RENTON, N.S: Saar Printers, Oreosirs Post Orricz. RVE 2 aOR, ey EL. Siam Cornell University Library OF THE Hew Work State College of Agriculture Nii Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924003069097 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY ANNUAL REPORT ——or—- THE STATE GEOLOGIST For the Year 1899 REPORT FORESTS TRENTON, N. J.: MacCreLuisu & Quiciey, State Printers, Orrosite Post OrFicz 1900, BOARD OF MANAGERS. His ‘Excellency FOSTER M. re Governor, and ex officio President of the Board, .. . as . . . Trenton. I, Congressional District. EDWARD C. STOKES, ....°. ... ... «. « Millville. CLEMENT H. SINNICKSON, ..... . ; : . Salem, Il, Congressional District. EMMOR ROBERTS,.......-. ..-+++s . . Moorestown. WASHINGTON A, ROEBLING, .........-... Trenton. III. Congressional District. HENRY Si LITTLE 2 sce el eee ea ee ee ee Matawan. M. D. VALENTINE, ......-.5 eee ry Wh age ae Woodbridge. IV. Congressional District. FREDERICK A. CANFIELD, . ....-.....+4.4. Dover. GEORGE RICHARDS, .........-.-2+.-e-46+2658 Dover. V. Congressional District. GEORGE W. WHEELER,........-..-.+2-e.08- Hackensack. WILLIAM F, HALL, .. 2.2.2... 0 2. eee ee eee Pompton Lakes. VI. Congressional District. THOMAS T. KINNEY, .........55 5+ 4508 Newark. FREDERIC W. STEVENS, ..........-.06685 Newark. VIL Congressional District. LEBBEUS B. WARD,..- ..-...+-+-. .. . Jersey City, SAMUEL B. DOD, .......-.-. if . . Hoboken, VIII. Congressional District. ERNEST A. ACKERMAN,. ...... . . .. Plainfield. WENDELL P. GARRISON,........ .. . Orange. PREFACE. The forests of the State have been considered as coming within the limits of the investigations and surveys of the Geo- logical Survey, and the determination of the extent of the forested land and the mapping of these lands have been included in the work of the Topographic Division. Early in the history of the Topographic Survey the mapping of the forest area was made to take note of the pine lands, the cedar- swamp lands and the mixed pine and deciduous forest. Some attention was given to the condition of the timber and to its protection against forest fires, and in the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1885 there was a section on Forestry and Forest Fires. On the completion of the topographic survey of the State in 1887 the publication of the Atlas of Topographic Maps gave practically sectional forest maps, which showed the location, extent and topographic situation of all the forested lands in the State. In the Report on Topography, published in 1888, and entitled “Final Report of the State Geologist, Vol. I, Topography, Magnetisin and Climate,” there were many notes on the extent and nature of the forests, and their relation to the characteristic soils of the great natural divisions of the State. Inthe Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1891 the oak-land and pine-land belts of Southern New Jersey were described by C. W. Coman, Assistant Geologist to the Survey. The studies of Mr. C. C. Vermeule, Topographer of the Survey, on Water-Supply and Water-Power, which were begun in 1890, also covered the subject of forests and their relation to water- supply. His annual reports for 1890, 1891, 1892 and 1893 and the full report in 1894 had many references to the forested con- ditions of the several water-sheds. The first specific enactment of the.Legislature directing a survey of the forested lands of the Sate was made in the session (v) vi PREFACE. of 1894. It provided for a survey, to be made under the direc- tion of the Board of Managers of the Geological Survey, by the State Geologist, assisted by a competent botanist and expert in forestry. ‘The leading objects of this survey of the wooded lands of the State were to ascertain their extent, character and location and “the advantages as regards timber-supply, water- supply, scenery and climate of the State, which would accrue from the conservation of existing forests” by the establishment of a State forest reservation, and the preparation of a report which should give “an outline of the policy and legislation of other States and countries for the preservation of forests and their regulation for public ends so far as the same may be applicable to this State.” The field work was begun in the summer of 1894, and in the Annual Report of the Survey for that year there were two papers; one by Mr. Vermeule, “On Forestry in the Northern Part of the State,” and one by John Gifford, entitled “A Preliminary Report on the Forest Condi- tions of South Jersey.” In 1895 the reports were entitled: “Report on Forestry in Northern New Jersey,” by C. C. Ver- meule; “Report on Forest Fires for Season of 1895,” by John Gifford, and “ Notes on the Forests of New Jersey,” by Gifford Pinchot. In 1896 Mr. Gifford had a report: ‘‘ Notes Collected During a Visit to the Forests of Holland, Germany, Switzer- land and France.” In 1897 Mr. Gifford Pinchot, who had been appointed botanist to the Survey (now Chief of the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture), surveyed the south- ern part of the State, and his report, entitled “A Study of Forest Fires and Wood Production in Southern New Jersey,” was published as an appendix to the last Annual Report of the . State Geologist. Mr. Vermeule prepared a paper on ‘‘ The Pine Belt of Southern New Jersey and Water-Supply,” for the same annual. Professor Arthur Hollick, of Columbia University, New York, was engaged in 1896 and 1897 to study the distribu- tion of the tree species in the State and their relation to the geological formations. A summary of the results of his studies was incorporated in the administrative report for’ 1898. The general report made at this time has four principal divi- sions or parts. Part I, by C. C. Vermeule, gives a general description of the forested area and the conditions of the timber PREFACE. vii in the several natural divisions of the State. In his notes on the forests of Southern New Jersey, Mr. Vermeule has made use of the report of Mr. Pinchot. The sections on “The Effects of Fire,” “The Plains,” and “ Silvicultural Notes on the White Cedar,” are by Mr. Pinchot. Two important sections at the end of this Part, on “ Forests and Water-Supply ” and “ Forests and Climate,” contain the conclusions of Mr. Vermeule’s years of study of the great question of water-supply and its relations. Part II, “The Relation Between Forestry and Geology in New Jersey,” is by Prof. Arthur Hollick. It contains many facts about the distribution of the more commion trees of the State and discusses their relation to the geological formations and the evolution of the tree species. Professor Hollick divides the State into a zone of deciduous or broad-leaved trees, a Con- iferous Zone, and an intermediate one which he terms “ The Ten- sion Zone.” Part III, ‘“‘ The Role of Insects in the Forest,” is contributed by Professor John B. Smith, of New Brunswick, and State Entomologist. . Part IV, “The Forestal Conditions and Silvicultural Pros- pects of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey,” is by Dr. John Gif- ford, Professor in the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University. His report has many notes on the condi- tions of the forests in the southern part of the State, and many suggestions about industries which may help the land-owner, and practical recommendations for protection against fires, as drawn from his observations of the Belgian Campine, in the Landes of France and the heath-lands of Northern Germany. The Introduction is by the State Geologist. The meteorological statistics in the section on “ Forests and Climate,” in Part I, were furnished: by E. W. McGann, Section Director of the New Jersey Weather Bureau, for the New Jersey stations. The results of the studies of these official records of temperature and rain-fall are condensed in graphic form in the State maps, Plates XI, XII and XIII. After Mr. Vermeule’s investigation and careful study of these records in relation to forested areas, the plan of this report, including a part on “Forests and Climate,” was changed, and the paper was omitted. vili PREFACE. The illustrations in the volume are in part from photographs taken by Mr. Pinchot and used in his report in 1898, and photo- graphs from Mr. Gifford of European forest scenes and scenery. The maps consist of a State inap on the scale of five miles to' an inch, showing the forest density by shaded areas, and the large six-sheet map of ‘‘’The Forests of Northern New Jersey,” based on the topographic maps and on a scale of one mile to an inch. ‘The maps were prepared under the immediate super- vision and direction of the topographer, C. C. Vermeule. The printing was done by Messrs. Julius Bien & Co., engravers and printers of the topographic maps of the Geological Survey. The ample opportunities given by the printers, Messrs Mac- Crellish & Quigley, for careful revision of proofs and their interest in the mechanical execution of the work deserve record in this place. This Report is necessarily incomplete, and at the end of the work in its preparation it is as if we were at the beginning of our studies of forestry, so wide is the range of inquiry and so far afield do the associated groups of related studies lead us. Cognizant of its imperfections, it is sent out to give information as to our needs of a scientific treatment of our forests and a State policy of protection and to stimulate a growing sentiment about forestry into an active practice of silviculture. It is hoped that it may appeal to all lovers of trees and of our woodlands as: well as to the large landholders, and that its suggestions may take form in natural parks in the vicinity of our cities, in forest and game preserves in our Highlands and Kittatinny mountains and in the Pines of Southern New Jersey, and in timbered lands throughout all the State where wood shall be a valuable crop, and all protected and fostered by an intelligent public senti- ment. Joun C. Smock, State Geologist. TRENTON, N. J. PREFACE. ix Law Authorizing this Survey and Report. [Laws of New Jersey--Session 1894, Chapter CXX.] 1. BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey, That the state geologist, under the direction of the board of managers of the geological survey, and with the assistance of a competent botanist to be selected by said board for his expert knowledge of forestry and of the forest trees of this state, and such other expert assistance as may be required for the purpose, shall make an investigation to ascertain the extent, character and location of the wild lands in this state which are suited for permanent occupation by forests rather than by agriculture, and shall report the results of such investigation to the legislature, together with a statement of what part or parts of such lands would be suitable for a state forest reserve, and the advantages as regards the timber-supply, water-supply, scenery and climate of the state, which would accrue from the conservation of existing forests by the establish- ment of such reserve or otherwise ; the investigation so to be made shall , determine the extent to which forests of timber of commercial value now exist in the state, and include a study of the localities and areas which are specially adapted to the growth of designated kinds of timber of com- mercial value ; it shall also include an examination as to the presence or absence of forest cover upon the slopes and summits of the more important water-sheds of the state, and a study of the effect of such conditions as now exist upon the maintenance of the streams therein and the regulation of the freshet-flow thereof ; the report to the legislature shall state the arguments touching the ‘beneficial effect, upon climate and rainfall attributable to the presence of forests, and shall likewise present an out- line of the policy and legislation of other states and countries for the preservation of forests and their regulation for public ens, so far as the same may be applicable to this state. 2. And be it enacted, That the expense of making such investigation and report, shall, when duly audited by the board of managers and approved by the governor and comptroller, be paid out of the funds in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, and shall be limited to five thousand dollars. 3. And be it enacted, That this act shall take effect immediately. Approved May 1, 1894. ' CONTENTS. f PAGES. Introduction; +. jo #8 #8 S82) Fe eas I-12 Part I. The Forests of New Jersey. By C. C. Vermeule. “Physical Condition of Forests of New Jersey, ..... bay CDBSAS Distribution of Forests, - 2... 2 1 ee ee ee 15-16 Area of Forest by Counties, ........... -... 16-18 Changes in Forest Area... .- 2... 2... eee ae “TSR IG Changes in Physical Condition, ..... .....-. os 1923 Value of Forest Product,... 6.2... 2-2 ee ee eee 23-25 Value of Standing Timber,...... ite Tels tGldMb a Gals 25-28 Range in Sizes of Standing Timber, ............- 28-29 Toate Ere eS x: ie yee cap a So ah Gh ata Bh eee thee tee 8 wy a Ss 29-32 Relative Productiveness of Topographic Divisions, ..... 32-34 Growth Of TEES, swe wk we a we Ew ew ee 34-37 Influence of Moisture, .. 2... - 6 eee ee eee es 37-39 Forest Fires, ..... By = Sieh Gate Godt Svaiee! dans ae CEs ced] ote WEB Re SG 39-41 Forest Management,... 2... 2-5. eee eee eee eee 41-43 ‘Field Notes of Forest Conditions, .......... ao = » Q5-TOL Introduction and Classification, .......605050 0 es 45-46. Northeastern Highlands,. ..... 1... +. ewe eaee 46-67 Southwestern Highlands, .........6.2+0+422- 67-76 Passaic Valley, . 2. 6 2 ee eee ee ee ee 76-80 Watchung Mountains, .. 2... eee ee ee 80-83 Hackensack Valley, .. ...... beta By kee 83-87 Palisades Mountain, ... -.-..%- 2+ we eee 87-88 ‘Remainder of Glaciated Red Sandstone, .......... 88-89 Unglaciated Red Sandstone, .....-...-.0-08-.- 89-95 Pines Belt—Northwest Border,. .........-+088. 95-100 Fires in the Pine Forest,. .......2...-- - « . IOO-IOI “The Effects of Fire. By GirFForD PINCHOT,.......... 103-108 Damage to Standing Trees, .. 2... 2. ep eee 103-104 Effect on Cedar Swamps,........-.-.+2-. oe 104. Injury to Young Growth, ........-.-0-....024. 104 Injury to the Soil, . 2... .. Wh Te. chet, ence 104 Moral Effect of Fires on Population, Biase 107-108 (xi) Xil CONTENTS. Effect of Fire on Forest Production. By GiFFoRD PINCHOT, The Original Timber, Second Growth, . ........... Conclusions from Valuation Surveys, ... .......- Descriptions of Representative Areas, oe Original Forest at Winslow, .......-...-+45. Original Forest at New Lisbon, . .......... Second Growth at Whitings, ©. . ........ Pine Sprouts at Whitings,...... 0 1... Second Growth After Fire,. ...........04. The Plains. By GiFFORD PINCHOT, . = .....5..4. Ageofthe Pine, 2c sc ee eae we Ee we Cause of Present Condition, : seme e see Silvicultural Notes on the White Cedar. ” By GIFFORD PINCHOT, Situation; © ce — Method of Investigation Pursued, ............ Facts Ascertained,. . 2... ..... 202 ae ‘ Discussion of the Facts, .. 2... .. ee ee ‘II. Historical Development, ...... «w«....., ite ih Preliminary Discussion, ......... ... ee Mesozoic Time) 4 <2 s 4 GG 2 ee BAO RR OR me eS TrlassicPeriod ss: ters. a wig Bete Seal wl aD we A Jurassic Period, ¢ 42.6 eee ee eA Re ew SS Cretaceous Period, 0.00 2 ee ee ew INGOZOIG! TAGS, 6: ae a ts te Aw ee we ew Tertiary Period, « a % @ 8 @ ow ae ee em Quaternary Period, ........0..0.200004. Concluding Remarks, ...... 0.2.00 0 0000. ' 175 177-193 173-179 180-181 18I-I90 . 190-193 193-201 193-194 194-199 194 195 195-197 197-199 197-198 198-199 CONTENTS. _ xiii Part II. ‘The Role of Insects in the Forest. By John B, Smith, __ Introduction, ......... tate. -otas. Shige da oh ah nak Fe 205 Foliage-Destroying Insects, ...... be EER Eee BOR HS 205-208 GallsrOM Tress. soko ehh Shab Ge aR IS SS Re aw, BX 208-210 Scale Miseéctsiue eis eee cca a “ees ed Se a ee es 210-211 OVENS 20 820 ae oie a. gpa a eo ae ae Se) eC eae 211-222 Insects in Dead Wood,. . .. 2... 2 eee ee 222-228 Care of Forests and Protection Against Insects, . ...... 228-232 Part IV. Forestal Conditions and Silvicultural Prospects of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey. By John Gifford. ’ I. General Description, ....... S a “eee eles 235-263 ; Boundaries—Life-Zones—Soil, ...........080- 235-238 THE Plaitisy. oc) ee ace. ee wa ee Te ee ew 238-247 The Pine Barrens, ...... Ss ihtatte Ute acay Se ME sates. Gy tg fe 241-244 TheSwamp Lands, ........ ee ehh. cata 244-248 The Salt Marshes, ... Poe ae Be | iw A ee 248-250 The Coastal Dunes, .........26. .2..04. 250-252 Historical Notes, ... ....... oh 2 & @ Bh24257 Forest Industries, ©. «....... bo... 257-263 II. Forest Policy and Silmealiatal Kaneatioss, see ew © 265-292 Forest. Policy) i 0% @¢ exh ae “a aa es 265-276 Silvicultural Suggestions, . . . «4 276-292 ITI, Parts of Europe Similar to Southern Ney) ease. : . . 293-318 General Statement, Sr ONE eed: AEs alee Meee YS 293-295 The Belgian Campine, ereledue. 3d . 296-302 The Dunes and Landes of Gascony. @.) os tehay eae sas dak 302-309 The Banat Sand-Desert of Southern Hungary, 309-311 The Liineburg and Other Adjacent Heath and Moor Lands, 311-316 Forestry in Denmark, .......... so ade Se 316-318 WdeXh oe Gl we a eS Oe See ee eG Ree a 321-327 ILLUSTRATIONS. Maps. Map of-Forests of Northern New Jersey (in six sheets),. . . _. In tube. Map of New Jersey, showing the Density of Forest, .. . In tube. Plates. Facing Page Plate I.—New Jersey ; Showing Geological Formations, . 5 13 Plate II.—Diagram showing Rate of Growth of Short-leaf Pine and of Deciduous Trees, . . 34 Plate III.—New Jersey ; Showing Petcentage we Borest ‘Caner anil Limits of Deciduous and Coniferous Forest, . . 95 Plate IV.—Pitch Pine sprouting in the crown, after a fire which killed all the leaves, Ocean county, . cee TOE Plate V.—Original Pine Forest at New Lisbon, .... . ... IIo Plate VI.—Second Growth Pitch Pine, Ocean county, ....... 115 Plate VII.—Badly Burned Pine, with Stunted Oak Sprouts under- neath, Burlington county, IIQ- Plate VIII.—Repeatedly Burned Land, with Sprouts ‘of Oak and Pine, Tuckerton, ........ se 8 123 Plate IX.—General View of the East Plains, ....... 125 Plate X.—Curve Showing Average Growth of White Cedar, : 131 ‘Plate XI.—New Jersey ; Showing Mean Annual Rain-fall and Mean Temperature, . . 167 Plate XII.—New Jersey; Showing Mean Rainfall for Growing Months, and Mean Summer Temperature, .. 167 Plate XIII.—New Jersey ; Showing Mean Rain-fall for Months of No Growth, and Mean Winter Temperature, .. .. 167 Plate XIV.—Secular Changes in Annual Rain-fall, . .. 170 Plate XV.—The Tulip Soft Scale, Lecanium Tutipifera, oie 210 Plate XVI.—Burrows made by the Hickory Bark-beetle. This is a section of bark from a tree about 15 inches in diam- eter, killed by theseinsects,...... ...... 212 Plate XVII.—Entrance to the Pheasantry of Compeigne, France, 233 Plate XVIII.—The Plains of South Jersey, ..........0.. 238 Plate XIX.—The Pines at Lakewood,. .... Saks. AS ee Plate XX.—A White-Cedar Swamp, Magnolia Glauca, . . . . 246 Plate XXI.—The Crest of the Sand Dune on Seven-Mile Beach, . 250 Plate XXII.—Hollies on Seven-Mile Beach, ...... 251 Plate XXIII.—A Group of Red Cedars on the Coast of New jeisey, 252 (xv) Xvi ILLUSTRATIONS. \ . Facing Page Plate XXIV.—Binding Twigs into Faggots; Sawing Boards by Handin France, .... . «....es 288 Plate XXV.—An Avenue on the Dutch Dunés, 204 Plate XXVI.—Natives of the Landes ; a Church which was Buried by the Sand on the French Dunes,....... 303 Plate XXVII.—A Forest on the French Dunes, near Arcachon, . . 304 Plate XXVIII.—Arcachon,. . , ? : 308 Plate KXIX.—The Foliage of the Locust, . 310 Plate XXX.—Domberg, a Resort in the Lea of the eciud Dunes ; A Piece of Reclaimed Marsh Land in Zeeland, x? 342 Plate XXXI.—A Fire-lane in the Pinery on the Dunes of Gascony, 318 Figures in Text. Page Figure 1.—Map Showing Forest Zones,.. . .....--..2046- 182 Figure 2.—Elm-Leaf -Beetle; Larva, Pupa and Beetle; from Div. Ent. U.S: Dept Ag, «aos «eee we eee ys .. 207 Figure 3.—A Spongy Oak Gall: from Riley, ....... . . 208 Figure 4.—A Stick of Oak, Showing Woodpecker Holes, . . 213 eeu 5.—The Same Stick as Figure 4, Cut nee to Show the Burrow Made by Larva,... . 214 Bigtee 6.—Goat Moths ; Female, Male and ee Peet Riley, . . 216 Figure ‘7. —Round-headed Apple Borer: from Div. Ent. U. S. Dep't Ag la eal: bop GR se a Ge Dok Ghee Goh ale 219 Figure 8.—Giant Borers, Prionus Species: from Riley, ...... 219 Figure 9.—A ‘‘ Bark-Slipper,’’ Phymalodes, sp. in all stages —larva, pupaandadult, . é ++ 224 INTRODUCTION. Relation of Geology to Forestry— Historical Notes on Forests— Present Condition of Forests— Climatic Influence of Forests— Educational and Aesthetical Elements—Protection Against Forest Fires—Duty of the State. RELATION OF GEOLOGY TO FORESTRY. The subject of forestry and a report on the forests of the State belong naturally to the work of the Geological Survey, because the forests are related closely to the geological formations, and the Survey has within its scope of investigations the surface formations and the origin of the soils which are natural to these formations. The Division of Surface Geology has been a leading one for the field seasons of 1891 to 1899, and the surveys in this division have covered the State. The forests are the natural vegetal cover of these surface formations, and are characteristic of them. From the geological map, which shows in detail the subdivisions of these formations, and gives their geographic limits, it is possible to learn the general nature of the timber growing naturally on them. The geological map becomes, therefore, the key to the forest map. The State is marked in its topographic features, which are in some degree the expression of the geologic differences, and diverse forms of the topography affect to some extent the soil conditions and the vegetation. The differences in height are not great enough to make zones of climate, but they have an influence in determining the Aadztat or locality which is favor- able to certain species or varieties of trees and unfavorable to others, and in giving character to the forest as an assemblage of trees. 2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. HISTORICAL NOTES ON FORESTS. New Jersey as one of the Middle Atlantic States was originally well wooded and well watered, and the early settlers within its bounds had to make their clearings on the border of the great continental forests of North America. A pamphlet published in 1648, entitled ‘“‘A Description of the Province of New Albion,” &c., tells of the richness of the soil “replenished with the good- liest woods of oak, and all timber for ships and masts, mulber- ries, sweet cypresse, cedars, pines and firres.”* Thomas Budd, in his quaint story of ‘“‘Good Order Established in Pennsilvania - and New Jersey in America,” printed in 1685, says: “The P2ve- Tree groweth here, out of which is made Pitch, Tar, Rosin and Turpentine.”+ Gabriel Thomas in his ‘‘West-New Jersey,” print- ed in 1698, says: “In this country also is great plenty of working Timber, as Oaks, Ash, Chestnuts, Pine, Cedar, Wainut, Poplar, firr, and Masts for Ships, with Pitch and Rosin of great use and much benefit to the Country.”{ In a further account of the many navigable rivers, he says of “‘ Timber-River alias Glocester- River, which hath its name (also) from the great quantity of curious Zzméber, which they send in great Floats to Phzladelphia, a City in Pennsilvania, as Oaks, Pines, Chestnuts, Ash and Ce- dars.”§ The following extract is from the Travels of Johann David Sch"pf in the middle and southern United States of North America, in 1777, published at Erlangen, Germany, in 1788.|| “The mining and metallurgical industry in New Jersey, as every- where in America, cannot be enduring in its present condition becatise no care is taken, as is done in most districts in Europe, to maintain the forests, and many works must stop without unin- terrupted supplies of coal and timber, as is here and there already the case. There is not the slightest care of the forests. The owners of forges and furnaces have generally large tracts of woodland, which are cut over without order. * * * The * Smith’s Hist. of New Jersey, Burlington, 176s, ‘pp. 27-28. + Reprint in Gowan’s Bibliotheca Americana, No. 4, p. 35. t An Historical and Geographical Account of the Province and Country of Pennsilvania and West- New-Jersey, London—1698, p. 27. 2 Gabriel Thomas, page 28. || Reise durch einige der mittleren und sudlichen Vereinigten Nordamerikanischen Staaten, Erlangen, 1788, Vol. 1,P 43+ s REPORT ON FORESTS. 3 Union, a blast furnace in Jersey, consumed in 12 to 15 years the wood from nearly 20,000 morgen* and must be abandoned in consequence of the want of wood. It is true that this cleared land was afterwards settled in farms, but it was not of much value because of the lack of wood. * * * The timber in these mountainous regions consists for the most part of deciduous trees, and mostly of oak, which does not appear to be of very rapid growth in Americas * * * ‘There are no forest game regulations; no forest officials in America. Whoever takes up new land acquires full privileges with all on, over and under it. It would not, therefore, be easy to teach the peasants and Jand-owners by law how to husband their wood so that their great-graudchildren may have a stick of wood upon which to hang their tea-kettle. Want and experience must here replace magisterial foresight. As yet there is no gen- eral want of timber. Only in the towns wood is dear because cutting and hauling make the cost four to five times that of standing timber.” Thomas Gordon in 1834 said that an “1 mense forest covers probably four-fifths of the alluvial district ; and forty years ago a large portion of it was not worth more than from six to ten cents the acre. * * * ‘They have risen from ten cents, to an average price of six dollars the acre; and, where very well timbered and convenient to market, bring from fifteen to twenty-five dollars. * * * In the sandy region are extensive swamps which bear the beautiful and valuable white cedar, much sought for fencing, and which sells readily at from one to three hundred dollars the acre.’’+ These historical accounts show that there was lumbering at an early period in the settlement of the State and that the original timber was large and valuable. Gordon in the above-mentioned description of the State refers to the pine belt as having been largely cut over, owing to the demands of the furnaces, forges, glass-works, and the many steamboats on the rivers. Much valuable wood was consumed as fuel, and the original forest disappeared almost wholly from the lands near navigable waters. The rich agricul- tural districts had been nearly all taken up in farms at the begin- ning of the century, and from that time the progress in clearing m- * Morgen = German acre = 4 acre. + A Gazetteer of the State of New Jersey, by Thomas F. Gordon, Trenton—1834, pp. 2-3. ‘ 4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. was probably due to the increasing demand for wood, rather than that for farm-land. The growth of the manufacturing interests and the construction of the canals, and then the railway lines, made the consumption of wood so active that cutting made rapid inroads in the deeper recesses of the forests and the whole State -was practically cut over by 1850-1860. Since that time the timber cut has been nearly all of “‘second growth,” and but a small part of it has been merchantable lumber. ‘The disappear- ance of the large timber has made it necessary to cut over at shorter periods and leave little or no growth to reach mature conditions fit for lumbering.* New Jersey has ceased to be a lumber-producing State. PRESENT CONDITION OF FORESTS, The existing conditions of the forests vary greatly in the several great natural divisions of the State. In the farming dis- tricts every farm has its wood-lot or ¢2mber land, which may range from an acre to a hundred-acre tract, or, in some cases, even two or three hundred acres, although these larger tracts are generally outlying and not a part of the farm. Generally they are the home-supply of fuel and fencing-timber and ‘heavier construction-work of the farm and the neighborhood. In these wood-lots the largest and best timber of the State is to be found, and the oak on the limestone and slate of the valleys in Sussex, Warren and Morris counties, on the red-shale in Hunterdon, Somerset, Mercer and Middlesex counties, and on the red-shale and glacial drift soils in Bergen, Essex and Union counties, is thrifty in growth and large. In the clay and greensand marl belts of the State the chestnut predominates. As coppice wood it is rapid-growing and valuable timber. Very little pine timber is in these wood-lots, unless occasionally as the growth on an old field, and rarely any mixed stand of coniferous and deciduous trees. In many cases they are pure forest. ‘These wood-lots are protected against fire by their separate situations, and their * The largest white-oak tree in the State is in Gloucester County, three miles north of Mickleton, and its dimensions, as given by Dr. J. 1’. Rothrock, are: Height, 95 feet; diameter of trunk, three feet above the ground, 7 feet 10 inches; spread of branches, 118 feet. The dimensions of the famous Salem white-oak are: Height, 78 feet; circumference, four feet above ground, 18 feet 3 inches; spread of branches, 112 feet ; area covered by branches, 9,852 square feet. These trees are older than the settle- ment of the country and are of the forest which then covered the country. REPORT ON FORESTS. 5 owners take care that they are not damaged by cattle running at large and by the careless and malicious acts of trespassers. The forest management in protection is the best, but the treat- ment is not generally that of a crop, except when the timber is cut or the land is cleared for additional fields. The gathering of the crop is undoubtedly well done and better and more profit- able than would be possible under State or any public control of these lots. The weak point in the system or management is the indifference of the owner to the kind of timber and the thickness of the stand of the trees. A careful examination of these lots shows that in many the trees are of inferior kinds, of brushy form and thin stand, allowing of too much under- growth. At this point scientific forest management would be helpful and the crop would be correspondingly more valuable. Scientific forestry should aid the farmer in caring for wood-lot just as the tillage of the soil and the pasturage of these farms have been improved greatly by the application of the principles of science to agriculture. In the mountainous districts of the State the variation is more in the kind of timber. The Kittatinny mountain has a mixed growth of coniferous and deciduous trees, and also the more rocky parts of the Bearfort and Green Pond mountains. The Highlands forest is nearly all of the broad-leaf kinds, and the chestnut predominates among them. Coniferous trees are scarce. The trap-rock ridges have.a more mixed growth on them, and poor in quality. The woodland in these mountainous districts is held generally in large tracts, from several hundred to several thousands of acres, and owing to their size fires occur and burn over large areas, particularly where there are pines in the growth. The damage from cattle and from trespassers also is here felt. Very little of the timbér is mature or old, the whole having been cut over since the first settlement of the country, and over large areas there have been repeated cuttings for the fuel used in forges, furnaces and in railway use and other constructions. In the Highlands the losses from fires are comparatively little and the protection is efficient. Here also silviculture might come in to the advantage of the large land- holders, and the scientific forester might be helpful in caring properly for the timber, and in cutting so as to promote better successive growths. 6 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The wooded zone of Southern New Jersey, which is known s “The Pines,” has some sharp contrasts between its coarse, sandy soils, covered by the pitch pine almost exclusively, its heavier soils, with mixed oak and pine, its white-oak bottoms, its white-cedar swamps and its mixed swamp lands. The size of the holdings is large, running up to tens of thousands of acres. The ravages of fire and the severe cutting have left scarcely any large timber, and the original forest has disappeared from these wide stretches of pine lands and cedar swamps. Owing to the frequency of fires over a large part of the Pines belt the timber is oak coppice and stunted pines. ‘The cedar continues thrifty and springs up quickly after cutting. The care of the forest, excepting that of a few individual tracts and of two or three companies, is practically of no value in promoting a better growth, and the lack of some forceful system of protection makes any forestry experiments impracticable. The forests in the agricultural districts of the State are dis- tributed somewhat irregularly, and the proper proportion of woodland to improved land in farms is not maintained through- out these districts. In some parts of the Raritan valley the cleared area is continuous for miles, and the fringe of trees bordering the brooks is about all that is left of what was a heavily-timbered valley. The valleys of the limestone and slate in Warren county are also bare of forest. Throughout the southern-central part of the State, and particularly in the green- sand-marl zone, the woods are well distributed among the farms and make a pleasing diversity in the landscape, as well as answer- ing the claims of forestry in the proper relation of cleared land to forest. It would be well in places to let some of the more rocky hill-tops and the steep hill-sides be left for planting with valuable timber trees, and the ravines and gullies as well as the thin soils, which are too poor for profitable farming, and allow them to grow upin wood. A reduction in the average size of the farms would lead to what is termed “more intensive farming,” and the increased acreage in woodland would add to the total production by its crop of timber, particularly if some care were taken in seeding the wood-lots with more valuable timber trees, and the cuttings were not so severe as at present. An educated public opinion favoring the keeping of these lands, which are REPORT ON FORESTS. 7 ill-suited to farming, in forest and the practice of more scientific methods of agriculture must be depended upon to maintain the proper proportion of woodland to farmed lands in these districts’ of the State. In the Highlands, on the Kittatinny mountain, on the trap- rock ridges, including the Palisades mountain, and in the Pines belt of Southern New Jersey, there are large tracts which should be kept in forest. General clearing would be unprofit- able in the Kittatinny mountain because the surface is too rocky and the soil too thin for making farms on it. The inaccessibility ou account of lack of roads and the distance from market, make it ill-suited to agriculture. This mountain range is one of the natural subdivisions of the State which may be considered as adapted to forest—it may be game preserves, or woodland for the production of wood. ‘The Highlands is a well-wooded natural division of the State, and especially the northern part, or about as far south as the line of the Lackawanna Rail- road, from Morristown westerly to Hackettstown, and thence to Belvidere. The terminal moraine marks the southern limit of the more densely wooded part. The southern part, stretching southwest to the Delaware river, is more largely in farms and under cultivation. The map which accompanies this report shows the cleared land and the woodland in detail. It may be noted that the slopes of the hills and mountains, and the moun- tain-tops are generally wooded ; the farm-lands are in the valley- bottoms, and on the level plateaus. The timber is generally chestnut and oak and other broad-leaf species. In places chest- nut coppice wood predominates over all other kinds. ‘There is less white oak, hickory and ash than on the limestone and slate of the Highland valleys and the Kittatinny valley. Black walnut, tulip poplar and beech are scarce. The coniferous trees are white pine, pitch pine, hemlock, larch and red cedar. The value of this Highlands forest is in the favorable conditions which it makes for gathering ground for the streams supplying water to the cities of the northeastern part of the State. The brooks in the woods do not carry so much earthy material as streams which receive water from bare ground and ploughed fields. The water is clear and not turbid or roily and is suited to city supply. The superior quality of water from such wooded dis- tricts, over that gathered in a cleared farming country, makes it 8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. desirable that the forests in the Highlands should be kept, and not be cleared and putin farms. The tillage and pasturage of the flats and of the level tops may be unobjectionable ; the slopes of the mountains and the steep hillsides should not be cleared, but be kept in woods. The need of all the water of this Highlands region, within the next half century, by our cities and towns, emphasizes the value of the water-supply which it has, and the necessity of keeping it in large part in woodland for the quality of the water as well asthe quantity. The Pines Belt of Southern New Jersey also has an important relation to the great question of public water-supply, and the cities and towns on the Delaware river and the sea-side towns on the ocean-front are yet to get their water from this broad zone of the Coastal Plain, watered by many streams now well fed from the never-failing and equable flow out the pure’sands and gravels of these beds of late geological age. The capacity of this South Jersey region to supply water of excellent quality and with steady flow, makes it valuable as a preserve or reservation for this use, aside from the lumber and timber which might be produced, were it not for the fires which consume trees and soil and leave barren sands exposed to the dangers of moving by the wind. ‘The forest question is here all-important, but the production of wood asa _crop is not so essential to the conservation of the water-supply as the maintenance of a cover of trees and shrubs. CLIMATIC INFLUENCE OF FORESTS. The relation of forests to climate is close and yet is not capa- ble of expression in exact terms, because of the great variation in the working of the agents which make our climates and their great effects, in comparison with the lesser influence attributable to the forest. On continental plains and near great oceans the influences of great land-masses or of wide water-areas are so great in their sweep that the relatively insignificant cover which even a tall forest may afford is a small factor in the making of climate. The islands in the ocean, e g. Great Britain and Ireland, have an, insular climate which no extent of woodlands could alter greatly. Our continental climate also is determined by topographic and not by forestal conditions. The forest is, however, a shade to the ground, and protects against what is REPORT ON FORESTS. 9 termed insolation or excessive heating by the rays of the sun falling directly upon it. The influence in lessening the quan- tity of water evaporated from the surface also is recognized, although it is offset by the transpiration of water by the leaves of the tree and drawn up by the tree from the ground-water. The most important beneficial influence of the forest is as a wind-break, and in reducing the sensible effects of extreme heat and severe cold. The moderating and softening influences of forests are known, but are not so well recognized as they ought to be by students of climate and by the people generally. The shelter of a narrow belt of trees or of woods against the dry parching winds of summer and the cold waves of winter is not only a comfort to man, but also a protection to many of the more delicate forms of vegetation and to some farm crops. Hence the value in an agricultural district of wood-lots which may serve as wind-breaks. In sandy soils high winds tend to move the loose grains and to form shifting bodies of sand or dunes, which bury vegetation in the march and tend to produce conditions like those of a desert. Hence in a country whose surface is sandy, as that of southeastern New Jersey, timber belts are necessary to arrest this movement. Frequent fires have, in places, made so barren a soil that this desolating dune-formation is appearing and is threatening to widen its reach. The influence of the forest upon the stream-flow of any country is mainly upon the discharge or rate of flow, and not upon the total volume of water which runs off in the streams, and the layer of vegetable mold or humus of the soil is in the nature of a sponge, taking up the water and holding it, thereby. reducing the flow in the case of light rains and yielding a con- stant supply after heavier rainfalls.* The study of the subject of stream-flow in New Jersey points to the necessity of a forest cover in order to protect the soil and prevent it being carried away into the streams, and making the water turbid and filthy, and in providing a bed of leaf-mold and humus to hold the water * The woodlands of our day are largely of coppice growth and of small trees as compared with the giants of the original forest. The layer of humus was then large, due to the accumulation of decaying tree-trunks and the litter of many seasons, and the more dense growth of ferns and other shade-loving plants. The thicker bed of humus was able to hold a larger volume of water and its influence was cor- respondingly greater than it is to-day, when the forest litter is scanty—perhaps the growth of a few seasons only. Fires burn over woods so frequently that there is practically no humus such as the original forest had. The total area of swamps also has been reduced largely and the catchment basins are now mountain-tops and hillsides, rather than valleys and swamps, 10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. against too rapid discharge in ordinary floods. ‘The beneficial effects are sufficient to call for some restriction upon further and extensive clearing. EDUCATIONAL AND ASTHETICAL ELEMENTS. The preservation of some of the forests for the purposes of — education is of public importance. To the student of botany the woodland must always be the place for earnest work and full of fruitful suggestions and valuable facts. There trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants are found in their native “adzzat, and their relations to one another are there studied to the best advantage. The clearing of all the country around our large towns and cities makes it necessary now to go far afield to study the flora of the natural woods. The reservation of tracts of woodland in easily accessible locations will help to counteract the losses due to so wide clearing of the forest, and will make it possible for the scholars of city schools to study how plants and trees grow in their native woods. The text-book cannot take the place of living forms. The woods should be kept as nature’s arboreta for the benefit of the schools. The preservation of typical species of the plant-world and also of those which are characteristic of any locality or district, as the mountain tops, the sheltered valleys of the Highlands, and the swamps and sandy plains in Southern New Jersey, calls for the preservation of some of the forests. Extensive clearing threatens to exterminate some of the more rare and more inter- esting species and to break up the grouping of forms as they are now to be seen in these wild conditions of the forest. It would be a public misfortune to lose any of our characteristic species or their natural grouping, as now existing, or to have our rich botanical heritage marred by general deforestation of the State. The woodlands afford homes to our characteristic animals. They are great natural preserves where the mammals, birds and other forms native in the State are found. The clearing of the timber means the extinction or disappearance of some of our wilder species from the State. The protection of our fauna is bound up with the preservation of the forests, and the student of natural history is deeply interested in this protection. The REPORT ON FORESTS. TT question of preserves for gaine also comes in as of importance, and the sportsman as well as the naturalist wants the woodland and is the friend of protection for the forest. PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES—-DUTY OF THE STATE. The protection of the forests demands the care of the com- munity and the State in stopping the fires which are caused by carelessness, malice and avoidable accidents. The great Pines dis- trict of Southern New Jersey should be protected against fires. The forests of the Highlands should be protected against exces- sive wasting and clearing on account of their value to the pub- lic water-supply. For the encouragement of this retention of the land in wood there may be a bounty-system or rebate of taxation. The owner of woodland who derives no regular income from it and has no yearly crop might be exempted from taxation so long as the timber was uncut, or might be obliged to pay a percentage of the revenue whenever his woodland was cleared. In this way the hillsides and the more inaccessible tracts might be kept in wood. On the Blue or Kittatinny mountain the protection against fires is demanded, because of the easy in- flammability of the pitch pine, and the dry condition of the pine and deciduous-tree. leaves in the autumn and in the spring. In the southern part of the State the necessity of public protection is imperative if there is to be any production of timber or lumber in that part of the State. Both Mr. Pinchot and Mr. Gifford have recommended fire-lanes. Mr. Gifford’s suggestion that these lanes be also public roads, and possibly State roads, is a good one so far as protection goes. Some system of protection must be adopted if ever these terrible forest-fires are to be stopped. If State reservations are to be created these three great divisions or districts are the ones in which they are to be located. A for- est system with State control must mean State ownership of lands in order to be effective in either protection or in the cultivation of wood as a crop in silviculture. The control of the forests by the State is a subject of great public importance and demands the careful study of the wise legislator, in order to avoid the error of excessive paternalism in government on the one hand and the reckless and riotous excesses of individual liberty and license 12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. on the other side. It is the province of this report to) give information, but at the same time it is the part of wisdom to urge that the State shall take care to inculcate sound moral instruction as well as give valuable facts. The education of the people is not wholly one of technique. The State is responsible - for order as well as sound learning, and the education or uplift- ing of the moral sentiment is as essential as that of mere school- ing in the facts of science. The people must be taught to recog- nize duty to the State as well as to individual, and no amount of technical education is of force to save the forests unless the interest of the individual coincides with that of the State. Hence an educational campaign is desirable. The State ought to continue the work of giving information about forests and forest management and protection, and also aim to create a public sentiment which shall compel the local authorities in the more densely wooded districts to stop forest fires and lead to a better care of woodland and to the restoration of the forest over lands which are not of value in tillage or pasturage in farms. Inasmuch as these surveys of the forests of the State were begun by the Geological Survey, the continuation of the work and of this educational campaign could be directed by the Board of Managers of the Survey as a Forest Commission and be done by an expert forester under the direction of said Board. The duties of this forester would be like those of State Foresters, in States which have such offices, and would be largely in col- lecting information and in distributing it by correspondence and by public lectures, bulletins and annual reports. REPORT ON FORESTS T GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEWJERSEY. NEW JERSEY 1899 POST TERTIARY TERTIARY Gravel Sand, Sandy, Clay : | KITTATINNY |: MOUNTAIN | AND VALLEY || \\ Nii) if i mh vi i} LL PART I. The Forests of New Jersey By C. C, VERMEULE. (13) Physical Condition of New Jersey Forests. The term “forest,” as used in this paper, includes all areas which are devoted to the growing of timber, whatever may be the stage of growth. ‘The forest area is therefore made up of stump land, brush land and timber of all ages, but the amount of stump and brush land is comparatively small, and only a small propor- tion of the timber exceeds fifty years in age; much the larger part ranges from 20 to 50 years. While the forest growth varies in thriftiness with the nature of the soil, practically all of the upland, if left uncultivated or unoccupied, will produce timber, consequently, exclusive of the areas occupied by towns and cities, all of the upland not under cultivation may be considered to be forest. ‘The tide-marsh areas cannot produce timber because of saltness ; there are small areas of savannah land naturally tréeless in the southern New Jersey pine belt, but the kind of alluvial lands which will not produce timber because of the exceeding fineness of the soil, such as the prairie lands of the Mississippi Basin, are almost unknown in this State. The most considerable area of upland which seems almost incapable of producing timber is that known as “the plains,” in the southeastern part of Burlington county, comprising over 14,000 acres of sandy and gravely upland, covered with a stunted arboreal growth, and which is fully described in a later chapter. In northern New Jersey most of the top of Bearfort mountain, and some limited areas of Green Pond and Copperas mountains, together with.the main crest and steep eastern escarpment of Kittatinny mountain, are too bare of soil to produce timber of consequence, but all of these barren areas together do not com- prise one per cent. of the upland area of the State. DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST. The largest continuous area of forest in the State is “the pines,’ an almost unbroken coniferous forest, covering practi- (15) 16 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. cally all of that portion of the State southeast of a line drawn from Seabright to Glassboro and thence through Bridgeton to Delaware bay, and comprising some 1,200,000 acres in all. The greatest body of deciduous forest lies on the northeastern High- lands, nearly co-extensive with the Wanaque, Pequannock, Rockaway and Upper Musconetcong water-sheds. Another con- siderable area is that of the higher portion of the Kittatinny mountain region. The following table shows the area of forest by counties : AREA OF FOREST BY COUNTIES. ea COUNTY. stent ore Forest, Acres, EE: Prevailing Kinds. BPs Atlantic, ... 35,771 271,638 | 88 Coniferous Bergen, .... 85,879 57;591 | 40 patios, é ( Coniferous, south. Burlington, . . 207,979 $93,777 | 59 } Deciduous, north. “, A Coniferous, east.’ Camden, ... 72.513 66,588 | 48 I peeiane, cance Cape May, .. 29,823 80,851} 73 Coniferous a3 E | § Coniferous, east. Cumberland, 101,316} 166,264] 62 | Mixed west Essex, ... 52,507 24,239 | 32 Deciduous. : Gloucester, . 126,685 74,818 | 37 { Couenauts deciduous and Hudson. .. 15,073 713| 05 Deciduous. Hunterdon, . . 240,438 39,481 | 14 Deciduous. Mercer, A 128,400 15,829 | II Deciduous. Middlesex, . 131,276 60,164] 31 Deciduous. Deciduous, north. Monmouth, . . 211,288 89,711 | 30 Coniferous and mixed southeast Morris, .... 163,809 140,101 | 46 Deciduous. Ocean, ... |. 47,084 313,087 | 87 Coniferous. Passaic,. .. 50, 284 75,204} 60 Deciduous Safems. od. 8 138,081 £0,057 | 27 [eee ne ances Somerset, . . 166,352 28,613 | 15 Deciduous. Sussex, ... 201,855 136,538] 40 Deciduous. Union, .. 46,954 14,350 | 23 Deciduous, Warren,. .. 171,504 60,205 | 26 Deciduous. The State .| 2,424,931 | 2.009 819] 46 The above areas were determined by actual measurement of the forest areas laid down on the topographical maps of the REPORT ON FORESTS. 17 State. Small groves, less than ten acres in extent, and strips, hedge-rows, etc., are not included. .A table of areas, by town- ships, will be found in the ‘Physical Geography of New Jersey,” pages 134 to 149 of the Appendix. It will be seen that 46 per cent., or nearly half of the upland area of the State, is in forest. The improved land in farms, according to the census of 1890, aggregates 1,999,117 acres— almost exactly equal to the forest area. Compared with neigh- boring States, we have the improved land in farms and forest area as follows: Percentage of Estimated Per- Upland centage of Area Upland Area Improved. in Forest. NGW JEISCVie. & Bote Seo aA Bes Ga te Se 46 46 Massachusetts, ........2.+-022820.5 41 51 Connecticut, . 2... 0 2... ee ee ee 53 39 New Yorks aes 2 Ga os RO Se ES A 58 34 Pennsylvania, jo cs ave: aaa es sale oe ee a ee cone 47° 45 Delaware; 4) oe) i wl eee a ele Ge ee Sas 60 a Maryland; 64,4: 4-4. Qk aoe ee a 53 39 This shows that New Jersey has more than the average amount of forest area, although, as may be seen by consulting the areas by counties, it is not evenly distributed. By geological and topographical divisions the forest areas are as follows : Percentage Forest Area, of upland ‘ P Acres, area in forest. Kittatinny Mountain, including all west to Delaware River, .......08..-4. 58,000 64 Kittatinny Valley, ...... ie SG a 40,000 19 Northeastern Highlands, .......... 211,000 67 Southwestern Highlands, ......... 89,000 30 Northeastern Red Sandstone, .. ..... 103.000 31 Southwestern Red Sandstone,........ 91,800 14 Clay and Marl Region, ........... 147,840 15 Tertiary and Quaternary, .......... 1,329 179 68 The map showing the distribution of forest and its relation to the stream catchments, which accompanies this report, gives in further detail the location of the forests of the State. This map shows the acres of forest in each one hundred acres of upland. It will be seen that the most completely deforested 2 FOR 18 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. sections—containing less than 10 acres of forest in I00 acres of upland—are not, as might at first be supposed, in the most populous regions, but in the agricultural sections, viz., the Raritan valley, in Somerset and Hunterdon counties, and thence southward in a belt about 12 miles wide along the Delaware river, in Mercer, Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and Salem counties. Other deforested areas are the Musconetcong, Pohat- cong and Delaware valleys, in Warren county, and about the Navesink and Shrewsbury rivers, in Monmouth county. CHANGES IN FOREST AREA. A period of from 12 to 20 years has elapsed since the original topographic survey of the State was made. Since that survey gave the area of forest it has been possible to compare present conditions with those of 16 years ago. This comparison shows that the amount of forest which has been cut off and cleared up for cultivation in northern New Jersey is very insignificant, and is offset by the clearings which have been abandoned and allowed to grow up. Taking the State as a whole, there is nearly as much forest to-day as there was in 1860. In this connection the following data from the United States census are instructive: Total land in farms, 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890, acres, . + + » 2752,946 2 983,525 2,989,511 2,929,773 2,662 009 Improved land in farms,..... 3,767 991 1,942,281 1,978,067 2,097,719 1,999,117 These figures show practically no increase in the land under cultivation since 1860, and a decrease of 320,000 acres in unim- proved land in farms. Analyzing the changes in forest area, we find that there was progressive deforestation in all portions of the State up to 1860, although the rate was most rapid from about 1830 to 1850, and very slow in many counties after the latter date. Monmouth, Mercer, and all counties farther north excepting Sussex, show stationary forest area after 1860. There has been some clearing in the Kittatinny and Delaware valleys, in Sussex county, since 1860, amounting to 27,000 acres, or about one-fifth of the forest area. In all of the other northern counties the new clearing has not REPORT ON FORESTS. 19 more than equaled the abandoned clearings which have grown up again. Where there has been a considerable loss in area of improved land in farms it may be traced to growth of cities. _In all of the southern counties, south of Monmouth and Mer- cer, there has been steady clearing. These counties show an increase in improved farm land since 1860 amounting to 173,000 acres, or about 13 per cent. of the forest area has been cleared. Ocean county has lost about 4 per cent. of its forest area, Bur- lington 12 per cent., Atlantic 4 per cent., Camden and Gloucester 17 per cent., Salem 30 per cent., Cumberland 21 per cent., and Cape May 13 percent. This clearing has been mostly on the clay and marl belt, and the western border of the pines, extend- ing well into the pine region in Cumberland, and about Vine- land, Hammonton and Egg Harbor City. . The decrease in unimproved land in farms is explained by some of this clearing-up of land in southern counties, but also to a considerable extent by the abandonment of unproductive farms containing a large proportion of unimproved land, which is evidenced in the pines in Ocean, Burlington and Atlantic counties and also in the extreme north, in the hilly portion of the State. CHANGES IN PHYSICAL CONDITION. Although the area of forest has not sensibly diminished in northern New Jersey, and has decreased only about 13 per cent. in the southern counties since 1860, it may be thought that the proportion of brush, stump land and small timber is considerably greater now than at the middle of the century. We have inves- tigated this question with some care. So far as may be deter- mined from extended personal observation, the deciduous timber of the State has generally increased in size and improved in quality since the period of the topographic survey, from 1880 to 1886. In the Highlands and Kittatinny valley regions there has been no severe cutting during the last fifteen years. Consider- ably less timber has been cut than during the previous fifteen years. A considerable amount of timber was formerly cut at an age of from 20 to 25 years, or even less, for charcoal, cordwood, hoop-poles, etc. The profit in this has grown less and the 20 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. owners are more alive to the greater returns to be had from a larger growth. Chestnut can be most profitably cut at from 35 to 40 years old. If left standing longer, the coppice wood is said to sometimes decay at the heart. It is maintained that a growth of this age will yield as much wood per acre as the original forest. Oak can be profitably left until 50 to 60 years old. The growth of all the deciduous timber is most rapid before -reaching 40 years, and if it is merely a question of the amount of wood, no doubt the largest yearly returns come from cutting at 40 years, but the larger timber is suited for more valuable uses and will bring more money per cubic foot. Thus 100 tele- graph poles from an acre of timber 35 years old may be worth #400, while if left until 50 years old they might easily be worth $800 to $1,000. For railroad ties there is little advantage gained after 40 years is reached. But there is now much timber on the Highlands and Kittatinny mountain upwards of 4o years old, and a very large proportion ranges from 40 to 50 years of age. We have the testimony of many experienced men in this region that the forests are to-day in much better condition than they were from 1850 to 1860. This is borne out by the com- parative scarcity of trees over 50 years old and the abundance of those 4o years old. We may confidently place the period of maximum deforestation at about 1850. We are told that about this time large areas of the Highlands presented a perfectly bare appearance. The cause was partly the large use of charcoal by the forges and furnaces then scattered all over northern New Jersey, and partly the fact that anthracite coal was not yet in general use, and the use of wood and charcoal for domestic fuel, and by the railroads and manufacturing establishments, was general. Moreover, although the population of New York, Philadelphia and the cities of New Jersey was much less than now, these cities were more dependent upon the near-by fuel and timber-supplies than at present, as facilities for transporta- tion were very inferior. As for the use in iron-making we find that about 1855 it is estimated that 100,000 tons of ore were used. A fair estimate for the larger furnaces is 65 bushels of charcoal to one ton of ore. No doubt the small. forges used more than this, but even at this rate 6,500,000 bushels would be required, which would REPORT ON FORESTS. 2I mean that fully 6,500 acres of timber, or six square miles, must be cut annually for use in the iron industry alone. This demand began to disappear in 1850, owing to the introduction of anthra- cite blast-furnaces, although some forges continued in operation 15 years later, and a very few up to 1880.* Add to this large use the fact that the larger timber was being steadily cut off for sawed lumber, that much charcoal was used for domestic and other purposes, and the other demands which we have noted, it is easily seen how severe was the cutting of Highlands forests, when the charcoal iron industry was most active, at about 1850. Since that time the cutting of very young timber, such as is suitable only for charcoal, cordwood or hoop-poles, has become less and less profitable. It must now be allowed to attain an age of 35 to 4o years at least, so as to be useful for railroad ties or telegraph and telephone poles. Some portions of the Highlands have been cut over so fre- quently that there is evidence that the chestnut timber is suffer- ing from the need of re-planting. Coppice wood will gradually deteriorate, and in some places it is said to rot at the heart at an early age. Some of the complaints may indicate that the soil is becoming exhausted, for there is no reason to expect that soil can produce repeated growths of timber without being deprived of its fertility. The production of one cord of wood yearly, con- taining about one and one-half tons of dry solid matter, together with the leaf crop of the trees, is certainly as great a tax upon the acre of land as is the production of thg average one and one- half tons of hay or other-farm crops. There are also instances noted where a growth df oak cut off has failed to reproduce itself, but red cedar has come up instead. But these evidences of deterioration are exceptional, and generally confined to dis- tricts which have been most frequently cut inthe past. In gen- eral the forests of the Highlands and Kittatinny valley, although they contain little timber over 50 years old, may be pronounced luxuriant and in better condition than they were 4o to 50 years ago. In the red sandstone country there is likewise no evidence of deterioration, and the same may be ‘said of the clay and marl region. ‘The forests here consist almost exclusively of small * For a list of forges and charcoal furnaces see Annual Report of the State Geologist, 1879. 22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. parcels attached to farms. ‘They are utilized mainly in connec- tion with the farms, furnishing fuel, fencing and an occasional stick of timber. Ten acres of forest so utilized is a most valu- able asset on a farm of one hundred and fifty acres. From appearances the 14 or 15 acres per 100 acres of upland in these regions have more than sufficed for the farmers’ need, and the forest has gone on increasing until these farm-parcels contain some of the best timber in the State. This is especially true of the red sandstone in Middlesex, Somerset, Hunterdon and Mercer counties. When it becomes so large and valuable that the lumberman’s offer is too tempting, the steam saw-mill does its work and the timber is cut off. This is to be expected. These proprietors know the value of and appreciate the beauties of their woodlands, but it is good business with them to utilize and convert into money all the products of their lands. So when the forest crop is ripe it is gathered, the entire piece then being cut off. Some of the timber on the trap ridges is small and poor in quality, but the soil there is poor and there is little evi- dence that the timber is anywise inferior to that of 50 years ago. In the pines the forest may have deteriorated because of forest fires. There is evidence that these fires have occurred from the very discovery of the country, but it is natural to suppose that the introduction of many miles of railroad, and of an increasing population, into this district have increased the number of forest fires considerably. Some deterioration may, therefore, be con- ceded, but there is not much proof that it has been such as to cause radical changesin the character of the forest. We have less data of the former condition of this timber than for the deciduous forests. There were some 25 forges and furnaces in this region in 1850, together with a large number of saw-mills, now abandoned, and these must have made some inroads into the forest. As tending to corroborate the decreased cutting of timber over the State in general, it is interesting to note that, during a canvass of the water-powers of the State, made about 1892, for the Report on Water-Supply, we found 75 abandoned saw-mill sites, to which must be added several sites originally used for saw-mills, but now utilized for other manufacturing, and also a number of sites known to have once been occupied of which no REPORT ON FORESTS. 23 trace now exists. Certainly over 100 water-powers once utilized for sawing lumber are no longer in use for that purpose. Reviewing all of the evidence which we have collected, there- fore, we state with confidence that there was progressive cutting and clearing-up of the original forest all over the State, from its settlement until 1860, but that at the latter date very little original forest remained. This cutting was most severe about 1850, and from 1850 to 1860 was the period of maximum deforesta- tion. ‘The forest was then younger and smaller, with a larger proportion of stump and brush land than has prevailed at any time since. The cutting of very young growth has decreased to a marked extent in recent years, and the average size and age. of the forest has increased. At present not two per cent. of the forest is cut annually, so that at the present rate of cutting all of the forest may attain an age of fifty years. . VALUE OF FOREST PRODUCT. It is not easy to arrive at an accurate valuation of the forest product of the State. Much of the product is used directly on the farms where it is cut, as fuel or for fencing ; there is also a ready sale for railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles, piling, etc., in all parts of the State, and these products do not go to the mill, but usually quite direct from the owner or lumberman to the consumer. We estimate that the consumption for domestic fuel at present is 752,000 cords, and for fuel in glass-works and brick-kilus, etc., 45,000 cords, or about 800,000 cords consumed as fuel. There is a tule commonly accepted among the forest owners that the forest will produce one cord of wood for each year that it has been growing. This seems a fairly accurate average for the deciduous forest from 30 to 50 years old, but too high for the pines. Adopting this figure, the above fuel-consumption will absorb the yearly product of 800,000 acres of forest. It may be estimated to be worth $400,000 on the stump and $2,400,000 in the market at the point of consumption. The Report on Water-Supply, 1894, gave 261 saw-mills and wood-working establishments run by water-power, using 4,085 net horse-power. It will be seen that these are small establish- 24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ments, using an average of only 15.6 horse-power each, but they all contribute to the lumber product. The most effective work is now done, however, by the portable steam saw-mill set up in the woods. The entire lumber product, from logs and bolts, was valued in 1890 at $1,215,524, and the raw material used at these mills at $692,537. Some of this undoubtedly came from other States to the mills along the Delaware. The steam railroads and trolley-roads of the State use fully 1,250,000 ties annually in new construction and renewals. At 50 cents each, this affords a market for $625,000 worth of forest product, but by no means all of these ties come from the forests of this State, many being brought from other States. A growth of oak and chestnut from 35 to 4o years old should produce from 250 to 500 ties per acre. ‘Taking 375 ties as the average, there will be a value of $187.50, to which must be added about 15 cords of wood, worth $45, or $220.50 per acre in all, for the product delivered to the consumer. From this must be deducted the cost or cutting, hewing and hauling, together with freight on the cordwood. The consumption of telegraph, telephone and trolley-poles within the State may be estimated at 14,000 poles annually, worth from $2 to $10 each, and probably averaging $4, or $56,000 in all, besides a large market in adjacent towns. There is also a steady demand for piling about the docks and wharves. The railroad ties, telegraph, telephone and trolley poles and piles are readily marketable, and require no manufac- ture save some little hewing and trimming with the axe in the forest. The market afforded within the State for the manufactured forest-product is therefore made up about as follows: Logsandboltsatmill, ..........0...0..20.04. $692,537 Railroad: tessa s ea: Ge A) ds aS wes a we 625,000 Telegraph, telephone and trolley poles and piling, 100,000 Fuel for domestic consumption and brick and tile manufac- BUTE; ee OR OA a tk 2,400,000 Fencing, not including sawed lumber... ..... es 365 000 ROtal > lapse ee aS wh aL he Go Bee ei ee ae RO he be bs $4 182,537 Some of the above comes from other States, as we have remarked, but there are other products, such as charcoal, which REPORT ON FORESTS. 25, we have omitted and cannot well estimate. On the whole the forest product, not including manufactured material, may be taken to be worth nearly $4,000,000 annually. Assuming all of the above to be cut from timber 50 years old, yielding 40 cords per acre, or 5,000 feet B. M. of merchantable lumber, about 30,000 acres would need to be cut annually, and 1,500,000 acres would keep up the supply. The results of our surveys indicate that, taking the State as a whole, the timber is not being cut at a more rapid rate than this. The owners are finding it more profitable to allow the timber to attain an age of from 35 to 50 years than to cut it younger. \ VALUE OF STANDING TIMBER. Careful inquiry as to the value of standing timber of various ages has been made. ‘The variation is rather wide, according to the character of the growth and its accessibility to market. In the Kittatinny valley and Highlands the value of stump land, where land is valuable only for forest, ranges from $1 to $5 per acre; timber 30 years old, from $10 to $30; 50 years old, from $25 to $50, with instances of exceptionally good or well-located timber selling as high as $100. Timber classed as heavy, usually upwards of 60 years old, ranges from $60 to $100, but is scarce in the Highlands, where very little timber exceeds 50 years in age. A fair average value for all forest in this 1egion is $25 per acre. In the red sandstone and Cretaceous regions the value of good land for farming or other purposes is often considerable, and it is difficult to determine the value of the timber apart from the land, but it averages older and heavier than that of the Highlands, and even for the same age is more valuable. Timber 30 years old may be taken to be worth from $25 to $50 per acre, while that classed as heavy ranges from $50 to $150 per acre. Perhaps the average value of all forest in these regions may be taken to be $40 per acre on the red sandstone and $35 for the clay and marl region. In the Pines a number of answers to inquiries give the value of stump or brush land at from 10 cents to $5 per acre where it is valuable only as forest. Its value over a large part of the district is purely nominal. A growth of pine 30 years old is 26 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. valued from $5 to $25 per acre. Mr. Pinchot, in his interesting valuation surveys appended to this report, gives the amount of cordwood on some sample plats near Whitings. This timber had not been injured by fires and was a second growth of pine— from 35 to go years old. One. plat gave 13 cords per acre and another 7 cords, there being practically no merchantable timber. At 50 cents per cord this corresponds to a value of from $3.50 to $6.50 on the stump. Forest which has been fired is worth much less, and it would seem that a value of $25 for pine 30 years old is rather exceptional. The value of pine 50 years old, as returned by correspondents, ranges from $10 to $100 per acre. Referring again to Mr. Pin- chot’s returns for old forest, the average of 12 acres at Winslow we estimate to be worth $46 per acre on the stump, and the average of 5 acres at New Lisbon $30.50 per acre. Both of these are exceptionally good timber, and have not been injured by fire. A second growth of pine at Whitings, 50 to 60 years old, is, on the basis of Mr. Pinchot’s returns, worth $16 per acre. This, also, has not suffered from fire. It would seem, therefore, that, exclusive of the’ value of the land, the best of the pine forest ranges in value from $16 to $50 for an age of 50 years upward. And the range is from these figures down to nothing, with much the larger part of the area worth less than $10 per acre. For the entire area the pine forest will not average above $10 per acre, land and timber included. Of course, in certain localities this pine forest is worth more for other purposes than for forest product. ‘This is especially true of portions which have a reputation as winter resorts, and in time a considerable value may attach to much of this land for such purposes. Cedar swamp is valued as follows: Stump land, $5 to $10; 35 years’ growth, $15 to $200; 50 years’ growth, $75 to $400; location and thriftiness both affecting the value so as to cause wide ranges. Heavy cedar swamp has been known to sell as high as $800 per acre. We estimate the average value of all cedar swamp in the State at about $90 per acre, although this valuation is tentative and somewhat uncertain. Nearly all of the streams of the pine belt are fringed with cedar swamp, in belts varying from a few yards to miles in width. REPORT ON FORESTS. a7 The entire area of cedar swamp is 52,500 acres, and there is besides 85,100 acres of pine and deciduous swamp which contains some cedar. The following estimate of the total value of the forest of the State-is necessarily an approximation only, but may be useful as a guide, and is believed to fairly indicate the value of timber and land taken together : Kittatinny mountain and valley and the Highlands ; 398,000 ACKES: @UG25 key be a ee aa LH a A aoe $9,950,000 Red sandstone region ; 194,800 acres @ $40,,. -......- 7:792,CO0 Clay and marl region ; 147,840 acres @ $35, .......-- 5,174,400 Pine forest ; 1,191,579 acres @$I0, .......+4206. II,915,790 Cedar swamp ; 52,500 acres @ $90,. .... 1... ee ee 4,725,000 Pine and deciduous swamp, containing some cedar ; 85,100 acres ($20; a en ee AS wR A we we I 702,000 PORE ee eos Se Se GRE aS de ee Oe $41,259, 1g0 The average value for the whole forest, according to this esti- mate, is $20.60 per acre. In 1890 the census valuation for 8,355 acres of merchantable timber cut off and returned by the mills to census enumerators was $5.60 per thousand feet, board measure, on the stump, and the yield was 4,986 feet, board meas- ure, of merchantable lumber per acre, giving a value per acre, on the stump, of $27.92 for the merchantable lumber. If we add for the value of cordwood and other products, this will give probably above $45 per acre as the value, on the stump, of this timber. If we add for the value of the land, it will bring it to about $55 per acre. ‘This was probably all upwards of 50 years old, and the value thus determined accords sufficiently with our estimates. The above valuation may be compared with that of the im- proved land of the State, of almost exactly equal area, as follows : The 2,662,009 acres of land in farms was valued by the census of 1890 at $159,262,840. If we allow for the 662,882 acres of unimproved land ‘included in farms, $30 per acre, we have $19,886,460. Deducting this from the total value of land in farms, as above, we have for the improved land, including fences and buildings, $139,376,380, so that the value per acre is $70 against $20.60 for the forest. 28 GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The 1,999,117 acres of improved land yielded, in 1889, pro- ducts valued at $28,997,349, while the 2,069,819 acres of forest certainly did not yield over one-seventh of this, but the expendi- ture for labor, fertilizers, tools, buildings, fences, etc., was also much greater for the improved land. Nevertheless the dis- crepancy in output and value remains sufficient to make it reasonably certain that’ all land, suitable for cultivation, will be eventually cleared up, and there will be a still further reduction of forest area in southern New Jersey. RANGE IN SIZES OF STANDING TIMBER. A detailed examination of northeastern Highlands forests. shows that sizes above 24 inches in diameter and 60 feet in height are rare, although the trees of a very few tracts of timber range up to 30 and 35 inches in diameter. The timber generally ranges from 6 up to 12 or 14 inches; there is comparatively little stump or brush land on the Highlands west of Green Pond and Bearfort mountains. East of those mountains, especially along the lower Pequannock and the lower Wanaque rivers, the timber has been more frequently cut, and consequently the younger growth and brush are more prevalent. On the southwestern Highlands the forests are in small wood- lots attached to farms, and also usually cover the slopes which are too steep for cultivation. The sizes here also range up to 24 inches diameter and 60 feet high, but there are a few larger trees. The larger sizes have been cut out to a great extent, and the ordinary range is from 6 to 16 inches in diameter and from 30 to 45 feet in height. The timber of Passaic valley does not differ materially from that of the Highlands in size. That of the Watchung moun- tains is smaller, very little exceeding 12 inches in diameter, and southwest of Summit there is a large proportion under 6 inches: in diameter. On the red sandstone, in Bergen county, more than half the forest area is made up of timber exceeding 6 inches in diameter, and on Palisades mountain fully three-quarters. In general it ranges up to 30 inches diameter and 80 feet in height, and trees. REPORT ON FORESTS. 29 of this last size are quite as common as those of 24 inches in diameter and 60 feet in height in the Highlands. In Union county, trees 24 inches in diameter are about the largest in the forest. Further southwest, all over the red sand- stone district of Middlesex, Somerset, Hunterdon and Mercer counties, timber ranging up to 36 inches in diameter is met with and sometimes this is exceeded, 48 inches being occasionally reached. Generally 36 inches is fully as frequent in proportion to the amount of forest acreage as is 24 inches in the Highlands. The clay and marl district produces as large trees as the red sandstone, but, taken as a whole, the latter will show a larger average yield per acre in standing timber. In the Pines the range is from the low brush of the “ Plains,” a view of which accompanies this report, up to the heaviest pine, ranging from 8 to 18 inches in diameter and about 70 feet high, and this original pine may be accompained by deciduous trees up to 22 inches diameter. Timber as large as this is not usual, however, and ordinarily second-growth pine does not much exceed 10 inches in diameter. Owing to the ravages of fires and other causes a very large proportion of the timber is small, stunted and of little value, particularly so as the common pine, at its best, is not a valuable timber. In the cedar swamps the range is up to about 15 or 16 inches in diameter and 70 feet high, but a diameter of 12 inches is not often exceeded by any considerable number of trees at the present date. The above notes have no reference to exceptionally large trees, but describe the ordinary run of timber in the forest. ‘ LARGE TREES. During our surveys, many trees large enough to attract atten- tion during an ordinary inspection of the forest were noted. These notes were not exhaustive, nor was a special search made for large trees, but a list of them will afford an idea of the size of the larger trees of the State. In the Highlands, the large trees were confined almost entirely to the valleys. 30 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Chestnuts. Locality. Jenny Jump Mountain, oy id Kishpaugh Mine,. . Vernon, Roseville (Sussex West Milford, . . oc Midvale, Camp Gaw,... oe Wortendyke, . . Ramseys,.... ac Saddle River,. . . Ridgewood,. . . Haworth,.... zs Oradell Paterson,.... “sb Palisades Mountain, Bonhamtown,. . Stelton, Finderne,. ... Co.), .. : 2. * ew 8 ee ee se ee ee Cr oe 8 ew we er eS ey Diameter, ininches, Height, ‘in feet. 42to60 40 to 60 31) 40 60 50 50 60 50 60 65 50 45 60 55 60 60 80 50 60 40 55 55 Remarks, -93 years old. 7o years old. 100 years old. 4 trees, 63 years old. Several about this size. Several this size. Four chestnuts about this size. Near Cedar Grove, on trap. Burnt Mills, Readington, Flemington, New Dover (Middlesex county), . .48x60 50 { oh ge ce Ar athe ae as 36 60 | Bonhamtown,........... 54x66 60 Se Rs aaah aig fad Ret etc 52 aa Re SE RLS RAS OK 66 55 Franklin Park, HO he lade 52 50 Trenton (near Asylum),...... 