathers or other matter that may have gathered inside the wound, then take out the spreaders, thus allowing the skin to slip back over the cut. See Fig. 243. Losses are likely to occur with the best operators. The mor- tality, however, should not exceed five per cent under average circumstances, and with a skilled person it will not be more than CARE AND FEEDING 369 two per cent. If the birds are killed accidentally, they are per- fectly good to eat, hence they are not wasted. A Slip.—Sometimes the operation appears to be very success- ful, yet the bird develops much the same as a cockerel. This condition is due to the fact that a small portion of the gland has been left in the body. Such specimens are termed slips. They are neither cockerels nor capons. Following the operation the birds should be placed in a clean pen by themselves. Give them all the water they want, and for LEY (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 242.—The gland is grasped by Fig. 243.—When the second gland means of the spoon forceps or can- is removed, or if both glands are re- nula, twisted round and removed. moved at once, unfasten the spreaders and allow the skin to cover the open- ing between the ribs, as shown, and the operation is finished. the next few days keep them confined on soft feed. A few of them will bloat during the first week, but this is not serious and can easily be remedied by pricking the skin with a needle. It is caused by air getting under the skin, raising a slight swelling or wind puff. No stitching is required by the operation; the wound will heal in a few days, and in a couple of weeks it will be hard to find even a scar. Capons should be fed nourishing rather than fat- tening feed for the first few months, the object being to keep them 24 370 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING growing. About three weeks before marketing they should be fattened, either in small yards or crates. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts by weight, or corn meal and middlings, moist- ened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons or other poultry. The one great mistake in raising capons is in marketing them too early and not having them fat enough. After caponizing they can be made to put on flesh in a surprising manner, and they | | | | | Fig. 244.—Class in killing and dressing at the Kansas Agricultural College. should be kept growing as fast as possible until they attain full size, which will take from six to ten months. After caponizing the comb and wattles cease to develop; the hackle, saddle feathers and tail feathers grow very long, and the plumage assumes a heavy, glossy appearance. Capons never crow, manifest no interest in the rest of the flock, and are generally despised for their peculiarities by other fowls. They are exceedingly gentle and tractable, and often show a fondness for little chicks. In fact, there are instances in which they have been utilized in rearing broods of chickens. Their behavior with chicks, in the main, is very much like that COSTS AND PROFITS 371 of a hen; such differences being of a minor character and difficult to distinguish clearly from-those of a broody hen. They will cluck, though in an imperfect way, hunt food for the chicks, and attack anyone who approaches the brood. Darwin states that capons are said to incubate eggs as well as care for chicks, but the writer has no proof of this statement. In fact, tests of capons are not extensive enough to warrant de- finite conclusions, but it would appear entirely plausible that the brooding instincts are after all not necessarily female character- istics. Male pigeons, for example, assist in brooding and rearing the young, as do guinea cocks and many wild birds. In housing capons very little space is required, providing the quarters are kept clean. About two square feet per bird is sufficient. They require very little care; one man can easily take care of three to five thousand capons, which is a point in favor of the practice. The cost of feeding a capon to maturity, or for twelve months, is from eighty cents to a dollar and a quarter, depending upon the cost of feed, and whether a fair portion of the daily fare is picked up on the range. Add to this the cost of the operation, let us say, five cents, and the cost of the chick at hatching time, and we have a total cost of about a dollar and a quarter. Assuming an average weight of eight and a half pounds for a twelve months’ bird, which is very conservative, with a selling price of thirty cents a pound, the market value at killing time is two dollars and fifty-five cents. This leaves a net profit of more than a dollar and a quarter—a profit that compares very favorably with the results obtained from a heavy laying hen. CHAPTER XXVIII BREEDING PRINCIPLES In the minds of many who raise chickens and other fowls there is but one idea and one kind of breeding—that of mating males and females, regardless of type, strain, variety, prolificness or relationship. Needless to add, that such matings sooner or later—usually sooner—prove of little value to their owner, and are finally completely dissipated. It is Nature’s way of eliminat- ing the unfit. Definitions of Breeding Methods.—To be precise, there are the following methods: In-breeding, line-breeding, out-breeding, and cross-breeding; and—shall we say—no breeding at all, meaning rank mongrelism. Line-Breeding.—Primarily, it is not advisable to make a practice of mating birds more closely related than first cousins, and the more distant this relationship can be drawn apart, the better the chances for success. In making a start with a flock of fowls, however, where one wishes to preserve the same strain of blood, or in creating a new breed, it is usually necessary to breed pretty close for a number of years, or until certain quali- fications become intensified and fixed. If this breeding of re- lated birds is done intelligently, with the view of fixing superiority in color, shape and so on, it is called line-breeding. If the breed- ing of related stock is done indiscriminately, and brothers and sisters are bred together for generations for no particular purpcse, it is called in-breeding. In other words, line-breeding, or breeding in line, is keeping to the same ancestry—the same blood lines, without the disas- trous effects of in-breeding. It is carefully selected, systematic in-breeding. 372 EXCHANGING MALES 373 Out-breeding is a term applied to the practice of introducing new blood every year, but blood of the same breed. Cross- breeding is introducing entirely new blood of a distinctly different breed. New Males.—Through fear of the flock degenerating many poultry raisers consider it absolutely necessary to bring in new males each year. Very often they make a practice of exchanging (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 245.—Pullets should be placed in their permanent laying quarters as soon as they show signs of maturity. males with nearby farms, which is the vogue among farmers, especially. This is inspired by the right idea, but it is likely to be accompanied by trouble. If it is desirable to introduce new blood, the rule should be to do so—not just because it is new blood, but because it is superior to your own in vigor and other ways. Speculation.—It is very difficult to raise standard bred birds if new blood is added to the flock each year. You may buy a 374 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING pure-bred male to mate with your pure-bred females, and later find that the two strains failed to nick properly. That is, the mating may throw offspring with defective combs, dispropor- tion or poor color, which will take several generations of special breeding to eliminate. In short, the advent of new blood is a speculation. A better way to introduce new blood is to take two years to do it, and experiment with individuals. Purchase a few hens of the desired strain and mate them to your best males, or secure a couple of outside males and mate them to your best females; then study their offspring for a year, and if satisfactory, mate the new blood to the balance of the flock. There is no evidence to prove that line-breeding initiates de- generacy, providing reasonable care is exercised each year in selecting only vigorous breeders, and there is a large number of fowls from which to choose. The danger becomes even more remote if two divisions of the same blood are kept going year after year. This consists of keeping two distinct strains or matings on the same farm, both of which have a common an- cestry, but which grow farther apart every year. ' Every season the males of one line are mated to the females of the other line, and vice versa, these lines having been started by mating the best male to the best female, and continuing the second generation by mating the original male to his daughters, or the original hen to the son. Proceeding in a similar manner for the third generation, the original male is mated to grand- daughters and the original hen to her grandson, which practically eliminates from each line its original respective sire or dam. It is difficult to explain this system of line-breeding in writing, but if you will make a chart of it and get down to actual figures, you will soon see that it is very simple. Cross-Breeding.—Some time in the career of every poultry- man there is the temptation to cross-breed with a view to im- proving certain qualities. In most instances the crossing of two pure breeds is a mistake. The appearance alone of a flock of cross-bred fowls when compared with the pure breeds whence ‘asues Auojoo uo sja]jnd usoysay] ayy, puesnoy} so1y [—9bze ‘31q 375 376 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING they originated should convince any one that this is a bad plan. The first cross is not so bad, as a rule, and occasionally it possesses some slight advantages in egg production or weight, but these hybrids should not be mated in any way, either among them- selves or back to their parents. Therefore, to continue cross- breeding it is necessary to maintain two distinct pure breeds year after year, and to destroy the hybrids as soon as they cease to be profitable. This occasions many separate houses and yards, for the sexes of each pure breed, and for the crosses, a practice that is both expensive and troublesome. Grading Up Mongrels.—Sometimes it is profitable to grade up (Courtesy Maryland Experiment Station) Fig. 247.—“‘ Busy moment for the trap nests.” a flock of mongrels, such as are found on many general farms, by introducing pure bred males. Pure bred males of the same variety should be used year after year, however, and not the males from the offspring of the first cross. In the course of four or five generations, with careful selection, it is possible to grade up the original flock of mongrels to the level of the pure bred male in appearances, but scarcely in breeding qualities. There is always more or less chance of a reversion to type in breeding from mongrels, hence it is often cheaper in the long run to com- mence with pure bred stock. Barnyard fowls are better than none, of course, but why keep . TO CHOOSE BEST LAYERS 377 mongrels when pure bred birds can be had for almost the same price. Those who appreciate the value of uniformity in body and eggs, and who realize the need of transmitting these qualities to the progeny, find no argument in favor of the manure pile diggers. There are more beauty and more dollars in the thorough- bred—be it hog, horse, cow or fowl. Heavy Laying Strain.—The trap nest is the only positive index to the hen’s performance as a layer. It has furnished the only means of establishing many facts leading to a more or less definite conception of just what characteristics belong to the heavy layer, also, the qualifications of the fowl possessing the faculty of trans- (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) Fig. 248.—Brood coop with slatted run for chicks. mitting certain desirable qualities to its offspring. In fact, the trap nest has collected such a vast amount of data, that it is now possible to dispense with its service, if need be, and still profit from it. In other words, we are now able to verify certain ex- ternal indications, actions and habits as belonging to this or that type of fowl. Thus, the progressive poultryman who wishes to mate his birds along definite lines, but who is not in a position to trap them, can select his breeders so that their increase in efficiency compares favorably with flocks that are trap-nested. Relation of Size and Shape.—No sensible person questions the importance of shape and size in the matter of breeding horses 378 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING and cows. One does not mate Percheron stock for speed in horses, nor Hereford cattle fora dairy farm. The same idea holds true of poultry. The general shape of the laying type of chicken is agreed upon as a V or wedge when viewed from the top, side and rear, the supposition being that in this conformation the egg-producing organs have the greatest opportunity for develop- ment. This shape is sometimes called by the term Capacity, which really amounts to abdominal power. Capacity means the ability of the crop and digestive tract to receive, consume and assimilate large quantities of food. Con- tinuous egg production is an intensive, exhausting process. It necessitates the consumption of vast quantities of food, other- wise it would be physically impossible for the hen to turn out an egg a day. This is only common sense reasoning. Beware of the small eater, or the hen that goes to roost on a crop half full of food. She is either a defective, a drone or an invalid. The depth of the abdomen, as well as the length, indicates Capacity. Hence the good layer is described as having a long body, deep in the keel, which is another term for the breast bone. To ascertain or measure the abdominal capacity of a hen, the fowl is grasped by the legs in the left hand, and its head and wings are held under the arm in a horizontal position in what is ad- mitted to be the correct method of holding or carrying a chicken. Then the fingers of the right hand are placed on the abdomen between the two pelvic bones on either side of the vent and the rear of the breast bone. This distance will be found to vary quite considerably with different hens. In some the width of one finger will be found to be sufficient to occupy the space be- tween the pelvic bones and the breast bone, in others two fingers will be required, in others three, four, five and six fingers, and in rare cases seven fingers. The pelvic bones are sometimes called the lay bones or vent bones. They, too, are measured for the distance or spread be- tween them; but do not mistake the abdominal measurement for the distance between the pelvic bones. This latter test is for another purpose. The tips of the fingers are used for this test, WHAT TO EXPECT IN COLOR 379 whereas for the abdominal measurement the widths of the fingers are used between the tips and the knuckles. Further indications are found in a large comb and wattles of good color, a high tail rather than one carried low, medium-size head with a short, stocky beak, rather short legs well spread apart, and as much weight as the specimen should have to conform to the standard requirements for a particular variety. Under-size specimens are seldom exceptional performers. (Courtesy Petaluma Chamber of Commerce) Fig. 249.—Leghorn pullets on a California poultry ranch. The same is true of over-developed birds, though of the two con- ditions, small and large, the latter is the least objectionable. There are many exceptions to this rule, of course, just as there are many exceptions to every rule. The findings in this chapter are based on the general run of fowls, and must be considered as such, or averages. Next to shape, color is probably the most reliable sign of a hen’s ability as a layer. And the chief advantage of this test 380 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING lies in the fact that it is discernible without having to handle the bird. Color.—In virtually all of the yellow-skinned breeds of chickens the shanks, beak and flesh of the posterior parts of the birds are a rich yellow at the commencement of laying, and gradually undergo a fading out as the laying progresses, until these parts become a real pale color, sometimes pink, or white, as the laying season advances. This change in color is so consistent, in fact, and so quickly made, especially in the region of the flesh sur- rounding the vent, that it will be clearly apparent even to the layman. The theory cf this test is based on the fact that the same color- ing matter that gives the shank, beak and skin its rich yellow look is also used in the color of the yolks of eggs. Heavy layers produce eggs faster than they can supply the coloring matter for the shanks, beak and so on, consequently the color becomes lighter and lighter, until it is frequently scarcely visible. Furthermore, hens that are not in laying condition are prone to store up a certain amount, and sometimes a very large amount, of fat in the region surrounding the vent, and this fat, being of a rich yellow color, transmits its color to the flesh. When these hens start to lay and lay heavily, this fat is drawn upon to supply the body tissues with the necessary energy, until its supply is virtually depleted, in which case the skin loses its former rich yellow appearance. In selecting hens by the color test, allowances must be made for the natural difference in color between different breeds and different individuals of the same breed. For example, it is manifestly unreasonable to compare the color of a Rhode Island Red or Barred Plymouth Rock with a White Orpington or White Leghorn. The color test should be made relatively and with the exercise of much common sense. An examination should be made at the commencement of laying, and not during the molt or when the birds are immature, and the degree or shade of color carefully noted. Later, when the flock should be laying heavily, say about April first, the color *sjueld Surpesy uraysayy ur pasn Asaq7e (ganynst43 Y 1,.42q “Ss °Q &saq4no)) ‘yusudinba asnoy Zuryseg—-oSz “BIJ q Surpasy Areuore3¢ “Axynod passo1p SurZuey pue payenbs 30; yey 381 382 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING is observed again, and the hens which have little or no color in the parts mentioned may be selected as the best layers. To prove this, if you observe any birds which are noticeably yellower than the others, transfer them to a separate pen and note if they are not poor layers. If you have trap nests, these ideas are easily verified. Conduct and Other Indications.—It is pretty generally estab- lished that pullets which begin to lay early in life, providing they are fully matured, are pretty sure to be the most prolific members of the flock. Ordinarily this means that the pullets which com- mence laying in the fall, before snow flies, are the most desirable. Fowls that fail to start production until after Christmas seldom attain high scores. By high scores is meant records of excep- tional merit, say over 150 eggs a year. It usually follows, also, that pullets continuing to Jay late into the fall, thereby post- poning the molt until cold weather is at hand, are almost without exception heavy producers. Late Molters.—Hens that have a nice new coat of feathers by July look well, but they are not often profitable. The late molters, those that look ragged and dirty when the others are sleek and clean, are almost always the best layers in the flock. Moreover, it will be noted that the late molters get through with this task very quickly, seemingly, which is an appreciable saving in time. i The appetite and general conduct of the hen are other indica- tions of productiveness. The heavy layer is the first off the perch in the morning and the last to go to sleep at night. She is attive, constantly searching for food, and when observed on the roost after dark, she will be found to have a very large crop tightly packed with food. It is also found that the hens which have the most confidence in their keeper, and are not foolishly disturbed or frightened, are the most consistent performers and the most reliable breeders. Importance of the Male.—It is said that the male bird is half of the flock, meaning, of course, that his characteristics will be transmitted to the offspring in equal proportion to the hens, (wADJ DaDsD1NT KSaz4n0D) ‘aBuel aij uo syuN aie] ul pa[puey siapse1g—1Sz ‘BI 384 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING though the latter may outnumber the male fifteen to one. This is not an idle thought; it is true. In fact, in some cases it is highly probable that the influence of the male is even greater than a half—maybe three-quarters. Prepotency of the Male.—This belief is certainly true of the male’s ability to transmit type and color to his progeny. There- fore, if he can dominate certain important characteristics, is it not reasonable to suppose that he may dominate all of them? We assume, of course, that to so do, his vitality and constitu- _ re a ‘ Axl stews bee Haka Wace INGE: crose /\ TPS A inense. ——= =e 7 ; TT | . - Xe mece A} "Aero wleeol, "Oe % Pedic Fioonine ~, | 2x2 DRESSED IXL PRESIDED SIDE ELEVATION END BLEVATION > 1 ! i “0 (} Axe CLEATS we 1x4 | FLODRING | aa | fes x =] | ame —— 4) | oe t q | { ! S Ll ¢ FLOOR PLAN DeTAIL of END GATE (California Experiment Station) Fig. 252.—Plans for a catching coop. tional vigor are equally as strong as the female’s, if not stronger. More than that, we assume that he possesses the faculty or capa- city of transmitting his qualities. This qualification is sometimes spoken of as prepotency. Like Does Not Always Beget Like.—One of the greatest im- pediments to the successful breeder of poultry is the inability to select male birds of the required type. There is an old saying that “like begets like.” In a general sense this is true, but not always so, because of which the idea becomes a subject worthy TYPE AND NUMBER OF MALES 385 of study. We often see children who resemble and act like one parent, let us say the father, while others resemble and act like the mother. And yet some children will be like neither of the parents, nor like any of their immediate kin. Breeders of horses and cattle and other branches of livestock are fully aware of the variations in offspring in this respect, and it is probably because of their persistent quest of knowledge along these lines that they have made so much more progress in scientific breeding than poultrymen. Among those who have never given mating other than casual thought, and such persons are in the majority, there is the belief that heavy layers are bound to produce chicks which will develop into heavy layers. In their minds, to produce a heavy laying strain all that is necessary is to trap-nest the flock, and breed only from such hens as have made a certain record. This is a step in the right direction; the idea is a splendid one, and makes for careful selection. But, unfortunately, it does not go far enough. In the first place, we cannot trap-nest male birds; and pedigree, while useful and essential, is not alone a sufficient basis for the selection of that element which is to dominate future generations, and probably the success or failure of the poultry- man. Maine Experiment.—Some years ago the Maine Experiment Station endeavored to establish a 200-egg strain of fowls by breeding only from those which laid the most eggs. The experi- ments extended over a number of years, the plan was well con- ducted, it received the most favorable attention, and everything was done to further the idea. The work was finally abandoned asa failure. Those in charge of the work were trying to establish an extreme in egg production, by breeding from high-producing hens. They failed to appreciate the need for that other faculty— prepotency—the capacity to transmit high-producing qualities. Number of Males.—Let us first consider the ratio of males to females. No fixed rule can be given, because the breed, size of the flock, living quarters, extent of range and the general health and vigor of the stock are all determining factors. For example, 25, 386 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, are usually mated one male to fifteen females, providing the flocks are single. In the American or general-purpose class, it is customary to mate one male to about ten females; and in the Asiatic or meat class, it is advisable to use one male to six or eight females. Single Flocks.—As previously mentioned, these ratios apply to single flocks—pens in which but a single male is to be used. In larger flocks the ratio of males to females may be greatly re- (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 253.—Handy brood coop made from rough lumber, small sliding window serves as a door. duced. The reason for this is easily understood. In a flock of fifteen Leghorns there may be two or three hens uncongenial to the male, or the male may be uncongenial to two or three females who will fight him away from them, in which case the fertility from such a pen will run about eighty-five per cent. In a flock of 35 females to 2 males there is almost certain to be rivalry or jealousy, which tends to eliminate favoritism, and thereby increases the fertility. In a flock of 60 hens to 3 males there is still greater rivalry, while in a unit of 500 hens to about OUTWARD QUALIFICATIONS 387 20 males little, if any, discrimination is found, and the fertility of the eggs should run ninety-five per cent or better. The same general ratio applies to the heavier breeds, but in no case can they be expected to equal the Mediterraneans in the matter of fertility. The heavier breeds have a more sluggish nature, and they are naturally less active fowls. From the writer's experience, sixty-five per cent fertility in the Asiatics is equal to seventy-five per cent in the Americans, or ninety-five per cent in the Mediterraneans., In selecting males for breeding purposes the first qualities to be considered are those in plainest evidence, in other words, the general appearance of the birds. If a specimen has malformed feet, wry tail or serious squirrel tail, brassiness or other color defects, lopped comb or exceedingly ponderous or poorly shaped comb, under-developed ear lobes or wattles, or if a bird is ab- normally large or small, noticeably disproportionate and un- gainly, it goes without further argument that he should be dis- carded. ‘ _ A fowl’s actions is one of the best guides to its breeding ability. Males that are too greedy, or those that are so gallant that they will not eat until the hens have helped themselves, are likely to prove of little value in the breeding pen. The former are apt to become over-fat, due to over-feeding, and the latter under-fed and anemic. Crowing is an excellent indication of vigor and vitality, and should always be borne in mind in selecting breeding males. It characterizes physical strength and masculinity. The desirable breeding cockerel is always on the alert, strikingly erect in carriage, aristocratic and combative—a good fighter, and one who believes in crowing about it. Fear and physical weakness usually go ‘together. A cowardly bird, or one that becomes unduly excited, which amounts to a rattle-brained nature, should never be placed in the breeding pen. He is too apt to be a degenerate. Some Naked Truths.—Selecting breeders from the fancier’s point of view—the show room—is more discriminating, perhaps, than for commercial purposes, ‘yet it is also more superficial. 388 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Color, shape, carriage, texture of plumage, comb, wattles and ear lobes are the essentials to success in the exhibition; but as they constitute a study in themselves, we will not attempt to cover them in this chapter, which is intended more for the com- mercial poultry raiser. : Having selected a group of birds of the desired appearance and most precocious habits, final judgment is passed upon their (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 254.—Practical method of catching fowls. Crate is placed against small entrance door, through which the chickens are driven into the crate. physical qualifications—literally speaking, their naked truths. There is a distinct correlation between the different parts of a fowl, make no mistake about this. The body of the vigorous fowl is broad, deep and blocky, as contrasted with the long, thin, slender type. And since the fowl’s plumage is often very de- ceiving, they must be carefully handled. In a sense they must be measured. In a foregoing paragraph on selecting pullets for heavy egg MALE’S SHAPE RESEMBLES FEMALE’S 389 production we emphasized the following requirements: Large crop and abdominal capacity; thin pelvic bones that are pliable and well spread apart; a fairly long back, depth in the keel and width between the legs. In selecting males as breeders for heavy egg production, the same analysis should be applied to their anatomy—relatively, of course, for the male never has the spread of pelvic bones nor the abdominal capacity of a hen of the same SIZE, CHAPTER XXIX DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG Embryology.—It is certain that the majority of poultry keepers do not know as much about the formation and development of the egg as they should. Yet this is a very important subject, a knowledge of which is essential before one can really exercise intelligent care and feeding. To do certain things blindly or on a guesswork principle is archaic; they may be correct, and the results therefrom may be entirely satisfactory up to a given point, when, without any warning, trouble may come. Then, if the foundation of one’s knowledge is meager, or perhaps there is no foundation at all, which is frequently the case, the poultryman is at a loss for a solution or remedy. It is like trying to run an engine without some understanding of its construction; when trouble occurs, instead of being able to repair or adjust the defect, the situation becomes aggravated and serious. Every phase of the poultryman’s work should have a definite purpose, and in view of the fact that the egg is the first stage in the production of fowls, whether for meat, eggs or the show room, it behooves him to have at least a general idea of embryology. Some hens are absolutely sterile; of this there is no doubt, but they are rare, and are to be compared with any other mal- formation. Others have the power to produce a few eggs in short litters, followed by long rest periods, whereas others have reproductive organs which are so strong and easily stimulated that they lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for a couple of years. In fact, they seem almost to have a super- natural power. Prolific Power of a Hen.—Some experts tell us there are more than 7,000 latent eggs in the normal hen, but whether or not this 390 OVARY AND OVISAC 391 is correct we need only concern ourselves with about 700. The number is not a fixed quantity, and those which will be developed is still less certain. The prolific power of a hen is largely an in- herited tendency, the result of careful selection and breeding, made potent by careful handling and feeding. Both elements are abso- lutely essential, as we have shown in preceding chapters. The ovary or egg cell cluster which contains the latent eggs is a muscular tissue on the left side of the spine. In it, in various stages of development, from the full-sized yolk, ready to be de- tached, to the cells which are so small as to be invisible without the aid of a microscope, are the yolks or ova. When a yolk is fully matured and ripe, it bursts from the tough membrane of the ovisac and enters the neck of the oviduct, a convoluted, muscular tube some twenty inches long, wherein the albumen or white is deposited, and later the shell is formed. See Frontispiece. The ovisac is lined with blood-vessels, yet provision is made in the healthy, normal hen that when the yolk ruptures this mem- brane the blood-vessels are parted to one side and not broken. It occasionally happens, however, either through an injury to the fowl, fright or weakness due to a debilitated condition, that one of the blood-vessels may become slightly ruptured, whereupon a blood clot will escape with the yolk and later be incorporated with the albumen. This accounts for spots of blood found in strictly fresh eggs, and which have led many consumers to believe they have purchased partly incubated eggs. Double Yolk Eggs.—It sometimes happens that two yolks mature and burst through the ovisac at the same time; in this event they are likely to become encased with albumen together, and subsequently surrounded by the same shell, producing a double-yolked egg. Occasionally a mass of albumen will be de- posited without yolk or shell, or it may be laid with a perfectly formed shell but without a yolk; or a yolk will be laid without albumen or shell, and in rare cases a perfectly formed egg has been found within an outer egg shell. These freak conditions are brought about by improper care and feeding, but more especially by fright, neglect or injury. Fig. 255.—Diagram of digestive apparatus of a fowl. 392 I, Tongue; 2, pharynx; 3, first portion of esopha- gus; 4, crop; 5, second portion of esophagus; 6, suc- centric ventricle; 7, gizzard; 8, ori- gin of the duoden- um; 9, first branch of the duodenal flexure; 10, second branch of same; II, origin of the floating portion of the small intes- tine; 12, small in- testine; 13, free extremities of the cecums; 14, in- sertion of these two culs-de-sac into the intestinal tube; 15, rectum; 16, cloaca; 17, anus; 18, mesen- tery; 19, left lobe of liver; 20, right lobe of liver; 21, gall-bladder; 22, insertion of the pancreatic and biliary ducts; 23, pancreas; 24, dia- phragmatic aspect of the lung; 25, Ovary in a state of atrophy; 26, oviduct. SPOILED FRESH EGG 393 Held Eggs Within the Body.—It is not positively established whether a hen can of her own will stop the development of the yolks prior to their entrance to the oviduct, and it is hardly likely that she can, but it is certain that she can control the egg after that period. She can retain it for a considerable time after (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 256.—Outer shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. it is completely formed, whereupon, instead of the life germ re- maining dormant in the fertile egg after it is laid and until such time as it is subjected to the proper uniform temperature for incubation, it will commence to develop within the egg within the hen. “Obviously, although such an egg may be freshly laid, it is not 4 fresh egg. On the contrary, it is a spoiled egg; 394 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING sometimes very badly spoiled, which is apt to lead to diff- culties with the customer who has been unfortunate enough to receive it. Egg-Bound.—Hens that delay their laying in this manner are usually egg-bound, a condition brought about through injudicious (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 257.—Inner shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. feeding, injury and by the drying up of the secretions in the cloaca, where the egg rests before it is laid, thus failing to assist in the passage of the egg. Over-fat hens and pullets producing their first eggs are apt to be troubled in this manner. The most common symptoms are repeated trips to the nests, accompanied by prolonged squatting and straining, and in ex- HOW THE SHAPE OF AN EGG IS DETERMINED 395 treme cases a fowl so afflicted will crawl with her body upright and her tail dragging on the ground. The shape of an egg is largely determined by the contours in the oviduct in which it is cast. During the passage of the yolk in the oviduct it is pushed forward by the muscles of this tissue, at the same time receiving a deposit of albumen. The oviduct being twisted and contracted, imparts a turning motion to the yolk as it advances, which causes the albumen to be formed in layers. These layers are sometimes visible in a raw egg, but are better seen in a hard-boiled egg. Chalaza.—Two principal cords or fibers, technically known as the chalaza, support the yolk in about the center of the al- buminous mass, and serve to protect the yolk from injury by undue jarring or rough handling. See Fig. 258. We have all noticed, perhaps, that whatever way an egg is turned the yolk quickly assumes its original position; this is due to the influence of the chalaza, and to the fact that the yolk, containing a large amount of fat, which is lighter than the albumen, has a tendency to float upward. Shell Membrane.—When sufficient albumen has been se- creted, at -which time the entire mass has reached the lower part of the oviduct, the shell membrane is formed, after which it passes still further and the outer membrane is added. Here, glands which contain a secretion of carbonate of lime and other mineral substances, also the color pigment, deposit their liquid, which quickly hardens the outer membrane. This hardening process is very rapid, and frequently takes place while the hen is on the nest. Bloom of the Egg.—The egg has now reached the lowest part of the oviduct, known as the cloaca, whence it is ready to be laid. While in this section it is covered with an oily secretion which, as previously mentioned, aids in the delivery of the egg. This secretion dries almost immediately the egg is laid, and gives it the bloom or fresh appearance found in a newly laid egg. When eggs are washed this bloom is destroyed, or partly so, which makes washed eggs rather easily detected by experienced handlers. 396 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Texture of Shell.—It will be noted that the shell of an egg is exceedingly porous, which enables the embryo to take in oxygen through the shell, otherwise it could not breathe. See Fig. 256. During the early stages of incubation a network of blood-vessels surround the inner membrane of the egg, close to the shell. See Fig. 257. These blood-vessels absorb the oxygen and act as the respiratory apparatus for the embryo until about the nineteenth day of incubation, when the lungs are completed and brought into use. The oily secre- tion deposited on the shell in the cloaca tends to stop up the pores temporarily, so as to prevent undue evaporation of the con- - tents of the egg, and to keep the pores clear. Ob- viously, a hatching egg should not be washed; Fig. 258.—Sectional view of fowl’s egg. and if very badly soiled it 1, Yellow yolk composed of successive layers; should not be used for 2, vitelline membrane; 3, layers of albumen 5 (white); 4, two layers of the lining mem- hatching purposes at all. brane of the shell; 5, calcareous shell; 6, : chalaza; 7, air space between the two layers To return to the yolk, it of the shell membranes; 8, cicatricula, with must be very apparent its nucleus, beneath which is seen the canal : s : leading down to the white yolk cavity, or that if production is to be latebra, 9. successfully carried out, the yolk or ovum,which is the real beginning, must be carefully and normally developed, otherwise the succeeding processes are all thrown out of kelter. Egg making is a very exhaustive process, if we stop to consider that a profitable hen is expected to lay about 150 times a year, which is equivalent to almost five times her weight; hence the drain on her system is enormous. The activity of the ovary, then, depends upon the health of the bird. The over-fat hen does not lay because over-fatness is an indi- cation of improper or immoderate feeding, usually accompanied by lack of exercise. The poor, anemic, emaciated hen cannot LOCATION OF THE LIFE GERM 397 lay because there is not sufficient fat to develop the yolk. There- fore, it will be found that the best layers are neither too thin nor over-fat; rather those which are active and in good spirits from dawn to dark. Germ.—Although invisible to the naked eye, the yolk is (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 259.— Yellow yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. covered by a delicate membrane, called the vitelline membrane, so named, perhaps, because clinging to this membrane is found the life germ, the really vital part of the egg. The contents of the yolk is called the vitellus, upon which the life germ draws for its sustenance. When a hen’s vitality becomes weakened it is generally manifested in the composition of the vitelline mem- 398 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING brane, which is easily ruptured, causing the vitellus to escape and mix with the albumen. Naturally, this condition gives the egg an addled, unsavory appearance, undesirable as food, even though it may be strictly fresh. Nine times out of ten the house- wife condemns it as a bad egg. (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 260:—White yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. Keeping eggs for any length of time weakens the vitelline membrane, also, consequently eggs intended for hatching pur- poses should be set as fresh as possible. An example of this de- terioration is found in storage eggs, which, if kept for many months, frequently result in ruptured yolks as soon as they are opened. Moreover, in a stale egg the albumen loses its firm consistency TIME REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT 399 and becomes watery, hence it fails to support the yolk, which then gravitates to the membranous lining of the shell and adheres to it. Fertility —All normal eggs contain a life germ, but all life germs are not fertile, and there is no way to determine the fer- tility of the embryo before incubation, except by breaking the shell and examining the contents very closely, and even this is not infallible. The fertile germ has a ring or film surrounding it, which is clear, and in the center may be seen little white dots— rudimentary cells. The sterile germ has a whitish appearance and does not possess the outer ring or the dots. After 24 hours’ incubation life is perceptible if the egg is opened. Shape and Color of Shells.—Notwithstanding many claims to the contrary, the shape of an egg has nothing whatever to do with its sex. We have shown that the shape of an egg is governed almost entirely by the shape of the oviduct, which is peculiar to every individual and practically constant. The same individuality applies to the color of an egg, which also re- mains more or less constant, except that as the laying season ad- vances the color gradually fades to a lighter shade. The reason for this is plain: the glands which secrete the color pigment are more heavily drawn upon, consequently the supply is somewhat weakened. Time for Development.—Just how much time is required for the development of an egg is not definitely known. The forma- tion of the yolk is the longest period, and probably requires three weeks before it is ready to leave the ovisac. The second process, that of accumulating the albumen and forming the shell, is com- paratively short, and requires about eighteen hours. It fre- quently happens that two eggs are under completion in the ovi- duct at the same time. Like all secretory organs, these reproductive tissues, glands, and so on, are shrunken and very much contracted when not in use, and enlarge to many times their former size when stimulated to a point of productivity. It is this stimulation—the time re- quired to overcome the inert condition—which is of vital im- portance to the poultryman’s pocket-book. CHAPTER XXX MARKET EGGS Quality in Eggs.—Housewives and consumers generally are seldom concerned with any but two kinds of eggs—good eggs and bad eggs. The term good in this sense usually means fresh, and has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality. A bad egg—is a bad egg, commonly thought to be the result of old age, and as such it is condemned. The actual age of an egg, lowever, is only one of the factors that affect its quality. There are many other equally potent influences, a knowledge of which will be beneficial to those engaged in the production, handling or consumption of eggs. Strictly speaking, the term fresh should mean a definite quality rather than a definite age, for all newly laid eggs are not necessarily good eggs, in a sense that they are desirable as food. An explanation of the reasons for these peculiarities will be set forth in this chapter. In the succeeding paragraphs the term fresh is intended to express prime—superior —dquality. Strictly Fresh Normal Egg.—Eggs are one of the most difficult food products to grade, not only because each egg must be con- sidered separately, but because an accurate knowledge of the contents cannot be ascertained without destroying the egg. They can be selected for size, shape, color, cleanliness and texture of shell, and freedom from cracks, from external appearances, which is the most common method of grading them. The best method of determining the interior quality is by the process of candling, which is used for commercial purposes. See Fig. 261. Composition of the Egg.—The purpose of the normal egg in nature requires that it be of a fairly uniform composition; its contents must be so proportioned as to form the chick without 400 COMFOSITION OF THE EGG 401 surplus matter, and naturally this demands a uniform chemical composition. When the egg is first laid it is completely filled, but as soon as it cools the contents contract and an air space or air cell is formed. This cell usually lies between the two shell membranes, and at the large end of the egg, where it is plainly visible with the aid of a candle. As the age of the egg increases evaporation takes place, which enlarges the air cell to consider- able size, and therefore denotes, approximately, the degree of freshness. The composition of hens’ eggs is somewhat variable, with Fig. 261.—Class in candling, grading and packing eggs at the Kansas Agricultural College. breeds and with individuals, and also as the result of care and feeding. A general idea may be had from the following table: ALBUMEN WHOLE Ecc Yoik OR WHITE Water ines nai ys vaaeedis ee atelet een 70 to 76% 46 to 52% 80.to 88% Ba bo serch ruth lia on ops aed gto1% 30t0 35% Traces PEOtOIM 4 oye he ede Sete aah Blows 10 to 15% 14 to 16% 10 te 13% The precise chemical analysis of a hen’s egg is too technical for the subject of this book, and it is really unimportant so far as the average poultryman is concerned. The eggs of turkeys, geese, ducks, guineas and other birds vary slightly from the above table, and are, therefore, more desirable for certain purposes. 26 402 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Size.—Although certain breeds are credited with laying larger eggs than others, as a general rule the size of an egg is controlled principally by selection of layers of large eggs and judicious breeding toward this end. In a number of tests condueted by Experiment Stations it has been found that care and feeding have slight influences in the sizes of eggs, but this does not estab- lish anything beyond the fact that the condition and general health of the fowls are directly responsible. At the beginning of their laying period pullets lay a much smaller egg than those laid during the height of their laying season. Similarly, as a hen approaches the molt, her eggs become smaller. The difference in food value per pound is in favor of the large eggs, because they have a smaller percentage of shell. Food Value.—It should be borne in mind, however, that there is considerable difference in the food value of eggs of different grades. Furthermore, the season of the year has something to do with the quality of eggs. Those produced in summer are of lower quality; the albumen is more watery than the eggs pro- duced in the spring, hence they are not so desirable for storage purposes. In candling, the yolks of summer eggs float lower in the albumen, which is a sign of weakness, and the yolks appear slightly darker than in spring eggs. Packing houses always aim to store eggs produced during March, April and May for best results. It is almost certain that some hens have an inherited tendency to produce eggs of poor quality, for the same reason that certain” hens will almost invariably lay a malformed egg. If this is true, it is reasonable to suppose that this characteristic will descend to their progeny. Flocks should be culled for the quality of their eggs as well as for their productiveness. In no other way is it possible to develop a flock that will lay a uniformly high grade of eggs. Abnormal Eggs.—To further illustrate the remark that a newly laid egg is not alavays a desirable egg, some of the most common abnormalities will be discussed. Double-yolk eggs result from the joining together of two yolk sacs during their de- ABNORMAL EGGS 403 velopment; their growth is identical, they have the same blood supply, and both drop into the oviduct at the same time. The Normal fresh egg. Fresh egg showing blood clot. Fertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 262.—Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. formation of the albumen seems to be entirely automatic, hence the same mass surrounds both yolks, and later they are framed by the same shell. 404 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Most double-yolk eggs have the same quality as normal eggs, but the poultryman should not try to pack them in ordinary car- tons or fillers on account of their increased size. They will project above the level of the filler, or fit too snugly into the filler, and be broken by the eggs surrounding them. One broken egg in a shipment will damage perhaps four or five dozen eggs by reason of its leaking contents. A broken egg is a very messy, unpleasant looking article, consequently a moment of carelessness in packing is often responsible for a serious discount on thie sales statement, ora disgruntled, indignant customer. Yolks are sometimes forced into the oviduct before they are mature, and thus appear very small, and in some cases they are little more than specks, in the completed egg. Blood Clots.—At certain seasons, usually during the first laying period of pullets and during the spring months of heavy egg production, especially if the flock is excessively forced by highly concentrated foods, blood clots appear in the eggs, ad- hering to the yolks. This is probably the commonest defect arising in the ovary, and often a very troublesome one for the poultryman, since he can not detect it without candling. Blood clots are different from bloody eggs. The former are usually caused by the rupture of a blood-vessel when the yolk sac splits to allow the escape of the maturé yolk into the oviduct. The clot adheres to the yolk as it passes through the oviduct, and is encased by the albumen. It is easily detected by the candle. When the egg is opened the clot can be removed and the egg is suitable for food. For table purposes this is very ob- jectionable, for the appearance of the blood is disagreeable. To those unfamiliar with the physiological reasons, it sug- gests a partly hatched egg, for which many poultrymen have been unjustly blamed. Obviously, when catering to a fancy retail trade, or when eggs are represented as being of the finest quality, they should be candled as a guard against this trouble. Bloody Eggs.—An ordinary blood clot does not color the al- bumen. If the white of an egg is bloody, it is from a different BLOODY EGGS 405 cause, and such an egg is termed a bloody egg. When boiled, such eggs appear brownish, and they are distinctly unappetizing- Fertile egg allowed to die after 36 hours of Infertile egg after 36 hours of incubation. incubation. Fertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 263.—-Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. looking. It is virtually impossible to remove the affected part, as in the case of the blood clot, hence the egg is useless. Bloody eggs are caused by an irritation or injury to the wall of the ovi- Ca 406 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING duct, whereupon blood is exuded with the albumen, thereby making the white of the egg bloody-looking or streaked with blood. It is generally caused by over-exertion or constitutional weakness, and is not nearly so common as blood clots. Wherever possible the poultryman should strive to find out the hen that is responsible and to remove her from the flock. Fresh Laid Stale Eggs.—It sounds incredible that a fowl should lay a stale egg, or a spoiled egg, but this frequently happens. The condition responsible for this peculiarity is sometimes chronic with certain hens, or merely occasional, and if the victims can be spotted they had better be killed for Sunday’s dinner. If not, the poultryman will have to assume the burden of a tedious explanation to the customer who is unfortunate enough to receive such eggs. After the yolk enters the oviduct it is forced through this tube by a circular movement or contraction of the muscles of the oviduct wall, and at the same time receiving layer after layer of albumen, and finally the shell, when it is ready for expulsion from the body. At some stage in this development, which under normal circumstances should only require about eighteen hours, from the time the yolk enters the oviduct until the finished egg is laid, this action ceases temporarily, maybe as the result of fright or due to an injury, and the egg is held in the body of the fowl for several days after it is completed. It must be remembered that the life germ, or germinal disk, is complete when the yolk leaves the yolk sac, hence it is subject to heat for its development into the embryo chick. If the egg is held in the body, the life germ comes under the influence of the body temperature and incubation begins, providing, of course, the egg is fertile. If the egg is infertile, the results are not so disastrous; the egg has a stale flavor, or maybe the contents are of a peculiar color. In the fertile egg, when it is finally laid, the germ dies, and immediately it starts to decay. Such eggs are called body- heated eggs. There are other minor abnormalities, those of such rare oc- currence, such as an egg within an egg, foreign substances within MINOR ABNORMALITIES IN EGGS 407 eggs, intestinal worms within eggs, connected eggs, multigerminal disks, meat spots, soft-shell eggs and eggs with loose shell mem- branes, that space will not be devoted to their description. Fertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. Fertile egg after 7 days of incubation. Infertile egg after 7 days of incubation. (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 264.—Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. External Influences.—In the foregoing paragraphs we have discussed only the internal factors affecting the quality of eggs. 408 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING There are as many, perhaps more, external influences. The most potent of these influences are evaporation, heating, musti- ness, mold, bacterial contamination, moisture, bad odors and so on. The egg shell is porous, so that the embryo chick may obtain air, and this porosity exposes the contents to the drying influence of the atmosphere surrounding it. The rate at which the in- terior moisture is lost depends upon the humidity and tempera- ture of the air in which the eggs are stored, also the rate at which the air is moving over or among the eggs, and the texture of their shells and membranes. As evaporation con- tinues, air replaces the moisture, which enlarges the air cell, and if the eggs are kept long enough, ° and at the same time pro- tected against heating or contamination, all the moisture will evaporate and the yolk and albu- Fig. 265.—A well-ventilated, clean vege- men will become a dried table cellar is a good place for the farmer to hold his eggs until ready for market. mass. Storage Place.—A cool, sweet cellar or refrigerator is the most desirable place for stor- ing eggs, in which they may be kept for three or four weeks without serious evaporation. See Fig. 265. Never store eggs in the kitchen or shed, or where they are subjected to warm air or currents of air. The best receptacle is a pail or box, something that will prevent the free circulation of air through the eggs, and yet allow a moderate amount of ventilation, hung in a cool, moderately dry place where there are no odors to be absorbed by the eggs. Avoid excessive dampness, for this-may cause mold or other changes to take place. If eggs are allowed to remain in the one position for a long time, the yolks will rise and stick to the shell membranes, which is, of course, an objectionable feature. Moreover, if they are stored . LOSSES IN MARKETING 409 in a damp place, mold spots are very apt to form at the points where the yolks come in contact with the shell membranes, in which case they are unfit for food. It is sometimes possible to shake the yolk loose without rupturing the vitelline membrane of the yolk, but it more often breaks. Water Test.—Some housewives attempt to ascertain the con- dition of their eggs by placing them in water, and they will argue that if the egg sinks it is fresh, and if it floats it is bad. See Fig. 266. This test is fairly accurate in determining the age of an egg, but only so far as the extent of its evaporation. It will not dis- close the interior quality of the egg, nor determine the other peculiarities that we have discussed. A newly laid egg will lie nearly flat on the bottom of a dish filled with water. If the egg is slightly Syapomten tie lane Cea will Fig. 266.—Specific gravity test for tip slightly upward, and this determining the age and condition of eggs. tendency will increase with 4 Fresh egg; note smallness of air ccll and the horizontal position of the egg the degree of evaporation. when immersed in water; 6, slight evapor- If the egg rises to the surface ation causes the egg to tip; c, increased fth 3 basi evaporation causes egg to stand on end; oi the water,itispretty badly q@ badly evaporated egg which floats: evaporated; sometimes they 4¢,an egg so badly evaporated that it is will float with half of their !K*ly t° be unfit for use. surface exposed. The best way to inspect eggs is to candle them, a simple method of placing the egg before a bright light and looking through the egg toward the light. Anyone can become proficient in the use of this method in a very few trials. Our Two Billion Egg Waste.—Immediately it is laid the prod- uct of the American hen is worth $50,000,000 more than when it is opened by the consumer. In other words, the value of the eggs produced in this country each year depreciates, shrinks, to the extent of $50,000,000 by reason of deterioration and dam- age due to improper care of the eggs on the farm, most of which (Cornell Experiment Station) 410 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING may be attributed to gross negligence and inexcusable ignorance, and through careless packing and shipping, resulting in heavy breakage losses, and because of antiquated selling methods, such as the practice of exchanging eggs at the general store for mer- chandise. Think of it, in a single commodity in a single country in a single year there is a loss of fifty millions of dollars. And it has been going on right under our noses year after year. Sounds incredible, no doubt. The Department of Agriculture and other bureaus of statistics are authority for these figures. A journey through the egg trade—all the devious channels from the hen’s nest to the con- sumer’s household—will convince the most skeptical that this estimate of the depreciation in eggs is absolutely reliable. If anything, it is too conservative. For example, the above figures represent only actual losses, in addition to which there are cer- tain intangible losses, which are none the less real because of their intangibility. The intangible losses are those induced by curtailed consump- tion due to the presence of inferior eggs. Let. me explain this point: All are agreed, I think, that nothing disturbs the appetite more than bad eggs. Perhaps this is because of the sensitiveness of our olfactory membranes. However, when we open a bad egg, even though it is only somewhat stale or of poor flavor, what is the result? Disgust—repulsion. We push it from us, or cause it to be removed from sight. At certain seasons of the year when fresh eggs are scarce this dénouement happens frequently. In fact, it is the rule rather than the exception, and what is the result? We regard all eggs with suspicion; they are persona non grata, and in consequence we turn to something else for our breakfast dishes. This cuts down the demand and lowers the price. Statistics are sometimes wearisome, especially if they involve large numerals, yet they offer the only means of a convincing argument, outside of the actual conditions. Therefore, at the risk of seeming too statistical I am going to indulge in a few (a4nqjnI243 PW 1,42, d°*S AQ «sazinoD) J TAK Aaynod aaqy JO} sed JYBrIoIy poyonszjsuos Aypersedg—Loz *31q 411 412 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING figures. I want it to become vividly apparent and to sink in— just how appalling, how profligate, is this enormous waste. Such a loss should be considered sinful, not alone because of the financial loss to the farmers, who bear the greater part of the burden, but because it is a community loss of so much valuable food, the most nourishing kind of food, of which thousands are in such urgent need. A depreciation of fifty millions of dollars in the value of our eggs is equivalent to throwing away 2,000,000,000 eggs, or about 280,000,000 pounds of one of our finest food staples. Reducing this loss to a per capita basis, it means that every man, woman and child in the country is deprived of about twenty eggs each year. If we consider that very young infants do not eat eggs in any form, also that the majority of the poorer classes can seldom afford them except in the preparation of other foods, the loss pro rata to those who do eat table eggs would probably be in the neighborhood of four dozen each year. Breakage.—Let us regard the waste in still another way: In New York City about 5,000,000 cases of eggs, or 150,000,000 dozens, are received each year. Records show that in the spring and early summer months it is not unusual for 200,000 cases to be received in a single week. The breakage on this egg supply, not the total damage, together with the depreciation result- ing from such breakage, is about three and a half per cent, or 5,250,000 dozens annually. Until a few years ago the railroads and other carriers were held accountable for the greater part of this breakage, and their claims in the New York district alone amounted to over a million dollars a year. Their claims still amount to about a half million dollars annually. This reduction in claims doe$ not mean that the breakage has lessened, merely that the carriers have shifted a certain portion of the responsibility to the shoulders of the pro- ducers, shippers, packers and wholesale distributors, where it rightfully belongs, as I will explain later. In a case heard before the Interstate Commerce Commission two years ago, between the New York Mercantile Exchange, a CLAIMS FOR DAMAGED EGGS 413 corporation of about five hundred merchants engaged in dealing in eggs and dairy products, which exchange corresponds to the Chicago Grain Exchange or the New York Stock Exchange, and six leading railway systems entering the metropolitan district, it was shown of record that one railroad’s gross revenue on eggs and the total claims presented for loss and damage thereon amounted in the periods of 1912 below noted to the following amounts: ToraL REVENUE TorTaL CLAIMS PER CENT A pill os aoe ic baa A ae a $34,014.54. $2,774.40 8.1 MAY inwc ihe Helin bia aaaca naan aaa aead 23,298.59 4,717.58 20.25 MNCs oie oe eerie pac rans Sete muer ee 16,762.41 2,423.66 14.5 September, first week................. 5,589.58 3,190.71 57-25 September, second week............... 5,594.70 3,338.12 59.66 September, third week................ 4,578.70 2,661.28 58.1 S2ptember, fourth week............... 4,125.46 1,746.67 42.1 During the above periods there were no wrecks or derailments, and no unusual weather conditions or labor disturbances to account for these losses. At the same hearing it was also shown that in 1913 another railroad paid claims on eggs from its New York office alone amounting to $100,207.35. ‘With this and similar losses going on constantly all over the country is it any wonder that the railroads find themselves financially embar- rassed, or that they have had to forego dividends to their stock- holders? In 1916 their total claim bill for loss and damage on all commodities amounted to thirty-five million dollars, which ab- sorbed about two per cent of their total earnings. For convenience in analyzing this subject we will divide the egg trade as a whole into four principal divisions or classes: First, the producers, second, the shippers, third, the carriers, and fourth, the distributors, both wholesale and retail. All Are to Blame.—It cannot be said that any one class is re- sponsible for our fifty-million-dollar egg-loss, and certainly no class is exempt from it. All are to blame, and all are equally culpable. Losses in eggs occur at all stages of handling, on the farm, in the country store, with the local shipper, the egg-collecting center, the railroad, the packer, the jobber, the commission merchant, 414 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING the teamster and the retailer. Strictly fresh eggs, generally known as nearby hennery, which tickle the palates of the well to do at the rate of eighty cents to a dollar a dozen, come largely from the environs of the large cities, where they are produced by poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs. Such eggs constitute a very small percentage of the trade, however,—about ten per cent,—and their damage aside from breakage is not ap- preciable because most of the shipments are made by fast ex- press. For the present we will not concern ourselves with this class of eggs. (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) Fig, 268.—‘‘A full house.” The great bulk of the egg trade must travel a thousand or two thousand miles before it reaches its destination. These are the eggs wherein the serious losses occur. Not so much because of the distances transported, though this is an important factor, but because of the numerous hands through which they pass, and the personal equation in each instance, and because the character of the egg is such that any slight defect visited upon it at its place of origin rapidly accumulates further deterioration. A slightly heated egg on the farm, or an egg with a blind check, so termed because the crack is not visible without the aid of a strong candle, may reach the market in such an advanced state ‘sjeiieq pue sexoq ur Aiqjnod yUM papeoy red 107 e1031IJa1 10110}U,— (a4n4]n2143 Y 4,daq "S$ “Q fsajanoD) 692 415 416 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING of decomposition that, unless carted to a crematory or dump- heap, its only use is a manufacturing one, such as tanning leather, and for which eggs are worth about fifty cents a case. All Bear the Burden.—While the burden of these losses falls upon all who handle the eggs, they are borne chiefly by the pro- ducers and the consumers. The producers’ loss is represented in a decrease in price because of spoilage or poor quality; the con- sumers’ loss is reflected in a decreased supply by reason of the spoilage, which compels the consumer to pay a higher price for the sound portions which finally reach him. Investigations.—Exhaustive special inquiries have been con- ducted in different parts of the country for a number of years, both by the Department of Agriculture and other interested bodies, with the view to finding out the exact conditions of eggs in the numerous stages of handling, and to ascertain ways of remedying the defective practices. A test was made in an egg-collecting center in the West made up of twenty prominent shippers, wherein it was found that the percentage of eggs that were so bad as to be an absolute loss amounted to 8.33 per cent. This was in November. In other sections during the warmer months as high as-thirty per cent of the eggs were totally unfit for food. An investigation among some country stores during October, which is considered ‘a fairly favorable month for eggs, showed that only twenty-five per cent of the eggs collected from the ad- jacent farmers would rank as firsts, that.sixty per cent were seconds, due to long holding on the farms, that five per cent were cracked, and that four per cent were rotten or stuck to the shell. In this experiment, as with many others, it was found that the majority of the farmers had held their eggs for four and six weeks before turning them into the village store. Grades.—For the benefit of those who are not familiar with the different grades of eggs from a commercial standpoint,—and few are,—I want to explain the definitions of these grades as em- ployed by the trade. The term firsts does not mean one hundred per cent strictly fresh eggs, or even good eggs, by any manner GRADING OF EGGS 417 of means, though the term implies such a quality. The rules governing transactions in eggs on the New York Mercantile Exchange, which constitute the standard or basis by which all trading is carried on, and which are published in booklet form and distributed throughout the trade, are set forth in part as follows: Rule I.—Classification and Grading: 1. Eggs shall be classified as “fresh gathered,” “held,” “‘refrigerator,”’ and ‘‘limed.”’ 2. There shall be grades of “‘extras,”’ ‘‘extra firsts,” ‘‘firsts,”’ “seconds,” ‘“‘thirds,’’ ‘‘No. I and 2 dirties,”’ and ‘“‘checks.”’ Rule I].—Qualities: FRESH GATHERED Extras shall be free from dirty eggs, of good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. bi “ Quality Avi ss. tiwaned pea eben nee ts 90 per cent Quality Bie 65.5 jac ved eee daa wee ee Hae ey 80 per cent QUAI EV. Cis ps. acetone aig. eke Gch is diaene Oa ettale oe 65 per cent The balance, other than loss, may be slightly defective in strength or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum total average loss per case permitted in ‘“‘extras’’ shall vary with the requirement of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, as follows: Quality Ai.. 2s3 sok encweese bene 1 dozen maximum loss Quality Be... 2... eee eee 134 dozen maximum loss Quality (Cauews vo nee aaine ed coms 2 dozen maximum loss FRESH GATHERED Firsts shall be reasonably clean and of good average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. Quality Ary ee iWere ee ieee eae ayes 8 75 per cent Quality Bes rsieans ses cer grader enet ee sees 65 per cent Quality Cy ssc ate ates Noe te Ras eee e 50 per cent Quai EY Dio sci sesasine ase dose ¥ eae ecard are Bieveas wees 40 per cent The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum total loss per case permitted in ‘‘firsts’”’ shall vary with the require. ment of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, as follows: Quality Ay sexe. feescavasee es’ 1% dozen maximum loss Quality. B ss o2e¢50eseriew ewes 2 dozen maximum loss Quality Cs issescgrine dagteecsrene aati ansels 3. dozen maximum loss Quality: Div vcos vues eau veces 4 dozen maximum loss 27 418 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING FRrEsH GATHERED SECONDS shall be reasonably clean and of fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, reason- ably full eggs: Quality A 65 per cent Quality B 50 per cent Quality C 40 per cent Quality D 30 per cent The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength and fullness, but must be merchantable stock. The maxi- mum total average loss per case permitted in “‘seconds” shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full eggs re- quired, as follows: QOuwality Ae cee aiee Bow sae cake 2 dozen maximum loss Quality: Bais gcactct gnats edant eraceleses 3 dozen maximum loss UAE Cs Site tae tersn haok deed ba areutens 4 dozen maximum loss Quality Ds ius ede cek ae dae dices 5 dozen maximum loss “‘Loss’’ as used in these rules, shall comprise all rotten, spotted, broken (leaking), broken yolked, hatched (blood veined) and sour eggs. Very small eggs, very dirty, cracked (not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken and salt eggs shall be counted as half loss in all grades excepting ‘‘dirties”’ and ‘‘checks.”’ The foregoing rules cover but three grades of eggs. There are about twenty grades all told, with exceptions and modifications to each. Some of their names follow: Fresh gathered thirds, held firsts, held seconds, refrigerator extras, refrigerator firsts, refrigerator seconds, refrigerator thirds, limed extras, limed firsts, limed seconds, No. 1 dirties, No. 2 dirties, checks and so on. To describe all of these different grades would take up too much space. The point that I wish to bring out is this, not- withstanding certain eggs are good enough to be rated as ‘‘fresh gathered firsts,’ they are still a long way from being perfect. And this way constitutes waste. As will be noted from the fore- going rules, the shrinkage in ‘‘fresh gathered firsts’? runs from twenty-five to sixty per cent, with an actual loss of from one and a half to four dozen to the case. A certain amount of shrinkage is to be expected in storage eggs, even when they are stored under the most favorable refrigera- HEAT LOSSES 419 tion. It is a natural evaporation of the contents of the egg, re- sulting in an air cell which is familiar to all, and cannot be over- come. Excessive shrinkage, badly shrunken eggs, is another matter. Its responsibility usually commences on the farm, due to holding the eggs too long, though the rural buyer or country store and the egg-collecting center are in no wise innocent of the same poor practice. Actual physical deterioration, or total loss, as de- pres 5 ea (Courtesy U. S. Dep’t Agriculture) Fig. 270.—Candling eggs at the farmer's gate. scribed in the foregoing rules of the Mercantile Exchange, is still another matter, and includes such depreciation. as heat affec- tion, bacterial contamination, mustiness, mold and sour eggs. The conditions which bring about these changes are almost wholly due to negligence and antiquated methods. They are unpardonable because in the main they are preventable. Heat Losses.—As might be supposed, heat is the worst enemy of the egg. The loss to the trade as the result of heated eggs is 420 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING greater than from any other source, especially if male birds are allowed to run with the hens. Heat in connection with eggs does not necessarily mean ex- cessive heat, which we know will injure the quality of eggs. The fertile egg is susceptible to even a moderate temperature. If allowed to remain in a temperature of 70 degrees F. for any length of time, it starts to incubate, slowly, of course, neverthe- less development goes on, and every day it is exposed to this warmth it is hastened on its downward career. The first stage of this deterioration ap- pears as blood on the yolk. Later a blood ring is formed, which indi- cates that the embryo is dead, and like all dead animal matter forthwith itstarts todecay. Com- mercially, heated eggsare known as floaters and ; f 7 blood rings. Light floats MAT Oe Z correspond to about Po er ee fy r,! twenty-four hours’ in- Fig. 271.—Stolen nest inthe hollow of atree. cubation at a temper- ature of 102 degrees, whereas heavy floats are equal to about forty-eight hours’ incu- bation. Infertile eggs, sometimes called sterile eggs, those laid by hens kept apart from male birds, withstand heat much better than fertile eggs, though it is an utter fallacy to assume that the former will not spoil. This mistaken notion is all too common. Without a vitalized life germ, there is no incubation in sterile eggs, hence there are no blood rings to develop; nevertheless they undergo certain chemical and physical changes which sooner or later impair the quality of their contents. They shrink as badly as the fertile eggs, and the yolks are likely to weaken and break or stick to the shells. : LOSSES ON THE FARM 421 Farm Losses.—It is not uncommon for farm eggs to remain under a wheat shock or in some out-of-the-way corner for two or three days, maybe a week, before they are found, or before it is convenient to collect them, during which time probably they have been subjected to summer heat of perhaps 95 degrees. See Fig. 272. Frequently the eggs are stored in the kitchen or back porch, or in a closet in one of the outbuildings, where the thermometer hovers around 85 degrees at midday. Often the eggs are hauled to the village store or shipping point in an open wagon, maybe a wagon without springs, exposed to the direct rays of the sun and a temperature of 105 degrees, and then left on a truck at the railway station for several hours. General Store.—If the eggs are delivered at the village store for credit, it is quite likely that the storekeeper, receiving the eggs over the counter, will let them remain in the store until the close of the day, and then carry them down to the cellar, where they will remain for perhaps a week, until a large enough quantity is gathered to ship to a local buyer or egg-collecting center. What if the cellar is warm or damp or musty or poorly ventilated, the storekeeper has no particular interest in the eggs, any more than as a means of keeping the farmer’s trade in merchandise. Local Buyer.—When the local buyer or egg-collecting depot receives the eggs, probably it is by way-freight, the eggs are again held for several days or a week until there is enough to make up a carlot, whereupon they are dispatched to a city jobber or to a packer. This last lap of the journey may be made in a refrigerator car, or it may not. In either event there is enough iniquity already stored up inside the eggs or their cases to account for a large portion of our fifty million dollar loss. This system of marketing is not incidental. It is general. It is in vogue all over the country. Its evils are perfectly obvious. Exchanging eggs for merchandise or credit at the general store, as at present practised, is pernicious. It is the weakest spot in the egg trade. A graphic idea of the loss due to heated stock can be obtained from the fact that in the South and Southwest the egg industry 422 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING is practically dead from the first of June until cool weather in the fall. The losses are so great, and the net returns so small, that the majority of the farmers hardly consider it worth while to collect their eggs at all during the summer months. It isa common thing to find fully hatched, live chicks in cases of market eggs from these sections. In fact, the heat damage and other losses are so heavy that producers do well to receive a net price of five cents per dozen. An average lot of summer southern eggs would candle about as follows: Light floats, 80 per cent; heavy floats, 15 per cent; acs ¥ Weed nest. Nest in straw stack. (Courtesy U.S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 272.—Stolen nests are responsible for a huge wastage of eggs. blood rings and checks, 5 per cent. As bakers’ stock the light floats might bring twelve cents a dozen, the /eavy floats five cents a dozen, and the blood rings nothing. Deduct for break- age, commission, candling, freight and haulage, and the net re- turns are insignificant. One in Four Lost.—As near as it can be estimated, the loss in southern and western eggs due to heat is one-fourth of the original value of the crop. For the entire country this element of waste is estimated at fully five per cent of the total valuation of the LOSSES DUE TO BREAKAGE 423 egg trade. Mind you, this percentage represents actual wastage, and nothing more. It does not include the losses resulting from decreased prices by reason of the inferiority of most farm eggs. The losses attributable to the inferior quality of the bulk of our egg trade are intangible, the same as the losses due to curtailed consumption are intangible; but they are real nevertheless. It is doubtful if one hundred million dollars a year would cover them. The most significant testimony to this statement is found in the twenty or more grades of low quality eggs, selling at low prices, and their relation to a few grades of high class eggs, which sell at high prices. The farmer’s eggs comprise the bulk of the low grade marks, which include storage eggs, and sell at prices from a third to two-thirds the value of strictly fresh, prime eggs. The following is a typical set of wholesale quotations in the New York market for December: ; Nearby hennery whites, fine to fay ee 76 to 82 cents Nearby hennery browns.........0.0000-- 57 to 63 cents Fresh gathered extras................... 54 to 55 cents Extra firsts Arr ad lish cee hens Raa’ joie ane A 52 to 53 cents PT SUS iat isi aye ioe ANS OIA AMR SBN Se 8 48 to 50 cents BECONS:.< tay shee eeeceadeane nae Res 42 to 46 cents Renieerstor OXtLAS: gen mee Fawa HBSS REN R 38 to 39 cents Refrigerator firsts................0... _... 35 to 36 cents Refrigerator seconds...... ............-- 32 to 33 cents Refrigerator thirds...................... 30 to 31 cents Limediextrass.4 asd chiuaraea sesh reoet es 28 to 29 cents Teimiéd! frSts isa) eu Wave ews Gee eg MER SEE eR TE 26 to 27 cents Limed seconds. ............-0. 0000s enue 24 to 25 cents No. I dirties, refrigerator................ 23 to 24 cents Checks....... SX Se DEE Gee Ed CN Ae aR ea RSS 22 to 24 cents It is not possible, of course, to bring the entire egg crop of the country up to the level of the ‘‘nearby hennery whites,” but it is possible to create a vast improvement in the lower grades, which improvement will redound to the benefit of the farmers. Strange that they do not see it this way! Breakage.—Next to heat, the greatest damage is occasioned by breakage. Indeed, it is nip and tuck which is the most in- fluential factor in piling up our monument of worthless eggs— heat or breakage. A broken egg is such a malicious sort of 424 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING breakage. It is not only a loss to itself, but it contaminates everything around it. Trade Terms.—In the trade, breakage is designated by various names, some of which are descriptive, if not picturesque. Cracked eggs are termed checks. When the shells are pushed in without rupturing the inner membrane, they are called denis. If the eggs are partly open, or if they have lost a portion of their con- tents, they are known as leakers. When the eggs are com- pletely broken—among the missing, as it were—they are spoken of as mashers. Leakers and mashers not only produce smeared eggs, which (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) Fig. 273.—Typical forms of breakage which usually result from careless hand- ling or packing. are heavily discounted as dirties, but they. account for a great many moldy eggs, also rots and spots. The checks and dents constitute a heavy loss because they do not keep in storage. It is estimated that thirteen million dollars’ worth of eggs spoil in storage each year because of cracks, some of which are scarcely visible to the naked eye. Mechanical Injury.—The responsibility for mechanical injury —breakage—is the bugbear of the egg trade. It has been the cause of so many claims, controversies and law suits between shippers, receivers and railroads that many of the latter have wanted to give up handling case eggs altogether. Even now FRAUDULENT PRACTICES 425 ‘ these relations are far from amicable. It is hardly likely that they ever will be harmonious until we abandon some of our obsolete practices. If you listen to the shipper’s or receiver's tale of woe in regard to breakage, you gain the impression that the carriers are a set of beats, who, for no reason at all, kick egg cases all over the” map, smash them into bits, and then refuse to pay claims for damages. True, the railroads, express companies and other carriers have adopted rather drastic measures of late, one of which is the allow- ance of five per cent breakage on each case of eggs. Their tariff files now state that they will not be held accountable for breakage unless it exceeds five per cent, and that claims will be considered only on the damage in excess of five per cent on each case or crate. Shippers and receivers regard this regulation as an unjust im- position. They go so far as to call it confiscation. The carriers have been put to it in self-defense. There was a time, and only a few years back, when the greatest asset that many of the men engaged in the egg trade had, was the volume of claims which they collected from the carriers. Apparently, the carriers were re- garded as legitimate prey. They were set upon and gouged in a merciless manner by the most unscrupulous practices. The carriers knew they were being gouged, and, like the proverbial worm, they turned. They got the goods on various gentlemen, and said gentlemen were indicted for fraudulent practices. CHAPTER XXXI SELLING EGGS ADVANTAGEOUSLY Many poultrymen, especially those who raise but a few chickens, concern themselves chiefly with the problem of pro- ducing eggs, with insufficient attention to the best methods of selling them. They are accustomed to think that there is an un- limited demand, which is true—there is always a regular outlet for eggs, just as there is a regular market for corn, wheat and other staple products; but, to secure top prices, or to obtain the full] value of the product, as much thought and care must be devoted to the selling end of the business as to the subject of production. Eggs are probably the easiest commodity to sell—lIn fact, the demand for strictly fresh goods of prime quality is always greater than the supply. If we so desire we do not have to stir from our doorstep to find a buyer. The buyer will come to us, pay spot cash if he is a dealer, or give us credit for merchandise at his store. Transactions of this sort are very common, and they are so simple and call for so little effort on the part of the producer that they have induced the poultry raiser to accept them as a regular practice—along the lines of the least resistance. In other words, it is so easy to sell eggs through the regular chan- nels—the country store, commission merchant or wholesale dealer—that the practice has encouraged a form of laziness on the part of the producer. Instead of making him independent and resourceful, and stimulating a desire to seek the most profitable outlet for his wares, it has made him dependent and submissive —a sort of ‘take what I can get”’ spirit. Middleman’s Charges.