48 65 | Lawrenceville, ...... oe 6 5466 | ee ee ee 51 cuca EASD Calvcty Salta: ca ernas tei 36 7o { ae ee ae ae 72 55 North Branch, .......... 28 ae shia) acest Nad teh Rata ae 36 30 ee ee ee ee 60 p : sae ay ae SOR st a, Ge 36 7O | Wickecheoke creek... ..... 36 50 Musconetcong mountain, ..... 30 Pohatcong mountain,. ..... 31 Winslow (Camden county), .... 26 sf es ai Seah ice #927; “ 6c 23 New Lisbon (Burlington county),. 30 ‘ REPORT ON FORESTS. 3I Oaks. Diameter, Height, Locality. inches. feet. Remarks. Pochuck Mountain,...... -. 48 60 ee ore ear a 36 ~©—s 60 gh, gh Saw tes al Se Me he GAZ 50 6 ee a a a eB 30 60 Ri GR GOA ele Raa & 30 45 oO eR A 36 40 Upper Longwood,......... 60 60 Berkshire Valley,......... 31 . - 98 years old. ford... .... a jee A 4o BN a! Ad encig ge eas Ue tai a 42 45 a ae aOR a ee 5A 70 Etna (Bergen county),....... 46 60 oe Re EAP ee a 40 a So ey ara ae: cide ta Mea 40 aa tapes everal in fores ee ins eae si aa { about this size. Spread of branches about 75 feet. Several about this size. Spread of go feet. Several about this size. Spread, 60 feet. Several about this size. 250 years old. Several this size. Igo years old Spread, 50 feet. Several about this size _ lo4 years old. 100 years old. 32 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Miscellaneous. Diameter, Height, Locality. Kind. inches. feet. Remarks. Pochuck mountain, . .Maple,.... 36 70 McAfee, ....... Se. few nee. 330) 50 BS © “sas Bp gaa oath dae OO es ke ie e -BO. 50 mM OR RSE Black walnut, 36 50. Vernon, .......Maple,.... 48 60 Oh let oe Ye haidied iy te Seijenateae AS 50 ~ - «se... . Black walnut, 36 50 Oak Ridge, .....Maple,.... 36 50 West Milford, .... 0“ 2... 642 80 “ i pi apeee, OS ee ace Sate 70 Ge os pogo ne ely ee a i a> RO 75 a ee ... .Hemlock, .. 30 60. ae “ 3 5 ue : 36 60 Wanaque, ...... Pine,. ... 30 50 Wyckoff, ... . Whitewood, . 36 80 Hohokus, ...... Blame ex ee 50 80 Spread, 100 feet. Piscataway, .... Maple... 42 50 Hillsboro, . .. .Wildcherry,. 52 50 Moore’s Station, . . . Beech, ... 36 40 Spread, 75 feet. Somerset, ..... .Hickory, .. 42 70 Spread, 4o feet. Oak Grove, .. .. Ms .. 38 300 years old. Winslow, ..... Pine,. ... 22 New Lisbon,. .... Be ae ay 22 In Dismal Swamp, near Metuchen, are trees which will square 6 inches 60 feet from the ground, and a white oak recently cut measured 8 inches in. diameter 75 feet from the ground, and another 16 inches in diameter 56 feet from the ground, and a hickory 6 inches in diameter 70 feet from the ground. A tree cut at Burnt Mills, on the North Branch of the Raritan, yielded 1,066 feet, board measure, of lumber. RELATIVE PRODUCTIVENESS OF TOPOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS. These notes are roughly an indication of the capability of New Jersey’s soils for timber production. So far as may be judged from our notes and observations, the best soils of all of the topographic divisions of the State will produce heavy timber, but there is a difference in the average productiveness of the several sections. She Kittatinny valley, the several small val- REPORT ON FORESTS. 33 leys of the Highlands which are not too much covered with gla- cial detritus, and the red sandstone plain stand first in order, and the pine region the last. ‘Taken as a whole, the red sand- stone plain will average highest, the clay and marl region next, the Highlands third, and the Pines fourth and lowest in produc- tiveness. Perhaps original forest in the best of the pines pro- duced as much timber per acre as the average original forest in the Highlands, but that timber was of far less valuable kinds. Certainly in average yield per acre to-day the pine forest is far the lowest in the scale, and even if fully protected from fires the upland would not produce as great a volume of wood per acre as the Highlands forest. The census of 1890 showed that from 8,355 acres of merchant- able timber cut in 1889 in New Jersey the average yield was 4,986 feet, board measure, per acre. The average yield in Penn- sylvania was 10,104 feet, board measure, in New York 5,631 feet, and for the South Atlantic States 5,413 to 8,714 feet, board measure, per acre. Valuation surveys of eleven pieces of heavy original forest scattered all over the red sandstone gave a range of from 5,800 up to 38,140 feet, with an average of 18,300 feet, board measure, per acre, while similar surveys of original pine forest at Winslow and New Lisbon, made by Mr. Pinchot in a chapter of this Report, give from 3,369 up to 10,170 feet, with an average of 6,631 feet per acre. Perhaps at its best the pine may yield 10,000 feet, as against 18,000 feet for the best of the red sand- stone forests. It is interesting to note that the great pineries of the Southern States yield an average of 5,000 feet, board measure, and the best white pine forests of Minnesota a like amount. In estimating the above yield of merchantable lumber, only trees above 10 inches in diameter are taken. Taking all trees above 6 inches in diameter, the original red sandstone forests give from 1,700 up to 12,400 cubic feet per acte, with an average of 5,247 cubic feet per acre, while the original pine forest shows an average volume of 2,300 cubic feet, the best giving about 2,900 cubic feet. A very common practice all over the State is to reckon that the forest will produce one cord per acre for each year of its 3 FOR 34 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. growth; or, more accurately stated, a forest 30 years old will produce 30 cords, and one cord will thereafter be added each year. Several recorded instances in Highlands forest, of about average quality, gave an average yield of eight-tenths of a cord yearly. Perhaps one cord per acre is not too high for the aver- age of all deciduous forest, but the Highlands forests will not exceed eight-tenths of this amount, while the red sandstone forests will exceed it generally for second-growth timber. Sec- ond-growth pine does not appear to increase faster than half a cord yearly, even where it is protected from fire, in the light sandy soils of the pine belt. GROWTH OF TREES. Having collected a considerable number of measurements of chestnuts and oaks, with some hickories, maples and other trees, I have attempted, in Plate No. II, to represent the approximate curves of average growth of deciduous trees in northern New Jersey. I have found no marked difference in rate of growth of chestnut and oak or other trees. There is a noticeable difference between the rate for the thinner soils, typified by the Highlands plateaus and ridges, and the deeper soils of the red sandstone, Kittatinny valley and the valleys of the Highlands. The growth is consequently represented by separate curves for each. The data are consistent up to about 70 years old, but beyond that there is less certainty, and the variation of growth is large. Thus a chestnut 70 years old was observed having a diameter of 60 inches, and which had one year increased its diameter one inch. Near Camp Tabor a number of trees 35 years old ranged from 24 up to 34 inches in diameter, and from 40 to 50 feet in height. These were remarkable, but a diameter of 36 inches is often reached before the age of 100 years, while a hickory 300 years old measured but 38 inches. The possibilities as to larger size than our average are suggested in the list of large trees previously given. Our curve of diameters would not reach 45 inches in 200 years, or 60 inches in 300 years, yet many of the large trees exceed these measures, and it is not likely that many of the trees are 300 years old. Some trees exceeding 100 years of age measured as follows: 104 years, 30 inches; 118 years, 25 & piam, REPORT ON FORESTS PLATE Il. Obert —t HEIGHT} FT.70 60 in 50 i 40 30 tf 20 10 a nde \ \ \ VAN \ \ \ \ \ \ \ HEIGHT] FT. 80 710 zi {4 60 ' 4 50 3 a a8 : 28 7 peat 30 % AG ie te i | | | | 20 \ WN Fo bed eas Ee Nr a aL + 2 iat y Spy m bn WAN. REPORT ON FORESTS. 35 inches ; 125 years, 21 inches; 150 years, 20 to 27 inches; 190 years, 30 inches; 250 years, 28 inches, and 300 years, 38 inches in diameter. The curves show the growth in diameter to be at a constant rate up to 65 years on the better soils and about 4o years on the thinner soils, and thereafter it decreases. The rate of growth in height decreases throughout. It is instructive to note the increase in volume of a tree as shown by the curves. ‘The cubic feet of lumber at various ages figures out as follows: Age. Best Soils. Thin Soils. 20 years,;........ 1.8 cubic feet, ....... 0.7 cubic feet. dog do a ww wwe Ir4 ‘ OC eR a Ba 4.7 =‘ ‘ GOS Sk Chak ae a a ee Bay ce ET aoe tah Bel tae Ya gz 80“ eu OR ay aS 48.0 “ Be tie fa nes os Taal Se ey us TOO See GG ea Rae NE NS scene eb ap ser sis 20.4 ‘ ae This is the gain in volume of the individual tree. Now if there is a constant yearly increase in the yield per acre from 4o to 60 years, such as would be called for by the ordinary rule of one cord per acre annually, it can only be accounted for by the crowding out or dying°of many trees. Thus if on the best soil there are 300 trees per acre at 4o years old, the total volume of wood will be 3,420 cubic feet, and if this increases propor- tionately with the age, at 60 years old it will amount to 5,130 cubic feet, which would require only 164 trees per acre. On the thin soils the decrease would be from 300 trees at 4o years old to 230 trees at 60 years old. Sucha rule of yield is therefore more likely to hold good on the poorer soils than on the better soils. "The figures show how rapid the gain in merchantable volume is from 40 to 60 years of age, for at the age of 4o years the trees have just reached a merchantable size, and even if we concede that measured as cord-wood the yield per acre thereafter does not rapidly increase, it is clear that the gain in the more valuable merchantable volume is great. If so large a number of the smaller trees are crowded out as is above suggested, this is a strong argument in favor of thinning-out these trees from time to time to be utilized for cordwood, thus leaving the best trees room to grow at a still more rapid rate. The curves of growth for-short-leaf pine are platted from a table given by Mr. Pinchot on page 49 of his paper in the 36 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Appendix to the Report of the State Geologist for 1898. These measurements were made at Winslow, in pine which had been protected from fire. It will be noted that the growth in diameter and height of the short-leaf pine is more uniform than that of the deciduous forest, and is much slower throughout, while the height increases more slowly in early life, but reaches about the same or a greater measurement in 100 years. The rate of growth in height of the deciduous trees, being rapid at first and slower afterward, is analogous to that of the short-leaf pine South, as given in Mr. Pinchot’s paper. It is also interesting to “note that while the increase in diameter of deciduous trees is ‘much more rapid than that of the short-leaf pine of southern New Jersey, the figures given for trees on Highlands ridges and other thin soils closely approximate the growth in diameter of the southern short-leaf pine. This is made clear in the follow- ing tables: Growth in Diameter. Inches. Age. Deciduous. N. J. White Short-Leaf Pine. Years, Best Soil. Thin Soil. Cedar.N.J. New Jersey. South, BO) 8 Se Glas Be ae oe . 67 4.7 2.2 2.1 ors 30 BAS ee we ew we 10.0 Fst 337 3.4 A AO ste: ta erGes Hoe Re ein Gans 13.4 9.3 5.4 48 9.3 BO) Varese ioe eal ia) 2G as 16.7 10.8 7.1 6.0 II.0 OO). Bie a ces aaa 20.0 12.2 8.6 72 12.7 TOL GS eect GS ten) fap ek, SE He 23.0 13.7 9.8 8.3 14.5 BOi cae WF ea Bs wh He 25.0 14.9 10.9 9.2 16.0 GON er ie dees 0 Ser det eee So 26.5 16.2 : 10,2 16.5 TCO 3p) cases a ee Se 28.0 17.4 : II.o 17.0 Growth in Height. Feet. Age. Deciduous. N. J. White Pitch Short-Leaf Pine. Years, Best Soil. Thin Soil. Cedar.N. J. Pine. N.J. New Jersey. South. QO a6. eczer S 5e 30 24 Il 16 14 BO ip er eh ae de 40 31 2I 33 24 41 4O . se eee 47 38 32 45 i 33° * 51 BO: ge Ger ver tae Wee 53 44 40.5 535 41 60 60 se eee 57 47 48 59-5 47.5 67 JO se eves 59 48 54.5 63.5 53 71 80 is ee es 60 49 60 67.0 57-5 75 GO ng i Se 61 50 oe are 61.5 78 100 4 ae ee 62 51 es ree 64.5 81 REPORT ON FORESTS. 37 While the data for pitch pine are not very full, it is interesting to note that its growth in height approximates to, and after 50 years of age exceeds that of the best deciduous forest. In comparing the growth of white cedar we must bear in mind the density. The above measurements were made in timber numbering upwards of 1,000 trees per acre, or at least five.times as many as the deciduous forest and twelve times as many as in the pine forests. Mr. Pinchot also remarks that where some cedars stood on the edge of a clearing—uncrowded—they showed arate of growth in diameter just double the average shown in the foregoing table, which would be well above the rate for the short-leaf pine of the Southern States and nearly as great as the rate shown for deciduous timber on the best soil. INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE. The large yield and rapid growth of white cedar, which grows in very wet swamps—and the more rapid growth of short- leaf pine in the South, where the rain-fall is more abundant than in New Jersey—leads us to inquire how far this more-rapid growth may be attributed to moisture. It would be interesting to have figures for short-leaf pine in moist localities in southern New Jersey for comparison, although it does not favor wet soils. Water is a most important factor in the growth of the ordinary forest tree, as it is in all plant-growth. From data given in the ‘“‘Strasburger Botany,” I estimate that a thrifty oak forest will, in one growing season, take up into the trees a quantity of water equal to 16 inches of rain-fall, and other independent data enable me to compute that a mixed deciduous forest will take up 19 inches of rain-fall in a season, and a coniferous forest of an equal volume will require even more water. Some species are not adapted to grow with their roots in standing water, as the white cedar, larch, willow, etc., do, and it may be observed that the prescnce or absence of free ground- water is sufficient to determine the species in many cases. The chestnut thrives best on the ridges of the Highlands or upon gravelly, well-drained soils in the valleys. It is abundant and reaches its maximum size on the glacial sands and gravels of Bergen county, but is almost unknown on the southwestern red 38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. sandstone, where the soil is more compact and more retentive of water. It is also common over the higher gravelly ridges of the clay and marl region, where the soil is good but also well drained. The absence of chestnut on the southwestern red sandstone may be partially due to other soil condition than drainage, however, for the white oak reaches a large size and is prevalent there, as well as in the portion of the State where chestnut flourishes, and it, too, usually prefers well-drained soil. The species which seems to most persistently seek dry, barren soils is the pitch pine (P. rigida), and it is usually accompanied by scrub oak. ‘They are found together along the rocky crests of Kittatinny mountain and Bearfort, Green Pond and Copperas mountains, as well as all over the highest sandy ground of the pine region of southern New Jersey. The volume of timber per acre is invariably small and its quality inferior in these coim- paratively sterile regions. On the other hand, some of the very wet swamps of northern New Jersey are occupied by the larch or tamarack, and nearly all of those of southern New Jersey by the white cedar, almost to the exclusion of all other species. The swamp white-oak is one of the most valuable of our trees which prefer wet localities. The pin oak and hickory grow on river bottoms where it is less wet, and the soft maple, birch, wil- low, gum, buttonwood and generally the softer and inferior woods are found in the wettest swamps. The size of the low- land timber of northern New Jersey is almost everywhere greater than that of the upland forest. The white cedar, growing in the wettest swamps, and the pitch pine and short-leaf pine on the driest uplands of southern New Jersey, each seem naturally perfectly adapted to their environment and may perhaps be legitimately compared. The following figures are from Mr. Pinchot’s papers already referred to: White Cedar. Age, Diameter, Height, Volume Locality. years, inches. feet. cu. feet Whitings, .......... 80 9.2 65 8,910 ap GN ee ap . 79 6.9 60 7,624 New Gretna, ......... 66 7.2 60 7,448 Whitings, .......... 62 54 48 5,868 big ake ae ae ae 49 4.6 42 5 286 REPORT ON FORESTS. 39 Short-leaf Pine. Winslow, .......... 80 8.9 65 4,483 Bh state, Sx nas aot hc orah ote 80 86 65 4,339 PE phe SB ee ae oe vay cs Ca ad 55 6.6 45 30 cords. . Pitch Pine. Tuckerton, ........:. 50 9.8 47 48 cords. Whitings, .........4. 35-60 6.6 47 ey Brown’s Mills, ....... 40 4.4 30 4o ‘ At the same age the upland pine does not appéar to average over sixty per cent. of the yield in volume of the white cedar. It seems probable that this difference is largely due to the abundant supply of water in the cedar swamp. FOREST FIRES. While a general survey of the forests of the State fails to indi- cate that, as a whole, they have deteriorated during the last half century, but really does show a marked improvement, it is none the less true that certain influences have been, and some of them are still, working injury to the forest growth. The chief of these is forest fires, which cause a large annual loss to the owners of the forest, and in some parts of the pines what appears to be a marked and permanent decrease in productive- ness. ? , Mr. Pinchot, after a careful study, estimates that owing to fires the pine forest is now yielding only one-third as much wood as it would yield if protected from fire, and this yield is of a much less valuable kind, being only suitable for cord-wood. These pine-forest fires sometimes burn over 100,000 acres in a single season. In 1885, 128,000 acres were burned over. These figures are sufficient to indicate that if unchecked the entire area would be burned over in less than 25 years. But there are some portions of the forest which have not been burned at all, and a considerable portion is rarely visited by fire. Other parts, usually the inferior timber, are repeatedly burned over. Mr. Pinchot has given figures which afford means for deter- mining the money-return which would follow effective protec- 40 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. tion from fire. He shows that pine forest 100 to 200 years old, or say 150 years average age, yields an average of 6,631 board feet per acre, which, if of yellow pine, may be estimated to be worth, as standing timber, $20 per acre. Second-growth seed- lings, 80 years old, yield 7,500 board feet, worth about the same amount per acre, the timber being of smaller average size, and second growth from 40 to 60 years old yields about 23 cords per acre. ‘‘he yearly increment of value may therefore be calcu- lated at 25 cents per acre when the forest is protected from fire. When it is not protected at all, the increment is so small that we may, neglect it. If, as suggested by Mr. Pinchot’s figures, merely efficient protection from fire will give a return of 25 cents per acre annually for the half of the pine forest which now suffers most severely from fires, or 600,000 acres, it means an aggregate annual return of $150,000. It would there- fore seem certain that Mr. Gifford’s suggestions as to fire lanes and some well-considered plan of fire wardens would be worth while, if we consider only the direct money-return from the timber. While the aggregate return is sufficiently attractive and promising, however, the stand-point of the owner, say of 100 acres of pine forest, is necessarily different. We can, at best, only hold out to him a possible annual increment of $25 to his holdings, which can scarcely be.convertible into cash by him, and may not be realized by the next generation even, while he is confronted with an absolutely certain annual outlay of $3 or $4 for the cost of protection, in addition to any other taxes to which the property may be subject. The apathy of the present owner of the forest is therefore not unnatural, although we per- sonally believe that if some efficient system of protection can be put into operation the forest will soon profit by an advance in value greater than that due to the wood alone. There are other strong reasons for protecting the pine forest, which, while they may not appeal strongly to the individual forest owner, certainly do appeal to the people of the State at large. If by successive fires the forest cover should be destroyed, this sandy district will become a terribly forbidding waste of shifting sand, blown hither and thither by the varying winds. Something of this kind may be seen already in many old clear- REPORT ON FORESTS. 41 ings, notably near Manumuskin creek, in Cumberland county, where the sand is piled in great shifting dunes. The mild- winter climate of the region, which deserves its increasing popularity, will undoubtedly be most unfavorably affected, for it is due in no small measure to the shelter afforded by the pines against the cold west and northwest winds. In the purely deciduous forest, fires do not gather serious headway, and the timber also resists fire more effectively. The pitch pine and mixed coniferous and deciduous areas on Kitta- tintly, Bearfort, Green Pond and Copperas Mountains, and in the swamps of the extreme northern Highlands, about Canistear and Wawayanda, suffer considerably, but most of the timber affected is of small value. FOREST MANAGEMENT. The coppice chestnut of the State produces the best results when cut at an age of from 4o to 50 years. If not cut, it deteriorates rapidly by rotting at the heart or by becoming shaky. For railroad ties, telephone and telegraph poles or fenc- ing, second-growth chestnut is always preferred, as it is a firmer wood. On the other hand, if cut too young, each succeeding growth becomes weaker and less valuable. Where it has been most frequently cut some areas now need re-planting. When we consider how much of the Highlands forest is com- posed of coppice chestnut it becomes iminediately apparent that it would be a mistake to reserve any large part of this forest and allow it to stand indefinitely without cutting. The result would soon be serious deterioration and most undesirable condi- tions in the forest from the decaying coppice wood. It follows that scientific forest management must of necessity go hand-in- hand with any system of forest reservation if such reservation is to at all improve upon present conditions. We have already pointed out the possibility that the soil may become exhausted by continuous cropping with forest trees. This possibility must be taken into account in forest manage- ment. The most serious evils of present management seem to have resulted from too frequent cutting, a practice which has at present almost ceased, the browsing of cattle in the young 42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. growth, and neglecting to thin out the growing trees where the stand is too thick. It would seem to be almost possible, with proper management, to obtain all the fuel and other small wood needed: in the State by thinning out and pruning, without at all encroaching upon the normal yield of mer- chantable timber. The young growth nearly always comes up much too thick to allow the choicest of the trees to attain their maximum rate of growth and normal size. Many of the wood-lots attached to the farms of the State now contain fine stands of merchantable timber after having for perhaps a century or more yielded the fuel and fencing needed on the farm. It is significant in this connection that Mr. Pinchot’s surveys give a yield of 7,500 feet, board measure, for second- growth pine 80 years old, and only 6,631 board feet for original forest from 100 to 200 years old. We have also much testimony of forest owners indicating a slow gain in volume of wood per acre after 4o years of age is reached, but against this there is plenty of evidence of the rapid growth of individual trees. If merchantable lumber is sought, therefore, the moral would seem to be not to cut thrifty trees until they have attained a diameter of at least 18 inches, but to cut out the larger mature trees, and the small, stunted ones or the inferior species, thus leaving the healthful and valuable trees forty or fifty years old room to grow. Under these improved conditions such trees may easily more than double their volume in ro years, and quintuple it at the age of 80 years. It must be confessed, however, that in this State a crop of tailroad ties or telegraph and trolley poles may be often cut when the timber is 4o years old to yield a considerably larger return per acre, and, considering the period of growth, a very much larger return annually than can be had by waiting 80 years for a crop of merchantable lumber. Thus, if 10,000 board feet of logs per acre will bring at the saw-mill $12 per thousand, or $120 in all, only 60 poles, bringing $2 each at the nearest railroad station, will yield a like amount per acre and double the annual return, and will much more surely be had from a forest 40 years old than will the merchantable logs at 80 years. Indeed, it ought to be quite as probable that the crop of poles would be double these figures, and the consequent annual return REPORT ON FORESTS. 43 from the forest four times as great from the poles as from the lumber. Certainly, where chestnut can be grown, railroad ties and poles are a profitable product, so profitable that there is little prospect of any serious attempt being made to grow merchant- able lumber. Field Notes of Forest Conditions. The following notes are the results of detailed examination of the forests of New Jersey made during the progress of our studies. For the purposes of this examination the forest was grouped into the following classes : 1. Brush or stump land, to include no areas intended to be cleared and cultivated. 2. Old clearings formerly cultivated, but now growing up to timber. 3. Young growth, in which class was included all timber less than six inches diameter, the approximate age, size and height being noted. 4. Large timber, including all over six inches in diameter, the diameter and height being noted as before. Without attempting any strict botanical classification, the varieties of timber have been designated as follows: 1. Deciduous, with.the prevailing varieties indicated. 2. Coniferous, classified as pine, cedar, hemlock, etc. 3. Mixed deciduous and coniferous. Notes were kept of the general character of scattered growth over lands under cultivation, also of the general condition of the forested areas, and of any remarkably large trees, any original forest, planted timber, brush land which seems incapable of producing timber, the succession of growth, &c. Information was also col- lected as to the value per acre of stump land, of twenty-years or thirty years’ growth of timber, and all heavy timber of various kinds. We also took the testimony of reliable persons as to how the amount of timber now standing compares with that of pre- vious periods, and of how the growth on slopes of hills compares with that in the valleys or on the top of plateaus. (45) 46 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. It will be noted that the inquiries were of the most practical kind, and it is believed that the information obtained will be of value in reaching an understanding of the actual economic con- dition of our forested areas. Thus far they have developed the fact that there have been no important changes, either in the limits of cultivated land or in the proportion of forested and cultivated areas, since the topographical surveys were begun in 1877. ‘There have been minor changes, and a few old clearings of small area have been allowed to grow up, the areas thus added to the forests being just about offset by that which has been brought under cultivation, likewise in small scattered parcels. The topographical maps showed forested lands as distinguished from those under cultivation. They made no attempt to indicate the varieties, size or condition of the timber. There is very little land in the northern part of the State which, if left uncul- tivated, does not spontaneously produce, in a few years, a fairly good growth of timber; consequently, the land represented as forest on the maps, for which the surveys were completed in 1887, ranges from brush to good timber of from forty to fifty years growth, and for the most part every gradation of growth is represented in due proportion. Like almost every other physical feature of the State, the forests may be classed broadly into five divisions corresponding with the geological formations, and each of the three northern divisions must be subdivided into glaciated and unglaciated dis- tricts. There is a marked difference in the proportion of forest area, and also a less marked difference in the varieties of timber north and south of the terminal moraine line. Consequently we can most conveniently consider the forests by the several topographical divisions adopted and followed in the “ Physical Description” of the State, published in 1888. (See also Physical Geography of New Jersey, by R. D. Salisbury.) NORTHEASTERN HIGHLANDS. First, on the extreme northwest of this district we have Pochuck mountain, a Highlands region lying detached from the main plateau, like an island, at the eastern side of the great Kittatinny valley. The forests of this region cover about two- thirds of the area, and consist mainly of oak and chestnut, with REPORT ON FORESTS. 47 a considerable ammount of hemlock, and some red cedar where old clearings have grown up. A considerable portion of this timber is from 4o to 50 years old, and there are a number of large trees which we shall note later in connection with the forests of the main plateau. Vernon valley, which separates Pochuck mountain from the main group of the Highlands, is a fertile agricultural district, with a very small amount of forest, but it has a goodly supply of scattering trees which are thrifty and often of large size. Passing on to the southwest we come to the Alamuche- Pohatcong range,* the glaciated portion of which includes the district lying between the Lehigh and Hudson River railroad on the west, and the valleys of the Walkill and Lubber’s run on the east, and extending from Franklin Furnace southwest to the Vienna and Hackettstown road. We find the conditions as follows: From Franklin Furnace southwest to the line of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Rail- road, this ridge is known as Pimple Hill. The growth of wood is thin, ranging from 2 to 8 inches in diameter, and consisting mainly of chestnut, oak and red cedar, with a few other conif- erous trees scattered throughout the whole district. On the high hill near the railroad and north of Sparta, and also along the ravine southwest of Franklin Furnace, the conifers are quite abundant. The growth, however, is principally chest- nut and oak, the best of which is from 6 to 24 inches in diameter, and 30 to 55 feet high, a good proportion of these trees being about 12 inches in diameter. Not much cord-wood is cut in this. section, but the best timber is selected and taken out here and there as needed. Between the New York, Susquehanna and Western railroad and the highway from Sparta to Pinkney- ville there are very few coniferous trees, chestnut and oak being predominant, and somewhat larger than on the Pimple hills, measuring from g to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet high. Just northwest of Sparta there is a ridge which has been entirely stripped of timber, but there is no clearing in any of this district for farming purposes, and there does not appear to be much cleared land lapsing back into forest. The flat swamp-land on the Walkill southwest of Sparta has some timber, mostly border- ing the stream. There are maples and elms 12 to 24 inches in * The “‘ Western Highlands range”’ of Prof. Salisbury. 48 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. diameter and 4o to 50 feet high interspersed with a good deal of brush, and near the head of the swamp there are a few good white pines, also a number of hemlocks about the headwaters of the stream. The ridge just west of this swamp is well wooded at the north end, the trees being mostly ro to 14 inches in diam- eter, but ranging up to 24 inches. The larger trees have been cut out at the southern end of the ridge. There are red cedars bordering the clearings. Tar Hill ridge in Andover township, just east of the Lehigh and Hudson River railroad, is quite well wooded. A small portion has been cut off within the last five years, more within ten years, but generally the timber runs from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and from 30 to 50 feet high, the larger sizes being not very numerous. There are a good many hem- locks and red cedars and a few white pines. On the ridge line between the Upper Wallkill and the easterly branch of Lubber’s run, and stretching from Sparta to Roseville, the timber is small southward as far as the Gaffney mine, most of the large growth having been cut out. Ina few spots trees were noted 18 to 24 inches in diameter, but for the most part they are less than 8 inches. On the west slope there are a great many red cedars and a few hem- locks. In the swamp near Gaffney mine, and also the one just southwest along Lubber’s run, there are a good many tamaracks. The hills just east of Stag pond are well wooded on the tops, the trees ranging from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, but the steep slope just east of the pond and its outlet is broken and rocky, and is mostly red cedar and hemlock, with a few white pines. There are also hemlocks and a few white pines on the ridge north of Rose- ville. A tract of 500 acres at Roseville has had all trees 9 inches in diameter and over cut out. An examination of the stumps showed that oak 60 to 70 years old ranged from 18 to 24 inches in diameter ; from 40 to 50 years old ranged from 13 to a1 inches, being mostly 13 and 14 inches. An oak stump 89 years old measured 24 inches, and showed that for the first 20 years the growth had been very slow. Chestnut 63 years old measured 3r inches, and hickory go years old 19 inches. Generally over this tract from Sparta southwest to the Roseville and Andover highway the timber was in good condition. In a few places it had been cut within 3 years; other tracts within 15 years, but a great many of the trees would average from 12 to 20 inches in REPORT ON FORESTS. 49 diameter. Other portions would average from 8 to 15 inches in diameter and from 4o to 55 feet high, although some of the largest timber seemed to be over 60 feet. While oak and chest- nut predominate, there is scattering white pine and hemlock throughout. Between the Andover and Roseville highway, the Sussex railroad and Lubber’s run there are a few trees 24 inches in diameter, but for the most part they run from 6 to 14 inches, with a height of from 30 to 50 feet. Near Andover, on the road to Roseville, the timber was ro to 20 inches in diameter, and 50 to 60 feet high. . ; The portion of this district extending from Sussex railroad southwest to the highway froin Hackettstown to Alamuche is known as Alamuche mountain, and is almost a solid forest. In the Kitattinny valley, between the foot of the mountain and the Lehigh and Hudson River railroad, the country is highly cul- tivated, the scattering patches of timber being composed of small oaks and chestnuts from 4 to 6 inches in diameter and 15 to 35 feet high. In each grove there are a few large trees from 10 to 30 inches in diameter and 4o to 60 feet high, but most of the larger trees have been cut out for timber or other purposes. There are also a good many red cedars. Along the streams and in the swamp near Alamuche elms and maples prevail, the larger ones being 24 inches in diameter and about 50 feet high. There has been a considerable amount of clearing recently in this swamp, which is being ditched and brought under cultiva- tion as a result of the improvement in the drainage of the Pequest valley. Passing along the road from.Andover to Alamuche the trees. seemed to range from 8 to 20 inches in diameter and about 55 feet high; further along, froin 6 to 24 inches in diameter and from 30 to 55 feet high, mixed with a smaller and denser growth. About Tranquillity timber was noted from 10 to 20 inches in diameter and 4o to 50 feet high, and near Alamuche it ranged from 4 to 18 inches and from 20 to 45 feet high. It is somewhat smaller toward the top of the mountain eastward from Alamuche, and there seems to be a preponderance of trees all through the mountains, ranging from 7 to 11 inches in diameter. Trees as large as 20 inches are scarce and scattering, while there is a good deal of young and small growth. There are a few 4 FOR 50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. hemlocks on the rocky slope north of Cranberry reservoir, on the end of the mountain north of Alamuche, and near Waterloo, while the swamp north of Waterloo has some tamaracks. South of the road from Alamuche to Waterloo there isa game preserve or deer park, and the wood is chestnut and oak, with some hickory, whitewood, birch, maple and elm. South of the road from Warrenville across the ridge to Saxton Falls, the timber is very short, mostly chestnut and oak on the tops of the hills. On the east slope, where it has not been cut, there is a thrifty growth of chestnut and oak ranging from 6 to 14 inches in diam- eter. A considerable portion has been cut within 3 years. Mr. James French, of Waterloo, owns 3,000 acres of timber in this vicinity. Mr. Henry French, his son, reports that they do not cut any cord-wood there now, as they do not find it profitable, hot being able to compete with the pine cordwood of South Jersey. They sell a good deal of timber on special orders for various purposes, getting out almost anything, for ship-building or other purposes, which may be required. ‘Their tract does not produce timber quite as fast as they need at present. He claims. that they work up everything and waste nothing, and thinks that forests are generally in a better condition now than they were 40 years ago, as the larger mills are not cutting much and cordwood is not profitable, that the demand is for the largest timber, and consequently the younger growth is allowed to mature. They also peel quite a good deal of hunter aut, hickory, oak and birch bark for their trade. It is interesting to note that about 20 years ago Mr. French bought a tract of woodland in these mountains which had been cut off a few years before. This tract has not appeared to grow since, and is said to be not much more than brush at present. Continuing southwest to the road from Hackettstown to Vienna we find that the timber is inferior in quality. On the slope just northwest of Hackettstown the timber has been cut within three years, but on the hill-top it is 6 to 14 inches in diameter and from 30 to 40 feet high of chestnut and oak. ‘The timber through this section is in detached tracts, the larger part of the area being under cultivation. Between Hackettstown and Alamuche the timber does not appear to grow well, or is too closely cut. West of Alamuche pond the ridge has a larger REPORT ON FORESTS. 51 growth of chestnut and oak, mixed with a good deal of red cedar. There are also a few white pines on the western slope of this ridge. Along the highway from Warrenville to Meadville, at the edge of the Pequest meadows, there is some of the finest timber which was observed in this region, of chestnut, oak and hickory, from 10 to 30 inches in diameter and 50 to 60 feet high. One piece of about 50 acres, near the head of the small swamp, has been cut within two years. A good deal of the timber on the end of Cat mountain, west of Petersburgh, has been recently cut ; what remains is from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, and from 30 to 50 feet high, but it is scattering and mixed with small growth. At the head of the stream, just northeast of Peters- burgh, there are a number of tamarack trees. Agriculturally, this section about holds its own. There is not any important lapsing back of cultivated land into forest, and while the smaller houses are allowed to go into decay, the land continues to be farmed as before. It was noted that the end of the ridge, extending westerly and southwesterly from Alamuche pond to Meadville, is badly washed just north of the latter place near the small mill-pond. The bed-rock seems to lie close to the surface and the soil washes off. Such land should be left in forest, as it must become less and less valuable for agricultural purposes. The region above described constitutes the glaciated portion of that section of the Highlands which we described as the Alamuche-Pohatcong range in the physical description of the State, Vol. I, 1888. Continuing westerly, we cross the Pequest meadows, which are not strictly a part of the Highlands, but lie within the dis- trict. They contain much heavy timber, all deciduous, and of many varieties, but some of the best has been cut during the building of the Lehigh and Hudson River railroad, and since that time. On Mount Mohepinoke, west of Townsbury, less than half the area is forested. The timber varies from 2 to 14 inches in diameter, and from 15 to 50 feet in height, being generally good timber and containing some large trees, from 14 to 24 inches in diameter and 35 to 60 feet high. The under-growth is quite thick, and there are red cedars near Townsbury on some abandoned pasture and stump land. Near Pequest mines some 52 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. large sumac was noted, 2 to 4 inches in diameter and 10 to 20 feet in height. On Jenny Jump mountain there has also been some recent cutting of timber about the old silver mine. The best growth is on the main ridge of the mountain, and it includes some hemlock. ‘The timber on the foot of the hills, especially on the limestone, is inferior. A chestnut tree, 70 years old, measured 5 feet in diameter at the stump, but was rotten at the heart. About the foot of the mountain, in the valley, oak, chestnut, cedar, ash and poplar were observed. At Southtown some large sumac was noted, measuring from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and 10 to 25 feet in height. Just north of Shiloh, at the foot of the mountain, there is a locust grove covering about one and one-half acres, the origin of which was not ascertained. Southward from Shiloh chestnut and oak prevail, ranging from 2 to 16 inches in diameter and 10 to 45 feet in height, with some good timber near the Hope and Dan- ville road. Southward from this highway, to where the road crosses to Green’s pond, there has been much cutting within 15 years, and the timber is now poor in quality. Just south of Kishpaugh mine a chestnut stump showed roo rings, and ineas- ured 36 inches in diameter. One ring was observed measuring one-half inch in thickness. On the south end of Jenny Jump mountain the timber is quite good, ranging from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, and 25 to 50 feet in height. There has also been some cutting here within 15 years. At the outlet of Green’s pond there is a tamarack swamp quite heavily timbered. Gen- erally over this region of Jenny Jump mountain and Mount Mohepinoke the steeper slopes are wooded, but some of the gentler slopes have been cleared and are cultivated without suffering from wash. It is generally the fact that there is little or no evidence of wash where the Highlands ridges are deforested on the slope, although it is true that almost invari- ably the steeper slopes are well wooded. There is much more wash on the slate ridges, showing that it is largely due to the nature of the soil. Mr. L. V. Williams, of Danville, speaking of this region, thinks that on an average timber is worth $20 per acre, and most of the mountains have a growth ranging from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, with chestnut predominating, but there is REPORT ON FORESTS. is also a good deal of oak, especially rock oak, on the ridges. He thinks the tendency is for chestnut to increase and oak to grow scarcer, because the chestnut sprouts grow more rapidly and crowd out the oak. He considers the growth now much better than it was 30 years ago, as it is allowed to stand longer before cutting. Good poplar is growing scarce. Each succeeding growth of chestnut appears to be thrifty. The growth is better on the south and east sides of the hills, although this is not so noticeable when the soil is good. On the Jenny Jump mountain district there seems to be a deterioration in the cleared lands, but elsewhere they are well kept up. The timber in the Pequest valley, from Danville to Bridge- ville, contains maple, elm, oak, hickory, and a little hemlock and spruce. Mr. Williams, before quoted, says that 15 years ago he cut off a piece of timber, near T'ownsbury, consisting principally of oak, and since then nothing had grown there but red cedar. The plateau bounded by Bearfort mountain, the New York line, Vernon valley, and the New York, Susquehanna and West- ern railroad, has about 80 per cent. of its area in timber, consist- ing mainly of oak and chestnut, a considerable portion of which is from 35 to 40 years old, and only a few acres older, the remain- der being younger, ranging down to 5 or 10 years. "The growth from 30 to 40 years old ranges from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, and from 35 to 45 feet in height. The more accessible portion of the timber is said to be cut at 20 years. ‘Timber is believed to grow as rapidly as in earlier years. The only wastefulness apparent in cutting comes from the tendency to cut at too early an age, and this practice seems to be just about at the point of reform, owing to a change in demand for hoop-poles and cord- wood, so that there is likelihood of future improvement. The swamp areas indicated on the topographical maps on this plateau are generally wooded with maple, beech, elm, and occasionally with scattered pines, larches and white cedar. A dense growth of rhododendron makes some of the swamps very dark and almost impenetrable. Forest fires sometime - give trouble, and a large area east of Canistear, near Bearfort mountain, was burned over in 1894. On this same plateau, southwest of the rail- road at Stockholm, the condition of the timber is quite simi- lar to what we have already described for the first two or three 54 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. miles, but farther southwest the timber is older and larger. Chestnut is said to generally succeed all other growth, accompa- nied by a considerable percentage of oak. Pine is said to have been succeeded by oak and chestnut. ‘The eastern slopes of the hills are thought to produce the best timber, especially near the foot, while the extreme tops also often produce good timber. This is attributed to greater depth of soil. Pochuck mountain, lying just west of this plateau, does not differ from it materially, excepting that there is more hemlock and a somewhat thriftier growth. It is also not quite so densely wooded. Over the cleared portions the scattered growth is usually oak and chestnut, with some red cedar, maple, black walnut, &c. All these trees are of good size, the cedars from 8 to 12 inches in diameter and 4o feet high, and the other varieties from 12 to 24 inches in diameter and averaging about 45 feet high. In noting large trees, here as elsewhere, no attempt was made to include them all, the purpose being rather. to indicate about what could be seen in passing over the country, and the capacity of the soil to produce good timber. Four chestnuts were noted, ranging from 42 to 60 inches in diameter, and from 40 to 60 feet high, mostly near Stockholm and along the road to Vernon. The following oaks were also seen on Pochuck mountain: One, one-quarter mile west of Sand Hills, 48 inches in diameter and 60 feet high; another, one mile north, 36 inches by 60 feet, the spread of branches being 4o feet. In Vernon, there is one 42 inches in diameter by 50 feet high, and 3 miles north of Stock- holm another oak was-seen 30 inches in diameter by 45 feet high. An elm, oné mile north of Stockholm, measured 30 inches by 50 feet, and another, northwest of Vernon, 30 inches by 60 feet. A maple was seen on Pochuck mountain 36 inches by 70 feet; two, east of McAfee, in the valley, about 30 inches by 50 feet ; two, south of Vernon, about half way to Stockholm, about 48 inches in diameter by 50 and 60 feet high. Black wal- nuts were noted as follows: One, one-half mile east of Vernon, along the Valley road, 36 inches by 50 feet, said to be one of the original forest trees. At McAfee, there is one 66 inches by 85 feet. On the side of the mountain, southeast of McAfee, there is an apple tree measuring 36 inches in diameter by 45 feet high, REPORT ON FORESTS. 55 which is said to be the largest in Sussex county. Two miles southwest of Vernon, on the road to Stockholm, an oak and a walnut have grown together. At the base their combined diameters are 48 inches; above the junction each is about 24 inches in diameter. The following was obtained as average values of timber near Stockholm: Stump land, $2; 20-years’ growth, $7; 30- years’ growth, $10; heavy chestnut or mixed oak and chest- nut, $80. Heavy oak is said to be extremely scarce, but is quoted at from $60 to $100 per acre. At Vernon, stump land, $2; 20-years’ growth, $7; 30-years’ growth, $12; heavy chestnut or mixed oak and chestnut, $80. There is said to be very little valuable pine. At McAfee, stump land, $3; 20-years’ growth, $7; 30-years’ growth, $10; heavy chestnut and oak, $75 to $80. At Canistear, stump land, $3; 20-years’ growth, $10, 30-years’ growth, $15; heavy chestnut, $60. We shall next take up the balance of the glaciated portion of the central highland plateau which hes between Longwood and German valleys on the east, and the valleys of the Wallkill, Lubber’s run and the Musconetcong on the west. Northeast of the Sparta turnpike, connecting Sparta and Dover, it is very generally forested, probably less than 10 per cent. of the whole being under cultivation. Along the western slope, between Hardistonville and Sparta, the growth is mixed, deciduous and coniferous, the latter being much the larger, from 10 to 20 inches in diameter and 4o feet high. On the top of the mountain, just east of Franklin Furnace, about Two Bridges, the growth is young, but little being even large enough for cordwood, and very little as much as 30 years old. Thence along the top of the mountain to Ogden mines, the timber is mainly deciduous, and from general report, practically all of the timber has been cut once since the period of charcoal forges. About Ogden mines there is some older growth, but all the larger trees are cut out, the stumps averaging 4o years old, and a single one run- ning as high as 53 years. Between Morris pond and the road to Ogden mines the growth is from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and 15 to 20 feet high, and about 12 years old. Between Ogden mines and Hopewell, down to the Sparta and Milton high- way, we noted stumps which indicated the growth there to be 56 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. -from 34 to 4o years old.. Generally it appeared to be from 4 to 8 inches in diameter and 20 to 30 feet high, but a few trees 16 inches in diameter and 50 feet high were noted. The growth is all deciduous. The north slope of Bowling Green mountain, and westward beyond the Ogden mines railroad, has a growth from 34 to 44 years old; one oak stump was noted 47 years old and 10 inches in diameter. On the top of the ridges hereabout the growth is from 2 to 8 inches in diameter and from 20 to 30 feet high, but where there is more soil the trees are from 4 to 14 inches in diameter and about 4o feet high. Between Morris pond and Hurdtown, west of the railroad, the timber is deciduous, with a few scattering pines, and it is generally small with some stump land, some 5 years’ growth. The different tracts ranged from 2 to 5 inches in diameter and 20 feet high, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 35 to 45 feet high, from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 55 feet high, but trees 24 inches in diameter are very scarce. The best wood in this section is along the road from Woodport to Schofield mine, and is from 6 to 15 inches in diameter and 60 feet high, most of the trees being of the larger size, but the portion of this near the railroad is now being cut. The timber on the top of Bowling Green mountain is also good, from 6 to 14 inches in diameter and 4o to 55 feet high, the larger sizes predominating. This has also been cut in places. The west slope of Longwood valley was cut about 12 years ago; there are a few coniferous trees, spruces, pines and red cedar. West of Woodport, between the head of Lake Hopatcong and the head of Lubber’s run, the country is well wooded with oak and chestnut and scattering conifers. About Henderson cove, on the lake, there are scattering white pines and hemlocks. Excepting toward Bear ponds, where it is about 10 years old, the growth ranges from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 60 feet high, most of the trees being from 8 to 14 inches, but occa- sionally one is found 36 inches in diameter. There is exceed- ingly little cleared land in this tract. Between Lake Hopatcong and the valley of Lubber’s run, from Byram cove to Stanhope, the country is almost etitirely wooded. About Bear ponds there is much young growth from 6 to 15 years old, with better timber along the lake about Byram REPORT ON FORESTS. 57 cove and Davis cove, ranging from 2 to 8 inches in diameter and from 20 to 35 feet high. From the River Styx to Brooklyn, it ranges from 6 to 14 inches in diameter, from 30 to 50 feet high, and is entirely deciduous. Along the highway from Roseville to Stanhope reservoir, across the mountain, the timber is still better, while along the Musconetcong river, from Stanhope to Old Andover, it is large, ranging from ro to 24 inches in diam- eter and 40 to 60 feet high, with quite a number of hemlocks. _ There seems to be a general absence of coniferous trees near Lake Hopatcong, but they are much more prevalent toward the valley of Lubber’s run. It was noted that, generally, through- out this western portion of the Highlands, there was very little evidence of bad effects from deforestation, even where the slopes are cleared and cultivated they do not seem to be inclined to wash as a tule. This is probably largely due to the nature of the soil. It was also noted that, while many of the small build- ings are allowed to go down, the land cleared is as well culti- vated as it was 15 years ago, when the topographical survey was made. ‘There is practically no change in the location or extent of the forested areas. There was some exception to this state of things noted in the valley of Lubber’s run, throughout which the farm lands seemed to be not so well cultivated, and showed signs of lapsing back into forest. Throughout the hill region chestnut and oak predominate, but in places there is a great deal of hickory. The better timber seems to sell at from $40 to $60 per acre. Taking next the plateau east of Lake Hopatcong over to Longwood valley, we find, between Hurdtown and Lower Long- wood, timber generally from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 25 to 40 feet high, with some portions smaller. Near the Dover and Sparta turnpike the timber becomes somewhat better, rang- ing from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and 35 to 50 feet in height. On the end of the ridge east of Woodport, and near the lake, there are several white pines. Following down the turnpike toward Longwood valley, the growth becomes smaller again. Along the western slope of Longwood valley, from Lower Long- wood toward Berkshire valley, a fire has extended about 1% miles through young growth from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, all of which is dead. Further southwest, the timber ranges from 4 58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. to 12 inches in diameter and 25 to 4o feet high. There is some coniferous growth, mainly spruce and hemlock. Continuing southwest from Berkshire valley, on the road to Davenport mine, it was noticed that some large oaks had been cut, ranging from 94 to 99 years old, and from 21 to 31 inches in diameter. From Davenport mine to Hopatcong, the timber ranges gener- ally from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 25 to 60 feet high. At _ one place all trees large enough for railroad ties had been taken out. Southwest of Lake Hopatcong branch of the Central rail- road, over to the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western railroad, the timber is generally from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 20 to 60 feet high, but there is some smaller growth only about 2 inches in diameter. The age and diameter of a number of stumps in this region east of Lake Hopatcong were recorded, and become an index of the rate of growth of the timber. We give following, first the age, and then the diameter for different kinds of timber: Chestnut, 93 years, 32 inches; 89 years, 13 inches; 60 years, 14 inches; 43 years, 12 inches; 33 years, 9 inches. Oak, 99 years, 24 inches; 98 years, 31 inches and 2r inches; 95 years, 24 inches; 94 years, 27 inches and 24 inches; 79 years, 14 inches; 78 years, 13 inches; 37 years, 9 inches; 33 years, 9, Ir and 14 inches; 32 years, 13% inches; 30 years, 13 inches. Maple, 33 years, 14 inches. It was noted that several trees from 74 to 89 years old had apparently grown rapidly and uniformly until 30 years old, then very slowly for ten years, but after that more rapidly again. There is a general improvement in the cleared land and build- ings in the neighborhood of the line of the Ogden Mine railroad. This is, no doubt, partly due to better railroad facilities since this railroad was connected with the Central Railroad of New Jersey and partly to the recent extensive operations at Ogden mine. Notwithstanding this improvement, however, little land has been cleared for cultivation, but the old clearings are better cultivated and cared for. Along the east shore of Lake Hopat- cong there has been a considerable development as a summer resort, but this has not been attended by much clearing-off of forests, the trees being preserved so far as possible. From interviews with Mr. Titman, of Sparta, and others it was learned that the greatest damage to forests in this vicinity REPORT ON FORESTS. 59 comes from fires and cattle, the latter browsing off the young growth, or breaking it down. It is said that a fire which causes no great apparent damage at the time will cause the timber later on to decay at the heart. ‘here seems to be very little wood in this district over 4o years old taken as a forest, although there are scattering trees very much older. As a rule the tim- ber grows slower on the west and north slopes of the hills. The growth also varies with the character of the soil, and where the latter is very thin in certain instances a 40-years’ growth has not attained sufficient size to be of any use, even for cord-wood. Mr. .Decker, who formerly ran a forge at Sparta, says that he shut his works down in 1865. He also says that when forges were running throughout this section wood was often cut when 15 years old for coaling. Sproutsnow come up quickly, and appear to be thrifty, but he thinks that if fires continue they will cause a deterioration in the forests. He also says that hemlock is usually left standing when the other timber is cut off, as it does not pay to get it out if at all inaccessible. This fact accounts _ for the larger size of most of the coniferous growth standing throughout this part of the State. On Bearfort mountain timber has suffered much from fires. In 1882, during the prosecution of the topographic survey of that section, a fire ran over a large area south of the road from Green- wood lake to Wawayanda, and this fire did injury from which the forests have not yet recovered. A fire in 1891 ran over most of the mountain tops from the State line to Cedar lake. The timber is generally, both on account of these fires and the thinness or entire absence of soil over much of the mountain, scattering and of little value on the high ridges, but owing to its inaccessibility there has always remained a considerable amount of original forest, and in 1882 there was some quite heavy timber in the ravines, notably in the one heading at the westernmost of the two small ponds near the State line. ‘This ravine was then heavily timbered, and travel through it was difficult, owing to fallen tree-trunks. It was a good example of virgin forest. But, generally speaking, over the mountain tops the growth is scattering and inferior, which condition has been much aggravated by the recent fires referred to. There is a good deal of the common pine and some hemlock scattered over 60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. the mountain. ‘The best timber is along the eastern slope, although this is all second growth; but the present growth is from 30 to 40 years, 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and 4o to 45 feet high. It is mainly oak and ‘chestnut and scattering pine and hemlock. Green Pond and Copperas mountains are mainly covered with a 4o-years’ growth of oak and chestnut, rather sparse and poor on the top and eastern face, where the soil is thin, but fairly good on the western slopes, being there generally from 8 to 12 inches in diameter and 35 to 45 feet high. As on Bearfort mountain, there is a sprinkling of common pine. Some lots, aggregating perhaps 150 acres, have been cut off within from 10 to 15 years, but the remainder, if recently cut at all, has been only thinned out. The west slope of Green Pond mountain has deciduous and coniferous trees in nearly equal number, consisting mainly of oak and chestnut from 4 to 10 inches in diameter and 30 feet high, or spruce and hemlock 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 50 feet high. The east side of the mountain has timber of the same general character, while the flat top has a scattering growth of common pines, interspersed with scrub-oak (Q. z/zce- folta). It is noticeable that the coniferous growth disappears on this mountain, south of the highway from Middle Forge to Berkshire valley, and the deciduous growth runs from 4 to 14 inches in diameter and 20 to 45 feet high, deteriorating southwest, and ending in brush and scrub oak in the district north of Kenvil. Scrub oak prevails over the entire Bearfort and Green Pond mountain district, especially on the top of these ridges and on the sands which accompany this formation west of Clinton and on Succasunny plains. The valley at Milton and Oak Ridge contains most of the cultivated land of this region, but about one-third of its area is in timber, inainly oak and chestnut, of all ages, from 15 to 60 years, with a little pine along the road south of Clinton, and some maple and other soft woods in the low grounds. It is noticeable that all the principal slopes about this valley, and generally on the upper Pequannock water-shed, are well timbered. The valley has a considerable number of scattered trees over its. cultivated .portion, mostly from 8 to 12 inches in diameter and REPORT ON FORESTS. 61 40 to 50 feet high. ‘The large trees noted were a black walnut, three-quarters of a mile west of Milton, 30 inches by 50 feet ; a red oak, one-quarter of a mile north of the same place, 36 inches by 4o feet, and another, near Upper Longwood, 60 inches by 60 feet. From Petersburg to Upper Longwood, along the road, there are from 20 to 30 oaks and maples, ranging from 12 to 24 inches in diameter and averaging 45 feet high. A maple east of Oak Ridge measures 36 inches in diameter by 50 feet high. The portion of the Highlands lying between the valley run- ning from Greenwood lake to Newfoundland, and Wanaque and Passaic valleys, was designated the Passaic range in the “‘ Phys- ical Description.” A portion of this, north of Pequannock river, has 75 per cent. of its area in forest, the central belt of the range being almost unbroken by clearings. In the northern part there is a considerable amount of oak and chestnut, from 30 to 4o years old, including, perhaps, one-quarter of the whole region, while another large tract appears to exceed 45 years in age, all the more accessible portions near Wanaque valley and the Pequannock being young growth of all ages, from 3 to 5 years and upward, with very little stump land and no new clearing. It is evident that the practice of cutting at 20 years or younger has prevailed along the lower Pequannock, and it would appear that the forest has suffered injury in consequence. This young timber seems to have been mainly cut for charcoal, fire-wood, hoop-poles, &¢. While the timber is mostly oak and chestnut, there is some pine and hemlock between Macopin and West Milford, also red cedar in old pastures, and some white cedar south of Greenwood lake. The only portion of consequence which seems to have suffered from fire is an area of perhaps 150 acres along the Greenwood Lake railroad, just east of the lake. Most of the eastern part of this section is owned by Cooper & Hewitt, being a part of the Ringwood tract, and the forests of this part seem to be steadily improving. ‘There is some new cutting about Hewitt, two or three hundred acres of stump and brush land being noted, and also some considerable areas of young growth of all ages. Continuing along the Passaic range, southwesterly from the Pequannock river to the moraine line at Denville and Dover, 62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. chestnut and oak still prevail, with some hickory, and many other kinds of timber distributed throughout. For the most part, it is from 30 to 4o years old, and some scattering parcels, much younger, between Charlottesburg and Marcella, and also between Bloomingdale and Brook valley. This younger portion is considerably mixed with cedar, white birch, &c. There is very little brush or stump land to be seen, and very little timber less than 10 years old. A tract of several thousand acres is now held as a private preserve about Stickle pond, and its forests are likely to be cared for. The clearings in this district are almost entirely confined to the valleys of Green Pond brook, Beach Glen, Stony brook and the Rockaway river. The high lands are almost entirely covered with forest, the area of which amounts to some 75 per cent. of the whole district. ‘The cleared portions are almost entirely grass lands. The population is decreasing, but there does not appear to be any considerable amount of cleared land which shows signs of lapsing back into forest. Between Rock- away and Mount Hope the timber. is oak and chestnut, ranging from 4 to 24 inches in diameter. Between Mount Hope, Hibernia and Denmark the timber ranges from 35 to 50 years old, and cutting appears to be more by culling out the best trees than by clearing off the entire tract, the smaller growth being preserved. West of Rockaway there is thrifty timber, from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, and 40 to 60 feet high, said to be about 60 years old. The timber continues to be excellent, to and about Mount Pleasant mine. About Baker and Richards mines it is apparently as old, but the best has been culled out. Still, it continues to be fair on over to the valley of Green Pond brook. On the mountains, between Rockaway and Hibernia, the timber ranges from about 4o years old, near Beach Glen valley, to 60 years old further west. Some portions have been recently cut, and some are from 10 to 20 years old. But generally the range is from 6 to 20 inches in diameter and from 30 to 60 feet in height. It is mainly oak and chestnut, with a few white pines and other conifers on the top and the more rocky slopes. Between Beach Glen and Meriden, it ranges from 12 to 34 inches in diameter and 50 to 60 feet in height, with a few coniferous trees as before. South and west of Split Rock, REPORT ON FORESTS. 63 the oak and chestnut range from 7 to 35 inches in diameter and 30 to 45 feet in height. It is said that the last cutting about Split Rock for the use of the furnace was some 30 years ago. Further toward Marcella, oak and hickory were noted 10 inches in diameter and 55 feet high, while along the Marcella and Hibernia road the oldest timber is 45 years old, but there has been some recent cutting, and there are some tracts of younger timber. From Beach Glen, eastward to the Morris canal, the country is well known by Mr. W. K. Clarke, of Rockaway. He says the last cutting for iron furnaces and forges in this district was done 40 years ago, although a trifling amount has been done since. He believes that after the forests here are cut two or three times more the growth will become stunted and worthless, and there will be a necessity for re-seeding. He mentions a 10- acre tract on his property where, in 1838, his father raised a crop of buckwheat. It was then abandoned and oak and chestnut came up. ‘The timber was cut off in 1866, the 10 acres yielding 200 cords of wood. In 1883 it was cut again, yielding from 12 . to 15 cords per acre, and now, in 1895, the growth averages 4 inches in diameter and 25 feet high. He thinks the best growth is on the east and south slopes of the hills. The district which we are describing has generally a growth of from 4 to 16 inches in diameter and 35 to 45 feet high. There are a few coniferous trees, principally white pine, the largest of which was 2 feet in diameter and 60 feet high, and about this tree there were a great many small pines, some 20 feet high, apparently sprung from the seed of the large tree. North and northeast of Boonton, the mountains appear to have been cut off from 30 to 50 years ago, and are now beginning to yield good timber again. Some of the cleared land in this vicinity begins to grow up with red cedar. About Taylorville, it is said that the timber was cut about 30 years ago for the use of the forges. Mr. Ezekiel Earle, of Lyonsville, furnished the following interesting facts as to this region: Last winter he cuta tract on the hill north of Dixon’s pond, the timber of which was 60 years old and which yielded 50 cords per acre. He has some chestnut and oak timber which he has trimmed out and taken care of, and he believes it will yield one-third more wood per acre 64 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. than other wood of the same kind and similarly located, which has been allowed to grow up in the usual way. His experience is that wood will usually yield one cord per acre for each year that it has been growing. He complains that the timber rots more at the heart now than formerly, and says this applies only to that which has sprouted up from the stump. The seedling trees are much thriftier and straighter than the sprouts. Just east of his home he has a tract of chestnut which has fine timber. The trees are about 45 years old, from 8 to 18 inches in diameter and 4o to 50 feet high. He says the seedling trees in this growth can be picked out with no difficulty. He says the continued cutting and lack of care is injuring the growth from the stump, and believes that the timber will deteriorate from this cause. He mentions a tract which was cut by his father, and which he believes was original forest. Since then it has been cut once more, about 20 years ago, and has never been more than brush since that cutting. He also stated that Andrew Cobb, who owned the forges at Split Rock, used to say that wood was most profit- able for coaling when cut every 20 years. The opinion is general hereabout, as elsewhere in the northern part of the State, that the timber is better cut at from 30 to 35 years old than at 50 years, being sounder, Mr. C. S. Dickerson, of Denville, who has much experience, furnishes the following facts: He is now cutting a tract of 100 acres, for which he paid $50 per acre, including timber and land, the timber being about 60 years old. So far as the young growth is concerned, he thinks it makes no difference whether timber is cut in February or August. He believes the forests in this sec- tion are now in better condition than they were 25 or 30 years ago, as they were then cut much younger, owing to the demand of forges, railroads, lime-kilns, &c., and later the hoop-pole industry. He says the second growth of timber is stronger, thriftier and thicker than the original, and each succeeding growth appears to improve. ‘Timber ought to be cut at from 30 to 4o years old, as after that it begins to rot at the heart, and the older stuinps do not send out so many or as thrifty sprouts as the younger. He says, also, that cord-wood costs 60 cents to cut, $1.00 for cart- age, $1.50 for freight, and, allowing 15 cents for waste, this makes the total $3.25, whereas the market price ranges from $3.00 to $4.00 per cord. REPORT ON FORESTS. 65 Near Taylorville, some wood 12 years old was recently cut, and the larger trees were decayed at the heart. It is also stated that timber growing rather thin on the ground is better in quality than where it stands too close together, and that it should be trimmed out when about three years old, leaving the healthier sprouts to grow. The genetal trend of opinion seems to be that the rotting at the heart indicates the necessity of re-seeding. On this northeastern portion of the Highlands all of the steeper slopes are well forested, excepting a few which are rocky and will not support any growth. The cleared land is almost entirely confined to the bottoms of the valleys, which are usually rather flat. The cleared portions are not highly cultivated, consisting largely of grassland. The water-sheds of the Ramapo, Wanaque, Pequannock and Rockaway lie almost entirely upon this gla- ciated Highland district, and to this fact is due their peculiar excellence as sources of water-supply for our cities. The fore- going description gives as good an idea of the forest conditions of these water-sheds as could be given bya separate description for each stream. In Wanaque valley, although the timber is more interspersed with clearings, it does not differ from that already described, excepting that there is more red cedar, which is probably due to the fact that the land has at some time been cleared. Ramapo mountain is practically an unbroken forest, mainly oak and chestnut. The main ridge, from Negro pond south to the highway crossing from Midvale, is covered with a good growth of perhaps 30 to 40 years old, and most of the flatter por- tions of the mountain are likewise well timbered. Perhaps one- third to one-half of the slopes are not so well timbered, owing to thinness of soil. The southern end of the mountain is mostly covered with quite young timber and brush, and the timber on most of the more accessible parts has been cut within 20 years. Generally, the Passaic range of the Highlands and Ramapo mountain are more lightly wooded, and the timber has been more severely cut during the last 20 years than on-the Central Highland plateau westward. ‘The proportion of forested area to the whole is about thesame. In this part of the Highlands it is thought, generally, that the timber grows as vigorously as in former years, and it is asserted that a 30-years’ growth will yield. 5 FOR 66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. as much wood per acre as the original forest. Some of the best timber here is on the slopes, but, on the other hand, more slopes have thin soil, and there are more bare-rock ledges than on the central plateau, and these have only a stunted growth or none, but they do not exceed one-third of the entire slope area. Flat hill-tops and ravines are well timbered as a rule, although some ridges are quite bare of soil on the top, and the forest is correspondingly poor. . The larger trees noted were two hemlocks, one mile south- west of West Milford, which measured 30 and 36 inches in diameter and about 60 feet high; a red oak at the same place measured 42 inches by 4o feet; an oak one mile north measured 54 inches by 70 feet, and another, one and one-quarter miles north, 42 inches by 45 feet, being a very beautiful tree. Near the same place we observed two chestnuts 42 inches in diameter and 40 and 60 feet high; a maple 42 inches by 80 feet ; another, in a swamp, 48 inches by 70 feet ; an elm 30 inches by 75 feet, with a beautiful spread of weeping branches. A chestnut near by measured 36 inches by 50 feet, and one at Midvale, 54 inches by 50 feet; a pine at Wanaque measured 30 inches by 50 feet. No very large trees were observed on the high part of the Passaic range. Not much reliable data could be had as to values. In the vicinity of Greenwood lake estimates ranged about as follows: Stump land, $5; 20-years’ growth, $20; 30-years’ growth, $30. At Midvale, stump land, $5; 20-years’ growth, $10 to $20; 30- years’ growth, $15 to $25; large oak and chestnut, $60 to $80 per acre. We have noticed that a large amount of Highlands forest ranges from 30 to 4o years old, and only a very small amount exceeds 45 years. All recent cutting also seems to have been of timber about 30 years old or younger. It would appear that much of the forest now standing, or which has been cut in recent years, dates from about 1850. Up to about that date there was a very large consumption of timber for charcoal to supply forges and furnaces, as well as for. other kinds of fuel. Recently the cutting ‘of timber less than 20 years old appears to have been somewhat checked. Most of this young timber was cut for charcoal, fuel and hoop-poles. The reason for this check is mainly to be found REPORT ON FORESTS. 67 in the lessened demand or lower prices for these products. The evidence which we have collected seems to indicate that the best results are obtained by cutting at an age of 30 or 35 years. Chestnut, particularly, does not grow so thriftily after this age. A potent factor in checking this cutting of young timber is the tendency now prevailing to acquire large holdings of these northern Highlands. This movement is rapidly under way, and will undoubtedly result in a marked improvement in the condition of the forests during the next 20 years. At Wawa- yanda lake one owner holds 3,000 acres, and on Bearfort moun- tain an iron company holds 2,000 acres. At Cedar lake a club holds a large tract as a game preserve. At Ringwood the prop- erty of Cooper & Hewitt embraces a large extent of territory. At Stickle pond a private owner has acquired an extensive pre- serve. ‘Thus private enterprise seems to promise the solution of the forest question in this portion of the State. As most of this land is entirely unfit for cultivation, and should always remain in forest in order to maintain the steady flow of the streams, as well as for other economic reasons, not to speak of the eesthetic, it is a matter for congratulation that such a movement has set in. FORESTS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN HIGHLANDS. The line of the terminal moraine, which subdivides the High- lands, crosses from Denville through Dover, Drakesville, the north end of Budd’s lake, a point about one mile north of Hack- ettstown, through Townsbury to the Delaware at Belvidere. The unglaciated portion southwest of the moraine is, as we remarked, much better adapted to agriculture, so that generally speaking the Archzean plateaus and ridges have fully half their surfaces cleared and under cultivation, while the rather broad intervening valleys, which are on the slate and limestone, are almost entirely deforested and under a high state of cultivation. Beginning at the northwest side as before, we have first the upper Pohatcong mountain lying between the Musconetcong and Pequest valleys. We have previously considered the glaci- ated portion northwest of the Hackettstown and Vienna high- way. Southwestward the mountain is about half forested, the slopes especially being well covered, while the head of Pohat- 68 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. cong valley is deforested. The slope of the mountain, toward Musconetcong valley, is followed by the Morris canal, to which fact may be due the recent cutting which probably includes 60 per cent. of the timber, within 15 years, and much of this has been cut within 5 years. The better-growth standing ranges from 8 to 20 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high. This larger growth prevails over the top of the mountain, where there has been much less cutting. On Furnace mountain, which in- cludes the portion west of the head of Pohatcong valley, the timber ranges from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 25 to 55 feet in height. Here, also, there has been some recent cutting. The timber is principally chestnut, with a good deal of oak, but we also find maple, birch, beech, poplar, ash, butternut, &c. ‘There is no washing noticeable on the mountain slope, but there is some in Pohatcong valley, especially in the peach orchards and other areas which are not kept in grass or grain. Just southwest is Scott’s mountain, which includes some 4o square miles of plateau, surrounded by deforested valleys of slate and limestone. About one-half of the surface of the mountain is forested, including all the steeper slopes. North of the high- way, from Oxford Furnace to Belvidere, the growth is decid- uous; oak, chestnut and hickory, with the usual scattering birch, beech, maple, elm, poplar and ash. The best timber is from 8 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet in height, which includes about three-quarters of the whole, the remaining one-quarter having been cut within 10 years. ‘There is a little hemlock near Oxford church. The southeast slope of Scott’s mountain, which is also followed by the Morris canal, contains timber from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and 25 to 45 feet high, some of which has been cut within 15 years. On the western slope, toward the Delaware, there has also been some cutting, and in general the best timber is on the top of the plateau, rang- ing from 8 to 20 inches in diameter and 25 to 50 feet high, mainly of chestnut, oak and hickory, with the other varieties previously tentioncd, There is a little cutting, but less than on the slopes. Such slopes as are cleared show no evidence of washing. ‘The most accessible clearings are generally well cul- tivated. Those less easily reached show a few signs of deteri- oration. REPORT ON FORESTS. 