—It is very convenient to dispose of one’s output at the back door, but it is a great mistake to think that the producer is not paying for this convenience. He is 426 MANY HANDLINGS REDUCE PRICE 427 paying for it in the form of a reduction in price. Eggs for which the producer is paid twenty-five cents a dozen usually retail to the consumer for thirty-five and thirty-eight cents, or higher. Thus, the middlemen’s profits and handlers’ charges amount to over ten cents a dozen. These charges are legitimate, because Fig. 274.—Grading and packing eggs. these distributing agents have rendered service for the poultry- man. They have received, shipped, stored, graded, sold, de- livered and collected for his goods. On each operation the mid- dleman has been put to an expense, which is chargeable, and on each operation the middleman wants a profit above his ex- 428 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING pense, or there would be no incentive to do business. The sum total of all expenses and profits is therefore quite considerable. Admitting that the poultryman is put to a similar expense when he markets his goods direct to the consumer, the profits on these expenses, at least, are diverted to his own bank account. In talking to poultrymen on this subject I have heard remarks as follows: ‘‘It doesn’t pay me to sell eggs retail. I haven’t the time to bother with small shipments. I’d rather take a lower price and ship to a commission merchant—let him peddle the eggs. A private trade is all right in a way, but the pay is too (PERE HIN ag aa 7 SEE :, 2 (Courtesy U.S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 275.—Well-equipped feeding plant. Note the complete lighting and ventilating system. slow. I’ve got feed bills to meet, and I’ve got to get my check for a shipment promptly. Besides, when you ship to customers direct, and there is breakage or a delay of some kind, there are too many complaints. Let the other fellow do the worrying.” Retailing Troubles.—There is a great deal of truth in the fore- going remarks; it is troublesome to sell eggs retail; vet it is the only way to get the greatest profits from the business. The de- tails of any enterprise require close attention, and it behooves the man in charge to evolve a system or scheme whereby they are simplified as much as possible. Certain it is that if the middle- COMMISSION MERCHANTS’ WORK 429 men find it profitable to distribute retail or direct to the con- sumer, the producer should find it equally profitable, providing he follows practical methods. In addition to the loss in price due to the charges and profits previously mentioned, it should also be borne in mind that the more eggs are handled the more their quality depreciates, conse- quently their value is discounted, as we have shown in a pre- ceding chapter. Number of Handlings.—Though transportation facilities are relatively simple, it is surprising to note the number of times a shipment of eggs is handled even when the eggs are produced within a hundred miles of their ultimate market. Eggs produced on a Pennsylvania or New Jersey poultry farm and consigned to a New York commission merchant are packed in 30-dozen crates. The crate is delivered to the express agent by the poultryman, the agent puts it aboard the train, and while it is in the care of the express company it may be handled four or five times before it reaches New York. At the railroad terminal the crate is re- moved from the car to the warehouse, and later loaded into a truck and delivered to the commission house to which it is consigned. Commission Merchants’ Work.—Most commission merchants find it necessary to unpack, candle and grade the shipment, after which the eggs are sold to a retail store or hotel, or frequently the wholesale house will sell the shipment to a jobber, who will dis- tribute to the retail stores, restaurants and other consumers in one or two case lots. The retail store distributes the eggs to the ultimate consumer in dozen lots. The eggs have probably been handled twenty times, which does not improve their quality, particularly if they have been kept in warm temperaturcs or where the atmosphere is not as fresh as it might be. Such is the devious route by which a local shipment of eggs is received, and if they are of prime quality, they are known to the trade as “Nearby Hennery Fancy.” Eggs of this grade, however, are more or less limited, and if the public had to depend upon them alone, there would be an egg famine. The greater number of eggs consumed in the large 2 430 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Eastern cities come from the Central States, over a route about as follows: The farmer collects his eggs whenever he is of the mind to do so—maybe it is every day or twice a week, and from nests scattered about the farm buildings, under wheat shocks and in the brush. * If they are fairly plentiful, he will take them to the general store (just as he has found them), in a basket, on an average of once a week. Or, perhaps the farmer lives in a section visited by an agent who drives from farm to farm gathering eggs in small — ae \ (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 276.—Interior of a Western feeding station for handling live poultry. quantities. See Fig. 270. When the local merchant has col- lected a number of cases he disposes of them to a wholesale buyer, who is usually the representative of a large commission house in the East. The local merchant probably makes his shipment by freight to save expense. The wholesale buyer collects in case lots until he has enough for a carload, which is generally sent East in a refrigerator car. He may have repacked the eggs in new cases after candling them, or sold them case count. When the commission house receives the carload, the eggs are sorted TO OBTAIN BEST PRICES 431 into a number of grades, which are sold to jobbers, se es after the same route is followed as for the local eggs, only to a different class of trade. These eggs seldom come in competition with local eggs, for they are usually of inferior quality. Selling Direct—If eggs are worth producing, every effort should be made to get their full value, and to do this they must “be marketed as quickly as possible, so as to avoid any deteriora- tion, and sold wherever possible direct to the consumer, all other “arguments to the contrary notwithstanding. Hotels, restaurants of the better class, clubs, steamships, railroads and soda fountains are among the highest bidders for strictly first-grade eggs, and many are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The prices at which these eggs are sold are usually at a given premium over top market quotation, or at a fixed rate per dozen on a year’s contract for a given number of crates per week. The premium method is probably the best for all concerned, and may be made from three to ten cents above the market. Business of this character is generally done on a standing order, and the shipments are seldom more troublesome than dealing with commission merchants. Collections may be slower, of course, but the progressive poultryman must endeavor to take a position where he can extend a certain amount of credit; it is one of the principles of modern business. Another class of trade may be found among the first-class grocers who make a specialty in eggs of known quality, and to. dealers who carry on a strictly high grade butter and egg delivery. Special terms can be made with a trade of this kind, similar to the hotel patronage—a premium over market quotations, and if those dealers who cater to a discriminating class can rely upon the poultryman for an absolutely uniform product, they will take special pains to create a high price market. Unscrupulous poultrymen have abused the practice of receiving premiums, hence those who have suffered by the abuse are apt to be a little skeptical, and justly so. The weakness of the plan is this: The premium offered sometimes tempts the poultryman: into buying eggs from his neighbors and other outside sources, Aayfnod «, Paqenbs x Joy SyoeA BurTIYyD [eIjPI— Llz i) 1 Lf 432 DISTRIBUTING BY PARCEL POST 433 all in good faith, no doubt, but unless the eggs are produced on his own farm, the poultryman has no real warranty as to their quality. He must depend upon the word of others, and fre- quently such assurances are not dependable. The quality be- comes uncertain, complaints are made, and confidence is shat- tered. Altogether, the practice is a risky one, and in a measure it is a misrepresentation—unfair dealing. Lost Confidence.—It is strange, perhaps, how quickly a cus- tomer will lose faith in the source of an egg supply, especially if the dealer is making attractive claims for the product. You may serve a household with eggs of the best quality for weeks and months, with never a complaint, when suddenly there is trouble. Maybe two or three eggs in a consignment are slightly stale, or they have a peculiar flavor, or they contain blood clots; immediately the consumer loses confidence, the loss of which is ‘no easy task to recover. Private Trade.—In the outlets just described the business is more or less of a wholesale nature, yet many of the middle profits, notably those of the commission merchant and jobber, have been eliminated. There still remains, however, the profit taken by the retail dealer, which usually amounts to about five cents a dozen. Surely this profit is worth striving for, and may be had if the poultryman will make an effort to reach a private trade direct. If the farm is situated within easy driving distance of a large community, the problem is a simple one: the poultryman can make regular deliveries about twice a week. If this is not practicable, shipments can be made by parcel post, or by express, or the poultryman can establish a delivery in the city and have his eggs shipped to the city in large quantities, whence they are distributed. Parcel Post.—It is practicable to ship eggs by parcel post, so far as the security of the packages is concerned. If the containers are returned and used over and over, the charges are greatly re- duced. There are many types of carriers on the market, generally made of corrugated paper, which are strong and durable and yet 28 434 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING very light. The prices range from ten to thirty cents, depending upon the style and size, and from the writer’s experience each carrier will make on an average of eight trips before it becomes too badly worn for further use. The customer is requested to hold the empties until four or five are collected, when they are then tied together and returned for the one charge. Thus, a carrier (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 278.—Bench killing and picking. holding four dozen eggs and costing twenty cents can be made to transport the eggs for about one cent a dozen, which includes the return charges on the carriers. The parcel post charges will amount to about three cents a dozen, bringing the total cost to four cents a dozen. Charges on Case Eggs.—At a glance this seems very high and to defeat the idea of shipping by parcel post; but if we consider CLUB PLAN OF SELLING 435 the cost of shipping eggs wholesale in case lots there is not a great deal of difference. Consignments made to commission merchants are usually made in gift crates and the express charges must be borne by the shipper, the cost of which comes to about two cents a dozen. The difference of two cents a dozen can be made up in the price charged for the eggs when catering to a select trade, over and above the retail profit of five cents a dozen. The club plan is probably the best method of selling eggs retail, and the easiest for the poultryman, although he should not expect to receive quite as high a price for his product. The plan is this—two or three families residing close together place a standing order for a case or a half case of eggs once a week; the shipment is made to one address and the bill collected from there; the work of distributing the eggs being left to the consignee, who must also collect for them and remit to the poultryman. The additional profits accruing to the poultryman who sells retail are probably equal to the regular profits to be made on wholesale shipments. The practice requires more work and closer supervision, of course, but if one is engaged in the business for what can be taken out of it, why not try to take all the profits possible? If one thousand layers can be made to show a profit of two dollars a year per bird by selling retail, why raise and maintain two thousand layers at a profit of a dollar per bird per year selling wholesale? CHAPTER XXXII PRESERVING EGGS No article of diet of animal origin is more common:y eaten by all classes in all countries and in a greater variety of ways than eggs. They form one of our principal elements of food, and as such they are always in great demand. Unfortunately, however, the daily supply is not in proportion to the daily demand. We want just as many eggs in the fall and winter as we do in the spring and summer, but unless we store them, they are not avail- able. Dealers realize the importance of this—witness the stocks they place in cold storage each year. Why should the individual not exercise the same forethought? It is entirely practicable, and the investment required is small, outside of the cost of the eggs themselves. Virtues of Cold Storage.—It is strange and interesting to note how some of our conventions and prejudices have evolved, and how far removed from the truth are some of the popular beliefs. Many people regard cold storage eggs, and all those connected with the business, including the producer, middleman and re- tailer, as being traffickers in a more or less illegitimate product. Among some the very name cold storage is as odious as adultera- tion; and they. rail against the practice as though it were a form of knavery. Such a belief is absolutely false. The cold-storage industry is a development of the past thirty years, and as a whole it has been of enormous benefit to both the producer and the consumer. Of this there can be no doubt if one will only take the trouble to look into the subject a little. Placing eggs in storage has tended to make the prices of this com- modity more uniform throughout the year, and to increase fall and winter consumption. “How is that?” someone will ask. ‘I remember when you 436 COLD STORAGE 437 could buy eggs in the spring for ten cents a dozen.” True; but at that time it was difficult to buy eggs in the fall and winter for any price. They were not to be had in any quantity. Hens lay very few eggs in the autumn, especially on general farms; which farm flocks produce about 80 per cent of the country’s supply. It is a perfectly natural condition. The old hens are in the molt, and the pullets have not reached maturity; and not until scientific methods were perfected, such as artificial incu- bating and brooding, and improved housing and feeding, was it possible to obtain any sort of a yield except in the spring and early summer. (Courtesy Petaluma Chamber of Commerce) Fig. 279.—California type of laying house. Note that there are no dropping boards. In earlier times eggs were marketed at the time of and near the place where they were produced. During the spring and summer months there was an over-production; farmers found it difficult to find a market for their eggs, and at times were lucky to get five cents a.dozen. In the South and Southwest it has only been in very recent years that the farmers ever bothered to collect their eggs during these seasons, they were that unprofit- able. To-day conditions are very different. Since the advent of the cold storage system and improved methods of transporta- tion, we are able to take advantage of this over-production, and to preserve it for our needs when there is no production. 438 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING The farmer is therefore paid a fair price for what he previously wasted—usually from fifteen to twenty-five cents per dozen. Eggs are preserved in a number of ways. For convenience they may be divided into two general classes: The use of low temperature, from 31 to 32 degrees F.; and by excluding the air by coating, covering or immersing in a solution or dry substance. The first classification is the only way they can be preserved on a commercial scale, i. e., cold storage. Two methods are fol- lowed: storing the eggs in crates in a fairly dry atmosphere, and removing them from their shells and freezing them in bulk in cans containing about fifty pounds each. Under proper conditions, when fresh-laid eggs are placed in storage, very little change takes place in their quality, except evaporation. But they must not be allowed to remain long out of storage before they are used. It is failure on the part of the consumer and retailer to observe this point that results in most of the difficulties with storage eggs. As for the other methods, their aim being to exclude air con- veying micro-organisms to the interior of the egg, and for sup- pressing the growth of those already present, the results obtained are by no means uniform, which is largely due to the condition of the eggs at the time they are placed in storage. One of the old-fashioned domestic methods was to pack the eggs in bran, or in salt, or by covering them with limewater. Sometimes the eggs remained in good flavor, other times they spoiled. Their degree of preservation was commonly referred to as luck; whereas it was chiefly due to ignorance. Only eggs of known freshness and quality, and preferably non-fertile eggs, should be preserved by these methods. Twenty methods of preserving eggs were tested, with the fol- lowing results, according to the Department of Agriculture: Those preserved in salt water, brine, were all bad, not rotten, but unpalatable, the salt having penetrated the eggs. Of the eggs preserved by wrapping in paper, 80 per cent were bad; and the same proportion of those preserved in a solution of salicylic acid and glycerin were unfit for use. Seventy per cent of the “yyeeueq 797 PYs puke epeys apraoid Aoy se yonurseur ‘sasnoy 410}8-om} paryed sawjeur0s (wd0 Synod 11H InujsayD &saz4n0D) ‘sasnoy SulAr] payeaazy—oge “317 439 440 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING eggs rubbed with salt were bad, and the same proportion of those preserved by packing in bran, or covered with paraffin or varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic acid. Of the eggs sterilized by placing in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds, 50 per cent were bad. One-half of those treated with a solution of alum or put in a solution of salicylic acid were also bad. Forty per cent of the eggs varnished with water glass, collodion or shellac were spoiled. Twenty per cent of the eggs packed in peat ‘dust were unfit for use, the same percentage of those preserved in wood ashes, or treated with a solution of boracic acid and water glass, or with a solu- tion of permangan- ate of potash, were also bad. Some of the eggs were var- nished with vaseline; these were all good, as were those pre- served in limewater or in a solution of water glass. Of the three meth- ods that were en- (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) tirely successful, the Fig. 281.—Preparing water glass for preservingeggs. water glass treat- ment is to be recom- mended. Covering eggs with vaseline requires too much time, and the idea is not a particularly pleasant one. The limewater treat- ment sometimes communicates an odor to the eggs. Water glass, or soluble glass, is the popular term for sodium silicate or potassium silicate, the commercial article often being a mixture of the two. The commercial product is generally used for preserving eggs, if it is of a good grade, inasmuch as the chemically pure article, which is used for medical and other pur- poses, is very much more expensive. Inferior grades are likely to be alkaline, which should not be used, as the alkali will EXPLANATION OF WATER GLASS 441 impart a bad flavor to the eggs. Moreover, they do not keep well in it. Water glass is offered for sale in two forms—a thick liquid hav- ing the consistency of molasses, and in a powder. See Fig. 281. The former is perhaps the most commonly used, and may be purchased at any drug store for about forty cents a quart. In larger quantities it may be bought of wholesale druggists very much cheaper. In buying it, it is well to state the purpose for which you intend to use it, and to receive some assurance as to its quality. The North Dakota Experiment Station cénducted a series of experiments with water glass which were very successful, and their re- ports recommend a solu- tion of I part water glass in liquid form to 9 parts water. If the powder is used, a smaller quantity of the water glass is re- quired for the same amount of water. Only LS OOS shay : Water should be Fig. 282.—Earthenware crocks make the best used in making the solu- receptacles for préserving eggs in water glass. tion, hence it is well to , boil the water for about twenty minutes and then allow it to cool before mixing it with the water glass. One gallon of the water glass should make sufficient solution for covering 50 dozen eggs, if they are economically packed; hence, at a cost of $1.25 for the water glass, the cost of storing eggs, including the cost of the container, should not exceed 3 cents a dozen. Earthenware crocks make the best containers (see Fig. 282), though good results have been obtained with wooden kegs and barrels. In any event, the container must be thoroughly cleaned, scalded, scrubbed and then rinsed. The receptacles should be stored in a cool, clean place, preferably in a well-ventilated cellar, 442 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING one that would be suitable for the storage of preserves. If they are placed where it is too warm, the eggs will not keep well, the solution will evaporate rapidly, and the silicate is likely to form a deposit on the egg shells. Only clean eggs should .be preserved, and by that is meant, only eggs which have always been clean, and not washed. Washing the eggs removes the nat- ural mucilaginous coat- ing on the shell, which was intended by Nature to make the egg more or less impervious to foreign substances. The fresher the eggs the better, naturally, for there isless likelihood of their having been contaminated in any way. Eggs known to be older than a week should not be used as a general practice; and wherever possible use non-fertile eggs— those : nit é ‘ from flocks having no (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) male birds. Sterile eggs Fig. 283.—Examining eggs by means of an do not contain an active electric candler. life germ or embryo, con- sequently they are safe from any state of animal growth, if at any time, no matter how short the period may be, they were subjected to a temperature that would start incubation. As a further safeguard, it is well to candle all eggs before they are stored, which will determine their freshness and detect any eggs containing blood clots. See Fig. 283. The importance of SELECTING AND PACKING EGGS 443 this is not over-estimated, if we consider that one or two spoiled eggs may ruin the entire container. Packing.—The eggs should be packed with the small end down, which will help to keep the yolks from gravitating and adhering to thé shells. The solution is then poured over the eggs, covering them to a depth of about two inches. Later, if much of the liquid has evaporated, it may be necessary to add more of the solution. If one is unable to fill a receptacle with eggs at one operation, which is hardly likely except on a large egg farm, the eggs may be packed a layer at a time and covered with the liquid, adding more eggs and more of the solution until the container es (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 284.—Houses and runs should be arranged to render the greatest facility in caring for the flocks. is filled. If earthenware crocks are used and they have lids, place the lids on, for this will reduce the amount of evaporation. Otherwise, the.containers should be protected in some way, and a good plan is to cover them with paper, glued fast, and then shellacked. Influence on Eggs.—The eggs should be removed as they are desired, and not kept out of the water glass for any considerable time. If the eggs and all other conditions are right, they may be kept for six to nine months and be perfectly edible. That is, they may be used for any purposes, but they will not have the consistency of fresh eggs. The white or albumen will be more 444 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING watery than the strictly fresh egg, and the yolk will not have its former firmness. These are the conditions found in the storage egg, and they are to be expected. .The membranes of the yolk and the entire structure of the egg are weakened by its age, yet their value as food is in no way-impaired. ; Preserved eggs will not stand the handling that fresh eggs can receive, consequently the housewife should not be disappointed to find some of the yolks broken. When boiling preserved eggs a tiny hole should be pricked with a needle in the air cell end, to prevent the shell from cracking. This is easily done by in- serting the point of the needle once. It is sometimes difficult to poach preserved eggs, because the yolks are apt to run into the whites, and the same difficulties may be met in frying them; but for cooking purposes generally these shortcomings are unim- portant. When we consider the saving made over eggs pur- chased from the store at certain seasons, which, by the way, are not always as represented, the deficiencies of the preserved eggs are amply compensated. : This subject should not be construed to mean that poultrymen should adopt this means for other than home use; for they should not. It isa mistake to think that eggs can be preserved in this way and then sold for fresh eggs. They cannot be made to de- ceive anyone. If sold, they should be offered for just what they are,— preserved eggs,—and no attempt made to misrepresent them. If sent to an egg dealer in one of the large cities, they will be candled and their contents will be noted. As previously men- tioned, since they do not withstand handling well, their contents are very apt to be addled, and a price paid accordingly. Preserved eggs are intended for home use, or for sale as such, and the results obtained for a number of years in every way war- rant a more widespread practice. The subject is now being taken up by many of the leading Women’s Clubs throughout the country, and the State Experiment Stations. CHAPTER XXXIII BY-PRODUCTS OF POULTRY The progressive poultryman is interested in any device that will add to his profits. He will spare no expense to make his fowls comfortable; he will take great pains with the feeding and watering, and he will devise every conceivable plan to increase egg production, if that is his specialty. Not for a moment would he tolerate conditions that might endanger the welfare of his establishment. No doubt he prides himself that he is on the look- out for opportunities to buy and sell to the best advantage, and perhaps he also flatters himself that he can detect a leak in any of the farm’s operations. At the same time it is likely this very same poultryman may be neglecting one of the most important, or at least one of the most stable, sources of income—the revenue to be derived from by-products—those things which are usually held as a nuisance. Many thousands of dollars are wasted each year in the careless handling or neglect of poultry droppings, while still other thou- sands are wasted because no attention is paid to saving feathers. The manure from fowls is rich in nitrogen; it heads the list ef farm manures, being worth four or five times the value of stable manure. Quantity Produced.—The Maine Experiment Station con- ducted a series of tests on the subject of hen manure, and in one of its bulletins it states that the weight of night droppings from a fowl will average thirty pounds a year, and that this manure contains 0.8 pound of organic nitrogen, 0.5 pound of phosphoric acid, and 0.25 pound of potash. Ordinarily, the value of these eiements would amount to a trifle over twenty cents. The way prices have soared on fertilizers, these elements are now worth considerably more. 445 446 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING There are no reliable data to show the total quantity of matter voided by the fowl, yet because the chicken is more than half its time off the roost, it is safe to estimate that the weight of its manure while off the roost will be at least thirty pounds a year, probably nearer forty pounds, of which a fair percentage can be conserved in the litter of the poultry buildings. The writer has visited large poultry establishments where no effort was made to preserve this by-product. In fact, I have (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 285.—Indiana poultry house erected on concrete walls which extend two feet above the ground level. Walls are built of novelty siding, making a very neat exterior. been on plants where the droppings, as they were gathered from beneath the perches in the laying houses, were thrown outdoors, actually cast on an open pile, exposed to rains and winds which quickly rob such matter of its chemical value. On one farm the disposal of the droppings was flagrantly in error. I might add that it was fragrantly wrong, as well. The houses were of the continuous type, located on a hillside, and erected on piling several feet from the ground. In the front of each building, in the yards proper, there was a huge mound of SAVING THE NITROGEN 447 manure and discarded litter, probably the accumulation of several years. Needless to say, these mounds furnished anything but sanitary scratching quarters for the fowls. They were cbiec- tionable enough in dry weather. In wet weather they were. abominable—a slimy, unsanitary, steaming, stinking mass. The proprietor of this place was not only wasting several hundred dollars annually in the loss of this by-product, but he was menac- ing the success and health of the flocks by imposing such un- sanitary conditions. Yet many persons wonder at the number of failures in the chicken business. : Loss of Nitrogen.—Some poultrymen profess to take care of the droppings, and really do go to considerable trouble; but their care consists merely in storing the manure under cover. Keepirg it from the weather, of course, will preserve it to a certain extent, because there is no leaching; but it will not prevent the escape of a large percentage of the nitrogen, which is its most valuable product, and the most expensive element. Physical Condition.—Undoubtedly, the chief reason for the great waste of poultry manure is due to its physical condition, which is such that it requires special treatment to conserve it. Its greatest value, as mentioned before, is in its nitrogen content, which is subject to what are termed putrefactive processes, which. convert it into ammonia compounds. These compounds are highly volatile, and unless they are conserved in some way, a third or more of the nitrogen will pass off as ammonia gas. You can smell this gas in almost every poultry house, and it is par- ticularly noticeable in damp, humid weather, especially in the winter months. By itself, hen manure, like all other natural manures, is not a well-balanced fertilizer. It contains too much nitrogen in proportion to the amount of potash and phosphoric acid. Used alone it is wasteful, because of this excess of nitrogen. To properly balance this manure, and thus afford an economical distribution of the nitrogen, suitable amounts of potash salts “woos [TY pefoos Ayjeoueyoaul e ur BulpueyS ‘Ayynod SuiByey sof syxoes Burryo [ea — (aanynasaay 4,49 “S “1 Asazanod) 982 Bi 448 \ USE AN ABSORBENT 449 and phosphoric acid should be added. This will make it a more efficient fertilizer generally. To Preserve Manure.—From an agricultural standpoint, the successful treatment of poultry manure resolves itself into three problems: First, to prevent the loss of the nitrogen; second, to add sufficient phosphorus and potassium in forms available for plant food to make a balanced fertilizer; and third, to improve the phy- sical condition so that it can be applied to the land in an econom- ical manner, either in a fertilizer drill or with a manure spreader. From..the poultryman’s point of view, these same questions are of interest, and the idea is to work out a scheme that will serve every purpose. The poultryman is anxious to prevent the loss of nitrogen, because in so doing offensive odors are kept down; and it is desirable to improve the condition of the drop- pings by drying them out, because they are handled easier at cleaning time, and the condition of the roosting compartments is vastly more sanitary. Acid phosphate and kainit both prevent the loss of nitrogen, and if these are added to the manure in connection with sawdust, land plaster or some other absorbent (good dry loam or peat will answer nicely), there will result a well-balanced fertilizer. For example, a mixture of 30 pounds of hen manure, Io pounds of sawdust, 16 pounds of acid phosphate, and 8 pounds of kainit. will test about 0.25 per cent nitrogen, 4.5 per cent phosphoric acid, and 2.0 per cent potash. Need for Absorbent.—The addition of kainit or acid phosphate by itself makes the manure quite moist and sticky, hence the necessity for a drier. Any absorbent may be used that can be obtained at low cost, for the amount of plant food added by the drier is of small consequence. Because of its slight acidity, peat has somé advantage, since it will help to preserve the nitrogen. As a general rule, however, the farmer need only concern himself with the selection of a material that will keep down odors and absorb the moisture, since the addition of kainit and acid phosphate will prevent the loss of the nitrogen. Do not use wood ashes, for they tend to liberate the ammonia. 29 450 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Roosts and perches should have tight platforms under them, popularly known as dropping-boards, which should be cleaned daily, or as often as it is necessary to maintain the quarters in a sanitary condition. If the houses are not crowded, and the weather is mild and dry, once a week will probably suffice for cleaning. The absorbent should be kept conveniently at hand, and each time the dropping-boards are cleaned, if they are cleaned daily, the platforms should be sprinkled with the drier. If the boards are cleaned weekly, then each morning the droppings should be (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 287.—Small fattening station with feed room in the rear. sprinkled with the absorbent material. This is quickly done, and will work wonders with the general improvement of the house. When cleaning time comes the waste matter is easily removed with a hoe or scraper, leaving the boards comparatively clean and dry. It isa big help in the winter months, for it will prevent the droppings freezing to the boards, which condition makes cleaning exceedingly laborious. Each time the droppings are collected they should be treated with the kainit and acid phosphate, and then carefully stored in a sheltered bin or shed. At first it will be necessary to weigh the MIXTURES FOR GARDEN CROPS 451 ingredients, to insure the correct proportion, after which it: will be possible to make a fairly accurate guess at the desired amounts. Any form of shelter can be used, though on a poultry farm of large size it will pay to erect or remodel a small building for this special purpose. One having a watertight floor, which will prevent the entrance of moisture from without, and the escape of any liquids from within, is the ideal shelter, and will soon pay for itself many times over in the increased valuation of the manure. Fertilizer Formulas.—To aid those who wish to compound their own fertilizer mixtures, the following analysis of hen manure is given, which is in accordance with the investigations of the Massachusetts Experiment Station: COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MANURE Per Cent WateReuts: chs caagaate misma heds tan wes ae weene OS wba gue: 65.00 NitrO@en ois:c:s ng soa pee ees Ga SEE SRE RES FOP ETS ogee aes 1.56 Potashis e222 ended sav aey pues bend Rewes ks be Seba eT eee -44 Phosphoric acid 3:9: t.cescc ts bse oak aes Id i So ee 1.09 Calcium oxide: (limeé): 6. yiccuos 22 Foe eae ghee daum bd ee acute 1.62 FORMULA FOR LAWNS Pounps Hen WMANUTE! 3 eos es gtd se M oe does tein aned wees Poe ee 1800 Muriaté:of potash..200¢4.40 ,2edees caesar ee eae ea ye oe aad 75 Acid: phosphate aa is acs cv sacie giersvenais aa sane eand Soe inden sighed ae 125 2000 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 1.9 per cent, potash 2.2 per cent. Apply from one to one and a half tons to the acre. FORMULA FOR CORN Pounps Gri aT eo. 5 Fase mevdes Ante pent acne Gite Ge ao eben Bnd aatonle hie 1510 Cid. Phosphate ..0cnauGe idea odie riamandaomawh eas Gee eee 340 Miuriateof potash cos ccccead acct ewlenle i tadgeeae ages 150 2000 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.2 per cent, potash 4.0 per cent. FORMULA FOR FRUIT TREES Pounps PIG TAM UTE ae aaactb cade a loler dice drags Ge Comer tndels dpe als Ghagee mad, 1500 High-grade sulphate potash... 2.0.0.0... 00... cece eee eee 170 16 per cent acid phosphate.............. 00.0. cece eee eee 330 2000 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.3 per cent, potash 4.5 per cent. : 452 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING FORMULA FOR BEANS AND PEAS Pounps Hen manure ss. ee hawed eeeo ee ra carteeya Seine es mem ees aoe 550 Ammonium sulphate. «i356 455 es eas sates oe gta eee teams 100 High-grade sulphate potash... 0.2... 0. cece cece ene 350 cid: PHOS Phat. ii.sece coeds b.04 ealagg aceon gue dance wise Hse we avaserd a8 Rao’ 1000 2000 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 8.0 per cent, potash 8.8 per cent. FORMULA FOR STRAWBERRIES Pounps Hei mantire: «5c e dete ase aad bay aaa vs siawa eee gee ee wel 1000 Nitrate-of $004, os5 540-5 cag eho d 491 ORk Cea OL TEE Rew SEs HED 100 Ammonium sulphaté... 26 6244) saccaeneehs ee nege vee bes eee 100 High-grade sulphate potash........... 0.0... cee eee eee eee 200 eid) phosphates: 5s.2/c0.c.ahe: do.c haus d eed ghee ote cees, be dea eee 600 2000 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid 5.0 per cent, potash 5.2 per cent. ee eed The disregard of the value of feathers is another source of waste to many poultry raisers. There is a uniformly steady demand for feathers in all sections of the country, some dealers send out buyers for this purpose, yet thousands of dollars are lost annually because farms pay no attention to this product. With some system of saving, sorting and curing the feathers, they can be made to defray the cost of dressing and marketing the poultry, which is an item worthy of consideration. As proof of the demand for feathers, government reports show that in recent years nearly $2,000,000 worth are imported annually, ex- clusive of ostrich and similar ornamental varieties. Evidently, the foreigner finds that it pays to save feathers. Why should the American farmer not follow this example? There are many kinds and grades of feathers, and prices vary accordingly. Geese feathers are the most highly prized, and bring about sixty cents a pound. When we consider that geese may be plucked twice a year, maybe three times, it is easy to see that the feathers are a source of profit, similar to the wool of sheep. All white feathers sell for more than colored ones or mixed feathers, and dry-picked feathers are preferred to scalded ones. Usually duck feathers are rated next to goose - DOLLARS WASTED IN FEATHERS 453 feathers, though very often carefully selected white turkey feath- ers are sold as high as the best grades of goose feathers. The body feathers from white chickens come next to duck feathers, and some grades compare favorably with goose feathers. The down and very finest feathers from geese often sell for a dollar a pound, and are used for quilts. The finer body feathers of ducks and chickens are used for pillows, beds, cushions and soon. Tail and wing feathers, those with quills, are used mostly in making dusters and screens; feather boas are made from (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 288.—Removing small feathers while the birds hang by the feet. P Dra * ae hackle feathers, or from feathers curled with a hot iron; thou- sands of pounds of feathers are glued together in the forms cf wings and breasts in imitation of birds of paradise, which are no longer permitted to be imported, and sold to milliners; and large quantities are used in the manufacture of feather flowers, fans, muffs and toys. For decorative purposes the feathers of peacocks, large turkey feathers and the tail plumage from chick- ens are in great demand. If you stop to think a moment, numer- ous other uses for feathers will present themselves. Feather- 454 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING bone, for example, is made from the shafts or quills of large flight feathers. Prime feathers are those that are dry-picked, clean and fully cured, and properly sorted. By all means keep the different grades separate. Tail feathers should not be mixed with body feathers, not even with wing feathers, unless they resemble them. Make bundles of the quills, and either tie them together or pack . (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 289.—“‘String’”’ killing and picking. them in boxes. One-sided quills, usually the flight feathers from the wing tips, are not worth as much as the full feathers, hence they should be kept separate. Remember, that an inferior article packed with a superior one will invariably reduce the value of all to the level of the inferior article. The call for feathérs is constantly changing, conse- quently it is well to consult the dealers as to just what is wanted, and for any details in packing and shipping. Commission men CLEAN FEATHERS SELL BEST 455 who handle poultry can usually dispose of feathers to an advan- tage, or they will be glad to put you in touch with firms who make a specialty of this business. Feathers should be thoroughly dried before they are packed, or they mat together, turn musty and maybe spoil. Only a few precautions are necessary to save feathers properly. In the first place, the poultry must be dry-picked, but then, dry-picked poultry always brings a better price than scalded poultry, conse- quently it is to the grower’s advantage to follow this method regardless of the feathers. Provide barrels or boxes, have them arranged beside the picker, and as the pluck- ing is done drop the body feathers in one receptacle and tail feathers in an- other, and so on. This also helps to keep the feathers clean, for if they are allowed to fall at the picker’s feet, it is quite likely they will be satu- rated or spattered with blood. Before the feathers nace ete (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) ee stored aa spread Fig. 290.—Holding birds on the lap to re- the different kinds in trays move small feathers. or on the floor of a dry, well-ventilated room, to a depth of four to six inches, and every day for a week, or until they appear to be thoroughly dry, stir them with a stick. They are then ready to be packed or shipped. If they are packed green, the animal heat will make them damp and moldy, and greatly reduce their value. Cleaning.—Most of the feathers shipped to the dealers are just as they come from the fowls, and quite naturally they must be cleaned. Clean feathers, of course, bring higher prices than soiled ones, but whether it will pay the poultryman to go to this extra work is a question that each person must find out a va ; i) pA 456 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING himself. I am inclined to think that it pays to clean them at home, since they bring almost twice the price, and the work is not difficult. Manufacturers and feather houses have facilities for washing the feathers by machinery, treating them with live steam, and then drying them with wringers and subjecting them to strong drafts of air from fans which lay all animal odors and leave the feathers in a fine, fluffy condition. Shipping Methods.—Feathers are shipped in burlap sacks, tightly compressed, and the quills in boxes. Or the quills may be tied securely in bundles and packed in sacks. Do not pack the quills loosely in bags, all jumbled together, for they will not bring a good price. And I repeat, keep the white feathers sepa- rate; they are the most valuable. White chicken feathers are worth about eighteen cents a pound; colored chicken feathers about six cents a pound. Feathers which are too badly soiled for use as such can be utilized as fertilizer. They are valuable for this purpose, though they decay slowly and are therefore a long time in the ground before they become available for plant food. CHAPTER XXXIV PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW Educational Value.—Next to the poultry press, the show room has done more for the poultry industry than anything else. It is probably the most potent educational factor, and one of the greatest advertising mediums. Without these annual displays interest in poultry affairs would be dwarfed. The strongest proof of their popularity lies in the fact that the number of shows increases every year. Every one who raises good poultry should take an active in- terest in poultry shows, especially in the local shows. This includes the utility breeder as well as the fancier. The man who discredits the value of the show room simply because he raises chickens for eggs and meat is short-sighted. The progressive utility breeder is one who opposes mongrelism. For any pur- pose he appreciates that pure breeds are superior. In the show room not alone fine feathers and correct markings are displayed, but the qualifications that go to make the egg or meat type of bird are also shown. Exhibit whenever possible, but whether you are an exhibitor or not you will find it to your advantage to patronize the shows, to be in attendance, and to contribute any assistance at your command. One may not carry off blue ribbons, and yet win many things of even greater value. You can obtain a closer friendship with your fellow breeders, a broader view of the con- ditions that make for success, poultry wisdom, some new points on salesmanship or advertising, a better knowledge of how to mate next season’s contestants, an exhibition of the latest im- proved apparatus, and last, but not least, a good time. It is not always the poultry association with the largest mem- 457 458 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING bership that is the most successful. One of the best exhibitions in Pennsylvania has only a dozen members, but these men are (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 291.—Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections of’a male fowl. In the female the cushion takes the place of the saddle of the male, and the sickle feathers are absent. up-to-date, hard workers and they work with a co-operative spirit. Every year they set aside the week of the show for that IMPORTANCE OF CONDITION 459 particular purpose. They don’t stand round with their hands in their pockets, giving advice, and paying some one else to do the work. Except for the judges’ fees, prizes, hall rent, feed, light and similar expenses, there are no other charges; in consequence the show is a financial success. Selecting Specimens.—There was a time when a breeder could = (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) Fig. 292.—Catching coop for fowls. It is placed in front of a small door in the main house, through which the birds are driven into the coop. . look over his birds, select the most promising specimens, ‘and without any further ado pack them off to the show and win. That day is past. To-day, though a specimen ranks high in size, shape, color and most of the other points that contribute to the ideal, if it is not shown in perfect condition the chances for a ribbon are limited. In fact, it-is the art of conditioning 460 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING specimens, as well as breeding them, that brings success in this generation. Some breeders are opposed to conditioning, and condemn it as faking. There is a vast difference between the two, however, even though it may be difficult to establish in some cases. The mere fact that you have grown a fowl that conforms to certain requirements, such as weight, shape, the angle at which the tail is carried, length of shank and so on, is by no means as far as it is possible to exert your skill. The other fellow, let us say, has done the same thing, and a little more. He improved on the fowl’s ability to keep itself sleek and clean. Maybe he influenced the bird’s conduct, by training it to pose and strut about, to exhibit its virtues to the best advantage, and not object to handling. A wild, unruly bird is an abomination, and will try the patience of the most skillful judge. Show Conduct.—To properly demonstrate his or her points of superiority, a bird must be docile, accustomed to pose when the judge’s stick is placed on its back, and in all ways assume an aristocratic air. These characteristics are seldom born in a speci- men; they are the result of careful training on the part of the exhibitor, and as such they are worthy of consideration. Some- times it requires weeks of careful handling and training before a bird is in perfect show condition. Many a superior bird has failed to be placed because it was impossible for the judge to keep it quiet long enough to form any idea of its correct type. In the selection for the show room every section of the bird must receive exacting scrutiny. In some breeds color must be more carefully considered, in others, as, for example, the Mediter- ranean varieties, the head points are of great importance. In the Hamburg breeds, if tail be not full and flowing, its long sickles well curved and carried at the right angle with the back, or if it approaches a squirrel position, the whole Hamburg char- acter is lost or seriously marred. If the sickles are short and the tail pinched, or carried in a trailing low carriage, they fail to attract the necessary attention. Like the tail, unless a fowl’s shanks are of the right length, NEED FOR WASHING 461 and the angle formed by thigh and shank shows apparent strength and perfect poise, the specimen appears at a disadvantage. The shanks in the Cochin classes, because of their excessively heavy plumage, will look short, but they must not look dwarfed. In the American classes we describe the length of the shanks as medium, meaning that they free the specimen from any stilted appearance; at the same time they must not look short for the size of the specimen. Thus, different breeds require different judgment, and the only way to gain complete information about a particular breed is to study the American Standard of Perfection, which is the authority by which show specimens are judged. Birds intended for the show room should be selected a month or two before the show dates, and the males separated from the females to avoid broken feathers. They should be given more or less isolated quarters, where they cannot fight, or in trying to do so, injure their combs in any way. The specimens should be carefully dusted with an insect powder to free them of lice, and if they are badly soiled they may require a preliminary washing. Washing.—It is seldom necessary to wash the dark-colored breeds, such as the Rhode Island Reds, unless they have been reared in an atmosphere of coal smoke, in bare yards, or have become very dirty, in which case a thorough washing will mean a great improvement. Washing is sometimes used to improve the shape of certain breeds, such as Cochins and Orpingtons, which should have loose, fluffy plumage. By drying before a fire, one that is not too hot, for this will make the feathers curl, and fanning ‘the feathers while they are drying, the plumage will remain loose and fluffy. This gives the birds a fuller, rounder appearance, and adds much to their beauty. White birds are the hardest to condition. To insure a good job they should be washed twice, the first time about two weeks before the show, and again a day or two before shipping. The idea of washing chickens sounds like a difficult task, but after a little experience it becomes a pleasure. It is surprising how placidly most fowls submit to the work. If the specimens have - *Axjsnpul ay} Jo JuUaWAOURApE ay} preMo} YON aUOp sey WOOI MoYs ayy ‘UorNqIYyxa A13[;nN0d pasursre [jaj,—'C6z °B14 462 FACILITIES FOR WASHING ~~" 463 received proper training, which is but another term for sufficient petting and handling, they will allow their master to perform these ablutions in a very orderly fashion. A warm room, plenty of soft water, good soap, a couple of tubs, some towels or cloths, a sponge, patience and common sense are the requirements. Quarters.—On many of the large farms, those that make a specialty of exhibiting, special quarters are provided for con- ditioning the fowls. In fact, some of the conditioning rooms resemble exhibitions themselves, being fitted with show cages in much the same manner. The small breeder may obtain equally good results without going to this expense. An outside kitchen or sheltered porch, some place where members of the household frequently pass, is a good location to erect temporary cages, and as often as one can spare the time, handle the birds and make them accustomed to persons coming close to the cage. Always handle fowls with quiet movements yet with a firm grip, being careful to keep their wings closely folded against their bodies when removing them from the cages, so as to avoid any damage to the feathers. Sometimes it is best to commence the training at night, for light seems to fascinate them, and they are less wild. Teach the specimens to assume certain poses, and by gently stroking them between the wattles they can be made to retain a pose indefinitely. A few minutes spent in training every morning and night for a couple of weeks will usually conquer the wildest of birds. If you find a specimen that no amount of training will tame, better discard it; the chances are it will try to pull down the cage in the judge’s presence. Preparations for Washing.—Everything should be in readi- ness before washing the birds, and a start made in the morning, so that by night the fowls are dried off. Fill two tubs with warm water of a temperature that is comfortable to the hands; use the first for washing and the second for rinsing and sponging. Provide a third tub of cold water for the final rinsing, to which a small amount of laundry bluing may be added if desired. This is a very particular part of the operation. The tub should con- tain enough water to entirely immerse the bird, except the head, 464 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING because if one portion of the plumage is submerged longer than another, the bird will not be evenly blued. Use about as much bluing as would be proper for laundering clothes. Lather Each Section.—When all is ready, carefully immerse the specimen, and then starting with the head, thoroughly lather each section until every particle of dirt has been freed. Cover each feather with lather clear to the skin and then rub the feath- ers well between the hands. Don’t be afraid of damaging the feathers; once wet they are very pliable and may be rubbed much the same as shampooing one’s hair. After washing the upper part of the bird place a clean board across the sides of the tub and stand the bird on this while you wash the breast and body. A nail-brush or discarded tooth-brush should be used for washing the comb and face, legs and toes, especially the claws. Rinsing.—When you are assured of a good job of cleaning, squeeze off the greater part of the lather into the first tub, re- move the bird to the second tub, and with the aid of a sponge or dipper thoroughly rinse every trace of soap-suds and dirty water. If any soap is left in the plumage it will stick together. This rinsing operation is the secret of a satisfactory result. If any traces of soapy water remain the plumage will dry blotchy and streaked, and if bluing is used in the third tub, any presence of soap tends to prevent the feathers from taking the bluing evenly. Third Tub.—When the specimen is thoroughly sponged and rinsed, plunge it into the third tub of cold water, agitate and ruffle the feathers so that the clean water, especially if bluing is used, comes in contact with every section; then drain the bulk of the water from the plumage by squeezing it; take the specimen in your lap and wrap it in an absorbent towel or cloth. When it has ceased to drip, return the bird to the conditioning coop, which should be previously replenished with clean shav- ings, straw or other material. A good plan is to cover the top, sides and back of the cage with muslin to prevent drafts, and leave only the front open. If convenient arrange the cages around a stove while the birds are drying, or in a room where the temperature is about 80 degrees. As previously mentioned, tabi: Fig. 294.—Prize-winning black Langshan cock, 30 465 466 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING if too hot the feathers are apt to crimp and curl, which is un- desirable. Black and red varieties may be improved in lustre and bril- liancy of plumage by rubbing the feathers with a little sweet oil. Use very little—a couple of drops on the palm of the hand are sufficient. Shanks.—Many exhibitors are careless in not cleaning the shanks. If the legs are soaked in warm water and well washed with a stiff brush, and a wooden tooth-pick is inserted under the scales that lodge dirt, every bit of discoloration can be removed as readily as one can clean his finger-nails. A little oil applied to the shank, or carbolated vaseline, rubbed with a woolen cloth, will work wonders. This brings out the true color nicely, and gives them a fresh, immaculate appearance. It is not generally known, perhaps, but fowls molt the scales on their shanks and toes about the same time they molt their feathers. Look care- fully to see that any dead scales are removed. The comb, wattles, face and earlobes should be rubbed with vaseline, using very little, but rubbing it in well. Those are the finishing touches and should be given attention at the last minute. Under Weight.—If show aspirants are a little under weight, careful feeding for a few weeks will usually bring them up to specifications. Vary the birds’ rations so their appetites are not cloyed, using a mixture of some of the following articles: boiled potatoes, cornmeal, boiled rice, buckwheat meal, barley meal, middlings, ground oats, wheat, skimmed milk, a little beef tal- low, linseed meal or cottonseed meal. At the same time give them a little sweetened water to drink, and a good tonic or regulator to offset any ill effects from the forcing. If the birds have lost weight in shipment to the show room, as they are likely to do, feed them liberally on the regularly cooked and seasoned bologna sausage. In conditioning old hens that are over-fat and inactive, no soft food should be given except green vegetables. The whole grain should be largely oats scattered in deep litter. Many beginners make the mistake of cooping the birds too SHIP IN LARGE CRATES 467 closely and too long before the show, which makes them dull and sluggish. A pullet is at her best just before she lays her first egg; after that she loses her bloom and goes off shape. Buff color is the hardest to maintain at an even shade. The secret of getting even, rich, golden buff color is never to allow the sun or rain to touch the surface of a showbird. Some of the most successful breeders of buff plumaged birds do not give their birds freedom in the open from the time their final plumage begins to show, but keep them in shady runs or under sheds. Shipping Crates.—Above all things, do not try to save space or a few cents on expressage by crowding show specimens into small crates. There is no economy in it. Use standard exhibi- tion crates, which may be purchased at a reasonable price. If made at home, build them high enough for the birds to stand upright, and wide enough for them to turn round without in- juring their tails. Label or tag the crates neatly, and in strict accordance with the instructions of the show secretary. See that the crates are bedded with clean straw or some material that is free from dust. We have seen instances where birds that had been carefully washed and groomed were hopelessly marred by a deposit of dust on face, shanks and plumage, caused by scratching in dusty litter. To insure identification every specimen should be leg-banded, and the number or distinguishing feature of the band should be marked on the entry blank and shipping crate. Sportsmanship.—It has been said, any one can win blue rib- bons, but it takes a real fancier to lose. If there is one thing in a show room that is detestable, it is the exhibitor who has not sufficient sportsmanship to abide by the decision of the judge. If you can’t understand an award, have it out with the judge in a gentlemanly way, but if he can’t convince you that his opinion is correct, take your medicine like a man. A good loser is always respected and admired. Chickens are great imitators, and their imitations frequently lead to habits which are very troublesome and difficult to com- bat, among which are egg-eating, feather-pulling, cannibalism Fig. 295.—Skeleton of a fowl. 1, Premaxillary bone or upper jaw; 2, maxilla or lower jaw; 3, jugal bone; -4, nasal cavity; 5, eye cavity; 6, skull; 7, neck vertebra; 8, scapula; 9, humerus; 10, clavicles (wishbone) ; 11, ulna; 12, radius; 13, bones of forewing; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, ilium; 17, pygostyle or tail bones; 18, breastbone; 19, ischium; 20, pubis; 21, sternum; 22, keel; 23, femur; 24, tibia; 25, tarso-metatarsus; 26, spur; 27, digits or toes; 28, rear toe. 468 CLIPPING WINGS WITHOUT DISFIGURATION 469 and high-flying. Nothing is more distressing to the poultry keeper than these four habits once they have become confirmed practices, for then they amount to vices. They usually start through accidents, or from the example set by a chief offender— a ringleader, which should be removed as soon as the trouble is discovered. Then, if the offender cannot be reformed, rather than return it to the flock, it should be made to pay the death penalty. Usually, these habits can be broken up if taken in time and dealt with accordingly. Flying over the fences is likely to become one of the troubles among the Mediterranean breeds, which is not serious in itself, except that where two or more varieties are kept it is almost certain to result in cross-breeding. And even if one breed of chickens is kept, in all probability the poultryman has mated his pens with a definite purpose, hence he cannot tolerate pro- miscuous changes. For one ; ‘ ; thing, it may lead to inbreed- ,,Ri#: 296-Commercial feeding, sta- ing; and then again it may 30,000 birds. lead to unpleasant difficulties with one’s neighbors—their gardens or fower-beds. Clipping Wings.—It is natural that we should hesitate to clip a fowl’s wings, as is customarily done to prevent high-flying, for the usual method is sure to disfigure the-bird. Clipping off the flight feathers completely is not necessary, however, and if a little care is taken in cutting, the wings can be deprived of their power in such a manner that the mutilated feathers will not be detected unless the fowl is caught and closely examined. Flight Feathers.—The primaries or flight feathers are the long quill feathers that grow on the first joint of the fowl’s wing, and are hidden, or nearly so, when the wing is folded against the ceeds a mi (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 470 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING body. The secondaries are the quill feathers that grow on the second joint of the fowl’s wing, which are visible when the wing is closed, and which form the section known as the wing-bay. Together with the primaries they constitute the main feathers of the wing or the flying feathers. The ordinary way of clipping a fowl’s wings is to clip off both primaries and secondaries within a few inches of the fleshy por- tion of the wings, and which always leaves a ragged, badly dis- figured appearance, and seriously detracts from the bird’s sleek- ness. The practice is unnecessary and should be condemned. Clipping Without Disfiguration.—The following method is equally effective in restraining high-fliers, and while it takes a little more time to perform the operation, the results seem to warrant the additional trouble: Take the bird under your arm, or better still, sit down to the work and hold the fowl between your knees; then spread the feathers of a wing wide open, and with a pair of scissors clip the web or plumed portion of each primary close to the shaft; but do not cut off the shaft and do not strip the webs of the secondaries. Repeat the operation on the other wing. When the fowl resumes its natural poise and the wings are folded against its body, the clipped portions of the primaries will be hidden from view by the secondaries, and it will take a very acute observer to discover that the wings have been tam- pered with at all. CHAPTER XXXV AILMENTS AND DISEASES When to Doctor.—It has been said that the best cure for ailing fowls is a sharp hatchet. The writer will not take issue with this treatment as an effec- tive remedy for some ailments, yet as a hard and fast rule to be recommended for general practice, the hatchet cure is a little too stringent. There is no question but that a sickly flock of fowls are a con- stant source of vexation and financial loss to their owner, and while it is very often unprofitable to expend much time and trouble doctoring them, in my experience it will pay to administer first-aid treatment in the early stages of a disorder; and if the patient responds within a reasonable time, continue the treat- ment; otherwise, call in the assistance of the hatchet. Health Is Everything.—It does not matter how valuable a strain of blood there may be in a flock of chickens, how long a pedigree, or how many blue ribbons are back of them; how splendidly equipped are their buildings; nor yet how attractive and convenient may be the location and environment of a farm, the foundation for success with poultry is built on perfect health, —a strong, vigorous vitality,—and to this all else is subordinate. Sickness in some form, though it may be of a trivial nature, visits every flock at some time or other, and whether the trouble finds a permanent abiding place, a home, so to speak, in which to thrive, or whether it is met with an aggressive inhospitality and promptly driven off and exterminated, depends almost wholly upon the caliber and energy of the attendant in charge of the flock. Unfortunately, the beginner’s farm usually endures the greatest 471 472 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING hardships on this score,—not because he neglects to give his fowls the best of care, rather because, lacking the experience and practical knowledge of the more seasoned poultryman, the novice frequently fails to detect the first symptoms of a disease. Then, too, when the novice does discover trouble, very often he has not the courage to sacrifice a few birds as'a precautionary meas- ure. Yet drastic measures are sometimes necessary for the safety of the rest of the flock, just as in a serious conflagration dynamite (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 297.—Open-front house with irregular gable roof designed to afford suffi- cient head room inside where it is required. is used to raze whole blocks of houses, and thus check the spread of the fire. Trivial or Contagious.—Poultry diseases may be divided into two general classes: Those of a more or less trivial nature, which will respond to flock treatment through the drinking water or feed, and those of a highly contagious, virulent action, which require individual treatment—if treated at all, for in badly in- fected birds it is usually advisable to kill them at once and destroy the carcass, thereby preventing the spread of contagion. Burying the carcass, unless it is buried very deep, is not always LOOK FOR SYMPTOMS 473 a safe method; for at some future time it may be dug up by a dog, or accidentally plowed up, and the infection again spread about the premises. Instead, such a carcass should be burned, or put in quicklime. Indications of Illness.—The competent poultryman makes it his business to note the physical condition of every bird, every day—which is a much simpler task than it sounds. In the early morning and at feeding times, it is an easy matter to detect a bird that is feeling out of sorts. If a fowl remains on the perches, with ruffled feathers, head drawn close to its body, and is otherwise sluggish and disinterested, it should be taken out of the pen and examined. Or if a fowl is seen to rub its eye on its wing frequently, or if a soiled spot appears on its wing; if it sneezes often, gasps for breath, mopes in the corners and has a purplish comb—these conditions are all abnormal, and the fowl should be removed for a closer examination and diagnosis. Detention Coop.—On a farm of any size there should be a small house or coop isolated from the rest of the buildings, which should be equipped with a few cages, or crates, and desig- nated as a hospital, or detention ward. When a fowl is discovered out of condition, if only with a cold, it should be removed to this hospital, carefully examined for the nature of its ailment, and treated accordingly. A small closet should be convenient, fitted for the storage of bottles, clean rags, a sponge, basin, and so on. With the knowledge of a few simple drugs and remedies many of these hospital inmates can be promptly and permanently cured. Determine the Cause.—When an abnormal condition is first discovered, the poultryman should analyze every symptom, not only with the view to ascertaining the nature of the ailment, but to determine the cause of the disorder. There is sure to be a cause, and of course it should be immediately removed or cor- rected, to prevent further trouble. It is then up to the atten- dant to decide if the ailment is curable, and what the chances are for an early recovery. If the chances are poor, he had better stifle all sympathetic feelings and sentence the victim to be executed—the hatchet. 474 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Simple Remedies.—The following drugs are simple remedies that should be found in the poultryman’s dispensary, and their actions are no doubt familiar to everyone. They are all inex- pensive, and a supply should be kept on hand for instant use. Like the ‘‘stitch in time,’’ first-aid treatment in the early stages of a fowl’s ailment is the secret of a successful cure. Castor oil is one of the most commonly used remedies for dis- orders of the crop and other digestive organs. . It not only removes the irritant, but also helps to soothe and heal any inflamed tis- sues. In fact, it isa pretty good rule to commence the treatment (Courtesy Aldlantic F arm) Fig. 298.—Pen of Pekin breeders. Duck houses are simple affairs. of every ailment with a dose of castor oil. Give about two table- spoonfuls to a grown bird, administering it with the aid of a dropper or glass syringe. Epsom salts and Rochelle salts are both splendid laxatives, and will correct liver troubles and relieve diarrhea. Half a tea- spoonful is the correct dose. In treating a large flock, the salts may be mixed with the mash,—but the fowls should first be allowed to become quite hungry, to insure their eating a sufficient quantity of the mash. Bi-carbonate of soda, or Baking Soda, will relieve a sour or MEDICINE LOCKER 475 distended crop, which is equivalent to indigestion. An amount sufficient to cover a dime is the average dose for a single bird. For flock treatment, dissolve a half-teaspoonful in a quart of water, and keep it before the birds for several days. Tincture of aconite is a well-known drug for the relief of colds, catarrh, and in allaying fever. About five drops is the custom- ary dose for a bird. Sulphate of magnesia, ten drops to a pint of drinking water, will relieve costiveness. . : Spirits of camphor is another good remedy for slight cases of diarrhea. Add a few drops to the drinking water. Quinine will work wonders with colds and chicken pox; and Iron, Quinine and Strychnine tablets make an excellent tonic for birds whose vitality has been lowered through loss of blood, excessive breeding or illness. Bismuth nitrate will frequently cure the more serious intes- tinal disorders,—bloody diarrhea or enteritis. Tincture of nux vomica, about ten drops to a quart of drinking water, is recommended for cases of leg weakness, and it also stimu- lates the digestive organs. Calomel is another excellent corrective for liver troubles, a-d a strong laxative. Use a quarter of a grain to a grain. Carbolated vaseline, or some one of the petroleum products, should be on hand to use in anointing wounds and sores, and for chicken pox, scaly legs, and frozen combs. Gas tar, or one-third carbolic acid mixed with two-thirds gly- cerine, are two other remedies for scaly leg. Cover the affected shanks with the gas tar, and allow it to remain until it wears off. The scales will come off with the tar. Liver Pills——When a fowl is somewhat mopish, the ordinary family liver pill will very often correct this sluggishness, much the same as it does with the human being. Spirits of turpentine and sweet oil will usually relieve any bronchial affection, such as a rattling or bubbling sound in the throat. One part turpentine to five parts oil is the proper mix- ture: administer about ten drops daily to the individual bird. 476 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Fowls seem more susceptible to roup, canker, and other respiratory derangements in the fall of the year than at other seasons, and as either preventative or balm for these ills, the Missouri State Experimental Station reports excellent results from the use of the following mixture: Magnesium. Sulphate... 624.2c0 $e veeesr segs taney nees 10 ounces SUPA ei reas Bik ae Aa aed RS ata ol sues eae ees Blt Magnesium Oxide’. inc ¢ suisse ease 3552 we ete awe age sees I ounce Sulphatevof Tronics). ge 4a bad heed ees pba Ags tau ms 2 ounces Ground 'Ginget ss. ses edees ove Gees cea wee eeGe eE eae aes Qn os A tablespoonful is fed in moist mash for 12 birds, for three days. The Magnesium Sulphate acts on the intestines, as pre- viously mentioned; the © en | «SC ul phur is a general anti- septic; the Magnesium Oxide acts on the kidneys; Sulphate cf Iron stimu- lates the blood; and Ground Ginger is bene- ficial to all organs. A strong disinfectant, preferably one of the coal- tar products, should be in- cluded in the poultry- man’s dispensary, and it should be used freely as a EE) N spray whenever an infec- Fig. 299.—Good type of feeder. Note the tious disease breaks out. short, thick head. Permanganate of pot- ash is frequently used in the drinking water for antisepticand disinfecting purposes, and will prevent the spread of colds, coughs, bronchitis and similar troubles. Use enough of the crystals to turn the wateradeep purple color. About as much as would cover a dime is sufficient for a gallon of water. It would seem as though chickens were heir to as many ills as man yet since most of them are but very occasional, we need POULTRY AILMENTS 477 only concern ourselves with the more common troubles herein- after mentioned, together with their principal symptoms and causes. Asthenia, or ‘Going Light.’’—A term applied to fowls that persistently lose weight, become emaciated, anemic, weak and unproductive. It is not a form of consumption, as some sup- pose, but may be due to several causes. Sometimes it is the. result of lice or mites; at other times it is due to worms—this is the most common cause; or the birds may be afflicted with bacteria harbored in the small intestine, which subsist on the food con- sumed by the fowls. On investigation, if no defect is found in the rations, one of the birds should be killed and examined for worms. If many are found, the emaciation is probably due to this cause, and the flock should be treated accordingly. See chapter on Worms. If no worms are found, and the fowls are not Fig. 300.—Indifferent type of feeder. Note bothered with lice and crow-like shape of head. mites, and their rations and living quarters are O. K., the cause of the trouble is probably infection by microbes mentioned above. In this case a slight in- flammation may be noted. The treatment should be, first, the removal of the bacteria by purgation, using Epsom salts, castor oil or calomel, following which the flock should be given a tonic to build up the system, and an abundance of easily digested foods. At the same time look carefully into the housing conditions; clean and disinfect everything. The following tonic is recommended: 30 grains each of pow- 478 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING dered fennel, anise, coriander seed, cinchona; 1 dram each of powdered gentian and ginger; and 15 grains of powdered sul- phate of iron. Mix these ingredients thoroughly. Dosage: from two to four grains of the mixture added to the food twice a day for each fowl. Bagging Down.—The posterior parts of a fowl hang down and even drag on the ground. It is not a disease, but the result of improper feeding and lack of exercise, an over-fat condition, and very hard to correct. Better kill such specimens for the table; they are not sick birds, remember. Blackhead (Entero-Hepatitis) —This is a disease that attacks young turkeys, and is seldom found in other fowls. In the course of the disease the head generally becomes dark colored or nearly black, hence the name. It is an infection of the liver, similar in its nature to human dysentery. It is highly contagious and very difficult to cure. If the birds are in an advanced stage of the disease, they had better be killed, and the bodies carefully dis- posed of, because thus far the treatment for blackhead has not given satisfactory results. If treated at all, the afflicted birds must be isolated. The symptoms are loss of appetite and condition, diarrhea, and finally prostration. The liver is found to be more or less enlarged, and spotted with yellowish or greenish-yellow nodules. The remedies used are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron I grain; or benzonaphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth I grain; or sulphate of iron I grain, salicylate of soda I grain. These remedies are followed by a purgative. Fifteen grains of catechu to the gallon of drinking water is found to be beneficial. Do not be afraid to use the axe in this disease, because sacri- ficing a few birds may be the means of saving the balance of the flock. Dissemination of this contagion has made some localities almost impossible to raise turkeys. Every effort should be made to check the disease. Bronchitis.—Usually caused by exposure to sudden changes in temperature, dampness or irritating particles of dust, like lime. The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetite, coughing, which is e BUMBLE FOOT 479 accompanied by a whistling or bubbling sound in the throat. Though simply an inflammation of the breathing tubes, which may be treated successfully in large flocks, if only a few birds are affected, it is well to isolate them and administer the tur- pentine remedy. Baldness.—See Favus. Blood Spots in Eggs.—This trouble is due to the escape of blood from ruptured blood-vessels, which generally occurs at the time the yolk is freed from the ovary and enters the oviduct, where it receives the coat- ing of albumen. These hemorrhages are thought to be the result of great functional activity and congestion induced by the excessive use of stimulants or highly concentrated foods; or they may be caused by the general breaking down of a hen’s vitality. Relieving any causes which might lead to con- gestion or inflammation is Bes eg Ns the logical waytoattempt Fig. 301.—Poor feeder. A cripple, or bird a remedy. Reduce the off feed. amount of grain or animal food, and increase the green food. Givea little Epsom salts in the drinking water. Some hens habitually lay eggs with blood spots or streaks, and these should be killed for the table, to escape this nuisance. Bumble Foot.—One of the minor ailments. A callus or corn that forms on the bottom of the foot and later becomes a pain- ful swelling attended by ulcerations. It is caused by the birds’ jumping from perches that are too high, bruises and irritations from splinters. A fowl so afflicted will limp and stand on one 480 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING foot. Painting with tincture of iodine will dissipate the callus if taken in the early stages; but if it has ulcerated, open it, remove any pus, cleanse the wound with an antiseptic, and then bind the foot in an application of carbolated vaseline. Canker.—This is probably the most disgusting ailment, and is usually caused by contaminated food, also chronic cases of roup. It is very contagious, hence the sick birds should be iso- lated, and if they are badly afflicted, it is advisable to kill them and destroy their carcasses. A yellow, cheesy, foul-smelling matter forms in the corners of the mouth and in the windpipe, which when removed reveals the raw flesh. Remove this foreign matter and apply carbolated vaseline, or sulpho-carbolate of zinc on the sores. See Roup. Catarrh.—See Roup. Chicken Pox (Bird Pox)—While this is contagious and will spread rapidly throughout an entire flock, it is not necessarily a serious trouble. It is usually caused by. dampness or filth. It may be introduced by new birds, or exhibition birds which return from show rooms infected. Or it may be carried into the flock by pigeons, sparrows and other birds, or by the attendant. Scabby, yellow nodules or pimples appear on the face and comb, especially around the beak, and frequently discharge a thick, yellow matter. Isolate the sick birds at once, and anoint the sores with carbolated vaseline. Administer the iron, quinine and strychnine tonic, or a good poultry regulator, and simple, nourishing food. Cholera.—See Enteritis. A bacterial disease caused by con- taminated food or drinking water. Highly contagious, with a heavy mortality. Colds.—See Roup. Crop Bound.—A hard and swollen condition of the crop caused by an obstruction to the gullet from the crop, or by gorging large quantities of grain, which swell and ferment. This trouble is described elsewhere in a special chapter. Diarrhea.—See White Diarrhea, described in a separate chapter. ENTERITIS 481 Egg Eating.—This is a pernicious habit that is almost always the result of accidents, though the accidents are very often due to the carelessness or ignorance of the keeper. Cramped nests or an insufficient number of nests are generally responsible for broken eggs, the hens taste them, form a liking for them, and thenceforth eat them whenever an opportunity presents itself. The ringleaders should be caught and broken of the habit, even if they have to be killed for the table. If not, they are sure to set a bad example to the rest of the flock. This trouble will (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) Fig. 302.—Ducks require low fences, which make it possible for the attendant to walk from yard to yard without the bother of entrance gates. spread through a flock much the same as Cannibalism or Feather- eating. As a precautionary measure, install your nests in ac- cordance with the best practices, as described in the chapter on poultry house fittings. Enteritis.—This disease is caused by irritant poisons or bac- teria, which develop an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines. The fowls have poor appetite, roughness of feathers, pale comb, and their excrement is of a greenish color, or bluish green. The trouble is almost always fatal if allowed to reach an advanced stage. Administer nitrate of bismuth,. 31 482 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING keep the birds isolated, and give them olive oil for nourishment. Clean up the premises, look for the cause of the trouble, and disinfect all drinking vessels and other utensils. This disease is quite serious,.and can create havoc with the strongest, healthiest flocks. It is one of the cholera-like diseases. Favus or White Comb.