69 The valley of the Delaware, westward, is almost entirely deforested, but the few scattered clumps of timber are good. The bluff along the river contains considerable hemlock. The Pohatcong valley, eastward, including the broad stretch of level country at the south end of Scott’s mountain, reaching over to the Delaware river, is entirely deforested, there being a lack even of scattering trees, which makes this territory seem more bare than any other in Northern New Jersey. What little timber there is is confined to the bluff along the Delaware, and consists of a few larger trees from Io to 13 inches in diameter and 30 to 45 feet in height, interspersed with a good deal of brush. We find here hickory, butternut, beech, oak, elm, birch and a little chestnut and hemlock. Pohatcong mountain is a narrow ridge extending from Wash- ington southwest to the Delaware river. It has some timber along its slopes, mainly oak, hickory and chestnut, with the other varieties which we have previously named interspersed, and also some clumps of common pine (P. rigzda) north of Asbury. The north end of the ridge has a medium growth from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and some of the pasture is growing up to red cedar. A 5o-acre lot was noticed on the northwest slope which has been cut within 7 years, and which shows almost no new growth since. The timber seems to have been principally oak. The timber is better as we proceed towards Bloomsbury, ranging from ro to 30 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet in height, but the tracts are small. The best has been, or is now being cut. Just southwest of the Lehigh Valley railroad there is a piece of chestnut, oak and hickory which is better, ranging from 6 to 14 inches in diameter and 25 to 45 feet high. ‘Thence to the Delaware it ranges from 8 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high, but nearly all has been cut within 10 years, and the best of the remaining is now being cut out. On the ridge near Bloomsbury, oak stumps were noted as follows: 150 years old, 28 inches in diameter; 125 years old, from 21 to 29 inches, and 118 years, 25 inches. The Musconetcong valley, southwestward from the crossing of the moraine, is generally deforested, but not quite so bare of timber as the Pohatcong valley previously described. The underlying rock of the valley is either slate or limestone, and its 70 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. surface is highly cultivated. The slopes in the valley show considerable erosion from water, and it would seem that the steeper ones might well be reforested, but, as a whole the country is too fertile to be kept in forest. Schooley’s mountain is crossed by the moraine from Drakes- ville by the north end of Budd’s lake to a point about one mile north of Hackettstown, and this northern drift-covered portion presents a marked contrast to that south of the moraine. It is not only more generally forested but its clearings are neglected, buildings and fences are falling down, and it is deteriorating into a wilderness, whereas, just southwest the clearings are in a high state of cultivation. The timber over this drift-covered area is generally from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, with some better, ranging from 8 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet high, but there is also a considerable proportion of small and inferior growth. ‘There appears to have been a good deal of cutting done 10 or 15 years ago, but not so much recently. The timber is mainly chestnut and oak, but includes a wide range of other varieties. In the swamp west of Budd’s lake there are a few tamaracks. Southwest of the moraine line about 50 per cent. of the sur- face of the mountain, including the more level portions, is cleared and well cultivated. North of Drakestown the timber ranges from 6 to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high, and from Drakestown to Schooley’s Mountain springs, from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 20 to 55 feet high, but about half of this has been cut within ro years, although there remains some very good timber. Around Mount Olive the growth varies from 8 to 20 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet in height, but there is some smaller growth interspersed. Along the east face of the mountain it runs from about 6 to 14 inches in diameter and 25 to 45 feet high, and there is a little cutting at present, while considerable has been cut from 5 to 10 years ago. ‘T‘here is not a great deal left here which is large enough for profitable cutting. Along the western slope, from Beattystown to Pennville, the timber is good, ranging from 6 to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet high, some of which has been, and is now being cut. It is principally chestnut and oak, mixed with other deciduous trees. From Pennville to Changewater the growth is quite REPORT ON FORESTS. 71 good, and about the same size as above, but from Changewater to Junction it is light, and ranges mostly from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and 30 to 45 feet in height, with a few larger trees. This slope of the mountain has washed considerably in places, and especially where there are peach orchards, the wash being much less when kept in grass. Taking this southern part of the mountain, from Schooley’s Mountain postoffice to the New Jersey Central railroad, the cutting within 5 years has been very severe, and all the heavier timber is being rapidly taken out. This is more the case than on any other part of the High- lands. Along the south branch of the Raritan all the old timber is cut, and when the lots now being cut are taken off there will be nothing left but timber too young to be of any use. The farms in this section appear to be well kept up. Near Pleasant Grove an oak stump was noted, showing 104 rings, which was 30 inches in diameter. ‘The timber being cut on these south- western Highlands at present is mostly worked up by steam- mills into merchantable lumber of all kinds, including almost everything for which a ready sale can be found. Practically none of the area being now cut off is intended to be cultivated, but it will be allowed to grow up again in forest. Musconetcong mountain is next, southwest. Along its west- ern face, from Junction to West End, the average timber ranges from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, and 25 to 45 feet high, of which a good deal has been cut within 10 years, and some quite recently. Some of this recent cutting seems to be followed by a poor and stunted growth, possibly due to the browsing of cattle. Around Pattenburg thie chestnut and oak range from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, and 30 to 50 feet high, and on the eastern slope, thence to the Central railroad, the timber is small. The best of this region is on the hills, near Glen Gardner. It is generally oak and chestnut and other deciduous trees inter- mingled. The result of interviews in this region indicate that, in the first place, the timber was largely cut and coaled for the use of forges and furnaces, and then, after the Central railroad was built, there was a good demand for timber, and the forests were cut off, since which time there has been a lessened demand. The lots now being cut are those which escaped in the period following the completion of the Central railroad. It is said that i 72 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. chestnut grows faster than oak, although there was no com- plaint of deterioration of chestnut hereabout, after reaching 30 years of age. There is no erosion of the slopes here, and the clearings appear to be well cultivated. Between the Lehigh Valley railroad and the road from Little York to Bloomsbury, the timber is mainly chestnut, oak and hickory, ranging, in different parts, from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, and 20 to 30 feet in height, up to 18 inches in diameter, and 30 to 50 feet in height. Quite a good deal has been recently cut and a considerable area is brush. Along the Musconetcong val- ley slopes, above Warren paper mills, there are a few hem- locks; and on the same slope, near the West End mines, the timber ranges from 10 to 24 inches in diameter and 40 to 55 feet high. Further southwest the timber on this mountain varies a good deal, the different wood-lots having been cut at widely different periods. Near Gravel hill an oak stump was noted roo years old and averaging 32 inches in diameter. Mr. D. Harrison, of Bloomsbury, mentions a lot of 20 acres on this mountain which was cut about 12 years ago and which has grown very little since, being now only Io or 12 feet high, although all around it the growth is good. In general, the timber grows well and quickly. Chestnut usually comes up after cutting off, and he thinks the wood grows as well as ever it did, and that the wood is now better than it was formerly, that is, it is more durable. He mentions a young chestnut pole which was cut 80 years ago and has been in use ever since, being still well preserved. On Succasunna Plains we find a good deal .of scrub-oak, especially just northeast of Flanders, about the sand-pits and eastward of the Morris canal to the northeast of Kenville. This -oecuts on a sand belonging to the Green Pond mountain rocks, and it is said that this scrub-oak has been the same for a long time. It was noticed that where these scrub-oak lands had been cleared they appeared to raise good crops. Generally there is more timber over the plains than on the other valleys of this portion of the Highlands. Quite a good many white pines were noticed near Flanders, with some young pine, and a few hem- locks. Along the south side of the road from Flanders to Suc- casunna the timber ranges from 10 to 15 inches in diameter and REPORT ON FORESTS. ve 30 to 50 feet high. In some abandoned clearings common pine is coming up. ‘There is some tamarack in the swamp south of Drakesville, and it is also found in the swamp on Black river from Horton station to Succasunna. German valley is generally deforested, especially from Naugh- right down to Califon. On the long, narrow ridge at the southeast side of German valley, and running from Succasunna plains to Califon, there is a considerable amount of timber on the northwest slope, mainly chestnut and oak, ranging from 4 to 18 inches in diameter and 20 to 50 feet high, and it appears to be generally attached to farms and utilized in connection therewith. Taking now the extension of the Passaic range southwest from Dover and Denville, we find generally about one-half of the coun- try in timber, the greatest amount of cleared land being about Mendham and on the Upper Whippany, including Morris Plains. Along the west face of the plateau from Port Oram to Ironia, timber is from 6 to 12 inehes in diameter and 30 to 45 feét high, while south of Port Oram, on the hill, it is good, but rather thin. Just south of Dover there has been some clearing near the town, but otherwise the hills are covered with a good growth, prin- cipally chestnut and oak, 6 to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 40 feet high. Elsewhere in Randolph township it usually varies from 4 to 10 inches in diameter to from 6 to 16 inches, and there has been some recent cutting, but it is not extensive. The hills between Franklin and Rockaway are timbered with a growth 40 years old or younger. Some has lately been cut off, and prob- ably one-half is less than 20 years old. West of Franklin, on the same ridge, it is from 6 to Io inches in diameter, and’ 30 to 45 feet high, mostly oak and chestnut. The timber east of Den brook, over to Morris Plains, also appears to range up to about 45 years old, something near half being of this age, and the rest generally less than 20 years old. Oak and chestnut prevail. Near Camp Tabor several large trees have recently been cut, which had stood in the open with plenty of room. ‘They were all 35 years old, measured from 24 to 34 inches across the stump, and were from 40 to 50 feet high, sound at the heart. A case was mentioned here of a wood lot, the timber of which was from 40 to 50 years old, for which an offer had been made of $100 per 74 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. acre. The trees between Shongum and Morris Plains, and gen- erally, in this vicinity, are about 44 years, all of which range from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and from 4o to 50 feet high. There are very few coniferous trees; mostly in the valleys and along the streams, On Trowbridge mountain, northeast of Shongum, a few acres of timber were noted, measuring from 10 to 30 inches in diameter and 60 feet high. A few red cedars were noted near Morris Plains, and also some near Shongum. The timber near Morristown seems to be older and better than it is further west. Generally, from Morristown, Mendham and Chester, on the south, to Ironia and Mount Freedom, on the north, either chestnut or oak predominates, but there is also a good deal of hickory, some birch, white birch, maple, elm, &c. ‘There does not appear to be much cutting at present, but there has been a good deal 10 or 15 years ago, sothat there is much timber only from 2 to 5 inchesin diameter, but it runs from these sizes up to 20 inches. A fair average of the timber would be from 6 to 10 inches and 30 to 45 feet high. The steeper slopes are generally for- ested, and there is no evidence of washing from deforestation. On the easterly edge of the plateau, southwest from Morristown, the timber is of the same general character as that we have already described. As this is becoming a residence district there is a tendency to preserve the timber, and most of this is of fair size and age, and there is very little cutting. Further southwest, on Mine mountain, the growth is good and thrifty, ranging from 8 to 20 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet high. ‘There is but little cutting, and what there is is mostly for fencing. It is mainly held either in connection with farms or the country places of people from the near-by cities, and there is a general tendency to cut the wood carefully and make the most of it. Over along the north branch of-the Raritan there is some good timber, but most of it runs from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and 20 to 30 feet high. It is noticed that as we approach the red shale country there is generally more hickory and less chestnut. The region between Peapack and Chester has timber run- ning from 6 to 14 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high, but not much has been recently cut. A considerable amount was taken off between Io and 15 years ago. There is good timber on Mount Paul, ranging from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 25 REPORT ON FORESTS. 75 to 45 feet high, and including about half a dozen white pines. Along the Black river, from Chester to Pottersville, the best timber has been or is now being cut, and the average growth is from 2 to 10 inches in diameter and 10 to 4o feet high. ‘There are a few hemlocks near this stream. Passing southwest, to the Fox Hill district, we still note that chestnut disappears at the edge of the red shale, while the oak and hickory is good, but only small parcels are left standing, most of the country from the foot of the Highlands being cleared. There is also a good deal of cleared land on the plateau, about Fairmount and southwesterly, but the small lots of timber left standing are generally good, ranging from 7 to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 45 feet high. Still further southwest, about Cokesburg and toward High Bridge, there are only scattering parcels of timber left, and here, as on the south end of Schooley’s mountain, what remains is being rapidly cut off. The timber continues to be mainly chestnut and oak, with the usual sprink- ling of other varieties, but here also, as elsewhere, the disappear- ance of chestnut, when we reach the red shale country, is very marked. It will be noticed from the foregoing detailed review and description of the Highlands forests, that the severest cutting at present is to the southwest, where the proportion of forested area is the smallest. Further northeast, cutting is by no means severe, and the timber is steadily improving. It is also apparent that there is very little tendency to wastefulness, that the cutting of timber is determined entirely by the demand, and this is true not only as to the amount cut but as to the age at which the timber is cut. In the past it was found profitable to cut timber for charcoal when 20 years old, and more recently for hoop-poles at a still earlier age; but, owing entirely to a change in the markets, this has all been altered, and the tendency at present is not to cut until the age of 30 years, or thereabout, has been reached. These facts as to the history of the past suggest at once that the same influences must determine how these forests shall be managed in the future. If there should come a demand which would make it profitable to cut at an earlier age than 30 years, it is difficult to see how such cutting can be prevented. It appears, however, that owners of the forest are ready for any 76 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. suggestions which will enable them to derive a greater profit from their holdings, that they will not be slow to receive and adopt practical suggestions, or to improve on their present meth- ods, and that a great deal can be done to aid the cause of forestry in this section of the State by instruction. PASSAIC VALLEY. This valley, lying between the trap ridges variously known as Watchung, or the First and Second mountains, and the east- ern slope of the Highlands, is a portion of the red sandstone plain, and is all glaciated excepting the portion lying south- west of the line of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, between Summit and Morristown. This unglaciated portion, however, partakes to some extent of the character of the rest, rather than of the unglaciated portion of the red sandstone plain south of the trap ridges, both in the variety and the extent of its forest growth. This fact may possibly be due to the prevalence of gravel deposits traceable to Lake Passaic, which once occupied the whole valley, and partly due to a number of trap hills and ridges contained within the area; but, whatever may be the cause, it is a fact that the whole valley may be classed together in relation to its forests. Generally, the percentage of forested area ranges from 20 to 40, averaging for the whole valley about 30 per cent. Pompton plains is the most sparsely wooded section of the valley. Over the northern part, generally, oak from 10 to 20 inches in diameter and 60 to 80 feet high is common enough to indicate that the soil is able to produce heavy timber, but the prevailing growth is quite irregular both in size and variety, and is generally smaller than that above noted. Softer woods, such as gum, maple, willow, etc., prevail on the flatter portions of the valley. There are also over the cultivated portions many scattering trees, planted forest trees, fruit trees, etc., many of which are of a large size, so that a general view of the valley from any commanding point gives the impression of a well wooded country. Riker Hill, Hook mountain, and the other trap ridges within the valley have timber resembling closely that of the Watchung mountain ridges, which we shall describe REPORT ON FORESTS. ‘ie; later. They are generally covered with cedar trees. The orig- inal growth was oak and hickory, and this was succeeded, when cut, by the red cedar to a great extent. On Hook mountain the timber of the east end was cut about 35 years ago, some parts a little later. Some is now being cut for fencing, etc., the trees tunning from 20 to 30 feet long, and cutting posts worth one and one-half cents per foot. A portion of the mountain near Tom’s point was cut off from 8 to 20 years ago, and the growth is slow, consisting of oak, hickory, chestnut and whitewood, but little cedar, and it is generally true that there is little cedar all the way down on the east slope of the mountain, but on the west slope, wherever the oak and hickory is cut off, red cedar comes up abundantly. In one place the original forest had been cut off not over three years ago, and scarcely a sprout could be seen excepting red cedar. The oak and hickory is large, some of it apparently over 100 years old. On Long Hill the timber is short and thin, with a good many red cedars, and a very little timber that would pay to cut. There is very little chestnut on this ridge. Around Troy Hills and northward to Boonton, the larger timber is cut, from time to time, for various uses, but the tracts being held in connection with farms are not cut off as a whole. “Near Littleton some timber was sold 30 years ago for $60 per acre. Parsippany woods, east of Tabor, is about 40 years old, although a freshly-cut stump was noted 51 years old. The wood is light, 30 acres being recently sold for $20 per acre. Red cedars have come up here quite thickly, especially on former pasture lands. The wood is mainly oak and chestnut, and is all deciduous, excepting the red cedar. Along the road from Tabor to Parsippany there are some oak and chestnut trees which appear to be from 100 to 150 years old. North of Lee meadows there is some timber said to be worth $75 per acre. The bal- ance of the tract has had the large trees cut out, leaving mostly trees of about 30 years’ growth. On Horse hill, east of Morris Plains, the timber is from 4 to 7 inches in diameter and 20 to 35 feet high, on the south end, while on the top and east slope it is from 10 to 20 inches in diameter, and toward the north end from 2 to 5 inches in diameter and ro to 25 feet high, but here also there is some bet- 78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ter timber, ranging from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 25 to 45 feet high. The timber on this hill is mostly oak, with some chestnut, hickory and maple, and a good deal of red cedar about the clearings. About Malapardis, Whippany, Troy Hills and Parsippany much of the timber ranges from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and 25 to 50 feet high, but there is some 24 inches in diameter and 60 feet high. ‘There appears to be no chestnut here, but mainly oak, hickory and maple, all looking thrifty, and there is very little cutting. There is also considerable red cedar hereabouts, and on the lower lands a good deal of pin oak. On the uplands, between Pine Brook and Swinefield Bridge, timber averages from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high, with very little chestnut, being principally oak and hick- ‘ory. It looks thriftier on the uplands than on the meadows, the best of the timber being pin-oak. On the ridge between Whip- pany and Passaic rivers, from Hanover Neck to Madison, the tim- ber seems thrifty, and ranges from 7 to 12 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high, and seems to be carefully preserved by the owners. Between Whippany and Morristown, also, it is good, ranging from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 30 to 55 feet high, but, for the most part, there is a little too much brush and young growth. ‘There does not appear to be any chestnut, excepting along the banks of Whippany river, until we approach Morris- town, and there is less red cedar than elsewhere. ‘The timber is also quite good on the ridge near Convent, ranging from 6 to 24 inches in diameter, but there is considerable small growth mixed through it. There is a little chestnut between Hanover and Chatham, and’ the timber here is also thrifty, ranging from 4 to 24 inches in diameter, with most of the trees between 7 and 11 inches. South of Madison, on the ridge, timber ranges from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and from 30 to 60 feet high, this being much larger than most of the timber in this neighborhood. ‘The different kinds of oak predominate, but there is also some chestnut and hickory, with a few elms, maples, &c. On the upland, bordering the Great swamp, most of the oak appears to have been cut out within three years. There are quite a good many chestnuts and hickories. The larger trees left standing are from 6 to 11 inches in diameter and 25 to 4o feet high. ‘There is, also, quite a good deal of brush REPORT ON FORESTS. 79 and underbrush, with a good many young cedars. North of Green Village the timber is good, that is, what remains of it, but some has been cut within a few years. What remains runs from 6 to 10 inches in diameter and 30 to 45 feet high, with a few trees as much as 24 inches in diamter. It is principally oak and hickory, with some chestnut, maple, birch, &c. Northward of Green Village, and toward Morristown, timber is generally from » 4 to 24 inches in diameter and from 20 to 50 feet in height, most trees ranging from 6 to 10 inches in diameter. The owner of a portable saw-mill has just cut off a tract between Silver lake and Madison. On the southwest slope of the ridge, between Madison and Morristown, timber ranges from 6 to 11 inches in diameter and from 30 to 55 feet high, with some trees as much as 24 inches in diameter. It consists of oak, chestnut, hickory, maple, elm, birch, etc., with a good deal of cedar in places. Some of this timber has been trimmed out. In the neighbor- hood of New Vernon the average timber ranges from 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 25 to 50 feet high. There are some pieces of young growth, and again there are tracts with trees 24 inches in diameter and 50 to 60 feet high. As a general thing there is little chestnut, excepting near the foot of the High- lands. Oak of all kinds predominates, especially white oak, and, on the flat places, pin-oak. We also find some maple, beach, elm, birch and white birch, with red cedar everywhere where old clearings have grown up. There has been very little cutting on this tract, between Morristown and the Great swamp, within the last 4 or five years. On the northeast end of the Great swamp, near the edge of the uplands, there is a good deal of small growth, includ- ing red cedar. Further in the swamp the wood appears to be better, the larger trees ranging from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high. Larger sizes are not numer- ous, and a great many pin-oaks were noted. Along the edge of the swamp, next to Long Hill, a good many red cedars were found about the neglected clearings, and it also appears to have succeeded the timber where it has been cut off. The timber in the swamp consists of oak, largely pin-oak, maple, birch and elm, with a few chestnuts, the latter growing only on the high ground. Taken as a whole, the timber in this swamp x 80 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. is very poor. One hundred acres in the southern part was cut off last year. ‘The best timber is said to be near White Bridge, but good timber was also noted near the northeast end of the swamp, elsewhere the larger and better trees have been cut out. This cutting has been: especially severe during the last Io years. In the valley, along the river above Chatham, the most of the timber is either close to the stream or in widely separated clumps, much of the valley being under cultivation. A good deal was noted ranging from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and from 30 to 50 feet in height, but some is smaller. Generally this valley timber is thrifty and better than that on the adjoining ridges. The best of it is just west of New Providence. There is almost no chestnut here. In the northern part of the valley it is estimated that swamp land timber of the older and heavier growth is worth, on an average, about $50 per acre, and upland timber of about the same age, $100 per acre, supposing, in each case, that the timber is mostly oak and hickory. It was claimed that stump land was worth from $20 to $40 per acre, but this estimate evidently does not consider swamp lands, which are generally worth less than this after the timber is cut off. Here, as in other portions of the State, the ordinary rule is followed to estimate for 30 years’ growth a yield of 30 cords per acre, and thereafter about one cord per acre for each year that the timber has been growing. Observation seemed to indicate that most of the timber grows less rapidly after reaching about 30 years of age, and the largest yield is thought to be obtained by cutting it between 30 and 4o years old, especially if the growth is largely chestnut, as this timber often deteriorates as it grows older. ‘There is some difference of opinion as to whether this deterioration ‘is, or is not, increased by continual reproduction from the old stumps without re-seeding, but the general trend of opinion is that this is at least increasing the tendency of chestnut to decay at the heart. If this is the cause it will be advisable to begin re-seed- ing when timber is ent off. WATCHUNG MOUNTAINS. These two trap ridges have from 4o to 60 per cent. of their entire area covered with forest, the average being not far from REPORT ON FORESTS. 81 60 percent. ‘There is much more timber than on the Passaic valley to the westward, but the contrast is still sharper with the deforested country south and east. North of Campgaw there is an unbroken tract of about 2,000 acres of timber, covering the trap hill. It is principally chestnut and oak, about 50 feet high, and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter in the northern portion, and from 20 to 4o feet high and 3 to 8 inches in diameter in the southern part. From Camp- gaw, by Sicomac to the Goffle, the timbered areas are more scat- tering, and also more varied in character, but oak and chestnut are still predominant. Over all these trap ridges red cedar pre- vails, springing up spontaneously and persistently in abandoned clearings. It is generally less than 20 feet in height. The Goffle has some good oak and chestnut timber 50 to 70 years old, from.50 to 70 feet high, and 10 to 14 inches in diameter. On Preakness mountain, and the ridge just west, the growth is largely mixed with red cedar, and is of an inferior size and quality on the trap, being much better on the red sandstone por- tion of the eastern slope near the foot. Near Pompton lake there is considerable good hemlock, this last being a rather unusual growth for this part of the State. Second mountain, about Caldwell and northward, has some fair oak, chestnut and hickory. First mountain is not so well timbered, and has more red cedar. Abandoned clearings are quite frequent, and the whole of the growth is irregular and patchy. Most of the timber is also younger than that in the Hackensack valley. There is a noticeably greater prevalence of hickory on the trap than on the red sandstone. Southwest from Caldwell and Verona the timber ranges, gen- erally, from 4 to 12 jnches in diameter, and 20 to 45 feet high. There is very little chestnut, excepting near Mont- clair, on First mountain. On the same ridge, at Eagle Rock, the timber is small. Around St. Cloud the growth ranges all the way from 2 to 12 inches in diameter and from 10 to 45 feet high. On the east slope of First mountain, from West Orange to Wyoming, there is also much variation in the size. The west slope seems rather better wooded, ranging from 6 to 24 inches in diameter, with the larger part from 8 to 12 inches, and there is less young growth. On Second mountain, about 6 FOR 82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Livingston, the timber is mostly oak and hickory, with very little chestnut. There is a good deal of small growth, but there are some trees ranging up to 24 inches in diameter. There is also much red cedar. Around Livingston there has been more clearing-away of forests for cultivation than anywhere else noted. The timber on these ridges, here as elsewhere, continue? to be inferior to that in the adjacent valleys. Near Northfield, a piece of timber was noted, about the best of any in the vicinity, rang- ing from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet high. This lot contained 19 acres, and had just been sold, including land and wood, for $600. It was estimated that it would yield 28 cords per acre. Over this part of the mountain the timber ranges all the way from 2 inches up to 18 in diameter and from 10 to 45 feet high, with a large proportion of the smaller sizes, but some scattering trees are as much as 24 to 28 inches in diameter, the poorer timber being, generally, toward the top of the mountain and on the eastern slopes, but for two or three miles north of Millburn there is an exception to this rule, as the timber is good, and ranges from 6 to 24 inches in diameter. Around Short Hills and Summit there is a good deal of chestnut again, and not much cedar. Southerly from South Orange turnpike, First mountain and the valley west contain some pine. There is also a little hemlock along the Passaic near Stanley, and again near Milling- ton. ‘There is also a little pine on Long hill near Stanley, and on Second mountain, south of Murray Hill. Continuing south- west from Summit, the best timber continues to be on the west slope of the mountain. ‘The various kinds of oak prevail, with chestnut, hickory and the other usual varieties. For the most part the wood is poor and appears to be stunted, although it is claimed that it can be profitably cut in 20 years, but our exam- ination seemed to indicate that 4o years would be generally necessary, and even then the growth would be much inferior to that of the adjoining valleys. There is much of this timber ranging from 2 to 4 and 6 inches in diameter and 10 to 30 feet in height, with a little ranging up as high as 18 inches in diameter and 50 feet high. Continuing southwest of the road from Basking Ridge to Bound Brook, the timber becomes still poorer; the trees appear to be old, but are short and stunted. Continuing on around to Basking Ridge, REPORT ON FORESTS. 83 the same conditions, generally, prevail, the wood being mostly small, but with a few large trees. Throughout the whole extent of the ridges, red cedar appears to be abundant about the edges of the clearings, and where the clearings have grown up. Not much cutting was noted, as the growth was too small to make it profitable. ‘The woods consist of oak, hickory, maple, birch and beech, with a little chestnut. We are inclined to think that the general inferiority of the timber of the trap ridges arises, partly from the nature of the trap-rock soils, and partly from the fact that these ridges are very accessible to a thickly-settled country, where timber is comparatively scarce, and, in conse- quence, cutting has probably been more severe than elsewhere. As a result of these two causes the timber is deteriorating. On the whole, the tendency on these ridges seems to be to allow clearings to grow up, but as they have, within a few years, become occupied, to a great extent, by an immigrant population, this tendency may, possibly, be reversed, owing to different methods of farming. It may be mentioned, in this connection, that the curious fact has been noted, in our forest studies, that there is less disposition to destroy and waste the forests shown by our native rural population than by the immigrant popula- tion from countries where the control and management of forests is, on the whole, far superior to our own methods. HACKENSACK VALLEY. The red-sandstone country lying between Palisades moun- tain on the east and Ramapo and Orange mountains on the west was designated by us the Hackensack valley, in the “ Phys- ical Description.” | Topographically, it is all one valley, although not all drained by the Hackensack river. It includes all of Bergen and Hudson counties, Passaic county southeast of Paterson, and the northeastern corner of Essex county. It contains a large urban and suburban population, and it seems somewhat anomalous that it should also include some of the best timber of the State. The valley, as a whole, has 30 per cent. of its upland area in timber, or, in other words, 61,000 acres in a total of 180,000 acres of upland. Bergen county has 39 per cent. in timber, Hudson county 84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. only 5 per cent., the Passaic county portion g per cent., and the Essex county portion 20 per cent. In topographical position this timber is largely confined to the slopes, level valley bottoms and plateaus being mainly under cultivation. These cultivated portions, however, have a very liberal allowance of scattering forest trees, orchards and other planted trees, so that in looking over the valley from an elevation it appears to be very generally wooded. The really forested portion ranges through all con- ditions, from a very limited amount of brush and stump land to heavy timber. Very little of it is now cut off entirely, most of the cutting being selected trees, so that the considerable amount of timber taken out each year is scarcely missed. ‘There is no wastefulness apparent, as a rule, in the handling of the forests. It is generally a mixed deciduous growth, with oak predominat- ing in the lower. land along the Hackensack, while chestnut prevails on the higher ridges westward, and softer woods, such as guin, white birch, beech and maple in the swamps. Here and there are few scattering hemlocks. From Closter to Engle- wood there is much red cedar. The timber is usually in rather small, isolated areas, not often reaching 100 acres in extent. There is a tract of some 500 acres along the Hackensack near the State line. Proceeding southward from the State line, across the whole width of the valley, there is a gradual decrease in the amount of timber. The growth in the vicinity of Ramseys to Wyckoff is rather mixed, consisting of oak, chestnut, maple, beech, elm, white birch, red cedar, &c., in all stages of growth, from brush to trees 80 feet in height, but there is a notable absence of stump land or new clearing. Near Paterson the coun- try is quite deforested, the 9 per cent. of forest in the Passaic portion of the valley consisting mainly of small patches of oak and chestnut, preserved in connection with farms, and only cut occasionally and sparingly as needed. Most of the groves con- tain much fine timber, and are generally well cared for. Proceed- ing southwest into Essex county the wooded area is increased to 20 per cent. and is somewhat similar to that described, although the timber is, as a rule, not so good. There are some quite large timber areas north of Belleville. In this Hackensack valley, as a whole, the timber is probably as well cared for as in any other equally large section of the State. It is thrifty and healthy, and suffers comparatively little from fires. REPORT ON FORESTS. 85 The value of the land here is, of course, generally much toohigh for profitable forestry. In well-located places it is worth from $400 to $1,000 per acre, where it is still sold by the acre instead of by the foot. In a few out-of-the-way places it ranges lower, but is in any case largely independent of the character of thetimber. From inquiry, it was estimated, however, that the timber alone was worth from $30 to $50 per acre for a 30-years’ growth, and in pro- portion for younger timber, but old timber of mixed varieties is worth from $100 to $150 peracre. Swamp land timber is said to be rarely worth more than $20 per acre. In the vicinity of Wyckoff we obtained the following general prices: Stump land, $5; 20-years’ growth, $15 to $25; 30-years’ growth, $25 to $35; large oak and chestnut, $75 to $100 per acre. About Oakland, stump land, $3; 20-years’ growth, $20; 30-years’ growth, $30; large mixed growth, $60. In such inquiries as this it becomes quite evident that many of the estimates given are based on the prevailing rule that timber will produce one cord of wood per acre for each year that it is growing, and that this wood is worth about $1 per cord on the stump, as was determined by a large number of written inquiries sent out by the Survey, the results of which were published in the Annual Report for 1885. This rnle seems to prevail all over the State, but it is quite evident that it cannot be equally fair for all sections, although probably a good working average. A few tracts claimed to be original forest were noted in the Hackensack valley. One is half a mile east of Hillsdale, con- taining about 30 acres of oak, 15 to 28 inches in diameter and about 70 feet high ; a small piece of oak, one-half mile south of Riverdale, another, one mile west of Englewood, containing oak from 15 to 30 inches in diameter and from 60 to 80 feet high, and another piece of oak, one mile northwest of Oradell, on the ridge. It is noticeable that all of these tracts are of oak. Several large trees were noted throughout the valley. At Hohokus, a fine elm 50 inches in diameter and 80 feet high, with a spread of branches of about 100 feet; one mile south- west of Etna, an oak 46 inches in diameter and 60 feet high; in an old clearing, one mile northeast of Saddle River, two chestnuts each 60 inches in diameter; on the estate of the late Hon. W. W. Phelps, at Tteaneck, two oaks 40 inches 86 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. in diameter; at Ridgewood, a chestnut 60 inches in diam- eter; at Haworth, a chestnut 84 inches and another 78 inches in diameter; north of Arcola, a chestnut 72 inches in diam- eter; at Overton, a chestnut 76 inches in diameter. Most of these chestnuts are only remarkable for girth, but near Oradell there is a fine chestnut tree 63 inches in diameter and 55 feet high; at the forks of the road, a little over one-half of a mile north of Ramseys, a chestnut 60-inches in diame- ter and so feet high; another, three-quarters of a mile north- west, 60 inches in diameter and 45 feet high. Near Camp- gaw we noted a chestnut 62 inches in diameter and 60 feet high, and two others 66 inches in diameter and 50 and 60 feet high; north of Wyckoff, a large white-wood 36 inches in diameter and 80 feet high; near Wortendyke, a chestnut 48 inches in diameter and 65 feet high. Near Paterson chestnuts were noted 36 to 60 inches in diameter and 60 feet in height ; also, two large black walnuts, near the river, northeast of Pater- son, 42 inches in diameter and 60 feet high. The total con- sumption of saw-mills in this district was ascertained by inquiry to amount to practically 2,400,000 feet, board measure, of lumber, and besides this kindling-wood factories consumed the timber from about 25 acres annually. The whole consumption by these mills would, therefore, probably not exceed the growth from 85 acres annually. Besides this use, however, there is the con- sumption for railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles and fuel, the amount of which has not yet been ascertained. As regards the succession of growth, the general opinion seems to be that it is of the same kind as that cut off, although some claim that white oak and hickory are followed by a more mixed growth. It is evident that since cutting-off of entire areas of timber seems to have been long ago abandoned in this vicinity, and most of the cutting is by culling out, there cannot be much reliable data obtained on this point; at Moonachie, maple is said to have succeeded oak, and at other places the succession has been chestnut. There is no room for doubt, how- ever, that as a rule abandoned clearings, which have once been cultivated, grow up in red cedar, although this is occasionally accompanied by, or replaced with, white birch. REPORT ON FORESTS. 87 Groves of planted white pine may be seen on the estate of the late William Walter Phelps, and also one mile east of Saddle River, south of the road from Ridgewood to New Mil- ford. PALISADES MOUNTAIN. It will be a surprise to many to learn that this ridge, so near to the large cities, and in the most populous section of the State, is so well wooded. From the State line, south to Edgewater, a distance of 13 miles, and for a width of 1% miles back from the bank of the Hudson, practically 90 per cent. of the whole area is well timbered. The forest covers an unbroken tract of 11,000 acres. Beginning at the State line and extending to 1 mile below Huyler’s landing, we have, on the talus slope along the river, a mixed deciduous growth, mainly chestnut and oak, from 30 to 60 feet high, varied with pine and hemlock near Huyler’s landing. We give here, as elsewhere, only the prevailing timber, but in reality this whole Palisades forest includes a large number of varieties. Further down, to Linwood, the growth on the talus is more irregular, containing a fair proportion of oak and chestnut of good size, with scattering hemlock. From Linwood to Fort Lee the talus is well wooded, some good white pine being found, but oak and chestnut prevail. From Fort Lee to Edgewater the river slope of the ridge is well timbered, but a strip of land along the river, at the foot, has been cleared and occupied by residences. On the flat top and upper portion of the western slope of the mountain, from the State line to Edgewater, if we except some red cedar near the State line, the growth is practically of mixed deciduous varieties, mostly oak and chestnut. This timber ranges from undergrowth to trees 4o, 60 and 80 feet in height. Diameters of from 20 to 30 inches, and heights of from 60 to 80 feet, are not at all uncommon, especially from Huyler’s landing to Edgewater. ‘Taken as a whole, there are not many finer belts of timber in the State. The land is largely held in such a way that there is comparatively little danger of wholesale deforesting, but this beautiful forest has almost as good a claim to future preservation as the escarpment of the Palisades. South of Edge- water the ridge is practically a city to Bergen Point, and entirely deforested. 88 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. REMAINDER OF GLACIATED RED SANDSTONE. In the four topographical subdivisions last considered, viz., the Passaic Valley, Watchung Mountains, Hackensack Valley and Palisades Mountain, we have included all of the glaciated red sandstone except the portion east of the Watchung mountains, extending from Newark and Orange southwest to the moraine at Plainfieldand Perth Amboy. This remaining country, drained by the Elizabeth and Rahway rivers, is heavily covered with drift in irregular hummocks and ridges, and is not specially adapted for agriculture, but is being occupied by suburban homes in the north, while southerly it is the well-known clay district of Middlesex county. In general, about 25 per cent. of the upland area is in forest. North of Westfield and Fanwood chestnut prevails, mixed with oak, hickory, maple, etc. The wood looks thrifty. Some is less than 20 years old, but more is older, and averages from 6 to 14 inches diameter, and 4o to 65 feet high. Just northwest of Westfield some trees ran up to 24 inches diameter and 70 feet high. Northwest of Cranford some ranged from 4 to 12 inches diameter and 4o to 50 feet high, some 6 to 12 inches by 45 to 55 feet, and a few large trees were mixed in which ranged up to 20 inches by 70 feet. Along Rahway river the timber is small, having been culled out. In the swamp at Union it is poor, with much white birch. North of Roselle it was 6 to 24 inches and 50 to 75 feet high with some few pieces smaller, but all healthy. All of the above is oak, chestnut and hickory, princi- pally. Southeast of Fanwood it is of the same general character ; large and thrifty. Near Netherwood it is a little smaller. Southward from Westfield and Cranford the same general condi- tions prevail, but the timber of Ash swamp is smaller, 2 to 14 inches by from 20 to 60 feet. Southeast of the Pennsylvania railroad, between Rahway and Elizabeth, pieces of timber ranged as follows: 2 to 6 inches by 20 to 4o feet ; 6 to 24 inches by 50 to 60 feet; 6 to 20 inches by 40 to 50 feet ; and 8 to 14 inches by 35 to 55 feet. Near New Dover the smallest timber ranged 2 to 7 inches in diameter by 10 to 20 feet high, and the largest 8 to 24 inches by 4o to 70 feet. The various parcels ranged through all intermediate sizes. REPORT ON FORESTS. 89 An oak along road north of New Dover measured 4 feet one way and 5 feet the other way, 2 feet above the ground. It branched 5 feet above ground, having a spread of branches of 75 feet, and was 50 feet high. Along the Pennsylvania railroad southwest from Iselin, a small piece of timber showed 150 trees per acre, from 6 to 24 inches in diameter and 50 to 70 feet high, including chestnut, oak and hickory. North of Woodbridge, to Rahway river, the condition of the forest is very similar to that heretofore described; and it com- prises oak, chestnut and hickory of all sizes, ranging up to 24 inches diameter and 75 feet high. Southward there are some conifers mixed with the deciduous trees. Near Perth Amboy it appears as if most of the larger trees have been culled out of the standing timber. UNGLACIATED RED SANDSTONE. Passing southwest of the moraine, which crosses from Fan- wood through Metuchen to Perth Amboy, we enter immediately an agricultural district. The change is sudden and striking. The forest area suddenly drops from about 30 to 10 per cent. of the total area, this consisting almost exclusively of small wood- lots attached to farms and husbanded for fuel, fencing and other domestic uses. Much of this is fine timber—as good as any in northern New Jersey. East of Bonhamtown, in the clay district, the timber is small, appearing as if the larger trees had been culled out. Much of it is 2 to 6 inches in diameter by 10 to 30 feet high, with a small number of larger trees, up to 16 inches diameter. Near Piscataway there has been much cutting within 15 years or so, and the young growth has started up too thick. A few large trees are left standing. Some timber is 6 to 24 inches diameter by 40 to 60 feet high. Going toward Stelton, some trees 36 inches in diameter were noted. Chestnut prevails, with some oak and hickory. A maple tree near Piscataway measures 42 inches diameter and 50 feet high. A chestnut near Bonhamtown, at 2 feet above ground measures 54 by go inches diameter and 50 feet high, with a spread of branches of 50 90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. feet. An oak near the same place measures, at 2 feet above ground, 54 by 66 inches diameter and 60 feet high. In Piscataway township many red cedars were noted standing along fence lines or in old clearings. The timber is all in small clumps attached to farms, and there is evidence that originally it was heavy. Many trees still standing range up to 18 inches diameter and 60 feet high. There is much white oak, with all other varieties of oak, hickory, gum, beech, maple, etc., but very little chestnut. Mr. William McAdam, living near the Dismal swamp, north- west of Metuchen, mentions a 16-acre tract of original timber in the swamp. In it are trees that will square 6 inches at 60 feet from the ground. It consists of white oak, pin oak and hickory. Some trees are 80 feet high. One white oak was cut which measured 8 inches diameter 75 feet from the ground, and another 16 inches at 56 feet high. He says that through that country from 50 to 100 telegraph poles per acre can be got, but this leaves little cord-wood. An acre will yield from 20 to 40 cords of wood, and $40 per acre is a fair average value for timber. He gets $10 each for telegraph poles 60 feet long and 6 to 7 inches diameter at top, and $4 apiece for poles 35 feet long, delivered on the cars. He also mentioned a hickory tree which was 6 inches diame- ter 70 feet from the’ ground. A piece of oak, 30 years old, which he pointed out, was from 4 to 7 inches in diameter. He says there is much valuable timber in that part of Middlesex county which does not appear good until closely examined, ecause of the small growth about the edges of the woodland. In Franklin township, Somerset county, conditions are similar to those just described for Piscataway township. Near East Mi}l- stone, a tract showed 210 trees per acre, measuring 6 to 24 inches diameter by 50 feet high. Between Rocky Hill, Griggstown and Sand Hills, on the trap and gravel, there are considerable forest areas. ‘That on the Sands Hills is mostly chestnut. The various lots range in size from 2 to 8 inches diameter, and 10 to 30 feet high, up to 5 to 13 inches diameter, and 25 to 50 feet high. The best timber appears to be near Griggstown. An oak tree, near Franklin Park station, measured 52 inches diameter, and about 50 feet high. Timber near here ranged REPORT ON FORESTS. 91 from 4 to 28 inches diameter, and was about 50 feet high, principally of oak and hickory, with a little chestnut. Near Finderne there are four chestnut trees in a cluster, over 30 inches in diameter, and 4o feet high. These are on a gravel terrace. Chestnut is almost unknown on red-shale soil. An oak tree, near the above chestnuts, measures 52 inches diameter. Another, further south, is 66 inches in diameter, 55 feet high and with a spread of limbs of go feet. North of Hillsboro station a wild cherry is 52 inches diameter, and about 50 feet high. On the plain between Millstone river and Sourland mountain, along the Philadelphia and Reading railroad, there is very little forest. ‘Tthe largest piece, southwest of Millstone, is about half as large now as it is shown to be on the topographical map. The trees of the various lots run in size from 2 to 10 inches diameter up to 8 to 30 inches, and are mainly white oak and hickory. Southeast of Somerville is Pigeon swamp, a tract of original forest, containing about 250 acres, and the heaviest timber in this section. On the end of Rocky Hill, near Hopewell, the timber is light, 3 to 10’ inches diameter and 4o feet high. It improves going* eastward, is good about Mt. Rose, but further east is again poor, has all been cut over, and what is left ranges 3 to 14 inches diameter and 30 to 45 feet high, appearing to be not very thrifty. Although chestnut does not grow on the surrounding red shale, it is prevalent over this and the other trap ridges. The end of the ridge just west of Millstone river has many trees which | average about 9 inches diameter by 45 to 50 feet high, but there is also a good deal of brush and young sprouts, or thin stands of trees. A small tract of original forest just west of Millstone river and south of Rocky Hill village gave, by actual count, 163 trees per ‘acre, measuring 10 to 24 inches diameter and 40 to 60 feet high. One-twelfth were chestnuts and the rest oak. Twin chestnut trees east of Cedar Grove, forked 3 feet above ground, one was 36 and the other 33 inches in diameter and both about 55 feet high. Along Stony brook, about a mile above Moore’s Station, is an oak which is mentioned in records dated 1697. 92 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. A beech near-by measures 36 inches diameter at ground and 29 inches 10 feet above, is 4o feet high and has a spread of branches of 75 feet. From Hopewell and Pennington southwest to the Delaware, the trees in some lots run from 2 to 8 inches diameter by 20 to 30 feet high, and in other lots from 6 to 20 inches diameter and 40 to 60 feet high. There has been considerable cutting of tim- ber, but no clearing of land for cultivation. From Pennington to Trenton the timber does not differ from that on the red sandstone soil which we have previously de- scribed, excepting that it is perhaps more thrifty. Near the State Asylum are trees measuring from 6 to 48 inchés in diam- eter and 65 feet high. Good timber was also observed near Trenton Junction. East of Ewingville is a tract comprising some 400 acres, principally oak and chestnut, with some hickory, beech and maple. A part of this is fine timber, 6 to 36 inches. diameter and 55 to 70 feet high. The chestnuts run up to a good height without branching. A count gave 255 of these trees to the acre. '* Large trees were noted in this district as follows: East of Somerset, on a hill, a hickory 42 inches diameter and 70 feet high, with a spread of branches of 4o feet, the lowest branches being 9 feet from the ground; near Hillcrest station, an oak 36 inches diameter and 50 feet high, with a spread of 100 feet ;. north of the 4oo-acre tract, near Ewingville, a pin oak, 72 inches diameter two feet above ground, and 42 inches diameter near the forks, 7% feet up, with a height of 55 feet and a spread of 60 feet ; and in front of the Presbyterian parsonage, at Lawrence- ville, two oaks, the easterly one measuring 54 by 66 inches in diameter two feet from the ground and the westerly one 51 inches diameter. These trees stand only one foot apart and their branches spread from 40 to 60 feet. The red-shale country, extending from Somerville and Flem- ington northward to Peapack and the Highlands, is deforested. The small wood-lots attached to farms only represent about 3 per cent. of the entire area. There are scattering trees, hedge- rows, orchards, and strips of timber in the little ravines, however, which to some extent make up for this lack of woodland. ‘The timber is mostly oak and hickory, and there are many large trees, probably of the original forest. , REPORT ON FORESTS. oie West of Raritan and north of the railroad the timber contains some old trees up to 24 inches in diameter and 60 feet high, but the most of it averages 8 inches in diameter. South of the rail- road is some heavy timber, from 18 to 42 inches diameter and 50 to 60 feet high, and a count gave 204 trees per acre. At the mouth of Middle brook, north of Burnt Mills, is the McDowell tract, from which the timber has recently been cut. The trees ran from 8 to 36 inches in diameter, and a count gave 95 oaks, 95 hickories and 6 maples to the acre, 196 trees in all. One tree was sold recently for $16, at the rate of one and one- half cents per foot, which would make the tree yield 1,066 feet B.M. ‘Two years ago the owner was offered $500 for 10 acres of timber. A piece south of river was sold for $1,000, and con- tained 20 acres. Tracts north contain some trees as large, but they are not so numerous. Red cedar trees are numerous in this country, and especially so east of Mechanicsville. In nearly all cases no land has been permanently cleared for cultivation, and very little has been entirely cut off. The larger timber is cut out as needed. Serious wash or erosion of the soil was observed between Greater Crossroads and Lamington, worse than has been observed elsewhere in the State. About a mile west of Readington a tract of 4o acres has been cut off and permanently cleared up. An oak stump here showed 190 rings and measured 30 inches diameter. North of Barley Sheaf a count gave 380 trees per acre, meas- uring from 6 to 24 inches diameter and 40 to 50 feet high. Most of these were 14 to 18 inches in diameter. Cushetunk moun- tain has not much heavy timber. It ranges from 4 to 16 inches in diameter, and is chestnut, oak and hickory. On Sourland mountain the area of forest is considerable, aggre- gating over 10,000 acres, but it is not heavy timber, perhaps mostly from 6 to 15 inches in diameter. It is mostly oak, hickory and chestnut, with some maple, beech and other varieties. In the valley northwest of Sourland mountain, from Fleming- ton to Lambertville, the red shale is deforested, only wood-lots remaining, attached to farms and representing perhaps 5 per cent. of the acreage. The trees of the several parcels range from 94 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. brush 20 or 30 feet high up to trees 8 to 30 inches in diameter and 40 to 60 feet high. The West Hunterdon plateau has more forest ; about 12 per cent. against 3 or 4 per cent. on the lower red-shale country. The timber is also better. Near Sergeantsville it runs from 4 to 16 inches in diameter and 30 to 50 feet in height. One and one- quarter miles west there is original forest, the oaks running up to 24 inches in diameter. This piece also has white pine and common pine up to 20inchesin diameter. It is good, heavy tim- ber. A large piece, two anda half miles east of Locktown, is also heavy. It is owned by Mr. Bearder, who allows no cutting. It is principally oak and hickory, 8 to 24 inches in diameter and 40 to 60 feet high. A count showed 156 of these trees to the acre. Other pieces of oak and hickory near the above were 8 to 20 ‘inches in diameter and 4o to 55 feet high, counting 136 trees to the acre. Much of the forest southwest from Headquarters is original forest. The trees measure from 6 inches to 36 inches in diameter and qo to 60 feet high. There are many fine oaks and chestnuts. Northwest of Raven Rock is some excellent timber, from 8 to 28 inches in diameter and upwards of 50 feet in height. Along Lockatong creek some is also very good. Southwest of Flemington, a piece of original forest contained 160 trees per acre, measuring from 8 to 36 inches in diameter and from 40 to 70 feet high. Some run up 4o feet without branching. It is said that, 25 years ago, $100 per acre was offered for this timber, but that now it is not worth over $40 per acre. It is oak, hickory, chestnut, maple, etc. Near by is another tract of 30 acres, mostly hickory, with some oak and chestnut, which runs from 8 to 18 inches in diameter by 20 to 55 feet high. An oak tree near by measures 60 inches in diameter, branches ro feet up, and has a spread of branches of 50 feet. Along Wickecheoke creek, north of Locktown, the trees are 6 to 24 inches in diameter, mostly pin-oak. One pin oak was noted 36 inches in diameter and 50 feet high. South of Oak Grove there has been some clearing. "Timber is good but thin. At one place there were 136 trees per acre 8 to 20 inches diameter by about 4o feet high. Another tract gave 204 trees per acre 8 to 24 inches in diameter by 30 to 50 feet lojiy Polat) ‘Wh ALPleAsant REPORT ON FORESTS. 95 high. A bit of original forest contained 200 trees per acre from 4 to 30 inches in diameter and 40 to 60 feet high. A hickory stump near here was 38 inches in diameter and had 300 annual rings, as near as they could be counted. It was reported that 4o acres of timber had been sold for $1,000, and the same parties said $80 per acre had been paid near White- house. Between Oak Grove and Baptistown the trees ran from 4 to 14 inches in diameter and 30 to 4o feet high, standing close, or with thick undergrowth. Between Kingwood and Lockfown a piece of original forest had 184 trees per acre 6 to 30 inches diameter and 50 feet high. On the slope east of Cherryville some forest, said to be origi- nal, has trees 6 to 20 inches in diameter and 4o to 55 feet high. Between Cherryville and Oak Grove there is some still better timber. From Quakertown to Croton some timber is good and some has been cut off within 15 years. ‘he timber is chestnut, oak, hickory, maple, and considerable pin oak. ‘The level top of this plateau is known as ‘The Swamp.” Chestnut is not as. prevalent up here as it is on the surrounding slopes. In general, the forest of this Hunterdon plateau is perhaps the best of the State. PINES BELT—NORTHWEST BORDER. The line which divides the deciduous timber from the conifer- ous, forming the northwesterly border of the pine belt, was carefully examined and surveyed. There is generally quite a broad belt of mixed timber along the border, so that we have traced upon the accompanying map both the northwesterly limit of the timber which may be said to be practically all pine, and the southeasterly limit of that which is all deciduous. Between these lines is the belt of mixed deciduous and coniferous timber to which we have referred, varying in width from a few yards to eight miles. There are, however, isolated areas in- cluded within the pine district which are much mixed with oak. Some of the older residents of the district are of the opinion that, generally speaking, there is much more oak than there was forty years ago. Oak usually comes up to replace pine which is cut off, excepting where the land has been cultivated 96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. foratime. In abandoned clearings the growth is exclusively pine. . . East of the New Jersey Southern Railroad, in Monmouth county, the mixed belt is mostly oak and chestnut of all grades, from brush up to merchantable timber. The latter term is here used to include timber suitable for heavy railroad ties as well as larger trees suitable for sawing into dimension timber. In the Hominy hills, south of Colt’s Neck, it is mostly pine, little of merchantable size. Westward from Farmingdale to Charleston Springs it is quite evenly mixed, the, merchantable timber being confined to the vicinity of the highway from Lakewood to Free- hold. From Charleston Springs to Hornerstown the line between pine and oak is quite sharply drawn, the pine being generally small and the oak of merchantable size. Indeed, the heaviest oak timber seen was iu this vicinity. Proceeding southwesterly, the mixed belt retreats eastward to Collier’s Mills, and the oak lands west are, as usual, well cleared. Southwesterly from Collier’s Mills, beyond Brindletown, pine predominates in the mixed belt and is of larger size, about one-half merchantable. Thence to New Lisbon it is more evenly mixed, but of smaller size, brush and light timber. A good deal of land has been cleared just west of Asbury Park, but thence to New Lisbon there has been practically no clearing during the last fifteen years. Thence to Clayton there are a few clearings in and near the mixed belt, butt south from Clayton, to Elmer, they are more nnmerous, and south of Elmer a good deal of territory has been cleared and brought under cultivation, especially around Rosenhayn, between Bridgeton and Millville, and east of Fairton. . Continuing from New Lisbon southwesterly, we find very little merchantable timber. Southeast from Medford, at Indian Mills and Tabernacle, there is a notable southeasterly encroach- ment of the oak and clearings, upon the pine belt. The mixed timber here has been cut very close, and what remains is mostly brush. It is little better anywhere southwest as far as Williams- town. Oak brush predominates throughout, accompanied by much small timber, and especially just south of Clementon. The general absence of good timber near the clearings here is probably attributable to close cutting for firewood and other REPORT ON FORESTS. 97 local uses. The same conditions obtain near Elmer, Bridgeton and eastward, and especially around Rosenhayn. Wherever there is much clearing most of the older timber has been cut out, leaving brush from two to fifteen feet high. From Williamstown to Elmer, however, there is much better timber in the mixed belt, especially to the northeast of a line joining these two places, oak prevails, and there is a fair propor- tion of merchantable timber. About Janvier there is the same severe cutting that has been noted above. Southeast of Alloway, in Salem county, and considerably to the westward of the general limit of coniferous forests, there is an isolated tract of timber well mixed with coniferous trees, although oak preponderates. There is a fair proportion of mer- chantable timber here, although it is not so good as the exclu- sively deciduous timber which surrounds it, the latter being scattered over a highly cultivated country, in small groves and hedgerows. Generally, in the foregoing description, we have used the term “oak” as synonymous with “deciduous.” No real error can result from this, for it is true that oak largely outnumbers all other kinds in the deciduous forest. Chestnut occurs also, how- ever, well scattered throughout, from Asbury Park to Delaware bay. A plantation of grafted chestnut trees was observed in Camden county, just south of Point Pleasant and about three miles south- east of Spring Mills. Among the coniferous trees a few scatter- ing white pines were noted between Asbury Park and New Egypt. ; Generally speaking, however, the coniferous trees consisted of white cedar in the swamps and two varieties of pine on the upland ; viz., the common pitch pine (P. rzgzda) prevailing every- where, and the hemlock pine (P. virginzana) which was first observed, when going southwest along the pine border, at a point east of Pemberton ; also scattering trees were seen about Taber- nacle and Indian Mills. At Cedar Grove, on the Cohansey, this species became more numerous, and between Bridgeton , and Millville nearly all of the pines seen were of this kind. It will be noted that the map Plate III indicates Maurice river as the western limit of the exclusively coniferous forest in 7 FOR 98 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Cumberland county. Not only is there a liberal mixture of deciduous trees west of this limit, but new clearings are more numerous and P. vwirginzana prevails instead of P. ragida. An inquiry was begun to détermine the extent of clearing within the pine belt in order to establish present tendencies. A careful survey of the clearings was made when the topographic survey was executed. Inthe pine belt this was from 1883 to 1886, and most of the work was done in 1884 and 1885. A re-survey at this time, therefore, will show the extent of clear- ing which has been done in the interval. Such a re-survey has been made at Hammonton, and a map showing the results has been prepared. It shows that the forest area has been very materially diminished. The same is true of most of the country along the New Jersey Southern Railroad all the way from Hammonton to Bridgeton, especially at’ Carmel, Vineland and Rosenhayn. Along the lines of the Camden and Atlantic, and Atlantic City railroads, from Hammonton to the coast, the same conditions prevail. Other centers of clearing are Richland and Woodbine. Most of the clearing is south of Mullica river—there is little or none north. A few clearings have been allowed to grow up again, but not enough to appreciably affect the tendency to increase the cleared land. If present tendencies continue it seems plain that most of the land west of the limit of exclusively coniferous forest will be cleared up, or at least the forest will be divided up into small parcels. Within the pine belt there will be a broad belt of cleared land extending from Hammonton to Absecon, another along the New Jersey Southern Railroad, southwest of Hammonton, and the extension of the large cleared area at Vineland and southerly to Woodbine will leave the pines divided into two tracts, the one lying in the Great Egg Harbor water-shed and the other north of Mullica river, extending to Lakewood. Within the limits of these areas, there is no observable tendency to extensive clear- ing. The forest is almost unbroken. It will be observed that these are also the tracts where.the severest fires rage at present. It may be suggested that these are proper fields for something like systematic forestry, o¥ at least for the inauguration of permanent REPORT ON FORESTS. 99 measures to prevent fires. ‘he remainder of the pine district is gradually but very steadily being broken up into small parcels by clearings, in such a way that fires will, in time, cease to be of very great importance. The tendency to clear up and bring under cultivation the better soils of the pine belt must be regarded as fortunate from every point of view. These better soils will produce more under cultivation than they possibly could in forest, and thé breaking-up of this great belt of timber into sections will make it easier to deal with fires. There is an unfortunate prevalence of fires from carelessness about the clear- ings, but there seems to be existing legislation enough to deal with this question if the laws are enforced. The importance of preserving some belts of timber throughout this ground that is being cleared up should be emphasized, how- ever. ‘They will be very valuable as wind-breaks, and it is quite possible that there will be a material change in the mildness of the climate of this section unless a reasonable amount of timber is preserved. The importance of leaving a good belt of timber along the streams is especially great. This needs to be done, especially in the case of the Great Egg Harbor and Maurice rivers, as it is on these water-sheds that most of the clearing is being done. The better soils here are usually on the higher ground, so that there should be little opposition to preserving the forests near the streams. These streams are now developed to an important extent for water power, and are likely to be still further developed in this direction. They have also a possible future value for water-supply, and the preservation of such bor- dering ‘belts of timber would be a valuable safeguard in main- taining their purity. At least 75 per cent. of their water-sheds can be cleared and brought under cultivation without seriously endangering the streams, because of peculiarities which were pointed out in the Report on Water-Supply. The primary reason is that the rain falling upon the sand and gravel soil sinks at once into the ground and thence finds its way gradually to the stream lines. ‘To appreciate the great difference in this respect from the red sandstone or Highlands district of northern New Jersey it is only necessary to compare the topographical maps of the two sections. In the north there will be observed a very 100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. large number of small tributaries, and generally one cannot go far in any direction without coming to a running brook, but in the pine belt there are quite large areas of the higher ground with no visible streams. FIRES IN THE PINE FOREST. We have noted previously that some damage is done by fires in the deciduous forest. This damage is confined principally to Kittatinny, Bearfort, Green Pond and Copperas mountains and the extreme’ northern Highlands. The fires in the deciduous forests are usually confined to small areas. In the pine forests of Southern New Jersey, however, extensive fires occur every summer. Any one who has witnessed a fire under full headway in this country must have been impressed with its grandeur, its irresistible fury and its disastrous effects. A few notes of remarkable fires are at hand. In 1866 a fire burned over 10,000 acres, extending seven miles inland from Tuckerton and West Creek. In 1870 and 1871 nearly the whole wooded portion of Bass River township, Burlington county, was burned over. In 1871 two fires in Ocean county burned over 30,000 acres. In 1872 a fire burned over from 15 to 20 square miles, worth before the fire from $10 to $30 per acre, and after from $2 to $4. Ina paper on forest fires, by Mr. Charles E. Elmer, in the Report of State Board of Agriculture for 1874, he says of the year 1872: “To assume that 100,000 acres have been burned over, at a money loss in timber of $1,000,000, would surely be within the bounds of truth.” From the census of 1880 we have for that year an area burned over of 71,074 acres, with an estimated loss of $252,240, which is certainly a very moderate estimate, and can scarcely include any allowance for loss of cedar swamps. In 1885, when the topographic survey was in progress, some very large fires occurred in the pine district, and the areas covered were noted by the topographers. One burned over an area of 60 square. miles, near Atsion, in Burlington county ; another, near Friendship, in the same county, covered 10 square miles, and another, in Ocean county, burned over not less than 75 square miles north of Barnegat. The total of these three fires is, therefore, 145 square miles, but several other fires REPORT ON FORESTS. 101 occurred farther south in the State, the extent of which was not observed. It may be safely estimated that the whole area burned over that year reached 200 square miles, or 128,000 acres. A large amount of cedar swamp was destroyed by these fires, and $10 per acre would not more than cover the direct damage to timber, making the loss for the year $1,128,000, nearly equal to the total value of the annual lumber production of the State. In 1895 Mr. Gifford reported 49 fires in this district, covering about 60,000 acres, and he estimated the average damage at $10 per acre, or $600,000 for the year. Indeed it seems that the average loss for many years past must have been in excess of this figure, and it would appear to closely approximate if not to exceed the yearly increase of value due to the growth of the pine forest. The loss is much more than the mere value of the wood. The soil is so impoverished by these periodical burnings, which deprive it of all vegetable matter, that those areas most subject to fires are becoming incapable of producing timber. Considerable damage is also done to cranberry bogs, cedar swamps and other improved property. As to the causes of these fires, it would seem from statistics which have been gathered that approximately one-half are due to sparks from locomotives, about ten per cent. are incendiary in origin and the remaining 4o per cent. are accidental, arising largely from the carelessness of hunters, charcoal burners and persons engaged in clearing land for cultivation. In the following 22 pages Mr. Gifford Pinchot gives the results of some careful studies which he has made, first as to the effect of forest fires in general, and next.as to the specific effects upon the wood production of our pine forests. Incidentally Mr. Pinchot has given us in these pages a fair representation of the present physical condition of much of the pine belt. The Effects of Fire. The harm that forest fires do may be classified as follows: ist, damage to the standing timber ; 2d, destruction of young growth; 3d, destruction of the forest floor; 4th, depreciation in the value of forest property ; .5th, encouragement of theft and disregard of the rights of property, and discouragement of thrift and fore- sight among the people where fires occur ; 6th, general impover- ishment and degeneration of the regions where they are common. DAMAGE TO STANDING TREES. The damage to the standing timber is dependent on the kinds of trees in the forest, on the character of the latter, and on the time of the year when the fire burns. Young hardwoods suffer severely, but are often comparatively prompt in recovery. Pine forest is the prevailing type in South Jersey, and its relation to forest fires is of special interest. One of the distinguishing char- acteristics of the Pitch Pine is its ability to resist fire and to recover after severe injury. The Shortleaf Pine is also able to withstand severe fires, but its recuperative capacity is much less than that of the Pitch Pine. In each case the trunk is covered with a thick, corky bark, which is often burned till it is charred without apparent injury to the living parts of the tree. The outer bark scales off after a time, and the signs of fire disappear, except near the ground. In old Pine forests a light surface-fire usually does but little damage to the standing timber. Some- times, however, if the forest is dense and there is a heavy matting of litter on the ground, the fire burns so fiercely that the trunks of the trees are seriously damaged, and, in the case of small timber, the trees may be killed. The same is true where the ground is covered with underbrush, which becomes dry and burns with intense heat. If the fire runs over the ground in (103) 104 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. spring before the sap begins to move, the damage is much less than after the season of vegetaion has begun. Decay frequently creeps in at the butt of severely burned timber. EFFECT ON CEDAR SWAMPS. White Cedar is extremely sensitive to fire and is easily killed, especially if the crown is affected. As arule, however, Cedar swamps will not burn except in the early summer, when it is very dry, and often they will not burn even then. Wet swamps burn only in extraordinarily dry years, or when an unusually hot fire is driven through the trees by a strong wind. The trees on the edges of swamps, however, are frequently killed before the fire is stopped by the damp sphagnum moss. Sometimes the larger trees are not killed outright, but die gradually, beginning in the tops. INJURY TO YOUNG GROWTH. The larger hardwood trees resist fires admirably, and are killed only in the case of very severe fires. Young growth is often killed outright. All young trees are more sensitive to fire than larger ones, because the bark is thin and delicate, and also because the branches being low what is a surface-fire is to them a crown-fire, killing their tender shoots. Young Pitch Pine, however, withstands remarkably severe burning. Frequently surface-fires burn up to the crowns of small Pitch Pine, scorch- ing the lower branches, but leaving most of the crown intact, and with it the life of the tree. INJURY TO THE SOIL. One injurious effect of forest fires which is apt to be neglected or even disputed is that which results from the destruction of the layer of vegetable waste and mold which is always found on the ground in undisturbed forests. This forest floor, as it is called, is made up of two parts: Ist, the upper wholly or par- tially decayed mass of leaves, twigs, and other vegetable material, called litter; and 2d, the thick, brownish, crumbly mass of real Plate No. IV.—Pitch Pine sprouting in the crown, after a fire which killed all the leaves, Ocean county. REPORT ON FORESTS. 