—This is a contagious disease caused by growth of a fungus, the filaments or roots of which do not pene- trate deeply into the skin, but remain very near the surface, consequently the general health of the victim is not seriously impaired in the early stages. The trouble usually breaks out on the comb first, then the wattles and earlobes and, finally, the neck and other parts of the body are affected. When limited to the comb and wattles, the trouble responds very nicely to treatment, and may even disappear of its own account. If it has invaded the feathered portions of the body it is extremely obstinate, and in very severe cases the ‘‘hatchet and block”’ is the safest and most satisfactory remedy. First, wash the affected parts with warm water containing a mild disinfectant, at the same time removing any scabs that can be rubbed off without bleeding, and then apply sulphur ointment or carbolated vaseline. Good results have been obtained by painting the spots with tincture of iodine. Some breeders recom- mend an ointment of red oxide of mercury I part and vaseline 8 parts. Feather-eating.—See chapter on Crop Bound. Gapes.—See chapter on Worms. Indigestion.—See chapter on Crop Bound. Leg Weakness.—See chapters on the Care of Chicks. Lice.—See chapter on Parasites. Limber Neck.—Partial loss of control of the muscles of the neck, and is generally caused by eating putrid animal matter. A fowl so afflicted cannot hold its head upright, but twists it around from side to side and staggers about drunkenly. The disease is not contagious, though very often it is stubborn to cure. A pill of asafetida night and morning for a couple of days is a good remedy, also, borax in water, a tablespoonful to a pint, ROUP 483 pouring a large dose of the solution down the fowl’s throat three or four times a day. Castor oil and turpentine and warm water are two other highly recommended remedies. Mange (Scabies).—This is caused by mites which live at the base of the feathers, where they bite the skin and cause intense itching. It is quickly spread throughout the flock, and while the general health of the birds does not suffer greatly, still the trouble is discomforting, and if allowed to continue the birds will lose flesh and become unproductive. Moreover, as the mites spread the plumage is destroyed until the birds are almost naked. Apply to the affected parts, and for some distance around them, an ointment made by mixing 1 part flowers of sulphur with 4 parts of vaseline or lard. Carbolated vaseline may be used, too, and if it is mixed at home, use 1 part carbolic acid to 50 parts of vaseline. It is sometimes beneficial to wash the irri- tated surfaces with a solution of creolin or some other disinfectant. Mites.—See chapter on Parasites. Pasting Up.—See chapter on White Diarrhea. Parasites.—See special chapter devoted to these pests. Roup.—This is probably the most dangerous, fatal: and con- tagious disease with which the -poultryman must contend, and it is certainly the most disagreeable to treat. It is a contagious catarrh, resembling the more malignant forms of influenza in the larger animals and in man; this and canker, which is a chronic form of roup, are generally the aftermath of such ail- ments as colds. The first symptoms of roup are similar to those of a cold, except in the former there are more fever, dullness and prostration. There is sneezing, accompanied by a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Later this discharge becomes thick and ob- structs the breathing, and as the inflammation, which begins in the nasal passages, extends to the eyes and the spaces below the eyeballs, the fevered condition hardens the secretions into a cheesy matter, which accumulates in the tissues of the head, causing the eyes or other parts of the face to bulge. This cheesy matter has a very offensive smell, sometimes’ it obstructs the 484 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING windpipe and the victim is suffocated. Other times the head swells twice its normal size, blinding both eyes, and the victim is a miserable-looking creature, indeed. When this stage is reached it is quite useless to attempt a cure. The most common form of roup is an exaggerated cold, and nothing worse. It is caused by exposure for a prolonged period to those conditions which produce colds. Obviously, the first step is to rectify the conditions which foster the disease. Imme- bk et Fig. 303.—The ordinary household scales come in handy for the poultryman. diately a case of roup is detected, it is a good plan to treat the entire flock with a roup preventative for about a week, or until one is assured the remaining birds have not been infected. This may be done through the drinking water. Sick birds should be isolated at once, and the houses whence they are removed, particularly the drinking fountains, thoroughly cleaned and dis- infected. , Treatment for roup, if it is to be treated at all, must begin in SCALY LEG 485 the early stages. The affected membranes should be given appli- cations of antiseptic and healing mixtures, either sprayed on, or by dipping the fowl’s head in the solution. The following are simple remedies for this treatment: One ounce of permanganate of potash to three pints of water, or one and one-half ounces of boric acid and a half ounce of borate of soda to a quart of water, or one ounce of peroxide of hydrogen to three ounces of water, or a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. There are several reliable roup remedies on the market which have given excellent results for a number of years; they should be used according to the directions which accompany them. Chlorate of potash, alone, or mixed with sulphur, is recom- mended for dusting on the inflamed tissues caused by cankerous growths. Another way is to dissolve I part of chlorate of pot- ash in Io parts of glycerin, and swab it on the affected parts. Scabies.—See Mange. Scaly Leg.—This condition is caused by a parasite that lives under the scales of the shanks. The scabs or crusts that appear is the excrement thrown off by these mites. It can be cured by rubbing the shanks with an ointment containing a little sulphur or kerosene. Gas tar is excellent, also—a mixture of one-third carbolic acid and two-thirds glycerin. The trouble is harmful in that it is very discomforting to the fowls. It is easily spread by fowls coming in contact with the parasites on the perches. No careful poultryman will tolerate this condition, and there is no excuse for its existente, though it is frequently seen. Sore Head.—See Mange or Favus. Vent Gleet.—An inflammation of the cloaca, which causes fre- quent passages of a white, offensive discharge that collects on the skin and feathers around the vent. It is very difficult to cure, and such specimens are better off dead. Though not con- tagious, the trouble is transmissible, especially by the males, consequently such birds should be removed from the flock. White Diarrhea.—See chapter on this subject. Worms.—See chapter on this subject. e CHAPTER XXXV CROP BOUND Common Form of Indigestion.—Almost everyone who raises chickens in any numbers will be troubled at some time or other with an ailment known as crop bound. It is a form of indi- gestion, perhaps the commonest form of crop trouble, and is generally caused by improper feeding. The poultryman, how- ever, is not always to blame, for the condition is very often brought about by the stupidity or gluttony of the fowls. Easy to Detect.—As the name implies, crop bound is a com- paction or hardening of the crop, and fortunately, it is easily discernible. Instead of the crop having a full, close appearance, in fact, scarcely noticeable in the well-proportioned bird, it is seen to hang down like a bag, and on closer inspection it will be found to be greatly enlarged, hard and heavy. The fowl thus afflicted is usually droopy and inactive, and frequently a bad- smelling liquid runs from the mouth. In an advanced stage of the ailment the fowl’s comb will be purple in color, and the bird may gasp for breath. Two Forms.—Generally speaking, there are two forms of crop bound: One is the result of a weakened or paralyzed condition of the crop muscle, and is usually observed in old fowls whose vitality has been impoverished by old age and improper care, or in chicks of low stamina. It is possible to relieve this condition by careful medical treatment, though a permanent cure is sel- dom effected. Therefore, unless the victim is considered very valuable for some particular purpose, it is generally more profit- able to kill the sufferer, and to devote one’s time and energy to correcting the conditions that brought about the trouble. Clogging of the Crop.—The other form of crop bound is induced 486 FIRST-AID TREATMENT 487 by a clogging of the outlet of the crop by twisted grass or rough grain. It occurs most frequently among birds that are fed in- sufficient green food, and as a result of this craving they attempt to swallow pieces of hay, straw, tough blades of grass, cabbage ribs or some other bulky article. This obstructs the outlet of the crop and finally becomes so entangled and solidified with other food that the mass presses on the windpipe, or fermenta- tion sets in and induces a form of poisoning. Occasionally a ration contains too much middlings, or other sticky meal, fed either dry or moist, which, under certain condi- tions, bake together and clog the passageway. This food, al- (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) Fig. 304.—Brooder house. Note the covered platform in front of the building, under which the chickens emerge from the house. though taken into the body, offers no nourishment until it is digested, consequently the bird continues to eat, which only dis- tends the crop further. In a few days the fowl shows signs of weakness, and unless the obstruction is removed the bird dies. If the trouble is discovered early, the treatment is compara- tively simple and a cure is virtually assured. In the latter stages a surgical operation is necessary which, though simple in itself, is often accompanied by other complications that prove fatal. Experienced, practical poultrymen make it their business to inspect their flocks very closely every day, especially at meal times and in the early morning. At these times it is easy to detect birds that are out of condition, no matter how trivial 488 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING may be their ailment. If a fowl remains on the roost after day- light, or manifests little or no interest in food, it should be caught and examined. If the bird is crop bound the symptoms will be noticed as soon as the fowl is handled. The bird will be slow to avoid capture, its crop will be distended and hard, and in most cases a sour-smelling liquid will run from its mouth. The treatment usually prescribed is an injection of castor oil or olive oil into the crop. If these are not available, melted lard will answer the purpose, or warm water, although the latter is not so active or effective in its action. A good plan is to begin by draining off any liquid in the crop, which may be accomplished by holding the bird head downward. Then inject the oil, about two tablespoonfuls, using a medicine dropper, small syringe or spoon. Hold the bird upright and gently knead and work the mass in the crop. After some minutes this operation will cause the injected liquid to mix with the solids, and when the mass is thoroughly broken up an effort should be made to remove it through the mouth. , Dislodging the Obstruction.—This is sometimes a matter of difficulty, particularly if. the offending substance is long and fibrous, such as grass. If the massaging process is ineffectual in removing the contents of the crop through the mouth, and the case is not a serious one, it may be well to wait and see if the trouble will not pass off naturally. Kneading the crop some- times dislodges the obstruction in the outlet from the crop, and with the aid of the oil the mass will be assimilated. When to Operate.—If, however, the crop is not materially reduced in six hours, there is but one remedy—an operation. It is a very simple one, requires no great skill, and if the fowl is in a vigorous condition it has a splendid chance to recover. Young chickens weighing under a pound are too small to undergo the surgical treatment, and had better be killed. Instruments.—The task will be much easier if one person holds the bird while another performs the operation. The only instru- ments required are a sharp knife, lancet or scalpel, a pair of small scissors, a small spoon, preferably a mustard spoon—one that (many SataQaq &saz4noD) “sjay[nd us0yse] pjO-saeM-U9} Jo YoY Suryoo] Surstuiorg— Sol “317 489 490 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING has a narrow bowl, and a needle threaded with white silk or sur- gical gut. Common sense dictates that the instruments should be absolutely clean, also the operator’s hands, so as to prevent infection. The first step is to trim the feathers from a space about one by two inches over the center of the crop, and to moisten and brush aside any other feathers that may be in the way. Clip the feathers with the scissors; do not pull them out. Wipe the bird’s flesh with an antiseptic where the incision is to be made, and with the fingers of one hand draw the outer skin fairly tight; then make an incision with the point of the knife. Insert the point of the scissors and enlarge the cut until it is about an inch and a quarter long. Separate this outer skin by spreading the slit, and then make a similar incision in the crop wall. Care should be taken to make the cut where there are fewest blood-vessels, and to avoid the largest ones altogether. A little blood will flow, and this should be removed with bits of absorbent cotton. The cut should not be made any larger than is neces- sary to gain access to the interior of the crop and to remove its contents with the small spoon. Sometimes the mass is so hard that it is difficult to remove it without first manipulating to break it up. It is usually very offensive, and considerable pa- tience is necessary to perform the work thoroughly. The opera- tion is practically painless, so that the operator need have no unnecessary qualms over the victim’s comfort. Washing the Crop.—After the contents are thoroughly re- moved, the crop should be washed out with a weak solution of boracic acid, permanganate of potash, or a similar non-poisonous disinfectant. To be sure that the fermented matter is entirely removed it is well to insert a finger in the orifice, otherwise the whole process may have to be done over again, or the operation will be unsuccessful. This done, the incision must be drawn together and sewed up. A bent needle is best, making the stitches about an eighth inch apart and tying them carefully. Sew the inner skin first, and then the outer skin, and tie each stitch separately. FEATHER EATING A VICE 491 Next swab off the wound with the antiseptic solution, and place the fowl in a clean, comfortable coop to rest. Food should be withheld for about twenty-four hours, and then only light feeds of an easily digested mash should be given at the regular feeding hours. In about a week's time the bird will have recov- ered sufficiently to be returned to the flock. Some authorities advocate making the incision at the right of the neck and at the top of the crop, at the point where it is quite easy to see the contents of the crop, owing to the trans- parent nature of the flesh at this point. After the contents are removed the cut is allowed to heal naturally, without stitches, which is practicable because the opening is made in the top of the crop wall. In either method the subject must be kept iso- lated and on a very light diet. If permitted to join the flock too soon, the other birds will be attracted by the wound, and they will peck and aggravate it. Mortality —Many poultrymen consider it rather futile to op- erate for crop bound because the chances for recovery are dis- couragingly small. This is true in a sense, yet in most cases death is not the result of the operation, but because the com- plaint had reached an advanced stage. It is easy to understand that as soon as fermentation starts, poisons are formed, which are quickly absorbed by the victim’s body, and which will even- tually prove fatal. Or the crop may be so enlarged and create such pressure against the windpipe that breathing is made ex- ceedingly difficult, and this is a great strain on the heart. Asa general rule, if the fowl’s comb has not turned a purplish color as the result of the trouble, it is well worth while trying to operate. If, however, the bird is already weakened, one had better use ‘‘the axe.” Feather Pulling.—One of the most distressing, troublesome and unmanageable habits of fowls is feather pulling, or feather eat- ing, and it is this vice that frequently brings about a crop bound condition. Sometimes the feathers are merely plucked, for no apparent reason except the “joy” of plucking them, and at other times they are eaten as fast as they are removed. Quite 492 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING naturally they are extremely indigestible; they are likely to form a mat inside the crop, and to obstruct the canal leading from the crop to the gizzard. Causes.—The vice usually starts through fighting or accidents, or it may develop through lack of sufficient mineral and animal food—generally from insufficient animal food. It is also caused by idleness—close confinement or no opportunity for exercise. The vice spreads rapidly throughout an entire flock, unless the ringleaders are promptly caught and removed. Erroneous meth- ods of feeding and management are largely responsible for this (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) Fig. 306.—Ducks can be raised without water, but not so successfully as with it. trouble, so that the poultryman seldom has anyone to blame but himself, and the same general conditions are likely to encourage egg eating—another pernicious habit. There is no medical treatment for feather eating, any more than the amount of animal food should be increased, and the fowls given as much liberty and exercise as possible. If the pens are small and the yards are destitute of green food, and there is no room in which to increase the range, the habit is sometimes controlled by changing the fowls to a different pen. This change in environment may arrest their attention long enough for the alteration in theirdiet to satisfy their peculiar craving for blood. SUPPLY MINERAL SUBSTANCES 493 An old-fashioned remedy was to apply something very bitter to the plumage, such as oil of aloes, but in the writer’s experience this practice was little more than a faith cure; the fowls continue to pluck the aloe-flavored feathers as though they considered this bitterness a relish. The nearest approach to a successful method for controlling the vice is to cut the tip of the lower part of the beak, which tends to prevent the fowl from getting a firm grip on the feather. Occasionally feather pulling is developed by lice and mites, consequently the caretaker should investigate his fowls for these pests and treat them accordingly. The important measure adcpted should be a well-balanced ration, one that contains ski:n mill, beef scrap, fish scrap, meat bone, vegetables or green feed, and frequently varied. A piece of fresh beef hung from a nail where the hens will have to jump for it slightly is one of the surest tricks for dissipating the feather pulling habit. Failure to furnish the flock with a liberal supply of mineral substances is one of the contributing causes of crop bound and indigestion. Nature has not endowed birds with teeth as a means of masticating their food, but she has given them the equivalent in the gizzard. This is a tough, muscular organ, so situated that all food taken into the mouth must pass through it. When the food is received in the crop it remains there until soaked and acted upon by a secretion similar to that of the saliva in the mouth of animals. This partially digested food gradually leaves the crop and passes into the gizzard, where it is ground up, and thence it goes to the intestines, where, after being acted upon by other fluids, it passes on and the nutriment is absorbed. Supply Grit.—We know that the gizzard is marvelously strong when provided with sharp grit, for it is the rotary action of these grindstones that crushes and masticates the solids. Hard, sharp substances are necessary, and without them the harder parts of the food are not digested. Husks and green food accumulate between the crop and the gizzard, and frequently cause a stop- page so that nothing but liquids can pass. In time this passage is completely obstructed, and the result is a sour or bound crop. 494 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING A person may live with defective teeth for years, or perhaps with none at all, yet we know that such persons seldom enjoy their food or good health. Surely, if the birds do not have the means of properly masticating their food, they can neither be healthy nor derive the greatest benefits from their food. In consequence they cannot be expected to give their master a good return for their food and care. CHAPTER XXXVII WORMS Losses from Worms.—The question of worms in poultry is of far greater importance toward the success of the venture than most poultrymen realize. Well-built houses, carefully prepared food, close attention to sanitation, and good care generally are of little avail if the fowls are infested with worms. Where there are worms losses follow: if not actual death, at least there is a falling off in the egg yield. In any event the poultry keeper is not getting the proper returns from his feed and care, which is the equivalent to loss. A postmortem examination at one of the State Egg Laying Contests suggested a careful examination of the dropping boards, which finally led to the conclusion that some of the pens were infested with intestinal worms. The flocks were given a vermifuge, followed by a purgative, which had the desired effect, and in a couple of weeks’ time the change in the flocks was sur- prising. They were eating more, took on weight and their egg yield improved. Widespread Trouble.—Numerous instances of anemia, liver trouble, indigestion, diarrhea, general physical debility and other complaints, due supposedly to lack of vigor in the breeding stock, have been traced to worms within the fowl’s body. In fact, it has been said that of the strictly parasitic forms of life that affect poultry, worms play the leading réle. I am not prepared to agree that worms are a greater menace to fowls than some other varmints of our acquaintance, such as mites and lice, but I do know that they work a great deal of loss and failure. Kinds of Worms.—There are several varieties of worms, some of which take up their abode in the crop, stomach and intestines, 495 496 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING not to mention the gape worm, which attaches itself to the wind- pipe and is made evident by frequent gaping, hence its name. Those that breed in the intestinal section are probably the most common and the most destructive. There is something revolting about the idea of worms exist- ing in the organs of a living creature; it is an unpleasant subject (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 307.—Feed hoppers and water fountains should be located on a raised platform to prevent litter from being scratched into them. to discuss. Nevertheless, since it is a foe, and a deadly one, we must take up arms against it, and to do so intelligently we must go into some detail. Tapeworms.—It has been found that there are two principal kinds of intestinal worms, round worms and ribbon-shaped worms, commonly called tapeworms. The commonplace that tapeworms actually consume food is all wrong; they do not. If WHAT TO GIVE FOR WORMS 497 we examine them under a microscope, we find that they have no mouth or intestinal tract at all. They are a very low order of life, and attach themselves to the intestinal lining by means of a hook-like appendage. Free to come in contact with the digested nutrients in the intestines, they absorb these eler-ents, much as the intestines themselves absorb this food. Obviously the fowl is robbed of so much nutriment, and in due time it becomes poor and emaciated, depending upon the extent of the worms. Under a strong glass we note that the worms consist of seg- ments, each of which is a complete organism, if you can call it such. It absorbs its own food, develops its own eggs, and later separates itself from the other segments and finally is passed out to the soil. In each segment there are hundreds of tiny eggs which are scattered on the ground, among food and in the drink- ing water, only to be picked up by other birds, which are then contaminated. It has been discovered that flies devour these eggs, and that the eggs are hatched within the fly; and, of course, chickens eat flies, therefore they take over the incipient worms as well. Numerous remedies are used to dislodge these parasites, and for best results they should be administered when the birds are fasting. The best way is to give the flock a’ light feeding at night and the following morning give them the vermifuge. Sev- eral hours later they are given a purgative, such as Epsom salts or castor oil, and the treatment is complete. One of the most commonly recommended remedies and one of the easiest to administer is powdered pomegranate root bark. The dose is one teaspoonful for each fifty fowls given in a wet mash. Another good remedy is oil of wormseed (Jerusalem Oak). Mix a teaspoonful of the oil in a moist mash for every 12 fowls. , In both treatments the purgative is given a few hours after the vermicide. For individual treatment oil of turpentine is excellent, which may be mixed with an equal quantity of olive oil, and 20 to 30 drops of the mixture given at a dose. This is followed in a couple of hours with a tablespoonful of castor oil. Thymol is 32 ‘suad Sulpeaiq sv asn 1a}UIM JOJ padnoiZ sasnoy Auojoj—'gok "314 498 HOW TO DETECT WORMS 499 also used, I grain to each fowl, or powdered areca nut, 30 to 45 grains; powdered male fern, 30 to 60 grains; and kamala, 30 to 40 grains for each fowl. Clean Premises.—At the same time the flock is being treated medically, the premises must be treated by powerful disinfec- tants to destroy the worms and their eggs, otherwise the birds will only become re-infested. Be careful to drain off any stagnant water, and fill in any marshy places. Sunlight is one of the greatest insecticides, and the cheapest, therefore the soil should be exposed to it by thorough plowing and har- rowing. Slaked lime is highly recommended, and in extreme cases it may be well to spray the ground with a solution of carbolic acid. Birds that have died from worms should always be incinerated, or buried in quicklime, never allowed to decay on the surface of the ground. ; The houses, especially the dropping boards and floors, should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, also all feeding troughs, hoppers and drinking fountains. Bear in mind, there is little ‘use in combating worms in anything but a thorough, practical manner. To do the task half is wasted energy, for only strenuous efforts will rid the premises of these pests. — A heavy clay soil is much harder to rid of worms than a light, _ sandy loam. For that reason the latter soil is recommended for » poultry. It is usually perfectly sanitary at all times. Manifestations of Worms.—Enterprising poultrymen realize the danger of worms and keep on the lookout for manifestations of them. If a bird should die from any cause whatever it is examined, not only for the immediate cause of death, but for indications of worms. The intestines, stomach and crop are opened and their contents noted. Birds that are killed for the home table are also examined. If one fowl is troubled with worms it is pretty safe to assume that the remainder of the flock is afflicted also, in which case treatment is begun at once. Birds that are dull and listless, with pale combs and shrunken wattles, are likely victims of worms. Post one of them and see what the 500 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING trouble is. It is better to lose one bird, and thereby determine the evil, than to risk losing half a flock later on. Gape Worms.—Strictly speaking, gape worms do not come under the head of worms, as they are commonly understood, but under the term gapes, which is reckoned as a disease of chicks. Nevertheless, it is equally abominable, a kindred ill, hence its place in this chapter. (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) Fig. 309.—On commercial duck farms feeding is done almost exclusively by means of tramcars, Gape worms exist at all seasons, though they are seldom ob- served as troublesome until the hatching months, when they affect young birds. Chicks are most susceptible from 10 days to 6 weeks old, since at this age they are not large enough nor strong enough to dislodge the worms from their throats. Vigor- ous birds and older stock are attacked by the worms, but they usually succeed in getting rid of them without the keeper’s aid. NATURE OF THE GAPE WORM 501 The worm which causes gapes is in reality two worms—male and female, and they are so firmly grown together that they cannot be separated without tearing the tissues. The female worm is the principal member; it is about a half-inch long, while the male is little more than one-fifth of an inch. The heads of both are attached to the mucous lining of the windpipe or trachea, which causes such an irritation that undue secretions collect and make breathing difficult. Sometimes so many worms collect in the trachea, and grow to such size, for their eggs develop while they are in this state, that breathing becomes im- possible and the host, the afflicted chick, dies from suffocation. Chicks affected with gape worms will be seen to cough and sneeze with labored effort in a vain attempt to dislodge the pests, which is very difficult to accomplish. Soon they commence to gape, extending the neck and opening the beak, indicating that they are having great trouble in breathing. Later, as they become weakened by their struggles against the parasites, their appetites fail and they grow dull and listless, their wings droop and they stand with half-closed eyes and head drawn back into the body feathers. In this condition they are apt to dic from suffocation, or be trampled by their fellows. In dealing with this complaint the poultryman should Icarn to rely more upon a preventative than a cure, because very young chicks are very difficult to treat individually and therefore ex- pensive. Good results have been obtained by extracting the worms with a feather, twisted horsehair, or one of the patented extractors. These devices are forced down the victim’s throat, either dry or moistened with turpentine, then twisted about vigorously in. an effort to dislodge the worms, and removed. Recently, good results have been reported from medicating drinking water, or by injecting 3 to 10 drops of a 5 per cent solution of salicylate of soda. The best method of prevention is to put the chicks on fresh ground, or soil that is known to be perfectly sanitary, and if any trouble is experienced, to treat the yards and premises with a strong disinfectant, the same as for other kinds.of worms or parasites. CHAPTER XXXVIII WHITE DIARRHEA Terror and Plague.—No term, perhaps, strikes greater terror to the poultryman than white diarrhea. It is synonymous with such words as plague, scourge, epidemic and pestilence. That it has earned this opprobrium is attested by the fact that thou- sands of chicks are lost annually by this infection, and also be- cause of its resistance to any known treatment. It is success- fully combated, of course, but by preventative measures rather than curative ones. Exaggeration.—There is no gainsaying the malady exacts an enormous toll from the poultry raisers, yet I am inclined to think that much of the alarm is the result of sensational writers and highly imaginative persons, who find it more to the liking of their morbid minds to spread terrorism instead of optimism. Calamity is always more lurid than sublimity. These scares, like the alarm about cholera, small pox and infantile paralysis in the human species, are very much exaggerated and do more harm than good. Investigations.—It is natural that white diarrhea should have been the object of a great deal of investigation; chemists and bacteriologists have struggled with its mysteries for many years. While, perhaps, they have not been particularly successful thus far in establishing a positive cure for the disease, they have at least succeeded in isolating the germ, learned how to detect it, studied its development and propagation, and the conditions under which it thrives best, and devised satisfactory methods of preventing its spread. Causes.—We are told that white diarrhea is caused by at least four different kinds of infection, the most common of which is a bacillus called bactertuwm pullorum, which means in ordinary 502 KINDS OF WHITE DIARRHEA 503 terms, the bacteria or germs of the pullets. Coccidiosis and aspergillus fungus are two other forms of the disease, but so far as we are concerned these technical phrases are merely names, difficult to pronounce, harder to remember, and of no value to the unsophisticated mind. All of these microbes infect the adult fowls and are generally communicated from them to the chicks directly or indirectly. Fig. 310.—Ideal location for ducks and geese, It is not necessary for the affected hen to have any external ap- pearance of having white diarrhea or a diarrhea of any kind. In fact, the affected bird may be in the pink of condition, a good layer and a fine-looking fowl. By analyzing the eggs laid from an infected hen, we may find white diarrhea germs in very active form, or none at all. Apparently, some eggs are inoculated while others escape, though there is no method of determining this from external appearances 504 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Symptoms.—In chicks the symptoms of white diarrhea are virtually unmistakable, the most prominent one being a more or less profuse diarrhea, the droppings consisting almost entirely of mucus from the intestinal tube and the white secretion of the kidneys. The white substance predominates, hence the name white diarrhea. It is caused by an irritation of the intestines, fever, and a rapid breaking down of the tissues of the kidneys. Hens infected with this malady produce chicks which have the germs of the disease within them when they are hatched, and these chicks usually show manifestations of the trouble within the first few days of their life. From the experiments conducted it appears as though chicks are most susceptible to infection dur- ing the first twenty-four hours, and that after the fourth or fifth day they are practically immune. Chicks which sicken of the disease later must have taken the microbes into their systems at an early age, which for some reason remained dormant for a time. Adult fowls are practically resistant to the germs, and do not show any symptoms though they may be inoculated with the disease and lay infected eggs. Thus incubators and brooders, as well as coops, become infected with the disease and: preserve the contagion indefinitely, unless scrupulous measures are taken to destroy it. The ground is also impregnated with the contagion, and should be plowed under and sowed to plant life. Pasting Up.—A large brood of chicks may be hatched from eggs subject to the germs of white diarrhea, and to all appear- ances they are hail and hearty when taken from the machine. But they soon commence to wilt. The first indication of some- thing wrong is a disposition to huddle together and remain under the hover or under the hen, as the case might be. Apparently they suffer from chills. They are listless, stupid and sleepy, and take no interest in food or their environment. They stand still, heads drawn in, eyes closed, and chirp and peep almost con- stantly. Their wings droop or project slightly from the body, instead of being folded tightly against it, and the characteristic diarrhea soon appears. Usually the excreta is mucilaginous, HEAVY MORTALITY 505 adhering to the downy feathers about the vent, where it dries and cakes and continues to accumulate until it completely covers the opening and causes a stoppage. Unless relieved, this condition, known as pasting up, will bring about an early death. The mass should be removed as gently as possible, and the affected parts treated with vaseline or soothing ointment. Spread of Contagion.—There is added mischief in these masses of excreta due to the chicks picking at them and thereby con- pikes Ce eee ; (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 311.—Artificial pond constructed of concrete. Ducks can be raised without a swimming hole, though best results are secured with one. The eggs are likely to run more fertile. tracting the disease. In this manner the germs are spread through an entire flock, unless the caretaker adopts prompt means of isolating the affected members. Chronic Type.—Sometimes the disease is less severe, but of a more chronic type, and takes longer to run its course. The chicks thus afflicted waste away and gradually become weaker and more emaciated, until their legs are unable to support their bodies. They lean against walls or other objects for support, 506 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING or squat down with outstretched wings until they die. As death approaches the breathing becomes labored, and at intervals the poor little creatures give utterance to a faint shrill cry, indi- cating that they are seized with paroxysms of intense pain. Most of these victims have the peculiar form of body described as short back, which results from the distension of the abdomen. The most disastrous phase of this complaint is the heavy mortality. The losses vary from 50 to 80 per cent of the chicks (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) _ Fig. 312.—Well-proportioned poultry house. Front wall is of novelty siding, ends and rear wall are made of matched lumber covered with patent ree as is the roof. Note position of doors, curtain frames, windows and ventilator. affected, and often it is impossible to raise any of them. Further- more, it is questionable if it is advisable to try and raise any of them, in view of the probability that they may later become what is termed bacillus carriers. Because those that do not succumb still carry the germs in their bodies, lodged in the ova—the un- developed eggs, which are ultimately laid, perhaps, and thus transmit the disease from one generation to the next. VALUE OF SOUR MILK 507 No Absolute Cure.—For bacillary white diarrhea in young chicks there is no.absolute cure so far as is known. Several so-called remedies have been extensively advertised, but most of these are in reality preventatives. Furthermore, the medical treatment of individual chicks is virtually impracticable, as it is too expensive, and flock treatment, once the chicks are afflicted, ; R (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) Fig. 313.—White Pekin ducklings. is of little consequence because the chicks cannot be induced to eat or drink in sufficient quantity to be of any avail. The feeding of sour milk to young chicks as soon as they are taken from the incubator appears to be the most successful treatment toward controlling the disease. The purpose of the sour milk is to suppress any intestinal putrefaction which the bacillus may set up. In other words, the sour milk contains ferments or bacteria, which are calculated to counteract or offset the parasites of the white diarrhea. 508 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Lacking the sour milk, it has been found that 15 grains of powdered catechu dissolved in a gallon of drinking water tends to prevent the development of the diarrhea. This treatment should be continued for about ten days, or until the danger period is past. Preventative measures should begin, of course, with the eggs used for hatching. In the first place, no eggs should be used which are known to be laid by hens afflicted with white diarrhea or any other communicable disease at any time. If the eggs are purchased the buyer should insist upon some assurance as to the health of the parent stock, and if possible he should visit the farm and inspect the flock. Before the eggs are set under hens or placed in the incubator they should be disinfected, which is easily accomplished by sev- eral methods. Wipe the shells with a soft cloth saturated with grain alcohol of 70 to 80 per cent strength. Or the eggs may be dipped in a weak solution of creolin and water. Both methods have been used effectively, and neither treatment has had any serious influence on the hatchability of the eggs. If the hatching is done in an incubator it goes without saying that the interior of the machine, especially the egg trays and nursery drawers, should be carefully disinfected after each hatch. The same precautions should be adopted in regard to the brooder and any other coop or device that is used by the chicks. If the hatching is done by hens the broods should be put upon fresh ground, and frequently moved to fresh ground, so that if any cases develop the risk of contagion will be reduced to a minimum. It may be asserted positively that, though there is no positive cure for the disease, it may be eliminated, and if reasonable sanitary measures are practised as a part of the routine work, there is little reason to fear the ravages of white diarrhea. Agglutination Test.—It is possible to detect the presence of white diarrhea in grown fowls by a blood test, called the aggluti- nation test, but owing to the delicate nature of the work it must be performed in a laboratory. Some of the Experiment Stations will perform this work for a nominal charge. CHAPTER XXXIX PARASITES AND PESTS Fowls are Subject to Vermin.—In every enterprise there are certain realities and circumstances which may be classified as grim realities. To combat them seems to be a part of the philos- ophy of life. Therefore, to attempt a task without due allowance for this struggle is in the nature of folly, since it is quite likely to result in bitter disappointment, maybe failure. Farming -is no exception to the above. In fact, it is probably the most graphic example of a struggle against adverse circum- stances. There is scarcely a tree, shrub, vine or plant that is without its natural enemy. For almost every stalk that sprouts there is some other form of life eager to feast upon it. Horti- culture is a constant battle against blight, worms, beetles, weevils, moths, grubs and countless other insects. Successful animal hus- bandry necessitates a corresponding struggle against similar. pests, for as such we have come to know these lower forms of life. And not the least of these are the parasites affecting poultry, No matter how much we would like to think of our fowls as being nice and clean and free from anything so objectionable in name and nature as lice and mites, just as certain as dogs are likely to be bothered with fleas, and cattle and sheep are sus- ceptible to ticks, poultry, especially chickens, are prone to become infested with vermin. It seems to be a part of the general scheme of things. Be on the Lookout.—On the well-organized, progressive farm, where poultry is made a specialty, there is less trouble resulting from the ravages of vermin than on the general farm or back- yard, where small flocks of fowls are kept principally as a side line. There are several reasons to account for this condition. 509 510 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING In the first place, the operator of large numbers of fowls, having considerable capital invested in his plant, is more likely to have a keener appreciation of the needs and requirements of his stock. (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 314.—Painting the perches with crude oil or disinfectant to exterminate mites. Usually he makes a thorough study of the conditions affecting his birds, for he knows only too well if he is an experi- enced poultry man, that the conditions which affect his flocks adversely or beneficially are almost immediately reflected in his bank account. Owners of small flocks are sometimes indiffer- ent to improved meth- ods, for no reason except they donot take the work seriously. Then, again, on large farms where the hatching is done in incu- bators and the chicks are brooded artificially, never coming in contact with hens, it is very much easier to keep vermin in check on the young stock. They are not so apt to become infested until they are fairly well grown, and not even then, unless the buildings are seriously over-run with vermin. This is quite a factor, indeed, because vermin is particularly fatal to young chicks, and is responsible for all kinds of trouble. Realizing the importance of safeguarding his flocks against KINDS OF VERMIN 511 parasites, the owner of a well-organized poultry plant makes it his business to establish a regular sanitary schedule—a system of spraying and disinfecting, also whitewashing, which he adheres to quite as rigorously as feeding and watering. Not so frequently, of course, but just as systematically. The point is—that it is equally important for the keeper of a small flock to exercise propor- tionate care. Because the flock is small, or because it is kept merely as a side line is no excuse for exemption, and no guarantee that the birds will not be troubled. How- ever unpleasant the idea may be, you must make up your mind to the fact that wher- ever you keep fowls you are going to have vermin, unless you fight these pests, and fight them strenuously and continuously. There is an affinity between fowls and vermin. They must be fought the same as the farmer fights potato-bugs and cut-worms. Kinds of Parasites.—The parasites that attack poultry are of two kinds, commonly Fig. 315.—Dusting a fowl with insect i powder. known as lice and mites. There are several varieties of the former, but since they have the same general characteris- tics and are combated in the same way, we need not concern ourselves with a study of individual species. They live mainly on the secretions of the body, feathers and skin, and inhabit the fowls day and night. They are found largely on the head and neck, under the wings and about the vent. When allowed (Courtesy U. S. Dep’t Agriculture) 512 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING to multiply in great numbers, as they are prone to do, they will sometimes become so thick as to cause death. Sitting hens are especially annoyed by them. The female lice deposit their eggs on the feathers of the fowls, cementing them to the quills near the skin. In a few days these eggs hatch, in a short time they breed, also, propagating more and more, so that it is possible for thousands tobe multiplied in a couple of months. In warm weather conditions are particularly favorable for their reproduction, consequently with the approach of spring and throughout the summer months extra care must be taken to destroy them. Mites.—If anything mites are more troublesome than lice. They abound in larger numbers, and aside from tormenting the fowls, they actually subsist on the blood of the birds. They are not usually found on the bodies of the fowls except when on the roost or in the nest. During the day mites inhabit cracks and crevices of the walls, roosts and other fittings. Many houses, unsuspected, actually swarm with them. When these pests have accumulated in such hordes that they are unable to get enough blood from the fowls during the night, they are found to remain on the birds during the day. Potent Enemy.—Though infinitesimal in size and, therefore, almost insignificant individually, collectively mites represent an enemy with the potentiality of a fair-sized animal. A host of blood-sucking mites is capable of absorbing more blood, more vitality over night than the fowl can replace by the assimilation of large quantities of food during the day. In addition to this actual loss of blood, which is a terrific drain on the fowl’s strength, the bird must endure the torment of being constantly pierced and chewed by these pests. Sitting hens are often so tormented that they are compelled to leave their nests in order to relieve themselves. , The mouth of the louse is formed for biting and chewing, and since they have a fondness for moisture, they can be poisoned by spreading a mercurial ointment where they are seen to congre- gate on the fowls. This treatment should be used on mature FORMULAS FOR DUSTING POWDERS 513 fowls only, since the mercury is likely to prove dangerous. to chicks. Lice breathe through spiracles or pores in their sides, hence they can be suffocated by stopping up these breathing tubes with a fine powder. The instinct for a hen to take a dust bath is nature’s way to kill these pests. The most effective powder for this purpose is that which contains a drying and burning ingredient, or one giving off fumes. (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) Fig. 316.—Spraying the roosting compartments with an insecticide is part of the sanitary schedule on a well-regulated poultry farm. A reliable home made powder can be mixed as follows: Add an ounce of 90 per cent carbolic acid to a peck of sifted coal ashes, mix thoroughly, and then add an equal quantity of tobacco stem dust. Here is another recipe which has given satisfaction at the Maine and Cornell Experiment Stations for a number of years: Add one part crude carbolic acid to three parts gasoline, mix these together carefully, and while stirring add enough plaster-of- Paris to take up the moisture. When enough plaster has been’ 33 514 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING added, the resulting mixture should be a dry pinkish—brown powder, having a fairly strong odor of carbolic acid. The dusting powder should be worked into the plumage of the fowl, the greater part of the application being in the fluff feath- ers, near the vent and under the wings. See Fig. 315. Its effect is noticeable almost immediately. The dusting should be re- peated in about two weeks to catch the new brood of lice, which are in the form of eggs at the first dusting, and are not disturbed by it to any extent. Fumigation and spraying with a good dis- infectant will destroy lice about the roosting compartments and cracks of the house. Once the hens are fairly rid of lice, it is no trouble to keep these parasites under control by a systematic spraying. See Fig. 316. Destroying Mites.—Unlike lice, the young of the mites are not hatched on the fowls, but in the hiding places where the mites live. Consequently, to destroy mites the poultryman should confine his attack to their breeding places in the structure of the building, and not on the fowls. Spraying or painting the perches, nests, drop boards, and all other interior fixtures, including the ceiling and walls, with a solution of crude oil or other powerful disinfectant, is the surest way to rid a house of mites. See Fig. 314. Enough of the liquid should be used to thoroughly saturate the surface of the wood, and to run freely into all cracks and openings. Frequently a poultry house is so dusty that unless large quantities of the spray are used, the dust will absorb the greater part of the liquid. To overcome this, it is well to first give the building a good brush- ing down with a stiff broom, and then follow with the spraying. It is a mistake to think that because a house is idle for some time it will rid itself of mites, believing that the mites will starve where there are no fowls to feed upon. They will live for months without food, if necessary an entire winter, only to reappear as soon as a flock of chickens is placed in the house. Whitewashing.—In the minds of many, whitewashing means slaking some lime in water and splashing this solution rather carelessly over a prescribed surface. The result is all too familiar WHITEWASHING AND SPRAYING 515 —whitewash so badly streaked as to be most unsightly, and at the slightest touch brushing off the woodwork. In fact, fre- quently it does not remain long enough to be of any real value. To execute a good, permanent job—a job that will not only clean and disinfect the building, but improve its appearance as well—one must regard the task much the same as painting. First of all, the walls, sills, and all projections that have accumulated large quantities of dust should be carefully brushed clean with (Courtesy U. S. Dep’t Agriculture) Fig. 317.—\Spraying outfit for disinfecting and whitewashing. a stiff broom; otherwise the whitewash will simply form a coat- ing or deposit over the dust and will subsequently curl up and fall off, thus exposing the original dirt. Moreover, this dust is frequently the refuge and abiding place for disease germs and vermin and should be removed, not merely put out of sight temporarily. Whitewash is a good exterminator if allowed to come in contact with vermin, and will penetrate cracks and cre- vices which are in a horizontal position, such as those on dropping 316 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING boards, in a thorough manner; but if sprayed on the dusty sides of a building, it is very apt to run off the dust like water from an oiled surface. Spraying is much easier and quicker than applying the white- wash with a brush, and if the above cleaning precautions are -taken, it is equally as effectual. But if one insists on following the careless method, by all means use a brush, and put some car- bolic acid in the wash—for in so doing the woodwork is at least partially scrubbed with the solution. : Formulas.—The following are formulas for whitewash that will not rub off: Slake a half-bushel of good strong lime in boil- ing water, using just enough water to cover the lime and keep it from burning. When the slaking process is completed, add a little more water, and then strain the solution to remove any sediment of sand or foreign substance. Dissolve a peck of salt in warm water and add this to the lime solution; mix it thoroughly and allow it to stand for a couple of days. When ready for use, thin to the proper consistency and apply it hot. Mixing Wash with Skimmed Milk.—Another well-known recipe: Slake the lime as before, and then add two pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. The addition of a half-pound of whiting will improve the wash for outside use, and if skimmed milk is used instead of water, the results will compare favorably with oil paint. Disinfectant.——The following is an inexpensive and efficient poultry house disinfectant for spraying purposes, and one that is very simple to make at home: Dissolve a pound of strong, hard soap or soap powder in a gallon of boiling water; imme- diately this is removed from the fire add a gallon of kerosene and one pint of crude carbolic acid, and churn and agitate the solution until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. If the oil and water separate, it is because the soap was not sufficiently caustic. It is important that crude carbolic acid be used and not the refined product, for the crude acid—a dark brown, dirty-looking liquid—contains tar oil, which is to be desired. Add ten gallons of water to the above to make a stock solution, PROVISIONS FOR DUST BATH 517 and when ready for use, mix this stock solution with an equal quantity of water. It is then in condition for spraying. (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) Fig. 318.—Interior of pigeon house showing feed hopper, roosts, nest boxes and different kinds of nest pans. Coal ashes are an asset rather than a nuisance on the poultry farm, and may be used to splendid advantage. They are an 518 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING excellent absorbent, and when sprinkled under the perches and mixed with the droppings, the volatile properties of the hen manure are carefully preserved. They differ from wood ashes in this respect, for wood ashes, though a good insecticide, contain considerable lime, which liberates the ammonia in the droppings and thus destroys much of their fertilizing value. Finely screened coal ashes make the most effective sort of a dust bath for the hens. The fine dust penetrates the fowl’s feathers, and coming in contact with lice serves to stop the breathing passages of these parasites, causing them to suffocate and die. Wood ashes are even better for this purpose, because the particles of dust are finer, but here again the lime is objec- tionable, since it tends to take the gloss off the plumage. Coal ashes should be used freely on the floors of poultry build- ings, for they penetrate cracks and crevices and assist in destroy- ing mites and other vermin, dissipate noxious odors, and improve conditions generally. Still another advantage—large quantities of the cinders will be eaten by the birds as grit, and will contri- bute some of the mineral nutrients. Road Dust.—Dust removed from a road during dry weather, and which is only an annoyance to travelers, will be found bene- ficial in the dust boxes also. Every poultry farm should have a supply on hand for winter use, for unless dirt floors are used, these artificial means of supplying the fowl’s toilet requisites must be provided. A dust bath is quite as essential to the well being of poultry as is the soap-and-water variety to the human. CHAPTER XL DUCKS Popularity of Duck Meat.—Time was when the duck was not considered sufficiently profitable to warrant the trouble in rais- ing it. Its flesh was never keenly sought after by the masses, consequently it returned low prices and farmers generally de- clined to show any enthusiasm. In those days, however, ducks were raised without constraint in waterways and made to forage for their living, subsisting almost entirely upon fish and other water foods, which naturally imparted a strong fishy flavor to their flesh and made them undesired except by the few who might be partial to that kind of diet. ; In the last twenty years breeders have awakened to the neces- sity for improving the flavor of the flesh by feeding grain almost exclusively, whereupon their efforts have been rewarded by a steadily increasing demand, until to-day duck raising has devel- oped into a flourishing industry, and on some of the well-known plants, especially those on Long Island, a single farm will market 100,000 ducks a year. Standard Varieties.—There are numerous standard varieties of ducks, among which are the following: Pekin, Muscovy, Indian Runner, Aylesbury (see Fig. 322), Rouen (see Fig. 323), Cayuga, Call and Swedish. Of these the Pekin, Muscovy and Indian Runner are the most widely bred, and probably the best suited to farm purposes. Pekins.—None stands higher in popular esteem than the White Pekin, which was imported from China in the early seventies. See Fig. 319. It is valuable for raising on a large scale, and while naturally a very timid bird, it may be raised more easily, perhaps, than any other. It has a distinct type of its own, and differs 519 520 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. They are large birds, sometimes attaining twenty pounds to the pair; yet their flesh, if properly nourished, is delicate and free from any taint, and they are considered among the best of table fowls. They mature early, are excellent layers, non-sitters, and require no particular skill in breeding. Shape of Pekins.—The standard-bred Pekin has a long, finely formed head, neatly curved neck, and a bill cf orange yellow, Fig. 319.—Pekin ducks. medium-sized, with no trace of any other color. The eyes are of a deep, leaden-blue color. The back is long and broad, the keel proportionately long and deep, the breast round, full and very prominent, and the carriage of the body elevated in front, sloping downward toward the rear. The wings are short, folded closely against the body, and are not capable of sustaining flight; hence a two-foot fence is sufficient to restrain the Pekin. The plumage is downy and of a faint creamy tint throughout, though recently there is a preference for an absolute white. The MUSCOVY DUCKS 521 standard weight of the drake is 8 pounds, and of the duck 7 pounds. Muscovy ducks, of which there are two varieties—White and Colored, the plumage of the latter being black and white—have several distinct peculiarities. See Fig. 320. They are sometimes called the Musk duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades the skin, but which is not objectionable when the fowl is cooked. Also, their appearance is rather grotesque by reason of the long, crest-like feathers on the head, the sides of which and the face are Fig. 320.—White Muscovy ducks. covered with scarlet caruncles. This large, red face gives them a savage look, and to some minds it makes them quite hideous. They are found in a wild state in the warmer regions of South America, but in Brazil they have been. extensively domesticated and are highly prized for eating. They find great favor in Europe as well, especially in Germany, where they are raised in large numbers. They are the largest of all ducks, the standard weight of the drake being 10 pounds and of the duck 8 pounds. 522 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING The Muscovy is notorious for its pugnacious, quarrelsome nature, and for this reason it is frequently inadvisable to keep them on the farm with other poultry. The temper of the drake is violent, indeed; he will fight with another drake, inflicting serious harm, if possible; and his persecution of other poultry is unceasing and abominable. Unlike Pekins, the Muscovy is a strong flier, and when fright- Fig. 321.—Indian runner ducks. ened, they will fly into trees or into high places of concealment where they remain for long periods of time. When bred, they must be kept in yards by themselves, care being taken to clip their wings to keep them from flying. The flesh of the Muscovy compares favorably with that of any other duck, if eaten young, but they cannot be credited with laying so many eggs as some of the other breeds. LEGHORN OF THE DUCK FAMILY 523 The Indian Runner duck, which is said to have its origin in India—hence the forepart of its name—has rapidly come into wide popularity by reason of its prolific egg yield, and by reason of which it is aptly termed the Leghorn of the duck family. See Fig. 321. The name Runner is appropriate, for they literally run, instead of waddle, as do other ducks, and sometimes present a very comical appearance. Runner ducks are exceedingly active in their habits, and by reason of their willingness to forage are able to find a large part of their food. Though easily domesticated, they do not stand confinement well; they are non-sitters, are hardy and easy to raise, and while their flesh is of prime quality, their size is rather against them for market purposes, except as broilers. The stan- dard weight of the drake is 434 pounds and of the duck 4 pounds. The body of the Runner somewhat resembles the shape of the Penguin; it is long, narrow and carried very erect, with little or no indication of keel. They are very good-looking, the plumage being light fawn or gray and white, which blends admirably with the orange-red of their shanks and the green of their bills. In the past five years White Indian Runners have become very popular, and are probably destined to be more extensively bred than the Fawn variety. Water is not Necessary.—We naturally associate ducks with water—but as a matter of fact itis not at all necessary that they have access to it, except such as is given them for drinking purposes. If a pond or stream is available, it is well to allow the breeders the freedom of it, also the young ducks until they are about eight weeks old, when they should be penned and fattened for market. On the other hand, equally good results are being obtained by poultrymen who have no water on their premises; the only noticeable difference between these ducks and those having access to water is that the water ducks have somewhat prettier and cleaner plumage. Duck raising is to be recommended for those who wish to make use of marshy land not suitable for chickens; yet this fact must not deceive one in the belief that damp, wet quarters are 524 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING available for ducks. Houses for ducks are simple affairs, but they must be free from dampness and located so as to be assured of good drainage—preferably on sandy soil. The feathers of a duck are almost impenetrable to cold, but its feet are rather sus- ceptible, much as a hen’s comb and wattles. The duck likes to warm its feet, and to this end it is advisable to have a dry dirt floor in the duck house, covered with straw, hay, shavings or Fig. 322.—Aylesbury ducks. other litter. Some breeders advocate a board floor, but this is scarcely necessary unless it is impossible to maintain a com- paratively dry earth floor. The beginner should start modestly and develop his plant only as his experience increases and his capital warrants; for duck raising is an arduous task and requires an absolute know!l- edge of the business before success can be reached. Every phase of the work should be carefully studied with the idea of minimiz- REQUIREMENTS TO BE SOUGHT 525 ing labor, and each department—the incubator cellar, brooder house, breeding pens, fattening pens, picking room and feed house—located where they are the most convenient and the most accessible. The task of feeding and watering ducks alone is no small one, and on large plants this factor receives very careful consideration. Artificial incubation and brooding, com- Ye, cy 7 Sty WEF Fig. 323.—Rouen ducks. bined with improved machinery for handling and mixing the feeds, are largely responsible for the growth of the duck industry. Inspire Confidence.—One of the essentials in breeding ducks is a quiet, even-tempered caretaker—the man or woman who will inspire confidence in the flocks and become, in a sense, a com- panion to them. Ducks are high-strung, excitable birds, skep- tical toward strangers, and yet responsive to good treatment and -tegular attention. Furthermore, they are confirmed creatures “of habit, and any serious change in their diet or management is 526 - COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING likely to disturb their appetite and egg yield. For example, mature stock that has never been fed on corn will not eat it at first, and may never really learn to relish it, whereas if they are brought up on a part corn diet it is one of their best-liked grains. Feeding and Watering.—Under natural conditions, the food of the duck is both animal and vegetable, consisting of fish, water insects, grasses and so forth, therefore when the birds are raised under a somewhat artificial environment this diet must be imi- tated to secure the most satisfactory results. Unlike the hen, Fig. 324.—Ducks are heavy drinkers. the duck has no crop, the food passing from the bill to the giz- zard; in consequence the food must be largely of a soft char- acter. Too much hard food does not agree with these birds— they will not thrive upon it, hence it is inadvisable. While a proper selection of the food is highly important to secure rapid growth, the necessary ingredients are the simplest grains, usually wheat middlings, wheat bran, corn meal and low grade flour, to which should be added beef scraps and, where necessary, shredded alfalfa or other green food. The following is an excellent ration for breeders, whose food should not, of FOOD AND DRINK 527 course, be so forcing as that intended for the market birds: Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran, green food; 5 per cent beef scraps, and 5 per cent coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to a moistened, crumbly state—not sloppy—and feed three times a day, the last feed to be given an hour before sundown. Grit is as essential to ducks as it is to chickens, and should be kept before the birds at all times, in addition to being fed in the mash. The sand used in the mash supplies a certain amount of the necessary grinding material, and the duck will pick up more on range; yet this is not sufficient to fully satisfy the diges- tive demands. A supply of oyster shells should also be kept in a convenient place. Heavy Drinkers.—As previously stated, water for juan is not necessary for growing ducks, but it is most important that they have access to a liberal supply of fresh drinking water at all times. Ducks are heavy drinkers, and it has been said that the only neglect which will kill young ducks is failure to provide them with sufficient water, in a vessel deep enough for them to get their heads beneath the surface. Ducklings like to immerse their eyes—a habit which seems to be essential to their well- being. Obviously, the water should be kept as fresh as possible. CHAPTER XLI GEESE Virtues of Geese.—It is pretty safe to say that we Americans do not raise enough geese, and do not fully appreciate their possibilities. Like the guinea, the goose is not taken seriously enough by the average farmer; yet there is no kind of livestock that can be fed with so little loss, and so little attention, and that requires such inexpensive equipment, as the goose. They are heir to very little sickness; in fact, a gosling one week old is virtually a grown bird, requiring little else but a stretch of pasture over which to roam and forage for itself. Need of Grazing Land.—That goose raising is not practised so extensively as duck growing is probably due to the fact that geese require an abundance of grazing land, and will thrive best where there is a certain amount of water. They are the most persistent grazers of any kind of poultry, and though they prefer meadowland rich in plant life, which will sustain them in prime condition, they are, nevertheless, capable of adapting themselves to poor, waste land on which, perhaps, no other form of live- stock could be supported. For this reason alone they should be considered by farmers, especially those who have tidewater farms, or low land bordering on rivers or ponds. A day’s ride through the Eastern Shore section of Maryland will convince the most skeptical that there must be profit in geese, for nearly every farm will be seen to have its flock. Many times, when other crops have proved disastrous, the returns from the geese have been the mainstay of these farmers. There are seven standard varieties of geese: Gray Toulouse, White Emden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chinese, Wild or Canadian, and Colored Egyptian. Of these, the first 528 MOST COMMON VARIETIES 529 two breeds are the most widely bred in this country, and are to be recommended for the average farm. Toulouse geese (see Fig. 325) are named for a district in France where they are extensively bred. They are fairly good layers, and are well thought of as market birds, though their flesh is somewhat coarser and not so white as some of the other varieties. Their plumage being a dull gray in parts, merging Fig. 325.—Toulouse geese, into a lighter gray and then white on the underbody, they are not so valuable for their feathers as the pure white breeds. The Emden geese (see Fig. 326) are probably the most desir- able for all round purposes. They are rapid growers, good for- agers, and are more suitable for the early markets. They orig- inally came from Emden, hence their name, but they have been bred in this country for many years. Although not so prolific as the Toulouse and other breeds, they have other qualities which commend them as the most profitable, or at least the most 34 530 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING desirable. Their flesh is finer, whiter and of a better flavor; they have a wealth of pure white plumage which has a higher market- able value, and in disposition they are less pugnacious, more placid and more contented than the other breeds. In point of weight they are about the same as the Toulouse, according to the Standard, though as a general thing the Emden is bred somewhat smaller than the Toulouse. Gray African geese are considered by many to be the most Fig. 326.—Emden geese. profitable, because of their great gain in weight in the least pos- sible time. They are also very prolific, and many breeders cross them with the Emden for this purpose. According to the Stan- dard they are the same weight as the Toulouse and Emden geese, yet they generally exceed the weights of these two. They have rather long necks, and their heads are conspicuous for the knobs which protrude from the base of the bill, the same as in the Chinese varieties. They also have a heavy dewlap under the CHINESE GEESE 531 throat, which is of a gray color. The knob of the African goose is black, and in the White Chinese it is orange colored. The Chinese geese (see Fig. 327), of which there are two varieties, Brown and White, have never become extensively bred in this country, probably because of their small size. What they lack in size, however, they endeavor to make up in egg production, for they are the most prolific of all breeds of geese, averaging about sixty eggs a year. Their flesh has a superior Fig. 327.—White China geese. flavor and texture, and they are easy to fatten and manage. The standard weight of the adult gander is 12 pounds, and the adult goose 10 pounds, as against 20 pounds and 18 pounds for the other three varieties. Gray wild geese, or Canadian geese, as they are also called, are about the same weight as the Chinese. Recently they seem to have come to the fore, and are prized very highly for table purposes. They are frequently crossed with African ganders, 532 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING which has increased their weight as goslings. They are very hardy and easy to rear. The head and bill are black; neck black, shading to a light gray on the chest, and to a dark gray on the back. The plumage of the underparts of the body is white. Colored Egyptian geese, sometimes called Nile geese, are the smallest of the goose family, also the most beautiful. The standard weight is 10 pounds for the adult gander and 8 pounds for the goose. They are not to be recommended for general farm use, and are bred almost exclusively for ornamental pur- poses. They are of a very quarrelsome nature, especially the males, who will frequently fight among themselves until dead. Houses of the most simple construction are used for shelters for geese, little more than sheds, in fact, having nothing but a supply of straw or other material for litter on the floors. These may be of dirt or concrete; the latter is best to conserve the manure, which is in large quantities and a very valuable by- product. If ground phosphate rock is sprinkled over the manure at regular intervals, and fresh litter is added as required to keep the houses in a sanitary condition, there will be a surprising amount of the finest kind of fertilizer produced by even a mod- erate sized flock. Fields that are worthless for cultivation may be turned into goose pastures, and those which have streams or unused springs are especially suitable. Unless too many birds are turned into a small area, which is then likely to become depleted of its plant life, the geese will gather the largest portion of their food, con- sisting of grasses, insects, and other animal and vegetable life. Or they may be made to work in the stubble of the grain fields, in place of hogs, for it is a simple matter to drive geese to dis- tant pasture and home again at night. Geese are much maligned, in that they are accused of destroy- ing pasture for cattle and horses, which is true only if they are kept in large numbers in a comparatively small area. The same is true of sheep or almost any other form of livestock. Where there is a sufficiency of grass and other plant life, they may be MATING AND SETTING 533 left to graze in the same pasture with cattle and horses. Many poor pieces of land have been converted into good pasture lots by being stocked with geese for a few years. They require drinking water in abundance, consequently, unless they have access to large bodies of water in which to swim, their drinking water should be supplied in fountains in which they can only get their bills to drink. Otherwise they will contaminate the water. Although the goose is aquatic, and it must be admitted they seem to do better when given access to a body of water, especially in the summer, it is not absolutely essential for them to have a swimming place, any more than for ducks. They will keep themselves cleaner if a stream is available, and the chances are the fertility of their eggs will be greater. Then, too, the stream of water affords a large element of their food, which is of immense value in the cost of their upkeep. But it does not follow that they are not to be reared on farms without a watering place. Age.—One of the most remarkable characteristics of the goose is its long life. Many have been known to attain the age of forty years, and have been handed down from father to son, as though they were a fixture on the farm. It is not at all uncom- mon for birds to live fifteen years, and as a general rule they will maintain their laying and hatching qualities throughout their life. Ganders are at their best as breeders at three years of age. The use of immature stock should be avoided as much as possible, especially for the renewal of breeding geese. To produce early goslings for market it is sometimes necessary to use eggs from young stock, as they usually lay earlier than the older birds, which is perfectly proper. ; In selecting geese for breeders excessive size should not be sought at the expense of other important features, such as width of breast in proportion to length of body, depth of keel and shortness of leg. Care should be taken to avoid inbreeding, and to be sure of this it is sometimes necessary to procure ganders from a distant point. If so, the ganders should come from the same flock to insure their dwelling together amicably. 534 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Mating.—As a rule three geese are mated to one gander, but in the case of very large specimens it is sometimes better to mate two geese to one gander. It is well to start this mating in the autumn, for geese are rather eccentric creatures, and require some time before they become accustomed to new surroundings and settle down to work in earnest. They also make strong companionships, and will pine and worry for weeks at the loss of a mate. It is usually more economical to keep geese in one large flock, in preference to several small flocks, particularly if they have-to be driven to pasture. When the ganders are admitted to the flock for the first time, and they are to be mated one to three, each gander will select his three wives to whom he will remain devoted for years. One of these three will probably receive the most attention, however, and will be his chief consort in their ramblings. Laying.—Young geese usually commence laying in February, and the older ones in March, although if the weather is unusually mild they will start a month earlier. During the winter months, preparatory to this breeding season, the stock should not be allowed to become too fat, for an over-fat condition is not con- ducive to either productiveness or fertility. So long as there is pasture for them, they require very little grain. When pasture is not to be had, and they are fed a grain diet, the greater part of this ration should be soft food, such as bran, middlings, corn meal and so on, with a little beef scrap. At least ten per cent of the bulk of this food should be green stuffs of some kind, either parings, cooked vegetables, or steamed clover or alfalfa. It should be moistened by skimmed milk or water. Grit and oyster shells are kept before them at all times the same as for chickens. Most breeders feed the soft food in the early morning, and a light feeding of cracked corn at night. Broodiness.—The goose usually lays an egg every other day, until from ten to fifteen eggs have been laid, when she will become broody. As soon as this inclination presents itself, the goose should be removed from the nest and her maternal in- CARE OF GOSLINGS 535 stincts broken up, whereupon she will join the flock and again commence laying. After she lays the second clutch and becomes broody, she should be discouraged again, and made to complete the third laying. The second and third clutches are not apt to be so large as the first, being one to three eggs less. Nests.—Geese make their own nests from straw on the floor of their houses, if they are encouraged to do so, otherwise they may lay outdoors or in remote spots where the eggs are likely to spoil. By the time the goose has completed laying a clutch of eggs, she will have lined the nest with a thick covering of down plucked from her breast, which makes a nice warm place for the goslings to hatch. From ten to twelve eggs is the correct number to place under a goose, and care should be taken that the broody one is not too warlike in her attitude. If such is the case, she is very apt to crush her eggs, especially during the last few days of hatching, when the shells become more or less fragile. For this reason many goose breeders prefer to have the hatching done by hens, giving the hens about four eggs each. It is well to give the first eggs laid by the geese to hens, or they may be hatched in incubators with good success. Hatching.—From twenty-eight to thirty days are required to incubate goose eggs, and they require a great deal of moisture, much the same as duck eggs. They should be sprinkled at fre- quent intervals, and given plenty of time to cool after the first week. When the hatching is done by geese, the little goslings should be carefully removed from under the goose as they are hatched, allowing but one to remain to reassure the mother; otherwise the great weight of the goose is apt to crush them, or she will trample them. The goslings may be kept in a warm box, and when the hatch is completed and they are sturdy enough to walk about, which: is usually on the second day, and at which time the yolks have been absorbed, they may be given back to their mother. The goose and her brood should be housed in a sheltered spot, and the mother confined for the first week, at the same time giving the goslings their freedom, which prevents 536 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING the old goose from taking her charge too far afield and exhausting them. When a gosling is a week old it is usually reckoned as a grown bird, for, barring accidents, it is a very hardy creature and will make rapid growth. If given good pasture they require but one feeding daily after they are two weeks old, but they should be returned to the security of the goose house every night. Fig. 328.—Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese. Turkey hens make good mothers for geese, because they can cover so many eggs; but they should be confined with their broods for the first week. When goose eggs are placed under chicken hens, the caretaker should make it a point to turn the eggs daily, for they are too heavy for the hen to do this. The prices obtained for geese in the large city markets run from fourteen to twenty cents per pound live weight, which quickly mounts up when we consider their great weight. In PROFITS FROM FEATHERS 537 addition to this revenue, there is a nice profit to be made from the feathers. A prime goose will average about one pound of feathers a year, and feathers of good quality will bring from forty-five to sixty cents a pound. If the down is separated from the feathers, it will bring about a dollar a pound. The feathers should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the quills. CHAPTER XLII TURKEYS Turkey Hearsay.—There is a widespread impression in some localities that turkeys are exceedingly difficult to raise, and that due to a heavy mortality among young turkeys the chances for profit are very precarious. Much of this hearsay is nonsense, gossip—pure and simple, or let us call it turkey tradition, mysticism. Like other traditions or prejudices, these notions are hard to eradicate. The beginner with turkeys should dis- abuse his mind of these notions, discard them utterly, since they contribute nothing to the industry but fear and worriment. Susceptible to Exposure.—It is true that young turkeys are delicate and that they are susceptible to exposure, to cold and dampness, but they are nothing like as frail as one might sup- pose, judging from the popular idea. For that matter chicks are delicate creatures, too, and unable to endure exposure. The young of all fowls require a great deal of care for the first few weeks; it is a part of the business of growing livestock of any kind. The point is to master the details in the most practical, labor-saving manner. With proper care a good proportion of the poults can be raised, and when the holiday season comes round a handsome profit has accrued. Standard Varieties.