105. humus, which finally is intimately mixed with the mineral soil. ‘Yew Jersey the upper layer of litter, which becomes exceed- ingly dry and burns rapidly, is generally looked upon as a posi- tive evil, a danger to the welfare of the forest. This has led ‘™-uay owners of forest property to burn their land every spring betore the dry season commences, and thus destroy the litter. Fires are in this way prevented from burning over the land later in the season and injuring the timber. Many people believe thet this is the only way to protect their land from fire. As ig as there is no organized fire service, this annual burning of the land and the consequent deterioration of the forest is cer- tainly better than the destruction of valuable timber. If, how- ..er, the danger from forest fires can be reduced, which is shown elsewhere to be entirely possible, this annual burning becomes unnecessary. ‘That it should cease is extremely desirable in view of the fact that in the majority of cases it is an actual injury to the forest. An occasional light surface-fire can do comparatively little harm to the forest aside from the injury to young growth, for only the upper layer of dried leaves is burned and the lower, more valuable humus remains. Severe fires destroy the whole of the forest floor, and a considerable number of years must pass before it can be formed again. Continual burning, if it does not actually destroy the layer of humus, prevents new humus from forming, and what is left finally becomes disintegrated, and the same result follows as though it were destroyed at once. What- ever may be said of individual fires, their effect as a whole in South Jersey is simply disastrous. On the loose, porous, sandy soil of southern New Jersey what- ever tends to prevent the drying-out of the surface is valuable, for without moisture in the soil all other factors are of little consequence. According to German authorities, humus formed under conifers is capable of holding four or five times its own weight of water without losing a single drop, and it has besides a remarkable power of absorbing watery vapor from the air. A layer of humus is a powerful factor in preventing evaporation, and in New Jersey this drying-out of the soil is one of the most serious effects of the removing of the forest cover. Prof. Eber- mayer, of the University of Munich, has established by actual 106 =©©GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. experiments that a forest soil with a good layer of humus will lose two and one-half times less water by evaporation than forest soil where the humus is wanting. Humus, by mingling intimately with the mineral soil, adds to it a proper consistency ; it makes binding soils more porous, and loose soils more tenacious. It moderates the extremes of tem- perature in the soil, and this is of great importance in sandy regions. Not only does humus possess the power of absorbing water, vapor and heat, but it has the ability to absorb some of the most important food materials of plants as well. Thus nitrates, phosphates, ammonia, &c., are held in solution ready for the use of the plants. Without humus many of the most important mineral materials would be washed away, especially from the loose soil of South Jersey. Humus acts further as a reservoir from which food materials may be obtained, and by means of which they may be made ready for the use of the tree in growth. The final products of the decomposition of the humus are the mineral ashes, carbonic acid gas, and water. Through the ashes of the leaves, twigs, etc., a large amount of the most important materials used in the manufacture of wood are returned to the soil, and that in the most usable form. ‘The carbonic acid gas acts powerfully toward the disintegration of the soil and in making the food constitu- ents soluble, and in many sandy soils the value of its presence is very great. Thus the humus is really a manure to the forest. If this layer of vegetable mold is destroyed the soil is impover- ished at once. It loses one of the most powerful agents in its decomposition, loses its activity also, and finally becomes prac- tically dead. In Europe it has been long recognized that the presence of humus is very beneficial to the forest, and its absence disastrous. This has led to laws forbidding the removal of the litter by peasants. ‘The experience of the Germans has taught them that when the litter is continually taken away the forest becomes more and more open, the sun’s rays and a freer circula- tion of air are admitted, the humus disappears, the soil dries out and the trees become short, scrubby, and short-lived. Further, the soil eventually becomes so impoverished that trees which were at first produced are replaced by less fastidious and usually less valuable species. Thus in many parts of Germany, where REPORT ON FORESTS. 107 formerly ha:dwoods thrived, now Pine is the only species that can be profitably grown. It is not necessary, however, to go to Germany to see the effect of the destruction of humus on the welfare of the forest- Abundant illustration is found in South Jersey. "The conditions are somewhat different from those in Europe, for there the litter is removed from the forest by the peasants, while here it is burned on the ground. The mineral substances remain, but when the humus is destroyed they are probably, for the most part, washed away in the deep porous sand. The most serious injury from fire in New Jersey is its effect on the reproduction of the forest. Hope is frequently expressed for the future of the Pine in New Jersey because the Pitch Pine springs up so persistently after fire. It is true that throughout the fire-scarred tracts small Pine appears in great profusion after fires, but a close examination reveals the fact that in many cases these are not seedlings, but sprouts from the stools of the trees which were apparently killed. It is true that seeds germinate quickly on the sandy soils because of the capacity of the soil to become teadily heated. But where the bare soil is exposed to the scorching sun and wind, as on large stretches of land in the coastal regions of South Jersey, it is difficult for seedlings to sur- vive. MORAL EFFECT OF FIRES ON POPULATION. It is obvious that where the forest is constantly exposed to fire and there is no adequate protection, its value must be greatly depreciated. ,The result is that the timber is often cut before its maturity. Landowners believe that with proper protection against fire the value of forest property will be greatly increased. The fires have been so abundant that the people have come to look upon them as inevitable, and there is a deplorable lack of real interest among land-owners in regard to any attempt to introduce State protection. Large tracts of land are owned by non-resident capitalists, and timber-stealing is very common, especially after fires. When the timber is killed many persons consider it better to use the dead trees for cordwood than to allow 108 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. thein to rot on the ground, and they cut such timber on tracts of land to which they have no right. There is no doubt that forest fires encourage a spirit of lawlessness and a disregard of property rights. Effect of Fire on the Forest Production. All who are familiar with the conditions of South Jersey know, from their own observation or from what has been written, that forest fires are very common and enormously harmful. But the extent of the damage is not often fully comprehended, for the devastated lands are compared with the forests which are now in existence, and not with those which grew originally, and which might still be flourishing if the land had been protected. It was the purpose in this investigation to determine by actual meas- urements the condition of the forest on burned areas, and to compare it with forest which had been protected from fire. A large number of sample plots, mostly of one acre each, were sur- veyed in different sections, the trees carefully measured, and notes were made of the height, age, density, condition, etc. From these valuation surveys, the results of which are summarized below, an accurate picture of the forest under different conditions can be obtained, and the deterioration of the forest can be traced step by step from the heavy timber 200 years old to the barren wastes, with scattered fire-scarred Pine sprouts and scrub Oaks, which are so abundant in South Jersey. THE ORIGINAL TIMBER. The greater part of southeastern New Jersey was originally covered with a heavy growth of Pine. The poorer soils were probably occupied by Pitch Pine, the medium and better soils by Shortleaf Pine and hardwoods and the deep swamps by Cedar. From a study of scattered old timber, it is estimated that the original mature Pine forest yielded on an average from five to ten thousand board feet per acre. The timber was about 150 to 200 years old and 15 to 20 inches in diameter, with occasional trees as large as 24, or even 30inches. The average height of the old timber was 65 to 70, and the maximum 80 to go feet. The (109) 110 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. forest was open, with comparatively little undergrowth. It probably had a density of 0.6 to 0.8, if we consider that of a fully stocked stand to be 1.0. The seventeen sample plots in the sumiary, on page 99, show the condition of the original forest. SECOND GROWTH. When this timber was cut off, a second growth of Oak and Pine took its place on the better soils, while on poor soil Pitch Pine was the principal species. The second growth was chiefly of seedling origin. From the time of the first heavy cutting, fires began to play an increasingly important part in the development of the forest. When the young trees were killed back by. cutting or burning, the stumps, both of the hardwoods and the Pitch Pine, sent up sprouts. Where the land was protected from fire, seedlings returned and a thrifty second growth resulted, but when fires continued to run the few seedlings which crept in were in turn killed back, and afterward sprouted again; many trees were entirely killed; the forest became thinner and thinner; the ground clothed itself with a dense growth of huckleberries, scrub Oaks and dry-land moss, or the soil was completely laid bare; and land which once produced heavy timber was made almost worthless. It requires but a glance at the surveys taken on badly burned land, z. ¢., those of Table 3, to see, in the number of trees, the yield per acre, and the density, the deplorable con- dition of the forest. CONCLUSIONS DERIVED FROM THE VALUATION SURVEYS. For the acres in Table 3 the density averages 0.3, the number of trees per acre 133, and the yield 2.9 cords. From the study of second-growth timber which has not been burned, it is clear that the density would be 0.7 to 0.8 if the tract had been pro- tected from fire. If we assume that the trees on the protected tract were sprouts there would be about three times as much wood per acre. If the trees were from the seed there would be, at forty years of age, on land fully stocked, about 1,200 trees and not less than 20 cords per acre, or about six times as much as is “MOgsT] MAN Je IsaI0g BUIg [eUIZIO—*A ‘ON O3RTT REPORT ON FORESTS. III now produced. Further, the timber now found is coarse and knotty and fit for nothing better than cordwood, while in dense stands the trees are straight and clear of knots. The burned land represented by the acres in T'able 3 is then producing about one-third of the volume it would if protected from fire, and about one-sixth of what it is capable of yielding under careful management, while in quality and price the wood is very much inferior to the product of a healthy forest on the same ground. Summary of Forty-nine Valuation Surveys, Showing the Dete- rioration of the Forest Through the Effects of Fire. Table 1. ORIGINAL FOREST. No. of trees} Average incr eved Average age.| Yield per me Veseeee (Stee | Semel ria | Dee Sg Ss Se 67 a gw 13.9 100-200 10,170 0.7 a 70 _ 14.0 ee 9,925 0.6 Br Sac 78 ipsa Saw as 13.0 HAD Ge 8,940 0.6 AS AAS Bee. S 86 bene ts 12.7 SES 8,828 0.7 See as el SEIS Sy ae 10,0 i eo 8,000 0.6 Oo ce sy g2 ae a 12,0 ae it 7,739 0.6 Te A ow 65 ee 13.0 ees 7,521 06 38. ? 71 ei es 12.4 pal oe 7,488 0.6 eis as Siw Ge 68 eas 12.5 ee te 7,208 0.6 10 - . |] TO4 Bog aw II.2 we 6,134 0.7 Te 9 sat nae Gat sores 97 iy te a 10.2 ear 5,760 0.6 12 oe yo AS oe) ask 13.1 es 5,631 0.5 UGS aus had sted 80 doe RS 10.1 en 5,200 0.6 RAS. Seelsg Serle 85 ti tas Rae IL.0 eee he 4,618 0.55 IR « so Bes 97 aye 10.7 none 4,500 0.6 16 Slee ange. (2AB iy ees Ye 9.0 wel ize 3,700 0.7 LF ey Bs elk 74 sede Gy 10.4. a te 3,369 055 Average, gl mS ESE. Il.7 ee 6,631 0.6 112 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Table 2. SECOND GROWTH ON LAND PROTECTED FROM FIRE. j Cm o5 _& . z | sh | $2 | $38 a |3d| 8 a 4 < < bs a A Seedling 18 286 8.6 80 7,397 1.0 Per growth 19 323 |e a «| 829 80 7,604}. .| 1.0 sh 20 364} gS]... 50 . .| 48} 0.8 |Chiefly from seed ai 482 | 6.6 40-60 34 | 0.7 ef 22 573 | 5.2 40-60 21|/ 08 oe , bs jf Seedling 23 Piet | 55 (est ) | ae teecoud growth. 24 |1,088}. 4.4 |. 40 (est.)|}. . «| 20] 09 be 25 724 | 4.8]... 40-60 - . »| 20] 0.95/Chiefly from seed. 26 532°| 5.3 |. . +] 40-60 ee 18 | 0.75 we 27 559 | 4.8 |... .| 40-60 16/ 0.8 ‘ 28 410 | 5.3 |. ..{| 40-60 14 | 0.7 ae 29 988 | 3.7 |. 35-40 ™3| 1.0 Sprouts. 30 521 | 3-9 35-40 7| 0.8 a Average) 548 | 5.5 | 88 ]..... 7,500 | 21 | 0.8 Table 3. SECOND GROWTH ON LAND BADLY BURNED. : No. of || Average Yield ‘ Plot trees diameter, Average age. per acre.| Density. Remarks, No. per acre. Inches. Years. Cords. 31 105 7.0 30-40 (est.) 7:5 0.5 |Chiefly sprouts. 32 339 47 | se 7 0.6 ie 33 98 6.4 30-40 (est ) 5 02 as 34 189 4.8 a oe 4.2 0.3 at 35 IgI 4.8 ve iy 4.2 0.2 es 36 94 5.7 ie s 3.1 0.2 ss 37 121 4.9 ee a 2.8 0.2 bi 38 221 3.1 20-30 ‘ 2.7 o.I as 39 200 3.6 30-40 ‘ 26 0.4 os 40 73 5.5 25-30 ‘' 2.3 O.1 os AI 177 3.4 20-30 ‘‘ 2.2 o.1 us 42 118 4.4 30-40 ‘ 2.2 0.4 ae 43 II4 4.4 ue os 2.1 0.3 ‘ 44 IgI 2.9 i “ 2.1 0.2 ee 45 go 4.5 s i 1.7 0.2 . 46 135 3.2 20-30 ‘ 1.6 0.3 oy 47 42 5.5 30-40 ‘ 1.3 0.2 us 48 26 4.2 30 “ 0.4 0.1 es 49 I4 5.5 a “ 0.5 O.1 oe Average} 133 4.8 2.9 0.3 REPORT ON FORESTS. 113 DESCRIPTIONS OF REPRESENTATIVE AREAS. The following detailed descriptions of the measurements taken in different parts of South Jersey contain the essential facts from which the conclusions in the preceding sections were drawn. They illustrate the methods used in the investigation and give some indication of the localities studied and of the amount of labor involved. Original Forest at Winslow. |. A satisfactory understanding of the loss occasioned by forest fires in South Jersey presupposed a knowledge of what the land is capable of producing when uninjured by burning. To acquire such knowledge was not easy. There are comparatively few places where original pine can still be found, and in these the soil is apparently better than on the fire-scarred areas now covered with straggling, scrubby second growth. These places may, however, be used to illustrate the original conditions, for the soil on areas now fire-scarred was doubtless more productive when covered with a rich layer of forest litter than it is now; and while the original trees over the greater part of South Jersey were probably for the most part Pitch Pine, the yield per acre probably did not fall far short of that of the Shortleaf (locally called Yellow) Pine now found on the areas studied, the fertility of which was somewhat above the average. One plot of old timber situated near Winslow is owned by Mr. J. H. Rosenthal, of Philadelphia. The large Pine was being cut for the market while this plot was being studied, and the measurements were taken as the trees were sawed into logs. In this forest the Yellow Pine predominates, but there are con- siderable numbers of Pitch Pine as well. The Pine occurs both in patches and scattered over the area, and is associated with small Oaks and a few largerones. The trees reach a diameter of two and a height of eighty-five feet. The larger Oaks, White and Chestnut, in some cases reach a diameter of thirty inches, while among the smaller trees Black and Post Oaks are found. The soil is a white sand, with a slight admixture of loam on the 8 FOR 114. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ‘better portions. In this forest there were measured twelve sample acres, a summary of which is given in Table 5, below. The following sample acre is given in full and furnishes a very good mental picture of the average conditions in this forest. Table 4. One Acre Measured Near Winslow, New Jersey. Pine Diameter, including White Black Chestnut Post breast high. stumps, Oak. Oak. Oak. Oak. Hickory. 3 Inches, ..... I 26 7 Soe 2 A. ae 2 12 14 4 ‘ 5 8S owe wes 2 10 15 2 Ge 8 use ie ae a 1 2 8 ar 2 I 0 6 4 12 I Se ae a 2 6 3 I Ci ee ee der 4 6 I I a FO) ‘8 caplasles. oe 4 7 4 4 I 2 I TT OEE es erie nee ae 4 é I 2 : E29 SE" Shite Bs dade 14 I 13 wwe a ws 5 I TA. REO de Gedo 8 I s Th ES) ae erie an Gels 5 I TO 8 “apogee 2 . Do) RE! ah ret Se ak 3 6 Ig. ="! oe ae tee ee oe 68 79 75 15 I 4 Average height of Pine, 68 feet. Diameter of the average tree over ten inches, 13.7 inches. Total volume, 2,127 cubic feet. Total merchantable volume over ten inches, 7,208 board feet: Yield of hardwoods, 7.0 cords (est.). Soil, dry sand. Flat. Undergrowth composed of young Oaks and a few Pine seedlings. Humus rather poor. Density, 0.6 of the normal. The following table gives a summary of the twelve acres. studied at Winslow. The merchantable trees are of various ages, from 120 to 200 years old. It will be seen that there are on an average about 45-50 trees per acre over Io inches, with an average yield of about 7,000 board feet. Plate No. VI.—Second-growth Pitch Pine, Ocean county. REPORT ON FORESTS. 115 Table 5. Summary of Measurements on Twelve Acres of Old Pine at Winslow, New Jersey. . PINE. HARDWOODS. . | 8 5 | i a 5 g . (4 = $)8 | 3.28) 2. | Fi a | . | dal & {2 |2g| 86 |/22| 29/253) 2] gg | 28 | 2) 8) oe ee ee ca oe} Bel ce || Spe eae 2 | ee 2 [2 (32) 23 85/88 | eo) £ | 22 ) 422 1 2) Fels 18 |B) es ||85) e8 | as] ¢ | Ba | Bea || B | esl a a \ a <4 a < a < a = a2 |< iS) | Inches. Inches.|Inches.| Feet. | Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Inches 1 | 67| 66 /13.9]| 34 |} 14.4] 22 | 69.1 | 2,882 | 10,170 || 140] 5.9 | 6.5 21 70] 65! 14.0 || 51 | 16.2] 18 | 68.8) 2,917 | 9,925 96] 6.2 | 5.5 3 | 78| 72 | 13.0!| 56 | 14.8) 18 | 66.9} 2,812 | 8940 || 137] 5.6 | 5.5 4 | ‘86 74 | 12.71] 56] 13.9] 20 | 69.7] 2,548 | 8,828 || 161] 5.9 | 7.5 6; 92) 78 | 12.0/) 55/134] 18 | 68.1] 2557 | 7,739 || 183| 6-9 | 13.5 7 | 65] 60 | 13.0!) 46 | 14.3] 21 | 67.5] 2,228] 7,521 || r21| 6.8] 85 8] 71} 69 | 12.4|} 54] 13-5| 19 | 66.3] 2,388 | 7,488 || 120) 7.0 | 9.0 9 | 68) 63 | 12.5]] 49 | 13.1] I9 | 68.1] 2,127 | 7,208 |) 174] 5.7 | 7-5 10 | ‘r04] 78 | 11.2 || 51 | 12.6] 17 | 68.1! 2,048 | 6,134 |] 124] 6.4 | 7.3 I2| 451 43 | 13.1 || 35 | 14.1) 20 | 68.1] 1,613 | 5,631 6} 6.3 | 0.0 14 | 85] 62 | 11.0}| 35 | 13.1] I9 | 66.8] 1,708 | 4,618 || 147] 6.9 | IT.o 17 | 74| 57 '10.4!| 27! 12.8!- 16 166.8 1,275 | 3,369 || T59! 6.3 ! 9.0 Origtnal Forest at New Lisbon. Another forest of old Pine was found at New Lisbon, on the estate of Mr. Black. Here, as at Winslow, the Pine was scattered in patches, mixed with oaks, and as before, the Shortleaf Pine predominated. The average yield of Pine on the five acres measured was about 5,500 board feet and the number of trees per acre over ten inches in diameter about fifty. The following sample acre will serve to illustrate the forest in this section. This plot is figured in Plate VII. 116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Table 6. One Acre Measured in Old Pine Near New Lisbon, New Jersey. | Pine, Diameter includiog White Black Chestnut Post breast high, stumps. Oak. Oak, Oak. Oak. E Inchs yas ws es 3 18 7 5 he 2 Inches... . I 18 13 19 2 Bey tel. yl ale 8 13 13 24 a8 Be SEI Tee uaa Se aos: ss 5 14 10 26 roe ne eee ee 2 7 10 24 I Go aaa ek 5 13 10 6 a Ge OSE Asa, Merag See & 7 f«3 oa 8 I Bs SE yet als ed 2 I 3 gq ** es te ao 6 I F TO: a yk We 7 2 Tl ge ae wes 5 i To. ES faeeteer Gian % 17 I a5 OR ol bn ts ad 7 i 4 , Tig, SoS «athe daecetes 6 I 16 OS Nagi hs ses Sat sah iy I I (he eae ae ere PHBE OY 6 reat BO to Oke we ew 2 88 94 66 112 4 Average height, about 65 feet. Diameter of the average tree over ten inches, 12.8 inches. Yield of Pine over ten inches, 5.200 board feet; of small Pine, 1.1 cords; of Oaks, 3.5 cords Soil, dry white sand., Flat. Burned over every spring, and underbrush killed. Density, 0.6 of the normal. Table 7. Five Acres Studied at New Lisbon. No, No, Ave, No. Ave, Merch, Ave. Pine Pine Diam. Pine Diam. Pine. Small Diam, Plot including over breast high. under breasthigh, Board Pine. No. breasthigh. Yield, No. stumps. roin. Inches. toin. Inches. feet. Cords. Oak. Inches. Cords. Bs 113 46 15.1 86 4.9 8,000 2.6 130 3.0 1.3 II 97 64 11.8 5t 6.2 5,760 2.8 233 3-9 3.5 13 80 52 12.8 39 4.7 5,200 I.I 276 38 3.5 15 97 53 12 44. 5.2 4,500 1.5 383 40 6.0 16 245 37 12 208 3.4 3,700 3.8 119 3.1 1.0 REPORT ON FORESTS. ELy SECOND GROWTH. When land of this character is cut over it is usually followed by a growth of hardwoods and Pine.on the medium and better soils, and, on the areas less adapted to hardwoods, by Pitch Pine. Pine gradually creeps back on the areas which have come up to hardwoods and in many cases crowds them out. Often the Pine seeds an old field with good soil very abundantly, and a pure forest springs up. Such a patch was found nearly fully stocked at Winslow, and two acres are given in detail on pages 52 and 53 of the Annual Report for 1898. ‘This forest is a nearly even- aged stand of Shortleaf (Yellow) and Pitch Pine, the former pre- dominating, about eighty years old, and gives an admirable picture of what a normal stand of Pine can produce. A full discussion of the tract is found with the surveys. It is exceed- ingly interesting to compare this stand with the old forest at Winslow. It will be seen that the yield in board feet is just as large for trees over ten inches, and that the yield (over six inches) is about twice as large, while the trees are only about one-half as old. Such stands as this are the great exception, for the reproduc tion of the forest has been left to take care of itself, the trees have been cut with no regard whatever to the next crop, and fires have swept over the ground repeatedly, destroying young growth and thinning the old timber, so that as a rule the second- growth forest is open and straggling. The soil is abundantly able, for the most part, to produce merchantable timber, in spite of repeated fires and bad cutting. These latter, and not the soil itself, are responsible for the present poor condition of the forest, which needs only protection and judicious cutting to regain its value in the end. Second Growth at Whitings. A number of acres of second growth studied near Whitings are exceedingly interesting, both as to their origin and their growth and development. The surveys given below were taken about two miles southeast of Whitings, on a private tract of about one thousand acres. The forest is’a pole wood of high density, containing trees of two age classes, one about fifty to 118 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. sixty, the other thirty to forty years old. The larger trees have every appearance of being of seedling origin. The smaller trees seem like sprouts, for they are crooked and contorted, and of very slow growth. There are, further, many small, twisted trees, thirty to fifty years old, and only one to two inches in diameter, which spread out in umbrella form at about six to eight feet from the ground. It is reasonably certain that these are stunted sprouts, which manage to live in the shade of the pole woods and grow only enough to maintain their existence. The humus is deep'and the soil a dry white sand. There has been no fire for many years, the tract having been successfully protected by careful watching. The average height of the older class of trees is 45, of the younger 36 feet. The rate of growth for the older trees is one inch in diameter in fifteen years, of the smaller trees one inch in twenty years. Although it is extremely difficult to determine definitely whether the older trees on this area are seedlings or sprouts, the conclusion arrived at from study here and elsewhere is that they are seedlings. The old stumps probably have a limited capacity for sprouting. It is the roots of the second and third growth and the succeeding generations that produce sprouts freely. The following sample acre will serve to illustrate the character of this second growth: Table 8. One Acre Measured Near Whitings, New Jersey. Diameter breast high. Pine, TAMCH A 2 Re ge aes cafes Be 18 2 INCHES: 3 girdle a | Sg We Be 30 3 BN aN ol “Zed GR! eg rad eee Gees Ae cy, eB ace 8 44 iy SEES teh on th ste Reni ate te ecg gh ah Geka ebay 43 GO ie a Gow aie a) ge oe nop diy re ne inne sa SO Os AP caper en hive dings ses yaddn “eal Rd . 80 7 ANS hs Nat EP ag Cote Nene ge. Gh Salat, he ALR a ge BY od a 30 Se) Tie? Rana at Serty wee ae dan ad tes te ae Ge ah Wee had 40 Oil RD nse fae 8. Nor Yous Aine a ake RES as hs lees a de se 2I MOR SO oa eit a eR a ae a 17 Toy NT Vesetia ee aAANh. nrgh Heth UP ose “9 925 2 ee ae be ee ee ee 2 ‘Ayanod uoyZuying ‘yyweusepun synods xeO porunys YIM suIg pauing Ajpeg—"TTA ‘ON 938TA REPORT ON FORESTS. 119 Yield of pine, 14.0 cords (est.), Average diameter, 5.3inches. Soil, white sand. Slope, gentle to northwest. Undergrowth, Huckleberries and Ground Oak. Humus, deep. Density, 0 7 of the normal. Table 9. Stix Surveys at Whitings, N. /. Average Maximum diameter diameter Yield Plot No of Area, breast high, breast high, Yield. per acre. No, Pine, Acres, ' Inches. Inches, Cords, Cords, 2 241 % 6.6 II 17 34 22 573 I 5.2 13 2i 2I 25 362 % 4.8 Il 10 20 26 266 % 5-3. 12, 9 18 27 559 I 4.8 12 16 16 28 410 I 5-3 12 14 14 Pine Sprouts at Whitings. In discussing the question of sprout Pine growth it is instruct- ive to study both verbal and visual pictures of an. area which is surely of this origin. This forest is about one mile west of the preceding acre, and is probably of the same age as the smaller. trees on that plot. The young pole-wood has a density nearly normal, and the soil is adry white sand. There is an under- growth of huckleberries and Scrub and Post Oaks, but the area has not been burned over and the humus is excellent. Table 10. One-quarter Acre of Pine Sprouts, 35 to go Years Old, Near Whitings, N. /. No of Diameter, trees. PTHCHES,: -e e s ae w weS 40 Beg he a aR: a RE a A Se: SBS EG ESE Sav Guat lara Ta? wane dats tase? Van Sa fey cop St 62 5 el Ste alate F SOR Bey aces, Soe 42 6 * Sees Ga OaD a “al oanvaae ear Sa 12 i SR igs yes i oh ae ash ge pW geen ae ae Maa BG My 5 8 ss Ge sha see agate has Gary hy ences I 120 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The average age of the crop is 35 to 40 years; the average height, 24 feet ; the average diameter, 3.7 inches. It is fair to ask why the growth is slow. The soil, it is true, is a dry sand, but similar soil has been observed to bear very much more rapidly growing trees. Fire has never touched the trees and there is a deep humus. ‘The’reason has already been given. ‘The trees are twisted and crooked, and often with from two to five stems apparently from the same root, and the forest is composed of Pine sprouts. The yield of this area is estimated to be thirteen cords per acre. Not far from this plot a small area was studied where the wood had been cut and stacked. The trees were not nearly so numerous, and fire had apparently run over the area at some time, though not of late. The stumps were measured on 0.3 of an acre. Table 11. Diameter on stump, No. of trees, a Tnches wks Goa Se oe we 27 By) MS’ seal Sacra eure aBreee ete veh ee oe eae? Pans agen Se 50 4 RN RE eR ee ee 47 BYP Se? ar GRE emi raes bi matCan Wie yan bos 17 GI eS GS Me Sh a OR Boe a 17 ( ee eee a er ee eer eee 9 SAE ere shh Telscarudes Vay oer an Sa Tae ee I 168 The stacked wood measured slightly over two cords, or about seven cords per acre. Six stumps were studied, and the age was found to be thirty-five to forty years on the stump. The growth of an average stump was 0.6 inches in diameter in the last ten years, or at the rate of one inch in about seven- teen years. Second Growth After Fire. The sample acres given above show what the original forest probably produced and what the second growth yields, whether of seedlings or sprouts, where the land has not been very severely burned. It remains to show the condition of land which has been repeatedly burned, and to trace the various stages of dete- REPORT ON FORESTS. 121 rioration from the condition described above to the desolate stretches of sand-barrens in some sections of Ocean county. The first stages of deterioration of the forest may be illus- trated by the valuation survey which was taken near West Creek, Ocean county, New Jersey. The soil is a fine white sand, with a moderate layer of humus. ‘The land has been burned a num- ber of times, but the fire has been chiefly confined to the surface. The trees are very coarse and scrubby, and that while there is a fairly large number per acre, the diameters are small and the trees stand too far apart for good natural pruning to take place. The ground is covered with huckleberries and Scrub Oaks between the Pines. These trees are probably about thirty to forty years old. Ina normal stand of this age there should be not less than nine hundred to one thousand stems per acre. Table 12. One Acre Measured tn Second-Growth Pine Near West Creek, Ocean County, N. /. Diameter, No. of trees. Number of Pine under two-inches, 73. Number of Oak under two inches, 389. Average diameter of the Pine, 4.7 inches. Yield of Pine estimated to be about seven cords. The next stage in the decline of the forest is well illustrated by the valuation survey below, and by Plate VII. This survey was taken near Ongs Hat, Burlington county. The area has been burned many times, and the trees are scrubby and scattered. There is but little undergrowth, and almost no humus, and even Scrub Oaks find difficulty in growing. The number of trees is even less than before. The photograph is taken near Tuckerton, but shows the same stage in the deterioration of the forest as the valuation survey. 122 Ny GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Table 13. One Acre Measured in Second-Growth Pine Near Ongs Flat, Burlington County, New Jersey. Diameter, trees. Number of Pine under two inches, 108. Number of Oak under two inches, 162. Average diameter of the Pine, 3.7 inches. Yield of Pine estimated to be about 1.6 cords. Soil, gravelly sand. Flat. Density, 0.4. Table 14. Nine Sample Acres Showing a Still Further Advanced Stage in the Deterioration of the Forest by Fire. a a g 3 a Sa] Fe | ee | a | ee] 7% : S'5 ea] 5 a £ 8 Locality, Be fos 2a 2 Bs e > om #3 36 ° fae % a He g5 a5 3 iF S 8 a < =: a a Zz a Inches. Inches 105 7.0 14 7.5 74 113 | 0.6 |Ongs Hat. 98 6.4 13 5.0] .. 1 | 0.2 |Ongs Hat. 189 4.8 8 4.2 68 208 | 0.5 | Near East Plains. 94. 5.7 12 3.1 7 0.2 |Ongs Hat.. | 121 49 9 28] 78 708 | 0.2 |Near East Plains. 200 3.6 9 2.6 | 77 34 | 9.4 |Spring Hill. II4 4.4 8 2.1 | 139 274 | 0.3 | Tuckerton role) 4.5 8 1.7 36 411 | 0.2 | Near East Plains. 41 5.5 co P3 I 0.2 |Ongs Hat. ‘uoyayoN], ‘aurg pue AO Jo synoids yyM ‘pueT pauing Ajpayeoday—"JITA ‘ON 9381 d wine a BOA. ge fy REPORT ON FORESTS. 123 The three sample acres in the next table show the condition of a younger forest, but one which has been more severely burned and is in a lower stage of decline than the preceding acres. The soil is dry and the humus has been almost entirely destroyed. The trees are all crooked and scrubby sprouts of Pitch Pine. There are large numbers of Scrub Oaks on the ground. , Table 15. Three Sample Acres Showing a Very Advanced Stage in the Deterioration of the Forest Through Fire. y Average Maximum Average Pine Oak Pine diameter diameter Oak diameter under under over 2” breast breast over2” breast 2! in 2” in Plot in di- high. high. in di- high. diame- diame- No. ameter, Inches, Inches. ameter. Inches. ter. ter. Density. Locality. 38 2213 5 a eg 466 312 0.4 Near East Plains. 41 1977 3.4 6 : 386 250 O.1 45 135 3.2 5 83 2.1 62 147 0.3 Spring Hill By such steps as these the forest has been reduced from a fine old growth of merchantable timber to a straggling, scrubby growth of sprouts. The stage in deterioration next to the last is shown by four surveys taken on land near Tuckerton, which was burned in 1894, and the trees of which had apparently been killed, but had begun to sprout again from the crown and the “base. The dead trees, those sprouting at the base and those sprouting in the crown, were all counted separately. It is worth while to note that the larger trees are those which sprout in the crown and that the small trees sprout at the base. Table 16. Four Acres Measured Near Tuckerton, N. J., Burned Over im 18O4. Pine Average Pine Average Average Plot sprouting diameter sprouting diameter Dead diameter No. in breast high. at breast high. Pine. breast high. crowa. Inches. » stump. Inches. Inches. 40 26 5.5 121 4.8 23 6.4 — 48 73 4.2 130 1.9 230 2.4 49 “14 5.5 ee 2. Not 56 7 6.0 | Loe 3g counted “SUIe[ SLY OY) JO MaIA [VITUED—*XT ‘ON OFLA The Plains.* The East or Lower Plains are situated for the most part in Burlington county, between Tuckerton and the East Branch of the Wading river. ‘The West or Upper Plains lie nearly north of the East Plains, and are separated from them by this stream. The former cover 7,737 and the latter 6,662 acres. The land is rolling, with high ridges and deep ravines. On the ridges the soil is a coarse, gravelly sand; in the hollows chiefly sand also, but rather fine in grain. ‘The upper soil is extremely dry, and in places there is a hard subsoil at a depth of one to two feet. The Plains are for the most part covered with a small and ragged growth of Pitch Pine, Scrub and Black Jack Oaks, Lau- tel, Bearberry and other small plants of the Heath family. The Pine and Oak are of three descriptions: Ist, a stunted, prostrate growth from two to four feet in height, which covers by far the largest part of the Plains; 2d, Pine from six to fourteen feet in height, very stunted and branching nearly to the ground, with a growth of Scrub Oak below. This growth covers a compara- tively small part of the Plains. In many cases fire has killed the trees, and there is but little young sprout growth coming up, but where the land has not been burned so severely young shoots are abundant; 3d, the large Pine, from fourteen to twenty-five feet in height, usually very crooked and scrubby, with a thick growth of Scrub Oak underneath. This growth is rare, and is found only in deep ravines or on the edge of Cedar swamps. In many cases the Plains are terminated abruptly by large timber. Often, however, the growth merges gradually into that of the surrounding forest. In this case the Pine becomes pro- gressively more erect, the soil takes on a covering of dry-land moss, humus, and shrubs, and the trees finally reach the size characteristic of the surrounding country. _ * This description is from the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1898, and is by Gifford Pinchot. (125) 126 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The Pine is chiefly of coppice growth, that is, it consists of sprouts from the stumps or from the creeping branches of trees which have been killed back by fire. If the small specimens are carefully examined, however, it will be found that, although they have tne appearance of sprouts, they are.in many cases really seedlings, with stems and branches creeping on the ground. Sprouting stumps are found which have been killed back but once, as well as old gnarled burls, veterans of many burnings, covered with knobs from which protrude the charred stubs of dead branches and the new living shoots. Sometimes these burls are compact, almost globular, but more often they take the form of numerous creeping stems, radiating from a common root. and sending out sprouts from the knobs of old scars at the end. Dead stumps are common which, in times past, have sprouted again and again, until at length they became exhausted and dead. The age of the main root of a number of such stumps was counted and found to be as much as forty, sixty, and in one case at least one hundred years. Within the limits of the Plains there are individual specimens of Pine which are erect and growing thriftily. On examination they are found to be healthy seedlings, standing generally in sheltered hollows. The roots of the Pine on the Plains are often short and poorly developed. This is doubtless due to the lack of moisture and to the hard subsoil, which the roots apparently find difficulty in penetrating. AGE OF THE PINE. There is a prevailing opinion that the Pine coppice’on the Plains is very old. The Plains are said to have been in their present condition since the country was first settled, and the conclusion is drawn that the trees are nearly two hundred years of age. It may be true that the barren stretches had much the same appearance two centuries ago that they now present, but the sprouts now on the ground are young. Fifty-five stems were cut on the West Plains and their age was counted, and fifty- three on the East Plains. These figures are given in the follow- ing tables : REPORT ON FORESTS. 127 Table 17. Age of Pine Sprouts on the Lower or East Plains Near Tucker- ton, Burlington County, New Jessey. Height. Age. Height. Age. Height. Age. Feet. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. Years. bam are der de 17 Geb: we ee we we 17 Ao) casas We eee 16 Bk sen Wied os 15 Ook a. oie ira 16 Bi. aye? #2 Fe Soa 14 Oo ee ee Ra II (ee Io BUG Bel antag! ets 10 Be rida ah Sire os Cae Ceti gs 15 Bebe cana ve at ates I4 6 Td So oe ge ¥en wes 14 B25 eh ee eg 14 2.5 12 a ob Cia nina si ees 12 Oo hay eae eS 16 Ae ap wae 13 SiGe le oak ee 20 OS 2.0 Se ars -I4 Oa oe WAS 18. Oh ee SA Ke he II Be ig a we ee 13 ao oe eee 19 6 9 BOG Aor tri dk 2) Sas II Bt Ss San ae cola ooh 9 Table 18. Age of Larger Pine Growing Within the Limits of the Lower Plains. fen fan, | pene tere, | Bere Ven Te 8 Sop ac easly 30 Ll a 3 G8 Boers 23 1 (aie eae ea 38 TO” is ea Ge Pes 13 EF ods tlh RMS 36 a nr 41 $2. ee as wa a 16 3) fate Se eg. fy 40 19 43 11.5 15 12 . 27 DMS ic ieecids SRY oS os 41 TO oh Boa ek oh 24 Te -ytiae 4. Ge ae os 28 Wyo. Wa fae es OS 33 Oe mae Srvide (ote See Ge 4o Lib a a ee a 28 IO kako ae 22 13> heey as 24 DU: seeps ae oat Uherniag Ss 40 TOG ee se oe Sk A 22 SF a we 46 TS) a Wa we a 39 130 et 8 ew x 19 fy Ae ee ee 42 10 22 L 4 128 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Table 19. Age of Pine Sprouts on the Upper or West Plains, Near Chatsworth, Burlington County, New Jersey. ae wn, | Fee ven) ee van / a a ee TO. Bu we SS ee IL Din asad ne cate tes ite 17 aes 31 2.5 Pale 34 ated eee 7 FG se Aae na, Ee 22 4.5 8 325s 9 Ox 16° || 5 ee ae ws HOW SY cats Bog acs 10 fe a a wee ES. |! heS ees og he TO. ol A ep Sg ee aes iat Bed gemlw Mer Ae 13 AeG cass ar aac fl shoe 15 Bib ke ee 8 9 SiS a fw ce ene 15 Ot ie eg EPs 12 BIB GE ty Oh es 15 4. 13 Bo. ale Ge mS 8 3x5 as ee we Se II Deak oie wha ie ee O°) Bisbee. aS Be OM hee Gan oh dg Se 10 Ae ck Re ee Oe 8 |G we a ds a aw 13 35 ea a we 9 Be ite cabal he eee. as 16 FiR oe a tes Ee TO: WG) pedi der 3. Bs 15 5 oa ay Pool AN Se Sk ech 8 se) 6 15 5 12 a ee ee 13 Table 20. Age of Larger Pine Growing Within the Limits of the Cpper Plains. Height, Age. Feet, Years, 15 39 T= he Re iw 42 21 12 eh ee 29 14 30 TED Ge gee far ie eh | fap 8 35. Feet. Years TAY oe eS SS oR BT O's 85, Hea owes 22 1S ea ae a ae 22 EO cabs Side yee 30 EY ip: we wo 8 36 T3i-ow ei Meuseh ban Gre 32 Feet Years BU a va ke, ws 44 Po gg haw a 33 TQ: 00) Bi ete ay % 46 MO he Glee Ge 39 Tet ap @ Woe es ahs 27 From these measurements it appears that the oldest and largest trees are under fifty years of age, and that the small growth averages about ten to fifteen years. REPORT ON FORESTS. 129 CAUSE OF PRESENT CONDITION. Many attempts have been made to account for the present condition of the Plains, but these explanations have not been altogether satisfactory. Some have attributed the form of the Pine to a lack of certain mineral constituents in the soil neces- sary to the growth of trees. This theory, however, is disproved by chemical analyses of the soil made by the Geological Survey, which show no greater poverty than is common to the surround- ‘ing region. The theory that fire, combined with the effect of ‘very poor top-soil and a hard subsoil, is the efficient cause, has also been advanced, and certainly fire has been a very large factor in bringing about the present condition of these areas. Sufficient emphasis, however, has not been laid on the fact that the Pine is for the most part of sprout origin, and on the causes of the prostrate form of young seedling trees. If the Plains have been in their present condition since the country was first settled, they were probably first burned over by the Indians, who were in the habit of camping in the neigh- borhood, as their shell-heaps show. We know that the western forests are often burned by the Indians to-day, and there is reason to believe that many even-aged stands of Pine in the Eastern States date their origin from fires set by the Indians or by lighting. It is not unreasonable, therefore, to suppose that these high rolling plains were originally stripped of their forest cover in this way. The Pines, which probably returned by seed after the first fire, were burned over again and again, and their stumps sent up sprouts which became more and more feeble after successive fires. Many old stumps, as already pointed out, became exhausted and died after repeated sprouting. Their place was taken by seedlings, and in this way the ground re- mained stocked with Pine. This does not explain, however, the prostrate, form of the young seedlings and many of the older trees. This peculiarity is not confined to the Plains alone, for Pine seedlings growing on bare sand in exposed situations in the neighborhood of the Plains show the same tendency. ‘These seedlings exhibit a remarkable similarity to the forms assumed by trees near the timber line on high mountains. It is a fair inference that the 9 FOR 130 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. very harsh and windy situations in which they grow has an effect analogous to that of great elevation. Hence it is believed that exposure and poor soil are entirely sufficient to explain why the young trees are prostrate. A large part of the Pine, however, is coppice growth from old stumps which have lost their vigor to a large extent, and under the unfavorable surrounding are incapable of producing anything but straggling sprouts. Furthermore, the trees, which grow very slowly on the poor soil of the Plains, are killed by fire before they have time to reach a large size. BoyRS. BOARS io} 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 a a 10: --——, a 8 EA 6 q 2 a ee CURVE SHOWING THE AVERAGE GROWTH IN DIAMETER OF WHITE CEDAR. is} 10 rae) 30 40 50 60 70 60 rT 50 40 30 vA 20 10 a CURVE SHOWING THE AVERAGE GROWTH /N HEIGHT OF WHITE CEDAR, Plate No. X.—Curves Showing Average Growth of White Cedar. Silvicultural Notes on the White Cedar.” FORM AND DEVELOPMENT. White Cedar grows in very dense stands and has in conse- quence a short, narrow crown and a long, clear, straight bole. Small pin branches are often scattered over the stem, but they do not seriously affect the quality of the wood. The length of the green crown is as a rule one-fourth to one-third the total length of the tree. ‘The oldest timber studied was about eighty years old, at which age it attains a maximum diameter of fifteen inches and a height of seventy feet. One very old unsound specimen was measured which had a diameter of thirty inches at breast-height and was about seventy feet high. In early youth a tap-root is developed, but in later life the tree has a flat root system, with strong superficial lateral roots. SITUATION AND SOIL. The White Cedar is fastidious. It is strictly a swamp tree, and the boundaries of its distribution usually coincide exactly with the edges of swamps, although a few short and scrubby stragglers are found on dry ground. In some cases where a Cedar swamp runs into a Pine swamp the cedar mingles with the Pine and finally runs out where the ground is too dry for it to grow. Cedar swamps are often classified as wet and dry. Inthe former there is standing water, a very large amount of sphagnum moss and usually little or no Pine. As arule the timber is less dense, and it is said to attain smaller dimensions and to be poorer in quality than that growing in dry swamps. In both cases there is a mud bottom, but in dry swamps interlacing Cedar roots cover it with a complete crust. whe drier the swamp the greater the proportion of Pitch Pine. A hard-bottom swamp is * By Gifford Pinchot, trom the Annual a of y State Geologist for 1898, 131 132. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. one in which the trees rest on gravel. It is said that in such situations the trees are apt to be shaky. REPRODUCTION. After the young trees grow large enough for the crowns to meet and form a continuous canopy, no new seedlings spring up. A certain amount of light is required for the germination of the seed. The trees are, however, able to bear very considerable shade, both from above and from the side. This is shown by the very long life of suppressed trees and by the extremely crowded character of the woods. When a Cedar forest is cut, young seedlings spring up in great abundance within two or three years. ‘This is, as a rule, a more complete reproduction in dry than wet swamps, chiefly on account of the amount of standing water in the latter. It has been observed that on badly-burned areas, as a rule, no seedlings spring up for a long time, even though there are seed trees close at hand. From this we must conclude either that the seed from which the usual reproduction springs lies dormant in the soil, waiting to germi- nate as soon as there is sufficient light, or that the burning of the sphagnum makes an inhospitable bed for the germination of the seed. ‘To show how many young plants come up on a well- seeded area, two small plots were marked off, one of twelve square feet, where the ground was completely seeded, and the other of one hundred square feet, where there were five old stumps and the reproduction was not so thick. On the first plot were found 968 plants, which would make 3,513,840 young trees per acre. On the other plot there were 3,200 plants, equivalent to 1,393,920 per acre. The youngest tree found to be bearing seed was thirteen years old. GROWTH. In view of the value of Cedar, it is important to have some definite figures concerning its rate of growth and its reproduc- tive capacity. On account of the regular growth of the trees and the comparatively even stands, a few measurements will REPORT) ON FORESTS. suffice to afford a basis for broad generalization. #33 During luim- bering operations at Job's swamp, near Whitings, and at Mari- gold swainp, near New Gretna, eighteen trees were carefully analyzed. ‘These measurements are summarized below. Table 21. Summary of Nenetecn Sten Analyses of White Cedar, taken at Job's Swamp, Burlington County, and Marigold Seamp, Ocean County. ¥ l| i as 6 Be a ‘ Be i Hy : F 8 Be ee a Locauity. |3 |G) & | de | 2g [4z] 4] as s| $ 8 > So Bo | Fo] & | oe z) 2 | ay 2a | <2 | 28 |42| 3 | 83 ¢] #2 | Sf) 8) 8 | #8 | Be [ga] S| es aja {m@ i] = |e S| ee 13) 2.3] 05] 39 | 24.6] Odt/... Job's Swamp. 12 3.9] 1.0] 49] 401] 1.88]. ..).. . .|Job’s Swamp. 9| 5.8] 1.0] 79] 58.7 | 5.6 5.2 | 13 | 2]. .|Job’s Swamp. 17 | 6.1 | 0.7 | 661} 56.7 | 6.0 52 13} 2]. .| Marigold Swamp. 16} 66] 06) 65 | 57.2} 7.8 65 | 231} rj. .| Marigold Swamp. 8| 66] 07]79 | 580] 7.1 6.7 | 18 | 2/1.3)Job's Swamp 15 71/08 | 66) 556) St 7.0 | 23 | 1 |1.5| Marigold Swamp. 3 7.4 | 08) 77 | 58.2] 8.7 8.3 | 23 | 2] 1.8) Job's Swamp m4 | &1); 07 | 66) 583 1125 | 11.7 | 32} 2] 2.8) Marigold Swamp. 4} 83] 09175 | Gt.0 | t1.0 | 10.2 | 28} 2 | 2.2] Job’s Swamp. s!| 86] 1.1177 | 62.5 | 12.6 | ri.8 | 4. | 1) 2,0] Job's Swamp is} 8.7 | o8 | 66] 64.2 | 13.8 | 13.1 | 37] 2 Marigold Swamp. 1) go} o7 | 77 | 601 [12.7 | 120 | 44] 3 | 20] Job’s Swamp 2| 9.0 | 06] 75} 57.7 | 14.2 | 13.5 | 50] 1 | 3.0] Job's Swamp. iI 9.4 | 07) So} 598] 12.9 | 123 | 42] © | 28! Job’s Swamp, To) 10.8 | 1.2} 79 |} 61.6 }19.0 | 17.6 | 7t | © | 1.6] Job's Swamp. 7) 10.8! to] 79 | §8.8 | 18.6 | 17.6 | 62] 1 | 2.2] Job's Swamp. 6 | 11.2 | 1.1 | 79} 63.9 | 21.6 | 20.3 | 67] 1} 1.7| Job's Swamp. The rate of growth in diameter and height was obtained in the same way as that of the Pine, by plotting the progress of the growth of each tree on cross-section paper and drawing a normal curve through the various points. The values from these average curves are as follows: 134 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Table 22. Average Rate of Growth in Diameter and Heighth of Seventeen White Cedars. Age. Diameter. Height. Years. Inches. Feet, ZO vera oir ccay Wa 0h V8) Se Ce, 2.2 ie RR ae at a a II SOS as Geet St Gah vee ee ae a a oie ae oe 2I BO ta a coo Se ote te a LS aAl dense Saini ae Se 32 BO uc. a & he Ge ie 2 Ue at 40.5 00 seve He ae Ge x 8.60 2 et wee 48 70 ; GiB oe ae ee) 54.5 805) le pee a 10.9 60 The Cedar appears, from this table, to require on an average sixty years to reach a height of fifty feet and eighty years to reach sixty. It is interesting to note that when the forest is thinned the trees grow more rapidly in diameter than when they remain in crowded stands. At Marigold swamp seven stumps were ineasured of trees which had stood for some years on the edge of aclearing. These trees were growing at the rate of 2.2 inches in diameter in ten years, whereas four trees measured within the same stand showed an average rate of growth of about 1.05 inches in ten years, or a little less than half. YIELD. There are few trees, if any, which grow in as dense masses as White Cedar. In order to show the number of trees per acre and the amount of wood at different ages, eight sample plots were measured and the trees counted. ‘These valuation surveys are summarized below. At twenty years of age there were over 10,000 trees per acre, at forty years about 3,500, and at eighty years in one case still over 1,000. Special attention is directed to Plots Nos. 51 and 52. ‘These plots were within a few hundred yards of each other and of about the same age and height. In the first case, however, there are nearly two hundred trees less and a correspondingly larger diameter. While the number of cubic feet per acre is nearly the same the number of board feet is very much larger in the first plot, although there is a smaller REPORT ON FORESTS. 135 number of trees. Plot No. 54 is of about the same age as Plot No. 52, but has only one-half as many trees. These two plots were also very near together, the former on the edge of a swamp. A number of stumps of nearly as large diameter as the trees within the stand were counted and the age found to be the same as in Plot No. 52. In Plot No. 54 there were over 1,000 more cubic feet and over 10,000 more board feet per acre, though the number of trees was only about one-half as great. From these figures it follows: First, that it requires about sixty years to produce lumber in paying quantities; second, that it would pay to thin the forest when it is about forty to sixty. years old. Table 23. Summary of Sample Areas Surveyed in Job's Swamp, near Whitings, and Marigold Swamp, near Tuckerton, New Jersey. e |S 18 PER ACRE, is |5 |s g fee [2 12) el Flay | ef F O8|/S (8 |S j-S ja / 58 | 28 E cayeele Eee eee | ee | eS z| . jae/Sii# jos) 2/1 S2.) 25) 2 | 2 | « 2 g a od 3 o o 5 a a say = | € |2glz/e2/sf! 2 | 2/228| 23) 8) 8 | & Sq. ft. In, | In Fe . 57 400; 107 ;93) 3 | 20 | 2t 11,663 : ; 58 | 2,500] 199} 116 2.3] 7 | 35 | 39 | 3,463) 2,018). . .| 1,420] 3,689 Acres. 55 | 0.25 | 472| 2.4.6] 8) 42 | 49] 1,188 8 5,286] 2,676 53 | 025 | 326, 515.4) Ir | 48.5] 62} 1,304) ‘ 20) 9,756} 5,868] 2,420 SI | 0.25 | 214; 0 7.2!| 13 | 60 | 66 856 18,244) 7.448] 1,416 50 | 0.25 | 253) 0] 6.6] 13 | 60 | 66| I,012). . . |14,636) 7,698) 1,568 54} 0.25] 140] o|92/ 15 | 65 |.80 560} . |25,668} 8,910) 692 52 | 0.25 | 263} o] 6.9} 12 | 60 | 76] 3,052 15,596| 7,624) 1,472 Forests and Water-Supply. Owing to the importance of the water-supply question in the State, we have given long and careful study to the effect of forests upon the run-off of the streams. As a result, we have reached the following conclusions, resting upon reasons and data which we give later on: 1. Forests have no important effect upon the total evaporation from the stream catchment, consequently the total run-off from forested catchments is not greater than from deforested or culti- vated catchments. 2. The springs are better sustained in forested country, the rain-fall being absorbed more readily by the humus and soil of the forest, and the flow of water over the stirface to the stream channels being obstructed by roots and other inequalities, con- sequently forest streams have a more equable flow and are not subject to such long periods of extreme low water. 3. Floods are less frequent on forested streams, owing partly to the above causes and also to the slow melting of snow and ice accumulating in the winter season, but forested streams are nevertheless subject to occasional high freshets. 4. Forest streams carry less mud and silt in suspension. The most desirable conditions for water-supply are found when about three-fourths of the catchments, including the slopes and higher ground, is covered with forests, while the remainder, near the stream lines, is in grass. In those respects in which the above findings differ from popular opinion they have been verified with great care. Such opinion is largely to the effect that forests decrease evaporation, and that consequently deforestation is responsible for the drying- up of streams. That popular impressions are not always a safe guide is evidenced by the fact that it is commonly alleged in this State that the streams are falling off because of the cutting- off of forests; but the facts, ascertained with much care, are that (137) 138 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. the area of forests in all of northern New Jersey is as great as it was fifty years ago, and the quality of the timber has been steadily improving for at least forty years. It is therefore clear that if the streams are falling off it is not due to deforestation. There is no competent evidence, based on careful measurement, that there has been any important change in the streams, except- ing what may be accounted for by artificial diversions of their waters, or by the fact shown by the rain-fall records that pro- tracted droughts have been more frequent during the last quarter-century than they were during the previous quarter. While popular opinion is clearly wrong in this case, therefore we believe it is true that by reason of deforestation streams become more fluctuating and subject to longer periods of extreme low water. This would be quite sufficient to account for a popular impression that there is a shrinkage in the run-off. It is quite impossible to determine, except by exact measure- ments, any change in the total run-off of the streams during the year. More protracted periods of low water would be sufficient to account for many of the phenomena, such as the shrinkage in water-power, etc., which are so often adduced as proof that deforestation increases evaporation. ‘The large volume of water which may have been discharged in floods during the wet season has been lost sight of, as it is of little use for power, and its volume cannot be estimated by the eye. The conclusions which we have reached are generally similar to those which have been set forth by Antoine C. Becquerel, a member of the French Academy of Science, who devoted most of a long life-time to the subject, and who had at his disposal the best European data.* He points out the injurious effect upon springs and water- courses due to deforestation, but says: “It cannot be said that this diminution is caused by a less annual rain-fall or a greater evaporation of rain-water.” In his opinion, the real effect is due to a more irregular and flashy discharge of the stream waters. His conclusions are altogether so conservative and embody the results of so much experience and study of European conditions, that his paper is especially commended to the reader’s attention. *Memoirs upon Forests and their Climatic Influence; Atlas Meteorologique de L’ Observatoire Im- perial, 1867 A fulltranslation appears in Keport upon Forestry, by F, B, Hough, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1877, : REPORT ON FORESTS. 139 EFFECT OF FORESTS' UPON EVAPORATION. A study of this question, is of the first importance to the water- works engineer, for it is clear that if evaporation from forested is so much less than from deforested catchments, the amount of run-off which may be collected and utilized for public water- supply will be correspondingly increased. We usually estimate that about 14 inches of rain-fall can be collected yearly in this vicinity, and if forests cause an increase of from 5 to 6 inches in this amount, as has been claimed, the difference in the amount collectible will be very large. It is because we believe that this is an error dangerous to water-supply calculations that we have given special study to this phase of the subject. The data which throw light upon this subject vary widely in character. First, we have the general facts as to distribution of forests and rain-fall. Inthe United States it is found that forests are almost invariably abundant where the rain-fall exceeds 32 inches per annum, unless there is some peculiarity of the soil unfavorable to tree growth. Whenthe annual rain-fall becomes less than 26 inches, forests almost disappear, but farm crops are raised without irrigation where the annual rain-fall is less than 20 inches. We may infer from this that forests require for their support a more abundant supply of water than farm crops. We have a verification of these facts in New Jersey experience. In 1881 and 1894 we had protracted droughts, during which the spring and summer rain-fall fell below the equivalent of 32 inches per annum. ‘The actual figures were for northern New Jersey in the spring and summer of 1881, 13.16 inches, and for 1894, 15.67 inches, whereas the spring and summer rain-fall in Kansas, at points which have an annual rain-fall of 32 inches, amounts to 20.2. During 1881 the drought caused the death of numbers of forest trees, while those which did not die had their foliage browned as if by fire. The same conditions prevailed to slightly less degree in 1894, and from these lessons we may con- clude that if the rain-fall in New Jersey should fall below 32 inches per annum for a period of years, the forests would die. We may conclude, therefore, that in our latitude forests require a rain-fall of more than 16 inches during the growing season. 140 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. From a statement made in the Strasburger botany, as to the quantity of water required by an oak tree, we must draw the conclusion that a forest of such trees requires from 16 to 1g inches. of water during the growing season. The researches of Burger indicate that a mixed deciduous forest, which will cut 4o cords of wood per acre, will require 19 inches of water during the growing season, agreeing well with the above. Von Petten- kofer has stated that during the growing season an oak tree may require eight times the amount of rain falling upon it, and that its roots will draw the required surplus from a great depth. As to farm crops we have perhaps no more reliable data than the interesting experiments made by Professor King, at the University of Wisconsin.* Based upon these experiments we find that a crop of two tons of clover to the acre requires but 10 inches of rain-fall. This is heavier than the normal field crop. Taking the normal field crop, his results indicate that during the growing season Indian corn requires 4.8 inches, barley 3.6 inches, oats 3.6 inches, wheat 4.5 inches, and potatoes about Io: inches. The average for these crops is 6 inches as against the 16 to 19 inches above estimated to be necessary for forests. We may state here that it is probably true that a very light crop: requires much more water per ton of dry matter produced than a very heavy crop, for the reason that with the light crop there will be a larger amount of water evaporated directly from the soil than is the case with a heavy one which keeps the ground well shaded. Now as to fallow ground we have the careful experiments of Lawes & Gilbert, at Rothamsted, England, which were con- ducted during a period of twenty years. These show an annual evaporation from soil kept hoed but uncropped amounting to. 16.68 inches, with 30.29 inches rain-fall. From April to Sep- tember the evaporation was 11.46 inches, which may be com- pared with the above estimates of the requirements for forests, while the evaporation from fallow earth during the growing period for field crops was no less than the amount shown by Prof. King to be the requirement of farm crops. Taking the annual evaporation from fallow soil, as above determined by Lawes and Gilbert, and comparing it with the *« Irrigation and Drainage,’’ by F. H. King. REPORT ON FORESTS. - I4r evaporation on the Lee and Thames rivers, and Wendover springs, which data we give later in the table of stream meas- urements, it is found that these three streams give an average evaporation of 20.7 inches annually from catchments covered with the prevailing vegetation of Hertford and Middlesex, against 16.68 from ground without vegetation. We seem to have here quite reliably indicated an excess of 4 inches in annual evaporation caused by vegetation. Lawes and Gilbert themselves are of the opinion that from 3 to 4 inches repre- sents a fair allowance for the excess of evaporation caused by the ordinary vegetation around London over evaporation from fallow soil kept hoed. The experiments of Charles Greaves at Lee Bridge, and of Evans and Dickinson at Nash Mills, appear to show an evapora- tion from fallow soil almost exactly equal to that shown by the catchments of the above rivers, and on the basis of these experi- ments there would be no increase of evaporation due to vegeta- tion, but we believe that the above estimate of 3 to 4 inches, based on the experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, is fairly accurate. In our Report on Water-Supply, of 1894, we estimated from the data furnished by the gaugings of the Passaic that evapora- tion on that water-shed was not increased by the existing vegetation to a greater amount than 6 inches per annum.* This vegetation is made up of 58 per cent. forests; about 6 per cent. wet meadow, which is in grass; 6 per cent. fallow land ; I5 per cent. short grass, or pasturage, and 15 per cent. under cultivation. After a recent revision of these estimates our opinion is that the effect of vegetation, such as the above, is to increase the evaporation over what would take place from the same area with no vegetation whatever to the extent of not more than 5 inches per annum. Our own figures are therefore in fair accord with the results of Lawes and Gilbert, and both are based on data derived from conditions closely approximating to those which we find in nature, and confirmed by other esti- mates which it is impossible to set forth in this paper. We feel justified, therefore, in concluding that the effect of vegetation of any and all kinds upon evaporation has in many cases been much over-rated, and that such vegetation as occurs in the * Report on Water-Supply, page 332. 142 ° GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. country surrounding London or upon-our own Passaic water- shed does not increase the annual evaporation over what would take place from fallow, tilled ground more than from 4 to 5 inches. The experiments of Lawes and Gilbert were upon soil kept hoed. Prof. King, in the Wisconsin experiments, shows the effect of cultivation in reducing evaporation. Keeping this fact and the experiments of Greaves, and Evans and Dickinson in mind, it seems probable that evaporation from barren soil, not cultivated, is as great as from soil with vegetation.* The above cited estimate of 16 to 19 inches, representing the requirements of forest growth, rests upon good authority, but we must not conclude that this means 16 to 19 inches more evaporation from a forested than from a fallow area. Neither must it be concluded that the estimates are reliable for all climates, for we shall show in our discussion of stream measure- meuts that the evaporation from a forested area varies from 20 to 31 inches per annum in the eastern United States, the actual amount being determined by the climate. The same is true of the experiments of Professor King. While they were carefully conducted, and no doubt fairly accurate for the climate of the place of observation, it may be doubted if they will hold good for places having a different climate. Now, if we adopt the conclusion, that the total effect of vege- tation, such as that of the Passaic catchment, is to increase the annual evaportion less than five inches over what would take place from the ground, without vegetation, it is plain that a variation in the amount of forest represented in this vegetation cannot possibly produce an effect upon evaporation so great as five inches. We will not add to the above, as we have quoted what we regard as the highest authorities, or more satisfactory data, in each case. A large number of early observations of evaporation made in Europe were entirely unreliable, as may be illustrated by the fact that it was for a long time believed in France that the total evaporation from the land surface exceeded the amount of rain-fall thereon. Experiments made on a small scale may *The controlling cause of evaporation being the capacity of the air to absorb moisture, it will be seen that the water transpired by vegetation goes to supply this demand, consequently it is a part of the water which, in the absence of vegetation, would be drawn direct from the earth into the atmosphere, REPORT ON FORESTS. 143 diverge widely from conditions which obtain in nature and are never safe guides until abundantly verified. A word may be said as to another class of data which have been much quoted as proving increased evaporation due to defor- estation. I refer to records of river heights, such as those of Von Wex on the Rhine or Berghaus on the Elbe. According to Von Wex the average height of the Rhine at Emmerich from 1770 to 1780 was 11 Prussian feet 4.1 inches, while from 1825 to 1835 it was only 6 feet 9.2 inches. It will be seen that this is a very great change to take place in fifty years from deforestation alone, so great as to put us on our guard against accepting it as conclusive, for, if long continued, it must result in the entire disappearance of the Rhine. These figures and Von Wex con- clusions have been questioned by European authorities. We wish to call attention to the fact that such a change in the average height of rivers is very often the result of a change in the conformation of the river-bed, which may take place at a considerable distance below the point of observation. It may also be due to erosion of the river-bed at the point of observation, but the fact has not been pointed out, to our knowledge, that precisely this effect would result in a change of the stream from steady to flashy conditions, such as we have indicated to be the real effect of deforestation. Thus in our own experience, in two different months a certain stream discharged the same total quantity of water per month, but during the first month it reached a depth of 16 feet only one day, and stood at four feet during the remaifing thirty days, showing steady conditions; while during the other month it reached 16 feet on three days and stood at 4 feet on ten days, and about 18 inches on eighteen days, showing a flashy condition. The average depth during the period of steady flow was 4.4 feet, while during the flashy month it was only 3.7 feet, although, as we have said, the total discharge during each of the two periods was the same. This illustrates the necessity of extreme caution in accepting meas- urements of river height alone as proving a change in the volume discharged by the rivers. Nothing can be accepted as conclusive but actual measurements of the total volume of dis- charge, which must be accompanied by measurements of the rain-fall. 144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. If we have accurate measurements of the run-off of a stream during a period of years, and contemporaneous measurements of the run-off upon the catchment, the difference between these two may usually be depended upon to represent the total evap- oration, including the demands of vegetation. The mean tem- perature of the atmosphere should be recorded at the same time. Such observations have a scientific value far above the mere determination of the run-off for industrial purposes. The rela- tion between rain-fall, run-off and evaporation is one which needs to be established because of its bearing upon agriculture, drain- age, forestry, hygiene and other fields of science and economics. The engineer who gauges a stream should always endeavor to have contemporaneous measurements of rain-fall and tempera- ture. If we have such measurements as above indicated for a deforested catchment, and also for a forested catchment under similar climatic conditions, it should be possible to determine whether forests have any very appreciable effect upon evapora- tion. It may be insisted that it is difficult and almost impossible to make such measurements with accuracy, but it should be possible to make gauging with an error not exceeding five per cent., and if the rain-fall can be observed at a number of stations upon the catchment, this also may be closely approximated to, and certainly the result should be sufficiently accurate to show any effect which has economic importance. We have collected, in the following table, the results of such measurements for thirty-four catchments, largely in the eastern United States, with some in the west and a few in England. We have also given the authority for these figures and data, which will enable . the reader to understand the care with which the compilation has been made. We do not claim accuracy for these data, but we will show, as we proceed with the analysis, that there is sufficient consistency in the results to warrant such conclusions as we have attempted to draw from them. REPORT ON FORESTS. 145 Results of Stream Gaugings. : g MEAN TEM- 3 § . : g Fa PERATURE. : = os -—_ e art ‘S é che 4 a a a a a 3 g us g gol Ss | ge | as | 38 a¢ bo | Bb Be) ge | g2 | ge | 28 a4 ga | =A Be ga age ae ge New England — Merrimac, . . . .| 7 | 4,533] 3973] 20.30] 19.43 40 44.6] 64.6 Sudbury,..... 24 75| 46.19] 22.57| 23.62 14 48. | 68 Cochituate,. . .|24 19] 44.19] 19.89] 24.30]. Small. | 48. | 68. Mystic,...... 24 27| 43.73, 20.11) 23.62) Small. | 48. | 68. Connecticut, . . .|15 | 10,234] 44.48) 23.61] 20.87 53 44.5] 65.8 ' New York— Croton (1), . .. . (25 353) 48.38) 23.51] 24.87 30 48. | 68. Croton (2), . . . -|14 353| 44.73] 22.13] 22.60 30 48. | 68. Upper Hudson, . .| 6 | 4,500) 43.73} 22.54] 21.19 80 41.8) 64. Genessee,..... 3 | £,070] 40.16] 12.95] 27.21 27 45.1| 66.3 Hemlock Lake, . .| 5 43| 27.82; 13.12]. 14.70] Large. | 45. | 66.3 Skaneateles Lake, .| 4 60} 36.20] 17.34) 18.86 12 45. | 65.4 New Jersey— Hackensack, 9 115] 47.55| 22.94] 24.61 60 48.5} 69. Passaic. . 17 822} 47.09] 23.71} 23.38 58 48. | 68.5 Pequannock, 8 65] 50.90) 26.85] ‘24.05 78 46. | 66. Ramapo, 24 160) 48.19] 24.31] 23.88 75 47. | 67. Musconetcong, 2 156] 44.52] 23.55| 20.97 39 47.5| 69. Pequest, 2 158] 43.87] 23.33] 20.54 18 48.5) 68.5 Paulins Kill, 2 175| 46.48] 24.28] 22.20 27 49. | 69. Raritan, 4 789| 45.50| 21.75} 23.75 13 50. | 70. Batsto, ... 2 70] 48.39] 20.48) 27.91 88 51.5) 71.5 Great Egg Harbor, B 216] 52.03} 23.10] 28.93 88 51.5) 72. Pennsylvania — Tohickon, ... . |r2 102] 50.25] 28.93] 21.32 24 Gi. | 7k Neshaminy,. . . .|12 139] 47.69] 23.33] 24.36 6 52. | 72. Perkiomen, . .. .|12 152| 48.07] 23.85] 24.22 25 52, | 72. Other States— Potomac, Va , 6 | 11,043] 43.51} 18.69] 24.82 52 54. | 75. Savannah, Ga., 8 | 7,294] 54.04) 22.19) 31.85 65 61:4] 77. Muskingum, O., .| 8 39.99) 12.65 27.32) Small. | 52. | 73. Desplaines, Ill.,. ./ 8 |. . .| 32.37] 7.37] 25.00] Small. | 47. | 70. Kansas, Kan., . . |10 |59,841] 25.10| 0.97} 24.10 Very i . Small. | 52. | 73 Clear Creek, Col., . |20 436, 20.62) 7.77] 12.85) Wooded.| 4o. ‘ Sweetwater, Cal.,.| 7 186} 24.86] 2.97| 21.89 rae a ey Lingland— River Lea, ... ./ 3 444| 28.75) 6.9 | 21.8) Small. | 51. Wandle, ..... 3 64| 38.8 | 9.5 | 29.3 | Small. | 51. Thames, = . | 1,200, 27.63) 7.33) 20.3 | Small. | 51. Wendover Springs. 41 | 29.04' 9.00! 20.0! Small ! 51. IO FOR 146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Appended is a list of the authorities from which the above data are drawn: AUTHORITIES AND REMARKS. Merrimac.—Reports of Massachusetts Board of Health, 1892 to 1898, in- clusive, give the run-off. Rain-fall and temperature are compiled from records of U. S. Weather Service and New England Weather Service. Sudbury, Cochituate and Mystic.—From Nineteenth Annual Report of the Boston Water Board. The Cochituate record begins in 1863, but the early years seem less reliable, so that I have used the record from 1875, making it cotemporaneous with the Sudbury. | Connecticut —From Results of Stream Measurements, U. S. Geological Survey, 1895. The year 1871 is incomplete. while 1873, 1874 and 1876 show run-off from December to May so largely in excess of rain-fall that I have rejected them in making up the averages. Temperature from U. S. Weather Records. The original stream gaugings were made by the U. S. Engineer at Hartford Croton (1).—Originally compiled for the Report on Water-Supply. pub- lished by the Geological Survey of New Jersey in 1894. Run-off from Reports of Department of Public Works, of New York City. Corrected for amounts drawn from or supplied to storage. Area of catchment 353 square miles, from survey made by the author, for New Croton Aqueduct Commission, which survey is based.on accurate triangulation, and area is computed geodetically. The area long in use by Department of Public Works is 338 square miles based on a traverse survey, necessarily less accurate. The use of the correct area is important in this connection, as it makes the depth of run-off 4.4 per cent. less than that given in the department estimates. Croton (2).— These figures are taken from the Report of the Croton Aque- duct Commission, 1887-1895. The depth of the run-off is corrected to conform to the correct area, 353 square miles, as above described. Opper Hudson.—From MS. furnished by Geo. W Rafter, C. E. Genessee.—From MS, furnished by Geo. W. Rafter. C. E. These and the Upper Hudson records are the ones referred to by him in a paper on ‘‘Stream-flow in Relation to Forests.'’ Proceedings American Forestry Association, Vol. XII. Hemlock Lake.— Measurements made by the Rochester Water Department and furnished by J. Nelson Tubbs C E. Skaneateles Lake.—Run-off from records of the Syracuse Water Depart- ment. Rain-fall and temperature from records of New York State Weather Service. Hlackensack.— Run-off from records of Hackensack Water Co.. Reorganized. Chas. B. Brush, engineer. Passaic —Run-off from records originally used for Report on Water-Supply, Geological Survey of New Jersey, 1894, which have been re-computed and checked. REPORT ON FORESTS. 147 Pequannock.—Run-off furnished by Clemens Herschel, C. E., Supt. East Jersey Water Company. Rain-fall prepared from N. J. State Weather Service records for Charlottesburg, etc., as the Oak Ridge record furnished by Herschel does not appear to be representative of the tain-fall on the water-shed. Other New Jersey Streams.—From Report on Water-Supply, Geological Survey of New Jersey, 1894. Temperature revised to date from rec- ords of New Jersey State Weather Service. Tohickon, Neshaminy, Perkiomen.— Annual Reports of Philadelphia Water Department,.also paper in Vol. XIV, Proceedings of Engineers’ Club of Philadelphia, by John E. Codman. Potomac.—The Hydrography of the Potomac Basin, by Cyrus C. Babb, Proc, Am Soc. C. E., Vol. XXVI. Two years of this record show such large discrepancies in run-off as compared with the rain-fall that they are rejected in making up the average. Savannah.—Results of Stream Measurements, U. S. Geological Survey, 1891, page 148. Instead of taking the rain-fall of Augusta alone I add 19%, which is the average excess over Augusta rain-fall shown by five stations which fairly represent the entire water-shed. Muskingum, Desplaines.—‘‘ Stream-flow in Relation to Forests ’’ Geo. W. Rafter. Proceedings American Forestry Association, Vol. XII. Kansas.—Bulletin 140. U. S. Geological Survey, and rain-fall from U.S. Weather Service Bulletins. Clear Creek.—-Vol. XVII, Tenth Census, p. 52 (336). Sweetwater.--Bulletin 140, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 322. , Lea —Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XVIII, Pp. 297. Wandle, Thames, Wendover Springs.—Proceedings Institute of Civil En- gineers, Vol. CV, p. 56, etc. A careful examination of the foregoing table must convince any candid observer that there are more potent agencies than forests effecting the evaporation ; thus the evaporation on several streams, which have more than half the area of catchment covered with forests, is as follows: Connecticut, 20.87; Upper Hudson, 21.19; Hackensack, 24.61; Passaic, 23.38; Great Egg Harbor, 28.93; Potomac, 24.82; Savannah, 31.85. Here we have a range of 11 inches in evaporation without a corresponding range in forest conditions, and it will be found that generally the larger evaporation corresponds with the higher temperature. While, in the State of New York, the short three-year series on the Genessee river appears to show about 6 inches more evaporation than the figures for the Upper Hudson ; on the other hand, the deforested catchment of Skan- 148 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. eateles lake shows 2.3 inches less than the forested Hudson ; and the Connecticut, with fifty-three per cent. of forests, shows larger evaporation than the Merrimac, with but forty per cent.; while the highest evaporation in the table is shown by the well forested Batsto, Great Egg Harbor and Savannah catchments. . Indeed, the variation in evaporation can only be satisfactorily accounted for by the differences of rain-fall and temperature. We have been able to determine accurately the effect of varying rain-fall from the fact that this can be studied in the long records of a single stream, such as the Sudbury, Cochituate, Mystic, Croton or Passaic. Beginning with these streams and working out to the others shown in the table, and also taking into con- sideration the well-known law by which the capacity of the atmosphere to retain moisture is determined by the temperature, we have evolved the following equation to express the relation between evaporation (E.), rain-fall (R.), and temperature: E=(r1 +.2gR) M. In this equation M is a factor depending upon the mean tem- perature of the atmosphere.* Now, if we take from the table of stream measurements the given rain-fall and temperature for each catchment, and by means of this formula compute the evaporation, that computa- tion will give us what the evaporation should be if it is influenced only by rain-fall and temperature. If the observed evaporation differs from this computed evaporation, the difference may possibly be accounted for by the influence of forests, humidity, wind, or difference in the distribution of rain-fall through the year. We might expect to find that humidity affects the evapora- tion to some extent in case this humidity is derived from the sea or other large water-surfaces in the vicinity of the catchment. We are not perpared to say that under these conditions it has not some effect, but the results of our studies given later indicate that this effect isa minor one. It is possible that the evapora- tion on southern stream basins is somewhat decreased by this influence, while on.the Kansas, Desplaines and similar interior streams, it may be relatively increased. * Values of M for given temperatures are as follows : 40°—0.77, 41°—0.79, 42°—0 82, 43°—0.85, 44°—0.88, 45°—0.91, 46°—0.94, 47°—0.97, 48°—1.00, 49°—1.03, 50°—1.07, 5101, 10, 52°—1,.14, 53°—1.18, 64°—1,22, 55°—1.26, 56°—1. 30, 57°—1.34, 58°—1.39, §9°—1.43, 60°—1.47, 6191.51, REPORT ON FORESTS. 149 Wind increases evaporation, but its influence to cause variation between catchments is limited because the variation in the total amount of wind through the year is limited. If we had a catch- ment on which the wind blows all the time to compare with one on which there is little or no wind, no doubt the difference in ‘evaporation would be appreciable. In case the summer rain-fall is large, the evaporation will be greater than that given by the formula, which is based upon such rain-fall as that of the Eastern and Middle States, which is quite evenly distributed through the year. This difference may be taken into account by monthly or seasonal formula, but this is a matter of too much detail for the purposes of this paper. Such a computation as we have indicated is made in the following table. The streams are grouped into deforésted catch- ments, having less than 4o per cent. of the area in forests and forested catchments having more than this percentage. Observed Evaporation Compared with Evaporation Computed on the basts of Rain-fali and Temperature. DEFORESTED CATCHMENTS. Per cent. Observed Computed Differ- Differ- STREAM. of Annual Annual ence, ence. Forest. Evaporation. Evaporation. Inches, Percent Sudbury, .......... 14 23.6 24.4 —08 —3 Cochituate, ......... Small. 24.3 23.8 +0.5 +2 IMEYSHIG Gales) ie) ara a eh ws Small, 23.6 22.6 fo) fe) Croton; 2 ae a eae ee 3024.9 25.0 —0.I oO Gefiessee, 2 2 sk ee ew 27 27.2 20.6 +66 +24 Skaneateles,. ........ 12 18.9 19.6 —O.7 —4 Musconetcong, .... . 39 21.0 23.7 —2.7 —I3 Pequest). 6m @. 4 els & & 18 20.5 24.0 —3.5 —I7 Paulinskill,......... 27 22.2 25.2 —3.0 —I4 Raritan,. ..... eo alts 13 23.7 25.9 —2.2 —8 Tohickon,. 2. 0 s @ 8 =» a% 24 21.3 28.2 —6.9 —32 Neshaminy,......... 6 24.4 28.3 —3.9 —I6 Perkiomen, ........-. 25 24.2 28.2 —4.1 —I17 Muskingum, ........ Small. 27.3 25.7 +16 +6 Desplaines, ...-....., Small, . 25.0 19.8 +5.2 +21 Kansas, .... +e eae Small. 24.1 20.5 +3.6 +15 Sweetwater,......-..08.4 Small. 21.9 22.2 —0.3 —I WGA yas sho eae ees Re A Small, 21.8 21.3 +0.5 +2 Watidlés. 6 i 2 as eS Small. 29.3 24.5 +4.8 +17 Thames)... i: 0 Soe eh ass . Small. 20.3 20.9 —0.6 —3. Wendover Springs, ..... Small. 20.0 21.4 —I.4 —7 150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. FORESTED CATCHMENTS, Merrimac, ......... 40 19.4 20.3 0.9 5, Connecticut, ........ 53 20.9 21.5 —06 —3 Upper Hudson, ....... 80 21.2 19.1 +2.1 +10 Hemlock Lake, ....... Large. 14.7 17.4 --2.7 —18 Hackensack, ........ . 60 24.6 25.2 —06 —2 Passai@,- +. s.G 6 we Mee GS @ 58 23.4 24.7 —0.7 —3 Pequannock, ...... : 78 24.1 24.2 —0.I —oO Ramapo, .......... 75 23.9 24.3 —04 —2 Batst0,; «2 28s 444 #4 3 88 , 27.9 280 —o.I —o Great Egg Harbor, ..... 88 28.9 29.1 —0.2 —I Potomac; « ss % 4 4 5 a es 52 24.8 289 —4.1 —I7 Savannah, ......... 65 31.8 35.7 —3.9 —I3 Clear Creek,. ........ .. 129 13.1 —o2 —2 Excepting for the Savannah, the mean temperature is used in all cases, but for that stream the summer temperature is decidedly lower, as compared with the mean for the year, than for other streams, consequently as the summer is the season of maximum evaporation, the evaporation is estimated on the basis of the summer temperature. The fifth column of this table gives, in inches, the amount by which the measured evaporation is greater or less than the evaporation computed from rain-fall and temperature, and the last column shows the percentage of the measured evaporation which this discrepancy represents. It is not usually to be expected that the measurements are correct within five per cent., considering possible errors in both rain-fall and stream measurements ; therefore, it is significant that 17 streams having an average length of record of 12 years, differ from the results given by the formula less than 5 per cent., the mean being but 1% per cent., while three more, with average records of 11 years, vary from 6 to 8 per cent., the algebraic mean being 3 per cent., and the remaining 14 streams, which differ more widely, have an average length of record of 6.5 years only, the average difference for these being 5 per cent. As has been previously intimated, these larger differences would, in many cases, be reduced by a more detailed computation, which would take into account the distribution of rain-fall by seasons. ‘The burden of evidence of these stream gaugings, therefore, is REPORT ON FORESTS. I5I heavily against the theory that forests, or any other cause except rain-fall and temperature, affects evaporation to any important extent. The large excess of evaporation on the Genessee is unaccount- able. No such excess appears on the Skaneateles, which has a similar climate, and is even more deforested, but the excess on the Desplaines and Kansas is fully accounted for by the large excess of spring and summer over fall and winter rain-fall. The excess on the Wandle, in England, is possibly attribut- able to escape of the water downward into the chalk, but the figures for the Lea, Thames and Wendover Springs agree quite closely with our formula. It is remarkable that the Sudbury, with 14 per cent., the Merrimac, with 4o; the Connecticut, with 53; the Skaneateles, with 12; the Raritan, with 13; the Hacken- sack, with 60; the Passaic, with 58; the Ramapo, with 75, and the Ege Harbor and Batsto, with 88 per cent. of forest area, all conform closely to the formula, showing that a range from 12 to 88 per cent. in forest area is not sufficient to materially affect the evaporation. Allowing for differences due to seasonal distribu- tion of rain-fall, it seems to be sufficiently clear that a formula based only upon rain-fall and temperature can be made to harmonize the results of stream gaugings as closely as the unavoidable errors of gauging and rain-fall measurement will admit of. Indeed, if it seemed warrantable, for the purposes of this paper, to introduce extended computations by months instead of by years, it could be shown that all influences, except temperature and rain-fall, are practically negligible in determin- ing evaporation and stream yield, so far as is shown by the best records of measurement now available. Consequently, we con- clude that stream gaugings show no decrease of evaporation owing to the presence of forests upon the catchments. Another class of experiments often quoted in this connection has no bearing at all upon the relative evaporation from a wooded or an open country, so far as it affects the streams. I refer to those, such as Dr. Ebermayer’s, which show that the evaporation from a water-surface, or from the soil beneath the forest trees, or beneath the litter of the forest, is less than in the open.- This we readily concede to be true, but we must deter- mine whether or not this is offset by the large volume of water taken up by the roots of the tree and transpired from its leaves 152 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. into the atmosphere above the tree-tops. Nor, again, can we believe that it would not be found that evaporation from beneath the leaves of a heavy crop of Indian corn or clover would also be less than in the open. The same answer applies to the state- ment that temperature beneath the forest trees being less, on our theory that evaporation is so much affected by the temperature, this would call for a less evaporation from forests. What it does call for is a less evaporation beneath the leaves of the forest, which we have already stated is undoubtedly the fact, but it cannot affect the evaporation measured, as it must be, above the level of the tree-top. It ought not to be necessary to remind scientific writers that it is not proper to measure evaporation from crop areas so as to include water taken up by the plants, and evaporation from forests so as not to include water taken up by the trees, and then attempt to compare these two measure- ments in order to determine relative evaporation from forest and from farm crops. (See Proceedings of the American Forestry Associaticn, Vol. XII, page 157.) EFFECT UPON MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS. While we have pointed out the beneficial effect of forests in equalizing the flow of streams, this effect does not appear in the maximum and minimum flow. The reason is that the severest floods occur under such conditions as that of a warm rain falling suddenly upon a heavy accumulation of snow, or upon ground frozen in such a manner that it cannot be absorbed. Or if it is in summer, the ground may already be so saturated with water as to prevent further absorption. Forests are powerless to prevent floods under such extreme conditions as these, although they do diminish the number of floods. In the same manner the extreme low point is reached when the streams have been for a long time drawing upon their springs and have extracted the water from the ground to a considerable depth below the surface. Our investigations show that the lowest discharge is usually reached when the water has been drained from the subsoil to an average depth of over four feet. It should be evident that when the water which feeds the stream is coming from points so far beneath the sur- face, the humus or other surface peculiarities of forests can have REPORT ON FORESTS. 153 little effect upon the rate of its discharge. ‘The following table shows the greatest and least rate of discharge on various streams and the percentage of catchment area covered with forests : CATCHMENTS LESS THAN 200 SQUARE MILES. Flood Flow in Lowest Flow in Catchments Percent. Cubic Feet per Cubic Feet per in Square of Area in Second per Second per Miles, Forest. Square Mile. Square Mile. Sudbury, Mass.,..... 78 14 41.4 0.036* Croton, West Branch, N. Y., 20 56 54.4 0.020 Ramapo, N.J., ..... 160 75 66.1 0.140 Wanaque, N.J.,..... IOI 75 48.9 a Wanaque, N.J....... 73 85 99.0 #4 Pequannock, N.J., ... 48 78 115.0 “ger South Branch, N.J.,... 67 30 113.0 Jigs Rockaway, N. J., cae TES 82 43.0 Musconetcong, N. J., .. 130 30 45.0 - es aoe 36 85 64.0 Paulins Kill, N.J.. ... 175 27 26.0 0.130 Hf a Si ae 126 27 54.0 Swartswood Lake, N. J., . 16 22 65.8 Pequeést;, N: Jigs + ee a 8 158 18 13.0 ee <3 a ea ee ob 83 18 9.6 0.170 oe OOO sl hbrakhed aa ceh ye 35 18 18.7 . ES cy ep Get eats 2 F 25.3 ee Tohickon, Pa, ..... 102 28 55-3 0.001 Neshaminy, Pa.,..... 139 7 41.4 0.009 Perkiomen, Pa.,..... 152 25 34.9 0.050 Hackensack, N.J., ... 115 60 a # 0.190 CATCHMENTS OF 200 TO 2,000 SQUARE MILES. Concord, Mass.,..... 361 : 12.3 0.17 Charles, Mass, ..... 215 : 0.20 Housatonic, Conn., ... 790 0.17 Croton, N.oYij5 3 % o & « 339 _30 74.9 O15 Passaic, N.J.,...-... 797 59 24.2 0.19 ue ee rae 822 58 22.2 0.19 Raritan, N.J.,...... 879 13 68.0 0.14 South Branch, N.J.,... 276 13 160.0 Great Egg Harbor, N.J.,. 216 88 22.0 0.27 Schuylkill, Pa, ..... 1,800 : 0.17 Potomac, Md.,...... 920 52 19.5 0.02 Greenbrier, Va.,..... 870 wae : 0.12 Shenandoah, Va., .... 770 : oe 0.17 Neuse, N.C., ...... 1,000 F as 0.19 * This has since fallen lower because of the construction of artificial reservoirs, causing increased evaporation. 154 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. CATCHMENTS OVER 2,000 SQUARE MILES. Merrimac, Mass., . .. . 4,599 ae 20.9 0.31 Connecticut, Conn., . . . 10,234 53 20.3 0.31 Delaware, N.J....... 6,790 53 37-5 0.17 Ohio; Paw. . 6 ss . 19,900 aoe a O.II Potomac, Va.,...... 4,640 52 22.2 0.08 Kanawha, Va, ..... 8,900 2 * 1335 0.12 James; Va-, 4 6 we a we 6,800 ae 0.19 Since the flood-flow is always at a less rate per square mile on large catchments than on small ones, we have grouped the streams according to the size of the catchment. It will be seen that there is no relation between the forest area and either the greatest or least flow. In February, 1896, during the progress of these forest surveys, floods of great severity occurred on all of the streams of Northern New Jersey, and a good opportunity was afforded to study the relative rate of discharge on forested and deforested catchments. These floods were caused by a warm rain, amounting to about 3.7 inches, falling upon an accumulation of from 6 to 7 inches of snow, the ground being frozen ; and of the total amount of water resulting, equivalent to about 4% inches of rain, 2.7 to 3.7 inches was discharged with great suddenness into the streams. Care- ful studies were immediately made of the rate of discharge and the results are shown in the following table: Maximum Rate of Discharge, February 6, 1896. Cubic feet Area in Percentage per second CATCHMENTS. square miles, of forest. per square mile. Raritan,..... See ars 879 13 68 Passaic; © se ae aay BS 822 58 22 Pompton, ......... 285 76 65 South Branch,....... 276 13 100 PaulinsKill,. ....... 175 27 26 Ramapo; 2s ss swe oe 160 75 54 PROQUEST 30 io a a ho HS 158 18 13 Musconetcong, ...... 130 30 45 Paulins Kill, < 24. 4 a as 126 27 54 Rockaway, ........ 118 82 43 Ramapo. sc 4 ew 2 we 86 80 56 Wanaque, ...-.. eee 73 85 99 South Branch,....... 67 30 113 Pequannock, ...... 48 78 ITS Whippany, ........ 38 36 84 Musconetcong, ...... 36 85 64 Dumont’s Brook, ..... Io 5 140 REPORT ON FORESTS. 155 In this table, wherever the flood has been held back by stor- age reservoirs, the maximum rate of flow is taken to be that of that portion of the catchment not affected by such holding back. Such correction has been made on the Pompton for the storage reservoirs of the East Jersey Water Company and for Green- wood lake, but several other natural lakes upon the catchment have not been allowed for, so that the maximum rate for the Pompton is undoubtedly still reduced by these other lakes. The maximum rate on the Pequannock is taken to pertain only to the portion of the catchment below the East Jersey storage reservoirs. For the Wanaque the catchment has been reduced by throwing out the part controlled by Greenwood lake, although nothing is allowed for Sterling lake. The Musconet- cong maximum is also corrected by throwing out the portions of catchment-controlled by lake Hopatcong and Stanhope reservoir. The maximum rates of discharge here given are consequently sufficiently accurate to admit of comparison. The table is con- venient for ready reference and general comparison, but without allowing for local peculiarities no useful lesson can be learned from it as to the effect of forests upon flood-flow. The maxi- mum rate of discharge measured in this way is effected by purely local conditions, mainly by the shape of the valley at the point where the measurement is taken. The velocity of discharge down the valley is determined by the depth of the water and the slope of the valley above the point of gauging. It is also affected to a less degree by the capacity and slope of all the valleys of the catchment. Where these are flat, so that the water can spread, no great depth can be attained, and the rate of discharge is consequently lower. The retarding effect of forests, if any exist, would be better shown by the rate at which the water comes in to the valleys from the surrounding slopes. ‘Thus, on the Rari- tan, we determine by taking the accumulation of water between the dam below Bound Brook and the mouth of the Millstone, that for six hours the water was discharged into this portion of the valley at a rate which averaged almost as high as the maxi- mum recorded for a short time at the dam, and from this we must infer that the maximum rate of discharge into the valley above the dam was much higher. On two water-sheds exactly similar in topography, the rate of discharge will be greater as 156 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. the size of the water-shed is less. This fact appears throughout the table, and allowing for this it is impossible to detect any relationship between the maximum rate of discharge and the percentage of forest on the catchment. ‘The relative height of a flood, as generally understood, and its destructiveness, are accurately measured by the maximum discharge above shown. On two catchments fairly similar in topography, one of which is largely forest-clad and the other deforested, the forest-clad water- shed should show a lower rate of flow if forests exert a control- ling effect upon such extreme floods. ‘The Ramapo at Pompton and the Paulinskill at Hainesburg seem to be fairly comparable. The former with 75 per cent. of forest shows a maximum rate of 54, while the latter with 27 per cent. of forest shows a maximum rate of but 26. Again, the upper Ramapo with 80 per cent. of forest shows a maximum rate of 56, while the Wanaque with 85 per cent. of forest shows a rate of 99, and the Pequannock, with 78 per cent. of forest, a rate of 115. The Pequannock shows about the same maximum rate as the South Branch at High Bridge, although the latter has only 30 per cent. of forest. There are enough of such instances to entirely break the force of the cases in the table which seem to show a higher rate for a less percentage of forest, such as the Pompton and the south branch of the Raritan, or the Whippany and Upper Musconet- cong, and the conclusion is inevitable that any effect which forest may have upon the maximum rate of discharge is entirely subordinate to other controlling influences which we have stated to be mainly topographic. The destructive character of the flood under consideration, which in most places seems to have been higher than any previously recorded, has, as usual, been freely attributed to deforestation. We repeat our caution that the mere fact that a flood is higher at a given point than heretofore, does not mean, necessarily, that its rate of discharge was greater, but may mean that the valley has been artificially obstructed during recent years by bridges, dams or embankments. Admitting, however, that this flood generally had a higher rate of discharge, we must bear in mind the absolute dearth of evidence either that the area _ of forest is less, or that its condition is in any way inferior to that of 1850. REPORT ON FORESTS. 157 Returning to the analysis of this flood, the following table presents, in a more satisfactory way than the foregoing one, data which may indicate retardation of the discharge by forest, if it exists : Discharge by Periods, February 6, 1896. IN INCHES ON CATCHMENT. Area in Per cent, Discharge in given hours from CATCHMENT. square of n- beginning. a miles. forest. 12 24 48 72 Passaic at Dundee, ....*. 822 58 0.10 0.36 1.13 1.72 Raritan atdam,....... 879 13 0.41 1.48 2.43 2.74 Passaic at Two Bridges,. . . 773 58 0.61 1.55 2.37' 2.72 Raritan at Bound Brook, .. 879 13 0.63 1.59 2.43 2.74 Pompton,.......... 350 76 0.71 1.55 2.42 2.89 Ramapo, . 6 ¢ ss 8 ee a 8 160 75 0.54 1.34 -2.62 3.13 Paulinskill,. ........ 126 27 0.39 1.20 2.31 2.91 Rockaway, .... .... 118 82 0.44 1.21 2.08 2.50 Ramapo, .......... 86 80 0.55 1,32 2.54 3.01 South Branch, ....... 67 30 1.13 1,73 2.60 3.12 Pequannock, ........ 63 78 1.42 2.45 3.22 3.53 Musconetcong, ....... 37 85 1.12 2.27 3.53 3:73 Lake Hopatcong, ...... 22 94 Xs 2.37 3.01 rs Percentage of Total Discharge. BY CONSECUTIVE PERIODS. First Second First Second Third rz hours, 12 hours. 24 hours, 24 hours. 24 hours. Passaic, ........ 23 34 57 30 13 Raritan, . a2 66 6 4 @ 23 35 58 31 II Pompton,........ 25 29 54 30 16 Ramapo, ....... 17 26 43 41 16 Paulinskil, ...... 13 28 41 38 2I Rockaway, ....... 18 30 48 35 17 Ramapo, ....... 18 26 44 40 16 South Branch, ..... 36 19 55 28 17 Pequannock, ...... 41 29 70 22 8 Musconetcong, ..... 30 31 61 34 5 In the first of these tables the figures first given for the Passaic at Dundee and Raritan at the dam are for flow locally restricted. In the case of the Passaic this comes about through the operation of the extensive flats and the restricted outlet at 158 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Little Falls, while in the case of the Raritan it is due to the dam itself and other artificial obstructions. In the figures next given for the Passaic at Two Bridges and Raritan at Bound Brook, this is corrected, the Passaic figures being also corrected to allow for water stored in lakes and reservoirs, and we have the rate at which the water came in immediately above the point of restriction. ‘These two, together with the Pompton, represent catchments large enough to be free from local and accidental features. The discharge by periods does not show any effect traceable to forest conditions, indeed, the rapidity of discharge is somewhat greater on the well-forested Pompton catchment, and the figures are nowhere higher than for the well-forested Pequannock. In general the discharge in inches of depth for the first day will be greater as the catchment decreases. This law is well exhibited in the 24-hour period. Taking the whole 72 hours the volume of flood-discharge is seen to vary materially on different catchments. This may be due to local differences in the amount of rain or snow, or in the absorbent power of the soil. It does not appear to be less on the forested catchments. In order to eliminate the effect of differ- ing volume of total discharge the second table is made up to show what percentage of the total was discharged during the first and second 12-hour periods and during the three 24-hour periods from the beginning. In these tables the agreement between the forested Passaic and deforested Raritan catchments is striking. The Pompton, being a smaller catchment, naturally shows a little higher rate for the first 12 hours. But it is about four per cent. less during the first 24 hours, this four per cent. having been carried over and discharged during the third day. We are of the opinion that this slight retardation is attributable to the lakes and ponds entirely. That it is not due to the high percentage of forest seems proven from the fact that on the Ramapo, one of the branches of the Pompton having about the same percentage of forest, the retardation is considerably greater than on the Pompton. Lakes and ponds operate also in the case of the Rockaway to produce a similar result. The South Branch of the Raritan shows a more rapid discharge than the foregoing streams, but less rapid than the much better forested Pequan- nock and Musconetcong, showing clearly that the difference is REPORT ON FORESTS. 159 chargeable mainly to the decreasing size of the catchment, and not to deforestation. There is nothing in the history of floods on the rivers of the State which can be accepted as proof that there has been an increase in the height to which they rise, excepting such increase as may be accounted for by the building of dams, rail- road embankments and other artificial obstructions which inter- fere with the discharge. On the Delaware we have records of a great flood in 1692 which had not been equaled up to 1765. (Smith’s History, Chap. XII.) ‘This is said to have been due to the melting of snow. Another great flood occurred in 1786, the height of which is recorded, and of which we estimate the volume at Lambertville to have been 175,000 cubic feet per second. In 1801, 1836 and 1839 there were floods reaching from 140,000 to 150,000 cubic feet per second. On January 8th, 1841, a disas- trous flood occurred which reached 255,000 cubic feet per second. June 8th, 1862, there was another of about 224,000 cubic feet per second. Other floods since 1841 have not reached as high a point as that of 1862. There is certainly nothing in these records which clearly indicates any progressive increase in the volume of floods, but it appears to be true that the number of floods of from 150,000 to 175,000 cubic feet per second are more frequent than they were formerly. The history of this stream is important, because deforestation on the large portions of the catchment lying in Pennsylvania and New York continued down to a more recent date than in New Jersey. On the Raritan there have been four great floods during the century, namely, those of November 24th, 1810, July 17th, 1865, September 24th, 1882, and February 6th, 1896. So near as we have been able to ascertain, the flood of 1810 and that of 1882 were of very nearly equal volume, while that of 1865 was a little lower, and that of 1896 was considerably higher than any of the others. Bearing in mind that deforestation was progres- sive on the Raritan up to about 1860, but has not increased since that time, it is clear that here also there is no evidence that deforestation has been accompanied by an increase in the height of floods. The same is true of the Passaic, on which there is no record of a higher flood than that of September, 1882. 160 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. We have investigated also the lowest reported heights of the Delaware since 1831, and these seem to indicate that the least flow was recorded in September, 1881, but this is accounted for by the fact that the droughts occurring in 1880 and 1881 were the severest of which we have any record in the rain-fall during this period, but we are disposed to think that the evidence points to a greater prevalence of low stages during the last half of the century. EFFECT IN EQUALIZING THE DISCHARGE OF STREAMS. In the foregoing we have spoken of the extreme stages of the rivers, and we have called attention to these because it may be attempted to show from such records the effect of forests. Our experience is that this cannot be done, but that the real benefit appeats in the shorter periods of low water and the smaller number of floods. This is an effect of greater economic value, because the extreme stages are not of frequent occurrence. ‘Thus on the Passaic river, during seventeen years, a rate of 24 cubic feet per second per square mile was reached only once and lasted only about three hours, while the lowest rate of flow of .19 cubic feet per second per square mile was reached only two or three times for a few days in each case, whereas the stream stood at stages between .4 and 1.34 cubic feet per second per square mile an average of 112 days yearly, and between 1.34 and 3.35 cubic feet also an average of 112 days during each year. It is evident, therefore, that what would be really of importance on the Passaic would be a cause affecting these stages of the river. It is in those stages which prevail during six months of an ordinary dry period that we believe the benefits are most felt. The soil and sub-soil of a catchment hold in storage a large amount of water, which is fed out to the streams in the form of springs and seepage during dry periods. It is a matter of com- mon observation that at such times rivers continue to flow when the rain-fall is very much less than the evaporation, and, indeed, for many days when there is no rain-fall at all. Anything which tends to increase this amount of water held in the ground, and to regulate its discharge to the streams, tends to give a larger dry-season flow and to shorten the periods of very low REPORT ON FORESTS. I61 water, and with this increased capacity of the ground to absorb rain comes also less frequent floods. Humus in the forest forms a great sponge and of itself holds a large amount of water, and, together with the inequalities caused by tree-roots, etc., tends to ° prevent the water flowing over the surface, while the roots of the trees provide ready channels for percolation into the sub- soil. Consequently, forests will absorb a much larger amount of rain than either barren or cultivated country. Cultivation undoubtedly has a tendency to increase the capacity of the ground to absorb water, because of constant loosening of the surface and the facilities provided for ready drainage. In this way cultivation, like forests, tends to make floods less frequent ; but the effect of under-drainage is that the ground-water absorbed is usually fed out more rapidly to the streams during the early months of a dry season than is the case with forests, consequently the ground-water is sooner exhausted and the duration of the low stages of the rivers is longer. Barren water- sheds offer the least capacity for the absorption of the rain-fall. There is no humus or other matter on the surface to retain the water, and the ground becomes hard and resists free percolation. The effect of cultivation in increasing the flow of springs has been frequently remarked through the West, where tillage has followed barren conditions. We have some testimony in this State to the same effect where cultivation has succeeded forests. At a meeting of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, January 17th, 1900, the following statement was made by Mr. Emmor Roberts, of Moorestown, a member of the Board of Man- agers of the Geological Survey, during a discussion of this sub- ject: “(In my early boyhood I listened to old men talking about certain streams having been dry in years past. They told me that some seventy-five years ago they were all dry in the sum- mer time. I thought about it, and I thought it was reasonable that it should be so; that the land was in timber then, while it is all clear now. It looked to me reasonable that, the lands now being tilled, the rain that falls goes through the soil to the under-drains and into the streams, which run abundantly the whole year through. I interviewed all of the old mill-owners and every one I ever knew and approached on that subject always said, ‘My stream is better now than it was when I was a II FOR 162 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. boy.’ That was the uniform answer I got from every mill- owner I approached.” This seems to indicate that on the level, sandy, or loamy lands of Southern New Jersey cultivation may increase the flow of the springs. We believe that the usual difference between forested and cultivated water-sheds is very well illustrated by the Passaic and Raritan respectively, while some of our small red sandstone water-sheds are good types of barren country. In the following table we have contrasted these three types, the data being taken from the Report on Water-Supply of 1894. This table shows in inches of rain-fall the amount of water which would drain out of the ground to the several streams, from their water-sheds, each month during a drought of such a character that the rain- fall is just equal to the evaporation, so that the effect of both rain-fall and evaporation upon the streams is for the time sus- pended. These figures are the result of a computation based upon actual gaugings. The gaugings themselves show a similar result, but cannot be so accurately compared owing to variations in the rain-fall on the different water-sheds. Yield of Springs on Various Types of Water-Sheds During Drought. IN INCHES OF RAIN-FALL,. Raritan, Passaic, Type of highly Type of forested cultivated Type of barren MONTH. water-shed. water shed, water-shed. First month,. .... 1.16 1.43 -94 Second month, ee Bet “64 .38+ Third month, : .40 45 26 Fourth month, +33 35 .20 Fifth month, .. 32 30 14 Sixth month, .... 31 27 .12 Seventh month, ... .30 125 .10 Eighth month, . . .29 23 .08 Ninth month, .... 28 .22 ; 07 Total,..... 3.93 414 2.29 It will be observed that while the Raritan and the Passaic show nearly the same total amount of drainage, the Raritan gives up this water faster in the early months, and, therefore, its REPORT ON FORESTS. 163 springs become sooner exhausted and it runs lower toward the end of the drought. ‘The barren ground, having absorbed much less water, has less flow from springs throughout. How important this is upon the dry-season flow of these streams becomes apparent from the following table: Computed Run-off, in Gallons, Daily per Square Mile, During the Last Eight Months of 1881. Passaic, Raritan. Barren Forested. Cultivated. Water-sheds. April, ..... . F . 597,000 754,000 631,000 Maye2. ~ abrarddoals 297,000 325,000 145,000 jJune,... Bias : eis) a: . 272,000 272,000 139,000 July, . soe we ahs . 207,000 134,000 22,000 August, Ce rea 140,000 89,000 22,000 September,.. ..... . . 139,000 87 000 23,000 October, ai Seecmotte Sens Scania ae a 129,000 84 oco 22,000 November, ..... ae 127,000 93,000 23,000 The economic importance of this effect lies in the greater value of forested streams for water-power, and the smaller storage reservoirs needed thereon to furnish a given daily supply of water to cities. Illustrative of this, the Passaic will furnish for 9 months of the year, from 100 square miles of water-shed, 45 horse-power on 10 feet fall, whereas the Raritan will furnish but 41 and the barren water-shed 28 horse-power. During the other 3 months the Passaic will furnish an average of 36, the Raritan 32, and the barren water-shed 20 horse-power. i To collect 570,000 gallons of water daily on one square mile of water-shed we shall need storage reservoirs of the following capacity: Passaic, 84,000,000; Raritan, 110,000,000, and barren water-sheds, 126,000,000 gallons. The difference in cost of collecting a supply at the above rate per square mile, therefore, upon the type of streams selected to represent the forested and upon those representing the barren conditions, would be about $8,400 per square mile. Both the Passaic and Raritan exceed 800’square miles incatchment. For such an area the saving would be $6,720,000. Taking the same size of catchment we find the excess of water-power on the forested stream would be, for roo feet fall, 164 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. 1,360 horse-power, the value of which, at a rental of $35 per horse-power per annum, would be $47,600, or the interest at 5 per cent. on $952,000. We do not advance these figures as exact measures of the value of forests, but they may be taken as indicative of the possible financial loss which might result in stream-flow alone from deforesting such of our water-sheds as are not adapted for cultivation. . It will also be seen how amply this effect of forests in increas- ing the stream-flow for five or six months, during the latter part of a dry period, explains popular opinion as to a falling-off of streams when the forests are cut off. Such an effect is very much more likely to impress itself upon the popular mind than an increase of evaporation, which would tend to decrease the total run-off for the year without being very apparent to ordinary observation. Being a much more enduring effect, it would also be more noticeable than any change in the greatest or least rate of discharge. We may illustrate the effect of the great absorptive capacity of forests in diminishing floods by comparing the run-off of the forested Passaic and deforested Raritan during the dry period in 1892, during which period both streams were being measured. This run-off, together with the rain-fall month by month, is shown in the following table: 7-——-Passaic.——. -——-Raritan.-— — 1892. Raia, Run off. Rain, Run. off. PUG eg r8 Bessa ar hile Gr teh I a 4 68 I.20 4.06 1.60 July, 24 6 eas 5 bigs) .@s27 2 4.11 “57 AM SUSU: 5: se vet vate a WES Re Sh 4.39 +53 3 61 47 September, .. oe #6 2.17 40 275 31 October, «2 eG ee ew we se Ez 25 32 24 November, Seas 2. 684 1 38 6.99 218 It will be seen the rain-fall conditions were very similar ; during the dry months, from July to October, inclusive, the run- off on the Passaic was 1.70 inches, and on the Raritan 1.59 inches. While the run-off before August was greater on the Raritan, during the following three months it declined to a con- siderably lower point. During November rains were abundant on both catchments, and of these rains 1.38 inches ran off on the Passaic, and 2.18 inches, or nearly 60 per cent. more, on the REPORT ON FORESTS. 165 Raritan. The same effect is. noticed on several other streams, and while it is not always easy to determine whether it is due to the forests or to differences of soil and sub-soil, it appears to be true that the forested catchments generally show about the rela- tive superiority in absorptive power over those largely deforested that is shown by the Passaic over the Raritan. Again, during the four years from 1890 to 1893, inclusive, there were on the Raritan thirteen floods exceeding 8,000 cubic feet per second, one of which reached 23,746 cubic feet per second, while on the Passaic during the same time there were but five such floods, and the highest reached only 11,701 cubic feet per second, while the rain-fall on the two streams shows no corresponding differ- ence. On the Delaware the more frequent occurrence of floods since 1835 has been pointed out in a report by Professor Mans- field Merriman, printed in Appendix U—XIX of the Annual Report of the Chief Engineer, U. S. Army, for 1873. (See, also, Report on Water-Supply, 1894.) EFFECT ON THE PURITY OF THE WATER. It is not easy to prove by analysis or statistics any effect of forests upon the quality of the water in the streams. It must be borne in mind that extensive forests are always attended by a scanty population, and for this reason the waters are usually superior in quality, but it is a matter of common observation that the amount of sediment carried is much less upon a forested stream than when the catchment’ is under cultivation. The difference in this respect on our red sandstone streams is especially noticeable. On the cultivated portions the amount of mud carried in suspension is very large, but where the catch- ment is well protected with forests it is much less. The same fact may be observed if we compare the well- forested Highlands streams, such as the Pequannock, Rockaway and Ramapo, with those in the more cultivated portions of the Highlands, such as the Musconetcong and the head-waters of the Raritan. From observation, we are disposed to think that water of the best quality is obtained when the slopes and the higher lands of the catchment are covered with forests, while 166 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. from 20 to 30 per cent. of the area in the valleys and along the stream channels is cleared of trees and in grass. The vegetable matter in the water will be less for such conditions than when the entire catchment is covered with forest. Such are about the conditions which obtain on the Northeastern Highlands streams already referred to. For hygienic reasons, therefore, as well as in order to preserve a steady and uniform discharge, it becomes very important that the forest cover shall be protected and preserved upon the catch- ments which are to become gathering-grounds for the cities of the State. r, yl ll i Ht il i} ne < ii wT i ) pe ME : we HA lS Hilt Ww f ie Hi I my REPORT ON FORESTS PLATE Xiii. 75°20! ‘78°00! T T GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEWJERSEY. NEW JERSEY 1899 > ae Scale of Miles. 70 fe ea5\si) ONE is SRO mor as S . oe bf Showing rainfall for months fe ofno growth and winter EMont |. oot temperature 262 f WS Sey i Sl a SE AS \ rit ' porch | N SN [ iy =I Ss) =) =po| =| a7 SS FO i ns SS iv i ‘- Uy “ll : ey, eae "e, ps } KON %e I i HAN WINTER TEMPERATUE (OWN BY ISOTHERMAL LINES AND FIGURES IN RED pal 20! TO MARCH INCLUSIVE Below 20 inches ea 20 - 21 " a-2 , Z@® 22-23 1» [I 23 > 24: O) Above 24, EERE f 14°20! 74°00! . 3 Forests and Climate. The influence of forests upon climate has been extensively discussed, but it cannot be said that definite conclusions have been reached. It appears to be true that aridity has resulted in some cases from cutting off the forests, but that this is not a necessary result appears to be proven from experience in Eng- land and Spain. ‘The former has only about 3 per cent. of its area in forests, yet it continues to be proverbially fertile, and a land of abundant moisture and luxuriant vegetation. Spain also retains its moisture and fertility in spite of deforestation. Perhaps it is safe to conclude that where other strong influ- encing conditions are absent, the effect of forests may be appreci- able. ‘Thus it has been pointed out that the lower temperature, which sometimes prevails over a forest, may cause greater con- densation and consequently increased precipitation. It seems, however, that this difference of temperature does not usually exceed two or three degrees, and consequently would be equaled in effect by a ridge about 600 feet in height, so that where the topographic relief is bold enough its influence may entirely subordinate any effect of forests upon the rain-fall or temperature. In like manner the influence of the sea upon temperature and rain-fall may be so controlling that the effect of forests becomes of little account. This is true in England, and it appears to be also the case in this State. It may be accepted as a fact that the temperature immediately over a forest is sometimes a few degrees cooler than over the open country. It is no doubt true that the temperature beneath the trees is materially less and the humidity somewhat greater. To determine what the effect of forests may be in our own State, we have compiled the accompanying charts of rain-fall and temperature from the records of New Jersey State Weather Service, and from all other data accessible. In making up these charts all short-period stations have had their record referred to, (167) 168 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. and compared with those of long periods in such a way that the differences due to comparison of periods not contemporaneous are eliminated as far as possible. Plate XI shows the mean temperature for the year, and the mean annual rain-fall. This may be compared with Plate III, showing the distribution of forests. At first sight it appears as if the regions of heavy rain-fall coincide with those of abundant forests, while the deforested areas along the Delaware and in the Raritan valley show a light rain-fall; but on closer examination we find that the rain-fall in the pine forests varies from about 52 inches at Toms River to less than 40 inches at Cape May, with- out any corresponding change in forest conditions. ‘The varia- tion in the cleared belt of the Cretaceous formation along’ the Delaware is nearly as much, or from about 42 inches at Salem to over 50 inches in Monmouth county. In the same way the rain-fall of the Kittatinny valley ranges from 4o inches to over 48 inches, the whole being deforested to about the same extent, while the Passaic valley, having over 40 per cent. of forest, appears to have as small a rain-fall as the Raritan valley, where there is less than 5 per cent. of forests. A careful study of the annual rain-fall indicates that topographic relief has an effect entirely superior to that of the forests, and we are forced to the conclusion that it is impossible to trace any effect either upon rain-fall or temperature due to the distribution of the forests. The temperature seems to be influenced largely by the sea, and to a still more marked extent by the elevation; and study- ing the rain-fall and temperature together it appears that the storms which usually occur with easterly winds show a more abundant precipitation as such winds approach or cross high ground, and a lighter precipitation in the valleys west. Plate XII shows the summer temperature, and the mean rain- ‘fall from April to September inclusive, these being the growing months for forests. This plate is made up with a view to ascer- taining the influence of forests when they are in leaf. Here, also, it is impossible to detect any difference in the distribution of rain-fall which may be fairly attributed to forests. In general the same peculiarities which we have pointed out in the annual rain-fall are present here. There is the same wide variation in tain-fall in belts of country having uniform forest conditions- REPORT ON FORESTS. 169 The light rain-fall of the Raritan valley is somewhat accentuated, but in the Highlands it appears that the deforested portions have as much rain-fall as those more heavily forested. The influence of the sea upon the temperature in summer is marked, while the variations due to elevation, in the northern part of the State, are much the same as shown in Plate XI for the year. Plate XIII exhibits the winter temperature and the rain-fall from October to March, inclusive. In this case the rain-fall pre- sents a distribution a little different from that of the growing months, but, comparing the two periods, there is nothing to war- rant the inference that it is in anywise effected by forests. The result of these studies must be regarded as demonstrating that the records of rainfall and temperature fail to show any dif- ference in climate between forested and deforested portions of the State which may with confidence be ascribed to the influence of the forests. We have also analyzed the longer rain-fall records of the State, and of New York and Philadelphia, to see if there has been any change in the rain-fall which may be due to change in the forests. Plate XIV is a series of diagrams showing the rain-fall at New York, Newark, New Brunswick, Trenton and Philadel- phia. The Trenton record is combined with one at Morrisville, Pennsylvania, just across the Delaware. The Philadelphia record goes back to 1825, and so does the Morrisville-Trenton record, although the latter is missing for certain years. The New York record begins with 1836, that of Newark with 1843, and that of New Brunswick with 1854. New Vork is so much within the influence of the ocean that it can scarcely be expected to show any effect due to forests, but this fact makes the record valuable for comparison with the stations more inland. The diagrams show that from 1836 to about 1868 the rain-fall at New York was steadily increasing, but at the latter date it suddenly fell off and remained below the average until 1883, since which year it has been fluctuating. The Newark record is very similar to that of New York, while the New Brunswick, Trenton and Philadelphia records vary in certain particulars from the other two, princi- pally in showing larger rain-fall from 1868 to 1873. It will be seen that, as a rule, rain-fall was increasing at Newark and New York, while deforestation was progressing’in the northern part of the State. We have stated that this deforestation was at a 170 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. maximum from 1850 to 1860, and while the rain-fall at Newark and New Brunswick may have been somewhat below the aver- age during those years, it certainly was not less in either the New York, Philadelphia or Morrisville records than it was earlier, and it was more in the Philadelphia record than it was from 1825 to 1835. On the other hand the period of droughts extending from 1869 to 1883 at New York and Newark, and from 1874 to 1885 at New Brunswick, Trenton and Phila- delphia, occurred after the forests had begun to grow again, and had improved materially in the northern part of the State. But taking a rather wide radius around Philadelphia there has been, on the whole, progressive deforestation at a slow rate up to the present time; that is, the forest area has decreased. The Phila- delphia record for the entire period of seventy-five years shows no corresponding diminution in the amount of rain-fall. Indeed, it has been pointed out in Bulletin D, of the U.S. Weather Bureau, that there has been a general tendency to in- creased rain-fall in New England from 1834 up to the present time. We have examined the long record at Troy, New York, and this shows the same characteristics that we have pointed out in the diagrams of New York and Philadelphia rain-fall, namely, a progressive increase of rain-fall from about 1839 to about 1870, with wide fluctuations since the latter date. . The following table shows the result of grouping and aver- aging the rain-fall of New York, Newark, New Brunswick, Trenton—Morrisville and Philadelphia, by five-year periods : Average Annual Vears. Rain-fall. BS25=1820) ais a we eM eS Se 37.52 1830-1834, ss ee ee 8 8 a ae 2 lainsy2 TSB 51830, uw a a oo eh a So ee Gaya 42.50 I8jo-1844, ... .. : -e « & 2 G4 33 1845-1849, . 2.2. -..- eee a GS TSSO=185A) os Gk a a we we aw 46.00 1855-1859, » - ee ee ee woe es 44.53 1860-1864, - 6. 600 45.81 1865-1869, . ... oe a . 49.16 IB7O=1874) i eo we ae a ar 48 05 1875-1879, . . : Oi : . . 43.63 1880-1884, ..... a sia 42 Of 1885-1889, » 2 6 ee 49.50 1890-1894; <6 oe oe HS 45.75 1895-1899, . - 2 + ee eee 46,16 ANNUAL RAINFALL IN INCHES. REPORT ON FORESTS PLATE XIV 1825YEAR "30 ‘35 40 45 "50 "55 "60 65 ‘70 "15 "80 "85 "90 "95 YEAR1899 pf a 2 ot wn a J ORAS FT + TRANTON 55 5 45 | iz is BEN = SST] | [ y zsLlt | [ | | lpbdAr LIP a SECULAR CHANGE IN ANNUAL RAINFALL. a ee [| TT TET I REPORT ON FORESTS. I7I This table is believed to show quite accurately the changes of rain-fall in New Jersey, taken as a whole, during the last seventy- five years, and the tendency to progressive increase from 1825 to 1869, with only minor fluctuations, is apparent. It is also evi- dent that the rain-fall is greater during the last half of this period. ‘Thus, during the quarter century from 1825 to 1849, the average is 41.69 inches, while for the next twenty-five years, to 1874, it is 46.71 inches, and for the last quarter century it is ‘45.42 inches. The showing of these records is clearly against the hypothesis that deforestation is accompanied by a decrease of rain-fall, because there was correspondingly greater deforesta- tion during the quarter century from 1850 to 1874 than during the previous quarter century, while the rain-fall was more than five inches greater. In the same way, taking the State as a whole, there was certainly as much forest during the last quarter century, from 1875 to 1899, as during the previous one, although the average rain-fall is 1.3 inches less. The other rain-fall records of the State are too short to enable us to draw safe con- clusions. Turning to the temperature records, we find that the Phila- delphia record goes back to 1790, and from this date up to 1820 the temperature is below the average, while it ranges somewhat above from 1820 to 1830. There is another low period from 1830 to 1840, after which time it continues generally above the average until 1884, reaching another minimum in 1885. During the whole period there is undoubtedly an upward tendency in the temperature of Philadelphia, but it is difficult to draw safe con- clusions from a comparison of the early and later records, owing to a difference in instruments and methods. We do not find in the records of temperature anything from which safe con- clusions may be drawn as to the effect of deforestation in the State. Unquestionably the temperature of Southern New Jersey is affected much more by the sea than by the pine forests, but our personal experience is to the effect that the mild and salubrious winter climate of this region is to a great extent due to the presence of the pine forests and the sandy soil, which together produce an unusually dry atmosphere for a climate which is so much influenced by the sea. We believe that the entire destruction of these pine forests would result in a much 172, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. less favorable winter climate, and would produce a desert of drifting sand, which would be shunned by all. There is no difficulty in noting present differences of climate in winter between the cleared and forested portions of Southern New Jersey, and probably these differences are of a nature which affects bodily comfort more than the records of the thermometer, as they are largely due to the wind and moisture in the air. We cannot doubt that if this sandy soil should be deprived of forest cover it would quickly lose all vegetable matter, and would become extremely hot in summer. We refer especially to those portions which consist of silicious sands and are unadapted for cultivation. The point may be raised that while the figures of annual and average rain-fall show nothing as to the effect of forests, there may be a difference of distribution, so that the fluc- tuations may be greater and the droughts more severe in a forested country. Of this we can find no evidence in the New Jersey weather records. A careful study of these records indi- cates that all parts of the State, whether forested or deforested, are about equally subject to periods of drought, and that the severity of the droughts, as measured by the rain-fall during the dry period, varies with the average rain-fall, or, in other words, those parts of the State which are shown on our charts to have a large average rain-fall have a correspondingly larger dry- period rain-fall. The severity of the drought as measured by its effect on vegetation, however, is greater in those portions of the State where temperature and, consequently, evaporation are greater. Thus the Highlands and Kittatinny valley do not suffer so severely from drought as the more southern portions of the State, principally because evaporation is less. Unquestionably, forests have a marked effect in retarding the melting of snow in the spring, and on this account it is possible that owing to their presence the spring will be somewhat later and cooler in a forested country than in the open. PART IL The Relation Between Forestry and Geology in New Jersey. I. Existing Conditions. II. Historical Development. By ARTHUR HOLLICK. (173) COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY IN THE CITY OF NEw York, DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, December 14, 1898. Professor John C. Smock, State Geologist of New Jersey : DEAR SIR—I have the honor to submit herewith my final report upon the Relation between Forestry and Geology in New Jersey, based upon investigations pursued under your direction during the past two years. Respectfully, &c., ARTHUR HOLLICK, Ph.D. (175) The Relation Between Forestry and Geology in New Jersey. CONTENTS. I, Existing Conditions. Object and Scope of this Report. Method of Investigation Pursued. Facts Ascertained. Discussion of the Facts. Il. Historical Development. Preliminary Discussion. Mesozoic Time. Triassic Period. Jurassic Period. Cretaceous Period. Neozoic Time. Tertiary Period. Quaternary Period. Concluding remarks. I, Existing Conditions. OBJECT AND SCOPE OF THIS REPORT. The problems of plant distribution, or, in other words, the reasons why certain classes, families, genera or species of plants occupy certain regions, have long received attention from those who have observed the facts. Ifthe earth as a whole be viewed in connection with the entire vegetable kingdom, it is at once apparent that the most obvious factor in limiting distribution is climate, and that isothermal lines are closely identified with lines of plant limitation. If smaller geographic areas and smaller aggregations of plants be studied, however, it will at I2 FOR (177) 178 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. once be seen that climatic conditions alone are not sufficient to account for all the facts of distribution and limitation which may be observed, and that local physiographic and meteorologic. influences must be considered, such as altitude, minor surface inequalities and configurations, presence and absence of moisture in the atmosphere, presence of or proximity to water, &c. Finally, if the investigations be carried yet further, it will be appreciated that soil characteristics, both mechanical and chem- ical, also play an important part in the matter. This source of influence may be termed the geologic factor, for the reason that the character of the soil in any locality is directly dependent upon the character of the geologic formation from which it is derived, and it is with this factor that this report is especially concerned. It is unfortunate that by far the greater number of areal investigations which have been undertaken have necessarily been restricted by artificial boundaries, generally political, such as state or. county lines, instead of having been extended to their natural limits, either physiographic or geologic, and many interesting problems for this reason have been only indicated or partially solved. The investigations upon which this report is based fall within the same category, and there is no doubt that if these could be carried out beyond the state lines, whatever value they may have would be enhanced in proportion to the distance or area covered. In the state of New Jersey, for example, two broad, contrast- ing regions of forest conditions have long been recognized, viz., Nors,—In order that the meaning of certain terms may be clearly understood, the following defini- tions are appended : Distribution may be defined as geographic range. Thus, ‘“‘ Middlesex and Mercer counties, south- ward to Cape May,”’ would represent a geographic range or area of distribution, A species may havea wide distribution and yet be rare, for the reason that it may only be able to exist under conditions which obtain in but few localities within the area of distribution. Locality or Station defines some particular place. Thus, ‘‘ Middlesex county, near Perth Amboy,” would represent a locality or station. Habitat means character of surroundings. Thus, ‘rocky hillsides,”’ ‘‘ salt marshes,”’ ‘‘ dry, sandy soil,” &c., would be habitats. A typical species of any region or area is one which is either confined to such region or area, or which only extends beyond it in limited numbers or under specially favorable circumstances. A characteristic species ot any region or area is one which is so abundant as to be a prominent feature over such region or area, although not necessarily confined to it, REPORT ON FORESTS. 179 the Deciduous and the Coniferous; and the contrast between the two is so obvious as to attract the attention of every observer.* Doubtless to many the fact that the former is roughly confined to the hilly northern part of the state and the latter to the plain region further south, might seem sufficient to account for the limitation of the two classes of vegetation simply on climatic and physiographic conditions. If, however, the line of demarka- tion between them be followed across the state, or better yet, if it be followed beyond the confines of the state, it may be seen that it does not coincide with any parallel or latitude or any isothermal line, but crosses these in a northeast and southwest direction, and is more or less independent of surface irregu- larities. If, now, a geologic map of the state be examined, the line of demarkation may be seen to parallel very closely the general trend of the outcrops of the geologic formations, and the inference becomes irresistible that these must be taken into account in any investigations which concern the problem of forest distribu- tion in the state. Investigations were therefore made from that point of view, and as they proceeded the fact became more and more apparent that not only were the two classes of vegetation strongly identified with certain geologic formations, but also that the distribution of several species in each of the classes were similarly limited. This line of investigation is capable of extension so as to include a far larger number of species than were actually brought under observation, and there is no doubt that if the entire flora of the state could be mapped, from the same stand- point, an exceedingly interesting contribution would result. If, further than this, the investigation could be made to cover the entire geographical area comprised within the areas of distribu- tion, the interest and possible value of the work would be cor- respondingly increased. Such an investigation would, however, imply many years of careful study in the field, and all that can be attempted in this report is to outline the known facts of dis tribution in regard to certain species of trees in the state and to draw from those facts such conclusions in regard to the probable causes as may seem to be warranted. * For a brief discussion of the subject see Dr. N. L. Britton’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Plants Found in New Jersey,’’ introductory chapter, Final Report State Geologist, Vol. II, 1889. 18 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION PURSUED. The general facts as previously indicated having been recog- nized, steps were taken towards a detailed investigation by traversing the state in a series of routes more or less at right angles to the trend of the geologic formations, thus crossing the outcrops in succession and noting whatever changes in vegeta- tion were apparent from place to place. Several critical locali- ties were also made the subjects of special investigation. Fol- lowing are the routes traveled and special localities visited : 1. Jersey City to Deckertown. Triassic, Archzean, Ordovician, and Silurian formations, including the region covered more or less with glacial drift. 2. Jersey City to Easton, Pa. Same formations as in No. 1, but south of the Terminal Moraine. 3. Jersey City to Stroudsburg, Pa. Same formations as in No. 1, with Devonian additional. 4. Jersey City to Allamuchy, via Sparta and Waterloo. Same formations as in No. 1, but further south. 5. Monmouth Junction, beginning at Ten-Mile Run, via Jamesburg and Freehold to Farmingdale. Triassic, Cretaceous and: Tertiary formations. 6. Lakewood to South Amboy, via Farmingdale, Eatontown, Red Bank and Matawan. ‘Tertiary and Cretaceous formations. 7. Point Pleasant to Burlington, via Lakewood, New Egypt and Mount Holly. Tertiary and Cretaceous formations; com- plete section through the state. 8. Bound Brook to Perth Amboy, via New Brunswick. T'ri- assic and Cretaceous formations. g. Metuchen to Perth Amboy. ‘Triassic and Cretaceous for- mations, Terminal Moraine and extra-morainic drift. 10. Camden to Cape May. Cretaceous, Tertiary and Post- Tertiary formations. A special object in visiting the latter locality was to investigate the report that Pyus Teda L,. (old- field Pine) had been found there. The result was that its occur- rence there was verified and a new species was added to the flora of the state. A full account of this discovery was pub- lished in Zhe Plant World, Vol. I, No. 2 (Nov., 1897), which \ REPORT ON FORESTS. 181 was subsequently republished in 7he Forester, Vol. III, No. 12 (Dec., 1897). 11. Matawan to Old Bridge, via Robertsville and Texas. Cretaceous clay marl and clay. Distribution of Peaus echinata Mill (Yellow Pine), and P. Virgznzana Mill (Scrub Pine). 12. Freehold to Red Bank, via Scobeyville. Cretaceous and Tertiary marls. Occurrence of Pemus Strobus 1. (White Pine). 13. Morristown and vicinity. Triassic trap and sandstone, Archeean-and Terminal Moraine. 14. Trenton and vicinity. Glacial and recent river gravels. 15. Holly Beach and Anglesea. Sand dunes and salt marshes. 16. Asbury Park and vicinity. Buried forests in recent sea- beach deposits. 17.. Belvidere and vicinity. Terminal Moraine and extra- morainic drift. 18. Delaware Water Gap to Bushkill. Influence of the Dela- ware river in modifying or extending the range of certain species. 19. Newark and vicinity. Salt marshes, with special refer- ence to the occurrence of Zaxodium distichum (1,.), L. C. Rich (Bald Cypress). This is apparently the only locality in the state where this tree is known to be in existence independent of cultivation. The trees are few in number and are accom- panied by several specimens of Chamecyparis thyotdes (1..), B. S. P. (White Cedar). I was, however, unable to determine whether they were native there or had been introduced. The trees appear to be about twenty or thirty years old and are grow- ing in salt marsh—a habitat such as they naturally occupy fur- ther south. Several reports have been made of old cypress stumps having been found in swamps in other parts of the State, but in no instance have I been able to verify them. 20. Bridgeton. Tertiary (Miocene?) sandstone containing fossil leaves. The occurrence of this fossil flora may be found discussed in the chapter on the historical development of the flora of the state. FACTS ASCERTAINED. If an irregular line be drawn, extending from a little east of Metuchen to Trenton, and a similar one from Long Branch to ' 182. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Salem, the typical deciduous region or zone will be found to lie north of the former and the typical coniferous zone south of the latter, while between the two is an area about sixteen miles wide which may be termed the “tension zone,” because it is there that the two floras meet and overlap, producing a constant state of strain or tension in the struggle for advantage. * & Freehold Q TRENTON <>’ 4 fe) Farmngdate “Burlington Ment gypt eViacentonn Figure 1. Map showing Forest Zones Within the limits of either the deciduous or the coniferous zone the conditions are more or less uniform; the typical or characteristic species of each have become firmly established in the environment most favorable for them, or unfavorable for others, and the struggle for advantage is largely between indi- viduals of the same species. In the tension zone, however, the struggle is not only between individuals of the same species, but also between different species. The elements in the deciduous *An excellent general di ion of floral tensi may be found in Mr. Conway MacMillan’s “‘Metaspermz of the Minnesota Valley,’’ pp. 594-600. Repts. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn., Botanical Series, Vol. I. 1892. REPORT ON FORESTS. 183 flora are always ready to seize upon any advantage which will give them a foothold further south, while the elements in the coniferous flora are always ready for an advance in the opposite direction. ‘The former may, therefore, be considered as a south- ward-moving and the latter as a northward-moving flora. In consequence of these conditions the vegetation in the ten- sion zone is in a state of unstable equilibrium, in which the strain is constant, and any change in or interference with the conditions releases the strain and causes a disturbance of the relations between the floras until new conditions have become established. Each such disturbance is marked, to a greater or less extent, by changes of species, and lines or areas of limitation and distribution thus vary from time to time. The influence of civilization has been the most marked factor in this connection in recent times. Fire and cultivation have caused, directly and indirectly, great changes in the inter- relations of species. In places certain species have been removed for economic purposes and others allowed to remain, which, of course, gives a direct advantage to the latter in any subsequent struggle for place. In other localities all species have been removed and such a change made in the environment that foreign species, better able to adapt themselves to the new conditions, become established there. One corollary to the above proposition is that changes wrought within the limits of the deciduous or coniferous zones would not normally lead to such extensive subsequent changes in species as would be the case under similar circumstances within the limits of the tension zone. In the deciduous zone, for example, where clearings have been made, these are often occupied at once by pines and cedars, which have been awaiting the opportunity to establish them- selves where they will be free from competition. The soil favors their growth, but they are almost always crowded out subsequently when the angiosperms regain their foothold, and the ultimate result is practically a return to the old conditions, due to the higher and more aggressive type of life represented by the latter. In the coniferous zone also the same species would be likely to re-appear after a tract has been cleared, for the reason that the soil conditions are usually barren and unfavorable for the angio- 184 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. sperms, which type of plants would only be represented in consequence by stunted weaklings. In each of these cases the original species would also have the direct advantage that their own relatives would be in the preponderance in the immediate neighborhood, and therefore be the first to reproduce their kind in any numbers. In the case of the tension zone, however, any change, no matter how insig- nificant, might afford just the advantage which some opposing species of either zone required for its establishment in neutral territory. For this reason the former lines of specific limitation in the tension zone it is now impossible to determine. In this zone the changes have undoubtedly been the greatest, as it is there that cultivation has been the most extensive, and over miles of the surface, in the marl belt especially, the original forest has been completely destroyed, while in the other zones the limits and relative proportions of the species have probably always remained about the same. Another corollary to which it may be of interest to call atten- tion is that where zones of vegetation become established by reason of the conditions being directly favorable in each, the weaker individuals are necessarily crowded to the front and meet in the tension zone. Where, however, a zone becomes established, not because the conditions are directly favorable for the vegetation which occupies it, but only indirectly for the reason that it is unfavorable for any other, this condition may result in bringing stronger individuals to the front of the more barren zone and into the tension zone. This is well exemplified in the case of Prvus rzgzda, which i is usually larger where it occurs in isolated groves in the better soil of the tension or deciduous zones than in its normal location in the sand barrens. This fact, considered by itself, would appear to give a decided advantage to the coniferous vegetation, but its lower position in the biologic scale, as compared with the deciduous, is evidently more than sufficient to offset this advantage. In the following enumeration an attempt is made to give an idea of the general character of the forest in each zone, by listing the most conspicuous and abundant species in each.* * The nomenclature adopted is that of Britton & Brown’s “ Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions.” REPORT ON FORESTS. 185 DEcIDUOUS ZONE: Gymnosperme: Pras Strobus \., Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr., Juniperus Virginiana L,. Angiosperme : Juglans nigra \,., Hicorta ovata (Mill.) Brit- ton, Hicorta glabra (Mill.) Britton, Hzcoria alba (L.) Britton, © Carpinus Caroliniana Walt., Betula lenta L., Fagus Americana Sweet, Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., Quercus Prinus L., Q. rubra L., Q. coccinea Wang., Q. velutina Lam., Q. alba L,., CUlmus Americana \,., Liriodendron Tuliprfera L., Platanus occidentalts \,., Cornus florida \,., Rhododendron maximum L,., Fraxinus Americana \,., F. Pennsylvanica Marsh., F. lanceolata Borck. Scattering from the Coniferous Zone: Chamecyparis thyotdes (L.) B.S. P., Penus rigzda Mill., Drospyros Virginiana ,., Llex opaca Ait. CONIFEROUS ZONE: Gymnospermee: Paxus rigtda Mill., P. echtnata Mill, P. Lr- gintana Mill., Chamecyparis thyoides (1,.) B.S. P. Angios- perme: Quercus Phellos 1, Q. nigra L., Q. minor (Marsh.) Sarg., Q. alba L., Q. coccinea Wang., Q. velutina Wang., Mag- nolia Virgintana L., Crategus uniflora Muench., Prunus mart- tima Wang., [lex opaca Ait., Diospyros Virginiana L,. Scattering from the Deciduous Zone: Pras Strobus L., Tsuga Canadensts (L,.) Carr., Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., Hzcoria alba (1,.) Britton, Lzrtodendron Tulipifera L,. SPECIES MORE OR LESS ABUNDANT IN BOTH ZONES: Populus tremuloides Michx., Salix nigra Marsh., Betula nigra L,., Betula populifolia Marsh., Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) K. Koch., Quercus nana (Marsh.) Sarg., Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst., Liguidambar Styracifina V,., Prunus serotina Ehrh., Acer rubrum 1, Nyssa sylvatica Marsh, It may be noted that three species (Quercus alba, Q. coccinea and Q. velutina) are listed as characteristic trees in both zones. This means that they are so abundant in both that any descrip- tion of the prevailing vegetation in either would be incomplete unless they were mentioned. On the other hand, the species listed as abundant in both zones are equally wide in their distri- bution, but none of them is so abundant as to be characteristic, 186 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. being more or less scattered, usually following minor surface conditions, such as water-courses, swamps, fence lines, &c. Doubtless in certain sections other species than those above listed would appear equally important as elements in the flora, but those enumerated will give a fair idea of the arboreal features as a whole. If a complete census of all the species which inhabit each zone be made, and studied, it will be found that the deciduous zone contains the greater number and diver- sity, and that, as a rule, they are well mixed; no one species forming the bulk of the forest over any considerable area. In the coniferous zone, on the contrary, the monotonous uniformity of the forests, due to extensive aggregations of a few predominant species, is often conspicuous over hundreds of square miles. In the latter zone, for example, Pexus rig¢da is not only the pre- dominant but almost the exclusive species, over large areas, but no such example can be quoted in regard to any one species in the deciduous zone. ‘This species also occurs in several scattered groups notthward in the state, but not in sufficient numbers to form forests or to be classed as characteristic of the deciduous zone. If now the geology and topography of each zone be considered it may be seen that the southern limit of the deciduous zone is quite sharply coterminous with the southern edge of the Triassic outcrop, and that it extends unrestricted in all other directions up to and beyond the state line and that its geologic and topo- graphic features are exceedingly varied. The coniferous zone, on the contrary, is coterminous along its northern border with the northern border of the Tertiary sands and gravels and pre- sents but little diversity either in its geology or topography, except for the fringe of sand beaches and salt marshes at tide- water, by which it is limited in the east-and south. Its area is restricted by these barriers in these directions, but it extends beyond the boundary of the state southwestwardly. The tension zone, which includes practically the whole of the Cretaceous plastic clays and the Cretaceous and Tertiary clay marls and marls, is intermediate, geographically and in its geologic and topographic features, between the other two. The above-mentioned facts may be observed to advantage in a number of critical localities, as, for example, in the vicinity of REPORT ON FORESTS. 187 Farmingdale. Here there is an area of marl which is located well within the borders of the sands and gravels. If a line be traversed, starting from the vicinity of Lakewood, in the heart of the coniferous zone, little else than Pinus rigzda, P. echinata, Q. alba, Q. velutina, etc., are met with, until the border of the marl area is reached, when the pines disappear and in their stead are deciduous trees, amongst which may be noted Quercus rubra, flicorta alba, Ulmus Americana, Populus tremuloides, Castanea dentata, Liqguidambar Styraciflua, Betula nigra, etc. As soon as the opposite border of the area is crossed the condi- tions are reversed and pines are again predominant until the edge of the main marl belt is reached near Eatontown, where deciduous trees again prevail. The lines of demarkation which may be noticed in thus crossing from one formation to another are so sharply defined by the character of the vegetation in each as to be plainly apparent within a small fraction of a mile. If the same area be crossed in a direction about at right angles to the previously mentioned route, beginning in the deciduous zone near Monmouth Junction, an equally significant series of facts may be noted. In this vicinity the trees are almost wholly deciduous, consisting largely of Quercus rubra, Q. alba, Q. velu- tina, Ficoria alba, H. glabra, H. ovata, Ulmus Americana, fraxinus sp?, Fagus Americana, Castanea dentata, Lirioden- adron Tulipifera, Liquidambar Styracifiua, Populus tremuloides, Carpinus Caroliniana, Platanus occidentalis, Acer rubrum, Cornus florida, etc., with occasional groups or individuals of Juniperus Virgintana and Pinus Strobus, all of large size and vigorous growth. In traveling across the clay belt toward Jamesburg several of the above-mentioned species may be noted as becoming less prominent or as disappearing entirely, while those which con- tinue are noticeably.smaller in size. Several new species also make their appearance, such as Dezospyros Virginiana, Quercus wictfolia, QO. nigra, Pinus Virginiana and P. rigida, and this condition of the vegetation prevails until well within the borders of the marl belt near Englishtown, when the trees again become somewhat larger in size. This variation in the size of the trees was in most cases found to be coincident with the presence or absence of areas of sand or gravel—the smaller trees occurring 188 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. in connection with such areas, which latter were also coincident with the distribution of several of the species. In one locality, about a mile north of Englishtown, the road passes through quite a deep cut, in a sand hill of considerable extent laterally and vertically. On this hill is a conspicuous growth of Pens rigida and Dzospyros Americana, although they seem to be entirely absent elsewhere in the immediate vicinity. Continuing on towards Freehold, some of the species which were but sparsely represented before may be noted as becoming more prominent, and then a marked change occurs as soon as the border of the marl belt is crossed. In place of an almost universal deciduous vegetation, patches, of Pzaus rigzda become conspicuous features until the marl area at Farmingdale is reached, when the pines disappear and are not again met with until the area is crossed. By this route it may be seen that the entire width of the tension zone is crossed, where the relations of the two floras are most complicated. Another interesting locality is the vicinity of Perth Amboy, where the Terminal Moraine extends southward beyond the Triassic border, and encroaches for a short distance onto the Cretaceous area. ‘The deciduous flora, which elsewhere is coterminous with the Triassic border, is here carried beyond, to the edge of the Moraine, where it is in sharp contrast with the coniferous trees of the tension zone, which here find their most northern limit in the state. At many other localities in or near the tension zone similar facts may be noted, but the above instances are probably suff- cient for purposes of illustration. As examples of the areal distribution and limitation of species the following may be taken as specially interesting : Tsuga Canadensis. More or less abundant in the deciduous zone, especially in hilly regions along the borders of streams. Not recorded south of the tension zone, except indefinitely, as very rare, in Monmouth and Ocean counties. New Egypt, Vincentown and Burlington are the only exact localities known to me south of the Triassic border, and these three localities are all within the tension zone.* Pinus Strobus. Frequent in the deciduous zone, often form- *Nors sy State Ggovoaisr: Reported, below Sharptown, on Salem creek, Salem county, a grove of thirty large trees, Charles R, Lippincott. REPORT ON FORESTS. 189 ing good sized groves. Represented in the tension zone by scattered individuals or limited aggregations, especially along water-courses. Almost limited to scattered individuals in the coniferous zone. ‘The’ probabilities are that the species was formerly more abundant in the tension zone than the present distribution indicates. It is the characteristic pine of the deciduous zone. Pinus rigida, Exceedingly abundant in the coniferous zone, where it often forms the bulk of the arboreal vegetation over large areas. Less abundant in the tension zone. Represented by scattered groves or individuals in the deciduous zone. It is the characteristic pine of the coniferous zone. Pinus Virginiana, Abundant in the tension zone, especially in the clay belt. Less abundant in the coniferous zone, but fre- quently forming small forests or groves. Recorded from the deciduous zone only at widely separated localities—Riegelsville, Milford and New Brunswick. Pinus echinata. Most abundant in the tension zone, particu- larly in the marl belt, often forming groves of considerable extent. Less abundant in the coniferous zone and not recorded from any locality within the deciduous zone. This and the pre- ceding species may be regarded as specially characteristic of the tension zone. Chamecyparis thyoides. Forms the bulk of the vegetation in the cedar swamps of the coniferous zone. Rare in the tension zone. Locally in limited numbers in certain isolated swamps in the deciduous zone: Secaucus, New Durham, High Point, etc. Rhododendron maximum. Abundant in the deciduous zone, often forming dense thickets along streams and lake borders. Recorded from but one locality in the tension zone, in the vicinity of Burlington and Kinkora, and from but one in the coniferous zone, at Sicklerville. flex opaca. Common in wet woods, especially near tide- water, in the coniferous zone. Less abundant in the tension zone. Reported from but one locality in the deciduous zone, at Carpentersville. , Quercus Phellos. More or less abundant in the southern part of the state in both the coniferous and tension zones. Further north, especially abundant in the clay belt of the latter zone, 190 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. where it occurs close to the edge of the Triassic border, but has not been recorded beyond. Quercus nigra. Practically the same range as the latter. If the above defined areas of distribution and lines of limita- tion be studied it will at once be apparent that they are not due to climatic conditions. In the case of Chamecyparts we have a species which exists as far north as Massachusetts and as far south as Florida, while Pzzus rigida is known from Canada to Georgia—their occurrence north of the coniferous zone being apparently largely due to locally favorable physiographic con- ditions. Considering other species we may even eliminate physio- graphic conditions as a cause of distribution, as, for example, Quercus Phellos and Q. nigra, which extend northward in the eastern part of the state as far as Perth Amboy, but in the western part are not known north of Trenton. A line drawn between these two localities defines their limit of distribution. The topographic features for a large part of the distance along both sides of this line are practically identical, and yet neither of the species crosses it. The fact whichis at once apparent, however, is that this line is coincident with the line which’ separates the Cretaceous and Triassic outcrops, and the rational inference is that this feature, the geologic, is the important one to be studied. In the instances quoted the coincidence between the geologic features and the areas of distribution and lines of limitation are more striking than in most cases, as they were chosen specially for that purpose, but there is no doubt that a careful tabulation of similar facts in regard to other species would be exceedingly interesting and significant. DISCUSSION OF THE FACTS. If the foregoing facts be carefully considered, one feature in connection with them will at once attract attention by reason of its constant reiteration. ‘This is the influence apparently exerted by certain geologic formations upon the distribution of certain classes or species of trees, or, for the sake of argument, the coincidence which apparently exists between certain geologic \ REPORT ON FORESTS. IgI formations and certain: facts of plant distribution, and from whatever point of view we may regard the matter it finally resolves itself into an examination of the soil conditions which are directly dependent upon the structure and composition of the geologic formations from which they were derived. Soil influence is indicated in all the before-mentioned facts of plant- distribution within the state as one of the most potent factors, and in some instances as practically the only one to be taken into consideration. Here it seems pertinent to remark, lest the fact should not be thought of, that the mere name which any geologic formation may bear is of no consequence in this con- nection. The only matter of moment is its lithologic charac- ters, mechanical or chemical, irrespective of age or stratigraphic position. A sandy soil, whether a recent dune deposit or one derived from the disintegration of Paleeozoic sandstone in place, would be of equal importance so far as sand-loving plants are concerned. Similarly a heavy soil, whether of glacial till or Cretaceous marl, might be equally available as a home for species which must love such a mechanical condition for their proper growth, while those which merely require a rocky soil would be indifferent as to whether the rock was Eozoic granite or Mesozoic trap. This line of argument, as may be readily seen, infers that the mechanical structure of the soil is of greater importance as a factor in plant distribution than is its chemical composition, and this seems to be the fact. ‘The observations made indicate that the former is the more powerful factor in determining the origi- nal location and distribution of species, while the latter more largely influences their subsequent growth. Upon this basis of reasoning we may in part account for the fact that species of the deciduous zone, where the soils are com- paratively rocky or heavy, are able to push their way southward into the clays and marls of the tension zone, and we also note the effect of the chemical composition of the soil on their growth, as indicated by their decrease in size wherever the same species occur, on areas of sand or gravel within the zone. Bya similar course of reasoning we may understand the northward extension of species from the coniferous zone, such as Prxus Virginiana, on account of the sandy or gravelly surface-soil 192, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. which prevails over most of the tension zone, and its abrupt limitation where this ceases. Quercus Phellos and Q. nigra are, without doubt, limited in their distribution by the same cause, aid we are justified in assuming that if the soil conditions, or, what is the equivalent, the geological formation in which they grow, had a further northward extension, the species mentioned would be found upon it.