—No doubt it will surprise those who have but a casual knowledge of turkeys to learn that there are seven different varieties of domestic turkeys in the United States, each with certain points of excellence, and ranging in color from white to black. Many of us think of turkeys as being of a single breed, commonly known as the Bronze, or Mammoth Bronze; a few are familiar with the White Holland and Narragansett varieties; whereas only those who have made a study of these fowls know 538 STANDARD VARIETIES 539 about the Bourbon Reds, Slate turkeys, Black turkeys and Buff turkeys. The Buffs and Slates have always been rare, and to-day the Blacks are seldom bred. The Bronze is the most popular, next comes the Narragansett, and then the White Holland, though in recent years the Bourbon Red has.grown into con- siderable favor and may be entitled to third position. The exact origin of the domestic turkey will probably never be satisfactorily settled, for ornithologists are greatly at variance on this subject. ‘The most accepted view of the matter is that all the turkeys of the world have descended in some way from the three forms of wild turkeys, the North American, the Mexi- can, and the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey. There seems to be no question concerning the transportation of these birds from America to Spain about the year 1520, and that they were sub- sequently shipped to England, in 1524, where they soon became very popular and were extensively bred. Many improvements were made among the English breeders, but it remained for American fanciers to develop the present standard varieties. The color of the North American wild turkey is much the same as the Bronze. It is black, wonderfully shaded with bronze, the breast plumage being dark bronze, illuminated with a lus- trous copper or gold color. The name Bronze is derived from this beautiful metallic sheen. Mexican Turkey.—The wild turkey of the southern part of the continent, known as the Mexican turkey, is shorter in shank than the North American species. The color is much the same, except for the white markings on the tips of- the feathers, which is considered to be responsible for the color of the domestic variety known as the Narragansett. From the meager records available, the Mexican turkey was the first variety to be taken to Europe by the Spaniards. The Ocellated turkey, indigenous to Honduras and other Central American countries, is considered to be the most beauti- ful in color, and may be compared to the Impeyan pheasant. The ground color of the plumage is a bronze-green, banded with bars of gold, blue and red, or a lustrous black. The head and 540 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING neck are devoid of feathers, and unlike the other wild varieties, it has no breast tuft. Unfortunately, this breed will not thrive in northern climates; it seems to be too sensitive to cold. The domestic Bronze turkey is too well known to require any particular description. See Fig. 329. It is being raised almost to the exclusion of all other varieties, and holds the post of honor for size and market requirements. Hens of this species Fig. 329.—Bronze turkeys, run from sixteen to twenty pounds or more, and while the Stan- dard of Perfection calls for a weight of thirty-six pounds for gobblers, they are often brought to much higher figures—even exceeding fifty pounds. The Narragansett is next in size to the Bronze, and back in the days when Rhode Island was the leading turkey state of the Union, this variety was one of the most widely bred through- BOURBON REDS S41 out New England. The ground color of the plumage is black, with markings of white and black which imparts a grayish cast to the entire surface. The female is lighter in color throughout than the male. The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, and for cocks thirty pounds, though they are grown almost as heavy as the Bronzes. If anything, the Narragansett is more suitable for market purposes than the Bronze, inasmuch as it has fuller, plumper breast, and will mature slightly earlier. Furthermore, they seem to bear confinement better. The Bourbon Reds have attained great popularity in the West, though still rarely bred in the Eastern states, and rank very high as a market bird. They are hardy, mature rapidly, have ~ excellent quality of flesh, and their weights are about equal to the Narragansett. The plumage is a chestnut color, which is made strikingly beautiful by brownish red markings and pure white tail and wing feathers. White Holland turkeys are now quite widely known; at first they were small and delicate and not so desirable. See Fig. 330. They are beautiful birds, with snowy white plumage and pink bills and shanks, and are considered sports from other turkeys. In recent years the breed has been improved in size and vigor by the infusion of bloed fromthe white sports of Bronze and Narragansett varieties, Just why the name Holland attaches to this species is not definitely understood. They may have originated in Holland or been brought to this country by Hol- landers, but it is certain that they were not natural to the Nether- lands. They have been known to exist in England for over a hundred years, and are sometimes referred to as ‘Austrian Whites.” Dress Well for Market.—It is thought that the Whites are more difficult to raise than the darker varieties, though they mature rapidly, attaining market size in five to eight months. They dress splendidly for market, as with all white poultry, the pin feathers show less than in darker birds, and their feath- ers command higher prices than those of the colored breeds. The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, and for cocks 542 COMMERCIAL POULTRY, RAISING twenty-eight pounds. At recent exhibitions I have seen toms that weighed thirty-five pounds, but this is unusual. The Black turkey is much the same as the English Norfolk turkey, and is very desirable for table purposes. The young are quite hardy when produced by strong, non-related stock, and when it is necessary to confine turkeys upon a more or less restricted area, the average farmer will do well to select this variety. They are not so large as the other breeds, except the Pty =A a, 2g “YG NAR ce Ce ALND ‘. ! 1 at Wa eae Fig. 330.—White Holland turkeys. Giant Blacks, which closely resemble the Bronzes in everything but plumage. : The Slate turkey, sometimes called the Blue turkey, and the Buff turkey, range from ten to twenty-five pounds, according to age and sex, and may be raised to advantage in almost any locality. These varieties have been neglected for some reason or other, in spite of the fact that they possess qualities that are the equal of the more popular varieties. Lately, fanciers have VIGOROUS PARENT STOCK REQUIRED 543 devoted considerable attention to the Buffs, which are truly beautiful specimens. Profitable-——When we consider that from the time turkeys are six weeks old until winter sets in, they will obtain the greater part of their sustenance from the fields and woods over which they roam, and this assures their keep at virtually no expense to the grower, the question naturally arises: Why is the farmer not more enthusiastic about growing them? And what is-re- sponsible for the losses that we hear so much about? These losses really do exist, of this there can be no doubt, and with the industry in its present stage it is likely to be accom- panied by grave uncertainties. Turkey raising demands the best efforts of which we are capable—and then some. It is no secret, however, that many of the failures are attributable to gross carelessness or ignorance, or both. The whole question of deriving a profit from turkeys resolves itself into the ability of the grower to rear the poults, the young turkeys. If the same intelligent care in selecting the breeders is applied to turkeys as we unquestionably devote to the scientific breeding of cattle, sheep, hogs and horses, then we are in a fair way to achieve success. Deterioration through inbreeding is the greatest foe of the turkey industry, and it has been brought about by the heed- lessness of hundreds of farmers who have declined to consider the necessity of infusing new blood into their flocks. For gen- erations turkey growers in many of our eastern states have de- pended upon their neighbors for the service of male birds, giving no thought to the inevitable consequences, until in some localities it is difficult to find any unrelated stock. This total disregard of the fundamental laws of nature has in some sections reduced the condition of turkeys almost to a state of imbecility, and so undermined the vitality of the birds as to make it difficult to rear a tenth of the number of poults hatched. Avoid Inbreeding as You Would a Plague —New blood is of vital importance. It is better to send a thousand miles for a new male than to run the chances of inbreeding. Whenever 544 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING possible the tom should be a yearling, and the hens not less than two years old. The hens from good stock will cost about five dollars each, and the gobbler from six to ten dollars. A less expensive way to start may be made with eggs purchased from reliable breeders. When this is done, it is better to secure set- tings from different localities, and the poults carefully marked when hatched so that they can be properly crossed another season. Time to Start.—The fall and early winter is the best time to. make a start with turkeys, for at these seasons there is a greater number of birds from which to make a selection, and they are generally offered at better prices. Furthermore, stock bought at this time will become accustomed to each other and to their new quarters before the breeding season commences, conse- quently better results are likely to be secured. Parent Stock.—Every precaution should be taken to obtain strong, vigorous stock. Do not imagine that size is the main point of excellence. A medium-sized gobbler weighing about twenty-five pounds will usually render more satisfactory results than an over-heavy specimen. In all fowls, remember that size is largely influenced by the female, and the color and dis- tinguishing characteristics by the male. The hens should be well matured, weighing not less than fourteen pounds, intelli- gent and tame, as distinguished from wild and unduly excitable birds, and of pronounced constitutional vigor. A safe rule for mating is to have a tom for every four to six hens. Good fertility is reported from matings of a male to every twelve females, but I am inclined to think this is unusual. On farms where the flocks are yarded it is customary to keep two cocks for every eight or ten hens, and to alternate the males about twice a week, keeping one penned aloof, while the other is with the flock. When turkeys are given unlimited range, which is the most successful method of fens them, they natur- ally divide into flocks. Management.—It is said that the real secret of success in rearing turkeys is exercise. They must have an abundance of food, and to maintain the necessary health to assimilate large *SULIO}S UsppNs jsurese uorde}01d pue apeys aprAoid sty} se yons siayayS— Ile “31 545 35 546 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING quantities of food, they must have an abundance of exercise. The idea is entirely logical. Turkeys are large birds, semi-wild by nature, possessed of a roving disposition, and fully capable of taking care of themselves. To confine them is to impose a feel- ing of constraint and worriment, over which they never cease to fret. To do well turkeys must have range. Only a few should be attempted in a confined space, and even then they will require painstaking care. Feeds.—Much of the so-called bad luck in turkey raising—infer- tility, soft-shelled eggs and impaired vigor—is due to improper feeding. Avoid having the breeding stock too fat. If they have become so during the winter season, endeavor to reduce them to medium flesh before the mating season. Oats is one of the best feeds during the breeding months, with an occasional feeding of wheat, corn, barley and ground bone. Grit, oyster shells and charcoal should be kept within easy reach of the birds at all times, also a plentiful supply of fresh drinking water. Roosts.—Turkeys do better when they can roost in the-open. Only in storms do they seek protection, and not always then. Fences and trees are preferable to tight houses, for the turkey must have unrestricted ventilation. It is most unwise to com. pel them to roost with other poultry. If found necessary to house them, which is recommended in extremely cold climates, their quarters should be roomy and perfectly ventilated. The ideal shelter consists of an open-front shed or house, which is sufficient to protect them from heavy storms and from enemies, such as dogs. Foxes take a heavy toll of turkeys annually, especially if there is much brush or wooded areas nearby. With the approach of cold weather, when insect food and greens become scarce, an increased grain diet must be provided for the growing turkeys. Do not give the flock large quantities at first, but work up the supply gradually, until they are having all they will eat up clean. Wheat and corn is about the best ration. Keep them growing and fattening as fast as possible, so that by the time Thanksgiving week arrives, and prices are usually the best, they will be in prime condition for marketing. PREPARING TURKEYS FOR MARKET 547 To grow the best is more expensive than to grow the poorer grades, but the profits to be gained are almost double. After the turkeys are ready for market quite as much care should be given to the killing,-dressing and shipping, not to forget grading, as to the growing. If these conditions cannot be obtained, it is better to sell the birds alive to someone who makes a business of handling such stock. Kill Nothing but Well-fattened Stock.—It never pays to send poor stock to market. Skinny, gawky, crooked-breasted car- casses are undesirable. Keep the stock away from food or water for at least twelve hours before killing, preferably for twenty- four hours. The food tract must be emptied, otherwise there is danger of discoloration or spoiling. Full crops and full entrails may increase the weight slightly, but they discount the price so heavily, there is nothing to be gained, only disappointment. Crops distended with food are sour, sometimes tainting the flesh, but in any event they are uninviting to the careful buyer. There are several methods of killing, but the most popular way is to suspend the fowl by the shanks, head down, and cut or stick it in the roof of the mouth with a sharp, narrow-bladed knife. This severs the arteries, causing a hemorrhage, and at the same time pierces the brain, causing insensibility. The flow of bleod should be copious, for poorly bled fowls are likely to be purplish-tinted. Dislocation.—Another method is to dislocate the neck by a sudden twist and jerk. The disjointed part of the neck is then pulled away, so as to form an open space’ into which the blood may settle. Dislocation is claimed by some to be the only sani- tary, up-to-date method of killing, since there is no opening by which air can get into the body. It is used more for chickens than for turkeys, and requires considerable practice to do it well. Then there is the old-fashioned method of beheading with an ax, which should never be used, except on birds intended for home use, and even then it is a very poor mode. Dry-picking is the only way to pluck poultry for a fancy market. As soon as the bird is stuck, and while the blood is 548 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING still flowing, commence to remove the feathers, taking great care not to break the skin or tear the flesh. Purple abrasions, often noticeable on plucked fowls, are due to bruises and rough handling. Avoid these. Nothing detracts so much from. the appearance of dressed poultry as careless workmanship in the picking. It will also mean a reduction in the selling price. Remove the pin feathers with a blunt knife. In dressing turkeys a small ruff of neck feathers and the wing tips are undisturbed; this is a conventionality found in most markets. To complete the dressing, cleanse the mouth and head of any blood, and wash the feet thoroughly. Never remove the head, feet or entrails. Some years ago it was the practice to remove the viscera, but modern efficiency has found that the undrawn carcass, from which all animal heat has been expelled, is the most sanitary. Cooling.—When the fowl is plucked hang it in a cool place, head down, until the heat is entirely gone from the body; it is then ready for packing. Poultry should not be allowed to freeze for it will spoil the appearance. Packing and Shipping.—Barrels are generally preferable to boxes for shipping poultry, and they are easily obtained at a small cost. Line the package with manila paper,—do not use soiled or printed paper,—and pack as tightly as possible to avoid shifting about in transit. In warm weather use ice, or if the con- signment is billed for a long distance. Head the barrel securely, and mark its contents plainly on the head to whom it is shipped, and the name of the shipper. Never ship mixed lots of poultry in the same package if it can be avoided. Graded shipments invite good treatment on the part of the merchants, facilitate sales, and are rewarded by larger returns. In short, it pays handsomely to take a few extra pains. ‘ Turkey Nests.—If left to follow her own inclinations the hen turkey will select some secluded place for her nest, probably under a pile of logs, in the brush or in the lee of a stone wall; but, unless the flock is particularly wild, the hens can be induced to adopt more suitable laying quarters, than which nothing is TURKEY NESTS 549 more practical than barrels laid on their sides and blocked to keep them from rolling, and lined on the bottom with sod cov- ered with straw or hay for nesting material. Sugar barrels answer the purpose nicely; they are easy to handle, and not only make an excellent protection from cold winds and rains, but hot days as well. Later, when the brood is hatched a board may be Fig. 332.—Combination chicken and squab farm in New Jersey. nailed to the lower end so that the little turkeys cannot start to roam at too tender an age. Turkeys usually commence laying about the first of April, and the earlier the eggs can be hatched after the middle of May the longer the period of growth before the first holiday demand. Six months at least are required to bring them to a profitable marketable size, yet if their environment and feeding are cor- rect this can be readily done. The hen will lay from 15 to 20 eggs before becoming broody, 550 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING and if one wishes to obtain a second clutch of eggs, it is not diffi- cult to break her of broodiness, whereupon she will soon start laying again. The first clutch of eggs may either be sold or placed under chicken hens to be hatched. The eggs should be gathered as promptly as possible and stored in a clean, cool place. They should not be kept too long, for their vitality de- preciates rapidly. The poult issuing from the egg that is set within a few days of its being laid is noticeably sturdy. As a rule 18 eggs are sufficient for a turkey hen to cover properly, and 10 eggs for the chicken hen to manage. If more than these are placed under the birds there is danger of the eggs being chilled at times, and poor hatches will result. Before set- ting the hen dust her thoroughly with a lice-expelling powder, also the nest and nesting material. This will prevent trouble from lice or mites, either of which may cause the hen to desert her nest. When the hatch is ready to come off the hen and nest should be dusted for the second time. Nothing is more fatal to turkey health than parasites. Eternal vigilance should be the watchword. When the little ones droop search for vermin, and be satisfied with only the closest scrutiny. Vermin is responsible for some of the greatest losses. How the turkeys become infested is sometimes an enigma—from coops, from other- poultry, from sparrows—despite the best care these pests will put in an appearance, and a vig- orous campaign against them is necessary. Poults so afflicted will sicken and die as though stricken with some wasting disease. In fact, the poor little things are frequently dosed internally with medicine, when their dire need is an insect powder. From 27 to 29 days are required to hatch turkey eggs, depend- ing upon their freshness, weather conditions and the devotion of the hen in charge. During this time she should not be disturbed in any way. If frightened or driven from the nest the hen is apt to abandon the eggs entirely. Some hens will rear two broods in a season, and while the late-hatched brood will not mature early enough to meet the demand of roasters, nor are FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 551 they so desirable as breeders, they may be grown as broiler poults and as such sold to advantage. Poults Unlike Chicks.—Many poultrymen have met with dis- aster with turkeys because they tried to apply the same care to the poults that they were accustomed to giving little chicks. This is a great mistake, for on vital points the turk and the chick are widely different. Poults have a ravenous appetite, without the chicks’ capacity for digesting and assimilating large quan- tities of food within a short space of time. They require a cer- tain amount of exercise as an aid to digestion, yet too much (Courtesy U. S. Dep’t Agriculture) Fig. 333.—Typical pigeon house and fly. running around wearies them to the point of complete exhaustion. To guard against this, especially if chicken hens are being used for mothers, the hens should be confined for the greater part of the day for the first week, or until the poults have gained sufficient strength to be taken far afield. Chicks seldom tire in this way, and will trudge along unceasingly from dawn to dark without ill effects. Still another point: soured food or partially decayed food, which a chicken might eat with safety, works havoc with the turk’s digestion. Diet.—Many of the difficulties with turkeys spring from the 552 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING attempt to make them conform to an unnatural diet and man- agement. The turkey raiser should always bear in mind that poults are seed-eating chicks, not slop eaters. In the wild state their food consisted of the bugs, worms, seed sand other tid- bits which they hunted for in the woods and fields. In this habitat there was no overfeeding of unnatural, concentrated foods, likely to impair health and produce bowel troubles. Like quail and other wild birds, turkeys subsisted by their own efforts as foragers, and they were strong and vigorous, whereas in a domestic or even semi-domestic state, they are too often forced to eat unnatural foods with the idea of forcing them to make an unnaturally rapid growth. Some breeders feed bread and milk as soon as the poults will eat, while others feed dry bread; some adhere strictly to a grain diet, while others feed anything that happens to come to hand. The writer has seen farmers’ wives feed an exclusive diet of corn meal and skim milk curds, believing that they were taking special pains with their turkeys. Either the corn meal or the curds alone was enough to kill the brood, and about the only thing that saved them was the combination. The evil of the corn meal helped to offset the evil effects of the curds. : Foods.—As a general practice dry foods are safer than moist ones, though milk is very beneficial when fed judiciously. Stale bread soaked in milk, with the milk pressed from the bread before feeding, is a good food for the first few days, and it should be sprinkled with a fine grit. The addition of a little hard- boiled egg is good. Fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat and corn and a little granulated beef scrap are excellent rations. Bread baked from corn meal, middlings, bran and ground oats may be used, and after a few days add a little meat scrap. A small quantity of lean beef cooked and chopped into fine bits is a strengthening ration, but care must be taken that the meat is, sweet. Nothing will start bowel troubles quicker than tainted beef. Raw meat and green bone should be avoided for this reason. Feed the poults frequently, giving them but a little at a time, FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 553 and be particularly sparing with the concentrated foods, such as grains in the hulls—millet, kaffir corn and so on. Too much hard-boiled egg or milk curds will congest the bowels. Do not forget to provide succulence; green stuff should constitute at least a half of the fare. Keep an abundance of clean water before the poults at all times, also a plentiful supply of sharp grit. Charcoal should be mixed with the food or fed separately; it aids digestion and guards against fermentation in the crop and gizzard. Attention Required.—It should also be remembered that turkey hens are not apt to be so attentive to their young as chicken hens, especially in the matter of feeding; moreover, the turks are not so apt as chicks in learning how to eat. The chick commences to peck at objects almost as soon as it is hatched, but not so with poults. They seem particularly unintelligent little creatures in this respect, and the idea of looking on the ground or floor for food never seems to occur to them. Indeed, sometimes they run about with their heads in the air crying for food, until they weaken and die from exhaustion. The turkey grower must be on the lookout for this, and if necessary teach the poults by hand feeding. It involves considerable time and trouble, of course, but the advantages gained in giving the little turks a good start will more than compensate for one’s pains. By all means keep the brood dry—dampness is fatal. Do not allow the hen to take her brood into the tall grass early in the morning when the dew is on it, or trudge about on rainy days. Keep her penned up in an airy, roomy coop until conditions are favorable. It is also imprudent to expose the brood to intense heat, for they will wilt under it as though suffering with sun- stroke. Shade of some kind must be provided in hot weather so that they can escape the direct rays of the sun. Moderation in all things is the secret to success. Avoid damp- ness and filth, guard against vermin, do not overfeed and do not overcrowd; these are the essential features. CHAPTER XLIII GUINEA FOWLS Nature of Guineas.—Generally speaking, until recent years the guinea has merely been tolerated on the farm, and seldom regarded as profitable. Semi-wild by nature, noisy, flighty and unmanageable, they exhausted the patience of the farmer and were too troublesome for serious consideration. Their chief virtue, it seemed, was their well-known habit of setting up a discordant chorus at the slightest provocation. If a hawk ap- peared, or an animal or person approached the barnyard, these alarmists immediately burst into a raucous denunciation. Woe betide those who trespass on lands where guineas abound; nothing seems to escape their notice. Left to their own devices guineas will skirt the edges of civil- ized poultrydom, multiplying in distant fields and hedge rows, but rarely reproducing more than their own number. Though a hen will often hatch a large brood, it is seldom that she man- ages to raise more than two or three chicks, and often not that many. For some obscure reason the mother guinea does not seem to realize that her little ones are frail creatures, unable to withstand extremes of heat and cold, moisture and long tramps afield. Their habits with their young seem to be about as sense- less as their noise, which probably accounts in a large measure for their culture having been neglected. Snows and stormy weather sometimes drive the guineas to the barnyard for food and shelter, but as a rule they are very independent. Therefore, having cost the farmer nothing, he was satisfied to sell them in an indifferent market for forty or fifty cents a pair, or to tolerate them for the sake of an occa- sional Sunday dinner for the family. No one will ever become rich raising guineas, and it is hardly likely that any one will 554 DOMESTIC BIRD WITH GAME FLAVOR 555 find it feasible to raise them as a commercial proposition, that is—to make a living by keeping them as a specialty; but they can be kept as a profitable side line. The delicately wild flavor of the guinea’s flesh and its tenderly plump, dark breast commend it to the epicure. The appetites of hotel and restaurant patrons are keen for game birds, but owing to the increasing scarcity of these delicacies, those who cater to epicurean tastes have had to seek substitutes for quail and (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 334.—Open-front poultry house. Windows at top permit sunlight to flood the rear of the building, where it is most needed. pheasant that were hitherto plentiful. In consequence, much of the so-called game listed on menus is—guinea. Whether the epicure eats it under its own name, or deludes his palate with the thought of wild fowl, he must admit that the guinea rivals quail. Hence more young guineas are eaten now than ever before, and the demand is steadily growing. The truth of this is reflected in the prices received from dealers; instead of forty or fifty cents a pair, guineas now bring about a dollar a pair and more. And their eggs are considered quite a delicacy. 556 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING Varieties.—There are two popular varieties of guineas—Pearl and White, the only difference being in their color. The Pearl variety should be bluish-gray in color, each feather marked with white spots resembling pearls, hence its name, but it must be free from any solid white feathers in any part of its plumage. The White variety should be a pure white in plumage, with orange or yellowish-white bill and legs. In the Pearl variety the bill and legs are brown. Some speci- mens of this variety have white breasts, or breasts of a lighter gray color than the back and other plumage, which denotes a cross between the Pearl and White, hence they are mongrels. For size, egg production and other characteristics both varieties are equally desirable, although the Pearl Guinea is probably the most common. The flesh of both is dark, but that of the White, or of the White crossed with Pearl, is a shade lighter. Except in size, a newly hatched Pearl Guinea is the replica of a baby partridge; markings, colorings and contour are iden- tical. Lately, there has come to be another variety known as the Dove Guinea, but it is scarcely popular enough to be recog- nized. Sex.—The amateur has great difficulty in telling males from females; at a casual glance they are indistinguishable. The most accurate method of distinguishing the sex is by the cry— the hen has the preponderance of vocabulary. The well-known potrack, buckwheat or too quick is uttered by the female only, while the che or tck is typical of both male and female. More- over, the female seldom screeches like the cock. Those who are well acquainted with the fowl will observe that the male has a larger spike on his head, and that the ear-lobes are also larger than those of the hen, and that the lobes generally curl in a sort of semi-circle toward the beak. It will also be noted that the cocks usually hold their heads higher than the hens. The male selects his mate and his devotion is steadfast. While the hen attends to the dyties of maternity, the male remains close by, ready at the least sign of danger to utter his shrill cry of alarm. When the brood appears, he shares the HATCHING AND CARE OF GUINEA CHICKS 557 responsibility of food and shelter, and should misfortune over- take the hen, the cock assumes her duties in a thoroughly com- petent manner. Nests are often located by the observance of guineas feeding solitarily, since this is a pretty sure sign of the male bird, and that the hen is laying nearby. They will make their nests in remote, out-of-the-way places, under hedges, bushes, brush- heaps or wheat shocks, and if their nests are disturbed they will move to another place. Laying begins about the middle of April, (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) Fig. 335.—Another view of house shown in Fig. 334, taken in midwinter. Fowls are in splendid condition, proving that they require an abundance of fresh air, providing the house is free from drafts and dampness. and if broodiness is discouraged it will continue throughout the summer. Rearing Young.—Owing to the heavy mortality among broods reared by guinea hens all attempts to raise a large flock by natural methods will be discouragingly slow. On the other hand, to raise the guinea chicks by artificial brooding methods is equally difficult. When placed in a hover, they either remain there all the time, or come out and cannot find their way back. Unlike young chickens, they are particularly stupid in learning 558 ‘COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING how to eat or drink without the aid of a hen, consequently they soon pine away and die. They do not seem to have the imita- tive ways of other young fowls, an in many respects they re- semble young turkeys. Experiments have been made by placing newly hatched chick- ens with the young guineas, with the hope that the guineas would learn how to eat and drink from their companions and become hover broken; but not so. The guineas stood around until they were weakened by cold and hunger, while the chickens thrived. Apparently, the only other way to raise guinea chicks is under chicken hens, and this may be done very successfully. Hatching with Chicken Hens.—The eggs should be given ‘to reliable sitting hens, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes— about sixteen eggs to each hen, or the eggs may be started in an incubator and later given to the hens. From twenty-six to twenty-eight days are required to hatch guinea eggs, and true to their heritage of fear, as soon as they leave their shells the little fellows slink into corners of the nest away from the prying eyes of the attendant. Naturally, their foster-mother’s call is a foreign language to them, which they find difficult to understand at first, and until they get to know the meaning of- cluck, and the hen becomes accustomed to their peculiarities, they must not be allowed to roam. Care should be taken at the beginning to see that the hen accepts her responsibility kindly, for sometimes chicken hens are antagonistic to young that is not their own, and will kill the guineas. When the hen has proved her dependability she may be given twenty chicks; she can easily take care of this number; and if she is a very large hen, twenty-five chicks are not too many. The hen and her brood must be confined in a coop for the first few days, after which they may be given the freedom of a small yard. Later, after the attendant has observed that the chicks respond to their foster-mother’s guidance, they may be allowed complete freedom with the hen. Do not confine the hen within a slatted coop and allow the chicks to run abroad, as is “pay[aoxa aq jOUUeO JOS SIy} Jo aBUeY “Pjoy ws0o jo a8pa uo yI0}s Burmossy Joy asnoy Auojoy—glE 31 (uo1z01¢ Juamtsagxg anpang &S8ajAnod) 559 560 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING the custom with young chickens, for unlike young chickens, the guinea chicks will not always return to the hen in the coop. Furthermore, it is important to keep the chicks off the wet grass and out of the rain for the first month, for like young turkeys, dampness is fatal. Failure to appreciate this fact is responsible for the heavy losses among broods reared. by guinea hens. They have been known to start out in the morning with large healthy broods, and return at night without a single chick —the entire flock having perished along the route from exposure and exhaustion. Guinea chicks are ravenous little creatures, and for the first week they should be fed five or six times a day. If allowed to become too hungry they will over-eat, and digestive troubles may result. They thrive on bread crumbs and rolled oats, mixed with hard-boiled egg, or on fine ground chick-food. Sour or fresh milk may be substituted for the egg. Owing to its insec- tivorous nature, the guinea requires a large proportion of animal food, also green food, and they must have .plenty of water to drink, grit and charcoal. As soon as they are large enough to be given free range, which should be done at the earliest possible moment, for guineas do-not thrive well in confinement, they will forage for the greater part of their keep. At such times they may be fed a coarser chick-feed, wheat, and later, corn. Maturity.—Broods hatch from May to September, and in three or four months they will reach the marketable weight of one and a half to two and a half pounds. They rarely suffer from any of the countless diseases that poultrydom is heir to, and no houses are essential for their comfort, except during the brooding season. The hens are prolific layers, and as the chicks reach a marketable size at an early age, they yield a quick return for their feed and care. The one serious problem is in raising the chicks for the first month, after which success is assured. Guineas should be killed by sticking—severing the blood- vessels on the inside of the throat, so that no cuts are visible, and after the birds are dead and have finished bleeding, all blood clots and smears should be carefully washed off, that they DISTRUSTFUL NATURE 561 may present an attractive appearance when marketed. Guineas are almost always shipped without removing any of the feathers, which is another factor in favor of the producer. Ninety cents a pair is probably the average price in the large Eastern markets, and at this figure there is a nice profit for the producer. Distrustful Nature.—In no other fowl does the instinct of dis- trust seem such a conspicuous characteristic as in the guinea, and this timorousness is responsible for its hitherto limited list of friends; yet for all this senseless hysteria and shyness, they can be made to yield a certain amount of confidence to the attendant who treats them kindly and feeds them regularly, and in so doing there is both profit and interest in their culture. To frighten or treat them roughly is to alienate them beyond hope, and their propensity for flying makes them exceedingly difficult to capture; in which case they will have to be shot. In this wild state they are likely to be pugnacious, and to frighten and drive off other poultry. It is also found that the wilder they are the noiser they will be; hence it behooves those who raise guineas, for their own peace of mind, to treat them as gently and sympathetically as possible. The guinea may shriek hysterically: at a shadow, and it is subject to peculiar ntghtmares—seeing ghosts and goblins; never- theless they are excellent guards, and for this reason alone they are a valuable adjunct to the barnyard. In buying mature guineas, the poultryman should confine them for about two weeks, so that they may become accustomed to their new home; otherwise, on giving them their freedom, they are very apt to take flight and never come back. The best plan is to purchase eggs from a reliable breeder and to raise one’s own stock, 36 CHAPTER XLIV PIGEONS Fad.—Some years ago there was a big boom in the squab in- dustry; it became quite a fad and received a great deal of pub- licity. Many failed, and considerable money was lost before people awakened to the fact that the profits in the business had been greatly over-estimated, and that the care required by the birds, the necessary skill, was greatly underestimated. Further- more, there was not the demand for their products that begin- ners were led to expect. High prices were not sustained. Failures.—It is quite likely that more money has been lost on plants erected for the production of squabs on a large scale, than in any other branch of the poultry business. Stories were told of the great success of a few breeders; they were plausible, and the figures were so seductive that many unfortunate men and women were led to invest all their savings in ventures they were in no way equipped to operate. Failures became so numer- ous that the business was viewed askance, as a sort of joke, and detracted much from its real credit. If one spoke of being in the squab business he was apt to be regarded with suspicion. Most of this feeling has passed, along with the boom spirit, and left in its wake a great deal of knowledge of practical value. Profits.—There is profit to be made from the breeding of pigeons, just as there is a profit to be had from chickens or from ducks, but we would not advise the amateur to expect to make a fortune or even a good living at producing squabs, unless he is trained and equipped to operate a fairly large plant. From my observation, only large lofts return substantial profits, and most of the successful pigeon farms make a business of selling breeding stock, and are not devoted primarily to the production of squabs for market. 562 PROFITABLE AS SIDE LINE 563 My advice to the beginner would be to start with a few pairs of birds, and not attempt to engage in the business on a com- mercial scale unless experiments with a few pigeons clearly indi- cate a worthwhile profit and success. Fifteen pairs can be handled nicely in a back lot, and will help the beginner to splen- did working knowledge, furnish squabs for home use, and add to the future mating-pen. Do not plunge into the enterprise under any circumstances, especially if you have never had actual experience with livestock, and fail to appreciate that careful | | | | [+ Fig. 337.-—Homer pigeon. attention to details and the most exacting personal supervision are required. Side Line.—On general farms, where a flock of pigeons may obtain the greater part of their living from the fields, they will return a nice revenue, at very little expense or trouble to their keeper. The one difficulty with a flock at large, the pigeons may be a nuisance to neighbors, or losses may occur by shooting and by cats and hawks. Many pigeons are kept as a side issue on general farms in the Middle West, but they are mostly of com- 564 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING mon origin and, therefore, not worth much as squab-producers. Common pigeons are not so prolific, and they produce small squabs of poorer quality. In consequence, the average value of pigeons in the Middle West and in the South is only from fifteen to twenty-five cents apiece. Compared with the prices received by reliable specialty breeders, the foregoing figures are insignifi- cant. Ifa little more attention was paid to these general farm flocks, and a fresh supply of properly bred stock was introduced, they could easily be converted into a profitable side line. The squab is a young pigeon just before it leaves the nest, and is considered quite a delicacy. It makes a delicate food for invalids, and is used to replace the supply of game, notably the quail. There is a fairly uniform demand for squabs in the large cities, and they bring from two dollars to six dollars per dozen, depending on quality and the season of the year. Weights cf squabs run from six to eighteen pounds to the dozen, with nine pounds as a good average. [Tour to six weeks, depending upon the variety, the stamina of the flock, and the care they receive, is the time required to bring squabs to market- able size. When the down disappears from the head and they are fully feathered under the wings, these are indications of the correct time for killing. At this stage they are plumpest and heaviest. If allowed to pass this period their fat decreases, and the flesh that was once tender becomes hardened. They soon learn the use of their wings and are likely to leave the nest. There is a feeling that squabs must be kept stuffed with food from hatching time until they are ready for market. It is mar- velous the quantities of food they can consume without ill effects from lack of exercise. They just sit contentedly in the nest, while the parent birds feed patiently and faithfully. Varieties.