* When the chemical characteristics of the soil of each zone are studied, it becomes easy to understand why the vegetation in each is so different. In the deciduous zone the rocks are par- tially weathered and disintegrated for a considerable depth, and this disintegration is unceasingly going on, constantly adding new material to the soil from the variety of the mineral con- stituents in the rocks. New soil is constantly being made and the old soil being renovated, so that plant food is in process of manufacture all the time. The mechanical character is also such that it is capable of retaining moisture for a considerable period, which is a valuable factor in periods of drought. On the other hand, in the coniferous zone the rock has long been almost completely disintegrated, and as it is practically composed of but one constituent, quartz, which is of little or no value for plant food, any further disintegration is incapable of yielding any other element, and but little is added to the soil which could serve to support vegetation. Further than this, in many places no rock disintegration’is going on, but, on the con- trary, rock is in actual process of formation. Sandstones and conglomerates are being formed by cementation with limonite, and where this occurs a hard layer results which limits the downward growth of roots, while if the conditions are such that an open, porous sandy soil prevails, it becomes impossible for water to be retained in it, and an arid sand barren is the result. One thing, however, as previously hinted, should be borne in mind in regard to many typical or characteristic species, which is that they do not always exist in a region by reason of the environment being the most favorable for them, but because the *In this connection the following reference may be found of interest : 1. “On the Existence of a Peculiar Flora on the Kittatinny Mountains of Northern New Jersey.” N. L. Britton, Bull, Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. XI (1884), p. 126. 2 ‘Plant Distribution as a Factor in the Interpretation of Geologic Phenomena, &c."’ Arthur Hol- lick, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Vol. XII (1893), p. 189. REPORT ON FORESTS. 193 environment may be unfavorable for other species. Thus, to again refer to the case of Pinus rigida, while it exists in parts of the sand barrens of Ocean, Burlington and Atlantic counties, almost to the exclusion of all other trees, it is stunted and con- -picuously less vigorous in appearance as a whole than where it occurs as scattering groves or individuals in richer soil further north. The natural inference is that it would exist to better advantage in a different soil, but that other, more agressive species, higher in the biologic scale, are able to seize upon and hold such soils against it, and that it exists in the pine barrens largely by reason of freedom from competition. This inference is further strengthened if we consider its wide geographic range, as previously noted, which includes a great diversity of soil and climate. The relation between these existing facts and the events which preceded them will be discussed in the next section. II. Historical Development. PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION. In tracing the development of plant life through geologic time the fact is well recognized that the flora of Eozoic and Paleozoic times is not related to our living flora by any closer ties than those of sub-kingdoms or classes. In Mesozoic time generic rela- tionships may be traced, while in Neozoic time many species identical with, or closely related to, living ones, may be identi- fied. ; It is also accepted, as a broad generalization, that biologic development has been synchronous with the stratigraphic sequence, or, in other words, that the older the geologic forma- tion the lower in organization are its accompanying fossils, and conversely that the more recent the geologic formation the higher in the scale of life are its fossils. In paleeobotany the facts in this latter connection are particu- larly striking and provide us with excellent data from which to draw conclusions. Plant life was evolved into its present status largely through the influence of changes in environment, and changes now under way are modifying it still further. In order 13 FOR 194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. therefore to understand how any particular living flora has reached its present condition it is necessary to know something about the changes, in their proper sequence, which the region has undergone in the past. Within the boundaries of the state are geologic formations representing all the great time divisions, Eozoic, Palzeozoic, Mesozoic and Neozoic, and rocks of all the included geologic periods, with the exception of Carboniferous and Jurassic, but for the purposes of this report the vegetation of Paleezoic time may be disregarded. MESOZOIC TIME. Triassic Period. During this period the shore line of the North American continent, so far as New Jersey is concerned, extended irregularly from about the vicinity of Mahwah to a few miles south of Phillipsburg. Everything indicates that for a long time the Atlantic border had been slowly sinking and that the Triassic deposits were laid down in estuaries and lagoons. ‘which were alternately covered by the tides and exposed to the air. The rocks are largely conglomerate, sandstone or shales, evidently shore or shallow-water deposits, often ripple-marked or sun-cracked and bearing the footprints of ’ reptiles or amphibians. The vegetation of the period is but sparsely represented in the collections which have been made in New Jersey, but by comparing these with similar collections from other places it may be seen that the vegetation is fairly representative of the period. Dr. J.S. Newberry has described nine species from the state,* of which three are regarded as pteridophytes, and the remainder are apparently all referable to the gymnosperms. One living genus (Zgzzse¢um) is recognized in the former sub: kingdom. Thus far, in any collection of Triassic plants which has been made, nothing higher in biologic development than the monoco- tyledons is even indicated, and we may regard the Triassic flora as one composed almost wholly of ferns and their allies, cycads and conifers, with cycads as the dominant type. ** Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of the Triassic Rocks of New Jersey and the Connecticut Valley.” Monographs of the U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol, XIV, REPORT ON FORESTS. 195 Jurassic Period. "Towards the close of the Triassic period great physical changes occurred, of which the extrusion of trap dykes was one of the prominent features. The indications are that that portion of the continent now represented by New Jersey and vicinity was raised to a higher level than further south, for the reason that in this region we find no deposits which can be recognized as Jurassic, while deposits which may be provisionally considered as such occurin Maryland and southward. In New Jersey, therefore, we have a break in the geologic sequence at this point, and in consequence a hiatus in the line of plant development, which, however, has been at least partially bridged by Professor Wm. M. Fontaine * and Dr. Lester F. Ward, + in their studies of the Potomac formation of Maryland. ‘The exact geologic age of the lower strata of this formation has not been definitely determined, but the evidence thus far adduced from the fossil plants indicates a transition from the Triassic flora below to the typical Cretaceous flora above. In this transition flora, accompanying thé numerous pteridophytes and gymno- sperms, are many archaic types, mostly of undoubted angio- sperms, in which generic relationships with living plants are more or less definitely indicated under such names as F2cophyl- lum, Sapindopsis, Salrciphyllum, Quercophyllum, Eucalypto- phyllum, &c. A number of living genera are also recognized, such as Jorreya, Sequoia, Araucaria, Taxodium, Sassafras, Ficus, Myrica, Sterculia, &c. The number of pteridophytes and gymnosperms, compared with the angiosperms, is about 4 to1. The comparatively limited number of modern elements contained in the flora renders any comparison with our living flora somewhat hazardous, so far as any conclusions as to the probable climatic conditions are concerned, but we may safely say that in its general characters tropical or sub-tropical condi- tions are indicated. Cretaceous Period. As previously stated, Jurassic strata are wanting in New Jersey, and we find that those which next suc- ceed the Triassic are clays, sands and gravels of Middle Creta- ceous age. This indicates a later submergence of the New Jersey area, when the shore-line was approximately where we *«*The Potomac or Younger Mesozoic Flora’? Monographs of the U.S. Geol. Survey, Vol. XV. {‘' The Potomac Formation,”’ 15th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 307-397. 196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. now find the northern edge of the clay belt to be, extending from Woodbridge to Trenton. ‘This was evidently a period of quietude and slow subsidence, as the deposits indicate, during which immense quantities of land vegetation were entombed, many of the specimens so delicate that it is difficult to under- stand how they could have been preserved, affording additional evidence of the quiet conditions which must have prevailed. This flora has been described by Dr. Newberry,* who recognized in it 156 species, of which all but about 30 are angiosperms, nearly all of them included under living genera. Many of these are genera which now inhabit the region, such as Diospyros, Juglans, Liriodendron, Magnolia, Populus, &c., but others are of foreign or more southern indigenous distribu- tion, such as Bauhinia, Cinnamomum, Eucalyptus, Ficus, Lau- rus, Passiflora, Seguowa, &c. No living species is recognized, although close specific relation- ship is indicated in one of the names adopted (Magnolia glau- cotdes) and is commented upon in regard to others. The most significant feature as a whole is the complete reversal of the pro- portions between the angiosperms and gymnosperms when com- pared with these proportions in the preceding formation, the angiosperms being now overwhelmingly in the ascendant. The genera also indicate a climate less tropical than that which preceded it. After the clays had been laid down, as estuary or brackish water deposits, as indicated by the occurrence of marine molluscs in limited numbers, the submergence continued, and we next find the clay marls, representing a transition to marine condi- tions. In these, as might be expected, the remains of land vegetation are less abundant, but apparently the flora was not noticeably different in its generic characters from that of the clays, although a number of new species may be noted. t+ The subsidence continued and true marine conditions super- vened. The marls were deposited and in thei nothing but marine organisms are preserved. Thus far we have not found any record of the land vegetation which occupied the region **¢The Flora of the Amboy Clays.’’ Monographs of the U.S. Geol. Survey, Vol, XXVI. +See “The Cretaceous Clay Marl Exposure at Cliffwood, N. J.’ Arthur Hollick. Trans, N.Y. Acad, Sci, Vol. XXI, p. 124. REPORT ON FORESTS. 197 during the time when this formation was being laid down, but in the West the conditions were different and the remains of Upper Cretaceous plants are abundantly preserved in the Lara- mie and allied formations. In these most of the Middle Creta- ceous genera continue, but the species, in all except a few instances, are different. A large number of new genera make their appearance, including one entirely new type of vegetation —the fan palms—and for the first time the monocotyledons assume some prominence. Generically it was more closely related to the living flora of the middle United States than was that which preceded it. The number of living genera included in it was actually and relatively greater and the species are of a more modern aspect, but none of the latter is apparently identical with any now in existence. The ratios between the pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms were apparently approximately as we find them to be to-day, and the climatic condition indicated was warm- temperate. NEOZOIC TIME. Tertiary Period. During the early part of this period the indications are that while minor oscillations of level occurred, the previous era of subsidence continued until the shore-line advanced inland beyond the old Cretaceous border, covering the entire coastal plain with the deposits which we know in the agetegate as the Yellow Gravel formation. In places this is . undoubtedly of marine origin, in others it is apparently due to floods of fresh water. At one locality only, in the vicinity of Bridgeton, has the vegetation of any portion of this period been found within the borders of the state. Fortunately the remains there preserved were collected in considerable abundance and in an excellent state of preservation. Probably about fifty species are repre- sented in the collections which have been made—all of them angiosperms, many of them referable to living species and some 198 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. of them identical with species now growing in the vicinity of Bridgeton, such as //ex opaca, Nyssa sylvatica, &c.* A comparison between this fossil flora and the living flora of eastern North America indicates a close identity between the former and that now in existence at about the latitude of Vir- ginia. In many of its elements it is unique and distinct from that of any other American Tertiary horizon. The collections of Eocene and Miocene plants which have been made in the West contain different species, and those from Bridgeton are either rare or entirely wanting in them. Asa whole the flora is more nearly comparable with that of certain European Upper Miocene localities, and we may regard it as that which immedi- ately preceded the close of the Tertiary period, and this conclu- sion is emphasized by the well-recognized fact that in Europe biologic evolution was in advance of America, so that the European Eocene flora is largely comparable with the American Miocene, European Miocene with American Pliocene, and European Pliocene with the American living flora. On the whole I am inclined to consider it as more recent in age than that of any other recognized Tertiary horizon in Amer- ica, but final conclusions in regard to it cannot be arrived at until a number of species collected during the progress of this investi- gation have been more critically examined. Quaternary Period. 'Towards the latter part of the Tertiary period an era of elevation began, which raised the northern part of the North American continent hundreds of feet above its former level, and extended the shore-line far out beyond its former or its present position, so that the edge of the continent was about where we now find the 100-fathom contour to be, form- ing a broad expanse of coastal plain, extending out to this line. It was apparently the period of maximum land area for this | region. Up to this time in the world’s history we have reason to believe “The results of preliminary studies of this flora may be found in several papers by the writer, as tollows : x, “Palzobotany of the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, N. J.’’ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol, XIX (1892), p. 330. 2. ‘New Species of Leguminous Pods from the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, N. J.”” Zid, Vol. XXIII (1896), p. 46. - 3. ‘A New Fossil Monocotyledon from the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, N. J.’ /did, Vol. XXIV (1897), Pp. 329. In the above-quoted papers may also be found references to the work of others on the same subject. REPORT ON FORESTS. a99 that there were no such extremes of climate between the poles and the equator as prevail to-day. The temperature of the earth’s surface had been more or less uniform during the respect- ive periods, as evidenced by the fact that rocks of the same age the world over, wherever they have been examined, contain the remains of vegetation which are identical. generically and even specifically to a large extent. The elevation which began in the Tertiary period, however, caused, or at least was coincident with, the greatest changes, climatic and biologic, which are anywhere recorded in geologic history. The climate became gradually more and more severe at the north and finally culminated in what we have come to call the Ice Age or Glacial Epoch of the Quaternary period. The change must have been a gradual one, extending over a long period of time, as we are justified in concluding from the fact that the vegetation which was in existence at the time when it was finally overwhelmed by the accumulation of ice and snow, which extended southward in New Jersey as far as Perth Amboy in the east and Belvidere in the west, was identical in all respects with that ofto-day. In other words, the flora of the Tertiary period had had opportunity to become modified by the changing con- ditions before its final extermination by the ice sheet, which im- ‘plies a long period of time. Every species thus far discovered in the bowlder till, in the glacial sands or gravels, or in buried swamp deposits, is identical with some living species. Some of the Tertiary species were able to continue their existence by migrating southward, and these are in existence to-day, but such as were unable to migrate from the area of glaciation were abso- lutely exterminated and only such species as were able to exist under the changed conditions southward were able to re-establish themselves after the final recession of the ice. I do not know of remains of the vegetation of this period having been found in New Jersey, and such as have been found elsewhere are scanty in amount, but all the species identified are the same as those now living. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The final recession of the ice was accompanied by a sub- sidence of the land and a consequent restriction in its area. The shore-line advanced inland, and in places only. the more 200 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. elevated parts of the coastal plain, where the morainal debris was heaped, remained above water. Such portions of the former plain region are now represented by Long Island, Block Island, Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket and the lesser islands in the vicinity. Several minor oscillations of level occurred, and finally the land assumed the contour and topography of to-day. At the present time, so far as New Jersey and vicinity are concerned, a slow subsidence is recognized as taking place, which amounts to about two feet in a century. This rate of subsidence, while very slow compared with the activity of human events, is probably but little different from that which produced such far-reaching changes in the past. Indeed, its effects have been appreciable within historic time, and we have but to consider the cumulative effects which such a rate of sub- sidence will cause in time in order to appreciate that great changes, topographic and biologic, will be wrought in the future. Surveys have shown that the coast-line has advanced inland hundreds of feet in many localities since the land was first occupied by the whites. Old meadow-turf and tree stumps are to be seen in the ocean-bottom far out beyond the present shore, and what was once upland, capable of cultivation, has become converted into marshes. Bearing all these facts in mind, it is certainly pertinent for us to speculate on what the ultimate result may be, provided the present conditions continue. Manifestly the flora which occu- pies the coast region will continue to have its habitat more and more restricted in area and will be driven more and more towards the tension zone, where the struggle for existence with its more highly organized neighbors will be fiercer. The history of evolution in the vegetable kingdom has shown con- ‘clusively that the gymnosperms represent a waning type and that the angiosperms have been steadily crowding them out. The former have decreased in numbers and in size, and in any competition for the occupancy of a region at all favorable for the angiosperms these latter are sure to prevail. The general trend of events may be foreshadowed from what we have seen has taken place in the past, in the gradual waning of the more primitive gynmnosperm type and the coincident ascension of the more highly organized angiosperm type. ‘The REPORT ON FORESTS. 201 former now exists largely under barren-soil conditions towards the south, or under severe climatic conditions in the far north, not apparently by reason of these conditions being directly favorable for them, but, at least in part, for the reason that they are unfavorable for the angiosperms, which have crowded them out from the most desirable locations. The conclusion, therefore, seems to be inevitable that the flora of the coniferous zone is destined to be ultimately obliterated, or only to exist over limited areas, often for the negative reason that in such areas the condi- tions may not be favorable for other types of vegetation. The influence of man may produce temporary changes and give tem- porary advantage from time to time, but such changes are entirely artificial and cannot prevail in the long run over the constant and inevitable progress of physical and organic evolu- tion. PART IIL. ‘The Role of Insects in the Forest. By JOHN B. SMITH, State Entomologist. (203) The Role of Insects in the Forest. By JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D. That a giant of the forest, one that has resisted the storms of a century, should succumb to the attacks of an insect, countless millions of which would be required to equal it in bulk, seems almost absurd; yet it is nevertheless true, though not, as a rule, quite so literally as it reads. Most of our forest trees support an immense insect population without showing any ill effects. Nearly 500 species are known to feed on the species of oak, and nearly 200 on the species of pine, in the United States. Given a perfectly healthy tree, it will bring to maturity a host of feeders upon its foliage, upon the smaller shoots, in the injured or broken twigs or branches, in its fruit, and even in its woody tissue. Comparatively few borers or other insects are able to maintain themselves in the growing wood of large healthy trees, and when these occur in moderate numbers they inflict only such wounds as are easily healed, corresponding to mere scratches in the human skin. Under some conditions these insects increase abnormally, and then thousands of acres of: timber may be killed off. As the bleeding from many small scratches may drain the human body of blood when they are kept constantly open, so the boring of thousands of beetles, insignificant individually, may weaken even the forest giant ; and when this occurs, when there is no longer a healthy, resist- ant tissue, then another host of other species steps in, adds to the injury, and paves the way for yet further armies that com- plete the work, leaving only a dead stick with bare branches, sooner or later prostrated by a storm, and then slowly reduced to dust by yet other agencies, insect, fungous, or microbic in character. Of the feeders upon foliage in its broad sense, some, like cater- pillars, feed openly and simply upon the leaf tissue, destroy and (205) 206 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. convert a certain amount of it into caterpillar tissue, and their work is done. Little impress is left upon the tree under ordinary conditions, or unless the feeding numbers are excessive. Even if one of the large species defoliates a branch, this is not serious except on conifers, which, on the whole, suffer less from attacks of this kind. The larvz of saw-flies are also feeders upon forest-tree foliage, and these sometimes do local injury. Saw-flies are Hymenoptera, z. é., they belong with the bees, wasps and ants in structure; but they differ by having the abdomen closely joined to the body, not connected with it by a slender waist. Saw-fly larva resemble caterpillars in shape and appearance ; but have at least 18 legs, instead of 16,as in true caterpillars. They have a tendency to feed in colonies and often curl up the end of the body when feed- ing at the edge of a leaf. A black-spotted species occurs on pine, sometimes in such numbers as to attract attention and defoliate even large branches. Small or ornamental trees in parks are sometimes killed or severely injured ; but on larger trees a dead twig or small branch is the extent of the mischief caused. Some of these larvee are covered with a white powdery bloom, and at least one species, occurring on willow, becomes of con- siderable size, reaching an inch and a half in length when extended at full length. It is pale yellowish in general color, with a whitish, small head anda black stripe down the back, making it easily recognizable and a fair sample of this kind of larva except in size. On the hickory and butternut other species occur that are known as “‘ woolly worms,” because of the masses of fine waxen threads that cover the body and give it a fluffy appearance. Yet other species are gall-makers, causing blister or marble- like excrescenses on leaves, stems or twigs, in the center of which the larvee feed. Willows and poplars are especially subject to this kind of attack. Among the caterpillars, besides those that eat of the leaf-tissue directly, many are leaf miners, eating between the upper and lower surfaces, sometimes irregular blotches, sometimes galleries. of definite form, each species having a constant and character- ‘istic type. A few others make little cases or sacks, in which they live and which they carry about with them. Many are leaf- REPORT ON FORESTS. 207 ‘rollers, folding or rolling the entire or part of a leaf into a cylinder, in which they feed under shelter. Yet others live in colonies and spin up a number of leaves or even an entire branch. The well known web-worms and tent caterpillars will readily occur to all, and wide-spread injury is sometimes done by one or both. The forest tent caterpillar has defoliated acres of forest land in New York State during the season of 1899, and has opened the way for yet more serious injury in rg00. Less known is another species that attacks young trees, often enveloping one of 4 or 5 feet completely. When this occurs the death of the young tree often follows, the growth being smothered where not actually eaten. a! ve 0, HEIDEMANS& Ql y Figure 2.—Elm leaf beetle; typical of a destructive feeder on foliage: a, a, egg patches on leaves; 6 larve feeding; c, adult; all natural size: ¢, egg-mass; /, surface of the egg; g, larva; h, z, details of the same; 7, pupa; 4, beetle; 7, surface of elytra; all enlarged: from Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agl. , Numerous “grubs,” or beetle larvee, live on the leaves of forest trees, often in very large numbers, and these also may be ) > J open feeders, leaf miners or sac bearers; but they rarely become 208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. as destructive as the Lepidopterous and Hymenopterous larvee already mentioned. Galls made by saw-fly larvee have been already mentioned ; but they are in the minority when compared with those made by others of the same order Hymenoptera, the Cyzzpzd@ or true gall wasps. ‘These galls may appear on almost any part of the tree when young; but, when older, trunks and larger branches are exempt: and they are as diverse as the places they attack. Oaks are favorite subjects, but other trees are by no means free from them. On the leaves the galls are usually more or less spherical or marble-like, but they differ much in size and texture, being sometimes quite solid with thick walls, sometimes filled with Figure 3.—A spongy oak gall: from Riley. loose tissue and with a thin paper-like covering. Some are small and some are large, but that fact does not indicate the size of the larva that causes the gall. Two of the largest species occurring on oak exceed an inch in diameter and are filled, in the one case with a brown spongy mass, 11 the other with thread- like fibres radiating from the center in all directions to the outer wall. On the twigs and branches the galls may be also marble-like in appearance or they may be mere swellings or other protuber- ances. One of the largest and most common forms occurs as a potato-like swelling on the trunks and branches of young and REPORT ON FORESTS. 209 twigs of older trees. It is fully 11 inches in diameter as a rule, and sometimes considerably more. ‘Through the outer envelope comes, in due time, aseries of pointed processes which are, each of them, larval cells: in other words, instead of the gall being produced by and containing only a single larva, some 50 to 100 have combined to form the larger swelling, in which each larva has a separate cell. In some cases the very tips of the shoots become swollen and distorted, so that the gall is really a malformation of the shoot itself; or there may be a cluster of soft ovoid growths so close together as to press themselves out of shape and produce a series of irregular, more or less transversely flattened blisters. More rarely galls occur on the roots, and these are usually irregular, lumpy swellings. But not the Hymenoptera alone produce galls: quite a num- ber of Diptera, or flies, belonging to the family Ceczdomyide produce abnormal growths on leaves or twigs. One species attacks the base of the leaves of pines and causes an abnormal onion-like swelling at that point; quite a number are found making galls on the hackberry, while the willow is especially favored by them: all sorts of abnormal growths being produced, from little swellings to small cabbage-heads. A few of the beetles are gall-nakers—some on pine, like Podapion gallicola, others on deciduous trees—and these galls are ustially mere swellings on the twigs or branches, in which the larvee feed. Phylloxera galls are common on hickories, and it is not an uncommon thing to see a young tree with the leaves covered with the large blister-like galls which are open inferiorly. If one of these galls be cut open, the inner surface will be found so crowded with the insects that they can scarcely find room to insert their beaks to obtain food. Plant-lice, belonging to the same order as the Phylloxera, also produce more or less obvious gall-like growths, and the elm is a favorite tree for their attack. Sometimes there is a mere curling and distortion of the leaf, like that caused by Schzz- oneura americana, but often a real swelling, like the cocks-comb gall made by Colopha ulmicola, is produced. It seems, thus, that most of the orders of insects outside of the Neuropterous series contain gall-makers, and all of them are, of I4 FOR 210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. course, some sort of draft upon the tree. The least drain, per- haps, is made by the gall wasps, or Cyzzpzde, where the larvee seem to feed chiefly upon a secretion in the central cell and not upon the gall tissue itself. Plant-lice have been mentioned as gall-makers, but they occur also in great numbers, living freely upon the leaves or succulent growing shoots. No kind of tree is free from one or more species of these pests, and no sort of insect makes a more con- tinuous drain upon the vitality of the attacked plant. Individu- ally insignificant, their numbers make them dangerous, and their habit of excreting the plant juices in the form of ‘“ honey- dew” gives them the power of disposing of their food material more rapidly and in greater quantity than any other kind of insect. And they attack all parts of a tree: not only are they abundant among the foliage and branches, but even under- ground among the roots, and the latter are among the more serious forms. Of course, seasons affect the number of species and specimens of a species, to a very large extent. In wet seasons one set will become troublesome; in a dry season another will be in evidence while the former can scarcely main- tain itself. And so of the trees: in some seasons plant-lice attack will be serious; in the ensuing, scarcely a trace of aphid injury may be found in the district. Scale insects belong to the same general category as the plant lice in so far as they are suckers of the plant juices, but they are more dangerous because their attack is more continuous, because they are less exposed to adverse climatic conditions, and, perhaps, because some, at least, do exercise a really poison- ous influence upon the plants. Soft scales are comparatively rare in the forest, and only the Tulip tree, Lzrzodendron Tulipt- Jera, is seriously attacked in New Jersey. Of the armored scales the oyster-shell bark-louse, AZy¢zlaspis species, is sometimes seriously destructive in the more northern sections on the walnut and butternut trees. Willow and poplar, which are also attacked, seem to stand the injury better. The nut trees are of comparatively slow growth, and when the twigs or smaller branches become thoroughly encrusted with scales, death is only a matter of time, usually a short time. Plate No. XV.—The tulip soft scale, Lecanium Tulipifera. , REPORT ON FORESTS. 2I1 4 Pine needles are attacked by a white scale, Myizlaspis pintfolia, that is responsible for disfiguring and considerably injuring trees in some parts of South Jersey. There are, of course, numerous species other than have been mentioned ; it is possible to indicate here only some of the prin- cipal types ‘that may be commonly found feeding or living on the foliage and more actively growing portions of trees. But the real enemies of the forest are not usually those that outwardly attack a healthy tree, though these do their share of harm; but the forms that lie in wait for the weakling, the maimed and the cripple, depriving them of the chance of recovery. This is especially true in a State like New Jersey, where the forest areas frequently suffer from fires, large or small, from cattle, from careless cutting and from numerous other causes not found in primitive forest’ areas. Send through a strip of woodland a fire that burns only the leaves and undergrowth, and does no more than scorch the trunk or kill an occasional branch, and watch the result. Ina few weeks or months thereafter, according to the season, the undergrowth is renewed, and, superficially, the signs of injury have disappeared. Yet if we examine the trees themselves more carefully, we read another tale: wherever the bark has been scorched and killed, wherever a branch has been burnt, wherever twigs have been charred or deprived of life, and, in short, wherever a wound of any kind has been made, there we find that borers -have entered. Little piles of sawdust at the base of the tree attract our attention, and if we trace them to their source we find little round holes, the size of a pin-head or thereabouts. These go through the bark and either into the solid wood or into the bast or sap-wood. The culprits are ‘“‘shot-hole borers,” “ bark-beetles,” or Scoly- tids—little cylindrical beetles varying from less than one-six- teenth to an eighth of an inch in diameter and from one- sixteenth to three-sixteenths of an inch in length. Their work below the bark and into the wood gives entrance to moisture and germs of decay that weaken a larger area, in which the next brood finds a congenial home; and, coming out in num- bers that cannot all find entirely suitable areas, they attack and 212. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. enter healthy wood, in which, while they may not be able to breed, they may be able to set up a condition of affairs that will afford a proper home for a subsequent horde. Meanwhile, further from the injury, but affected by it be- cause of a lessening or interruption of the flow of sap, flat- headed borers have gained a foot-hold. They have begun to form shallow chambers in the sap wood, in which they live one, two or three years, constantly enlarging their field of operations and driving galleries that further interrupt the flow of sap until they are ready to pupate. Then they bore a short distance into the trunk, lie dormant in the pupal stage for a shorter or longer period and finally emerge as adults, ready to reproduce their kind, preferring the tree they themselves fed upon for purposes of oviposition, if it is at all suitable. As a result dozens of galleries replace the few, water gains further entrance here and there and cavities beneath the bark become obvious. These afford shelter to a large series of species that do not directly injure the tree, but by bringing in excrementitious matter favor the development of decay germs. Fermentation sets in, and a host of flies and sap beetles are on hand at once to further the disintegration of wood fibre. Finally a sheet of bark becomes loosened and falls; then come another lot of borers into the heart-wood : Scolytids or shot-hole borers, round-headéed borers, boring caterpillars, goat-moths or Sessiids, and in some instances ants or Termites, though these usually come when the fate of the tree is finally sealed. Of course, the progress of the insect attack is slow or rapid, in proportion to the extent of the original injury. If the injury was at all extensive, as a scorching of one side for several feet, two or three years will suffice to doom the tree and place it in control of the scavengers whose duty it is to reduce it to dust. If it was limited, several years may be required, assuming that the tree does not succeed in scarring over the original wound. As the trunk becomes the object of primary attack when the injury starts there, the effect on the crown may not be immedi- ately noticeable. But any serious interruption to the flow of sap is bound to have an effect on the area that should be supplied through the injured tract, and at once the insects mark the weakness. ‘wig borers enter at the tips and kill the young Plate No. XVI.—Burrows made by the hickory bark-beetle. This is a section of bark from a tree about 15 inches in diameter, killed by these insects. REPORT ON FORESTS. 213 shoots, or they may bore in at the base of the new growth, caus- ing it to wilt; girdlers find the branches attractive, and a great variety of creatures, chiefly beetles and flies, with a few Hymen- opterous species, perhaps, continue the attack from above. seine Figure 4.—A stick of oak, 4 inches in diameter, showing woodpecker holes made to get at a borer inside Now comes another factor—the woodpecker and its allies, that make war upon the borers. They peck and hammer away at infested spots, and many a fat borer falls’ prey to their activity and industry, but wherever they haul out a specimen they leave a hole, and that is, too often, an entrance point for the water, that, after all, is as much to be dreaded in the tree as it is useful when it reaches the roots through the soil. 214. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Thousands of oaks in South Jersey, four to eight inches in diameter, are ‘“‘doated” and useless except for short posts or firewood because of the well-meant efforts of woodpeckers to clear the tree of borers. In this case the boring insect is the larva of the “ goat moth,” Prionoxystus robini@, and this makes a gallery about three- Figure 5.—The same stick as Figure 4, cut through to show the burrow made by larva. The X marks indicate where the woodpecker hit the burrow, in each instance neediog two holes to get a larva, sixteenths of an inch in diameter as nearly as possible in the center of the trunk. Our woodpecker locates this larva with great exactness and drills a hole two to four inches deep, about one and a-half inches square at the surface, and tapering to the diameter of the burrow. In most cases he gets his larva at the REPORT ON FORESTS. ars first effort; but failure is not infrequent, and as many as four such holes may be drilled into a small tree from different sides before the grub is finally landed. A tree so treated is spoiled for all purposes save the wood-pile. It may recover, yet it will never completely outgrow the injury done—not by the larva, but by the bird. The “ goat moth,” by the by, deserves more than a mere pass- ing notice, because of the real injury done, not so much to the tree, as such, as to the timber that it should make. The insect derives its popular name from its peculiarly pungent and unpleasant odor, which is most intense in the pupal stage, and is, perhaps, protective. The moths are large, expanding from two to four inches, the wings more parchment-like in appearance than usual in this order, and the body in form some- what like the hawk moths. They do not feed, fly chiefly at dusk or in the night, and are rarely seen even when the larve are abundant. Eggs are laid in some wound, preferably the very spot where a moth has already emerged, and the young cater- pillars start from that point. A tree once infested, therefore, is likely to remain so, and at the point of entrance quite a decided swelling usually forms, in which is a more or less obvi- ous scarred opening. The caterpillars are white or with a pink- ish tinge, just a little flattened, with rather prominent black warts or tubercles, each of which bear stiff, bristly hairs. The head is large, brown, and with prominent jaws. When full- grown they are fully two inches in length, and early in the third year the pupa is formed in the gallery, near the surface, and preferably at just about the point where the entrance was effected. The borer is no great feeder, considering its size and length of life; its burrow rarely exceeding six or eight inches in length, of equal diameter throughout, so that the larva may move from one part to the other at all times. A young borer entering one of these old burrows may continue it upwardly, or may start a lateral from it, curving upward soon after he gets well away from the old one, and so a series of galleries may start from the one point of entrance, each year adding a little to the sum of injury and detracting as much from the value of the timber. Since they do not really interfere with the nourish- ment of the tree, they are not likely at any time to cause its 216 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. death, and I have seen examples where all external wounds were healed over vears since, yet whose history of prior infesta- tion was plainly to be read when the trunk was split, the old burrows found and the gnarled and twisted tissue of the old entrance laid bare. These defects are never repaired, aud a burrow once made in the heart-wood of oak is there for all time. Trees of this kind should be selected for firewood or for such purposes as they are suitable, and the sections containing the Figure 6.—Goat moths: female above, male below, and larva: from Riley larve should be used not later than June rst, to prevent the emergence of the moths. The cutting should be done, of course, in winter. Serub land is pecuharly subject to insect injurv when even a sinall fire has been through it. There are hundreds of acres of oak brush in South Jersey, and each year some portions are more or less scorched. The season following, almost every one of the shoots or saplings will be infested by round-headed borers of the genus L£Vlaphidion, commonly known as oak-pruners.”’ Their normal habit is to bore into oak twigs or branches until they are full-grown, then to cut the twig from the inside until it REPORT ON FORESTS. 217 is held by a mere film of bark that will break in the first high wind, carrying the borer to the ground in a shelter that remains unchanged during the remainder of its larval and pupal life. In the injured oak-shoots the larve find ideal conditions for their development, and they seem to realize that here there is no necessity for girdling, because they make not the least attempt in that direction. These borers remain in the trees one year only, and after that the wood is no longer in the right condition for them ; they leave it for others that delight in dead wood, and of these there is no lack. ‘There is another consequence, how- ever: where so many beetles develop they are hard put to it to find a place to breed, therefore they attack many trees that would, under ordinary circumstances, escape. Hence apple trees are frequently attacked and sometimes seriously injured, and large shade trees in parks and gardens are subjected to a merciless pruning. I think I have indicated sufficiently that the natural tendency under normal forest condition is to eliminate the weakling and the cripple, and that insects are among the chief agencies by means of which this is accomplished. The hosts of species that feed upon or in the foliage are comparatively of little importance unless they strip the trees. ‘This sometimes happens, and then the proper conditions may be induced that result in a successful borer attack. ‘ These borers are of three kinds, the bark or shot-hole borers, Scolytids; the flat and the round-headed borers, Buprestids and Cerambycids respectively ; all of which have been already men- tioned. The Scolytids are generally divisible into those that make gal- leries under the bark and those that work in the solid wood. The work of the former is most obvious, and their galleries, radiating from a single central channel, are obvious when a flake of bark is removed. Their method of causing injury is equally obvious; boring as they do between bark and wood, and partly in each, they interrupt the flow of sap, and when many of them are present, in effect, girdle the tree. These borers rarely attack healthy trees; but it does not need much to give them a foot- hold. ‘Trees in parks, without proper supply of nourishment or in sod, on land too well drained, are often attacked and killed 218 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. when to all appearance they are sound as a dollar; and_this may be so, too, where woodland has been too thoroughly opened up or where natural water-courses have been diverted and the usual supply of moisture has been either decreased or added to abnor- mally. When once these beetles have secured a good foothold the tree is doomed, and good forestry practice is to take it out and use it up immediately. Almost every species of bark-beetle makes a gallery peculiar to it, so that to one familiar with their habits a look at their work tells the species even if no adult insect is available for examination. Yet there are certain features that most of them have in common; usually the female parent bores into a proper tree, through the bark to the sap wood, and in the layer between bark and trunk, though mostly in the bark, a vertical channel or burrow ismade. A series of small chambers are nicked out at each side of this channel and in each of them an egg is laid. The larva, when hatched, at once starts a channel or burrow of its own, narrow and thread-like at first, but becoming larger as the grubs increase in size and each channel diverging from all the others so that they rarely cross. The pupa is formed at the end of this larval gallery in a little cell eaten out for that pur- pose, and the adults come out through little round holes bored by them when fully matured. In ‘some cases the central gallery is even throughout ; some- times there is an enlargement or an oblique spur at one or both ends, or a chamber somewhere in its course in which the parent can turn around if it so desires. Of this type is the Hickory bark-beetle that at Glen Ridge, New Jersey, killed off so many trees a few years.ago. (See Figure 4.) The Scolytids boring in the solid wood are usually called shot-hole borers, because of the size of the hole and because the edges are generally blackened as by fire. ‘The work of these beetles is not so obvious, nor is their ill effect so immediately visible as in the case of the previous type, yet they are always ready to do their share when the proper conditions arrive. The typical shot-hole borers differ altogether in many respects from the bark-boring type. Their galleries go variable dis- , tances in the solid wood, then laterals no larger or longer than the REPORT ON FORESTS. 219 beetle itself are driven, and in these the larvee develop. They do not lay so many eggs as the bark borers, but multiply rapidly Wigure %.—Round-headed apple borer: «, puncture in which egg is laid; 4, same in section; e, hole from which beetle has emerged; 7% same in section; g, pupa in place. From Div. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agl. nh sf fi. he bs Figure 8.—Giant borers, Prionus species; larva, pupa and adult natural size From Riley. 220 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. enough for practical purposes. A very striking character in some species is that, while they really bore into the wood, yet the larve have to be fed by a peculiar fungous growth known as Ambrosia. All the real boring is done by the adults, and the galleries once seeded down to mobrosia are inhabited by succes- sive broods of species, the dark staining in the wood resulting as much from the fungus as from the work of the beetles. On small trees a number of these beetles working at or near the same place may so weaken the trunk that it will break in the first high wind that comes along. Other species seem to prefer the very center of twigs, boring out the minute core in oaks and using the galleries thus made as a winter shelter. The round-headed borers are more or less cylindrical, white or yellowish grubs, the segments usually very well marked, and the “head,” or anterior portion, considerably enlarged or swollen. ‘These forms frequently attack living wood, and bore, usually, in the solid tissue, though some may burrow, for a time at least, beneath the bark or in the bast. ‘To this series belong the ‘“‘oak pruners,” the “twig girdlers,” the ‘‘bark slippers” (concerning which more will be said hereafter), the “giant root- borers,” and a variety of other pests. The adults are Longi- corns, or long-horned beetles, and all are feeders in woody or stem tissue in the larval stage. As adults they are not injurious, and are apt to be found on flowers, though some species are dis- tinctly rare even when their larvee are not uncommon. Thus oak sprouts are attacked at the base by a borer which kills a large percentage of them each year, and this borer is not at all rare; but the beetle, Goes ‘essellatus, may be sought for years before even a single example will be captured. As an example of the injury done by these longicorn borers, that attacking the locust may be cited. There is scarcely a locality in the State where these trees are not rendered utterly worthless. by the attacks of these insects, and, while the trees. may live under the attack for years, they are never good for any- thing. And this leads me to call attention to another point: the longicorn. borers are mostly wood feeders, and when they attack healthy trees, as many of them do, they bore at once into the trunk or the body of the branch. If they work in the bast REPORT ON FORESTS. 221 or sap-wood at all, it is for a short time only in the early stages of growth. The tree derives its chief supply of nourishment through this bast and sap-wood, which is scarcely at all injured by these larvae, hence they may work for many years without causing fatal results, if they are alone in their attacks. The Scolytid borers working the sap-wood or bast interfere at once with the nourishment of the tree, and the results are immedi- ately noticeable. The result of this difference from a practical standpoint is that a tree killed by Scolytids may make fair tim- ber; one that has been long infested by longicorn borers will be worth little or nothing, though the insects may not have killed the tree. The function of other of these borers attacking dead or dying wood will be again referred to. Flat-headed borers resemble the round-headed forms in general shape, but are compressed and flattened, the “head” segments comparatively broader and the body somewhat longer, so that they have been called ‘“‘ hammer heads.” These borers in the main attack weak, sickly or dead trees, though one group, the Agrilids, forms an important exception. ‘They live chiefly just under the bark or in the sap-wood, forming irregular shallow chambers connected by short, irregular galleries. Some of them ‘live two or three years in the larval stage, and, before trans- forming, bore a short distance into the- wood to form a pupal chamber, issuing later through a hole in the bark, as do the longicorns. It is easy to determine at all times whether a tree has been infested by round or flat-headed borers, for in the first instance the exit hole is as round as if it had been bored by an auger, while in the latter it is regularly oval. ‘the flat-headed borers come with or after the Scolytids, rarely before, and when the two are together present the flat-headed grubs often extend their chambers throughout an entire gallery system of a bark beetle, destroying everything in their way. The adults of these borers are Buprestdds, for whom there is no satisfactory common name. They are long and narrow, some- what flattened, tapering posteriorly, very hard in texture and generally metallic in color. Some of them are bright green, or brilliantly copper gilt, but most of them are more soberly bronzed or have a metallic green or blue reflection. The species of Agrilus are the smallest of the series, rarely more than one-quarter of an inch long, very slender and always t 222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. bronzed. ‘Their larvee are similar to those already described, but attack healthy plants, and, instead of excavating chambers, make long winding burrows, often completely girdling simall branches and causing injury altogether out of proportion to their size. This reference to size also brings to mind the further fact that the larva in this case is excessively large in proportion to the size of the adult, an inch and a-half borer making a one-quarter- inch beetle. They are called sinuate borers, from the character of their burrows, and chestnuts are frequent victims, some forms also attacking orchard and small fruits. Besides the Coleopterous borers just described, there are several boring caterpillars that may be always distinguished by having eight pairs of more or less developed legs. ‘They bore in the solid wood as a rule, and rarely in sufficient numbers to cause actual injury. Their chief danger lies in the fact that they open the way for the other species that endanger the tree itself. The goat moth, coming of the largest of these caterpillars, has been already mentioned. The others belong chiefly to the clear- winged moths of the family Seszzde. ‘The caterpillars are more cylindrical than those of the larger species, and the head is usu- ally black ; otherwise they are very similar. The pupa is quite generally provided with a more or less developed chisel-like pro- cess to the head, by means of which it cuts its wav through the bark. It wriggles through the opening so made until it projects half its length beyond the tree, being held in place by the rings of spinules and pointed processes with which the segments are set. The moths are usually black, marked with yellow, more or less resembling a wasp or hornet, and the wings are also narrow and transparent, to heighten the illusion. These borers are in many of the forest trees and occur in all parts—quite as often in the roots as elsewhere. In some cases city shade trees become the victims and the maple is particularly susceptible to attack. Heretofore I have spoken of the species that attack the healthy, sickly or injured tree to cause its death, and this is one important way in which injury is caused to forests. Another kind of injury comes in when for any reason timber is killed purposely or dies standing, before being made into lumber. A dead tree is a carcass to be removed, and dozens of species and thousands of specimens begin work at once, the borers of course REPORT ON FORESTS. 223 doing the main work at the beginning and opening the way for decay and the species that further it. Species of all sizes will bore little holes, most of which blacken or discolor, and lessen the value of the boards into which the trunk may be cut. Then the larger galleries prevent its use for that purpose altogether. After the larger borers have made a good start, ants come in and occupy their galleries, extending and connecting them for their own guests and other messmates, which, though they do not directly feed upon the wood, yet open up new points for decay. ‘Termites, or so-called white ants, come along and work at the surface or underground, and these are destructive when once started. They are typical wood-feeders, and their colonies contain countless numbers, reducing a tree to a mass of galleries in an astonishingly short time. When once these insects have made a fair start in a trunk, its value as timber is gone. In fact, it may be said that from the time life has ceased, standing timber deteriorates continually and ever more rapidly, primarily as the result of insect-attack. If a load of cord-wood be cut in winter and piled, it makes an excellent collecting-ground the year following. From the time that spring is fairly open, beetles, flies, many Hymenoptera and some visitors of other orders flit about it, some seeking food or shelter merely, others a suitable point for breeding. In mid- June it will be a busy scene during the warm sunny hours, and all seasons new forms keep coming. During the latter'part of the winter following it will be noted that much of the bark on the sticks comes off easily, and in the following spring it can be lifted off readily trom the majority of them. Examination will show that the tissue between bark and wood has been com- pletely eaten out by a series of larvae which are called by the woodmen in some localities ‘“bark-slippers.” They are round and flat-headed borers, though the former predominate, and are mostly members of the genus Phymatodes, all of whose species have similar habits. Beneath this loose bark we find secondary species: members of the order 7hysanura, spring-tails mostly, that occur wherever there is moist, decaying or fermenting veg- etation of any kind. With these, and probably preying upon them, are the little pseudo-scorpions, or Chelifera, which may be found in all stages in early summer. Centipedes and milli- 224 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. pedes, the predatory and vegetarian types, find here both shelter and food, while sow-bugs (Ozzscus) are found in the lower tiers. The bark slippers, when they have attained their full size, eat a short distance into the wood to form a pupal chamber, whose entrance they plug up with shavings until they have reached the adult stage. Where tan-bark is made, these same species sometimes do considerable mischief, boring in the bark itself or etween the layers, lessening its value and occasionally ruining it where left out-doors too long. No wood can be too hard, too dry or too dead to secure it against borer attack, though its condition may often retard their Figure 9.—A “ bark slipper,’ PAymatodes sp., in all stages—larva, pupa above and below, and adult. development. Larvee that live in concealment and grow slowly, requiring two or three years to reach a stage which other insects attain in as many months, may, under favorable conditions, have their development greatly retarded. Logs may.be cut up into boards, made into furniture, and come into daily use without harming the contained borers, some of which have lived for more than a decade under such conditions. In March, 1898, the yellow-pine wainscoting of a building in Somerville was found to be filled with round-headed borers. It had been in place five years, and, when discovered, the insects REPORT ON FORESTS. 225 had bored out almost the entire center of each board, leaving only a mere shell. Of course the whole work had to be removed, and I secured some specimens, intending to raise the species to maturity ; but, in October, 1899, the larve are yet unchanged and manifest no apparent desire to get into the pupal stage. This case demonstrates both the longevity of the insects and the damage caused by them. A somewhat different case occurred in Jersey City, where hard- wood timber had been made into paneling. The wood seemed in fair condition; part of it was veneered and all of it was filled, heavily varnished and polished. In the spring of 1898 the owner was astonished to find the little powder post beetle, Lyctus striatus, emerging in great numbers, leaving their small exit holes everywhere in such quantity as to utterly ruin the appearance of his trimming. The larvee, in their early stages, had not been noticed when the material was worked up, and had developed normally after the woodwork was finally in place. It is difficult to cover wood so as to prevent beetles from coming out, but as a rule the insects need a recognizable surface for entrance and will rarely exter a varnished or painted board or post. Indeed, even lime will answer as an outdoor preservative, very few insects caring to bite into or even to come to rest on it. The latter, however, may be due to the fact that they are too conspicuous on such a white surface for their own safety. A fallen tree or log left to lie in the forest first becomes a prey to bark slippers, as in the case of the cord-wood; but the bark remains in place and furnishes shelter to the host that is work- ing beneath it. Click-beetles, and their larvee, the wood-feeding wire-worms, come in, as do also the grubs of some of the weevils. These make surface burrows only, but in the heart-wood are the giant borers, both round and flat head, that make galleries nearly one-quarter of an inch in diameter. These attain a length of from 2 to 3 inches, and the resulting adults are the largest of their kind. ‘The round-headed borer makes a species of Przonis, a stout black, long-horned beetle about 1%. inches long and half an inch in width across the shoulders. It is one of the species of slow growth and requires three years to come to maturity. Examples are most frequent in pine logs, living in the “fat,” which without their assistance would resist decay indefinitely. 15 FOR 226 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The wire-worms do not, as a rule, enter a tree or log until germs of decay are present, and they are not borers in the real sense of the word, except in soft or dry rot. The smaller species as arule remain close under the bark and do not get into the body of the tree at all; but the larger species may be found wherever the tissue is soft enough to be penetrated by them. The largest of all is about 114 inches long and produces what is known as the eyed Elater, dlaus oculatus. It 1s over an inch long, loose jointed, gray and black speckled, the thorax with two very large eye-like black spots, one on each side, which attract attention whenever the insect is seen and make it easily recognizable. The hammer-heads make a species of Chalcophora about an inch in length, not over one-fourth of an inch broad at the shoulders, tapering posteriorly, somewhat flattened above and more or less bronzed in color. ‘These borers are not so long lived as the longicorn larve, and I know of no instance of their remaining in the larval state so many years under adverse con- ditions. When water enters and decay has actually begun, another series of larvee comes in—the ‘white grubs.” White grubs are cylindrical, fat creatures, almost always curled up in a ring, with yellow or brown head, large, powerful jaws or mandibles, six well-developed brown legs and a very blunt posterior extremity. The creatures are clumsy in appearance and help- less when taken out of their burrows, their small fore body being incapable of properly supporting and balancing the clumsy, food-distended hind body. From the largest of these white grubs, distinguished by its ivory-like color and texture, comes our stag beetle, Lwcanus dama, also known as the ‘“‘pinch- ing bug,” because of the prominent mandibles of the male. Gnawing at the roots of the stumps are others of these large grubs, from which come the ‘Rhinoceros beetles,” so called because of the long horn on the front of the head, and others without a common name, species of S¢ra/egus, with horn-like processes on the thorax—formidable creatures all of them, in appearance, but actually harmless. It is not often that these insects are seen by the uninitiated, but they are, nevertheless, present, and are sometimes quite numerous in the Pines. REPORT ON FORESTS. 227 Exactly how much harm they do is perhaps a question. Their life history is not well known, and just how much living tissue the larva requires to bring it to the pupal stage is yet to be ascertained. It is reasonably certain, however, that they require two or more years to reach maturity, and that their presence alone does not indicate any serious danger to the trees. There are other of these large grubs, feeding in decaying stumps, like the species of Osmoderma, black or brown in color, broad and a little flattened, with a peculiar, somewhat leathery odor, only a feeble indication of the intensely disagreeable effluvia of the giant Dyzastes of the more southern States, which appears in New Jersey only as a very occasional visitor. Smaller white grubs are nibbling away at the edges, so to speak, near the exposed ends of the log or trunk, leaving a little dry crust between themselves and the outer air. These are species of Valgzs and allies, which, though they be common enough, are rarely seen except by the entomologist. When decay has proceeded well along, and the log has become unfit for most other species, the larva of Passalus comes along and does the finishing work. This is also a white grub, grows to be almost two inches long, and differs from the others by having four legs only. The beetle is oblong, black, an inch and a quarter or more in length, somewhat flattened and with a little curved horn on the head, whence it derives its specific name, corzu¢us. When this insect gets through with a log or stump, it can be kicked to pieces without much effort, and of real wood fibre little is left beside the shell. Stumps are in the same category with fallen trees and logs, the same general types of insects attacking them and causing their reduction to dust. Stumps, however, are more likely to be invaded by Termites, and when these take possession nothing else will be found. Ants, particularly the black and brown car- penter ants, are found in logs before they are much advanced in decay. In this superficial sketch only the more prominent types of insects concerned in forest injury or in reducing a dead tree to vegetable mould have been mentioned, those forms chiefly that any one with a little ability in observing can find without much 228 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. trouble. The numerous types of Rove beetles, sap beetles, fungus beetles, &c., that are always found on dead and dying wood have not been even mentioned. A fallen tree in the second season on the ground will occupy an entomologist an entire day in its exploration, and insects in some stage will be found in all parts of it; and each year brings different forms, adapted to live under the changed conditions until, when the woody mass can be crumbled between the fnipers, the minute little Scydmenzds and Pselapheds are sifted out over a cloth. There is another set of insects that may have the effect of crippling or distorting a tree, as, for instance, the white pine weevil. This attacks the leading shoots of pine, fir and spruce, the larva boring into them and forming large cavities. When, as is usually the case, a number of the grubs are found in one shoot, it withers up and dies, leaving the plant to send out a new leader from another point. That, of course, destroys the symmetry of the tree, and a cripple results, of no value for ornamental purposes in a park and of little use for timber, should that stage be ever reached, for, once the victim of an attack of this kind, the tree seems predisposed to further injury of the same character, so that several leaders may be killed and the tree transformed into a mass of forks. Another weevil larva attacks willow in much the same way, save that the infestation is more general, no “leading” shoots occurring in this tree. In fact, quite a number of weevil larvee bore into twigs or branches or live beneath bark, causing local trouble, rather than general effect on the plant attacked. The larve of weevils are somewhat like white grubs in shape, but much smaller, not so much curved, without the peculiarly rounded anal segment and without legs. The grubs found in chestnuts, hickory nuts and acorns belong to this tribe, and give a good idea of the general appearance of curculio larve. It cannot be insisted too strongly that there is an insect host constantly on the watch to reduce to dust every tree that shows the least trace of flagging vitality, just as there is always ready a group of seedlings ready to take part in the struggle for the place vacated by a dead tree. It is indeed a continuous battle, not only between plant and plant, but between plant and insect, and, in REPORT ON FORESTS. 229 the long run, under normal conditions, both thrive. Both have their hard times and seasons of distress, and when one is up the other isdown; but both maintain themselves. The object of the forester is to give his trees a little the advantage, to enable even the one low in vitality to make good its position, and to keep the wood product at the best and highest market value. To go into details is obviously impossible here, but some few suggestions can be given that will be useful where any attention at all is paid to woodland. The first and most important feature is what corresponds to clean culture in the orchard and field; z. e., the removal of all undergrowth and other material that would in any way interfere with the growth of the trees. ‘This is often a matter of consid- erable importance where the soil is poor and the trees need all the advantage that they can get in the way of securing nourish- ment. It gives a better, healthier growth, offering no encourage- ment to insect attack, while the removal of the undergrowth deprives many forms of a shelter from which they await their chance to get at the trees. It has a further direct advantage in that it removes altogether certain forms that attack the forest trees in ‘one stage only. Thus a species of Ptinid beetle lives in the larval state in the roots of green or cat brier or in dead grape, the adults boring into the twigs of trees to obtain food and for shelter. The destruction of these briers removes one source of injury. Freedom from undergrowth. will facilitate other operations, in case of any unusual insect attack on the foliage. Complete defoliation by insects should be prevented at any reasonable cost, and it is rarely indeed that in our latitude this is threatened. Complete defoliation at any time means almost certain death to conifers; deciduous trees are not much injured by it, provided the terminal buds are not destroyed. They may be somewhat checked in growth and may in case of a drought ripen up pre- maturely, and have but a weakly growth the year following; but under ordinary circumstances, if defoliation takes place before midsummer, a new crop of leaves is produced in a short time. Under the same general head of clean culture comes also the removal of dead and dying trees, and this is another very import- 230 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ant measure. It has been already shown how great an attraction is a dying tree to boring insects, hence, as soon as it is dis- covered that a tree has become thoroughly infested, that tree should be at once cut out, removed and used up in some way, or if it cannot be at once used the bark should be stripped so as to expose the wood to the weather. This method will kill all insects which do not flourish in dry wood, and will, of course, prevent further breeding. The importance of this is not in the mere destruction of the insects in the one tree, but in the pre- vention of attack on the others. Ifa tree so infested be allowed to mature the larve in it, the resulting adults are apt to try other trees not naturally ready for them. So a tree killed by girdling, by fire or in any other way, should be cut out as soon as may be to save the lumber in the best condition; the longer it stands the more holes there will be, and, of course, the less it will be in value. Cord-wood made from live trees, in winter, should not be allowed to remain in the wood during the following summer, because in it so many insects will breed that may, when pressed, attack standing timber. In fact, the rule should be, broadly, to allow no dead or dying wood to stand or lie anywhere about, and the cleaning-up is best done in the early part of July, when the bulk of the wood borers are in the young larval stage. It is good practice, also, to girdle a poor tree now and then, to attract what insects there may be about, serving thus as a trap and a protection to the other trees. This girdling should be done in winter for one set of insects, and in spring, after the trees are in full leaf, for another. ‘wo trees thus treated will protect a considerable area of forest, and they should be cut out and destroyed the winter following. Where a fire has been.through any part of the wood, every tree, no matter how large or how small, that has been at all scorched, should be cut out. Such trees are almost certain to attract borers, and there is no greater ally or provider of insect food than this same fire. No shoot is so small that it cannot nourish some species, and to the entomologist and collector. there is no richer ground for variety of species or number of specimens than a field of sprout-land through which a fire has run the year before. Hence such land should always be completely cleared for the protection of parts yet uninjured. REPORT ON FORESTS. 2aT In general, birds are the foresters’ friends, and should be encouraged ; but I am not so sure about the woodpeckers. If there be no dead or dying trees no woodpeckers are needed to destroy larvee, and on the other hand there is little likelihood that any will remain about where no chance for food-supply exists. Frogs, toads, lizards and snakes are great entomologists, and destroy vast quantities of insects without in turn causing injury. Lizards, especially, destroy large numbers of wood-feeders, and should be encouraged. Sometimes high winds, lightning or other causes injure or kill a branch or break it without harming the main tree, but leaving perhaps a ragged stump in case of breakage. All dead wood of this kind should be cut out, and all ragged stumps due to breakage should be properly trimmed off. Direct insecticide applications are rarely practical in forest work, though in parks, where the trees have an ornamental value, they may become desirable. Against borers no applica- tions can be made. The preventive measures already mentioned will suffice for them. ‘The pruners or girdlers may be checked by systematically gathering and burning all the fallen branches in winter. This is really necessary on park land only, for the pruning done in the forest under normal conditions amounts to nothing, and natural enemies prevent too great an increase in the species. Isolated trees scattered in open groves are much more severely injured, and in such cases the gathering and burn- ing of the pruned branches is indicated. Where leaf feeders really endanger the tree or its foliage, particularly conifers, arsenate of lead will prove the best insecti- cide for general use, because of its harmlessness to foliage of all kinds. Arsenate of lead is made by dissolving in water, in separate vessels, 4 ounces arsenate of soda and 11 ounces acetate of lead. The amount of water is immaterial, so it is sufficient to com- pletely dissolve the chemicals. When the solutions are com- plete, combine the two and add water to make 80 gallons. This will kill most leaf-feeders in their early stages; but if the larve are well grown, or if adult beetles are to be dealt with, 4o gallons will be enough to use. » 232 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. As to spraying machinery, pumps, nozzles, &c., that branch of the subject will be found treated in the reports and bulletins of the Agricultural College Experiment Station. A very important method in European forest culture is band- ing with “ Raupenleim ” or similar sticky mixture impassible to caterpillars. This is employed chiefly against the larvee of the Gypsy moth and the brown-tail moth, both of which now occur in the United States, but have not yet been found in New Jersey. At the present time there is no species against which such a method could be profitably employed in our forests, and it, as well as the allied method of trapping under cloth bands, requires more or less continuous attention. On a limited area of a park-like character burlap bands, such as are in use by the Massachusetts Gypsy Moth Committee, may prove useful as traps to many kinds of leaf-feeding forms that resort to it for concealment or for the purpose of pupation. Such bands to be of any practical use must be Seid at least once a week for the purpose of destroying what insects may be hidden there; hence their use presupposes a tract sufficiently valuable to justify the employment of some person sufficiently intelligent to exercise ‘some discrimination in killing. Finally, it may not be amiss to say that not one-fourth the damage actually caused by insects in our New Jersey forests could occur did not fires, great or small, first pave the way. » PRANCE COMPEIGN REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XVII > ea] n “4 qQ = 3 ic) Zz is ° > qQ > 4 2) a ra < 2 o) fe) a ° Q Oo TRANCE TO THE PHEASANTRY OF PART IV. The Forestal Conditions and Silvicultural Prospects of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey, WITH Remarks in Reference to Other Regions and Kindred Subjects. By JOHN GIFFORD, D. CEc. (233), Forestal Conditions and Silvicultural Pros- pects of the Coastal Plain. I. General Description. Although small in area, the State of New Jersey is very varied in nature.* In the north there are rough, wooded mountainous regions ; in the central portions rich farm lands, and in the south vast stretches of sandy pine-lands. The average value of im- proved land in New Jersey is higher than that of any other State in the Union. The State is without a rival in reference to loca- tion and transportation facilities. If forestry cannot be practised with profit in this region, there is little hope for it elsewhere in eastern America. The region to which this title refers is located in the south- eastern portion of the State, less than one hour's ride by train from New York and Philadelphia.t It is irregularly triangular in shape, and is included between latitudes 40° 20’ and 38° 55’, and longitudes 74° and 75° 30’.t It is the northern extremity of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, which extends southward in vast stretches of sandy pine and swamp-lands, to the cocoanut groves and pine-apple fields of Florida. The Coastal Plain of New Jersey is bounded on the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, on the southwest by Delaware Bay, and on the northwest by a com- paratively thickly populated and productive agricultural region. The area of this territory is about 2,500 square miles, at least * The area of New Jersey is 8,224 square miles, with a population in 1895 of 1,672,942. The area of the Grand Duchy of Baden, an important forest state of the German Empire, is 5,821 square miles, with a Population of 1,657,867. It is considerably smaller than the Kingdom of Belgium, which contains 11,373 square miles, with a population of 6,195,355. + The combined population of adjacent cities amounts to more than five millions ! } This region lies in about the latitude of Naples, Constantinople and Northern Japan. Although South Jersey has the temperature of Northwestern Europe, it enjoys the sunshine of Italy. (235) 236 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. seventy-five per cent. of which is woods.* It is slightly rolling in nature, seldom exceeding two hundred feet above the level of the sea, and is traversed by several navigable rivers} besides many small streams. The climate of this region, although close to the ocean, is, in comparison with that of Western Europe and the Pacific coast, dry. Our prevailing winds which come from the west are dry. During the hot, dry days of midsummer even wild bushes often die. On the other hand, the destructive effects of strong winds, frost and snow press are very slight. The East American life zones, each characterized by certain forms of life, extend westward with exceedingly irregular and broken borders. ‘There is a transition belt in which the North and the South more or less overlap. This is the true agri- cultural part of Eastern North America, where apples, white potatoes, barley and oats attain their highest development. It is where the oak, hickory, chestnut, liquidamber, white cedar, etc., of the south, meet the white pine, maple, beech, birch, hem- lock, tamarack and arbor-vitae of the north. South of this transition belt begins the first of the true Southern zones, the Carolinian, to which the Coastal Plain of New Jersey belongs. A very large percentage of the Carolinian life zone is forestal. Owing to its immense size and to the nature of the agricultural crops which it produces, and for which there is only a limited demand, a large proportion of this zone is destined to remain in forest for many years to come. ‘The Boreal and Austral zones are forestal, the Transition zone agricultural. The eastern part of the Transition zone, from the Dakotas to the sea, although at *The term ‘forest’? is seldom used by woodmen. Good or bad, big trees or bushes, it is all called “‘woods,’’ which is a good generic name for such nondescript lands. The word “ forst,’’ from which comes “‘ forest,’’ is a pure Germanic word, From the earliest times it has been nee however to woods which have been protected and regulated. + It is easy to secure an abundance of water in this region, which is a very important feature from a cultural standpoint, In addition to many streams, a natural copious flow may be obtained from artesian . wells, so that in places irrigation is easy and practical. t The Coastal Plain of New Jersey is a northern extension of the Carolinian belt into the Transitiou Zone, It isin reality a part of the South in the North, and as Prof. Merriam says: ‘‘ When such farms occupy suitable soils in thickly inhabited: regions, so their products may be conveniently marketed, they are of more than ordinary value, for the greater the distance from its area of principal production a crop can be made to succeed, the higher price it will command. Hence, farms favorably situated in northern prolongations or islands of southern zones, or vice versa, should be worth considerably more per acre than those situated within normal parts of the same zones. The obvious reason is that by growing par- ticular crops at points remote from the usual sources of supply, and at the same time conveniently near a market, the cost of transportation is greatly reduced and the profit correspondingly increased ”” REPORT ON FORESTS. 