—There are a great many varieties of pigeons, and though all will give squabs, only a few breeds are used exten- sively. for squab culture. Of these the Homer was generally considered the most desirable variety. See Fig. 337. It is the popular standard breed, hardy, prolific and of fair size. Lately it is being supplanted by the Carneaux. See Fig. 338. Several MOST POPULAR VARIETIES 565 other varieties, such as the King, Dragoon, Runt (see Fig. 339) and Maltese, which are larger than the Homer, are used in cross- ing to increase the size of the squabs. Crosses produce the largest squabs, and the practice seems to prevail. See Figs. 340 and 341. Too much inbreeding results in degenerates and under- sized stock. The Homer derives its name from the fact that it will usually find its way home from distant points, even when taken under cover for hundreds of miles. Records of the flights of racing Fe Sere! SET ey ems Sd LER HE Yer ree: | Fig. 338.—Carneaux pigeon. pigeons are wonderfully interesting. This characteristic makes it essential to confine Homers very carefully if they are pur- chased. They are bred very largely for racing as well as squabs, and come in a variety of colors. Strain.—As with all forms of livestock, good breeding birds are one of the chief essentials to success; in fact, they are the founda- tion of profit or loss. The beginner should secure his stock from reliable breeders, and wherever possible from those who will guarantee their products. The age and sex of pigeons are hard 566 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING to determine by casual observation, and when one considers the delay and loss likely to occur from unmated birds, or from stock so old as to be past their period of prolificacy, it becomes apparent that much depends upon the word of the seller. Unmated birds will cause a lot of trouble in a loft. Unlike poultry, pigeons are monogamous; they mate in pairs, and usually remain devoted for life. Obviously, the experienced breeder sees to it that his birds are properly mated, either Fig. 339.—White runt, female pigeon. naturally or by special methods. The presence of unmated males means fighting and jealousy. Unscrupulous dealers sell anything as mated birds. Some claim that so long as there is a male and a female they are re- lieved of any responsibility for further devotion. An authority on squab raising has this to say about mated pigeons: ‘‘A mated pair of pigeons consists of a male and female that have built a nest, laid eggs and hatched a pair of squabs which are fit for market in four weeks from the time of hatching. The only safe way in buying breeders is to get a written guarantee that they AGE OF BREEDERS 567 are mated, and a list showing the pairs. The purchaser who buys birds thus represented has a right to expect that they have actually been mated, and will prove it by going to work and rearing squabs.”’ Production Age.—Pigeons are most productive between the age of two and six years. The larger varieties will breed at the age of eight months, smaller breeds at six months. They are sometimes serviceable as old as ten years, but this is the excep- tion. A good rule is dispose of old breeders at regular intervals. Fig. 340.—Runt cross pigeon. If one does not wish to buy mated birds, a good plan is to secure young stock, about eight weeks old, and mate them at the proper age. Squabs intended for breeders should be leg- banded before they are old enough to leave the nest, and a rec- ord kept of their breeding. Otherwise it is difficult, and a matter of chance, to prevent inbreeding. Later, when the sex is defi- nitely determined, the males are banded on one leg, usually the 568 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING right leg, and the females on the left leg, to distinguish the sex of the birds in the pens. The mating-pen is a separate compartment through which new pairs are added to the regular lofts. In it the young pigeons, males and females, are placed, also the doubtful pairs. Here the young birds reach maturity, and after an interesting courtship they choose partners. This is usually indicated by the male Fig. 341.—Runt cross pigeon. driving and pecking at the female. If properly mated, the pair will start to erect their nest, and they will be found together at night, whereas unmated members of the pen generally remain alone. Discerning Sex.—It takes a very keen observer and one in- timately versed in pigeon ways to discern the sexes before pair- ing, and even after the courtship has started experienced breeders LIVING QUARTERS ARE SIMPLE 569 are sometimes deceived in their selection of the male bird. The male is apt to be larger and more active in the love-making, and his voice is more guttural and his expression more masculine— more determined. It is customary for the first squabs to be reared in the mating- pen, after which the parent birds are permanently leg-banded and numbered and removed to their permanent quarters on the farm. This is the natural method of mating birds. The forced method of mating consists in confining a male and female in a mating coop, a cage about three feet long and twelve to fifteen inches high and the same in depth, with a wire parti- tion in the center which can be removed or hinged back as desired. The hen is placed in one side and the cock in the other, where they can watch and study each other at close range for a week or ten days, and become enamoured of each other’s charms. The partition is then removed, and if they take to each other’s society and the mating is successful, they are taken from the mating coop and given their freedom in one of the regular pens. This method is used successfully, and is of practical benefit where special matings are desired. For example, some matings produce undesirable qualities in the squabs, in which case it becomes necessary to cull the flock and remate along other lines. Quarters.—Pigeons are accommodating creatures; they will adapt themselves to almost every condition, from the eaves of the barn to the nests of a well-appointed loft. They do best, of course, in quarters that are fairly roomy, dry, well-ventilated and sunshiny. Almost any style of building can be converted into a satisfactory pigeon loft with very few modifications. To avoid dampness the location should be well drained. A southern or southeastern exposure is best, and the same general principles that apply to hen houses also apply to pigeon lofts. The walls and roof should be tightly constructed to prevent leaks and drafts, and above everything else the house must be proof against rats. These pests are notorious thieves in a ‘pigeon loft, killing hun- dreds of young birds and destroying the eggs. Arrangement of House.—It is customary to divide the house 570 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING into pens holding from twenty to seventy-five pairs, and to have a narrow passageway or alley in the rear of the building con- necting with the pens, feed-house and other conveniences. Two to three square feet of floor space per pair is sufficient room if a number of pairs are kept in the pen. When pigeons are confined, which is customary on the large squab plants, outdoor flyways or covered yards are necessary. These are generally located on the south side of the building, and are made eight or ten feet high, twenty to thirty feet deep, and extend across the widths of the pens. They should be covered on top and sides with inch mesh netting to keep out the sparrows, which will otherwise come in swarms and eat much of the food. Alighting Boards.—A six-inch board or shelf should be placed along the two ends and possibly one side of the flyway, for the pigeons to alight upon, but it is not considered advisable to erect roosts across the center of the flyway. The pigeons are apt to strike against them and be injured. A few holes are cut in the front of the house at a convenient height, say, about five feet from the ground, for the pigeons to enter and leave the building. These need only be about four inches high and three inches wide, and three or four to a pen are sufficient. Lighting boards, six inches wide, similar to the perches in the flyways, should be placed in convenient relation to these holes, on the inside and outside of the house. The other interior fixtures are very simple, and they should be made as easy to clean as possible. Two nest boxes are pro- vided for each pair, in recognition of the fact that they often run two families at one time. They frequently start to lay eggs in the second nest, while ministering to the needs of a pair of squabs in the first nest. It is a good plan to have a few extra nests. Each nest should be not less than twelve inches square. They may be built in tiers, but not made to extend above the level of the eye, else it will be difficult to clean and inspect them. Undersized nests offer cramped quarters and are a source of trouble to birds and attendant alike. FEEDING METHODS 571 Cleanliness is the slogan in pigeon raising, the same as in keeping any form of livestock. An abundant supply of drinking water must be kept before the birds at all times, and it must be pure and fresh. All food must be placed before the birds in a wholesome condition, and they must have grit, oyster shells and charcoal, also salt. Fountains in which the pigeons cannot bathe are best for drinking vessels, while a galvanized iron pan three or four inches deep and about twenty inches in diameter makes a good bath pan. Baths are usually furnished about three times a week, and except at these times the pans are removed. Feeding.—Many varieties of grains are used in feeding pigeons. A good grain ration may be made from the following: equal parts by weight of cracked corn (sifted), hard red wheat, kafir corn and Canada peas, with a small quantity, perhaps ten per cent, of hemp and millet seed added during the molting season. Canada peas are expensive, but for best results they seem to be indispensable, especially during the breeding season. They seem to take the place of green feed. Other grains which may be added to the ration are peanuts, which are used to some extent in place of Canada peas, hulled oats, Egyptian corn, barley, cowpeas, and milo maize. In addition to these a small amount of stale bread, rape, rice, vetch and sunflower seed may be fed for variety. Lentils are sometimes fed as a tonic to breeding birds during the molting period. The grain may be fed on the floor of the pen, in troughs or kept before the birds in hoppers. It is not well to feed the grain outdoors on the ground for fear that it may become moldy and sour. The young of pigeons are fed by the parent birds on a thick, creamy mixture, called pigeon milk, which is secreted in the crops of the pigeons. The squabs are usually fed shortly after the grown birds have eaten, consequently great care should be exercised not to disturb the breeders at this time. In fact, all the work about the pens should be accomplished in a quiet, orderly manner, and in as few visits as possible, for pigeons are easily alarmed. It is poor judgment to enter the lofts at night, 572 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING especially with a light. The hen pigeons are likely to be fright- ened from their nests, and in the darkness fail to find them again, consequently chilled eggs and fewer squabs will result. Squabs intended for market should be caught in the morning before they are fed by their parents, so that their crops will be empty. They are killed in the same manner as poultry, by cut- ting the arteries in the back of the roof of the mouth and pierc- ing the brain, then bled, after which the feathers and down are plucked clean, with the exception of the head. To pluck eight squabs an hour is good work, though there are some experts who claim a record of fourteen. Packing.—Squabs should be cooled the same as other poultry, either by plunging them in cold water, or by hanging them in a cool place. If the crops contain any food, it may be advisable to cut them open and clean it out. When the birds are thor- oughly chilled they are carefully graded as to size and color, and packed for shipment in buckets with perforated bottoms. Pack them with their breasts up, in layers, with paraffin paper between the layers, and a generous supply of cracked ice through- out the entire package. Naturally, the production of squabs from each pair of breed- ers varies widely, much the same as the egg yield will vary on a chicken farm. They are known to yield ten or twelve pairs a year. This is exceptional; a fair average would be seven pairs. They sell at the highest prices during cold weather, for pigeons do not breed so freely in the winter months. CHAPTER XLV ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING Period of Heaviest Egg Production.—The hen lays two-thirds of her yearly supply of eggs during the six months beginning March first, and only one-third during the remaining six months. Frequently all of a hen’s eggs are laid in the first six months’ period. Longer Days in the Spring.—Spring, of course, is the natural breeding season, hence the heaviest production. But there is another reason for this unbalanced production. In the spring | there are from fourteen to fifteen hours of daylight each day, and about eight hours of darkness. In the fall and winter months the reverse is true. There is darkness for about fifteen hours, and light for about nine hours. Fowls do not go abroad in the dark. They remain on their roosts. They are idle. And being idle, naturally they are not so productive. If we humans were idle, if we laid abed for fifteen hours a day, we would not get very much accomplished. And in the fall and winter months most of us would have to remain idle for fifteen hours each day, except for artificial light. Artificial light makes it possible for us to do things on the short days. Our production is about the same month in and month out. By means of artificial light we add a couple of hours in the morning, and another couple of hours in the evening, to our day’s activities. Give the hen the same opportunity and she will be more pro- ductive. Give her light and she will stay abroad, and being abroad she will eat and exercise, and these two factors will yield eggs. They must yield eggs, all other things being equal. Such is the secret of artificfal lighting of poultry houses. It is not a secret, really; itis just common sense. And the wonder of it is that poul- 573 574 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING trymen did not awaken to this simple truth many years ago, in- stead of just recently. Investigations have shown that when hens are fed the last meal at four o'clock in the evening, which is customary on winter days, the crops of these hens are entirely empty by midnight, or sooner. From then until about seven o’clock in the morning their digestive tracts are idle. They have no nourishment to pass on and be converted into eggs. The egg-making machinery is at a standstill. In addition to having a shorter day in which to consume food, more of this decreased food supply is required to maintain the wear and tear on the body in cold weather. Nature takes care of the. body first. Any surplus of nourishment is available for eggs. In other words, in the winter months, when hens should have more nourishment with which to combat the cold and exposure, they really have less, because of the short hours of daylight—feeding and exercising hours. Smal! wonder, then, that the hen lays the bulk of her eggs in the spring and early summer, when conditions are favorable. This condition is easily remedied by artificially lighting the poultry house about two hours in the morning and from two to three hours in the evening. Within recent years, particularly on the Pacific Coast, this scheme has been used successfully, and is now being adopted more or less generally in all sections of the country. Various methods of artificial lighting have been under observa- tion by different Experiment Stations for a number of-years. And without exception, where the lighting was intelligently used, the reports showed remarkable increases in egg production. Not only were the egg yields increased, but the net returns from the flocks were substantially increased. In other words, the additional eggs more than paid for the additional cost of labor and material. Tests at Cornell with 100 White Leghorn hens and pullets showed that for a period of forty-eight weeks the net gain in pro- duction was 135.37 dozen eggs, which represented a gain in value of $71.88. In these tests lights were used from twilight to nine o'clock in the evening. REMARKABLE INCREASES ARE SHOWN 575 The beneficial influence of the lengthened day is beyond dis- pute. If it does not increase the total annual production very much, at least it gets the hens to lay more eggs in winter, when eggs are worth considerably more, thereby adding greatly to the profits of the poultryman. On a farm in western New York accurate records were kept for a two-year period, and not only was the total egg production in- creased 18 per cent by artificial light, but the winter part of the production, from December to March, was increased 70 per cent. — =e ) (Courtesy Washington Experiment Station) Fig. 342.—Fixtures for artificial lighting. Left-hand diagram shows tube system of gasoline mantle lights. ‘By the operation of a needle valve in the generator any degree of illumination may be produced throughout all the lights at the same time. Right-hand diagram shows portable gasoline mantle lantern, suitable for small house. Lights were used morning and evening, from the middle of November to the first of April. a ’ Other Essential Factors.—Though artificial lighting is the im- portant factor in obtaining and keeping a uniform schedule of egg 576 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING production throughout the year, with it must go proper feeding and living conditions. The hens must be given the comforts of summer in winter, which means that the supply of bugs and worms, animal food, must be substituted with milk or meat scraps; green food found on the summer range must be supplied by cabbage, pulped vegetables, mangels or sprouted oats; the birds must be induced to exercise, and the living accommoda- tions must be dry, well ventilated and sanitary. Not Forced Feeding.—In short, the aim of artificial lighting is not to force egg production by condiments and highly concen- trated foods, which are dangerous expedients, rather to feed a normal ration, as in the summer time, and to give the flock a longer period in which to partake of this normal ration, in which event the birds will eat more, thus stimulate their body more and have a surplus for egg production. Means Better Health.—It is believed that artificial lighting can be made to improve the health and vitality of a flock for many reasons. The best hen is the laying hen. She is happiest when she is in a laying condition. She is active. She works early and late. During the long nights fowls get cold and hungry about mid- night, when fed the last meal about 4 o'clock. In this state they must wait for about seven hours, until the ordinary feeding hour of seven o’clock in the morning. If they were fed at eight or nine o'clock in the evening, and again at five o’clock in the morning, there would be no interval of an empty crop, or at best a very short one. This is a healthful condition of affairs. Probably the most beneficial effect of all is that, by using lights and distributing the hen’s egg production more uniformly throughout the year, instead of massing the egg yield during a short period, the wear and tear on the bird is less. The use of artificial light can be abused—used to excess, of course. The day must not be lengthened too long or the purpose will be defeated. Every method for increased egg production must be practiced with moderation. Hens must have sufficient time on the roost for rest, or they will break down. The aim should be to maintain an egg production of from fifty to sixty per EXCESSIVE LIGHTING IS BAD 577 cent (50 to 60 eggs daily from 100 hens) throughout the winter months, which yield is not a tax on the flock if the birds are properly fed. Types of Lights.—Any sort of a system of illumination will an- swer the purpose of lighting poultry houses, but the most com- monly used lights are gasoline and electricity, because of their convenience. There seems to be no doubt that electric light is the simplest and safest method of illumination, and where current can be had this method is to be recommended. Sometimes the cost is greater than other lights, but in no case is it very great considering the benefits that may be derived. The Washington Experiment Sta- tion found that one extra egg per day will pay for the lighting of 100 birds. Electric lights should be spaced about 15 feet apart through the entire length of the house, and well toward the front of the build- ing, so that the illumination will cover all of the floor under the droppings boards and such like. Wherever possible avoid hang- ing the lights where they will cause deep shadows. Where electrical current is not obtainable, though nowadays many farmers and poultrymen find it economical to install their own electric light plants, gasoline lamps are recommended. These have enormous candlepower, and are widely used on the Pacific Coast for lighting poultry houses. Gasoline mantle lamps come as individual lanterns which are portable, or a number of lamps can be connected with a central generating plant. The single lanterns are convenient for small houses, whereas the central plant system is to be recommended for long houses, requiring four or more lamps. Backyard poultry raisers and those who wish to experiment with artificial lighting can try out the scheme with an ordinary kerosene lamp or two. The disadvantages of this method of lighting are that the kerosene lantern does not give forth a great deal of illumination, and it requires constant refilling and clean- ing. The fuel cost is also greater than electricity or gasoline for a given amount of brilliancy. 578 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING In using artificial light the caretaker should clearly understand the function of these extra hours of light. The lights should be turned on so that the length of the short day is made equal to the length of the spring day. Do not allow the fowls to go to roost in the late afternoon, and then encourage them to leave the roosts in the middle of the night, for extra feed, by switching on the lights. As the daylight fades, along about four or five o'clock, turn on the lights and keep them burning for two or three hours. This prolongs the day naturally. When you want the hens to go to roost, turn off the lights, or dim the illumination, giving the birds just enough light to find their perches. In the morning the lights are turned on about five o’clock, whereupon the birds leave their perches and start the day’s activities. So long as the hens have from fourteen to fifteen hours of light, there is no difference in commencing a little earlier or later. Some poultrymen burn lights at the close of the day only; others use illumination at both ends of the day; both plans give about the same results. A great many poultry houses are so poorly constructed that at best they have very little light, especially on overcast days. In stormy weather, when the birds are kept indoors, this means such gloomy conditions that often the hens are off the perches for only six hours. The alternative is to go out in the storm, which ex- posure is even worse than remaining on the perches. Blame yourself, not the hens, if they do not yield eggs under these circumstances. Chickens like cheerful conditions, much as do humans. They dislike darkness. They are suspicious and fearful of it. They never sing in the dark, only in the light. Take the song away from the hen and you put an end to her egg produc- tion. Farmers are the most conspicuous offenders in causing their hens to hibernate for the winter months. And they seldom get any eggs from August to March, which accounts for the scarcity of eggs in cold weather and consequent high prices. ; Some of the foremost authorities on poultry culture pronounce the artificial illumination of poultry houses as one of the most important discoveries in the history of the industry. A Abnormal eggs, 402 Accounts, record of, 95 Aconite, tincture, 475 Adaptable hovers, 301 Advertising, value of, 82 on egg cases, QI African geese, 530 Agglutination test, 508 Ailments, poultry, 471 Air cell in egg, 269 Albumen, egg, 395 Alfalfa pasture, 227 shredded, 222 American class, breeds, 53 Analysis of breeds, 11 Anatomy of fowl, 458 Anconas, 34 Andalusians, 33 Animal foods, 215 Appetite, 185 Appliances, poultry, 144 Artificial brooding, 295 incubation, 235 lighting, 573 Asafetida, 482 Aseels, White, 40 Ash feeds, 188 Asiatic class, breeds, 46 Asparagus chickens, 351 Assimilation of food, 189 Asthenia, 477 Automatic feeders, 151, 180 Aylesbury ducks, 524 B Baby chick industry, 270 Backyard plant, 10 Bacterium pullorum, 502 Bagging down, 478 Baking soda, 474 Balanced rations, 184 Baldness, 479 Bantams, 70 INDEX 579 Barley feed, 199 ground, 212 Barrels, water, 149 Beard, 68 Beet pulp, dried, 223 Beets, mangel, 229 Bench picking, 434 Bi-carbonate of soda, 474 Bird pox, 480 Bismuth nitrate, 475 Blackhead, 478 Black Spanish, 32 Black turkey, 542. Bleeding fowls, 354 Blood clots, 404 Bloody eggs, 404 Bloom on egg shell, 395 Bone cutter, 181 granulated, 217 green cut, 217 Booted shank, 69 Bourbon Red turkey, 541 Braekels, 41 Brahmas, Dark, 48 Light, 47 Bran, 209 Brassiness, 64 Bread crumbs, 316 Breaking up broodiness, 339 Breeding, aim in, 372 capacity, 378 color tests, 380 conduct, 382 cross, 374 depth of abdomen, 378 heavy-laying strain, 377 hybrids, 374 ; importance of male, 382 late molters, 382 line, 372 Maine experiment, 385 mongrels, 376 naked truths, 387 number of males required, 385 580 INDEX Breeding, out-, 373 pelvic bones, 378 prepotency, 384 Brewers’ grains, 212 Broiler plant, 129 Broilers, squab, 351 Bronchitis, 478 Bronze turkey, 540 Brooders, careless operation, 298: colony, 301 common defects in, 298 fireless, 300 fuel for, 306 hot water, 300 houses, 307 hovers, individual, 301 stoves, 303 thermometer, 310 Broodiness, 339 . coops for breaking up, 345 loss of plumage in, 344 time lost in, 343 Brooding, artificial, 295 hover breaking, 310 methods of, 299 requirements of, 298 systems; 296 Broody hen coop, 141 Broom corn seed, 201 Buckeyes, 61 Buckwheat, 200 bran, 212 middlings, 212 Buff turkey, 542 Building construction, 109 Bulky food, need for, 207 Bumble foot, 479 Business principles, 82 Buttercups, Sicilian, 81 By-products, poultry, 445 Cc Cabbage, 229 Cabinet, egg, revolving, 260 Calluses, corns, 479 Calomel, 475 Camphor, spirits of, 475 Campines, 38 Canadian geese, 531 Canker, 480 Cannibalism, 324 Capacity, abdominal, 378 Caponizing, 358 Caponizing, best breeds for, 361 dressing capons, 362 instruments, 363 losses, 368 Naar 364 slips, 369 Carbohydrates, 191 Carbolated vaseline, 475 Carneaux pigeon, 565 Castor oil, 474 Castration, 358 Catarrh, 480 Catching hook, 162 Cellar, incubator, 243 Cement floors, 119 Census, poultry, r910, 3 Chalaza, 395 Charcoal, 221 Chart of poultry production, 4 Chicken pox, 480 Chickens, origin of, 1 composition of, 186 Chicks, care of, 325 destroy dead bodies, 333 essentials to health, 322 feeds for, 312 growth of, 313 habits, bad, 323 learning to eat, 315 on range, 325 over-crowding, 326 over-feeding, 313 rations for, 321 runs and yards, 131 scavengers, 333 scratch grains for, 318 unlimited feed, 328 water for, 322 Chinese geese, 531 Cholera, 480 Cleanliness, 132 Clipping wings, 469 Clover, pasture, 227 short cut, 223 Coal ashes, 517 Cochins, 49 Cockerels, fattening, 349 surplus, 347 Cold storage eggs, 436 Colds, 480 Colony brooders, 301 Color breeding tests, 380 Colored Egyptian geese, 532 Composite birds, 63 INDEX 581 Composition of eggs, 256 Design of houses, 109 Concrete floors, 119: Destroying dead bodies, 333 Condiments, 221 Detention coop, 473 Conditioning show birds, 460 Devices for doors and gates, 153 Contagious diseases, 471 Diagnosis of disease, 471 Cooker, feed, 183 Diarrhea, 480, 502 Cooling eggs, 254 Diet, controlling, 208 Coop, broody hen, 141 | Digestible nutrients, 184 Corn-and-cob-meal, 211 Digestive organs, 392 . Corn feed, 197 Dirt floor, 118 meal, 210 Diseases, 471 Cornell rations, 196 Disinfectants, 476, 516 Cornish fowls, 75 Dislocation, killing by, 547 Cottonseed meal, 212 Doctoring poultry, 471 Cow peas, 201 Dominiques, 61 Cracked peas, 223 Doors, 125 Cramming, 350 checks for, 160 Crate fattening, 350 devices for, 153 Cremating dead fowls, 338 early-rising, 155 Crested fowls, 70 rat-proof, 158 Crevecoeurs, 37, 69 securing stake for, 163 Crop bound, 480, 486 self-closing, 160 location and function, 486 Dorkings, 67 Cross-breeding, 374 Double matings, 41 Crowding chicks, 326 Double-yolk eggs, 391 Crows, 325 Drainage, III Crude fiber, 191 Dressing poultry, 354 oil, 514 Dried blood meal, 217 Curtain frames, 124 Drinking vessels, 144 Custom hatching, 270 Drones, 96 Cutter, bone, 18t Dropping-boards, 134 hay, 182 Droppings, eare of, 445 vegetable, 182 Dry mash feeding, 206 Dry-picking poultry, 354 D Dual-purpose breeds, 53 Dubbing game birds, 73 Dampness, effects of, 117 Ducks, breeding of, 519 Dark Brahmas, 48 Dust bath, 143 Day-old chicks, 270 Dusting sitting hens, 291 advantages to beginners, 275 appeal to farmers, 280 E * custom hatching, 270 development of industry, | Early-rising door, 155 270 Economic factors, 16 few complaints, 281 Educational exhibitions, 457 guarantees, 282 Egg, bloom of, 395 hatcheries, 272 bound, 394 mortality, 279 breeds, 23 objections to, 280 cells, 339, 390 origin of industry, 271 determination of shape, 395 pet shop trade, 279 development, 266, 390 shipping methods, 277 diagram of, sectional, 396 specialization, 274 eating habit, 481 Depluming mites, 483 evaporation, 269 INDEX Egg, fertility, 259, 399 shell membrane, 395 shell texture, 396 shrinkage, 419 storage places, 408 testing, 263 trade terms, 424 wastage, 409 Eggs, abnormalities in, 402 blood clots in, 404 bloody, 404 body-held, 393 breakage of, 412 cabinet for hatching, 260 chalaza, 395 club plan of selling, 435 cold storage, 436 composition of, 186, 256, 401 construction of, 263 cooling hatching, 254 double-yolk, 391 embryology of, 263, 390 external influences on, 407 farm losses in, 421 freshness of hatching, 261 general store, 421 gravity test of, 409 heat losses in, 419 ideal type of, 259 infertile, 420 life germ in, 265 market grades of, 416 marketing practices, 400 middleman’s charges, 426 ovary, 391 ovisac, 391 parcel post trade in, 433 prices on, 423 private trade in, 433 popular fallacies concerning, 264 preserving, 436 prolific power, 390 retailing troubles in, 428 selecting hatching, 256 signs of life in, 266 sterile hens, 390 tester, electric, 265 testers for, 268 turning hatching, 252 unscrupulous methods, 431 vitelline membrane, 397 vitellus, 398 water glass treatment of, 436 Egyptian geese, 532 Elements for success, 88 Emden geese, 529 English breeds, 61 Enteritis, 481 Enterohepatitis, 478 Epsom salts, 474 Equipping poultry houses, 144 Exhibitions, poultry, 457 Export trade in eggs, 6 F Fancier, 457 Farm poultry, 7 Fats, food, 189 Fattening crate, 352 methods, 349 Faverolles, 68 Favus, white comb, 482 Feather-eating habit, 482 pulling habit, 491 Feathers, by-products, 452 drying and curing, 455 goose, 537 value of, 456 Feed, alfalfa, shredded, 222 animal, 215 ash, 188 barley, 199 beet pulp, 223 beets, 229 bills, 98 bins, 179 bran, 209 broom corn seed, 201 buckwheat, 200 bran, 212 cabbage, 229 carbohydrates in, 191 charcoal, 221 clover, 223 composition of, 189 condimental, 221 cooker, 183 corn, 197 -and-cob meal, 211 meal, 210 cottonseed meal, 212 cow peas, 201 cracked peas, 223 digestibility of, 185 dried blood, 217 fats in, 189 Feed, fiber in, 191 field peas, 201 fish scrap, 218 flour, 210 gluten, 211 meal, 211 granulated bone, 217 green, 215 . cut bone, 217 grit, 234 ground barley, 212 oats, 212 hominy chop, 211 meal, 211 houses, 175 kafir corn, 201 linseed meal, 212 meat scrap, 215 middlings, wheat, 210 milk, 219 albumen, 218 granulated, 218 whey, 220 millet, 202 milo maize, 201 mineral, 232 mixer, power, 181 mixing, 180 nutrients in, 190 oats, 198 oil meal, 212 onions, 229 oyster shells, 234 palatability of, 185 potatoes, 231 protein, 187 rice, 200 rye, 200 salt, 220 screenings, 197 shorts, 210 sorghum seed, 201 soy beans, 201 sprouted oats, 231 storage, 178 succulent, 224 sunflower seed, 202 Swiss chard, 229 tankage, 217 vegetables, 231 waste fruits, 231 wheat, 193 Feeders, automatic, 180 Feeding chicks, 312 INDEX Fencing, 126 Field peas, 201 Fifth toe, 67 Fish scrap, 218 Frizzles, 80 Games, 72 Gas tar, 475 Gallus bankiva, 583 Feeding, flour, 210 forced, methods, 175 overhead track, 177 rations, Cal. Ex. Sta., 210 206 Cornell, 196 Ind. Ex. Sta., 227 Maine Ex. Sta., 206 N. J. Ex. Sta., 205 S. C. Ex. Sta., 211 Storrs, Conn., 220 records, 104 simplicity, 175 Females, number to one male, 385 Fertility in eggs, 399 Fertilizer formulas, hen manure, 451 Fireless brooders, 300 Flight feathers, 470 Flocks, large or small, 112 Floors, house, 118 Foodstuffs, grouping of, 193 Formalin for oats, 232 Foundations for poultry houses, 118 Framing poultry houses, 119 French breeds, 37 G 3 bantams, 74 Gapes, worms, 482, 500 Gastric juice, 207 Gate devices, 159 Geese, raising, 528 Gizzard, 493 General-purpose breeds, 53 action of, 207 Gluten, feed, 211 meal, 211 Going light, 477 Goslings, care of, 535 Grains, composition of, 189 Granulated bone, 217 Grasses for pasture, 228 Gravity test for eggs, 409 Gray African geese, 530 wild geese, 531 584 INDEX Green cut bone, 217 foods, 215 composition of, 225 Grit, 234 Growing stock, care of, 325 Guinea fowls, 554 H Hamburgs, 35 Hatcheries, 272 Hatching, artificial, 235 natural, under hens, 283 Hay cutter, 182 Health, fowl, 471 Heat losses in eggs, 419 Heavy-laying strain, 376 Hen coops, 283 manure, 445 Homer pigeon, 564 Hominy chop, 211 Hook, catching, 162 Hoppers, mash, 144 ; plans for, 151 Houdans, 37 House, appliances, poultry, 144 artificial lighting of, 573 brooder, 307 cleanliness, 132 colony plan, I1t construction of, 109 continuous, III cost of, 112 curtain frames, 124 doors, 125 floors, 118 glass windows, 124 interior, 132 location of, 109 nests, 138 perches, 134 roofs, 116 size of, 114 warmth of, 113 windows, 124 Hover breaking, 310 Hovers, brooding, 301 Hybrids, 374 I Icing dressed poultry, 357 Illness, indications of, 471 In-breeding, 372. | Incubation, artificial, 235 Incubation, care of lamp, 246 cellar, 243 cooling eggs, 254 gas heater, 249 heat control, 248 loading trays, 251 moisture, 238 records of, 101 regulating flame, 247 selecting hatching eggs, 256 temperature, 239 thermometer, 240 turning eggs, 252 Incubation, natural, 283 best sitters, 288 dusting sitters, 291 feeding sitters, 292 privacy, 284 quarters for hens, 289 sitting hens, 283 stolen nests, 283 testing sitters, 288 vermin, 284 Incubators, erection of, 244 leveling, need for, 241 makes of, 236 mammoth, 237 oil machines, 236 Indian Runner ducks, 523 Indigestion, 482 Infertile eggs, 420 Information on breeding, 99 Instruments for caponizing, 363 Interior of buildings, 132 Intestinal worms, 495 Investment in buildings, 109 J Japanese fowls, 80 Javas, 60 Jersey Blues, 34 Johnny-cake, recipe for, 317 K Kafir corn, 201 Killing methods, 354 L Labor-saving, 109 La Fleche fowls, 37, 69 Lakenvelders, 28 Lamp, incubator, 246 Lamps for artificial lighting, 573 INDEX 585 Land suitable for poultry, 111 Langshans, 51 Laws of breeding, 372 Lay bones, 378 Laying houses, 109 Leaks, business, 95 Leg bands, 101 Leghorns, 25 Leg-weakness, 482 Letters, business, imp ‘rtance of; 89 Lettuce, 224 Lice, 482, 509 powders, 513 Light Brahmas, 47 Lighting, artificial, 573 Limber neck, 482 Lime, 514 Line-breeding, 372 Linseed meal, 212 Litter for floors, 117 Litters, eggs in series, 339 Liver pills, 475 Long-tailed Yokohamas, 80 M Magnesia, sulphate of, 475 Mail, importance of answering, 89 Maine breeding experiment, 385 Malays, 75 bantams, 78 Males, importance of, 382 ~ number required, 385 Mammoth incubators, 244 Mange, 483 Mangel wurtzels, 229 Manure, 445 absorbent for, 449 acid phosphate, 449 formulas for crops, 451 kainit, 449 Marketing eggs, 400 Marking chicks, 102 poultry shipments, 357 Mash constituents, 208 hoppers, 144, 188 mixer, power, 182 Materials for buildings, 109 Meat breeds, 46 scrap, 215 guaranteed analysis, 216 testing, 216 Medical attendance, 471 Medicines, 474 Mediterranean class, 23 Mercantile Exchange, New York, 417 Mexican turkey, 539 Middlings, wheat, 210 Milk, albumen, 218 feeding, 219 for chicks, 317 granulated, 218 whey, 220 Millet seed, 202 Milo maize, 201 Mineral foods, 232 Minorcas, 29 Mites, 483, 509 Mixing feeds, 180 Moisture in incubators, 238 Molt, 344 Molters, late, 382 Mongrelism, 376 Mottled Anconas, 34 Muscovy ducks, 521 Muslin curtains, 124 N Narragansett turkey, 540 Natural incubation, 283 Nests, batteries of, 171 construction of, 138 location of, 138 Maine trap, I71 single-compartment 172 Storrs’ trap, 167 trap, 166 two-compartment trap, 173 Nitrogen free extract, IgI in manure, 447 Nomenclature of fowls, 458 North American turkey, 539 Noted centres of production, 7 Nutrients, 190 Nutritive ratio defined, 184 Nux vomica, tincture of, 475 trap, Oats, feed, 198 ground, 212 sprouted, 231 formalin, 232 mold, 232 rack for, 230 Ocellated turkey, 539 Oil meal, 212 586 INDEX Olive oil, 488 Onions, 229 Operation for caponizing, 364 for crop bound, 486 Organs, digestive, 392 reproductive, female, 390 Ornamental breeds, 70 Orpingtons, 61 Out-breeding, 373 Ovary, 391 Over-crowding chicks, 326 Overfeeding chicks, 313 ‘Oviduct, 391 Oyster shells, 234 P Packages, shipping, 93 Painting perches, 514 Parasites, 483, 509 Parcel post shipments, eggs, 433 Pasting-up in chicks, 483, 504 Pearl guineas, 556 Peas, feeding, 223 Pekin ducks, 519 Pelvic bones, 378 Pens, types of, I14 Perches, 132 Permanganate of potash, 476 Petaluma district, 2 Pigeons, 562 Plucking methods, 354 Plumping, 355 Plymouth Rocks, 53 Polish fowls, 76 Potatoes, 231 Poultry, aim of, 17 appliances, 144 breeds of, 1 business principles, 82 census 1910, 3 chart of production, 4 diseases, 471 distribution areas, 7 divisions, 1 egg breeds, 23 export trade, 6 general discussion on, 16 general-purpose breeds, 53 house construction, 109 meat breeds, 46 ornamental breeds, 70 pasture, 126 place in animal kingdom, I Poultry remedies, 471 scope of industry, 3 Standard of Perfection, 11 standard varieties, 11 value of products, 5 weights of, 20 Poults, care of, 551 Preparing birds for exhibitions, 457 Prepotency, breeding, 384 Preserving eggs, 436 fence posts, 131 Prices on eggs and poultry, 6 Primary flight feathers, 470 Principles of breeding, 372 Printed matter, 88 Protein, 187 Publicity, 94 Pullets, growth of, 330 maturity, 331 Pure-bred fowls, 374 Q ‘Qualifications of poultryman, 82 Quarters, roosting, 134 Quicklime, 333 Quinine, 475 R Range, 325 Rape, 228 Rations, feeding for chicks, 312 for mature stock, 175 Rats, protection against, 158 Records, 95 Redcaps, 44 Red mites, 509 Remedies, poultry, 471 Reproductive organs, 390 Reputation, importance of, 91 Rhode Island Reds, 58 Whites, 60 Rice feed, 200 Road dust, 518 Rochelle salts, 474 Roofs, poultry buildings, 116 Roosting compartments, 132 curtains, 137 Rouen ducks, 525 Roup, 483 Runner ducks, 523 Running water, 144 Runt pigeons, 566 Rye feed, 200 Ss Salt, 220 Scabies, 483 Scalding poultry, 354 Scaly leg, 485 Scope of poultry tnelustry, 3 Scratch grains, 175 Screenings, 197 Secondary feathers, 470 Sections of a fowl, 458 Shade, 545 Shell boxes, 144 Shipping crates, exhibition, 467 dressed poultry, 357 Shorts, middlings, 210 Show place, 85 room, 457 Sicilian Buttercups, 81 Sickness, 471 Sign, advertising, 86 Silkies, 80 Sitting hens, 283 Skeleton of a fowl, 468 Skim milk, 219 Slate turkey, 542 Slips, caponizing, 369 Soil conditions, 111 Sore head, 485 Sorghum seed, 201 Soy beans, 201 Spanish, Black, 32 Sports, 63 Spraying disinfectants, 514 Squab broilers, 351 Squabs, pigeons, 562 Standard of Perfection, 11 Standard varieties, 11 Stapling netting, 130 Sterile hens, 390 Sticking and bleeding, 354 Stoves, brooder, 303 Stubs, 63 Success, 88 Succulence, green food, 224 Sultans, 72 Sumatras, 75 Sunflower seed, 202 Sunlight, importance of, 112 Surplus cockerels, 347 Swiss chard, 229 INDEX System of records, 96 of feeding, 175 T Tankage, 217 Tapeworms, 496 Tar, gas, 475 Taste, poultryman’s choice, 16 Tell-tale records, 107 Temperature of brooders, 304 of incubators, 239 Testicles, caponizing, 366 Testing hatching eggs, 263 marketing eggs, 409 Thermometer, incubator, 240 testing, 241 Thermostat, 238 Throw-backs, 63 Toe-marking, 103 Tonic, formula for, 476 Toulouse geese, 529 Trade-mark, 89 Training for exhibitions, 460 Trap nests, 166 Trays, loading incubator, 251 Turkeys, raising, 538 Turning eggs in incubation, 252 Turpentine, spirits of, 475 Types of pens, 114 U Uniformity of eggs, 399 Unit of cost for protein, 187 U.S. Census, 1910, 3 Utility breeds, 16 Vv Value of poultry, 5 Varieties, standard, 11 Vegetable cutter, 182 Vegetables for green food, 231 Vent gleet, 485 Ventilation of houses, 124 Vermifuge, 495 Vermin, 509 Vineland district, 7 Visitors on poultry plant, 86 Vitelline membrane, 397 Vitellus, 398 587 588 Ww Walls, poultry house, 123 Washing show birds, 457 Wastage in eggs, 409 Water barrels, 149 fountains, 144 glass, 436 pipes, 147 supply, 145 trough system, 150 Web feathers, 470 Weights of fowls, 20 » Wet mash, 206 Wheat as a poultry feed, 193 bran, 209 flour, 210 middlings, 210 screenings, 197 When to build, 117 Whey, milk, 220 INDEX White Aseels, 40 ‘White-comb, favus, 482 White diarrhea, 485, 502 White-Faced Black Spanish, 32 White Holland turkeys, 541 Whitewashing, 514 Windows, 124 Wing bands, 103 Wings, clipping, 469 Wire netting, erecting, 126 Worms, 485, 495 .| Wyandottes, 56 Y Yards, base boards, 128 space required, 126 top rails, 128 Yokohamas, Long-tailed, 42, 80 Yolk, egg, 390 Young stock on range, 325 mea by beer oe se) shetres> mpriepepesrese. bebiieesrsesee pepcsouerasbar, = ios fr Ee = c: See es Saiaeisiee sty states ris iperssrsise ise SERRE EaS HE erarerty 3 ereeeree Biapiy reperesrste bes He t a1 ers popn eras cE ePe ENT SEnreEs PROBE LER eN SRO NE SERESE eereerr sats = ee ng pe ree. 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