237 present agricultural, was formerly the great white-pine region of North America. The white pine of the Transition zone and the short-leaf pine of the Carolinian zone meet on the edge of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey. The Carolinian zone is characterized by the short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata), sassafras, persimmon, liquidamber, magnolia, white cedar (Chamecyparis thyotdes), cardinal bird, opossum,” grape, English walnut,t sweet potato, etc. On its southern borders the long-leaf pine (P palustris), the old-field pine (P. teda),t the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and the southern magnolias appear. In this zone§ the white cedar (C. thyotdes) and short-leaf pine (P. echinzata) reach their optimum. || Throughout the entire mainland of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey very light sandy soils predominate, although there are many beds of heavy clay, and ridges of road-gravel, also sand and clay loams and vast stretches of mucky swamp-lands. The higher portions of the upland are usually gravelly, the interme- diate sandy, and the lower, loamy and clayey. The farther south the richer the soil and of course the thriftier the forest growth. The gravel is yellow and consists of small water-worn quartz pebbles mixed with sand and clay. When of the proper * The oppossum (Didelphys virginiana), about which so much has been written because of its mar- supial pouch and peculiar habit of feigning death, is arboreal in habit, with hand-like feet and prehensile tail, and is fond of the fruits of the persimmon tree, the seeds of which it is instrumental in distributing. It is highly das food, ially by the negroes of the South. P + East of the Rocky mountains the Persian walnut has been most successful in a limited area aloug the Atlantic coast from New York southward through New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, central Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia, Farther south it does not succeed, owing mainly to the depre- dations of microscopic worms, which cause a disease commonly known as “‘ root-knot.”” {One specimen of Pinus taeda was discovered by Mr. Pinchot, and another by Mr, Arihur Hollick, in Southern New Jersey. The region of the Pokomoke river, on the peninsula between the Delaware and Chesapeake, is, as far as I have been able to observe, the most northern limit of the natural growth of the bald cypress. @ According to the investigations of the U. S. Biological Survey (see “‘ Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants,’’ National Geographic Magazine, Vol. VI, December, 1894), the northward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is governed by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction, and that the southward distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period during the hottest part of the year. According to Prof. Merriam the species of the Carolinian belt require a total quantity of heat of at least 6,400° C. or 11,500° F., but apparently cannot endure a summer temperature the mean of which for the six hottest consecutive weeks exceeds 26° C. or 78.89 F, The northern boundary of this zone, therefore, is marked by the isotherm showing a sum of normal positive temperatures of 6,4:0° C, or 11,500° F., while its southern boundary agrees very closely with the isotherm of 26° C. or 78,8° F. for the six hottest weeks. The minimum temperature was assumed to be 6° C, or 43° F., that is, the point where meta- dolic pr ‘are just possible. || By optimum is meant the combination of conditions that produces the best average result. 238 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. mixture and consistency, it is an excellent and inexpensive road material. The abundance of such gravel in a country where the natural roads are bad is a fortunate coincidence. When sand and gravel are cemented together by compounds of iron, as. is often the case, a durable conglomerate is formed, which is the principal building-stone of the region. The sources of the rivers of the Coastal Plain are on its northwestern edge. The land slopes gradually to the sea, and is so level that tide-water penetrates far into the interior. Drainage is therefore good, and stagnation of standing water only occurs here and there in places which are underlain with an impermeable hardpan. The Plains* are extensive, practically treeless regions in the northern part of the Coastal Plain. ‘The region called the East Plains contains 6,662 acres, and the West Plains 7,737 acres. There are other areas of the same nature, so that 20,000 acres is a conservative estimate of the amount of land of this kind. These Plains are hilly, about one hundred feet in height, and with gentle slopes. The surface soil is usually a bleached sand. Often there is a subsoil of clayey loam and gravel at varying depths. Often the subsoil is hard-pan, and in places there are beds of conglomerate and strata of clay. ‘There is practically no physical difference between the soil of the Plains and the soil of thousands of acres in the neighborhood on which trees of good dimensions are growing. Owing to the hilliness of the region in comparison with the surrounding country, and owing to the lack of a more extensive cover, the soil has been subjected to the leaching and beating of rain and the scorching and drying effects of the sun and wind. One would expect to find it, there- fore, exceedingly poor in quality, with a dearth of plant food, which might, at least in part, account for the absence of a more * The term “ plain” is usually applied to broad stretches of country which are level or undulating. Owing to the fact that vast treeless areas in the West are called “ The Plains,” treelessness is popularly associated with the word “ Plain.” For this reason, no doubt, certain treeless regions in New Jersey are called “‘ The Plains,” although they are hillier than the surrounding country. Geographers, however, apply the term to level regions regardless of their cover ; for instance, “ the Atlantic Coastal Plain,” It is worthy of note in this connection that the people of the West distinguish between the “ Plains’ and “ Prairies.” The term “ Prairies ’’ is applied to the region between the 1o4th meridian and the eastern base of the Rockies, Their treelessness is mainly due to a lack of moisture. East of this are the “* Plains,’’ a fertile but formerly treeless region. The absence of trees is here due rather to the extreme fineness of the soil or to fire and grass than to moisture conditions. Wherever a plain is produced by fire reforestation is possible, but in regions where treelessness is due to a lack of moisture, afforestation is difficult and often impossible without irrigation. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XVIII. THE PLAINS OF SOUTH JERSEY. THE LIGHT SPOTS ARE THE FLOWERS OF KALAVIA LATIFOLIA REPORT ON FORESTS. 239 extensive growth. A chemical examination disappoints one in this respect. Very little dependence, however, can be put in the analysis of a soil. Although the essential ingredients may be present in sufficient quantity, they may not be in available form. A soil may be physically and chemically good, but if moisture is insufficient, the forest will be light and commercially of little importance. The Plains are covered with a low bushy growth of several species. ‘The highest tree (a sassafras) measured in this whole region was fifteen feet (four and one-half metres). The most peculiar feature of this area is the fact that a large part of the growth is a coppice of pine. By the natives these short, stunted pines are called “she-pines.”* They are the stump-shoots of Pinus rigida, commonly called the rough-bark or pitch-pine.. When this pine is cut many shoots sprout from the stump, but since insects soon attack and devour it, the young shoots usually die in consequence while still small and tender. There is a strong tendency in the pitch-pine, Pizws rigida, to send out shoots, especially when growing under adverse conditions. Soon after a fire, with the foliage completely burned, and the bole girdled, many dormant buds in the crown and on the trunk develop into shoots, which soon, however, wither and die. Even logs which have been cut and hauled to the mill send out similar shoots. These, of course, wither and die just as soon as the starchy materials and moisture in the trunk are exhausted. ‘The poorer the soil, and more adverse the condi- tions, the stronger seems the tendency to sprout from the stump. Sprouting in this way is rare among the conifers, and, although of interest botanically, is commercially of no signifi- cance whatever. Ordinarily a pine coppice is short-lived, but on the Plains it has persisted for many years. Fire sweeps over this region frequently and burns the shoots while still only a few. feet high, but the stump, gnarled, charred and full of pitch, continues to live. Some of the stumps appear to be more than * The term “‘she-pine,’’ or ‘‘she-pitch-pine,”’ is also applied to Pinus heterophylla, which grows in the region of the Gulf of Mexico. In the language of the natives, the prefix “she” indicates not sex but inferiority and imperfection. P. Leterophylia has been regarded by the lumbermen as a tree of very inferior quality and of little value in comparison to the true southern pitch-pine, P. AJalustris. In the same way the term “she balsam-fir’’ is applied to Adzes /raseri,a small, short-lived tree which inhabits only the high slopes of the Alleghany Mountains in Carolina and Tennessee, For the same reason the adjective ‘‘ bastard”’ is often applied to trees. 240 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. a hundred years old and are not more than five or six inches in diameter. Hard and prickly cones are produced in large num- bers with imperfectly formed seeds. Quercus pumila,* the scrub or bear-oak, and the Jersey laurel + (Kalmza latifolia), are abundant. ‘There-are also many interesting herbaceous plants or low shrubby plants, such as the pyxie, the bearberry and the trailing arbutus. The only tradition attached to these wind-swept, sun-scorched plains is that they have always been treeless. They are often dreary and black from the effects of fire, but soon Nature covers them with a blanket of green, and they glow in season with the bloom of wild flowers. It is always, however, a lonely place, and is seldom visited save by natives, who come to gather the stumps of the pines, which are full of pitch and excellent for fuel. The Plains’s condition is mainly due to fires, which are very common, and which have doubtless burned for many years, probably since the days of the Indian who often passed that way en route to the sea-shore. In the Coastal Plain, all gradations from a healthy pine forest to the scrubby plains may be seen. In fact, through the effects of fire other regions are rapidly ‘becoming plains-like in character. This particular region has first become plains, because it is hilly and higher in altitude. It suffers more from drought, and in consequence has been more easily changed by fire. It is not unlikely on the other hand that the Plains have never been forested and that for ages Nature has been striving to cover them with trees, but fails owing to fires and the dryness of the soil. The plains region * The scrub or bear oak (Quercus pumila formerly Q. ilicifolia) is very common but never reaches the dimensions of a tree. It endures extremely adverse conditions and bears immense quantities of small acorns, It is an excellent protection to the soil which would be otherwise bare, although it furnishes food for fires. Its mast is relished by swine and other animals. It is sometimes cut for umbrella handles and canes. Many of these scrub-oak regions are excellent places for pheasantries, Both the partridge (Colinus virginianus) and the pheasant (Bonasa umdellus) are tond of its acorns. The Heath or the Prairie Hen (Zympanuchus cupido), which is now extinct except on Martha’s Vineyard Island, inhabited, it is said, the Plains of New Jersey up to 1868, Although not introduced for forestry pur- poses, the scrub-oak is quite common in parts of France. -+ The laurel is a beautiful evergreen, slow-growing shrub, which thrives on barren land in spite of fire. The rich white and pink corymbs of this plant mixed with its coriaceous leaves are abundant and attractive. In rich damp woods it often reaches the dimensions of a small tree, and its wood, as with the crooked limbs of the red cedar, is extensively used in the construction of “rustic work,” a term applied to fences, pavilions and garden furniture made of the crooked limbs and roots of several species of trees and shrubs. REPORT ON FORESTS. 241 was referred to by early travelers, and appears to have changed very little in appearance in the course of time. The easiest way to visit the Plains is from Chatsworth, formerly Old Shamong,* on the New Jersey Southern Railroad, which traverses the pineries for many miles. Surrounding the Plains on all sides and extending far to the southward is an immense tract of land called the Pine Barrens. The term is usually applied to the sandy regions of New Jersey which are covered with a sparse growth of pine, under which, as a rule, there is a scrubby growth of oaks and ericaceous plants. The physiognomy of this region is mainly due to fires and careless cutting. Ina few places which have been protected there are magnificent forests of smooth-bark pine and even mer- chantable oak, in spite of the sandy nature of the soil. Ina few of these forests affected only by surface fires, which burn quickly over the thin-covered soil, the ground is white and clean. In other instances where there have been no fires at all, although these spots are few and far between, there is a stand of tall, clean, smooth-bark pine (P. echznata), with a good mixture of deciduous trees. In the spring, when there is a richness of bloom and beauty, and during the Indian summer, when the woods are gorgeous with autumnal tints and enlivened by the chatter of birds feed- ‘ing upon the harvest of berries, fruits and seeds, the atmosphere of the Pine Barrens is balmy and fragrant. The winter also is pleasant, owing to the freshness of the evergreens and the dry- ness of the soil, but in summer the sand is hot and dry and the air is full of pestiferous flies and mosquitos and hazy with smoke from forest fires. In early times settlers cleared the land along certain thorough- fares, irrespective of its quality. Soon many of their farms became barren, and, with a change of industries, they changed their homes and abandoned their fields). When a sandy-field in the Jersey pine land is abandoned to Nature, she clothes it at first with a sparse covering of lichens, Indian grass, briars and other pioneer herbaceous and shrubby plants. Soon scattered * The habit of changing the names of towns in Southern New Jersey simply because the old names sound inelegant is a great pity The word Shamong is an old Indian name. Good old-time names, especially those ot Indian origin and those with local color, should never be changed, Such names as “Tar-Kiln-Neck, Blue Anchor, Double-Trouble, Long Coming, Penny Pot, Old Martha, Calico, etc., etc, are far more appropriate to the region than Cologne, Pasadena, Iona, Malaga, etc,, etc. 16 FOR 242 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. red cedar (/unzperus virginiana) and holly (Llex opaca) appear as forerunners, the seeds of which have been dropped by passing birds. The persimmon and sassafras, hardy oaks, and wild- cherry (Prunus serotina) also spring up, and near the sites of old dwellings are clumps of the tree-of-heaven (Azlanthus glan- dulosus) growing with tropical rankness, root suckers from the old trees which were once in favor for shade and ornament ; now and then also an old sycamore with serpent-like limbs ; here and there pines. appear, the edges gradually close in on the field, the solitary forerunners, become surrounded by their progeny, the gaps are slowly filled by whatever may chance to fall by the many natural means of seed distribution. Thus, in time, the. whole becomes a mixed forest of many species and of all age classes: here a thicket, there a pole-wood consisting of softwood and hardwood, evergreen and deciduous sorts, many sickly suppressed trees and many much branched, rough and knotty trees which were the forerunners, holding their own in the struggle for life even against their own progeny. Soon come axe and fire; the weaker kinds perish, the best are used, and a few pines and a coppice of hardy oak alone remain. Sometimes, if surrounded by pine, these old fields come up in a growth of pine as thick and green as a field of grain.* The forests of the eastern United States are possessed of marvelous regenerative power. Among the hundreds of native species there are many capable of great endurance, and, indeed, in the regions east of the western prairies there are few spots so sterile and inhospitable that one or more of these species cannot survive. There is abundant material for the development of new and elaborate systems of silviculture suited to the condi- tions and needs which exist. A very large part of the Pine-Barren district is oak coppice. The area in pine, however, is constantly decreasing, the area in oak increasing. Oak of some kind almost invariably follows *One must not too hastily conclude that the majority of the Jersey pines are pitch or Indian pines (P. rigida). A careful census of many districts will show, especially in the southern counties, that the short-leaf pine predominates, Although the pitch-pine endures fire to a greater extent, the short-leaf pine is more prolific. From a forestal standpoint, this is, in spite of everything, a hopeful condition of affairs, because, as I shall endeavor to show later, there is no coniferous forest tree of the dry sandy por- tions of the Carolinian zone which is silviculturally-and commercially the equal of Pizus echinata, the short-leaf or smooth-bark pine. GOOMINWT1 LY SINId JHL “XIX “ON 938 Id AULSAAOA NO LAOdaa AgSUal MAN AO ATAUANS TVOIDOTOND REPORT ON IORESTS. 243 pine. Throughout every pine woods are scattered here and there suppressed oaks, the seeds of which may have been dropped by jays or chickarees. Just as soon as the pines are cut, these oaks, owing to increase of light and room, grow quickly. In spite of the poverty of the soil and the inroads of insects, and although burnt and cut again and again, they show remarkable vigor. * Even scientific men have advanced the theory that one species of tree follows another because the first exhausts certain ingre- dients in the soil which it must have and which another species may not need. Such statements are rarely founded on facts. The reason one species follows another may be easily determined in almost every case with a little observation and study. Trees do not generally exhaust the soil, but, by bringing inorganic materials from deep layers of the soil and depositing these in the form of litter on the surface, and by protecting it from the beat- ing and leaching of rain and scorching effects of wind and sun, improve its quality. In moist pine regions which have been burnt over several times and on which everything is killed, birch often springs up in an almost magical way. This is due to the facts that the seeds of the birch are quickly distributed by the wind and quickly germinate, and that the birch is capable of living on extremely poor soil. Many dry leaves cling to the small oak trees until the follow- ing spring ;+ the imbs reach close to the ground, and fire, there- fore, in the late winter or early spring, before there is much sap in the wood, kills them, although the stumps live on, and with great persistency produce a fresh growth. In the struggle for existence the scrub oak and the black jack (Q. marilandica) usually survive. Although these two oaks are of slight economic importance, it is due to their pertinacity that in many places the soil has been prevented from shifting. The species which form this coppice are, post oak (Q. mznor), black oak (Q. velu- tina), white oak (Q. alba), chestnut oak (Q. primus), Spanish oak (Q. digitata), red oak (Q. rubra), black jack (Q. mar‘- *]t is well known, however, that oaks, chestnuts, and similar trees, lose their vitality when asexually reproduced for a great length of time. +Ithas been suggested by botanists that these clinging leaves indicate a tendency or are a step toward the evergreen state. The magnolia glauca is almost evergreen in Southern New Jersey. When leaves cling in this way it is an indication that the species is frost-tender and that the leaves were injured by frost before the normal corky layer was formed at the base of the petiole. 244. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. landica), and scarlet oak (Q. coccinea). Hybrids and irregular forms are common. The coppice is usually cut as pole-wood for fuel, and has little value. Owing to careless cutting the stumps are apt to be partly decayed. This decay spreads to the tree. It also invites the inroads of insects, the number of which injurious to these oaks is legion. The wonderful rapidity of tree growth in this sandy soil is often remarked with surprise. Bleached white as snow, and, apparently, absolutely destitute of plant food, it is nevertheless capable of supporting a thrifty arboreal growth. The young tree starts with the greatest difficulty and languishes throughout the early part of its life, but as soon as its roots have reached the deeper and richer layers of the soil it starts afresh and grows thenceforth with astonishing rapidity. The soil is porous, and although well drained, is moist a short distance below the surface, The lay of the land and the nature of the soil is such that the roots of trees can in the majority of cases penetrate to where there is constantly sufficient moisture. From the Plains, the highest part of the Coastal Plain, there are naturally all.degrees of soil-moisture conditions, through the Pine Barrens to the swamp lands. A swamp is usually defined as a tract of land with or without trees, lower than the surrounding country, and so saturated with water as to be unfit for cultivation. This definition, however, is insufficient. When one speaks’of a swamp in Southern New Jersey, or in any part of the South- eastern States, a wooded region is usually meant. A swamp, also, is not always unfit for cultivation. Some of the best farm land in America ison swamp bottom. Neither is it always lower than the surrounding country. Elevated swamps are common, and the Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina, lich is like a Jersey swamp in many respects, is several feet higher than the surrounding country, with a lake in the center from which water runs in all directions. The amount of water in a swamp is an important matter, also the temperature of the water. It varies in amount from a degree of mere moistness to the condition of the Cypress swamps of the south, which are at times navigable for canoes, bateaux and often good-sized scows. Along the Mississippi river there is a vast REPORT ON FORESTS. 245 region called the River-swamp, which is seldom completely flooded. Here, several of the trees which grow in southern New Jersey reach their optimum. Many trees which thrive in water in the south cannot live in the swamp-lands in the north, because of their coldness, but thrive on the upland. By the term swamp ismerely meant a wet, muddy region, covered with a wild growth of trees and bushes. To wet, almost treeless or treeless areas, the terms savanna, morass, bog, slough and marsh are applicable. The term savanna is usually applied to lowlands covered with grasses and other herbaceous plants ; the terms morass and bog, to extremely spongy, sphagnaceous lands; and the term marsh, to the soft, muddy deposits around and along bodies of both salt and fresh water. Some are inclined to restrict the term marsh to those areas formed in salt water. There is little reason for this, since salt and fresh marshes are essentially alike in formation. All these terms are, unfortunately, exceedingly elastic in meaning. A cedar swamp, for instance, is a swamp while covered with trees, but when cut over, cleared and planted with cranberries, it becomes a bog. Much of the swamp-land in the Coastal Plain of New Jersey, although merely moist and extremely fertile, will probably remain in woods for many years to come, because of the diffi- culty in clearing it. A swamp bottom consists of the forest detritus of ages, and is a matted mass of roots, stumps and tree trunks. The swamp-land may, for the sake of convenience, be divided into cedar swamps and deciduous or hardwood swamps. The white cedar (Chamecyparts thyotdes),* the finest soft wood of the region, grows in dense pure forests. The tree is tall, straight and sharp-pointed. ‘The bases of the crowns meet to form a solid canopy. ‘The trees grow so close that one sup- ports another, and when a few are cut, or felled by storm, others in the neighborhood, deprived of their support, fall in every direction. The limbs are often festooned with a gray lichen (Usnea barbata), the pendant tufts of which are favorite nesting places of the Parula warbler (Compsothlypsts americana). These * This tree should not be confounded with the white cedar or arbor vite of the north (7Auya ocei- dentalis). 246 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. swamps are warm and protected in winter, and harbor, there- fore, many birds. They are cool in summer and fragrant with the odor of clethra (C. a/nzfolia) and magnolia (AZ glauca). A cedar-swamp bottom seldom freezes. This may be partly due to the fact that cedar swamps are usually located in regions of springs. The forest floor is usually covered with a thick mat of spongy sphagnum moss. The streams in passing through the swamps often separate into several streamlets, which meander through the mass of moss and submerged tree trunks and roots. The water of these in dark places is black as ink, but in the light : é S ; and in shallows is the color of mahogany or amber, owing to impregnations from the humus. Nothing is more characteristic of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey than these swamps of cedar. Although practically the northern limit of this excellent species, it is perfectly at home in South Jersey. Free from disease, and always a fresh rich green, cedar swamps form the most striking feature of the landscape. It is a common saying in South Jersey that a cedar swamp attracts a shower. It seems to be often the case that a thunder storm follows a branch or stream until it reaches a mass of swamp, and there drops its rain. Owing to the excellence of the wood, these swamps are devoured with avidity by lumbermen. The bottom when not too difficult to clear, and when properly located, is in demand for cranberry bogs.* When a cedar swamp is cut or burnt, if certain conditions prevail, it may come again in cedar, usually, however, deciduous swainp trees, inferior in nature, usurp its place. # The cultivation of the large or American cranbérry (Ozycoccus macrocarpfon) is a very important industry in South Jersey. The berry, the size of a cherry, grows in large quantities on a low creeping vine, which forms a mat on the surface. The clearing and preparation of these bogs are expensive, but the yields are often enormous, and the bog lasts for many years without perceptible deterioration. The cultivation of this plant requires skill and experience, In times past fortunes have been lost as well as won in the cranberry industry. The amount of fruit yielded year after year by a bog suitably located and tended is often enormous. A cedar-swamp bottom through which there is a running stream is selected, This is banked and arranged so that the bog can be easily and quickly flooded, since it is desir- able to keep it covered with water throughout the winter and for a short time at other seasons of the year, to protect it from frost, to drown out undesirable weeds and insect pests or prevent a fungous disease called ‘“scald.’” A bog may be flooded at any time without injury to the vines, except when in blossom In clearing a bog the stumps are usually removed, but not always. The whole is turfed with a cranberry or bog-hoe, which has a wider blade than the ordinary grub-hoe. Ditches are dug throughout the whole bog, and sometimes the surface is sanded. It is planted in a simple manner with a suitable variety of wild-berry from the woods or from another bog. Usually the vines are mown down with a scythe. These pieces are dropped over the area ready for planting and pushed into the soft soil with a wooden dibble, They soon take root, and in the course of a couple of years their vigorous stolons have complete possession of the soil, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XX. A WHITE-CFDAR SWAMP MAGNOLIA G REPORT ON FORESTS. 247 The swamp lands* being moist, have naturally not suffered from fire as much as the uplands. ‘They often consist, therefore, not only of a great mixture of species, but are a semi-tropical tangle of wild grapes, and other vines and bushes. The decid- uous or hardwood swamps usually contain a mixture of the following trees of more or less importance: Acer rubrum, red or swamp maple; Lzguzdamber styraciflua, sweet gum or bilsted; Nyssa sylvatica, black or sour gum, and Magnolia glauca, or brewster, are the commonest. In some swamps there are beeches (Fagus Jatifolia), tulip trees (Lirzodendron tulipt- _fera), swamp white oak (Quercus platanoides), willow oak (Q. phellos), holly (/lex opaca), sassafras (.S. sassafras), and now and then a pitch-pine (Pamus rigida), a smooth-bark pine (Pinus echinata), a white cedar (Chemecyparis thyoides) or even a white pine.t Fire and the axe have converted many of these swamps into sorry looking thickets and cripples,t which are little more than tangles of saplings, bushes and vines. It is easy to imagine how, in the course of time, fire, burning over land of heavy nature or land which is usually moist, will gradually kill even swamp trees and shrubs, until nothing remains but herbaceous plants among charred stumps. ‘These swamps often become very dry in sum- mer, and the natives, to improve the. quality of the berries (or very rarely the pasturage), set fires. ‘This must be done, however, *Itis in these swamps where the animals of the woods take refuge, especially the deer, which, at a certain time of the year when the law allows, are remorselessly chased by packs of hounds. The extinc- tion of this animal in New Jersey is only a matter of time unless the use of dogs is absolutely prohibited atall seasons. It is the prevailing opinion in the Adirondacks that the wisest move in the protection of deer was the prevention of hounding by law, The meat of a hounded animal is poor in quality, to say nothing of the cruelty which the nagging of dogs occasions. Hunting at best is an immoral sport, and in America is everybody’s privilege. In every backwoods town there are local social gypsies or pothunters who love sport and hate work, who spend their days wandering in the woods with dog and gun, and their evenings in the country store or tavern relating their experiences. Several animals in South Jersey are hunted not for their pelts or for food but for the bounty which the townships very foolishly pay for the heads of certain so-called “‘ depredatory animals,” among the worst of which the fox is classed. + The white pine was at one time quite abundant in Manahawken swamp. These pines towered high above the cedars of the swamp, This suggests the possibility of growing the white pine in such districts either alone or mixed with white cedar. The choppers whom I consulted at the time of my visit called the white pine “‘ white wood.”” tTheterm ‘‘cripple’’ is a localism used in South Jersey and on the Chesapeake peninsula. It is applied toa thicket or bushland. It is interesting to note that the Germans use the word in the same sense. For instance, a stand of trees which has been abused by careless cutting, etc., is called a “ Krape pelbestand.’” Underbrush is sometimes called ‘ Kruppelholz.’”’ 248 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. when the soil is not toodry.* In this way moist swamps become meadows. ‘This land, if left to itself and protected from fires, .$oon recovers, but there is another kind of grassy land, namely “Savanna,” which is of little worth in New Jersey at present, and destined to remain unchanged for many years to come. The formation of such grass land in New Jersey is usually due to a hard-pan which is often only a few inches below the surface. Hard-pan is the name applied to a dense, almost impenetrable stratum of compacted material. It is generally soil in the pro- cess of becoming rock. In these savanna lands it is bog-ore and organic materials cementing the particles of sand. It is covered by several inches of humus, which is saturated with water and is sour in consequence. Here and there on knolls in these sloughs, a pitch-pine grows, but topples over in the course of time, owing to the slight hold which it has upon the soil- The hard-pan is similar to the “‘ortstein” of Northern Europe and the “alios” of the French Landes. ‘This stratum exists in all degrees of hardness, and often in sufficient quantities to prevent the growth of trees on considerable areas of land, but in a region where even good wood-land has little value, the comparatively small area of savanna is not worthy of much consideration, be- cause the cost of drainage and preparation would amount to more than the land is likely to be worth for some time to come. Stretching along the coast of Southern New Jersey and along the Delaware river, fringing the mainland and bays, and extend- ing along the rivers far inland, are many miles of salt marshes. They are of course treeless.{ In former times these lands were banked and cultivated much more extensively than at present. Owing to the difficulty of keeping the banks in order, they have in large part been abandoned. ‘The marshes, endless to the eye, * Constant burning causes deterioration of pasturage in the course of time, The weaker grasses are gradually killed. On salt marshes and wild meadows where the soil is very moist, so that the roots are not injured by fire, regular burning is a benefit. + The term savanna is a relic of the Spanish in America and in general merely means a tract of level land covered with low vegetation, usually grass. It is used throughout the world in this sense. In old Spanish the word means a “ sheet,’’ and was originally applied to a flat snow-covered region. } In places hardy shrubs and trees are gradually intruding on the marshes as they become by deposit higher and sweeter, In other places groups of trees may be seen which have been killed by too large a dose of salt water. REPORT ON FORESTS. 249: are intersected by many bays, salt ponds, thoroughfares and winding creeks. They yield thousands of tons of salt hay (Spartina junci), and black grass (Juncus gerard? ), which are extensively used for fodder and packing. It is transported on flat-boats or scows up the many rivers to the interior, and is also- baled and shipped to the neighboring sea-shore resorts and cities. Owing to the fact that these marshes already yield a good income, that is, a fair rate of interest on the amount invested, and probably more than cultivated fields would pay, by producing year after year a good grade of hay without any labor except the reaping, and a little ditching now and then, it would be a precarious investment to bank and drain them as has been done with similar land in Holland, except in the northeastern part of the state, where proximity to cities makes land more val- uable than in the southern part. These banked lands, although fertile, are unsatisfactory to till; the dykes are* a constant care and anxiety, and storms and high tides, besides other serious. dangers, often cause irreparable damages. The reasons for mentioning these marshes in this connection are, firstly, they yield an abundance of fodder and litter, and secondly, the mud is an extremely rich fertilizer, consisting mainly of humus, but containing also lime, and the decomposed bodies of both macroscopic and microscopic organisms. It is an inexhaustible store of fertility. In it are the materials which the sandy soil of the interior needs most. By applying this mud in the fall, so that the frost will pulverize and mellow it, and, the following summer, sowing a leguminous crop for green. manure,.the sandiest field’ is rendered so fertile that with intensive culture, including a regular supply of water and intel-. ligent labor, it will produce fruits and vegetables of the finest *The banks are often seriously damaged by the musk-rat (Fiber zibethicus), an aquatic rat-like rodent. It yields a salable fur and is extensively trapped. They dig through a bank in all directions» causing it to leak and weakening it throughout in a way which is difficult to repair. They are prolific and must be combatted in various ways. Many encourage the presence of black snakes (Bascanion constrictor), which feed upon its young. A tight hemlock board or slab-fence is often constructed’ against the face of the bank, or small pilings are driven close together along its outer edge. Ditches should never be dug on both sides of a dyke, if so, the rats are very tond of channeling from ditch to- ditch, If sand is used in the construction of the outer part of a bank, rats are less apt to disturb it, because it caves easily and thus interferes with their digging. Willows should be planted on these banks and fascine and wattlework constructed on their faces, The great use of fascine and wattlework is not fully appreciated in America. The banks which worry the Jersey farmer would be little more than play to the enterprising Dutchman who, with patient toil, farms into the very jaws of the sea. He would even look with envious eyes on our shallow inland bays and would soon convert them into many acres of rich- polder-land. 250 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. quality. This litter and mud are abundant and available to all those who have enterprise and energy enough to utilize them. The mainland and marine marshes are protected from the action of the ocean waves by a line of barrier beaches or sea islands. These beaches, on which are located many famous resorts, are separated from one another by inlets through which the tide sweeps swiftly. Strictly speaking, a beach is that part of a shore between high and low water, but in New Jersey the term is applied to what are really sea-islands. These islands consist of a fine white sand which in places is mobile. When the tide falls, the sand of the beach proper, dried by the sun _and wind, is blown either inland or into the ocean. ‘The pre- vailing winds blow toward the sea, and the sand as it dries flies back into the water to be whirled again on the beach by the waves. If the wind continues for some time from the sea, sand- hills are formed. Any small obstacle sufficient to diminish the energy of the wind may cause the commencement of a dune. As soon as a little hill is formed, it is easy to see how it may continue to form while the conditions remain the same. Soon a strong west wind, however, may hurl it back into the sea, or an eastern gale fling it inland on the marshes. And so it goes, forming and re-forming, changing in fact with every caprice of the wind, gentle and almost unnoticeable during a Hght sea- breeze, but a stinging, blinding sand-blast in times of gale. In case of an obstruction, which interferes with the action of the wind, a dune forms equal in height to the obstacle. A great deal of the land on these islands is now occupied by .-resorts; it is all in fact owned by private parties, and is in places extremely valuable. But here and there are tracts of wild, shifting dunes. At Avalon there isa huge dune, caused by a dense forest which is being slowly but surely engulfed. The dune begins just above high-water mark, and then extends inland, gradually increasing in height until its suminit is even with the foliage of the trees. It is a peculiar.scene’ from the top of this dune; on the land side there is a dense mass of dark green foliage, beyond which there is the broad expanse of green ‘salt marshes with their bays and thoroughfares.* On the ocean side, sloping to the breakers, there is a huge mass of fine sea- * A waterway from one bay to another is called a ‘‘thoroughfare’’ along the Jersey coast. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XXI. THE CREST OF THE SAND-DUNE ON SEVEN MILE BEACH HOVdd ATW NAYS NO SaITI1OH ‘ITXX (ON F321 AMLSAAOA NO LAOdaa Agsaal MAN dO ATAUNS TVOIDOTIOND REPORT ON FORESTS. 251 sand, out of which project the jagged trunks and limbs of smothered trees. The fine sand sifts into shoes, pockets, cloth- ing and hair. It comes fresh from the great ocean-mill, ascends the surface of the dune, and falls over its crest into the forest. When a stiff breeze is blowing it skims along like drifting snow, and shoots from the summit of the dune, trimming the tops of the trees as flat as though shorn with shears.* If these forests are what cause the dunes, by preventing the west wind from blowing back the sand, how did the forests form? Single trees here and there, or groups of trees, which are clean underneath, so that the west wind sweeps through without serious interruption, do not cause the formation of dunes. In the course of time, however, a thicket forms under these trees. They become covered with grape vines, Virginia-creepers and green-briars. The birds and winds scatter the seeds of many sorts of shrubs and bushes, such as Prunus maritima, sweet-gale, Baccharis halimifolza, etc., etc., until a dense forest is formed through which the west wind cannot penetrate, the consequence of which, in the course of time, is a dune, which in turn finally engulfs and kills the forest that had caused it. It is a mistake to suppose that this sand is sterile because it appears barren. True, it consists mainly of granules of quartz, but these are extremely fine, the interstices are small, and the capillarity great in consequence ; mixed with it are particles of shells and other materials, organic and inorganic, which are in. the ocean, working down the coast until washed ashore and shifted with the sand. The forest at Avalon is so dense that many birds seek shelter there. The principal trees of these beaches are the holly (//ex opaca), the: red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana), the sour or black- gum (Vyssa sylvatica), magnolia (AZ glauca), wild-cherry (Prunus serotina), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), sassafras, swamp-maple (Acer rubrum), and a few oaks, and pitch-pines and even red-mulberry. The commonest, and by far the most characteristic, trees of the beaches are the holly and red- *I am of the opinion that the shapes of trees along our coast is due more to the sand-blast than to the direct action of the wind. This also limits the number of species. Those plants with foliage best able to withstand this sand-blast are the ones which grow nearest the sea. + By clearing away the underbrush and trimming the trees to let the west wind through, it might be ipossible in several places along the coast to dispel the dunes and prevent their future formation. 252 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. cedar. The holly thrives here, reaching a much larger size than on the mainland, apparently enjoying the moist, salt atmosphere and loose sand. It is a dune-tree par excellence. ‘Tts limbs are close and jagged, in striking contrast to the pyramidal, symmetrical holly trees of the inland open field. Its. prickly foliage is dense and dark green, and its crown is flat... It produces rich red berries in profusion, and its bole is bright gray in color, rugged and sturdy. It is not uncommon to find two hollies grown together, or the limb of one tree growing into another tree, or a limb bending down and uniting with the trunk, forming what the natives call “jug-handles.” Those who are familiar with the region will never forget these groups of hollies, nor the masses of aromatic red cedars with limbs fes- tooned with gray lichens. (See plates XXI, XXII and XXIII) There is but little danger lurking in these sand-hills. They are, in this respect, unlike the dunes of Gascony, which, if robbed of their forests, would bury villages. The Jersey dunes. are so wild and picturesque that many prefer to let them have their way; but the scenes on these beaches, so attractive and peculiar to-day, are destined to lose much of their charm by being transformed into resorts for recreation and pleasure. How lacking in shade and attractiveness are our American sea-shore resorts in comparison with those of the Old World! Look at Arcachon (see plate XXVIII), for instance, with its. summer village by the shore and its winter village of beautiful villas in the midst of a magnificent pine forest ; or at the famous. Dutch resort, Scheveningen, with its beautifully shaded avenues ; or Domberg (see plate X XV), or anywhere, in fact, in the lee of the dune, which protects the farm-land where the industrious Dutch have beautiful villas in the midst of the woods. Sand- bars and mud-flats should never be despised, and a country close to the sea enjoys many advantages of which its people are not always conscious. The utilization* of the forests of America began with the Indian. The Coastal Plain of New Jersey, however, was very sparsely inhabited before Europeans landed. Here and there along the rivers may be seen the vestiges of Indian villages, pot- * One often hears and reads the statement that the branch of forestry called “‘ forest utilization ’’ and “lumbering ”’ are synonymous, This is a mistake in that lumbering is no more forestry than the picking of wild fruits is agriculture. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XXIII. A GROUP OF RED CEDARS ON THE COAST OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTS. 253 sherds, broken shells, bones and bits of jasper. At certain times of the year large numbers crossed the State to enjoy for a time the bathing and fruits of the sea, but the permanent population was never large. The Indian of New Jersey domesticated no animals and cultivated only a few plants. His clumsy stone implements were so unwieldy and impotent that he was unable to exterminate animals or cut down forests.* He depended mainly upon the fruits and animals of the woods. He needed only wood for fuel, which was everywhere plentiful, and white- cedar logs, out of which to shape his canoes. The rivers were his highways, the canoe his conveyance. Fires, no doubt, were set both accidentally and purposely by the Indian, but in South- ern New Jersey they were probably infrequent, and did compar- atively little damage. Indians in parts of Western America still fire the bush} to facilitate hunting. They desire open prairies and intervales for their game. In many places east of the Missis- sippi river, after the Indians departed, prairie fires which they had purposely set every year, became less frequent, and forest vegetation in consequence began to appear in the open land. He has left his impress upon the country however, and Indian words are indelibly attached to many localities, and to the names of many plants and animals, such as persimmon, chinkapin, hick- ory, tamarack, mahogany, pecan, etc. Although the Algonquin Indian of New Jersey was dependent upon the forest and still in a primitive state, he cultivated small patches of maize and perhaps other vegetables, and was familiar with the edible wild plants. From the Indian the whites learned of a tree (Acer saccharum) with a sweet palatable sap{ that grew *‘* The chiet use of the hatchets among the Delaware Indians of New Jersey,’’ says Kalm, “ was to make good fields for maize plantations. If the ground was covered with woods, they cut off the bark all round the trees with their hatchets at a time when they lose their sap, The trees thus girdled died, and the ground was a little turned up with crooked or sharp branches ”’ +The term “ bush’’ is a peculiar one. It usually means a single low woody plant. In certain regions, however, it is applied to a wild forest with a dense underbrush. The sugar maple forest or orchard is sometimes called the ‘‘ sugar-bush.”” The word in Dutch is ‘‘ bosch,’’ and means forest, and, no doubt, the Hollanders were the first to apply it in this sense ian South Africa and America. The word © bois” in French and “ bosco”’ in Italian are probably modifications of the same word. There is an old English word “ boscage,”” which means a thicket or woodland growth. In old English law boscage meant food for cattle derived from trees or bushes, also a tax on wood brought into a city, {Col. Wm. Fox, in his paper on the maple-sugar industry, in the latest report of the New York State Forest Game and Fisheries Commission, says: ‘‘ For our first knowledge of this product we are indebted to the North American Indian, the same people who gave us corn and tobacco. From the records of the earliest explorers on this continent it appears that the Indians tapped the maples, gathered the sap in rude receptacles, and boiled it. The first white settlers used the same methods, which substan- tially remain unchanged to day.”” 254 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. in the northern mountains. he settler, in times of famine, often appealed to the Indian, and many of the fruits and vege- tables upon which he fed have been since neglected. The Indian- club and the Indian-fig, for instance, two of his important food- plants, are perhaps worthy of cultivation and improvement.* The Indian of New Jersey was soon superseded by the settler, who, provided with two powerful implements—the axe and the gun—cleared small patches of land, and built cabins along the tivers. ‘Trapping was the settler’s first occupation and peltry + was one of the first and most important products of the virgin forest. Hunting and trapping in early times were hazardous, but often lucrative occupations. The forest was difficult to clear, and just as the young poplars to-day harass the New England farmer, by invading his pastures, and the mink and fox rob the hennery, so in early times a hundred-fold more bothersome were the suckers and seedlings, and animals from the woods between the clearings. Fire was freely used, and from the ashes potash was extracted by leaching. This lixivium, by mixing with grease produced soft-soap, which is still manufactured by country people. In many places to-day wood is extensively burnt for its ashes and used as a fertilizer. Soon shipbuilding developed into an important industry. Oak and pine of the finest kinds were plentiful. Saw-mills were built along the streams, and lumber was shipped even to the West Indies in exchange for rum, sugar and molasses. The construction of schooners continued until recent times to be an important industry. Now, only small sloops, scows and bateaux are built. Ships of iron, propelled by steam, have superseded the clipper. * It may often be the humblest and least conspicuous plants which yield the richest food materials, , and not always the major forest products which, considering labor and time, yield the largest returns. The salep of Turkey and the truffles of France are excellent examples. Salep is a farinaceous food obtained from the tubers of wild orchids. It contains a substance called bassorine, which is very nutri- tious. Over $3,000,000 worth of truffles are exported annually from France. They come mostly from Perigord, and grow in limestone regions on the roots of oaks. +Several wild animals baye, and perhaps others might be, profitably bred for their pelts. The skunk (Mephitis mephitica), one of the commonest and most disagreeable of all the animals of Eastern America, produces a salable fur called “(Alaska sable,’’ and in spite of the facts that it emits a nauseating odor and that a kind of hydrophobia results from its bite, has been kept in confinement and bred for its skin. The mink has been tamed and reared in minkeries in New York State. It has been said that a mink is as profitable as a cow. Coues, in his “‘ Fur-bearing Animals of North America,”’ says: ‘‘ Were not fashion so notoriously capricious, mink pelts would maintain a conspicuous place in the fur-marts of the world; certainly few surpass them in richness of color, gloss and fineness ” REPORT ON FORESTS. 255 Scattered here and there throughout the Pines are the remains of what were once centers of a flourishing industry. This was the manufacture of iron from bog ore (limonite). In some places the furnaces and forges have been completely obliterated and forgotten; in others only bits of black slag remain, while in others the ruins are still standing. These centers of industry, usually located in the neighborhood of streams and bogs, were connected by stage routes, along which here and there were clearings and taverns. Immense quantities of charcoal were consumed by these forges and furnaces, the owners of which usually possessed the land for several miles in every direction. Wood in those days was in demand, and coalings were frequent. Ewven after the iron industry in the Pines succumbed, charcoal was shipped to the cities by schooners in large quan-- tities. Owing to the abundance of other forms of coal, the demand for charcoal has gradually decreased. Along the rivers there were many depots to which the charcoal was carted, which are still in evidence, owing to the great masses of coal-dust which accumulated there. Coal and iron were worked side ‘by side in the neighboring State of Pennsylvania, transportation by tail increased the competition; the iron industry in the Pines was unable to survive, and with it faded the manufacture of charcoal,* and the value of coal-wood. The ruins of furnaces, the large dilapidated houses, the overgrown roads, the wharves, the piers, the old ship-yards, and the masses of coal-dirt on the landings are evidences of what the country was when iron was made from bog-ore, and when schooners were built to trade to foreign lands. The woods were full of men hewing timbers, cutting coal-wood, working in the coalings, raising bog-ore and carting materials from place to place. The death of these indus- tries, however, is only the result of progress. In the develop- ment of the whole of a country, certain parts, although they may have once played an important role, must suffer. In the course of its development almost every country is subjected to a series of industrial ups and downs. Another peculiar old-time industry was the mining of cedar. The bed of a cedar swamp is a mass of forest detritus, several _* It is unfortunate that so little charcoal is used in the American household. The fine flavor of French cookery is partly due to the use of an excellent quality of charcoal. Other kinds of coal and wood emit gases in the process of combustion which taint food more or less, and for successful broiling charcoal and the brazier are necessary, 256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. feet in depth, in which there are logs of white-cedar perfectly preserved and excellent in, quality. The white-cedar, like the cypress of the South, reaches a ripe old age. Over one thou- sand annual rings have been counted in buried stumps six feet in diameter, and, judging from fallen trunks, the age of these swamps is many centuries. It establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the white-cedar has been growing in South Jersey for ages, and that it is perfectly at home there in every sense of the word. The wood of many of these buried logs is sound and light. These were dug out, sawn into billets, and split by hand into what were called ‘‘mud-shingles,’ which last for many years. * It seems strange that the mining of cedar, when wood was plentiful, should be more profitable than at present, when white- cedar is scarce and poorer in quality. Lumber is cheaper in parts of Eastern America to-day, however, than it was a quarter of acentury ago. This is due to the fact that a much wider field has been brought into competition by the development of railroads, and special long-distance freight rates from regions where timber is still plentiful, and where very complete, labor- saving, wholesale methods of working it are in practice. The production of tar was not very extensively developed, and lasted only for a short time. ‘The existence of the industry was due to the peculiar exigencies of the times. During the Civil War the North was deprived of necessary naval stores, for which the ship-chandlers were willing to pay enormous prices. The natives of southern New Jersey took advantage of this opportunity and collected large quantities of ‘‘ fat-pine knots,” ‘out of which they manufactured tar. At one time the splitting of hoop-poles for barrel-hoops was an important industry. Coppice oak was used for the purpose. *In “mining” cedar logs a great deal of skill and experience was required. Of course, many of the trees in the swamp were worthless when they fell. The person in search of shingle logs, therefore, first sounds the swamp-bottom with an iron rod. When he finds a solid log, he notes its position, size and length, With a sharp spade and axe he cuts down to it, in order to secure a chip of it, from which he is able to tell, especially by the smell, whether it was uprooted by the wind or broken off above the ground. In the first case it is apt to be much sounder and better. If satisfactory, he digs a trench along its length, cand saws it off at both ends, The hole he has dug soon fills with water, and, after the log has been com- pletely loosened, it rises and floats, being surprisingly buoyant. It turns over also, at the same time, being lighter and fresher in appearance on the underside. It is then rolled out of the bed where it has rested many years, is sawa into proper lengths, and split into shingles, There is still, no doubt, buried cedar in the swamps of South Jersey, but although fine in quality, it requires so much labor to work it that it is no longer profitable. REPORT ON FORESTS. 257 Owing to the substitution of bags for barrels and iron for wooden hoops, there is practically at present no demand for hoop-poles. At one time many people found employment in gathering the leaves of the upland sumac.* ‘These were ground at the mills and were used for tanning. The principal industries of the neeeat are the cutting of wood for fuel and the working of timber for constructive pur- poses. Several minor products of more or less importance are also collected. Wood for fuel may be divided into two classes—pole-wood and cord-wood. When small-sized trees are cut in the pole stage, such as oak coppice, they are merely stripped of their branches, and are not divided into regular lengths, and are sold as pole-wood, which is consumed locally and bought and sold by the one-horse or two-horse wagon-load. ‘This wood is abund- ant and has little worth. If killed by fire, as is often the case, it is not seriously injured for fuel, although slightly charred, and often disagreeable to handle. Large quantities of this wood may be had for the asking. The person who sells pole-wood usually receives little more than his labor is worth in cutting and delivering it to the purchaser. Cord-wood + is cut into sticks four feet long, and split once. It is usually either pure pine or oak, sometimes mixed. If located near a railroad or along a good wagon-road, there is a slight margin of profit in this wood. In many parts of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey it has no worth, because the cost of cutting and transportation is equal to or even more than the market price. Often, however, if the owner has teams of his own, he cuts the wood when slack of other work and transports it in order to furnish himself with labor. His wood-land really has * The chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) furnishes the best tanning material of eastern trees. It is hardly safe to recommend the planting of trees for tan-bark owing to the fact that other means of tanning are in process of development, and new and perhaps better methods are liable to replace the old. There are a few people, however, who believe that oak bark will be worth more a few years hence. The use of quebracho, from South America, has had an important effect on this industry, but quebracho wood and hemlock will not last forever. The chestnut-oak is common in South Jersey, and one should have no hesitation in planting it. It grows fairly well in the shade of pine trees. In spite of the use of many other tanning materials, the choicest leather is ‘‘ oak-tanned.’”’ A cord, in Jersey, is four feet wide, four feet high and eight feet long. It contains eight cord feet or one hundred and twenty-eight cubic feet, or 3.62 cubic meters. 17 FOR 258 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. little intrinsic value.* It is merely a means to an end. It pays, however, to convert the straight limbs and tops of trees, from which saw-logs have been cut, into cord-wood. South Jersey has to compete in the production of cord-wood with the woodland along the rivers of the neighboring States of Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, where a large negro population exists, which is skillful with the axe and willing to work for small wages. The production of fuel-wood in South Jersey, however, will always take care of itself. Woods should be managed, therefore, with saw-stuff in view. Good lumbert is scarce and high in price, while fuel-wood{ has practically no value whatever. Much could be said of chopping in general, and the imple- ments and methods in use of felling and converting trees. "The American axe, the most perfect and useful of ordinary imple- ments, is worthy of a chapter in itself. Intelligent chopping should be classed as skilled labor; in fact, by a judicious use of the axe in the hands of a person with an exact knowledge of the conditions which obtain, it is often possible to bring order out of chaos and correct the work of careless slashers, § It requires only a short space to describe the handling of tim- ber in South Jersey. There is no rafting, no skidways, no lum- ber camps. All this belongs to the past, when ship-building *A few years ago wood was sold in Philadelphia from South Jersey for the purpose of dry distillation. There are several establishments of this kind in neighboring States. I fail to see why this industry could not exist in South Jersey as well as elsewhere. It is an industry which would use the rough wood, for which there is no market, and which rots in the forest. There are many dry distillation plants in New York and Pennsylvania, and the demand for the product is constantly on the increase. : + The terms “timber” and ‘‘lumber”’ are used in a peculiar way in America. Lumber means sawn stuff in merchantable form. It means also disused articles or discarded goods of any kind, and, according to some authorities, it is a modification of the word Lombard, the Lombards having been, in early times, famous pawnbrokers, Although the word lumber only means sawn or dressed stuff, the term lumberman is applied to a forest proprietor, a lumber merchant, or a worker of timber. Timber is applied to large-sized sawn or dressed stuff, and to the forest of trees large enough to produce such material, Such a forest is designated ‘‘standing timber.”” ‘‘ Timber-culture ”’ is used instead of silviculture, and the term “ stump- age’’ means standing timber, considered with reference to its value for cutting, so called because the amount cut is ascertained by counting and measuring the stumps. {A chopper should cut the tree close to the ground, leaving a clean-cut sloping or roof-shaped stump, This lets the water off, prevents decay, and produces a vigorous coppice. The slashings should be piled in open places and burnt where there is no danger of the flames injuring neighboring trees. Always pro- tect the young growth, favor the most useful kinds, and never forget that they are the materials from which the future forest is formed. Zt would be difficult to find an apter term for the common run of wood-choppers than “ slashers,”’ and the lumbermen themselves have aptly applied the term “‘slashings’’ to the immense piles of rubbish which they leave in their wake, It is this slash which brings disaster to the woods because of its great combustibility. REPORT ON FORESTS. 259 was an important industry. ‘The writer can just remember the long line of mule teams, bound to the shipyards on the shore, with long straight stems of the oak and smooth-bark pine. The logs are now, usually, short and small, the roads are good and level, so that with the help of a couple of skids, cant-hooks and parbuckles the handling of logs is a simple operation. The saw-mills are simple in nature and only work lumber for local demands, finding, however, in the resorts along the shore a good market for building materials. The income from the gathering of wild fruits is probably equal to, if not more than the yield from fire-wood. ‘The most important of these are the cranberry, huckleberry and blueberry. The cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocarpon*) is now extensively cultivated. It keeps well throughout the winter, and forms a rich crimson sauce, which is relished with turkey. Large quantities of these berries are exported to other States, and even to foreign countries. The high-bush blueberryt (Vaccinium corymbosum), which teaches perfection in the swamps of South Jersey, has never been cultivated. It is preferred by many to all other wild fruits. It reaches the dimensions of a large shrub, if not a small tree, on rich, moist, loose soil. The quality of the berries can be easily improved by trimming. The natives know this and accomplish it in a drastic, wholesale fashion by firing the woods. The young shoots which spring up after a fire bear large luscious berries. The wild grapes are also abundant. The fox grape (V2tcs labrusca), is plentiful in the swamps, the vines of which often form luxuriant tangles in the tops of the trees. ‘The fruit is dark purple or amber in color, with a tough pulp, but delicious musky aroma, and famous for jelly. The persimmon tree (Dzospyros virginiana) bears an abund- ance of rich fruit. The improvement of this fruit by grafting has begun. At present, when a little green, the fruit is puckery ; when ripe, too soft ; it is also too small and has too many seeds. * The term “‘ cranberry ’’ is properly restricted to the genus Oxy , the term “ huckleberry”’ to the genus Guylussacia, and the term “ blueberry ”’ to the genus Vaccinium. g y. ry g + White or pink varieties are not uncommon, which are simply cases of albinism. These are very sweet and worthy of propagation. ° 260 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. It contains, however, a larger amount of nutritive matter than other fruits, and is excellent for pies and puddings.* The beach-plum (Prunus maritima) grows in sea-sand, close to the ocean, and in the driest, most inhospitable places, and at the same time bears a large crop of plums, which are excellent in flavor. It is only a shrub, but well worth planting in sandy tegions. In addition to the above fruits there are many others of more or less importance for food, flavors and wines. The floor of a cedar swamp is usually covered with a mass of sphagnum-moss. This is collected, baled in hay presses, and sold to nurserymen for packing purposes. This material is remarkable for its ability to retain moisture and is extensively used in the shipment of plants. Large quantities of holly, mistletoe, cedar, etc., are sold in the cities. Many thousands of the most beautiful and sym- metrical young conifers are sacrificed annually for Christmas trees. If the trees were raised for this purpose it would be a legitimate business, but the Christmas-tree gatherer, in order to secure extra fine specimens, cuts the tops out of large-sized red- cedar trees, just as fishermen peel the inner bark from the butts of the white-cedar for fish-strings. Many flowers, especially those. of Magnolia glauca, are col- lected in large quantities and sold. The cultivation of the willow for basket work is in its infancy in New Jersey. The wood of the white-oak (Q. alba), when split into thin slivers, is an excellent basket material.t These baskets are strong and durable. The common American market- basket is not woven. It is extremely cheap and simple, and goes with the contents. There are many plants of more or less value medicinally. Perhaps the most important, which is common throughout the * The persimmon grows luxuriantly in the old fields of South Jersey, where animals have carried the seeds. It is possible to bud or graft these trees with choice varieties of the persimmon, which produce, when in the proper stage of ripeness, a very delicious and salable fruit. {+ The basket-tree of the South, however, is Quercus michauxii, the basket or swamp-white-oak, This tree is very closely related to Quercus platanoides, if not a southern form of the same. It grows in the swamps of South Jersey, but is not abundant. It is one of the most magnificent trees of the oak tamily. A few years ago it was plentiful on rich southern swamp bottoms. Its wood is of very fine quality for constructive purposes, and: pc a peculiarity which especially fits it for basketry. Each annual ring may be easily separated in the form of a thin flexible strip of great Pliability and strength, The thousands of baskets used in the cotton fields of the South were woven from ribbons of this wood. This, together with the facts that it requires rich land, and does not reproduce itself freely, is about to cause its extermination. REPORT ON FORESTS. 261 woods of the E. Carolinian Zone, but rare in New Jersey, is the witch-hazel (Hamamelts virginiana), a fluid extract of the twigs, etc., of this plant is a famous lotion for allaying inflammations. It is used by everybody for the ills of both man and beast. It is a peculiar shrub, with several branching crooked trunks, about ten feet in height. Its pale yellow flowers bloom late in autumn when the leaves are falling, and the woody capsule, which explodes and scatters its two black shining seeds, matures the following summer. It grows well on the poorest kind of gravelly soil. Acorns are abundant and are fed to swine. There is a fair crop almost every year, and an immense crop every now and then. ‘Turkeys which thrive on dry, sandy soil, feed on the acorns. Black walnuts contain rich food material and are used by confectioners. Hazel-nuts grow well in the swamps, having escaped in several places from cultivation. The wild chestnut thrives in the moist sand of South Jersey, and although the nuts are usually small, they are very sweet and abundant. In addition, the collection and careful preparation of the seeds of important forest trees would yield ever-increasing returns. I have yet to mention forest litter, especially the collection of “‘nine-chats” * or leaves, which in many pine regions plays a very important and peculiar role. Forest litter is extensively collected in southern New Jersey for the bedding of animals and as fertilizer for sweet potatoes ;} in fact, fair crops of this staple food material may be raised on extremely sandy soil, without other manure. It is, however, south of New Jersey, on the peninsula between ‘the Chesapeake and Delaware, where the litter is most assidu- ously collected and used. The conditions which exist there are peculiar and instructive to those interested in the amelioration of pine-lands. In fact, it is the demand for forest litter which in a great,measure has prevented forest fires and impressed upon the natives the value of their forests. *In provincial English the term ‘‘ chat’’ means catkin, or a twig for kindling. The term “ catkin”’ means little cat. There may be some connection between the old English application of the term to small twigs and the use of the word pine-chat in the South. + The German literature on this subject is quite exhaustive. The manurial value of pine straw lies mainly in its nitrogen contents. From one acre there may be had annually about 2,500 pounds of straw: furnishing about 20 pounds of nitrogen, 12 pounds lime, 31% pounds potash, 314 pounds magnesia and less than 3 pounds phosphoric acid. 262 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Almost every farm has its pine forest. hese, of course, are of all sizes and ages, varying from fields as thick and dense as grain to forests fit for large-size timber. There are few signs of forest fires. The soil is light and sandy, dune-like in nature, along the shore, to which the pines grow close, although a few have been killed here and there by shifting sand. The natives recognize the value of the forest in holding the soil in place, and in pro- tecting their truck-patches from the force of the wind, which would naturally at times sweep over this narrow peninsula. On entering one of these forests, one observes at once that although there are many small trees of holly, and bushes of sweet-gale, the ground is free from litter and brush. If one happens to visit the region at the proper season he will see men and women raking up the forest litter. Very early in the spring or late in winter one can see field after field covered with pine- chats, to be plowed under just as soon as the weather permits. In fact, the fields are laid out in squares, by means of the plow, in order that the pine-chats may be easily measured and thus evenly distributed. Just as soon as a field becomes worn out it is abandoned; the adjoining woods furnish the seed, the wind sows it, and soon a fresh growth of pines appears. Here and there throughout the forests there are avenues, which, although constructed to facilitate the collection of pine-chats, serve at the same time the purpose of fire-lanes. Because of the value of the pine-chats the forest floor is free from inflammable materials just at a time when fires are most likely to occur. The removal of this debris is contrary to the principles of German forest management, because it naturally impoverishes the forest soil. In the course of time, however, many of these potato-fields are allowed to come up in pines, and fresh fields are cleared when the pines have been cut.* * Unlike other crops, the forest constantly improves the soil, provided the litter is not removed or allowed to burn. The roots of trees penetrate to its deeper layers, and absorb large quantities of mineral matters. A large percentage of this material goes to the leaves, and is deposited on the surface. The surface soil is both enriched by these mineral substances and protected by a mulch of humus in varying stages of decomposition, As the lower layers rot, new layers of leaves and twigs are being constantly deposited, so that the forest soil, in the course of time, fairly reeks with nourishing plant-food. It has been shown, without doubt, that the removal of litter from poor soils is ruinous, It is like stealing food from a starving man. The removal of forest litter from rich soils is indeed, however, a very small matter, and it is doubtful if it really does very serious injury. REPORT ON FORESTS. 263 Another point of great advantage is, that the forest is not con- tinuous, but cut into parcels, with farm lands and glades inter- vening. In fact it is a land of thrifty forests without foresters, and practically without the need of forest laws. For private holdings of pine lands, I am inclined to favor this method of management, under the peculiar conditions existing in certain parts of America. In this way the forest constantly yields, indirectly, an important income. It is simply a rotation of crops, of which the pine is the most important, producing throughout its whole life a material which, to the farmer of the eastern shore of Virginia, is of more value than wood.* It is easily seen, from the condition of the forest industries which have just been described, that the Coastal Plain of New Jersey has passed through the first and most lucrative stage of its existence. The time is at hand for the establishment of industries with permanency in view. The most important step in the right direction would be the protection of its woodlands, game, fish, oysters and clams, which were once so abundant. * By this system of culture the pine naturally and quickly regenerates. Large quantities of swine run in the forest in this region, and probably do as much good as damage in keeping the soil loose on the surface and by covering the seeds in the process of rooting. Il, Forest Policy and Silvicultural Suggestions. FOREST POLICY. As has been explained already, there exists in Southern New Jersey a vast area of land which is in a deplorably unproductive state. It is sufficient to say that in the hands of private owners, under the circumstances which at present exist, the future of a large part of this land is not bright. A change of some kind is necessary, and this must come either in the form of a change of ownership or of the circumstances which fetter ownership. The only way in which the ownership may be quickly and materially changed would be by State purchase. It is question- able whether under the circumstances State ownership would be justifiable, and whether, even if it could be easily accomplished, it would improve the situation. The State ownership of forest land in New Jersey is only justifiable on the ground that the presence of forests is necessary for purposes of protection against the destructive forces of nature, for pleasure parks or for the purpose of preserving the beauty of certain unusually beautiful or wonderful localities, such as the Palisades. It is generally conceded in this country that State ownership: of forest land for revenue is unnecessary. The American people, in fact the Anglo-Saxon race as a whole, has a wholesome aver- sion to the participation of the State in industries for the pur- pose of revenue. Many claim that even in cases where the forest exerts no very marked influence in a protective way against the destructive forces of nature, that the State ownership of forests is justifi- able on the grounds that it requires so long for trees to mature that private individuals are unable to grow and handle them satisfactorily to themselves or to their neighbors. This argument, however, does not always hold good. Were a man to plant the seed and then wait for the forest to mature, even the most ardent forester would become impatient. Were x (265) 266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. “he to begin, however, with a forest such as exists even in New Jersey, he could, even from the beginning, reap something every year, and his forest would, at the same time, improve in quality and productiveness. It is quite possible for a private individual to sow the seed and reap at least three or even four crops of sal- able materials in a lifetime. It is worthy of note that some of the finest, that is the most productive, forests of Denmark are under private control. A private forest does not always mean a neglected forest and a short rotation. Many rich families in Europe gladly avail themselves of this sure and permanent way of investing their fortunes, which pass from father to son, as do the date-groves of the East. In America the railroads, express, telegraph and telephone are private. The finest institutions in America are due to private enterprise. Great public reforms are usually brought about by the energy and influence of a few pub- lic-spirited people. After all, what is the state in America? It is simply an organized community, the ruling powers of which are only persons which the people have chosen temporarily from their midst. The, purchase of forest land, the management of forest land, or the sale of forest land, depends upon what the majority of legislators may think best, and they in turn are sup- posed to comply with the wishes of the majority of their con- stituents. The personnel of the legislature is constantly chang- ing, so that the management of forest lands owned by the state would be subject to many vicissitudes unless placed permanently and absolutely under the care of one of our best educational institutions or in the hands of other permanent and reliable trustees. Since, then, the state control of forest lands is not justifiable on the grounds that large timber cannot be raised from the seed in an ordinary lifetime, let us consider briefly the question of protection which it affords in South Jersey against the destructive forces of nature. The effect of the forest on the climate of South Jersey, except in so far as it breaks the force of the wind, is probably slight. Owing to its insular position the effect on the precipitation of moisture is probably not considerable. The effect of the forest in these respects is in general disputed and not proven. ‘The effects of the forest on the run-off of water is also of small moment because the country is so flat and the soil is so porous that floods never have and probably never will occur. REPORT ON FORESTS. : 267 The great function of the forest on the sandy soils of Southern New Jersey is the beneficial influence which it exerts on the ‘quality of the soil, both physically and chemically. The forest fixes the soil, preventing it from shifting. The winds would blow it from place to place were it absolutely bare. The forest brings from the subsoils inorganic materials which it deposits on the surface in the leaves and wood. The soil is enriched and protected from the beating and leaching force of the rain and the ‘drying effects of both sun and wind. The granules of silica are gradually comminuted by the chemical action of decomposing organic matter so that the influence of the forest on a coarse, sandy soil tends to render it more and more of the nature of loam, and finally, in the course of ages, fertile and able to sup- port not only a dense forest growth, such as Fontainbleau, but even in time fit it for agricultural purposes. In fact, this is the only rational form of treatment for such soils, and although they may become fit for agricultural purposes in the course of time, ‘the forest should be one of a series of crops. In this system of rotation the interval from the time the forest is cut until the land is allowed to come again in forest should be short. In rocky regions the soil is constantly fed by disintegrating ‘stones on the surface and in time recuperates, but with sandy soil the only natural fertilization is by means of the forest, which returns, in part at least, the materials which have leached into the deeper layers of the soil while the land was under cultivation. Since, then, considering all things, the State is not justified in purchasing and managing these pine lands, and since it is extremely doubtful whether their condition would be materially changed by State ownership, it is important to consider the circumstances which fetter private ownership. It is safe to assume, without further discussion, that the woods of South Jersey, for a long time to come at least, are destined to remain in the hands of private parties. They must be regarded, there- fore, as buseness and not protective forests, although they may of course perform both functions at the same time. The possi- ‘bilities of successful forest management from a business stand- point are dependent upon certain fundamental conditions. “These forests must be regarded in the light of supply forests for 268 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. materials needed for local consumption and for export to neigh- boring cities. We must consider, therefore, the following conditions : (1) The ability of the State to afford protection to private property. (2) The geographic position of the region in reference to. markets and in reference to means of transportation. (3) The value of land and the cost of labor. (4) The quantity and quality of the materials the region is. capable of producing. (5) The ability to use the materials in local industries. (6) Fair taxation. Let us consider, first, fire : This is the kernel of the whole question. Although no end of legislation has been passed on the subject, nothing has been accomplished. Not to mention forest management, the State has failed up to the present time to protect the property of its. citizens. Until this is accomplished but little progress is possible. The “fire season” in New Jersey begins about the middle of March, and continues with more or less fierceness until the end of October. Sometimes only the thin leaf-covering of the soil is burnt, and little damage is done; sometimes the deep, dry muck of the swamps burns for many days, and sometimes the fire sweeps through the crowns, but often the surface, crown and ground fires are one, roaring and rushing irresistibly with the wind, with miles of front, until stopped by a lack of food material, a fall of rain or a stream of considerable dimensions. About fifty per cent. of the fires of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey are caused by sparks from locomotives, ten per cent. are set by incendiaries for evil purposes, ten per cent. are set pur- posely to improve the berry crop or pasturage, and the rest are accidentally and carelessly set. The effects of fire are practically the same all over the world: impoverishment of soil, destruction of game and its food supply, unhealthfulness, increase of insect pests, in addition to the loss. of wood and other property and injuries to industries which use wood. For the prevention of fire, the punishment of fire-setters and the construction of wide fire-lanes along all public wagon-roads. REPORT ON FORESTS. 269 and railroads, are necessary. Railroad companies should be required to construct lanes, broad and clean enough along their tracks, to eliminate all danger from flying sparks, to ditch all swamp-lands to water or sand on the outer edge of the lane, and to constantly use efficient spark-arresters on their engines. The townships should be required to construct similar lanes along all public roads. In this way, what are now points of danger, from which the majority of fires start, would become avenues for the prevention of its spread, and would serve at the same time as vantage points in combatting it. Whenever possible these fire-lanes should be kept under cultivation, in other places the brush * should be cut, and all combustible materials burned at a'time when there is no danger of setting fire to the adjoining woods. ‘The usual method of extinguishing extensive fires is by ‘“‘back-firing” or “counter-firing.” This is, however, dan- gerous work, and should not be attempted save by those who are experienced and capable. Very often the back-fires, set by inexperienced, excited persons, have not only resulted in disas- trous conflagrations, but have rendered the skillful work of others of no avail. For the extinguishment of surface-fires, shovels, sand and hard work are usually sufficient. Fortunately, sand is everywhere plentiful, except in swamps. It is often possible to beat out surface-fires with a green bough or bush. In the extin- guishment of ground-fires, or those which burn in the peat of swamps, it is necessary to confine them within certain limits by digging deep trenches. Formerly charcoal burners set fire to the forest in order to be able to purchase it cheaply, by rendering it unfit for any other purpose than coal wood. The charcoal industry is done, but the natives still fire the huckleberry-bush to produce fresh shoots on which the finer berries grow. Berry-picking is an important industry, and the occurrence of such fires is common. The main differences between the conditions existing in Southern New Jersey and the peninsula between the Chesapeake and the Dela- * The ‘‘ Esterel,’’ a region of France not far from Cannes, is famous for the elaborate fire measures which are in force there, It is a mountainous district, thinly covered with pine and cork-oak and extremely susceptible to fire, which causes great havoc when the very violent wind, called mistral, blows, I visited it a few years ago and was surprised to find that, in addition to the formation ot many fire-lanes, the removal of underbrush, observation posts, telephone, perfectly organized patrols, etc., that they burn over patches of the surface every year from December to February with the object of preventing the growth of weeds and underbrush and the accumulation of combustible litter, Little by little the whole area is burned over in this way. 270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ware are, that the forest-land there is cut into many small blocks, between which is farm-land, and that the proper senti- ment exists in the minds of the natives, a sentiment due to the value of the pine-chats. The division of large tracts of land into parcels is of advantage: economically and socially, provided they are of a size sufficient. to support a family of ordinary intelligence. Such a farm should consist of at least thirty-five acres of cleared land and sixty-five acres of woodland. ‘The sale of city lots in the woods, or even five or ten-acre plots, is rarely fruitful of good, and is, on the whole, detrimental in the end to the purchaser and community in general. Where fire constantly burns the litter from the surface and prevents the formation of young forests, the soil constantly deteriorates and finally becomes sterile and lifeless—literally lifeless—because the organisms in the soil which cause the decomposition of humus and the conservation of nitrogen are killed. The prevention of fire, therefore, is of course the first. and most important step. Further discussion in reference to the prevention of fire on lands owned by private parties seems like threshing old straw, but since it is hardly likely under the circumstances that the State would buy and properly care for this vast tract of sandy land, or would force private parties to institute efficient meas- ures in this line, as is common in Europe, it is necessary to devise other schemes which might accomplish this end and which fit the peculiar conditions, political, social and economi- cal, which exist. It is generally recognized throughout Europe that the con- struction of suitable fire-lanes throughout the forest conduces more to the prevention of great conflagrations than any other institution. ‘The recent fires in the Landes of France were due, it is claimed, to the neglect of fire-lanes. These serve as van- tage points in the fighting of fire, and often in themselves are sufficient to prevent its spread. By means of fire-lanes the country is cut into parcels and the danger of great conflagrations very materially reduced. These fire-lanes, in order to be efficient, must be wide, clean and well cared for, for otherwise they are of little use. Now the great question is, how to estab- REPORT ON FORESTS. 271 lish a complete system of fire-lanes for those regions of Southern New Jersey which, from the sandy nature of their soils, are destined for many years to come to remain in forest. The scheme which I have to suggest is that these fire-lanes be constructed and kept in order in a way similar to the construc- tion of State roads, which have been so popular of late. In this way no terrible burden of expense rests upon anybody. The individual benefited thereby pays part, the community pays another part and the State pays the other part. Woodland owners who would be benefited thereby would not hesitate to donate land for the purpose, while the small quantity of land required of those who may be foolish enough to object should be summarily condemned and appropriated by the State. One would expect very slight opposition to a system of fire-lanes. from those persons whom the protection it affords benefits, except. perhaps from those who call themselves “land-poor,” that is,, persons who own so much unproductive land that they cannot. pay their taxes.* Such people would not object to the relinquish-. ment of small strips of unproductive land, but would hesitate. with the fear that it might increase their burden of taxation. But the difficulties of this kind would be no greater than those . which have been met and overcome in the construction of roads. As with all progressive movements of this kind the opposition fades away and the strongest opponents are often the loudest of praisers in the end. ‘The owner of the land would be benefited and encouraged and the payment of a slight increase in tax would be a great and permanent investment. Lands which are now a burden to him would become more valuable and the capital which is buried therein would increase and, if need be, become available. The money which the county and State would expend would return a hundred fold in increased resources and prosperity, and would benefit those who are most in need of it. The State or county or township ownership, or combined ownership, of a system of fire-lanes, in no way savors of pater- nalism, and should be as palatable to the American taste as the * Fire-lanes may be constructed at slight expense in Southern New Jersey. After the wood is cut it. is necessary to plough three or four furrows along the edges and then to burn over the lane at times when there is no danger of setting fire to the neighboring woods. A lane fifty feet in width would be quite- efficient. * 272 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. State ownership of roads. In fact these lanes may serve at any time as roads, or may be converted into such on short notice at almost any time. Fortunately.gravel is almost always near at hand, so that in the course of time the whole fire-lane system may be converted into a great road system, which would add much to the value of the land and increase the value of the wood, owing to the ease with which it could be transported. After visiting most of the forests on sandy soil in Europe, and having lived a number of years in the pine-lands of South Jersey, I am convinced that it is foolish to talk of forest culture and silvicultural methods until fires are reduced in number. For this purpose fire-lanes are essential, and this is the only scheme I know of which seems practical and possible. Once institute a perfect system of fire-lanes under combined State and local con- trol and the number and severity of the fires will be reduced to such an extent that the evil will, I am certain, gradually fade away, and modern systems of silviculture will gradually creep in as the value of wood and land increases. The people of the State are perfectly familiar with the modus operandi of the road law, and the same general principles applied to fire-lanes would be no great and startling innovation, but would, I am certain, be fraught with beneficial results. It is the only system which appears to be perfectly adapted to the peculiar conditions which exist in Southern New Jersey. Such an institution would have also a great educational effect. Many people who had never thought of such things before would be impressed by the object-lesson. The constant presence of such reminders would impress upon certain classes of people the facts that fires are not necessary, that the useless destruction of wood is wasteful, and that the absence of wood in a country which is fitted only for its production means a lack of work for woodsmen, teams and sawmills. In addition to these fire-lanes let all the existing roads of the southern part of the State become a part of this system by being converted into fire-lanes, that is, widened and cleared of com- bustible materials along their edges. The remotest portions of these vast piney-lands will in this way become accessible, and the large amount which is actually invested in woodland and cranberry-bogs will be rendered safer, with surer yields. A REPORT ON FORESTS. 273 large amount of money which is lost in fire-fighting will be saved. ‘Just as there was opposition in the beginning to the new road law, so there will be opposition to such a scheme; but let the State inaugurate it in a trial district and soon others will follow. It will not, of course, stop all forest fires, but it will certainly reduce their size, stop their fury and save the loss of much valuable material. The new State road from Atlantic City to Camden is a fair sample of what is needed. It serves at the same time the purpose of fire-lane and thoroughfare. Formerly it was a bed of hot, dusty sand. Many new buildings have been constructed along the road, and owing to the ease of communi- cation and transportation it has brought the people along it closer together and has instilled into the old residents a certain amount of life and spirit which they never would otherwise have obtained. If cleared of brush along their sides, many of the gravel roads of South Jersey, which are often now the points from which fires start, would serve as fire-lanes in preventing the spread of fire and as vantage grounds in combatting it. The local officials who have charge of these roads and lanes could, if required, extinguish many fires in their incipient stages. The consideration of these fire-lanes as future roads leads to the second important condition—markets and transportation. This question needs but little consideration. A glance at the imap is sufficient to convince anyone that no region could be more auspiciously located in this respect. With plenty of good gravel with which to construct roads, with many railroads, with many navigable rivers and with two of the largest cities of this country near at hand, but little more in this respect could be desired. At the same time, however, we must not fail to con- sider the fact that other great wood-producing regions are near at hand and that in Pennsylvania there are immense quantities of coal. This state of affairs naturally suggests that the pro- duction of wood for fuel, as is now generally the case, is the least profitable of the forest industries which may be practised in South Jersey. The third condition relates to land and labor. ‘This question also needs little consideration. There are thousands of acres which may be had at a ridicuously low figure, considering the 18 FOR ' 274 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. location, and everyone familiar with the region knows that there are hundreds of woodsmen who are stagnating and degenerating in consequence of a lack of work. The fourth condition relates to the quantity and quality of the materials the region is capable of producing, and since I shall refer to this later under the head of Silvicultural Suggestions, it is sufficient to say in this connection that owing to its peculiar soil and climate South Jersey has and is still able to produce just those kinds of forest produce which are most in demand. The fifth condition relates to the possibility of the establish- ment of local industries which may consume the products of the forest or which may convert these products into less bulky. and more salable form. When certain industries may be established within a region it is, of course, a great advantage-in many ways. It increases the working population, the value of property and improves the standard of life. Labor is at the base of pleasure and intel- lectual development. At present large quantities of wood are supplied to glass and brick factories throughout South Jersey. The fuel question, however, is of little importance, and will always take care of itself in this country. In fact, even the woodsman, when he can afford it, will burn coal because of its convenience. The first industry which would flourish on the production of saw-stuff would be the saw-mill. And if only the increment is cut, as should always be the case, many small mills, instead of a few large ones, would result. The condition might be similar to that of parts of Germany where many small mills are con- stantly at work year after year cutting the well-earned incre- ment. ‘The big mill with its elaborate, costly equipment, work- ing with feverish excitement half the time and idle the rest, did not develop however in this country until after the timber resources of South Jersey were practically exhausted. Even in the great lumber districts the large mill, when our lumber resources have been exhausted to such an extent that these voracious monsters cannot be fed, will be replaced by smaller establishments which will for some time to come operate on the leavings and the young timber as rapidly as it becomes mer- chantable. he time is not far distant when the great lumber REPORT ON FORESTS. 275 industry which has shot across this country with meteoric fierce- ness will have spent its power. It has been digging its own grave. In the meantime the tide of feeling in reference to the estab- lishment of more rational methods of forest treatment has been steadily rising. This country, although so large, is so closely knitted together by a network of railroads, which favor the dis- tant parts by special long-distance freight rates, that a strin- gency of even so important and bulky an article as lumber will not be seriously felt until the crop is exhausted, even in the remotest corners of this land, if not this continent. There is nothing surprising in the fact that a man in New Jersey may use in the construction of his house white-pine from the far North, cypress and yellow-pine from the far South and red- wood shingles from the far West, and buy it all from the stock of one lumber dealer in Philadelphia or New York. Besides the development of the saw-mill industry in Southern Jersey, when the woods are properly protected and managed there will arise, no doubt, many other industries, such as box, stave and market-basket manufacture. It is, of course, impossible to predict the many industries which may be operated in a country where such a useful material as even the poorest grade of wood is produced. In the Spessart, in Germany, for instance, years ago immense quantities of beech were planted, to supply the glass factories with fuel. The glass works have ceased to exist and the beech is subjected to.a process of dry distillation which yields several valuable products. Hardwoods, by this process, will yield char- coal, pyroligneous acid, an inflammable gas which may be used for illuininating purposes, besides other products. Some day we may export charcoal to the tropical regions of the globe, where it is the most satisfactory fuel because it emits no smoke, and braziers can be used instead of stoves. Then there is the possibility of producing wood for pulp and cellulose. Spruce is the principal source of supply at present, but even if spruce cannot be produced successfully in South Jersey, which is, however, a question, there are other trees which are and no doubt many which may be used for that purpose. In fact it would be impossible to predict the future of this industry, which, although in its infancy, is already immense. 276 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. It is safe to assume that in case the forests of South Jersey are protected and allowed to grow other industries will form and grow with them. The sixth condition is fair taxation. All are agreed that this is a knotty question and one difficult even under favorable cir- cumstances to fairly adjust. It seems to me that since forests require considerable time to grow, since owing to the force of the elements and disease the growth of years is liable to be sud- denly spoiled and shattered, since forests are not insurable, and since the man who produces a forest is the benefactor of his neighbors, the State can-well afford to tax lightly such land.* In fact, the man who starts and properly cares for a forest deserves to be exempted from taxation, or at least exempted until the crop is cut. Several have suggested that the tax should be levied only on the amount cut. This plan, of course, has some disadvantages‘and may not be practical. At any rate a fair re-adjustment would tend to improve the condition which exists. I have faith enough in the good sense of the American people to believe that with proper protection by the State against fire and thieves, with fair taxation, with sufficient roads and with proper guidance, there will develop even under private control a system of forestry which, although perhaps not as systematically regulated as in Europe, will be as good as the peculiar economic conditions of the region will warrant. SILVICULTURAL SUGGESTIONS. It seems to the writer that, notwithstanding the complexities of European silvicultural systems with their manifold modifica- tions and combinations, the methods of forest treatment may be divided into four systems which are more or less applicable the world over, none of which are unconditionally good or bad, and the merits of which depend upon the circumstances of each case. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages, and must be adapted to the conditions which exist in every instance, and its success, above all, is dependent upon the knowledge and * An anomolous condition sometimes exists where a speculator desires a high assessment and cor- respondingly high tax in order to convince prospective buyers of the great worth of the land which he is endeavoring to sell. REPORT ON FORESTS. ayy skill of the person who endeavors to apply it. These systems are, briefly, as follows: I. The selection system, which is especially adapted to uneven- aged or irregular protection forests. Il. The system of clear cutting and then regenerating by planting with young trees or by sowing the seed, or by waiting until the wind sows it from an adjoining forest. III. The system of regenerating pure even-aged forests natur- ally by uniformly and gradually thinning throughout, and admitting the light so that the seeds will germinate and the young growth properly develop.* IV. The coppice system, where the forest consists of species which will sprout from the stump or the root. There will probably be opportunity for the application of all of these systems in Southern Jersey. The following is a brief way of classifying these systems: Selective-cutting system, applica- ble to pure or mixed forests of un- even age. Regeneration effected irregularly throughout the forest by the re- moval of single trees or small groups of trees. Clear-cutting system, applicable to pure or mixed forests of even or uneven age. Regen ration by means of plant- ing young plants or cuttings or by sowing by hand or by natural sow- [ ing from adjoining woods Regeneration effected uniformly throughout the forest by successive thinnings and final complete re- moval of mother trees. Successive-cutting system, appli- cable to pure woods of even age f Regeneration effected by stump- i tem. Coppice system \ shoots and root suckers. If a party possesses woodland, even if sparsely stocked with inferior kinds, and cannot afford or may not desire to plant afresh with better species, but wishes to gradually improve it, the best system to apply is the selection method.}" There are many large forest-owners in South Jersey who are able to employ a forester but who cannot afford the cost of extensive plantings. These *As early as 1736 this system had developed so far in Germany that three distinct cuttings were pre- scribed: First, when the seed had fallen and germinated; second, when the young trees reached the height of a man’s knees, and third, the mother trees were completely removed when the young trees had reached the height of a man, + Irregular forests to which this system is applied naturally suffer more from fire than regular forests. 278 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. large land-holders employ managers'who are practical men but with little knowledge of forestry. The selection method is usually the best for a new country where the demands for wood are less than the supply, and where a system to be popular must yield enough constantly to pay all expenses, taxes, and a little besides. It is an excellent system for co-operative associations and corporations which have other objects in view, such as the protection of game or water supply. It is extensively practiced in India, where it is usually known by its French name, “jar- dinage.” It is not confined to new countries, however, and is even the favorite method of many European foresters of treating protection forests. To apply this system it requires more skill, experience and intelligence than the majority of land-holders or managers pos- sess. It is, however, an elastic system, and in its simplest form is practical for land on which there is any growth worthy of the name of forest. It is about the reverse of what is ordinarily practiced in America. In New Jersey one man may buy all the merchant- able oak on a certain piece of land, another all the cedar, ete. Any diseased trees or kinds without value are left standing, not for soil protection, but because they are not worth cutting. These are stimulated by the increase of space and light, produce large quantities of seed, and soon have complete possession of the soil. In other instances the land is bought with all that covers it and stripped of what is merchantable. Covered with slashings,* it is left to be swept by fire or abandoned to the weeds, or is sold to land-agents who divide it into many small *The first steps toward forestry in Germany were the removal of slash and the leaving of seed-trees here and there of a desirable species. +A weed is simply a plant out of place, Trees, under certain circumstances, may be weeds. In fact, the common custom of culling the best from the forest is similar in effect to harvesting the vege- tables and fruits of a garden without disturbing the weeds. In the swamps of South Jersey, clambering vines and worthless briars and bushes often have com- plete possession of the soil, The various species of grape which mingle with the branches of trees hinder, of course, their growth, but, owing to their beauty and the value of their fruit, their presence is not so odious, It is quite otherwise with the poison ivy (RAws toxicodendron) which firmly clasps the roots, trunks and branches of trees, and is poisonous to the touch. The swamp sumac (Rhus venenata), which is a shrub, and often almost a tree, is abundant, and is also poisonous, causing a distressing dermititis, which is often accompanied by serious illness. Another class of extremely disagreeable weeds are the climbing, prickly briars of the genus Smilax. The most provoking feature of these weeds is that when their rhizomes have once gained possession of the soil, it is well-nigh impossible to eradicate them. Clothing and skin are torn in handling them, burning only causes them to sprout with fresh vigor, and, if left alone, they soon reach the tops of trees, to which they become inextricably attached. The only way to get rid of them is to cut them down with a bush-hook or machete, and then with a grub-hoe dig up heir rhizomes, bit by bit and year after year, until their extermination is complete. REPORT ON FORESTS. 279 farms, which they sell to all sorts of new-comers. Sometimes it falls into the hands of speculators, who hold it indefinitely, with various purposes in view. In consequence of this mode of treat- ment, uplands which once produced pine fit for ship timbers are now only bush-lands; swamp-lands which have yielded choice white-cedar are now cripples. The only suggestion of silvi- culture is the custom of leaving a seed-tree here and there. Many of these seed-trees were left, however, not for the purpose of seeding the ground, but as line-trees, to mark the borders of properties. The aim of the selection method is the constant betterment of soil and forest. It prescribes that the soil must be kept covered, and that the most valuable species must always be encouraged. The dead and diseased trees must be removed, also all inferior kinds which are a hindrance to a young, more promising growth. Many minor points the owner or person in charge must settle. The axe must be cautiously used, and always with a purpose beyond the immediate reaping of a wood crop, and the operator must be perfectly familiar with the peculiarities of the species with which he is dealing. Caution in cutting, and the sowing of seed, or the planting here and there of desirable kinds, will, in the course of time, bring order out of chaos. On large areas of Southern New Jersey where there is little more than bushes it will be necessary to plant afresh. In many instances where the forest is very thin and of poor species it will pay in the end to cut clean and establish a new forest by either planting or sowing. The system of clean cutting and planting has many advantages and disadvantages. One can work in a systematic and regular manner.and can start the kind of forest he prefers. It is, however, usually expensive, the young plants are in greater danger of frost, drought, weeds and disease, and the fertility of the soil is impaired by being bared to the action of the elements for a considerable period of time. If one has a pure, even-aged forest, the third system is proba- bly the best. This is the system which is so successfully applied to the spruce forests of Europe, and is an excellent way of regenerating white-pine in this country, and also, perhaps, white- cedar in South Jersey. In this system regeneration occurs uni- formly over the whole area under treatment. When the trees 280 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. have reached maturity regeneration is effected by a series of uniform successive thinnings. The number of thinnings depends upon the circumstances of the case. Success in the method depends primarily upon two conditions: First, the trees must be in condition to produce a good crop of seeds; and, second, the forest floor must be a favorable bed for germination. From that time on the forest must be gradually thinned and finally removed as rapidly as the condition of the young growth will permit, which varies with the species, climate, soil, etc. This system is only applicable to pure, even-aged forests. This is a disadvantage, however, because for several reasons the tendency at present is decidedly in favor of mixed growths. Pure growths, especially of conifers, are much more seriously injured by the destructive forces of nature, such as winds and ’ insects, than mixed forests. An excellent form of forest from a silvicultural standpoint consists of a growth of conifers with an underwood of some kind of shade-enduring deciduous trees- The overwood is healthier and the soil is protected and enriched by the underwood. ‘T'o produce this kind of wood it is necessary usually to resort to the clean-cutting system with regeneration by planting or sowing. The fourth system, coppice, is so simple that little explanation is necessary. ‘The crop is simply cut clean year after year, and the new crop is formed either from stump-shoots or root-suckers. Care should always be exercised in cutting the stump close to the ground, with a clean sloping top, so that there will not be the slightest opportunity for rot and so that the young shoots will be healthy and sound. In the choice of species for planting and for favoring in mixed growth we should not fail always to consider the silvicultural qualities as well as usefulness for lumber. Fashion often guides us in our choice of kinds, and we should not fail to bear in mind that modern devices of treating wood may completely change its appearance and durability. The species of trees which may be successfully grown in southern New Jersey I have divided into two groups—first, those which require good soils, and, second, those which will thrive on the poor sandy soils and swamp-lands of the Coastal Plain; and since the latter are the lands to which the forest will REPORT ON FORESTS. 281 in time be relegated, I shall describe here mainly those species of the second class. To the first class belong such trees as the white-pine, the white-oak, the swamp-white-oak (Quercus platanotdes), the beech, the chestnut (Castanea dentata),* the black-walnut, the shagbark-hickory, the tulip tree, the white-ash, the sugar-maple, the basswood, the Douglas-spruce (Pseudotsuga taxzfolia), and the Norway-spruce (Picea excelsa). 'To the second class belong such as the following: the short-leaf-pine (Puus echinata), the red-cedar ( Juniperus virginiana), the white-cedar (Chamecyparis thyotdes), the locust (Robinia pseudacacia), the cottonwood (Pop- ulus deltotdes), etc. Others which may be classed as subsidiary sorts, and which, under certain circumstances, are worthy of encouragement, are chestnut-oak (Quercus prinus), sassafras, holly (lex opaca), bilsted (Legucdamber styractflua), brewster (Magnolia glauca), red-maple (Acer rubrum), and wild-cherry (Prunus serotina). Pinus echinata, formerly P. mztzs, is the most important pine of Southern New Jersey. It is usually associated with the pitch-pine (P:xus rigida), with here and there patches of the scrub-pine (Pinus virginiana or inops). Several foresters have encouraged the planting of pitch-pine in New Jersey, because it grows on extremely poor soil, and endures a great deal of fire. ‘This tree is not the equal of P:nzs virginiana and inferior in almost every respect to Prmus echt- nata, It isa mistake to encourage the propagation of inferior species, such as the pitch-pine, in regions where P. echznata and several other excellent trees grow equally as well. Pitch-pines are, of course, better than nothing, but when they are mixed with P. echinatza, as is often the case in Southern New Jersey, the latter should be favored. In spite of fires, and the great demand for its wood in early times for ship construction, owing to its marvelous reproductive ability, the smooth-bark-pine has held its own. *In a way, the chestnut is without arival. It is a rapid grower, forming a vigorous coppice, pro- ducing a valuable nut, and yielding a wood which is highly prized for fuel, fence-posts, fence-rails, ties, telegraph poles and interior house-finish. For the latter purpose it has become of late very fashionable and is equal in beauty to other hard woods which are worked with much more difficulty. The chestnut should be grown wherever the soil is able to support it. Like the black-walnut the chestnut is able to grow on soils which may be classed as medium in quality, and (in places where there is sufficient moist- ure) even on very sandy soil. 282 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. In the “Timber Pines of the South,” Dr. Chas. Mohr, in the chapter on this species, says: ‘‘ When maintenance of forest, and production of timber under a rational system of forestry is to become the rule, this species, above all others of southerly distri- bution, will claim attention, for it can be safely asserted that of the coniferous trees adapted to the climatic conditions of the Southern Atlantic forest, no other can be found of better promise, for the production of valuable timber in the shortest time.” In another place he says: “Among the coniferous trees of Eastern North America, the short-leaf-pine stands next to the long-leaf-pine (P. palustris), in importance to the lumber indus- try and in the value of its timber. Freer from resinous matter, softer, more easily worked, not less susceptible of a good finish, the lumber of the short-leaf-pine is often preferred by the cabinet- maker and the house-carpenter to that of the long-leaf-pine. Less tenacious and of less power of resistance under strain, it is principally used for the lighter frame-work in buildings, for weather-boarding, flooring, ceiling, wainscoting, cases for win- dows and doors, for frames and sashes of all kinds, and for shingles. Most of the dwellings located within the districts where this tree prevails are built almost entirely of short-leaf- pine lumber, which bears ample testimony to its wide usefulness. It is also extensively employed in car-building, for cross-ties, and in the manufacture of furniture.” In another place he says: ‘No other timber tree found in the southern portion of the Atlantic forest region is more easy of natural reproduction than this, throughout the wide range of its distribution. This is readily accounted for by its great fecundity, the seeds pro- duced in great abundance almost without failure every year being profusely spread far and wide, and germinating easily whenever the proper soil and a chance are offered for their reception. By their thrifty growth the seedlings soon gain the upper-hand over the contemporary growth of other species.” Sudworth, in a paper on the ‘Forest Trees of Tennessee,” says: ‘As is well known this pine (P. echznata, short-leaf-pine) ranks in commercial importance next to the fanious long-leaf. The adaptation of the pine to the poor, dry hills and other slop- ing lands of East Tennessee is truly remarkable as seen in some localities. Theories that great care and nursing are necessary REPORT ON FORESTS. 283 to re-establish a pine forest on entirely denuded land are easily controverted by the thousands of young short-leaf-pines taking possession readily, and in dense stands of old pasture and abandoned hills, and entirely without the nursing influence of broad-leafed kinds. Even under the damaging influence of tramping stock and invading fire, this young growth has gradually advanced, and solid phalanxes of saplings and middle- sized polewood now form a large part of the second-growth woodlands attached to farms, together with oaks and other hard- woods. ‘There appears, therefore, to be no more useful and valu- able concomitant in the future forestry of East Tennessee than this willingly self-propagated short-leaf-pine.” Now and then a beautiful seedling forest, naturally regenerated from adjoining woods, may be seen in New Jersey, and, as in the eastern peninsula of Virginia, if this species is favored, in the course of time it will be the rule and not the exception. It is not difficult, however, to secure a good stand by sowing the seed, provided the seed is fresh and fertile. ‘The easiest and cheapest way is to plant the seed mixed with dirt in rows, or in narrow strips, across the field, four or five feet apart.* The best way to prepare this seed-bed, in case the land is not too stumpy, is to run a narrow, one-horse scratch-harrow over it, and then, after the seed is sown, run the harrow over the same strip again, in order to cover the seed. If one man strikes out the strips with the harrow, while another sows the seed, a large area can be covered in a short time. Where a horse and harrow cannot be used, it is best to work in the seed with a rake. ‘Throughout the south swine prepare this seed-bed. After the seed has been sown, if the soil is very dry and sandy and lable to shift, the strips must be covered with pine-chats and brush, on which a little sand may be thrown to hold them down. As soon as the young pines form a closed canopy thinning should begin, and continue throughout the whole period of their life, so that the trees may have sufficient space and light and yet free themselves of limbs. ‘The removal of litter and the time of cutting depend entirely upon circumstances. If the owner needs the litter it is proper to remove it; if he wants poles or small pilings there is nothing to hinder him from cutting his forest in the pole-stage. * A good stand of the short-leaf-pine has been secured by spreading the pine twigs with ripe cones attached over the land. . 284. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is an excellent tree for the dry sandy upland. No American tree has a more interesting and instructive cecology.* It ranges from Cape Cod to Van- couver’s Island, from Canada to Florida. In the north it inhabits dry, rocky uplands; in the south it grows in swamps, which are often covered with water; in the rich bottom-lands of the Mis- sissippi Valley it is a lofty and noble tree; in the limestone regions of northern Alabama it is almost a bush; and along the shores of New Jersey it is flat-crowned and irregular, but a beau-. tiful tree in spite of shifting sand and salt sea breezes. The quality of the wood also depends upon the region in which it grows. In many places it is of little worth; in others it is excel- lent in quality, strongly aromatic, rich red in color and famous. the world over for pencils. It is one of the commonest trees in Southern New Jersey, quickly producing a highly prized wood on soil the surface of which at least is sterile. Its fruits are devoured by birds which scatter its seeds. When growing alone it is pyramidal in shape, with many branches. Sometimes the twigs and leaves are stiff and prickly ; sometimes soft and pendu- lous. ‘The wood of these knotty trees is extremely beautiful, and the limbs are of use for boat knees, rustic fences, etc. It is also an excellent wind-break, although subject to a fungous dis- ease which infests the apple and quince.f *The basis of silviculture is cecology or the science of trees in relation to their environment, many of the most important points of which in reference to American species are unknown. Much may be learned of the habits of trees by studying them in regions in which they are not indigenous. More is known of the silvicultural peculiarities of several American trees in Europe than in America. A careful study of the tropical forest will throw light upon many physiological problems, especially those which have to do with climatic conditions (see Haberlandt's Tropenreise). 1t behooves the Americans to- emulate the Dutch in Java and the English in India, and establish in their new possessions experiment stations, schools and laboratories where northern students may study plant physiology, the sine gua non of agriculture and silviculture. + The cedar-apple (Gymnosporangium macropus) is common throughout the State, and is of special nterest because it leads a dual life, one phase of which is on the red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana), and: the other has the cultivated quince, apple and their allies for its host plants. On the twigs of the cedar it causes brown, irregularly lobed excrescences, as large as chestnuts, over the surtace of which there are slight indentations or centers in which the tel pores are | d, These spores are thick-walled, brown, two-celled bodies, which in warm, moist spring weather, germinate, that is, the cell-wall breaks, and there protrudes from each cell of the teleutospore a hypha or tube on the end of which several small spores or sporidia are formed. All the germinal tubes from one center adhere together, forming an orange-colored, gelatinus, tentacle-like growth. Several of these gelatinous masses, distributed over the surface of the whole excrescence, give it the appearance of a crysanthemum a short distance from the tree. Very often many hundreds of these may be seen ona single tree, and when they are in the height of their germination are peculiarly striking. The sporidia are borne long distances by the wind to the young, tender leaves of the apple and quince, on which, if the conditions are right, they soon germinate, and produce the other stage of this peculiar disease, which, on its orchard hosts, causes the well-known ‘rust.’ Although this fungus does practically no injury to the cedar, ‘‘the rust’”’ is a very serious disease, especially in the south. It is more dangerous to quinces than to apples, The spores can be carried by the wind several miles, Although not wise to plant orchards in the neighborhood of red- cedars, or vice-versa, this disease is not of sufficient seriousness to discourage the propagation of the: red-cedar in South Jersey, because the apple industry is there of little importance, REPORT ON FORESTS. 285 The young red-cedar trees are difficult to transplant in dry sandy soil, and the seeds, although abundant and easily collected, rarely germinate evenly. I have been told that nurserymen bury them in a “‘rot-heap” for two winters and a summer, and sow them the following spring. (The same is true of the holly [Zlex opaca].) The wood of the cedar, even when knotty, is in demand for posts; the quality produced in Southern New Jersey is excellent and there is little land too dry and sandy to support it. Of the hardwood trees, the most valuable for the dry uplands of New Jersey is the Rodznza pseudacacia.* In the Region of Bordeaux, where the soil is similar to that of the Coastal Plain of South Jersey, extensive private plantations may be seen. For this purpose, especially on small farms where fencing is an important item, the locust has no equal in spite of the depreda- tions of the borer. In California, I have been told, the borer does not exist, and. that in twenty years a locust tree in the open attains a diameter of as many inches. It is claimed by some that the injury caused by this insect is less if other trees are planted with the locust. It is excellent for planting in open places in the forest in the form of hursts, here and there, or as a fringe to pine plantations especially along railroads because it is not inflammable. The locust grows rapidly on poor soil, pro- duces an extremely useful and durable wood and an ash richer in inorganic constituents than the majority of hardwoods. As *A great disadvantage of the locust is the fact that it is seriously infested in this country by the locust-borer (Cyllene robiniz). It was indeed fortunate for Europe that when the locust was introduced this pestiferous insect was not imported with it. In Europe, it is a beautiful shade and ornamental tree; in its native land, owing to the depredations of this insect it is usually unsightly. The trunks and limbs are sometimes completely honeycombed by this insect. If the trees are watched in August and September, one is likely to find handsome brown and yellow banded, wasp-like beetles, laying oval, dull white eggs in wounds and crevices of the bark. In about ten days these eggs hatch and the larvee bore into the tree. ‘They are still small by winter, during which time they lie dormant in the wood. In the spring they begin to bore, until about August, when they stop teeding and enter the pupa stage, and a week or so later appear as full-sized beetles. These beetles live upon the pollen of the golden-rod. The outermost trees are usually completely riddled, while those in the center of a group may escape altogether. It seems to suffer less also when mixed with other trees, Although these sinsects are very abundant and seriously injure the wood and impair the vitality of the tree, it is still fit for fence posts, for which it is almost exclusively used. This insect infests healthy trees, growing on rich soil, but the proportion of trees in a plantation which is thus seriously injured is not sufficient to dis- courage the propagation of this unique and extremely useful tree. Owing to the depredations of the locust-borer it is always best to mix another species with the locust. For this purpose Prunus serotina and the American chestnut are excellent. The wild-cherry (P. serotina) is worthy of more encourage- ment than it has heretofore received. It grows on poor soil, is easily propagated, yields an excellent wood, and attracts birds which are fond of its fruits. Mr. J. H. Schober, the pioneer of heath planting in Holland, who is experimenting with many species of foreign trees on his plantation at Schovenhorst, -was loud in his praises of this tree and pronounced it one of the most promising of his vast collection. 286 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. with other leguminous plants, bacteroids, which reside in a symbiotic state in tubercles on its roots, are able in some myste- rious way to accumulate nitrogen. The litter, which is rich but thin, quickly decays. Once established, the locust hurst will never need renewal; hundreds of stool-shoots and root- suckers are present to take the places of felled trees on the admission of light. Besides a tap-root the locust has an exten- sive horizontal root system by which the soil is held in place. It is for this reason used on railroad embankments and dry soils subject to shifting. The wood is useful for posts and other pur- poses, even when young, and is therefore of great value for private planting. Both red cedar and black locust may be sown in the same way that I have indicated for the pine. The seeds of the locust, if planted in the spring, should be soaked in warm water for three days before planting. The white-cedar (Chamecyparis thyowdes) is the choicest of the soft woods of Eastern America. Not even inferior to the famous pumpkin-white-pine. In fact, for boat and tank con- struction it has no equal. The wood is light, soft, clean, easily seasoned, and remarkable for its durability.* It neither warps nor checks under the most trying circumstances. It is exten- sively used for bridge-plank, shingles, weather-boards, interior finish, and in the construction of fences either in the form of tails or palings. It has a pleasant cedary aroma, and when exposed to the weather becomes a beautiful steel or lichen-gray color. The white-cedar should be grown in the form of a pure crowded wood, on wet mucky or wet sandy soil. The canopy should be uninterrupted, and the lower limbs should interlace. If the forest is too thin, irregular, with all age classes and here and there other species, the trees are easily uprooted by the wind, owing to the slight hold which they have upon the soft mucky soil. The stand should be so thick and the lower limbs interlace to such an extent that the tree will free itself from branches, produce clean boles and prevent the growth of under- brush. Owing to its sharp, conical top it endures close plant- * The bark of the white-cedar is tough and fibrous and similar to coir in nature. Many trees of this species in South Jersey have been ruined by the fishermen, who use strips of the tough bark on which to string their fish. In Russia the manufacture of mats, rope, etc., from bark is an important industry, and in New Jersey the white-cedar bark might be used for similar purposes, REPORT ON FORESTS. 287 ing, although regular thinnings are necessary almost throughout the whole period of its life. In this way, even in America, the forest will yield a small but constant income, since there is some demand for cedar poles. When sawed in half, barked and soaked in preservatives, these poles, even when very small, are of use in the construction of fences. In spite of the common use of wire, there is still in America great demand for good fence material. These saplings are useful for vine-props, masts for small boats, handles for rakes, boat-hooks and the like, racks for wagons and stalls, flag- poles, plaster-laths, fence-palings, and even shingles. In fact, from the time the tree reaches a diameter of three inches it is useful. If a cedar tree becomes covered with gray lichens, as is often the case, it indicates slow growth, unhealthfulness and unsuit- able environment. The cedar is a great seed-producer, even when quite voung. The seeds are formed in small cones and are easily collected. A pure stand of cedar may be secured in three ways. If one has a mixed deciduous swamp, with here and there a cedar, as is common, the easiest way to convert it into a pure stand of cedar is to cut and keep down all trees except the cedar. These seed- trees, with the admission of light and air, will produce an abundance of seed. A stand of cedar produced in this way may be irregular and uncertain. Perhaps the easiest and quickest way to secure a stand of this tree is to plant it. Young cedars are constantly invading cranberry bogs where they are very unwelcome. ‘These can be easily secured in large numbers, and are better for planting than the spindling speci- mens from the woods. Another wav is to sow the seed. After removing all the trees and brush from the place where a cedar stand is desired, when not too dry, it is best to burn over the surface, and then sow the seed mixed with dirt. Among those species which grow with surprising rapidity, even on poor soils, and which may be easily propagated, the cottonwood or Carolina-poplar (Populus deltordes) deserves first place. In speaking of this tree in his bulletin on the cultivated poplars, Prof. Bailey says: ‘Taking all things into consider- 288 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. ation, the cottonwood is probably the best of the poplars for general ornamental planting. It grows rapidly and in almost every soil, and yet it possesses an air of strength and durability which most of the poplars lack. Its foliage is always bright and glossy, and the constant movement of the broad, rich green leaves gives it an air of cheeriness which few trees possess. The tree has been much used upon the western prairies and in western towns much too abundantly for good landscape effects. ‘The rapid growth of the tree gives a feeling of luxuriance to plantations, even when most other trees appear to be weak or starved. The cottonwood grows best upon rather low lands, and yet it is generally an admirable tree upon high and dry areas.” The so-called Carolina-poplar, according to Prof. Bailey, is only a very luxuriant, cultivated form of the cottonwood. Like the locust, the cottonwood has an extensive root-system, and reproduces itself profusely by means of root suckers. It is, there- fore, excellent for holding the soil in place. The wood of this tree is extensively used in the manufacture of paper, and there is no reason for supposing that the demand will not increase. This tree grows perfectly on the moist pine- barren land of Southern New Jersey, and I can see no reason why its cultivation should not be encouraged. Throughout southern Europe the poplars are extensively planted by the owners of small holdings. These tall straight trees form a characteristic feature of the French and Italian landscape. ‘They prefer poplar, because the trees are easily pro- duced from cuttings, because they soon grow to a size fit for boards, because they yield the peasant loppings for fuel, and because they throw so little shade that grass and other crops will grow between the rows. Plate XXIV shows a peasant bind- ing poplar loppings in fagots for fuel, and a peasant sawing boards by hand from poplar logs which he has probably raised from cuttings of his own planting. This leads us to the consideration of those persons who possess small tracts of land in South Jersey out of which they must earn a livelihood. The land has been undergoing such a process of division of late that the average land-holder probably owns little more than a hundred acres. The day of the large farm in New GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY REPORT ON FORESTRY Plate No. XXIV. SAWING BOARDS BY HAND IN FRANCE REPORT ON FORESTS. 289 Jersey is past. Owing to its nearness to excellent markets, general farming is being replaced by a more intensive form of agriculture, and old-fashioned crops are being replaced by specialties. Hundreds of uneducated emigrants have invaded the Pines, owing to the cheapness of the soil and proximity to large cities. Few of these have brought with them European forestry ideas, and many of the most disastrous fires are those which they care- lessly set in clearing their farms. Throughout this region there are German, Italian, Russian and other foreign colonies. By thrift and frugality many of these have produced fruitful farms on soil that was formerly waste-land, indeed it is claimed that owing to the warmth of this silicious soil, the fruits are earlier and sweeter.* It may be easily worked with one horse and few implements at any time when not frozen, and when abundantly fertilized and watered produces a superior grade of fruits and vegetables. What the small farmers have already accomplished in this region demonstrates, without a doubt, that there are many latent possibilities in the pine-lands of New Jersey. Owing to the development of rapid transit and the cheapening of transporta- tion rates, a migration from the cities into the neighboring country has begun. A large proportion of cultivatable land, therefore, is destined to be cleared and farmed, and to these prospective farmers I would suggest a “forest farm.” Suppose a person possesses one hundred acres of woodland, out of which he wishes to make a combination forest and farm. The first step is to clear a fire-lane around the whole of it, at least two hundred feet in width. ‘This lane should constitute the cultivated portion of the farm. On this no inflammable ctop should be planted. Even the sandiest, driest land, when fertilized with the quickly disintegrating pine-chats, produces a fine grade of sweet- potatoes, which are richer than the white-potato, and together *It is very difficult to say just what lands are unfit for cultivation. Good agricultural soil may often be unfit for trees and vice versa. Even the “ Plains’’ of New Jersey would, if properly treated, produce choice grades of grapes, berries and sweet potatoes, and perhaps other fruits. In North Jersey the choicest peaches are produced on what is apparently the roughest and most inhospitable soil. Many Italians have thrifty fruit-farms on extremely sandy soil jn the southern part of the State. A large per- centage of the best land in Southern New Jersey is still inforest. In fact, in early times the land easiest to clear was cleared first regardless of the quality of the soil, and many of our finest farms were once true waste-lands. I9 FOR 290 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. with game, fish and:berries often constitute the whole food of the natives. If the one hundred acres referred to is perfectly square, a fire- lane two hundred feet wide around it would contain about thirty-five acres—as much as one man can comfortably till. There would be left in the center a forest containing about sixty-five acres to which the principles of silviculture I have already mentioned may be applied. If the whole area of woodland in Southern Jersey were treated in this way, sixty-five per cent. would be left in wood, and the whole would be cut up in such a way that extensive fires would be impossible. The sixty-five acres of forest should be divided into about four blocks of fifteen acres each, by lanes or avenues. wide enough to permit a wagon to pass. ‘These lanes should be kept clear of litter during the fire season. If part of the land is swamp-bottom the owner is fortunate. He can easily have a white-cedar hurst, a cranberry-bog and an osier-holt, which will add materially to the profits of his farm. Owing to the fact that these swamp-lands shrink and become lower and damper on being tilled, unless assiduously drained it is better to plant crops which need little or no cultivation, such as forest crops, willows for baskets, the high-bush-blueberry and the cranberry. Willow culture is destined to become an important industry in this region. The first to begin it on damp pine-barren land was the Baron de Hirsch Colony of Russian refugees. The willow has been righty called the Cinderella of trees. It will grow on land which for other purposes is almost hopeless. Its pliant twigs are excellent for trunks, boxes, crates, etc., besides baskets. It furnishes work at a season of the year when there is little else to do. It is a good plan, as is common in Europe, for one member of the family to learn the trade of basket- making. In this way a local industry is produced. In addition to these industries, if progressive, the owner of the “‘forest-farm” could keep both bees and poultry with profit, even in the most remote and barren part of this whole region.* * Every enterprising farmer should have in the corner of his garden a permanent seed-bed. It should be boxed on the sides and ends with wide strong boards and covered with fine- poultry netting ‘which should be nailed to 2 frame so that it can be easily removed. The soil of the bed should bea soft, rich, sifted loam. Whenever the farmer in his travels finds seeds of trees which are desirable he should sow them in this bed. While the trees are still small he should transplant them to his wood-lot, In this way, little by little, and with the expense of only a little labor, he can supply himself with seedlings and gradually improve the condition of his forest. REPORT ON FORESTS. 291 Apiculture, although it requires considerable skill in manipu- lation, should be a subsidiary forest occupation. This has been strongly recommended to the forestry people throughout Europe who have their homes in the forest. In South Jersey there is abundant bee pasturage. The locust, the linden, the catalpa, the chestnut, the red-riaple, the hazel, laurel, huckle and blue-berries, grape vines, willows, holly, persimmon, mag- nolia and a host of other plants, yield honey, or pollen. From pollen bee-bread is manufactured on which the larve are fed. From buds, etc., the bees collect a viscid glue, or propolis, with which they strengthen their cells, and fill up the cracks in their hives as a protection against cold. In order to secure a fine type of bee it is necessary to sup- plant the native queen with one of a better variety, either Italian or Carniolan.* Besides gathering large quantities of honey, bees materially increase the fruit and seed crops by fertilizing the flowers. Poultry-raising is also an important subsidiary occupation. In the dry soil and mild climate of the Pines chickens and tur- keys, and along the rivers water-fowl, thrive, securing through- out a large portion of the year their own livelihood, and at the same time do incalculable service to the forest farmer in restrain- ing insects. It is, in short, through a combination of several of these indus- tries, which are minor only in name, that forestry and farming may become profitable on soil which is not naturally fertile and where many people own only small areas. The destruction of vast areas of forest without regard to the future has a deleterious sociological effect upon the standard of life and character of the people of such regions. In South *The domestic bee in America (Apis medlifica) was introduced by early settlers from Europe. They have multipled and become common. The Cyprian race from the Island of Cyprus has produced the largest yield of honey on record for a single colony in America, They are the most assiduous of bees, but are very sensitive and require great care in manipulation. The Italian variety is also famous and easier to handle, The gentlest of bees, however, is the gray race of the Mountains of Carniola (Krain, near the Adriatic) in Austria. This bee is steadily growing in tavor in America, See ‘‘ The Honey Bee,” by Frank Benton, publicationct the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. { While visiting the Dunes of Holland I was told that hens were successfully used to combat an insect which devoured the sedge which held the sand. They were kept on the dunes in large quantities and as early as three o’clock in the morning were actively at work. I was also told by several willow- growers in Europe that when their plantations become infested with insects they simply let in their chickens, which soon devour the bugs, One of the most beneficial fowls in this respect is the turkey. 292. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Jersey, for instance, owing to the exhaustion of saw-stuffs there are many deserted hamlets and silent sawmills. It is true that on the whole the population is on the increase, but this is due to another class who have come from elsewhere with other abilities and other objects in view. Many of the natives, how- ever, who were born and bred’ in the forest and earned their livelihood in the woods have been forced to leave for other regions and engage at a disadvantage in other work. The few who have remained of this class are in a state of stagnation, and » in many instances, were it not for the berry crop and the game in the woods, would die of starvation. Owing to the fact that they are idle a large part of the year, that they are far from neighbors except of their own class, that they are often insufh- ciently fed and clothed, there is little wonder that many are outlaws. The backwoodsman without work is the man who sells his vote. The common schools of America are endeavoring to educate such people, but much of the good influence is offset by the industrial depression which follows the wasteful destruc- tion of wood in a country where the majority of the people are woodsmen. Just as reckless deforestation inevitably leads to idleness, want and moral degeneration among those dependent upon the woods, so does afforestation have the opposite effect in the same if not greater proportion. Then, too, the value of forests from a hygienic standpoint on swampy soils has been underrated. I believe the malarial con- dition of our South is due to the ill-treatment of forest lands and the formation of stagnant marshes in consequence. It is a note- worthy fact that the Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina is free from malaria and perfectly healthy, while the adjacent fire-swept pine-lands are famous for their unhealthful- ness. Just as the Landes of France were rendered healthy by tree-growth and drainage, so is it possible to improve the sanitary condition of the Atlantic Coast Region. Ill. Parts of Europe Similar to Southern New Jersey. In Europe there are still immense tracts of waste-land, a large proportion of which has been robbed for centuries, until much of it is now in a state of extreme poverty. The majority of this land is worse, although similar, to the Plains of South Jersey. The system of removing not only the turf but the surface soil from these wild-lands is ultimately worse than the effects of forest fires. A forest fire in sweeping over a country leaves something behind it. The inorganic materials which the plant took from the soil are returned to it in the form of ashes, and although a part of them may wash away, something is left ; but in the heathlands of northwestern Europe the very surface of the earth is scraped together, so that in the course of time the soil becomes bare and sterile. We usually think of Europe, and especially Belgium and Holland, as the places of all the world where every spadeful of earth has been turned over hundreds of times, and where every effort has been exerted to provide room for its swarms of people. One is surprised, therefore, to see a new settlement called ‘“‘ America” in the midst of a great unset- tled plain in Holland. There are, in fact, in this little country, from four to five hundred thousand hectares* of waste-land, which consists of heath, moorlarid and morass. TShe Dutch prefer, and perhaps wisely, to grapple with the mud and water along their shores. They would rather farm into the jaws of the sea than work on their dreary heathlands. Mr. Schober, at Schovenhorst, has been striving for years, at great expense and with great perseverance, to show what is possible on the heath- lands of Holland by careful cultivation and improved methods. But just as the Swiss loves the steep mountain sides, so does the * Centare (x sq. meter)—=1,550 sq. ip, Are (100 sq. meters;=119.6 sq. yds. Hectare (10,000 sq, meters) =2.471 acres, (293) 294. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. Hollander love his muddy soil. ‘This soil, although difficult and expensive to reclaim, when once in shape is almost inex- haustibly fertile. The fine sandy land of Holland has also been carefully cultivated, and the dunes along the shore have been carefully watched and patched here and there because they serve as dykes along the sea. One of the most attractive regions of the Low Countries is in the lee of the Dutch dunes, where there are many beautiful villas and gardens. Although much has been done toward the reclamation of waste-lands, the common notion that every inch of territory in Europe is used to good advantage is a mistake. In fact, Euro- peans could learn much in reference to land reclamation even in the United States, where good land is still cheap and abundant. Much has been done, for instance, in this line in the banked lands of the Mississippi Valley and the irrigated deserts of the Far West. There is little that one can learn in Southern Europe outside of France and Italy, except the disastrous effects of deforestation. Although much that has been done in Europe is highly commendable and suited to the peculiar conditions which exist there, it would be difficult to say just how much of it is applicable to America. There is one important difference between the New and Old Worlds which should not be over- looked in all considerations and calculations. It is the fact that in general in Europe labor is cheap and materials expensive ; in America the reverse is the case. Much of the detailed and extremely careful work which is devoted to small and unim- portant things may pay in Europe but not in this country. One cannot help admiring the pains and patience of these peo. ple, but at the same time in another country, under different conditions, they would themselves do otherwise. Carefully saving and binding together small sticks into bundles for fuel is all right for the places where fuel is scarce and expensive, but would be decidedly out of place in America. European sawyers are horrified at the sight of a circular saw with wide kerf buzzing at a rapid rate and wasting a large proportion of the log, but it saves time, and time has been up to the present more precious than wood. Europeans are generally conservative, especially the peasants, preferring to do as their fathers did, working often to great dis- SONNG HOLNG JHL NO JNNIUAY NY “AXX (ON 938Id NO Lu¥odaa AULSAYNOA Agsugal MAN AO ATAUNNS TVOIDOITOAD REPORT ON FORESTS. 295 advantage with implements which are decidedly clumsy. And then, too, all sorts of traditions and customs, rights and servi- tudes have been handed down from generation to generation. The poor peasant is often fettered by these inheritances, which he joyfully leaves behind him when he enters a new and fresh land. In parts of France forest fires are still quite common, even on land which has been reforested, while in other parts wood is too precious to burn even for fuel. In Italy lumber is one of the scarcest of materials, although there are vast areas of waste-land where wood could be raised to advantage, especially on the bare mountain peaks. It is a land of few wood-workers and many masons, where even the vine-props are often granite.* The supply and demand are more local in Europe, and transportation suffers from all sorts of hindrances. A board would pass through more vicissitudes in going from Germany to Italy than a bundle of shingles would in reaching New York from Oregon. This is not so of water transportation, which is of course less hampered by governmental interferences. In many districts in Europe the inhabitants depend upon turf for fuel, which exists in almost exhaustless quantities in the heathlands of the north, and even in Germany it is not uncom- mon to see peasants drying cow-dung for the purpose. In parts of the Plain of northwestern Europe, under the peat, have been found pine stumps and the stone implements of the aborigines. Another page in its history is illustrated by oak stumps, among which have been found bronze axes and other implements. Here and there are beds of peat buried under the sand, indicating that the soil has been shifted hither and thither by the wind. It is generally believed, however, that the great heathlands of northwestern Europe were never densely forested, and that the trees existed in the form of groups here and there. Such places were well suited to the nomadic pastoral stage of man’s existence. This, to a certain extent, still lingers in the form of the shepherd tending his ‘“‘snucken” or little black _ sheep on these broad heath-covered plains. There, too, one often sees a bee-keeper surrounded by many hives of little black bees, which he moves from place to place for fresh pastures. * « Forestiere”’ in Italian means a stranger—that is, a person from the forest. 296 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. The Belgian Campine. The first region that I shall refer to is the Belgian Campine, a large tract of sandy land in the vicinity of Antwerp. In wandering over this region one sees much that reminds him of the plains and barrens of Southern New Jersey. The bushy oaks, the scrubby pines, sandy or gravelly soil, and many plants. of the heath family which cover the surface, are strikingly similar to those of Jerséy. Here and there in this region are small houses of the Flemish farmers who often have a hard struggle in squeezing a livelihood out of the soil. Most of these peasants plant forests of pine with short rotation from which they get humus for their compost heaps and fuel-wood. It is not uncommon to see’a woman and a dog in harness tugging together at a load of manure, or a man in the field plowing with a cow which is usually at the same time milked. The house and barn of the peasant are combined, and the manure- pile, which is close to the door, is his most precious posses- sion. Now and then’ green manuring is practiced, and a field of yellow lupine* is quite as beautiful as a field of crimson clover. Much that I have to say here in reference to the Belgian Campine was suggested by a little book entitled ‘“‘ La Culture du Pin Sylvestre en Campine,” by L’? Abbé G. Smets, professor of agriculture at Hasselt, in Belgium. ‘To this I have added my own impressions and have compared the two wherever possi- ble. A large number of the Belgian Scotch-pine (Pizus syi- vestrts) plantations leave much to be desired. The trees are stunted and grow to a height of only a few meters. The volume growth rapidly attains its maximum, and even at the age of twenty years some of the forests begin to die. Parasites are abundant.t There are few old trees; the quality of the wood is poor and the best stands, according to Smets, yield small profits. * J have endeavored to grow this lupine (Lupinus lutea) in South Jersey from seed bought in Hol- land, but it failed to flourish both on good and bad soil, owing probably to the dryness of the summer. Our purple lupine (Lupinus perennis) is worthy a trial on very poor, sandy soil. + In the pine forests of Northern France and Belgium a wood-eating insect known to en:omologists as Hylesinus pint perdo attacks the pine in swarms. This little beetle bores into the young branches and tunnels along the medullary canals, The wind snaps off the damaged twigs, and now, in some pine districts, the forest floor is fairly strewn with the debris, The insect develops very rapidly under the bark of felled trees, and it is found that barking the logs immediately after they fall under the axe pre- vents the spread of the pest. REPORT ON FORESTS. 207 M. Houba says, however, ‘“ that one must not expect too much of plantings on waste-land, and that the revenues from the poor- lands of the Campine and Ardennes are equal to five per cent. on the capital invested.” (If American capitalists could make sure of five per cent. there would be large investments in forest land.) | ; Heathlands, which have not been exhausted by the removal of the humus, have produced satisfactory forests. ‘‘ Nothing is. sadder,” says Verstappen, ‘‘than to pass over certain wooded zones of the Campine, to-day offering a spectacle of decay which seems without a remedy. Where thirty years ago one saw superb pine groves yielding as much as the best wheat-lands of Hesbaye, now one sees only rare groves of third and fourth grade, while the greater part of the surface is covered with a growth not exceeding three to five meters in height.” Levasseur says that a good plantation of pine properly managed, well located, should yield, at the end of eighty years, 27,175 francs. per hectare. That is, according to our system of measurement, $2,174 per acre, or $27.17 per acre per year! Prof. Smets esti- mates a yield of from 1,500 to 4,000 francs per hectare in a period of 30 to 4o years for the Belgian Campine. ‘That is. about a yield of $4 per year per acre for this poor heathland! If these figures are correct, the wonder is why every inch of that land has not been reclaimed. The Scotch-pine will grow under a great variety of condi- tions. It is not very sensitive to frost and accommodates itself to low and damp places. Itisatree of the vast plains with silicious bottom and deep soil. It is a species easy to satisfy and has been successfully transported to many countries into many soils. It is probably the most widely spread of all the pines. It is like the red-cedar of America in respect to endurance, grow- ing in wet and dry locations, in hot and cold, on mountains and in the lowlands. Very rarely, however, does it reproduce itself naturally. Here and there, at a certain depth, a bed of impermeable clay or heath-humus buried under eolian sand arrests the growth of the trees. ‘These beds do not exist everywhere and their bad effects may be overcome by thoroughly working and softening the soil. This all tends to prolong the life and vigor of the tree 298 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW JERSEY. and render more available the nutritive elements of the soil, but even plantations the soils of which have been carefully pre- pated before planting, produce results which are far from satis- factory. ‘The poverty of the soil,” says Smets, “is the general cause of the failure of the pine in the Campine.” The idea has prevailed that the Scotch-pine can succeed everywhere, that it ‘only demands a trace of nutritive elements, that every soil suits it. Although the demands on the soil by this pine may be less than other forestal species, nevertheless a soil may reach an almost hopeless sterile stage after years of cropping by the removal of wood and the surface humus and soil. It is well known, too, that trees on such soil are more subject to disease and quickly succumb. They are simply stunted by starvation. Young trees en masse are, it is said, as exacting in their demands upon the soil as a crop of rye.* Although, as I have already said in the previous chapter of this report, very little reliance can be placed in the chemical examination of a soil, the absence of one essential ingredient may compromise the whole crop. When a tree grows rapidly and reproduces itself abundantly, as occurs in the pine-lands of South Jersey, it is evidence enough, without chemical examinations, that the soil is in good condi- tion, no matter how barren it may appear. In the Plains of South Jersey, which are treeless, only one essential may be lack- ing or the difficulty may be a physical one. According to Schiitze, pineries may be classified as follows: Phosphoric Acid, Potash, Lime (Chaux), Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Pinery, istclass, ....... 0.0501 0.0457 1.8876 ws 2d 8 ge ee im eS 0.0569 0.0632 0.1622 ns BO: SE cy ah ae eee 0.0388 0.1221 0.1224 OO GAR Og pel agice. Sapa og 0.0299 0.0392 0.0963 <2 3 Oa ee ee 0.0236 0.0241 0.0270 a Oth Selec SK 0.0236 0.0215 0.0458 The Expt. Station Record gives tables which, in general, show the limits assigned to rich and to poor soils. They are as follows: * The sands of the Golden Gate Park were so poor in nature that barley sown on its surface after being ploughed and cultivated in a favorable season with plenty of moisture, grew only about six inches in height and failed to perfect its seed. After planting sea-grass to fix the sand and lupines to enrich the soil, the trees which were planted only grew to a height of ten feet, owing to the lack of nutriment in the soil. See the Reclamation of Drifting Sand Dunes, in the Forester, for October, 1899. REPORT ON FORESTS. 299 Nitrogen, Phos. Acid. Potash, Lime. ‘Very poorsvils, ..... 0.05 % 0.01 % 0.05 % 2.10 % Poor soils ..... +404 4 005-0.10 0.01-0.05 0.05-0.10 Medium, is) wheel are 0.10 0.05-0.10 0. 10-0. 20 1.00 Richie: s,